Bi er ae SOS

SCIENCE

AN: ILLUSTRATED JOURNAL

PUBLISHED WEEKLY

VOLUME xX

JULY— DECEMBER 1887

NEW YORK
RHE SCIENCE COMPANY
1887

Cdn acy
paar set

ean

505.73

iNDExX TO. VOLUME xX.

A.

Abbott, C. C. American caves, 180.

Academy of Sciences, National, 224; list of papers
read at, 249; meeting, 241.

Act of God, 241, 264, 276, 299.

Adams, H. C. Dodd’s Republic of the Future, 92.

Adams’s Public Debts, 164 ; Study of History in Amer-
ican Colleges, 282.

Afghan life in Afghan songs, 195.

Africa, Central, 42; Junker’s travels in, 54; Kerr’s
journey across, 321; map of, 81, 306; travels in, 221;
Wissmann’s expedition across, 270.

Agricultural chemists, 113; experiment station,
Pennsylvania, 307 ; Science Society, 21.

Alaska boundary-line, survey of, 191; letter, 114;
natural history notes on, 264.

Alaskan Society of Sitka, 280.

Allen’s Common Sense Science, 20.

Alsace-Lorraine, population of, 9.

Alvord, H. E. Economy in management of soil, 77.

American Association meeting, 85; officers, 94 ; Sec-
tion A, 85; Section B, 86; Section C, 98; Section D,
87; Section E, 87; Section F, 88; Section H, 88;
Section I, 99.

Amery, C. F. Nitrogen in manures, 34.

Anderson, W. Some Western mummies, 146.

Anderson, W. W. Tornado force, 323. c

Anderson’s Conversion of Heat into Work, 190.

Andrews’s Brief Institutes of Genéral Hiszory, 190.

Animals, ideas of number in, 316.

Antarctic region exploration, 193.

Anthony and Brackett’s Physics, 285.

Anthropological treatises, 57.

Anthropology in the American and British Associa-
tions, 231.

Ants, bees, and wasps, habits of, 320.

Apparitions and haunted houses, 289.

Arctic, notes from the, 233.

Arctic America, 3.

Aristotelian Society of London, 272.

Arkansas, pronunciation of, 107, 120.

Armor for land-defences, 124.

Ashe, W. A. Freezing-point of sea-water, 36; gla-
cier-like movement in snow, 180; height and tem-
perature of Eskimo, 57; Hudson Bay route, 47; ice
and sea-water volumes, 24; sea-water ice, 95.

Asia, Prejevalsky’s journeys in, 62.

Atkinson, KE. The American physique, 239, 276.

Atkinson’s Margin of Profits, 127.

Attention, mechanism of, 269, 293.

Audubon’s grave, 68, 108, 205, 277.

Ayres, W. O., death of, 24.

B.

Baird, Spencer F., 97.
Baldwin's Psychology and Education, 263.
Balliet, T. M. Examinations, 113.
Ballooning, 45.
Banana, cocoanut, and India-rubber, 36.
Barrows's Facts and Fictions of Mental Healing, 93,
Bartley, E. H. Distillery-milk, 59.
Base-ball players, 65.
Basques, the, 246.
Bastian’s Die Welt in ihren Spiegelungen unter dem
Wandel des Vélkergedankens, 284.
Bastin’s Elements of Botany, 140.
Bausch, E. Microscopes, 310.
ee W.™M. Changes in Indian languages,
, 264.
Beer-trade statistics, 192.
now R. Rock specimens from Cumberland Sound,
7.
Bell’s Principles of Elocution, 223.
Bell’s Selkirk Settlement, 320.
Birds, flight of, 299, 321; sleeping on the wing, 288.
Bitumen in coal, 228.
Boas, F. Eskimo and Indian, 273; Nicaragua Canal,
182; sea-water ice, 118.
Bohon’s Bau und Verrichtungen des Gehirna, 223.
Bones, ash in human, 179.
Botanical Club, 21.
Botany, Annals of, 238.
Botocudos, 116.
Bottomley’s Mathematical Tables, 129.
Bowditch, statue of, 32.
Bowditch, H. I. Cause of consumption, 71.
Bowen, H.C. British universities, 210.
Bower and Vines’s Instruction in Botany, 175.
Bowne’s Philosophy of Theism, 215.

Boyhood, savagery of, 172, 203.

Bradwin, G. Act of God, 299.

Brain-growth and body-growth, 172.

Brain-wounds, 30.

Brashear, J. A., exhibition by, 319.

Brazil, 213.

Breathing, types of, 65.

Brewer, W. H. Distillery-milk, 60.

Bridgeman, Luura, 319.

Brigham’s Guatemala, 225.

Brinton, D. G. Chronology of America, 76; Eskimo
and Iroquois, 300; rate of change in American lan-
guages, 274.

Brinton’s Ancient Nahuatl Poetry, 222.

British Columbia, 221, 234.

Browning, O. Aspects of education, 206, 253.

Bruehl’s Culturvélker Alt-Amerika’s, 174.

Bryozoa, study of, 225.

Buel, R. H. Conspiracy of silence, 298.

Bumstead,S. J. Study of logic, 256.

Butler, N. M. Manual training in Norway, 255.

Butler’s Effect of the War of 1812, 30.

Buzzards, sense of smell in, 319.

Cc.

Cabanne, C. Distillery-milk, 72.

Canal between Bordeaux and Narbonne, 224.

Carnelley’s Melting and Boiling Point Tables, 103.

Carpenter, W. L. University of New Zealand, 12.

Caspian Sea, elevation of, 32.

Catalogues, 104.

Catamaran, a steam, 273.

Caterpillar-cocoons, 32.

Cato Major et Leelius, 285.

Cattle-plague, 221.

Caves, American, 180.

Cetti’s fast, 100.

Challenger Report, 44.

Chamberlain, A. F. Eskimo and the Indian, 120,
278, 322 ; Volapiik, 24.

Chamberlin and Salisbury’s Driftless Area of the
Upper Mississippi, 306.

Charnay’s Ancient Cities of the New World, 200.

Chemistry, University Press publications in, 191.

Cheyenne, 239, 264.

Children, false testimony of, 215 ; of New York, 197.

Children’s minds, contents of, 304.

Chinese folk-lore, 202 ; wall, 287, 323.

Chloroforming while asleep, 114, 214.

Cholera and cold weather, 246; and yellow-fever,
181; at quarantine, 220, 230; bacillus, test for, 198;
Calcutta outbreaks of, 202; precautions against,
188.

Chrome as a poison, 58, 104.

Chronology of America, 76.

Clark, Alvan, 97.

Classen’s Analysis by Electrolysis, 191.

Climatologist, The, 129.

Cloud-heights, 46.

Coal-mines, statistics of, 45.

Coast Survey vessels, 57, 68.

Cohen’s Practical Organic Chemistry, 128.

Coin-sales, 196. °

College, original research in, 109.

Colleges and schools, New England association of,
202 ; of Ohio, Association of, 298.

Color-blind laws, 157. :

Color-blindness, 121, 179.

Columbia College, progress of, 253 ; report, 169.

Conn, H. W. Original research in college, 109; Ro-
mantic Love, 143.

Conspiracy of silence, 265, 298, 308.

Constance, Lake of, soundings in, 320.

Consumption, 30; and chest-expansion, 173: and
evergreens, 92; cause of, 24, 71; cure of, 38, 99;
grinder’s, 197; treatment of, 114.

Contagion, flies as carriers of, 214.

Cook’s voyages, relics of, 176.

Cooper’s Animal Life, 198.

Co-operation in England, 1; in Europe, 121, 161.

Copyright with England, 25. .

Corals, sections of, 252.

Corfield’s Treatment of Sewage, 116.

Cornell, electrical engineering at, 208.

Corset, the, 281.

Coues, EH. Flight of birds, 321.

Craig’s Azimuth, 201.

Crampton, C. A. Sorghum-sugar, 227.

Cumming’s Electricity treated Experimentally, 93.

D.

Darby’s Nineteenth-Century Sense, 3l.

Davis, W. M. Classification of lakes, 142; study of
geography, 131.

Deaths and the tide, 24.

De Bary’s Comparative Morphology and Biology of
Fungi, 175.

Decimal system in England, 13.

DeGarmo, C. German normal schools, 302

Delagoa Bay, 189.

Density of the earth, 104.

Dentition, mammalian, 300.

Derelict vessels, danger to commerce from, 265

Dialects, Romanic, 174.

Diamond, a North Carolina, 168.

Diamond-field in Kentucky, 140.

Diamonds, four large South African, 69.

Diller, J. S. Diamond-field in Kentucky, 140.

Diphtheria carried by the cook, 65.

Disinfectants, Report on, 55.

Dodd’s Republic of the Future, 92.

Dolbear, A. E. Tornado force, 60.

Donaldson, F. Cause of consumption, 24.

Drake’s Making of the Great West, 175.

Dreams, investigation of, 229.

Drought of 1887, 321.

Duck’s brain, 126.

Dutch Literary Review, 203.

Dutton, C. E. Charleston earthquake, 10, 35.

Dutton’s Mount Taylor and the Zuni Plateau, 317.

Dwarfish races, 173, 232.

Dynamite gun, 151.

E.

Ear-boxing, 25.

Earthquake of Central Asia, 140; Charleston, 10, 35;
Sonora, 81; submarine, 177.

Earthquakes, depth of, 22.

Eclipse, total solar, of 1886, 9.

Education, a rational, 13; aspects of, 206, 253; meth-
od applied to, 18; scientific, in England, 250; tech-
nical, 72.

Educational Association, National, 37; indorsement
of Blair bill, 61, 182; council, a novel, 313.

Edwards’s Butterflies, 165.

Electric light in mines, 217.

Electrical exhibition in New York, 8.

Electricity in the earth, 72, 96: loss of, 151, 308.

Electroplating natural objects, 203.

Ely, R. T. Adams’s Public Debts, 164.

Emin Pacha, 68. :

Emminghaus’s Die psychischen Stérungen des Kin-
desalters, 199.

English science, 193.

Entomological Club, 20.

Error, natural history of, 41.

Eskimo, 150; and Indian, 120, 273, 28%, 3225 and Iro-
quois, 300; height and temperature of, 57; origin
of, 116 ; tribes, 271, 288:

Ethnographical museums, 245.

Ethnographie, Internationales Archly fur, 239.

European literature in America, 209.

Evolution, what American zodlogists have done for
93.

| Examinations, school, 109, 112.

Explosion record, 320.
Explosives, modern, 205. _
Eyesight of children, testing of, 264.

F.

Factory, German, statistics, 320.

Fechner, Gustay Theodor, death of, 301.

Ferrel, W. Theoretical meteorology, 48.

Fibre industry of Burma, 202.

Filth-diseases, 36.

Finck’s Romantic Love, 100. y

Fish, distribution of, 56; frozen, 308; propagation,
177.

Fish Commission steamer Albatross, movements of
264.

Foerste, A. F. Bryozoa, 225.

Folk-Lore Society, 319. é i

Foods and Food Adulterants, 128; in winter, 173.

Fossils, chalcedonized, 156: sections of, 180.

Fourth of July casualties, 25.

Fowler and Wilson’s Principles of Morals, 31.

Frazer, P. Geological questions, 35; Geologists’ Con-
gress, 119.

Vor X.]

Fredericq’s Study of History in England and Scot-
land, 282.

Freezing-point of sea-water, 36.

Froebel’s Education of Man, 263.

G.

Gaillard’s French for Young Folks, 264.

Gallaudet’s hundredth birthday, 301.

Gannett, H. Survey of the United States, 49.

Garriatt, E. B. Tornado power, 48.

Gaster’s Greeko-Slavonic Literature, 249.

Geikie’s Teaching of Geography, 139.

Gems, American, 264; and precious stones, 184, 226.

Genius, universal, 66.

Geographical methods, lec.ures on, 238; names, 143;
Society, debating club in American, 320.

Geography in England, 89; study of, 91, 131; teach-
ing of, 177.

Geological Congress meeting next year, 308; ques-
Hone, 35; survey in Arkansas, 57; Survey maps,
ole

Geologist, the American, 307, 321.

Geologists, congress of, 20, 119.

German normal schools, 302.

Gilman’s Historical Readers, 103.

Glacier in Colorado, 153.

Glaciers flora following retreating, 45.

Glenn, W. Chrome as a poison, 58; filth-diseases, 36.

Glucose, artificial preparation of, 263.

Goode, G. B.. as fish commissioner, 109.

Goodfellow, G. E. The Sonora earthquake, 81.

Gore’s Elements of Geodesy, 80.

Grandgent’s Italian Grammar, 238.

Gratacap, L. P. Science at the American Assovia-
tion, 166.

Greenland, 221,

Grindelia glutinosa, 180; squarrosa,.152.

Grotf, G.G. Blair educational bill, 132.

Gulf Stream investigations, 308.

H.

Hague, A Map of the Far West, 217.

Hall, A. Act of God, 264; applied optics, 108.

Hall, E. H. Physics for schools, 129.

Hall, J. Faulty memory, 250.

Hall and Knight's Higher Algebra, 128.

Harger, Oscar, death of, 238.

Harrington, C. Chrome as a poison, 104.

Hartleben’s Die Erde in Karten und Bildern, 175.

Harvard Observatory bulletins, 129.

Harvey, F. L. Faulty memory, 274.

Hawaiian Islands, 115.

Hazen, H. A. Ballooning, 45; theoretical meteorol-
oe 21; weather-predictions, 322; wind-pressure,

18.

Health, a national board of, 313.

Beat Association, the American, 189, 258, 268, 278,

Hedley’s The Mark of the Beast, 102.

Hegel’s Philosophy of the State and of History, 307.

Helmholtz, 68.

Heredity of mental traits, 125.

Heron, Florida, 96.

Heronries, destruction of Florida, 47.

Herrmann’s Graphical Statics of Mechanism, 140.

Hewett, W. T. Study ot modern European literature
in America, 209.

Hilgard, E. W. Cyanhydric gas as an insecticide, 11.

Hill, R. T. Corruption of geographic names, 143;
pronunciation of Arkansas, 107.

Hinsdale B. A. Examinations, 112; over-pressure
in schools, 177.

Ho6ffding’s Psychologie im. Umrissen auf Grundlage
der Erfahrung, 222.

Holder’s Living Lights, 200, 226.

Home Sanitation 66.

Hop-louse, 21.

Horsford, E. N. Volapiik, 10.

Howard, M., and Schuyler, E. Waterspouts, 32.

Howell, E. E. Rockwood meteorite, 107.

Hubbard, G.G. Transcontinental railroads, 133.

Hudson Bay expedition of 1886, 270 ; route, 47.

Huxley’s Royal Academy address, 31.

Hyatt, A. Scientific swindler, 203.

Hydrophobia, 214; in New York, 100; old observa-
tions on, 247.

Hypnotism, recent observations in, 187.

Hyslop, J. H. Temperature sense, 252.

I.

Ice and sea-water volumes, 24.

Indian basketry, 150; names, 252.

Industrial Education Association, 250.
Infants, progress of, 138.

Insanity, scientific study of, 176.
Insect-fight, 94.

Insecticide, cyanhydric gas as an, 11.
Insects, maxillary palpi of mandibulate, 176.
Tron carburets, 191.

Ttasca, Lake, 48, 72, 84.

J.

Jacobson’s Higher Grounds, 296.

Jahn’s Ethik als Grundwissenschaft der Pidagogik,
56.

James, J. F. Chalcedonized fossils, 156; Chinese
elt 823; sections of corals, 252 ; sections of fossils,

Janney, J. J. Distillery-milk, 107.

Jastrow, J. Seybert Commission report, 7.

Jerram’s Anglice Reddenda, 19.

Johnson, L. N.

Grindelia squarrosa, 152.
Johnson, W. D.

Topography, 152.

INDEX.

K,

Kansas Academy of Science, twentieth meeting of,
286; Historical Society, 238.

Kapp’s Electric Transmission of Energy, 92.

Keltie, J. S. Geography in England, 89.

Keweenawan system, 166.

Kidder, J. H., appointment of, 273.

Kilpatrick, J. W. Stone daggers from Missouri, 192.

King, E. P. Over-pressure in schools, 192.

Kirchhoff, G. R., death of, 216.

Kuango, the, 221.

Kunz, G. F. A North Carolina diamond, 168; dia-
mond-field in Kentucky, 140; four large South
African diamouds, 69; gems and precious stones,
226,

L.

Lake classification, 142.

Landolt’s Uebersichtliche Zusammenstellung der
Augenbewegungen, 223.

Lang, H. Silver in Oregon, 192,

Langley’s address to the American Association, 80.

Language, articulated and sign, 18.

Languages, American, 245; changes in, 274; Indian,
bibliography of, 307; changes in, 251, 264; school
of Oriental, at Berlin, 224; study of, 324.

Larden’s Electricity, 237.

Laughlin’s Political Economy, 198.

Law, international, 191.

LeConte, Joseph. Depth of earthquakes, 22; sound-
blindness, 312.

Leprosy, a case of, 202; in Louisiana, 43; in South
Africa, 32.

Lesley, J. P. Conspiracy of silence, 308.

Levéy’s Electric Light Primer, 93.

Lightning. globular, 324.

Lindsay’s T. Macci Plauti Captivi, 19.

Logic, study of, 256.

Longevity of English scientists, 238.

Lotze’s Metaphysics, 250.

Love's Industrial Education, 215.

Lubbock’s Pleasures of Life, 66.

Lucas, F. A. Maxillo-palatines of Tachycineta, 12

puceais Historical Geography of the British Colonies,
237.

M.

McCosh, Dr., resignation of, 241.

Macloskie, G. Mosquito poison, 106; pineal eye of
lizard, 10.

Magnetism, terrestrial, 81.

Mahaffy’s Greek Life and Thought, 317.

Manchuria, 189.

Mantegazza’s Die Kunst Gliicklich zu Sein, 285.

Manual training at the New York school superin-
tendents’ meeting, 265; in England, 277; in Nor-
way, 255; in St. Louis, 1; in Sweden, 205.

Manures, nitrogen in, 34.

Map of the Far West, 217.

Marks’s Engineering Pocket-Book, 190: Proportions
of the Steam-Engine, 199.

Martin, D. S. Andubon’s grave, 68.

Martin and Wetzler’s Electric Motor, 93.

Marwedel’s Conscious Motherhood, 284.

Mason, 0. T. Ancient scrapers, 10.

Mason, W. P. Ashin human bones, 179.

Matthews, W. The Sioux, 300.

Measles, 43.

Medical congress, 145 ; legislation, 85.

Medicine, practice of, in New York, 1; preventive,
29.

Meleney, C. E. New Jersey reading-circle, 62.

Memory, faulty, 177, 232, 250, 274.

Meteor-fall, 276, 288.

Meteoric stone of Krasnoslobodsk, 308.

Meteorite, Rockwood, 107.

Meteorological observations above the earth’s sur-
face, 33; international, 181; summarizing, 202;
service in Argentine Republic, 45.

Meteorology, revision of Loomis’s contributions to,
201; theoretical, 21, 48.

Metlakahtla, 174, 191.

Michie’s Analytical Mechanics, 190.

Microscopes, 275, 310.

Microscopists, society of, 94.

Middleton, J. b. Ohio mounds, 32.

M ns condensed, 154; distillery, 4, 46, 59,72, 107, 157,

1. c

Mills, T. W. Romantic Love, 130.

_Mills’s Science of Politics, 237.

Milton’s Paradise Lost, 128.

Minchin’s Nature Veritas, 128.

Mind, can the, attend to two things at once? 17;
primitive, 270. .

Minot, C.S. Microscopes, 275.

Morey, J. T. Objects in teaching, 179.

Morgan, A. Act of God, 141; international copyright,
25,

Morgan, T. J. Examinations, 112; sense of smell,
2A

Morgan’s Educational Mosaics, 103.

Morphology, Journal of, 224, 272.

Morrison’s Ventilation and Warming of School-
Buildings, 200.

Morse, E. S. What American zodlogists have done
for evolution, 73. .

Mosquito poison, 106.

Mosquitoes, 72, 96.

Motion, asymmetry of, 214.

Mound-exploration, 148.

Mounds, Ohio, 32.

Mummies, some Western, 146.

Murdoch, J. Eskimo and Indian, 287; pronunciation
of Arkansas, 120.

Muscle, dermo-tensor patagii, 57.

[Juty—Dec.,

N.

1887

Nebraska Chemical Laboratory, 82.

Needles in the body, 231.

Neurological Association, 53.

Nevin, W. W. Act of God, 276.

Newberry, J. S. Flight of birds, 299.

New Guinea, 148, 213.

Newton, W. K. Condensed milk, 154.

New Zealand, acclimatization in, 170. me

Nicaragua Canal, 182, 238; canoes, 273 ; expedition,
286,

Nicholson, H. H. Nebraska Chemical Laboratory,
82.
Noyes’s Qualitative Analysis, 191.
O.

Ocean tracks, 313.

Oerter’s Social Question, 189.

Oil on troubled waters, 61, 145, 191.

Okinagen Indians, myth of, 150.

Oliver, J. K. Faulty memory, 274.

Opium, effect of, on higher animals, 138; in Ton
quin, 202 ; use of, 100.

Optics, applied, 108.

Oriental Association, the American, 219.

Osborn, H. Coloring of pigweed-leaves, 166.

Osborn, H. F. Mammalian dentition, 300.

Osgood, H. L. State interference, 60.

1

Palmer’s New Education, 67.

Pars propatagialis, 70.

Pasteur’s methods, 42.

Payne, F. F. Sea-water ice, 120.

Payne, W. H. Examinations, 113.

Peck’s Analytical Mechanics, 249.

Peet, L. R. The Florida heron, 96.

Pennsylvania, archwology at University of, 202.

Petroleum, origin of, 308; transportation in bulk,
273.

Philological Association, 37.

Phonograph, Edison’s, 229.

Photographs by the light of fire-flies, 129, _

Physical Education Association, 231; training, 278.

Physics for schools, 129: summer school of, 21.

Physiology in schools, 224.

Physique, the American, 239, 276.

Pickering, W. H. Total solar eclipse of 1886, 9.

Pigweed-leaves, coloring of, 166.

Pilling’s Bibliography of the Eskimo language, 68.

Pineal eye of lizard, 10.

Planté’s Storage of Electrical Energy, 93.

Political Science Quarterly, 8.

Pot-holes, Pennsylvania, 203, 228, 240, 252.

Powell’s Our Heredity from God, 234; Sixth Annual
Report, 235.

Preyer’s Naturforschung und Schule, 284.

Price’s Industrial Peace, 236.

Prisoners, health of, 221. i

Prize, Erminnie A. Smith memorial, 298.

Proctor’s Chance and Luck, 43.

Prudden, T. M. Microscopes, 310.

Psychical Research, American Society for, 287.

Psychological medicine at the medical congress, 187.

Psychology, American Journal of, 45, 248.

Purslane-worm, 204, 228.

Putnam, C. E., death of, 81.

Q.
Quarantine systems, 315.
R.

Railroads, transcontinental, 133.

Railway in the Arctic, 319.

Rau, Charles, death of, 57.

Re-action time. 232.

Reade’s Origin of Mountain Ranges, 139.

Reading-circle of New Jersey, 62.

Reynolds, T. T. Seasickness, 34.

kichet’s Essai de Psychologie Generale, 222.

Rifle-ball, energy of, 272.

Roach’s Trigonometry, 191.

Roads, making of good, 109.

Robin’s nest, 48, 60, 72. ae

Robins’s Technical School and College Buildings,
163.

Rock specimens from Cumberland Sound, 287.

Rockwood, C. G., jun. An insect fight, 94.

Rohé, G. H. Distillery-milk, 46.

Romantic Love and Personal Beauty, 100, 130, 143,
152, 216. £ ‘

Rosmini Serbati’s Method applied to Education, 18.

Route from England to Asia, 15.

Rum and civilization, 301.

Russell’s Geological History of Lake Lahontan, 79.

Ryder, J. A. Microscopes, 311.

Ss.

Saintsbury’s History of Elizabethan Literature, 307.

Samoa Islands, 189. # t

Sanitary convention in Michigan, 117, 214; science
and education, 218.

Scarlet-fever, 100; in London, 221; report, 294.

Schiller’s Wallenstein, 128; Wilhelm Tell, 128.

School attendance in Prussia, 212; for Indians, 61.

Schools, health in, 64, 247; Norway, 169; over-press-
ure in, 177, 192; reform of German, 250.

Schurman’s Ethical Import of Darwinism, 201.

Science at the American Association, 166.

Scrapers, ancient, 10.

Seasickness, 34, 100, 214.

Sea-water ice, $5, 118, 120.

1887, Juty—Dec.]

Seiss’s Children of Silence, 271.
Sensations, the influence of, on one another,

Sewer-air, 49.

Soewer-gas, 247.

Shad, distribution of, 21.

Shorthand congress, 194.

Shufeldt, R. W. Andubon’s grave, 108; dermo-ten-
sor patagii muscle, 57; destruction of ‘Florida her-
onries, 47.

Sibley College extension, 158.

Sidgwick’s Political Economy, 250.

Signal Service stations, 140.

Silver in Oregon, 192.

Sioux, the, 300.

Sleep, why do we? 115.

Smell, sense of, 240;
sight, 215.

Smyth, H. L. Cloud-heights, 46.

Snow, F. H. Purslane-worm, 204.

Snow, glacier-like movement in, 180.

Snow Hall at Lawrence, Kan., 314.

Soil, management of, 77.

Sorghum-sugar, 181, bora

Sound-blindness, 244, 312.

Sparrows, expulsion of, 108, 120.

Spiritualism, exposure of, 81;

in dogs, 78; and touch versus

Seybert report

on, 7.

Stanley Falls, 213.

Stanley’s movements, 97, 133, 169.

Star of Bethlehem, 324.

State interference, 2, 13, 28, 60.

Steamers, tonnage of, 191.

Stejneger, L. Newspecies of thrush, 108; pars pro-
patagialis, 70.

Stewart and Gee’s Physics, 236.

Stewart’s Our Temperaments, 44.

Stone daggers from Missouri, 192.

Stone, G. H. Glacier in Colorado, 153.

Ss The Hidden Way across the Thresh-
te) 2.

Strode, W.S. Flight of birds, 322.

Sun, diameter of the, 129.

Survey of Florida Keys, 129; of India, 68; of the
United States, 49.

Swindler, scientific, 203.

Swiss Alps accidents, 176.

INDEX.

ats

Tachycineta, maxillo-palatines of, 12.

Tape-worm, 108.

Tea and coffee, what to eat with, 30; and chiccory,
consumption of, 224.

Teachers’ ‘Association, 250.

Teaching, objects in, 179; pictorial, 17.

Teas from India and China, 250.

Telegraphy, automatic, 176 ; from a train, 238.

Temper, types of, 65.

Temperance-teaching, 68; gone mad, 49.

Temperature sense, 252.

Temperatures of the ocean, 291.

Terhune, J. Temperance-teaching, 68.

Thackeray’s Letters, 175.

Theosophical movement in India, 261.

Thomson, G. M. <Acclimatization in New Zealand,

Thoreau’s Journal, 286.

Thought-phantasmg, 138.

Thought-transferrence fraud, 229.

Thring, Edward, death of, 253.

Thrush, new species of, 108.

Thurston, R.H. Armor for land defences, 124; tech-
nical education, 72.

Thwing’s, The Family, 283.

Tidy’s Treatment of Sewage, 117.

Timbuktu, 213.

Time necessary to perceive cold and heat, 79.

Toltecs an historical nationality, 231.

Topography, 152.

Tornado power, 48, 60, 323.

Townsend, C. H. Natural history notes on Alaska,
264.

Trumpet-creeper, 204, 216, 240.

Tunis, stone age in, 123.

Typhoid-fever, cause of, 198; contagion, 221; epi-
demic at Plymouth, 214. e

U.

Universities, British, 210.

University of New Zealand, 12.

Upcott’s Greek Sculpture, 140.

Uphenis Upper Beaches of the Glacial Lake Agas-
siz, 103.

Vessels, speed of, 249.

Vital statistics in Massachusetts,

Volapiik, 10, 24, 140.

We

Ww.

213.

| VoL.

Wadsworth, M. E. Keweenawan system, 166.
Meteorological observations above the
earth’s surface, 33; Wind-register, 309.
Wall’s Natural History of Thought, 163,
Ward’s Flora ofthe Laramie Group, 150.
Waters, G. F. Color-blindness, 179.

Waldo,

Waterspouts, 32.

r

Wave, the Umbria’s, 193.
Weather-predictions, 322.
Welle, The, 189.
Wheat, Indian, 314.

Wheat-crop of India,

Wheeler, W. M.

Whicher, G. M. Purslane-worm, 228.

253.

Grindelia glutinosa, 180.

White’s Laramie Molluscan Fauna, 126.

Whooping-cough in the cat, 36.

Wilson, G.

Wilson, J. D.

Cheyenne, 239, 264.
Indian names, 252.

Wilson’s Studies in Life and Sense, 20.
Wind-pressure, 118. 132.
Wind-register, 309.

Woeikof’s Die Klimate der Erde, 127.
Wolff, A. R. Wind-pressure, 132.

Wollny’ 's Grundriss der Psychologie, 238.

Women, 10.

Wood’s Natural Law in the Business World, 286.
Wounds healed by mental impressions, 163,

Wundt's Psychologie, 305.
Wurtz’s Elements of Modern Chemistry, 191.

WG
Yellow-fever at Tampa, 214, 221, 247.

Yemen, explorations in, 203.
Yukon, : survey of, 165.

Zoologischer Jahresbericht, 151.

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

Africa, Central, Junker’s explorations in

Asia, aetchoma showing shortest routes from
Eastern O . : . * 6

Baird, Spencer F. f “ a . a

Clark, Alvan . c o 2

Cumberland Sound, ice-chart of

Diamond, North Carolina .

Diamond-field in Kentucky

Diamonds, four large South Africas! (iL fies. )

Earthquake, Sonora . F & 5

Earthquakes, depth of (8 figs. ) 5 S 6

Fossils, chalcedonized (2 figs.) 2 G 5

Kongo Basin, map of

Meteorological observations above the ear ‘th’s surface (2 figs. ) c

Mounds, Ohio . : 5 : 5 a
Mummies, Western (4 figs.) . 3 : 5
Muscle, dermo-tensor patagii ti 5 5
New Guinea, explorations in 5 a

Pars propatagialis musculi cucullaris (2 figs. Jers

the

Z.

71

Temperatures of the Atlantic Ocean

PAGE
o . . 54 Salt marshes in Tsaidam
United States to Sand-hills
5 = 2 16 Science at the American Aecocintion (@@ figs.)
5 ° 2 2 97 Sibley College extension (5 figs.) .
5 co 5 Va Stone dagger from Missouri
5 4 & - 233 Tachycineta, maxillo-palatines of
168 Temperatures of the Pacific Ocean é
5 5 S 141 Theosophical brothers, annual congress of, in India 5
o o 69,70 Topographical survey of the United States (3 figs.)
3 2 81 University of Nebraska, chemical laboratory of (5 figs.)
G 3 23, 24 Wind-register . D 3 6
é - 4156
42
. 33, 34 Arctic America, map of north-eastern
a 0 32 Asia, Central 5
2 5 3 146, 147 Far West, early map os 5 5
6 5 J a 57 Nicaragua Ship-Canal 5
. . 149 Snow Hall of Natural History, Havcenced Kan

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AN ILLUSTRATED JOURNAL PUBLISHED WEEKLY.

Vérité sans peur.

NEW YORK: THE SCIENCE COMPANY.

FRIDAY, JULY 1, 1887.

WE HAVE THE PLEASURE of informing our readers that a step
long considered desirable has been taken. The price of Sczence
has been reduced to $3.50. This has been rendered possible by
the improving position of the paper financially, and by taking a
form which saves largely in the items which make up the cost of
manufacture. The saving in paper by making the page nearly
double the size of the old Sczence page allows a saving of many
hundred dollars each year, which would otherwise be spent on
white paper for extra margins. We mention this as an item little
suspected by most people. Each subscriber will find that his sub-
scription has been extended fro rata.

THE ACT TO REGULATE the licensing and registration of phy-
sicians and Surgeons, and to codify the medical laws of the State
of New York, has been signed by the governor, and is now a law.
By Section 9 of the act, all pre-existing laws relating to these sub-
jects are repealed ; so that to this single act physicians, attorneys,
and courts must hereafter look for the regulation of the practice of
medicine in this State. It is gratifying to find that this act is in-
dorsed by all the different schools of medicine, and that the only
Opposition made to it has come from those who believe that the
power of healing by the laying-on of hands is likely to be dimin-
ished or impaired by the course of study required by the medical
colleges. We are glad to see that the objection which we had to
make to one of the sections in the act of 1880 is thoroughly and
satisfactorily met in the present law. Physicians may hereafter
practise in other counties than that in which they first regis-
tered, by simply mailing to the county clerk their certificates
of registration. Upon this an indorsement will be made which
will render practice in the new county legal. Provision is
also made by which registered physicians can attend isolated
cases in other counties without re-registration, provided they
do not intend to habitually practise in such counties. By
another section of the act, no person can be licensed or permit-
ted to practise who has been convicted of a felony by any court of
competent jurisdiction; and conviction of a felony cancels the li-
cense, if one has been granted. We are informed that there is now
practising in New York one who has served three terms of im-
prisonment for criminal practice. The following offences are also
punishable under this law: perjury, in false affidavit of registry;
counterfeiting, buying, selling, and altering diplomas, or practising
under counterfeited diplomas ; or falsely personating another prac-
titioner. It is not improbable that this act may in the future re-
quire some modification ; indeed, it would be strange if it did not:
but the medical profession is to be congratulated on having all the
laws pertaining to it codified, and thus enabling its members to
ascertain their privileges and responsibilities without searching
through the session-laws of many years. To Mr. W. A. Purring-
ton, counsel for the medical societies of the State and county of
New York, much credit is due for the skill with which this act is
drawn, and for his persistence in urging the measure upon the
legislative and executive branches of the State government.

THE NINETEENTH ANNUAL co-operative congress of delegates
from co-operative societies in Great Britain and Ireland has closed
its session at Carlisle. An exhibition was held in connection with
the meeting, which included products purchased or imported by the
wholesale for distribution to the retail societies. The exhibits indi-
cated the strength of distributive co-operation in the power to pur-
chase on the largest scale from producers or importers. There
were also fabrics and manufactured articles which indicated
the advance of co-operative production. It is in this sphere of
production that the question is raised whether the benefit of
co-operation embraces the working producers as well as the
consumers, whether spinners, weavers, and dyers, tailors, needle-
women, and shoemakers, are really co-operative producers, or wage-
earners having no interest in the sale of that which they produce.
The voluminous returns made to the congress throw much light
on the present position of co-operative production. There are in
England fifty-eight productive societies, and they make cotton-
cloth, elastic web, flannel, hosiery, quilts, table-covers, worsted,
boots and shoes, galvanized ware, nails, watches, cutlery, locks,
baking-powder, portmanteaus, trunks, and biscuits. Scotland has
eight such societies. Last year these sixty-six societies sold goods
to the amount of £1,817,000, and the net profit was £74,000. Of
this profit, £24,871 was paid on share capital, over £1,913 was paid
to labor by seventeen’ societies, and £,33,733 to purchasers. Mr.
Thomas Hughes delivered an admirable address at the opening
of the congress, summing up the past, and pointing out the future
problems for co-operation to deal with. He said that the problem
of distribution was already fairly solved, and that there is hardly
any neighborhood, from John O’Groat to Land’s End, to which co-
operation has not penetrated. “Our membership,” the speaker
continued, “is numbered by millions, and the poorest member of
the smallest society can now be sure that he gets as full value for
every shilling he has to lay out as the richest. Co-operation has
taught English working-men how to get full and fair value for the
wages of their work : can it help them in like manner to get full and
fair value for the work itself? This, Mr. Hughes asserts, is the press-
ing question, and it must be faced at once. He deprecates the solu-
tion of it in accordance with those who favor centralization rather than
federation. He pressed this point very earnestly, and apparently with
the approbation of a majority of the delegates to the congress. Lord
Ripon, speaking in London just before the congress met, also urged
the necessity of settling the question of co-operative production
without having recourse to centralization.

AT THE RECENT graduation exercises of the St. Louis Manual-
Training School, Professor Woodward pointed out the fact that the
number of graduates was increasing each year. The first class
numbered twenty-nine; the second, twenty-nine; the third, thirty-
nine; the fourth, forty-five; and the fifth, fifty-two. Professor
Woodward also enlarged upon the way in which the course of in-
struction at the school is organized. He showed that but one-third
of the time is given to shop-work, and that it is distributed in such
a way that the students acquire not so much dexterity in a single
direction or in a few directions, as a knowledge of principles and
methods in many directions. He protested against the assump-
tion that the graduates of the school are skilled workmen in several
crafts. They are simply better educated than their fellows who

2 SCIENCE.

have had no manual training. The St. Louis school has never re-
ceived a dollar from either the city or the State, and, as Professor
Woodward phrased it, ‘the director is gratified by the thought,
that, in spite of its many shortcomings, the school has served to
demonstrate the entfre feasibility of incorporating intellectual and
manual training in such a way that each is the gainer thereby, and
that it has correctly read the public demand for a valuable mental
discipline which shall at the same time insure the acquirement of
knowledge and skill of intrinsic worth.”

THE INCREASE OF STATE INTERFERENCE IN THE
UNITED STATES. —I.

THE most casual newspaper-reader and observer of legislation
must have had his attention attracted to a growing tendency in
our legislation toward the regulation of private and personal con-
cerns. We are aware, of course, that the term ‘private and per-
sonal concerns’ may be said to be more or less indefinite ; but it is
nevertheless true, that, as used by the majority of intelligent people,
its content is, in a general way, understood and agreed to. It is in
this generally accepted sense that we use it here.

A few weeks ago we editorially called the attention of the readers
of Sczence to an article in which Dr. Albert Shaw of Minneapolis
illustrated the tendency of which we speak, from recent legislation
in Minnesota. Dr. Shaw gave a digest or summary of the session-

‘laws of 1885 in his State, and pointed out not only the relatively
large number of laws that may be put under the head of ‘State
interference, but the great variety of subjects with which they
attempted to deal.

It is our opinion that the majority of the American people are
not aware of this tendency in legislation, and that many of those
who are informed about it do not appreciate its real character, nor
the result to which it logically leads. To arouse discussion on
these points, as well as to secure more accurate data than have yet
been laid before the general public, we have addressed letters to
various students of legislation and political science in all parts of the
country. In our correspondence we have presented four questions,
as follows: 1. How far does the legislation in your State show a
tendency similar to that observed in Minnesota? 2. In what new
particulars is State interference being manifested? 3. Do you be-
lieve such interference to be advisable? 4. If not, what measures
would you adopt to check it? It is the answers to these questions
which we now desire to lay before our readers. As was to be ex-
pected, the different correspondents differ widely, both in standpoint
and in method. In a few cases correspondents from the same
State interpret the tendency of legislation in that State differently.
The one considers it in the line of State interference, the other does
not so view it. In asmall number of cases the writers have con-
sidered the questions as affording them an opportunity to make an
attack on protection, prohibition, or some similar question. These
answers, involving as they do a begging of the question, are of no
value for our discussion. But, setting aside a few such instances as
these, the replies are of very great interest and value, and are of prac-
tical unanimity in stating that State interference is becoming more
general in all parts of the country, and along pretty much the same
lines. Granger legislation pure and simple, anti-co-operation legis-
lation in general, and labor legislation, are the classes under which
the vast majority of the laws indicating State interference may be
brought. The question at issue is, we take it, twofold, involving,
first, the conception of the powers and duties of the State; and,
second, the application and use of these powers and duties. This
has not always been comprehended by our correspondents. And,
furthermore, for others than professed students of economics, it will
require some thinking and investigation in order to take a position on
the questions involved which shall be worth any thing. As Pres.
Francis A. Walker writes, ‘For an out-and-out /azssez-fazre it is
easy to dash off some highly objurgatory remarks on the subject of
State interference ; but for one who believes that the State has im-
portant functions, social and industrial, as well as political, it would
require much time and thought to give a proper expression of one’s
views as to where State interference should begin, and where it
should end.”

[Vo.. X. No. 230

Although the expressions of opinion which we have received
come from all parts of the country, it will conduce to clearness if
we discuss them by locality. For that reason we begin with the
New England States.

_ In Maine it seems that the tendency referred to is quite notice-
able, though it has only become so recently. Mr. F. E. Manson of
the Kennebec Journal, Augusta, writes, that, until the Legislature of
1886 passed slight restrictive measures, there were no laws which
regulated the formation of private and corporate concerns. Prof.
A. E. Rogers of the State College at Orono designates three par-
ticular directions in which State interference is being manifested :
(@) the increasing stringency of sumptuary laws, (4) the tendency
to diffuse education among the masses, and (c¢) the increasing
tendency to protect individual interests against corporate power.
Professor Rogers is emphatically in favor of this development of
State interference. He writes, “The government exists for the
benefit of the people, and whatever, a// things constdered, conduces
to their benefit, is in the province of the government. In the pro-
posing and determining of legislation is the test of statesmanship.
No fixed rule can be laid down as to what measures may or may
not be undertaken.” And then, with a bluntness that sounds like
Patrick Henry, the professor defiantly adds, “If this smacks of so-
cialism, so does the very organization of man into society, so does
government itself.” ;

From Massachusetts we have received a large number of replies ;
and it is extremely interesting to compare the views they take as to
whether legislative interference is extending or not. Mr. Thomas
Wentworth Higginson, himself a legislator as recently as 1881, does
not believe that the tendency, while observable, has reached a dan-
gerous point. He believes that the town organizations, with their
jealousy of all centralization which curtails their powers, will effec-
tually check State interference in Massachusetts. Mr. Higginson
instances educational supervision in support of this position, and
states that the strong feeling in the towns against State interference
has thus far defeated all attempts to secure a more efficient super-
vision of the schools. Mr. Higginson believes that this local feel-
ing is similar in force and character throughout New England, and
attributes the increase of legislative interference in the Western
States to the absence of the town organization, with its attendant
local feeling.

Prof. John B. Clark of Smith College finds the tendency to have been
stronger last year than this, and attributes the re-action to an effort
on the part of conservative men to keep the growth of State inter-
ference within bounds. Professor Clark instances an arbitration
bill (by which either party in a labor-dispute may secure a decision),
an employers’ liability bill (which makes employers responsible for
the acts of their employees resulting in injury to other employees,
in cases in which the common law would exempt them on the ‘fel-
low-servant’ principle), and a bill fixing uniform times for meal-
hours in the case of factory-employees, as examples of the most
recent manifestations of State interference. Professor Taussig of
Harvard adds to this list certain legislation regarding food-adultera-
tion, but fails to find any distinct tendency toward an increase of
legislative interference, save in the case of labor-troubles. Profes-
sor Perry of Williams College is of the opinion that Massachusetts
is, on the whole, true to ‘that sound political maxim, ‘ That govern-
ment is best which governs least.’” He is inclined to believe that
the tendency toward interference is for the most part exhausted in
the introduction and push of bills of that general character, and ex-
ercises but slight influence on the positive enactments. Professor
Perry defines State interference as “nothing but the interference of
certain individuals for their own profit with the rights and property
of their fellow-citizens in the alleged ame of the State.” We
shall refer again to this definition, which seems to us to reach the
kernel of the whole matter.

Another correspondent, Mr. Joshua H. Millett of Boston, finds
that Massachusetts legislation shows a very great increase in the
number and variety of measures that may be styled ‘ interfering.’
On the statute-book he finds laws very similar to those cited from
Minnesota. “‘ Laws treat of almost every article of consumption
and use,” writes Mr. Millett. Among the articles legislated about
are butter, cheese, fish, bread, vinegar, hops, leather, ashes, milk,
oil, gas, lumber, fertilizers, fruit, hay, marble, nails, and sewing-

AMERICA 28

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thread. The State gives bounties to agricultural societies. The
practice is extending of bringing all places of resort and amuse-
ment under the control of the State. In 1885 an act was passed,
permitting municipalities to control skating-rinks, in order that the
attendance might be regulated irrespective of sex and age. A re-
cerit law prohibits minors under the age of eighteen from working
more than sixty hours a week in mercantile establishments. A
weekly-payment law was passed in 1886.

Dr. Davis R. Dewey of the Massachusetts Institute of Technol-
ogy finds that “ the tendency of the statutes toward State interfer-
ence is not so marked in Massachusetts as in Minnesota.” From
1866 on, each year has seen an extension of legislation in the direc-
tion of control over employers.

Dr. E. W. Bemis of Springfield writes that “there has been a
steady increase of State action during the past ten years in Massa-
chusetts. This increase has been chiefly in matters of monopoly
regulation, sanitation, education, and labor legislation. There has
been no marked interference with the ordinary business or domestic
life of the people, but the State has been called upon to control for
the public good, large and otherwise irresponsible corporate bodies,
and to protect the weak and ignorant.” Dr. Bemis relates a case in
which the New Haven and Northampton Railroad objected to the
advice of the railroad commission to establish a depot in the town
of Whately, Mass., through which the road ran. The commission
thereupon ordered the depot built, and said, ‘“‘ The mistake of the
railroad-managers in such cases is in supposing that the interests of
the stockholders are paramount, and that the earning of dividends
is the sole object to be sought in operating a road. Our supreme
court has said more than once that a railroad-corporation is erected
mainly for the public benefit, and only incidentally for its own profit.
And because directors are liable to take a wrong view of their
duties, the State reserves full control, and delegates to its agents
the power of supervising the operation of these corporations.” The
State has a savings-bank commission with similar powers and
duties. In 1885 a gas commission was organized, the function of
which is, upon the complaint of the mayor of a city or the selectmen
of a town in which a gas company is located, or of twenty custom-
ers of such a company, relative to the quality or price of the gas, to
give a public hearing, and order such reduction in price or improve-
ment in quality as seems best. And in Worcester this provision
has been applied, and a reduction in price from two dollars and a
quarter to a dollar and a half a thousand cubic feet was ordered by
the commission. Thus, at one blow, the gas company’s income
was reduced by more than fifty-six thousand dollars per year. Dr.
Bemis further states that more than four-fifths of the area, and
probably two-thirds of the population, of the State, are under local
prohibition.

Dr. Bemis sees no occasion for alarm in the progress of this
tendency, because it has only passed into practice in “ such cases as
the condition of the times seems to demand.”

[To be continued.)

THE EXPLORATION OF ARCTIC AMERICA.

THE map accompanying the present number of Sczence shows
the present state of our knowledge of north-eastern Arctic America.
During the last ten years very little has been added to our knowl-
edge of this vast territory as compared to the period from 1845 to
1870. It was during that time that the search for Franklin re-
sulted in the thorough exploration of the Arctic American Archi-
pelago, in the discovery of the waters north of Smith Sound, and
the discovery of the unknown parts of the coast of the continent.
Though English expeditions did the greatest part of this work, we
Americans may boast of names and discoveries not inferior to
theirs: de Haven, Kane, Hayes, Hall, are names that will always
be remembered in the history of arctic exploration. The names of
American patrons of science, such as Grinnell’s, are justly given to
lands and seas discovered by the expeditions they had sent out.

After the period of lively activity in the Arctic regions, a re-
lapse ensued, and the noteworthy expeditions since 1870 are very
few. The German expedition to East Greenland explored part of
north-eastern Greenland, and discovered the large fiords of that
coast. It is only since last year that the important results of

SCIPINGH. 3

Holm’s expedition in 1884-85, on the east coast of Greenland, are
known. He discovered the ragged coast of Christian IX. Land.
Danish explorers are continually adding to our knowledge of West
Greenland. Nordenski6ld’s remarkable journey into the interior of
Greenland was made in 1883. However, it is in the Smith Sound
region that the most important additions to our knowledge have
been made. Every new expedition pushed the limit of the un-
known area farther north. Bessels’ tide-observations made on
the ‘ Polaris’ expedition first established the insularity of Greenland
by showing that the Atlantic tide enters Robeson Channel from the
north. The important explorations of the expeditions of Nares and
Greely need hardly be mentioned. The explorations in the other parts
of Arctic America are of no great importance. Hall’s observations
from 1864 to 1869, which were published only lately, gave corrections
for several parts of the American coast; Schwatka’s bold march to
King William Land added a few details to that part of the map. A few
scattered surveys by whalers, principally those of the enterprising
Captain Spicer of New London in Fox Basin and Hudson Strait,
are embodied in our map. Last we have to mention the German
surveys on the east coast of Baffin Land.

How little is this as compared to the results of former years!
And how much is still to be done! On looking at our map, it might
seem as though the coasts and part of the interior were well known,
but all maps are deceptive in this respect. In many instances we
do not know the sources from which the information contained in
the map was derived, and consequently are unable to test their ac-
curacy ; but wherever this was done, the maps proved to be utterly
unreliable. A few weeks ago we mentioned the journey of Mission-
ary Peck from Richmond Gulf on the west coast of Labrador, to
Ungava Bay, by way of Seal Lake and Freshwater Lake. He re-
ported that no such rivers and lakes exist as shown on our maps;
yet we have to do the best we can, and reproduce what former
maps contain, as it comes nearest to the real configuration of the
land. , Colonel Gilder informs us that the coast near Chesterfield
Inlet is not at all similar to the map, but we have no means of cor-
recting it. Is it necessary to point out a few other inaccuracies of
the map? We do not know the configuration of Ungava Bay and
the north-western half of Labrador; Wager River, on the west
coast of Hudson Bay, and the north coast of Hudson Strait, are
practically unknown; Eclipse Sound, on the west coast of Baffin
Bay, is drawn from a rough sketch, without any actual survey, and
so is Admiralty Inlet ; and the vast territories in the interior of the
islands and continent have not yet been visited by any scientific
man. In short, there is not a square inch on this map on which
important discoveries might not be made.

However, those are ‘ polar regions ;’ and it seems that, after the
sad experiences of de Long’s and Greely’s expeditions, the mere
word ‘ polar’ is sufficient to suppress all interest in such explora-
tions. The ideas conveyed by the word are of ships crushed by ice,
and a party starving on an ice-field or devoured by ferocious polar
bears. But this is a gross misconception of what polar exploration
is and ought to be. Its object is the thorough exploration of the
Arctic region and of all its phenomena. In order to attain this ob-
ject, it is not necessary to organize adventurous expeditions the sole
object of which is to push north and gain a few miles upon prede-
cessors. The exploration of the polar regions is not a work for the
bold and daring adventurer: it is the task of the careful scientist,
who knows thoroughly what science will profit by every mile gained
and by the study of all the phenomena of regions often passed by
ships or never visited by man.

We will draw attention to some geographical problems which
offer themselves in the vast area shown in our map, and which can
be solved without incurring great expense or great danger. The
problem which is of greatest importance is the exploration of the
islands west of Smith Sound. There are two starting-points for
such expeditions, —Hayes Sound and Jones Sound. Eskimo re-
ports lead us to suppose that Hayes Sound forms a strait leading
to the western ocean; but, even if this be not the case, Greely’s
expedition across the isthmus between Archer Fiord and Greely
Fiord shows that it would not be difficult to reach the west coast.
Jones Sound is easier of access. It has only been visited twice, —
by Belcher and Inglefield on a short trip, —and no serious attempt
has been made to explore its western continuation. From Eskimo

4 SsCiENGE:

reports it would seem that it is closed, as indicated on our map ;
and seal and walrus are said to abound in its western part, which
is formed by low land. If this information is correct, this would
be an excellent starting-point for the exploration of the archipelago
west of Ellesmere Land and the west coast of this large island.
Such an expedition would not be very expensive, and almost with-
out danger. The American expeditions of Schwatka and Hall show
that sledging in the Arctic is the most successful and least dan-
gerous way of making explorations. This district is of the greatest
importance from a geographical point of view, forming the north-
ern limit of the American continent. It will be very interesting to
know the configuration of this district and its extent towards the
north-west. The study of this region will show how far the heavy
ice met with at the outskirts of the Arctic islands extends south-
eastward.

Another exploration which might be easily accomplished is that
of Fox Basin and Hudson Strait. A ship stationed in these waters
for two years might solve all important questions of that country.
Ethnologists wish for an exploration of the central parts of the
Arctic coast, particularly between King William Land and the
Mackenzie, where the Eskimos may be studied uninfluenced by
Europeans. These are tasks for American travellers. But where
is the patron to-day who would encourage and support such enter-
prises? Who will be the next to carry north the little Henry
Grinnell flag, which waved in so many parts of Arctic America?
The means which are required to carry on such researches are so
small that they will not hinder the resuming of the work as soon as
it may be considered desirable.

Such work is not the adventurous ‘ polar expedition,’ the only aim
of which is to push north; but these explorations will enable us to
go on step by step, and to reach the unknown regions of the Arctic
Basin without running great risks. Explorations in Jones Sound
will show how far we can go. East Greenland offers a safe basis
for expeditions towards the north, and so does Franz Joseph Land.
Hazardous expeditions into the open ocean without the shelter of
land and without any line of retreat, such as de Long’s expedition,
must be abandoned, as they will almost always end in disaster. The
exploration of the pole is not a work for a single adventurous ex-
pedition, however lucky and successful it may be, for the risk such
travellers run is not adequate to the probable results. Progress
must be made cautiously, and founded on the discoveries and ex-
periences of past expeditions : therefore we believe that spasmodical
efforts now in East Greenland, now in Smith Sound, now in Franz
Joseph Land, are not desirable, but that one plan ought to be pur-
sued by Arctic explorers. It is only thus that scientific results can
be obtained.

The problems which must be solved in the Arctic regions are
numerous and important. It is more than curiosity if we desire to
know the outlines and the interior of the Arctic and Antarctic
islands and continents; for without this knowledge geographical
science is imperfect. We must know it, if we want to understand
the circulation of the oceans and of the air; and researches in the
Arctic are indispensable for the study of terrestrial magnetism. It
is sufficient to mention these facts. Even commerce will profit by
such expeditions. The produce of whale-fishery adds yearly con-
siderably to our national wealth, and by new expeditions new
hunting-grounds have always been opened. Many other resources
of the Arctic Ocean are not yet made use of. There are enormous
herds of walrus in regions easy of access, there are the lakes and
rivers abounding in salmon, there is the valuable fur of the black
fox and polar bear, and, though the commercial interest will always
be of secondary importance in such enterprises, we must not over-
look it.

Our map teaches that the problems of arctic exploration
must not be looked for in the extreme north alone. The coasts of
Arctic America and its numerous islands are a field for travellers
which will yield important results for years to come. The explorer
of these regions will contribute not less to science than the adven-
turous traveller who seeks to reach the pole, and his work will be
surer of success, and accomplished with less danger and at smaller
expense. We hope that researches in these regions will soon be
taken up again, and that we may soon see American explorers
again at work in this field.

[Vot. X. No. 230

DISTILLERY-MILK REPORT.'— IV.
Bibliography.
IN the replies received from our correspondents in answer to the

circular letter, references are made to the following authorities, 19D
which we make liberal quotations : — {

Manual of Cattle-Feeding. By HENRY P. ARMSBY, Ph.D. New
York, Wiley, 1887.

In the manufacture of distilled liquors, the first stages of the
process are essentially the same as in the preparation of malt
liquors, but after the fermentation the mash is subjected to distilla-
tion to separate the alcohol. The residue remaining in the still
constitutes distillers’ grains, or ‘slump.’ This has much the same
composition as brewers’ grains, except that it is more watery, con-
taining only about eight or nine per cent of dry matter. Like
brewers’ grains, it has lost chiefly non-nitrogenous matters: it con-
sequently has a narrow nutritive ratio, and is a valuable addition to
fodder poor in proteine. Moreover, it contains a considerable pro-
portion of mineral matters, which may be of advantage under
some circumstances. Distillers’ grains are best adapted for cattle,
and yield excellent results in fattening or feeding for milk when
rightly used. For sheep, hogs, and horses, they are not well suited.
In using this feeding-stuff, its watery nature should not be forgotten.
Its relatively large proportion of proteine renders it a suitable addi-
tion to a fodder deficient in this nutrient; while, on the other
hand, the health of the animals requires the addition to the ‘slump’
of some dry, coarse fodder, like hay or straw. A poor quality of
coarse fodder may be rendered more palatable to cattle by saturat-
ing it with distillers’ grains, and thus the wattriness of the one
fodder, and the poverty of the other as regards proteine, can be
simultaneously corrected. Used in this way, distillers’ grains con-
stitute a perfectly healthy fodder. Much of the common prejudice
against the use of distillery slops appears to be occasioned by their
irrational application, and frequently by the filthy surroundings of
the animals, rather than by any thing injurious in the feeding-stuff
itself.

‘Milk: its Adulterations, Analysis, etc. By JOHN Morris, M.D.
(Maryland Medical Journal, June 15, 1882.)

Of all the nutrients employed to rear children deprived of natural
food (the mother’s breast), I know no one more pernicious than the
swill-milk sold in all large cities. Children fed with it appear to
thrive and fatten, but their real vitality is much less than that found
in those properly nourished. What seems to be fat is merely adi-
pose tissue, just as is seen in chronic ale and beer drinkers, who are
also deficient in vitality, and unable to withstand attacks of disease,
endure privation or great suffering. During the summer months,
cholera-infantum plays sad havoc among swill-fed children. Fre-
quently after a few hours’ illness they fall into a state of extreme
prostration, collapse and death following rapidly. From the want
of tissue-making food, they lack the vital force already alluded to,
and all the efforts of the physician to arrest the disease and restore
their impaired strength prove unavailing. The infant mortality in
our large cities may be attributed in a great measure, I am con-
vinced, to the employment of milk from cows improperly fed.

The draymen connected with the breweries of London are the
most unhealthy body of men to be found anywhere. These men
have the unlimited privilege of the brewery cellar. Though ap-
parently models of health and strength, the slightest accident that
befalls them generally proves fatal. Sir Astley Cooper mentions a
case of a drayman, a powerful, flesh-colored, healthy-looking man,
who received a slight injury from the splinter of a stave. The
wound was trifling, but it suppurated. Sir Astley opened the
abscess, but in going away forgot his lancet. On returning to get
it, he found the man dying. Beer-drinkers, when attacked by any
acute disease, are unable to bear the proper treatment necessary,
and consequently die. They cannot undergo the slightest surgical
operation with safety. Dr. Buchan says, ‘‘ Malt liquors render the
blood sizy and unfit for the circulation : hence proceeds obstruction
and inflammation of the lungs. There are few great beer-drinkers
who are not phthisical, brought on by the glutinous and indigestible
nature of ale and porter.”

1 Continued from Vol. IX., p. 604.

PULY, 1, 1837. |

So it is with cattle fed with slops from distilleries: though, like
Sir Astley Cooper’s drayman, they look powerful and flesh-colored
and healthy, and increase in size and weight, they are not truly
healthy, and the increase in weight is not due to additional muscle
or genuine fat. What appears to be fat is a soft, flabby degenera-

- tion of tissue, and, if they are exposed to hardship or attacked by
disease, will at once succumb.

In conversation with Mr. Outerbridge Horsey of Frederick
‘County, a well-known farmer and distiller, I gleaned some practical
hints in regard to the use of swill in feeding cows. Mr. H. does
not believe that it is injurious if given in proper quantities and in
‘combination with grasses or other food. He has abandoned feed-
ing his own cows with it, however, for the reason that it imparts a
peculiar odor to the milk, and notably to the butter. This is no
-doubt the case, for there is a particular pungency in this character
of food. Therefore milk from cows fed on swill cannot be made
into condensed milk, for such milk when condensed has a rank
smell and a bitter taste. The swill, if given in large quantities and
for a length of time, exercises a very pernicious influence on some
of the organs of the body. The teeth fall out, and it is said that
the tails atrophy and loosen. If this be the case, I cannot explain
the exact cause. It is a necrosis, and must be due to some poison-
ous element in the food. Nearly fifty per cent of the inorganic
elements in swill is composed of phosphoric acid; but, as the inor-
ganic elements are scarcely five per cent of the whole, I can hardly
ascribe the degeneration which takes place to the excess of phos-
phoric acid. According to Fownes, the inorganic elements of milk
are 4.91 parts in the 1.000, as follows : —

2.31 Phos. calcium.

.42 Phos. magnesium.
.07 Phos. iron.

1.44 Chlor. potassium.
.24 Chlor. sodium.
.42 Sodium and caseine.

4.91

This gives a little more than one part ina thousand of phosphoric
-acid, —in normal milk a very small quantity indeed. It may be
possible that the necrosis is due to the heat of the swill, for the teeth
of pigs become decayed from this cause. Cows do not like the hot
food at first, but after a time become exceedingly fond of it,—so
fond that they do not care to partake of cold food. Mr. Peter
G. Sauerwein relates to me a very singular circumstance in regard
to this point. Whilst acting as revenue collector, the machinery of
-one of the distilleries in his district which supplied slop to the milk-
men became deranged for several weeks. During this time the
milkmen came daily to the distillery and filled their hogsheads with
the boiling water, paying the same price for it that they usually
paid for the same quantity of swill. They gave as a reason for this
that their cattle were so used to hot food that they cared for noth-
ing else.

Swill, if used judiciously, that is, in combination with good grasses
or cereals, is not injurious or objectionable. It serves the purpose
of the glass of ale or porter to the nursing mother; that is, it in-
creases the quantity of milk, but I do not believe it improves the
quality. There is another form of food given to cattle still more
deleterious than swill; viz., the déérzs or refuse left after the extrac-
tion of glucose from corn. This is highly injurious, if not poison-
ous. Fortunately there is not much of this to be procured in
Baltimore, as we have but one glucose-factory in our midst; but
it is given very freely to cattle in Buffalo and Chicago, where im-
mense quantities of glucose are manufactured.

Inasmuch as the analyses of swill made by different chemists
show it to be rich in certain forms of food-elements, it may be
_asked, why is it so injurious to cows? This is a question more
easily asked than answered. The alcohol and fusel-oil which
ordinary swill contains are not sufficient to produce the bad results
which it is asserted follow its liberal use. Can it be that the excess
of nitrogenous and albuminoid substances in this form of food lead
to non-assimilation, or other functional disturbances, thus proving
its unfitness for the animal economy? Experience is certainly more
important than mere chemistry, and therefore the judgment of those
feeding cows as well as those consuming the milk must determine

SCIBNICE. 5

the whole question. Popular prejudice, which in many cases is
founded on ignorance, or mere science independent of experience,
should not be allowed to determine a matter of this character.
Whilst I myself do not think swill proper food for cows, except, as
I have before stated, in small quantities and in judicious combina-
tion with grasses, and whilst I think that swill-milk is equally unfit
for children, I am willing to give those entertaining different views
a candid hearing.

Analyses have been recently made, at the instance of those
largely interested in this matter, of the swill fed to cows, and also
of the milk resulting from its use. These analyses are by two well-
known chemists,— Professor Simon of this city, and Mr. Peter Collier
of the Department of Agriculture, Washington. Professor Simon
furnishes the results of the analyses of three samples of milk, —
the first drawn by himself at the stables of Messrs. M. Crichton &
Co., from different cows, on April 7, 1882; No. 2 sample bought
from Pikesville Dairy Company; No. 3 sample bought from a store
in the south-eastern section of Baltimore.

No. x. No. 2. No. 3.
Specific Gravity. I.029 1.031 1.026

too Parts Milk contain
AVA e tetentetafelain(atafabelaia)ateteistetateintatatetctaravels 86.47 87.12 89.93
HEP oodomooasddodtad coaegaaensodDDeR0 3°77 3-40 1.45
(RGSS s5ana0d0R00 DoodoDssberonaES 4-44 4.23 3-83
Milk-sugar 4-56 4-51 4.16
0.76 0.74 0.63
100.00 100.00 100.00

Mr. Simon says, “In looking over the results of my analyses, you
will see at once that the sample drawn by myself from your ‘swill-
fed’ cows compares most favorably with sample No. 2, produced
by cows receiving no distillery refuse. Both these samples repre-
sent very good milk; and especially No. 1 is, in the amount of
cream and total solids, far above the average milk.

“No. 3 sample represents an adulterated article, from which no
doubt not only cream had been removed, but to which also some
water had been added. I selected this sample out of about two
dozen samples, brought from different dealers, as the worst milk
which has come under my notice.”

Professor Simon furnishes the result of an analysis of swill drawn
by himself from about 1,000 gallons at the Melrose distillery on
March 6, 1882.

One hundred parts of sample contain of —

A. Volatile products (expelled at 212° F.) ................--- 94.63
B. Organic matter on 4.83
C. Inorganic matter (ashes).........-.0e+00- secre erreeneee’ 0.54
100,00
ANALYSIS OF Portion A.
Volatile Products.
WEEE cod badsososnnesonondasdddcags coboaboobasondagncwonous 99-74
Alcohol 0.08
Fusel-oil (chiefly amylic alcohol) 0,12
IL@EE-mocouosecuses costed obadeaceD 0,06
100,00
ANALYSIS OF PorTION B.
Organic Matter.
Sytm)h Heo MESS oqoo ccc apng ogo adodass DObadoGonasa cosSonoacnacs 26.68
Cellulose............ 23.83
Albuminoids ........ 25.30
Gum ....-.......--.- 6.73
SUgaris ceia/aa\ecjaneslalasisisslalefelanislesieis/s 544
INE: ce poasb poor geseeecooc one oaecusS 7:37
Glycerine. oo) ccele scineise sce ne cine oem I.20
Organic acids.... 1.46
Extractive and coloring matter.. IeT4
Loss and not determined..........2+sseseceeneecserseeeceees 0.35
100.00

51.98 flesh-producing food.
20.68 fat-producing food.

6 SCIENGE:

ANALYSIS OF PorTION C,

Inorganic Matter.

PHOSPNOMICHACI siawsicisipsime ovo saecaiselsclseobieedlestwestansieaele se 48.63
SUP MUTE se seenusistsntneemaces cle vens accuse neconderenns tae 1.80
SITET ECG bean Sado SE Gone nEA pace ooeannenadonsacso6 soasedes 2.22
Giflorineiederssecceccincctseninem acne een t ee een ee een eines 0.20
Parhonrcaciders ne siccinvs occ hive selene ren ear en eecentene isi en 5.06
LECTED NSH AG aC OSD OCOI TC BEEaUOateD toaosadaap cod anosceaase 20.14
SG RSA GE Doc SOCOES RAB CESS BES C OBES nO aa ROL Aaa eeteDBE 8.47
IL Sao4Gaonoa noun ODED dboseoasoanas0 scodosurasonacabadoa Goo 6.12
WWiterieSiarirwesacepsinciccusts senemcns Seer eaenenecne mem enenne 7-10
ORs opnroness seep eere herent nee nener narreerasaee Traces
PROSSeistetnorcsclotetniastianeism Tsetse ianisisneieidseecictees eerie 26

100.00

Mr. Simon says, in his note appended to the analysis, that “ swill
is a highly nutritious form of food, and that he sees nothing in its
composition that could possibly work injury to cattle feeding
on it.”

The results obtained by Mr. Collier are very similar to those fur-
nished by Professor Simon, but are even a little stronger in statement.
He compares swill with corm and rye and other products, and shows
that it is richer in food-elements, and decidedly richer than ensilage,
which is so highly prized by certain cattle-feeders. In reply to in-
terrogatories, Mr. Collier expresses the belief that swill is a whole-
some and highly nutritious form of food, and can be given to cows
with great advantage. He, however, adds that much will depend
upon the amount given, the circumstances and surroundings, and
the proper combination with other aliments.

The truth is, the whole matter in discussion hinges upon this last
point, and Mr. Collier has not made it any clearer by his statements,
however honestly made. It is to the physiologist, in my judgment,
and not to the analytical chemist, that we must look for a scientific
solution of the problem. Analytical chemistry serves but a feeble
purpose in solving many important questions. By it butter and
oleomargarine appear equally wholesome and nutritious; and it
can detect but little difference in impurity between water-closet
matter, and sewage from which excrement is excluded.

“Milk for Babes.’ By E. M. NELSON, M.D.
of Medicine, May, 1883.)

In regard to the feeding of the cows, there is almost as much
variation between different dairies as there is in regard to cleanli-
ness. Nearly all the city dairies make use of the products of the
breweries and distilleries as a considerable part of the feed of
their cows. So far as the malted grain is concerned, perhaps noth-
ing can be said in objection to its use as a. part of the food. It is
recommended by the best writers as a valuable and economical
constituent of the food of milch-cows. The same cannot be said
of the hot distillery swill. The effect of this food has been found
by the best and most careful observers to be prejudicial to the
health of cows, and to produce a milk that is lacking in nutri-
tive quality as well as being specially liable to speedy change and
fermentation. Mr. Lake, who was for many years the largest
feeder of distillery swill in the city, asserted that cows fed on this
article invariably become diseased within a period of six months,
and the lungs show constantly the evidences of tubercular infiltra-
tion. Mr. Cabanne states, that, when he formerly fed swill in his
own dairy, he butchered over one hundred and fifty cows, and

never found one in which there was not tuberculous disease of the
lungs.

(St. Louzs Courdzer

“Our Milk-Supply.. By W.K.NEwron, M.D. (Fourth Annual
heport of New Jersey State Board of Health.)

Swill-milk is rarely heard of now, but not many years ago it was
a fruitful cause of disease and death in children. Fearing that the
lessons of the past may be forgotten, we are constrained to mention
it as a possible cause of disease. Distillery swill, “if properly fed
in limited quantities, in combination with other and more bulky
food, may be a valuable article for the dairyman ; but if given, as it
too often is, without the addition of other kinds of food, it soon
affects the health and constitution of the animals fed on it. Where
this forms the principal food of milch-cows, the milk is of a poor
quality : it contains often less than one per cent of butter, and sel-
dom over one and three-tenths or one and one-half per cent. tls

[Vot. X. No. 230

effect on the system of young children is therefore very destructive,
causing diseases of various kinds, and, if long continued, certain
death. The adulteration of pure milk from the healthy cow by
water, though dishonest and objectionable in the highest degree, is
far less iniquitous in its consequences than the nefarious traffic in
swill-milk, or milk produced from cows fed entirely on still-slops,
from which they so become diseased, after which the milk contains
a subtle poison, which is as difficult of detection, by any known
process of chemistry, as the miasma of an atmosphere tainted with
yellow-fever or cholera. The fact is sufficiently palpable, that no
pure and healthy milk can be produced by an unhealthy and dis-
eased animal, and that no animal can long remain healthy that is fed
on an unnatural food, and treated in the manner too common
around the distilleries of many large cities.’ (C. Z. Flznz, pp. 144,
208, 216.)

Where swill-milk was sold in New York a few years ago, “it was
found different in alimentary character from that produced by cows
that were fed on grass, hay, or grain. It was not so well digested
in the stomach, nor had it the nutritive power to create flesh and
sustain strength. The children lost flesh, and failed to gain it.
Their skins were pallid, sometimes discolored and corrugated. Their
countenances had the appearance of old age, rather than the bright
and lively bloom of childhood. They suffered from diarrhoea and
dysentery and great debility, and many died.” (/arvzs.)

Fortunately, no swill-milk is sold in this State at the present time,.
but it is well for health officers to be on the lookout for it. The
sale of it is, in this State, considered a misdemeanor, punishable by
a fine of fifty dollars and imprisonment for thirty days. The laws
of Massachusetts, New York, Michigan, and other States also forbid
its sale.

“Report of Committee on City Milk. By S. R. Percy, M.D.
(Transactions New York Academy of Medzcine, Vol. Il.
Part IV., 1859.)

This report, which occupies fifty-three pages of the transactions,
is the fullest statement of facts in connection with distillery swill
and milk which we have seen. In June, 1858, the New York board
of health adopted a resolution that the Academy of Medicine be
requested to lay before the board such facts and evidence as they
may have in relation to the milk furnished to the citizens of New
York. The academy appointed a committee of five of its mem-
bers, including Drs. B. Fordyce Barker and S. Ratton Percy, and in
March of the following year presented its report. The greater part
of the labors of the committee was performed by Dr. Percy, and
his report is the most valuable. It includes chemical analyses,.
which we have already given under that head, microscopic examina-
tions and drawings, and cases of disease resulting from the use of
distillery milk. Associated with Dr. Percy in his investigations was
Mr. Solon Robinson, who had been long conversant with the rais-
ing and fattening of cattle, and Mr. Thomas Devoe, who had been
long and extensively engaged in the slaughtering of cattle, and in
supplying the markets with wholesome beef. Mr. Robinson accom-
panied the committee to the distillery stables, and, as the result of
his observations, said, ‘‘From my personal experience in feeding
cows with various agricultural products, and in producing milk and.
butter, I am well satisfied that cows fed as described, and kept in
such an atmosphere as I could not remain in ten minutes without
feeling severe sickness, must produce poisoned milk. And I do not
consider the beef any more fit for human food than the milk; not
so much on account of the bad food, as the poisonous atmosphere
in which the poor brutes are confined. I would no sooner touch
this swill-milk than I would use milk from the most ‘milk-sick’
region of Illinois.” Mr. Devoe, in speaking of the quality of beef
furnished by animals fed on distillery swill, says, “I have slaugh-
tered, and seen slaughtered, the various kinds of animals that have
been fed, wholly or partially, on this swill, which appears to have
produced almost as many varieties of beef, and I think I may be
better understood by placing them under three general heads; viz.,
first-class, second-class, and third-class. The first-class beef, no
doubt, is produced from thrifty steers, fed in some of the distilleries
in the northern counties of New York, where only a small portion,
or the liquid portion, of the food, is swill; the rest being of meal,
roots, hay, and grass: and, when brought to our markets in a fat,

Jury 1, 1887.]
healthy condition, their flesh proves to be tender, juicy beef, but not
so firm or so sweet and well flavored as if wholly fed on grain, or
even grass. The second-class beef is from animals wholly confined
in these large distilleries, fed the greater portion on swill, with
plenty of hay, and occasionally a little grain. I might add, that the
Northern distillery swill is of a superior quality to that which is run into
troughs at the various distilleries where it is sold by the hogshead
or other particular quantities. These Northern distilleries own both
the swill and the cattle, and the quantity of swill made by them is
fed up clean. This second class of animals, although they may be
fat, produce a softer quality of beef, not so well flavored, but juicy
and tender. When they are slaughtered, the flesh will show or
produce the peculiar smell attached to this beef. The third class is
to be found in some of your neighboring distilleries, where the
visitor could almost swear (unless he could see the hay given to the
animals) that they had little else to eat than the thin, poor, and
sometimes spoiled swill. The beef from the general run of the
third class has a very peculiar, unpleasant smell, especially when
slaughtered. I have known it so disagreeable as to create nausea,
especially on opening the animal to take away the paunch or belly:
this and some other parts I have sometimes opened to discover
some signs of hay, and in some instances found none. This class
of beef retains that smell, especially when cutting it up fresh into
pieces, and also when cooking it. It is usually flabby or soft, and
often appears adhesive or sticky, like very young veal that had not
yet lost nature’s first flesh. My conclusions and convictions were
made up long before this subject was so strongly agitated, both as
to the meat and milk of the distillery-fed cow, which I have con-
sidered under the third class; and these conclusions are that neither
the milk nor the flesh of these animals can furnish healthy human
food.” The committee, in summarizing its labors, says that the
beef produced from the animals fed in the distillery stables is un-
savory, and easily recognized by its offensive odor; that the odor is
not dissipated even by the process of cooking; and that the fibre is
flaccid, and its cellular tissue is infiltrated with watery fluids in-
stead of solid fat. The milk of these cows does not exhibit the
characteristics of wholesome milk: it presents almost invariably an
acid re-action. The cases collected by Dr. Percy demonstrate the
fact, independent of any chemical examination or any a@ przorz
reasoning, that the milk procured from these swill-fed animals is
injurious to those who use it. In view of the disclosures made, the
committee states that itis evident that the traffic in the milk of
swill-fed cows is one which is detrimental to the health of the com-
munity, and should be discontinued.

«Sanitary Control of the Food-Supply.. By W. K. NEwTon, M.D.,
health officer of Paterson, N.J. (Zhzrd Annual Report of
the State Board of Health of New Hampshire.)

Distillery waste, and sometimes beer-grains, produce a quality of
milk of low nutritive powers, and dangerous to infants.

References are also made to the following authorities: ‘ Milch-
Cows and Dairy-Farming,’ by C. L. Flint (Boston, 1874 and 1887) ;
“Infant Mortality,’ by E. Jarvis (Fourth Annual Report of State
Board of Health of Massachusetts) ; and ‘Milk,’ by C. F. Chand-
ler (Johnson's Cyclopedza).

[To be continued.)

BOOK-REVIEWS.

Preliminary Report of the Commission appointed by the Unz-
versity of Pennsylvanda to investigate Modern Spiritualism
tm accordance with the Request of the late Henry Seybert.
Philadelphia, Lippincott. 12°.

THAT peculiar medley of alleged fact and fanciful theory, of
Occidental pseudo-science and Oriental mysticism, which goes by
the name of ‘ Modern Spiritualism,’ has been examined more or less
frequently, publicly and ably. The advocates of the tenets which
this belief imposes have given little attention to the adverse opin-
ions, explaining them away by a piece of logic which would be
admirable did it not need such frequent modification, and were it
not so evidently manufactured for the purpose, and have vaunted
and gloried over all their successful efforts, large and small, in
securing proselytes. The commission, whose long-expected report

SCIENGE. 7

is now before the public, is most favorably constituted for receiving
a hearing destined to be called authoritative, and for registering an
important turning-point in the rather sad history of the modern
movement. The commission takes its name and its resources
from the fund intrusted to the University of Pennsylvania by the
will of Henry Seybert, a strong believer in Spiritualism and its
physical manifestations. The personnelle of the commission leaves
nothing to be desired. Its members originally appointed were Dr.
William Pepper, provost of the University of Pennsylvania, Profs.
Joseph Leidy, George A. Koenig, Robert Ellis Thompson, and
George S. Fullerton, all of the same university, and the eminent
Shakspearian Dr. Horace Howard Furness. To these were after-
ward added Mr. Coleman Sellers, Drs. J. W. White, C. B. Knerr,
and S. Weir Mitchell. The members individually expressed entire
freedom from all prejudices against the subject, and readiness to
accept any conclusion warranted by facts; Dr. Fumess, more-
over, confessed to a leaning in favor of the doctrine.

The method of work of the commission was to take a definite
subject for investigation, invite both professional and non-professional
mediums (had they been able to procure them) claiming the power
of presenting the desired manifestations, and to meet them under
fair conditions. The mediums were often exorbitant in their
charges (asking a hundred dollars from the commission for what
they would do for five for a private citizen), and arbitrary in their
conditions. Nevertheless the commission has seen enough to tell
a very important and a very interesting story.

They first looked about for a pptare tional independent slate-
writing medium.’ This medium was to take a double slate firmly
fastened together, with a bit of slate-pencil placed between, and
produce writing on the previously blank slate, professedly the work
of spirits in answer to questions addressed to them. Their first
medium (a Mrs. Patterson) kept them waiting one hour and a half,
and on another occasion one hour and twenty minutes; but the
slates remained as clean as at first. Their next medium was the
famous Dr. Henry Slade, with whom they had several sessions, all
with the object of obtaining the slate-writing under conditions.
varying in detail, but not in principle, from that above described.
Dr. Slade has two methods: for the long, clearly written messages,
he substitutes at a favorable moment a prepared slate for the one
given him; for the short, hardly legible messages, he in one way or
another writes on the slate while hidden from view of the two or
three observers (he allows no more) seated with him. Every par-.
ticular of the process has at one time or another been seen by the
committee. In fact, on the day when Dr. Slade received three.
hundred dolllars in payment for his services, he was so excited that
he could hardly sign the receipt; and the cause of this excitement
was simply that shortly before, Dr. Furness had kicked over a
slate placed at the foot of the table, and thus exposed the prepared
writing upon it. In short, their verdict with regard to the doings of
this their most famous medium is, “ that the character of those which
passed under our observation was fraudulent throughout. There
was really no need of any elaborate method of investigation: close
observation was all that was required.”

Next with regard to rappings. Their preliminary conclusion
reads that “the theory of the purely physiological origin of the
sounds has been sustained by the fact that the mediums were in-
variably and confessedly cognizant of the rappings whenever they
occurred, and could at once detect any spurious rappings, however
exact and indistinguishable to all other ears might be the im-
itation.”

The commission attempted to procure some ‘spirit photographs,’
but were asked three hundred dollars for this luxury, and were to
be excluded from the room at the critical moment. They very
properly refused any such terms.

The brother of the would-be photographer (Keeler is the family
name) is also a medium. His specialty is to ‘ materialize’ a right
hand when apparently holding his neighbor's wrist with both his
hands, and have this hand perform the usual simple tricks with the
musical instruments, etc. The trick was afterwards repeated by
one of the commission, and consists in really holding the wrist with
one hand only, but producing the feeling in the owner of the wrist of
its being clasped by both, The right hand is then free to do all the
hocus-pocus.

8 SCIENCE.

Another medium did about the same thing with his hands ap-
parently tied. That his hands were loose enough for all that was
done, was glaringly evident.

Thus far the commission as a whole. Their verdict is every-
where the same: “ No new facts and many,old frauds.” Individu-
ally the members have seen much, in fact, more than the mediums
intended. The experiences of Dr. Furness, the acting chairman, are
especially interesting, and recorded with a humor that does much to
relieve the monotony of this record of constant fraud and deceit.
Dr. Furness was repeatedly assured by several Spiritualists that
there was in him the making of a magnificent medium; and so he
sacrificed himself for the cause, and ‘sat for development.’ Every
day for six months Dr. Furness sat with a slate for half or three-
quarters of an hour, and, in addition, constantly wore a bit of mag-
netized (!) blotting-paper on the top of his head, until he was al-
lowed, by the dispensation of the medium under whose direction he
was studying, to wear it around his neck. The paper had to be
changed every twelve hours, and the medium received a dollar for
each sheet. Although he was promised writing, or at least some
zigzag lines, in three weeks at the utmost, at the end of six months
“not a zig nor a zag.’ “ Let spiritualistic reproaches of investigat-
ors, for lack of zeal and patience, be heaped up hereafter until
“ossa becomes a wart.’ I care not: my withers are unwrung.”

Dr. Furness next experimented with sealed letters. A question
carefully sealed was sent to the medium, and the answer to the un-
opened letter returned. Many mediums were written to. They
gave contradictory answers when asked the same question, and in
every case the letter had been opened, and mucilage and skill been
used to cover up the deception.

Dr. Furness’s description of the materializing seances can only be
appreciated when read in full. Everywhere he found fraud where
he looked for honesty. The fraud is so gross, so easily made to
leave its hiding-place and snatch the bait offered by an ingenious
question, that it becomes ridiculous.

Professor Fullerton’s account of the famous Zoellner investiga-
tions with Dr. Slade is a highly valuable contribution. He has per-
sonally examined Zoellner’s confréres in the investigation, and finds
that Zoellner was of unsound mind at the time; that Fechner was
partially blind, and relied on Zoellner; that Scheibner was too my-
opic to see any thing, and was not quite satisfied with the seances ;
that Weber was old, and did not recognize the disabilities of his as-
sociates. On the evidence of these men, — deservedly honored in
their own specialties, as they are, — without knowledge of the arts
of a conjuror, has rested one of the most famous proofs of the truth
of Spiritualism and its connection with the fourth dimension of
space.

A device by which Dr. Knerr detected a fraud is too ingenious to
be left unnoticed. He arranged a mirror about his person so that
it reflected the hands of the medium at work on a slate under the
table. He plainly saw the hand open the slate, read the question,
and noiselessly write the answer, which the fair medium had the
impudence to present to him the next minute as the work of de-
parted spirits.

The mysteries and miracles that shape people’s beliefs upon that
which is most sacred to the human heart, thus resolve themselves,
under the scrutiny of careful scientific observers, into a mass of
vulgar frauds and low deceptions. The mystic theories and spiritual
messages are ‘ disgusting cant ;’ the medium, a criminal.

The psychological process by which believers are convinced is the
key to the secret of the success of Spiritualism : this is the problem
that lies closest to the securing of that mental health with which
such practices and beliefs are incompatible. If any one will recall
the feelings of utter bewilderment on leaving for the first time a
good performance of a professional trickster, and will imagine in ad-
dition that the things he holds dearest were at stake in the explana-
tion of what he saw, he will easily understand the excited state of
mind of a susceptible person on leaving a spiritualistic seance at
which he has seen but not understood. If your friend is a believer,
and urges your ignorance on to belief, you are apt to yield, and as-
sume that credulous state of mind which accepts all and examines
nothing. It is this state of mind that is to be prevented; it is this
state of mind that is dangerous to mental sanity, that becomes mor-
bidly hungry for something unusual, something mystic, something

DVioryeeey Nosrage

occult. There can be no better check to the spread of this mental
temperament (except, of course, a sound training in scientific rea-
soning) than such a report as this, of sincere, able, scholarly men,
anxious to learn, and meeting only with practices for which the law
provides the jail.

That these men have not yet exhausted the art of detecting
deception is shown by the fact that they are confessedly unable to
discover the methods by which a prestidigitateur performed slate-
writing tricks in their presence: this needed more training than
they as yet possess. But the magician confided his methods to one
of the commission, and showed that they were simply tricks. This
suggests the final point to be here noticed: this is, that the Spirit-
ualists will have a roundabout way of explaining these frauds.
They will say, ‘That does not prove that real manifestations do
not exist.” This the commission admit, but it makes it improbable
in more ways than one. They claim that their explanations of how
the things are done are rational from their point of view. They
need the dark because darkness is negative; if the spirit takes on
the peculiarities of the medium, that is a habit of the spirits; if the
writing does not occur when the slate is looked at, it is because the
magnetism of the eye is unfavorable; and so on, and so on. This
is perfectly true. There is no proposition so absurd, no fancy so
insane, as not to be capable of some kind of support, on the basis
of some kind of a theory. But the logic upon which civilization is
built is a marvellous network of mutually corroborating laws and
observations, multiplying the probabilities of the truth of its con-
ceptions in a geometrical ratio, and similarly dwindling into in-
significance the possibility of theories opposed to its fundamental
tenets. Of such a character are the explanations offered by the
Spiritualists. They are not impossible in an extremely exact, ulti-
mate sense. From a practical point of view, they are utterly
impossible. But, after all, it is not the logic that convinces. It is
because this system goes deeper, and appeals to the feelings, that
it blinds its adherents to sense and reasoning.

The commission has done its work well, has set an excellent
example in recording what they saw accurately (for all turns here,
as in jugglers’ tricks, upon the apparently most insignificant de-
tail), in subjecting mediums to ingenious tests, in treating them
courteously and sympathetically, as well as in exposing them plain-
ly and mercilessly. The present report, though only a preliminary
one, should do much to hasten that day, which Dr. Furness thinks
not far distant, ‘“‘ when the more elevated class of Spiritualists will
cast loose from all these physical manifestations, which, even if they
be proved genuine, are but little removed from materialism ; and
eventually materializing seances, held on recurrent days and at
fixed hours, will become unknown. JOSEPH JASTROW.

NOTES AND NEWS.

THE New York Electrical Society has decided to give an
electrical exhibition in this city during the coming fall in the large
exhibition-building of the American Institute. The exhibition will
open Sept. 28, and continue to Dec. 3, 1887, and is intended to in-
clude all that relates to the science and application of electricity in
its broadest sense. No electrical exhibition has ever been held in
New York, and it is confidently believed that the one now to be
given will attract a large number of visitors, both residents and
from other cities. The American Institute has provided ample
means to carry out the designs of the society, which is also
assured of the co-operation of the American Institute of Electrical
Engineers.

— The Poletécal Sczence Quarterly for June is a splendid num-
ber, the articles covering important topics in economics, history,
and administrative science. Dr. Seligman’s masterly article on the
interstate commerce law, an abstract of which was read before the
American Economic Association, is the leading article in the num-
ber. It is sufficient to say that the paper amply sustains Dr.
Seligman’s reputation as a master of the railway question in all its
phases. Prof. Woodrow Wilson writes on the study of adminis-
tration; and William M. Sims, chamberlain of New York City,
discusses municipal government, making generous use of his
knowledge of the details of the municipal machinery of the
metropolis. Professor Burgess’s paper on the Culturconflict in

JuLy 1, 1887.]

Prussia — by the way, why is not the perfectly familiar Cz/¢zr-
kampf used in the title, instead of a word which is partly foreign
in form, and wholly so in sound ?—is the first clear and adequate
description in English of that very significant and important move-
ment in Prussia’s political history. The book-reviews are as numer-
ous and as well done as usual. We observe that a very severe criti-
cism is passed on the volume on New York in the ‘ American Com-
monwealth’ series. Prof. Richmond Smith reviews Prof. H. C.
Adams’s ‘Public Debts’ in a very appreciative manner, describing
the book as “careful, scholarly, and extremely suggestive.” We
observe this sentence, which Professor Smith uses in speaking of
the industrial effects of public debts: “ Professor Adams's discus-
sion is acute and logical, and, in my opinion, a distinct advance
upon the treatment of the same question by Leroy-Beaulieu, the
distinguished French financier.”

— Some remarkable facts as to the change in the population of
Alsace-Lorraine are brought out by the recent publication of the
results of the census taken in those provinces in December, 1885.
The statistics are published in the Landes Zeztung, the official
journal in the provinces. It appears that in December, 1885, the
total population was only 1,564,355 as compared with 1,566,670
five years before,—a decrease of 2,315 in five years. Classified
according to nationality, there were in December, 1885, 1,368,711
natives of Alsace-Lorraine, 151,755 Germans from other parts of
the empire, and 43,829 foreigners ; whereas in December, 1880, the
natives of Alsace-Lorraine numbered 1,418,025, and the immigrants
from Germany only 114,797. So in five years the native popula-
tion has decreased by 49,254, while the immigrants have increased
by 36,958. The increasing emigration of the native population ex-
plains their falling-off ; and the Lazdes Zeztung estimates, that, if
the present rate of diminution continues, the native population will
have disappeared entirely in less than thirty years.

LETTERS TO THE EDITOR.

*.” The attention of scientific men is called to the advantages of the correspondence
columns of SCIENCE for placing promptly on record brief preliminary notices of
their investigations. Twenty copies of the number containing his communication
will be furnished free to any correspondent on request.

The editor will be glad to publish any queries consonant with the character of
the journal.

Correspondents are requested to be as brief as possible.
in all cases required as proof of good faith.

The Total Solar Eclipse of 1886.

THE following brief account is penned in order that it may be
published in time to be of service to the observers of the eclipse of
1887.

It was found that by using rapid gelatine plates an exposure of
one or two seconds was sufficient to show the details of the inner
corona satisfactorily with an ordinary telescope-lens. With a
portrait-lens the ratio of whose aperture to its focus was as one to
five, one or two seconds’ exposure showed the outer corona satis-
factorily, as far as a distinct falling-off place in the light. This
was at a distance of from 15/ to 30’ from the limb of the moon.
Beyond that the light was very decidedly fainter, and was shown
best by exposures with lenses of the same ratio, of from eight to
forty seconds. This light extended to from one to two degrees
from the moon’s limb, was very faint, and seemed analogous in
character to the zodiacal light. It was clearly not a mere reflec-
tion of the corona in the camera-lenses, as it did not extend over
the moon’s image, where it would, in that case, have been brightest.
Measurements of the actinic brightness of different portions of the
corona were made, which will appear in a subsequent paper.

The corona showed the usual short rays of light proceeding from
the sun’s poles, and from the south-western quadrant a very con-
spicuous ray, appearing like a hollow cone projected to a distance
of some twenty minutes of are. On one of the long-exposure plates
it was noticed that this was crowned by a curious fountain-like
structure, — three fine jets, about a minute in diameter, shooting
up 35’ to 40’ from the moon’s limb, curving round, and falling
back towards the sun. On closer inspection, seven other jets were
counted, all more or less well marked, and all proceeding from the
summits of bright rays of the corona. Some of these returned to-
wards the sun, but the majority faded away at about 30’ distance
from the limb. Unfortunately, only one of the plates was taken on

The writer's name is

SCIENCE. 9

a sufficiently large scale, and with sufficient exposure, to show this
phenomenon, and the whole appearance may therefore be due to
defects in the gelatine film of that plate. But, as the markings are
certainly on the plate, I have ventured to describe them ; the more
readily, as a somewhat analogous appearance, though on a
smaller scale, is represented in Mr. Ranyard’s ‘ Observations made
during Total Solar Eclipses’ (Memoirs of the Royal Astronomical
Society, xli., Plate x.)

Passing from the corona to the prominences, a number of them
were seen near the equator, on both sides of the moon; but the
most conspicuous one of all was situated in the north-western quad-
rant. It extended to a height of about one hundred thousand
miles, and had apparently a somewhat spiral structure. The spec-
tra of the various prominences were shown very clearly by the pris-
matic camera. In the equatorial ones the hydrogen and H and K lines
were prominent, superposed on a background of continuous spec-
trum ; but in the large prominence the hydrogen lines were all ab-
sent, confirming Professor Tacchini’s observation of its invisibility
both before and after totality.

The H and K lines, however, were strongly marked ; and it seems
quite probable that numbers of prominences may escape ordinary
observation by the spectroscopic method, merely because they shine
only by the actinic radiations, and are hence invisible to the eye.
The remedy for this difficulty would be, either to use a fluorescent
eyepiece, or, better, to photograph them, instead of trusting merely
to eye-observations. The position of the maximum density in the
continuous spectrum of the prominences was found to be quite dif-
ferent from that of the corona. In the prominences and in the sun
it is found to be not far from the G line, while in the corona it lies
between G and F. This may indicate, that, besides the gaseous
constituent, the corona is composed also of incandescent solid or
liquid matter, which, while cooler than the sun, still shines by its
own light. In this case, the position of the maximum might give
us a hint as to the temperature of the corona.

Photometric measurements of the general light during totality
were made, which, roughly stated, indicate a brightness equal to one
candle at about 29 inches or 73.5 centimetres distance. Previous ob-
servations by Mr. W. O. Ross in 1870 had given 18.5 inches; and
by Dr. J. C. Smith in 1878, 51.25 inches. It had been intended to
make some observations on the actinic power of the sky during the
eclipse, but unfortunately the plates reserved for this purpose were
found to have been spoiled by the excessive moisture of the Grenada
climate; so that no result was obtained. In some of the longer
exposures, however, where a large field was used, portions of the
landscape appeared upon the plates, showing that considerable
actinic radiation was given out even during the total phase.

A large number of persons observed the shadow-bands, which
appeared before and after totality. The general result of their
observations indicated that the bands were about five inches wide
and eight inches apart, that they were colored like the spectrum,
and that they moved with a velocity comparable with that of an
express-train ; at all events, much faster than a man could run.
Before totality the bands lay N. 12° W. and S. 12° E., and travelled
west : after totality they lay N. 60° E. and S. 60° W.., and travelled
north-west. The wind during totality blew from the point S. 35°
E.: during the partial phases it was blowing from six to nine miles
an hour, but fell during the three minutes of totality to between two
and four miles. The thermometer ceased rising as totality ap-
proached, but afterwards rose more rapidly. The extent of the
effect produced on it amounted to .4° C. This figure may seem
small, but it must be remembered that the fluctuation between
sunrise and noon in these tropical islands in the summer season sel-
dom exceeds two or three degrees.

In general results, the expedition may be said to have proved
successful, although one of the most important instruments, the
forty-foot photo-heliograph, failed to work, through lack of sun-
light previous to totality, which prevented the application of the
necessary adjustments to the mirror. It is hoped, however, that this
omission will be in part rectified at the present eclipse, as a similar
instrument, even better equipped, has been sent in charge of Pro-
fessor Todd to Japan; and, if the weather favors, some excellent
pictures should be the result. W. H. PICKERING.

Harvard Observatory, Cambridge, June 23.

He SCIENCE:

Women.

A LATE correspondent of yours is guilty of a species of bad
taste, which happily is rapidly becoming extinct. It was once con-
sidered both clever and gentlemanly to speak of women as if they
belonged to one of the lower orders of animals, but that period has
now quite passed by. Remarks of such a kind are hardly ever
met with in English publications, and seldom in those of this coun-
try within a certain range of longitude. I happened to see it
stated lately in a book on etiquette that it was no longer considered
good form to make insulting remarks about women, and, when a
principle has reached that organ of distribution, it may be con-
sidered that it has already become pretty widely disseminated. The
change is an agreeable one, not only to women, but also to the
rather numerous class of chivalrous-minded men.

If women are not capable of a very high degree of intelligence,
it can at least be maintained that they are capable of a higher de-
gree than Americans. An English woman has written greater
novels, and a Russian woman has made more important contribu-
tions to pure mathematics, than any American man. Neither
women nor Americans have had very great incentives to intellectual
work hitherto, but it is quite possible to hope that they will both
play a more important 7é/e in the future than they have done in
the past.

If women are more easily frightened than men, it is as easy to
attribute it to a more sensitive organization as to any other cause.
Poets and musicians are not as cool and collected in the presence
of danger as firemen, nor white men as the American Indians.
Many people consider that the delicately balanced nervous organi-
zation of the horse indicates as high a degree of development as is
to be found in more phlegmatic and thick-skinned varieties of
animals.

It is not surprising to find that your correspondent’s bad taste is
equalled by his bad logic. It is seldom that one finds in so short
a space so many pretty specimens of unreason : —

I. The cockroach, when caught between two hot portions of
metal, chose to jump down instead of walking over them. If it
had broken its neck, and if the metal had not been so hot as to
injure it, this conduct would have turned out to be very foolish ;
but, in fact, the cockroach ran away unhurt. The highest wisdom
could not have dictated a more prudent course of conduct, and
there is hence no analogy to a case of jumping from a window in
unreasoned terror when there are other and better modes of
escape.

2. Because an organized being has reached a stage of develop-
ment where reasonable conduct may be looked for, it does not follow
that none of its actions will be instinctive. Both men and women
perform many instinctive actions, — a drowning man will instinc-
tively catch at straws,—but that does not prove that they are
not endowed with reason in addition to instinct.

3. Your correspondent maintains that what would be instinct in
women, and hence proof of a low grade of intelligence, is, in the
cockroach, “ singularly like the operation of reason.” But it is no
mark of reason having come into play, that conduct looks intelli-
gent to the outsider. If it were, we should have to attribute
reason to the Amceba, which encloses food and not grains of sand,
and to the Drosera, which shuts up on bits of meat and not on
bits of chalk. The one sure objective test of the action of reason
is that different individuals behave differently under the same cir-
cumstances, and that test is wanting here. We are expressly told
that every one of more than a dozen cockroaches did exactly the
same thing. Cockroaches make their constant home by the kitchen
range, and there is hardly any source of danger which ancestral
experience is more likely to have warned them of than hot metal.

Ib

Ancient Scrapers.

A FACT has lately come to my knowledge which may be of in-
terest to archzological students of the ancient stone age, who have
frequently expressed surprise that so few of the ancient scrapers,
blades, chipped axes, and other cutting implements, show signs of
use.

Lieutenant Stoney, Lieutenant Ray, Nelson, Turner, and others

[Mon XN Niow220

have sent to the National Museum a large number of modern
Eskimo scrapers, and also many specimens of the implements used
in chipping and sharpening their scrapers. The latter are of two
kinds: 1. A curved handle of walrus ivory, with short pieces of
antler lashed in a groove cut in the front of the handle (this form
has frequently been figured) ; 2. A single cylindrical handle of wood,
into one end of which an incisor tooth of a beaver has been firmly
fixed. Indeed, one or two specimens consist of a portion of the
upper jaw with the teeth in place. This tool is called by all col-
lectors a knife-sharpener. Lieutenant Stoney informs me that
during his late exploration in Kotzchue Sound he saw the natives
using these implements, and says that they keep them always at
hand, and spend much time in touching up the edges of these
scrapers and other stone cutting-tools, and that the beaver-tooth
sharpener is also employed by the ivory-carvers to keep a fresh
edge on their metal knives. The variation in the length of scraper-
blades is due partly to the fact that some of them, when new, are
over two inches long, and become worn down by constant sharpen-
ing until they are reduced to a mere stub. It will be seen from
Lieutenant Stoney’s observation that it will be difficult to find in
Alaska a scraper-blade showing signs of use, the interest of the
artisan depending upon his keeping his edge constantly sharp.

O. T. MASON,
Washington, June 25.

Volapuk.

I copy the titlepage of one and a part of another grammar of
Volapiik, before me. Hachette & Co. is a London house, as you
willsee. The Paris house is Le Soudier. ‘‘ Grammar of Volapiik:
The Language of the World. For all Speakers of the English
Language. Translated and published with the consent of the in-
ventor, Johann Martin Schleyer, by W. A.Seret. Glasgow, Thomas
Murray & Sons; London, Whittaker & Co.” “ International Com-
mercial Language. Abridged Grammar. . By Karl Dornbusch.
London, Hachette & Co.; Paris, H. Le Soudier.”’

E. A. HORSFORD.
Cambridge, June 25.

Pineal Eye of Lizard.

THE pineal eye is so well developed in the common pine-tree
lizard (Sceleporus undulatus) that it may probably seem to warn
its owner of the advent of daylight. It is a lenticular, glassy area
of the skin of the vertex (about a millimetre in sagittal diameter),
surrounded by a yellow border, and having a dark spot in its centre.
The dark spot is opaque, caused by a mass of pigment internal to
the dermis, set on the extremity of a pineal outgrowth from the
brain. The clear area around it is caused by the dermis, which is
transparent and free from the pigment which covers it internally
in other parts. The eye is covered by an escutcheon-shaped epi-
dermal shield, more transparent in the centre and larger (3 x 3 mil-
limetres) than the normal epidermal scales. The only sign of de-
generacy is the central cloudy mass of pigment, like a big cataract.

G. MACLOSKIE.
Princeton, June 25.

The Charleston Earthquake.

I FEEL thankful to Professor Mendenhall for his forcible criticism
of the paper relating to the Charleston earthquake, and fully concur
with him in his remarks concerning the uncertainty of the data up-
on which the insoseismals were drawn. This was commented up-
on in similar vein in the paper under discussion. He cannot com-
plain of them more loudly than we did. The features to which he
calls attention (viz., that the curves of high intensity are less sinu-
ous than those of low intensity) had not escaped our attention, and
the results of our reflections were these: Ist, The data indicated
that the amount of variation of intensity within any zone or annu-
lus generally bears a smaller ratio to the mean intensity of that
zone when the mean intensity is high than when it is low (I think
this was to be expected, and is intelligible from the nature of the
case), hence there ought to be less sinuosity in the inner than in
the outer curves; 2d, In order that the amount of sinuosity may be
in due proportion in all curves, the density of observation (i.e.,
number of observations per unit area) should be inversely pro-

m
Juty 1, 1887.]

portional to the square of the distance from the origin. Perhaps it
is needless to say that the observations had no such distribution.
But, after all is said, it must be admitted that there is much justice
in Professor Mendenhall’s criticism of the isoseismals, and he cer-
tainly scores an important point. An earnest and conscientious
effort will be made to remedy the defect he has undoubtedly proven.

As regards the ‘areas of comparative silence,’ I think they have
been too well established by the data in hand to be explained away
onthe ground of defective testimony. They attracted attention at an
early stage of the investigation, and were at first thought to be due
to defective testimony; but as the information increased, it was seen
that they were not so easily disposed of. Special inquiry was then
made, and the result was, to our thinking, a full confirmation of
their reality.

In his criticism upon the method of computing the depth of the
focus, he proposes an argument which we anticipated would be
raised against it. He says, ‘“ As far as can be seen from the con-
tents of the paper, the result depends upon the unjustifiable as-
sumption that surface destruction is proportional to” the energy
per unit area of wave-front. I cannot admit that the paper implies
that assumption. Butif he will permit me to substitute the word
‘effects’ for the word ‘destruction,’ then I will say that the result
does depend upon the assumption so modified, and stands or falls
with it. And, moreover, I hold that assumption to be not only
justifiable, but next door to an axiom. If our estimate of relative

intensities were to be derived solely from the destruction of build- -

ings and chimneys by a force which in turn must be measured by
the maximum acceleration of the earth-particle in a horizontal plane,
our argument would indeed be in a pitiable plight. But we ought
not to be, and certainly are not, so limited. Other means of form-
ing an approximate estimate of relative intensity are abundant, even
where the destruction is little or nothing. Subject to local modifi-
cations, a great earthquake is bound to make itself felt somehow,
and in due proportion to its energy, whichever component, vertical
or horizontal, predominates. In the epicentral tract, brick build-
ings were few; but there were plenty of wooden ones, and plenty of
intelligent men to tell what had happened. The best but by no
means the only inanimate testimony was furnished by the railroads
which cross this tract. They were like continuous lines of seismom-
eters; and the men who repaired them had no difficulty in stating
where the road-beds were shaken up most, and where least, and
how the effects varied from mile to mile.

What Professor Mendenhall really challenges, I infer to be, not
the theory, but the competency of the data through which the theory
must be applied, if it can be applied. He appears to doubt the pos-
sibility of procuring such data; but it seems to me that he overesti-
mates the exactions. He sees, indeed, that the vanishing of the con-
stant a dispenses with the necessity of making any absolute evalua-
tion of a single intensity, or even of the successive ratios between
intensities. All that we require is to find, if possible, where these
intensities vary most rapidly along a line. It is analogous to trying
to locate, without the use of a level, the steepest point of a hill
whose profile is similar to our intensity curves. It cannot be done
exactly, but it can be done within moderate limits of error; and I
have not much doubt, that, when Professor Mendenhall sees the
data, he will concede as much. It was distinctly stated in the paper
that the method was believed to be incapable alike of great pre-
cision and of great errors.

But, though I cannot yield to his criticism on this point, I am still
greatly indebted to him for it. It is instructive in pointing out
sharply what treatment must be given to the data to enable readers
and investigators to judge of the validity of the method, and how
the facts must be marshalled.

He also dissents from our inference that there were some facts in
Charleston which seemed hard to explain upon the assumption of
amplitudes of the earth-particle less than ten inches toa foot. This
was suggested as a maximum confined to a few spots, while the
mean amplitude was presumed to be considerably less. Let us ex-
amine this point.

In all great earthquakes, those who have felt their violence near
the epicentrum have been impressed with, and testified to, an ap-
parently large amount of movement in the soil, —an amount to be
measured, so far as they could estimate, not by millimetres, but by

, ‘SCIENCE. i

inches, and sometimes even by feet. To verify these purely sensory
estimates was, of course, impossible ; but the circumstantial charac-
ter of the testimony seemed, in the absence of precise measurement,
to warrant the belief that the movements probably had about that
order of magnitude. When the seismograph was applied in Japan
to the measurement of the frequent but moderate shocks, and it
was found that an amplitude of a few millimetres would sometimes
crack walls and throw down chimneys, it was at once inferred that
the unmeasured estimates or guesses of the amplitude in the grander
shocks had been greatly exaggerated: for, the energy being pro-
portional to the square of the amplitude, it seemed needful to multi-
ply those already measured only a few times to obtain a destructive-
ness commensurate with that exhibited in the worst catastrophes.
There has been, therefore, a great change of opinion about these
large estimates among seismologists; but I think it can be shown
that such estimates are not necessarily invalidated by the seismo-
graph.

The intensity of a shock is not alone proportional to the square
of the amplitude, but also to the wave-velocity divided by the
wave-length. It is, I believe, a general fact that great amplitudes
of earthquake-waves are accompanied with great wave-lengths,
This does not follow from the accepted laws of wave-motion in
elastic solids, but is an independent fact, whose explanation must
go back to the nature of the originating impulses. Thus increasing
amplitude does not carry with it an increasing destructiveness in
so rapid a ratio as might at first be supposed. The displacement
is greater, but the time of displacement is longer. Again, the
amplitude diminishes as the wave moves on; at least as fast as,
and probably faster than, the distance from the origin increases.
Let us, then, endeavor to make a comparison, rough though it must
necessarily be, between the larger arnplitudes measured by the
seismograph, and those which may be inferred in localities shaken
by the Charleston earthquake with equal energy. I regard it as
improbable that the intensity of the most vigorous shocks measured
by the seismograph in Japan (so far as published) exceeded that at
Atlanta, Asheville, and Raleigh, all of which have been estimated
to exceed No. 7 in the Rossi Forel scale. If we take ten milli-
metres as the average amplitude of those places, we shall not ex-
ceed the higher ones recorded by the seismograph for shocks of
probably not greater intensity. The mean distance of these places
from the centrum is eleven and a half times as great as that of
Charleston. This would give an amplitude of about three inches
at the latter place, on the assumption that the wave-lengths were
equal to the Japanese, and that no energy was dissipated as the
waves moved on. The last assumption is certainly untrue, and,
whatever allowance may be made for it, must lead to a greater in-
ferred amplitude at Charleston. It does not seem to me that a mean
amplitude for the greater waves in that city, of three to four inches,
is too much, while local maxima may have been considerably
greater. The seismograph has not as yet tackled a first-class
earthquake in the vicinity of the central tract.

Although I am still disposed to adhere, either wholly or in part,
to most of the propositions advanced in the paper referred to, I
must still acknowledge the high value of Professor Mendenhall’s
criticism. It defines much more sharply the issues involved, and is

full of most useful suggestion. C. E. DUTTON.
Washington, June 23.

Cyanhydric Gas as an Insecticide.

AMONG the insect-enemies to plant-life, of which California has
received and is still receiving a full assortment from all parts of the
globe, the most formidable is the /cerya purchasz, a coccid which,
instead of the hard shield that protects most of its congeners the
scale-lice, surrounds its egg-masses with a woolly fur that in many
respects serves even as a more efficacious protection. It has until
recently been supposed to have come from Australia; but, accord-
ing to late researches of Professor Riley, it is to the Island of Mar-
tinique that we are indebted for this most pernicious insect. It
there infests the sugar-cane, and may readily have come in with
the canes often placed for drainage within the hogsheads of
raw sugar. Being apparently omnivorous, it has not been dis-
mayed by the absence or scarcity of its original plant - food.
Pine and cypress appear to be nearly as much to its taste as the

12 SCIENCE?

pungent Zucalyptus and the highly tannic acacias, the black locust,
and all kinds of fruit-trees and shrubs, including the Cz¢rus tribe:
when hard-pushed, it will even be content with grass and weeds
for a while. Being enormously prolific, and thus far apparently
free from any effective enemy but man, its spread is very rapid, and
its attack most formidable and quickly fatal, even to large trees.
It is very tenacious of life in all its stages of development. Its eggs,

stowed away in thick masses of white wool, are very difficult to kill,

as most insecticide-washes will rebound harmlessly by capillary
repulsion.

The most fatal work of the Zcerya has been done in the orange-
groves of Southern California, where even the most persistent fight
against it, with every variety of insecticide-washes, has only par-
tially checked its ravages, and has nowhere succeeded in extirpating
it entirely from an orchard, in consequence of the difficulty of reach-
ing effectively both surfaces of every leaf in the dense-topped ever-
green-trees. Even when the foliage, and therefore at least one
crop of fruit, has been sacrificed by the use of caustic alkaline
washes, success has not been complete.

The use of gaseous insecticides within a gas-tight tent lowered
over the trees, has long been suggested against this, as well as
other insects infesting evergreen-trees ; but experiments made, e.g.,
with vaporized carbon bisulphide, have not given satisfactory re-
sults in practice. Either the insects were not completely destroyed,
or the foliage was seriously harmed when the treatment was long
continued.

The repression of the /cerya having at last become a life-and-
death question for some of the older citrus-orchards, it was deter-
mined by some orchardists in the neighborhood of San Gabriel to
have the feasibility of gaseous insecticides thoroughly tested. At
their request, Mr. F. W. Morse, assistant in charge of the agricul-
tural laboratory at the University of California, was detailed for
this purpose; and the experiments made by him during nearly two
months have furnished some scientifically interesting results, while
demonstrating that cyanhydric gas can be made fully effective with-
out harm to the foliage, and that seven other gases tried were either
too slow in their action on the insect, or caused severe injury to the
foliage. These other gases were chlorine, sulphuretted hydrogen,
ammonia, carbon monoxide, oxalic and formic acids, and carbolic
acid. A summary statement of these experiments is given in Bulle-
tin No. 71 of the California Experiment-Station, just published.

Several interesting facts are thus brought out. One is, that ap-
parently no practically adequate insecticide effects are produced
when these effects depend upon the respiration of the gas by the
insect; the respiratory action being so very slow, as compared with
that of the higher animals, that anesthetic rather than toxic effects
are produced within the practically admissible limits of time:
while within these limits the foliage also suffers, as a rule.

Cyanhydric gas, acting directly upon the nervous system through
the nerve-ends, is quickly fatal, independently of respiration, and
even in very small amounts. It is slow in affecting the insects’
eggs inside of their woolly casings; but an effective insecticide dose
also acts very injuriously on the leaves of the trees.

To prevent the latter effect, intermixture with some other gas be-
side air suggested itself. Experiments with sulphuretted hydrogen
gave unfavorable results. This gas seemed to mitigate only the
action on the insects (by anesthesia). Complete success was, how-
ever, attained by the use of carbonic gas, evolved from sodic bicar-
bonate at the same time that the cyanhydric gas was evolved from
potassic cyanide. The insects were killed as promptly as when air
alone wa® present, but even a lengthy application did not affect the
foliage in the least. The minimum proportion of the bicarbonate
required for full protection was, for the case of a tree having a top
twelve feet in diameter covered by an air-tight tent, a pound and a
half, ten ounces of the cyanide being used at the same time.

It is not easy to conceive the exact cause of the protective action
of the carbonic-dioxide gas upon the leaves; but there can be no
question as to the fact, and it is hoped that further investigation will
throw light upon the problem. The board of supervisors of Los
Angeles County having requested a further elaboration of the de-
tails of the process by Mr. Morse, the latter will have full oppor-
tunity for testing the conditions and limits of the action of both
gases, and upon deciduous as well as citrus trees. The high value

(Vor. Hxs7 Nowa236

of the Jatter renders the process perfectly available for them, even
if, on account,of the later hatching of unscathed eggs, the operation
should have tu be repeated. Whether the same will hold good of
other orchard-trees, and whether their leaves will experience the
same adequate protection from the presence of carbonic gas, remain

to be seen. E. W. HILGARD.
University of California, June 13.

University of New Zealand.

I HAVE just received your issue for June 3, with the ‘ New Zealand
Letter’ therein, dated Dunedin, April 20. As the agent in London
of the University of New Zealand, permit me to supplement the
exceedingly inadequate account of that body given by your cor-
respondent. He states correctly that the university, like its proto-
type in London, does not teach; but he only hints at powers to
confer degrees, and says not a word about any examinations. As
a matter of fact, so anxious is its senate to make its degrees worth
having, that the whole of its degree-examinations are conducted by
English examiners, who are instructed that their standard of ex-
amination is to be at least as high as that of the University of
London, for corresponding degrees. At the present moment I am
seeing through the press no fewer than eighty-six degree-examina-
tion papers, set by fourteen examiners, all men of the highest
standing, and present or past examiners in either Oxford, Cam-
bridge, or London Universities. These papers will be worked in
New Zealand in November, and the answers transmitted to me.
After their revision by the examiners, a meeting of these gen-
tlemen will be held in London, and the results will be trans-
mitted to Wellington by cable. This has been going regularly
on for more than seven years, and there are now nearly one hun- -
dred candidates for degrees every year of both sexes. This, from
a total population of not exceeding half a million, speaks well for
the colony. The degrees conferred as yet are in arts, laws, and
science, but provision is made for degrees in medicine and in
music.

The examinations are, I believe, held in different towns in the
colony simultaneously. The ‘ peripatetic annual session’ of which
your correspondent speaks, is simply the annual meeting of the
university senate. Its members are scattered over a very large
area (travelling-facilities are not great), and hence the senate
usually does all its work for the year at one sitting, which lasts for

several days. WM. LANT CARPENTER.
London, June 13.

The Maxillo-Palatines of Tachycineta.

IF Dr. Shufeldt will consult my note in Sczemce for May 13, he
will find that neither the accuracy of his figure, nor the entirety of
the specimen from which it was drawn, is there called in question.
It is evident, to one acquainted with the palatal region as it is found
in the swallows, that Dr. Shufeldt’s figure represents a skull with
mutilated or abnormal maxillo-palatines, in either case not perfect.

Since Dr. Shufeldt says his specimen is not broken, it must be ab-

normal. The extent and importance of the alterations Dr. Shufeldt

charges me with having made in hastily tracing this figure, can best

be understood by comparing the tracing (Fig. 1) with a reproduc-

tion of the original (Fig. 2). Fig. 3 shows the maxillo-palatines —

approximately correct. FREDERIC A. LUCAS.
Washington, D.C., June rs.

SOE NCE

FRIDAY, JULY 8, 1887.

IN THE LEADING civilized countries in which a decimal system
of weights and measures is not in vogue, there are considerable
bodies of men urging the adoption of at least a decimal coinage.
From time to time attacks are made on the time-honored and in-
convenient pounds-shillings-and-pence system in which English
trade is carried on, but thus far conservatism has proven too mighty
even for convenience. It is nevertheless true, that, each time the
agitation for a decimal system is begun in Great Britain, it obtains
larger support than before, though the opposition to it loses nothing
in vehemence. Within a few weeks an influential deputation has
waited on the chancellor of the exchequer to urge his advocacy of a
decimal coinage. The deputation represented sixty-eight provincial
chambers of commerce, all of which, out of a total of sixty-nine,
have passed resolutions in favor of a change to a decimal system,
The deputation urged the change on five grounds: first, because
every foreign country in the world possessed a decimal currency,
and some of the British possessions (Canada, Ceylon, and Mauri-
tius); second, because no country which had once adopted the
decimal system of currency had retraced its step; third, be-
cause the mathematical education in the schools would be simpli-
fied by the use of the decimal system for measuring values, and
consequently the period necessary for education in the elementary
schools would be shortened; fourth, because experience proved
that in business-houses in decimal-using countries considerable
time was saved in calculations both for home and foreign business,
while transactions between countries using the decimal system were
rendered uniform, and an economy of labor therefore resulted ; and,
fifth, because the British currency might be placed upon a decimal
basis with a minimum of change by decimalizing the pound sterling.
It is proposed to decimalize the pound sterling by making it
equal to 1,000 mills, the mill to be the unit of the system. Then
the half-sovereign would equal 500 mills ; the crown, 250 mills; the
double florin, 200 mills; the half-crown, 125 mills; the florin, 100
mills; the shilling, 50 mills; and the sixpence, 25 mills. Three
new coins would be necessary, —a dime, equal to ten mills; a half-
dime ; and a new farthing, equal to one mill. Various speakers en-
larged on these arguments. Mr. Goschen, in reply, acknowledged
the importance of the subject and the authority of the delegation,
but he could give no promise of government action, because a reform
of so far-reaching a nature depends for its success on a practical
unanimity of popular sentiment; and that, Mr. Goschen thought, is
far from having been reached at present. He closed by encour-
aging the deputation to go on with their propaganda, and endeavor to
unite public sentiment in favor of the change. If that were done,
he felt sure the necessary legislation would follow.

IT IS THE PRIVILEGE of the philosopher, at least of such a one
as bases his right to that title on the practical comprehensiveness of
the study of his choice, to have an important word on those general
problems of civilization most intimately connected with human de-
velopment. And it is the privilege of our age to emphasize the
truth that every intellectual worker is to a greater or less extent a
philosopher in his own domain. It is not a coincidence, but a
deeply significant fact, that the ‘new education,’ the ‘new political
economy,’ the ‘new psychology,’ the ‘new biology,’ and the rest, are
all claiming attention at the same time. It is the expression of the
‘consciousness of the changed conditions of modern life. A most

alarming symptom of this change is the increasing frequency of
mental ‘breakdown,’ caused by a failure to adapt one’s self to the
changed environment. For the use of the mental powers, we now
substitute their abuse. The business-man is worried into insanity,
the student hurried into unhealthy precocity, and the woman forced
into an imprudent competition with man. One of the earliest cries
of warning to the most restless of all nations, the Americans, was
raised by Dr. S. Weir Mitchell, in a paper entitled ‘ Wear and Tear,’
which has just reached a fifth edition as a separate publication. In
the period since its first appearance, this sermon has been preached
by educators, political economists, and psychologists, as well as by
the family physician, and to some extent has been listened to.
Practical men are so apt to think that the studies of the theoreti-
cal scientists are more or less the pursuit of useless hobbies, that
the opportunity of so glaringly showing the essential importance to
them of theoretical science should not be neglected. To be able to
express physiologically and psychologically such doctrines as are sug-
gested by the practical experience of thoughtful men, endows these
principles with the authority of natural laws, and sanctions their
introduction into the elementary education of the next generation.
It makes science out of opinion. The cause which Dr. Mitchell
pleads under the above terse heading is well known to-day. It is
simply the problem of obtaining a maximum of work with a mini-
mum of oyerwork; a brisk and healthy wear without a rushing and
wasteful tear. And it is because this problem is so largely the
problem of a rational education founded upon a scientific psychol-
ogy, that it merits notice in this column. With the successful solu-
tion of this problem, — and all this applies with increased force to our
country, — the new education, the new political economy, the new
psychology, and the new biology will all have succeeded together.

THE INCREASE OF STATE INTERFERENCE IN THE
UNITED STATES. — II.

As to the States of Rhode Island and Connecticut, our informa-
tion is fairly full and accurate, though showing a curiously divergent
condition of things in two adjoining States. The secretary of state
for Rhode Island finds, as the result of nearly twenty years’ ex-
perience in connection with the legislation of the State, the ten-
dency has rather been away from than toward interference with
personal concerns. Numerous matters of that nature which for-
merly occupied the attention of the Assembly have now ceased to
have attention, the jurisdiction of the courts having been enlarged
so as to cover such matters. The Legislature has further estab-
lished a joint rule to the effect that ‘neither House shall entertain
any petition the subject of which is within the jurisdiction of any
court in the State.” Rhode Island, owing to a peculiar constitu-
tional provision, has no general act of incorporation, and every
charter is a special act of the Legislature. In granting these char-
ters, much of the time of the Assembly is occupied. :

From Connecticut Professors Hadley and Farnam of, Yale agree
in pointing out the Sunday traffic (railroad) law, tue law limiting
the hours of employment for women in stores and factories, the law
prohibiting child-labor under thirteen years of age, the law making
weekly payments compulsory, and the laws providing for the in-
spection of certain classes of business, as the latest particulars in
which State interference is being manifested. Mr. A. Hills of
Bridgeport finds that Connecticut legislation is showing “an in-
creasing tendency to interfere between employers and employed,
and generally to regulate matters which individuals ought to be
left to arrange between themselves.” Mr. Morris F. Tyler is of
similar opinion. He writes, “It may be said that legislation in
Connecticut shows that in almost all the relations of life the meddle-

14 SLE IN Cie:

some legislator has thought of touching. We do not regulate the
price that a man shall pay for his food and clothing, but we do say
what kind of food and clothing can be sold to him, and under what
conditions. In looking over the statutes of the session just closed,
I see that it will no longer be safe for a man to send his children to
a private school unless that school complies with some of the
technical regulations of the State Board of Education in the matter
of returns to their secretary; that a man cannot sell the securities
of foreign trust and investment companies in this State unless those
companies have submitted to certain examinations by our bank
commissioners. Butter and molasses are under the protecting care
of the dairy commissioner. Nobody can negotiate the insurance of
his neighbor without a license to do so from the insurance com-
missioner. A man cannot travel on a railroad-train on Sunday,
and have the benefit of his commutation or mileage ticket. If, in
case of illness in my family, I find there is no brandy in the house,
and it is wanted at once, it is illegal for my grocer to give it to my
boy if I send him for it ina hurry. If I run a factory, it must be
run as the newly appointed inspector of factories says is right, and
not as the business may compel me.”

The data from New York State which has reached us, while
plentiful, is not very specific. The large majority of our corre-
spondents in that State coincide in stating that State interference is
on the increase. Assemblyman Emest H. Crosby of New York City
writes that interference has lately been shown in the appointment
of such officials as railroad commissioners, factory inspectors, com-
missioners of arbitration, and so forth, and in acts regulating the
price of gas, limiting the hours of labor on street-railways, etc.
Mr. Herbert L. Osgood of Brooklyn refers to the Mechanics’ Lien
Act of 1885 as an interference with the freedom of contract. He
mentions also an act compelling employers to erect proper scaffold-
ings for those at work upon buildings, an act regulating the height
of dwellings in New York City, acts relating to the manufacture
and sale of oleomargarine, the sale of butter, the slaughter of cattle,
etc. The State expends about twenty-eight thousand dollars a
year in subsidizing agricultural societies.

With respect to State interference in New Jersey, we are in pos-
session of extremely full returns, for the most valuable portions of
which we are under obligations to Mr. William I. Lewis of Pater-
son. Mr. Lewis finds as the result of a careful examination of the
legislation since 1878, — to and including the session of 1886, —
that about two-sevenths of the laws show a marked tendency
toward interference with personal affairs, and about one-seventh
additional show a slight tendency in that direction. In the period
mentioned above, 2,016 laws have been enacted, and 414 of them
are for the purpose of controlling or regulating private and personal
affairs or business. Of these 414 laws, seven provide for agricul-
tural experiments ; two protect bottlers of beer by establishing a
peculiar procedure, and inflicting peculiar penalties on persons who
steal bottles or unlawfully have them in their possession; fourteen
regulate the sale of butter and milk; one directs how cows shall
not be fed; eight are designed to protect children by regulating
their employment and education; two to encourage organizations
of workingmen ; one establishes standard packages for cranberries ;
one provides for the construction of proper waste-gates in dams;
four are in aid of deaf-mutes ; three regulate the manufacture and
sale of fertilizers ; two offer bounties for the production of jute,
flax, and hemp; fifty-seven are for the protection of game and
fish ; thirty-six are for the protection of health; two deal with the
cutting and sale of ice; twenty-seven regulate the business of in-
surance ; ten establish and encourage a bureau of labor statistics ;
seven aim to improve meadow and swamp lands; three deal with
pilots and their apprentices ; six incorporate rifle societies, and en-
courage marksmanship ; seventy-seven concern education ; twelve
provide for the maintenance of an industrial school for girls; four
are for the better securing of wages to workingmen ; and six con-
cern the relief, protection, etc., of workingmen.

This exhibit of Mr. Lewis’s exemplifies excellently the tenor of
legislation in New Jersey. We could wish that we had as accurate
an analysis of the laws elsewhere ; but it will be seen that there is
general concensus of opinion among our correspondents to the ef-
fect that the tendency toward State interference is not confined to
any one State or group of States.

[Vour. X. No. 231

Prof. E. J. James of Philadelphia writes that “the course of legis-
lation in Pennsylvania is very similar to that in Minnesota;” and
Professor Holmes of the University of Virginia mentions local op-
tion, railroad supervision, the multiplicity and inquisitorial charac-
ter of the taxes, civil marriages, and the drummers’ tax law (re-
cently declared unconstitutional) as recent evidences of a similar
development of legislative activity.

Our most definite reply from the south-western States comes
from Hon. Logan H. Roots, president of the board of trustees of
St. John’s College, Little Rock, Ark. Mr. Roots says that “a ten-
dency upon the part of the indolent to ascribe their poverty to hon-
esty, and the prosperity of the industrious to dishonesty, seems to
have seized the ignorant; and the legislators pandering to that
tendency have many of them acted on the theory that any thing or
person that prospered was fer se a ‘fraud’ which must be regu-
lated, The special ‘frauds to be regulated ’ in the eyes of our re-
cent Legislature were money-lenders, telephones, railroads, and
cottonseed-oil mills, with some attention given to prices at which
merchants might transact business.”’

Of the central-western States, Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois are fol-
lowing the same road that we find to be so popular elsewhere.
Ohio has a board of stock commissioners with absolute power to
regulate the trade in live-stock and all importations, dairy commis-
sioners, and special laws to govern the sale of farm-products, laws
prohibiting the sale of liquor in certain places, and so on through a
long list.

Illinois is overrun with such laws, and Mr. Edward J. Cahill of
Chicago sends us a long list of them. Since 1871, Illinois has
been in the grain-weighing business: it designates elevators for
the storage of grain, and regulates its transportation by railroad.
Mills and millers are carefully looked after, including the manner of
grinding, the character of the buildings and tools used, etc. A
bounty of ten dollars an acreis at the disposal of those who will
plant forest-trees. Fence-laws appoint fence-viewers, who see that
all fences are four and a half feet high, and that proper materials
are used. A State board of agriculture, with a corps of salaried
officials, promotes agriculture and horticulture. This board spent
thirty-six thousand dollars in 1885, and is authorized to bestow five
thousand dollars annually in premiums at fairs and stock-shows.
The Bureau of Statistics, organized in 1879, has become a depart-
ment of state, and presents annual reports on the social, educa-
tional, and sanitary condition of the laboring-classes. Game-laws
are numerous. The manufacture of butter and cheese is regulated :
five hundred dollars goes every year to assist dairymen in making
reports. [Illinois offered ten thousand dollars to the citizens who
had exhibits at the New Orleans exhibition; it also pays from fifty
thousand to one hundred thousand dollars to assist cities which,
through the negligence of their officials, fail to take proper precau-
tions against damage and loss by fire and water. Mr. Cahill also
points out what the effect of the passage of such bills has been on
subsequent Legislatures. In the session of 1887, for instance,
about eight hundred bills were presented to the Legislature, and
fully three-fourths of them had a tendency toward State interfer-
ence. “ We have bills seeking to regulate contracts between em-
ployer and employee, providing for the giving to each party a given
number of days’ notice to quit or intention to quit, calling for
mutual co-operative associations for pecuniary profit, to increase
the power of the department of labor, to provide for arbitration of
labor-troubles, to grant additional labor-liens, to enforce the eight-
hour movement, and to encourage mutual loan associations on the
co-operative plan. The effect of State interference with profes-
sions and other business interests has created new demands: the
architect petitions for a special board ; the stenographer demands
recognition; and in due course we shall have the merchant-tailor
and the corner grocer, for already we have the liquor interest ask-
ing for a State board to pass on ‘good whiskey;’ and the pro-
hibitionist asks for a bureau for the study of the nature and effect
of alcoholic beverages, etc.; while the ‘mugwump’ of religion is
on hand, seeking recognition by way of ‘ ethical instruction ’ in our
public schools ; and, to crown the ridiculous, we have the Live-
Stock Board, just created, asking ‘that companies be formed for
the detection and apprehension of horse-thieves;’ thus making a
farce of our criminal procedure.”

Juty 8, 1887.]

Prof. Henry C. Adams writes that in Michigan the tendency
is in harmony with that observed by Dr. Shaw in Minnesota.

President Pickard of Iowa State University finds the most strik-
ing feature in the recent legislation of Iowa to be the number of
legalizing acts passed. He says that twenty-five per cent of all
acts passed were designed to correct carelessness or ignorance of
officers and municipal corporations ; but Prof. Jesse Macy of Iowa
College says that Iowa is side by side with Minnesota, and cites in
evidence a number of acts passed at the last session of the Legis-
lature. The Legislature passed laws strengthening the prohibitory
liquor legislation, it made elaborate statutes regulating the practice
of pharmacy and medicine, it looked after the miners’ interests
through a commission, it provided an arbitration board for the
settlement of labor-difficulties, it laid new duties on the board of
health concerning canned goods and inflammable oils, and passed
a large number of laws of the same general tenor.

Ex.-Pres. A. L. Chapin of Beloit College, Wisconsin, thinks that
State interference has not gone so far in that State as in Minnesota,
though it is plainly seen in numerous enactments.

Mr. Frank R. Morrissey of the Omaha Hera/d represents Ne-
braska in our correspondence, and finds a marked tendency to
sumptuary legislation in his State.

From the Pacific coast we hear of this tendency, though in Cali-
fornia the new State constitution seems to have repressed it toa
great extent. Mr. A. H. Agard of Oakland writes that proposed
legislation in California manifests the tendency in question; but
little progress is made, because the Legislature is restrained by the
provisions of the State constitution, which forbids the enactment of
laws termed ‘special.’ The effort on the part of the Legislature is
to frame laws of such a character that they will operate restrictively,
and yet not be declared unconstitutional by the Supreme Court. It
might be termed ‘forbidden legislation by adroit evasion.’ The
particular manifestations of interference just now are against the
Chinese, against ‘monopolies,’ hydraulic mining, and the retail
liquor-trade.

It will thus be seen, from this brief summary of the evidence we
have gathered, that State interference has a tendency in general
throughout the United States. It is more extreme in some States
than others ; and our analysis of the laws of Massachusetts, New
Jersey, and Illinois, shows it to be particularly progressive in those
States. It remains to present the various opinions entertained
toward State interference by our representative correspondents.

[To be continued.]

THE NEW ROUTE FROM ENGLAND TO EASTERN
ASIA, AND THE HUDSON BAY ROUTE.

A FEW weeks ago the first steamer coming from Yokohama
arrived at Vancouver. Thus the new line from England to eastern
Asia by way of the Canadian Pacific Railroad has been opened.
In order to show the merits of this route as compared to the Ameri-
can Pacific railroads, we have drawn up the accompanying sketch-
map. We have chosen the gnomonic projection, as it is the best
means to show the shortest route between two points. The earth’s
surface is projected from the centre of the globe upon a tangential
plain touching it in latitude 60° north and longitude 1209 west. In
this projection all great circles, i.e., the shortest lines between two
points, are represented by straight lines. The map extends from
England in the east to Yokohama in the west. It makes it clear
why the North-west and North-east Passages were so eagerly sought
for. They are the nearest to the great circle between England and
‘China, which runs right through the Polar Basin. The nearer a
route approaches this great circle, the shorter it is. Therefore it
will be seen that the distance from London to Yokohama, wza the
Canadian Pacific Railroad, would be by far the shortest. There
are several facts, however, which detract from the value of this
route. We have drawn out the great circle between London and
New York. It will beseen that itcrosses Newfoundland. Yet ships
do not keep close to the southern point of that island, on account
of the numerous dangers obstructing their passage, but prefer to
go a round-about way, keeping far south. The same difficulty is
encountered in approaching Halifax; and therefore the longer route
to New York is by far to be preferred to the shorter one to Nova

SCIENCE. 15

Scotia, particularly in the latter part of the winter and in spring,
when ice is met with in the Atlantic Ocean. The Gulf of St.
Lawrence is not navigable during part of the year on account of
the heavy masses of ice. Thus the shortness of the route from
England to Nova Scotia is more than counterbalanced by the dan-
gers of navigation.

But even from New York the Canada route to Japan is far shorter
than that by way of San Francisco. The difference in length be-
tween the great circle San Francisco-Yokohama and Vancouver—
Yokohama may be seen on the sketch-map. It must be considered,
however, that the latter cannot be made use of, as it crosses Alaska
and the Aleutian Islands. Steamers must keep farther south, and
must strike the San Francisco route near the longitude of the west
point of Alaska Peninsula. This makes the distance from Vancou-
ver to Yokohama somewhat longer than it would be without this
chain of islands intervening. The distance from New York to
Puget Sound by way of the Northern Pacific Railroad is longer
than by the Canadian Road, as Lake Michigan extends so far
south; but when the road from Umatilla Junction to Tacoma is
finished, the difference in the two distances will not be very great.
The sea-route from Tacoma to Yokohama is of course essentially
the same as that from Vancouver. The great circle between these
places and the ports of China runs nearly through the Tsugaru
Strait, passing Hakodadi.

When the work on the Canadian Road is completed, it will
probably be not more frequently obstructed by snow-drifts than the
Northern Pacific, but the difference in distance between these two
lines is not so great as to exclude a successful competition.

The harbor of Vancouver is Burrard Inlet. It is sheltered from
the sea, but the entrance is somewhat difficult, being very narrow
and occupied by tide-races. The shortest route from the port
would lead through the narrow channels between Vancouver Island
and the mainland, in which navigation is difficult on account of the
strong tides and numerous rocks.

The shortest route from the ports of the Atlantic coast to Japan
and China would lie even farther north than the Canadian Pacific
Railroad; and if the Saskatchewan branch should be built, and
continued to the northern part of the coast of British Columbia, the
distance would be still more diminished. We do not believe that
the climate would offer insurmountable difficulties, but the settle-
ment of these countries will not be so rapid as to justify the con-
struction of a new Pacific railroad.

The railroad question is of the greatest importance for the de-
velopment of the North-west Territories, — Athabasca, Alberta,
Saskatchewan, Assiniboia, and Manitoba. The distance to the
nearest ports is so long that export is very difficult: therefore en-
deavors have been made to open a new route by making use of
Hudson Bay. It will be seen on our map that the proposed Hud-
son Bay route from Liverpool to Port Nelson is very short and
straight, and that it would offer a splendid opportunity for the
export of the North-west Territories. We believe, however, that
the character of the seas will prevent the plan being carried out.
The railroad-route from Winnipeg to Port Nelson has been sur-
veyed, and no serious obstacles are said to exist; but the railroad
must be continued farther north to Fort Churchill, as Port Nelson
is not a safe harbor. The navigation of the west coast of Hudson
Bay, particularly for large vessels, is very difficult on account of its
shallowness, and the construction of piers in Fort Churchill will be
expensive and difficult on account of the ice.

The principal difficulty is the navigation of Hudson Strait. Its
eastern entrance is blocked by pack-ice until the middle of July.
A passage may sometimes be forced early in June by a ship well
strengthened against the pressure of the ice, but navigation cannot
be opened until about the roth of July. About this time, ice is
still whirling around in Ungava Bay, patches are found near Charles
Island, and Fox Basin is filled with very heavy and dangerous
masses of ice. We believe that these form the principal obstacles
to navigation. The light ice of Hudson Bay and Hudson Strait
will not form serious obstacles late in the season; but a spell of
northerly winds will invariably drive the heavy masses of Fox
Basin into the Strait, and a ship caught in this ice will be in an ex-
tremely dangerous position. The floes are small, and attain a
thickness of from twenty to thirty feet. This ice frequently blocks

16

S@lLE MG:

[Vou. X. No.

SKETCH-MAP SHOWING SHORTEST ROUTES FROM THE UNITED STATES TO EASTERN ASIA,

231

(This map is so projected that a straight line shows the shortest distance between two points.)

Juty 8, 1887.]

up the passages between the islands at the western entrance of
Hudson Strait, where it is kept in rapid motion by strong currents.
Log-books kept by whalers show that it is frequently found in
Hudson Strait in September. We should say that the passage will
never be safe, and that large freight-steamers, such as would be
required for this trade, cannot be run longer than from the middle
of July to the first days of October. It is improbable that under
such circumstances a railroad to Fort Churchill and a line to Hud-
son Bay would pay. The shortness of the season and the dangers
of the ice are so great, that this line cannot attain a great com-
mercial value.

THINKING IN SHAPE AND PICTORIAL TEACHING.

THE Rev. Edward Thring of Uppingham, the well-known author
of ‘ Theory and Practice of Teaching,’ spoke before the teachers’
guild in London recently on thinking in shape and pictorial teach-
ing. Mr. Thring began by drawing attention to the vital distinc-
tion which divides mankind, consciously or unconsciously, into two
classes, — those who value knowledge, and those who value the
seeing heart and the seeing eye. The pursuit of knowledge is the
creed of the first. Knowledge he defined to be for the multitude
second-hand information, which, however valuable, may, like gold
in the desert, be utterly useless. He then showed, that, precious or
not, few get it, and that the unsuccessful attempt to get it is deadly
to living power. Living power is required, and can only be given
by teaching pupils to think in shape; that is, to train the mind,
whenever it sees any thing, to find out at once what thought made
the shape it sees; and, on the other hand, to take every word used
and put it at once into some definite shape, example, or reality.
Examples of this were given, showing the difference between an
arithmetical fact and living feeling, between words and memory and
a vivid mental picture. Then the lecturer proceeded to show that
every word not vividly understood is a cipher, and that words are
not vividly known, and never can be vividly known, unless thinking
in shape is taught and practised. After showing the failure of
memory-work, the lecturer pointed out that the commonest objects
cannot be described correctly, because no one has been taught to
see what they really are. A common chair can be made to givea
history of thought and life and experience taking shape, and to lead
up to the great fact that every shape is such a history, a living nar-
rative, and the whole world a great illuminated volume of thought,
speaking through shape which can be read by those who have
learned to read thought in shape. But if this is so, then all shape
is a language speaking truth or falsehood, giving honor or dishonor.
And it does matter whether rooms and appliances are worthy or
unworthy. How, then, has England treated lessons? Let the
class-rooms in all their meanness answer. Then what class-rooms
ought to be was shown, and examples brought forward of pictorial
teaching. The way in which walls can be decorated without the
painter going near the wall was explained, and designs for wall-
decoration given. The treatment of books, and what is needed for
books, next claimed attention. Then the effect on language of
thinking in shape was dealt with, and the true progress of art by
expression ever becoming more vivid in word and painting.

“Thinking in shape and pictorial teaching at once turn all created
things into new language forthought. Every created thing becomes,
on the spot, a possible new bit of thought, a possible new word born
into the world of speech. I throw out, as a suggestion for any
master of language, as distinct froma doctorer of words, to examine
into the curious fact, that in the last eighty years the English language
has in this way doubled itself, by flashing new light into old words,
by new combinations of words, by freer use of allusions and meta-
phors, and by pictorial handling of its material; and that it is prac-
tically a new language, in its wonderful increase in power of
expression, and the breathing of new life into its shape. For ex-
pression goes on forever, as higher life produces higher manifesta-
tion of life, feelings, and thought, in human face and form, and
again becomes able, by being higher, more sensitive, more sympa-
thizing, not only to see and interpret the new shapes, but to find
endless riches of unknown stores of precious discoveries in the old.
This is the only true path of progress.

“ The pictorial mind first pictures to itself all its own ideas, and

SCIENCE. va

thinks in shape; and, secondly, is ever extracting ideas, new and
old, out of the things it sees, picturing to itself all the words it uses,
translating and retranslating thought into shape and shape into
thought, till all things live and move for it in a universe that is living
thought incarnate. The lesson-book is always before it. In city or
desert, church or hovel, street or field, with flower, or tree, or cloud,
or sun, or animal, or bird, or insect, from end to end of all things,
there is the everlasting voice crying, ‘He that hath ears to hear let
him hear, he that hath eyes to see let him see, for life infinite, lan-
guage universal, lies at your feet for pleasure and use always.’ The
pictorial mind is the only power man has that is capable of infinite
progress. It is the only power that belongs to all men. It is the
only power that is within reach of the poor. It can be taught. It
can almost be created.

“As the world goes on and knowledge increases, it will be more
and more impossible to know it all,a thing which was once quite
within reach. Every man, however learned, will be narrowed by
degrees down to a single subject. But subjects are many. There
are a thousand languages, for instance; to know how to speak even
half a dozen really well is an achievement ; and so on, through the
whole range of knowledge. How can any one man cope with this
accumulation of facts? Boasts of knowledge, therefore, belong to
the nursery level, betokening stupendous ignorance of man’s capacity
for knowing, and of what there is to know. Let us get out of the
nursery and betake ourselves to true progress, and men as they are.”

But “as long as examinations reign, there can be no true teach-
ing,” said Mr. Thring, “‘ and thinking in shape and pictorial teaching
find no place.”

MENTAL SCIENCE.
Can the Mind attend to Two Things at Once?

THIS question has been frequently asked, and variously answered,
according to the conception of ‘attention’ and of the objects to be
attended to. Those who lay stress on the unity of mind regard it
as almost evident @ Zrzorz, that but one concept can occupy the
focus of attention at a time, and that, if apparently many are enter-
tained by consciousness at the same moment, it is simply because
of the rapidity with which the attention can flit from one to the
other. The holders of the opposite view call attention to the fact
that in the quickest possible glance, in the flash of an electric spark,
we get a view of an object, capable of being analyzed into a series
of concepts, and that we saw every one of these as well as any
other. A French psychologist, M. Paulhan, has recently stated
the problem in its proper aspect, and illustrated the position he
takes by some very interesting experiments. What is at one time
the sole object of attention, completely filling the field of conscious-
ness, May at another be only a small part of that field. Attention,
like the lens of the eye, is now accommodated to act as an instru-
ment of near focus, high magnification, but limited aperture, and
again as one of distant focus, small magnifying-power, but wide
range. At one time we see the rider and the horse as a single ob-
ject; at another they areiwo. Admitting, then, that the object of
attention is determined by a subjective element, by interest, by im-
portance, by attractiveness, or what not, it remains to similarly de-
termine the meaning of ‘attention.’ Just as memory is, from one
point of view, not a single faculty, but a co-ordinated set of sepa-
rate, individual memories, so attention is capable of various degrees
of intensity, of various subdivisions of function. There are currents
and undercurrents of attention. The eye may be intently engaged in
looking for a friend, while the ear is drinking in the notes of a sym-
phony, and we are suddenly conscious of a draught in the room.
Whether or not there is a loss of energy between these occupations
is to be determined by experiment.

M. Paulhan wrote the lines of one poem while reciting the words
of another. The two series would sometimes get confused, a
word, syllable, or prominent letter of the recited verse creeping
into the written; but such mistakes soon became rare. The two
series are largely strung on separate strings, and proceed in parallel
directions. To repeat one poem aloud, and mentally go over the
words of another, caused greater confusion.

If we compare the sum of the times necessary to perform each
act separately with the time necessary to perform the two together,

18 SCIEINGE:

we arrive at the law that the simpler the operations (especially in
widely disparate senses), the more time is gained in performing
them simultaneously, there being a loss of time in doing complex
acts at the same moment.

To multiply on paper 7,897,654,987,896,687,786 by 7 took
M. Paulhan 62 seconds; to recite 25 lines of 12 feet each, 38 sec-
onds; the sum of which is 100 seconds. To do both together re-
quired 98 seconds, so that this is about the complexity at which
there is neither gain nor loss. Here is a simpler pair of processes:
to write out the product of 1.321,242,131,221,241,211 by 2 re-
quired but 11 seconds; to recite a certain couplet, 7 seconds; to do
both at once, only 12 seconds, —a saving of 6 seconds in 18. The
maximum of saving occurs when it takes no longer to do two acts
than one; then certainly the two are done at once. This occurred
when 421,312,217 was multiplied by 2 while 4 lines of 12 feet each
were spoken; each of the processes consuming 6 seconds sepa-
rately, and no more when performed together.

If the two processes are closely similar, and probably calling
into action intimately connected brain-centres, there is a more de-
cided loss. To write out the product of 33,213,442,124,343 by 2
with the left hand while the right does the same for 12,321,443,-
432,123 by 2, showed a loss of 15 seconds in 38. The right did
the multiplication almost twice as rapidly as the left hand.

The following times illustrate the same principle: to write four
verses of ‘Alholie’ required 22 seconds; to recite eleven verses
from de Musset required 31 seconds; to do both at once, only 40
seconds.

The sum of the times necessary to read a selection aloud and to
mentally repeat another selection was 33 seconds, while to do both
simultaneously required as much as 38 seconds.

An attempt was made to have three series of mental operations
go on side by side; to have the left hand writing the numbers 1, 2,
3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, while the right wrote a verse, and the vocal ap-
paratus recited some lines of poetry. This is a very difficult
matter: the two hands tended to work intermittently, and there
was much evident hesitation, friction, and loss ef time.

We see, then, that the brain-centres, though closely co-ordi-
nated, can so thoroughly acquire the habit of doing their more
simple functions that it requires but a small portion of the attention
to guide their action, while the rest can be given to the activities of
another centre. The more unlike in function the other centre, the
better can this subdivision take place. But when the act is com-
plex, it soon requires the total amount of attention at command;
and to attempt to do any thing else is a loss of energy. That in-
dividuals differ largely in their powers to perform such ‘double
acts ‘ goes almost without saying.

ARTICULATED AND SIGN LANGUAGE. — When we wonder at
the rapidity with which deaf-mutes spell out their words on their
fingers, we are apt to feel that this invention has really diminished
the disadvantages of this class of persons almost to a minimum.
That such is not the case is vividly suggested by the statistics
which a teacher of the deaf-mute has had the patience to gather.
He has counted the average number of words which a pupil in his
school wrote or spelled on the fingers per day, and finds it to be
1,118: the teacher similarly employs 216, but uses signs equiva-
lent to 861 words daily. It has been estimated that a mother
talks 27,000 words to herchild in a day. Making due allowance for
the habit of forming only parts of sentences which the deaf-mutes
cultivate, and also for the suggestiveness of the sign-language
(which hearing people really also use in the form of an expressional
accompaniment), the comparative meagreness of the deaf-mute’s
conversation, and slowness with which his mental food can be
brought to him, are plainly evident.

BOOK-REVIEWS.

The Ruling Principle of Method applied to Education. By
ANTONIO ROSMINI SERBATI. Tr. by Mrs. WILLIAM GREY.
Boston, Heath. 8°.

OuR English educational literature has had no richer contribu-
tion than this translation of Rosmini by Mrs. Grey. It is at once
philosophical, scientific, and practical. Rosmini himself is too little

[Vor. X. No. 231

known in this country ; and it was our intention, in noticing this
book, to give some slight idea of his life and thought in so far as
they moulded educational doctrine. But in this we have been
anticipated by Mr. H. C. Bowen, late principal of Finsbury Training-
College. As Mr. Bowen's sketch is inaccessible to American readers,
we feel that we are doing them a service in reproducing most of it.
Mr. Bowen calls Rosmini ‘the Italian Froebel.’

Antonio Rosmini Serbati was born at Rovereto, in the Italian
Tyrol, in 1797. He died at Stresa in 1855. When it is added that
he keenly felt and took an active part in the events of his time,
these dates above will suffice to show us that his life is worthy of
attention, and was not without its trials and exciting episodes.

It was towards the close of 1839 that Rosmini, who had already
more than once published the results of his study of psychology,
undertook his work on pedagogy. It appears that a pious and
generous lady of Stresa, Anna Maria Bolongaro, had offered to in-
trust to the Institute of the Brethren of Charity (the order founded
by Rosmini) the management of an elementary school which her
grandfather had founded in that place. The offer was accepted,
and Rosmini set to work to compose a complete treatise on peda-
gogy. ‘The Ruling Principle of Method applied to Education’ is
that part of it which he accomplished, and it carries us very nearly
to the end of the kindergarten age. To quote from Francesco
Paoli’s preface to the original edition, “‘Rosmini based his treatise
directly upon anthropology and psychology, which give us the
knowledge of the human faculties which we are to educate, and
their modes of action; on idealogy and ethics, which point out the
objects, both proximate and ideal, by which the human faculties
must be stimulated in order to be properly educated; and on on-
tology and theology, which provide the knowledge of the ends
towards which the human faculties should harmoniously develop, to
find in them rest and full satisfaction, which is the ultimate goal of
human education.” Rosmini divides life, not into periods of years,
but into stages or degrees of cognition, —the successive acts of the
understanding (zz¢el/ezzonz) through which the human mind ad-
vances in the development of its powers. The first period extends
up to the first smile (roughly, a period of about six weeks), and pos-
sesses no definite cognitions, except the primary and fundamental
cognition or intuition of being (the innate assurance that something
is). It possesses also what Rosmini calls the ‘fundamental feel-
ing, or that generally diffused feeling of our own bodies which,
though it is not as yet attended to, constitutes us sentient beings.
The cognitions of the second period, which extends up to the first
articulate word (roughly, till the end of the first year), consist of the
simple perception of things as subsisting, with corresponding voli-
tions, termed by Rosmini ‘affective’ or ‘instinctive, which have
these things for their object. Speech is the sign that the child has
entered upon the third period of life, or the second order of cogni-
tions, this order being formed by the child’s analyzing the cognitions
of the first order, and by his abstracting the more interesting, sensi-
ble qualities of things from the ideas of these things in his mind
(imaginal ideas); and to these correspond the affective volitions,
which have for their object these more interesting qualities ab-
stracted from the actual things, and marked off from the things’
other qualities, to which the appetitive faculty is at present indif-
ferent. The third order of cognitions shows itself when the child
begins to learn to read, say, at the end of the third year. We have
now the exercise of the judging faculty, which has become able to
connect by synthesis the elements of the previous analysis, and to
affirm the existence in a subject of the qualities before abstracted.
The corresponding volitions are the estimative or prizing voli-
tions, by which the mind recognizes in a thing its interesting quali-
ties, and thus estimates them. This is soon followed by the
cognitions of the fourth order, which introduce analysis once
more, as far as is necessary for forming comparisons between
two objects judged of, and giving the preference to one over the
other. The volitions belonging to this order are the apprecia-
tive, or the volitions of choice. The moral sense, which existed in
germ in the preceding periods, now takes a larger development.
The cognitions of the fifth order consist in a synthesis by
which are determined the relations existing between two things
combined into one, and conceived as one, of which conceptions the
most important is that of the ‘I’ and of self-identity. About this

Jury 8, 1887.]

time appears the first dawn of conscience. And so, with their
regularly alternating analysis and synthesis, Rosmini would have
gone on sketching for us the characteristics of the succeeding
orders. But here, to our misfortune, the treatise terminates, and
we have nothing but rough notes and hints as to what would have
followed. We must not, however, forget the warning which Ros-
mini gives us, more than once, concerning his stages of cognition.
He only gives us the order in which they commence ; but, when once
commenced, they go on through all the other periods, increasing in
power and widening in application. Moreover, the acts of the
understanding are always excited by some stimulus external to
themselves, and depend on this stimulus ; and hence, when particu-
lar stimuli come late, we shall find the corresponding cognitions
belonging to earlier orders coming into being alongside of cogni-
tions belonging to the later orders.

But what of the practical application of all this? some of our
readers may ask. Well, Rosmini himself answers, “I am a thinker,
a psychologist. You good people of practice and experience must
make the practical application of my principles for yourselves.” But
being human, as well as a psychologist, he cannot altogether re-
frain: he gives us some of his own ‘ practical applications ;’ and of
these, some are very striking and suggestive, and some of — well,
very moderate utility. ‘The object of instruction,” Rosmini tells
us, “is to bring the young to know, and it may therefore be called
the art of properly directing the attention of the youthful mind.”
“There are always three distinct parts of instruction,” he tells us
elsewhere: “(a@) that which serves to increase in the mind
of the pupil the number of cognitions he has gained in the
preceding order, and to make them more perfect; (4) that which
enables the pupil to pass from the order of cognition in which he is,
to the next higher order; and (c) that which serves to exercise and
perfect the pupil in the knowledge belonging to the order he has
just reached.” He adds that it is evident that the language and
style of the teacher should vary according to the order of cognition
attained by the child. All language that goes beyond that order is
wasted ; or, worse still, it will produce confusion. In treating of
the first order of cognition, he points out that nature has placed
perception as the foundation of the whole immense pyramid of
human knowledge, and that perception therefore should be the
foundation of all human education. “ Nature herself leads the child
to observe every thing, and to experiment on every thing; but all
these experiments and perceptions are unconnected and desultory.
The earliest office of the educator, therefore, consists in regulat-
ing the child’s observations and experiments, so as to lead him
to perceive and to perfect his perceptions.” The application of this
is little more than hinted at, but enough is given to show how
strikingly alike Rosmini and Froebel were with regard to the
earliest childhood, though each worked independently and in com-
plete ignorance of the views of the other. Indeed, one of the chief
advantages of studying Rosmini’s system is the added strength and
clearness and meaning which it so frequently gives to the plans of
Froebel, who, as a practical teacher, stands a head and shoulders
taller than his Italian contemporary. Nor is Rosmini’s psychology
always equal to Froebel’s. He has, for instance, some strange
views on language, which, but for Prof. Max Miiller’s championship
of very similar ones, would come upon us not only as novel, but
also as startling. Rosmini holds that “by language we form our
ideas,” and that “man could not have invented that part of lan-
guage which expresses abstractions.” But, what is far more dis-
concerting to a teacher, is to find him stating that “one of the
fundamental principles which should govern the instruction given,
from first to last, is to consider language as the universal instrument
provided by nature for the intellectual development of man,” and to
see, in the application, that this means that education is to be
mainly a training in the use of words. Still, undoubtedly many of
the practical hints he gives for the teaching of reading and writing
will be found valuable, though they are applied somewhat prema-
turely ; and much that he says on the use of music, and on picture-
teaching, is highly suggestive. On the whole, however, we are
inclined to think that teachers will be most struck with, and
set most value on, the exposition given of the gradual development
of the moral sentiment, — “based as upon a rock, on the great fact,
that, rooted in the depths of the child’s nature, there is a primary

SCIENCE. ms

necessity of growing respect and love to whatsoever intelligent
being he comes to know,” — and with this, step by step, the corre-
sponding gradual training. We have met with nothing elsewhere
so soundly reasoned, so clearly expressed, and so practically sug-
gestive ; though here, again, the general line pursued is the same
as that pursued by Froebel.

For the present we will say no more. But we hope we have said
enough to prove to teachers that ‘ The Ruling Principle of Method '
is a book to be studied with pleasure and profit. And, though
some of us may be inclined to pronounce the system as rather
logical than psychological, we shall all of us gain by coming in con-
tact with a mind so eminently clear and reasonable, and so full of
human kindliness.

T. Macct Plaut¢ Captzvz. ith Introduction and Notes. By
W. M. Linpsay, M.A. Oxford, Clarendon Pr. 16°.

Anglice Reddenda; or, Extracts for Unseen Translatzon.
(Second Series.) Selected by C. S. JERRAM, M.A. Oxford,
Clarendon Pr. 169.

FROM the Clarendon Press comes a very neat little edition of
the ‘ Captivi’ of Plautus, by Mr. W. M. Lindsay, intended as a com-
panion to the ‘Trinnummus’ of Messrs. Freeman & Sloman of the
Westminster School, where the plays of Plautus have been fre-
quently exhibited by the scholars with much dramatic and archzo-
logical success. The only fault to be found with those exhibitions,
however, is their practice of ignoring the musical element, that
must undoubtedly have been an important feature in the original
production of the Plautine plays. In fact, the ancient divisions of
the comedies were effected solely by the musical passages, or
‘Cantica;’ and in the manuscript the name of the musical per-
former at the first exhibition of the play is often given in the title,
or, rather, after it. In the present edition of the ‘Captivi, Mr.
Lindsay has very properly called attention to this fact, which even
careful students of the Roman drama are too apt to overlook; and _
his remarks, although unduly brief, will be instructive to the young
student, for whom this little book is intended. Within the limits
which the editor has marked for himself in the preface, he has
done very excellent work, availing himself of the most recent
German research, and giving notes, that, while useful to the school-
boy, are often very suggestive to the more mature scholar. Mr.
Lindsay properly regards the Plautus lecture as affording “the best
opportunity for teaching the etymology and structure of Latin
words,” and he has therefore given this side of the subject par-
ticular attention in the notes. The book may be unreservedly com-
mended as being precisely what it professes to be, —an edition
of the ‘ Captivi’ that will “enable boys of the higher forms to read
with intelligence and interest a play which, more than any other
of Plautus, may suitably be put into a school-boy’s hands.”

The reading of Greek and Latin at sight is deservedly becoming
an important part of the preparatory training for college, both in
England and our own country. The advantages of an ability to
read an ordinary classical author without the aid of a dictionary are
so obvious as to need no comment, and, as they impress themselves
more and more upon our instructors, a much-needed reform will
gradually come about. One may hope to see the day when college-
examinations will test not only the memory, but the genuine knowl-
edge, of the student, and when the object will be to discover not
merely how much he knows of some particular author, or portion
of an author, but of the language as a whole. Already sight-reading
of easy Greek and Latin has become a part of the required entrance-
examinations at Yale and Harvard, it has for some time held a prom-
inent place in the classical instruction at Columbia, and the time is
not far distant when it will form one of the important tests of all our
leading colleges. Mr.C.S.Jerram of Trinity College, Oxford, already
well known as the author of several useful publications, has just sent
forth a volume of extracts for sight-reading, bearing the imprint of
the Clarendon Press, and entitled ‘Anglice Reddenda.’ It supple-
ments a much simpler work issued some years ago, and is intended
for students who may reasonably be supposed to have acquired a
somewhat extensive vocabulary. The extracts are about equally
divided between Greek and Roman authors, and are admirably
selected so as to interest and entertain as well as to instruct. It
may be doubted, however, whether such excerpts as odes from

20 SCIENCE:

the first book of Horace, fragments of the fourth /2neid, passages
from the Metamorphoses and Fasti of Ovid, and the first eclogue
of Vergil, will possess the requisite novelty to the class of students
for whom this book is professedly intended.

Common Sense Science.
Te.
Studies in Life and Sense. By ANDREW WILSON. London.

IF the question, ‘ What is the ideal method of popularizing sci-
ence ?’ were raised at any of our large scientific meetings, about as
many minds as men would probably be heard. Everybody admits
the importance of the topic; everybody recognizes that science
is all along getting popularized and gradually rendered digestible
by the average man: but there is much difference as to the rela-
tive value of the several agencies by which this result is being
produced, and the direction which these efforts should take in the
future. There is a great deal of false popular science, —a class of
writing in which the difficult points are always skipped, and the
light and temporarily interesting ones unduly magnified ; in which
the interest is attracted towards certain minor points, and the whole
doctrine set forth in a perverted perspective. One can dress up the
facts of science in as attractive a garb as one likes; but the aim
must be to bring home the fact, and not the study of the costume.
The spirit of accuracy by which science is differentiated from un-
critical knowing is the szze gua non of a real interest in scientific
work.

Into what category of ‘ popular-science ’ writing one will put this
work of Grant Allen’s will depend largely on one’s conception of the
purposes of such literature. The geniality and attractiveness of his
style are well known. They are important factors in the success of
his works. The present series of essays exhibit the strength and
the weakness of this class of writing. Its strength consists in its
power to bring home simple truths in a way that suggests their real
significance to the average mind ; its weakness, in the fact that so
much of it is not ‘common-sense’ science, but ‘common-place’
science : it says very little for the amount of words.

A striking feature of this and other recent general works is the
great 70Ze which psychological subjects are now playing in science.
Of the twenty-eight essays here printed, ten are distinctly psycho-
logical, and many others partly so. The main reason of this in-
creased interest in the scientific study of mental phenomena is the
recognition of their intimate relation with education. We are be-
ginning to appreciate that the requisite for rationally educating the
mind is to accurately know it.

It is only just to Mr. Allen to give a sample of some of the essays.
A very typical one is that on self-consciousness, the tone of which
will be readily gathered from the following sentences: “ A philan-
thropist who had it in his power to abolish, if he chose, with a sin-
gle wave of his hand, either small-pox or self-consciousness, would
probably do more in the end to diminish human suffering and to
increase human happiness if he elected to get rid, by an heroic
choice, of the less obtrusive but more insidious and all-pervading
disease ; for small-pox, at the worst, attacks only a very insignifi-
cant fraction of the whole community ; while every second person
that one meets in society, especially below the age of fifty years, is a
confirmed sufferer from the pangs of self-consciousness.” The es-
say on memory sets forth in apt illustrations the complexity of
human knowledge ; that on the balance of nature, the inter-relation
between the various classes of organic life. Under the title ‘ Big
and Little,’ is a lesson on the relativity of knowledge. The ‘ Origin
of Bowing’ traces the gradual refinement of a savage’s slavish
obeisance into the modern gentlemanly courtesy. ‘The Pride of
Ignorance’ teaches an admirable lesson, as also does the essay on
home-life. Other sufficiently suggestive titles are ‘ Holly and Mistle-
toe, ‘Sleep, ‘ Amusements, ‘ Evening Flowers,’ ‘Genius and Tal-
ent,’ and so on. ;

Like all his works, this collection of papers will doubtless find a
large and appreciative public. To those who do not already know
the facts which it contains, it will offer an attractive method of ac-
quiring them.

The spirit of Dr. Wilson’s book is quite a different one. There
are many who will listen to Mr. Allen who would not listen to Dr.
Wilson; but those who choose the latter will not be sorry for their

By GRANT ALLEN. Boston, Lothrop,

[Vor, Xe MANOR 23%

choice. There is in these essays an unusual amount of information,
well and attractively put together. It needs to be read attentively,
but leaves the reader with the same feeling of satisfaction that one
experiences when rising from a good and substantial meal. There
will follow a process of healthy digestion, and the food will con-
tribute some little to the making of its partaker.

Dr. Wilson is a biologist, and the sixteen careful studies contained
in this volume touch portions of the entire field, from the ‘ Inner
Life of Plants’ and ‘ The Past and Present of the Cuttlefishes,’ to
the ‘Body and Mind.’ In each topic the author writes as one per-
fectly at home ; avoiding the fault of attempting to tell too much, as
well as of having too little to tell. It is popular-science writing, a
very good type indeed.

Like the former book, this, too, is characterized by a preponder-
ance of psychological subjects. Seven of the essays treat entirely
or mainly of mental phenomena, while several others touch upon
such topics. ‘The Old Phrenology and the New’ is an unneces-
sarily painstaking refutation of the claims of the ‘cranial-bump
examiners, with a brief account of the evidence for the modern
doctrine of the localization of function in the cortex of the brain. The
old phrenology serves as an excellent type of the shoals, on which
the hasty wanderer, leaving the straight but slow path of scien-
tific advance, is likely to be wrecked. The nature of the relation
between nerve-tissue and mental phenomena is outlined in the
paper on body and mind; the main point being to show by striking
examples the strange effects produced by intense expectation and
concentration, which furnishes the kernel of truth in the claims of
the mind-cure. ‘The Mind’s Mirror’ explains the development of
the expression of the emotions in animals and men, while ‘ The Coin-
ages of the Brain’ is a timely account of the part played by
hallucinations in such happenings as our psychic-research societies
are likely to record.

The more strictly biological essays treat of the economies of
nature, showing, that, as conditions vary, nature utilizes every
trifle, and avoids waste, or scatters tons of pollen over a barren
soil. There are two excellent chapters on the zodlogical position of
monkeys and elephants ; while the volume closes with ‘ An Invita-
tion to Dinner,’ which gives occasion to a lesson on the physiology
of digestion.

In the present case the proverbially odious comparison can hardly
be avoided. Dr. Wilson’s is in every way the better book ; but Mr.
Allen’s will have the wider public, and, it is to be hoped, will incite
an appetite that will lead to the searching for the more substantial
food.

NOTES AND NEWS.

THE American committee of the International Congress of
Geologists —a committee appointed by the American Association
—will present a report at the meeting of the American Association
in August concerning the positions to be taken by the representa-
tives of American geglogists at the next session of the congress in
London (1888), upon the more important questions of nomen-
clature, classification, and coloring, which will there be discussed.
It requests that Section E set apart a day for the purpose of con-
sidering these questions to be submitted by the committee, and of
aiding that body to ascertain the direction of American opinion
thereon. In order the better to accomplish this object, it requests
Section E to issue an invitation to all American geologists (whether
members of the American Association or not) to attend this
session and participate in the work. The American committee also
request that members of the association be informed of the op-
portunity offered for obtaining the great geological map of Europe,
now preparing by a special committee of the International Con-
gress. This map will be issued in 49 sheets, which, combined,
will cover a space about 11 by 12 feet. The price is $20 a copy,
with additional charges of duty and expenses amounting to about
$6. Incorporated scientific institutions are of course exempt from
duty-charges. For further information address Dr. Persifor
Frazer, secretary of the American Committee, 201 South Fifth
Street, Philadelphia, Penn.

— The Entomological Club of the American Association will meet
on the day prior to the meeting of the association, at2 P.M. The

Jury 8, 1887.]

Brooklyn Entomological Society has appointed a committee to
welcome the members of the club, and to assist in making the
meetings interesting, as well as to give such information regarding
matters of special interest to entomologists as may be desired.
The same society will arrange for one or more field-excursions
in the vicinity of New York, and a reception will be arranged for,
Members of the club intending to contribute papers will please
communicate the same to the president, Prof. J. H. Comstock,
Ithaca, N.Y., or to the secretary, Mr. E. Baynes Reed, London,
Ontario.

— The Botanical Club of the American Association will hold
its meetings, as usual, during the week of the association. For
particulars address Mrs. E. L. Britton, secretary of the club,
Columbia College, New York.

— The Society for the Promotion of Agricultural Science will
hold its eighth annual meeting in New York, beginning on Monday
evening, Aug. 8, at Columbia College, and continuing on Tuesday.
For further information address Prof. W. R. LEOMEN, secretary,
Ohio State University, Columbus, O.

— The aggregate production of shad for distribution the present
season by the United States Fish Commission has been enormous.
The number produced has been increasing from season to season,
owing to the perfection of the methods in use. A summary of the
distribution for the present season, arranged by river-basins, is as
follows :—

TROT RO LE TRONS 55 coco andooot boon pcooecooadoccbcodecucons 1,169,000
Kennebec River..........-.-.-0-- 800,000
Tributaries of NEGeiganeat: Bay.. 1,275,000
Hudson River and tributaries...... 1,979,000
Tributaries of Delaware Bay..... 5,099,000
Tributaries of Chesapeake Bay....2....2.sceeeee eee eee 68,149,000
Tributaries of Albemarle Sound............--seseeeeeeee 5,322,000
Tributaries of South Atlantic coast......++e+s+sseeeseees 3,506,000
Tributaries of Gulf of Mexico...........-.-..sceeeeeeee 7,048,000
IMIG TELE a couoondboes Crono osoceeaCoorcouoeoGSoEec 1,014,000

Wael con ogoc concadheon ous coun genegodcodsnsgS 95,421,000

Tt will thus be seen that over 68,000,000 young shad-fry have been
returned to the waters of Chesapeake Bay. The entire production
of the fisheries of the Chesapeake for the present season was about
2,000,000 young shad. It is therefore evident, that, for every mature
shad taken from the waters of the Chesapeake, thirty-four young,
healthy, and vigorous shad have been returned to those waters.
Experiments already made by the commission indicate, that, up to
the close of their river-life (the young shad migrating in October),
twenty per cent of the fry placed in our rivers will survive, and at-
tain a size of from two to three inches in length. Arrangements
have been made by the commission to secure complete statistics of
the shad-catch all along the entire coast for the present year, similar
statistics having already been collected in 1885 and 1886. Informa-
tion already in the hands of the commissioner makes it certain that
the aggregate production of shad on the coast has been larger the
present season than at any time in the last twenty years, but it will
be impossible to give the measure of increase. For the Potomac
River it is already assured that the increase of 1887 is fully 100,000
shad over that of 1886, and the increase of 1886 over that of 1885
exceeded 100,000, In the Potomac fisheries alone in the last two
seasons the increase in shad has been over 250,000; the increase
representing a much larger number than the entire catch of 1879,
in which year the fisheries of the Potomac reached their lowest
ebb.

— Professor Riley, the entomologist of the Department of Agri-
culture, has made public the result of an exhaustive personal
investigation into the habits of the Phorodon hum7iz, or hop-louse.
His discoveries are expected to prove of great value to hop-growers,
as he has succeeded in learning the habitation of this plant-pest
during the winter months, and tracing it through the varying stages
of insect-life. Before the investigation, it was not known how or
where the insect survived the winter. As a result of his inquiries,
Professor Riley has satisfied himself that the eggs laid by the
female at the close of the summer are deposited in plum-trées,
where the insect hatches in the spring, and resides until the third
generation. This third brood, unlike its predecessors, is winged, and
immediately after development abandons the plum-tree and attacks

SCIENCE. | Z

the hop-vine. Inthe autumn a counter-migration from the hop-vine
to the plum-tree occurs, the winter eggs are deposited, and the cycle
of life goes on in the same way. It is a notable fact that in regions
where the cultivation of hop-vines is a new industry, the growers
have had complete immunity for a while from the pest. In Cali-
fornia to-day they are not troubled by it. Professor Riley believes -
that the Phorodon humz?z has been brought to this country from
Europe on plum-stock; and there is reason to believe that the
Phylloxera, the dreaded grape-pest, was carried from this country
to Europe on grape-vine cuttings. Therefore California hop-
growers are warned to beware of importing plum-stock from east-
ern hop-regions. These discoveries render it possible to check the
ravages of the hop-louse either by the use of insecticides in the
springtime, before the insect has reached the winged state, or by
the destruction of the sheltering plum-trees. The experiments will
be continued with a view to protecting the hop-vines after they
have become infected with the hop-louse.

— The project of holding a summer school of physics at Harvard
College this season has been abandoned; but on July 19 and 20
apparatus designed for use in the ‘forty-experiment course,’ prepar-
atory for admission to Harvard College, will be shown to teachers
or others at the Jefferson Physical Laboratory, and questions re-
lating to the experiments will be answered. The same thing will
be done for the ‘sixty-experiment course’ on the second day,
July 20.

LETTERS TO) THE EDITOR.

*" The attention of scientific men ts called to the advantages of the correspondence
colunins of SCIENCE for placing promptly on record brief preliminary notices of
their investigations. Twenty copies of the number containing his communication
will be furnished free to any correspondent on request.

The editor will be glad to publish any queries consonant with the character of
the journal.

Correspondents are requested to be as brief as possible.
in all cases required as proof of good faith.

The writer's name is

Theoretical Meteorology.

A REVIEW of Professor Ferrel’s recent work on this subject in
Sczence for June 3 furnishes an opportunity to present a few points
on this subject. Professor Laughton, ex-president of the Royal
Meteorological Society, once said that there was hardly a theory
in meteorology that was well established. If this be so, it seems
to me there is great danger of putting too much reliance upon
mere theory, which does not have a sufficient groundwork of
facts. There is special danger of this in meteorology, where the
mathematical discussions of gaseous movements and vortices are
hedged about with so much difficulty and complication. I am
well aware that the views here advanced are opposed to those of
many most advanced thinkers in this field, and I only ask an un-
biassed hearing.

To my mind there are at least two fundamental errors in this
subject, but these are intimately interwoven throughout its warp
and woof. These are, first, that there is friction only between the
air and the earth, or at least that friction between contiguous air
strata may be neglected ; second, that conditions and changes of
pressure, temperature, and moisture in the atmosphere, are the only
causes acting in producing either its general motions or storms.

The objections to the first theory are briefly as follows. Ata
height of too feet, or at the most 200 feet, in a level country, there
is no longer friction between the air and earth, but rather between
air and air. This is especially the case on the ocean ; and here,
surely, we would have no waves, if it were not for the friction
between air and air. If there were no friction, all storms would
take place in a virtual vacuum, and into a vacuum air would tend
to flow with about the velocity of sound. Professor Ferrel thinks,
that, according to laws of gaseous motion, the earth’s atmosphere
would leave the poles and heap itself at the equator, but this is pre-
vented by friction with the earth’s surface ; but, as we have just seen,
we need consider only friction of air on air at 100 feet elevation.

The objections to the second theory cannot be set forth as
easily as the above. When we are gravely told that the sun
heats up a certain portion of the earth’s surface, and that in con-
sequence vertical currents are set up which finally bring about a
wind of 100 miles an hour, we can but be credulous. As a matter

44 "SC i NG

of fact, the sun does not heat up a limited portion of the earth.
Its rays shine with equal intensity over 1,000 miles from east to
west. ,It has also been shown that this heating of the surface
does not ascend more than a few inches in the air. One
of the strongholds of the theorists is unstable equilibrium ; but
right here we find two seemingly contradictory statements. On
p- 51 of Professor Ferrel’s book, ‘ Recent Advances in Meteorology,’
there is a suggestion that this state (unstable equilibrium) is
brought about whenever there is a less diminution of temperature
with height in an ascending column than in neighboring portions
of air. On p. 328 of the same volume, however, the idea is given
that this same state may be produced if there is an abnormally
great diminution of temperature with height. It would seem as if in
both these instances, even if there were a tendency to this state, air
would flow in at all times from surrounding regions, and instantly
relieve the condition. This relief would be afforded the more
rapidly, the less the friction. However, the error here is farther
back. We cannot suppose that the atmosphere is either quiescent
or flowing in a current having a uniform velocity in all its layers,
to the height, say, of 15,000 feet. The factis admitted that there is
a uniform acceleration in the different strata as we arise; so that,
even if an upward movement should begin, a few hundred feet would
destroy all vertical tendency. Asa matter of fact, when we con-
sider the actual conditions under which solar radiation acts ata
storm-centre, we see that this unstable state could not be formed.
Ata storm-centre clouds cover the earth’s surface, and prevent
all abnormal conditions from great heat. Balloon-ascents have
shown uniform temperatures up to the top of the clouds.

The theoretical computations of the velocity of the upper air strata
do not correspond with the actual movements recorded. On p.259
Professor Ferrel gives the velocity of the current at the height of
16,000 feet as 26 miles per hour in the middle latitudes of the
United States.

*On Mount Washington, 6,300 feet in height, the velocity when a
low area passes is 53 miles per hour, and when a high area passes
itis 21. Thevelocity of the low areas near Mount Washington is
34 miles per hour. This would indicate that the ‘power’ of the
storm must be below 6,300 feet, since it is admitted that its pro-
gressive motion is due to the movement of the strata where it ex-
ists. It may be safely said that a height of less than 6,000 feet for
the centre of disturbance would be fatal to a great many of the pres-
ent theories of storm-generation.

Formerly it was said, that, owing to friction with the earth’s sur-
face, the upper part of the storm must be in advance of the lower;
but it is certain that such a state of things could continue only a few
minutes, for the upper portion of the storm would be rapidly sepa-
rated from the lower. Professor Ferrel, on p. 260 of the present
volume, explains this difficulty by suggesting that the upper part of
the storm is continually re-forming itself, and that there is no actual
transferrence of air. I hardly think that this suggestion will be
accepted. It seems to me our storms would behave differently if
it were true, and certainly our synoptic charts do not give any clew
to such re-formations of the upper part of the storm. It seems to
me this later theory destroys the continuity of the ascending cur-
rent and the essential features of unstable equilibrium. One ofthe
most difficult phenomena to explain is the fall of rain at a distance
of 300 and more miles from the storm-centre. If we suppose the
ascending currents are at the centre of the storm, then rain should
fall at that point. Professor Ferrel, at p. 266, advances the novel
idea that the rain is formed in or carried to the upper currents, and,
as these are more rapid than the storm, it must fall in advance of
the storm. I do not think this theory takes sufficient account of
the facts. Let us suppose the raindrop carried to a height of 7,200
feet : observations if balloons show that rain very rarely occurs
above that height, and that the ‘ power’ of the storm is at 5,000
feet. We may consider the velocity of the current at 7,200 feet 15
miles per hour greater than at 5,000 feet: the drop would fall at
about 10 feet per second, or would reach the earth in 12 minutes;
and hence, if it had been carried in the upper current during this
time, it would have fallen 3 miles in front of the centre, instead of
300 ormore. Asa matter of fact, since the currents below 5,000
feet are very much slower than above that height, any acceleration
would be entirely overcome, and from these principles the drop

[Vor 2X2 Nie 722m

would actually fall back of the centre. On thecontinent of Europe
the bulk of the rain falls at the rear of the storm.

To my mind, however, theoretical meteorology most signally fails
in its attempts to explain our more violent storms and tornadoes.
That the sun’s heat could start a vertical current which, with the
condensation of moisture in the upper air, would give rise to winds
of 200 or 300 miles per hour, seems incredible. The attempt to
meet the difficulties by suggesting ‘ great contrasts of temperature,’
‘meeting of warm southerly with cold northerly winds,’ ‘ cool air
overrunning warm,’ ‘warm air overrunning cool,’ etc., does not
seem at all satisfactory. As long as it was supposed that tornadoes
occurred at the centre of a low area where it was thought there was
an ascending current, the theory seemed plausible; but when it
was clearly shown, in March, 1884, that tornadoes do not occur at
a low centre, but 400 or 500 miles to the south-east, it became
necessary to explain this. It seems to me that all attempts to eluci-
date this subject have merely served to lighten the darkness with-
out removing it.

There is no space left for minutely examining the great super-
structure built on what seem weak foundations. It seems as though
the first and most important step is to remove the slur cast upon
this science by those who are qualified to know its weakness. Let
our theorists bend every energy to establish some fundamental
proposition; either by actual experiment in the laboratory or by in-
vestigation in nature’s laboratory at the spot where the ‘ power’ of
the storm manifests itself. It seems to me the recent attempts of
Weyher in France to demonstrate the existence of this ‘power,’ by
means of a rapidly revolving fan at some distance above water or
grain, show the great need of further proof. These experiments
show what might be if only there were an enormous fan in the
upper air, but where is the fan? Must we not conclude that the
true explanation is now farther off than before, and certainly much
farther from the present theories. H. ALLEN HAZEN.

Washington, July r.

Determination of the Depth of Earthquakes.

THE report of Captain Dutton and Everett Hayden on the
Charleston earthquake (Sczence, ix. p. 489) is undoubtedly a very
valuable addition to earthquake literature. There are two or three
points, however, to which I wish to draw scientific attention, in the
hope that investigation hereafter may clear them up.

Perhaps the most interesting and important point in the report is
their method of determining the depth of earthquakes. The authors
first review rapidly other methods. Mallet’s method — by protract-
ing the lines of emergence back to their meeting-point —they dis-
miss as too uncertain. Seebach’s method — used in the earthquake
of Central Germany in 1872, which depends on the law of decreas-
ing velocity of the emergent wave —they also dismiss, because
the times of arrival at different points cannot be determined with
sufficient accuracy, on account of the different velocities of the two
different kinds of waves, normal and transverse. In place of these
methods they propose what they claim to be a wholly new one,
founded on the law of decrease of intensity; i.e., of decrease of
the shock-motion or motion of the earth-particle, or, in other
words, the wave-height or amplitude! They show by mathemati-
cal discussion that the place of the maximum rate of decrease of
intensity bears a fixed relation to the depth of the focus; viz., as
I to 73. Upon this basis they estimate the depth of the focus to
be about twelve miles. In Fig. 1, which we reproduce from their
report, the fall of the double-curved line represents the decreasing
intensity. The place of most rapid fall, i-e., where the curve changes
from convexity to concavity, is the place of most rapid decrease of
intensity. This place was quite distinctly marked. It was about
seven miles from the epicentrum.

We wish now to draw attention to the fact that this method does
not differ very greatly from, and perhaps is not.an improvement
upon, another method suggested by Mallet in his ‘ Report to the
British Association, 1858,’ p. 102, though not used in his discussion
of the Neapolitan earthquake of 1857; viz., by means of what may
be called ‘the circle of principal disturbance.’ This method is
mentioned and explained in my ‘ Elements of Geology,’ p. 117. The
authors seem to have overlooked it.

1 With constant wave-length, intensity « amplitude.

Juty 8, 1887. ]

The destruction about the epicentrum of an earthquake depends
mainly, perhaps, upon the amount of motion, but partly also upon
the direction of motion; horizontal motion being far more destruc-
tive than vertical. Now, the whole amount of motion is assumed

to decrease as the square of the radius of the agitated sphere in-*

creases (x); but the horizontal element of the motion
increases as the cosine of the angle of emergence. Under these
two conditions, there will be a certain distance all about the epi-
centrum, bearing a fixed relation to the depth of the focus, where
the horizontal element will be a maximum. This is at da’ (Fig. 2),
where the angle of emergence is 54° 44’. In other words, the
‘circle of principal disturbance’ is the base of a cone whose apex
is at the focus, and whose apical angle is 70° 32’. The distance
ad of this circle from the epicentrum is to the depth of focus ax as
Itov2,

Now, it is evident that in violent earthquakes the destruction over
the whole area of this circle might be nearly the same; for in the
central parts the whole motion would be greater, and on the mar-
gins the sideways motion would be greater. But beyond this
circle the destructiveness would very rapidly decrease, because the
whole motion and the sideways element are both decreasing: in
other words, if we used the graphic method, the curve of de-
structiveness would be like the curve of intensity (Fig. 1), except

SCIENCE. be

pose the spherical wave were cut off, not on one side only, but on
both sides; in other words, suppose a shock generating normal
circular elastic waves of compression to occur in the centre of a
thin plate: is it not evident that the intensity of these would vary
simply inversely as the radius T=)? Or, if the plane be re-
duced to a bar, such waves would be substantially constant in
intensity.

But we are not left to general reasonings on the subject. If the
intensity or wave-height follow the law of inverse squares, it is im-
possible to understand how the waves should carry so far as we
actually find. In the Charleston earthquake the motion at the
distance of six hundred miles was still sufficient to create alarm
and to produce seasickness. Now, the amount of motion at the
epicentrum was not more than ten or twelve inches. Let us take
twelve inches as the greatest motion, and the epicentrum as ten
miles from the focus. At the distance of six hundred miles, ac-
cording to the usually assumed law of decrease, the amount of
motion or wave-height would be only a three-hundredth of an
inch; but if the spherical wave is reflected back from the surface,
and combines with the advancing wave, it is probable that its de-
crease is only as the increase of the radius. In that case, at six

hundred miles the motion would still be a fifth of an inch, which is
a very sensible motion.

f2

Fic. 1.

that it would be flatter on the top, and the descent more abrupt at
a certain distance from the epicentrum. The decrease of destruc-
tiveness is more rapid at a certain point than is the decrease of
intensity.

Now, since the intensity is estimated largely, if not wholly, by
destructiveness, and since destructiveness depends largely upon the
sideways motion, is it not possible, is it not even probable, that the
supposed place of maximum decrease of intensity is really the place
of maximum decrease of destructiveness; i.e., the circle of princi-
pal disturbance? If so, then the depth of the focus would be about
ten miles instead of twelve miles.

We have assumed all along that the intensity or excursion of the
earth-particle, or the height or amplitude of the wave, varies in-

_ versely as the square of the radius of the agitated sphere (x =)\

The authors as well as all other writers assume this law. But is
there not good reason to doubt its accuracy? The law is probably
true so long as the wave is spherical; i.e., until it emerges on the
surface. But when it emerges, what becomes of the energy which
would have continued the wave if it had not been cut off by
emergence? Some of it is doubtless consumed in more violent
motion, and perhaps rupture, at the surface; but is not much of it
reflected back into the earth to combine with the advancing waves ?
All other elastic waves, whether light-waves or sound-waves, com-
ing out of a denser medium into a rarer (or véce versa), are largely
reflected from the surface: why not earthquake-waves also? Sup-

It is very important that investigations should be undertaken to
determine the law of decrease of wave-motion of earthquakes. This,
however, cannot be done without seismographs.

While on this subject, it may be well to say something about
Seebach’s method of determining the depth of the focus. The
method by the circle of principal.disturbance, and that by maximum
decrease of intensity, are based on the law of inverse squares, and

therefore fail if this law be untrue. Seebach’s method, on the con-
trary, is based on the law of decrease of velocity of the surface
wave ; supposing, of course, a constant velocity of the spherical
wave. I have been in the habit of representing Seebach’s method
as follows: on the co-ordinate axes A, B, C, D (cd being the
earth surface), of the earth, let equal times be taken on AB, and
spaces passed over in equal times on CD. The one represents the

on SCIBNCE

constant velocity of the spherical wave, and the other the decreas-
ing velocity of the surface or emergent wave. By connecting
these points by rectangular co-ordinates, an equilateral hyperbola
is developed, the centre of which is the focus x, and the character of
which depends on the depth of the focus. The hyperbola becomes more
and more triangular in form as the depth becomes less (as in taking
the surface at c'd’, c’d”), until, if the focus is at the surface, the
hyperbola becomes a right-angled triangle; ie., the surface wave
passes over equal spaces in equal times. If, therefore, we plot ac-
ccurately the times on AZ, and the corresponding places on CD,
we may develop the hyperbola and calculate its centre; or else by
accurate trial we may find a point which shall be the centre of
circles passing through corresponding times and places. That
point will be the focus. Such is a very general account of the
method, given in my own way. For more accurate detail, See-
bach’s work must be consulted.

We believe that this method, in a thickly settled country dotted
over with observatories on railroad-stations where accurate time is
kept, will prove the most accurate. Dutton and Hayden object to
this method that it is important to have the accurate time of arrival

Fic. 3.

of the wave, because there are two kinds of waves, —the normal
and transverse, — which run with different velocities. The answer
to this is, that it is only over a comparatively small area that, on any
method, observation can be relied on for estimating depth. In-
Spection of Fig. 3 shows that the arm of the hyberbola very soon
becomes almost straight; the velocity of emergence at any con-
siderable distance becomes sensibly the same as that of the spher-
ical wave, and therefore can no longer indicate depth. But over the
small area where the curve of the hyperbola, or change of velocity,
is rapid, the time of arrival of the different waves would not greatly
differ. At any rate, the use of seismographs which decompose the
complex earth-motions will record these different waves separately,
and thus enable us to determine the law of decrease of one of them
— the normal — with accuracy.

In conclusion we would insist that we cannot any longer afford
to study earthquakes without seismographs. The Geological Sur-
vey ought to have these in different parts of the country. The
University of California has recently gotten three of these of the
best character (Ewing’s and Gray-Milne’s), which will soon be set

up in different parts of the State. JOSEPH LECONTE.
Berkeley, Cal., June 21.

The Corresponding Volumes, etc., of Ice and Sea-Water.

THESE determinations were made in Hudson Strait (latitude
62° 33’ 45” north, longitude 70° 41’ 15” west), in an inlet having a
width of a little more than half a mile. I am thus particular in
giving the width, because in a very narrow tidal harbor, with the
ice fast on either shore, the line of flotation of the ice would sensibly
alter with a rising or falling tide. In this instance I was particular
in watching for such a difference, under these opposite conditions ;
but, if present, it was insensible.

The determination was made on Feb. 3, 1885, when the temper-
ature of the air was — 3° F.; for the water, 26°.7 F.

A hole having been cut through the ice, of such a size as to pre-

‘

[Vor | Nos2en

vent any sensible error owing to capillarity, its thickness was found
to be 2 feet 9.6 inches from surface to surface; on top of the ice
was an estimated average depth of snow of 3 inches, of such a
density that by weight it was equal to 1.1 inches of the ice: the
total thickness of ice, or its equivalent, would therefore be 2 feet
10.7 inches. Of this amount, 32.5 inches were submerged ; leaving,
therefore, 2.2 inches of ice, or its equivalent, above the water-line.
Therefore sea-water-ice floats with one part above the water-
line and fourteen and eight-tenths below. Expressing the volume of
a given quantity of sea-water by unity, its volume, when converted
into ice, would be 1.0634; and their densities as 0.922 to 1.000,

W. A. ASHE.
The Observatory, Quebec, June 24.

Death of W. O. Ayres, M.D.

THE death of Dr. W. O. Ayres, one of the early members of the
California Academy of Sciences, has recently been made known.

He was specially interested in the study of ichthyology, and for
many years after his arrival in California, in the intervals of an ex-
tensive medical practice, contributed to this department of natural
history by his investigations of and publications upon the fishes of
California. At the first meeting of the academy of which there is
any published record, Sept. 4, 1854, he presented descriptions of
two new species, Laérus pulcher and Hemztripterus marmoratus,
which still stand, though the generic status has been modified, —
now Harpe pulchra and Scorenichthys marmoratus. His con-
tributions to the ichthyological knowledge of the Pacific coast
were frequent for many years, especially from 1854, as above, to
the year 1863. His scientific inquiries sometimes extended, though
rarely, towards other forms of animal life. He returned to his
native State, Connecticut, about 1872 or 1873. His services to the
cause of science on the Pacific coast in those early days entitle
him to grateful remembrance. 1D 185 (Cp IS)

U.S. Nat. Mus., June 28.

Cause of Consumption.

THE experimental together with the clinical study of tuberculo-
sis has established the view that there are three factors in its
causation :—

First, The presence of the parasite, the tubercle-bacillus, as a
pathogenic element. This factor is necessary for the production of
the disease.

Second, Heredity figures as a prominent element in about thirty
per cent of the cases ordinarily met with.

Third, Mal-hygienic and debilitating agents, such as foul air,
sedentary occupations, violations of the laws of health, and dis-
eases, have a powerful effect, by impairing the nutrition, in develop-
ing the disease.

Heredity and lowered vitality cannot of themselves produce
tuberculosis, but clinically they play animportant 7éZe as factors by
rendering the individual more vulnerable to bacillary influence.

FRANK DONALDSON, M.D. |
Baltimore, Md., June 29.

Volapuk.

YOUR correspondent, ‘H. T. P.,’ in your issue of the 24th of
June, asks for information about Volapiik. I can refer him to a
most interesting article upon this subject, which appeared in the
Bulletins de la Soczété d’ Anthropologze de Pards, 1885, pp. 317 —
321. The article is by M. Kerckhoffs, who has published the fol-
lowing work, ‘Cours Complet de Volapiik,) par A. Kerckhoffs
(Paris, 1886), and contains a sketch of the structure of the lan-
guage and some interesting information about its prospects, prog-
ress, etc. A. F. CHAMBERLAIN.

Toronto, June 28.

Queries.

7. DEATHS AND THE TIDE. —A physician living near the sea
states that during the past five years he has noted the hour and
minute of death in ninety-three patients, and every one has gone
out with the tide, save four who died suddenly by accident. Is
there any other evidence to sustain this statement ? — D.

oe NCE

FRIDAY, JULY 1s, 1887.

THE NUMBER OF ACCIDENTS which occurred on the 4th of July
of the present year was very great. In Boston, twenty-seven in-
dividuals applied for surgical aid at the City Hospital, and nine
beds are occupied by injured persons. At the Massachusetts
General Hospital the number is nearly as great. In New York and
in Brooklyn there were also very many casualties more. If a de-
scription could be given of all these injuries, the picture would be
an appaling one. One of the saddest sights we have ever seen was
that of a deaf-mute girl whose clothing took fire from a burning
pack of fire-crackers which she carried in her pocket. Her back
was so severely burned that she was compelled to lie upon her
face in bed, and take her nourishment from a vessel while lying in
this position. Three days after the receipt of the injury, she de-
veloped lockjaw, and died in twelve hours. It is to be hoped that
the time is not far distant when the present barbarous method of
celebrating Independence Day will be prohibited by law, and the
prohibition enforced.

DR. SAMUEL SEXTON has contributed an article to the
Medical Record on the subject of boxing the ears. He has upon
his records fifty-one cases in which the ear has been injured by
blows of the open hand or fist. Of these, thirty-one were males,
and twenty females. Of the males, thirteen had been boxed upon
the right ear, thirteen upon the left, and three upon both ears.
One was kicked by a companion upon the left ear while bathing,
and the right ear of another was injured by having the head
violently squeezed between the hands of another person. Of the
females, fourteen were struck upon the left ear, and six upon the
right. Five of the women were assaulted by their husbands. Of
the entire number, eight were boxed in play, four by school-
teachers, two by parents, and one, a fervent lover, by his sweet-
heart. Several cases occurred among pugilists, and others were
due to assaults and brawls. The nature of the injuries varied to
a considerable degree. One had inflammation of the ear, with sus-
picion of intracranial trouble. He had had a running of the ear for
twelve years, following a blow upon that organ. This patient
subsequently died of brain disease. In another case the ear became
inflamed, and the hearing was very much impaired. In still
another, the patient was slapped by his father upon the left ear.
Immediate pain and deafness followed, with a bloody discharge
from the ear. It was three months before this case recovered.
The dangers to which Dr. Sexton calls attention are so grave, that
parents, teachers, and others should never punish those committed
to their charge by boxing the ear.

DO WE WANT AN INTERNATIONAL COPYRIGHT
WITH ENGLAND?

THE agitation for an international copyright with England was
at its topmost vigor just fifty years ago. It is going on to-day
with precisely the same vigor, promoted by the same interest, but-
tressed by the same arguments, as at its beginning. But meantime
the situation has changed. In 1837, when Henry Clay cham-
pioned a bill for an Anglo-American international copyright in the
Senate, all our publishing-houses printed English books without
going through the form of asking anybody’s permission. All of
our magazines were ‘ cruisers,’ using the matter they found in the
English monthlies and quarterlies with despotic freedom ; and the
question, ‘Who reads an American book?’ was answered with
practical unanimity by our own countrymen, ‘ Nobody.’

To-day we are on the eve of another congressional effort for a
bill providing for an Anglo-American international copyright. But
what is now the situation? Our publishing-houses publish English
books as fast as (and often earlier than) they appear in Great
Britain, either by purchasing advance sheets of the British pub-
lisher, or reprinting by license. And our magazines find plenty
of suitable material offered them at home not only, but quite
too much, and so rather discourage voluntary contributions at all,
preferring to invite contributions from parties chosen by their
editors. The exceptions to these propositions are insignificant ;
and, even were they larger, they would still be exceptions, from
which nothing but the rule can be argued. The only difference
between the agitation of to-day and the agitation of 1837 is, that
to-day we are told that the reform is desired because American
authors are suffering for it, and because the absence of an Anglo-
American copyright cheapens and discourages their work ; and that
it is therefore unpatriotic to further deny it.

Do we want any more books than we have already?
branch of science, or literature, or art, is suffering? From what
quarter comes complaint of a dearth of books? Courts are estab-
lished for the trial of controversies between man and man. Were
there no litigation, there would be no courts. And yet one of the
horn-book and capital maxims of court is, that ‘it is to the interest
of the public that there should be an end of litigation, —a maxim
which is interpreted to mean that compromises and quietings of
actions between parties (statutes of limitation, or any discretion of a
court tending to discontinuances of lawsuits) will always be en-
couraged. Are we not coming to the time when there will be
some such a paraphrase of this maxim as that ‘it is to the interest
of literature that there shall be an end to books’? Certainly the
groaning columns of our book-stores begin to bewilder us with
their profusion of literary wares, and suggest a question as to how
much of all this mass is, after all, literature. How much of it will
be on these shelves a year, or even a month, from now, or will have
been packed down in the cellars below, or turned over to the
paper-stock men in the Ann Streets of our great centres ?

If it should prove, for example, to be the fact that a couple of
dozen men in the United States do all the writing for our American
magazines, whose business would it be, except that of the public,—
who buy those magazines or not, entirely as they please? Maga-
zines are not edited, have not for the last ten years been edited, as
of old, by voluntary contributions. The editor knows what his
readers want, and writes to employ just what writers they want.
He saves his reading of manuscripts, thus conserving his eyesight
as well as his judgment. If some of our magazine-editors would
just once print some of the manuscript they do receive from volun-
tary correspondents, — just as they receive them, with the orthog-
raphy, etymology, syntax and prosody, punctuation, and so forth,
precisely as their authors send them, —I think our public would be
convinced that the editors are right in the policy they pursue. And
I do not suppose the magazine-purchasing public would very
largely clamor for a second effort, on the editors’ part, to ‘recognize
voluntary contributors.’ Add to this the fact that a large percent-
age of the voluntary contributors to our magazines,— convinced that
a conspiracy exists among all magazine-editors to reject their
manuscript,—‘ get their blood up,’ so to speak, and print at their own
expense in pamphlet or book form, and we derive some idea of the
causes which are at work to load down our booksellers’ counters.
It seems to me that the world of readers will be more apt to ask
for a law which will restrict, rather than for one which will in-
crease, the publishing of books; and that they would look less
askance at the proposal for an Anglo-American copyright law if
assured that it would curtail, rather than exaggerate, the present
deluge of printed and published matter.

Another change in the situation since the early agitation for English

What

26 SCLENCE:

international copyright lies in the fact that the daily newspaper,
which sells for a couple of coppers, is no longer merely a bulletin of
the telegraphic news and market reports, but furnishes daily a
volume of reading-matter with which the bookseller must compete
sooner or later. Add to this (we can go on adding here for a long
time yet) that the articles in the newspapers and the periodicals of
more lasting value will surely be printed in book form ; and, if not of
permanent value, a very large percentage of them will arrive at the
same disposition by reason of the collective pride of the authors
(“By request of numerous friends who desire to see them in more
permanent form,” is the stereotype here),—and the prospect for
more books than we need soon becomes bewildering. And these
books, too, are bound to be dilutions of other dilutions in combina-
tion; for the original atom which is to be added, at the best can be
but small compared to the vast centuries of literature behind each
successive book.

Now, in all this maze of things, the publisher is really in the same
position as the editor of the magazine. He can bring out the un-
tried manuscripts of his fellow-countrymen, and run the risk of
selling enough copies of the venture to grow rich therefrom; or he
can take the English books which he knows will sell, which the
newspapers and periodicals of the world are advertising for him,
and run no risk. He avoids the expenses of proof-reading and cor-
rection by buying advance sheets; and since he publishes for the
same reason that authors write, —to accumulate a competency,
and meanwhile to support himself until he does accumulate it, —
we can hardly blame him, because, already once in print, the
author or owner of the English book can deal with him on better
terms than the American author.

In answering the question as to whether we really want an inter-
national copyright, I should like to consider it under two proposi-
tions; namely, (1) whether our own authors need it, and (2)
whether the British authors need it (and, if yea to the latter, how
We can give it to them at all). In answering these questions, I
would like to premise, first, that personally I am in favor of an
international copyright with England; that I am not only in favor
of, but some years ago labored hard to secure, one (at my own
expense), and contributed money to assist the labors of others in
the same direction. Nay, further, I once devised a plan by which
a case should be constructed, like the celebrated greenback case,
wherein an English citizen should write and publish a book in this
country, an American publisher pirate and print it, and the English-
man begin an action for the infringement and an accounting; and
so go up to the Supreme Court of the United States on the question
whether the Constitution of the United States by its exact words,
or by any statute enacted by virtue of such exact words or grant of
power therein clothed, did forbid, or deny in this single instance,
the natural right which every man has to his own, — to his prop-
erty. And I may add (in self-defence, lest what I am led to say in
this paper may look as if I am of different mind now from what I
was then) that I believe the abstract act of printing for gain, without
license therefor, of literary matter one has not produced and which
belongs to another, is larceny, pure and simple, and therefore
without color of moral excuse.

Let us examine the second question, as to the British author,
first. If an Englishman brings his horse to this country, it does not
become the less his horse. If I break in upon that Englishman’s
stables and appropriate that horse, it is horse-stealing on my part ;
and if I use the horse so appropriated, and earn money by using it,
and present the Englishman with a portion of my winnings, I am
none the less a stealer of horses. Similarly, if a publisher takes an
Englishman’s book without the Englishman’s consent, and pub-
lishes it, he has appropriated what does not belong to him; and if
the book so republished sell, and the publisher presents the Eng-
lishman with a portion of the proceeds of the sales (or with the en-
tire proceeds, for that matter), the fact that the publisher has ap-
propriated what does not belong to him, and so committed an
immoral act, is not affected in the least. But, unfortunately, it is
one of the accompaniments of the curse of Adam that nations must
legislate for their own people, and make treaties with each other on
only the one principle, the selfish principle, of expediency, — of what is
expedient to themselves and to their own people. Indeed, no attempt
has ever been made, so far as I am aware, to maintain nations on

[VoL. X. No, 232

purely moral grounds. No nation that I am aware of, on being invaded
by a foreign foe, has said, ‘“‘ You are right, we are morally wrong,
therefore we will not fight you: take our nation, we have erred, and
deserve to lose our homes.” And, to go a little further, no nation
that I am aware of has ever enacted laws for the benefit of citizens
of another nation, or even for the benefit of a certain class or guild, or
association of citizens of another nation, simply because it was mor-
ally right that such laws should be passed, or because the citizens of
that country, or class, or guild, or association thereof, had really a
moral right to something which the fact that they were not citizens
of the nation enacting the laws had theretofore withheld from them.
Could or would the British Parliament enact a law for the benefit
of American statesmen, or American lawyers, or American physi-
cians, without the comment that one man was as good as another,
and that if Parliament proposed to give American statesmen, or
lawyers, or physicians, equal rights with English subjects in Eng-
land, the law should be for the benefit of all Americans, whatever
the profession by which they earned their bread, not for a single
class thereof, since the Law should be no respecter of persons ?
Clearly, the English author can only petition the American Congress.
for a statute of Anglo-American international copyright on the
ground that he is a man, and that it is wrong to take his property
without his consent ; and the only answer to that statement will be,
that the laws of national expediency do not, Arzma facze, permit a
nation to pass statutes to secure special justice to a special class of
aliens, although it is equally true that no civilized nation denies
equal justice, under its general laws, to any man by reason of his
alienage.

Second, so far as the American author is concerned, I apprehend
that one reason why Congress cannot pass a statute of Anglo-
American international copyright on the petition of American au-
thors is because Americans can not (or at least because they do not)
present a case, or at least a grievance, upon which Congress can act.
Legislatures in constitutional countries can no more enact statutes.
than courts can find judgments or issue decrees, without a statement
of facts, positive and special: neither the Legislature nor the court
can act upon mere generalities. And generalities are all that our
American authors can present (or at least have so far presented)
to Congress. When any one, or one hundred, American authors
can show to Congress that anybody is being specially damaged by
the absence of such a statute as they pray for, then the time will
come for the showing to be legislated upon. Let the petition recite
that A is, and always has been, an American author ; that he is de-
pendent upon his trade or profession of authorship for his daily
bread ; that he cannot earn any money for his authorship unless he
can secure a publisher ; that he cannot secure a publisher, although
he has made every effort in good faith; and that he is informed,
and believes, that the reason why he cannot secure a publisher
is because Congress has hitherto neglected or refused to pass
a statute enacting an Anglo-American international copyright. On
such a showing as that, Congress could act: could appoint a com-
mittee to inquire into the facts, and, if found as stated, report a bill
for the relief of A. But is it not the fact, that, while any number of
American authors are willing to sign a round-robin at any time
for an Anglo-American international copyright, no single author
has ever been known to come forward and make such a petition, or
show such a loss or grievance, anywhere or to anybody ?

Or if the round-robin of American authors could join in a peti-
tion of another sort: Let A, B, C, and D respectfully show that they
are citizens of the United States; that, by reason of the neglect or
failure of Congress to pass a statute enacting an Anglo-American
international copyright, there is a dearth of books, or magazines, or
other published matter in the United States; and that by reason of
this dearth of books they cannot pursue their studies, or procure
reading-matter for themselves or their families; that they are, by
reason of this state of things, suffering great loss and hardship,
etc.,— there, again, would be a state of facts into which Congress
could inquire, and, if found doxa fide, could legislate. But I am
afraid that this last round-robin would have hardly a leg to stand
on, in the current year at least, from the fact that in the office of
the Librarian of Congress, the legal depository for copyrights, the
entries have footed up to 31,229, of which 4,676 were for bound
volumes, being an increase of 588 over any previous year, as I learn

Juv 15, 1887.]

from the Librarian of Congress. If, therefore, Congress cannot find
any individual to say that he is a sufferer by the present state of
affairs, and cannot find anybody to depose that the country is suf-
fering, where is the case to meet which, or the hardship to remove
which, Congress can act ?

As to the constitutional powers of Congress to pass laws result-
ing in an admission of Englishmen to full privileges of our laws so
far as the protection of literary property is concerned, perhaps a
word may be said; though, from the above considerations, it would
hardly affect the fact, that, however constitutional the action to be
taken, Congress must have some pretext upon which to base their
action.

When the Constitution of the United States was framed, it gave
Congress power to pass laws ‘to promote the progress of science
and the useful arts’ by securing for limited times to authors and
inventors the exclusive right to their respective writings and dis-
coveries. It is argued, that, — since the words used are, ‘to promote
science and the useful arts,-— this clause must be construed to mean
that the framers were not thinking particularly of the citizens of
the Republic, but rather of the sciences and the useful arts, in their
anxiety that the new commonwealth should grow in intelligence
and intellectual strength. But, since the presumption is always
that a State legislates for the benefit of its own citizens first, even
before it legislates for the abstract benefit of arts and sciences ; and
for the practical worldly prosperity, safety, and peace and tran-
quillity of its citizens, even before conservation of their intellec-
tuality, — something more, I suppose, than abstract argument will
be required by Congress before it will be satisfied that those pre-
sumptions have been disposed of, and the constitutional clause suffi-
ciently widened for them to act upon a generality.

Commercially speaking, questions of copyright as a matter of
fact are at present of very minor importance in the jurisprudence
of the United States. As a matter of exact calculation, decisions
upon questions of literary property do not occupy one sixty-fifth of
one per cent of the time of our courts. It is impossible to deny
that such a consideration as this may, in its turn, have some effect
upon the indisposition of Congress to legislate upon questions of
copyright ; though that it can militate in the slightest against the
right of every man to his own, of course nobody can pretend for a
moment. The real value of the subject, being thus appraised by
the despotic laws of trade and of supply and demand, need not be
further assessed. But I have no doubt but that the great resources
of the English language, and the perfect ease and impunity with
which any literary work can be pirated by paraphrase, have some-
thing to do with this estimate. Eleven years ago I myself prepared
a legal treatise on this very subject of copyright, and my publishers
issued it in two octavo volumes of some fifteen hundred pages.
Since copyright cases rarely appear in the digests, and only occa-
sionally in the reports (being mostly settled, if they get into court
at all, at special term), I was at the pains of considerable servile
labor in collecting my cases at first-hand from counsel and the
court records. But no sooner had my book appeared, than a general
writer for the press, who, among other lucubrations, had been favor-
ing a popular weekly with dissertations to the effect that copyright
should not exist and be limited by statute at all, but by common
law, and so be perpetual,— and that therefore the law was a robber
and a villain— gathered up these dissertations, and bound them,
along with my cases, into a book; which, as it came later than
mine, by the inexorable law-book rule, superseded it. To conceal
the plagiarism, this last writer was at great pains to display in his
volume a list of the authorities he had consulted, taking in authors
a century or so back, but carefully omitting my work of the year
before (which he, however, reviewed at great length in a daily news-
paper), out of which he had nevertheless obtained all his recent,
and the bulk of his valuable, material. Now, here was no apparent
nor technical piracy,—nothing against which I could demur, or
courts relieve. The example has survived its importance, and (since
the last-coming volume is already effete) lawyers have so rarely oc-
casion to open it, that I doubt if they have even discovered that its
letter-press reads one way, and the cases it cites another. But I
recall it here to show how small, at the most, is the real protection
an author gets from the act of taking out a copyright; and how
easily even technical matter can be pirated with impunity. But

SCIENCE.

27

when it comes to general propositions the protection vanishes alto-
gether; for we can equally well say, ‘the sun shines’ or ‘the orb of
day illuminates,’ ‘the rain falls’ or ‘it rains,’ ‘gravity controls’ or
‘the attraction of gravitation governs,’ ‘the statute provides’ or ‘it
is enacted by the statute,’ etc.; and a very little ingenuity indeed
will suffice to make a later book entirely entitled to copyright, while
actually, consecutively, and unblushingly pirating the entire contents
of its most recent predecessor by the simple and artless process of
paraphrasing it. Certainly there is no law, rule, or custom of the
copyright bureau to prevent; no oath of originality, novelty, or
utility is required, as in the case of application for a patent. Any-
body can mail a titlepage and fifty cents to the Librarian of Con-
gress, and, on publication of his matter, two printed copies of some-
thing whose drift or contents corresponds to that titlepage; and
this,— entirely irrespective of the source, authorship, proprietorship,
or character of the matter forwarded,— gives a complete copyright
under our statutes. Under such trivial, almost childish conditions,
is it worth while to inquire exactly what franchises we are proposing
to enlarge, or whether, on enforcing them, the constant and inevi-
table percentage of evasion will be increased or lessened? Our
present statutes of copyright give the very minimum of protection,
at the very maximum of expense; but the amendment they need is
not just now, perhaps, in an international direction. For the
American author, however, they do afford a certain amount of se-
curity, from the very fact of their being upon the statute-books ;
while, as to the English author, the purchase by our publishers of
advance sheets — which, by the constantly decreasing time-distance
between New York and London, is becoming much the cheapest
thing our high-class publishing-houses can do— makes almost any
piracy on this side labor under the great disadvantage of delay and
a remainder-market already supplied. And as to the piracy of
current standard works, we can, of course, pass no ex fost
Sacto laws.

Again: British authors have never ceased, I think, to press with
whatever interest here they could muster, for international copy-
right between their own country and ours. But it is only since a
remarkable series of letters by the late Charles Reade, addressed
(about twelve years ago) to a New York City daily newspaper, —
claiming that American authors suffered more than English ones
by non-international copyright relations between the two countries,
—that American authors have been found sending in their round-
robins and petitions for a treaty or a statute securing such comity.
Are our American authors quite sure that Mr. Charles Reade was
entirely disinterested, or, as he claimed to be, entirely devoted to the
interests of American authors, when he wrote? That it was not only
a new tack, after all, from the English standpoint? Are American
authors quite sure, if English authors could copyright over here,
that American publishers would not still prefer the English to the
home author; that he would not, perhaps, write quite as interesting
novels and quite as competent text-books; that from King Log our
American author would not find he had been appealing to King
Stork ?

As a matter of fact, there are numerically very few publishing-
houses indeed at present engaged in reprinting English copyrighted
books without English license. And by actual examination of the
trade-lists of these, moreover, I find that they are publishing
mostly such books as are called ‘standard;’ namely, the works of
English anthology, letters, and science, from Shakspeare, Bacon,
Locke, Newton, and the like, down to Tennyson, Browning, Darwin,
Huxley, Tyndall; which latter (simply because they do not sell
popularly, with the exception, perhaps, of Tennyson) they do not
reprint at all. Now, although the descendants of William Shak-
speare, could we find them, have a perfect copyright at: common
law in their ancestor’s plays (for there were no statutes of copyright
in William’s day, and what is now American was English soil),
there is no claim in that quarter for our publishers to sin against;
and it is only the living English authors, mostly the novelists, who
are moving for international comity. Now, the English novelists
are a fraternity to which we owe a good deal in this country. For
my own part, 1 would miss a large fraction of the amenities of
existence without them. But the question is, are they a large
enough body politically and economically, from an international
point of view, to justify treaties or other international legislation

28 SGIENGE:

especially since no such legislation can be retroactive so as to com-
pensate them for past losses ?

As to American literature, I may repeat, that the constitutional
right of Congress to provide an international copyright with Eng-
land is based on the constitutional clause, when interpreted to mean
that Congress has the right, not to encourage authors guoad
authors, but to encourage the growth of literature and the arts per
se; and this (though I have them not by me) I understood to be the
gist of the arguments of my esteemed friend, E. L. Andrews, Esq.,
before a committee from one of the houses of Congress, and of Mr.
Thorvald Solberg in a late letter to Sczeuce. I rather doubt, my-
self, if the framers of the Constitution were thinking, at that precise
date, of future flights in literature and art, instead of the new born
nation for which they were drafting organic laws, or if the pre-
sumption is not that they were thinking of the latter; but, at any
rate, I am of opinion that the absence of an international copyright
with England is rather more of an incentive to emulation on the
part of our American authors than its presence could possibly be.
Just as the highest standard produces the highest scholarship, so, it
seems to me, the fact that, other things being equal, the American
publisher prefers to print the Englishman’s work rather than the
American’s, is a tremendous inducement to the American to make
things zzequal in his own favor. Said a writer of novels, an
American, to me the other evening, “ The public buy novels, — not
your novels, nor my novels, but novels,—and I ought not to be
obliged to compete with stolen goods. — But if that be the case,”
said I, “it appears that you are not competing with stolen goods
necessarily, but with your brother novel-writers. Stolen goods are
the accident, no doubt, of your trade, but not to a larger proportion
than of any other trade. Your remedy, it seems to me, is not to
petition for international copyright, but to give your goods such a
character and reputation that consumers will take none but yours.
If you assume a commercial standpoint, you must take the conse-
quences of it.”

However, in dealing with the guild of authorship, we must never
forget that all the members, indiscriminately, of that guild, deserve
our grateful recognition; and this is equally, I think, the public
sentiment of this continent; and besides, as to any of the craft,
alien or native, in these questions one should always remember that
authors and dealers in literary property do not exactly stand upon a
bread-and-butter basis. As to the author, he is a gentleman who
has deliberately selected the worst-paid and least-thanked of the
professions, —a profession which not only attracts the minimum of
commercial attention, but practically unfits him for ever leaving its
walks for any other, —and therefore he should be treated, if not
with that benign munificence which the law extends to sailors and
infants, at least with the consideration and self-abnegation of his
fellow-men.

So far as the question of an international copyright with England
goes, I personally have never abandoned my belief in its righteous-
ness. However doubtful of the constitutional powers of Congress
to enact one by special statute, I am able to see no reason why the
present statute cannot be amended (say, by substitution of the word
‘person’ for the words ‘citizen of the United States’) so as to
practically enact one: or treaty made with Great Britain, which, under
the treaty-making power, might shield itself from any judicial ques-
tion whatever. As to an international copyright with France, Ger-
many, or other continental nation, it is needless to add, the con-
siderations I have suggested above do not in any wise apply.

APPLETON MORGAN.

THE INCREASE OF STATE INTERFERENCE IN THE
UNITED STATES. — III.

WE have now before us what is said in a general way by repre-
sentative men among the economists and students of political sci-
ence with respect to the character of recent legislation, so far as it
bears upon the question as to the increase of State interference.
We have sufficient data to justify the opinion that laws having a
tendency to interference are on the increase, and that this increase
is pretty general throughout the country. It remains to discuss the
views entertained by our correspondents as to the advisability of
such legislation. These views are extremely diverse, and show very

[Vour 2+ INo.-232

clearly the absence of any organized body of widely influential
economic thought in this country. Sixteen per cent of our corre—
spondents are unreservedly in favor of the unlimited extension of
State control: they are therefore logically State socialists. We be-
lieve, however, that this proportion is far larger than that which
obtains among either professed economists or the people at large.
Twenty-seven per cent of our correspondents are in a general way
favorable to the extension of State control, but would guard such
extension carefully. Twenty-four per cent view State control with
disfavor as a principle, but would admit it in certain cases. Thirty
per cent are unreservedly, some of them violently, opposed to State
control, and express themselves with much directness and force. A
comparatively small number rest their opposition on /azssez-fazre
as an economic doctrine, the larger number assigning other reasons.
Three per cent express no opinion, and are therefore classed as.
non-committal.

In noticing the able pamphlet of Prof. Henry C. Adams, ‘ The
Relation of the State to Industrial Action’ (Sczezce, ix. No. 222),
we pointed out that he lays down three guiding principles for the
regulation of State interference. It will be well to recall these prin—
ciples, and keep them in mind for comparison with what is said on
the subject by others. The principles referred to were, (1) the
State may determine the plane of competitive action, (2) the State
may realize for society the benefits of monopoly, (3) social har—
mony may be restored by extending the duties of the State.

Professor Cooper of Carleton College, Minnesota, says, “I be-
lieve the State should interfere to control powerful monopolies, but
this power cannot be wisely used by such men as are chosen to our
State Legislatures.”

Frank R. Morrisey of the Omaha (Neb.) Herald strongly opposes:
State interference. He would check it by “the education of public
sentiment to the fallibility of majorities through the columns of the
press, the pulpit and the rostrum, infusing a broader knowledge of
the privileges of personal liberty, and impressing upon the citizen
the necessity for the consideration of every other citizen’s:
opinions.”

William Alvord of San Francisco believes in amendments to the
State constitutions, forbidding the enactment of local or special
laws. He says, that, since the adoption of the new California con-
stitution, the bound volumes of session-laws have decreased from
over 1,000 pages to 270 pages or thereabouts.

Prof. Jesse Macy despairs of any reform so long as thinkers and
teachers beat the air, and keep out of speaking-distance with the
people who are in governmental difficulties.

Prof. Henry C. Adams thinks that the increasing attention now
being devoted to political science will in time produce less unsatis-
factory legislation.

C. Caverno, Esq., of Lombard, Ill., is very optimistic. He finds.
in the increasing interference only renewed adaptation to the social
environment. “In my judgment,” he tells us, “our legislation is:
predominantly wholesome: the work of man rarely appears to so
good advantage as therein.”

Herbert L. Osgood of Brooklyn, N.Y., says, “ Take the world
over, political theories at the present time tend strongly toward the
advocacy of more State interference. This is doubtless in response
to a real need. The statutes of this nation, as well as those of
Europe, will probably yield to this impulse to a certain extent; but
theories always far outrun practice. The Republic does not neces—
sarily lead toward individual freedom, but the spirit of private
enterprise is too strongly developed in this country to yield to a
paternal government. I believe the restrictions upon the freedom of
the individual coming from public opinion and social custom are in
this country more dangerous than those to be feared from the laws.”

Assemblyman E. H. Crosby of New York City believes that the
increase of legislative interference is the result of a popular demand
for it. This demand, to be intelligent, must be directed by sound
political science, and the dissemination of this is the need of the
hour.

Morris F. Tyler of Connecticut is a representative of those who-
think that unlimited /azssez-fazre will work a cure in time. Prof.
A. T. Hadley does not believe it worth while to try to check it,
but would let extremists pass such laws as they please. These
could not be enforced, and would either be repealed or become a

Juty 15, 1887.]

dead letter. Prof. John B. Clark of Smith College would trust to
political education. ‘The specific point,” he says, “in which in-
telligence can do the most immediate good, is in the labor-organi-
zations from which the political pressure proceeds.”

The Chicago Zrzbune sends us the following: “The Zrzbune
holds that restrictive legislation is not only advisable, but necessary,
though admitting it may be carried too far, and has often been
overdone in the past. You have doubtless noticed that the relative
breadth of restrictive legislation varies with the development of
civilization ina community. At first all is arbitrary, each offence
being treated on what the judge or judges (maybe dictator or ple-
biscite) regard as the merits of the individual case, without regard
to precedent. As the community grows, the tendency is to swing
towards the other extreme, and the resulting over-legislation is more
slowly corrected. Bad laws are repealed, good ones consolidated, and
special legislation forbidden for the future by constitutional enactment.
These three phases may be said to be approximately represented by
the mining-camp in this country, the frontier State, and the older
State. [Illinois is a senior of Minnesota in the family of States, and
may therefore be expected to be less paternal in legislation. And
there is reason to believe that a careful comparison of the two
would show this to be the fact. Undoubtedly the best form of
government, and we may even say the ideal one, is that in which
an appeal to the common law would suffice as a rule of action in
all courts, and its interpretation be found adequate to the punish-
ment of wrong-doing by any member of the community, however
prominent he may be. But no State in the Union has yet reached
the stage where this could be depended upon; and, till this has
been attained by a process of slow growth, it seems to be necessary
to resort to some kind of special legislation to provide against new
forms of wrong doing which every now and then crop out in the
race between conscientiousness and rascality.”

Prof. E. J. James prefers to secure better legislation by improv-
ing the grade of legislators. He would not “restrict the power to
Legislatures to do much good, for fear they may do some harm,”
by constitutional amendments.

The replies mentioned above are fairly typical of the divergent
views presented. Had space permitted, we should have been glad
to produce more of our replies in full. But our end is gained if we
shall have succeeded in directing thoughtful attention to the ten-
dency developing among us. As Dr. Shaw says in his original
article, we think we are proceeding on one economic theory, but our
actual legislation is in direct opposition to that theory. We are not
asking for a restoration of /azssez-fazre ; but we should like to know
whether this perpetual running to the Legislature for purely private
enactments meets with the approval of the thinking men of the
country. We do not believe that it does. We believe, with Pro-
fessor Perry of Williams College, that interference results from the
attempts, often successful, of individuals to accomplish, in thename
of the State, their own personal ambitions and desires. We believe
that when the people at large realize the extent to which paternal-
ism in legislation has developed, they will declare themselves with
no uncertain sound as in favor of the fundamental American prin-
ciple of individual liberty and individual responsibility. They will
just as emphatically refuse to permit the State’s power to be prosti-
tuted to personal ends.

HEALTH MATTERS.
Preventive Medicine.

IN an address on the recent advances in preventive medicine, de-
livered at the thirty-eighth annual meeting of the American Medi-
cal Association, Dr. G. H. Rohé stated that the danger of an invasion
of this country by cholera was greater than it had been at any time
during the past three years. The United States are threatened
from three sources: first, from Europe, by way of the Atlantic
Ocean ; second from Japan, by way of the Pacific; and, third, from
the west coast of South America, by way of the Pacific, or by way
of Mexico and our southern border. The Isthmus of Panama and
the South Atlantic lines of transportation may also act as gateways
to the infection.

In this address, Dr. Rohé refers to the researches of Shakspeare,
Koch, and Pettenkofer into the relations between cholera and its

‘

SCIENCE. 6

bacillus or spirillum. He, also alludes to the claims of Freire of
Brazil, and Carmona of Mexico, concerning protective inoculations
against yellow-fever, and to the fact that these claims are now be-
ing investigated by Dr. Sternberg, under the authority of the presi-
dent. A brief history is given of the cases of scarlet-fever which
have occurred in England, apparently having their origin in milk
from diseased cows. We have already mentioned these cases and
the able investigation of them by Mr. W. H. Power of the English
local government board. The subjects of tuberculosis and typhoid-
fever also receive attention.

Decided advances have been made in the disposal of the refuse
of cities. The cremation of garbage has been carried out at Mon-
treal, Canada, and at Wheeling, W.Va. The irrigation system of
sewage-disposal has been greatly extended in Germany. In Berlin
it has given great satisfaction, the sewage of 900,000 people being
carried to irrigation-fields, and the water which drains off being
submitted to chemical examination for evidences of pollution, which
were discovered but once during an entire year. The objection
that this system of sewage-treatment is not applicable in cold
climates is invalid, as is shown by the results in Pullman, IIl., and
in Dantzig, Germany. Birmingham, England, with a population of
600,000, has adopted the irrigation system, and the income realized
during 1885 from the sale of stock and produce from the sewage-
farm amounted to over $100,000.

During the past year the poisonous effects of tyrotoxicon, dis-
covered by Professor Vaughan, have been witnessed repeatedly in
persons who have taken milk and ice-cream. Professor Vaughan
has made the suggestion that this ptomaine may be the active
cause of cholera-infantum. The question of public baths is treated
very fully in the address. Public, like private, bathing institutions
must make provision for individual baths. Large pools, in which
many persons bathe at once, fail to answer the requirements of
Sanitary science or of public decency. A French army surgeon,
Duval, has overcome this difficulty, and now both the French and
German soldiers have proper facilities for bathing. The latter are
required to bathe every week, the government furnishing the bath-
room, warm water, soap, and towels. In our army and navy no
steps have been taken to introduce this reform, although Dr.
Billings has shown its feasibility. Dr. Lassar of Berlin has demon-
strated the practicability of separate bath-rooms in connection with
public bathing, and has been urging the extension of the military
system to the civil population, so that every German may have his
weekly bath. He gives excellent illustrations of the practical bene-
fits to be derived from the adoption of such a system. At the
white-lead works in Ehrenfeld, the eighty employees are required
to bathe weekly, the facilities being furnished by the proprietor.
In the first year, 1884, the sickness was reduced twenty per cent,
and in 1885 it was reduced still lower, fifty per cent. In certain
dye-works in Berlin, ten rooms, containing shower-baths, have been
provided for workmen and their families, and for all who desire to
use them. In G6ttingen, with a population of 21,000, of which
number 3,000 are children who attend the public schools, baths are
fitted up in the basement of one of the school-houses. A class of
fifty can bathe in an hour. Each child has the opportunity of
bathing once in two weeks, and seventy-five per cent of the children
avail themselves of it. The authorities and teachers are unanimous
upon the point that the system is of great benefit to the children,
not only from its direct sanitary advantage, but from the habits of
cleanliness formed, to which they are likely to adhere through life.
The only cities in the United States having public baths are, Bos-
ton, with 17; New York, 15; Philadelphia, 5; Brooklyn, 3 ; Cleve-
land and Hartford, each 1; and Buffalo, the number not given. In
New York, 3,431,086 persons bathed from June to October in 1883;
during the same time in Boston, 959,765 ; and in Brooklyn, 225,885.
In eighteen cities where there are no public baths, only about
twenty-three per cent of the residences are supplied with bath-tubs.

Dr. Rohé concludes his address with a statement of some of the
results of the application of sanitary measures, quoting the statistics
of Dr. Baker in Michigan, and Dr. Ogle in Great Britain. The
address is an admirable ~éswmdé of what has been done in the realm
of preventive medicine, and no one can read it without being im-
pressed with the great strides which have recently been made in
this field of research.

30

WHAT TO EAT WITH TEA AND COFFEE.—In the Journal of
Anatomy and Physiology, Dr. J. W. Fraser reports the results of
his experiments on the action of tea, coffee, and cocoa on stomach
and intestinal digestion. He summarizes his views by the following
recommendations and deductions: 1. That it is better not to eat
most albuminoid food-stuffs at the same time as infused beverages
are taken; for it has been shown that their digestion will in most
cases be retarded, though there are possibly exceptions. Absorp-
tion may be rendered more rapid, but there is a loss of nutritive
substance. On the other hand, the digestion of starchy food appears
to be assisted by tea and coffee; and gluten, the albuminoid of
flour, has been seen to be the principle least retarded in digestion
by tea, and it only comes third with cocoa, while coffee has ap-
parently a much greater retarding action on it. From this it
appears that bread is the natural accompaniment of tea and cocoa
when used as the beverages at a meal. Perhaps the action of
coffee is the reason why, in this country, it is usually drunk alone
or at breakfast, —a meal which consists much of meat, and of
meats (egg and salt meats) which are not much retarded in diges-
tion by coffee. 2. That eggs are the best form of animal food to be
taken along with infused beverages, and that apparently they are
best lightly boiled if tea, hard boiled if coffee or cocoa, is the bever-
age. 3. That the caseine of the milk and cream taken with the
beverages is probably absorbed in a large degree from the stomach,
and that the butter used with bread undergoes digestion more
slowly in the presence of tea, but more quickly in the presence of
coffee or cocoa; that is, if the fats of butter are influenced in a
way similar to oleine. 4. That the use of coffee or cocoa as excipi-
ents for cod-liver oil, etc., appears not only to depend on their pro-
nounced tastes, but also on their action in assisting the digestion
of fats.

CONSUMPTION. — At the recent meeting of the American
Climatological Association held in Baltimore, the discussion of pul-
monary consumption occupied an important position. The address
of the president, Dr. F. Donaldson, sen., was on the prophylactic
treatment of those who inherit a predisposition to phthisis. He
thinks that we are justified in assuming from statistics that this
disease is diminishing. In England there has been a gain in males
of fourteen per cent, and in females of twenty-two per cent, while
in Massachusetts there has been a gain of fifty-four lives in every
hundred thousand. Thirty per cent of the cases have an inherited
predisposition to the disease. This hereditary form, when de-
veloped, offers the least prospect of recovery. He regards the
acceptance of Koch’s bacillus as well-nigh universal. Its constant
presence in phthisis must be accepted as the full explanation of the
manifestation of tuberculosis. Persons who are predisposed to the
disease may develop it by the inhalation of the dried bacillus from
the expectoration of diseased persons. The prophylactic treatment
embraces two elements : (1) the improvement of the general health
of the subject, and (2) the protection from contagion. The tuber-
culous mother should not nurse her child, but, if possible, it should
be given to a healthy wet-nurse. The hygiene of the nursery should
be looked after carefully. The room should be well ventilated, and
kept at a comparatively low temperature. The subject should live
much out of doors, especially between the ages of fifteen and twenty
years. The beneficial effect of sunlight should be borne in mind.
The physical form of the chest should be enlarged by gymnastic
movements. If possible, life should be passed in high altitudes.
Oleaginous fluids are useful if they can be digested. The milk and
flesh of tuberculous animals must be avoided, for cooking rarely
destroys the bacilli of beef. If the prophylactic treatment is
thoroughly carried out, the hereditary proclivity may remain latent,
and the individual never contract the disease. In the discussion
of the general subject, Dr. Bruen considered that in tubercular
phthisis the influence of sea-air was disastrous. Those cases
which are most benefited by prolonged sea-voyages are those in
which there is no inherited tendency to tuberculosis. Dr. Bowditch
thought that a great distinction should be made in speaking of the
seacoast-air and the pure sea-air. Cases which could not stand the
harsh, cold, and changeable air of the seacoast may be benefited
by a sea-voyage, or residence on an island some distance from
the shore, where the conditions are similar to those which are ob-
tained in a sea-voyage. Dr. Knight remarked that he knew of

SCIENCE.

[Vor X. .No.'232

several patients who had improved and gained in weight during a
stay at some of the coldest resorts on the New England coast. Dr.
Wilson gave it as the result of his experience that there were three
classes of consumptive patients who cannot go to the Atlantic sea-
coast without risk: (1) those in whom there is active febrile dis-
turbance, (2) those who have a highly excitable nervous organi-
zation, (3) those who suffer from repeated attacks of spitting of
blood.

BRAIN-WOUNDS. — At a meeting of the American Surgical
Association held in Washington, Dr. D. Hayes Agnew of Phila-
delphia discussed the medico-legal aspect of wounds of the brain
and thorax. The study of the subject was suggested by a recent
case which occurred in Newport, in which a colored man was found
dead under the breakfast-table. He had food in his mouth, and a
wound of the head and the heart. The question was as to the
possibility of these wounds being self-inflicted. Dr. Agnew, after
a thorough examination into the subject, states that injury to the
brain is not necessarily followed by loss of consciousness or paraly-
sis. Numerous instances have occurred in which, after injury to
the heart, the individual had performed many acts. He concluded
that it is possible for a ball to enter the brain without destroying
consciousness, although for a moment it may cause mental con-
fusion, and that a suicide may shoot himself in the head, and after
a moment shoot himself in the heart. In the particular case which
gave rise to the discussion, it was demonstrated that the deceased
had been murdered, his son-in-law confessing the crime.

BOOK-REVIEWS.

The Effect of the War of 1812 upon the Consolidation of the
Union. By NICHOLAS MURRAY BUTLER, Ph.D. Baltimore,
Publication Agency of the Johns Hopkins University.

A VERY interesting subject is treated with tantalizing brevity in
the monograph which forms the seventh number in the fifth series
of the ‘Johns Hopkins University Studies in Historical and Politi-
cal Science.’ Dr. Butler has confined himself wholly to one line
of investigation, avoiding the many fascinating questions that are
collateral to it, and freeing his own discussion of the main subject
from all but the very briefest comment. He desires to show, first,
that real peril to the perpetuity of the Union sprang from the anti-
nationalistic theories broached in the first decade of the present
century ; and, second, that the immediate effect of the war of 1812
was so to stimulate national pride and strengthen the waning desire
for national unity as to avert that peril until it confronted the State
once more at a later day, allied with the political interests of
slavery.

The term ‘ anti-nationalistic,’ which Dr. Butler uses, serves a very
convenient purpose ; for it cannot be truly said, that, as a practical
factor of national politics, the doctrine of State sovereignty was
more the property of the Democratic than of the Federal party.
It was really a question between the ins and the outs. Although
the first clear statement of the principle of State sovereignty is
found in the Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions, and hence must
be regarded as Democratic, still, in the practical application of that
principle, the Federalists of the Massachusetts and Connecticut
Legislatures and of the unfortunate Hartford Convention were
not a whit behind their old opponents; and Dr. Butler makes it
very clear, that, until a foreign war had drawn the popular attention
away from internal dissensions to the public peril, neither party
was truly animated by a consistent and continuous desire for gen-
uine union. That the war of 1812 was in its inception a party war,
is, of course, quite true ; yet in 1816 the people, as a whole, made
it evident by their votes that they had united in approving it, and
that they rejoiced, with a thrill of national pride that was wholly
new, over the brilliant victories of the American navy, and of Jack-
son’s army at New Orleans. Of this curious change in popular
sentiment, Dr. Butler gives us much interesting corroborative testi-
mony, and, strangely enough, from men of the same party that
first paved the way for the later doctrines of Calhoun and Hayne.

“The war,” says Dr. Butler, “had ruined the particularists: it
had made all nationalists, if we may use the word. The bonds of
the early days of the Revolution were forged anew, and the

‘

JuLy 15, 1887. ]

Patriotism and national pride had
The era of good

nation’s heart beat as one.
conquered sectionalism and personal selfishness,
feeling had dawned.”

It may seem to the general reader that the author regards the
beneficial effects of the war as wholly transient and temporary, —
good while they lasted, but soon to be entirely obliterated : in other
words, that the sentiment of nationalism which then made itself
apparent was a thing of present interest rather than of permanent
importance. “Although zo¢ destzned to be permanent,” says Dr.
Butler on p. 26, “the national feeling it produced was something
entirely novel.” ‘The ebb was to be greater than the flow,” is
another expression that may mislead. But the author clearly does
not mean to ignore the fact that the war of 1812 did, in truth, lay
the foundation for that imposing constitutional structure which
Webster and his followers were to build, and which fell not in the
time of trial, being founded on a rock. In fact, from the year 1816
begins the true development of a party devoted to the preservation
of the Union; and if Dr. Butler does not follow out this line of
thought, it is because he has distinctly limited his discussion to the
consideration of the immediate results, and declined to enter upon
investigations too extensive for the pages of a monograph.

1S 18S ee

The Principles of Morals. By Professors FOWLER and WILSON.
Oxford, Clarendon Pr.

TREATISES in ethics seem more numerous in the last decade than
in any other. The revival of interest in this subject reminds us of
the emergencies that called forth the moral earnestness of Plato.
Indeed, the revolution going on in present ethical speculations is a
repetition of the sophistic movement in Greece, and seems to pro-
voke similar reconstructive efforts. But the task this time is a
greater one than that with which earlier moralists had to contend.

The successors of Professor Green follow that lamented author's
«Prolegomena ’ with a very different discussion of ethical problems.
The work is the joint product of two authors, and consists of two
parts. The introduction is mainly historical, but contains suffi-
cient criticism to determine the position of the writers. It is
admirably free from the long and labored discussions about pleas-
ure which make so many systems of ethics tedious and useless.
Only a few pages are devoted to methods of ethics, the authors
not being willing to repeat the satisfactory work of Mr. Sidgwick,
with whom they substantially agree. The second part is a
pointed and direct discussion of those questions having an immedi-
ate interest for present speculative morals. Theories of ethics,
that limbo of wasted energies, are entirely abandoned for the
psychological examination of moral facts as they appear in the
life of the individual and of society. A characteristic feature of the
work is its unconscious betrayal of the immense influence exerted
upon ethical conceptions by modern scientific thought, and espe-
cially by the doctrine of evolution.

The decline of theology, and of conceptions of life founded upon
it, has disparaged the theonomic view of morals as advocated by
men like Bishop Martensen ; and a re-action against such ethics,
led by the principle of evolution, has forced into great prominence
the consideration of self-regarding impulses to action. The first
chapter shows this very distinctly. The last completes the separa-
tion between theology and morals.

There is an important remark in the chapter on self-regarding
feelings which is the keynote to all social and moral questions of
the present time. It is this: “While man lives from hand to
mouth, the want of the ,necessaries of life, the hard struggle for
existence, leaves neither leisure nor inclination for the development
of the higher faculties.” Professor Green makes a similar remark:
“ Until life has been so organized as to afford some regular relief
from the pressure of animal wants, an interest in what Aristotle
calls rd eb (qv, as distinct from rd C7», cannot emerge.” This
means that moral life requires relaxation from perpetual and ex-
hausting toil in order to be realized; and modern ethics have be-
come conscious of the fact that large portions of the human race
have not, and perhaps cannot expect, this exemption. What,
then, about moral life where the industrial classes are condemned
to employments that make it impossible? There is a tincture of
pessimism latent here, and the unfortunates of modern social life

SCIENCE. 31

are learning the real causes of their deplorable condition: like
Enceladus, they are trying to turn over, and to relieve themselves in
their uneasy position. The inequalities of the present cannot be
postponed to the future for adjustment, and egoistic instincts are
likely to assume an arrogance which theological beliefs once
effectually suppressed. Modern civilization is slumbering upon a
volcano, and reminds us of Carlyle’s allusion to Vesuvius: “The
earth, green as she looks, rests everywhere on dread foundations
were we further down; and Pan, to whose music the nymphs
dance, has a cry in him that can drive all men distracted.” Self-
regarding impulses may become dangerous: still no progress is
possible without them, and the marvellous recuperating forces of
human nature will always bring up the unexpected and the im-
possible; so that, amid impending consequences of the most
threatening kind, there may be the promise of escape and security.

The discussion of the sympathetic, the resentful, and the semi-
social feelings is able and suggestive. The freedom of the will is
dismissed in much the same way as it is disposed of by Bain and
Sidgwick. There is an interesting chapter on the relation of the
imagination to moral ideals. The style is like that of most Eng-
lish writers at present, except Mr. Martineau, heavy, and uninter-
esting, — a great fault in subjects which are fast acquiring such
supreme importance.

NOTES AND NEWS.

AT the recent Royal Academy banquet, Professor Huxley con-
cluded his speech thus: “ Art and literature and science are one;
and the foundation of every sound education, and preparation for
active life in which a special education is necessary, should be some
efficient training in all three. At the present time, those who look
at our present systems of education, so far as they are within reach
of any but the wealthiest and most Jeisured class of the community,
will see that we ignore art altogether, that we substitute less profit-
able subjects for literature, and that the observation of inductive
science is utterly ignored. JI sincerely trust, that, pondering upon
these matters, understanding that which you so freely recognize
here, that the three branches of art and science and literature are
essential to the making of a man, to the development of something
better than the mere specialist in any one of these departments — I
sincerely trust that that spirit may in course of time permeate the
mass of the people; that we may at length have for our young peo-
ple an education which will train them in all three branches, which
will enable them to understand the beauties of art, to comprehend
the literature, at any rate, of their own country, and to take such
interest, not in the mere acquisition of science, but in the methods
of inductive logic and scientific inquiry, as will make them equally
fit, whatever specialized pursuit they may afterwards take up. I
see great changes : I see science acquiring a position which it was
almost hopeless to think she could acquire. I am perfectly easy as
to the future fate of scientific knowledge and scientific training:
what I do fear is, that it may be possible that we should neglect
those other sides of the human mind, and that the tendency to in-
roads which is already marked may become increased by the lack
of the general training of early youth to which I have referred.”

— Simultaneously with the appearance of the report of the Sey-
bert Commission on Spiritualism, the J. B. Lippincott Company
publish a volume by John Darby (Dr. Garrettson) with the rather
peculiar title, ‘ Nineteenth-Century Sense: the Paradox of Spiritual-
ism.’ The first fifty pages of the book are printed in small type,
and describe a series of very wonderful experiments in ‘transcen-
dental physics,’ the writing on slates by unseen hands, the slipping
of ‘iron rings upon firmly bound arms, the tying of knots in an
endless rope, materializations and visions, and so on, all performed
with the assistance of a member of the Seybert Commission. These
are recorded with all the enthusiasm and interest of a believer,
when suddenly we are told that his confrére confided to him how
all had been done: it was sense-deception, trickery and nothing
else. From this on, such manifestations have nought to do with
Spiritualism. We now enter a higher sphere and a larger type.
The author is a Rosecrucian (so he tells us), and uses the word as
meaning an illuminatus. He has had revealed to him the inner
meaning of things, and lives in a different world. He then ex-

32

pounds his theories in a language full of incomprehensible cant,
glorying in paradoxes, flying from one topic to another at a most
erratic gait, and beginning and ending nowhere, The whole is
strongly suggestive of a semi-morbid condition of mind, and will
probably have a charm for minds of neurotic temperament that de-
lights in the apparent and exclusive possession of an un-understood
mystery. The redeeming point of the volume is its refusal to ally
itself with coarse, physical deceptions, and thus gives no oppor-
tunity for preying upon the liberality of the credulous.

— The changes in the elevation of the Caspian Sea and the
Baltic have been discussed by Dr. Briickner in a lecture delivered at
the meeting of the German Meteorological Society at Karlsruhe,
and by W. Seibt (‘Das Mittelwasser der Ostsee bei Travemiinde’).
Both authors show by their separate methods that the influence of
the wind upon lakes has been overrated, and that the annual rain-
fall regulates the amount of water in lakes and seas communicating
with the ocean through narrow channels. The amount of water
carried by the Volga regulates the elevation of the surface of the
Caspian Sea, and the same is the case with the Black Sea and its
affluents. Briickner shows that the easterly winds of May and the
westerly winds of July and August have an influence upon the
Baltic, but the thorough discussion of the gauge observations at
Travemiinde by W. Seibt proves that only in April, May, and Sep-
tember the height of the water corresponds to the direction and
pressure of the wind. It appears that the volume of water of the
Baltic is subject to periodical changes. While Briickner believes
that this is entirely due to the changes of the annual rainfall, Seibt
concludes that a periodical annual tide exists in the ocean, which
is observed only in seas in which the daily tide is insignificant.

— Over 60,000,000 caterpillar-cocoons were destroyed on the
trees in Washington during the spring, so that the city will not suf-
fer from this pest this year as badly as formerly.

— U.S. Consul Siler at Cape Town, Africa, has sent to the De-
partment of State an interesting report on leprosy in South Africa.
He says that he has recently read in American papers of the
existence of leprosy on the Pacific coast, with expressions of fear
that the disease may become general. The disease, he states, is
not uncommon in South Africa.

— The sitting statue of Bowditch the navigator, executed in 1847
by Ball Hughes, and long one of the most celebrated monuments
in Mount Auburn cemetery, Cambridge, has just been replaced by
a new casting from the foundry of Gruet jeune of Paris, the old
showing some signs of injury due to defective founding.

LETTERS TO THE EDITOR.

*," The attention of scientific men is called to the advantages of the correspondence
columns of SCIENCE for placing promptly on record brief preliminary notices af
their investigations. Twenty copies of the number containing his communication
will be furnished free to any correspondent on request.

The editor will be glad to publish any queries consonant with the character of
the journal.

Correspondents are requested to be as brief as possible.
in all cases required as proof of good faith.

Ohio Mounds.

HAVING recently made a survey on behalf of the Bureau of
Ethnology, of some of the circles of the ancient works of Ohio, I
wish to call attention, by permission, to one or two facts brought to
light.

This can best be done by an illustration, for which purpose the
“Observatory Circle’ of the works at Newark, Licking County, is
selected (see ‘Ancient Monuments, by Squier and Davis, Plate
xxv. F.).

Running this by means of short chords of seventy-five feet in
length, taking the middle line of the top of the wall, I found the
number to be 44, and twelve feet in addition, or the perimeter of the
polygon 3,312 feet. The course of each chord was taken. While
the variation from one to the other, if the figure were a true circle,
should be about 8° 9’, it was found to vary from one to fifteen de-
grees. But, somewhat to my surprise, it was found that these
variations compensated each other in short distances, so that in
measuring the quarters they almost wholly disappear, the angle of the
first quarter being 44° 52’, and its chord 747 feet; the angle of the
second quarter 45°, and its chord 745 feet; of the third quarter, 44°

The writer's name is

SCIENCE.

[ Vor. X. No. 232

52’, and the chord 744 feet; the fourth quarter was not measured
owing to obstructions. It is therefore apparent that the figure as a
whole is very near a true circle.

But the most singular fact is presented by the diameters. These,
as taken by careful measurements from the quarter-stations,¢are

respectively 1,054 and 1,058 feet, the average of which is 1,056 feet,
precisely sixty-four poles, or sixteen chains.
As there are several other circles of the size, this singular coinci-
dence is, to say the least, interesting. JAMES D. MIDDLETON.
Youngsville, Penn., June 22.

Waterspouts.

BELIEVING that every natural phenomenon, especially when un-
usual or little studied, is worthy of record, we have put down a few
notes about a series of waterspouts which passed here on Monday,
May 23, shortly after noon. One of us saw at one time, from an
elevation of about one hundred and fifty feet, as many as nine in
various stages of their formation ; the other, eight, at an elevation
of fifty feet, we being about half a mile apart; and some persons
claim to have seen twelve in all.

Alassio is situated on a bay, or rather roadstead, which is about
five miles from headland to headland in a straight line: from that
line to our villas is at least two miles.

On the 22d there was a severe storm throughout north Italy, ex-
tending from Padua to Turin, accompanied by hail and frost. The
mountains behind Genoa, and all along the coast, were again cov-
ered with snow. This storm appeared to divide, and while going
through the mountains to the north, not seen from here, passed us
about three miles out at sea, at about 11 A.M. Then there was no
wind ; the sea was unusually smooth in the bay, but the line of
the storm was strongly marked, and the roaring of the waves was
distinctly heard. A little later we had a very slight shower.

The morning of the 23d was unusually electrical, so much so as
to make every one feel uneasy and restless. The wind dropped,
and there was a dead calm. At a little after twelve we were
called out by our gardeners and servants, and, looking out at sea,
saw a long black cloud lying in a straight line across the bay, from
which long descending tubes —some straight, as if drawn with a
rule, others twisted like snakes — were moving rapidly in proces-
sion in a south-westerly direction. The surface of the sea boiled,
and the foam and spray rose many feet into the air with a loud
roaring plainly heard on land. In some cases, as these tubes ap-
proached the sea with their dangling ends, the water seemed
gradually to rise and meet them. In other cases the ends swayed
to and fro above the waves, either forming no connection with
them, or having already begun to break up. In nearly every case the

JuLy 15, 1887. ]

hollow tube was distinctly visible, the centre being clear like glass,
while the outside was wrapped in a smoke-like mist. Even with the
naked eye we could distinctly see a spiral motion on the inside of
the tube, as if water were either ascending or descending, in which
direction it was impossible to tell. Beyond the waterspouts, be-
tween the cloud and the sea, a blue sky with sunlit cumulus
clouds was plainly seen. These tubes moved at the rate of more
than thirty miles an hour, judging from the time ordinarily taken by
steamers in crossing the same space. Estimates of the height of
the cloud are difficult to make, but at least half the tubes were
seen over the promotory of Capo delle Mele, which is about one
thousand feet high, and distant about five miles, as the crow flies,
from the point of observation.

The phenomenon caused a great panic among the inhabitants,
owing to the prediction of Falb that there would be a violent earth-
quake on that day.

There was subsequently a slight storm of hail and rain; but
farther westward, on the coast, the damage done was considerable,
at San Remo secular olive trees being torn up by the roots and
whirled away. No waterspout is, however, known to have burst
on the land. MAURICE HOWARD,

’ EUGENE SCHUYLER.
Alassio, Riviera, Italy, May 26.

How to make Meteorological Observations at a Distance
above the Earth’s Surface.

THE progress of meteorology in the beaten tracks of the usual
observations is very satisfactory; but there are several new lines
of work, that can be and ought to be carried out, that receive
scarcely more than an occasional mention, or a regret that some-
body does not do something in the matter. The observation of the
conditions of the atmosphere above the earth’s surface is perhaps
the most important of these questions. I know of no meteorologi-
cal data so much to be desired as that which is now obtained for
short, irregular intervals, by the occasional ascent of a balloon.
This, however, is a very expensive and risky method of observa-
tion, and has always been looked upon as a novelty rather than a
regular method.

The few observations made in balloon-voyages, together with
those obtained by means of an occasional captive-balloon ascent,
are very valuable, and have been used over and over again in de-
termining constants. The great expense of even a captive balloon,
where the observer must go up, has prevented their general intro-
duction into meteorological work.

It has often been arerasedl to send up self-registering instruments
in smaller captive balloons ; but, if this has been done, I have not
seen accounts of it. The lighter forms (metal thermometer and
aneroid barometer) could undoubtedly be used in this way; but the
ordinary registering-apparatus is very delicate, and the swaying of
the balloon might disturb the adjustments ; besides, the original
cost of the apparatus is considerable, and, moreover, any damage
could not be easily repaired.

In place of a balloon, the kite has been suggested, and E. Doug-
lass Archibald has made some interesting preliminary experiments
with this method.

I have seen only the account of his experiments as given in the
Meteorologische Zettschrzft for 1885 (p. 47); but in this paper
there are references to ature (Nov. 20, 1884) and Quarterly Jour-
nal (January, 1883).

Mr. Archibald flies two kites, the one to steady the other. He
carried on systematic observations with an anemometer (six inches
in diameter) for a year, and finally got results for a height of eleven
hundred feet above the ground.

I saw this paper on Mr. Archibald’s work a few days ago for the
first time; but it interested me very much, as I had been consider-
ing the same problem. A year and a half ago I devised a form of
apparatus that would seem to promise good results ; but it was only
some months ago that I suggested the following detailed construc-
tion, which is given here for the benefit of any who might wish to
carry on any such experiments.

The general form is seen in Fig. 1, and consists of a balloon (5)
which carries a basket (4) suspended from beneath, and the basket
carrying an anemometer (6) with a weight below it.

SCIBINGE.

33

The balloon is held captive by a three-strand (insulated) wire,
which is wound around a reel (2), and passes to a table (1), where
the battery and keys are mounted.

The reel (2) must be firmly anchored, and the wires arranged so
there will be no danger from electric currents. A cloth ring, with
the length of rope (from the balloon) written on it, can be glued to
the rope at every hundred feet, so that the observer can see
just how much rope is out; and, by means of some instru--
ment for measuring vertical angles, the altitude of the balloon can
be measured and the height of the balloon computed.

The apparatus as shown in Fig. 2 might also be sent up in a.
balloon held captive by an ordinary rope, if a small bichromate-of-
potash battery, with closed hard-rubber cells and a clockwork to
break the circuit every five or ten minutes, is also included. The
whole apparatus might also be sent up on a kite, if one wished to:
risk the instruments, which would be destroyed by the sudden
falling of the kite.

The method here given allows the observer to control the time of
observation, and would seem best on that account. The register-
ing apparatus as shown in Fig. 2 is practically Professor Wild’s sys-
tem, with some important differences, however. I was for a long

time troubled about the means of moving the registration-paper
without clockwork, but Wild’s method answers the purpose very
well. It must be borne in mind that only a very general description
of the apparatus is given here.

The following apparatus is to be placed in the basket suspended
from the lower end of the balloon. The basket must be so ar-
ranged that the air will have free passage through it when the bal-
loon is ascending or descending. ‘The balloon need only be large
enough to carry a few pounds (fifty) to the height of half a mile:
it is impossible to foretell just how much the whole apparatus would
weigh. A hair hygrometer could also be added to the instruments,
but has not been put in the accompanying sketch.

The careening of the balloon would have no effect on the work-
ing of the apparatus as shown here, because nothing of the regis-
tration arrangement is free to move except the pointers. In making
an apparatus, the best arrangement would be somewhat different
from the sketch given here.

The main advantage of this apparatus is the cheapness with
which an ordinary aneroid barometer and metal thermometer could
be applied to the purpose.

In Fig. 2, 2 is a stand on which the long lever D rests, and turns
in the vertical. Vand JV’ are two electro-magnets which attract D.
When the key 1 joins 2-3, then /V acts, and draws D down on the
right. When the key 1 joins 2-4, then JV’ acts, and pushes 2 up
on the right. Self-registering paper is coiled on the wheel c¢, and
one end of the paper passes between the rollers # and G, and then

34

over the roller 7, and then between the rollers G and H. The
rollers / and H are the same size; but G is larger, and has a
ratchet-wheel at its end. £ is a rod joining D at D’. At the
lower end of £ is a ratchet-catch A, pressed upon by the spring
L, which is also fastened to Z. Sis a rod fastened to J, and has on

its lower end a wide framework | | composed of horizon-

tal slats. Between these slats pass the indicator or pointer of an
aneroid barometer 2, and a metal thermometer 4. These pointers
are made longer than usual, and have attached a needle-point at
right angles in the vertical, as shown by P’ and P. This whole
apparatus is mounted on a frame or board, and put into a basket
suspended from the lower end of a balloon. The three wires be-
low are fine wrapped wire, and serve to hold captive the balloon as
well as to cause the self-registrations to be made, by aid of the
battery X at the ground. Let the balloon ascend, say 100 feet ;
then put 1 on 2-3, and WV draws D down. This pushes Z down
(and the ratchet-catch glides over the teeth on G), and pushes S
down also. This last causes P’ and P to puncture the paper.
Now open 2-3 and close 2-4; then AV’ draws D up, Sis pulled up,
and the points ?’ and P are freed. Also K catches on G, and
draws off some paper from c, the paper being drawn between / G,
over WV, and between G H. Then the holes pricked by P’ P are
out of the way, and other holes can be punctured at another eleva-
tion of 100 feet for the balloon. A fixed pencil is also pressed
against the paper at each observation, as a reference-point for the
puncture by the index-point.

For the hair hygrometer we should have another pointer, P’. A
small anemometer can be suspended from beneath the basket, and
kept vertical by means of a weight. This anemometer causes a
contact arrangement to close for an instant for every 100 feet of
wind-motion. The two wires from the anemometer terminate at
a and ’, and, when the magnet JV’ is not attracting the armature,
the points 7 and 7’ are free. When the current is passed through
JV’, then 2 comes in contact with 0, and z’ in contact with o’ ; o and
o’ being joined to the wires 4 and 2, which run to the reel at the
ground. At the ground we insert a telephone or a galvanometer in
the wire 4.

The normal condition of the apparatus will be with the current
passing through /V’, and the battery X will cause the galvanometer
to give a constant reading; but, for every hundred feet of wind,
the anemometer will close its circuit for an instant, and the divid-
ing-up of the current at Z Z by including the anemometer in the
circuit will cause a momentary deflection of the galvanometer (or
will cause a slight sound in the telephone), and the observer can
time these with a watch, and get the wind-velocities whenever he
wishes them.

In place of V we could insert a spring, and do away with the
wire 3, and probably various other changes would suggest them-
selves to any one actually constructing the apparatus.

FRANK WALDO.
‘Cincinnati, O., June 27.

Sea-sickness.

WITH regard to the subject of sea-sickness, treated of in an
article in Sczence, June 3, I beg to offer a few remarks.

As to the causation of the affection, the process is a gradual one,
affecting the balancing sense, which is not interfered with in the
case of iron-plate workers. The sickness affecting these workers
is caused by the successive shocks due to the hammering, and dif-
fers from sea-sickness in character and causation.

An article of mine in the Lancet of June 28, 1884, defines sea-
sickness as follows: ‘‘ The altered sensory impressions affecting
those at sea interfere with the co-ordination of movements by which
the body is adapted to its surroundings, and with the vomiting and
other centres in the #edulla oblongata. This interference causes
sea-sickness.”

The balancing of the body depends on the ordinary sensory im-
pressions, and also on what Foster calls ‘the afferent impulses, as
it were, of a new sense,’ from the semicircular canals, arising from
variations of pressure in their ampulle. With reference to the
recent paper of Dr. James, the following quotation from my article

SCIENCE

[VoL. X. No. 232

above mentioned may be of interest : “In cases where the internal
ear has been injured by otorrhcea following scarlatina or measles, we
may suppose that the person learns to balance himself without the
intervention of this new sense, the absence of which is compensated
for in some way; and it is a curious fact, and one which throws
considerable light on the etiology of sea-sickness, that such persons
invariably escape this disease. . . . That deafness in itself does not
prevent sea-sickness is in keeping with the fact that the afferent
impulses from the semicircular canals do not give rise to auditory
sensations ” (vzde Foster’s ‘ Physiology,’ 2d ed. p. 495).

It is reasonable to believe that no structural change takes place
in the semicircular canals, due to the motion of the endolymph,
else the longer the motions continued, the more marked would be-
come the sickness. The altered impressions affect the brain
directly, and sea-sickness is prevented by their action from being
mollified or nullified by the educated conscious ego.

As to drugs, atropine has a sedative action on the #zedud/a, etc.,
and renders the altered sensory impressions inoperative in produc-
ing sea-sickness. It should be given in drop doses of the liquor
atropine, B.P., in a teaspoonful of water, every hour, till the physio-
logical effect of the drug is produced.

The bromides have also a sedative action on the brain, but, to
prevent sea-sickness, must be given in sufficient doses to produce
bromism. As this is a serious condition, and one likely to affect
the patient’s reason and general health most injuriously, the bro-
mides should be used with great caution, and only when prescribed
and their action watched by a medical man.

T. T. REYNOLDS.
Steamship ‘ City of Chicago,’ Jersey City, July 1.

The Function of Nitrogen in Manures.

In works on agricultural chemistry it is usual to classify manures
or plant-food substances as nitrogenous matter, phosphates, and
potash ; but, while the phosphates and potash enter into the sub-
stance of every part of the plant, the amount of nitrogen found in
the cereals and food-plants generally is inconsiderable.

A few food-plants contain nitrogen as an essential element of
their substance: thus pease contain from two and a half to three
and a half per cent, and tea-leaves from five to eight per cent; but
in the case of all these plants it is well known that they are capable
of drawing the necessary supply of nitrogen from the atmosphere.

Without entering on the question of whether the small traces of
nitrogen found in the substance of food-plants generally are essen-
tial or accidental, or that other question whether all plants requir-
ing nitrogen are, like animals, capable of deriving it from the air, it
is very safe to infer, from the slight trace of nitrogen found in the
cereals and food-plants generally, that the ammonia, or nitro-
genous substance convertible into ammonia, which is necessary to
secure a good crop, has some other and more important function to
perform than that of supplying nitrogen to the plant. It may be
doubted, even, whether nitrogen is a plant-food for the cereals, or
in any way essential to their proper development; but hydrogen,
the other element of ammonia, is one of the prime constituents of
all vegetable substances, and I infer that it is the easily liberated
hydrogen in the ammonia that gives it its manurial value. The
function of the nitrogen is simply that of a carrier of hydrogen.

Let me explain. The substance of all trees and plants, wood,
stalk, bark, leaves, fruit, etc., is a chemical compound of the three
elements, oxygen, hydrogen, carbon. The tree or plant absorbs
carbonic acid from the air, which gives it two of the three essential
elements, carbon and oxygen. It also takes up water, which is a
compound of oxygen and hydrogen, by the roots ; and by the mys-
terious chemistry of organic life, the water and carbonic acid being
decomposed on contact, the liberated hydrogen and carbon unite
with a portion of the oxygen into definite chemical combinations,
the new substance arranging its atoms as cell-contents or cell-walls.
All the oxygen of the water, with a portion of that from the car-
bonic acid, is liberated, and returned to the atmosphere. Given
air, water, and potash, and a soil mechanically suitable, and we
have all that is necessary to the full and healthy development of
timber and fruit trees, flowering plants, and in fact almost every
species of vegetation except the grasses, cereals, and principal food-

Jury 15, 1887.]

plants, which cannot be grown under similar conditions. The
fact that they will grow freely in soil containing ammonia, or de-
composing animal matter convertible into ammonia, led to the
conclusion that they wanted nitrogenous food. The fact that the
nitrogen is not an important element of their substance at any
period leads me to infer that these plants are incapable of decom-
posing water, and consequently dependent for their necessary sup-
ply of hydrogen upon ammonia or some other compound of hydro-
gen more readily decomposed than water. It is well known that
while the nitrates of potash, soda, lime, etc., are all valuable
auxiliaries to farmyard manures, they are of no value as a substi-
tute for it. Very eminent chemists have been somewhat staggered
at the results of their experiments in this direction ; but precisely
as the function of nitrogen in ammonia is to carry hydrogen, so the
function of the nitrogen in the nitrates isto carry potash. Whether
we dress the soil with nitrate of soda, lime, or potash, the result is
the same. With potash salts in the soil, the addition of the nitrates
of soda or lime leads to a double decomposition, and the conversion
of the potash into nitrate. Sulphates and chlorides of these bases
appear to have some small value as manure, although their compo-
sition remains unchanged ; but in the mysterious laboratory of the
growing plant the nitrate of potash is resolved into its elements.
The potash allies itself with carbonic acid to form carbonate, or
with carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen in various proportions to form
the organates of potash (the citrates, tartrates, oxalates, etc.), so
important to the development of fruits.

Whether we employ ammonia or the nitrates as manure, the
nitrogen is liberated in the plant to unite with oxygen, and be
radiated as common air. In the one case, hydrogen remains; in
the other, potash.

The current theory of nitrogenous manure appears to be based
on a complete misconception as to the function of the nitrogen in
its various compounds; and when it is once clearly realized that
hydrogen is the important food-substance yielded by ammonia, it
will be of practical interest to determine whether this substance
cannot .be supplied more economically by the decomposition of
water secundem artem. C. F. AMERY.

Geological Questions.

THE replies to the following questions by some of the most emi-
nent American geologists have induced me to ask your assistance in
getting a wider circle to consider them. They were framed for the
purpose of enabling the writer to properly represent American
thought on the subjects mentioned, in his report on the Archaean
to the American Committee in August next. Those geologists who
are willing to render the undersigned the valuable assistance of ex-
pressing their opinions on the matters involved, are requested to
write the letter of the question, and give the answer as laconically
as is consistent with a clear statement of their views. In alterna-
tive questions, like J or N, it will suffice to append the numbers of
the clauses representing their opinions.

A. Do you agree to the suggestions contained in the report of the
International Committee on Nomenclature (‘ Report of the Ameri-
can Committee on the Work of the Geological Congress,’ pp. 49 to
B, p. 57)? Please state explicitly if you are willing to accept the
recommendations of the congress.

B. Do you favor the division of the Archaean Group into a definite
number of systems? If so, give their names and the order of their
succession.

C. Give the horizons of non-conformability in the Archaean.

D. Do you approve of the plan of subdividing the Archaean
petrographically and of omitting corresponding chronological divis-
ions and names ?

E. Should the eruptives occurring in the Archaean rocks be classi-
fied with the latter, or separately ?

F. Which, if any, of the following terms is applicable in Ameri-
can geology, and how applied ? ‘ Hebridean,’ ‘ Dimetian,’ ‘ Arvonian,’
‘ Pebidian.’

G. Are there crystalline rocks in, and after, the Paleozoic litho-
logically indistinguishable from those of the Archaean ?

H. Are there any crystalline rocks in the Archaean which do not
occur later ?

SCIENCE. 35

I. Is mineral constitution indicative of geological age?

J. Are the lower stratified crystallines: (1) of aqueous origin
metamorphosed partly, or wholly, by igneous action ; (2) of igneous
origin metamorphosed in part, or in whole, by subsequent agencies ;
or (3) partly one and partly the other ?

K. Are there evidences of organic life in the Archaean ; if so,
where, and what ?

L. In your opinion, is Eozoon Canadense of organic origin ?

LL. Do you approve the European map committee’s (Professor
Lossen’s) system of coloring and classifying the eruptives ?

M. Should Serpentine constitute one class of eruptives ?

N. Is Serpentine, (1) sometimes, or (2) always an alteration
product : (3) of eruptives, (4) of sedimentary rocks, or (5) of
either ?

O. What, in your judgment, is the proper disposition of the term
‘Taconic?’ If employed, what are its limits, and what terms should
it replace P

P. How should the Cambrian be divided ?

Q. Are ‘ Menevian,’ ‘ Ordivician,’ or any other more or less com-
prehensive foreign names, applicable in American geology? if so,
how? PERSIFOR FRAZER,

Reporter for Archaean.
Philadelphia, zor South Fifth St., July 9.

The Charleston Earthquake.

In reply to Prof. Joseph Le Conte’s valued criticism (Sczence, x.

22), I would say that it seems to me that the method for estima-
ting the depth of an earthquake-focus proposed by Mr. Hayden and
myself differs radically from that proposed by Mallet in the ‘ British
Association Report’ of 1858. His inference that the horizontal
motion has a maximum value where the ‘angle of emergence’ is
54° 44’ could be true only of normal waves. It cannot be true of
the transverse waves. He ignores the transverse waves entirely in
his formula; and the omission, I maintain, is fatal to its applica-
bility. He also ignores the vertical component of the normal wave,
which at such an angle is much more energetic than the horizontal
component. What proportion of the horizontal motion is due to
the normal waves can generally be determined at considerable dis-
tances from the origin when the facts upon the ground are clearly
manifested. But at the very localities where such a determination
is necessary for the application of Mallet’s method the difficulty is
greatest. It is just here, too, that all the components, vertical and
horizontal, normal and transverse, blend together with such effect
that not one of them can be ignored without fatal error. We must
consider their total effect. But these motions compounded repre-
sent the intensity, i.e., the amount of energy per unit-area of wave-
front. Mallet’s ‘circle of greatest destructiveness’ has no real
existence. It is a purely mathematical abstraction obtained by
postulating conditions which do not have any separate existence.

Since writing the above, I have recurred to Mallet’s paper, and
find the following: “It is certain that in all great earthquakes the
real mischief and overthrow at places pretty far removed from
above the centre of impulse are done by the blow from the normal
wave, which appears to come first; hence, the main observable
effects are those of the normal, and we are justified and enabled, z7
such localitzes, to neglect the transversal. But within a considera-
ble circle of area, whose boundary is evanescent, and whose centre
lies at the point right above the origin, the actual effects of the
transversal wave are very formidable, and can never be neglected.”
[Then why should he have suggested doing so?] “The ground
beneath an object so situated, such as a house or pillar (as the
distance from the origin to the surface is the minimum range of
emergence, or shortest possible, and its energy therefore the
greatest), is almost at the same instant thrown nearly vertically
upwards by the normal wave, and at the same moment rapidly
forced forwards and backwards in two directions orthogonal to
each other; and this combined movement, which is that called
‘vorticoso ’ by the Italians and Spanish Mexicans, is one that noth-
ing, however solid and substantial in masonry, etc., can long with-
stand.”

It is certainly a pleasure to find Mr. Mallet reasoning so justly ;
but in the remarks quoted it is apparent that heis taking account of

36

all the components of motion; which must give us the true in-
tensity in just the sense that this term is employed by Mr. Hayden
and myself. Its graphic representation will be the curves we have
given and no other.

Professor Le Conte remarks: “ We have assumed all along that
the intensity or excursion of the earth-particle, or the height or
amplitude of the wave, varies inversely as the square of the radius
of the agitated sphere. The authors as well as other writers
assume this law.” Here he evidently misapprehends. It is indeed
assumed that the intensity varies inversely as the square of the dis-
tance, but the amplitude varies (subject to later qualification) in a
simple (not duplicate) inverse ratio with the distance. The intensity
for a given wave-length is proportional to the square of the ampli-
tude; for, by Hooke’s law (wt ¢enmszo séc vzs), the time of vibration
of a particle in an elastic wave of given wave-length is uniform
avhatever the amplitude. Hence the mean velocity of the particle is
simply proportional to the length of its path, i.e., to the amplitude,
But its energy is proportional to the square of its velocity, ergo, to
the square of its amplitude. Hence, too, the amplitude must be in-
versely proportional to the radius of the spherical wave, provided
no energy is dissipated in transmission. If, then, the amplitude at
Charleston were four inches, at a distance of a thousand miles it
would, without dissipation, amount to about two millimetres, —a
well-marked tremor.

Professor Le Conte’s suggestion that the law of variation of in-
tensity with distance may be affected by reflection back into the
earth from the surface is, so far as I am aware, a novel one. That
there must be some energy so reflected seems undisputable. But
the portion so reflected would constitute a new wave, or series of
new waves, independent of those already in progress. It would thus
add to the number of waves without affecting the energy of those
already in progress, except at points of coincidence or interference.

Seebach’s method of finding the depth was objected to, because
it requires a degree of accuracy much beyond the highest we can
hope to attain. The speed of an earthquake-wave is enormous
(the time-observations obtained for the Sonora earthquake give a
very high wave-speed; they are not as yet fully examined and dis-
cussed, but the preliminary examination indicates a speed about the
same as that obtained in the Charleston- earthquake), the space-
intervals at which the time-records must be made must be short,
and the time-intervals correspondingly so. The data really needed
are differences in these time-intervals; and these differences would
most certainly be much smaller than the probable errors of obser-

vation. Cc. E. DUTTON.
Washington, July 9.

The Freezing-Point of Sea-Water, and the Melting-Point of
Sea-Water Ice.

THE difference existing between the result from my determina-
tion of the freezing-point of sea-water (Sczence, ix. No. 228), and
the accepted one as value for the same of 28°.8 F., seems to be
inexplicable, unless we can assume that in the methods followed
for its determination a wrong interpretation has been put on one of
the results.

There can be no doubt, that, if the temperature of a body of sea-
water is lowered till conglaciation takes places under slight
agitation of the water, the temperature then existing at its surface
will be that of its freezing-point.

On the other hand, it seems probable, that, when the determina-
tion of the freezing-point is made by means of an admixture of
sea-water and its ice in thermic equilibrium, we have reached a
condition that would be better described as the melting-point of
sea-water ice.

Could we assume that in the change from the liquid to the solid
form, in freezing, all the saline particles were taken up without
chemical changes, it would be reasonable to suppose that the melt-
ing and freezing points would coincide; but if, on the other hand,
we assume that in this conversion the entire saline particles have
been expelled from the solid, we must conclude that part of the
heat was expended in expelling these particles, for we may not
imagine azy work performed without a corresponding absorption
of energy. We will have, in this imaginary case, essentially fresh-
water ice; and, if we were determining the freezing-point of sea-

SCIEN GE

[Vioi7 axe? INowmeee

water with ice so constituted, thermic equilibrium would be ob-
tained at a temperature of 32°, which we should erroneously call
the freezing-point of sea-water.

Granting the accuracy of these two suppositions, it seems certain
that in the case when freezing takes place to the exclusion of four-
fifths of the saline particles, as is the case with sea-water, thermic
equilibrium will exist between sea-water and its ice at a tempera-
ture intermediate between its freezing-point (26°.7 F.) and that of
melting ice (32°.0 F.), and experiment has proved this temperature
to be 28°.8 F.

I would therefore predict, that, in the case where a liquid is con-
verted into a solid by freezing, the temperature of the freezing-
point of the liquid will be equal to that of the melting-point of the
ice, only in the case or cases where each contains the constituents
of the other in the same proportion. W. A. ASHE,

The Quebec Observatory, July 4.

Concerning Filth-Diseases.

THROUGH the heart of the city of Baltimore, flowing southward,
runs the bed of the sluggish stream Jones Falls. Eight miles
northward, its waters are divided and turned into the city water-
supply. Within the city, the stream is confined by handsome stone
walls, which form a canal of dimensions twenty feet deep by a
hundred feet wide and two and a half miles long—roughly. The
canal empties into the Back Basin, a nearly stagnant pool two
hundred yards wide by five hundred yards long, — which itself is
connected by a short canal with the City Basin and tide water of
slight activity.

In the northern suburbs, and within the city, the Falls and
Back Basin receive the drainage from a territory in which dwell
eighty thousand souls, roughly estimated, a considerably portion
of whom is packed into a lower quarter of the city. They receive
that from the Causeway and a part of Fell’s Point, — quarters fairly
designated slums.

The sediments in this drainage are precipitated in the lower half-
mile of the Falls and in the Back Basin. Here they undergo fer-
mentation and decay, at times giving off odors offensive indeed.
It is a necessity of the situation that these sediments must be re-
moved by dredging ; and with the active officials of the dredging
companies, and with their workmen, the writer has been in quite
constant communication for nearly three years. These people pass
their days stirring about and digging up this fermenting and decay-
ing city garbage and mud and sewage. They live in an atmosphere
loaded with offensive gases. And what of their health? With
singular unanimity they declare that the occupation is a healthy
one. Excepting in rare instances a case of nausea and vomiting,
which quickly pass away, they have no more sickness than those
in other occupations. As a matter of fact, the writer has not in
nearly three years heard of any case of zymotic disease among
about a hundred men engaged in this dredging.

The decaying refuse from the slums of a city, deposited in warm
and nearly stagnant waters, ought to contain all manner of poison-
ous elements, —animal, vegetable, gaseous, or otherwise. Men
stirring up and removing such material ought to sicken and die.
Curiously enough, they do not—more than men in other occu-
pations.

The writer has no knowledge as to what filth-diseases are, or are
not, and has no suggestions to offer. The studies here indicated
were made because the field seemed to promise a rich harvest of
such diseases, but the promise has not been fulfilled so far.

WM. GLENN.
Baltimore, July rz.

Queries.

8. WHOOPING-COUGH IN THE CaT.—A Liverpool cat is re-
ported to have contracted whooping-cough from a boy sick with
that disease. For two weeks it had five or six attacks daily of the
cough characteristic of that affection. Is this unusual ? x.

9. BANANA, COCOANUT, AND INDIA-RUBBER. — Can any one
send us lists of books on the cultivation of the banana, cocoanut,
and india-rubber ? ones 135

Cl ENCE

FRIDAY, JULY 22, 1887.

THE SESSION of the National Educational Association at
Chicago last week was a notable occasion. It was estimated
by a competent authority that sixteen thousand teachers were as-
sembled in the Exposition building when the opening session was
held. Coming as they did from all parts of the country, — several
of the Southern States excepted, — they were representative of the
American public school in all its grades and phases. They were
assembled to listen to the discussion of important questions, to talk
together informally of school matters, and to view the great exhibi-
tion of educational material that was prepared for them. Despite
the fact that several of the prominent speakers were not able to be
present, the discussions were well sustained and attentively fol-
lowed. The majority of the teachers present took more interest in
the meetings of the sections devoted to matters of special interest
than in the general meetings. It was very satisfactory to notice the
ground gained by the advocates of manual training during the past
year. This was clearly evidenced by the approval accorded to all
references to it, by the character of the address by the President of
the Chicago Board of Education, and by the great interest dis-
played in the exhibits of the work done at Chicago, Toledo, Cook
County Normal School, and elsewhere. The exhibition was very
complete, and well worth going a long distance to see. The States
of Illinois, Wisconsin, and Michigan were particularly well repre-
sented. One fact was thoroughly demonstrated by the convention ;
namely, that despite the excitement and enthusiasm attendant on a
large assembly, the Association’s annual meeting has grown so
large as to be unwieldy. Very many cannot hear what is going on,
and very many more are dissatisfied at being afforded no proper
opportunity to participate in the proceedings, while a few others
who have long ago said all that they had to say that was worth
hearing, continued to read papers and lead the discussions. In
consequence of these facts, as well as because many teachers are
unable to afford the expense necessary to attend a national conven-
tion, the proposal has been made to divide the Association into
several, say four or five, each of which shall have its annual meeting
and elect a quota of representatives to a central body, which shall
meet annually and be deliberative, instead of hortatory and polemic,
as the Association’s meeting now is. This seems to us a most
excellent plan, and we trust it may be soon adopted. The new
president of the Association is Superintendent Aaron Gove of
Denver, Colorado.

THE ECONOMIC BENEFITS of the work performed by the U. S.
Geological Survey are just beginning to be appreciated by railway
men who are laying out new lines of railroad. The officials of the
Survey are of the opinion that within the next ten years the centre
of all the railroad-building in the country will be located in the
Southern States. They base this opinion on the fact that the
calls for maps of the southern mountain ranges is increasing very
rapidly. The maps thus far prepared by the Geological Survey
cover the eastern coast-line from the Maryland boundary to the
Georgia coast, with the exception of a small section of Virginia.
They are at present issued only to those directly interested in the
topography of the Appalachian range, yet there have been issued
already upwards of three thousand five hundred maps of the region.
That is to say, about a hundred different sets. These maps have
all been distributed to those directly interested in the building of
new railroads. It is said that there are somewhere about twenty

different roads in course of construction between the coal-fields of
the South and the seaboard or the Ohio River. One gentleman,
who is interested in the construction of a road between Charleston,
S.C., and the mouth of the Big Sandy on the Ohio, called at the
office of the Survey a day or two ago and said that the maps which
had been furnished to his company had saved the corporation at
least ten thousand dollars in preliminary surveys. From all sec-
tions of the South, reports are constantly received of the enormous
value of the maps furnished by the Survey to topographical and
civil engineers. Besides the work which has been done in the
Southern States, the survey has been extended well into many sec-
tions of the North and West. Massachusetts has been mapped on a
scale of a square mile to the inch, through the joint work of the
State and the general government. A field-party has just begun
operations in south-eastern Iowa for the purpose of mapping that
State on a similar scale. Illinois and Indiana will, in all probability,
be the next States in which the surveys will be undertaken. There
is a great difference in the cost of the work in the various States.
In the South, where the country is broken by,mountain ranges, the
cost is about twelve dollars a square mile; while in the prairie
States of the West, where the country is flat, the work can be per-
formed at about five dollars a square mile. It is the ultimate inten-
tion of the bureau to prepare topographic maps of the entire
country. Owing, however, to the necessary slowness of the opera-
tions, it will be many-years before the entire scheme of operations
is perfected. As fast as the field-operations in each case are per-
fected and verified, the original maps are sent to the engraver, and
a few copies are made for immediate use. Eventually there will be
prepared an atlas of each State. These atlases will be of enormous
value, not only to railroad engineers but to all municipalities who
have use for an accurate topographic map of the country surround-
ing them.

AMERICAN PHILOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION.

THE nineteenth annual session of the American Philological As-
sociation was held in the Marsh-Billings Library of the University
of Vermont, at Burlington, on July 12-14. In the absence of
President Merriam, who is on his way to Athens, to take charge of
the American School there for the ensuing year, the Vice-President,
I. H. Hall of New York, occupied the chair. The attendance was
not as large as usual, but this did not hinder the meeting from
being an exceedingly interesting one, marked by the animated dis-
cussions which some of the papers aroused.

The reading of papers was begun, after the transaction of routine
business, by Dr. C. K. Nelson of Brookeville, Md., who presented
some interesting facts gleaned from a study of ‘Murray’s New
English Dictionary,’ Part iii. This part embraces the letter B from
batter to bozzom, and contains 8,765 words. If we add to this
about 3,000 words under B in Part ii., and estimate the remaining
words at the same figure, we have, for entire B, 14,765 words, or
more than twice the number given by ‘ Webster’s Unabridged,’
which has only 6,750 words. Of the 8,765 words in Part ili., 5,323
are main words, 1,873 compound, and 1,569 subordinate words ;
and of these main words, again, 3,802 are in current use, while
1,379 are obsolete. A feature of this letter is the small proportion
of Latin and Greek words found under it, aggregating not quite
twenty-five per cent. In summing up, Dr. Nelson said that “this
part of the great English Thesaurus impresses philologists more
and more with the fact that the creative period of language is by
no means arrested. Sanscrit, and Latin, and Greek have crys-
tallized linguistic forms, which afford splendid specimens of immu-
table structure, but it is in the living language, where words are

38 SCIPINCE!

created as they are needed, that we have the opportunity of wit-
nessing the phenomena of perennial growth.”

Tuesday evening, a well-attended public meeting was held in the
chapel of the University, when Prof. J. H. Wright, the Secretary,
read President Merriam’s address on a ‘ Review of the Greek In-
scriptions Published During the Past Year.’ It is to the monu-
ments, which the soil of Greece has preserved in such large num-
bers, that we have to look for an increase of our knowledge of
Greek history and civilization, and for a solution of the many prob-
lems still unsolved. Already the results of the explorations, which
have been going on busily for some time, are beginning to make
themselves felt, and it is not too much to say that Greek history
will yet have to be rewritten in the new light shed upon events by
the testimony of the stones. The past year has been, on the whole,
an important and fruitful one. Greek inscriptions of particular
value have been found in Naukratis, under the auspices of the
Egypt exploration fund, at Sigle in Crete, at Epidauros, and near
the Peirzus, the harbor of Athens. It is within the domain of the
history of the Greek alphabet that the most valuable results of the
last year’s work are to be sought. The rest of the address was
devoted to an elucidation of these results.

At the session on Wednesday morning, Prof. F. A. March read
a paper —that may in many respects be called remarkable — on
‘Standard English.’ He claimed, in opposition to the ‘ new phonet-
ists,’ that there is such a thing as standard English, defining it as
the ‘heir of all ages recorded in grammars and dictionaries.’
Standard English, meaning by that both the proper use of words
and their proper pronunciation, is an authoritative institution,—a
stronghold of the unity and power of the Anglo-Saxon race. While
it is true that speech in its simplest form is without reflective pur-
pose, yet, when a higher state of civilization is reached, its growth
proceeds under the guidance of reason. The development which
the English language has taken since the days of Milton and
Shakspeare is a proof of this. We are, therefore, not only justified
in guarding jealously our standard English from contamination
through impure influences, but it becomes, also, the duty of scholars
and cultured people in general to superintend its growth. Students
of language have it as their specialty to preserve and perfect the
records of the language. The paper, which was thoroughly sug-
gestive throughout, gave rise to a long, and at times animated, dis-
cussion, in which a large number of the members participated.

Professor Seymour of Yale College gave a report of the doings
and needs of the American School at Athens. It will be remem-
bered that some months ago the permanent Directorship of the
school was offered to Dr. Charles Waldstein, who accepted the
same, subject to the condition that an endowment fund of $100,000
be raised in order to place the institution on a sound financial
basis. Up to date, $10,000 of this sum have been subscribed, —
which, it must be confessed, is not a very encouraging showing.
Still, there is a fair prospect that before the expiration of the time
assigned by Dr. Waldstein, — October, 1888, — the remaining ninety
thousand will be forthcoming. With the aid and encouragement
which the school has received from the Greek government, such as
the’ recent gift of a suitable site for a building, — which, it is pleas-
ant to record, is in process of erection, —it would be indeed lament-
able to see so important and valuable an undertaking maimed by
our own indifference to its fortunes.

Prof. W. F. Allen had an interesting paper on ‘The Monetary
Crisis at Rome in 33, A.D.’ The crisis in this year, which was so
severe that it required the intervention of the Emperor Tiberius to
restore credit by advancing, from the Treasury, a sum equivalent to
four million dollars, in the form of loans without interest, was the
necessary outcome of the conditions prevailing in ancient Rome,
which made money-lending a curse and the money-lender an evil. At
the present time, the legitimate business of bankers consists in ad-
vancing funds to be employed for productive purposes: the banker
is therefore a highly useful intermediary between those who have
money which they do not understand how to use productively, and
those who are engaged in industrial occupations in which they
can use to advantage more capital than they themselves possess.
But there was no such thing as productive industry, on a large
scale, in Rome. When money was borrowed, it was merely for pur-
poses of future consumption, or to pay for past consumption. Money

[Vou xX. Nor 233)

was borrowed in order to pay a debt incurred, and therefore carried
with it the incurrence of a new debt. The consequence of this.
state of things was, that a large body was growing deeper and
deeper into debt, while a few —the money-lenders — reaped bene-
fits out of all proportion to the services rendered by them.
Already in Czsar’s time the attempt was made to counteract this
threatening evil by the passage of a law for the regulation of loans
and of debts. It aimed, as far as we are able to trace it, on the
one hand, to prevent a scarcity in the money-market, by limiting
the amount of cash an individual could have on hand, and obliging
him to invest what he had above this sum in real-estate, and, on
the other hand, made provision for the payment of outstanding”
debts, by an extension of time and by compelling creditors to take
real-estate as payment. The law, however, remained a dead-letter
until the days of Tiberius, who made an attempt to revive it. The
attempt failed, and the much-feared crisis broke out. But it isa
testimony to the wisdom of Tiberius that he foresaw its coming, and
endeavored to prevent it by all means in his power. In order to
relieve the debtors of their embarrassment, he issued the loans as
above set forth, which was of course only a temporary relief, not a
remedy for the evil.

Professor Greenough of Harvard University had some suggestive
Latin etymologies to offer, among others, that of elementum. He
favored the explanation, common in former days, but latterly super-
seded by other views, according to which it was an artificially
coined word composed of the three letters Z, 7, z. The 7 was due to
the force of analogy, so as to make the word conform with such
forms as rudimentum, alzmentum. Dr. H. Weir Smyth of Johns
Hopkins University had an elaborate treatise on the Arcado-
Cyprian dialect, which endeavored to cover the entire field of the
famous Cypriote inscriptions, of which the Metropolitan Museum in
New York has such a rich collection, and, by a minute examination,
to make clear the relation in which the Cyprian stood to the other
Greek dialects. Professor Hale of Cornell had two papers, one
proposing a new terminology for the Latin tenses, the other on the
‘ Cum-constructions in Latin; Their History and their Functions.’
Dr. Cyrus Adler of Johns Hopkins, in a review of the article
‘Semitic Languages,’ in the ‘ Encyclopedia Britannica,’ took grounds
against the writer, Professor Nildeke of Strassburg, for the sub-
ordinate rank which he assigns to the Assyrian among the Semitic
languages. Dr. Adler claimed, that, in consequence of this, the arti-
cle was not up to the mark of our present science. Professors
Jastrow and Hall made some remarks in reply. Other papers were
as follows: ‘Conditional Sentences in A®schylus, by Professor
Clapp of Illinois College ; ‘ Long-Vowels in Old Germanic,’ by Dr.
Wells of Providence, R. I.; ‘ Delitzsch’s Assyrian Dictionary, Part
i, by Prof. Morris Jastrow, Jun., of the University of Pennsylvania.

On Wednesday evening the Association was entertained by Dr.
and Mrs. Sears, and on Thursday, after the closing meeting, an ex-
cursion was taken to the Au Sable Chasm.

Before adjourning, the following officers were elected : President,
I. H. Hall of the Metropolitan Museum, N. Y.; Vice-Presidents,
Professors Seymour of Yale and Lanman of Harvard ; Secretary
and Treasurer, Prof. J. H. Wright of Harvard; Executive Com-
mittee, Professors Whitney, Gildersleeve, Perrin, and March. The
next meeting of the Association will take place at Amherst in the
second week of July, 1888.

IS CONSUMPTION CURABLE?

THE discovery by Koch in 1882, of the tubercle bacillus, gave a
new impetus to the treatment of consumption. The investigations.
of Toussaint and others had made it more than probable that
tuberculosis was an infectious disease, but the discovery of the
actual germ which caused the disease seemed to open up to the
victims of phthisis a means of escape from a fate which up to that
time had seemed inevitable. That the hope thus aroused has not
yet been realized is not due to any lack of enthusiasm on the part
of the medical profession ; for, ever since the nature of tuberculosis
was established, search has been made for some means by which its
germs or their products might be destroyed, and thus the disease
arrested.

We have recently had occasion to mention two methods of treat-

JuLy 22, 1887.]
ment from which much advantage was promised and expected, —
those of Kremianski and Bergeon. The former, which was based
on the fatal effect of the most dilute solution of aniline on the
bacillus, has had but a brief existence, and, so far as we can learn,
has been abandoned as being not only of no practical benefit, but
as being actually dangerous to life.

The Bergeon method, on the other hand, seems to promise very
much, and, as it is now being extensively employed, its value will
doubtless soon be determined. This consists in the introduction
into the body of sulphuretted hydrogen and carbonic-acid gas.
Lecturing on the subject of tuberculosis at the Hépital de la Pitié,
Paris, M. Debove, in 1883, said the ideal end toward which physi-
cians should always strive when in the presence of a parasitic dis-
ease, such as phthisis, is to find a parasiticide acting in the interior
in the same manner as external remedies act which are employed
for the cure of itch. It is necessary to find a substance which,
without injuring the system, will be destructive to the parasite.
Dr. Bergeon, senior deputy-professor at the School of Medicine at
Lyons, suggested the use of hydrogen sulphide, carbon disulphide,
and other antiseptic substances, associated with pure carbonic-acid
gas, — agents which comply with the requirements of Debove.

A pamphlet by Dr. V. Morel, published by James W. Queen &
Co., Philadelphia, entitled ‘New Treatment of the Affections of
the Respiratory Organs and of Blood Poison by Rectal Injections
of Gases after the Method of Dr. Bergeon,’ contains the experi-
mental evidence on which this method is based, together with a
description of the apparatus by which it is to be applied.

The agents by which the bacilli were to be destroyed having been
determined, the next step was to devise means for introducing them
into the human body without injury. Two methods of introduc-
tion presented themselves: the one, by inhalation; and the other,
by introduction into the digestive tube of the same substances in
such manner as to be eliminated by the lungs. Dr. Morel states
that many inconveniences, grave dangers even, oppose the adoption
-of the method by inhalation. These antiseptic substances are en-
dowed with great toxic power when they penetrate the arterial
system, either directly or by way of the lungs, and Claude Bernard
has demonstrated that the agents introduced by this method act
almost immediately. In addition, they possess a very great local
irritation, and this action, exercised on an organ already diseased,
‘cannot but augment the pre-existing lesions. This is, doubtless,
the reason that there has been so little success gained in inhalations
in the treatment of phthisis, and the disagreeable odor of these
substances has contributed to their being refused by the sufferers.

The introduction of antiseptics by the digestive tube does not
offer the same dangers. Bernard has demonstrated that when
toxic matter is introduced into an organ removed from the arterial
system, —in the digestive tube, for example, —it does not enter
into the arterial system, as it is eliminated before penetrating so far.
It has then to traverse the portal veins, the liver, the hepatic veins,
and the pulmonary tissue. Now, in this course it can be eliminated
in the liver by the bile, and in the lungs by exhalation if it is vola-
tile. Claude Bernard, after experimentation, stated that hydrogen
sulphide can be introduced with impunity into the digestive tube, or
into the veins, if care be taken not to give too great quantities at a
time.

The next question to be decided was whether the antiseptic sub-
‘stances should be introduced by the mouth or by the rectum.
Inasmuch as they reach the lungs through the same channels by
whichever way they are introduced, it would seem to be a matter
‘of indifference which of these two entrances was selected. From
a case in which a fatal result followed the introduction by the
mouth, Morel thinks that this may indicate that the essential action
of the medicament is not the same in both cases. In addition to
this, it is important in the adoption of a method of treatment that
preference should be given, other things being equal, to that one
which is most agreeable to the patient ; and, inasmuch as both the
odor and the taste of these antiseptics is very disagreeable, the
rectal method is to be selected. By introducing the remedies by
the mouth and stomach, we are also in danger of interfering with
digestion and alimentation, which are especially important in the
‘class of invalids under consideration. For these reasons, Dr. Ber-
-geon has abandoned the method of injection into the stomach.

SCIENCE.

39

Having adopted the method of rectal injection, it was next neces-
sary to find a medicament which would be exhaled by the lungs,
and which while in those organs would destroy the tubercles
bacilli.

The first experiments of Dr. Bergeon were made on animals, with
chlorine, turpentine, ether, ammonia, and bromine; but these sub-
stances provoked an immediate and violent inflammation of the
rectum, and even caused mortification of parts of the mucous mem-
brane, and were therefore abandoned. A mixture of carbonic acid
and hydrogen sulphide was perfectly tolerable when the two gases
were pure and completely deprived of atmospheric air. In their
union the carbon dioxide plays in some degree the part of an inert
body, attenuating in all cases the irritating properties of the sul-
phuretted hydrogen. We know that sulphur possesses germ-de-
stroying properties, and nothing is more logical than to apply it to
the treatment of pulmonary tuberculosis. The sulphuretted hy-
drogen is taken up by the venous system and eliminated by the
lungs, — thus this gas seems to fulfil all the requirements.

The apparatus by means of which these gases are prepared and
injected is the invention, or adaptation, of Dr. Morel. It is con-
structed on the principle that a current of carbon dioxide passing
through, or over, certain gaseous, or volatile, substances will carry
with it a certain quantity of these substances: it produces a disas-
sociation of the gaseous elements which they hold, and these
elements, being liberated, are carried with the current of carbonic-
acid gas. It is necessary, first, to produce very pure carbonic-acid
gas, and, second, to pass this gas through a liquid medicated with
these volatile substances, and to cause it to penetrate the rectum,
and to prevent its return to the receptacle for the carbonic acid.
The carbonic acid is produced by the action of sulphuric acid on
bicarbonate of soda. Hydrochloric acid has been used, but a little
always escapes with the carbonic-acid gas, and produces an irrita-
tion of the intestine. The carbonic-acid gas as it escapes from the
generative flask is collected in a rubber bag. In order to avoid
colic, the gas must not contain any atmospheric air. The injection-
apparatus consists of the rubber bag filled with carbonic-acid gas;
of a rubber bulb with a valve at each end, to which are adapted
rubber tubes, one of which is red and the other black, so as to dis-
tinguish the valves ; a metallic T-tube, the vertical branch of which,
with a valve at each end, is plunged in the bottle containing the
medicated liquid ; and, last, a rubber tube with a pipe on the end
for insertion into the rectum. These parts are attached in such
manner that the carbonic acid is drawn into the bulb, then forced
into the medicated solution in the bottle, taking up the sulphuretted
hydrogen, and together these gases are forced into the intestine.

After describing the apparatus and the method of its use, Dr.
Morel calls attention to certain precautions which are to be taken
in making the injection. These include the attitude of the patient,
the necessity of praceeding with caution, and, at first, its adminis-
tration by the physician himself, the time occupied in giving the in-
jection, and the amount of gas injected.

The natural mineral-waters which contain natural sulphuretted
hydrogen or sulphides of sodium or calcium have, as a usual thing,
been employed by Drs. Bergeon and Morel, being preferred to the
artificial waters. The principal springs which contain a sufficient
quantity of sulphuretted hydrogen gas or of sulphides for rectal in-
jection are Allevard, Aix en Savoie, Eaux-Bonnes, and some fifteen
others. To obtain permanent results, the treatment must be con-
tinued for months, in order to place the bacilli in a local bath of
antiseptic vapors, which at Jength will destroy their virulence and
power of reproduction.

The results obtained by Dr. Bergeon in the treatment of consump-
tion by his method of rectal injections were communicated to the
French Academy of Science in July, 1886, and to the Congress of the
French Association for the Advancement of Science, at Nancy, in
August of the same year; and in October the distinguished Profes-,
sor Cornil made a communication to the Academy of Medicine on
the subject. These results of Dr. Bergeon have been confirmed by
physicians of Lyons, Paris, Geneva, and Marseilles. These physi-
cians have observed the rapid disappearance of the symptoms of
pulmonary suppuration in consumptives, and a progress toward a
state of health, which has all the characteristics of a complete cure.
Dr. Bergeon says that those whom he considers cured do not ex-

40

pectorate, or offer to auscultation any stethoscopic signs but those
of dryness due to the presence of cavities which have cicatrized, or
are in prdcess of cicatrization, or to cicatricial bands consecutive to
old lesions. Some of these patients have been obliged to take up
again a very laborious existence. Mounting a great many stairs
many times in the course of the day, nevertheless, their respiratory
organs have resisted all these fatigues, and the improvement gained
has been steadily maintained. In most of the patients, in two or
three days, there is a marked diminution of the cough, the expecto-
ration, the night-sweats, and the difficulty in respiration, which
accompany pulmonary phthisis; in time, the patients gain a feeling
of health and an increase in strength. Little by little the favorable
symptoms gain the advantage, and the patients cease to lose flesh,
and commence to gain it.

Dr. Morel notes the remarkable fact, that, even in patients who
are apparently restored to health, the tubercle bacilli are still
present in the sputum, and says that it remains to be ascertained if
the bacilli which persist in the sputum, notwithstanding the return
of health, still possess their functional activity, that is, the property
of developing to any great extent, to infiltrate anew the pulmonary
tissue, and there produce lesions similar to those which have been
cured by the administrations of medicated gaseous rectal-injections.
The constant presence of the bacilli in the sputum, after health has
been restored, indicates two things; first, that their hurtful action
is neutralized for a long time by the medication, and, second, that
as long as they remain in the sputum, a return of the malady is to
be feared, and on this account the injections should not be aban-
doned, even though it appears that the cure is complete. Many per-
sons who have been so improved after several weeks of treatment
as to consider themselves cured, have discontinued the injections,
and have suffered a relapse.

Dr. Morel states that it is not the bacilli which are to be feared
in phthisis, but the septicaemia caused by their presence in the pul-
monary cavities, this being due to the absorption of the infectious
products of.the bacilli. The elimination of the medical principle in
the gaseous injections by the alveolar and bronchial surfaces of the
lung combats victoriously this septicemia. While this elimina-
tion is-taking place, these infectious products are neutralized, or
better, are not absorbed. When the pulmonary lesions are com-
pletely healed the injections must be discontinued, because, the
bacilli being no longer in contact with a diseased surface, there is
no fear of septicemia. But if the injections are stopped before the
walls of the cavities are entirely cicatrized, or if the cicatrization is
not rendered permanent by prolonged treatment, the cicatrized part
will ulcerate anew, and by the contact of the bacilli the septicaemia
is renewed. It is then necessary, in order to prevent the return of
the malady, to take the injection time after time, even when the
state of the health is satisfactory, and, with still greater reason, if
the old symptoms, cough, expectoration, fever, and emaciation re-
appear.

It has also been noted that the improvement is not confined to
the lung-lesions. When tubercular ulcerations of the larynx and
pharynx exist, these are also cured without any further applications,
solely by the contact of the gases as they are exhaled from
the lungs.

Dr. Chantemesse, chief of the laboratory of bacteriology of the
faculty of medicine, Paris, and physician of the hospitals, reports
nine patients in his practice who had presented both the local and
general symptoms of pulmonary tuberculosis, with the presence of
bacilli in the expectorations, as having undergone great improve-
ment under Bergeon’s treatment; the increase in weight was rapid,
sometimes a kilogram a week, while the cough and the expectora-
tion were considerably diminished. The bacilli remained constant
in the sputum. Professor Cornil is now engaged in experimenting
upon tuberculous animals. He says that the rectal injection of
carbonic-acid gas and of sulphuretted hydrogen constitutes an ex-
cellent therapeutic method in phthisis, and should gain more favor,
in view of the fact that therapeutics are powerless in the face of
phthisis. In this disease the only agents which till now have been
found useful are foods and those remedies which aid nutrition. Dr.
Morel claims that this method of treatment is not confined to
tuberculosis. He claims much benefit from it in whooping-cough,
bronchitis, and in the infectious diseases, such as typhoid-fever, the

SCIENCE!

(Wor, xs iNovi233

eruptive fevers, and septicaemia, in which blood poisoning results from
the introduction into the blood of infectious products of microbes.
The infectious elements, spread throughout the blood, come in
contact with the medicated gas, not only in the Jungs, as in tuber-
culosis, but also in the right heart at the moment when the
blood of the two venae cavae is united, and in all its course through
the branches of the pulmonary artery. The venous blood, thus
purified, frees itself of the excremental products on its arrival at the
pulmonary cells, and re-enters, disinfected, the branches of the pul-
monary veins. Thus is explained the diminution of fever and the
amelioration of the disease which occur in the cases where gaseous
injections are employed.

Drs. Spillman and Parisat have made experiments to determine
to what height intestinal distension reaches after injecting eight
pints of gas, andjfind that in the cadaver the large intestines only
are distended. They find it impracticable to use a larger amount in
the living subject on account of cramps and the danger of produ-
cing paralysis of the intestines. They conclude, from their experi-
ments, that the method of Dr. Bergeon is powerless in averting
tuberculous exacerbations ; much less is it capable of arresting the
development of phthisis, The night-sweats do not seem to have
been influenced by the medication, and the temperature was not
permanently lowered. The appetite was not disturbed, but there
was temporary intestinal uneasiness, with distension of the ab-
domen, rendering confinement to the bed necessary. The weight
remained the same; sleep was quiet and restful, due solely to
the carbonic-acid gas. According to these writers, rectal gaseous-
medication is palliative, not curative.

In England, the method has been employed by Dr. Bennett,
and by Dr. Heron at the Victoria Park Chest Hospital. The
London Zazce¢, in commenting on the method, says that the evi-
dence is forthcoming that the treatment has been followed by many
signs of improvement in at least some of the patients, and urges
a more extended trial. The writer in that journal does not think it
necessary to suppose that the gas must act after the fashion of a
true germicide or antiseptic, but it may be that the value of the
treatment, supposing it to have any, consists in improving the
nutritive powers of the tissues, in increasing their vitality, thereby
rendering them more able to cope with deleterious influences, or
with the germs, by affording an unsuitable soil for the activity of
the latter.

In our own country, much has already been done in testing this
new plan of treatment. Dr. Crane of Chicago has used it in four
cases, two of phthisis, one of intussusception of the bowel, and one
of spasmodic croup. With the latter cases it acted like a charm,
overcoming both almost instantly. In the case of croup, carbon bi-
sulphide was used instead of sulphuretted hydrogen. One of the
phthisis cases was a man, aged twenty-six years, whose two sisters
and brother had died from that disease, and who had been under
treatment for three years, during which time he had been twice to-
Colorado. Under the sulphuretted hydrogen he improved very
fast, in one week his temperature becoming normal, the night-sweats.
almost stopped, and the expectoration became less. In the latter
part of the second week of treatment he ventured out on a rainy
March day, took cold, and died in two days. The second case was.
that of a widow, aged twenty-four years, whose mother and sister
died from phthisis. She was suffering from incipient phthisis.
She made seven visits to Dr. Crane, and then pronounced herself
cured. The doctor thinks that she will probably have a return of
her symptoms upon the slightest provocation. He has tried the
mineral waters of Lafayette, Ind., Blue Lick, Ky., and Ypsilanti,
Mich., and considers the last best adapted for the purpose. It is
so strongly impregnated with gas that he is able to use it a second
time. He has devised an apparatus for the manufacture and injec-

‘tion of the gas, differing from Morel’s in no important particular,

save in the expense of manufacture, which is reduced about one-
half.

Dr. M. M. Johnson, of Hartford, Conn., has been using Bergeon’s.
method in the Hartford dispensary for two months. The patients.
are mostly those in advanced stages of phthisis. The night-sweats.
have ceased, the cough has become loose and expectoration easy,
the patients sleep well and have increased in weight, the circulation
is quickened, and the cold, clammy extremities have become warm.

JuLy 22771887.

The treatment has not been carried on long enough to enable an
accurate estimate of its true value to be formed.

Dr. H. C. Wood states that the method has been used in the Phila-
delphia Hospital in a large number of cases, and that a personal
inspection shows that the statements made by the French observer
are correct, and that there seems to be no doubt that under the
treatment there is rapid alteration of some cases of phthisis for the
better. Dr. Wood thinks that Bergeon is wrong in supposing that
the natural waters are superior to the artificial. In Philadelphia the
bottle is charged with ten grains each of chloride of sodium and
sulphide of sodium, and this answers for a number of patients.
The amount of sulphuretted hydrogen received by each patient is
unknown and very variable, and is very small. Dr. Wood thinks
that the evidence is already sufficient to indicate that we are in the
presence of a very important addition to medical therapeutics, and
that it is of vital importance to decide the mode in which the treat-
ment acts. ;

The experiments of Dujardin-Beaumetz show that the sul-
phuretted hydrogen is the medicinal agent, and not the carbonic-acid
gas. He thinks it improbable that the good achieved is the result
of any parasiticidal influence. There is, at present, no proof that
sulphuretted hydrogen, when it does good in phthisis, acts by killing
the bacilli, and there is still less proof that it in any way increases
the direct resistive powers of the individual to the action of the
bacilli. It is probable that Bergeon’s plan is simply a means of
making an application of sulphur to the pulmonic mucous mem-
brane and tissue, and this view is confirmed by the benefit result-
ing from the treatment of asthma and pulmonic catarrh by the
same method. Dr. Wood had under his care a patient who had
met with a railway accident, followed by pleurisy and pneumonia,
whose symptoms led him to believe she would die. He employed
the gaseous injection, and at the time of his writing he considered
her as convalescent. In this case, although rectal injections were
at first employed, subsequently Dr. Wood gave by the mouth the
sulphuretted hydrogen in saturated solution artificially prepared,
and the effects were apparently the same.

In order that the solution may be uniform in strength, Dr. Mar-
shall of the University of Pennsylvania has devised an apparatus
by which it may be made by the patient at his own home. The
liquid is sweetish, and not at all unpleasant to the taste.

From the foregoing véswmé of what is being done abroad and in
this country in testing the efficacy of Bergeon’s method, it will be
seen that the evidence is gradually accumulating to determine its
efficacy. It is still too early to declare that tuberculosis is curable,
and that the method by which the cure is to be effected has been
discovered ; at the same time much may be hoped for from a thera-
peutic agent which has the support of so many well-known authori-
ties in medical science. We deem the matter of sufficient import-
ance to bring it thus fully before our readers, and shall keep them
informed on the subject from time to time.

MENTAL SCIENCE.
The Natural History of Error

THERE is always a strong psychological interest in the study of
such phenomena as the English Psychic Research Society investi-
gate, apart from all considerations of the ultimate bearing on the
truth of any theory. No mattter whether houses really are
haunted, or the raps made by spirits, or thought transferred from
mind to mind; it will be of great value to ascertain how belief
in these unusal manifestations arises and progresses, to be on the
alert for facts apparently favoring their genuineness but really
pointing to obscure psychological processes which might other-
wise be overlooked. These important side-issues and preliminary
investigations have been much neglected by the English society,
and it is an encouraging circumstance, that, in their most recent
issue, they make an important step towards making good this
neglect.

Messrs. Richard Hodgson (now secretary of the American
society) and S. J. Davey contribute a highly important paper on
‘The Possibilities of Mal-Observation and Lapse of Memory from
a Practical Point of View.’. Mr. Davey became interested in spirit-
ualistic phenomena several years ago, and was so deeply impressed
with what he saw, as to be on the high-road to conversion, when

SCIENCE. , “i

he gradually gained a truer insight, and through skill and prac-
tice can now perform many of the medium’s favorite manifesta-
tions. His specialty is the slate-writing phenomena, —‘ psycography ’
s the technical word, — and in these he has achieved great success,
his performance having been declared superior to Englinton’s. Mr.
Davey, under the assumed name of Clifford, gave sittings to friends
of Mr. Hodgson and others: he did this, not as a medium, took no
fee, but simply posed as a phenomenon, asking his spectators
to watch him as they would a conjurer, and afterwards to send him
a detatled written account of what they had seen. These accounts
are all published, and are extremely instructive. What was really
done is here accurately known, and a comparison of this with the
accounts of the ‘sitters’ at once shows how reputed marvels come
to being, simply by inaccurate description. One must remember,
too, that Mr. Davey was decidedly in a less advantageous position for
deceiving and exciting wonder than a professed medium ; for the
latter, at the worst, deals with a person who has a little belief in
the possibility of some supernatural agency, and this remnant of
belief induces a mental attitude that does not watch trifling move-
ments, slight delays, and so on. The witness of a conjurer’s per-
formance has an interest in minimising the mystery of the tricks.
Some of Mr. Davey’s sitters had no notion that they were to wit-
ness mere slight of hand, others more or less strongly suspected it,
and a few were as much as informed of it beforehand. It is ex-
tremely interesting to see how the repatt of each is modified by his
previous knowledge. One gentleman, whom Mr. Davey met at a
séance, spoke very disparagingly of the performances of an amateur
conjurer known as Mr. A., and remarked that Mrs. Sedgwick’s at-
tempt to explain ‘ psycography ’ by such powers were totally inade-
quate: after the performance, he declared that what he had just
seen through ‘ Mr. Clifford’ was more conclusive of the existence
of supernatural powers than the evidences furnished by a distin-
guished medium. The joke of the story is that the amateur con-
jurer Mr. A., ‘ Mr. Clifford,’ and Mr. Davey are all one and the
same person.

None of the ‘sitters’ were able to explain how the thing was
done, though one gentleman ventured the information that he was
sure it was zo¢ done in such and such away. Had he omitted the
‘not,’ he would have been nearer right than any. Some observed
a few points correctly, but most had simply to record what they
saw. On reading these reports, many a reader will imagine that
he would certainly not commit such an error in description ; this is
assuredly an illusion. Some of the reports are exceptionally good.
To describe accurately is a rare gift. It means scientific success.
It is possible only after repeatedly witnessing the same perform-
ance. This mal-observation is natural; its absence is the ex-
ception.

It is time to turn to Mr. Hodgson’s analysis of the kinds of error
which these reports show. There are four convenient groups of
such errors. First, are errors of ‘interpolation ;’ something is in-
serted as having happened which really did not happen: the subject
declares he examined slates when really he did no such thing. Second,
errors of ‘substitution;’ the subject declares he examined the
slate in every detail, when really he only glanced at it. Third, errors of
‘transposition,’ in which the event is correctly described, but is de-
scribed as happening later or earlier than it really did (many a repu-
tation has been made by skilfully utilizing this tendency). Last, errors
of ‘ omission,’ in which events apparently trifling are not noticed at
all. These it is the object of the medium to induce by distracting
the attention in one way or another; and it is just through exag-
gerations and misrepresentations, which these erroneous tendencies
bring about, that the simple doings of the mediums become mar-
vels in the mouths of enthusiastic narrators. It is all a question of
attitude : what is utterly unimportant to observe, if the medium is
believed to be acting under the control of spirits, becomes the most
important, if he is regarded as a trickster. It has been a stumbling-
block to many minds to understand how mediums could acquire
such great reputations as wonder-workers, if they really did nothing
more than these simple tricks. The mystery of this falls away if
we remember that the power of accurate description is a rarity,
and that, as is here experimentally proven, the amount and kind of
distortion which mal-observation and errors of memory produce is
perfectly sufficient to make a spiritualistic marvel of a conjurer’s trick.

42

EXPLORATION AND TRAVEL.
New Explorations in Central Africa.

THE progress of explorations in the Kongo Basin is so rapid that
our map of May 27 does not fully correspond to the present state
of our knowledge. Therefore we reproduce in the present number
the part in which the most important discoveries have been made,
corrected to date. The Mongala and the tributaries of the Obangi
are drawn more accurately from new maps published by the MZouve-
ment géographzgue, but the most remarkable features of the new
map are the discoveries of Giacomo de Brazza in the region be-
tween the Obangi and Ogove, which were published in the Bulletin
of the Italian Geographical Society. Though it is more than a year
since this traveller returned from his journey, the map has been
published only now, but as it is not based on the longitudes of
Captain Rouvier, the positions had to be corrected accordingly.
De Brazza started from the upper Ogove. First he made several
short excursions in the region between the upper Ogove and the

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SCIENEE,

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the Mouvement géographigque that Captain van Géle has ascended
the Lopuri, the tributary of the Lulongo. The upper part of this
river runs in a north-westerly direction, and approaches the Kongo
closely in longitude 21° 26’. Then it takes a south-westerly course.
The parallelism of these rivers with the Kongo explains the absence
of tributaries in the central part of its upper course.

HEALTH MATTERS.
Pasteur’s Methods.

RECENT criticisms of the inoculation-method of Pasteur for rabies
have been very unfavorable; but the report of the English Com-
mittee will undoubtedly turn the tide again in the opposite direction.
It will be remembered that this committee was appointed by the
President of the Local Government Board, in April, 1886, to inquire
into Pasteur’s treatment of this disease. Its report has just been
presented to Parliament. The value of such a report depends en-

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Alima, and then started on his important journey. He left Madi-
ville on July 12, 1885, travelling in a north-easterly direction. He
crossed the Sebe farther north than this river was supposed to run,
and crossed the water-shed between the Likona and Ogove under
the equator. The most northern point reached is Iluku, situated in
a densely populated region. He indicates that this region belongs
to the drainage area of the Ogove, the Ivindo rising near this place.
This is an important discovery, as it considerably enlarges the
drainage area of the Ogove. De Brazza returned to the Kongo by
way of the Likuala. Close to the mouth of this river, a little farther
east, the Sanga, which according to von Frangois carries a great
volume of water, empties. Therefore it must drain an extensive
area. As the western tributaries of the Obangi are of no great
importance, and the tributaries of the Ogove extend so far east,
We must suppose that its sources lie far north, and it may be that
the rivers Kadei and Nana, which have been described to Flegel
by the natives, are its upper course.

Since the accompanying sketch-map was engraved, we learn from

tirely upon the qualifications of those who form the committee, and
we presume, that, composed as it is of some of the most eminent
of English investigators, its conclusion will receive the most respect-
ful and careful consideration by the scientific world. The report is
signed by James Paget, Chairman; T. Lauder Brunton, George
Fleming, Joseph Lister, Richard Quain, Henry E. Roscoe, I. Burdon
Sanderson, and Victor Horsley. We venture to say that no more
eminent committee was ever appointed on such an investigation.
In the course of its inquiry the committee visited Paris to obtain
information from Pasteur himself, and to observe his method of
treatment. They investigated a considerable number of persons
inoculated by him. Mr. Horsley conducted a careful series of ex-
periments on the lower animals, and entirely confirms Pasteur’s
discovery of a method by which they may be protected from the
infection of rabies. The committee states that “it may be deemed

' certain that M. Pasteur has discovered a method of protection from

rabies comparable with that which vaccination affords against infec-
tion from small-pox. It would be difficult to over-estimate the im-

Juty 22, 1887.]

portance of the discovery, whether for its practical utility or for its
application in general pathology.” The committee investigated
ninety cases treated by Pasteur. Of this number, twenty-four had
been bitten on naked parts by undoubtedly rabid dogs, and the
wounds were not cauterized, nor otherwise treated in any way likely
to have prevented the action of the virus. Of thirty-one that were
bitten, there was no clear evidence that the dogs were rabid, and in
others the bites had been inflicted through the clothes. It is esti-
mated, from experience of the results of bites in other cases, that, had
they not been inoculated, not less than eight among these ninety
persons would have died. Not one of them has shown since the
inoculation any signs of hydrophobia. The committee thinks it
certain that the inoculations practised by M. Pasteur have prevented
the occurrence of hydrophobia in a large proportion of those who,
if they had not been so inoculated, would have died of that disease.
And his discovery shows that it may become possible to arrest by
inoculation, even after infection, other diseases besides hydrophobia.

If rabies be not reduced among the dogs of England, there
will always be a large number of persons who will require treat-
ment. The average annual number of deaths from hydrophobia
during the ten years ending 1885, was, in all England, 43; in
London alone, 8.5. These numbers may be taken as representing
only five per cent of the persons bitten, so that the preventive
treatment will be required for 860 persons in all England, and for
170 in London alone.

In commenting on this report of the committee, the London
Lancet says that “their verdict is the most important yet pro-
nounced upon the subject, and must go far to decide the
question of the prophylactic value of the inoculation of Pasteur.
The conclusion that the method has saved a considerable number
of lives, and that it is at present, and probably will be for long, the
only mode of saving from death those who have been bitten by a
rabid dog, affords strong support to Pasteur’s conclusions, and, we
need hardly say, must have most important practical results.”

MEASLES.— The prevalence of measles in some parts of the
world, and its fatality, have aroused health-authorities to such an
appreciation of the necessity for restricting the spread of this
disease, that official steps are being taken for the attainment of this
end. A recent occurrence at Portsmouth, England, makes the
necessity for this work more emphatic. H. M. S. Crocodile arrived
at that place with forty persons sick with measles on board, who
were permitted to land. From these individuals the disease has
spread to an epidemic, and at last reports the number of deaths was
one hundred and ninety-seven.

LEPROSY IN LOUISIANA.— Considerable excitement has been
occasioned in Louisiana by the report that leprosy existed at St.
Martinsville in that State. The State Board of Health has made
an examination, and finds that five persons are suffering from un-
doubted leprosy, while three others are as yet in doubt.

BOOK-REVIEWS.

Chance and Luck: a Dzscusston of the Laws of Luck, Cotnce-
dences, Wagers, Lottertes, and the Fallaczes of Gambling ;
with Notes on Poker and Martingales. By RICHARD A.
PRocTOR. London, Longmans, Green, & Co.

THE persistency of a superstition can generally be referred to the
subtleness and persuasiveness of the logic upon which it is founded,
or to the fact that it appeals to a strong instinct in human nature.
Doubtless both these influences have been at work in keeping alive,
among those in whom the hazarding instinct is at all strong, a fond-
ness towards a belief in their own favoritism, in the obscure forces
which control luck, and inthe sundry other agencies which go to make
of chance something which is more than chance. For the benefit
of such, —and they form a respectable portion, both in size and
ability, of mankind, — Mr. Proctor has written this book. He hopes
to be able to convince a few of the errors of their ways, sadly recog-
nizing ‘“ that the gambling fraternity will continue to proclaim their
belief in luck, . . . and the community on whom they prey will, for
the most part, continue to submit to the process of plucking, in full
belief that they are on their way to fortune.”

The wide-spread belief in luck is in many ways easy to account

SCIENCE. 43

for, and eyen to defend. There is an element of chance that enters
in the lives of every one of us; and it is but natural that where this
chance favors the success of our projects, —though not the least
to our credit, —this should have a decided influence in the shaping
of our character. Much that is attributed to good fortune is really
good common sense and wise forethought; but, allowing for that, as
long as there remains this element of uncertainty in our lives, it is
evident that there must be certain individuals who are lucky, in the
sense that they have been fortunate when they had no very
good reason to expect success, and certain others who have
been unlucky under the same circumstances. But this, Mr.
Proctor well insists, is a very different thing from the common
conception of a lucky individual, which regards such a man
as more likely to be fortunate in success depending entirely
on chance, in the future; as a chosen being for whose benefit the
laws of probabilities will be suspended, and who can, even with
considerable confidence, count upon such benign intervention. It
is this conception that has the strongest hold upon gamblers, upon
the wisest and sharpest of them, as well as upon the people at
large, and is a very ridiculous and a very dangerous superstition.
If some way could be devised by which the expectation, the sub-
jective feeling of confidence, could be properly proportioned to the
mathematical chance of securing the desired prize, lotteries could
no longer exist, and the chance forms of gambling would appear as
utter folly. The methods by which such occupations are carried
on are devised to carefully prevent any such enlightenment, and
they easily succeed in so doing.

The logic of the matter is very simple. Take lotteries as an ex-
ample. If ten persons each deposit five dollars, and agree that the
one throwing the highest number of points with a pair of dice shall
receive the fifty dollars, that would be a fair lottery. To test its
fairness, we have simply to consider, that, if one person bought all
ten deposits, he would be sure to win, and would neither lose nor
gain: in other words, mathematically the price to be paid for a share
in a lottery is obtained by dividing the amount that can be gained by
the number of shares. No lottery of this sort would pay : hence no
paying lottery is fair, and every lottery that exists pays those who
control it very well indeed. The Louisiana lottery, the peculiarity
of which Mr. Proctor characterizes as ‘the calm admission, in all
advertisements, that it is a gross and unmitigated swindle,’ sells
monthly 100,000 tickets at five dollars each. Deducting from the
$500,000 thus received as much as $10.000 for expenses, and a simi-
lar amount for ‘ the charitable and educational purposes’ for which
the State sanctions the lottery, there remain $480,000. Instead of
distributing all this in prizes, they distribute only $265,000 ; and thus,
when all the tickets are sold,—and few are ever left,—the
managers have a clear profit of forty-five per cent per month. This
is exactly the same kind of swindling as would be committed by
the man who invited the ten persons to deposit their five dollars,
were he to give the one who threw the highest number of points
$26.50, and quietly pocket the $23.50 as a reward for his trouble.
Lotteries exist and pay, because people are willing to give
more for the chance of securing a prize than they ought to give.
They dwell frequently and long on the immensity of the prize,
entirely underestimating the slightness of the possibility of their
securing it, and thus cherish a sort of optimism which overlooks
barefaced robbery and tolerates the most glaring frauds. That
such is the case was experimentally demonstrated by the English
Government. ‘Tickets for a lottery were offered for sale, not at a
fixed price, but for what they would fetch. The contractors bought
of the government tickets mathematically worth £10 at £16, and
again sold the tickets at a large advance. The public was perfectly
willing, and actually asked, to be plundered.

Gambling-banks and the superstitions of gamblers offer a still
more interesting topic. Here there is often much ingenuity dis-
played in arranging plans by which apparently fortunes must be
won, and in defending pet notions with an array of apparently sound
argument. But the reason why a bank must win has often been
exposed. It is simply that it reserves for itself, under certain con-
ditions (apparently very unlikely), a certain sum, apparently small,
or it stakes a larger sum at exaggerated odds for the great proba-
bility of winning a small fee. Thus the vefazt in rouge et nozr,
which apparently is a most improbable event, must, by the doctrine

.

44

of probabilities, occur sufficiently often to give the bank a sure
profit of 1.1 per cent on every deposit. The fallacy of those who
devise sure methods of defeating the bank (‘martingales,’ as they
are termed, lies in the fact that they neglect to consider that the
fortunes of any one gambler, compared to that of the bank, is
small: they prove that in the long-run they must win, forgetting
that they only have a short run. As a matter of fact, when their
schemes require the risk of a very large sum, they generally are
afraid to make the risk, and so leave the game with the firm con-
viction, that, had they but possessed a litttle more money, success
would have been insured.

The gambling superstition that has probably worked more ruin
than any other is what they term the ‘maturity of chances.’ The
gambler says, to toss aces six times running is certainly a highly
improbable event: if, therefore, aces have fallen five times, it is
much more certain that the next throw will not fall an ace than if
ace had not been thrown five times. The absurdity of this doc-
trine, apart from its being disproved by actual: trial, can be easily
shown. The chance of the occurrence of a certain event has no
meaning after the event has occurred: it then has become a cer-
tainty. The chances of throwing an ace are as I to 6 on each
throw, and entirely without reference to other throws. If I enter a
room and pick up a die, the chances of my throwing an ace are as
I to 6: to be told afterwards that five aces had just been thrown
with that die, could evidently not influence the chances of my
throwing an ace. Yet this doctrine is defended in the books on
gambling, and is carried into practice at the gaming-table, to the ruin
of many of its adherents.

Mr. Proctor gives very clear expositions of the fallacies underlying
such beliefs ; makes a forcible statement of the swindling processes
to which even the better class of gamblers, lottery-holders, and the
like, must resort; and illustrates his arguments with facts derived
from actual experience. The book is no theorist’s exposition
merely, —it really ought not to matter if it were, because here theory
and practice have been found to agree, —and is thus excellently
calculated to meet the purpose for which it was written. It is in
every respect a commendable work. Men desirous of guiding their
actions by reason will here find expressed the position they should
take on matters of chance and luck.

Our Temperaments ; thetr Study and thetr Teaching. By ALEX-
ANDER STEWART. London, Crosby, Lockwood, & Co. 8°.

DR. STEWART gives in his preface a description of what this
book is. “Impressed by the frequency with which the word
‘temperament’ is used to account for the action that is taken not
only on the ordinary but on the eventful occurrences of life; while
so little is known of the temperaments, that very few outside the
medical profession can name off-hand the four principal ones, —
the sanguine, the bilious, the lymphatic, and the nervous, —I have
endeavored to construct, from scattered and scanty material and
my own observation, a practical guide by which observers may
know the temperament of any one by looking at him, and associate
with it certain mental qualities and traits of character.’ The author
points out the disparity between the part the temperaments play in
medicine and in general literature. He accords them a more
definite value than expression and physiognomy, and believes them
more available than phrenology, for the reason that the physical
characteristics of the temperaments are definite, few, and readily
observed.

Dr. Stewart has collated an immense mass of observations on the
temperaments from ancient, medizval, and modern literature, and
uses it to illustrate and expound his own argument. He first makes
clear the ordinarily received medical doctrine of the temperaments,
and then endeavors to give it added precision and scientific value.
Dr. Stewart himself recognizes the just limitations of the doctrine
which he develops. He sees, in the first place, that it applies only
to civilized races; and, second, since the physical characteristics
and the influences that modify the mental habit vary in different
climates and countries, that it holds most forcibly with the British,
since it is from that nation that the distinctions have been drawn.

Perhaps the greatest advance made by the present writer is the
assignment of precise form-characteristics to the different temper-
aments. He gives a table, in which one column contains the physi-

SCIENCE.

[Vor.920. Normzae

cal, and the other the mental, characteristics of the four pure tem-
peraments. These are very full and explicit. The physical
characteristics are seven, — three relating to color (of the hair, eyes,
and complexion), and four to form (of the face, nose, neck, and
body).

The nervous temperament is accorded a special chapter, that the
common error of confusing it with nervousness may be avoided.
Nervousness, so far from being a normal characteristic, is described
as “altogether a departure from the natural or healthy manifestations
of the temperament.” To the nervous temperament is ascribed the
tempering, softening, and refining of the other three. “ What
literature would be without the grace, the tenderness, the sublimity
of poetry, the other temperaments would be without the nervous”
(p. 132). After a discussion of the compound temperaments, the
practical applications of our knowledge of them are taken up. The
aid they may render in education, in the choice of a congenial and
fitting profession, and in the promotion of health, is developed in a
most interesting way. By way of illustrating the form-character-
istics mentioned, and to enable observers to classify faces by them,
a number of engravings are given from Lodge’s ‘ Historical Por-
traits.’ Dr. Stewart has certainly given us a most entertaining and
valuable study in anthropology, and the publishers have done their
full share in making it attractive to the reader.

Report of the Scientific Results of the Exploring Voyage of the
‘Challenger. Zoblogy, vol. xix. London, Government. 4°.

IN this volume, Hubrecht reports on the Wemertea, his contribu-
tion comprising one hundred and fifty pages and sixteen finely
drawn plates. The ‘ Challenger’ nemerteans were few in number,
and only some twenty stations afforded specimens. Of these sta-
tions, only five were over one hundred fathoms, and only three of
these exceeded one thousand fathoms. Carzuzna grata and Cere-
bratulus angustzceps were obtained from these three, but the last
species was dredged elsewhere at a depth of only ten fathoms.
The most aberrant types were the above-mentioned Carzzzua and
the pelagic Pelagonemertes. The section-cutter was the chief in-
strument of investigation, and the number of sections made ex-
ceeded 19,500. The report is divided into a systematic and an
anatomical part, followed by a chapter on theoretical considera-
tions. The latter will afford reading of much interest to those who
are not engaged in the study of nemerteans. The conclusion
reached by the author is, that ‘‘more than any other class of in-
vertebrate animals, the Vemertea have preserved in their organiza-
tion traces of such features as must have been characteristic of
those animal forms by which a transition has been gradually
brought about from the archiccelous diploblastic (ccelenterate) type
to those enteroccelous 7yzfloblastéca that have afterward devel-
oped into the Chordata (Urochorda, Hemzichorda, Cephalochorda,
and Vertebrata).” This statement excludes the idea of any direct
ancestral relations between MWemertea and Chordata, and fully
recognizes the points of agreement between Aa/anog/lossus and
Amphioxus.

The clear and weighty arguments by which the author sustains
this proposition do not admit of condensation.

The reports on the Cumacea and Phyllocartda are by Prof. G.
O. Sars, where that distinguished naturalist finds himself on con-
genial ground. The number of species of the former group ob-
tained by the ‘ Challenger’ is fifteen, ranging, among them, from
the surface to 2,050 fathoms in bathymetric distribution. In addi-
tion to the more purely systematic part, Professor Sars discusses
the derivation of the group, and gives a summary of the charac-
ters of all the families, and enumerates the genera of which each
is composed. The memoir is illustrated by eleven plates, distin-
guished by that accuracy and beauty which characterize all the
work of Professor Sars’ facile pencil.

To the single genus of recent Phy//locarzda heretofore known
(all the others being palzozoic fossils), the ‘Challenger’ expedition
added two new generic types, which are naturally of great interest.
The illustration and description of these take but three plates and
some thirty odd pages of text, in which the author fully discusses
the history, morphology, and development of the group, and the
homologies of the several parts in the Weda/zzde with those of
other recent Crustacea. As regards the phylogenetic relations, the

JuLy 22, 1887. |

author is inclined to indorse the suggestions of Packard rather than
the hypotheses of Metchnikoff and Boas.

The report on the Preropoda gymnosomata is in some respects
disappointing. It was hoped by those interested in these animals
that the extraordinary opportunities offered by the ‘ Challenger’
voyage would result in a monographic series of illustrations, giving
us Satisfactory artistic representations of these exquisite “sea-butter-
flies’ taken from life. Instead of this, we have a series of diagram-
matic plates taken from pickled specimens, and in nearly every case
grossly misrepresenting the form and proportions of the living ani-
mal, M. Paul Pelseneer, who reports on the group, is evidently
quite unacquainted with these animals under their normal condi-
tions of existence, —an ignorance which is not unpardonable, but
which has led him into sundry observations which future experi-
ence, should he have it, will enable him to modify in the direction
of accuracy.

For the rest, considering the chaos which preceded Dr. Boas’s
monograph, in the Sola Atlantica, in regard to the species,
sometimes well figured but poorly described, sometimes unfigured,
and sometimes described from immature or mutilated specimens, —
considering all this confusion, and finding the characters of form
and color familiar to those who know these animals in life, gone ir-
revocably in pickled specimens, it is not surprising that the author
should be disposed to criticise sharply, if not altogether justly, the
work of a past epoch. He has brought a certain order out of the
confusion, and his work will be helpful to the student of museum
specimens. The ideal iconography, which we might have had, of
the animals as they live and move, must, however, be looked for
from some other direction.

NOTES AND NEWS.

THE government of the province of Cordoba (Argentine Re-
public) has established a meteorological service, of which Prof.
Oscar Doering will be in charge. The new institute will be inde-
pendent of the national meteorological office which was founded by
Mr. Gould. The officers of telegraph and telephone stations will
be obliged to make observations in conformity with the instructions.
The work will be begun next year on forty stations.

— The first number of the Amerzcan Journal of Psychology
will appear early in October. Among the articles which will prob-
ably appear in that or the succeeding numbers are the following:
“On Gradual Increments of Sensation,’ ‘New Methods and Fur-
ther Results in the Study of the Knee-Jerk,’ ‘ Psycho-Physic
Methods and Star Magnitudes,’ ‘A Criticism of Psycho-Physic
Methods and Results, ‘A New Binocular Phenomenon and its
Use in Determining the Empirical Horopter,’ ‘A Review of Con-
temporary Methods and Results in the Histology of the Central
Nervous System in Europe,’ ‘ Paranoia. — A detailed study of a
case extending over many years,’ ‘An Important Study of the
Play-Instinct in Children,’ ‘A Further Study of Heracleitus,’ ‘An
Extended Review of the Work of the English Society for Psychical
Research.’ The journal will also contain many digests and crit-
iques of current psychological literature, both books and articles.

— The following statistics have been compiled, for the U.S.
Geological Survey, by Charles A. Ashburner, principally from the
direct returns of the operators of individual coal-mines, supple-
mented by valuable contributions from State officials. The total
production of all kinds of coal in 1886, exclusive of that consumed
at the mines, known as colliery consumption, was 107,682,209 short
tons, valued at $147,112,755 at the mines. This may be divided
into Pennsylvania anthracite, 36,696,475 short or 32,764,710 long
tons, valued at $71,558,126; all other coals, including bituminous,
brown coal, lignite, and small lots of anthracite produced in
Arkansas and Colorado, 70,985,734 short tons, valued at $75,554,-
629. The colliery consumption at the individual mines varies from
nothing to 8 per cent of the total product, being greatest at special
Pennsylvania anthracite mines, and lowest at those bituminous
mines where the bed is nearly horizontal and where no steam-power
or ventilating furnaces are employed. The averages for the dif-
ferent States vary from 3 to 6 per cent, the latter being the average
in the Pennsylvania anthracite region. The total production, in-

SCIENCE.

45

cluding colliery consumption, was: Pennsylvania anthracite, 34,-
853,077 long or 39,035,446 short tons, all other coals, 73,707,-
957 short tons; making the total absolute production of all
coals in the United States 112,743,403 short tons, valued as
follows: anthracite, $76,119,120; bituminous, $78,481,056; total
value, $154,600,176. The total production of Pennsylvania
anthracite, including colliery consumption, was 699,473 short tons
in excess of that produced in 1885, but its value was $552,828 less.
The total production of bituminous coal was 1,086,408 short tons
greater than in 1885, while its value was $3,866,592 less. The
total production of all kinds of coal shows a net gain of 1,785,881
short tons compared with 1885, but a loss in spot value of
$4,419.420.

— The Naturwessenschaftliche Rundschau gives an abstract of
J. Coaz’s observations on the planerogams first taking possession
of the land at the end of retreating glaciers. The endof the Rhone
glacier has been marked yearly since 1874, and therefore Coaz made
his observations at this place. In the zone left by the ice in 1874,
he found 39 species ; in the zone following, 37 : 23 species grew in
the zone left by the ice in 1876, but then the figures fall off to 12.
In the zone of 1881 only 7 are found, and in that of 1881 only a
single species. This is Saxzfraga azzoides. Epilobtum Fletschert
and Oxyria digyna grow in all zones except the last. Willows do
not occur except in the first two zones. The observations were
made in 1883.

LETTERS TO THE EDITOR.

*“." The attention of scientific men is called to the advantages of the correspondence
columns of SCIENCE for placing promptly on record brief preliminary notices of
their investigations. Twenty copies of the number containing his communication
will be furnished free to any correspondent on request.

The editor will be glad to publish any queries consonant with the character of
the journal.

Correspondents are requested to be as brief as possible. The writer's name zs.

tn all cases required as proof of good faith.
Scientific Ballooning.

I AGREE most heartily with Professor Waldo, in Sczence for July
15, that ‘“‘no meteorological data are so much to be desired as those
which are now obtained for short, irregular intervals, by balloons.”
Six years ago, when there was talk of a balloon-voyage from Min-
neapolis to the Atlantic, I wrote a note regarding the relative
importance of the free and captive balloon. I was not
then aware that no balloon had ever been kept afloat at
a half-mile height more than twenty hours, and then only by
the use of about half a ton of ballast. Probably there are now
several balloons, in this country, that can be floated more than
twenty-four hours by using four hundred or five hundred pounds.
of ballast each day. The great desideratum in ballooning is a gas-
tight envelope. The best record I know of is the suspension of a
balloon at about one thousand feet, for thirteen hours, with a loss
of about one hundred and sixty pounds of sand. I think an ap-
proximation to a tight balloon may be made by increasing the num-
ber of coats of varnish, but this would bring about an unwieldly
envelope and one likely to crack when emptied of gas.

If we had such an envelope, however, it would be impossible to:
keep the balloon captive, at a half-mile height, in a wind much
over five miles per hour. As the chief investigations we wish to
make are during the progress of storms, when the velocity of the
current rises to forty and fifty miles per hour, it can hardly be con-
sidered that a captive balloon is practicable.

A captive balloon, however, can never give us what we wish;
namely, the distribution of temperature, moisture, etc., in a vertical
direction, nor in a horizontal stratum. Just the height to which we
must go isin some doubt, some authorities placing it at 20,000 feet
and over. I think that at least nine-tenths of the disturbance is
below 6000 feet, so that the exploration is by no means as formidable
as it might seem at first. There is nothing the aeronaut, with a
few hundred pounds of ballast, has so completely under his control
as an up-and-down movement, and he can satisfy the most en-
thusiastic observer with all he may wish of such movement. The
weight of an observer, perhaps, is the least objectionable point in
ballooning. In most cases at least two men are taken, together

46

with a few hundred pounds of sand. If the envelope were abso-
lutely tight, this would be ample for several ascents to 10,000 feet,
or to keep the balloon in suspension many days. Nothing of
scientific accuracy can be had at a high level without a practised
hand on the spot. Questions of exposure of instruments, observa-
tions of clouds, etc., demand an immediate answer at each record,
if we desire valuable observations. Glaisher made thousands of
observations of the moisture-contents of the air in his memorable
scientific ascents, but, though these have been utilized by others in
doubtful computations, he himself does not summarize them in
considering his results. All who have tried to make humidity-ob-
servations in a room, with no air stirring (which is precisely the
condition in a balloon), know how exceedingly unsatisfactory
they are.

I believe that the investigations needed may be made at an ex-
pense much less than is ordinarily supposed. There is needed a
balloon of about 60,000 cubic feet capacity (a larger one would be
too unwieldy, and is not necessary for ascents up to 20,000 feet).
The gas for inflation should be the last that comes in the process
of manufacture: this is poor in illuminating power, because it has
less carbon, but it is nearly one-fourth more buoyant than ordinary
coal-gas. This is not exactly a refuse product, yet it can be had
very cheaply. It would be a most excellent plan to send up four
balloons at once, about two hundred miles from the centre of a
storm, in the north-east, north-west, south-west, and south-east
quadrants. But, as this would be rather expensive, we must ex-
plore the most interesting point first. I would send up the balloon
either to the south-west or west of a storm: at a height of 6,000
feet, it would, in all probability, outstrip the storm, and the descent
could be made either in the centre or a little to the east of it. We
could then either make another ascent immediately, or wait till the
storm has passed overhead, and then make another trip just as at
first. This will enable us to determine, not only the vertical dis-
tribution of temperature and moisture in the neighborhood of the
storm, but also the action, whirling or otherwise, that takes place
at the seat of the storm, or where the ‘power’ of the storm is de-
veloped. When the balloon is no longer able to rise, a fresh
supply of gas may be carried to it in a small balloon, or in a long
flexible cylinder (as suggested by Professor King). If near any
gas-works, the balloon may be towed near enough to obtain a
fresh supply. As about 30,000 feet of gas would be needed to float
the balloon and all its appliances, it will be seen that this would
effect a great saving. I understand perfectly that carrying out
such suggestions as these may be a very difficult matter in practice,
and often impossible in a high wind. For ten thousand dollars, I
think, fifty or sixty ascents might be made, which would be of in-
calculable importance in the study of the origin, development, and
progress of storms. Such investigation is absolutely necessary if
we would advance our knowledge of the generation of storms.
Any advance in this direction is of such moment to almost all
classes of people. especially to farmers and mariners, that we may
hope such a small sum will be volunteered, or obtained from gov-

ernment, ere long for this study. H. ALLEN HAZEN.
Washington, D.C., July 10.

Cloud-Heights.

THE following method, which can often be used to determine the
elevation of certain clouds, may interest some of your readers, par-
ticularly topographers and meteorologists.

I was watching to-day, from Little Monadnock, the shadow of a
dense cumulus moving slowly along the southern slope of Monad-
nock, until finally the edge touched the hotel about half-way up
the mountain. It occurred to me, that, if the point where I stood
and the hotel were plotted on a plane-table sheet, and the sheet
oriented, the elevation of the cloud could easily be found in this way
At the moment the shadow reaches the second plotted position,
draw, through the station occupied by the observer, a line, and read
a vertical angle to the edge of the cloud that casts the shadow. Then,
through the second plotted position, draw a line in the direction of
the sun. The point of intersection of these two lines is the hori-
zontal projection of the position of a point on the edge of the cloud
at the time the shadow has reached the second plotted position.
The distance (to be scaled from the map) from this intersection to

SCLE NG:

[VoLt. X. No. 233

the point occupied, is the base, and the vertical angle of elevation
the adjacent angle of a right-triangle, of which the altitude is the
height of the cloud above the observer. This may be corrected for
curvature and refraction.

When a plane-table sheet is nearly complete, with many located
points on it, the same cloud may be observed several times, and the
determinations of altitude compared.

This method is extremely simple, and I am very anxious to have
it tried. I shall not be able to do this myself for several weeks,
but I hope some one who is working with a plane-table will, and

let me know his results. H. L. SMYTH.
Dublin, N.H., July 2.

The Wholesomeness of Swill-Milk.

THE discussion carried on in the pages of Sczence for some
weeks past upon the healthfulness of milk from cows fed upon
distillery-swill has, in my opinion, failed to definitely settle the ques-
tion. There can be no doubt of the vital importance of the matter,
and all physicians and sanitarians will agree that a solution of the
problem is highly desirable.

1. I venture to say that no positive evidence has been submitted
showing any ill effect of swill upon cows fed with it. The evils
attributable to it are largely, if not entirely, to be ascribed to the
unsanitary surroundings of the animals.

2. Whatever evidence has any positive value indicates that swill
is equally as good and proper food (used with judgment) as hay,
dried fodder, ensilage, or bulbous roots. These all differ widely
in chemical composition from the green foods (grass, clover, green
oats, and corn), which may be looked upon as the normal food of
cows.

3. It may be worth while remembering that lactation in a dairy
is not a normal process. Dairy-cows are ‘ milk-machines.’ The
dairy business would not be very profitable if lactation were not
forced to some degree.

4. Experienced agriculturists, like Professor Armsby and Dr.
Sturtevant (Sczence, ix. pp. 602 — 3), have failed to see any ill effects
attributable entirely to swill, and such veterinarians of ability as
Professor Law and Dr. Salmon (/ézd, p. 552) corroborate this testi-
mony.

5. The facts collated by Professor Brewer (/ézd, p. 550), showing
the ready absorption of germs and odors by milk, the transmission
of the flavor of various odoriferous substances eaten by the animal
to the secretion, the passage of certain drugs administered medicin-
ally into the milk of nursing women, or the notorious fact that
swill-milk stables are ‘ proverbially foul and stinking,’ have no bear-
ing upon the case. The evidence required to establish the un-
wholesomeness of swill as food for milk-giving animals must be of
a different character.

6. While it may be conceded that ‘chemical analyses will not
settle the question’ of the wholesomeness of swill-milk, the fact
remains that we have at present no other way of determining the
physical qualities of a specimen of milk. Bacteriological investiga-
tion may determine the presence of the germs of tuberculosis,
typhoid, and, in view of recent discoveries, of scarlet-fever, but will
not enable us to ascertain the relative proportions of saccharine,
fatty, aqueous, or proteid matters present. Chemistry is here still
our main-stay, and, other things being equal (more definitely, disease-
germs being absent), a specimen of milk nearly approaching the
chemical standard established by Keenig may be looked upon as a
wholesome food. Other factors besides the food of the animal
enter into the production of milk. The age of the animal, period
of lactation, time when the milk is drawn, and general sanitary
condition, must not be ignored.

7. The asserted greater firmness, and consequent indigestibility,
of the coagulum in swill-milk is not based upon a sufficient number
of observations to admit of unquestioned acceptance. It should
be easy to determine this in any chemical laboratory. No single
series of observations would decide this, however. It would be
necessary to test milk from cows fed upon swill but kept under
good sanitary conditions, side by side with milk from animals kept
under the ordinary conditions of city stable-life, and fed upon
various foods.

8. A scientific solution of the question will not be furthered by

Juzy 22, 1887.]

prejudiced appeals or unreasoning denunciation. Patient investi-
gation, keeping in view all circumstances of the question, and
avoiding all one-sidedness in considering the matter, will alone
bring about the object desired. Personally I at present occupy the
same stand-point as Professor Armsby (Sczemce, x. p. 4), ‘ Much
of the common prejudice against the use of distillery-slops appears
to be occasioned by their irrational application, and frequently by
the filthy surroundings of the animals, rather than by any thing
injurious in the feeding-stuff itself.” GEORGE H. Rong,
Baltimore, July 15.

The Hudson Bay Route.

IN your article on ‘The New Route from England to Eastern
Asia, and the Hudson Bay Route’ (Vol. x. No. 231), you show the
advantages offered by the Hudson Bay route, as the most direct
available line between Yokohama and Liverpool in connection with
the Canadian Pacific Railway and their line of steamers between
Yokohama and Vancouver. I should like to add a few remarks on
that part of it known as the Hudson Bay route.

The Canadian Government decided, that, before any such line was
encouraged by subsidy, it would be advisable to determine by
actual observation what difficulties were likely to be met with; and,
with this object in view, established several observing stations in the
Strait and Bay, with men and material sufficient for continuous
residence there during 1884-6. Complete details of these obser-
vations are published in the annual reports of the Marine Depart-
ment.

A fact well established by these observations was that naviga-
tion was limited in these years to three months for the ordinary
ocean-steamer; and that for a class of steamer specially con-
structed to withstand the lateral thrust of the ice, and to push her
way amidst the outflowing arctic ice, four, or at most five months
would be the limit, depending on whether the season was a late or
early one. We must not forget, however, that in the earlier days
at least of this route, before the telegraph and cable will have
reached these waters, steamers will not attempt the passage at these
earlier dates, fearing an arrival off the mouth of the Strait and an
inactive wait for a late season’s opening, so that practically such an
advantage would be lost, and two months and a half become the
period over which a steamer could be certain of making an un-
interrupted passage during any season.

In considering the possibility of the route being equipped with a
special class of steamer, we will have to remember that the required
conditions wil] be strength and power rather than speed, and that
therefore their field for employment outside of these few months’
service would be of very limited extent.

The special objection I would point out as to this route, apart
from the ice-question, is the difficulty of the passage itself: an un-
known, an unlighted coast-line, with very few harbors of refuge, or
none at all, and very little room to ride out a gale; extreme depths
of water, one hundred fathoms being often found right up to the
shore, with generally very foul holding-grownd where the depths are
more moderate. In foul weather, no sounding being possible that
would be of value, a vessel would receive no warning of her prox-
imity to the coast until the information would be of little or no
avail.

Although fogs are of less frequent occurrence than off the New-
foundland coast, where the necessary conditions are most favorable,
they are not infrequent during the season of navigation, Belle-Isle
having an average of 1,600 hours fog during the year, as compared
with 420 for the Strait during the same period. On the other
hand, although the total amount of precipitation, in the Strait, was
not great, rain or snow fell on an average of a little more than every
other day, with its attendant thick weather.

In addition to and connection with these difficulties, we must not
forget that the proximity of the Strait to the Magnetic Pole results
in the horizontal, or directive, force of the magnetic-needle being
so diminished that the common compass is perfectly useless; and
even in the case of the Thomson compass, disturbing elements on
ship-board have, in consequence, their values so increased (relative-
ly) that sources of error might arise, the effects of which could not
be counted on during thick weather.

SCIENGE.

47

That the people of Manitoba are seemingly satisfied with the
feasibility of this route, there can be no doubt, if we may judge
from the advance they have made with the construction of the rail-
way from Winnipeg to Churchill; but, in face of the facts obtained
from the observations made in the Strait, one must conclude that
the resources of Hudson Bay itself and the country intervening are
looked upon as reason sufficient for the construction, independently
of the value of the road as a connecting link to the Hudson Bay
route.

In conclusion, although it would be difficult to say that, with the
appliances science is constantly developing to meet particular cases
of difficulty, the navigation of Hudson Strait will not be pos-
sible for five or six months when the necessity arises, we cannot
but conclude that, with the means at our disposal to-day, the navi-
gation of Hudson Strait is possible for such a limited period, and
under such serious disadvantages, that as a development of the
“New Route from England to Eastern Asia’ we need not consider
it as an immediate probability. W. A. ASHE.

The Observatory, Quebec, July 16.

The Wanton Destruction of the Florida Heronries.

CANNOT general legislation, cannot State legislation, or cannot
somebody raise a hand to stay the terrible, the shameless extermi-
nation of the herons at their breeding-grounds in the south-western
parts of the State of Florida ?

As I pen these lines this murderous work is being actively carried
on, and apparently in the most lawless and reckless manner possi-
ble, —a disgrace to the entire country,—for one of America’s
grandest and most interesting natural features, her heronries, are
simply, and without a check of any kind, being ruthlessly wiped
out of existence. Prompted by an insatiable greed for gain, the
‘plume-traders ’ of the markets are upon their grounds in numbers,
and hundreds of these birds are now daily falling to their unceasing
fire, simply that they may have their backs robbed of a few feathers.
to gratify a passing fashion. Ze Aw is now publishing an ad-
mirable series of articles on this subject from the able pen of Mr.
W.E. D. Scott, at present on a scientific expedition in Florida, and
I have just read his contribution to the July number of that journal.
Mr. Scott has very recently made camp at a number of these
heronties, and I quote a few of his words in order to show what
work is going on there. At Matlacha Pass, near Charlotte Harbor,
Pine Island has a heronry, and here one Johnson was at work.
“A few herons were to be seen from time to time flying to the
island, and presently I took the small boat, and went ashore to
reconnoitre. This had evidently been only a short time before a
large rookery. The trees were full of nests, some of which still
contained eggs, and hundreds of broken eggs strewed the ground
everywhere. Fish-crows and both kinds of buzzards were present
in great numbers, and were rapidly destroying the remaining eggs.
I found a huge pile of dead, half-decayed birds, lying on the
ground, which had apparently been killed for a day or two. All of
them had the ‘plumes’ taken, with a patch of the skin from the
back, and some had the wings cut off; otherwise they were un-
injured. I counted over two hundred birds treated in this way.”
In some places, Mr. Scott found hundreds of the young herons just
starving in their nests; in others, the gunners beneath the trees
shooting down the magnificent birds in hundreds, stripping their
backs, and leaving their carcases to rot upon the ground. Instances
were noted without number where, during the breeding-season, the
poor, affrighted survivors were driven to strange islands, dropping
their eggs in quantities from the trees where they fearfully roosted
for the night. A few more years, one or two at the most,
and this disgraceful murder will cease, for the simple reason that
there will no more victims for the murderers to prey upon, — and in
the name of nature, and in the name of the shadows of the sweet
old romances that have come down to us of the heronries of his-
tory, are these timid, and most engaging of all our larger water-
fowl, our own American herons, to be destroyed in this manner !

Twenty years ago southern Florida was the site of the grandest
heronries in all the world, and to-day this State is making enviable
progress, and many cultured people are flocking to her for a per-
manent home: is she to stand idly by and watch what will surely

48

be one of her greatest natural attractions stamped out in a few
months under her very eyes, —a work, that, when fully known, as
it will surely be, will pass down as one of the blackest pages in her
history? A quarter of a century ago the writer was at Charlotte
Harbor himself, and well do I remember my unbounded enthusiasm
as my eyes first feasted upon the sight of a Floridian heronry:
many, many, species, represented by thousands upon thousands of
individuals, were ranged along the beaches, or covered the cypress
tops, where their nests were in hundreds. Never shall I forget
their lovely uniforms as they glistened in the soft atmosphere of
that sub-tropical land: some were snowy white, others a charming
blue, or warm chestnut, while, more beautiful than all, the won-
drous rosy tints of the spoonbills fairly shone in the bright sun-
light.

Really I am sad as I see, only too vividly in my mind, the disgust-
ing slaughter that is now being perpetrated in their very midst.
Entire rookeries have been exterminated, and others reduced to a
few, very few, pairs of birds, now so wild and suspicious that it re-
quires the skill of the rifleman to capture them. ;

R. W. SHUFELDT.
Fort Wingate, N.Mex., July 14.

Tornado ‘ Power.’

REFERRING to a communication by H. Allen Hazen, in Sczence
of July 8, entitled ‘ Theoretical Meteorology,’ in which he states that
“theoretical meteorology most signally fails in its attempts to ex-
plain our most violent storms and tornadoes,” and, “that the theory
that the sun’s heat could start a vertical current, which, with the
condensation of moisture in the upper atmosphere would give rise
to winds of 200 to 300 miles per hour seems incredible,” and “that
the attempt to meet the difficulties by suggesting ‘great contrasts
in temperature, ‘meeting of warm southerly and cold northerly
winds,’ etc., does not seem at all satisfactory,’ I would say that
there appears to be a disposition on the part of writers on scientific
subjects, more particularly as relates to meteorology, to sacrifice
common-sense reasoning and probable facts to profound but im-
probable theories, which, while they do, and are probably intended
to, fill the common mind with wonder at such amazing displays of
learning, are unsatisfactory and worthless from a practical scientific
standpoint.

The attempt to prove that wind-velocity constitutes the ‘power’
of tornadoes always did and always will signally fail ; nor will it be
possible to convince any one who possesses a knowledge of meteor-
ology, that air-currents can be made to attain the several-thousand-
mile per hour velocity which would be required to effect the
results of tornado action. It is evident to the practical mind that
the suggestions referred to by Professor Hazen do not meet the
difficulties involved in explaining the violent character of these
phenomena, and it is equally evident that more satisfactory sug-
gestions concerning them have not been brought to, or received, his
intelligent attention.

It has been claimed and shown that the ‘power’ of tornadoes is
electrical, and it has been demonstrated that trees and twigs which
had been subjected to their action bore conclusive proof of this
fact. It is not known, however, that theories have been advanced
in explanation of the processes whereby the electric fluid is so
largely collected within the tornado-funnel, and herein is embodied
the object of this communication.

The meeting of warm southerly and cold northerly winds, in the
southern quadrants of low-barometer areas, occasions great con-
trasts in humidity and temperature in a limited area, and it is well
known that these conditions are essential to a storm’s development
and existence. Tornadoes and local storms are, in all instances,
subsidiary to extensive storm-systems, and invariably occur at the
point where, in accord with the laws governing the circulation of
wind in low-barometer areas, the warm and cold currents are
brought into opposition. A natural result of the meeting of warm
and cold masses of air would be the elevating of the former to
higher altitudes, if for no other reason than on account of their
relative specific gravity : the ascending currents would, on attaining
a proper elevation, precipitate their moisture, and the continual and
large inpouring of these opposing currents, in any given locality,
would intensify the elements of disturbance. It is conceded that

SCIENCE.

[Vou 23 Nowi238

the angle of contact of air-currents, to the south-eastward of the
centres of general storms, contributes to impart a rotary movement,
and ascending warm-air currents would naturally assume that
motion; and, in the case of tornadoes and local storms, this whirl
is most marked at a distance from the earth’s surface, or at the
point where the moisture in the ascending air is precipitated. That
this mass of revolving air is well charged with electricity is shown
by the heavy electrical discharges which are commonly observed
within its body and in its immediate vicinity. When, through its
whirling motion, or the electrical attraction offered by the earth, the
extremity of this generally low-lying cloud descends to the earth’s
surface, there is formed a column of very moist air extending from
earth to cloud; and, as moist air is one of the best known con-
ductors of electricity, and the earth is the great reservoir for the
electric fluid, the tornado-funnel furnishes the medium of communi-
cation by means of which the fluid may leave the earth, and the
collecting of vast quantities of both positive and negative electricity
within such confined limits would naturally give rise to tremendous
exhibitions of its power.

Every observable feature of tornadoes shows them to be electri-
cal storms developed under unusually well-marked conditions. Their
action and results are essentially electric, but until the true nature
and composition of their mysterious element is known, the exact
formula of its action as the destructive agent of local storms cannot
be presented. We only know that under certain conditions it will
produce certain results. Its presence in tornadoes, in enormous
quantities, is shown, and its accountability for the destructiveness
of these energetic phenomena is claimed, to the almost total exclu-
sion of the wind-velocity theory, which is not only an improbable,
but, it is perfectly safe to say, an impossible one. This is a funda-
mental proposition established by actual results on the spot where
the ‘power’ of these storms has manifested itself, and is deserving
of more consideration than has heretofore been accorded it.

E. B. GARRIATT.
Signal Office, Washington, July 15.

Theoretical Meteorology.

THERE is no contradiction whatever between page 51 and page
328 of ‘Recent Advances in Meteorology.’ My mind, also, re-
mains entirely unchanged with regard to the other matters in the
book referred to, by Mr. Hazen, in Sczence of July 8. There are,
however, some other parts of the work, which, after a lapse of
nearly three years since the first writing, I would be disposed to
amend, and even in some case’ correct, in a second writing. This
it is proposed to do in a forthcoming more popular work, so far as
it shall cover the same ground. W. FERREL.

Kansas City, July 13.

Queries.

to. ROBIN’S NEST. — Is there any thing unusual in a robin’s nest
built inside of a last year’s nest, which in turn was built inside of a
nest now two years old, and that one inside of one three years old,
and so on, like the house that Jack built, until you have a pile of
nests fitting into one another and numbering ten? Such a ten-
storied affair was found in Potsdam, N.Y., lately, the top story
being in use, while beside it on the same window-cap was another
pile of three nests. C. H. LEETE.

11. LAKE ITasca.— There is one point in the controversy about
the name of Lake Itasca, of which I have often thought, but to
which I have not seen public attention directed. The priest who is
said to have suggested the name is represented to have been a
Latin scholar, and to have proposed a name which is intended to
signify the ‘true source, ver(ztas ca)put. Now, I have never been
able to see how the words correspond to the idea. Cagzz will do
for ‘source ;’ but verztas is a noun and nothing else. The two
nouns cannot, therefore, mean what they are represented to mean,
or the Latin is not that of a classical scholar. Verum caput might
mean the ‘true source,’ not, however, verztas caput. If there is

any other explanation of the case than that the good priest was
caught napping in his Latin, I should like to see it in print.

C. W. SUPER.
Athens, O., July xz.

eOIENCE

FRIDAY, JULY 29, 1887.

WILL THE READER please cast his eye upon the following ques-
tions: 1. How can it be proved that nicotine isa poison? 2, Why
are cigarettes especially harmful? 3. Is alcohol a food? 4, What
is the effect of disuse upon a muscle? 5. Under what names is
opium sold? 6, Under what names is alcohol drunk? 7, What is
the difference between a food and a poison? 8. Is any thing
gained by changing from one narcotic to another? 9. What is the
effect of beer as a drink? 10. How does cheerfulness help the
muscle? These are the questions given as a test in physiology in
the public schools of a prominent Eastern city. They are not ad-
dressed to young men about to leave school. No, they are asked
of little boys and girls of from eight to ten years of age. This is
the examination-paper at the end of the first year’s elementary in-
struction in physiology. Of ten questions, eight relate to drinking
and smoking: the physiology is a mere side issue. These children,
who ought to have about as much knowledge of such matters as
they should of the methods in vogue at the stock exchange, are
actually forced to learn by rote the details of human vice; and that,
too, under the name of ‘ physiology,’ the only science which they
learn. Unconsciousness, zaiveté, is the symbol of childhood. The
fact that physiology, even if well taught, tends to destroy this trait,
is the chief objection to its early study. Instruction such as the
above implies crushes the most valuable trait in the child, directs its
curiosity to what is morbid, and forces into precocious development
all its dangerous elements. Not enough that the newspaper and
the dime novel proclaim in glaring colors the story of crime and
sin : some notion of the perversity of human nature must be mixed
with the food of babes. That the result of this teaching is to excite
in the children a morbid curiosity to experiment for themselves in
such matters ; or (with the boys) to regard the whole thing as a
lesson in ‘ goody-goodyness,’ to which they forthwith decide to show
themselves superior ; or to regard their father, who takes his glass
of wine at dinner, as an incipient criminal, —this could easily have
been foreseen, and goes without saying. If there is one method
better than all others to produce a race of drunkards, this has good
claims to that distinction. If there is a degree of wrong in such
superlatively perverse methods, then it is still worse that the
fair name of science should be outraged in this cause. Not only
that this kind of teaching necessarily depends upon catechism
methods (that the answer to the second question, for example, is to
read that the especial perniciousness of cigarettes is due to the fact
that they are usually made of decayed cigar-stumps), but that the
entire idea of science thus implanted is as wrong as it well can be.
Better far revert to the old days when there was no science on the
curriculum than have science thus taught. The crowning educa-
tional virtue of science is that it leads to the use of scientific
methods of teaching: this usurper chokes up all possibility of an
interest in the scientific. The ‘temperance’ question is doubtless
one of the most important with which our age has to deal; suffi-
ciently important, perhaps, to make some consideration of it in the
public schools a legitimate proceeding, but it must be done at the
right time and in the proper way. Nothing can excuse the conver-
sion of a text-book on physiology into a ‘temperance’ tract : noth-
ing can excuse the sacrilege of presenting this story of disgusting
vice under the name of ‘science.’

THE STATEMENTS by Mr, W. Glenn in Sczence of July 15, as to
the freedom from disease of men employed in the Baltimore sewers,

are of greater interest in view of the report of Professor Carnelley,
D.Sc., and Mr. Haldane, of University College, Dundee, referred to
in Exgzneering lately. These gentlemen have been investigating
the impurities of sewer-air, and find that the organic acid in the
sewers examined was about twice, and the organic matter three
times, that of the outside air, whereas the number of micro-organ-
isms was less. As regards the quantity of these three impurities,
the air of the sewers was better than the air of naturally ventilated
schools, while even mechanically ventilated schools were more pol-
luted with organic matter. The sewer-air contained a much
smaller number of micro-organisms than the air of any class of
house, and the carbonic acid was rather greater than the air of
houses of four rooms and upwards, but less than in two and one
roomed houses. As regards organic matter, however, the sewer-
air was only slightly better than the air of one-roomed houses, and
much worse than that of other classes of houses. The amount of
carbonic acid found by the observers shows that the sewers ob-
served were better ventilated than those investigated by previous
observers. They attribute the excess of carbonic acid over that of
the outside air chiefly to oxidation of organic matter in the sewage
and the air of the sewer. The excess of organic matter is probably
chiefly gaseous, and derived from the sewage itself. The micro-
organisms in sewer-air come entirely, or nearly so, from outside,
and are not derived, or only so in relatively small numbers, from
the sewer itself. This important conclusion is proved by the facts
that the average number of micro-organisms in sewer-air was less
than in the outside air, namely, as 9 to 16; that the number in-
creased with the efficacy of the ventilation; that the average pro-
portion of moulds to bacteria in sewer-air was almost exactly the
same as in outside air at the same time, whereas one would expect
the proportion to be very different were the outside air not the
source from which they were derived, seeing that such a difference
has been proved to exist in the air of houses and schools. Another
consideration is that the filthiness of a sewer seems to have no in-
fluence on the number of micro-organisms. Further experiments
in the laboratory showed that the number of micro-organisms in
sewer-air is diminished nearly a half in passing along a moist tube
5 feet long and 1# inches in diameter, at a rate of nearly 1 foot per
second. There was, however, distinct evidence of the occasional
dissemination of micro-organisms from the sewage itself; espe-
cially in splashing, owing to drains entering the sewers at points
high up in the roofs. It is therefore important that drains should
be arranged to avoid splashing.

TOPOGRAPHICAL SURVEY OF THE UNITED STATES.

IT is some eight years since the passage of the law creating the
U. S. Geological Survey. This survey is charged, among other
things, with making a geological map of the United States. For
this purpose, itis desirable to have good maps for the use of the
geologist in the field, and for the exhibition of results. No map
of the whole country, suitable for the purpose, exists, and, of many
and extensive portions, rude and imperfect diagrams constitute the
only maps. The Geological Survey, therefore, first sought to have
inaugurated a general topographical survey of the whole country.

The superintendent of the Coast and Geodetic Survey was con-
ferred with and solicited to undertake the work, and a little work
was actually undertaken, but none upon a general or comprehensive
plan. The Geological Survey, therefore, finding that no satis -
factory progress in geological work was possible without suitable
maps, set about organizing topographic work on a systematic and
comprehensive plan.

50

The plan of work, the scale to be adopted, the methods to be
used with a view to efficiency, rapidity, and economy, were care-
fully considered, and then a plan was adopted, subject to such
modifications as experience should suggest. Although this plan,
and the progress of the work, have been set forth in various
official documents, nevertheless they seem to be very little known.

It therefore appears desirable to set forth in brief and simple
form the plan which the Geological Survey has, after mature con-
sideration, adopted for making a topographic map of the United
States, and the progress which has been made in the prosecution of
the adopted plan.

It was decided to make a map which, although primarily de-
signed for the use of the geological corps, should be upon such
scales and should represent such features as to make it subserve
all purposes to which a general topographic map is applicable, —
in short, that it should be the topographic map of the United
States.

The question of the scale or scales of the map is one of the
utmost importance, as upon this depends, on the one hand, the
degree of accuracy and the amount of detail necessary to be ob-
tained in the survey, and, upon the other, the value of the map,
It was seen at once that it would be inadvisable to attempt to
make the maps of all parts of the country upon the same scale.
The differences in degree of settlement, in material wealth, in the
character of the prevalent industries, in the complexity of geological
phenomena, and in the amount and degree of detail of the relief,
all emphasize the desirability of varying the scale in different parts
of the country.

A scale of 1 :62,500, or about one mile to an inch, was adopted
for the most populous regions, after a careful consideration of the
requirements which such a map should meet, and with full knowl-
edge of the experience of European nations in this matter. In the
southern and central States, the conditions of settlement, the
character of the industries, and other conditions, appear to admit
the use of a smaller scale, and accordingly for this area the scale
was fixed at 1 : 125,000 or about two miles to an inch.

In the sparsely settled region of the Rocky Mountain plateau, a
still further reduction appeared advisable ; and for this region, with
the exception of certain small areas which for special reasons ap-
peared to require a larger scale, it was fixed at 1: 250,000, or about
four miles to an inch.

The maps represent all natural features of drainage and relief, in
degree of detail proportioned to the scale. They represent all
public culture, i.e., all such of the works of man as have relation to
communities as distinguished from individuals. This excludes, it
is true, a large part of the culture, but the portion excluded seems
for various reasons to be out of place upon such a map. It is of
little general interest ; it is evanescent, much of it to such a degree
that by the time the map is published it would be incorrect and
misleading. Its adoption would require the use of a large number
of arbitrary symbols, which would be unintelligible without an ex-
tensive legend upon each sheet ; and, furthermore, the inclusion
of so large an amount of cultural material would serve to confuse
the map and render its more important parts illegible.

Relief is expressed by contours. The contour-interval, or, as it
may be designated, the vertical scale, is adjusted to the horizontal
scale, and to the degree of relief of the country. It ranges from
Io to 200 feet; the smallest contour-interval accompanying the
largest scale, and wzce versa.

The size of sheets is so arranged that each sheet upon the small-
est scale comprises a square degree, i.e., a degree of latitude by a
degree of longitude. Upon the scale of 1 : 125,000, each sheet is 30
minutes in each dimension, and upon the scale of 1 : 62,500, each
sheet is 15 minutes in each dimension.

The field-work of the survey is carried on with direct reference
to the scale of publication. The accuracy, the amount of geometric
control, and the degree of detail of the sketching, are proportioned
to this scale. A greater degree of accuracy thanis required is unde-
sirable, on account of the increased cost. A greater degree of
detail in the sketching than is demanded by the scale is not only
useless, but worse than useless, as it involves generalization in the
office in order to adapt it to the scale, and such generalization can-
not be as satisfactory as if made in the field.

SCIENCE.

subsequently added by Y-level.
‘trict of Columbia, the survey is made by telemeter traverse.
Appalachian Mountain region, south of Mason and Dixon’s line,

[ VoL. X. No. 234

For convenience, the original maps and the plane-table sheets
are usually made upon scales larger than. those of publication. The
following table shows the scales in use for the original platting of the
maps, the scales of publication, and the contour-intervals, together
with the areas surveyed in 1886, in the several areas of work : —

Field- Publication- Contour- |Area surveyed

Scale. Scale. Interval. in 1886.
Massachusetts. I : 30,000 I : 62,500 20 and 40 3359
New Jersey......++-2++-+ I £ 20,000 I : 62,500 zo and 20 1,400
District of Columbia..... I : 30,000 I : 62,500 20 275
Appalachian.........-.-- 1 : 126,720 I : 125,000 I00 19,054
Kansas.......-..0.--20-- I : 63,360 I : 125,000 5° 6,000
Missouri.........-.--+--- 1 : 63,360 I : 125,000 50 4,450
INSZG3 sag canuossendgnest6 I : 126,720 I : 125,000 50 4,388
I : 126,720 I 2 250,000 100 7,800
I : 63,360 I 3 125,000 200 3,025
I: 126,720 I ? 250,000 200 3,000
I: 126,720 I : 250,000 200 3,300

ALC TENS 6G50005000||S0000090000000]|sosn0cd0obeDOa||coopBeoBOs000 + 56,051

At the close of the year 1886, areas amounting to 250,000 square
miles, or about one-fourteenth of the area of the country, including
Alaska, had been surveyed.

This work is carried on by a Division of Geography, having a
personnel numbering about one hundred permanent employees
besides the temporary aids and camp hands employed during the,
field-season. The organization of the division during the field-
season of 1886 was as follows : —

Parties.

Sub-sections.

Sections.

4 tepographic.
. I topographic....
x topographic.

3 7 topographic
Appalachianeermeres=ceisseeeseeeeee eee rerti f TH ERe RETO \ Sdcaadcansces 58

North-eastern

I topographic }

Central............. triangulation
topographic. ......-+.++------ 5

triangulation
topographic See oy It
topographic and triangulation 5

Western triangulation
oan990'G00 0 Rearrerine fp ooze Boo
Oregon topographic and triangulation 6

I triangulation
Montana...........-- { B figngserinte {f 22 2ozsee0025¢ 8

The names given to the sub-sections indicate the fields of work,
and the number of men includes permanent assistants and tempo-
rary aids, but not laboring force. The work is everywhere con-
trolled by triangulation. Topographic work is prosecuted in part
by plane-table, using it by the method of intersections and by
traverse methods. Both these methods are in use in Massachusetts.
The workin the western part of the State is done entirely by plane-
table; that in the wooded, level country in the south-east, by
traverse, using the compass for direction and the telemeter for dis-
tance, elevations being measured by the vertical circle and by the
Y-level. In the north-east the two methods are combined to good
advantage, the work of the plane-table being supplemented by
telemeter traverses. In New Jersey the survey is made in plan by
traverse, with the compass and odometer. The vertical element is.
In the area adjacent to the Dis-
In the

the triangulation rests upon the Appalachian belt of the U.S. Coast
and Geodetic Survey. The topographic work is in part done
by the plane-table, or the kindred method with the theodolite, but
mainly by traverse with compass and odometer. Elevations are
determined by barometer and the vertical circle.

In Missouri and Kansas the work is greatly expedited by the

JuLY 29, 1887.]

use of the rectangular surveys of the General Land Office, which
extend over this region. The township-plats supply more or less
fully the drainage, and, in addition to this, they cover the ground
with located points, the township, section, and quarter-section
corners. Furthermore, throughout the settled portions of Kansas,
and in the greater portion of Missouri, the roads, fences, hedges,
etc., mark the lines of subdivision in such a manner that the
country is graphically subdivided, and the location of features
horizontally becomes simply a matter of sketching. In Kansas
these lines of subdivision are controlled by belts of triangulation,
which, starting from lines of the transcontinental belt of the Coast
and Geodetic Survey, run westward, midway between parallels of
latitude. In Missouri the work is controlled by the transcontinental
belt of the Coast and Geodetic Survey. Each triangulation point
is connected with the nearest township or section corner. The
topographic work consists in the verification of the drainage of
the Land Office plats, in supplementing it wherever necessary,
and in adding the culture and relief. Heights are measured by
barometer, and the profiles of railroads are utilized.

The work in the various fields of the Western section is carried
on by methods quite similar to one another. The triangulation in
Texas rests upon a base-line, measured near Austin, and the Coast
and Geodetic Survey’s determination of that city furnishes the
initial astronomical location. The triangulation in Arizona, with
that of a considerable area adjacent to it in New Mexico, Utah, and
Nevada, starts from a base near Fort Wingate, N. Mex., and rests
upon the astronomic determination of that place. The triangulation
in Oregon and California rests upon lines furnished by the Coast and
Geodetic Survey ; while that in Montana rests upon a base measured
near Bozeman, and upon the astronomical determination of that
place made by the Wheeler Survey. The topographic work of this
section is done by plane-table, supplemented in greater or less de-
gree by traverses. The plane-table work is regarded, however, as
a sketch, and, coincidently with it, a secondary triangulation is
carried on with theodolites, which, when platted, serves to correct
the plane-table sketch. Heights are measured with the barometer
and the vertical circle.

The quality of the work is to be measured first by the accuracy
of the geometric control; second, by its quantity, i.e., by the num-
ber of located points per square inch of map-surface ; third, by the
distribution of these points; and, fourth, by the quality of the
sketching, by which the geometric skeleton is filled out into the
proportions of the map. The angles in the primary triangulation
are read by instruments having circles 6 to 11 inches in diameter,
reading to 5 or ro seconds. The mean closure errors in the various
sections are as follows :—

Ap PAIR WAM oases saohenc codes sobeeoeH coeds
Kansas.....- a

Texas...-
Arizona...
California. .-
Oregon

Within this primary work, a secondary system is usually carried
on, with minute-reading theodolites ; and, resting upon these loca-
tions, large numbers of minor points are determined by the plane-
table, or by traverse, coincidently with the sketching of topography:
Thus as the lines to be determined become shorter, and the proba-
bility of an accumulation of error less, the means provided for their
Measurement are proportionately less accurate, until, in the ulti-
mate work, —that of sketching, — the only means of measurement
are the eye and hand of the topographer. It does not follow from
this, however, that any part of the geometric work is in appreciable
error. It is required that all location shall be sensibly accurate

- upon the map, and this condition is everywhere fulfilled.
Second, the number of located points, or the amount of geomet-

ric control, varies with the character of the country. The number simayseatime A

of such points is necessarily greater in a country of high relief than
in one of low, rolling hills; it is greater in a country of small, ab-
rupt features than in one of large features; it is greater in a well-
settled country, containing many cultural features, than in an un-
settled one. Consequently, in this regard, the work done in differ-
ent areas varies greatly, as will be seen by the following table,

SCIENG@l

51

relating to the work of 1886. This shows the number in each
square inch of map of occupied points, of points located by angles,
of inches of traverse line, and of traverse stations : —

1 nn o a
s =m a g
it del) a o £
5S > es]
a | a & ¢ ae
Sy /2edgl ag |] 2s
a oO Gerais a s ee
3 bo ot oO ny of
5 Pa Aw EA by
re
§ iS) ee 6 Pca) 2 8
Get Ss =a od A Qo o fy ee
a H a a
Massachusetts, Plane-table work..... I 6.5 = =
£, ‘Traverse work....... - = 2.8 24
ce Mixed work.......... 0.3 1.7 2.6 10
ENG wan) CSCW jelnleisielmieieiclvel =| slalelsielnie\elefareini= - - 2.2 21
Dist. of Columbia, and vicinity...... = = 2.5 9
Appalachian region....... Goohousesen 0.1 0.3 I.4 30
WIEN aboaccocood nooddaseoodececod - - 1.7 =
Kansas....- scosouecas ddgnoocondooneG - - 0.7
TNS cosa conccaouocoyodgoaosossses 0.1 0.25 0.9 9
ANSVORAn conc ooDHEDOD ONOoDOBAECCACDGS 0.2 I.2 I.1 2
(Crile. -noGocoGdcdsaggncaneescoce 0.3 4 Ie4 12
OBER cog pandopaagnoonebenconoganas 0.3 4 Fee. 5
Mont anialeetee)slalslelal<)=/aleisintels\si=1=|lelals/el«)-1e 0.25 3-2 = =

In the above table the points located by the two methods of
intersection and traverse are given separately. This has been done
because they differ in value.

Those made by intersection are

res
LEGEND

Fic. 1.

selected points, chosen because of their value in controlling area,
while of the traverse locations a large proportion have no value
whatever except for the purpose of carrying forward the line, and

52

comparatively few of them would be selected as key points for
location purposes. Even with this qualification, caution is needful
in making comparisons between different pieces of work. The
undulating, sparsely settled Texas area, and the monotonous
plateaus of Arizona, must not be contrasted with western Massa-
chusetts, where abrupt hills and an abundance of cultural features
require a large number of locations, and render it practicable to
make them.

Third, the distribution of locations is a matter of no less impor-
tance than their number. To illustrate the degree of uniformity of
their distribution, the following cuts are presented. Fig. 1 repre-
sents the geometric control of an atlas sheet, from the plane-table
work of Massachusetts ; and Fig. 2, a sheet from the traverse work
in the same State; the lines representing the lines of traverse, and
the triangles the triangulation points which serve to check the
traverses. Fig. 3 represents the control of an Appalachian sheet,
showing triangulation stations, locations by intersections, and traverse
lines. It will be seen that the distribution is quite uniform. It will

AG

MASSACHUSETTS:
tauren

Fic. 2.

be noticed, further, that in a country composed of an alternation of
mountain and valley, as the Appalachian region, most of the loca-
tions by intersections are upon the mountain ranges, while the
traverse lines are mainly found in the valleys.

Fourth, concerning the quality of the sketching, little can be said.
There are no means of verifying this work, except by an examina-
tion of it on the ground. It is in this part of the work more than
any other that the personality of the topographer appears. It is
here that his artistic sense, and his power of making his pencil
record faithfully his conceptions, comes into play. It is scarcely
necessary to add that no two topographers will sketch an area pre-
cisely the same. There will be differences in seeing, and differences
in drawing, just as there are differences in handwriting. Every
map, whatever its scale, is a reduction from nature. This reduc-
tion necessarily implies a certain amount of generalization. Certain
features must be omitted, others merged into larger features, so
that no map is or can be an exact miniature. Every map is more

SCIREIN Gi:

[Vor. X. No. .234

or less idealized. No two men will generalize an area of country,
to adapt it to the scale, in precisely the same way. Some will
generalize more, others less; some will omit this feature, others.
that ; and they will merge minor features in various ways. The
smaller the scale, the greater is the generalization, and, conse-
quently, the greater room for differences in the work of different
topographers.

The cost of the work is influenced by a great variety of condi-
tions, the principal of which are the following :—

a. The Scale. Other conditions being similar, the cost increases
with the scale, at a rate somewhat less than a geometric ratio,
ie., if the scale be doubled, the cost is somewhat less than four
times as great.

6. The character and amount of the relief, drainage, and culture.
The greater the relief, and the greater its detail, the more the work
will cost. Work in a thickly settled country, containing many
settlements, roads, etc., necessarily costs more than that in one of
sparse settlement.

TENN. & N.C.
MURPHY SHEET

Fic. 3.
c. The degree in which a country is covered with forests. This
element not only interposes obstacles and causes delays in the

prosecution of work, but often necessitates the adoption of slower
and more expensive methods of work.

d. Atmospheric conditions. This includes stormy weather, haze
and smoke, which, being especially prevalent during the field-season
in some localities, unduly increase the cost of the work.

e. Length of field-season. At the opening of each field-season,
it is necessary to devote some time and money to outfitting the
parties and starting field-work. This is in the nature of a plant or
investment for the season. Once at work, the expense is not great..
It costs little more to keep a party in the field for six months than
for three months, while the amount of work done by the party is
doubled. Therefore, long field-seasons are more economical than
short ones.

The following table shows the cost of the work in the several
areas under survey, including field and office expenses :—

Juty 29, 1887. ]

1

Cost per

Area, Scale. Sqmie Remarks.
Massachusetts..... ...... 1:62500 12.00 | Includes no primary triangulation.
New Jersey 1:62500 6.so | Includes some triangulation.

Dist. of Columbia........ 1:62500 7.30 | Includes no primary triangulation.
Appalachian region...... 1:125000 3-00
Missouri, Kansas........- 12125000 -90 | Aided greatly by land surveys.
PRecal Sse reiclelelate cv stelstsieturnteiate 1:125000 2.00
Patz On aerstate oetetereleie celts I:250000 I.00
California.............+-. I:125000 3.00

1:250000 3-40

1:250000 2.00

The sheets, as completed, are engraved upon copper. For each
sheet, three copper plates are used. Upon one is engraved all the
drainage; upon another, the contours, expressing the relief; and
upon the third, all culture and lettering. In printing, colors are
used, — blue for drainage, brown for contours, and black for culture
and lettering. At the present date, 120 sheets have been engraved,
comprising an area of 250,000 square miles, parts of which were
surveyed by the Powell Survey of the Rocky Mountain Region, by
the Wheeler Survey, and by the Northern Transcontinental Survey.

HENRY GANNETT.

AMERICAN NEUROLOGICAL ASSOCIATION.

THE thirteenth annual meeting of the American Neurological
Association was held at Long Branch on July 20-22. The presi-
dent of the meeting, Dr. L. C. Gray of Brooklyn, in his opening
address, reviewed the position of the study of neurology in this
country as compared with European lands. America does not at
all suffer by the comparison. In the movement which in the past
twenty-five years has raised neurology to a science, the names of
American workers are prominent, and the number of societies spe-
cially devoted to its interest is as large as in any other country.

The recent advance in our knowledge of the functions and dis-
eases of the central nervous system is hardly appreciated, except by
such as can remember how things stood twenty years ago. A
medical student, who, in 1869, would have stated that the stimula-
tion of the cortex of the brain would give rise to definite move-
ments, would certainly not have received his degree; while the
student of 1870, who would not have mentioned this fact, would
have stood in equal danger. The amount of research, with a
variety of ingeniously devised methods, that has been expended
since then upon the localization of function in the cortex of the
brain, is an excellent example of the great activity now current in
neurological problems. In every direction—in the improvement of
apparatus for diagnostic purposes, in the application of therapeutic
agencies, in the rational care of the insane—have there been rapid
strides, demonstrating beyond a doubt the important function of a
neurological association.

The number and quality of the papers presented gave evidence
of the increasing attention which the study of nervous diseases is
here gaining. Dr. B. Sachs gave an interesting account of a case of
arrested cerebral development. It was that of a child with heredi-
tary predisposition to insanity, who lived for two years without ex-
hibiting any but the most rudimentary signs of intelligence. It was
listless, inactive, never learned to speak, and in its last period be-
came blind. On examining the brain, the surface appearance was
noteworthy. The left island of Reil—a group of cortical matter
specially related to the faculty of speech —was exposed. In a nor-
mal child it would have been folded inwards, and an abnormal
deviation accounts for the failure to develop speech. Many of the
fissures flowed together which normally should be separate, —a
mark of low-type and undeveloped brains. A microscopic examina-
tion showed that the pyramidal cells of the cortex, whose function
(in parts of the cortex) is specially connected with motion, were ab-
normal; their positions were reversed, the nucleus faded, and the
processes poorly developed. Outside the cells the appearance was
normal, Dr. Sachs considered that the case was one of pure

SCIENCE: 53

arrested development, the brain having grown to a certain stage in
the development, and then degenerative processes set in.

Dr. C. L. Dana recounted the remarkable history of a simple,
chronic, neurzesthenic tremor in a certain family. This tremor is
present in three generations, and has attacked forty-four members
of the family. The original member thus affected has had the
tremor for seventy years: he can momentarily control it, and any
excitement increases its intensity, as well as affects the clearness
of his speech. He isa watchmaker by profession, and very skilfully
controls the shaking at the instant when his hand must be steady.
The tremor ceases in sleep, and his walk and posture are normal.
The hereditary history is unusually interesting. His grandfather
was intemperate, his father insane, his nine children all have the
tremor to a greater or less degree, and some are mentally peculiar.
Seven of these children married and produced thirty-four children,
all of whom have the same tremor, and the other peculiarities still
remain. There are evidences that the tremor, though present, is
dying out in the third generation, It is noteworthy that an ad-
herence to Spiritualism is hereditary in the same family.

Dr. Gray called attention to the serious aspects of chorea. This
disease is often treated less seriously than it merits. The majority
of cases occur in children between eight and twelve years of age,
and frequently the attacks are slight and readily outgrown. The
cases which the physician should regard with greatest anxiety are
those in which convulsions occur, in which there occur spasms of
the respiratory apparatus, in which there is hysteria or cardiac or
pulmonary weakness. The essential part of the treatment is com-
plete rest, the exercising of the muscles having a hurtful influence.

Dr. Spitzka called attention to the severe injuries which the brain
of dogs could undergo with impunity, and to the obliteration in
vigorous animals of the injury done by needles forced into the brain.
There are great individual differences between dogs in this respect,
and a dog once operated upon seemed better able to endure a
second operation. These experiments seemed to justify the pier-
cing of the brain in surgical operations.

Dr. J. H. Lloyd cited a typical case in the peculiar borderland
of insanity known as the ‘insanity of doubt.’ The patient has a
morbid impulse to do things over and over again, for fear they are
not done exactly right. She gets in and out of bed twenty times,
until she does it just so. She sends her husband down at night to
light and extinguish a gas-burner in a definite way, and cannot rest
until it is properly accomplished ; otherwise she is perfectly rational,
recognizes the nature of her weakness, but cannot resist it.

A very valuable contribution was that by Dr. C. L. Dana, de-
scribing a case of anencephalis. An apparently normal, healthy
child lived for two and one-half days: it cried very little, at times
opened its eyes, and re-acted to reflex stimulation. On opening the
skull the cerebrum was seen to be entirely absent, there being
nothing above the corpora quadrigemina except a not well-devel-
oped thalamus. Such cases are rare, and are valuable for the light
they shed on the connections between the spinal cord and the
brain. The cerebrum being absent, all such systems of fibres
as connect it with lower centres are absent. Prominent amongst
these is the pyramidal tract, which conducts voluntary movements,
and these were entirely absent. The sensory columns of the cord
were intact, as were also the cerebellum and the cranial nerves,
except, of course, the olfactory nerves. The value of such a case is
the independent testimony it affords to the correctness of the
sensory and motor fibre-systems as deduced by other methods.

Amongst the other papers read was one by Dr. Ott, urging on
experimental evidence the existence of heat-centres in the spinal
cord ; by Dr. Dercum, describing two cases of chorea limited to one-
half the body and accompanied by Bright’s disease ; by Dr. Spitzka,
carefully delineating the symptoms of acute delirium ; by Dr. Mills,
aiming to ascertain a distinctive symptom between polio-myelitis
and multiple neuritis; by Dr. Putnam, on a case of overgrowth of
the skull bones; by Dr. Hun, on the symptoms accompanying a
tumor of the pons ; by Dr. Jacoby, urging the treatment of neuralgia
by sprays of extreme cold; and by Dr. Kellogg, on the effect of
baths in mental disease.

The limit of membership was increased to one hundred, and Dr.
W. A. Hammond was elected an honorary member. The presi-
dent for next year will be Dr. J. J. Putnam of Boston.

54

EXPLORATION AND TRAVEL.
_ Junker’s Travels in Central Africa. \

JUNKER’S lectures delivered before the Berlin and London Geo-
graphical Societies have appeared almost simultaneously, and con-
tain interesting details on the traveller’s experience in Central
Africa. Junker entered this region in 1879, travelling from Suez to
Suakim, and thence to Berber. From Berber a steamer conveyed
him to Khartum, where he arrived in the beginning of January,
1880, It was his intention to explore the regions on the Welle,
and to follow that stream as far as possible to the west. His plan

\

5
ee inet Hy?
aX f <
wv
HS hoe 5
LF fe

Wepoko So

Funker's Roitlee------= jowe ee =—

Bolindorff’s Route.+-+ ++

BW Potagos’s Router

_ Lupton's Routes—1-\-1-1~

Afiani's Routeeaccse 20

SCrlENGE

[Vot. X. No. 234

the Egyptian Bar-el-Gasal Province. He had formerly prohibited
the passage of the ivory-caravans through his country, and would
suffer no station to be established in the districts under his sway.
Adopting a plan followed in all subsequent journeys, Junker sent
messengers forward to Ndoruma to give him particulars about his
intentions, and to announce that Junker travelled without military
escort. This plan proved very successful, and enabled Junker to
live generally on good terms with the rulers of the countries through
which he travelled. His success shows that in Africa as well as in
all other countries the traveller who is willing to adopt the mode of

SL —ARRA

Tmanebato ~~
DE

UCANDA™

MAP SHOWING JUNKER’S EXPLORATIONS IN CENTRAL AFRICA.

was to start from Lado, but this was made impossible by the grass
barriers which had closed the Nile for months. Therefore he took
a steamer going up the Bar-el-Gasal, and arrived at Meshra-er-Rek
in February. Here the land-journey began, and, in company with
Gessi Pacha, he travelled by way of Jur Ghattas, Wau, and Dem
Idris to Dem Suleiman, the head station of the Bar-el-Gasal
Province. After a short stay at that place, heturned south to Dem
Bekir, where his real work of exploration began. His first object
was the exploration of Ndoruma’s territory, which is situated on
the watershed between the Bar-el-Gasal and the Welle. Ndoruma,

a powerful Niam-Niam chief, had been at war with the troops of

life, and to accommodate himself to the way of thinking, of the
natives, will accomplish his plans with comparative safety, and will
glean ample results. Subsequently Junker made his headquarters
in the village of a chief whose confidence he had gained, and made
excursions from these stations. This makes his routes very trust-
worthy, most of them leading back to the starting-point. After
having seen Ndoruma and gained his confidence, Junker started
from Dem Bekir in May, 1880, with two hundred and fifty bearers,
and in a fortnight reached the huts of Ndoruma. On his way he
crossed many tributaries of the Mbomo, and found in their valleys
a luxuriant vegetation which more to the east does not occur till

JuLy 29, 1887.]

far south. Ndoruma wished him to remain some time at his ‘vil-
lage, and therefore Junker resolved to set up a station there for the
coming months. With the help of Ndoruma’s people, who were
despatched to the work by hundreds, he was able to erect good
substantial dwellings, which were surrounded by a high stockade
to keep off the leopards which abound in this country. He staid
_ here until August, when he left his companion, Bohndorff, in charge
of the station, while he travelled south with only twenty bearers.
He crossed the Welle and traversed the land of the Mangbatu,
where he made friendship with the chief Mambango, and returned
in December to Ndoruma. But as the best season for travel-
ling had approached, he did not rest, but started in January,
1881, by a new road to the south-west, the country of the
A-Madi, crossed the Welle there again, and obtained, though
with the greatest difficulty, the necessary number of bearers among
the A-Barambo; these, however, robbed him of part of his goods;
and it was only with the help of Sasa, a friendly Niam-Niam chief,
that he safely returned to the A-Madi country north of the Welle.
At the end of April he sent Bohndorff with the baggage, under the
care of Sasa, into the latter’s country south of the Mbomo, where
he was to establish another permanent station. In the mean time
war had broken out between the Mangbatu and Emin Bey, the
governor of the Equatorial Province, but by Junker’s mediation
further hostilities were prevented. This, however, detained him
until the end of November, 1881. Then he made another start,
and was almost uninterruptedly on the way up to June, 1882, ex-
ploring the region south of the Welle and Bomokandi. He was
kindly received by the Niam-Niam chiefs Bakangai and Kana,
whose villages are situated south of the Bomokandi, whence he
turned north and reached Semio, north of the Mbomo, where his
station had been meanwhile established, in September, 1882. Here
he had the misfortune to lose a great part of his valuable property
by fire. Bohndorff, who had frequently been sick, wished to return
to Europe, and therefore Junker packed his collections and sent
him to the Bar-el-Gasal Province, where, in the mean while, Lup-
ton Bey had become governor. But at this time the Dinka tribes
revolted against the Egyptian Government; and thus Bohndorff,
being unable to reach Meshra-er-Rek, was compelled to return to
Semio. This was in October, 1882, the commencement of long and
bloody wars in the Bar-el-Gasal territory, on which finally the in-
vasion of the Mahdi’s troops followed.

Before Bohndorff’s return, Junker had started on an extensive
journey west. He reached the Welle, near the mouth of the Werre
and Mbima, and traversed the territory of the Bandjia, who, though
speaking a dialect of the Niam-Niam language, pretend to be of
an independent descent. The islands of the Welle are inhabited
by the A-Basango, who speak a distinct language. After having
reached Ali-Kobo, he turned north, crossed the Mbomo, ascended
the Shinko, and returned to Semio by way of Mbanga. He arrived
on May 1, 1883.

He now regarded his travels as finished, and intended to start
for the Bar-el-Gasal, where Bohndorff had gone a short time be-
fore, as Lupton Bey hoped that the route to Meshra-er-Rek would
be open. But, although Lupton called in all the outlying garrisons
on the Welle, he did not succeed in putting down the Dinka, who
afterwards were joined by the Nuer, Agar, and other tribes. This
war lasted eighteen months, and was far more bloody and exhaust-
ing for both parties than the later engagements against the troops
of the Mahdi in Emin Pacha’s province. Finally the Dinka were
supported by the Mahdi’s forces; and Lupton, betrayed by those
about him, was compelled to deliver his province without resistance
to the emissary of the Mahdi, Emir Karm Allah. Junker says that
the chief cause of this surrender is to be sought in the fact that
Lupton had almost exclusively irregular troops at his disposal, con-
sisting of Dongola people and Arabs of all kinds. In October,
1883, the state of Lupton’s troops was very precarious, and he sent
a letter to Junker entreating him to persuade the chief Semio to
collect about a thousand of his people with spear and shield, as well
as all those who had guns, and come to his help. He said, “I now
see no other way of putting down the insurrection than by the help
of the Niam-Niam chiefs. Do every thing in your power to per-
suade Semio to lose no time, and send him to meet me as soon as
possible.”

SCIENCE. 55

As Junker saw the routes north closed, he resolved to go east to
Lado. He left Semio in November, 1883, and reached Emin at
Lado in January, 1884, after fifty-five days’ march. During this
time Bohndorff was able to reach Khartum with the steamer,
returning thither at the end of December, but all collections re-
mained behind.

Emin Pacha’s province had been quiet up to the first months of
1884; but the successes of the Dinka were too tempting for the other
negro tribes, and so in the Equatorial Province the rebellion
assumed more formidable proportions. Emin was compelled to
give up all stations east of the Nile and to concentrate his troops.
On the 27th of May he and Junker received letters from Lupton
Bey and Emir Karm Allah, which contained the news that the
province had fallen into the hands of the Mahdi, and the demand
to surrender the Equatorial Province. Emin answered the Emir’s
letter, saying that he was ready to deliver the province into the
hands of the representative of the Mahdi in order to prevent useless
bloodshed, and till his arrival he would try to hold the province for
the Mahdi. Meanwhile adefence was organized, and the outlying
stations were called in. But it was not until January, 1885, that
the troops of the Mahdi attacked Emin’s province. After they
had taken the station Amadi in April of the same year, they re-
treated, for unknown reasons, by forced marches, to the Bar-el-
Gasal region. Since that time Emin’s province has been unmolested
by the troops of the Mahdi. On Jan. 2, 1886, Junker left Emin
Pacha and Casati, going south. He crossed the Mvutan Nsige to
Kibiro, and went to Kabrega, king of Unyoro. Here he learned
by letters from Zanzibar of the events in the Sudan, of King
Mwanga’s hostility towards the Europeans, and of Dr. Fischer’s
unsuccessful expedition sent out by Junker’s brother to seek him.
In the mean time war had broken out between the Waganda and
Wanyoro, and it was not until June that he received permission to
enter Mwanga’s capital. It took him a month and a half to cross
the Victoria Nyanza; and at last Tabora was reached, whence he
proceeded with one of Tippo-Tip’s caravans to Zanzibar.

Thus his eventful wanderings in Central Africa were ended. It is
hardly necessary to mention the importance of his explorations,
which cover a large area, and of his interesting observations on the
tribes with whom he lived for so long a time. The loss of his large
collections will be regretted by naturalists and ethnologists, but
nevertheless we should be glad that the enterprising traveller suc-
ceeded in extricating himself from the innumerable dangers and
difficulties surrounding him.

BOOK -REVIEWS.

Report of the Committee on Disinfectants, of the American
Public Health Associatzon. Concord, N.H., Republ. Pr.
Assoc. 8°.

THE report of the committee on disinfectants, of the American
Public Health Association, presented at the Toronto meeting in
October last, has just been printed. It deals with the various ap-
paratuses now in use in this country and Europe for disinfection
by means of heat, and is abundantly illustrated. The experiments
of this committee have demonstrated that the most efficient non-
destructive disinfectants are, (1) steam under pressure at 110° C.
(230° F.) for ten minutes, (2) dry heat at 110° C. (230° F.) for two
hours (in the absence of spores), (3) boiling in water for one-half to
one hour. It will be seen from this that the apparatus for disin-
fection by heat may be divided into three classes: (1) that in
which dry hot air is employed, (2) that in which hot moist air is
used, and (3) that in which steam is the disinfecting agent. In
the disinfection of mattresses, feather beds, etc., where great
penetrating power is required, dry hot air cannot be relied
upon. In addition to this, there is another objection to the
use of this agent, —that, when the temperature is sufficiently high
to act asa disinfectant, certain articles are permanently injured by
it. The committee expresses its conviction that the use of steam,
and especially when superheated or under pressure, is the most effi-
cient agent for the destruction of all sorts of infectious material. At
the Boston quarantine station, Dr. S. H. Durgin, president of the
Boston board of health, and a member of the committee, has been
employing moist heat for disinfecting purposes since the spring of

56

1885. The disinfecting-chamber is a room ten by twelve feet, and
seven feet high, It is made fairly tight, and has one window, on
which is a thermometer so arranged as to be read from the outside.
A hole two inches in diameter in the door admits a rubber hose,which
discharges superheated steam from a boiler on a steamboat. The
temperature of the room can by this means be raised in seven
minutes to 230° F. It may easily be raised to 250° F. or more, but
is generally brought to 230° F., and maintained at that point for
twenty minutes. The articles to be disinfected are hung about the
room loosely, and when removed, which is done as soon as the
heat will permit, are found to be perfectly dry, not even the polish
on freshly laundered shirts being damaged or changed. Boots,
trunks, valises, and all other articles made of leather, are quickly
destroyed by the high temperature, and should not be subjected
to this process. Wood-work and paint are also damaged, and
articles which are joined by cement fall apart. This process
can be quickly applied, easily managed, and is without ap-
preciable cost. Its trustworthiness as a disinfectant has already
been established. Dr. Durgin describes the experience of the
Boston board of health with the disinfection of rags in bales
by means of superheated steam admitted to the interior of the
bales through perforated hollow screws. In the first trial of this
method a pyrometer indicated the temperature of the steam after
it escaped from the bale to be 300° F. Bacteriologists had already
shown that disease-germs of the greatest resisting power had been
sterilized within the bale of rags which passed through this process.
The evidence seemed sufficient to establish the claim that this pro-
cess was effectual in its power to disinfect bales of rags. Subse-
quent tests showed that the rags might be intensely hot in one
place, while in another they were perfectly cold. In one of these
trials the moist heat used was at 300° F., and the time of exposure
was four minutes. In some parts of the bales, after being removed
from the steam-boxes, the intense heat could not be borne by the
hand a moment, while at other points the rags were found to be
cold. A still further test was made with steam at 500° F., and the
time of exposure increased to eight minutes. Three bales were
examined after being thus treated, and the cold places were found
as before. Dr. Durgin was informed by the overseer of the process
that a large number of bales had been set on fire by this intense
heat, and that water had been required to extinguish them. The
conclusions drawn by Dr. Durgin from these experiments are that
the moist heat passing from the centre to the surface of a bale of
rags must encounter knots or bunches of rags varying in degrees
of density and of resistance to the penetration of heat; that while
the temperature of the principal part of the bale is raised to a
degree far above what is required for disinfection, other parts of
the bale are found to be wholly unaffected by the heat. That
anthrax bacilli have been killed and metals melted at 240° F.
within bales of rags subjected to this process are facts not incon-
sistent with the experiences in Boston, and do not prove the disin-
fection of the whole bale. The degree of heat, the amount of
pressure, and the time necessary for moist heat to penetrate and
raise the temperature of a// parts of a bale of rags to a degree
necessary for disinfection without burning the rags, have not yet
been declared.

Lithik als Grundwissenschaft der Pidagogzk : ein Lehrbuch fiir
Seminaristen, Studzerende und Lehrer. Von Dr. MAX JAHN.
Leipzig, 1887.

BoTH theoretically and practically the two foundation-stones of
a system of education are psychology and ethics, — the one to set
forth the nature of the mental activities, the other to expound the
actual and ideal tendencies of human action. The systems of edu-
cation that are prominent in its history derive an important charac-
teristic from the kind and amount of attention they give to one or
other of these underlying sciences. The history of educational
methods similarly shows a recognition of this twofold origin in all
stages : it may be as the education of the State or of the army, and
that of the Church or the home. To-day our education has taken
on a scientific tone : this advance was conditioned upon the scientific
development of psychology and ethics. Any system of education
that shall have the slightest chance of gaining a hearing in the
future must take full account of the modern aspects of psychology

SCIENEE.

[Vous xX. No! vga

and “ethics ; and any teacher anxious to command success must
have within himself the power to healthily unfold these two sides of
human character.

Dr. Jahn’s handbook is intended to present a convenient sketch
of the natural basis of a moral education. It is an excellent exam-
ple of the useful kind of a book which a German teacher can pro-
duce. It is admirable as much for what it does not do as for what
it does. The danger in all such books is to deal in meaningless
generalities, to drift into long casuistical discussions, to neglect the
important moral aspect of little habits, and in general urging the
teacher to present to the child an ideal from which its healthy in-
stincts revolt as from something artificial and pitiable.

The first section treats of the self-regarding and the social
instincts and feelings. These furnish the material upon which a
moral education is to be built. They present themselves in the
earliest days of life; they are the deepest elements in human
nature ; a child in whom they are weak is defective quite as much
as one born without eyes. The development of these instincts is
the beginning of a moral education. That is essentially a wrong
method that allows the child to act as whim directs, excusing it on
the ground of ignorance, and then suddenly deciding to begin its
moral training, and subjecting it to an internal revolution, — quite
as wrong as that other current method that begins at once to appeal
to the child with high motives and far-reaching theoretical con-
siderations, and is satisfied with the consciousness that the child is
learning what is the axzmuwm bonum, while constantly neglecting
to exercise the little virtues. A moral training that keeps pace with
the emotional susceptibilities as founded upon the growth of mind
and body utilizes each element when it is at its best, and produces
that firm tissue in which morality is embedded as a habit.

Passing from the consideration of morality as conditioned upon
the psycho-physical organism, the main ethical conceptions and
ideas that inspire the acts of mankind are described, ingenious dis-
tinctions are drawn, and suggestive hints are given, which any good
teacher can illustrate and enlarge upon for himself.

It is not sufficient to feel what is right or to know what is good:
the deep emotion and the high ideal find their true purpose in
action. Weakness of will is a greater source of crime than lack of
sympathy. That breach between knowing and doing — which
Socrates could scarcely realize —is to-day a widely current source
of break-down. The will needs to be trained by action : the daily
occasions which call for the exercise of emotional kindness must
find to hand a habit that does them without effort. Thus the will-
power is left free for the larger occasions of life, on the same princi-
ple that allows us to walk and talk at once, because our automaton
does the former, leaving the higher centres free for mental work.

The moral will realizes itself in the social government and cus-
toms of families, of tribes, of nations. The altruistic feelings here
find an appropriate field of action, and the good man becomes a
good father and a good citizen. The relations of life are diverse,
but a common idea of final good runs through them all. Again:
these relations are the result of a development ; they are connected
with a history which explains their defects, and shows the dear price
paid for their virtues. It is in this way that Dr. Jahn understands
the educational function of ethics. What is new about it is more in
the spirit in which the position is upheld, and in the order and pro-
portion in which the several points are emphasized. It is a book
well adapted to present needs, and will doubtless find wide use in
Germany. Would that we could substitute some such work as this
for the dry compends of mental and moral science that we put in
the hands of normal-school students.

NOTES AND NEWS.

AT the last session of Congress a considerable sum was
appropriated for the purpose of the establishment of several stations
throughout the country for the distribution of fish by the United
States Fish Commission, similar to the central station situated in
Washington. The law provided that these stations should only be
established in places where sufficient protection is afforded by law
to the fisheries. For the purpose of investigating these conditions,
and of making some observations relative to the propagation and
distribution of young fish, Col. M. McDonald of the commission

JuLy. 29, 1887. ]

will make an extended trip through the North-west. He will visit
Denver, and will probably establish there a station for the breeding
of trout, then proceeding to the Columbia River, where he will in-
vestigate the nature of the protection afforded by the State of Oregon
and Washington Territory to its fisheries. If his investigations are
satisfactory, he will take immediate steps toward the establishment
of several propagating and distributing stations along this river.

— The following schedule shows the location of the vessels of the
United States Coast Survey and the officers ordered to them: the
‘Bache’ and the ‘ Eagre’ are continuing the hydrographic work on
the approaches to Vineyard Sound, Mass.; naval cadets G. R.
Evans and H. A. Bispham have been ordered to the ‘ Eagre;’
naval cadet G. R. Slocum and ensign J. H. Oliver have been as-
signed to the ‘ McArthur,’ now working off the coast of Washington
Territory ; naval cadets C. S. Stansworth and J. E. Shindel have
been ordered to the ‘ Blake,’ Long Island Sound; ensigns W. B.
Fletcher and M. Johnson, and naval cadet Joseph Strauss, have been
detached from the ‘ Endeavor,’ and ordered to the ‘ Gedney’ off the
coast of Maine; naval cadet Robert L. Russell has been assigned
to the ‘Scorcesby’ on the coast of North Carolina; Lieut.-Com-
mander W. H. Brownson, United States hydrographic inspector, is
now in Portsmouth, inspecting the new launch building at that
place for the Coast Survey.

— The increasing interest which is felt in anthropological science
is shown by the number of treatises now in course of preparation by
eminent writers on different branches of this science. The Marquis
of Nadaillac has in hand a work to be entitled ‘ Mceurs et Monu-
ments des Temps Préhistoriques.’ Professor de Quatrefages is
busy with the second part of his ‘ Introduction to the Study of the
Human Races.’ This will be followed by a volume on the black

PESERECET

———

races, by Dr. Hamy; by one on the yellow races, by J. Montano ;
and by a third on the red races, by Luciep Biart. Prof. G. J.
Romanes is engaged on a work on mental evolution in man, and
Mr. C. Staniland Wake is preparing one on the law of marriage.
Mr. Gladstone's forthcoming volume on the greater gods of Olympos
is shown, by the portions already published, to have an important
scientific as well as literary character.

—A geological survey has recently been established in the State
of Arkansas, and Mr. John C, Branner has been appointed director.
The prime object of the Legislature was to develop the economic
resources of the State; and no provision has been made for work
in botany or zodlogy. The annual appropriation is ten thousand
dollars.

— Oliver P. Jenkins, M.A., M.S., professor of biology in De Pauw
University, and Barton W. Evermann, M.S., professor of natural
science in the Indiana State Normal School, have gone to Guaymas,
Mex., on a zodlogical collecting-trip for the museums of De Pauw
University, the Indiana State Normal School, and the Indiana
University.

— Dr. Charles Rau, curator of the archeological department of
the National Museum at Washington, died a few days ago at Phila-
delphia. The excellent arrangement of the large prehistoric collec-

SCIENCE:

57

tions at Washington is due to the deceased, who devoted most of
his time and work to their study. His numerous writings on
American archeology, contained in the annual reports of the
Smithsonian Institution and in foreign and American journals, and
his recent work, ‘ Prehistoric Fishing in Europe and North America,”
will always be appreciated by scientists, and secure him a prominent
place among American archzologists.

PERE RSP ROME ED iiOR:

*." The attention of scientific men ts called to the advantages of the correspondence
columtns of SCIENCE for placing pronptly on record brief preliminary notices of
their investigations. Twenty copies af the number containing his communication
will be furnished free to any correspondent on request.

The editor will be glad to publish any queries consonant with the character of
the journal.

Correspondents are requested to be as briefas possible. The writer's name is

in all cases required as proof of good faith.

The Dermo-Tensor Patagii Muscle.

CIRCUMSTANCES over which I had no control were responsible for
my forwarding recently the wrong drawings which appeared in my
letter to Sczence last month (No. 229). Although the essential part
of my communication was perfectly correct, I did not intend to have
the patagial muscles in the wing of a toucan stand for those
structures in the wing of a passerine bird.

If you will kindly reproduce the three figures I here send you, the
matter will be made quite clear.

The lettering of these figures remains the same as in those of my
first communication upon this subject. In Fig. 1, we have Garrod’s
representation of the patagial muscles in the wing of a picarian
bird (Rkamphastos), wherein the tensor patagii longus is found

pretty much the same as it occurs in the clamatorial birds (¢f. 2).
Fig. 2 is my copy of this anatomist’s wing-muscles in a typical
passerine bird (/e¢erus vulgards), and a is the stump of the tendon
I referred to in my letter in No. 229: it is just possible that it may
be intended for the tendon of the dermo-tensor patagii. Lastly,
in Fig. 3, 1 give my own dissection of the patagial muscles in the
wing of a typical passerine bird, where d7/. Z. directs attention to
the muscle in question. My original description of it in Sczence
is correct in all particulars; and the points in regard to it to be
briefly noted are, that Garrod apparently overlooked it, and failed
to recognize its taxonomical value; that it is characteristic of
the true Passeres ; that it is absent in the Passeres mesonyodz,
but present in such a form as Amfelzs, and again absent in the
Caprimulg?, Trochzlé, and Cypselz. Yo this extent it is an im-
portant morphological character. R. W. SHUFELDT,
Fort Wingate, N.Mex., July 8.

Mean Heights and Body Temperatures of the Eskimo in
Hudson Strait.

WITHIN forty miles of North Bluff, Hudson Strait, I should
estimate there were sixty families. On such as visited our station,
I carried out my determination of their heights; and, by several
references to a family who resided alongside of us, I obtained the

58

temperatures. At first it had been my intention to have made this
determination of temperature in the same general way as the
other; but, with my indifferent command of the language, at the
beginning of the investigation I had the greatest difficulty in
making my subjects understand that the operation would result
in no bodily harm, which I had no difficulty in understanding they
anticipated, by the perspiration oozing from every pore, a look of
piteous agony in their faces, and eyes fearfully watching for the
first suspicious movement on my part. I naturally concluded that
much misery would be saved, without in any way affecting the
accuracy of the result, by determination from the individual rather
than the mass. The determination was made by placing the bulb
of a thermometer well underneath the tongue, and keeping the
mouth closed till the mercury column reached its highest and
stationary point.

Our mean temperatures were 98.1° F. for winter (December), and
97.7° for summer (July), whilst theirs were 100.2° and 98.4° re-
spectively. I cannot help thinking that part of this large difference
is owing to our Eskimo having changed his diet, by the rations we
allowed him, towards the summer season.

In determining the mean heights, I considered it advisable to ex-
clude palpable extremes, as my measurements were necessarily
from a limited field. The result was a mean height for the men
of 5 feet 3.9 inches; for the women, within a very small fraction of
5 feet. W. A. ASHE,

The Observatory, Quebec, July 18.

Chrome considered as a Poison.

In Sczence (viii. p. 178) is printed an extract from a paper
written by Dr. Charles Harrington,«and which appeared in the
Boston Medical and Surgical Journal (cxv. No. 6). Dr. Harring-
ton’s paper was an original communication made to the Massa-
chusetts Medical Society, and was read at the annual meeting of
June, 1886. The society recommended the paper for publication. It
thus appears with the indorsement of two journals and one
medical society, all of the very first standing and ability.

This paper concerns itself with chromium considered as a poison
to the animal body, and cites four cases, all of whom were Dr.
Harrington’s patients: 1st, A woman who made caps from blue
cloth. She was attacked by ulceration over most of the body,
with swellings, and with constitutional disturbances which had not
subsided at the end of two years. The cloth proved to contain a
“large amount of chromium.” To dust arising from it the symp-
toms are assigned. 2d, The case of a clergyman whose hands
ulcerated. His gloves proved to contain “a large amount of
chromium,” and to this the ulcers are attributed. 3d and 4th,
Two young boys who were attacked with nausea, vomiting, fever,
delirium, and convulsions. Their new suits of clothing were ex-
amined, and proved to contain “ chromium in great abundance.”
The paper states that its compounds, when taken internally, pro-
duce symptoms similar to those described. One child sucked his
fingers, and the other bit his nails. And thus the chrome-poison
was introduced. The dejecta from the elder of the boys proved
to contain “traces of chromium, and thus established the diagnosis
of poisoning.”

The well-written and highly indorsed paper, curiously enough,
does not offer the slightest evidence that chromium or any of its
compounds, in any quantity, however large or small, can injuriously
affect the animal body. Furthermore, there is no reliable tradition
or literature to that effect. And yet chrome-dyes have been in
general use since 1828 at least, the American consumption alone
being thousands of tons annually. In fact, so general is their use,
that chromic oxide may be found in almost any piece of cloth which
may happen to be at hand.

In the entire absence of any reliable literature pertinent, I was
led to make studies as to the poisonous effects of chrome-salts.
In the weaving of fabrics, the yarn suffers a constant succession of
shocks and scrapings, which must detach any thing like dust which
may adhere toit. If, then, dust from chrome-dyed yarn had any poi-
sonous effects, weavers ought to have some knowledge of it. In-
quiries were set afoot in three mills in Philadelphia, and from none
was there reported any injurious effect from such dust. If any

SCIENCE,

[Vorr xo INonw224

existed, it was not known to the weavers. This seemed im-
portant.

Similarly, and in the same way, dyers were questioned, and
none of them had any knowledge of injury from chrome. Such
operatives have their hands and arms in chrome-dyes at almost any
hour of the day, and therefore their replies seemed interesting.

Of even more importance are the workers in a chrome-factory,
one which has been in operation over fifty years. Here are pro-
duced the alkali bichromates which dyers use. The operatives
(some hundreds in number) live in an atmosphere quite heavily
charged with alkali chromate dust, visibly charged. Yet these
people are as healthy as those in other occupations. As a matter
of fact, there may any day be seen at this factory several pension-
ers, worn out in the service, and now too old to do more than the
semblance of labor.

But this is to be said, every man who works exclusively within
the factory has the nasal septum partially destroyed in from eight
to twenty weeks. The cautery then ceases, and there is no further
inconvenience. And, further, if strong chrome-liquors, or much
chrome-dust, be allowed to get upon any abrasion of the skin, they
are apt to produce sores; and, if these sores be treated to more
chrome, they will continue to suppurate, and will produce sores
with vertical walls, having the appearance of syphilitic chancres ;
but if a sore be protected by salve, or otherwise, it heals like any
other one would.

Through the courtesy of a practising physician, the health of
these bichromate-makers was discussed at a meeting of a medical
society whose members had the care of them. No chrome-disease
or chrome-poisoning was known to those physicians.

To sum up so far: there is not known to exist, among the
workers in any of the forms of chrome, any chrome-disease or
chrome-poisoning from contact, from inhalation, or otherwise.
This much established, there was no risk in the following experi-
ments : —

1. Three healthy men were exposed for four hours to an at-
mosphere containing vapors from boiling sodium bichromate, —
vapors visible in a beam of sunlight.

2. Two healthy men were exposed twenty minutes to an at-
mosphere containing visible clouds of dust of neutral sodium
chromate.

3. The lower half of a shirt-sleeve was saturated with a ten-per-
cent solution of potash bichromate, and then bound around the
arm from wrist to elbow. It remained thus in contact with the
skin three hours, and was kept moist.

4. A piece of white cotton cloth was dyed black in the ordinary
way, by sumac, iron nitrate, chrome, and logwood. After washing
in cold water alone, and passing through a clothes-wringer, a piece
of it, eight inches wide and ten inches long, was pinned to the inner
side of the undershirt, and worn in contact with the skin for four
hours on a hot day.

No experiments were made to ascertain the effects of wearing
chrome-dyed clothing, only because the writer was able to recall
precisely the cases of so many men, women, and children who had
done that without any deleterious results, so far as known. None
of them, at least, were affected in any of the manners described
as due to chrome-poisoning, in Dr. Harrington’s communication.
No unpleasant results followed any of the experiments mentioned.
No one of the subjects has suffered in the slightest. The time
elapsed is more than a month.

In the daily papers of July 12 of this year, appeared the report of
a coroner’s jury which considered the cases of several persons who
died in Philadelphia during the years 1885, 1886, and 1887, from
eating buns, it was supposed, made by Palmer, a baker, who had put
into them chrome-yellow. The ages of the victims were from three
years to twenty-four years, among them being seven of Palmer’s own
family. He did not deny having put lead chromate in the buns. It
was, indeed, in evidence that eighty per cent of Philadelphia bakers
so used it. The testimony of Dr. Stein, Dr. Stewart, and Dr. Stark,
the attending physicians upon the particular subjects under con-
sideration, was that the symptoms were those of lead-poisoning, and
that they set about to search for the source. They found it in
Palmer’s bakery, —the lead chromate which he put in the buns.
The viscera of victims, after death, were submitted to Dr. Leffman,

JuLy 29, 1887.]

the chemist, who found lead in them, and testified that the subjects
died of lead-poisoning. The newspaper reports say, “ The evidence
was conclusive that several members of the Diebel and Palmer
families died of lead-poisoning.” The verdict of the jury was, that
“the deaths of the four persons were undoubtedly due to chronic
lead-poisoning, and that the poisoning resulted from the use of
chromate of lead as a coloring-matter in buns and other bread-
stuffs.” The only allusion to chrome-salts in the entire reports, as
given in two newspapers, was made by Dr. Leffman, who said, “The
traces of chromium had disappeared.” We have here four cases
well authenticated, in which lead chromate produced death, — pro-
duced it by chronic lead-poisoning, and not by any action of the
chromium trioxide present.

The theory of antidotes, as understood by this writer, is that sub-
stances insoluble in any of the juices of the animal body are harm-
less as poisons. If we do not accept this as a fundamental propo-
sition, it is difficult to see how we reasonably can employ any
antidote supposed to act upon that principle. Chromic acid is a
very active oxidizer. In contact with organic matter, it is quickly
reduced to chromic oxide (a compound insoluble in any of the
juices of the animal body). It is a destroyer of organic tissues,
therefore. The action of both normal and acid alkali chromates is
similar to chromic acid. They destroy organic matter by oxidizing
it, chromic oxide being precipitated. Chromic acid: and soluble
chromates are then poisonous in the same sense as are sulphuric
acid and nitric acid. Chromic oxide is harmless.

Concerning the Philadelphia cases mentioned, the writer cannot
even pretend to speak with any authority. Any one, however,
familiar with the oxidizing action of chromic-acid salts, and who is
accustomed to making combustions with lead chromate, would not
find much difficulty in believing that the small quantity of lead
chromate taken by any one victim was reduced while in contact
with organic matter in the stomach and intestines, chromic oxide
passing out with the dejecta, and lead oxide being left to produce
its cumulative poisonous effects.

When one states that the insoluble modifications of chromium
are in any way poisonous to the animal body, the burden of proof
rests upon him. The soluble salts (the alkali chromates) do, how-
ever, produce sores and sloughing under certain conditions: (1) if
they fall in quantities upon an abrasion of the skin, or (2) upon
the delicate mucous membrane. Speaking generally, a solution con-
taining 150 grams of an alkali chromate in one litre of water is

_ scarcely strong enough to produce sores upon the hands. Again,
generally, alkali chromate dust which is just visible without direct
sunlight is harmless, unless one should remain in it for some weeks.
When such dust falls upon the mucous membrane, it is quickly re-
duced by the secretion it finds there, and chromic oxide is precipi-
tated. The membrane is not attacked. There can be no doubt
that Dr. Harrington found in the clothing he examined, the large
quantities of chromium salts mentioned by him. It would have
been rather strange if he had not, since most cloth is chrome-dyed,
and contains about eight-tenths of one per cent chromic oxide in its
fibre. Had he examined further, equally certain, he would have found
iron, cellulose, keratin, and some other organic products. Why not
assign to one or all of them the maladies of the patients mentioned ?
So far as his paper gives evidence, or so far as I know, cellulose is
equally as poisonous as the insoluble chrome-dye on yarn. We
should risk little in saying this is true so far as any one knows.
Before we say otherwise, we should offer such proofs as would lead
a cautious man to accept the statements.

To those who read the communication alluded to, it may be of
interest to know that a suit of clothing for a small boy will lose in
weight about three hundred and forty milligrams in a week. Of
this, about eight-tenths of one per cent is chromic oxide, when
the clothing is chrome-dyed. Such clothing then loses about two
and seven-tenths milligrams of chromic oxide in one week. How
much of this latter the boy would be likely to inhale as dust, and
what injury it would do him, are matters about which I have no in-
formation to offer. If it were arsenic, and he inhaled the whole of
it in one day, and twenty times as much more, it might possibly
sicken him.

Five hundred milligrams of the chrome-dyed cotton cloth before
mentioned was ground between the teeth of a healthy man, and

SCIENCE: 59

slowly swallowed. It produced no effect which could be detected.
This cloth contained four milligrams of chromic oxide. Such a
small quantity was taken only because of the desire to test the
effects of minute quantities. The only inconvenience resulting
from an attempt to eat a yard square of such cloth would be in
masticating it. Even between strong molars, it is really difficult to
grind.

To sum up, finally, the writer has not been able to show that
chrome-dye, or indeed any modification of chromium, is in any way
poisonous to the human body. The continuation of these studies
is left to others better fitted to pursue them, and with the sincere
hope that the subject will not be allowed to die of neglect. The
matter intimately concerns the general welfare. WM. GLENN.

Baltimore, July 21.

Distillery-Swill as a Food for Milch-Cows.

THE interest in this subject, developed by the recent discussion
in Sczezce, prompts me to give its readers some additional points of
interest. Until within the past four years, the practice of feeding
distillery-waste on Long Island was very prevalent. Although the
ordinances of the city of Brooklyn have for years forbidden the use
of this food, no systematic effort was made to stamp it out previous
to the year 1883. At that time it was used very generally in
Brooklyn and its suburbs, especially during the winter months.
Since then it has been almost entirely discontinued through the
efforts of the Health Department.

It is the almost unanimous opinion of cow-keepers who have fed
swill and dry feed, that the cows do better without swill; by which
they mean that they are healthier and less subject to diseases. This
statement is of value, as it is the result of a practical trial extending
over several years of time, and under conditions otherwise the same.
It is the verdict of a large number of stables where the experiment
has been tried-by different men. To me, this testimony is con-
clusive as to the question of this food upon the health of the cows
fed upon it. Tuberculosis and pleuro-pneumonia are more prevalent
in stables where swill is fed than where ‘ grains,’ meal, and hay are
fed. This statement is based upon personal observation, and the
testimony of the dairymen themselves.

A word as to the manner of feeding swill. The cows do not
take kindly to this food, and must be starved to it, as a rule. Conse-
quently, when it is to be fed, it is necessary to withhold other food,
for a time at least. I have rarely seen it mixed with other food,
and, in fact, the testimony of milkmen in this vicinity is that it is
next to impossible to get cows to eat a mixture of swill and other
food, excepting hay. The digestion of cows fed upon swill soon
suffers derangements that prevent their eating such other food.
Whenever it is fed at all, it is claimed that it must constitute
almost the only food, —and thus it was fed in this vicinity, — when
fed at all. As all advocates of swill as food for milch-cows seem
to make their advocacy rest upon a liberal supply of other food
with it, it becomes an important point to determine whether cows
will eat hot swill, and cold meal or grain, at the same time. The
experience of Long Island dairymen seems to indicate that success in
this direction is doubtful, and prejudicial to the supply of milk as
well as to the health of cows.

Statements have been made from time to time that distillery-
waste contains alcohol and fusel oil, and that these alcohols have a
bad effect upon the animals. This is an error. Both alcohol and
fusel oil are separated from the waste as completely as possible;
and my analyses have failed to reveal more than mere traces of
either.

Sensational statements have been made that the tails of cattle
fed upon this food atrophy and fall off. This statement is based
upon the results of anti-pleuropneumonic inoculation seen in such
stables. From the prevalence of pleuro-pneumonia among cattle
fed upon this hot feed, the owners have for years resorted to
a clumsy method of inoculation, in the tail, with a slice of dis-
eased lung. In a considerable number of cases, septicemia re-
sults, necessitating an amputation of the tail. The loss of the
tails has nothing to do with the food.

When cows are kept most of the time in stalls, and fed upon
this hot food, they become feverish. The temperature usually
ranges from ror.5° F. to 102.52 F. This must be regarded as an

60

unhealthy temperature, and no cow that has a persistent temperature
of 102° F. can give a wholesome milk.

The coriditions and methods here set forth are those that
almost universally prevailed on Long Island when this food was
used; and the milk, which I have analyzed, and which was referred
to in previous numbers of this journal, was produced under these
conditions.

The chemical features of the milk which are most marked, are,
the strongly acid re-action, deficiency of fat and sugar, and great
excess of caseine or curd. So marked were these features, that I
was able to identify swill-milk produced under these conditions.

That such milk is a dangerous food for young children, I have had
abundant clinical evidence. The tough, hard curd produced in the
stomach by this milk is entirely too much for the digestive powers
of even healthy children, and passes undigested, irritating the in-
testinal mucous membrane throughout its entire length, giving rise
to intestinal catarrh, inflammatory diarrhoea, or cholera-infantum.
Occasionally the curd formed in the stomach is too large and firm
to pass the pyloris, when the child passes into rapid collapse and
death, unable to rid the stomach of the mass either by vomiting or
purging. Remedies, under such circumstances, are of no avail. I
have seen the same effects, in a somewhat less degree, produced in
adults who were not disturbed by a pure, wholesome milk.

I think we may accept it as demonstrated, 1st, that fed as it has
always been in this vicinity, distillery-swill is an unfit food for
milch-cows, as it deteriorates the health of the cows, and produces
unwholesome milk; 2d, from the difficulty of perfectly controlling
the manner of feeding, it is not warrantable for any sanitary au-
thority to recommend it as a food for milch-cows ; 3d, it has not
yet been proven that it can be successfully fed in conjunction with
other wholesome food ; 4th, the laws now in force in this and other
States, forbidding the sale of swill-milk, are justifiable, and should
be enforced. E. H. BARTLEY, M.D.

Brooklyn, July 23.

IN answer to yours of the 13th, I have read the papers and re-
ports on distillery-swill milk published in Sczerce, and, in my judg-
ment, you have furnished reasonable evidence of the unwholesome-
ness of such milk as a general fact. I mean where distillery-swill
constitutes the chief food of the animals.

From the very nature of the case, complete proof and absolute
demonstration by direct, full, and conclusive experiments cannot be
had : so we must rely on such evidence as is available, the same as
in so many other sanitary questions where the deductions have to be
derived from a great mass of cumulative evidence, each single fact
in which is inconclusive. I have therefore only to suggest that you
continue the recording of facts as the only available way either of
arriving at just conclusions or of convincing the public of the truth-
fulness of the conclusions.

I know of no conclusion in sanitation so well established that
men may not be found to deny it; and, so long as distillery-swill
milk does not kill or sicken a// who may use any of it, there will
probably be persons who deny that it is harmful to any.

The correspondent in Sczence of July 22 (p. 46) fails to find “ posi-
tive evidence ” of “any ill effects of swill upon cows fed with it.”
On the other hand, he asserts, as if on “ positive evidence,” that
‘the evils attributable to it are largely, if not entirely, to be ascribed
to the unsanitary surroundings of the animals.” I hardly know how
comprehensive and sweeping he intends this to apply. It would be
unfair to charge him with asserting that the almost universal
disease in distillery stables, the emaciation, the lax bowels, the loss
of teeth, the short lives in such stables as distinguished from those
where hay and grain are the chief food, and the “unsanitary sur-
roundings of the animals” in these stables, as a rule, should
be merely curious coincidences, and not due to the feeding of
the swill itself. His language implies all this, but surely I can
hardly believe that to be his meaning.

Some supplementary statements, however, are equally positive
and equally striking, — the proposition “ that lactation in a dairy is
not a normal process,” and that he regards the conclusions (if not,
indeed, the facts) given by certain chemists and physicians, regard-
ing the nature and digestibility of the curd of swill-milk, as on the
whole unworthy of confidence.

If you can convince a few orphan-asylums and foundling-hospitals

SCI PING:

[Vor ex: UNow2aH

that it would be an innocent and harmless experiment to feed half
of their children on distillery-swill milk, and the other on grass-and-
grain milk, and continue this experiment for several years, on differ-
ent races of children, in different localities, some of the swill-milk
stables to be kept as clean as other stables may be, by some process
not yet announced, and carefully record and collate all the results,
the question would then be settled, in the usual acceptance of that
term.

Until some such plan for “ positive evidence” be secured, I sug-
gest that you work at the method of cumulative evidence which has
been so rich in conclusions and beneficent in its results in other de-

partments of sanitary science. Wm. H. BREWER.
New Haven, Conn., July 2s.

State Interference.

COPIES of Sczence containing two of the articles on State inter-
ference have been received; also your note asking opinions respect-
ing them.

I am glad you undertook the investigation, and wish it might
have called forth more elaborate replies. It is a subject which
ought to be worked up carefully for all the States and for a period
of years long enough to show the working of tendencies.

But, so far as the facts you have presented go, I see very little
which will not be found upon the statute-books of England, which
is generally known as the classic land of /azssez fazre. The pro-
tective system involves more serious interference with private con-
cerns than almost any of the new laws. Our legislators, I admit,
are ignorant, and moved largely by party or private interest ; but
that is the fault of our political system, and is connected with the
essentially commercial character of the people. The social ques-
tion is upon us: we must have laws regulating competition to a
certain extent. The danger comes, not from the tendency toward
such regulation, but from the character of the men to whom legis-
lation is intrusted: hence the necessity of civil-service reform, of
higher political education, and of a strengthening of the moral tone

of the people. H. L. OsGoop.
Short Beach, Conn., July 23.

Tornado Force.

Mr. E. B. GARRIATT has a communication on tornado power in
your issue of July 22, in which he complains of the “ disposition, on
the part of writers on scientific subjects, .. . to sacrifice com-
mon-sense reasoning and probable facts to profound but im-
probable theories,” and then proceeds to explain tornado energy
as due to electricity, and not to wind. To support this view,
he makes the statement, first, that “moist air is one of the best
known conductors of electricity;’’ and, second, that the “earth
is the great reservoir for the electric fluid.” It might be worth the
while for Mr. Garriatt to assure himself of the truth of his funda-
mental principles before he applies them on so largea scale. There
is not the slightest experimental evidence that moist air is a con-
ductor at all, much less “one of the best;” and as for the earth
being a reservoir of electricity, every thing that is known about
electricity negatives the idea.

Again: it is implied that electrical energy is more destructive
than other kinds, as if a definite quantity of it could do more work
than an equal quantity of other energy. He also speaks of “the
electric fluid.” These quotations show that he has no practical ac-
quaintance with what physicists call ‘ electricity ;’ that he does not
understand the laws of its generation, the conditions of its trans-
ferrence, nor its quantitative relation to other forms of energy; and
therefore, to quote still further from his article, it is “‘ unsatisfactory
and worthless from a practical scientific standpoint.”

A. E. DOLBEAR.
College Hill, Mass., July 23.

Answers.

10. ROBIN’s NEST. — The ten-storied robin’s nest mentioned in
Sczence of July 22 is indeed a remarkable affair. It is rather unus-
ual for robins to build a new nest on an old one, although it some-
times happens. I have seen a number of two-storied nests, and

one three-storied one, but such nests are rare. J. A. ALLEN.
New York, July 26.

mote NGE

FRIDAY, AUGUST 5, 1887.

IT IS GREATLY to be regretted that the National Educational
Association, at its recent meeting, gave its indorsement to the so-
called Blair bill, making provision for national aid to schools in the
various States and Territories. This measure has been before the
public long enough to obtain thorough discussion; and the opinion
of the large majority of intelligent citizens is, that its effect, were
it ever enacted into a statute, would be pernicious. The measure
has been not unjustly styled a ‘bill to promote mendicancy.’ It is
a bill to impair the self-reliance, and discourage the earnest efforts,
of large portions of the community. We have lately taken occasion
to call the attention of the readers of Sczence to the alarming in-
crease of paternalism in legislation in the various States. The bill
in question is in a direct line with the tendency toward paternalism.
We are not among those who assert that the measure is advocated
in a demagogic spirit. On the contrary, we believe it to be the out-
come of a generous but mistaken intention to do good. We be-
lieve the premises on which its supporters base their arguments to
be false, as well as that the effects they predict will follow its enact-
ment to be very different from what will actually happen. A reso-
lution indorsing this bill was brought before the teachers at their
recent annual meeting, and referred to the appropriate committee.
In course of time this resolution appeared, with a number of others,
in the committee’s report, and was adopted. We are informed that
this was done as a mere form, and that the committee’s report was
adopted without any consideration, merely as a matter of courtesy.
If this is so, it is no proper defence. If any teacher objected to that
resolution, he should have made himself heard. But the record
shows that no objection was made, and that the resolution passed.
We repeat that it is very unfortunate that the association took such
action. It will greatly lessen public confidence in its representative
character.

DURING THE MONTHS in which the tropical tornadoes are
most frequent, the pilot chart issued by the Hydrographic Office of
the Navy Department will contain reports of experiments in the use
of oil to lessen the force of waves during storms at sea. For several
years it has been the custom of the office to print monthly on this
chart a synopsis of the experience of vessel captains in the use of
oil; and the results have in a great many instances been very suc-
cessful. it has had another effect also. It has stimulated inventors
to prepare devices for carrying the oil over the bows of vessels, and
has induced a number of dealers in oleaginous fluids to prepare a
special brand of oil for this purpose. The receptacle for the oil
which seems to be the most useful yet offered to navigators is the
design of a Swede. It is said that the British Channel fleet, while
cruising in the vicinity of Copenhagen, were supplied with these
funnel-shaped bags for distributing oil in storms. The authorities
at the American Navy Department have not yet admitted the value
of the experiments. A Chicago concern has succeeded in perfecting
a combination of mineral and vegetable oils, which is said to be
very effective for the purpose, and the Hydrographic Office is ad-
vised that it is being extensively carried by steamers on the Lakes
during the present season. Thus far there have been very few re-
ports of the effect of experiments on the inland lakes. A new
apparatus has been described inthe Vach?, It consists of a vertical
cylinder with numerous small openings, which, by an automatic
process, lets the oil flow out as soon as the bow of the ship to
which the apparatus is fastened plunges into the water.

THE MONTANA INDUSTRIAL SCHOOL FOR INDIANS.

IN connection with the present movement to introduce manual
training as a factor in the common-school education, it is valuable
to make note of the testimony to its educational effectiveness de-
rived from experiments in other fields. Its introduction into the
colored schools of the South has been followed by most bene-
ficial results, and we now learn of its success among the Indian
tribes.

The American Unitarian Association is one of the religious
bodies of the country which, since 1874, has had charge of the edu-
cation of the Indians. This association has nominally been in
charge of the Utes. The attempt to establish an industrial school
for the Utes failed, however, because of the frequent removal of
the tribe, its opposition to all forms of civilization, and the lack of
sufficient government support. Mr. Henry F. Bond, the represen-
tative of the association, then turned his attention to the Crow
reservation in Montana.

The Crow tribe, which numbers about thirty-five hundred, of
whom about eight hundred are children of school age, have never
had any settled missionary or educational work done among them,
except a small government school at the agency. The tribe had
been originally assigned to the Methodists ; but no work has been
done by them, though they, as well as the Catholics, have recently
secured mission-sites on the reservation, which will soon be oc-
cupied.

The Crows have always been the firm friends and allies of the
whites. They have resisted all overtures from other tribes to join
them in hostilities, and have always been ready to take up arms
against any tribe, even their own friends, who made war on the
whites. It is perhaps for this very reason that they have been for
so long neglected by missionary bodies, whose efforts have been
directed to the Christianization and civilization of those tribes from
whom most danger was to be apprehended. As a natural result
of this neglect, the Crows are among the least civilized of all the
tribes. They cling to their wild ways of life, and are reluctant to
settle down to habits of industry. They are sensual and immoral
in their practices. But the universal testimony of the twelve agents
who have been appointed to the Crows, in the last eighteen years,
is that they are docile, good-tempered, and not inclined to intem-
perance, as are most other tribes, and that they are faithfully en-
deavoring to adapt themselves to their changed condition. They
have agreed to take up allotments, and to build houses on their
homesteads, and cultivate the ground. The government has sent
out farmers with their families to settle among them, and to instruct
them in agriculture and the ways of civilized life; and the agents
invariably speak well of their readiness to avail themselves of the
facilities thus afforded. Nowhere would there seem to be greater
need of missionary and educational work, and Mr. Bond decided
that here was the best field of labor. His decision was approved,
as were also the location selected and his plans for the erection of
an industrial boarding-school building to accommodate from thirty
to fifty pupils. The site chosen was on the Big Horn River, on the
mail-stage route from Custer Station on the Northern Pacific Rail-
road, distant seven miles, to Fort Custer thirty, and the Crow
agency, on the Custer battle-ground, forty, miles distant.

The commissioner of Indian affairs also approved the location,
and promised a contract for Indian pupils. The government will
pay $108 annually for each Indian pupil taught and supported at
the school. The annual cost of maintaining the school, with the
full complement of fifty pupils, will be from $8,000 to $10,000, of
which sum the government’s payments will constitute one-half.

The building is substantial and commodious, made of hewn
cottonwood logs, on a stone foundation, having eighty-six feet
frontage, with wings running seventy feet to the rear, forming three
sides of a hollow square. The gambrel roof gives a second story

62 SCIENGE:

for the dormitories, thus saving present expense for schoolrooms,
which are placed in the lower story.

At the time of the last report to the association, April 30 of the
present year, the school was in operation with eighteen pupils,
with a prospect of having the full quota of fifty as soon as its
equipment is complete.

Mr. Bond reports the Crow children at the school as docile, af-
fectionate, intelligent, and happy under their new surroundings.
They are quick to learn, and interested in their studies and in their
occupations. They are to be taught, under the contract with the
Indian Bureau, the various industries which will fit them for the
duties of civilized life. One of three boys who had run away, and
who, as the ringleader, was refused permission to return, offered to
submit to punishment if only allowed to come back.

An interesting feature of the work at this school is, that, of the
six teachers and officers in charge, three are Indians who have been
students at Carlisle and Hampton.

It is intended to add a kitchen, blacksmith-shop, carpenter-shop,
and slaughter-house. The slaughter-house is a necessary adjunct
of an Indian school, in order that the Indian boys may be taught
how to kill animals for food mercifully, and also how to cut them
up scientifically instead of hewing and hacking them as they
now do.

The curriculum is not yet completely systematized, but probably
half the time will be given to industries, and half to the schoolroom
exercises. The industrial training will include blacksmithing, car-
pentry, farming, and butchering for the boys, and house-work,
sewing, and cooking for the girls. The outlook for the school
seems excellent, and, if the hands of the teachers are upheld by
sufficient funds, an excellent work will be accomplished.

THE NEW JERSEY TEACHERS’ READING-CIRCLE.

THE results of the first year’s work of the New Jersey teachers
in the reading-circles call for the highest commendation, and indi-
cate a thorough organization and faithfulness on the part of the
members.

The plan of organization, and methods of work, should be known
in every State: in fact, the Board of Control in New Jersey is glad
to inform other reading-circles of its successes and methods in re-
ciprocation for information kindly sent when their organization was
in its incipiency.

The committee on constitution sent to all the States in the Union
having reading-circles, then numbering thirteen, and received much
information which greatly aided them in formulating their report.
The result was an organization differing materially in some essen-
tial points, and yet containing good ideas from many States. The
features that have contributed to its success are the following :-—

I. The Board of Control.—The election of this board was
peculiarly fortunate. It consists of four officers, the State superin-
tendent being president, and one director from each congressional
district, thus affording complete representation. The work of the
board is intrusted to the following committees: 1. Finance, 2.
Course of Reading and Books, 3. Circulars and Printing, 4. Cer-
tificates and Diplomas, 5. Local Management. A great part of the
success of the circle is due to the last-named committee. Its
duties are to supervise the work throughout the State, appoint local
managers, instruct them in the work, encourage the formation of
local circles and the enrolment of members, hold meetings of man-
agers and members, send speakers to county associations and in-
stitutes, and keep up the interest and enthusiasm in the State.
Another very important part of the work of this committee, which
has contributed very much to the success, is the intimate communi-
cation with the local managers in cities and counties, which is
carried on by the secretary, Mr. B. C. Gregory of Newark, who has
done more work than all the other members of the Board of Control
put together. Heis an indefatigable worker, an accurate statis-
tician, a skilful organizer and administrator, and an enthusiast on
reading-circles, being a Chautauquan, and the secretary also of the
Chautauqua Teachers’ Reading-Union. This tribute is due to Mr.
Gregory, because the New Jersey circle could not have attained
such success without him.

The committee on local management divided the State into dis-

[Vor xX. Noms

tricts, to be supervised by the members of the board. By this.
means the work was easily pushed and encouraged. Where the
best results have been attained, much credit is due to the county
superintendents who have co-operated with the committee in
spreading information and encouraging the local circles. Where
work has been done, it was well done. Unfortunately there are a
very few counties where the county superintendents are dead edu-
cationally, and the committee have not had time yet to push their
work.

Another very important work of this committee has been the
district meetings. Soon after the circle was organized, meetings of
city and county managers were held in four central places for the
purpose of giving instruction and for conference. During the last
spring another series of meetings was held in six central places,
when all members and friends of education were invited. At each
meeting an address was given by some distinguished educator, in
addition to the addresses of the chairman and secretary and the
reports of local managers. These meetings resulted in much good
in unifying the work and cementing the bond of common interest.

The duties of the other committees are essential, but do not
come into relation with the organization.

Il. The County and Czty Boards of Managers.— The duties.
and responsibilities of the local managers, city and county, are
very important, and the success of the work depends very much
upon them; in fact, no success can be looked for except through
them. They must enrol members, encourage meetings, and keep
the work moving. They must arrange programmes, direct the
method of reading. and keep up the enthusiasm.

Ill. Zhe Local Circles. — Experience shows that the work can-
not be successfully carried on without meetings and local circles.
It is impossible for the majority of teachers to pursue a course of
reading alone. They need the inspiration of numbers, a proper
comprehension of the matter; and the fullest appreciation of it de-
pends upon discussion, analysis, and amplification. The cities and
counties that show the best results have maintained regular
meetings.

IV. The Course of Reading. —In making the courses of read-
ing, the Board of Control, appreciating the needs of the teachers,
provided professional works, embracing the history, principles, and
methods of teaching, and reading of a general character, including
history and literature. The books are arranged in groups, which
enables members to select a purely professional course or one partly
professional; but no selection can be made by the omission of a
single educational work.

The object of the reading-circle is to induce teachers to continue
systematic study in these lines, and it has put into their hands some
of the best educational literature available. The course is attrac-
tive, entertaining, and inspiring.

The second year’s course is now being read, and the third year’s
course has been arranged. Both provide for professional and
general reading. The popularity of the course, and the success of
the work, may be seen by the fact, that, out of about 3,250 teachers.
in the public schools of the State, the secretary reports 1,980 mem-
bers of the reading-circle. The State superintendent says that its
influence is being felt in the remotest districts, and that it has
created a greater interest in education than has ever before been
known in the State. C. E. MELENEY.

EXPLORATION AND TRAVEL.
Prejevalsky’s Journeys in Central Asia.

UP to the last few years, our knowledge of Central Asia was ex-—
tremely deficient. Though in the middle ages many travellers
crossed the arid highlands of Mongolia and Tibet, among them the
famous Marco Polo, though numerous reports on the routes fol-
lowed by the Chinese silk-caravans exist, the geography of that
region was actually unknown. It is only of late years that scientific
travellers succeeded in entering Central Asia; and among them
Prejevalsky, the Russian general, is most prominent from the extent
of his journeys and the valuable results of his expeditions. His
most important discovery is that of the mountain-range connecting
the Nan Shan system with the western Kwen Luen, which feeds
the Khotan and Yarkand Rivers. He proved that the Kwen Luen

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AucusT 5, 1887. |

forms one enormous system stretching from the Pamir Plateau to
western China. Its most northern range is formed by the Taguz
Daban, the Altin Tagh, and Nan Shan. It was on his second jour-
ney, in 1876, that Prejevalsky explored this region. He advanced
from Kulja on the Ili, which he describes as the most lovely district
of Central Asia, crossed the Tian Shan, and descended to the oasis
of Karashar, on the Bagrash Kul. Here he turned south, and,
after having reached the Tarim, followed it until he reached the
famous Lob Nor (Lake Lob). He stated the remarkable fact that
the western part of this lake, which has no outlet, contains fresh
water, —a fact which he verified on his fourth expedition. He
concluded that Lob Nor is a reedy lake of no great depth, sur-
rounded by flat shores, the haunt of prodigious numbers of water-
fowl, and inhabited by a few hundred human beings, whose habits,
tenements, and mode of life, resemble those of the primitive lake-
dwellers. The eastern part of the lake must be salt, as it is an
inland lake, and all the matter contained and dissolved in the waters
of the Tarim is carried into it.

His most important discovery here was that a high chain of
mountains, the Altin Tagh, rises almost precipitously from the
southern shore of the lake to the limit of perpetual snow. On his
fourth expedition he completed these discoveries by that, of the
high chains of mountains forming the western and southern bound-
aries of Tsaidam.

He had explored this saline marshy district on his first journey,
1871 —73, and thence had visited northern Tibet, with the intention
of visiting Lhasa; but when about five hundred miles from this
place he was compelled to turn back.

The same region was the goal of his third expedition. Well
supplied with funds, he started from Zaisan, in the government of
Semipalatinsk. His party numbered thirteen all told, ten being Cos-
sacks. They travelled along the south shore of Lake Urungu, and
ascended the Ulyungur. The natives of this river and its chief
tributary, the Bolgun, are Targute-Kalmuks, whose kinsmen, in-
habiting north-western Dzungaria, are the descendants of those
Kalmuks, who, driven out of their camping-grounds by the Dzun-
gars, migrated to the banks of the Volga and Ural, and in 1770
suddenly departed, to the number of four hundred and sixty thou-
sand families, and at last settled on the Ili.

Prejevalsky crossed from the Ulyungur to the eastern continua-
tion of the Tian Shan, and, passing the plain of Barkul, he at last
arrived at the oasis of Hami, which he describes as remarkably
productive. Corn, vegetables, grapes, and melons are grown there,
the last being of such exceptionally fine flavor as to be considered
worthy of being sent to the Court of Peking. It isa place of the
highest importance, as it commands the chief roads from China to
eastern Turkestan and Dzungaria. From here, roads lead to the
cities situated along the northern foot of the Tian Shan, and across
the desert of Gobi to Sha-chau, on the upper Bulunzir. This oasis
is situated at the foot of the Nan Shan, which is here a chain of
mountains only twenty-seven miles in width; though farther east,
near the Koko Nor, it attains far greater dimensions. Still farther
east, in the province of Kansu, the mountains are covered with
dense forests ; but near Sha-chau it is a sterile, treeless range. Yet
the highest parts possess a savage grandeur, with their summits
towering above the main axis, their precipices, snow-covered peaks,
and glaciers.

The expedition now entered the plateau of Tsaidam,—an ex-
panse of salt marsh and clay flats dotted with lakes, and elevated
about ten thousand feet above the sea. The level and desolate
character of this country is shown in Fig. 2, which is reproduced
from Le Tour du Monde.

Another characteristic feature of this region is shown in Fig. 1,
which has been taken from the same journal. Around the
shrubs and bushes masses of sand and dust are accumulated by
the wind, and thus in course of time a small hill is formed, on the
top of which a new shrub begins to grow. Von Richthofen’s re-
searches show that the masses deposited by the wind are distrib-
uted over a wide area in Central and Western Asia, and that the
form of the surface of this region is principally due to the action of
the wind. f

Tsaidam forms the first terrace of the plateau of Tibet. On its
northern and southern sides it is enclosed by the branches of the

SCIEN GE:

63

Kwen Luen, while the spurs of the Nan Shan form its eastern limit.
The southern part, which was formerly covered by an extensive
salt lake, is extremely level, while the northern section is higher and
hilly, and is composed of a barren, sandy ground and saline
marshes. The inhabitants of this region are Mongols. Their
principal occupation is stock-raising. In summer the herds are
driven to the mountains, as the lower parts of the country swarm
with insects. On account of the great distance of the agricultural
districts of China, and the difficulty of obtaining grain, the inhabit-
ants till the soil to a limited extent. As they are frequently at-
tacked by the Chara Tanguts and the Golyks of the river Mur-usu,
they fortify certain parts of their camps and villages, in which they
defend themselves from their enemies, whose predatory excursions
are said to be permitted and supported by the Chinese governor.
Though the inhabitants of Tsaidam received Prejevalsky well, the
native princes, acting doubtless by orders from Peking, refused
him both guides and provisions; but at length he succeeded in
starting on his way south. After they had passed the Shuga and
Baian-kara-ula Mountains, the difficulties of travelling increased
greatly. Their guide, who had only once, fifteen years before Preje-
valsky’s journey, traversed that country on his way to Lhasa, did not

Fic. 1.—Sanp-HI11s.

know the way, and the caravan had to select the way according to
their own judgment. They succeeded in reaching the Napchitai-
ulan-muren, where they found traces of caravan camps, which as-
sured them that they were on the right road. Though it was only
the middle of October, the weather turned cold, with continued
snowfalls, and their camels and horses could find nothing to eat.
Thus, under great difficulties, they succeeded in crossing the Koko-
shili and Dumbure Mountains. Having reached the valley of the
Mur-usu, they struck the track taken by the Lhasa pilgrims, and
ascended the river. But soon the track was lost again; and, after
having deposited part of the load in a cache, the caravan proceeded
southward, and crossed the Tangla Range by a pass which, though
16,700 feet in height, is only 2,100 feet above the valley of the Mur-
usu, and has a very gradual slope to the north and south. The
eastern continuation of this mountain-range is probably the water-
shed between the Yang-tse-Kiang and the rivers of Farther India ;
but we are far from having a sufficient knowledge of the compli-
cated river-systems of this region. It is even still doubtful whether
the Nap Chu is the upper course of the Salwen as represented on
our map, or of the Irawadi, as some authorities‘on the geography of
Farther India suppose. Prejevalsky now reached the valley of the
San Chu; but here his further progress was stopped, as the Dalai-
Lama did not permit him to enter his territories. So he was com-
pelled to return, though only one hundred and fifty miles from Lhasa,
the goal of his journey.

64

The results of this journey are confirmed and supplemented by the
observations of the Pundit A-K, who visited Lhasa, and, continu-
ing his journey farther north, reached Tsaidam.

In 1884 and 1885 Prejevalsky accomplished his fourth journey in
Tibet. From Kiachta he went to the Chinese city of Sining, east
of the Koko Nor. Having arrived in eastern Tsaidam, he left all
his superfluous baggage under the charge of seven Cossacks, while
he and his companions, a party of fourteen, started to explore the
sources of the Hoang-Ho, which is situated in a plateau from 14,000
to 15,000 feet in height. Travelling south, Prejevalsky crossed the
divide between the Hoang-Ho and Di Chu, the source of the Yang-
tse-Kiang, at a height of 14,500 feet, and, on entering the basin of
the Di Chu, came to a country alpine in its character, but without
forests, possessing, however, a rich and varied herbaceous flora.

_ From here he returned to Tsaidam, and, turning west, made the
important discovery of the ‘ Valley of the Winds,’ which gradually
rises to an easy pass across the Taguz Daban Mountains, leading
to Cherchen. This pass, and the route from Sha-chau along the
foot of the Altin Tagh, were the caravan routes used in former times
in the trade between Turkestan and China. From here he paid

Fic. 2.—Satt MarsHes 1n TSAIDAM.

another visit to the Lob Nor, and then returned to Russia by way
of Cherchen, Kiria, and Khotan.

Our map shows the important results of these journeys; but be-
sides this, other recent researches have been made use of in con-
structing the map. The sources of the Irawadi and the adjoining
parts show Colonel Woodthorpe’s explorations. The north-western
part is from the Indian Trigonometrical Survey map of Turkestan,
but corrected according to the recent Russian surveys on the Pamir
and the adjoining regions, and to the surveys of the Afghanistan
Boundary Commission, as far as they have been published.

HEALTH MATTERS.

Health in Schools.

THE Medical Society of the State of New York voted at its an-
nual meeting to distribute fifteen hundred copies of the essay of Dr.
A. N. Bell, on the physiological condition and sanitary requirements
of school-life and school-houses, which received the Merritt H.
Cash prize at the annual meeting held in February. These addi-
tional copies are intended for the school-officers of the State, and if
read, and the advice therein given is put into practice, much good
will result. The essayist opens by calling attention to the plasticity
of every living organism during the early period of its existence, and
to the liability of causing constitutional weakness, or even a dis-
eased state, if a young person of originally healthy constitution be
subjected for a considerable period to such injurious physical con-
ditions as tend to produce a modification of type. All the phe-
nomena of maintaining a living existence are accomplished by the
process of nutrition. The parts played by respiration and the blood
in this process receive due attention from the essayist ; and the

SCIENCE:

[Mom «Noles:

nervous system, including the brain, is concisely described, both as
to structure and function.

In speaking of the age at which children should be sent to
school, Dr. Bell says children differ greatly in their powers of resist-
ance to injurious influences, as do adults, though incomparably
more susceptible to them: hence to fix upon the age at which
school-life may be commenced involves the consideration of the
kind of school-life as well as the adaptation of the child. The first
and central fact to be constantly kept in view in conducting school-
life is the plastic property of the child’s mind. This fact being al-
ways uppermost, healthy children, at the age of about seven years,
may safely begin to learn the alphabet, spelling, and figures, on the
kindergarten system, giving them not more than two or three
hours’ application daily, with not less than half of the time, at equal
intervals, for play ; provided, always, the sanitary conditions of the
school-room are duly regarded. At the age of about ten years,
systematic education may be commenced; but up to the age of
puberty, the school-time should not be more than six hours daily ;
and no child should be required to devote more than half of the
time of school-hours to study, or more than forty minutes at a time
to close application; and no recitation or blackboard exercise,
which imposes the greatest exertion of the mind, should be longer
than fifteen minutes. The education of the senses, and the best
kinds of gymnastics for school, are considered quite at length.

There is one point upon which Dr. Bell lays great stress, and we
are gratified that he does so; that is, the punishment of a refractory
pupil by his detention from play, or keeping him in after school-
hours. He says that teachers and others who favor the keeping-in
system must be very superficial observers of children, not to have
learned that to deprive a child of play is an exceedingly poignant
punishment, — one that afflicts and grieves his mind not only, but
frequently stirs up his worst passions. Besides, keeping-in is fre-
quently coupled with an extra task, or ‘till the lesson is got.’
Surely, nothing could be better calculated to create a repugnance
to study, and stimulate obstinacy. Moreover, it sometimes involves.
the loss of a meal, or, at least, a postponement of meal-time, to the
derangement of digestion and injury of health. In every attitude of
the case the system of keeping-in as a punishment is bad ; worse,
even than corporal punishment, and, like it, should never be prac-
tised except in extreme cases.

In the portion of the essay devoted to the school-house itself, the
site first claims attention. In dealing with this subject, the essayist
says that the ground air is liable to be impregnated with emana-
tions from all decomposing material; and instances are by no
means lacking to show that schools exposed to such dangers
have frequently incurred severe epidemics of whooping-cough,
measles, scarlet-fever, diphtheria, and typhoid-fever, and are con-
stantly liable to pneumonia, catarrhal and diarrhoeal diseases. In
speaking of the materials which should be selected to be used in
building school-houses, Dr. Bell refers to the examination of various
kinds of stone which was made with reference to the choice of
building-stone for the British House of Parliament in 1839. It was.
then found that the absorption of water for one hundred volumes.
of rock was in the following proportions : in three specimens of sili-
ceous limestones, 5.3, 8.5, and 10.9; three of nearly pure limestones
from oolite, 18.0, 20.6, and 31.0. In all the experiments the air was
removed by first placing the specimens in water under the vacuum
of an air-pump. Brick, under the same process, will absorb from
ten to thirty volumes of water. The ventilation, warming, and
sewerage of school-houses are concisely and intelligently discussed.

In speaking of the sanitary surveillance which is so essential in
every school-system, Dr. Bell’s testimony is of great value. His
experience as a member of the Board of Education in Brooklyn en-
titles him to speak er cathedrd. He says, that, constituted as our
boards of education are, with few exceptions, though there may be
some members who are physicians, it is impracticable to secure
competent sanitary supervision under the direction of or subordi-
nate to them. They are generally divided into committees with
special charges,—on sites, construction, heating, ventilation,
health, etc.; and on school-houses, with the special surveillance of
particular schools, severally, to the different committees. All such
committees are exceedingly jealous of their rights, and resist the
interference of their fellows: hence even inquiries are commonly met

AUGUST 5, 1887. |

as if reflecting insinuations of shortcomings. It is manifest that no
sanitary service under the direction of such a board can be efficient.
Sanitary surveillance should therefore be exercised by the health
department of every city, town, county, or district, as the case
may be, with that special care which the nature of the service
demands.

The essay, as we have already said, is one of great value, and
we would recommend every teacher in the State to send to the
secretary of the Medical Society, William Manlius Smith, M.D., for
a copy.

BASE-BALL PLAYERS. — Dr. Leuf contributes an article to the
Medical and Surgical Reporter on the injuries of base-ball players.
The doctor is a player himself, and speaks from personal experience
as well as from observation. He says that one of his fingers was
injured by a ball five times in one week, and that all his fingers
have been injured at least once. His treatment is to continue play-
ing, and at every opportunity — either in the street, in the office, or
upon the field—to firmly grasp the finger about the middle, and
rub towards the tip. Under this treatment, the swelling, stiffness,
and soreness diminish, and after some weeks are entirely gone. The
most marked swelling of the hand, accompanied by great pain, can
be best relieved by the application of water as hot as can be borne,
the hand remaining in the water for an hour, the temperature being
maintained during the whole time. Nothing will do so much harm
to a player as to abstain altogether from playing because he has
some trivial injury or sore muscles.

DIPHTHERIA CARRIED BY THE COOK. — Dr. Jacobi sends the
following letter to the health board of New York: “ Ann Donnelly
is a cook. She was in the house of Lieutenant Reed of West
Point. She went to New York to bury a child of hers, who died of
diphtheria at the house,of a Mrs. McKee, No. 327 West 43d Street,
about May 20. About ten or twelve days ago she unpacked a
trunk in Lieutenant Reed’s house, in the presence of his children.
The boy is recovering from diphtheria: the girl, of five years, died
day before yesterday. The cook has disappeared from the house, —
trunk and all, — ready to unpack again somewhere else, and go on
murdering. If that woman cannot be sent to the State prison for
sowing death wherever she goes, can she not be hunted up and
stopped from doing mischief ?”’

TYPES OF BREATHING. — Dr. Mays of Philadelphia has been
investigating the reasons for the abdominal or diaphragmatic type
of breathing in the male, and the costal type in the female. That
there is a fundamental difference in the two sexes was observed by
Boerhaave as long ago as 1744. Hutchinson seemed to think that
it might be a peculiar reservation against the period of gestation,
when the abdomen cannot allow of so free a descent of the dia-
phragm ; and to-day this is regarded as the reason for the differ-
ence. It occurred to Dr. Mays that an observation on the
respiratory movements of females of a wild race, who had never
been subjected to the constriction produced by civilized dress, would
assist in solving the problem. With this object in view, he ob-
tained permission to investigate the chest movements of the Indian
girls of the Lincoln Institution. The instrument which he em-
ployed was a pneumograph of his own device, modelled somewhat
after that of Paul Bert. It consists of a pair of calipers with two
long and two short arms. The long arms are applied to the chest,
and the short arms extend beyond the pinion which binds the in-
strument together. Between the two short arms, and by means
of two small pinions, an air-drum is adjusted in such a way that
the slightest motion produces either a rarefaction or a condensation
of the air in the drum, which being connected by a column of air
with a similar drum carrying a registering-lever, the movements of
the chest are accurately marked on a revolving cylinder. In order
to produce a slight and uniform pressure on the walls of the chest,
the two long arms are connected near their union by a thin piece of
elastic rubber. By means of this apparatus Dr. Mays examined
the movements of eighty-two chests, and in each case took an ab-
dominal and a costal tracing. The girls were partly pure, and
partly mixed with white blood, and their ages ranged between ten
and twenty years. There were thirty-three full-blooded In-
dians. Seventy-five of the entire number showed a decided
abdominal type of breathing; three, a costal type; and in three

SCIEN CE. 65

both types were about even. Those who showed the costal
type, or a divergence from the abdominal type, came from the more
civilized tribes, like the Mohawks and Chippewas, and were either
one-half or three-fourths white; while in no single instance did a
full-blooded Indian girl possess this type of breathing. From these
observations Dr. Mays concludes, that, so far as the Indian is
concerned, the abdominal is the original type of respiration in both
male and female, and that the costal type in the civilized female is
developed through the constricting influence of dress around the
abdomen. It is very evident that the costal type of respiration in
the civilized female is not due to the influence of gestation, as was
believed by Boerhaave, Haller, and Hutchinson ; for the influence
of this process obtains as much among the uncivilized as it does
among the civilized people. Dr. Mays directs attention to one
result of his investigations which is well worthy of consideration.
What is the influence of such abdominal constriction, as is prac-
tised by our civilized female, on the respiratory functions? he asks.
Is it detrimental to health, or is it not? If, as is shown by these
experiments, interference with the motion of the diaphragm pro-
duces a compensatory breathing in the costal portion of the chest,
does not this tend to antagonize or counteract the sluggish respira-
tory movement of the lung apices? Is there any intimate relation
between this induction and the fact that proportionally, and as a
rule not without some exceptions, a less number of females than
males die of pulmonary consumption ?

MENTAL SCIENCE.
Good and Bad Temper.

Mr. FRANCIS GALTON, whose researches on the hereditary and
other characteristics of mental faculty have introduced science into
subjects usually given over to opinion, publishes, in the Portnzghtly
Review for July, an analysis of statistics on good and bad temper.
Some time ago Mr. Galton drew up an extensive series of questions
concerning the physical and mental traits of families, and offered
prizes for the most complete set of answers embracing the record of
several generations. Fully recognizing the sources of inaccuracy
inherent in such reports, Mr. Galton has ingeniously tested their
reliability, and is extremely careful not to treat them in a more
accurate manner than they justify. The statistics, embracing
descriptions of the tempers of 1,981 persons, are sufficiently ex-
tensive to warrant the general conclusions which they suggest.

‘Temper’ is a convenient word wherewith to describe that gen-
eral complex of emotional traits which serves in common life to
distinguish personal characteristics that lead to sociability from
those that do not. Every one knows what it means, and, con-
sciously or unconsciously, guides his social intercourse accordingly.
It is this that is most tangibly referred to as the source of family
feuds and social quarrels. Its variability and fundamental impor-
tance make it difficult to describe. It is curious to note that Mr.
Galton has only fifteen epithets for good temper, and forty-six for
bad.

These are again grouped into five main classes, —mild, docile,
fretful, violent, masterful; the three former predominating in
women, the two latter in men. The number of persons, however,
in the two groups of good and bad temper, is about equal; one set
of data making it 48 good to 52 bad, and another 47 to 53. There
is likewise little difference between the sexes ; but what there is, is
in favor of the gentler sex, there being 45 per cent of bad tempers
amongst them, and 55 per cent amongst men. Altogether 36
per cent were mild in temper, 15 per cent docile, 29 percent fretful,
12 per cent violent, and 8 per cent masterful.

It is curious to note how well the number of persons recorded as
good, bad, or neutral in temper coincides with what theoretical con-
siderations demand. Of 1,361 persons, 321 are described as good,
342 as bad, and 705 as neutral (most of the last not being described
at all) ; that is, these observers unconsciously divide persons into four
equal classes, — good-tempered, bad-tempered, not decidedly either
but with more of a tendency to good, and similarly towards the
bad. This shows that the line of average temper was placed where
it belongs, with equal deviations in either direction. Another mark
of reliability is to be found in the fact that near relatives are spoken
of as bad-tempered quite as unreservedly as more distant ones.

66 ; SCIENCE.

Whether temper is hereditary is a question not easily answered ;
but when asked of couples in which both parents are good-tem-
pered, or both parents bad-tempered, the answer is emphatically in
the affirmative. 30 per cent of the children of the former are
spoken of as good-tempered, and only 10 per cent as bad; while,
with regard to the children of the bad-tempered, only 4 per cent
are good-tempered, and 52 per cent bad. Similarly, by a method
necessarily somewhat arbitrary and not easily described, Mr. Galton
concludes that in the ancestry of good-tempered persons, three per-
sons of good temper will occur to two of bad temper, and wzce versa
in the ancestry of a bad-tempered person. Apart from direct
heredity, education and circumstances evidently affect temper. A
large class of such influences are about as favorable to good as to
bad temper, and so tend to produce a variety of tempers. Another
class of influences, typically illustrated in the case of a not unusual-
ly docile woman becoming very docile as the wife of a masterful
husband, tends to divide persons (and this applies particularly to
the offspring) into distinct groups ; while the effect of a prepotent
ancestor may be working to continue one kind of temper through
many members of the family. Mr. Galton finds, that, in 14 cases
of 49, these domestic and social influences are too weak to overcome
the secondary influences in course of heredity, either by the pre-
potent temper of one member or the general concurrence of temper
in several. Finally, it may be noted, that, though so important and
readily observed a trait, temper is not a prime consideration in
marriage, men of each kind of temper about as frequently choosing
a wife of one temper as of another.

This research, though necessarily not very definite, is well calcu-
lated to bring out the great variety of this important trait, and to
show, amidst this diversity, its tendency to continue its kind.

Is GENIUS UNIVERSAL? — The question, when asked with a
due appreciation of the kind of evidence upon which it is to be an-
swered, is by no means an idle one. To know whether the activity
for which the world reserves its highest prizes is dependent upon an
unusual strength of mental capacity in all directions, or upon the
acute specialization of one faculty of mind to the exclusion of any
thing like equal development of other faculties, is certainly an im-
portant piece of knowledge. Carlyle had no respect for a genius
that could not be any kind of genius, and his view is quite generally
repeated with approval by persons with less right to an opinion.
This is a mistake of all hero-worshippers. They exaggerate the
abilities of their hero in all directions in which he had a somewhat
more than average gift, and also exaggerate the share due to cir-
cumstances in his development. It is easy to cite quite a long list
of men eminent in more than one direction; but, as Mr. Sully,
whose train of thought (Gentleman's Magazzne, July, 1887) we are
now repeating, well points out, if we are careful to count only such
kinds of eminence as imply markedly different modes of mental
power, and demand first-rate ability in each, the number of
‘ double-firsts’ is enormously diminished. We find that polynathy
has been mistaken for universal genius; that the poet-scientist, for
example, was a great poet, but only an average scientist ; and that
the few eminent names that shine in several departments are de-
cidedly exceptional. ‘ True genius very rarely shows itself in more
than one well-defined region of human activity.” That this is due
to amore or less innate fitness for that kind of activity in which
greatness is won, is shown not only by the fact that it is a marked
characteristic of genius to show a decided bent that overcomes all
obstacles in the direction of future greatness, but also that often
tentative excursions in various directions result in failure, until the
right activity is found, and success follows. This conception of
genius is in harmony with the little we know of its physical sub-
stratum. “ Universal genius is a biological absurdity,” says Mr.
Sully. Genius depends upon the abnormal development of a cer-
tain group of brain-centres. Widely versatile talent is the outcome
of a splendid, generally excéllent brain; and perhaps this is the
clew to the tendency of genius to go over to abnormal one-sidedness,
while talent keeps healthy as an “ exalted common sense.”

THE editor of Petermann’s Mzttheclungen is in receipt of a
letter containing the news that Lupton Bey is safe in Khartum, al-
though still a prisoner of Osman Digma.

[Vom “Nona35

BOOK -REVIEWS.

The Pleasures of Life. By Sir JOHN LusBpock. London and
New York, Macmillan. 169.

THERE ate in every age certain leaders of thought, who, by their
successes already won, have gained for themselves the right to
speak on topics important to the general culture of the age which
they represent. In an age in whose culture science occupies a
place exalted far beyond what was ever allotted it before, it is
natural to find in the eminent scientist the spokesman of culture.
Amongst those entitled to such a distinction, Sir John Lubbock
stands amongst the first. The versatility of his talents, the
success with which he has utilized them in so many directions, the
practical interest he has always taken in the doings of the nation
to which he belongs, —all have contributed to his well-merited
fame. The author of the ‘Origin of Civilization’ and of ‘ Pre-
historic Times’ does not think it a whit less worthy to minutely
record the doings of ‘ants, bees, and wasps;’ and that, too, in the
leisure hours of a busy parliamentary career. In educational and
all scientific movements his name has always been prominent.
Such a man is naturally often called upon to make short addresses
of welcome or of congratulation on the many occasions on which
such are customary. These addresses are here collected, and
make a very pleasing volume. “Being myself naturally rather
prone to suffer from low spirits,” says the author, “I have at several
of these gatherings taken the opportunity of dwelling on the
privileges and blessings we enjoy,” etc.

The changed conditions of modern life form the subject of many
an essay. That these changes cause a variation in the order and
importance of the pleasures of life, goes without saying. This
change Sir John Lubbock fully appreciates, and the liveliness of his
little book is beyond question. That much pf what he says is not
new, will be foreseen: such a volume must be judged by lenient
standards. If what is said is well and pleasantly said, if it appeals
to the good sense of cultured people by the liberality and nobility of
the thought, it answers its purpose. It must certainly have been a
privilege to have heard these addresses: in the reading of them
many will find a ‘pleasure of life.’

Under the two titles ‘The Duty of Happiness’ and ‘The Hap-
piness of Duty’ is advocated a scientifically justifiable optimism
the practical realization of which will be a universal blessing. The
importance of literature in the lives of the people at large is repre-
sented in ‘A Song of Books,’ and in the much-disputed ‘ The
Choice of Books.’ The social virtues find their praises recorded
in ‘ The Blessings of Friends’ and ‘ The Pleasures of Home.’ The
practical problems of medern life are touched upon in the essays
on the value of time, on science, and on education. The plea for
science is a just one: it aims to dispel the notion that science is all
drudgery, or all grossly and immediately practical; the scientist a
bug-hunter, and nothing more. The culture-worth of science, the
educational value of its instructions, are amongst the most precious
treasures of our civilization. The office of these in widening the
mental horizon, in checking a narrowing dogmatism, in keeping
alive a healthy communion with nature, can hardly be exaggerated.
In the education of the future, science is destined to play a still
more important part than it does now. One may well join the author
in the wish for a glimpse of a science-primer of the twentieth
century.

Flome Sanitatzon: A Manual for Housekeepers. By the SANI-
TARY SCIENCE CLUB of the Association of Collegiate Alum-
nz. Boston, Ticknor. 16°.

THE Sanitary Science Club of the Association of Collegiate
Alumnz was organized in 1883, for the study of home sanitation.
Two years were devoted to general study and research before any
attempt was made to extend the work beyond the limits of the
club. Since that time the material presented in this little book of
eighty pages has gradually taken form. It consists of a series of
short essays on the different subjects connected with home sanita-
tion, each of which is followed by a series of questions formulated
with reference to the topics discussed, and so framed that an af-
firmative answer implies a satisfactory arrangement of that part of
the home, while, if the answer is negative, a remedy for the defect
is suggested. These questions have been practically tested by the

Aueust 5, 1887.]

-_ members of the club in their own homes, and by other house-
keepers, and have also been adopted as the basis of a course in
sanitary science offered by the Society to Encourage Studies at
Home. The editors of the manual are Ellen H. Richards and
Marion Talbot.

In the introductory chapter the editors call attention to the fact
that the hygiene of the home is a subject of growing interest and
importance. As one of the problems of social and economic sci-
ence, it is beginning to receive the attention it may rightly claim.
The women of our country are advised not only to follow the dis-
cussions which are carried on by sanitary congresses, boards of
health, and other authorities, but by combining theory with prac-
tice, as few others can, to aid in solving the great questions which
seriously affect the interests of the home and the family.

The object of this manual is to arouse the interest of house-
keepers in the sanitary condition of their homes; not to alarm or
discourage them, but to urge intelligent oversight, and to indicate
the points requiring investigation, the methods of examination, and
the practical remedies. One of the most dangerous qualities of
the unsanitary house is that it does not always and at once produce
a definite and virulent disease, such as typhoid-fever or diphtheria,
but without doubt it slowly and insidiously causes ill health and
general langour, which incapacitate for sustained effort, and- to
which women are especially subject from their greater confinement
to the house.

Householders are reminded that it is not enough to secure right
sanitary conditions: these must be maintained. This can best be
‘done through the eternal vigilance of the housekeeper, who can
thus, in a large measure, secure the two essentials of a happy home,
—good health, and its attendant, good nature. The following motto
should be the basis of her efforts: ““ Any invention intended to be
a substitute for watchfulness will prove a delusion and a snare.”

The following are the subjects discussed in the succeeding chap-
ters: situation of the house, and care of the cellar; drainage and

plumbing; ventilation; heating; lighting; furnishing; clothing;

food and drink. The essays themselves are excellent, and the
questions on them are very practical and suggestive. The manual
also contains a paper read before the Association of Collegiate

Alumne, on sanitary work for women, by Annie E. Allen, in which

some excellent advice is given to housekeepers on various subjects ;

such as their relations to their servants, the dangers connected with
boarding-schools, and their duties to themselves.

The concluding paragraph of this paper is as follows : ‘“‘ The day
is past when sickness was held to be a direct interference of Provi-
dence, as retributive punishment. Pestilence, fevers, and weakness
are, indeed, penalties for sin, but it is the sin of ignorance. In this
age of scientific enlightenment, and invention, and wide-spread in-
formation, ignorance of the primary conditions of health and vigor
is unpardonable. A knowledge of sanitary principles should be re-
garded as an essential part of every woman’s education, and obedi-
ence to sanitary laws should be ranked, as it was in the Mosaic
code, as a religious duty.”

We commend this little book to housekeepers, and hope that it
will have wide circulation, and prove of as much benefit to those
without the membership of the Sanitary Science Club as it evi-
dently has to those upon its rolls.

The New Education.
Brown, & Co. 169.

THOSE who are studying the many problems attending the de-
velopment of our colleges and universities will be grateful to Pro-
fessor Palmer of Harvard for preserving in permanent form the
three articles which make up this book. On the appearance of the
first of them in the Andover Review, some eighteen or twenty
months ago, attention was directed to it as the strongest and fairest
plea for the system of free electives in the college course, that had
been published. It was immediately subjected to criticism and
attack; and in the two other articles which form part of the volume
before us, Professor Palmer replied to his critics.

Professor Palmer takes pains to keep one fact, fundamental to
the fair discussion of the Harvard system, before his readers;
namely, that the particular modes of choice now in use at Harvard
are not finalities. They are a stage, merely, in the development,

By GEORGE H. PALMER. Boston, Little,

SCIEN CE. 67

and it is to be expected that other and better systems will eventu-
ally be found, both at Harvard and elsewhere. This consideration
has been largely overlooked in the many discussions which have
taken place, and omission to give it proper weight has prejudiced
the Harvard case very much.

The peculiar strength of Professor Palmer’s argument arises from
the fact that it rests on a philosophical and ethical basis. It is not
an appeal for conformity to a changing environment, although that
feature is recognized ; nor isit an ex parte argument for some pre-
conceived system. It starts from the individuality of the pupil, and
demands that his will and character be trained, and that by the
exercise of his own free will, —the only character-building that
amounts to any thing. Professor Palmer has no difficulty in mak-
ing out a theoretical case from this standpoint, nor does he find any
but cumulative evidence for his system in such facts as he cites
from college-history. It must be admitted, too, that he has little
trouble in offsetting the objections raised against his ideal plan by
most of his critics. He does not allude, however, to Professor
West’s analysis of President Eliot’s report for 1884-85, which many
persons regard as the most damaging criticism on the Harvard sys-
tem that has appeared. We regret this, for Professor West’s paper
has had a wide influence; and if Professor Palmer could success-
fully refute its conclusions, he should have done so.

We can heartily agree with the present author in holding that
character-building is the main object of education, and that charac-
ter-building is not mechanical, but organic. It depends, therefore,
upon the pupil himself; and habitual wisdom of choice can only be
attained through freedom of choice. We agree also in holding that
the elective principle has come to stay, and that it will never again
be wholly absent from any successful college. But we cannot con-
clude so rapidly as does Professor Palmer, that unlimited election is
the wisest system. It may in time be proved to be so, but we can-
not agree that it is proven to be so now. The danger of abuse and
the tendency to over-specialization are so great, that we must ask
for some provision to be made against them. Moreover, wiser
heads than those of eighteen-year old boys know far better than the
latter what sorts of knowledge are essential, and what non-essential-
We would never urge a return to the old-fashioned inelastic course
of study ; but we do believe that the group system, modified in cer-
tain details, is superior to a system of unlimited election. We be-
lieve that under it there is found the freedom of choice which Pro-
fessor Palmer insists on, as well as the necessary limitations to the
abuse of that freedom by untrained minds. We would have it more
elastic than it is found at present; we would have a greatly in-
creased number of groups provided, but we would retain its funda-
mental principle. As the free man must exercise his freedom with
due regard to the rights of his fellows, so the freedom of a student’s
choice must be limited by the teachings of experience. Professor
Palmer himself seems to see the force of this position, for he says
(p. 105), ‘“‘ Whenever I can hear of a group system, which like the
old college has a place for the indistinct young man, and like the
new elective college matures him annually by suggesting that he
take part in shaping his own career, I will accept the group sys-
tem.” We have confidence that such a system of groups will be
forthcoming in due season.

The remarks of the author toward the close of his volume (pp-
142-144, 149, 150, e¢ f.) as to the form of instruction and the character
of the studies during the two final years of the college course, are
intensely practical, and we trust that they will be heeded. As to
methods of collegiate teaching, Professor Palmer says, “‘ Recitations
pure and simple have serious drawbacks. They presuppose a text-
book, which, while it brings definiteness, brings also narrowness of
view. The learner masters a book, not a subject. After-life pos-
sesses nothing analogous to the text-book. A struggling man wins
what he wants from many books, from his own thoughts, from fre-
quent consultations. Why should not a student be disciplined in
the ways he must afterwards employ?” “A pure lecture system is
a broad road to ignorance. Students are entertained or bored, but
at the end of a month they know little more than at the beginning.
. . . Personal sanction is wanted for every step. One who will
grow wise must perform processes himself, not sit at ease and be-
hold another’s performance.”

He again strikes a telling blow at the crude courses of study

68

in many colleges, when he says (p. 149), “ Elementary studies are
not maturing studies : they do not make the fibre of a student firm.
To studies» of a solidifying sort the last years should be devoted.
I should like to forbid seniors to take any elementary study what-
ever, and to forbid juniors all except philosophy, political economy,
history, fine arts, Sanscrit, Hebrew, and law. Under such a rule,
we should graduate more men who would be first-rate at some-
thing; and a man who is first-rate at something is generally pretty
good at any thing.”

Professor Palmer's forceful thinking is interpreted by a lucid
style, which adds greatly to its charm. No one interested in our
American colleges can afford to leave the book unread.

N. M. B.

NOTES AND NEWS.

THE ‘Bibliography of the Eskimo Language,’ by James C.
Pilling, is the first of a series of bibliographies of American languages
which will be published as bulletins of the Bureau of Ethnology.
A few years ago Mr. Pilling published a bibliography of North
American languages, of which a limited number of copies were
printed. The material has so rapidly increased in the hands of the
author as to make a revised edition desirable. We consider the
new form of the publication a great improvement, as the division of
the material according to linguistic stocks makes the volumes
handier. The arrangement of the material is alphabetic, both the
names of the authors and the titles of the works being given. Thus
the finding of any desired material is made very easy. Particularly
valuable ate the cross-references given under the heading
of ‘Greenland,’ ‘ Aleut,’ and other localities or tribes, and those
under the heading of ‘grammar’ and ‘vocabulary, as they con-
tain all material on these subjects. Mr. Pilling has comprised in his
bibliography, books which contain only occasional remarks on
Eskimo dialects in the text, though no connected accounts of the
language are given. This made the compilation very difficult, as
the material of this kind is scattered over an enormous literature.
Notwithstanding this difficulty, Mr. Pilling has succeeded in bring-
ing together an enormous amount of material. We do not think
that many works of great importance are omitted, though the num-
ber of works containing remarks on Eskimo dialects might be
considerably enlarged. We miss the important vocabulary of
Rey. Gasté from Chesterfield Inlet, which was published by
Petitot. Furthermore, the earliest records of the Eskimo language
are older than Pilling states. In the description of the second
voyage of Martin Frobisher, which was published in 1577, we find
the name of a chief, ‘ Catchoe,’ mentioned. In the ‘Second Voyage
attempted by Master John Davis, with others, for the Discovery of
the North-west Passage, in anno 1586, which was published in
Hakluyt’s, ‘ Principall Navigations,’ 1589, a brief vocabulary is given.
But these are slight defects which are unavoidable in a bibliography.
The work will be indispensable for the student of Arctic ethnology
and philology.

— The following is a list of the United States Coast and Geo-
detic Survey parties in the field, or assigned to field-duty, for the
present season: Prof. George Davidson, primary triangulation in
southern California, and in charge of work on Pacific coast; C. O.
Boutelle, reconnaissance for triangulation to furnish points for
State survey, Minnesota; H. L. Whiting, directing work of State
survey, Massachusetts, and survey of Vineyard Sound, etc.; A. F.
Rodgers, physical hydrography, San Diego Bay, and topography
south coast of California; G. A. Fairfield, transcontinental triangu-
lation in Indiana; J. S. Lawson, primary triangulation in California ;
C. Rockwell, topographical reconnaissance, coast of Oregon; W.
H. Dennis, topographical reconnaissance, Long Island Sound; A.
T. Mosman, transcontinental triangulation in Ohio; J. W. Donn,
topography, District of Columbia; C. H. Boyd, triangulation, coast
of Maine; Charles Hosmer, topography, coast of Maine; C. T.
Tardella, topography, Long Island; R. E. Halter, in charge Mag-
netic Observatory, Los Angeles, Cal.; Gershom Bradford, triangu-
lation in Massachusetts, furnishing points for State survey; H. L.
Marindin, physical hydrography, New York Bay; William Eine-
beck, transcontinental triangulation in Utah; F. W. Perkins, re-
connaissance for triangulation in Indiana; J. J. Gilbert, triangula-

SCIENGE:

[ Vows X.. 2 No} 22's

tion and topography, Washington Territory; Stehman Forney,
topography, southern California; O. H. Tittmann, triangulation,
coast of Maine; F. D. Granger, transcontinental triangulation,
Kansas; Edwin Smith, telegraphic longitudes, Western States;
Eugene Ellicott, topography, coast of Maine; E. F. Dickins, tri-
angulation and topography, coast of Oregon; W. I. Vinal, survey
Vineyard Sound, etc.; J. F. Pratt, triangulation and topography,
Washington Territory; J. B. Baylor, magnetic work, Northern
States; C. H. Sinclair, telegraphic longitudes, Western States; C.
H. Van Orden, triangulation, Massachusetts; W. C. Hodgkins,
topography, District of Columbia; R. A. Marr, re-survey Vineyard
Sound; J. E. McGrath, levelling New York harbor; E. L. Taney,
re-survey Vineyard Sound, etc.; J. H. Gray, topography, coast of
Maine. Prof. George Davidson is just completing a new edition
of the ‘ Pacific Coast Pilot ’ (to include the coasts of California,
Oregon, and Washington Territory), about eight hundred pages of
which have been received at the Coast Survey office, ready for the
printer.

— The cable informs us that a letter from Emin Pacha dated
Feb. 10, 1887, has been received. It seems that the attitude of
King Mwanga towards Emin is far more friendly than some time
ago, for Emin says that he hopes to make his retreat from his
province by way of Unyoro. If he shall have succeeded in doing
so, Stanley will be too late; but it is more probable that Emin, on
hearing of Stanley’s expedition in Unyoro or Uganda, will stay on
the Mvutan Nsige, and await his arrival, or will try to meet him.

— We learn from The Atheneum that the government of India
have undertaken a topographical survey of the native states of
Travancore, Pudukota, and Cochin. The last survey was made
seventy years ago. Some of the mountainous tracts of Travancore
and Cochin are still absolutely blank, so that there will be much
original work to be done.

— Professor Helmholtz, says The Atheneum, has been appointed
president of the AKzvatorzum of the Physical and Technical Im-
perial Institute, which is to be opened at Berlin in 1888. Dr.
Werner Siemens, who laid the foundation of the institute by his
liberal gift, and Dr. Forster, the director of the Berlin Observatory,
will also be curators.

ISAMM BINS) AMO) Ashe, IDIDIMEOIR.

*.* The attention of scientific men is called to the advantages of the correspondence
colunins of SC\ENCE for placing promptly on record brief preliminary notices of
thetr investigations. Twenty copies of the number containing his communication
wll be furnished free to any correspondent on request.

The editor will be glad to publish any queries consonant with the character of
the journal.

Correspondents are requested to be as brief as possible.
in all cases required as proof of good faith.

The writer's name is

Temperance-Teaching.

My attention has been called to the article on temperance, in
Sczence of July 29. As evidence that I have given the subject some
thought, I enclose you a copy of questions used last April in the
schools of my county, in which no reference is made to stimulants
or narcotics. I am inclined to think that constant reference to these
subjects may tempt some of that age to a trial, in order to satisfy
themselves if the sensation is as represented. General Grant says,
“1 know from my own experience, that, when I was at West Point,
the fact that tobacco in every form was prohibited, and the mere
possession of the weed severely punished, made the majority of the
cadets, myself included, try to acquire the habit of using it.”

JNO. TERHUNE.
Hackensack, N.J., Aug. x.

Audubon’s Grave.

THE Audubon matter stands about thus: the great ornithologist
is buried in an old family vault, not in the best order, at the extreme
south-west corner of Trinity Cemetery. Only the name ‘ Audubon ’
over the door gives any indication.

Some street alterations are to be made ere long, which will cut
close to this vault. An offer has been made by the trustees of the
cemetery, and accepted by the Audubon family, to remove the re-
mains, and place them in a plot (granted for the purpose) at the
head of Audubon Avenue. The movement now proposed is to
raise funds among the ornithologists for a worthy monument to
mark the spot. The orphan grand-daughters are not able to do

AucusT 5, 1887.]

much — perhaps any thing — towards it; nor should they be ex-
pected to. It is a matter in which American naturalists surely
should be proud and glad to aid. It is intended to bring it before
the American Association in some form, next week, and I should
be very glad to have a notice in Sczence regarding it.

D. S. MARTIN.
New York, Aug. r.

Four Large South African Diamonds.

A MODEL of the Victoria, the Great White Diamond, or the Im-
perial as it has been more recently called, having been sent to this
city lately, and nothing having been published in any scientific
periodical concerning this stone, it occurred to the writer that some
illustrations showing it in its natural, uncut form, as well as after
cutting, might be of interest. Concerning its early history very little
is known : in fact, where the stone was found is only a matter of
conjecture, —a remarkable circumstance when we consider that
this is the largest brilliant in the world.

An explanation by a letter in the London Tzmes was given, as
follows: “that this stone was not found in English dominions at
all, but in the neighboring Orange Free State; that it had been
found by a boor on his farm, who, knowing it to be a diamond, but
fearing being turned out of his farm by a mob, kept the secret a
whole year, until a Mr. Allenberg of Porth-Elizabeth saw it, and
forwarded it to London.”

It is, however, believed that it was found by some one in one
of the Kimberley mines, South Africa. The first intimation that
any of the various mining companies had of its existence was when
they heard of its safe arrival in London. It is generally supposed
that in the month of June or July, 1884, the stone had been found
by one of the suveillance officers of the Central Mining Company in
the Kimberley mines. It being his duty to search others, he had the
privilege of not being searched himself, and so the stone was passed
through the searching-house, and he was afterwards supposed to
have found means of communicating with four illicit diamond-
buyers. Owing to the stringency of the diamond laws of Griqua-
land-West, the trading in rough diamonds is forbidden any one not
owning one of the ‘patents’ or ‘licenses,’ as they are called, cost-
ing £200 and a guaranty of £500. All purchases made by them
must also be entered in a special registry, and are duly signed every
week by the police authorities. £3,000 was the price paid to obtain
the stone from the first possessor. To prepare themselves for the
ordeal of transporting the stone out of the district, they assembled
at night, commenced drinking, then gambling, and after a night’s
debauch two of the party lost their share in the big stone. The
other two reached Cape Town in safety, where the diamond laws
are not in force, and from a dealer there received £19,000 cash for
their stone. An outward duty of one-half per cent is collected on
all shipments of diamonds from Cape Colony; but this diamond is
said to have been carried by one of the passengers of a mail
steamer, and was hence undeclared. We next hear from it in
London, causing considerable sensation at Hatton Garden, the
great diamond-market. After considerable time had been spent
in trying to find a capitalist who could ‘afford to buy such a gem,
it was at last arranged by a former resident of the Cape mines to
form a company of eight persons, who bought the stone together
for £45,009 cash, on condition that if they should dispose of it each
should receive a ninth share in the eventual profits.

Before cutting, it was estimated that the crystal would furnish
either of the following gems; if cut as a briallette, 300 carats; as
a drop, 230 to 240 carats ; as a lozenge, 250 carats; and as a mathe-
matically perfect brilliant, 150 carats. If cut in the latter form, it
would have furnished cleavages that would cut into one 4o-carat,
one 20-carat stone, and 40 carats of smaller stones. It was finally
decided to cut it into the largest possible brilliant, still preserving a
good shape, and Amsterdam was selected as the place where the
gem could best be cut.

It was accordingly sent to the polishing-mills of Jacques Metz,
who erected a special workshop for the purpose. In order to better
obtain the brilliant form of cutting, a piece was cleaved off which
furnished a 19-carat diamond, and was sold to the King of Portu-
gal for £4,000. The cutting of the large stone, which was com-
menced on the gth of April, in the presence of the Queen of Hol-

SCIENCE:

69

land, took about twelve months, since, instead of being cut by
abrasion with another diamond, as diamonds are usually cut, it was
polished down on the scaif; and a great amount of time was con-
sumed by the cooling of the stone, as it heated after an hour’s run-
ning onthe wheel. The cutterof the stone was M. B. Barends. The
stone in its finished condition weighs 180 carats, and is a beautiful,
perfect, steel-blue diamond, and is the largest brilliant in the
world.

It is 39.5 mm. (1,9; inches) long, 30 mm. (14+ inches) wide, and
23 mm. (4% of an inch) thick, being exceeded in size by one diamond
only, the Orloff, belonging to the Russian crown, which weighs 1944

Fics. 1, 2, 3-

carats, but is a large deep rose, and not a brilliant. The Victoria
exceeds the Regent in weight by 44}carats. The Kohinoor weighs
only 106;/5 carats.

The three figures (Figs. 1, 2, 3) give the front, back, and side
features of the stone. It will be observed that the form is not en-
tirely even, and that on one side of the girdle there is quite a flat
place, a natural unpolished surface, necessary, in cutting, to pre-
serve the large weight of the stone. It is, however, a perfect 58-
facet brilliant.

The original weight of the stone was 4574 carats, 3,45 ounces

Fic. 4.

Troy. The figure (Fig. 4) is drawn from two photos, that, strange
‘to say, had been taken by a Cape photographer, and fortunately
passed through my hands; and the stone to-day is held by a Lon-
don syndicate for £200,000,

The Tiffany Company large yellow diamond (Figs. 5, 6, 7) weighs
1258 carats, is absolutely perfect, is a ‘double-deck’ cut brilliant,
as it is termed, and is undoubtedly the finest large yellow diamond
known. It was found in the Kimberley mine about nine years ago,
and was cut in Paris. One of the most pleasing features is that it
not only retains its rich yellow color by artificial light, but is even
more beautiful than by day. It has 4o facets on the crown, 44.

7O

facets on the pavilion or lower side of the stone, and 17 facets on
the girdle : total number, ror. Because of its deep color, this is a
finer stone than the historical Star of the South (125 carats), which
was purchased by the Mahratta, ruler of Baroda, for $400,000, at
the French Exposition, 1867. It also rivals the Florentine, which,
according to Schrauf’s determination (Sz¢zb. d. &. Akad. d. Wis-
sensch., Band 54, Abtheil. i. Nov., 1866), weighed 133% carats, and
was sold for 2,000,000 florins, but is only a long double rose or
drop, and not a brilliant.

The Tiffany Company No. 2 (see Figs. 8, 9) weighs 77 carats, is

; ' a |
SON

WT
A

of a light-yellowish color, is absolutely perfect, and is one of the
few large stones that have been cut for beauty and not for weight.
It is so evenly cut that it will stand on the culet, whlch is only of
the regular size. This stone was exposed to a strong blazing sun-
light for thirty minutes, two thermometers registering 110° to 120° F.
during the whole time of exposure; and only a very faint, if any,
phosphorescence was observed, although the stone was placed ina
dark-room within thirty seconds after exposure. It had been laid
on a black velvet case during the whole time of the experiment,

ae

Fics. 8, 9. FIGs. 10, 11.

and nothing came in contact with it while it was being carried to a’
place of darkness. Its specific gravity is 3.523+ at 60° F.; it
measures 26 mm. (Igsinches) in length, 25 mm. (1 inch) in width,
and 17 mm. (44 of an inch) in thickness; there are 33 facets on the
crown or upper side of the stone, and 25 facets on the pavilion or
back ; and, in addition, there are 55 small facets evenly distributed
around the girdle.

Figs. 10 and 11 showa fine yellow diamond, weighing 514 carats,
also from South Africa, and recently recut by Tiffany & Co. in
New York City. Itis absolutely perfect, and without flaws, It meas-

SCYE NER:

[VoL. X. No. 235

ures 22 mm. ($ of an inch) in length, 22 mm. in width, 23.75 mm
(Gs of an inch) at the corners, and 15.75 mm. (¢ of an inch) in
thickness; there are 73 facets on the crown or upper side of the
stone, and 49 facets on the pavilion or back ; and the cutting, which
is that of a double-deck brilliant with some of the lower crown-
facets divided in two, is quite unique, forming a remarkably beauti-

ful gem. GEORGE F. KUNZ.
New York, Aug. r.

Pars Propatagialis musculi cucullaris.

IN a previous number of Sczence (ix. p. 623) Dr. Shufeldt pub-
lishes an account of his discovery of “another muscle in birds of
taxonomic value,’ —a muscle which he thinks unnamed, proposing
for it the name ‘ dermo-tensor patagzz, and of which he says that
“Garrod, even if he knew of its existence, certainly overlooked ” it.

This muscle is by no means a new discovery, nor is it in want of
names. In the first place, it is Fiurbringer’s and Gadow’s “pars
propatagialis m. cucullarzs.’ Slightly modified, it is Viallane’s
“ temporo-alarzs.’ Gervais and Alix are said to have called this
muscle “ ¢enseur dela membrane axillazre,” and other names might
also be quoted. That this muscle has not been “ pressed into ser-
vice with telling effect in taxonomy of the class” is simply due to
the fact that Dr. Shufeldt’s predecessors found that it did not have
the taxonomic value which he seems to attribute to it. He seems
to suppose that it is peculiar to the “true passerine birds,” by
which term I suppose he means the “ Osczzes,” since he excludes
Tyrannus and the “typical Passeres mesomyodz.”* This is not the
case, however, as the appended two figures demonstrate, which
show that it is typically developed in at least some woodpeckers and
parrots.

Dr. Shufeldt, in the paper alluded to, does Garrod great injustice.
As I have already pointed out, the muscle is a well-known one, and
it is quite unwarrantable to suppose for one moment that Garrod
was ignorant of its existence (‘‘ even if he knew its existence”). When
Garrod wrote his paper on the wing-muscles of birds, he had dis-
sected about one hundred and fifty species of the most different groups
of Passeres and picarians; and even if he was ignorant of the litera-
ture, which of course he was not, he could ‘not possibly have over-
looked so conspicuous a muscle. But the fact is, that in the paper
in question he treats almost exclusively of the Zensor patagzz brevis,
and ¢. patagz? longus is only mentioned by the way. The muscular
slip which inserts itself on the latter is therefore not at all men-
tioned, but that does not justify the conclusion that it was over-
looked. On the contrary, in the numerous figures which accompany
Garrod’s paper, it is plainly shown in the only “true passerine bird ”’
(oscinine) figured by him; viz., Zcterws. And here Dr. Shufeldt
grossly misrepresents Garrod. He says, “ Garrod chose the wing
of Ramphastos cuvzerd to illustrate the arrangement of the patagial
muscles in the Passeres, but not a hint of thts one zs g7ven” (Italics
mine). Of course, Garrod did nothing of the kind: he was too
good an ornithologist to believe that Rhamphastos is one of the
Passeres. And in point of fact, Garrod expressly states that he
presents the figure as representative of a typical picarian bird. That
in this case “not a hint” of this muscle is given, should, then, no
longer surprise Dr. Shufeldt.

The muscle in question is quite variable, but its true nature as a
slip of the deeper portion of m. cucullarzs (panniculus carnosus)
may be plainly seen when dissecting such a bird as the English
sparrow (Passer domestzcus). In the free margin of the para-
patagzum, as \ call the duplicature of the skin between the neck
and the shoulder, which is only a continuation of the propatagzum,
you find a well-developed muscle, which, by means of a tendon at
its distal end, inserts itself on the tensor propatag7z longus at
about the middle of the latter. The portion of m. cucullarzs from
which this slip is given off, in its upper extremity corresponds
closely with Viallane’s ¢emforo-alarzs, it being easily separated
from the skin, and inserts itself on the head above the temporal
muscle, while in its entire length it is separated from the dorso-
medial line by a considerable space.

1 See also where he speaks of the “‘ passerine affinities’? of A mfe/zs in contradis-
tinction to the ‘‘ clamatorial ones.”’

2 That this is not a Zagszs calami is evident both from the line italicized, and
from the fact that in the explanation of Fig. 1 Ramphastos cuvierz is again referred
to as “a passerine bird.”

AUGUST 5, 1887.]

These parts are quite similar in the red-breasted grosbeak (Hadia
Judovictana); but the upper portion of cucullards is wider, appar-
ently reaching the dorso-medial line, and is not so distinct from
the skin. The propatagial slip is quite strong, and blends with the
tendon of 7. propatagi? longus farther towards the metacarpus,
although not distinct so far as in the swallow figured by Dr.
Shufeldt.

‘
ARS

\

i

{

4
r)

Fic. 1.— Dorsat VIEW oF THE PATAGIAL MUSCLES OF A Wooppecker, CoLaPres
AURATUS (DISSECTED AND DRAWN BY THE PRESENT WRITER).

Fic. 2.— CORRESPONDING Parts oF A PARROT, AMAZONA LEUCOCEPHALA (DISSECTED
AND DRAWN BY THE PRESENT WRITER),

7/2, tensor propatagii longus ; 744, tensor propatagii brevis ; 4a, temporo-alaris, or
pc, pars propatagialis m. cucullaris; 4, biceps; 7, triceps; %, humerus ; evzrd,
extensor metacarpi radialis longus. (Both figures one-third natural size.)

From the arrangement as I find ‘it in a young flicker (Colaptes
auratus), to that of the fully detached ¢emporo-alaris of Lophorina,
there is but a very short step, as will be seen from the accompany-
ing figure (Fig. 1). The insertion on ¢. propatagit longus is more
distal, however, than in Lophorina.

On the other hand, the case of Amazona leucocephala ( Fig. 2)
is more like that of Hadza ; but here again there is a difference in
regard to the insertion of the tendon, it being more proximal in the
parrot, though not so much so as in Lophorzna.

From Dr. Shufeldt’s description, it would seem as if, in the swal-
lows at least, the temporal part of the muscle has become obsolete,
— an arrangement corresponding exactly to that which Mr. Viallane
found in the cockatoos.

In Lophorina superba, as shown by Mr. Viallane, the posterior

SCIENCE 71

end of cucudlards is the portion that has become obsolete. The
parapatagial slip is here strongly developed, and the junction with
bropatagzalis longus takes place rather close to the shoulder.

Dr. Shufeldt claims that this muscle in question is ‘wholly ab-
sent’ in the kingbird (Zyrannus tyrannus). In this case, also, I
am forced to disagree. Upon dissecting a bird of this kind, I find
the propatagial slip of cxcw/lards present, but it does not insert
itself on propatagéalis longus, nor does it develop any tendon at
its distal termination. It inserts itself, however, on the skin just
where it overlies the fleshy portion of propatagzalis longus. As
in the other birds examined, it follows the free margin of the para-
patagium.

Ina young Sayornzs phebe the arrangement is essentially the
same, though less distinctly developed, only a few muscular fibres
being traceable.

A cuckoo (Coccyzus erythrophthalmus) gave a similar result.
The whole 7. cucullarz?s was exceedingly thin, with the fibres.
greatly disconnected.

Returning to those species in which the propatagial slip joins the
tensor propatag@ longus, | wish to record the fact, that both in
Passer and Habza | found the propatagial portion of . cucullards
to give off a slight muscular slip to the base of the humeral feather-
tract, the feathers of which it probably helps to raise.

This leads to the question as to the function of the propatagial
slip. In the first place, it acts as a fensor parapatagz. When
particularly developed in its proximal portion, as in Lophorina, it
also raises the elongated neck-feathers, while special development
of its tendineal portion aids in strengthening the ¢ensor propatagiz.

The fact that it occurs similarly developed in so distantly related
groups as the parrots, the woodpeckers, and the acromyodian
Passeres (or Oscznes) robs it, to a great extent, of its taxonomic:
value ; even were it proven to be present in all the latter, and ab-
sent in all the zesomyodz, of which we are by no means sure. The
example, however, which Dr. Shufeldt adduces to show its im-
portance, is not a very fortunate one; for no ornithologist who
knows that A7zfelzs, the waxwing, and the cedar-bird have lamini-
plantar tarsus, rudimentary tenth primary, and acromyodian (os-
cinine) syrinx, has had any excuse for suspecting, during the last
forty-five years, that its “ clamatorial characters” are “ predominat-
ing in its organization.”

Since the above was placed in the hands of the publisher, Dr.
Shufeldt has corrected (Sczence, July 29) the mistake in regard to.
Khanphastos being a passerine bird,—a mistake which he said
was caused by circumstances beyond his control. It is a matter of
congratulation that he also presents a new drawing of the propata-
gian muscles of the swallows, in which he corrects the mistake of
the former drawing, which represented the swallows as having a
tensor propatagid brevis with an insertion similar to that of the
picarian Rhamphastos. LEONHARD STEJNEGER.

Smithsonian Inst., Washington, D.C., July 22.

Cause of Consumption.

IN the number of your journal for July 8 my respected friend,
Dr. Donaldson, has a compact article on the cause of consump-
tion. I agree to every word of it, but would suggest that he has
not named one influence which for many years I have held to be a
most potent one in New England, and also in Old England, in the
development of that terrible disease; viz., residence upon a damp
soil. This factor was first proved to be a powerful one in Massa-
chusetts in 1862. Three years subsequently it was proved still
more conclusively to exist in England by Dr. Buchanan, medical
officer of the Local Government Board of that country. So far as I
know, nothing has been done to prove or disprove whether it pre-
vails over the whole world, or only on certain portions of it. I be-
lieve, from facts which I have already learned, that it is really a
cosmic law. As it is desirable that it should be proved or disproved
in this wide sense, I would respectfully suggest it as a subject
worthy of the appointment of a world’s commission, consisting of
an able man from every country that may be represented in the
International Medical Congress, which is to be held in Washington
this autumn.

My professional experience since the law was first found to be

72 SCIENCE.

operative in New England has proved to my own satisfaction that
it is vain to attempt to treat consumption while the patient is sub-
jected to this deleterious influence ; fatal, indeed, 1 might call it.
My first prescription is to leave the damp locality. Why such a
residence tends strongly to the production of consumption —
whether as having something, as yet unknown in itself, or that it
acts as the nursery of bacilli—I cannot say. But I feel in regard to
the above practical rule, as the late Dr. John Ware said to me, that,
“with the evidence which has been presented, I feel that I should
be criminally in fault in regard to a patient if I did not enforce it.”
If any one wishes for further information, I refer him to Dr.
Buchanan’s reports to the Local Government Board (1866 and
1867),1 my addresses before the Massachusetts Medical Society in
1862,” and before the International Congress which met at Washing-
ton in 1876.° HENRY I. BOWDITCH.
Boston, July 23. :

Technical Education.

I HAVE to-day received from Sir Henry Roscoe copies of two
bills recently introduced into Parliament, through the action, I pre-
sume, of the National Association for the Promotion of Technical
and Commercial Education, of which the Marquis of Hartington is
president, providing for an extension of the technical branches of
education in the general scheme. Accompanying these bills is a
request for information in regard to what is being done in the
United States. I take the liberty of suggesting that such among
the readers of Sczence as may have any information of this
nature which may be of service to the cause in Great Britain send
any documents that may contain it, either directly to Sir Henry
Roscoe, at 5 Palace Chambers, Bridge Street, Westminster, S. W.,
London, or, if preferred, tome. I will see that any thing so sent is
forwarded, and should be particularly obliged if duplicates could be
at the same time supplied for my own use.

The bills above referred to consist of provisions for the intro-
duction of technical studies and the simpler forms of manual train-
ing into day and evening schools, and empower the school boards,
local authorities, or managers of public elementary schools, to pro-
vide instruction in the use of ordinary tools, in commercial arith-
metic, geography, book-keeping, modern languages, and freehand
and machine drawing. The powers of the authorities are extended
to these schools as in the common schools, defined in the Ele-
mentary Education Act of 1870, and they are given leave to apply
for grants, and to raise funds, for these technical schools as for the
older forms of elementary schools. The term ‘ parliamentary
grant’ is held to include any grant made by the Science and Art
Department. This legislation is prepared and brought into Parlia-
ment by Sir Henry Roscoe, Sir Lyon Playfair, Mr. Dixon, Sir John
Lubbock, and Sir Richard Temple (50 Vict.).

The evening schools thus provided for are also authorized to pro-
vide instruction in the ordinary school studies of the primary
grades, and for the girls, sewing, cooking, domestic economy, and
hygiene. R. H. THURSTON.

Ithaca, N.Y., July 23.

Distillery-Swill as a Food for Milch-Cows.

PLEASE send me Sczence, commencing with June 10, containing
the first article on distillery report; also your Szzss Cross. We
are interested in the milk articles now coming out in Sczence.

Some eighteen years ago I owned a dairy, and run on one thou-
sand acres of land eight hundred cows. I had one stable that held
672 cows; it was kept clean, and was well ventilated. For eighteen
months I fed distillery-swill. From my experience in feeding swill
to milch-cows, I should say that it produces tuberculosis. In ad-

1 Reports of the Medical Officers of the Privy Council, 1866-67, proving that sub-
drained, sewered towns have less consumption than others not so subdrained ; or, as

Mr. Simon expresses himself, ‘‘ dampness of the sotl is an tmportant cause of con-
sumption to the population living upon the soil” (Mr. Simon’s Italics].

2 Consumption in New England, or Locality One of its Chief Causes : an Address
delivered before the Massachusetts Medical Society. By Henry I. Bowditch, M.D.
Boston, Ticknor & Field, 1862.

8 Public Hygiene in America; being the Centennial Discourse delivered before
the International Medical Congress, Philadelphia. September, 1876. By Henry I.
Bowditch, M.D. With extracts from Correspondence from the Various States, to-
gether with a Digest of American Sanitary Law, by Henry G. Rehering, Esq, Bos-
ton, Little, Brown, & Co. ; London, Trubner & Co. ; 1877.

| Vier eX. Nota a5

dition to swill, I fed grass and hay, and during the summer months
‘soiled.’ At the expiration of eighteen months, I stopped feeding
swill; and the number of cows that had to be disposed of because
they had consumption was reduced to so few, that I do not now
remember that there were any. It is my opinion that if cows are
closely confined, and fed on swill and hay exclusively, tuberculosis
will develop in nine cows out of every ten inside of a year. The
nutritive quality of swill-food depends upon the amount of water
put upon the grains after fermentation. I have never had any
practical experience in feeding sweet distillery-swill; but if fed in
moderate quantities, not too hot and sweet, and with hay and other
dry and very nutritious food, I can see no reason why it should be
harmful. Parties who produce swill-milk for sale in large cities
find swill to be the cheapest food for the production of milk, and
consequently use it to excess. I have never seen swill fed sweet in
more than one city dairy, and I have been in fifty.

CHARLES CABANNE.
St. Louis, July 2s.

Queries.

12. MOSQUITOES. — Is any one able to corroborate the following
observation of an old resident of Staten Island? “TI have lived on
Staten Island twenty years,” said an old gentleman on the Staten
Island ferryboat the other evening, “and I have noticed a remark-
able thing about the mosquitoes. They always disappear after a
storm, and it is invariably just seven days before they return.”

Ae Vo Tels

13. ELECTRICITY AND THE EARTH.— Professor Dolbear, in
Sctence for July 29, at p. 60, says, “‘ As for the earth being a reser-
voir of electricity, every thing that is known about electricity nega-
tives the idea.” On the other hand, at p. 507 of Deschanel’s
treatise on natural philosophy, translated by J. D. Everett, the
statement appears, “On account of its practically inexhaustible
capacity for furnishing or absorbing electricity, the earth is often
called the common reservozr.” Upon the next page of the text-book
named, the effect of moisture in the atmosphere upon the insulation
of electrical machines is discussed in a manner that is misleading,
if Professor Dolbear’s statements in regard to the relative con-
ductivity of dry and moist air are rightly understood. Has Des-

chanel been superseded ? M. A. VEEDER.
Lyons, N.Y., July 30.

Answers.

10. ROBIN’s NEST. —I have in my collection a three-story
robin’s nest taken from the sill of an unused window of the Water-
town High School. I have often seen the old birds in the spring
repairing the nest, and have photographed the bird and nest zm sztz.

H. M. HI.
Watertown High School, N.Y., Aug. 1.

11. LAKE ITASCA. — A recent official bulletin of the Minnesota
Historical Society, entitled ‘The Sources of the Mississippi,’ sub-
mits the following (p. 24) as one of the “results of their finding :”
“That Henry Rowe Schoolcraft, accompanied by Lieut. James
Allen, in a scientific expedition made by him, July, 1832, to the
head waters of the Mississippi River, did discover, locate, delineate,
and map the general basin, which is the first great gathering-place
and reservoir of the head waters of that continental stream, and
was by him named Lake Itasca, from the Latin words verztas caput
(‘the true head’).”” A more particular account of the occurrence
is given, with other historical matter, in, I think, Andreas’ or
Andrea’s large atlas of Minnesota, to which I have not present
access. The statement is substantially this: Schoolcraft who was
not a classical scholar, having arrived at the lake, asked of one of
his party, perhaps Lieutenant Allen, the Latin equivalent for ‘ true ”
meaning ‘real,’ and was given verztas. He then desired the Latin
for ‘head,’ and, being told it was caput, at once formed the com-
bination Itasca, and applied it as a name to his new-found lake. It
thus appears that the term verztas may either have been given School-
craft through mere inadvertence, or through misconception of his
inquiry, as supposing him to wish an equivalent for ‘the true,’ ‘the
real,’ in its substantive instead of its adjective form.

FRANC E, BABBITT.
Coldwater, Mich., July 22.

go (Gale

FRIDAY, AUGUST 12, 1887.

WHAT AMERICAN ZOOLOGISTS HAVE DONE FOR
EVOLUTION.

LADIES AND GENTLEMEN, — Eleven years ago I had the honor
of reading before this association an address in which an attempt
was made to show what American zodlogists had done for evolu-
tion. My reasons for selecting this subject were, first, that no
general review of this nature had been made; and, second, that
many of the oft-repeated examples in support of the derivative
theory were from European sources, and did not carry the weight
of equally important facts the records of which were concealed in
our own scientific journals. Darwin was pleased to write to
me that most of the facts I had mentioned were familiar to him,
but, to use his own words, he was amazed at their number and im-
portance when brought together in this manner. The encourage-
ment of his recognition has led me to select a continuation of this
theme as a subject for the customary presidential address, — a task
which is at best a thankless if not a profitless one. Had I faintly
realized, however, the increasing number and importance of the
contributions made by our students on this subject, I should cer-
tainly have chosen a different theme.

Incomplete as is this record of ten years’ work, I am compelled
to present it. In the Buffalo address two marked periods in the
work of the zodlogists in this country are recognized : the one period
embracing the work of the topographers, the field-surveyors in the
science ; the other period dating from the advent of Agassiz, with
the wonderful impulse he imparted to the study by his enthusiasm
and devotion. A third period in American zoological science, and
by far the most important awakening, dates from the publication
of Darwin’s ‘ Origin of Species.’ Its effect on zoological literature
was striking. The papers were first tinged with the new doctrine,
then saturated, and now, without reference to the theory, derivation
is taken for granted.

As zodlogists, we are indebted to Darwin for the wide-spread
public interest in our work. Before Darwin, the importance of our
special studies was far outweighed by the practical value placed
upon science, in the application of which an immediate material
gain was assured. Chemistry, physics, geology, were important
only because a practical application of these sciences was capable
of showing an immediate material return.

Agassiz, in his appeal to the State for appropriations for the great
museum at Cambridge, insisted that there were higher dividends
than money ones to be looked for in endowments for zodlogical
museums, and these were intellectual dividends. While the force
of this appeal will always remain true, the transcendent importance
of the naturalist’s studies from the standpoint of Darwin is widely
recognized. Man now becomes an object of rigid scientific scrutiny,
from the new position which has shed such a flood of light upon
the animals below him. s*His habits, behavior, the physical in-
fluences of his environment and their effects upon him, transmission
of peculiarities, through the laws of heredity, — all these factors are
directly implicated in the burning questions and problems which
agitate him to-day. Questions of labor, temperance, prison-reform,
distribution of charities, religious agitations, are questions immedi-
ately concerning the mammal man, and are now to be seriously
studied from the solid standpoint of observation and experiment,
and not from the emotional and often incongruous attitude of the
Church. To a naturalist it may seem well-nigh profitless to discuss
the question of evolution, since the battle has been won; and, if
there be any discussion, it is as to the relative merits and force of

1 Abridged from the address to the American Association for the Advancement of

Science, at New York, Aug. 10, 1887, by Prof, E. W. Morse of Salem, Mass., the
retiring president of the association,

the various factors involved. The public, however, are greatly in-
terested in the matter, as may be seen by a renewal of the fight in
the English reviews; and the agitation is still kept up by well-
meaning though ignorant advisers, who insist that science has not
yet accepted the doctrine ; and great church organizations meet to
condemn and expel their teachers of science from certain schools of
learning because their teachings are imbued with the heresy.

Dr. Asa Gray, in his discriminating biographical memoir of Dar-
win, says in regard to the ‘doctrine of descent,’ “It is an advance
from which it is evidently impossible to recede: as has been said of
the theory of the conservation of energy, so in this the proof of
this great generalization, like that of all other great generalizations,
lies mainly in the fact that the evidence in its favor is continually
augmenting, while that against it is continually diminishing as the
progress of science reveals to us more and more the workings of
the universe.” Let us examine, then, the evidences, trivial as well
as important, that have been recorded by American zoologists with-
in the past ten years in support of the derivative theory.

Without further apology for the very imperfect character of this
survey, let me at once begin by calling attention first to the testi-
mony regarding the variation in habits, and evidences of reasoning-
power, in animals. The establishment of individual variation in
mental powers, change in habits, etc., lies at the foundation of Dar-
winism as furnishing material for selective action. There is no
group of animals which exceeds the birds in varied and suggestive
material for the evolutionist. It is a significant fact that the birds,
which appeared to Cuvier and his contemporaries a closed type, —
a group that seemed to fulfil the ideal conception of a class arche-
type as compared to other groups which had their open as well as
obscure relationships,— should be, of all groups, the one that first
yielded its exclusive characteristics. In fact, there is no group in
which the barriers have been so completely demolished as in this
apparently distinct and isolated class. An attentive and patient
study of the birds has established almost every point defined by
Darwin in his theory of natural selection. One has only to recall
the marked reptilian affinities as shown in their embryological and
paleontological history. Besides all these structural relationships,
the birds possess, as a group, remarkable and striking illustrations
of variation in color, size, marking, nesting, albinism, melanism,
moulting, migration, song, geographical variation, sexual selection,
secondary sexual characters, protective coloring ; and in their habits
show surprising mechanical cunning and ingenuity, curious and in-
explicable freaks, parental affection, hybridity: indeed, the student
need go no further than the birds to establish every principle of the
derivative theory.

The many observations on the nesting habits of birds would
form a curious chapter as illustrating the individual peculiarities of
these creatures.

Mr. J. A. Allen, in writing on the inadequate theory of bird’s-
nests, shows grave and important exceptions to Wallace’s theory,
though he subscribes heartily to his philosophy of bird’s-nests.
He expresses surprise that closely allied species of birds should
oftentimes build divers kinds of nests, overlooking the fact that
even closely allied varieties of man build entirely unlike houses.

. . . e

The behavior of wild birds when kept in confinement, and the
attempts made in domesticating them, has always furnished an in-
teresting field for study. The curious freaks and impulses which
they often betray, the changes they show under the new conditions,
indicate in some measure the plasticity of their organization.

Hon. John D. Caton, in an interesting paper on unnatural attach-
ments among animals, records a curious fondness shown by a crane
for a number of pigs; and in another paper on the wild turkey
and its domestication, this writer has made some valuable records

74 SCIENCE.

of the successive changes which take place in the bird during this
process, —changes in color, during which the more conspicuous
features of protective coloring are lost ; changes in habit, in which
are seen the undoing or relaxing of those features which indicate
constant vigilance, from carrying itself in a semi-erect attitude,
perching on the tallest trees, covering up the eggs carefully with
leaves when off the nest, etc., to moving in a horizontal attitude,
perching near the ground, covering the eggs but slightly or care-
lessly, etc., and losing that wildness which characterizes the bird
in its wild state. At the breeding-season, however, the females be-
came wild again, but this was a feature too deeply implanted to
show modification in the time allotted to Mr. Caton’s experiment.
The same writer has also observed in the Hawaiian Islands the
effects of reversion to a wild state, of different kinds of domestic
animals which have from time to time been carried there. Among
other animals, he was fortunate enough to observe the undoing
stages in the domestic turkey, and the assumption of those features
which characterize the wild bird.

A great many facts illustrating the plainest features of natural
selection, protective coloring, mimicry, etc., have been recorded in
our journals from time to time. A brief allusion may be made to
a few of these. .. . Dr. R. E. C. Stearns has made some interest-
ing notes on protective coloring in Phrynosome. Waving collected
these horned lizards (or toads, as they are commonly called) in
central California, he has noticed, that, if the ground region they
frequent is yellowish, the lizards are, without exception, of that
color; if ashen gray, then that color is simulated ; and this, with-
out exception.

An unquestionable fact has been finally established by recent
methods of observation on the habits of insects and other animals,
and that is, that individuals of the same species vary in intelligence ;
that they are not automata ; that they are not impelled by a blind
instinct to perform certain acts with unerring accuracy, but, on the
contrary, that they vary, and often greatly vary, in their ability to
provide for their young, in their skill to secure sufficient food, in
their wit to avoid danger: in other words, they make blunders and
mistakes, and involve their progeny and even their colony in ruin.
This individual variation in intelligence is brought out very clearly
by a patient series of observations made by Drs. G. W. and E. G.
Peckham on the special senses of wasps. They not only repeated
many of the experiments of Sir John Lubbock, but many new and
ingenious experiments were devised. Their studies were for the
purpose of investigating the mental power, sense of hearing, color,
direction, memory, emotion, power of communication, general in-
telligence, etc. An interesting result of their painstaking work was
the determination of individual differences as to the faculty of mem-
ory and power of distinguishing color and direction. This kind of
study of the habits of insects has brought to light features of the
most surprising character. The remarkable studies of Sir John
Lubbock, Dr. Moggridge, and others in Europe, have been paralleled
in this country not only by the observations above quoted, but
notably by the labors of Rev. H. C. McCook in his studies of the
American ants and spiders.

Dr. Thomas Meehan describes a hornet that was gifted with
great intelligence. He saw this insect struggling with a large locust
in unsuccessful attempts to fly away with it. After several fruitless
efforts to fly up from the ground with his victim, he finally dragged
it fully thirty feet to a tree, to the top of which he laboriously as-
cended, still clinging to his burden, and, having attained this ele-
vated position, he flew off in a horizontal direction with the locust.
Dr. Meehan truly says, ‘‘ There was more than instinct in this act :
there was reasoning on certain facts, and judgment accordingly,
and the insect’s judgment had proved correct.”

The delicate balance of conditions between organisms, whether
it be between individuals of the same species or between widely
separated groups, is an important feature in the question of sur-
vival. Prof. S. A. Forbes, in a thoughtful study of certain species
of Hntomostraca in Lake Michigan and the surrounding waters,
calls attention to the important part played by these minute crus-

[VoL. X. No. 236

taceans, showing how they furnish almost the entire food for young
fishes, larger crustaceans, and even insect larva. He writes, “ JZo/-
Zusca, one would say, could afford to be indifferent to them, since
they neither eat them nor are eaten by them, nor seem to come in
contact with them anywhere, through any of their habits or neces-
sities. But for this very reason these two classes afford an excel-
lent illustration of the stringent system of re-actions by which an
assemblage of even the most diverse and seemingly independent
organisms is held together... . If there were no Extomostraca
for young fishes to eat, there would be very few fishes indeed
to feed upon JZo//usca, and that class would flourish almost with-
out restraint ; while, on the other hand, if there were no Mollusca
for the support of adult fishes, Ex¢omostraca would be relieved
from a considerable part of the drain upon their numbers, and
would multiply accordingly.” He is much struck with the fact that
in the larger bodies of water the species of E7¢omostraca show an
inferior development in numbers, size, and robustness, and in re-
productive power. Their smaller number and size are doubtless
due to the relative scarcity of food.

The effect of mechanical strains as producing morphological
effects has been treated in a masterly way by Dr. John A.
Ryder. . . . Prof. A. Hyatt, in an exhaustive study, shows, among
other things, the effect of gravitation as accounting for the form of
the mollusk-shell, citing examples from all the classes, and even
drawing examples from other sub-kingdoms, to support his views.

Prof. E. D. Cope, in a memoir on archesthetism, considers the
hypothesis of use and effort, the office of consciousness, etc. He
attempts to show that consciousness is primitive, and a cause of
evolution. He sustains his thesis by a series of arguments, which,
if not beyond my grasp, would be too extensive to present here. I
can only repeat the regret I expressed in the Buffalo address ;
namely, that neither Professor Cope nor Professor Hyatt have yet
been induced to present to the public an illustrated and simple out-
line of their theories. Such a demonstration, I am sure, would be
acceptable not only to the public, but to many scientific students
as well. While these two eminent naturalists believe fully in the
derivative theory, they insist that Darwin’s theory is inadequate to
explain many of the phenomena and facts which they encounter in
their studies. Darwin has distinctly said in his first edition of
the ‘Origin of Species, “I am convinced that natural selection
has been the main but not the exclusive means of modification ; ”
and in his sixth edition of the same work, in quoting these words,
he laments that he is still misunderstood on this point. The
theory of acceleration and retardation of these authors is, if I un-
derstand it rightly, a very plain case of natural selection. It was
inevitable that those individuals that matured the quickest were
better prepared to defend themselves, were quicker in the field,
were able to give their offspring an earlier start in the season, were
in every way more fitted to survive, than those which matured
later. It is assumed that this is a law, when, to my mind, it seems
the simplest result of natural selection. Instead of overriding it,
it is only a conspicuous result and proof of it.

A parallel case may be seen in the increase in size of the brain
in the vertebrates, and conspicuously in the higher vertebrates,
since their first appearance in geological history. The individual
brain clearly varies in size; and it does not require a great effort
to perceive how, in the long-run, the greater brain survives in the
complex struggle for existence. Assoeiated with the greater de-
velopment, parts that were freely used for locomotion before, now
are compelled to perform additional service, and through the law
of use and effort, which all admit as an important factor, organs
are modified in structure, the anterior portion of the body assumes
a new aspect; and it was on the character of these parts and
aspects that Professor Dana was led to formulate his compre-
hensive and ingenious principle of cephalization. It is a result,
and not a cause. And sol believe, though witn great deference to
Cope and Hyatt, that the laws of acceleration and retardation,
exact parallelisms, inexact parallelisms and still more inexact par-
allelisms, and many other laws and theories advanced by these
gentlemen, are not causes, but effects, to be explained by the doc-
trine of natural selection and ‘survival of the fittest.’

The connecting links and intermediate forms which the sceptical

AvuGUST 12, 1887. |

public so hungrily demand are continually being discovered.
Great gaps are being closed up rapidly; but the records of this
work, being published in the journals of our scientific societies, are
hidden from the public eye as much as if they had been pub-
lished in Coptic. So rapidly have these missing links been estab-
lished, that the general zodlogist finds it difficult to keep up with
the progress made in this direction. He can hardly realize the
completion of so many branches of the genealogical tree.

Professor Cope, who has accomplished so much in this direction,
says, ‘Those who have, during the last ten years, devoted them-
selves to this study, have been rewarded by the discovery of the
course of development of many lines of animals; so that it is now
possible to sholy the kind of changes in structure which have re-
sulted in the species of animals with which we are familiar as living
on the surface of the earth at the present time. Not that this
continent has given us the parentage of all forms of animal life, or
all forms of animals with skeletons, or vertebra, but it has given
us many of them. To take the Vertebrata, we have obtained the
long-since extinct ancestor of the very lowest vertebrates. Then
we have discovered the ancestor of the true fishes. We have the
ancestor of all the reptiles, of the birds, and of the mammals. If
we consider the mammals, or milk-givers, separately, we have
traced up a great many lines to their points of departure from very
primitive things. Thus we have obtained the genealogical trees of
the deer, the camels, the musk, the horse, the tapir, and the rhi-
noceros, of the cats and dogs, of the lemurs and monkeys, and
have important evidence as to the origin of man.”

The discovery in the western tertiaries of multitudes of huge
and monstrous mammals, and, earlier still, of gigantic and equally
monstrous reptiles, naturally led at once to an inquiry as to the
cause of their extinction. ... Among the most interesting dis-
coveries connected with these creatures is the determination by
Professor Marsh that these early mammals, birds, and reptiles had
brains of diminutive proportions. .. . ‘The small brain, highly
specialized characters, and huge bulk, rendered them incapable of
adapting themselves to new conditions, and a change of surround-
ings brought extinction. The existing proboscidians must soon
disappear for similar reasons. Smaller mammals, with larger
brains, and more plastic structure, readily adapt themselves to
their environment, and survive, or even send off new and vigorous
lines. The Dznocerata, with their very diminutive brain, fixed
characters, and massive frames, flourished as long as the conditions
were especially favorable, but with the first geological change they
perished and left no descendants.”

Prof. A. E. Verrill, in a lecture at Yale College entitled ‘ Facts
Illustrative of the Darwinian Theory,’ shows what an important
factor parental instinct is in the evolution of species. He regards
the lack of parental care “as one of the probable causes, though
usually overlooked, of the extinction of many of the large and
powerful reptiles of the mesozoic age, and of the large mammals of
the tertiary.” He says, “ The very small size of the brain, and its
low organization, in these early animals, are now well known, and
we are justified in believing that their intelligence or sagacity was
correspondingly low. They were doubtless stupid and sluggish in
their habits, but probably had great powers of active and passive
resistance against correspondingly stupid carnivorous species. But,
unless the helpless young were protected by their parents, they
would quickly have been destroyed; and such species might, in this
way, have been rapidly exterminated whenever they came in con-
tact with new forms of carnivorous animals, having the instinct to
destroy the new-born young of mammals, and the eggs and young
of oviparous reptiles. Thus it would have come about, that the
more intelligent forms, by the development of the parental instinct
for the active protection of their young against their enemies, would
have survived longest, and therefore would have transmitted this
instinct, with other correlated cerebral developments, to their de-
scendants.”

Prof. John Fiske, in his ‘Cosmic Philosophy,’ arrived at a similar
‘conclusion in regard to early man. He showed, that, when varia-
tions in intelligence became more important than variations in physi-

SCIENCE. 75

cal structure, then they were seized upon to the relative exclusion
of the latter.

. . . . . . . . . .

The wide-spread public interest in Darwinism arose from the
fact that every theory and every fact advanced in proof of the deriv-
ative origin of species applied with equal force to the origin of man
as one of the species. The public interest has been continually ex-
cited by the consistent energy with which the Church, Catholic and
Protestant alike, has inveighed against the dangerous teachings of
Darwin. Judging by centuries of experience, as attested by unim-
peachable historical records, it is safe enough for an intelligent man,
even if he knows nothing about the facts, to promptly accept as
truth any generalization of science which the Church declares to be
false, and, conversely, to repudiate with equal promptness, as false,
any interpretation of the behavior of the universe which the Church
adjudges to be true. In proof of this sweeping statement, one has
only to read the imposing collection of facts brought together by
Dr. White, the distinguished president of Cornell University, which
are embodied in his work entitled ‘The Warfare of Science,’ as well
as two additional chapters on the same subject which have lately
appeared in the Popular Sczence Monthly.

Only the briefest reference can here be made to a few of the
numerous contributions on the subject of man’s relationship to the
animals below him. The rapidly accumulating proofs of the close
relation existing between man and the Quadrumana make interest-
ing every fact, however trivial, in regard to the structure and habits
of the higher apes.

Dr. Arthur E. Brown has made some interesting experiments
with the monkeys at the Zodlogical Gardens in Philadelphia. He
found that the monkeys showed great fear, as well as curiosity,
when a snake was placed in their cage, though they were not
affected by other animals, such as an alligator and turtle. On the
other hand, mammals belonging to other orders showed no fear or
curiosity at a snake. These experiments, repeated in various ways,
lead him to only one logical conclusion, —‘‘that the fear of the ser-
pent became instinctive in some far-distant progenitor of man by
reason of his long exposure to danger, and death in horrible form
from the bite, and it has been handed down through the diverging
lines of descent which find expression to-day in the genus Homo
and Pzthicus.”

The same author, in an exceedingly interesting description of the
higher apes, says, “ Mr. A. R. Wallace once called attention to the
similarity in color existing between the orang and chimpanzee and
the human natives of their respective countries. It would, indeed,
seem as if but half the truth had been told, and that the comparison
might be carried also into the region of mind; the quick, vivacious
chimpanzee partaking of the mercurial disposition of negro races,
while the apathetic slow orang would pass for a disciple of the
sullen fatalism of the Malay.”

Dr. Brown has also given a description of the grief manifested by
a chimpanzee on the death of its mate. His grief was shown by
tearing his hair or snatching at the short hair on his head. The
yell of rage was followed by a cry the keeper had never heard be-
fore, —a sound which might be represented by ‘hah-ah-ah-ah-ah ’
uttered somewhat under the breath, — and with a plaintive sound
like a moan.

Mr. W. F. Hornaday read at the Saratoga meeting of this asso-
ciation an exceedingly interesting paper on the habits of the orang
as observed by him in its native forests. He says, “ Each individual
of the Borneo orangs differs from his fellows, and has as many
facial peculiarities belonging to himself alone as can be found in
the individuals of any unmixed race of human beings.” After
recounting the many traits of the orang, heretofore regarded as
peculiar to man, he says, “‘ Let any one who is prejudiced against
Darwinian views go to the forests of Borneo; let him there watch
from day to day this strangely human form in all its various phases
of existence; let him see it climb, walk, build its nest, eat and
drink, and fight like human ‘roughs’; let him see the female suckle
her young and carry it astride her hip precisely as do the cooly
women of Hindostan; let him witness their human-like emotions of
affection, satisfaction, pain, and childish rage, — let him see all this,

76 SCIENCE:

and then he may feel how much more potent has been the lesson
than all he has read in pages of abstract ratiocination.

Prof. Alexander Graham Bell has presented a memoir to the
National Academy on the formation of a deaf variety of the human
race, in which he shows by tables a series of generations of certain
families in which, the progenitors being deaf-mutes, this peculiarity
becomes perpetuated in many of the descendants. Recognizing
fully the laws of heredity, natural selection, etc., he shows that the
establishment of deaf-mute schools, in which a visual language is
taught which the pupils alone understand, tends to bring them into
close association with each other; and that naturally, with this
seclusion, acquaintance ripens into friendship and love, and that
statistics show that there is now in process of being built up a deaf
variety of man.

Dr. W. K. Brooks, animated by the cogency of Professor Bell’s
reasoning, is led to prepare an article entitled ‘Can Man be Modi-
fied by Selection?’ In this paper he discusses the startling proposi-
tion of Professor Bell, and recognizes the convincing proof which he
furnishes to show that the law of selection does place within our
reach a powerful influence for the improvement of our race. The
striking character of the tables of facts presented by Professor
Bell, and the significant suggestions of Dr. Brooks, lead one to
consider how far the influence of selection has had to do with
the character of great communities, as to their intelligence or
ignorance. _ When we see nations of the same great race-stock, —
one showing a high percentage of illiterates, a high death-rate,
degradation and ignorance, while just across the borders another
nation, aparently no better off so far as physical environments are
concerned, with percentage of illiterates and death-rate low, intelli-
gent and cleanly, — we are led to inquire if here a strict scientific
scrutiny with careful historical investigation will not reveal the
cause of these conditions. Can it be proved beyond question that
the illiteracy and degradation of Italy and Spain, up to within re-
cent years at least, is the result of centuries of Church oppression
and the Inquisition, destroying at once, or driving out of the land,
all independent thinkers, and at the same time forcing her priests
to lead celibate lives, and inducing others of cultivated and gentle
minds to lead cloister lives? Is it also a fact, as Alphonse de Can-
dolle asserts, that by far the greater number of distinguished scien-
tists have come from Protestant pastors? He gives a significant
list of eminent men whose fathers were Protestant pastors, saying,
that had they been priests of another religion, leading celibate lives,
these men would not have been born.

It is considered an intrusion into matters which do not concern
science when such inquiries are made, but the scientist has very
deeply at heart the intellectual and moral welfare of the community.
If the cause of degradation and ignorance, of poverty, of contagious
disease, or of any of the miseries which make a nation wretched,
can be pointed out by scientific methods, then it is the stern duty of
science to step in and at least show the reasons, even if the remedy
is not at once forthcoming. The men who would be reformers and
agitators, and who by their earnestness and devotion get the atten-
tion of multitudes, are unfit for their work if they show their
ignorance, as most of them do, of the doctrines of natural selection
and derivation.

In drawing to a close this very imperfect summary of what
American zoGlogists have accomplished for evolution, many other
distinguished contributors might have been mentioned. The work
of eminent physiologists and paleontologists has hardly been consid-
ered ; nor has the long array of botanical facts for Darwin, as re-
vealed in the fascinating study of the relations which exist between
flowering plants and insects, contrivances for cross-fertilization,
means of plant-dispersion, etc., and the distinguished botanists
connected with this work, received attention here. Indeed, the
proper limits for an address of this nature have been far exceeded.

Suffice it to say, that all these students have worked from the
standpoint of derivative doctrines. A still greater triumph to Dar-
winism are the evidences of gradual conversion still going on among
a few isolated workers who still remain stubborn, yet yielding to the
pressure of these views by admitting features that ten years ago
they repudiated.

[VoLt. X. No. 236

There are two points to be emphasized here in closing: and one
is, that American biological science stands as a unit for evolution ;
and the other is, the establishment of a great generalization which
shows, that, when intelligence became a factor in animals, it was
seized upon to the relative exclusion of other characteristics. This
generalization offers an unassailable argument to-day for a wider,
broader, and deeper education for the masses. The untold misery
and suffering of the working-classes as witnessed in their struggles
of the last two years would have been avoided had the rudiments of
social science, even a knowledge of the value and significance of
simple statistics, been appreciated by them.

The startling paper of Dr. Seaman (Sczence, viii. No. 190) on the
social waste of a great city shows the blundering, criminal way in
which municipalities are controlled by coteries ignorant alike of Sci-
ence and the beneficent mission she stands waiting to enter upon.

PREHISTORIC CHRONOLOGY OF AMERICA.

THE prehistoric period of America dates back from the discovery
of the several parts of the continent ; and the problem is to recon-
struct the history of the various nations who inhabited both Ameri-
cas in this period. A review of the means at our command to ac-
complish this, divides them into six classes : —

I. Legendary. — This includes the legends or traditions of the
native tribes. These often bear a strong resemblance to Semitic or
other Oriental myths, but the similarity is a coincidence only, and
those writers have been led astray who count it for more. The an-
nals of the Mexicans, the Mayas of Yucatan, and the Quichuas of
Peru, carry us scarcely five hundred years before the voyage of
Columbus, although the contrary is often stated. The more savage
tribes practically remembered nothing more remote than a couple
of centuries.

Il. Monumental.— The most famous monuments are the stone
buildings of Mexico, Yucatan, and Peru. By many these are as-
signed an antiquity of thousands of years; but a calm weighing of
the testimony places them all well within our era, and most of them
within a few centuries of the discovery. The celebrated remains of
Tiahuanuco in Peru are no exception. Much more ancient are
some of the artificial shell-heaps along the coast. They contain
bones and shells of extinct species, in intimate connection with
stone implements and pottery. They furnish data to prove that the
land was inhabited several thousand years ago.

Ill. 2xdustrzad. — The industrial activity of man in Amenca may
be traced by the remains of his weapons, ornaments, and tools
made of stone, bone, and shell. In most of the deposits examined,
specimens of polished stone and pottery testify to a reasonably de-
veloped skill; but in the Trenton gravels and a few other localities,
genuine palzolithic remains have been found, putting man in
America at a date coeval with the close of the glacial age, if not
earlier. The vast antiquity of the American race is further proved
by the extensive dissemination of maize and tobacco, — tropical
plants of southern Mexico, which were cultivated from the latitude
of Canada to that of Patagonia. 4

IV. Linguzstzc. — It is believed that there are about two hundred
radically different languages in North and South America. Such a
confusion of tongues could only have arisen in hundreds of cen-
turies. The study of these languages, and of the gradual growth
of their dialects, supplies valuable data for the ancient history of the
continent.

V. Physccal. — The American race is as distinctively a race by
itself as is the African or white race. Although varying in many
points, it has a marked fixedness of ethnic anatomy, and always has
had. The oldest American crania, collected from the most ancient
quaternary deposits, are thoroughly American in type.

VI. Geologic. — As the discovery of implements in glacial de-
posits locates man on this continent at least at the close of the
glacial epoch, this carries his residence here to about thirty-five
thousand years ago. But there is no likelihood that he came into
being on this continent. He could not have developed from any of
the known fossil mammalia which dwelt here. More probably
some colonies first migrated along the preglacial land-bridge which

1 Abstract of an address before the Section of Anthropology of the American.
Association for the Advancement of Science, at New York, Aug. 10-17, 1887, by Dr.
Daniel G. Brinton, vice-president and chairman of the section.

AucustT 12, 1887.]

once connected northern America with western Europe. Later,
others came from Asia. At that time the physical geography of
the northern hemisphere was widely different from the present.

These various data have as yet been but imperfectly studied:
when they shall have received the attention they merit, we may
confidently calculate on a large increase in our knowledge of the
course of events in ancient America.

ECONOMY IN MANAGEMENT OF SOIL.’

IN this great metropolis, or wherever our association meets, we
are shown with pride the abounding evidences of the progress of
a great nation, and the material prosperity of its people.

Tracing this visible wealth to its source, we find that it has all,
with insignificant exceptions, been produced from the soil. The
American inheritance was a fertile soil. A policy perhaps war-
ranted by the circumstances, but none the less improvident, has
marked the growth of the nation. Generation after generation has
recklessly drawn upon the stored fertility of the land, with no
systematic effort at restitution, not only to supply the current sup-
port of people, but the surplus which has provided all our apparent
wealth and private improvements.

The rapidly increasing demands of our own country are met, and
more than met, so far as mere quantity is concerned, for a great
surplus is annually sent abroad. For twenty years agricultural prod-
ucts have constituted three-fourths of the total exports from the
United States, while in single recent years this proportion has
reached eighty-three per cent, and amounted in value to nearly
nine hundred million dollars. And it is manifest that this super-
abundance of soil-products will continue, despite any possible in-
crease in population, at least well into the next century. We boast
of our great exportation of soil-products, forgetting that this really
means the sending to foreign lands great blocks of our store of
natural fertility, thus disposing of the main source of our material
wealth by the ton and by the million. The steady reduction in the
fertility of the soil, which results from the annual draught by crop-
ping and the absolute loss incident to ordinary disposition of the
crops, is much greater than commonly understood, and a matter so
important as to demand serious consideration.

For present purposes it is sufficient to refer to only three elements
of plant-food, which are of vital importance, and in which the soil
is most likely to be, or to become, deficient. A computation based
upon the mean annual agricultural products of the United States at
the present time, the average composition of these products as far
as known to chemistry, and the cash value of the chief fertilizing-
materials in domestic markets, gives the following stated quantities
and values of the three elements named, which are taken from the
land by the farming operations of every year : —

4,000,000 tons of nitrogen, worth $360 per ton... +++ $1,440,000,000

3,000,000 ,, potash, Ooms 300,000,000
2,000,000 phosphoric acid, 120 o5 dbdanddoad 240,000,000
SROPAMV ALG slatentatetstotelnfelelniotet=leleisierelslelsicinisiaietsieieie $1,980,000,000

The effect upon the soil depends, of course, upon the disposition
of the products embodying these enormous quantities and values.
Fortunately, a very large part remain upon or are returned to the
land, in the process of harvesting and preparing for market, and
more in the form of water and residues incident to consumption.

On the other hand, there are vast absolute losses resulting from
the well-known wastes of towns and cities, besides the portions
actually sent to foreign countries. To exactly apportion the dispo-
sition made of these products, and hence of the fertilizing elements
represented thereby, is impossible; but as to the latter, a rough
approximation divides the total into three parts, respectively remain-
ing on the land, returned to the soil, and wholly removed from it.

This country imports the agricultural products of other countries
in considerable quantity, but in kind far less important to the
question in hand than our exports.

The articles exported are largely of a character especially rich in
plant-food. Making due allowances, therefore, I estimate the

1 Abstract of an address before the Section of Economic Science and Statistics
of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, at New York, Aug.
10-17, 1887, by Henry E, Alvord, C.E., of Amherst, Mass., vice-president of the
section,

SCIENCE. 77

average exportations as representing thirteen per cent of the
fertility value of our total products, and our absolute wastes at
home at more than twenty per cent additional. Together
these constitute a full third of the figures above given, or
an annual removal from American soil, of nitrogen, potash, and
phosphoric acid, worth, in the markets of this city to-day, more
than six hundred million dollars. By our present system, or rather
continued improvidence in the production of the necessaries of life,
we are thus diminishing, at this alarming rate, the original capital
of our foundation industry.

When products are exported, mainly food, which are worth seven
hundred million dollars on our shores, there is included plant-food,
all needed at home, which we cannot replace for one-third of that
sum.

This fertility never comes back. It goes to enrich other lands,
or is washed into seas from which we do not ever get the fish and
the carp. Those of us who are contending with impoverished soils
are well placed to appreciate the sober subject of agricultural ex-
haustion, and are in duty bound to send an earnest word of warn-
ing to those who labor on newer lands. The researches of modern
times have done much in establishing truths of practical value re-
garding the effect upon the fertility of the land, of the removal of
different crops and products, and hence teaching us what should
be consumed at home, and what may be profitably sold.

Thus, if ton after ton of farm-produce be removed from a
Western farm to an Eastern market, or from any American farm to
a European market, it makes a great difference eventually, to the
land where produced, and to its owner or user, whether these tons
be cotton or corn, beef or butter.

The following table illustrates this point :—

Approximate Percentage of
Articles Mean Annual Value of the Plant-Food
: Value of x Ton BRN
of Exports in a : Plant-Food |Value on the
at Place o
Export. Tons. in: Ton, | Market-Value
Export. x Ton.
Cottonseed-meal... $ 26.00
$28.0. 108.00%
All ‘oil-cake’ and 250,000) i
‘oil-meals’..... 24.00 23.80 100.00
Tobacco..-..+ »--++- 150,000 200,00 15-92 8.00
Beeves alive.......-- 100,000 100.00 13.98 14.00
Dressed beef........ 50,000 160.00 13.99 8.75
Pork products....... 500,000 200.00 13.43 6.25
Wheat....-... weaee 3,000,000 (34 bus.) 34.00 8.80 26.00
Wheat-flour......... 750,000 |(robbls.) 50.00 7-08 14,00
Corn (maize)......-- 14,000,000 |(36 bus.) 23.00 6.94 30,00
(Cottonisemettiiate=t-<)s1 1,000,000 |(4 bales) 200.00 -60 -
(Bitterumtetweeleleteisestels 15,000 —|(40 tubs) 400.00 “52 0.13

It merely mitigates the evil presented, to note that the soil holds
large quantities of plant-food still in store; that nature has pro-
vided supplies of mineral manures in concentrated form, deposited
in various places ; and that some investigators yet believe they will
prove conclusively the assimilation by plants of the free nitrogen of
the atmosphere.

Should this much-disputed question of nitrogen-supply be so
settled, it would certainly remove a vast deal of anxiety, trouble, and
expense; for, as we have seen, nitrogen constitutes three-fourths in
value of the plant-food annually used by crops. But the prevalence
of the belief that the growing plant depends almost exclusively upon
the nitrates of the soil, and has no power to assimilate the free
nitrogen of the air, is amply shown by the market-prices of am-
moniated manures and the extent of their sale and use.

The trade in commercial fertilizers has reached wonderful pro-
portions, and agriculturists hail with joy the discovery of every new
deposit like the potash-salts of Germany and the mineral phosphates
of Canada and the Carolinas. But the expense incident to mining,
manipulation, and transportation, greatly impedes the use of these
natural stores, and makes the more important every means of hus-
banding the home resources of every acre of valuable land. If the

78 SCIENCE.

statement could be accepted without much qualification, we might
derive great comfort from the assurance that chemical examination
of soils shows the presence, within reach of the plough, of nine
thousand pounds of potash, and half as much phosphoric acid, on
every acre, or enough to furnish the average crop for from two hun-
dred and twenty-five to two hundred and fifty years.

Now, in the first place, the average land in tillage at the present
time by no means reaches such a standard; and, in the second
place, it is well known that but a very small fraction of the plant-
food actually present in soil is in an available form. Ordinarily
more than ninety-nine per cent of the plant-food found in soil by
the chemist the plant itself finds dormant or unavailable. Time
and natural agencies gradually convert their inert elements ; but,
to keep pace with agricultural demands, the physical properties of
soils must be closely studied, and knowledge obtained and applied
regarding the proper mechanical treatment of land. Figures already
sufficiently demonstrate the recognized condition and needs of the
soil. So difficult is it to make the once fertile land take back into
use the natural resources, and so active the demand for plant-food
in every available form to return to the soil, that, incredible as it
appears, commercial fertilizers are maintained at such selling rates
as to make the entire annual farm-products of this country worth
half as much for manure as they are in market.

With our rapidly increasing population, and a constantly lessen-
ing fertility of soil, we have presented to us questions of the gravest
import. By the wasteful processes prevailing, we are expending
our very substance, and daily adding to a burden under which
generations to come will stagger.

The true economy of soil management, involving the production
for our people of food and clothing, fuel and shelter, and the wise
management and disposition of our surplus, are problems great
enough to satisfy the ambition of both scientists and statesmen.

In all expositions of the condition and prospects of the agriculture
of this country, Gen. Francis A. Walker claims that the American
people have been fully justified, upon sound economical principles,
in the past system of cultivation of the soil at the expense of future
generations.

“ Thirty-eight noble States, in an indissoluble union, are the justi-
fication of this policy. Their school-houses and factories, their
roads and bridges, their railways and warehouses, are the fruits of
the characteristic agriculture of the past.”

But the reason for wasteful systems no longer exists. “The
country in the arable parts is settled, and the line of population
now rests near the base of the great sterile mountains which oc-
cupy so large a portion of the continent... . A continuance of
this policy will be, not the improvement of our patrimony, but the
impoverishment of our posterity. . . . Economical and_ political
considerations alike demand that the soil bequeathed to this gen-
eration, or opened up by its own exertions, shall hereafter be deemed
and held as a sacred trust for the American people through all
time to come, not to be diminished or impaired for the selfish en-
joyment of its immediate possessors.”

These considerations should increase our regard for and interest
in the business of farming. We should all rejoice at the revival of
agricultural studies, and the increasing number of able men who
are making them their life’s work.

Let me cordially invite continued contributions to the proceedings
of this section, upon foods, fabrics, forestry, industrial education,
and other topics closely related to our material welfare. And I
appeal for more encouragement and aid for the earnest workers in
other sections,— in biology and chemistry, physics and mechanics,—
who are laboring in the various branches of science, that its practi-
cal results may be applied to economizing the fertility of the soil,
which is the basis of our material prosperity.

MENTAL SCIENCE.

The Sense of Smell in Dogs.

Dr. G. J. ROMANES, by his careful observations and happy
generalizations, has made himself the representative of the growing
science of comparative psychology. His two books on animal in-
telligence and on mental evolution in animals (to which is to be
added a third on the mental evolution of man), written under the

[VoL. X. No. 236

inspiration of Darwin, have done more, perhaps, than the works of
any other writer, to introduce scientific order into a field formerly
given over to poorly described, exaggerated stories, and hasty, un-
warranted generalizations. With the downfall of the anthropo-
morphic theory of the universe, the importance of the mental phe-
nomena observable in animals was more readily recognized and
appreciated. Hundreds of observations drawn up with the requisite
details and accuracy have been collected, and a number of reliable
and suggestive generalizations have been recorded. To these Dr.
Romanes has added an important study on the method by which
his dog follows the scent of the master.

The observations were made on Dr. Romanes’ setter-bitch, an
animal very much attached to him. They were made on the
grounds adjoining his house, and a number of precautions not
easily described were taken. (1) When Dr. Romanes walks over
the ground with his hunting-boots on, the dog follows the scent
with the greatest readiness. (2) If she is put to the track of a
stranger, she pays no attention to it. (3) The dog was led into the
room when preparations were going on for an outing, but, instead
of Dr. Romanes going out, the gamekeeper (whose scent he follows
next after that of Dr. Romanes) went : when set free, the animal at
first followed the track, but, finding that her master was not with
the gamekeeper, returned. (4) The next experiment was a very in-
genious one. Twelve men walked in Indian file, so that they all
trod the same footsteps, thus producing a conglomerate of olfactory
impressions. Dr. Romanes headed the company, so that the traces
of his steps should be most obliterated; and, after walking thus
two hundred yards, the first six men walked in one direction, the
last six in another. The dog quickly ran along the route followed
by the twelve, overshot the point of division, but soon returned and
followed the direction taken by the six headed by Dr. Romanes. (5)
A number of experiments were made to ascertain what part of Dr.
Romanes’ person or of his apparel gave the clew to the animal. It
was suspected to be the hunting-boots, and this proved correct. A
stranger put on these boots, and the dog eagerly followed the
scent ; and, contrariwise, when (6) Dr. Romanes put on the stranger's
boots, the animal was indifferent to his track. (7) Further ex-
periments were made to locate the source of the scent in the boots.
The dog did not follow the scent of a stranger walking in bare feet.
(8) When Dr. Romanes walked in bare feet, the dog followed the
trace, but less eagerly than usual, and with much hesitation.
(9) Again, the animal did not follow Dr. Romanes when he
put on new shooting-boots. (10) Next a single sheet of brown
paper was glued to the soles of his usual hunting-boots. The dog
did not catch the trail until he came to a place where, as Dr. Ro-
manes had previously noted, a few square millimetres of the paper
had come off. (11) When her master walked in new cotton socks,
the trail was lazily followed, and soon given up. With woollen
socks worn all day the result was the same. (12) Dr. Romanes
next walked fifty yards in shooting-boots ; then three hundred yards
in his stocking-soles, carrying his boots ; then three hundred yards
in his bare feet. The animal caught the scent, and followed it
unhesitatingly through the whole distance, though the trace left by
stockings or bare feet alone was not sufficient to guide the animal.
(13) The next test was a modification of the last. Dr. Romanes
and a stranger entered a carriage and drove for several hundred
yards. The former, in his hunting-boots, then alighted and walked
fifty yards, whereupon he re-entered the carriage, and the stranger
walked the next two hundred yards: the dog, when shown the
track, ran the whole two hundred and fifty yards without pausing.
The experiment was repeated with another stranger, with the same
result. (14) To test the power which the dog had of selecting the
distinctive odor accompanying her master from other odors, Dr.
Romanes soaked his hunting-boots in anise-seed-oil. The odor was
so strong that a friend could follow the track an hour later by the
odor of the oil; yet the dog was not confused except that she hesi-
tated about the first few steps, but then pursued as usual.

The next test was directed towards ascertaining whether the ani-
mal could distinguish her master by odors emanating from other
portions of his person. (15) Dr. Romanes, after pursuing a zig-
zag course just trodden over by a number of footsteps, hid behind
a wall, with his eyes just visible. The animal went at once to the
hiding-place. (16) Again he hid in a ditch, with only the top of

Aucust 12, 1887.]

his head visible. At two hundred yards the dog detected her
master, and went to him directly.

From these tests, Dr. Romanes concludes that the dog distin-
guishes him from all others by the odor of his boots (1-6), and
does not distinguish him in his naked feet (8-11). The odor is
probably emitted by the feet, but must be mixed with that of shoe-
leather to be of service to the dog. This is doubtless a matter of
education: had the dog been used to following her master when
without shoes, the animal would have learned to follow him thus.
The characteristic odor cannot penetrate a sheet of brown paper,
but a few square millimetres of surface is sufficient to give the dog
the clew. The animal is ready to be guided by inference as well
as by perception, but the inference is instantaneous (12 and 13 as
compared with 2, 8, and 11). Lastly, not only the feet (through
the boots) but the whole body emits an odor that the dog can dis-
tinguish in a mass of others (15). This order is recognized at
great distances to windward (15), or in calm weather in any direc-
tion (16) : it is not overpowered by anise-seed-oil (14) or by the foot-
prints of another (4).

THE TIME NECESSARY TO PERCEIVE COLD AND HEAT. — It is
well known that a cold sensation reaches consciousness more
rapidly than a sensation of warmth. Dr. Goldscheider of Berlin,
whose researches on the hot and cold points of the skin have
gained him a well-deserved reputation, has recently accurately
measured the length of the time necessary to perceive these sensa-
tions. The observations were made on parts equally sensitive to
heat and cold, and with intensities of heat and cold equally differ-
ent from the temperature of the part. The time of contact was
recorded electrically by means of a metallic button fixed to the skin.
Contact with a cold point was felt on the face after 13.5, on the arm
after 18, on the abdomen after 22, on the knee after 25, hun-
dredths of asecond. The sensation of a hot point was felt on the
same surfaces after 19, 27, 62, and 79 hundredths of a second re-
spectively. This great difference in time has an important theo-
retical bearing on the physiology of dermal sensations.

BOOK -REVIEWS.

Geological Hzstory of Lake Lahontan, a Quaternary Lake of
North-western Nevada. (U.S. Geol. Suryv., Monogr. XI.)
By I. C. RUSSELL. Washington, Government. 4°.

THIS volume, and the companion monograph by Gilbert on
Lake Bonneville, are undoubtedly among the most interesting, if
not the most important, contributions hitherto made to the ancient
geography of this continent. It must be admitted, however, that
the wonderful changes in the aspect of the Great Basin, of which
we find here the most conclusive evidence, are scarcely ancient in
the geological sense, having been accomplished almost wholly
since the close of the glacial epoch, and largely since the advent of
man.

Lake Lahontan, situated mostly within the area now forming the
State of Nevada, filled a depression along the western border of
the Great Basin, at the base of the Sierra Nevada; while Lake
Bonneville, embraced almost entirely in the present Territory of
Utah, occupied a corresponding position on the east side of the
Great Basin, at the foot of the Wasatch Mountains.

The hydrographic basins of these two water-bodies embraced the
entire width of the Great Basin in latitude 41°. Lake Bonneville
was 19,750 square miles in area, and had a maximum depth of about
1,000 feet. Lake Lahontan covered 8,422 square miles of surface,
and in the deepest part, the present site of Pyramid Lake, was 866
feet in depth. The ancient lake of Utah overflowed northward,
and cut down its channel of discharge 370 feet. The ancient lake
of Nevada did not overflow. Each of these lakes had two high-
water stages, separated by a time of desiccation. In the Lahontan
basin, as in the Bonneville, the first great rise was preceded by
a long period of desiccation, and was followed by a second
dry epoch, during which the valleys of Nevada were even more
completely desert than at present. During the second flood-stage,
the lake rose higher than at the time of the first high water, and
then evaporated to complete desiccation; for the present lakes of
the basin (Pyamid, Winnemucca, etc.) are of comparatively recent
date, and are nearly fresh, for the reason that the salts deposited

SCIENCE. 79

when the quaternary lake evaporated were buried or absorbed by
the clays and marls that occupy the bottom of the basin.

As Lake Lahontan did not overflow, it became the receptacle for
all the mineral matter supplied by tributary streams and springs,
both in suspension and in solution. The former was deposited as
lacustral sediments, and the latter as calcareous tufa, or formed
desiccation products when the lake evaporated.

The introductory chapter contains a sketch of the Great Basin as
the explorer finds it to-day. It stands in marked contrast in nearly
all its scenic features with the remaining portions of the United
States. The traveller in this region is no longer surrounded by the
open, grassy parks and heavily timbered mountains of the Pacific
slope, or by the rounded and flowing outlines of the forest-crowned
Appalachians ; and the scenery suggests nought of the boundless
plains east of the Rocky Mountains or of the rich savannas of the
Gulf States. He must compare it, rather, to the parched and
desert areas of Arabia and the shores of the Dead Sea or the
Caspian.

To the geographer the most striking characteristic of the country
stretching eastward from the base of the Sierra Nevada to the
Rocky Mountain system is that it is a region of interior drainage.
For this reason it is known as the ‘Great Basin.’ No streams that
rise within it carry their contributions to the ocean; and the climate
is dry in the extreme, the average yearly precipitation not exceeding
twelve or fifteen inches.

The area thus isolated from oceanic water-systems is 800 miles
in length from north to south, and nearly 500 miles broad, and con-
tains about 208,500 square miles. At the south the valleys of the
Great Basin are low-lying, Death Valley and the Colorado Desert
being depressed below the level of the sea; but at the north the
valleys have a general elevation of from 4,000 to 5,000 feet, while
the intervening mountain-ranges rise from 5,000 to 7,000 feet above
them.

The mountains exhibit a type of structure not described before
this region was explored, but now recognized by geologists as the
‘Basin Range structure.’ They are long, narrow ridges, usually
bearing nearly north and south, steep upon one side, where the
broken edges of the strata are exposed, but sloping on the other
with a gentle angle conformable to the dip of the beds. They
have been formed by the orographic tilting of blocks of the earth’s
crust, that are separated by profound faults, and they do not exhibit
the anticlinal and synclinal structures commonly observed in moun-
tains, but are monoclinal instead. The mountains are rugged and
angular, usually unclothed by vegetation, and owe their marvel-
lously rich colors to the rocks of which they are composed,
especially the purple trachytes, the deep-colored rhyolites, and the
many-hued volcanic tuffs so common in western Nevada, often
rivalling the brilliant tints of the New England hills in autumn.

The valleys or plains separating the mountain-ranges, far from
being fruitful, shady vales, with life-giving streams, are often ab-
solute deserts, totally destitute of water, and treeless for many
days’ journey, the gray-green sagebrush alone giving character to
the landscape. Many of them have playas in their lowest depres-
sions (simple mud-plains left by the evaporation of former lakes)
that are sometimes of vast extent. In the desert bordering Great
Salt Lake on the west, and in the Black Rock Desert of northern
Nevada, are tracts hundreds of square miles in area showing
scarcely a trace of vegetation. In winter, portions of these areas
are occupied by shallow lakes, but during the summer months they
become so baked and hardened as scarcely to receive an impres-
sion from a horse’s hoof, and so sun-cracked as to resemble tessel-
lated pavements of cream-colored marble. Other portions of the
valleys become incrusted to the depth of several inches with alka-
line salts, which rise to the surface as an efflorescence, and give the
appearance of drifting snow. The dry surface material of the
deserts is sometimes blown about by the wind, saturating the air
with alkaline particles, or is caught up by whirlwinds and carried
to a great height, forming hollow columns of dust. These swaying
and bending columns, often two or three thousand feet high, rising
from the plains like pillars of smoke, form a characteristic feature
of the deserts.

Chapter II., on the genesis of Lake Lahontan, contains a sum-
mary of the facts which show that the lake filled a compound

80

orographic basin, resulting from the tilting of faulted beds. The
question of outlet is discussed in detail, the conclusion being that
the lake did not overflow.

Chapter III. discusses the physiography of the Lahontan basin,
describing in detail the valleys and mountains, and its lakes, rivers,
and springs, and including numerous analyses of the waters from
these three sources. Attention is given to the peculiar playas or
broad mud-plains of the arid region of the Far West, as well as to
the temporary lakes, called ‘ playa-lakes,’ which frequently flood
them.

The physical history of the ancient lake is fully and ably discussed
in Chapter 1V. Under the head of ‘Shore Phenomena’ we find
detailed descriptions and illustrations of the terraces, bars, embank-
ments, etc., that were formed about its shores. The highest of the
ancient water-lines is named the ‘ Lahontan Beach;’ and the most
conspicuous terraces below this are the ‘lithoid,’ ‘ dendritic,’ and
‘thinolitic.’ Each of these marks the upper limit of a variety of
tufa, from which it derives its name.

Numerous sections are introduced to show the structure and rela-
tions of the mechanical sediments, which consist of two deposits of
lacustral marls, separated by a heavy layer of current-bedded
gravels ; thus recording two lake periods and an intermediate low-
water stage.

Chapter V., on the chemical history of the lake, is especially im-
portant. It includes, first, a general account of the chemistry of
natural waters as they occur in streams, springs, lakes, oceans, and
enclosed lakes or seas, followed by descriptions of the tufas precipi-
tated from the water of Lake Lahontan, the salts precipitated when
complete evaporation took place, the efflorescences now forming on
the desiccated floor of the lake, and the salt-works of the region.
As already indicated, the tufas present three main divisions. The
lithoid tufa is a compact, stony variety, and is the oldest of the
principal calcareous deposits that sheathe the interior of the basin.
Thinolitic tufa is composed of crystals, and was formed: in the an-
cient lake when it was greatly reduced by evaporation. The den-
dritic tufa has a branching or dendritic structure, whence its name,
and it is the newest of the tufa formations.

Chapter VI. presents the life-history of the ancient lake as deter-
mined by the abundant molluscan remains and other fossils that
have been found. The shells show that the lake was fresh through-
Out its higher stages. During the period when thinolite was formed,
it seems to have been too concentrated to admit of the existence of
molluscan life, as no fossils have been found in that deposit. A
chipped implement discovered in the upper lacustral beds indicates
that man inhabited the Far West during the last rise of Lake
Lahontan.

Chapter VII. is a brief xészmé of the preceding chapters; while
Chapter VIII. is devoted to a discussion of the quaternary climate
of the Great Basin, the periods of greatest lake-expansion being
correlated with the two glacial epochs of the Sierra Nevada, and
believed to indicate cold and moderately humid periods.

In Chapter IX. we have a summary of the evidence bearing on
the determination of the geological age of the lake. The conclusion
reached is that it existed during the quaternary, but was more
recent than the date usually assigned for the close of the glacial
epoch. °

The tenth and concluding chapter contains an account of the
orographic movements that have affected the Lahontan basin since
the last high-water period, including a map showing all the post-
Lahontan faults, some of which are marked by exceedingly fresh
escarpments, and are evidently still in process of formation.

The illustrations are profuse and admirably executed, and Mr.
Russell's style is throughout clear and graphic. Details are mainly
kept in the background, or presented in tabular form; and it is
probable that both in general interest and educational value this
monograph is excelled by none of the publications of the Geological
Survey.

Elements of Geodesy. By J. H. GORE. New York, Wiley. 8°.

THE present publication is a treatise on some geodetic operations,
and intended to give the beginner a clear insight into the subject.
It begins with a brief historical sketch of the various attempts to
determine the figure of the earth. The former half of the book is

SCIENCE:

[Vot. X. No. 236

devoted to a description of the instruments and of the elementary
operations and methods of plane geodesy, but the principal object
of the author is to describe the methods of spheroidic and geoidic
geodesy. The student who begins to study this important branch
of geodesy will, or at least ought to, be conversant with the instru-
ments applied by geodesists, with the theory of least squares, and
with the calculation of triangulations, which are set forth at some
length in the first part of the book. On the other hand, the begin-
ner, who will find some valuable and practical hints in the chapters
on base measurements and the field-work of triangulations, will
miss a discussion of topographical methods and operations. The
book would become far more useful for the beginner, who must
study the simpler geodetic operations before beginning with the
measurement of the figure of the earth, if a description of the
methods and theories of topography were included in the plan. The
development of each formula is very complete, and the results are
given in the shape that the majority of writers have considered the
best. Examples are given to illustrate the application of the for-
mule. The student will find at the end of each chapter a list of
books referring to the subject under discussion. EB:

NOTES AND NEWS.

AS we go to press we have obtained a copy of the opening re-
marks of Prof. S. P. Langley, president of the American Associa-
tion. Professor Langley spoke as follows :—

MEMBERS OF THE ASSOCIATION, — While, for the main pur-
pose of our coming here, we are all of one mind, some must
remember a peculiar pleasure in their first attendance, when they
came to these meetings as solitary workers in some subject for
which they had met at home only indifference, and held themselves
alone in, till here, with a glad surprise, they met others, too, caring
for what they cared for, and found among strangers a truer fellow-
ship of spirit than their own familiar friends had afforded. With
such communities of purpose wherever two or three among us are
gathered together, it is a happy thing that we cannot remain stran-
gers; for doubtless, of the many here who have habitually breathed
“the calm and still air of delightful studies,” there are few but
know by experience how hard it is for one coal to keep alight alone,
and how especially good it is for the solitary workers to be brought
at times into the warmth of companionship. To a great many of
us, then, it may be counted as the very chiefest good of such an
assembly as ours to-day, that here each meets some one with a kin-
dred glow, and finds that interest and sympathy from his co-worker
without which the scientific life would be but too cold. It is most
fortunate, nevertheless, that our happy constitution as a body, not
only of investigators in science, but of teachers and lovers of
knowledge, brings those here in greatest numbers who disseminate
as well as produce it, and who are skilled to recognize the value of
the newly mined product when brought into this public exchange
of ideas. We must admit here, that foolish ideas as well as wise
ones are brought to this open mart, and that, in dealing with the
variety of papers now presented for acceptance, it becomes almost
as hard a task for us to shut out folly as to entertain wisdom ; for,
after all, who are we that judge, and how can we say “ wisdom is in
us to decide,” when it is chiefly because we are ignorant that we are
here? Probably the only rule is that taught by experience, that since
art is long and life short, experience difficult and judgment uncertain,
knowledge commonly advances best by such little steps, that one
foot is not lifted till the other is securely planted on the solid ground
of fact. On the whole, then, while we agree that some rare visitors
have come to us over the “high Zrzorz road,” do not let us welcome
without scrutiny all those who would walk over it into this associa-
tion’s domain. At thesame time, in view of our ignorance as to
the real nature and causes of things, I would plead with those of
you who are judges, for a large tolerance, even of what seem to be
errors of speculation, wen these are found in company with evi-
dence of a faithful original study of facts; for we shall then have,
at any rate, done our best not to turn away Truth, even if she has
come to us in an unfamiliar dress. And now I can only congratu-
late this assembly of her followers on a meeting which opens so
auspiciously, and express the hope, that whether in the new knowl-
edge which we may take to the section-room or find there, or in the

AuGuSsT 12, 1887. ]

social pleasures the gathering brings, this may fulfil its large open-
ing promise of being a fruitful and happy season to us and to our
association.

— Dr. E. Naumann, late director of the geological survey of
Japan, has published an essay on the influence of the structure of
the earth upon the phenomena of terrestrial magnetism. His re-
searches in Japan show that the magnetical lines are to some ex-
tent influenced by the fossa magna, a great fault which crosses the
islands in a direction south-east by north-west. By studying the
direction of the magnetical lines in connection with the geological
structure of other countries, the author comes to the conclusion,
that, in the vicinity of faults and folds, the magnetical lines
show remarkable irregularities, and that a connection exists between
both phenomena. Recent researches by Ciro Christoni on the in-
tensity of terrestrial magnetism in Italy (d4¢¢¢ della R. Accademia
det Lincez, 1887, p. 200) show irregularities of the magnetical
elements in the eastern part of Venetia, on the western part of the
coast of Liguria, and in Val Pelice. These places coincide
with centres of seismical disturbances, and suggest a connection
between geological and magnetical phenomena. It seems, how-
ever, that the available material is still too incomplete for a thor-
ough study of the question at issue, the magnetical surveys not
being of a sufficiently detailed character.

— Charles E. Putnam of Davenport, Io., died July 19.

— Those interested in Spiritualism will read with special interest
Prof. Carvill Lewis's account of two sittings with the noted English
medium, Englinton. This medium is such a tower of faith to
believers, and has deceived so many, that so glaring an exposure
of his methods as Professor Lewis gives is especially valuable. The
article is published in the Proceedings of the English Society for
Psychical Research, May, 1887.

— The readers of Sczezce know from our notes on the explora-
tion of Africa how rapidly one discovery follows another, and that
it is difficult to keep a map up to date. This fact has induced J.
Perthes to publish a second edition of his large map of Africa in ten
sheets (1 :4,000,000). The student of the geography of Africa will
find this map, which contains an enormous amount of detail, and
which is in every respect up to the date of publication, a valuable
help in his researches. The routes of explorers, the tribes with
whom they came into contact, and the character of the land they
traversed, are shown in the map; deserts, steppes, and regions
with tropical vegetation, including savannas and woods, being dis-
tinguished by different colors. An important feature of the map,
and one necessary for the critical study of geography, is the dis-
tinction between countries which are really explored and those
which are known by report only; the former being written with
heavy letters, the latter with light ones. The new edition, of which
two sheets — Kongo and Abyssinia — have been published, con-
tains so much new material, that the section ‘ Kongo’ is practically
anewmap. The results of the journeys of Kapello and Ivens, Reich-
ard, von Francois, Kund and Tappenbeck, Wolf, Biittner, Grenfell,
Junker, and the observations of Captain Rouvier, have been used
in constructing this sheet. The important results of these journeys
were published in our map of Central Africa some time ago. The
observations of Chavanne and other visitors of the Lower Kongo
induced the author, H. Habenicht, to include that region in the
zone of steppes .occupying south-west Africa. In Section 6,
‘ Abyssinia,’ the routes of Cecchi and Chiarini have been made use
of, and — what will be welcome to most readers — Emin Pacha’s
province, his stations, and those of the Kongo Free State, have
been marked by separate colors. The political boundaries have
been corrected according to recent treaties and annexations.

LETTERS TO THE EDITOR.
*,.* The attention of scientific men is called to the advantages of the correspondence
columns of SCIENCE for placing promptly on record brief preliminary notices of
their investigations. Twenty copies of the number containing his communication
will be furnished free to any correspondent on request.
The editor will be glad to publish any queries consonant with the character of

the journal.

_ Correspondents are requested to be as brief as possible.
tn all cases required as proof of good faith.

The Sonora Earthquake.
THE past month has been spent by me in Sonora, U.S. Mexico,
in examining the scene of the greatest disturbances during the re-

The writer's name is

SCIENCE

81

cent earthquake of May 3. This trip has required mountain-travel
of about seven hundred miles, horseback and on foot; fully one-
half, the latter. While it is impossible now to give the complete
results of my explorations, a brief summary may prove interesting.
There is not now, nor has there been, lava eruption or crater
volcano. I visited every locality in the Sierra Madres where such
phenomena had been reported —fruitlessly. There is a grand
fault extending along the eastern side of the San Bernardino and
Yaqui River valleys for nearly one hundred miles. This fault has
a general northerly and southerly strike, with a dip of from 45° to.
vertical; and the difference in level of the two sides is for fifty
miles an average of eight feet. It lies close to the foot of the
mountain-ranges, where the 7zesa drift joins the steeper part of the
chain, until it crosses the Yaqui, where it goes directly into the
mountains. There are numerous minor faults and fissures; and

A

orth End of Fault

outh End of Fault |}
ster as followed :

HEIGHT IN FEET.
Babispe, 3,025.
Bacerac, 3,150.

Fronteras, 3,350.
Batepito, 2,290.

the entire valley of the San Bernardino is apparently sunk from
two to four feet. The relative level is changed that much. This
condition exists also on the Babispe River above and for some dis-
tance below Babispe, and on the Yaqui at and below its junction
with the San Bernardino. Almost every water-course in the dis-
turbed area has changed in the same way.

The town of Babispe was totally destroyed, forty-two lives lost
out of a population of seven hundred. No other town in Sonora
suffered much. Extensive evidence exists of irruption of water,
sand, and fiery gases. As stated in my first letter, mountain-fires
succeeded the first shock. These were caused by the ignited gases.
and falling bowlders. Time data in Mexico, away from the rail-
ways, are unprocurable, none existing. The general fact that the
first shock took place May 3, about 3 P.M., and that it came from a
westerly direction, is all that can be obtained.

It is much to be lamented that the ground was not thoroughly
explored before the beginning of the rainy season, which set in on
the 14th of June with a violence unknown since 1881. This will

82 SClENEE.

cause the obliteration not alone of the extensive and interesting
minor details of the disturbance, but of many of the greater as well,
particularly ‘in the river-beds where the changes of level have oc-
curred. The town of San Miguel, three miles north of Babispe, and
Bacerac, nine miles south, were uninjured. This is, in view of
the principal line of disturbance. particularly interesting.

I enclose a hasty tracing of the section, which may aid in showing
the location of the fault. This does not show the length, for it is
too tortuous. Scale of map is about 40 miles to the inch. The
mountains as marked are the famed Sierra Madres.

G. E. GOODFELLOW.
Tombstone, Arizona, July 14.

Chemical Laboratory of the University of Nebraska.

SO many requests for the plans and a description of the new
chemical laboratory of the University of Nebraska have been re-

[More XiINio. 226

The entrances are in the south and north ends of the building ;
that in the south being the main one, while the north door is for
the convenience of students coming to the laboratories from the
other university buildings. Through this, access is had to every
work-room in the laboratory, and to the main lecture-room on the
second floor. This arrangement brings classes into the lecture-
room from the rear, — an arrangement that will be appreciated by
every lecturer on experimental science.

Entering at the south door, we find ourselves in the vestibule of
the first floor. At our right and left, stairways lead to the base-
ment floor, as shown in Fig. 3. Descending to the basement corri-
dor (Fig. 2), at the front is a large vestibule opening by double
side-doors into an area where heavy material is received. Under
the stairway to our right is a small room containing the gas-meter.
Under the left-hand stairway, and extending across the space oc-
cupied by the vestibule, is a ladies’ toilet-room. Immediately in

Fic. 1.

ceived since its erection, as to warrant the belief that a brief
description of its general features would be of interest to the
readers of Sczezce, and especially to those who are contemplating
the erection of similar buildings, or who are interested in the edu-
cational growth of the West.

The building is situated on the south-east corner of the univer-
sity campus, fronting south on R Street. A wide street bounds the
east side, while on the north and west is the open campus: thus
the building commands an abundance of light from all direc-
tions.

Fig. 1 shows the south front and east side. The building con-
sists of a high basement of native limestone, and a two-story super-
structure of the finest St. Louis pressed brick, laid in black mortar
and relieved by belt courses of rough limestone. The style of archi-
tecture is Romanesque, the broad and heavy stone arches and
pointed towers giving to the whole an appearance of massiveness
and solidity in keeping with its construction.

front of the stairway is the elevator shaft. The room at the right
serves as a store-room for the basement laboratories, and as a
balance-room for the assay and metallurgical laboratory. The
corresponding room on the opposite side of the corridor contains
a small upright boiler for furnishing distilled water, and large
storage-tanks for hydrogen and oxygen gases. It serves also as a
storage-room for acids and as a work-shop. The remaining por-
tion of this floor is taken up by the general laboratory, where
students beginning the study of chemistry do their work. This
can be used as one large laboratory, accommodating seventy-five
students at one time, or, by closing the communicating doors, be
divided into two, A and B, A being used as an assay and metallurgi-
cal laboratory.

These rooms have high ceilings, and are well supplied with light.
They are ventilated by means of the two large flues C and D, each
of which is eight feet broad, and a series of smaller flues built into
the side-walls, one between each pair of windows. The large

Avucust 12, 1887.]

flues open directly into the air; the smaller ones, into the space
under the roof, which communicates with the air by means of the
small ventilating-tower on the rear part of the roof. On each
floor, built into the space between the large flues, and opening into
them, are large hoods accessible from both sides through sliding
glass doors.

Extending along the side-walls—and this is the case in every
laboratory-room in the building —is a table, furnished with gas and

Boiler and

ry Stere Reom
LW Sixa9, ml

Toon
fear z [|

i

Bolanica
oank

Blo YVAGA IT LPEIT AOA LBW ¥ Koisy iH)

Arrorotses Reem
214 1357

apan

SCIENCE

83

for the use of those students who have had some preliminary train-
ing, and has accommodations for thirty-two workers. Opening
from this laboratory at opposite corners are two rooms equal in
size, — the one a balance and apparatus room; the other the private
laboratory of the associate professor. Beyond these, on opposite
sides of the south corridor, are a small lecture-room and a special
laboratory. In this laboratory the chemical work of the investiga-
tions undertaken by the experiment-station will be carried on.

Fic 2

Eee

Qucnane ee

Ai

Fic 3.

< rotvs of
Jonencal Atm Oe
Reow

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ond Libririj
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eee

water, drawers and cupboards. These tables carry the smaller
hoods, covering the sand and steam baths, and opening into the
small flues. Space is also afforded here for such operations as re-
quire more room than the ordinary work-table gives.

Passing through the general laboratory, and ascending the stair-
way at the north end, we find ourselves in the north hall of the
second floor (Fig. 3). On our right is a small room for blast-lamps
and combustions. On the opposite side of the hall is the office and
study of the associate professor of chemistry.

Passing on, we enter the qualitative laboratory. This is intended

heckure, Raoma,
abvr2

Ascending the stairway at the end of the corridor, we reach the
corridor of the second floor (Fig. 4). At our left is the quantitative
laboratory, with accommodations for twenty students. Communi-
cating with it is a small dark room for the storage of standard solu-
tions.

Passing through the door in the north end of the room, we enter
the main lecture-room. This room has a raised floor, placed at
such a pitch that the top of the lecture-table can be seen from all
parts of the room. It is furnished with Andrews'’s patent lecture-
chair, and will comfortably seat two hundred people.

84

The lecture-table is large and roomy, and is abundantly supplied
with water and gas. It is ventilated by powerful down draughts
and movable box-hoods. Directly back of the table, and opening into
the preparation-room, is one of the large hoods before mentioned.
Connected with the preparation-room is a small dark room for the
storage of chemicals. These rooms serve also as apparatus and
store rooms for the laboratories on this floor.

Leaving the lecture-room from the opposite corner from which
we entered, and passing through the laboratory and study of the
professor of chemistry, we come to the balance-room and library.
This room is very well supplied with books of reference and the
current periodicals, having complete sets of the Berzchte, Fresenzus
Zettschrift, Chemical News, American Chemical Journal, Cen-
¢ralblatt, and others. No special room has been set apart for col-
lections. It is the intention to utilize the corridors for this pur-
pose.

The tables (Fig. 5) in each student work-room, except laboratory

SCIENCE:

(Vor, X5y Noe36

accommodate ten students each. Besides table-supply, each labora-
tory has a large sink for use when large quantities of water are
necessary. Distilled water is furnished on each floor. The build-
ing is heated throughout by steam from a central station in the
main building. Fire-protection is afforded by sections of hose on
each floor, connected with a standpipe which passes up through
the centre of the building from basement to attic.

We have now been in occupancy about one year, and feel well
satisfied with our arrangements, though some matters of detail
await the necessary funds to carry them into effect.

H. H. NICHOLSON.

Answers.

II. LAKEITASCA.—Rey. William T. Boutwell of Stillwater, Minn.,
several years ago, wrote for the Minnesota Historical Society the fol-
lowing account of the naming of Itasca Lake: “ Coming to Mackinac
in the summer of 1831, I received an invitation to spend the following

Fic.

B, are ten feet long, four wide, and three feet and three inches
high. Four students use one table; each having at his disposal,
for storing his apparatus, two large drawers and two roomy cup-
boards, all secured by a single lock. Each student has two gas
connections and an abundant supply of water. .

The arrangement for water-supply is different from that usually
employed. Instead of two basins placed at the ends, one large
oval basin, twenty-one by sixteen inches, is sunk in the centre of
the table, its long diameter across the table, and is supplied from
two taps, one at each side. This arrangement has the advantages
of being economical, convenient, and neat.

The work-places are numbered consecutively in each laboratory,
and are supplied with sets of re-agent bottles, bearing, in enamelled
letters, the name of the re-agent and the number of thedesk. The
stopper of the bottle bears a number corresponding to the one on
its body. By this means a bottle out of place can be easily relo-
cated, and the transposition of stoppers is inexcusable.

In laboratory B, tables are similarly equipped, and constructed on
same general plan, except that they are twenty-six feet long and

winter at Sault Ste. Marie. There I made the acquaintance of Mr.
Schoolcraft. Early in the spring of 1832, he received instructions
from the government to visit the bands of Indians on the Upper
Mississippi, and also to ascertain the true source of the river. He
very kindly invited me to accompany him. Now for the origin or
derivation of the name ‘Itasca.’ One morning we were coasting
Lake Superior. Mr. S. said to me, ‘I would like to give a name to
Elk Lake that will be significant or expressive of the ead, or rue ©
source, of the Mississippi. Can you give me any word in Latin or
Greek that will convey the idea?’ I replied, ‘No one word will
express the idea. The nearest I can come to it is verwm caput, or,
if you prefer the noun verz¢as, you may coin something that will meet
your wishes.’ In less than five minutes he replied, ‘I have got the
thing,’ handing me a slip of paper on which was the word ‘Itasca,’
remarking, ‘ This is not poetic license, but you will find it, as you
progress in the study of Ojibwa, to be Indian license. It was then
and there, and in just this manner, that the name ‘Itasca’ was
coined.” J. FLETCHER WILLIAMS.

St. Paul, Minn., Aug. 3.

bay Sue.

FRIDAY, AUGUST 1o, 1887.

THE MEETING JUST CLOSED in New York, of the American
Association, has been generally voted a success. The attendance
was not so large as had been hoped, but the character of the papers
was satisfactory. Against the ordinarily large attendance at the

' meetings held in Eastern cities, there were this year registered not
many over seven hundred. This may have been due partly to the
late announcement of the place of meeting, and to a slight change
from the usual date, —two circumstances which may have rendered
it impossible for many to change their summer plans so as to allow
of a week’s visit to New York. The fear of hot weather in New
York City has not been fulfilled. The next meeting of the associa-
tion will be held at Cleveland, O. An invitation from Toronto un-
fortunately came just too late to allow of its being accepted. A list
of the officers for the next meeting will be found in another column.
In the general meeting of the association a few important resolu-
tions were passed. The association expressed its opinion that the
efficiency of the United States Geodetic Survey would be greatly
increased if a superintendent were appointed who was thoroughly
trained in the methods of geodesy; and it was resolved to ask
the President of the United States to appoint a scientist to this
position, instead of the present superintendent, who was only tem-
porarily appointed. The second resolution which was passed by
the association refers to the establishment of a bureau of standards,
in which standard measures of electricity, heat, weight, length, etc.,
may be obtained. A motion of Prof. Cleveland Abbe was passed,
requesting Congress to have an index of the publications of the
Signal Service published. Scientists would be gratified if Congress
should make a reduction in the tariff on scientific books and
instruments.

THE SUBJECT OF MEDICAL LEGISLATION is attracting the
attention of both the medical and legal profession throughout the
country ; and while it is generally conceded that the laws have in
the past, either by reason of innate defects or their non-enforce-
ment, permitted the practice of medicine by quacks and charla-
tans of the most pronounced type, still there is a sentiment, which
is growing, that the State can go too far in its restrictions and ex-
actions. This sentiment forms the basis of an address, entitled
«State Control of Medicine,’ which was read before the Monroe
County Medical Society by its president, Dr. Louis A. Weigel, the
full text of which is published in the July number of the JZedzcal
Press of Western New York. In his opening remarks, Dr. Weigel
says that it is usually considered absolutely necessary that there
should be medical legislation to protect the public against quackery
and imposture ; that the lives of the people are directly endangered
by incompetent and ignorant charlatans; and that it is the duty of
the State to exercise a paternal control over its subjects, and dictate
to them whom they shall employ when sickness invades their
homes. He proposes in this address to investigate the practical
results obtained by State interference in medical practice, and en-
deavors to show that no law has yet been passed which has had
the slightest effect in suppressing quackery or protecting the com-
munity against imposture. The report of Drs. Dunglison and Marcy,
a committee of the American Academy of Medicine appointed to
ascertain the practical working of laws regulating the practice of
medicine in the United States, is referred to at length by Dr.
Weigel. The facts presented by this committee were obtained by
correspondence with physicians in the various States and Terri-

tories. In New York the law has been inefficacious. From
Michigan the answer came that the entire good of the law has been
to give lots of quacks a legal standing. In Tennessee any and all
may set up for physicians, and starve or make money, as the people
decree. After referring to other States, the president says, “If any
further proof of the inefficiency of legal enactment to suppress
charlatanism is needed, I am at a loss to know what additional
evidence I could present that would be more conclusive.’ He
firmly believes, that, if no attempt at medical legislation had ever
been made, the profession to-day would be held in higher estima-
tion by the people, and occupy a still loftier position than now ob-
tains. It is somewhat singular that the remedy for all this, in ac-
cordance with the view-of Dr. Weigel, should be more legislation ;
and yet that is practically the outcome of what he proposes. He
says that every year the multitude of medical colleges throughout
the land send forth a large contingent of half-educated stupidity,
endowed with the coveted half-yard of parchment, which a con-
fiding public accepts as a guaranty of competency. It certainly
has no standard to go by. The remedy for this suggests itself.
The teaching and licensing bodies must be separated. The sug-
gestion here made by the doctor is not a new one in this State, and
is practically in operation in other States. It is more than probable
that the next New York Legislature will be called upon to enact
some such law as this. While theoretically it seems to be what is
needed, we have never been able to see how it can be practically
accomplished in this State without the danger of making it a
political measure.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ASSOCIATION.
: Section A.

THE Mathematical Section was without a vice-president through
the absence of Professor Ferrel of Washington, who had been
elected to that office, but at the opening meeting of the association
the vacancy was most satisfactorily filled by the election of Prof. J.
R. Eastman of the Naval Observatory. A further consequence of
this change of officers was that there was no vice-presidential ad-
dress in Section A, which therefore held no meeting on Wednesday
afternoon. On Thursday morning, however, the section convened
with a fair attendance, including at times a number of ladies, who
apparently did not find the abstruse subjects discussed at all beyond
their comprehension or interest. Several papers were upon what is
known as ‘personal equation. One by Professor Eastman called
forth remarks by Professors Hough, Harkness, and others, from
which it appeared that there is still considerable uncertainty in the
matter; it being by no means sure that the results derived from the
personal-equation machine are comparable with the personal error
of actual observations, nor that the error is the same for light and
dark illummation. Professor Eastman concluded that many of the
Washington observations on record can only be made valuable
after a further discussion of the personal equations involved. Mr.
Farquhar criticised Mr. S. C. Chandler’s conclusions in regard to
the dependence of personal equation upon the stars’ velocity. Mr.
H. B. Fine gave a general proof that the singular solutions of
differential equations of the second order have always a tangency of
the second order with the consecutive curves in the system to which
they belong.

Professor Harkness’s interesting paper on the visibility of objects
seen with a telescope was an account of the result of some experi-
ments on the distance at which objects become invisible when
viewed through small holes of different sizes. It incidentally
brought out the fact, that, when the image of the object fills the
pupil of the eye, further magnification is of no value, and led to the

86

speaker’s giving a method by which any one can measure the size
of the pupil of his own eye, all the apparatus needed being easily
constructed from a half-sheet of writing-paper. Mr. Brashear ex-
hibited a new form of comet-seeker, very conveniently arranged,
consisting of a Newtonian reflector of six and one-half inches clear
aperture, mounted with an altazimuth motion, the eye-piece being
placed in the horizontal axis, so that the observer has no need to
change his position while sweeping the sky. He also showed a
modification of the Merz-Young polarizing helioscope, less liable to
breakage than the old form; and in a third paper he advocated the
adoption of standard sizes for screws and draw-tubes for astronomi-
cal instruments, so that the parts may be interchangeable, — an im-
provement whose utility seems self-evident, especially if combined
with the adoption of metric units for the standards.

Professor Boss presented a list of over twelve hundred stars with
large proper motions, whose data, collected from various sources,
will, however, need to be verified before detailed publication.

The last paper of the day had been postponed from the first place
on the list, and was by Prof. F. N. Willson. He presented a
systematized nomenclature for the roulettes, or trochoidal curves,
in which he recognizes the fact that the same curve may be gen-
erated in two ways by varying the relative size of the circles and
the position of the tracing-point.

On Friday morning only seven papers were assigned to Section
A, and two of these failed to appear. Mr. Woodward’s paper on a
method of computing the secular contraction of the earth, and
Professor Stone’s on the perturbations of the orbit of Hyperion,
were of a technical character, consisting of a discussion of the dif-
ferential equations involved in the problems. The interest of the
morning, however, centred about the papers of Professors Menden-
hall and Webb. The former was upon the eccentricities of guess-
ing. The circumstances which gave rise to it were these: a num-
ber of persons having recorded their guess of the number of nails
contained in a glass carboy, the nails being of various sizes, large and
small, these guesses were given over to the professor for discussion.
The results were plotted with amount of guess and number of guess-
ers as abscissa and ordinate, and were found to agree pretty well
with the probability curve; but the maximum of the curve did not
coincide with the actual number of nails, showing that the average
guess was considerably below the truth in this case, reasons for
which were easily suggested. Mr. Farquhar suggested that the
use of the logarithm of the number guessed for abscissa would
bring the two curves into closer agreement. The author rather
objected to his own title, and thought this was not really a case of
guessing (which should be entirely without the bias of any
reason), but rather a series of estimates. It is no doubt true, that,
while some of the numbers were careful estimates, others were the
most random guesses, made without ever seeing the carboy. The
guesses numbered over seven thousand, and varied from forty-three
to over three million, both extremes being seriously given. The
true number was 2,551, as ascertained later by actual count.
Professor Webb advocated the introduction of the idea of mass
into the definition and formula for the moment of inertia, defining
it as the summation of the mass into the square of the distance
from the axis, or the mass which at unit’s distance will have the
same energy at the same speed of rotation. The discussion which
followed, participated in by a number of those present, brought to
light the fact that a good many persons object to the use of the
term ‘inertia’ at all, some preferring ‘moment of mass,’ while
others were content to retain the term because used in so many
valuable memoirs already in print.

There was no session of Section A on Friday afternoon nor on
Saturday ; and on Monday, no papers being assigned to the section
except the two which failed through absence on Friday, and their
author still being absent, the section adjourned finally, so far as
reading of papers is concerned.

Section B.

THE address of Vice-Pres. W. A. Anthony before the Physical
Section, at its opening on Wednesday, was on the importance to the
advancement of physical science of the teaching of physics in the
public schools. Professor Anthony took the ground, that, since
there is a strong re-action by which the applications of science

SLCJO IN C18,

[ Vou. Xey Now 237,

stimulated the development of the science itself by awaking more
general interest and by bringing out phenomena that call for ex-
planation, the cause of pure science will be advanced by giving in-
ventors and all concerned with the application of physics a more
thorough training in the principles of that science.

This training must be given by the public schools, and should
begin early, and be prolonged over several years of the course, so
that such a principle as the conservation of energy shall not be to
the student something which he learned in cramming, during one
year or a part of a year, a very difficult subject called physics, but it
shall be as familiar and well understood a fact as that water will
not flow up hill. When this is the case, the labors of inventors may
be expected to be more fruitful, because more intelligently directed,
and science itself will be advanced.

The most importar.‘ pa, er of the session was presented by Profes-
sors Michaelson and Morley, and was ona method of making the wave-
length of sodium light the actual and practical standard of length.
The methods that have heretofore been advanced for this purpose all
depend on the use of the diffraction grating, and do not afford a
sufficient degree of accuracy in the comparison; for, as was re-
marked by Professor Rogers, before the wave-length of sodium
light can be taken as the standard of length, it must be possible to
lay off a distance on a scale which shall represent a given number
of wave-lengths, at least as accurately as it is possible to compare
two standard scales. Messrs. Michaelson and Morley allow sodium
light to fall on a piece of plane parallel glass, where it is divided into
two beams at right angles to each other, which are reflected back
by two mirrors, and again brought together into one beam, which
falls upon the observing telescope. Interference bands are seen,
which depend on the difference between the distances which the two
beams traverse. One of the two mirrors is provided with a screw
motion, by which it can be moved back or forth in the direction of
the beam of light which falls upon it. If, now, it is moved, the ob-
server at the telescope, by counting the number of interference
bands which cross the field of view, can determine the exact num-
ber of wave-lengths of sodium light corresponding to that distance.
By this arrangement a distance of one decimetre can be directly
determined; and by successively measuring off ten decimetres,
and by having the marking diamond rigidly attached to the mirror
which is moved, Professors Michaelson and Morley believe that they
will be able to lay off a length of one metre, in terms of a given
number of wave-lengths of sodium light, with an accuracy of about
one part in a million, which is at least twice as accurately as two
metres can be compared; but, in finding the number of wave-
lengths that correspond to a metre, they will of course be limited by
the accuracy with which the microscope can be set on the gradua-
tions of the standard.

A second paper of great interest was by these same investigators,
and was an account of some experiments by which it was sought to
measure the velocity of the luminiferous ether relative to the earth,
by the interference between two beams of light, which were reflected
back and forth a number of times, one being in the direction in
which the ether was supposed to be moving, and the other at right
angles to that direction. No effect was found, so that it was con-
cluded that the ether must be very nearly at rest with respect to the
earth; but this result leads to serious difficulty in explaining aberra-
tion, and should be carefully scrutinized.

Prof. William A. Rogers, to whose enthusiasm and skill in a
very arduous field of research American investigators are so greatly
indebted, presented a number of papers to the association, in one
of which points of great importance in the exact measurement of
lengths were brought out ; in particular, that, in comparing stand-
ard scales, a time when the temperature is slowly changing is the
worst possible, and that such comparisons should be made either
with constant temperature, or at a certain critical time in the day
when the temperature is changing quite rapidly, the time depending
on the relative masses of the bars and on other circumstances. In
the case cited this critical time was about 6 A.M., and measure-
ments a half-hour before that time showed errors about equal in
amount and opposite in direction to those made a half-hour
after it.

Prof. W. F. Magie, in a study of capillarity, showed reasons for
believing that the contact angle of water and glass is not zero.

Aucust 19, 1887. |

It is striking evidence of the great velocity attained in tornadoes
that straws and bits of hay are often driven like darts into pine
boards, and even into the dense bark of hickory-trees. Professor
Mees found, that, to obtain similar results by shooting straws
from an air-gun, velocities of from one hundred and fifty to one
hundred and seventy-five miles per hour were necessary.

Professor Mendenhall read a paper giving an account of the
changes in the electrical condition of the atmosphere that are ob-
served during thunder-storms, and referred to the excellent work
done by the New England Meteorological Society in the study of
these most interesting phenomena.

Prof. E. S. Nichols gave an account of a battery-cell on which he
and Mr. W. S. Franklin had been expyyinyenting, in which both
electrodes were iron; but one was in a magnetic field, and the
other not. The magnetized electrode was found to be sometimes
electro-positive to the other, and sometimes electro-negative, de-
pending on whether its magnetic poles were exposed to the liquid,
or whether the neutral part alone was so exposed. A difference
was also found between those liquids tending to produce ferric salts
and those forming ferrous compounds.

Professor Barker presented two papers on behalf of Mr. Edison,
in one of which a magnetic balance similar in principle to Wheat-
stone’s bridge was described, by which the relative magnetic
permeabilities of different samples of iron can be rapidly tested. In
the other paper, Mr. Edison described an ingenious form of ap-
paratus, which he calls a ‘pyro-electric dynamo,’ in which an
electric current is obtained directly from heat-energy through the
induction produced by alternately heating and cooling an iron core
placed in a strong magnetic field and surrounded by an insulated
coil.

Mr. C. E. Monroe presented to the section the results of some
curious experiments in which blocks of gun-cotton, after having
been stamped with certain letters, were exploded on flat plates of
wrought iron. The gun-cotton blocks were placed with the lettered
side down, and it was found, that, when the letters were stamped
in relief, they appeared in relief on the iron after the explosion,
and, on the other hand, when the letters were depressed in the gun-
cotton, they were also depressed on the iron plate.

The session this year has been of considerable interest, and the
number of communications presented to the section unusually
large.

Section C.
[Report not recetved in time for this zssue.|

Section D.

NINETEEN papers or subjects were presented during the sessions
of this section by twelve gentlemen, as follows: on Nicaraguan
woods, and friction of engines, by R. H. Thurston; on the Ameri-
can system of water-purification, by Albert R. Leeds; a new
method of finding an equivalent uniform load, producing bending
moments approximately equal to the maximum moments under a
moying train, the deflection of girders and trusses, and re-action
polygons and their properties (a new general class of graphical
polygons suitable for the comparison of the bending moments and
shearing stresses in simple girders and single intersection trusses,
due to a moving train of wheel weights), by H. T. Eddy; on an im-
proved method for testing metals, by Charles E. Monroe; on the
effect upon the strength of iron by subjecting it to a pull while hot,
Rankine’s solution of the problem of turbines, and downward
draught device for a furnace, by DeVolson Wood; on a new high-
speed steam-engine indicator, by J. Burkitt Webb; on errors of
approximate calculations of the effect of the inertia of the moving
parts of a steam-engine, by D. S. Jacobus; on the theoretical
effect of errors of observation in calorimeter experiments for de-
termining the latent heat of steam, and improved arrangement of
Siemens’s platinum electrical pyrometer, by J. E. Denton; on the
uniformity of planimeter measurements, by T. C. Mendenhall and
John Mack ; on mechanical inspection of railway-tracks and results
obtained, by P. H. Dudley; on the theories of the lateral pressure
of sand against retaining walls, by Mansfield Merriman; on
national armament, by J. R. Haskell.

A number of these papers were accompanied by illustrative

SCIENCE:

87

models or drawings, and some by both models and drawings. In
some cases only a partial treatment of the subject was given, a
complete consideration being reserved for another paper. In this
way new lines of thought were suggested. and the authors thus in-
dicated their intention of occupying the fields of thought which
they thus partially opened up.

The section united with Section B (Physics) for an hour on
Friday to hear two papers by J. Burkitt Webb, — one on a new
dynamometer, which was illustrated by a working model; and the
other on the experimental determination of the re-action of a liquid
jet.

On Monday afternoon Sections D and I combined to listen to
four papers relating to different aspects of a plan for a Nicaragua
ship-canal. The first of these was on the general subject of
isthmian transit, by H. C. Taylor; the second, on the engineering
features of the Nicaragua Canal, by K. E. Peavy; the third, climatic
and sanitary notes on the Nicaragua Canal route, by John F.
Bransford ; and the fourth, historical and geographical notes con-
cerning the Nicaragua Canal route, by J. W. Miller. The work of
the section may be mainly classified under four heads :—

1. Papers recording actual practical work in new fields ; as, for
example, the paper on the mechanical inspection of railway-tracks,
which was accompanied by rolls of diagrams taken upon different
lines of railway, showing the condition of their tracks, and from
which the interesting and valuable results set forth in the paper
were obtained.

2. Papers illustrating new or improved special machines or de-
vices for accomplishing difficult ends. The new high-speed steam-
engine indicator, by Professor Webb, illustrates this class. A
model and drawings of the instrument were shown, by means of
which the theory and operation of the indicator were readily under-
stood.

3. Papers based upon laboratory experiments, like Professor
Denton’s, on calorimeter experiments for determining the latent
heat of steam, in which the results of experiments with two forms
of calorimeter were recorded, and made the basis of valuable de-
ductions in regard to the theory and operation of the calorimeters
compared.

4. Discussions, suggestions, and criticisms relating to the applica-
tion of laws and principles, and to methods of research and com-
putation, of which Professor Eddy’s paper, on re-action polygons
and their properties, is an example.

The papers were generally fresh and stimulating, and clearly
aimed to advance scientific thought and attainments, to secure the
practical achievement of valuable work upon a scientific basis, and
to perfect theories and harmonize them with actual facts and to
secure their easy and correct applications in new fields of scientific
work. The sessions of the section must have proved of value to
all who followed the work done, and many regret that most of the
papers must appear in abstract rather than in full in the Proceed-
ings of the association.

Section E.

GEOGRAPHY is by title included with geology in Section E of the
association; but geology takes all the attention, and, in the present
vigorous condition of geological investigation, geography as a
science is almost forgotten. Under geology itself, the work of the
International Congress of Geologists and of its American com-
mittee received the greatest share of time, as the vice-presidential
address of Mr. Gilbert considered the first, and the several reports
read by Dr. Frazer introduced the second. There has been appre-
hension among some that more might be attempted by the congress
in the way of authoritative dictation and majority rulings on mat-
ters of opinion than would be justifiable in our rapidly advancing
science — or, indeed, in any science. The dangers of such a course
were well pointed out by Mr. Gilbert: “The proper function of the
congress is the establishment of common means of expressing the
facts of geology. It should not meddle with the facts themselves.
It may regulate the art of the geologist, but it must not regulate
his science. Its proper field of work lies in the determination of
questions of technology ; it is a trespasser if it undertakes the deter-
mination of questions of science. It may decree terms, but it must
not decree opinions. . . . For science it is not merely illogical, it is

88

suicidal, to establish facts in any other way than by observation.
No vote ofsthe most august scientific body can possibly establish a
fact, and no vote can have any weight against a good observation.”
On these grounds, Mr. Gilbert said, “I am opposed to the classifica-
tion by the congress of the sedimentary formations, and likewise to
the classification of the volcanic rocks, and I also regard it as ill
advised that the congress undertook the preparation of a map of
Europe, for that — if more than a work of compilation —is a work
of classification;” and ‘‘a classification, if it has any value what-
ever, is merely a generalized expression of the facts of observation,
and is outside the domain of the voter.”

The section was well prepared, after hearing this address, to
listen on Friday to several abstracts of reports of semi-official
character, by the various individual ‘reporters’ of the American
committee, and submitted to it for approval at the recent meeting
at Spring Lake. These were all read by Dr. Frazer, secretary of the
committee, before discussion was opened, and their good judgment
and conservatism excited general approval. The abstract presented
by Dr. Frazer demands especial attention, both from the care in its
preparation, and from its including at once a discussion of certain
general principles, and of that most difficult of geological divisions,
the Archzean ; and it is to be hoped that these reports may be given
to the association for publication, as expressing the matured opin-
ions of many able workers on questions most frequently before
American geologists. Among the paragraphs of Dr. Frazer’s re-
port, the following will doubtless be generally commended : “Ameri-
can geologists will acquiesce in the recommendations of the com-
mittee by sacrificing individual opinion to a reasonable degree,
provided that these recommendations do not hamper the efforts of
research by requiring more correlation of beds between the two
continents than research can justify.” “Until such time as the
Archean rocks can be correlated with each other in distant parts of
the earth, it is best that geologists should distinguish them from
each other petrographically, without attempting to ascribe more
than local chronological value to such distinctions.” On the other
hand, the recommendation that all pre-Cambrian rocks should be
called Archean sayors too much of pre-judgment, especially in
view of the recent studies of Irving and Walcott. The possible
metamorphism of eruptive rocks was properly emphasized ; and, as
they are thought to differ more as a result of such changes than by
conditions characteristic of their eruption, their classification by
composition as indicating age is not recommended.

The most animated discussion occurred over the recommendation
that it should be “ officially declared that neither the color-scheme
for the proposed map of Europe, nor the classification of the eruptives
of Professor Lossen, provisionally adopted by the map committee in
order to bring out the map, are other than tentative schemes, sub-
ject to alteration when their application to the map shall have
shown to what extent they are deficient.” It was strongly objected
by Major Powell that this implied the official adoption of the color-
scheme alluded to, in case serious defects were not discovered in its
test on the European map, and that it did not sufficiently dwell on
the fact that the scheme of colors had been devised only by a com-
mittee of the congress, and not by the congress itself. A resolution
approving the action of the committee, and hoping for its continu-
ance, was adopted in the evening session ; but it may be mentioned
that it received only two or three affirmative votes, although the
session was well attended at the time.

It is difficult to choose among the many papers read before the
section, and we mention only the few that our space allows. Prof.
H. S. Williams presented a model paper on the different types of
Devonian in America; Mr. Hill gave the results of his recent
studies in Texas; Professor Claypole described ‘Lake Cuyahoga,’
an extinct glacial lake in Ohio; Mr. Walcott contributed a paper
on the so-called ‘ Taconic,’ that promises, with his other studies,
to bring about accord on this vexed problem; and Dr. G. H. Wil-
liams gave an excellent general account of petrographic methods
and their application. These titles can only suggest others of like
interest that are regrettably omitted from our report.

Section F.
THOSE who think that scientists are seriously divided on the
question of evolution would have come to a different conclusion by

SGP INGE:

PO 2 Non, 29537

attendance’ at the Biological Section during the meeting of the
American Association, just closed, Reputable scientists no longer
avoid the question as formerly, or mention it only in defence, but
accept it as the basis for the discussion of questions of structure and
classification. Dr. Farlow, vice-president of the section, following
in harmony with the subject chosen by the president of the associa-
tion, Professor Morse, chose for his subject ‘ Vegetable Parasites
and Evolution.’ Botanists have a smaller basis than zodlogists for
the study of development, owing to the incompleteness of the
paleontological record, especially with reference to the lower plants,
to which most parasites belong. The study of different degrees of
parasitism has, however, rendered it probable that parasites may
have originated at a remote period from non-parasitic plants, first as
saprophytes, then as true parasites. The parallelism which exists
between algze and fungi seems also to indicate that the different
groups of fungi have arisen from corresponding groups of algz at
different periods in the process of evolution.

The paper of Professor Cope, on the mechanical origin of the
suctorial teeth of the Carzzvora, showed in a striking manner the
value which mechanical force may in some cases have as a factor in
development. His statement, also, that a given structure may or
may not be the best which could be devised for performing its par-
ticular function, but that it must be such as could be developed
from a pre-existing form, is one which, if earlier understood, would
have saved much misdirected effort.

Among the other papers presented, that of Professor Cook on the
antenne-cleaners of Hymenoptera, the series of structural papers
by Dr. Beal, that of Dr. Schrenk on Lrasenza feltata, and the
papers on morphology by Professor Baur, were excellent examples
of the present methods of study. The paper of perhaps the most
practical importance was that of Dr. Rusby, on the cultivated cin-
chonas of Bolivia.

In the treatment of the topics relating to classification, there was
manifested a tendency to restrict the number of species and in-
crease the number of varieties. In regard to terminology, there was
exhibited on one or two occasions a decided opposition to the intro-
duction of comparatively unimportant new terms.

The proportion of botanical to zoological papers presented before
the section was less than last year, although the attendance of
botanists was greater. There is still a general desire, on the part
of the botanists, to confine the discussions and short papers chiefly
to the botanical club, and the necessity is felt of providing more
time for that purpose. Among the work of the club was the ap-
pointment of a committee, consisting of Drs. Vasey, Britton, Wat-
son, Morong, and Halstead, to devise a system for the exchange of
specimens.

One of the most enjoyable features of the meetings was the ex-
cursions provided by the citizens of New York and the local socie-
ties. These gave an opportunity for the members to become ac-
quainted, and to compare personal notes. Of especial interest was
the excursion of the botanical and entomological clubs to Sandy
Hook, which included an informal ‘field-meeting’ on board the
boat during the return. Much is due from botanists to the Torrey
Botanical Club, which, besides the delightful entertainments pro-
vided, furnished sets of the local plants to those in attendance.

Section H.

THE meetings of this section are always interesting on account of
the great variety of papers read. At the present meeting the dis-
cussions were more lively than they used to be, and this is due to
the skilful vice-president, Dr. D. G. Brinton, who encouraged dis-
cussion in every way, and, by giving summaries of the doubtful
points, elicited remarks from all interested in the subject.

Among the different classes of papers, archzological ones take a
prominent place. This is somewhat remarkable, when we consider
that in many parts of America we have still the very best opportuni—
ties of studying the natives themselves ; but the antiquity and doubtful
origin of relics have always proved a stronger incentive for scientific
remarks than the living neighbor, to whose customs and strange ap-
pearance we become accustomed, The most important one among
this class of papers was Professor Putnam’s report on the purchase
of the serpent-mound of Adams County, O., by a number of ladies.

AuvcusT 19, 1887.|

who presented the deed to the trustees of the Peabody Museum of
Cambridge. Professor Putnam’s report, in connection with a brief
letter from Miss Alice Fletcher, led to an important discussion on
the preservation of mounds and relics, and the opinion was ex-
pressed unanimously that some step must be taken in this direction.
In order to impress the United States and the State governments
and legislatures with the importance of this matter, it was moved
that the association, in a general session, appoint a committee whose
task it should be to take the necessary steps in this direction. Mrs.
Stevenson, president of the Ladies’ Anthropological Society of
Washington, and Miss Fletcher, were elected members of the com-
mittee. Major Powell’s remarks on the difficulties which would be
encountered in carrying out the proposed scheme, and the fact that
attempted ‘ preservations’ had sometimes ended in actual destruc-
tion, led to the election of a second committee of five members, for
impressing the State historical societies and legislatures with the
importance of the matter, and inducing them to preserve the relics
in their territories, while the former committee will draw the atten-
tion of Congress to those situated on public lands.

The desire to draw greater attention to archeology was also
characteristic of Prof. Thomas Wilson’s paper on the state of
archeology in western Europe. He showed that in America,
though the interest of the public is increasing, nothing equal to the
work of European nations has been done. Scandinavian archeolo-
gists ought to be our teachers in this line of research: they were the
first to work out scientific methods and to undertake researches on
a great scale. Professor Wilson laid great stress on the influence
of European societies and scientific institutions and of the support
of the government upon the rapid development of prehistoric
anthropology.

The papers and discussions on archeological subjects showed
that a closer connection between geologists and archzologists is
very desirable, or, rather, that the student of archeology ought to
be conversant with dynamical geology, more particularly with
the influence of water and wind upon the earth’s surface. This is
the only method to avoid serious errors and to reach satisfactory
results. Prof. C. C. Abbott’s method, which he explained during
the sessions in numerous remarks and in his paper on evidences of
pre-Indian occupation of New Jersey, makes it clear that this is the
most satisfactory method of study. Of course, the form of the im-
plements must also be considered. Dr. Brinton’s suggestion, that
the occurrence of simple implements and of compound implements
(i.e., those in which the worked stones are attached to handles)
should be made a principle of division of the paleolithic age, may
be accepted in so far as we must suppose, a pyrzorz, that simple
implements were the earliest inventions of developing mankind. It
is, however, doubtful whether the finds really justify a separate con-
sideration of both ages. The important question of the age of
American antiquities, and whether they belonged to the Indians in-
habiting the continent at the time of the discovery or to a pre-In-
dian race, received its proper share of attention. Besides Professor
Abbott’s paper, which was mentioned above, Mr. G. N. Perkins’s
remark, that in the Champlain valley a steady development of
forms, from the most ancient to the recent ones, may be observed,
deserves to be mentioned.

The desire of tracing the earliest history of man in America,
which is the most vigorous inducement of American archzology,
was also the basis of Horatio Hale’s paper on the true basis of eth-
nology. A few weeks ago Major Powell had expressed, in a letter
to Sczewce, the opinion that there can be no ethnology, as all at-
tempts to classify mankind have failed. This refers to ethnology,
as defined by Powell, as the science treating of the classification of
mankind. Professor Hale opposes this opinion, maintaining that
the languages afford a sufficient basis for the classification of
man into races. Major Powell, in defence of the position he had
taken, said that languages, customs, and religions were only adher-
ing to the individual, while the anthropological character was the
only constant phenomenon. But here, as well as in the ethnologi-
cal characteristics of races, admixtures of blood had made it im-
possible to reach satisfactory results. This elicited the important
remark from Dr. Brinton, with which we heartily concur, that lan-
guage and religion of the individual may be easily changed, but that
tribes and races do not so readily adopt new social institutions and

SCIENCE

89

new languages, and that not the individual, but the tribe, is the
important object of study. His opinion is, that the psychology of
nations is the true basis of ethnology, and we may add that the his-
tory of civilization is its ultimate aim.

Methods of ethnological researches are making steady progress.
This is shown by the papers of Dr. Wesley Mills, on the study of a
small and isolated community in the Bahama Islands ; and by that
of Mr. Steward Culin, ‘China in America.’ The former is a con-
tribution to the solution of the problem of the influence of monotony
in climate and social institutions upon man: the latter treats of an-
other interesting question which is of the greatest importance in
studying the history of mankind, —the constancy of ethnological
peculiarities, and the influence of one people upon another. Papers
treating of the ethnology of certain tribes were comparatively few.
Great interest was excited by two specimens shown by Mr. G. F.
Kunz, —a gigantic jadeite adze from Oaxaca, Mexico, which shows
signs of being cut from a bowlder by the use of a string, and is
beautifully carved and polished; and a very remarkable human
skull of rock crystal in natural size, probably of Mexican origin. On
this occasion we had the pleasure of hearing the assumed similarity
between the Mexican and Japanese arts thoroughly refuted by Mr.
Tatui Baba. In fact, the task of proving the similarity rests on the
shoulders of those maintaining its existence.

The last paper we have to mention is that by Mr. J. Jastrow, on
sensory types of memory and apperception. He discussed apper-
ception as brought about by visual and auditual perceptions, and
treated of the connection of both kinds of perceptions in many indi-
viduals. He referred to the important bearing of this question on
education, as different methods must be applied for the two classes of
individuals. He gave some methods for determining the prevailing
faculty. His opinion is, that the visualists form the more numerous
class, but we believe that the universal existence of language shows
the importance of auditualism. Researches in experimental psy-
chology, such as Mr. Jastrow undertakes, are not yet carried on to
a great extent in America, but we may hope that in course of time
they will become an important feature of the sessions of the An-
thropological Section, as this branch of science is one of the
foundations of the psychology of individuals and of nations.

Section I,
[Report not rececved tn téme for thes zssue.|

THE GEOGRAPHICAL MOVEMENT IN ENGLAND.

I wAs asked some time ago to furnish Sezezce with an account of
the results of the efforts of the Royal Geographical Society towards
the improvement of geographical education in England, and to
give some idea of the character of the collection of appliances
exhibited in London and elsewhere in connection with this move-
ment. I have waited till now in order that I might be able to state
positively that so far the society’s efforts have met with almost
complete success. The University of Oxford has just appointed a
reader in geography; not only so, but the appointment has been
given, I believe I am safe in saying, to the only one among the
numerous candidates likely to carry out the views of the Geo-
graphical Society as to what the geography of the future should be.
Mr. Harford J. Mackinder, the new reader in geography, is a young
graduate of Oxford, who has taken high honors both in science and
in history, and thus is qualified to treat geography adequately on all
its sides. As one of the lecturers in connection with the Oxford Uni-
versity extension scheme, he has attended large and enthusiastic audi-
ences in various English provincial towns. What his conception of
geography is may be seen from the paper which he read before the
Geographical Society, and which is printed in the Proceedings of
March, 1887. Cambridge University has decided to follow the
example of Oxford in the beginning of next year, and meantime has
requested the council of the Geographical Society to nominate one
or more of its members to lecture on the subject in the autumn of
the present year.

Thus it will be seen, that, so far as our two great universities are
concerned, the recent efforts of the society have been completely
successful : for it must be borne in mind that the council of the
society have all along felt, that, unless geography were recognized

“90

at our universities, it would be hopeless to attempt to make any im-
pression, on our higher schools at least. Now, with two good men,

working on right lines, and filled with contagious enthusiasm, at ~

our two great universities, we may confidently expect that improve-
ment will filter downwards.

It is nearly twenty years since the society felt compelled to raise
geography from the low level it has occupied in English education.
It memorialized both Oxford and Cambridge, but its memorials
were scarcely even honored by a reply. Medals were offered for
competition among certain (about fifty) selected schools of the
higher grade; but after sixteen years these were dropped, from lack
of competitors. Three years ago the council resolved to institute a
thorough inquiry into the whole question of the position of geogra-
phy at home and abroad, and did me the honor of appointing me to
conduct the inquiry. The results of the inquiry have been pub-
lished in the form of a report, which has been. referred to at some
length, on various occasions, in Sczemce, so that I need not analyze
it in detail here. The general conclusion was, that except in a few
rare cases, depending mainly on the tastes of individual teachers,
geography has no substantial place in English education. In many
of our higher schools it is not taught at all. In most cases where
it is taught, it is the barrenest of studies, consisting in the learning
of long lists of names and figures. Rarely was any attempt made
to show the intimate connection between physical and political
geography, the latter being taken almost invariably in its narrowest
and meagrest acceptation. In our elementary schools, on the other
hand, some attempt is made, under the guidance of the Govern-
ment Code, to make the subject a reality ; but even here it is by no
means compulsory. On the continent, again, especially in Ger-
Many, geography is everywhere taught, in every grade of school,
and throughout nearly-all classes in all schools. While the position
is not the same throughout all the provinces of Germany, and while
here also a good deal depends upon the teacher, still the subject
holds a high position, and is taught after intelligent methods. It
was everywhere admitted that improvement in Germany has been
largely due to the establishment of chairs in the universities, of
which there are now a dozen. In Austria, France, Italy, Holland,
Belgium, Norway, Sweden, the position of the subject and the
methods of teaching were far ahead of what we find in England.
The Education Bureau of the United States very kindly instituted,
on behalf of the society, an inquiry into the position of the subject
in the schools there. Unfortunately the voluminous documents
thus collected did not reach me until after my report was written ;
but, from what I gather from the documents, I fear American
schools, so far at least as the methods and standard of the subject
are concerned, are not very far ahead of those of the Old Country.

There can be little doubt that the society’s recent action, apart
from the results in the universities, has had considerable effect on
the schools generally. It has drawn wide attention to the subject;
not only laid bare its neglect and the poverty and wretched quality
of the appliances used in teaching, but has set before the public a
higher standard than was dreamt of before, and indicated how the
despised and rejected subject might, with proper methods, become
one of the most fruitful fields of scientifico-historical research. It
has been shown that geography has a field uncovered by any other
department. Of what is known as physical geography, — the topo-
graphical surroundings of humanity, — there is not much to com-
plain: its facts and principles are pretty well known, and fairly set
forth in numerous text-books. It is when we come to apply these
facts to humanity, to deal with their bearings on the development
of man in communities, that we find so much to desire. Mr. Mac-
kinder defines geography as the physical basis of history : may we
not extend this, and say it is the physical basis of all the activities
of collective humanity? At present ‘political’ geography consists
mainly of a catalogue of States and their subdivisions, their routes,
towns, and ‘chief manufactures.’ If ‘ political’ were taken in its
wider and more correct sense, and political geography treated as
the department of knowledge that dealt with the development of
States so far as that is influenced by geographical conditions, then
it is evident that both as a branch of knowledge and as a discipline
we might expect the most fruitful results. What are the lines on
which this new geography should run may be learned from the
lecture of Mr. Mackinder, referred to above; from the lecture de-

SCIENCE:

[Vou xX. Nomea7

livered in connection with the society's exhibition, and presented in
one large volume along with my report; and from an admirable
paper by Dr. Boas in Sczence a few months ago. To attempt to
develop the subject further here would take more space than can
be allowed me. Suffice it to say that this aspect of it is rapidly
gaining ground in England, both in our schools and among thought-
ful men generally, and I am confident will make more rapid head-
way in the future.

It was part of my duty to collect specimens of the various ap-
pliances used in teaching geography at home and abroad. The
collection thus formed so grew on our hands that it developed into
a somewhat formidable space when displayed. This collection was
On view in a large hall in London in the end of 1885 and beginning
of 1886. During 1886 it was sent by request to Manchester, Edin-
burgh, and Bradford, and at each place attracted large numbers of
visitors, chiefly teachers and those interested in education. The
collection was not meant to be a model one, but only typical of the
various appliances in use. It therefore contained good and bad;
more of the latter, I fear, than of the former. The most prominent
feature was the collection of wall-maps from the leading European
countries. Besides these, there were relief-maps of all sizes, models,
globes, telluria, text-books, atlases, and hand-maps, and a variety
of other odds and ends. The principal result of this exhibition was
to bring out in strong relief the poverty of English productions of this
class, especially when compared with the variety and excellence of
the appliances used in Germany. English wall-maps, for example,
like English text-books and English geographical teaching generally,
seem mainly intended to record names. Physical features are en-
tirely subordinate, and special physical maps are rarely met with in
our schools. High and aimless coloring is the most prominent
feature of our maps and atlases; and these, with our text-books,
reflect painfully the low standard of the subject which exists here.
German maps, again, while capable enough of improvement, are in
execution, instructiveness, intelligence, and accuracy, far above any
thing we have here, except in one or two cases. In the best Ger-
man schools we find wall-maps always in pairs; a physical map, with
physical features simply, but permanently laid down, and no names ;
and a political map, with the physical features subordinate but clear,
in which the political features and names are laid down. Some of
the best wall-maps come from Winterthur, near Ziirich, from the
establishment of Randegger, and are almost perfect specimens of
cartography. Even Italy, following close on the heels of Germany,
furnishes its schools with better maps than does England; while
France, though improving, is not often very far ahead of ourselves.
To Italy we owe some of the best large relief-maps, —maps ac-
curately executed from surveys, and with the minimum exaggera-
tion of altitudes. At the same time Delagrave of Paris sent some
beautiful specimens of large relief-maps by Mlle. Kleinhaus. The
great model of the Monte Rosa group, executed by Imfeld and
Heim of Ziirich, was the gem of our exhibition, and has been
secured for the science collection at South Kensington. Unfortu-
nately its price places it beyond the reach of most schools. But
reliefs of a glacier, of a volcanic island, and other subjects, by Pro-
fessor Heim, are cheap enough, and of the greatest utility in teach-
ing physical geography. I am glad to say that not a few teachers
were induced to invest in copies. The globes were mostly too
small. No globe under eighteen inches diameter is of much use
for the purpose for which such an article is ordinarily used.
The larger the better, but unfortunately large globes are too
dear for ordinary schools. We had one or two relief - globes,
but the exaggeration of altitudes is so great as to render
such globes pernicious. We had some very large black slate
globes of foreign make and wonderfully cheap, with only the
lines of latitude and longitude marked. These globes, in the
hands of good teachers, can be put to excellent use in a variety
of ways. The ordinary planetarea and telluria are mere toys.
Their mechanism is so coarse and elaborate as to convey the
most erroneous conceptions to young pupils. The most useful
thing of this kind was a simple terrestrial globe on a revolving
arm, with a small glass globe in the centre to hold a candle,
which represents the sun. But any teacher who knows his busi-
ness, can, with a simple ball or an orange, and a lamp, show all that
the most elaborate tellurium can illustrate, and with much less risk

AuGUST I9, 1887. |

of conveying misleading ideas. We had a simple and highly in-
structive arrangement devised by Mr. Francis Galton, to whose
initiation I may say the whole of this geographical movement is
due, to show the relative sizes of sun and earth and moon. We
supposed the distance between sun and earth to be reduced to 56
feet. On a wall we fixed a disk of cardboard colored yellow, 6
inches in diameter, for the sun. Ona table 56 feet away we had
a pellet of wax, .o56 of an inch in diameter, suspended by a hair to
the end of a splinter of wood 1.68 inches in diameter, to represent
the earth. At the other end was another pellet, .o15 of an inch in
diameter, to represent the moon. This arrangement costs nothing,
and can be adapted to any building. In fact, there is ample room
for a variety of demonstration of the kind in connection with geo-
graphical teaching, as wellas of experiments to illustrate geographi-
cal facts. Thus the crumpling of the earth’s crust might be illus-
trated by bringing lateral pressure to bear on a plastic material ;
and already in a few English schools sand and clay are used to
build up the physical features of acountry or region. The magic
lantern also may be used with great effect to produce large-scale
maps on the screen, to exhibit special features, and to bring pic-
tures of typical landscapes before the eyes of the pupils. One of
the most interesting and novel of our exhibits consisted of several
series of geographical pictures from Germany; that is, pictures
whose special object is to show the characteristic features of the
various regions of the globe, and the typical forms assumed by the
leading classes of phenomena with which geography deals. The
best of these pictures is the series of about thirty oleographs pub-
lished by Holzel of Vienna, and which are now coming into use in
this country. Above all things, such pictures must be accurate,
and therefore good large-scale photographs are often to be preferred,
—such photographs, for example, as are produced by the United
States surveys and by private enterprise, — of some of the most
striking features in American scenery. For teaching purposes,
however, it should be remembered that it is not extraordinary fea-
tures that are desired, but typical aspects of the earth’s surface, —
ordinary mountain forms, a prairie, a delta, a tundra, a steppe re-
gion, a coral island, a sandy desert, and so on.

_ The text-books and altases which were exhibited were analo-
gous to the wall-maps. The English text-books were mostly
too large, and too crowded with names and tables, and made no
attempt whatever to show the intimate relation between all sections
of geography, and the influence which man’s geographical sur-
roundings has upon his social and political development. The
German text-books are comparatively small ; contain mostly heads
of subjects, the filling-up being left to the teacher, who has gen-
erally had a thorough training in geography at the university or
the normal school. I am sorry I cannot speak very highly of
American text-books. Asa rule, the American text-book is com-
bined with an atlas and picture-book, —an arrangement which I
do not consider a happy one. Neither text, nor maps, nor pic-
tures, are any better shown than we have on this side; and even
with Guyot’s geographical manuals we were much disappointed.

Altogether the collection of geographical appliances has proved
most suggestive and instructive. Reform has already begun.
Many schools are now using Kiepert’s wall-maps, and publishers
are making haste here to supply the glaring want of good text-
books, atlases, and wall-maps. Teachers have been stirred up to
recognize existing deficiencies, as well as the undreamt of capa-
bilities of geography when treated liberally and intelligently. They
see that in geography, as in mathematics, a special training is re-
quired if it is to be taught effectually. The society appeals to the
elementary teacher by offering a series of prizes on the basis of the
examinations of the training-college students, and many of the
school boards are instituting radical improvements in their geo-
graphical appliances. Out of the collection, which is once more in
London, we are forming a small typical collection for exhibition
to any who may wish to know what are the best things in any de-
partment. This collection is of course very small to begin with ;
but we hope, that, as improvements are introduced, we may be able
to extend it.

Altogether I hope it may be seen from these notes that the Geo-
graphical Society has at last succeeded in raising geography from
the slough in which it has lain so long in this country; has not

SCIENCE. at

only initiated great improvements in the teaching of the subject,
and obtained its recognition at our great universities, but has shown
that it is eminently capable of becoming a fruitful and instructive
medium of research, worthy of taking its place alongside of other
departments of scientific investigation. J. ScotT KELTIE.

DES DUDYIORIGEO GRARTING

THE Ausland of May 9 contains an extract of A. Stauber’s
essay on the promotion of the study of geography, which carried
the prize offered by the King of Belgium. The author discusses
the methods which ought to be applied in primary teaching, in high-
schools, and in colleges. In the primary grade, the method is that
of object-teaching. First, the geography of the child’s own coun-
try is taught, beginning with the nearest surroundings, the school-
house or home, the village or city, the county, and so on. The
close connection between natural history and geography must be
kept in mind by the teacher, who is warned against overburdening
the children’s brains with names and dates. The drawing of maps
and the use of charts are recommended; but Stauber remarks
justly that not too much weight should be laid on the drawing of
maps, which must only be practised as a means to impress the con-
figuration of the earth’s surface more effectively on the child’s mind.
In the upper classes, an atlas ought to be used, but it is important
to select maps which contain the proper amount of material and
show the geographical features of the country clearly and simply.
After the native country has been thoroughly studied, the geography
of the native continent, and later on that of the other continents, is
taught.

In high-schools and colleges the analytic method gradually takes
the place of the synthetic. The reading of travels is recommended
as a means of making the study more attractive and of preventing
its becoming a mere memorizing. The connection between natural
history and geography must always be emphasized, and character-
istic objects ought always to be shown. But, in order to be able
to do this kind of work, teachers ought to be thoroughly conversant
with the problems of geography. This can only be accomplished by
the study of geography at a university. Therefore the establishment
of professorships of geography is demanded. At the present time
there are seventy-five such professorships at European universities.
In Prussia, every university has its professor of geography; at
other German universities there are lecturers. In England, geog-
raphy will be taught in Oxford and Cambridge, as lecturers were
appointed a short time ago. In Belgium, Greece, Portugal, Sweden,
and in the United States, the science of geography is not taught by
specialists, but, when it is taught at all, only incidentally.

Among the manuscripts which received honorable mention is an
American one by Prof. Richard Owen of New Harmony, Ind. We
are indebted to the author for a statement of his proposals.

The first principles of his method of teaching are, that he only
makes one step at a time from the known to the unknown, and that
the eye instructs more than the ear, and that consequently, when-
ever practicable, the object that is being described, or a good repre-
sentation of it, should be shown. As ‘a consequence of his first
principle, he presents only one thing ata time. For instance, he
uses a separate outline map, Ist, for the general outlines of the con-
tinents; 2d, for the same with mountains only; 3d, for the same
with rivers added; 4th, for all these with political divisions. He
depends chiefly upon numerous plastic relief-maps as a system of
instruction, and shows that these can be made very economically,
and that children of from ten to twelve years of age take great in-
terest in their construction. He begins his course in the same way
as Stauber, by having the student study the geography of his home,
and by haying him make the plan and model of the school-house, or
of his own house and garden, by measurement and according to a
definite scale. Then he proceeds to teaching the topography of his
town, county, state, and finally of the United States.

Using the globe, he begins to give his pupils an idea of the earth
being nearly a sphere, by various demonstrations, and by calling in
a traveller who testifies that he returned to the place of beginning
of his travels by steadily travelling west, and thus teaches the ele-
ments of mathematical geography. In teaching, he uses numerous
maps and diagrams, showing the phenomena of physical geography,
and models to explain the forms of the earth’s surface.

92 SCENE:

HEALTH MATTERS.
Evergreens and Consumption.

AT a meeting of the American Climatological Association, held
in Baltimore, Dr. Loomis of New York read a paper on evergreen-
forests as a therapeutic agent in pulmonary phthisis, in which he
said that it had long been known that similar climates, as deter-
mined by geographical and meteorological conditions, have different
therapeutic effects. It is becoming more apparent that there is
some relation between the development of organisms and atmos-
pheric conditions. Cold and high altitudes render the air aseptic ;
but the degree of cold and the height required are so great, that
clinically it is not possible to derive much benefit from this fact.
The effect of a purely aseptic air upon ulcerative processes is not so
great as the effect of an atmosphere which is aseptic on account of
the presence of antiseptic agents. The belief in the good effects of
pine-forests in cases of phthisis is quite unanimous, and the clinical
evidence in favor of their beneficial influence is unquestioned. The
atmosphere in such regions is not only aseptic, but also antiseptic.
Such an atmosphere contains considerable turpentine-vapor, and we
should therefore expect it to contain a certain amount of peroxide of
hydrogen. The majority of cases of phthisis die, not directly from
the lesions in the lung, but from the secondary septiceemia and pyz-
mia which are set up. It is impossible to apply to the ulcerations
within the lung the antiseptic washing and dressing that is em-
ployed in external lesions ; but, if an antiseptic atmosphere can be
obtained, we may hope to counteract the secondary poisoning.
Such an atmosphere will not destroy the bacilli, but it will accomplish
much in the way of arresting the suppurative process. The
atmosphere in the region of evergreen-forests acts in a manner
similar to the antiseptic agents which are successfully used to arrest
suppurative processes in other portions of the body; and, in all
probability, the active agent is peroxide of hydrogen resulting from
the oxidation of the turpentine-vapor. While it is not possible for
every one suffering with pulmonary phthisis to go to an antiseptic
atmosphere, yet it is possible to render the air of any particular
locality antiseptic. In the course of the discussion of Professor
Loomis’s paper, Dr. Cohen reported excellent results in the way of
alleviating the symptoms of phthisis by the inhalation of terebinthin-
ate substances, especially when associated with the peroxide of
hydrogen, or oxygen.

BOOK- REVIEWS.

The Republic of the Future ; or, Soctalism a Reality.
BOWMAN Dopp. New York, Cassell & Co. 24°.

THIS is not a pretentious book, but a pleasantly written series
of letters “from a Swedish nobleman living in the twenty-first
century to a friend in Christiana.” It appears from the letters
that the American Republic has been dynamited, and upon its
ruins a socialistic republic established. The year of the revolution
is 1900, and, by placing the date of the letters late in the twenty-
first century, the author assumes sufficient time to have elapsed
to fully develop the characteristic society. The Swedish noble-
man, recognizing the evils of society based upon the principle of
competition, and learning that the Americans (that is to say, the
Germans and Irish, who have exterminated the English stock) have
succeeded in forming a socialistic society, pays a visit to this
strange people for the purpose of studying their institutions. His
letters are descriptive both of what he saw and of what he
thought.

Such is the plot of the book, and it certainly is an attractive one ;
but, to be useful as an argument, the ideas from which it starts
must properly represent the socialists, whom it undertakes to
criticise. This, however, it fails to do. The author is either
ignorant of the writings of the best socialists, or has deliberately
chosen the views of inferior men in order the more easily to ridi-
cule them.

It is right that such a charge as this should be sustained by
specific statements, and we will call attention to three points in
which these letters fail to appreciate or to understand the theory
of socialism.

First, It is assumed that socialism demands absolute equality of

By ANNA

[Won OX. Now 227,
condition: for example, only homely women are permitted to be-
come educated, lest the equality of attractiveness should be de-
stroyed ; and much more of the same sort. This is foreign to the
spirit of socialism. ‘It is not equality of condition, but equality of
opportunity, that is demanded. The rule of distribution is that
each shall share in the good things of life according to his efficiency
as a producer. It is communism which says, “To every man accord-
ing to his needs:” socialism says, ‘‘ To every man according to his
ability.”’

Second, It is assumed that government directs methods of ex-
penditure as well as methods of production. In this Republic the
houses are built according to law. Dress, too, is prescribed. But
all this is a mistaken notion. It is not found in the writings of
representative socialists. Indeed, the opposite is expressed. A
sharp line is drawn between wealth used as capital, and wealth
used for giving enjoyment to the consumer; and there is no sug-
gestion that law should prescribe how this second class of wealth
may be used.

Third, The author of these letters says that ‘Progress and
Poverty’ is the Bible of the new republic. It is read from the
rostrum of the temple erected to ethical culture, —a temple, we are
told, which stands without a steeple. Now, it seems hardly
possible that our author could have read ‘Progress and Poverty’
with care, or the many contradictions which exist between the
views of Mr. George and those realized in the socialistic society
described, would have been recognized. For example, socialism
charges upon commercial competition all the evils of modern
society : it is therefore quite right to say, as our author says, that
in a socialistic society competition in business-matters finds no
place. But Mr. George does not desire to exclude competitive ac-
tion: indeed, he is a firm believer in the doctrine of /azssez-fazre.
He is a freetrader. He says, make one simple change in the
system of taxation, and the natural laws of trade will insure justice.
No socialist would recognize him as more than a temporary leader.
He does not go far enough. He proposes only to nationalize land:
the socialist would nationalize both capital and land.

This review has taken the book reviewed to be a serious argu-
ment against socialism. As such it is worthless, because it does not
properly apprehend what socialism means. The reviewer does not
call attention to this because he is a believer in the programme of
social reform set down by Blanc and Lasalle, but because he feels
that every witticism made at the expense of truth assists the cause
which the writer of this book undertakes to oppose. It may be
that this point of view is incorrect. Possibly the book was in-
tended to be merely a bit of facetious writing. As such it is a
success. It is bright, in good style, and full of pleasing imagina-
tion; but for an argument it is too full of imagination.

HENRY C. ADAMS.

The Electric Transnizsston of Energy.
New York, Van Nostrand.

THIS book forms one of the ‘ Specialists’ Series,’ which is a series
of handbooks for students and practical engineers. It begins with
the customary résumé of the elements of electrodynamics, together
with a brief study of the nomenclature of the science, and the units
used in electrical measurements. While this part of the work is,
on the whole, well done, it is evidently the product of the so-called
‘practical ’ mind, rather than that of the educated or well-informed
electrician.

A few curious statements occur, which illustrate the difficulty with
which makers of handbooks contend in attempting to absorb, or at
least to represent, purely scientific conceptions. As an instance the
following may be quoted: “ The potential of a body is its property
of allowing energy stored up in it to become potent, that is, to do
work.” Aninvestigation of the ideal motor and the ideal system of
transmission is followed by an examination of the various types of
armatures and the principles which govern their action. The field-
magnet is then taken up, its many forms illustrated, and some
attention is paid to magnetic resistance, self-induction, etc., use be-
ing made of ‘ characteristic curves’ in the development of the prin-
ciples involved. The subject of the efficiency of the motor is treated
at some length, and various systems of transmission are described,
including some of the applications of electricity to railway locomo-

By GISBERT Kapp, C.E.

1205

AvuGuST I9, 1887.]

tion, Tolerably complete discussions of some of the principal trials
of long-distance transmission are also included, together with some
of the numerical results of these trials. The volume contains much
that is interesting and useful to students of electricity, and will be of
undoubted value to those who are engaged in its practical applica-
tion. The American reader will look in vain for any account of the
more recent and highly important improvements in motors and sys-
tems of transmission which have originated in this country. This
will not be a matter of regret to any one who has secured a copy of
the next book under review.

By MARTIN and

The Electric Motor and its Applications.
WETZLER. New York, W. J. Johnston. 4°.

MADE up largely of articles contributed by its authors from time
to time to the Evectrzcal World, by far the greater portion of this
volume is devoted to an exposition of the results of American ac-
tivity in this field. Again is found on the first page the usual cut
showing Oersted’s experiment, and the usual brief and unsatisfac-
tory presentation of elementary principles, without which it seems
impossible for a book on electro-technics to make its appearance.
Not much can be said in favor of this well-nigh universal introduc-
tion. The reader has but to turn over a single leaf to find himself
involved in the use of such terms as ‘ counter-electromotive force,’
‘Lenz’s law,’ ‘the law of Jacobi,’ and many others, for the proper
understanding of which little assistance has been rendered in the
short study of ‘ theoretical principles.’ Books of this class are writ-
ten for and read by those who already know more than the ele-
ments of the subject, and their presentation might safely be omitted.

Two chapters are devoted to an account of the earlier experiments
with motors in Europe and America, and in the division of space
Europe gets five pages to America’s sixteen. A chapter is given to
the theoretical consideration of the problem of the electrical trans-
mission of power, followed by a very short one on the electric rail-
way and tramway in Europe, and a very long one on the electric
railway and street-car lines in America. The use of storage-bat-
teries with electric motors on street-railway lines concludes the first
half of the book, the remainder of which is devoted to a considera-
tion of the industrial applications of electric motors in Europe and
America. Much the largest share of space is given to American
systems and inventions, and many of the most important ‘plants’
now in operation are described. The work is largely historical and
descriptive in its character, a scientific treatment of the subject be-
ing only attempted in a single chapter.

As a résumé of what has been thus far accomplished, especially
in this country, in the development of one of the most promising
fields of applied electricity, it will be found to be very interesting
and useful. Illustrations form a prominent feature of the work,
there being as many as two hundred, many of which occupy an
entire page. Several of the largest and most elaborate illustrations
are intrinsically of very little value, being merely ‘ pictures’ which
are in no way especially related to the real object of the work, and
convey no useful information. Of such may be mentioned a full-
page ‘winter view’ of an electric street-railway, in which the only
thing suggestive of electricity is a possible lightning-rod upon a
building in the background.

Electric Light Primer. By CHARLES L. LEVEY.
Author. 8°.

THIS little primer consists of thirty-five octavo pages of good,
bad, and indifferent matter relating to the management of dynamos
and electric lights. The ‘ practical man’ here has full sway, and he
wisely declares in his preface that ‘it is not supposed that these
pages will be of any value to the electrician.”

They would have been of much greater value to the workmen
and engineer in charge of electric machinery if they had been pre-
pared by one who really understood what he was writing about.
As it is,a good deal of knowledge of the subject is required to
separate the good from the bad.

The Storage of Electrical Energy. By GASTON PLANTE.
York, Van Nostrand. 8°.

THE work before us includes the principal researches of Planté,
contributed to the French Academy, and various scientific periodi-
cals, from 1859 to 1879. The full history of the secondary battery,
as it grew in his hands, will be found in the first two or three

New York, The

New

SCIENCE: 93

chapters, and the construction of various forms is given with great
exactness of detail. His use of the transforming rheostat for the
purpose of obtaining electricity of ‘high tension’ is described at
length, together with many practical applications of this device.
The volume includes an account of Planté’s experiments on the
nature of the electric discharge under high tension, and also his ap-
plication of these researches in the explanation of many natural
phenomena.

While many electricians will be unable to agree with him in his
conclusions, all will be glad to find the results of his labor in so
compact and usable a form as that in which they are presented in
this volume.

Electricity treated Experimentally.
M.A. London, Rivingtons.

ALTHOUGH an excellent little book, it will be something of a
disappointment to the many teachers and students who have for
several years made good use of the ‘ Theory of Electricity,’ by the
same author. The disappointment will grow out of the fact that it
is a less complete and comprehensive treatment of the subject than
will be generally looked for. It contains the substance of a series
of experimental lectures given to senior boys in Rugby School, and
not much preliminary mathematical training is assumed. In a few
of the discussions a knowledge of mathematical principles as de-
veloped in the author's ‘ Theory ’ is desirable, but in such cases the
fundamental formule may be taken for granted or the articles may
be omitted. Magnetism is first studied, and then a relatively large
space is devoted to frictional electricity.

Book III. is devoted to voltaic electricity, and fills rather more
than one-half of the entire volume. At the end of each general
subject will be found an excellent list of problems and exercises ;
and, as the author says, the book is educational, and not technical,
in its plan and character. There are doubtless many courses of
study into which it will fit with extremely satisfactory results.

Facts and Fictions of Mental Healing. By C. M. BARROWS.
Boston, Carter & Karrick.

THE writer of this book states that he has not himself been en-
gaged in mental healing, but has enjoyed exceptional facilities for
studying its operations, and investigating a great number and
variety of alleged cures. He is convinced by the results of many
careful tests, that, if the mental treatment of disease be not all that
its most sanguine advocates picture it, it is a powerful therapeutic
agent when skilfully used, and based on a philosophy which has
done the world incalculable good. In presenting the claims of this
method of treatment, he has tried to make it apparent that there is
a sound physical reason why well-directed thought should help the
sick as much as medicine does ; that a mental cure is nothing mys-
terious, but a natural event, which could not but take place under
favorable circumstances. He disclaims any desire to compel the
reader’s assent, but his aim has been to awaken thought and
deepen the reader’s interest by fairly stating the evidence both for
and against mental healing, and let him decide for himself. There
are facts that prove the possibility of such cures beyond a perad-
venture. There are fictions, also, which must be abandoned if
mental healing is to get and retain a hold upon the popular atten—
tion. It has a philosophy that will bear the intensest light that can
be thrown upon it ; and the subject needs only to be presented to
educated, thoughtful persons in the right way, to appeal to their in-
telligence and convince their reason. Under the title ‘ Mental Heal-
ing’ the author of this book includes ‘spiritual healing,’ ‘ prayer
and faith-cure, ‘metaphysical healing,’ ‘Christian science,’ and
‘mind-cure.’ In an introductory survey, the wonderful reputed
cures are referred to of Dr. Newton, who, in Boston, in 1859, re-
stored the sick to health by the laying-on of hands; of Elizabeth
Mix, an ignorant colored woman of Connecticut, who performed
many faith-cures; of Dorothea Trudel, who, in 1861, in Switzer-
land, worked remarkable cures of cases given over by physicians as
utterly hopeless ; and of others which want of space will not permit
us to quote. The objection is often made to the various forms of
mental healing, that there is no positive evidence that the cures are
what they are claimed tobe. Most of them, it is said, are performed
by persons unskilled in the science of pathology, and not qualified to
judge whether the subjects of their treatment really suffer from the

By LINN&£US CUMMING,

22

94

alleged disease, or, if actually sick, are fully cured. The best an-
swer that mental healers can make to this charge is, that, whether
right or wrong in their judgments of what ails their patients, they
act precisely as any sensible physician would under like circum-
stances, and try to relieve the disease. In a chapter on the creeds
of mental healers, we find that these differ to a considerable degree
among the different schools or sects: for these points of difference
we shall have to refer our readers to the book itself. Mr. Barrows
states that it would not be putting the case too strongly to say that
the theory of the mental healers, carried to the highest point, traces
every form of disease, as well as sin, to mental causes, which may
be removed and the effects destroyed. Even death itself they hold
to be an illusion, that may be dispelled by a full reception of the
truth and consequent right thinking. Thought creates a world for
each one of us; thought makes the body; and all physical phe-
nomena, whether of disease or health, are due to thought. In com-
menting on this view of the subject, the author says, that, if utter-
ances like these seem extravagant, it should not be forgotten that a
new truth — and every truth we grasp is new to ws, though old ‘to
all the world beside — is apt to intoxicate its possessor, and become
to his infatuated sense the universal solvent of the enigmas of life.
Time and experience may safely be left to adjust the value of these
claims; but meanwhile it is not the mark of wisdom to fear or ridi-
cule them. We must confess, that, after a very careful reading of
Mr. Barrows’s book, we are as much in ignorance of just what is the
basis of the mental healers claim as we were before. They
seem, indeed, to be divided into more sects or schools than
those usually called physicians. Some of their claims, as quoted
by Mr. Barrows, are simply absurd. Take this one, for exam-
ple. It is an extract from one of the text-books of mental
healing prepared for the guidance of students who intend to
practise that method. If the case to be treated is a consumptive,
begin your argument by taking up the leading points that this
disease includes, according to belief, showing it is not inherited,
that inflammation, tubercles, hemorrhage, and decomposition are
but thoughts, beliefs, mental images before mortal mind, not the
immortal Mind: hence they are not the truth of man, and should be
treated as error, put out of mind, and then they will disappear from
the body. That Mr. Barrows is a firm believer in mental healing is
apparent from his writings ; and that he himself believes that some
of its teachers and practitioners make ridiculous claims for it, also
seems to be clear. We are inclined to agree with some of the
writers to whom he refers, — with Dr. Buckley, for instance, who
acknowledges that most extraordinary recoveries have been pro-
duced, some of them instantaneously, from disease in some cases
generally considered to be incurable by ordinary treatment, in
others known to be curable in the ordinary process of medicine
and in surgery only by slow degrees, — but can hardly be convinced
that the case quoted from ‘ Nature and the Supernatural,’ by Rey.
Horace Bushnell, ever occurred, certainly not under just the cir-
cumstances as given, where a child ill with scarlet-fever was, im-
mediately after a prayer made by his father, completely cured, so as
to pronounce himself quite well and ask for his dinner. Mr. Bar-
rows refers to the late Dr. Austin Flint with great respect for his
opinions ; and if mental healing, as he states, simply emphasizes the
highest doctrines of the medical schools as announced by Dr. Flint,
then we willingly acknowledge that there is‘much in it to demand
consideration and recognition. Dr. Flint, in one of his addresses,
said, “Let it be popularly known that most medicinal agents are
curative, not directly but indirectly, by the removal of obstacles in
the way of recovery; that Nature is always the efficient curative
agent, and therefore that the physician is Nature’s servant, not her
master.” We confess to a feeling of disappointment when we
finished reading this book of Mr. Barrows. His preface seemed
so fair and unprejudiced, that we expected to get a plain statement
of the facts, particularly as he had stated that he had enjoyed ex-
ceptional facilities for study and investigation. If mental healing
“is to get and retain a hold upon the popular attention,” and if
“the subject needs only to be presented to educated, thoughtful
persons in the right way, to appeal to their intelligence and con-
vince their reason,” we fear it must be done in a much simpler,
more matter-of-fact, and less metaphysical manner than has been
done by the author of ‘Facts and Fictions of Mental Healing.’

SCIENCE.

[Vou 2X. Nos 237;

NOTES AND NEWS.

THE officers for the next meeting of the American Association
were nominated as follows: president, J. W. Powell of Washing-
ton; vice-presidents, Ormond Stone of the University of Virginia
(Mathematics and Astronomy), A. A. Michelson of Cleveland
(Physics), C. E. Munroe of Newport (Chemistry), Calvin M.
Woodward of St. Louis (Mechanical Science), George H. Cook of
New Brunswick (Geology and Geography), C. V. Riley of Wash-
ington (Biology), C. C. Abbott of Trenton (Anthropology), C. W.
Smiley of Washington (Economic Science and Statistics); per-
manent secretary, F. W. Putnam of Cambridge (office Salem,
Mass.) ; general secretary, J. C. Arthur of La Fayette; secretary
of the council, C. Leo Mees of Athens; secretaries of the sections,
C. L. Doolittle of Bethlehem (Mathematics and Astronomy), A. L.
Kimball of Baltimore (Physics), William L. Dudley of Nashville
(Chemistry), Arthur Beardsley of Swarthmore (Mechanical
Science), George H. Williams of Baltimore (Geology and Geog-
raphy), N. L. Britton of New York (Biology), Frank Baker of
Washington (Anthropology), Charles S. Hill of Washington
(Economic Science and Statistics).

— The arrangements for the tenth annual meeting of the
American Society of Microscopists are now definitely made. The
society convenes in Pittburgh, Penn., Aug. 30, 1887, and will prob-
ably continue its sessions four or five days. There will be a field-
excursion to Chartiers, and the society will be invited to visit the
extensive steel-works of Carnegie, Phipps, & Co., at Braddock.
The party will go by steamer up the historic Monongahela : a field-
excursion has been planned in connection with this pleasure-trip.
There will be collected a temporary library of rare books and
manuals. A considerable number of volumes have been promised.
These will be under the constant care of a librarian.

ITIL INITINS) TNO) ALEVE, IBIDIIKOIR,

** The attention of scientific men ts called to the advantages of the correspondence
columns of SCIENCE for placing promptly on record brief preliminary notices of
their investigations. Twenty copies of the number containing his communication
will be furnished free to any correspondent on request.

The editor will be glad to publish any queries consonant with the character of
the journal.

Correspondents are requested to be as brief as possible.
in all cases required as proof of good faith.

An Insect-Fight.

AN observation quoted by Professor Morse in his address before
the American Association last night is so exactly confirmed by a
recent observation of my own, that it seems worth while to put it
on record.

While sitting in a hammock slung between two large maple-
trees on the lawn, I heard a loud buzzing and fall of something
behind me, and, looking around, I saw on the grass a locust
(cicada) in the grasp of a large insect, evidently of the wasp family,
but which I am not sufficiently well posted in entomology to name.
It had brown wings, and large abdomen colored black or dark
brown with white spots. The whole length of the insect was about
thirty-five or forty millimetres. When first seen, the struggling
locust was on its back; the wasp extended above it head to head,
and industriously plying its sting between the abdominal wings of
the locust. The locust quickly became quiet, and then the wasp,
maintaining its former position, which it did not at any time
abandon, grasped the head of the locust by the middle pair of legs,
and, using the other four legs for locomotion, started to drag it
through the short grass toward one of the trees. There was no
hesitation or uncertainty, but the wasp started at once in a straight
line for the foot of the tree. On reaching the tree, the wasp
began without pause to carry its burden up the trunk, using its
four legs for walking, as before, and assisting itself to sustain the
weight of the locust by putting its wings in operation. In this
way, with a few brief pauses as if to rest and get better hold, in one
of which it hung for a moment apparently by one leg, the locust
was carried up among the branches of the maple, some twenty feet
or so, where it became difficult for me to follow its motions. After
reaching such a height, the wasp flew off in a straight line through
the branches, and went out of sight. I think it carried the locust
with it, but the height was so great that I could not be positive.
At any rate, the locust did not fall to the ground, although, as the

The writer's name is

Aucust 19, 1887. |

wasp’s flight started from a crotch in a limb, it is possible that the
locust was left in the crotch. The whole incident showed a per-
fect understanding, on the part of the wasp, of what he proposed
to do, and the carrying-out of a preconceived plan of procedure
without any stopping to think what he would do next. The only
pauses were in going up the trunk of the tree.

C. G. ROCKWOOD, Jr.
New York, Aug. rr.

A Good Word.

I SEE by your last issue that the Teachers’ National Association
indorsed the Blair bill. I am sorry to learn of this, as I think that
bill is an imposition upon the intelligence of the people of this
country.

In the first place, any State that cannot support schools in which
to educate its children must be poor indeed; and, in the second
place, any State that would accept national aid has not the spirit
necessary to a sound government. We can plainly see where the
most of that aid would go, and we do not feel like sending it into
those States. I am aware that many will deem me unjust; but,
be that as it may, I would never consent to the Blair bill, and I am
sorry that my fellow-teachers ever gave their indorsement to sucha
bill, as by so doing it may have some weight in the future; but
then teachers are only mortals, and many of them seem to have
very poor judgment.

I am glad to see the position that Sczewce takes in this matter,
and you may rest assured that I shall be a life subscriber to that

paper. I consider it the best paper published in this country for
any advanced teacher or scientific man. I wish you the best of
success. JAMES LAWREY.

Fremont City, Io., Aug. 8.

The Formation and Dissipation of Sea-Water Ice.

SEA-WATER possesses several characteristics that make the
operation of freezing different from that in the case of fresh
water.

The density of sea-water increasing till the freezing-point is
reached, it follows that its conversion into ice will take place
beneath, instead of at the surface as in the case of fresh water.
The freezing-point in most cases, then, should be situated near the
bottom of the column of water, if not actually at it.

In equal thicknesses of fresh and sea water ice, two inches of the
first will support a greater weight, without fracture, than an equal
thickness of the latter; although it is quite possible, that, where
greater thicknesses are concerned, the advantage may be in the
opposite direction.

Sea-water ice is much less ‘brittle’ than that of fresh water;
rising and falling under the influence of a heavy sea, and adapting
itself to its undulations, in cases where fresh-water ice would be
fractured : this is particularly noticeable in the earlier stages of its
formation.

An inch of newly formed sea-water ice will not support a man’s
weight, and, in giving way beneath him, does so abruptly, without
any warning preliminary fissures, leaving a cleanly cut hole of the
same extent as the surface over which direct pressure was admin-
istered, and thus differs from fresh-water ice, which, on being
fractured in this way, carries down a large portion of the surface
beyond the area directly under pressure. We may therefore con-
clude that the cohesion amongst the particles in fresh-water ice is
greater than in the case of sea-water, and possibly that the arrange-
ment of the ice-crystals is different in each. Those in the case of
fresh water, forming horizontally at the surface, overlap and bind
each other together, whilst those from sea-water would seem to
arrange themselves vertically, as a comparison of the fractures in
each case will show.

The formation of a film of ice over a sheet of sea-water takes
place indifferently, as to position, during calm weather; but, with
a light breeze blowing, the permanent formation commences at the
windward shore; narrow and rapidly lengthening ‘streamers’
form from the points of this shore; continuing, and growing very
slowly narrower as it does so, it may reach a length of from four

SCIENCE.

95

hundred to five hundred yards; then parallel streamers combine,
till at last the entire surface is covered. A great peculiarity of the
proceeding is the extreme narrowness of these streamers in com-
parison to their great length, and the consequently great cohesion
that is capable of overcoming the strain that must be caused by
even a light wind blowing over so lengthy a surface, whilst it is
rising and falling to the pronounced ripple on the water's
surface.

Recently formed sea-water ice is not of uniform texture through-
out its depth. A section of four inches would be represented by a
thin layer of partially decomposed ice, looking very much like thor-
oughly saturated snow; then about two inches of ‘sodden’ ice,
occupying a condition intermediate between that of the surface
film and fully formed ice, both in consistency and appearance ; and,
finally, the fully formed ice, having every appearance of fresh-water
ice. These differences in the several strata of the ice do not con-
tinue, once the temperature of the air becomes very much lower
than that of the water’s freezing-point.

When the ice is first formed in tidal waters, that portion of it
which is left aground above low-water mark freezes to the bottom
(the temperature of the air being supposed to be below the water’s.
freezing-point) ; so that, on the water rising again, it is left there,,
submerged. Over this, at the surface of the water, another ice-
film is formed, which, on reaching the level of the submerged ice,
is frozen to and remains with it in this position. This operation is
repeated, till the result is, that a perpendicular wall of ice forms,
whose outer limit is the low-water mark, terminated by a hori-
zontal surface shorewards at the limit of high-water mark. The
outcome of this peculiarity is, that the shore outline in winter
undergoes a complete transformation, of more or less extent in
accordance with the difference existing between high and low
water mark. In the case of a mud or sand bottom, the ice,
though freezing to it, possesses sufficient buoyancy to raise a film
of mud or sand with it each time, till it is of sufficient thickness
to counteract this tendency.

The explanation of this phenomenon seems to me to be as follows =
in the first place, it is essential that the temperature of the air should
be below the freezing-point of the water; and, in the next place, it
is evident that the temperature of the earth forming the bottom
must be above the freezing-point, else ice would form there; still,
it need not be much above it, as the water, being very nearly at the
temperature of its freezing-point, would reduce the surface of the
bottom to that point, less the increase in temperature consequent
on the convection of the earth’s heat to that surface. The freezing-
point of sea-water being 26°.7, the melting-point of sea-water ice
28°.8 (Sczence, ix. No. 228, x. No. 232), then, if the temperature of
the bottom lies between these values, we can understand, that,
when the formed ice is placed in contact with it by the falling tide,
the temperature of the air reduces that of the water which is run-
ning off the ice as the tide leaves it, so that it freezes and cements
the ice to the bottom. To free it again requires that the tempera-
ture of either the air or the water should rise above 28°.8, which,
with the water at 26°.7 and the atmosphere below this point, is not
possible: therefore our ice remains fast to the bottom.

Fresh water freezing, and its ice melting, at the same tempera-
ture, it cannot possibly freeze to the bottom ; for, granting that the
temperature of the water may be 32°, that of the bottom must be
above, both on account of the water in contact with it being at a
higher temperature than this, and because, even if we assume the
temperature at 32° throughout, that of the bottom must be above
this, owing to convection, as before stated. Anchor-ice does form
in fresh water, but not on the bottom proper, as it attaches itself to
bowlders or pebbles which are not themselves in perfectly continu-
ous connection with the bottom proper, and are therefore largely
surrounded by the water, and correspondingly affected by its
temperature, whilst insensibly affected by convection; so that, if
we can assume conditions under which the water's temperature
would be below the freezing-point, we have those cases in which
anchor-ice will form.

On account of the position of the freezing-point in a column of
sea-water, it is possible, under certain conditions, for two films of
ice to form, one below the other. This was actually observed to
have taken place under the following conditions: the temperature

96

of the water at its surface had been 29° for some days, when a very
rapid and extensive fall in the temperature of the air took place; the
following morning a film of ice half an inch thick had formed beneath
the surface, and had become fixed in position at the under surface
of the harbor-ice, whilst another film a quarter of an inch thick had
formed at the surface of the water, leaving a space between them
of about four and one-half feet.

The dissipation of sea-water ice by the approach of spring takes
place at first much more rapidly from the upper than the under
surface, the atmosphere reaching the required temperature so much
sooner than the water. No sensible effect had been produced by
the water till its temperature exceeded 29°, when a loss of trans-
parency and vertical stratification of the ice became visible as the
first signs of its dissipation from beneath. In the mean time, of a
total thickness of four and one-half feet, eight inches of the upper
surface had been dissipated. W. A. ASHE.

The Observatory, Quebec, July 29.

The Florida Heron.

Mr. SHUFELDT’S article on the wanton destruction of our
heronries I found decidedly depressing reading. As an eye-witness,
he was able to give graphic pictures of both life and death. There
is perhaps no bird more beautiful, and at the same time more harm-
less to mankind. Indeed, it is its wonderful beauty that brings its
cruel death; and the lack of fear and cunning, being never engaged
in mean work, makes it all too easy for the barbarous murderer to
approach. The heron is unfortunate. Nature has given it what
human vanity makes valuable; and as only death can bring this
beauty within reach of the hard-hearted wretches, whom money
will induce to do many revolting things, the poor bird must die. If
this were the only instance of the kind, it would be yet more pain-
ful to our better natures, and those who are guilty of the outrage
would seem to us more blameworthy. In truth, it is the trivial use
to which the heron’s plumes are put that makes the act of getting
them so detestable. The taste which calls for them is that of crea-
tures not yet developed to the highest form. Would a bird’s feather
of any kind add to Venus de Medici? Yet feathers, even those of
a buzzard’s tail, would adorn an Indian female. When we con-
template any young lady of our age and generation, whose head is
so covered with feathers that the only part of the impression the
memory retains is that of the curiously combined mass of bird-
plunder, we are apt to be led to reflections which it would be cruel-
ty to the good-intentioned girl to make known to her. If the gentle
creature is really beautiful, that beauty cannot be adorned, except
from within. Any attempt to add to it externally by bright-colored
ribbons, flashing jewelry, or plumage, is always shocking to refined
minds. If beauty is lacking, the use of accessories to make up
what nature has denied is quite certain to excite contempt or com-
passion.

The truly hideous practice, in vogue a few years ago, of wearing
the bodies of birds on the head, seems to have been too much, even
for the calloused sensibilities of people of fashion. To be attacked
by hungry cats, or to see the famous myth of a spring chicken on
Biddy’s proudly erect head, was too unpleasant. That there was
any sentiment about it is not easily conceivable. The silent woods
and meadows did not trouble the dissipated young female of the
city. She must be in the fashion, or she must die; and, if she
reasoned at all, it was to the effect that it were better that birds
should die than that she should give up her slavish ghost.

The fate of the heron is plain. After the slaughter has continued
until only here and there a shy one can be found, they will probably
assemble in convention, and migrate, to be seen by us no more.

It would be idle to legislate, for only hunters know the way to
their resorts, and the former would hardly do for constables. The
very habits of a hunter would make it impossible to catch him at it;
and, as he likes the sport too well, it would not be practicable to try
bribery. The horrible evil will have to be put up with until fashion
shall dictate something to take the place of the matchlessly beauti-
ful plumage, or until the frightfully persecuted bird takes itself to
remote regions impossible of access to man.

This topic has occupied my mind at times for many years, and I
have mourned over the fate of the harmless denizens of our glades ;

,

SCIENCE:

[VoL. X. No. 237

but I have never been able to form a plan of hinderance that did
not soon prove impracticable. I have submitted with a sigh which
sometimes became almost a groan, My experience will, I fear,
have to be that of all who become interested in the subject. The
few words which I have brought together here may be of use in
checking the abominable fashion: otherwise they are useless.

Wy IR, JRO
Yalaha, Fla., Aug. rt.

Answers.

12. MosQUITOES.—In Sczence for Aug. 5, ‘T.J. H. queries
concerning the re-appearance of mosquitoes on Staten Island seven
days after a storm. Though I have made some notes in reference
to Culex from time to time, this fact has never been observed.
Storms are always disastrous to insect-life, and will kill or blow
away moths and butterflies, as well as mosquitoes; but that these
latter insects should re-appear in numbers seven days after a storm,
will depend entirely upon whether the majority of the pupz have
reached maturity or not at that time. Mosquitoes are present in
numbers all summer on the salt meadows, — indeed, I have scooped
with my two hands together hundreds of their larvee from the little
pools, — but it is only at intervals of about a month that they
swarm on the upland. During the latter week in May or first week
in June, and the first days of July and August, I have noted swarms
of mosquitoes in past years. The worst visitation of all is likely to
be the July one, or at least it has been generally so. On low ground
and near the meadows I have seen horses in July dressed in gar-
ments made for the occasion, and others decked with a profusion of
wild indigo, that shook violently as they trotted along. The older
residents remember well the mosquito visitation of July 3, 1862,
when the vegetables were left unpicked in the garden for a week,

and people wore mosquito-net over their hats.
Wo. T. DAvIs.
Tompkinsville, Staten Island, Aug. 9.

13. ELECTRICITY AND THE EARTH. — In your issue of Aug. 5,
Mr. M. A. Veeder points out some passagesin Deschanel’s text-book
of physics, which he takes to imply that moist air isa good conductor
of electricity, and that the earth is a reservoir of electricity ; and
then he asks, “ Has Deschanel been superseded ?” I do not happen
to have the book referred to at hand, but it does not matter. It is
true enough that one may complete an electric circuit through the
earth, or through any part of it, when there is proper conducting-
material at the wire terminals, not otherwise. The earth, in such
case, acts solely like a return wire to complete the electric circuit,
and its sole function is conductivity between points that differ in
electric potential. As most of the earth’s surface is made of con-
ducting-materials, one may make connections for conduction almost
anywhere, and it is a great convenience to be able to do so; but it
does not follow that the earth stores up any electricity at all, so that
it might be called a ‘reservoir.’ Electricity is but a transient
phenomenon, and, when it does work in no other way, is changed
at once into heat, in the earth as well as anywhere else. It is there-
fore improper and misleading to speak of the earth as a reservoir of
electricity. As to the effect of a damp atmosphere upon electrical
machines, it is well enough known that if means be provided for
preventing the deposition of moisture upon the surface of such
machines, by heating or otherwise, the machines may be kept
electrified for an indefinite time. The electricity generated creeps
over the damp surfaces of wood or wax or varnish to the earth,
not through the air, whether moist or not. If moist air were a
good conductor of electricity, or if it were one of the best conduc-
tors, as was stated by Mr. Garriott, it is highly probable that tele-
graph companies would have found it out long ago, and have had
to insulate the wire from the air, instead of which they find it only
necessary to insulate from the posts upon which the wires are
hung. There is nothing new or strange about these things, except
it be, that, having been patent to all for so long a time, they should
be unknown to any who are pretentious enough to criticise the
labors of those who work according to knowledge, and at the same
time evolve out of their consciousness a theory unsupported by a
single experiment, and directly contradicted by all we do know.

A. E. DOLBEAR.
New York, Aug. 12.

| ah) EGS

FRIDAY, AUGUST 26, 1887.

A FEW WEEKS AGO Stanley’s death was announced by a cable
despatch from St. Thomé. A missionary at Matadi was said to
have received the news from a negro who had come from the upper
Kongo. A few days ago the French government received a tele-
gram to the same effect from Zanzibar. Both these reports are
utterly unreliable. The last letters from Stanley were dated from
Aruwimi Falls, June 18. He informed his friends of his safe arrival
there, and says that the natives report numerous falls and rapids
farther up the river. Therefore he was about to begin his land
journey to the Mvutan Nsige. No later news has been received at

ALVAN CLARK.

the mouth of the Kongo, and the arrival at Zanzibar of letters or
news from his expedition at this date is out of the question, as the
distance is very great and part of the route difficult. It is probable
that at the present time Stanley is very near Emin Pacha, or has
met him. The messengers who were sent from Zanzibar to inform
Emin of Stanley’s expedition were detained some time by Mwanga,
and only recently reached Unyoro. Here they learned that Emin
had crossed the Mvutan Nsige, and gone up the river which prob-
ably connects the Muta and Mvutan Nsige. They were unable to
see him, and therefore were expecting his return. From these re-
ports it appears that Emin never intended to make his way through
Uganda, as was said some time ago. News from Central Africa
reaches us now with such wonderful speed that we may expect to
hear soon of the meeting of Emin and Stanley on the shore of the
Mvutan Nsige. Emin’s latest letters show that the condition of his
province has greatly improved, and that at the present time peace
prevails on the banks of the upper Nile; but he says that the negro
tribes are at the present time much more powerful than they were
before the war, as they have obtained numerous guns. Therefore
Stanley’s help will be very welcome, and probably enable him to
carry on the work of civilization which he has so successfully
begun.

TWO LOSSES TO SCIENCE.

THIS week we have to chronicle the deaths of two leading
American scientific men. Spencer F. Baird, born at Reading,
Penn., Feb. 3, 1823, died at Wood’s Holl on Aug. 22. Alvan Clark
died the same day at his home in Cambridge, at the age of eighty-
three, having been born, at Ashfield, Mass., March 8, 1804. We
have already told, in Sczence, of Baird’s life. He was from youth
interested in natural history, and so devoted his time and energies
that he was early an honored companion of the best. His executive
powers finally led to his being singled out as a fit head for first one
and then another of the rapidly growing government scientific
organizations, and it is for his good conduct of these affairs that we
now best know him, and for which he received the sincere respect
of the public. Of Clark it might be said that we came near losing
him. He was forty before he began his life-work which made him
famous. His oldest son, as many a boy has before and since,
wished a telescope, and, per force of circumstances, must make it.

SPENCER F. BAIRD.

He asked his father’s help in grinding and polishing the piece of
speculum metal he had obtained for his reflector. The father had
never seen a mirror or lens ground and polished. But, as he once
said, “a father tries pretty hard when a child asks for help ;” and
this father did try, so that now the renown of his achievements as
a maker of lenses is world-wide.

Mr. Clark had been in his usual good health up toa fortnight ago,
when he complained of illness, and though no disease of an organic
nature appeared, he gradually failed, and death resulted from old
age. He was essentially a New England man. He labored on the
farm until he reached his twenty-second year, and then, having by

98

his own endeavors acquired considerable skill at painting, secured a
position as a calico engraver at Lowell. Here he married Miss
Maria Pease, and last year they celebrated the sixtieth anniversary
of their wedding. From 1826 to 1835 he was employed at the
Merrimac works at Lowell, designing patterns, a part of that time
being employed at other establishments of a similar character.

During all that period he kept up his practice as a painter, he
being an enthusiast in that direction. In 1835 he discontinued his
business as a calico designer and engraver, and moved to Boston and
established a studio on Tremont Street, selecting Cambridge as a
place of residence, his home being on Prospect Street. His pictures
of the late Dr. Hare of Philadelphia and that of Dr. Hill of Cam-
bridge are specimens of his skill and taste. At the house on Brook-
line Street there are a number of specimens of his art, among which
are the faces of Daniel Webster, Constable Clapp, renowned in his
day as a skilful detector of crimes, and of a son who died when a
youth, painted from memory. During this time sons and daughters
were born to him, George B. in 1827 and Alvan G. in 1832, both of
whom are living.

He began with his sons in 1846 the manufacture of telescopes.
The younger son, Alvan G., at first entered into other business, but
finally settled down to that of telescope making, and all three, under
the name and style of Clark & Sons, have worked together for
nearly forty years.

In 1850 Mr. Alvan Clark went to Europe and spent a great deal of
his time with Mr. W. R. Dawes, the English astronomer, and while
in his observatory discovered a new star, now known as companion
to ‘99 Hercules. Mr. Clark afterward had an extensive corre-
spondence with Mr. Dawes, and spoke of his connection with him
as the closest friendship of his life. Soon after his return from Eu-
rope in 1860 he received the first order for a large telescope in this
country from the University of Mississippi, the glass being 184
inches, three inches larger than any that had been hitherto success-
fully used in the world. The war prevented its sale to the southern
college, and it was finally purchased by the University of Chicago.
Then followed the construction of two glasses of twenty-six inches
each, one being disposed of to the University of Virginia and the
other placed in the observatory at Washington. Their reputation
rapidly spread through Europe, and orders came faster than they
could be filled. The number of instruments they have made is
very large. The cheapest one cost $300, while the national tele-
scope was sold for $46,000, and the cost of the Lick glass was set
at $50,000 without the mounting.

This was the work of a man who never had seen a lens in pro-
cess of construction in the hands of any one out of his own shop.
Mr. Clark was emphatically a self-made man. His only education
was what he received in the public schools of western Massachu-
setts. His reputation was patiently, steadily, and justly earned,
His extraordinary power seemed to be acuteness of the eye, of the
touch, and of the understanding, combined with unlimited patience.
Not long since he said: “I owe largely my recognition by the
scientific world to Mr. Dawes. I had, as I thought, with one of
my telescopes discovered several new double stars. I wrote to
Dawes, asking him to verify my observations. He answered that
they were real discoveries. I reported other discoveries.
Dawes wrote: ‘Where did you get your telescope?’
was my reply. I sold him that glass and five others.”

“I made it,’

PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ASSOCIATION.

Section C.

THE address of Vice-President Prescott was on the chemistry of
nitrogen as disclosed in the constitution of the alkaloids. He said,
“ The character of nitrogen is a challenge to chemical skill. Mock-
ing us by its abundance in its free state, the compounds of this ele-
ment are so sparingly obtained that they set the rate of value in
supplies for the nourishment of life, — the agent chosen and trusted
for projectile force in arts of war and of peace, — yet the manufac-
ture of its most simple and stable compound has been a vain at-
tempt, and it is one urged anew by the chemical industries. More-
over, nitrogen holds the structure of the aniline dyes, and governs
‘the constitution of the vegetable alkaloids. In research the nearest
approaches to the molecule as a chemical centre have been reached

SCIENCE.

Mr. |

[Vous xo Noy 226.

through organic chemistry. Carbon was the first and hydrogen has.
been the second element to give to organic chemistry a definition.
At present, carbon is looked upon as the member for fixed position,
and hydrogen as the member for exchange, in organic families.
Nitrogen comes next in turn to receive attention. The study of
the carbonaceous compounds of nitrogen promises to do for organic
chemistry what the latter has done for general science.”

The speaker then outlined the history and present state of the
structural chemistry of the vegetable alkaloids, as follows: ‘1. Nitro-
genous bases as derivatives of ammonia. 2. Nitrogenous bases.
represented by aniline. 3. The pyridine type in the vegetable alka-
loids. The constitution of the pyridine and quinoline series was
ascertained by Koerner and by Baeyer in 1870. These bodies can
be obtained from bone-oil and from coal-tar. They areofa remark— .
able chemical structure. Like aniline, they have the closed chain
of six positions, but, unlike aniline, they have one of these positions
held by nitrogen. The introduction of the atom of nitrogen into the
closed ring so affects the qualities of the molecule that stable addi—
tion-products are formed. About 1879 it began to appear that the
vegetable alkaloids in general are of the pyridine type, of ‘ aromatic’
composition. In this type the structure of ammonia is not violated ;
and the theories of Liebig, Wurtz, and Hofmann are not superseded.
Within the last three or four years the veil has been drawn from the
structure of the chief alkaloids of plants. Even before that, the
alkaloids of black pepper, tobacco, and hemlock, of very simple
composition, were studied with success. The alkaloids of the bella—
donna-root, the cinchona-bark, and the coca-leaf, are now subject
to an increasing measure of constructive operation in the laboratory.
Morphine is convertible into codeine, and the efforts to convert
strychnine into brucine, and cinchonine into quinine, ought to suc-
ceed. The necessary studies of position in the pyridine molecule
are being entered upon. Some good medicinal alkaloids are being
made by art. It may come that the identical alkaloids of nature
will be made by art. Not by chance efforts, however, nor by pre-
mature short-cuts, but, if at all, through the well-earned progress of
the world’s chemistry, will these results be gained. And it speaks
enough for the rate of this progress to say that one of the very first
of the forward steps here recounted was taken by a man still living
as a contributor. Due honor for what his hands have done, and
all gratitude for what his eyes have seen.”

Thirty-five papers and two committee reports were presented to
the section. The papers may be classified as follows :— Azalytzcal
Chemzstry, on a new apparatus for fractional distillation, by T. H.
Norton; on the improvement in stand for electrolysis, by W. H.
Herrick ; on a process for separation of alkaloidal poisons, by Ar-
thur L. Greene; on the determination of nitrogen by soda-lime, by
W. O. Atwater; on indirect determination of calcium, by W. H.
Herrick ; on a new method for the preparation of anhydrous alu-
minum chloride, by C. F. Mabery. Plant Chemzstry (agricultural
and pharmaceutical), on the composition of wild-cherry bark, by F.
B. Power and Henry Weimar; on the chemical composition of the
juices of sorghum-cane in relation to the production of sugar, by H.
W. Wiley ; note on the chemistry of germination, and on the ab-
sorption of nitrogenous nutriment by the roots of plants, by William:
McMurtrie; on a compound rich in carbon occurring in some
plants, by Helen C. DeS. Abbott. Ovgandc Cheméstry, on the
fatty acids of drying oils, by L. M. Norton; on some higher homo-
logues of cocaine, by F. G. Novy; on the salts of benzene-sulphonic
acid with the amines, on some new metallic salts of benzene-sul-
phonic acid, on the amine salts of para-toluene-sulphonic acid, on
the action of silicon fluoride on acetone, on the limits of the direct
bromination of acetone and on the action between ammonium sul-
phocyanide and monobrom-acetone, on the action of chlorine on
acenaphthene, on the urates of ammonium and the amines of the
fatty acids, and on some new nitro-prussides, by T. H. Norton; on
the action of aromatic amines upon certain substituted unsaturated
acids, and on the constitution of the sulphur compounds in crude
petroleum oils, by C. F. Mabery. dzmeral Chemistry, on the
composition of Lockport Sandstone, by H. W. Weld; on the pro-
cesses of soil-formation from the north-western basalts, by E. W.
Hilgard ; on the occurrence in nature of a copper antimonide, and
on certain alloys of calcium and zinc, by T. H. Norton; analyses of
two manganese minerals, by F.C. Novy. Zheoretzcal Chemistry,

AucGust 26, 1887. | ’

‘on the significance of ‘ bonds’ in structural formulas, by Spencer B.
Newberry ; on positive and negative units of valence, by Albert B.
Prescott. Physdological Chemistry, on the percentage of ash in
human bones of different ages, by W. P. Mason; on chemical
changes accompanying osmose in living organisms as illustrated by
the oyster, by W. O. Atwater; on the delicacy of the sense of taste,
by E. H. S. Bailey and E. L. Nichols; on the scientific basis of
feeding infants, by A. R. Leeds. MJedzcal Chemistry, on the
causes, progress, and cure of a recent great outburst of typhoid-fever
at Mount Holly, N.J., by Albert R. Leeds. Committee Reports, on
methods of stating water-analysis, by G. C. Caldwell; on indexing
chemical literature, by H. C. Bolton.

Prof. L. M. Norton, in his experiments in drying oils, has detected
the presence of several fatty acids, which are not mentioned in
the books. Especially is this the case with cottonseed-oil, which
contains several acids in addition to oleic. Owing to easy oxida-
tion, it is difficult to separate these acids. The method of distilla-
tion in a vacuum was found most effective. Prof. T. H. Norton’s
papers on organic chemistry disclosed numerous lines of original
investigation undertaken in connection with advanced students, and
emphasized the growing importance of mingling original researches
with instruction, which is now practised so successfully by the lead-
ing laboratories of the world. The papers on analytical chemistry
contained nothing of general scientific interest. The alloys of cop-
per and antimony and of calcium and zinc presented by Professor
Norton disclosed many important facts. He found it impossible by
any known method to obtain an alloy of zinc and calcium contain-
ing more than five or six per cent of the latter metal. The proper-
ties of the compound are also profoundly affected by the proportion
of calcium present.

Dr. Wiley presented, in the paper on sorghum, the means of all
the recorded analyses of sorghum-juices. The important fact is
brought to light that this average juice is unfit for sugar-making,
containing at the rate of a little over twenty pounds of available
sugar to the ton of cane. In many instances, however, the percent-
age of sucrose in the juice is remarkably high. The successful
solution of the problem of sugar-making from sorghum depends
on the production of a uniform grade of sorghum reasonably rich in
sucrose. This should be the work of the agricultural experiment-
stations.

The sense of taste, as shown by the experiments of Professors
Bailey and Nichols, is in general more delicate in females than in
males. Bitter is detected in far greater dilutions than sweet or
saline tastes.

This session of Section C was remarkable in being almost free
from papers of a ‘cranky’ nature. No lurid schemes for the re-
generation of the human race by chemical affinity were presented,
and no intensely improbable properties of matter were described.
While many of the papers were crude and some of them quite ele-
mentary, it is nevertheless true that the Chemical Section is pro-
gressing in numbers and influence and the character of its work.

Section I.

THE Section of Economic Science and Statistics this year exer-
cised its usual latitude in the consideration of a great variety of
subjects; but, under the close scrutiny of its sectional committee
and the rulings of its chairman, everything objectionable was ex-
cluded and a high standard maintained. Thus, while all the sub-
jects presented were treated in a scientific manner, the proceedings
were so conducted as to meet with popular favor. Although in-
conveniently located on the upper floor of Hamilton Hall, so that
those unacquainted with the ways of the association had difficulty
in finding the place, the sessions of this section opened with a room
nearly full, on Thursday, and the attendance daily increased until
the closing session on Tuesday (Aug. 23), when the hall was un-
comfortably crowded by the largest audience present at any sec-
tional meeting during the week.

‘The Food-Question’ was, by special arrangement, made the
‘sole topic for Thursday. The sessions, both forenoon and after-
noon, were opened by Prof. W. O. Atwater of Connecticut, who
treated the subject much after the style of his articles in current
issues of The Century Magazine. We was enabled to add much
interest by a fine collection of illustrative material, some of the

SCIENCE

99

charts being his own, but the rest prepared at the Massachusetts
Institute of Technology, and loaned for this occasion by The
Industrial Education Association of No. 9 University Place in this
city, through the kindness of Miss H. R. Burns. Much interest
was manifested at both sessions, and the discussion took a wide
range, including the economy of food in its physiological and pecu-
niary aspects, the food of workingmen in its relation to work done,
and the preparation of food, together with the ‘cooking-schools ’
and their results. The most prominent participants in the discus-
sions of the day were Prof. W. H. Brewer of New Haven, E. J.
James of Philadelphia, S. A. Lattimore of Rochester, J. M. Ord-
way of New Orleans, Dr. D. E. Salmon of Washington, Mrs.
Richards and Mrs. Lincoln of Boston, and R. T. Colburn of this
city.

On Friday the section gave its attention to statistical and finan-
cial questions. The leading paper was by Prof. Edmund J. James
of the University of Pennsylvania, and was mainly a sharp and
well-presented criticism of the recent essays of Mr. Edward Atkin-
son upon the growth and rapidly increasing wealth of this country.
Dr. James showed grave omissions in Mr. Atkinson’s figures,
which greatly modified the deductions from them, and, by mar-
shalling the same statistics in a different form, reached very differ-
ent conclusions, both as to the country’s accumulating wealth as a
whole, and the earnings of laborers. Charles S. Hill of Washing-
ton followed with a statistical paper somewhat similar in character.
Then E. B. Elliott, actuary of the Treasury Department, continued
his last year’s exhibit of the rates of interest realized by investors
in the bonded securities of the United States. He showed, that,
based upon the market-prices of the government 4 and 44 per cent
bonds, the actual interest during the past year has never exceeded
2h per cent, and at times it has fallen below 2 percent. He pre-
dicted a net rate for some time to come, closely approximating 2
per cent.

As with the other sections, business was suspended from Friday
noon till Monday morning, by the various excursions, —an inter-
ruption emphatically disapproved by many active members.

The morning session of Monday took a rather philosophic turn,
although the title of the paper which gave rise to most discussion
made a claim to belonging within the realm of science: it was
‘The Science of Civics,’ by Dr. Henry Randall Waite, and while
covering broader ground, served especially as an argument and
justification for the American Institute of Civics, of which Dr.
Waite is president, and its work. An animated discussion ensued,
dealing with ethics, politics (in its best sense), and economics, and
their relations to one another. Monday afternoon, Section I joined
with that of Mechanical Science in considering the question of
Isthmian transit. This subject in its various bearings was clearly
presented by Commodore Taylor, Surgeon Bransford, and En-
gineer Peary, of the United States Navy, and Mr. J. W. Miller of
this city; and the interested audience seemed well convinced of
the superiority of the ship-canal and the Nicaragua route over all
other schemes, and the certainty of the early completion of this
enterprise by American capital, and to be under the control of the
United States.

Manual training, its methods and results, in public schools and
special institutions, from economical, industrial, and educational
aspects, formed the principal subject of the final session of the
section on Tuesday. Prof. Calvin M. Woodward of St. Louis, and
Prof. James of Philadelphia, read papers, and a general discussion
followed entirely favorable to manual training in every form.

Yan Phou Lee of New Haven closed the session with an elo-
quent address upon the Chinese question from a Chinese stand-
point, delivered before as large and enthusiastic an audience as any
assembled at Columbia College during the meeting of the asso-
ciation. It was a telling arraignment of the policy and conduct of
the United States in reference to the Chinese, and reminded one of
an epitome of Helen Hunt Jackson’s ‘ Century of Dishonor.’

HEALTH MATTERS.
Cure of Consumption.
AMONG the first to use Bergeon’s treatment for the cure of con-
sumption by gaeous enemata in this country, and certainly the first in
Philadelphia, was Dr. E.T. Bruen. As a result of the treatment

100

of twenty-five patients, Dr. Bruen deduced the following conclu-
sions : —

1. In nearly all cases lasting effects have been secured in the re-
duction of temperature, suspension of night-sweats, lessened cough
and expectoration, and in some all physical signs of bronchial
catarrh abolished.

2. Temporarily reduction of pulse-rate fifteen to twenty beats,
and temperature one-half a degree to one degree during the ad-
ministration of the gas.

3. The amount of gas introduced into the bowel has varied from
three quarts to a gallon at each injection. It has been introduced
very slowly, from fifteen minutes to half an hour being demanded
by the operation. The administration has been practised in most
cases twice in the twenty-four hours. No injurious effects from the
gas have as yet been observed.

4. Administration of the gas in different amounts and varying
degrees of concentration is now being practised, and also investiga-
tions into the characteristics of the sputa.

5. In only one of the cases of phthisis the effects of the gas have
been entirely negative.

6. In cases of phthisis complicated by intestinal lesions, experi-
ence is still insufficient to make it possible to state positive results.

7. The ultimate value of the treatment can certainly only be
established by time. The probable mode of action would seem to
be antiseptic, and, by reducing suppuration and the relief of the at-
tending serious symptoms, the patient is permitted to gain by food,
exercise, and general treatment. Thus far, the value of the gas
seems to be that of a useful therapeutic measure, rather than a
curative plan of treatment.

8. The method of preparing the gas for use in the hospital is as
follows: the carbonic-acid gas is passed through a solution of
chloride of sodium and sulphide of sodium in twenty-two ounces of
water. The proportion of the salts has been increased in some
cases, and some trials of other combinations are being made.

Of the twenty-five cases treated in the early part of the year, Dr.
Bruen has been able to follow fourteen of them continuously. Two
have since died. In twelve the physical signs remain unchanged,
the temperature still above normal, the flesh and strength not in-
creased after the first gain of an average of five pounds. Yet the
patients undeniably feel better. The process of suppuration, with
its attendant evils, has been modified, suppressed, or controlled,
and it must be admitted that the patients have been benefited by
the treatment. More recently Dr. Bruen has applied this method
in the treatment of twenty-four cases in private practice, and to
thirteen additional hospital cases ; so that, in all, he presents sixty-
two cases in which the treatment has been applied in a systematic
manner.

In commenting on the cases which have come under his care, in
a paper read before the Association of American Physicians, Dr.
Bruen says that two suggestions may be given for the failure of the
treatment to give better results. The first applies only to hospital
cases. It is impossible, in a large general hospital, to secure the de-
tailed attention to diet necessary to suit the capricious appetite of the
consumptive. In treating consumption it is absolutely necessary to
increase the vitality of the tissues so that they will be unfavorable
culture-media for the bacilli. The second suggestion is, that in
cases with inherited tendencies to phthisis, or in those who acquire
a phthisical tendency, there is great vulnerability of the mucous
membrane, which even fosters an outbreak of catarrhal processes
in the bronchial structures. In this way the good effects of the
treatment are constantly opposed. He thinks that suitable climatic
environment is an all-important adjunct to the proper settlement of
the value of Bergeon’s treatment. But it is certainly an important
addition to the therapeutic equipment to have an agent capable of
influencing very markedly bronchial catarrh in so many cases,
especially the stay-at-homes. In a word, Bergeon’s treatment is
chiefly valuable in those cases of pulmonary disease attended with
bronchial catarrh; but it is to be feared that the trouble and detail
necessary to its successful use will prevent many from employing
the method, and the limitation of its power will cause it often to be
set aside for other plans of treatment.

It is more desirable, in the treatment of consumption, to adopt
those measures which tend to establish the general health, than to

SCIENCE.

‘[Vot. X. No. 238

hunt up specific forms of treatment. Suitable climatic conditions,
judicious alimentation, and appropriate personal hygiene, are the
first :principles in the therapeutic management of phthisis, and Ber-
geon’s method should be considered an adjunct to these.

HYDROPHOBIA INOCUEATION IN NEW YORK.— Dr. Sommer,
an Hungarian physician, obtained the consent of the mayor and
president of the Board of Health of New York to conduct experi-
ments with the yirus of hydrophobia upon the dogs collected by
the dog-gatherers and taken to the pound. The Society for the
Prevention of Cruelty to Animals have, however, interfered, and
require the doctor to obtain the authority of some medical college
or university in the State before they will permit him to conduct his
investigations. We should think that an application, properly
made, to any of the medical institutions of the city, would be fol-
lowed by the granting of the requisite authority.

USE OF OPIUM.— Dr. Boynton is authority for the statement
that Woodstock, Vt., consumes a large quantity of opium. There
are four druggists in the town, and they report that their sales of
opium in a single year are sufficient to make one hundred gallons
of laudanum, equivalent to one hundred and sixty-seven ounces of
morphine. Of this, only five per cent is sold to physicians. It can
hardly be possible that there is any greater demand for opium in
Woodstock than in other towns of the same size, and yet we can
hardly believe that this represents the true condition of things in
our New England towns. If so, the thought is a startling one, and
should receive more than passing notice.

SEASICKNESS. — We have already mentioned a number of rem-
edies for seasickness. Dr. Sutherland suggests another, which
he employed successfully in crossing the English Channel, he
escaping when almost every one was sick. He takes a tight hold
of one of the pillars supporting the deck, and, as the boat rises in
going over a wave, he runs uphill, as it were, reversing the direc-
tion of his run when the boat descends the wave.

CETTI’s Fast. — It will be remembered that Cetti, a Norwegian,
fasted for twelve days in Berlin under the observation of Professor
Virchow. In June he began another fast, of thirty days, for scien—
tific purposes. During the fast he was detected eating gelatine
jujubes, about a half-pound of which were found on his person.

SCARLET-FEVER. — Dr. Edington of Edinburgh claims to have
discovered a bacillus in the blood, and desquamation, of patients.
suffering with scarlet-fever. The Medico-Chirurgical Society of
Edinburgh has appointed a committee to investigate the bacillus.
and its relations to scarlet-fever.

BOOK- REVIEWS.
Romantic Love and Personal Beauty: thetr Development, Casuat
Relations, Hestorzc and Natzonal Peculiarztzes. By HENRY
T. FINCK. New York, Macmillan & Co. 8°

IN the current issue of an American weekly this volume is re-
viewed under the heading of ‘A Curious Book.’ This epithet it
most decidedly merits. Though the first impression of the work is.
that of its uncommon character, this feeling gradually gives way to.
an ever-increasing recognition of the intrinsic importance of the
argument it sets forth, until in closing its pages one feels that some-
thing has been added to his stock of knowledge, a new light has.
been more or less brightly cast upon many problems, and that these
acquisitions will always be associated with Mr. Finck’s book.

The fundamental note of the book is the evolution of love, the
most conservative element of human nature, that which poets and
essayists delight in pronouncing as always and always to be the
same, is shown on proper analysis to be subject to that same devel-
opmental process which Darwin has associated with his name.
Not only have the affections a natural history in the animal world
closely affiliated with appearances in early man, but that form of
love that to-day is ##e love par excellence — romantic love — is.
itself only a very modern development, not a thousand years old.

The passion that gives the ground-tone to modern social life,
that plays the chief 7é/e in imaginative literature, that attracts the
attention of all travellers and observers, that has revolutionized and
is modifying many of the problems which to the sociologist are of

AvucusT 26, 1887. |

maximum importance, the passion that so permeates our mental
tissue that we read ancient history and literature through the spec-
tacles it puts before our eyes,—this passion was unknown, or,
where known, neglected, until moderntimes. This announcement
is most startling. If it can be satisfactorily established, it will take
its place not only as a most important historical fact, but as arichly
suggestive generalization, reflecting light on certain obscure prob-
lems of anthropology, giving the marriage and courtship customs
of all peoples, primitive, ancient, and modern, a newer, fuller biologi-
cal meaning, as well as pointing the way to the solution of many
social questions of the day which irrelevant and unscientific discus-
sion has done much to confound.

Mr. Finck is a biologist, and includes in his treatment the arrange-
ments for mutual attractiveness of the sexes found in plants and
animals. This prevents a too narrow anthropocentric view of the
affections, and escapes the danger into which literary men have
fallen of regarding as typical what is almost accidental. But first
the characteristics, the ‘overtones of romantic-love,’ must be set
forth. Mr. Finck enumerates eleven. (1) Individual preference.
The savage chief does not hesitate to exchange one bride for
another equally attractive; the lover cares for one alone. (2)
Monopoly. Not only does he prefer her alone; he expects all her
attentions. (3) Any neglect leads to the third ‘overtone,’ jealousy,
which by inspiring watchfulness and fear keeps the flame aglow.
(4) Coyness, a feminine trait, which by retarding increases the
lover’s passion. (5) Gallantry, a masculine trait, acknowledging
the conquest. (6) Self-sacrifice, which may be an exaggerated
gallantry or a suicidal impulse of unrequited love. (7) Sympathy.
No pleasure is complete unless enjoyed by both. (8) Pride of con-
quest or possession. (9) Emotional hyperbola. The lover sees,
thinks, and feels in superlatives. (10) Mixed moods. Finally, (11)
Admiration of personal beauty, — that all-important esthetic over-
tone that now more than ever leads the way to love.

Many of these qualities are shown by animals. Individual
preferences, gallantry, jealousy, sympathy, are illustrated in many
authentic anecdotes. Birds especially —and along with this goes
their monogamous habit — show a much more refined and noble
courtship than the lowest savages. In savage life, where courtship
consists in knocking the girl on the head and carrying her away,
love can hardly find a place. Even in the higher forms of court-
ship by purchase or service, nothing but a very rudimentary form
of real love can enter. Individual preference there was none;
polygamy flourished. The woman was the slave, and none of the
romantic virtues were possible. In historic nations the advance is
at first small. Egypt had trial marriages of one year’s duration.
Amongst the Hebrews polygamy, the exclusion of woman from all but
the minor social duties, and the selection of the wife by the father of
the suitor, prevented true romantic love, in spite of the elevation of the
woman to be the companion of man, which that nation introduced.
The Greeks show no true love-stories. They say much of con-
nubial love ; filial and sisterly love is a frequent theme. Friendship
and platonic love is the type of the highest Greek affection. The
women were excluded from the living interests of the nation; male
beauty was the admired type. Rome made an advance, but not a
great one. Engagements were made by parents at a very early
age. Social customs forcing the girl to marry one of the same pro-
fession as her father, and the like, prevented a choice. In later days
marriage was a farce, and divorce the rule. The poets, in advance
of their age, uttered a few strains of romantic love; Ovid especially
pleaded for gallantry and the tender emotions. But all such begin-
nings were crushed by medizeval asceticism. Marriage became al-
most a degradation, celibacy a virtue; beauty and the personal
hygiene that led to it were considered sensuous. Love was to be
subdued and self-mutilation rewarded. Only with the dawn of the
renaissance did love again begin. Dante was the first love-poet ;
Romeo was the first hero-lover of a play. The chivalry that pre-
ceded these was either merely fictitious and fashionable, or more
usually an adoration of a married lady. It was not a courtship.
The poets sound but a weak strain of romantic love. Even Spenser
puts friendship above love. If the reader will imagine this outline
filled in with a host of corroboratory passages, cited from recognized
authorities, he must admit that Mr. Finck has made out a very
strong case indeed. Moreover, his scheme of the evolution of love

SCIENCE:

IOI

answers a Critical biological test. The law that the individual epit-
omizes the race holds here. Historically, maternal love is the old-
est and strongest (until romantic love appears). “Then paternal,
filial, and fraternal love are gradually developed, followed by friend-
ship (Greek) and finally by love proper.” The baby first and most
loves its mother; then the father receives attention, followed by sis-
ters and brothers. At school the Greek devotion and friendship
develops. Finally comes true love, which, usually passing like the
blind chivalry of old through a ‘ calf-love’ stage, emerges into ro-
mantic passion.

Into the author’s long and careful analysis of modern love it will
be impossible to enter here. His guiding principle is that love,
‘natural selection,’ is the bulwark of civilization. In comparing the
customs of various nations, those are regarded as highest that give
freest opportunity for social intercourse of the young, that widen
the play of selection, and thus lead to the amelioration of the race.
It is the excluding of French girls from a rational education, the
marrying them out of convents, that causes their homeliness and
the degeneracy of that race. The German system of chaperonage
and formal social equality in marriages is tending, though less seri-
ously, to the same end. In England and especially in America have
the agencies that lead to a betterment of the race full and free play.
This is precisely the view taken by Mr. Grant Allen. He regards
falling in love as the expression of the healthy instinct of mankind ;
and looks for the improvement of the race, not in any artificial sys-
tem of scientific or any other kind of mating, but in removing the
trammels from the free choice of partners, — in discountenancing
all but love marriages. All this has an important practical bearing
which Mr. Finck well expresses. He holds that “love may be
safely accepted as a guiding-star in making a proper division of the
world’s labor between men and women.” This point of view pleads
for the true higher education of woman, for giving her that intelli-
gence without which beauty is dead, that live interest in the world’s
activities without which frivolity is inevitable. The contrast be-
tween the homely, studious, earnest, retired maiden and the
pretty, lively, society-loving, frivolous, but silly and ignorant girl is
one that the perverseness of man has created. A natural educa-
tion will go far towards removing it. Again, the tendency of civil-
ization is to make men and women more and more different (we are
not speaking of legal and social privileges); the recent attempt to
make women masculine is biologically absurd. ‘“ Whatever ap-
proximation there may have been has been entirely on the part
of the men, who have become less coarse or ‘manly,’” while
woman has correspondingly increased her own refinement. The
spirit of the women’s rights movement is in opposition to the im-
pulse of romantic love, and will perish accordingly. Finally, this
point of view refutes the notion that intense love is inconsistent with
intellectual culture. On the contrary, only the highest culture can
appreciate romantic love; intelligence is an obstacle to marriage
only in a silly society ; the education of the head and the heart go
hand in hand. True culture teaches, not that this instinct is op-
posed to the highest life, but that all the refinements of civilization
have been gained by the virtues which it has taught men to ap-
preciate. The evolution of romantic love will continue until it has
stamped out all other artificial modes of promoting marriage.

The rest of the book is taken up with a minute discussion of per-
sonal beauty. Much interesting and readable matter is there set
forth: the scientist will be glad to read that the close relation be-
tween true beauty and health is so strongly and ably set forth.
Just as morality and hygiene have drawn closer together under a
scientific treatment, so hygiene and esthetics begin to overlap when
looked at in the light of science.

Mr. Finck’s book is sure to attract great attention. According to
a literary periodical, a German translation is in preparation. The
genial vein of humor that runs through much of it will attract the
popular reader, and the personal interest of the many titles in the
preface is sure to allure those interested in themselves. But, from
a scientific point of view, this is a fault of the book. A serious
paragraph suggestive of deep reflection is followed by a witty satire
on society or a light fling at a local abuse. Mr. Finck wants his
book to be taken seriously. A glance at the wide bearing of the
topic will at once convince the reader that the serious aspect of
the problem is supremely important. Consider in the first place

102

that romantic love is consistent only with a monogamous society
and that this kind of society is the bulwark of civilization; consider,
too, that the ways of finding one’s mate not only gives tone to the
social institutions of a nation, but, according as they are in accord
with or opposed to the inexorable laws of heredity and selection,
make for the amelioration or degeneration of the community ; con-
sider, next, that the education of the next generation is profoundly
influenced by our views of courtship and marriage; consider how
this fact will influence our conceptions of ancient life; consider that
the division of labor between men and women, and the admittance
of women into occupations until now monopolized by men, can
only be satisfactory settled by a settlement that does not interfere
with the reign of romantic love ; consider, in short, that all that is
deep and valuable in cultured life is here at stake, — and all must
admit that a knowledge of the laws of evolution as they affect
sexual selection amongst us is of the profoundest importance. Such
inquiries into the nature of human faculty as Mr. Galton is pursuing
are directed towards supplying this information. This knowledge
is not for the many; but in the hands of the few it is to be con-
verted into public sentiment against certain customs and ways of
thinking and in favor of others, by which, eventually, misery will
be checked and happiness increased. If Mr. Finck will accept a
suggestion, the present writer would urge upon him the preparation
of a review article embodying the main points in the evolution of
love, and expounding in a strictly scientific style, and without any
feuilletonistic 402 mots, the anthropological, sociological, and psy-
chological significance of this new? contribution to human develop-
ment.

The Hidden Way across the Threshold. By J. C. STREET.
ton, Lee & Shepard. 8°

The Mark of the Beast revealed by the Shape of the Head. By
LUCILLA R. HEDLEY, M.D. Philadelphia. 8°

Bos-

THE reviewer of books like these is in no enviable position ; espe-
cially as the reviews are written for those interested in science, and
the books any thing rather than scientific. The first is another of
those ponderous volumes—a combination of strange mysticism,
excited exhortation, wild symbolism, unscientific cant, and childish
credulousness — that one finds heaped up on the shelves of a sec-
ond-hand book-store. The author writes powerfully, makes his
points ably, appeals to his reader skilfully, and here and there
makes a noble plea for the despisal of the sordid and the living of
a high intellectual life. But those portions of the book in which
one feels the rationality and the earnestness of the writer give the
impression of being aloof from the real purpose of the work, —
accidental at least, if not inconsistent.

The weirdness of this intellectual conglomerate, it is hard to de-
scribe: the cause of such writing seems to be an hypertrophy of
that sentiment, common to all specialists, that the public at large
does not stand in sufficiently close contact with them; that they
live a life exclusive, — the life of an adept, an occultist. Mr. Street,
A.B.N., fellow of the order S.S.S., and of the brotherhood Z.Z.
R.R.Z.Z., is such an adept : “the mystery which hath been hidden
for ages and from generations” is revealed to him. He is in the
clouds, but the ladder, alas! is still to be found. The present
writer, at least, fails to get the slightest inkling of the process, save
that it seems much like dropping common sense and giving one’s
self over to wild fancy and morbid illusion.

The following extracts will perhaps be sufficient to enable the
reader to decide with which one of the categories into which he is
accustomed to divide books, this one belongs. Amongst the origi-
nal contributions to science here announced, we read that “the Sun
and Planets in space, as well as terrestrial objects, have their mag-
netic, odyllic, and astral emanations, and these exert influence upon
each other and upon every organized being, in proportion to their
size, their distance, and the velocity of their revolutions.” ‘This
Astral influence is conveyed to man, and acts upon him through the
Astral light. This, the palmister tells us, is composed of the seven
fluids which emanate from the seven primary planets respectively.

1 Mr. Finck thinks that the reason why no one has called attention to this recent
origin of romantic love is that no sufficient distinction has been drawn between
romantic and conjugal love.

SCIENCE.

“refers only to the leopard, bear, lion, and dragon.

Vio De ANiolt228

These fluids, separately and in their combinations, are tempered
and modified by the sun and moon.” And so on. Here is a won-
derful discovery: the sensations arising from the cut nerve-strings
of amputated limbs we thought explained by the physiological law
of the external projection of sensation. But, no! “All this is due
solely to the action of the Star-magno, or Astral, vibrating between
the amputated limb and the patient. So frequent and almost uni-
versal are such occurrences [i.e., cases in which the patient feels
amiss because something is wrong with his lost member: a num-
ber of such are cited] that all surgeons use the utmost caution in
disposing of amputated limbs.” ‘‘The Astral body, enclosing the
Soul like an atmosphere, can be and has frequently been seen by
attendants and physicians, leaving the animal body just at the mo-
ment of separation between Soul and body, known as death or dis-
solution.” Under proper light, there is seen accompanying the
death-rattle ““a column of thin ethereal violet blue vapor vibrating
and oscillating, ebbing, finally passing upward and fading away.”
As a piece of logic, the following cannot be excelled : “‘ The golden
sunlight produces vibration to the amount of 500,000,000 of mil-
lions in a second ” proportioned amongst the several colors in such
and such a way. “Of course, therefore, different colors must
necessarily affect the human soul,” etc. ‘Love comes from pink
and bright red, Hope and Faith from violet, Truth of blue, Melan-
choly of yellow, Epilepsy of pearl white,” etc.

Let us hear what the author holds regarding the material basis of
modern Spiritualism, that now stands in so bad a light. He gives
full details for forming spirit circles, which practically amount to

employing all conditions that make rational observation impossible,

and neurotic self-deception inevitable, and assures all that the fail-
ure of manifestations is always due to the bad influence of sceptics
and the like. “Students of occult mysteries,” he warns them with-
out seeing the double interpretation of his words, “never permit
scientific investigators or psychic-research committees to control or
even be present in the room during your efforts at development of
mediumship. Remember thought is a potential atmosphere. Their
worldly-wise theories create opposing vibrations and congeal the
Spirit. Even in large rooms and at a distance their presence is
highly objectionable.” If to this we add the definition of ‘a
medium,’ the reader will be able to imagine the rest of the chapter.
Here it is: ‘To become a medium is to learn to vibrate the Astral
body as a pendulum between Spirit and mortal, and thus to reach
the third state of being, the state between sleeping and waking, —
Trance — a condition co-equal with both, is to have found the Key
that unlocks the mysterious place where actual Soul semblances
have their immortal birth.”

That this omnivorous ‘psychist’ unfolds the theory of soul-
migrations ; shows the rationality of faith-cure (e.g., to cure con-
sumption you must insist that it is not inherited, that “ tubercles,
hemorrhage, inflammation, and ulcers are only ugly names and be-
liefs, not spirit and truth of man’’); expounds the mysteries of the-
osophy; and indorses the cabalistic literature of all ages and
nations, — is easily believed. For this he has six hundred pages at
his disposal.

Considering the volume as the sincere and earnest expression of
an enthusiast for the spiritual side of life, —and this is the most
charitable point of view, —it is still a pernicious work. It embeds
the kernel of truth it contains with a husk of rubbish; it chokes up
‘the threshold’ with a refuse-heap. By so doing it fosters an im-
moral trade, — a scandalous appeal to the sentimentalities of sim-
ple-minded folk. It debases the value of true spirituality, draws
men’s activity away from the proper duties of life, cultivates a life
of useless solitude, and, moreover, is unscientific and unprogressive.
With a healthy public taste, such a book can have no success.

The second book is indeed an absurd piece of pseudo-scientific
writing, and can be dismissed with a word. The idea of the book
is, that the ‘ mark of the beast,’ as mentioned in the Book of Daniel,
There are given
pictures of the heads of noted criminals, showing their resemblance
to one or other of these animals. They had ‘the mark of the
beast,’ and, had we only known it, their crimes could have been -
prevented. Besides this, there is much phrenology, some little
Spiritualism, several untrue statements, and a host of Scripture
quotations not always relevant.

Aucust 26, 1887. |

Melting and Botling Point Tables.
London, Harrison & Sons. f°.

By THOMAS CARNELLEY.

THE issue of the second volume of Carnelley’s ‘ Melting and
Boiling Point Tables’ completes the valuable compilation, which
now comprises more than fifty-one thousand data systematically
arranged with a view to ready reference. Beside the melting and
boiling points, so far as known, of individual chemical compounds,
organic and inorganic, and such information as is at hand concern-
ing their constitution, boiling-points of miscellaneous materials and
mixtures, freezing-points of mixtures and solutions, and vapor-ten-
sions of simple substances, mixed liquids, and saline solutions, are
included. The statement of the relation between the numbering of
volumes and the years of issue of the more important periodicals of
chemistry and physics, and an alphabetical index of the ‘ root-com-
pounds’ of carbon, are minor conveniences. The list of authorities
and original sources of knowledge, which really is an index to the
literature, is not the least important feature of the work; and the
additional references to correlative information in Watts’s ‘ Diction-
ary of Chemistry,’ and the Journal of the Chemical Society, will be
especially appreciated by readers whose consulting libraries are not
full. The work, planned so ambitiously and executed with the care
which is evident, forms an important contribution to the resources
of workers in physics and chemistry ; and the many who will make
use of it may very properly felicitate themselves upon the fact that
the author, who is of the few endowed with the aptitude and pa-
tience necessary to complete the undertaking satisfactorily, possessed
the fortitude to enter upon a course of such colossal drudgery.

Educational Mosatcs.
Rogers, & Co.

By THomAsS J. MORGAN. Boston, Silver»
122)

THIS work, compiled by the principal of the Rhode Island State
Normal School, is a collection of extracts from a great number of
writers, chiefly modern, on topics connected with education. Its
appearance is one more sign of the great interest now taken in the
subject with which it deals,—an interest that seems to grow
greater every year. There has, indeed, been a great awakening in
the public mind of this country in regard to education. It is not
many years since our educated classes seemed to be very well
satished with the knowledge and training they possessed, and to
think it good enough for their successors; while public speakers
and writers were never weary of proclaiming that our public schools
were all that could be desired, and our people the most enlightened
on the earth. We have learned better since those days, and have
become painfully aware that our higher education is by no means
what it should be, that the education of the masses is equally de-
fective, and that the methods of teaching in all our schools admit of
much improvement. The book before us faithfully reflects the
present state of the public mind and the various shades of prevalent
opinion. The subjects treated are necessarily very varied, yet
questions of present interest are given far more space than all others ;
and, as both sides of every controversy are given, the reader ob-
tains a pretty good idea of what the best thinkers on educational
topics are now saying. Among the subjects most largely treated
are the relative importance of the classics and the physical
sciences, the need of studying English, the necessity of moral
training, the higher education of women, and the improvement
of the methods of teaching. The controversy between the friends
of the classics and those of the physical sciences is naturally a
prominent feature of the work; and, though the number of ex-
tracts is much greater on the side of the classics, this is probably
due to the fact that as yet the greater number of educators are on
that side. The large number of extracts relating to moral education
show that our educators are alive to its importance; but they show
also that there is much uncertainty as to how much education is to
be given. Indeed, the art of teaching virtue seems to be as difficult
and as perplexing now as it was in the time of Socrates.

General Morgan’s book will be of great interest, not only to prac-
tical teachers, but to all persons interested in education. The only
criticism we should be inclined to make is as to the arrangement of
the extracts, which is according to the alphabetical order of the au-
thors’ names, while we should have preferred an arrangement by
topics. The book is one to be taken up again and again for the

SELENICE.

103
stimulating thoughts it contains; and teachers, in particular, will
find it an excellent companion.

Gilman's Historical Readers. Nos. 1, 2,
GILMAN. Chicago, Interstate Publ. Co.

and 3.
16°.
IF the young people of this country are not properly educated, it

will not be for want of books intended for their perusal. In every

department of literature that is adapted to young intelligences,
books in great numbers may be had at low prices, and numerous
additions are made to the list every year. The quality of the books,
however, often leaves much to be desired. Indeed, the writing of
books for children is an art by itself, quite different in some respects
from that of writing for adults, and calling for special qualifications
in the writer. Many books intended for the young fail of their pur-
pose because they are dull, or because the style is obscure, or be-
cause they contain matters above the comprehension of juvenile
readers. These little books by Mr. Gilman on the study of Ameri-
can history are not liable to these objections. The author's style
is simple and clear without being undignified, his choice of topics
judicious, and his manner of telling his story such as can hardly
fail to interest youthful readers. The majority of brief histories
are so overloaded with details, that young readers, and indeed
readers of all ages, find it impossible to grasp them all, and are
apt to grow weary of the study. Mr. Gilman has, for the most
part, successfully avoided this fault, only a few of his chapters
being crowded with detail, and these generally for some special
reason. :

The first of these little readers treats of the discovery and ex-

ploration of the country, the second of the colonization period,
while the third and largest of them is devoted to “the making of
the American nation.” In the first volume the subject is so roman-
tic that children can hardly fail to take an interest in it; and Mr.
Gilman has made the most of this quality of his subject, yet with-
out neglecting its more important aspects, so far as these are intel-
ligible to very young readers. The second volume presents, in the
main, similar characteristics, though the subject is more compli-
cated. The third and concluding volume is somewhat deeper in
thought, as well as larger in size, than either of the others. The
greater part of it is, of course, devoted to the Revolution and the
early years of the national life; but the history is carried on in™
brief to the end of the reconstruction period, the author holding
that “ the making of the American nation was not completed until
the supremacy of the Union was acknowledged in every part of
the land. The young American who familiarizes himself with the
contents of these little books will not only have gained a good
general idea of the history of his country, but will have laida good
foundation for a deeper and more extensive study in later years.

The Upper Beaches and Deltas of the Glacial Lake Agasszz.
(U. S. Geol. Surv., Bull. No. 39.) By WARREN UPHAM.
Washington, Government. 8°.

By ARTHUR

THIS bulletin is but an initial contribution to our knowledge of
Lake Agassiz. The investigation is still in progress, and the gen-
eral discussion of data and the eduction of conclusions are mainly
reserved until its completion.

Lake Agassiz belongs in the same category with Lakes Bonne-
ville and Lahontan, in that it is a large extinct lake dating from the
close of the glacial epoch. But in its situation and origin, and the
cause of its extinction, it is radically different from these ancient
lakes of the Great Basin. The basins of the latter belong to the
constructive type of Davis, being due to profound oscillations of the
earth’s crust, and these lakes owe their disappearance solely to cli-
matic changes resulting in the gradual predominance of evaporation
over precipitation.

The basin of Lake Agassiz, on the other hand, belonged to the
obstructive type, owing its existence to the damming up of the Red
River of the North and its tributaries by the southern edge of the
continental ice-sheet during its gradual recession from the sources
of that stream to Hudson Bay ; and, although the disappearance of
this lake can also be traced to a climatic change, it was not a change
from humid to dry, but from cold to warm, the lake vanishing with
the icy barrier that retained it. During this retreat free drainage
from the melting ice could not take place, because the descent of

104

the land is northward. As soon as the border of the ice had re-
ceded beyond the watershed dividing the basins of the Minnesota
and the Red Rivers, it is evident that a lake, fed by the glacial
melting, stood at the foot of the ice-fields, and extended northward
as they withdrew along the Red River valley to Lake Winnipeg,
filling this valley and its branches to the height of the lowest point
over which an outlet could be found. Until the ice-barrier was
melted upon the area now crossed by the Nelson River, thereby
draining this glacial lake, its outlet was along the present course of
the Minnesota River. At first its overflow was upon the nearly
level, gently undulating surface of the drift, about 1,100 feet above
the sea; but in process of time this cut a channel 125 to 150 feet
deep and from one to two miles wide, in which lie Traverse and
Big Stone Lakes, respectively 970 and 962 feet above the sea. From
this outlet the plain of the Red River valley, 30 to 50 miles wide,
stretches 315 miles north to Lake Winnipeg, which is 710 feet
above the sea. Along this entire distance there is a very uniform
continuous descent of a little less than one foot per mile. The
drift deposited by the ice-sheet upon this area, together with that
which may have been dropped by floating ice borne on the waters
of the lake, and the silt brought in by glacial rivers and by those of
the surrounding land, were here received in a lake, shallow near its
mouth, but becoming gradually deeper northward.

Beyond our national boundary, Lake Agassiz covered a broad ex-
panse, including the basins of Lake Winnipeg, Red and Rainy
Lakes, and the Lake of the Woods. Its breadth varied from 100 to
200 miles, with an extreme length of at least 600 miles and an area,
at the time of its greatest extent, exceeding that of Lake Superior.

The most interesting geological features of the basin of this
ancient lake now observable are the terraces or beaches formed
along its shores at different levels as its outlet was gradually lowered
by erosion. These beaches are continuous ridges of sand and
gravel, unbroken, save where crossed by modern streams or ex-
panded into the deltas of the ancient lake, whose outlines are thus
accurately traced at four distinct levels. The highest or Herman
beach is, at the southern end of the lake, 1,045 feet above the sea,
or 85 feet above Lake Traverse, and the lowest beach.

Mr. Upham’s careful determinations of the altitudes of the beaches
have fully established the remarkable fact that the beaches are not
level, but have a gradual ascent northward, as compared with the
present level line or the surface which a body of water would have
now if confined in this valley. The rate of ascent of the highest or
Herman beach increases gradually from six inches a mile at Lake
Traverse, to above sixteen inches a mile near the national boundary,
the total ascent in this distance being 185 feet.

The several beaches are not parallel, the rate of ascent diminish-
ing from the highest to the lowest beach. Thus the second beach
is 120 feet, the third 65 feet, and the fourth or lowest 35 feet, higher
at the national boundary than at Lake Traverse.

The altitude of the beaches is a function of the longitude as well
as the latitude ; for a comparison of these beaches in Dakota and
Minnesota at the same latitude reveals an ascent from west to east
similar to that from south to north, but of less amount, and dimin-
ishing in a similar ratio between the successive stages of the lake.

Various causes for these interesting phenomena are suggested
and reserved for future discussion; but Mr. Upham indicates his
adoption provisionally of the view that the divergence of these an-
cient shore-lines from the present level line was produced by the
gravitation of the water of the lake toward the ice-sheet. At first
this attraction would have been relatively large, because of the
nearness of the great mass of ice on the north-east in Minnesota
and northward in British America; but, as the ice retreated, it
must have been gradually diminished, and reduced to a compara-
tively small influence by the time the ice-sheet had withdrawn so as
to permit the northward drainage of the lake.

NOTES AND NEWS.

Two new methods of determining the density of the earth are
being experimented upon at Berlin. The one, by Dr. F. Richarz
and Dr. A. Konig, has been referred to in Sczence (v. 217). These
gentlemen apply a sensitive balance with a double pair of scales,
one swinging above, the other below, a heavy parallelopipedic
mass of lead, which consists of a number of blocks which are ex-

SC LENCE:

[Vom xe Nowa7s

actly measured and weighed. The blocks are perforated, and the
wires connecting the upper and lower scales pass through the shaft
formed by these perforations. By an ingenious arrangement, the
weights, which consist of spheres of lead, can be changed from the
upper to the lower scales without opening the case in which the
balance is enclosed. The principle on which the experiment is
founded is, that, if one of two equal weights is below, the other
above, the mass of lead, its attraction will diminish the weight of
the former and increase that of the latter. The proportion between
this increase and the total weight gives the means for determining
the’ proportion between the attraction and masses of the lead and
the earth. Preliminary experiments made with this balance show
that a great exactness of the definite measurements may be ex-
pected. These experiments are being carried on under the auspices
of the Berlin Academy of Sciences in a casemate of Spandau. At
the same time J. Wibring is experimenting by another method in
the astrophysical observatory at Potsdam. He uses a pendulum
made of a brass tube one metre in length and four centimetres in
diameter, with spheres of cast iron weighing five hundred and fifty
grams at the two ends. A knife-edge of agate six centimetres in length
passes through the centre of the tube, and swings on an agate rest.
Two small mirrors are attached to the knife-edge, and the oscilla-
tions of the pendulum are observed through a telescope. The time
of oscillation of the pendulum may be so nicely regulated that
oscillations of five minutes length are perfectly regular. Near the
iron spheres and opposite to one another, two iron cylinders
weighing 325 kilograms are placed, the lower one attracting the
lower end of the pendulum to one side, the upper one the upper
end to the opposite side. The attraction of these masses affects the
oscillations of the pendulum. The result of these observations for
the mean density of the earth is 5.594 + 0.032. The mean of former
reliable observations being 5.57, the new figure corresponds well
with these. Both experiments will result in a more accurate and
trustworthy determination of the mass of the earth.

—Ina recent paper on literary catalogues, Mr. Samuel H. Sin-
deler makes some suggestive remarks about the system of cata-
loguing now so much in favor. To quote his words, ‘‘ Paradoxical
as it may sound, the very excellence of his [Dewey’s] plan is one
objection to it. Mr. Dewey multiplies co-operative advantages to
those who use his system to such an extent, that if he lives long
enough he will make it so much to the advantage of newly forming
or growing libraries to use it, that none will be independent enough
to modify it. And why should they wish to modify it? Simply
because, less than fifty years ago, the present scheme could not
have been formed. There was not knowledge enough in the world.
There could not now be found, in any scheme then formed, place
for a long range of subjects which appear in his actual classifica-
tion. This is especially true in science, and who shall say that
history will not repeat itself in the next fifty years? Let us rather
work out the problem of the decimo-mnemonic system on different
lines, each library or group of libraries for itself, according to the
special needs of the same. Then new Deweys will arise and ply
their ingenious arts, and in the millennium the fittest will survive.
At present there is danger that the fittest will be handicapped. To
give the fittest, when it comes, an earlier chance of survival is one
purpose of this paper.”

—Cumming’s ‘Electricity Treated Experimentally,’ which was
reviewed in the last number of Sczemce, is published in America by
D. Van Nostrand.

ILISALITITINS) INO) ILISVS, IF IDINOIR,

*.* The attention of scientific men ts called tothe advantages of the correspondence
columens of SCIENCE for placing promptly on record brief preliminary notices of
their investigations. Twenty copies of the number containing his communication
will be furnished free to any correspondent on request.

The editor will be glad to publish any queries consonant with the character of
the journal.

Correspondents are requested to be as brief as possible.
gv all cases required as proof of good faith.

The writer's name is

Chrome considered as a Poison.

My attention has been called to an article by Mr. William Glenn
of Baltimore in Sczence (x. 58), entitled ‘Chrome considered as a
Poison,’ criticising a paper of mine in the Boston Medical ana
Surgical Journal on the same subject. Were it not that the criti-
cism appears in a scientific journal of high standing, I should

Avucust 26, 1887.]|

hardly have considered it as meant to be taken seriously, but, ap-
pearing as it does, I must beg space to answer some of the writer's
points in some detail. Mr. Glenn says that the paper, “ curiously
enough, does not offer the slightest evidence that chromium or any
of its compounds, in any quantity, however large or small, can in-
juriously affect the animal body. Furthermore, there is no reliable
tradition or literature to that effect.’ It is barely possible that the
gentleman may have been misled by a statement in the paper re-
ferred to, that I had been unable to find any reported cases of gen-
eral or local affection attributable to chrome-mordanted clothing.
No evidence was offered as to the poisonous character of chromium
compounds on the animal body, for the reason that it was supposed
to be a matter of common knowledge with the medical gentlemen
before whom the paper was read. As to literature, I suppose that
everybody will concede the reliability of the few authors (out of
many) whom I will quote.

Wharton and Stillé (WZedical Jurzsprudence, 4th ed. vol. ii., Phila-
delphia, Kay & Bro., 1884) say of bichromate of potassium, “ This
salt, being extensively used in dyeing, has given rise in several in-
stances to accidental poisoning. Locally applied, its action is irri-
tant, causing in the workmen who use it troublesome sores and ul-
cerations upon the hands. Taken in poisonous doses internally, its
action is highly irritant also, and death has been caused by it with
the symptoms usually attending the action of irritant poisons. .
Several fatal cases have occurred in Baltimore.” A number of
cases are reported in detail. “Experiments upon animals have
shown, that, after the subcutaneous injection of chromic acid, ani-
mals suffer from vomiting, diarrhoea, albuminuria, and finally die in a
few days: after death inflammation of the kidneys is found. The
same results were produced by the injection of a neutral chromate
(yellow chromate of potassium).”

Taylor (A Treatése on Pozsons, London, Churchill) says, “There
can be no doubt that bichromate of potassium is an active poison,”
and quotes the following case from Beck’s ‘ Medical Jurisprudence,’
which is also quoted by Stillé: “ Dr. Baer of Baltimore has re-
ported the following case. A man, in drawing off a solution of the
bichromate by a siphon, accidentally received a small quantity
into his mouth. In afew minutes he perceived great heat in the
throat and stomach, and this was followed by violent vomiting of
blood and mucus. The vomiting continued incessantly until his
death, which took place in five hours. On dissection the mucous
membrane of the stomach, duodenum, and about one-fifth of the
jejunum, was destroyed in patches. In this case the salt acted as a
corrosive irritant.”

Schuchardt (Zaschka’s Handbuch der gerichtlichen Medicin,
Band ii., Ttibingen, 1882) says, “‘ Poisoning by chrome compounds
(including lead chromate) is not rare. The chromic-acid com-
pounds are more or less violent poisons.’ Reference is made to
numerous cases. “ According to the researches of E. Pelikau
(Bettrage zur gerichtl, Med. Toxzkologze und Pharmakodynamzk,
Wiirzburg, 1858), bichromate of potassium is very similar in action
to arsenic and corrosive sublimate. It causes, when taken into the
stomach, marked inflammation of the same and of the intestine;
easily causes vomiting, and, after absorption into the system, calls
forth a train of general symptoms, particularly albuminuria and
hemorrhage from the kidneys, and causes death with more or less
rapidity.” Reference is made to the results of the observations of
Gergens (Arch. fiir experiment. Pathol. u. Pharmakol, Band vi.,
1876), Weigert (Dze Bright sche Nierendegeneratzon vom patho-
logisch-anatomischen Standpunkte), and Kabierske (Dze Chrom-
nzere, Breslau, 1880). The experiments of Gergens were repeated
by Posner (Vzrchow’s Archiv fiir pathol. Anat., Band |xxix., Heft
2), with the same results. “ The action of this poison on the gen-
eral system is extraordinarily rapid and intense.”

Falck (Lehrbuch der Practischen Toxtkologze, Stuttgart, 1880)
says, ‘‘ Cases of poisoning by compounds of chromium are not rare.
We find reported up to the present time (1880) seventeen cases, of
which three were from chromic acid, two from the chromate and
twelve from the bichromate of potassium. Of the seventeen cases,
nine (or 53 per cent) ended fatally. . . . Workmen in dye-houses
who have to deal constantly with solutions of chrome compounds
are afflicted with painful deep ulcers on the hands, which heal with
great difficulty ; similar affections may be produced by the same

SCIENCE:

105

substance in the form of dust. . . . Experiments on the effects of
chromates on animals have proved the intense poisonous action of
these substances. According to Gergens, rabbits died after the
subcutaneous injection of 0.26 of a centimetre of chromate of potas-
sium, and showed hyperemia of the intestinal tract, nephritis, and
cystitis. According to Priestley, the vaso-motor centre is first ex-
cited, then paralyzed. Mayer found chromium in the blood, heart,
liver, and kidneys.”

Many more authors could be quoted on this point, but the above
is, | think, enough ; and, furthermore, the evidence quoted is a suffi-
cient reply to the negative evidence of the weavers in the Philadel-
phia mills, the dyers, and bichromate-makers interviewed by Mr.
Glenn. With regard to the cases reported by me as being caused
by chrome mordants, I wish to say, in the first place, that they were
not reported for the purpose of beginning an agitation against the
use of bichromate as a mordant, nor was it my idea to cause need-
less alarm among the people. The paper was written for a medical
society, and was intended to call to the attention of the members a
possible cause of affections of the skin, the removal of the cause in
any given case being of a certain value in treatment. I am very
well aware of the great value and importance of the bichromate as
a mordant, and also of the fact that to the vast majority of people
clothing dyed by its aid is not likely to produce any injury under
ordinary circumstances ; and any idea of restricting its use as a
mordant on account of an occasional idiosyncracy would seem to.
me as absurd as to legislate against railroads on account of the
possibility of accidents. I have worn, as have others of my ac-
quaintance, clothing (including stockings) dyed with the aid of bi-
chromate, without experiencing the least injury therefrom, and the
same is undoubtedly true of thousands of others ; but neither these
facts nor Mr. Glenn’s experiments are conclusive evidence that
everybody is exempt. The grounds for concluding that the trouble
in these cases was due to the mordant seem to me to have been
justifiable. Mr. Glenn says on this point, “It would have been
strange if he had not [found chromium], since most cloth is chrome-
dyed. Had he examined further, equally certain he would have
found iron, cellulose, keratin, and some other organic products.
Why not assign to one or all of them the maladies of the patients
mentioned?” My experience in the examination of cloth for irri-
tants has proved to me that a very large proportion of textile fabrics.
do not contain chromium in any form whatever, and it therefore
never strikes me as remarkably curious in such examinations to
find no chromium. In the examination of the specimens in ques-
tion, no other substance was found which could in any way what-
ever be considered poisonous. Chromium, then, being the only
substance present which is known to act as a poison in certain com-
binations, was the only substance which could be reasonably sus-
pected. Anybody who has read the original article will, I think,
concede that in each case the disturbance was due to something in
the cloth. That the conclusion that this something was a com-
pound of chromium was correct, I have very good confirmatory ev1-
dence. A young man purchased a cheap pair of trousers, which he
wore all summer without drawers, and without perceptible injury-
Becoming faded, he had them dyed a dark blue, and shortly after,
resuming them under the same conditions as before, he was
troubled by an outbreak on the skin of both legs, with irritation and
inflammation of a very intense character, particularly on the inner
side of the thighs and about the generative organs. Through the
courtesy of his physician, I was enabled to make an examination
and inquiry, which brought out the fact that the dyer had used bi-
chromate of potassium. The young man had worn the trousers a
whole summer without injury, but had suffered intensely from wear-
ing them after they had been dyed with bichromate. Would it,
perhaps, be as sensible to ascribe the symptoms to cellulose or
keratin ?

I cannot see the application of Mr. Glenn’s calculation of the
loss in weight undergone in a week by a small boy’s suit, and of
the probable amount inhaled by the wearer, unless he assumes.
that in the cases reported in my paper the poison was ‘simply in-
haled. In these two cases the clothing gave off large amounts of
dust, much of which was conveyed to their mouths by wet fingers.
Mr. Glenn’s figures (that is, that a small boy’s suit loses three
hundred and forty milligrams in a week) can hardly be taken asa

106

fixed standard, since the amount of loss will depend much on the
particular kind of cloth, and upon the activity and habits of the
wearer ; and in such calculations it is to be considered that small
boys occur in several sizes.

Mr. Glenn’s theory of antidotes is in great measure correct, but
it must be remembered that many so-called insolubles are soluble
in the juices of the body. He goes on to say, “ Chromic acid is a
very active oxidizer. In contact with organic matter, it is quickly
reduced to chromic oxide (a compound insoluble in any of the
juices of the animal body). It is a destroyer of organic tissues,
therefore. The action of both normal and acid alkali chromates is
similar to chromic acid. They destroy organic matter by oxidizing
it, chromic oxide being precipitated. .. . When such dust falls
upon the mucous membrane, it is quickly reduced by the secretion
it finds there, and chromic oxide is precipitated. The membrane is
not attacked.”

This theory of action is not the one which is held by those who
consider chromic acid and chromates true irritant poisons, and as
one of the latter persons I am again obliged to dissent. I cannot
agree with Mr. Glenn as to the general effect or the local re-
actions. Wharton and Stillé (AZedzcal Jurdsprudence, 4th ed. vol.
il.), quoting a case of poisoning by the bichromate of potassium, in
which, among other symptoms, suppression of urine occurred, re-
mark, “ The suppression of the urine is probably due to inflamma-
tion of the kidneys produced by the chromic acid.” Falck (Lehr-
buch der practischen Toxtkologze, 1880) quotes a case where violent
vomiting and intense abdominal pain occurred soon after the ap-
plication of chromic acid to a cancerous breast. The patient lay
pulseless, with cold skin and cyanotic face, constantly vomiting,
to all appearances like a case of Asiatic cholera. Death occurred
after several hours. A similar but non-fatal case is reported by
Bruck.

These symptoms indicate absorption into the system, and not a
mere local oxidation with precipitation of a harmless oxide. The
symptoms in most of the reported cases of poisoning by chromic-
acid compounds are very similar to the above; and these cases of
Mosetig and Bruck are particularly valuable in that the poison was
not swallowed, but absorbed from a broken surface.

Speaking of the deaths in Philadelphia following the ingestion
-of buns colored with chrome yellow, Mr. Glenn remarks, “ No one
familiar with the oxidizing action of chromic-acid salts, and accus-
tomed to making combustions with lead chromate, would find much
difficulty in believing that the small quantity of lead chromate taken
by any one victim was reduced while in contact with organic matter
in the stomach and intestines, chromic oxide passing out with the
dejecta, and lead oxide being left to produce its cumulative effects.”
Again I cannot agree with him, and I think he would have no
difficulty in finding many others who would refuse to believe that the
poisonous effects of lead chromate are always due to the lead alone.
Schuchardt says in Waschka’s Handbuch, “ Chromate of lead ap-
pears to act as a corrosive poison ;”’ and again, ‘‘ Chromate of lead
appears to act more powerfully than the acetate.” Wharton and
Stillé say, “Although this substance is insoluble in water, and
under many circumstances in the stomach and intestinal fluids,
sometimes it gives rise to acute poisoning owing to its decomposi-
tion after it enters the body. That such a decomposition does
occur, and that the chromium may be absorbed, is shown by R. C.
Smith (Brzt. Med. Journ., 1882, p.8), who reported a case in which
chromic acid was detected in the urine: this was a case of pro-
fessional poisoning, the patient being employed in weaving yarn
colored with chrome-yellow.” I will briefly quote another case
bearing on this point, reported by Leopold (Vzerteljahrsschrift fir
gerichil. Medicin und offentl. Santtdétswesen, Band xvii. 29).
Four persons engaged some days weaving blankets colored with
lead chromate were seized with symptoms of chronic lead-poison-
ing. During the work the yarn gave off so much dust, that their
faces and hair were quite yellow. A two-weeks-old boy was kept
in the same room, but was apparently protected by a covering of
white woollen cloth. After seven weeks the child became suddenly
very sick. Among other symptoms, it had several yellow diar-
rheeic discharges daily, with restlessness and frequent screaming,
during which it dug its hands under the pillows. At first it would
drink, but refused food: later on, it drank with some effort, and on

SCIEN GE.

[Vour. X. No. 238

the day of its death swallowed with difficulty. The lips were dry,
respiration quickened, and death came slowly. On chemical ex-
amination after the autopsy, lead chromate was found in the respir-
atory tract and esophagus, showing that the cloth had not been a
sufficient protection. The rubber nipple which the child had used
was found to be free from chromate, most probably because the
dust which had adhered to it had been sucked off and swallowed.
Among the post-mortem appearances was a perforation of the wall
of the stomach. The death of this child was caused by exhaustion
following perforation and softening of the stomach, brought on in
consequence of swallowing chromate of lead. Neither the symp-
toms nor the post-mortem appearances could be ascribed to the in-
fluence of lead. Part of the chromate in the body was doubtless
decomposed, and perforation followed. I agree with Mr. Glenn,
that, “if dust from chrome-dyed yarn has any poisonous effects,
weavers ought to have some knowledge of it.”

Dr. Von Linstow (Veerteljahrsschraft fiir gerichtl. Med. u.
Offentl. Sanztdtswesen, Band xxi. 60) reports two deaths occurring
in boys, aged respectively one and three-quarters and three and
one-half years, who together ate six small objects made to repre-
sent bees, each piece containing 0.0042 of a centigram of chromate
of lead. Both were seized with the same violent symptoms at the
same time, a few hours afterward. Among other symptoms may
be metioned diarrhcea, convulsions, stupor, great thirst, and difficult
deglutition. The younger child died on the second, the elder on
the fifth, day after seizure. Among other post-mortem appearances
observed in the elder child were destruction of the mucous mem-
brane of the stomach in several places, and ulceration, and perfora-
tion of the‘'duodenum. In both cases there was fatty degeneration
of the liver. In the younger child there was no perforation, but the
mucous membrane of the stomach was marked throughout with
red points, and showed velvet-like, opaque swelling. The duodenal
mucous membrane was pale, with occasional bloody points. Would
anybody think of ascribing these symptoms and post-mortem ap-
pearances to lead oxide ?

In conclusion, I join Mr. Glenn in the hope that investigation into
the subject of chrome-poisoning will not be allowed to die of neglect.

CHARLES HARRINGTON, M.D.
Chem. Dept. Harv. Med. Sch., Aug. 2.

Poison Fangs and Glands of the Mosquito.

THE general arrangement of the mouth of the female mosquito
is well described by Dimmock on ‘the mouth-parts of the Dz/-
tera.’ The under lip is a large hairy tube, 2 millimetres long, open
above, and serving as a sheath for the piercing-apparatus, whilst it
is itself terminated by two sensitive labellee, and by a central lancet-
like ligule. Within the structure of the sheath are a large nerve, a
pair of longitudinal muscles and many oblique muscles, two large
trachez by which air can be admitted (so as to distend the organ
as in JZusca), and long filiform tendons which arise at the base of
the sheath and support the terminal labelle.

The piercing-apparatus is enclosed during rest in a strong-pointed
upper lip (aérum) which is grooved inferiorly for their reception,
and which along with them is received into the sheath-like under
lip. Within this labrum are the two maxille, very sharp and
barbed near the tip, and able to play back and forward like saws ;
also two mandibles, a fine styliform hypopharynx, a delicate sheath
for the front segment of the cesophagus, and the cesophagus itself.
The last-named organ is received within the head into a strong box-
like pharynx, which is well supplied with muscles and is a suction
organ. The pharynx draws in blood (and probably vegetable
plasm), which it transmits by the long post-pharyngeal part of the
cesophagus to the stomach lying in the abdomen of the insect.

The poison-apparatus, which hitherto has been an unknown
quantity, is connected with the two mandibles. Each mandible has
a large funnel-shaped base, into which is inserted the end of a
poison-duct. The thickened axis of the mandible is pierced by a
fine canal, which opens just below the sharp apex. The structure
reminds one of a bee’s sting, saving that it is duplicated. We can
by pressure drive out some of the contents and observe them issu-
ing at the sub-terminal orifice. It is probable that when the lancets
pierce an object this fang-like mechanism may, by pressing on its
base, automatically discharge a portion of the poison. The poison

Avucust 26, 1887. ]

seems by inflaming the tissues to determine a flow of blood, and
also to prevent the coagulation of blood or other proteid. (The
blood subsequently coagulates in the mosquito’s stomach.)

The poison-duct resembles a trachea in being transversely stri-
ated, but differs by the uniform diameter of its tubule of about 6
micromillimetres, by the absence of fine ramifications, and by the
great thickness of its wall. The two ducts, proceeding one to each
mandible, arise by the bifurcation of a common duct in the region
of the neck below the cesophagus. Behind this the difficulty of dis-
section is considerable, as the parts are so small that they cannot
be followed with low microscopic power; they are greatly entan-
gled among the large muscles, trachez, and other furniture of the
prothorax, and they are easily torn so as to be lost to the search. I
have succeeded, however, by working back from the neck, in
spreading out the entire system. The common duct arises from
three prothoracic glands, all sessile on its lower extremity like the
leaves of a trefoil, each supplied with a precurrent ductlet, the three
ductlets meeting at a point so as to form the common duct. The
glands are each about one-third of a millimeter in length and one-
twenty-fifth in diameter. The two lateral glands are of the usual
salivary kind common to insects. The central or azygos gland is
entirely different, scarcely lobed, but being a mass of brown evenly
distributed granules, with oil-like globules intermingled, its ductule
having finer walls than in the lateral glands. We may regard this
as emphatically the poison-gland, but the intermingled products of
all three have their only outlet by the common duct, and thence by
its two branches to the mandibles, which therefore play the part of
‘ poison-fangs.’

Some tentative notes recently given before the American Associ-
ation involved inaccuracies, which are here rectified and the work
completed. Measurements given above are from a small species
which may perhaps be identified by its maxillary palps being as long
as the maxillee themselves. They seem to be the same for all the

common species. G, MACLOSKIE.
Aug. 20.

Rockwood Meteorite.

ABOUT the middle of March last there was found by Mr. Elihu
Humbree, on land owned by Mr. W. B. Lenoir, eight and one-half
miles west of Rockwood Furnace, Cumberland county, Tenn., several
pieces of what has proved to be a meteorite of very great interest,
belonging to the rare class of siderolites, resembling in general ap-
pearance the Atacama but differing very widely in the nature of the
silicate.

When first found it excited the curiosity of Mr. Humbree, and,
after much pounding with an axe, he succeeded in detaching sev-
eral large pieces and many fragments without finding the large
lump of silver in it for which he was looking, the bright specks of
nickeliferous iron scattered through the mass having been mistaken
by him for that metal.

Three or four weeks later Mr. Lenoir, suspecting the nature of
the find, secured the whole of it (with the exception of some small
pieces which had been given to friends), and forwarded samples to
us for examination. Two or three weeks later, on the 2d of June,
I visited Rockwood, and brought the entire find away with me,
with the exception of the small pieces already mentioned: these
have nearly all been gathered up since and are now in our pos-
session.

The main mass is an irregular ellipsoid, with one side a little
flattened, and noticeable by the almost entire absence of the usual
pittings, which are present elsewhere on the surface.

The three greatest dimensions are 14% x 10 x 84 inches. The
weight, which owing to the loss of some of the fragments cannot be
determined accurately, was about 83 pounds. Three other smaller
masses bring the weight of the entire find to fully too pounds
(probably two or three pounds more), of which to the present time
we have secured 964 pounds. Specimens have been submitted to
Prof. F. W. Clarke of the U..S. National Museum for examination,
and very full analyses by Mr. J. E. Whitfield will be published as
soon as the work is completed. The analyses thus far made show
it to be in the main a silicate of alumina, lime, magnesia, and fer-
rous oxide, — probably in the form of anosthite and augite, with no
olivine. Further analyses are being made to clear up this point.

SCIENGE,

1o7

The iron grains contain 12 per cent of nickel, with a trace of cop-.
per, and, so far as examination has gone, seem to be distributed
through’ the mass quite evenly; one nodule of iron, however, has
been observed which measures three-quarters of an inch in diam-
eter, and exhibits the Widmannstadtian figures very characteristic-
ally on the etched surface. Other nodules of iron equally large
will probably be met with by further cutting. Although the an-
alysis shows an unusually large amount of chlorine present, decom-
position has only affected the surface and in the seams, and has
been so little that the original black crust is preserved over a con-
siderable portion of it.

This brings us to the interesting question of how long it could
have been exposed to the action of the weather, and it is possible
some readers of Sczence can help us to determine that important
point.

In the late autumn of 1880, between five and six o'clock in the
afternoon, a meteor was seen passing to the north-west over Mor-
gan county, Georgia, which “left a dense trail, not very wide, of
light-colored smoke, which could be seen for at least half an hour,
and which gradually spread out thin and woolly, like ordinary
smoke.” A loud report, thought to be about three minutes after
the passage of the meteor, was heard by persons who did not see it,
as well as by those who were fortunate enough to observe its flight.
It would be very interesting if a connection could be traced between
this meteor and the meteorite found in Tennessee. If they are the
same, it would seem that it should have been seen and heard by
different persons all along the line. Any information on this sub-

ject will be thankfully received. EDWIN E. HOWELL.
Rochester, N.Y., Aug. 22.

Swill-Milk.

I HAVE read the discussion about ‘ swill-milk’ recently published’
in Sczence with great interest, especially as I had thought the un-
healthiness of distillery-slops as food for animals had been settled’
and agreed to fifty years ago. Will you permit me to cite an ex-
perience of my own bearing on the question? About fifty years.
ago, —I cannot give the precise date, —I worked in a ‘ pork-
house’ one winter, during which I trimmed the hams of five hun--
dred ‘still-fed’ hogs. It was admitted by all hands that there was.
not a sound hog in the lot. But few of them were well fatted, al-
though their appearance was good. It was not at all an uncommon.
thing, in cutting up a hog, to cut through an abscess, varying in
size from a cherry to a half-pint ; the largest one being in the region
of the kidneys. The kidneys and ‘tenderloin,’ which lies along the-
vertebra in the region of the kidneys, were invariably infested with.
kidney-worms, and I have never had any desire to eat tenderloin.
since.

The testimony of all packers in that section of country —the-
Miami Valley — was that all still-fed hogs were similarly diseased,
though not generally so badly as this lot. The meat was soft and_
oily, — unfit for barrel-pork.

Some years afterwards, upon my removal to this city, I called:
upon the butcher of whom I purchased my meat, who was an in--
telligent man, and asked him if he found the livers of well-fatted
cattle in a healthy condition. His answer was no, that it was very
rarely that the liver of a well-fatted beef was fit for human food,
especially still-fed cattle. They, he asserted, were always diseased ;_
and he added that he never bought still-fed cattle unless they had
been taken off slops and fed on corn some weeks before being-
killed. He asserted that he could distinguish between still-fed and
corn-fed beef, after it was slaughtered, by the sight and touch.

JOHN J. JANNEY..
Columbus, O., Aug. 19.

The Pronunciation of ‘ Arkansas.’

IT is really exasperating to be obliged to explain and apologize
every time one pronounces this word correctly in intelligent New
England circles, where the later and improper pronunciation was
invented and has been established parasitic upon our nomenclature.
Had not the Legislature of the State officially declared the final
syllable to properly have the sound of saw, not sass, or had not the
inhabitants, from earliest settlements, to say nothing of the people:

108

of Louisiana, of which Arkansas was once a part, always pro-
nounced it saw, there would nevertheless be no authority whatever
for the curt and abbreviated sass which is generally given. The
word is an attempt upon the part of the first French missionaries of
Marquette’s time to phonetically spell in French the name of a tribe
of Indians, and no Frenchman would ever pronounce the combina-
tion of letters in the manner taught by the New Englanders. The
final s was and is silent, and the @ has the nasal aw so common in
many Frenchmen’s speech. As for the old comparativists, who, re-
gardless of the inconsistency of English spelling, always inquire, “ if
Arkansas is Arkansaw, why is not Kansas, Kansaw,” they may be
glad to learn that Kansas was Kansaw, and early Anglo-American
travellers so pronounced it, and even attempted to spell it pho-
netically in English, as can be seen in the report of Lieutenant
Long’s expedition to the Rocky Mountains, 1819-1821, where the
word is spelled Kowza— the nearest combination of English letters
that can approach the true French sound.

But Arkansas is not the only French geographic term that has
been sacrificed to the attempt of New England lexicographers to
create in that region a standard pronunciation of the English. The
word chzen, for instance, which was originally applied to the In-
dians from their system of police, I believe, and meant literally the
“Dog Indians,’ now graces the rivers, counties, cities, and moun-
tains of our maps as Cheyenne, —the most plausible illustration of
a Yankee phonetic-pronunciation of a French-spelled word.

‘Arkansaw’ may be difficult to say, and may fall heavily upon our
ears, but it is proper all the same, and the sooner ‘Arkansas’ is

abolished the better for out consistency. Rost. T. HILL.
U.S. National Museum, Aug. 20.

Diagnosis of a New Species of Thrush (Turdus celznops sp.
nov.) from Japan.

Diagnos?s.— Back ‘mummy-brown’ (Rzdgway's Nomenclature
of Colors, pl. iii. Fig. 10); breast and flanks rufous tawny, un-
spotted ; under wing-coverts gray; tail-feathers without white
terminal spots; no light stripes about the eyes; second primary
shorter than fifth. Adult male with head and neck black. Wing
about 120 millimetres.

Type. — United States National Museum, No. 111,665.

Habitat. — ‘ The Seven Islands,’ Idzu, Japan.

During a recent visit to ‘The Seven Islands,’ south of the Bay
of Tokio, Mr. M. Namiye, of the Educational Museum, Tokio,
among other interesting species, collected the thrush described
above. Although nearest related to 7. chryso/aus, the male of the
new species is easily distinguished from all the forms belonging to
the same group by the intensely black color of the head, neck,
outer portion of wing, and tail. The female resembles more that of
T. chrysolaus, but the back is browner, the tawny of the breast and
flanks is deeper and more rufous, and the first (tenth, or rudi-
mentary) primary is longer.

I am under great obligations to the authorities of the Tokio
Educational Museum for the privilege of describing this interesting

novelty. LEONHARD STEJNEGER.
Smithson. Inst., Washington, D.C., Aug. 18.

Audubon’s Grave.

THE letter from Mr. D. S. Martin, in Sczezce of Aug. 5, interested
me very much, as it undoubtedly did every American naturalist ;
and there is probably no appeal that could be addressed to the
naturalists of this country which would meet with a more liberal
response than for the means to erect a fitting monument to
Audubon.

But this appeal calls up another question in my mind, and, if at
this distance I be correctly informed from what I have seen in the
press columns, is not the great cathedral, which is to cost some ten
millions of money and to be erected in New York City, on such a
footing that there seems but little doubt that the structure will
eventually be completed? And, further, if I read the words of
Bishop Potter aright, is not the edifice when finished to be the
“Westminster Abbey’ of the United States? Surely it would seem
that the time has arrived when we Should be able to point to some
grand monument and say, within those walls repose the remains of
America’s great and honored dead. Such far-reaching projects

SCIENCE:

[Vor. X. No. 238

when perfected ever tend to nationalize us, and to-day, as we are all
aware, the ashes of the truly great men, men who have built up
America’s science, art, letters, and every calling which goes to
make a nation great, are in many instances so obscurely rested, that
I ween it would test the memory of the best of us to recall the
spots where we have placed them.

Why not deposit the remains of our great naturalist, Audubon,
in some perfectly secure vault for a few years longer, and then re-
move them to their final resting place, to their crypt in the great
Abbey which is to be built, and then will every naturalist in the
United States proudly come forward with his share towards closing
the entrance of such a tomb with a fitting monument.

R. W. SHUFELDT.
Fort Wingate, N.Mex., Aug. 12.

Increasing Danger of Tape-Worm.

In the Texas grazing region, from which has sprung, within the
last two decades, the entire stock of range cattle of the western
states and territories, the beef tape-worm is a most common oc-
currence. In fact, I do not believe I exaggerate when I say that at
least every fifth person is afflicted. The cause of this is that on
open ranges the eggs of tape-worm are most easily and widely dis-
tributed, and hence the cattle more frequently become infested with
cysts. Stall-fed cattle, on the other hand, where the water is usu-
ally less subject to contamination, and the food cleaner, are only
seldom infected, and hence tape-worm was not so prevalent in re-
gions where the latter were used.

In the last few years, however, the shipment of range-cattle, by
means of refrigerator cars, has become the chief beef supply of the
East, and the danger and frequency of tape-worm greatly increased.
Of course, no one should stop the use of well-cooked meat on this
account, but rare and half-cooked meats can easily be avoided.

R. T. H.

Applied Optics.

WE are indebted to Prof. R. S. Heath of Birmingham, England,
for a good book in our language, that at last gives us a theory, the
Gaussian, that can be used in the discussion of lenses as we find
them in telescopes. Heretofore, so far as I know, English writers
have treated the imaginary case of lenses infinitely thin, and in
practice have spoken in a vague manner of an optical centre. For
a correct theory, one was obliged to recur to the memoir of Gauss,
or to some of the German discussions of it.

In Mr. Heath’s bibliography of this subject I find no reference to
the writings of Biot, to which Mr. G. W. Hill called my attention
some time ago. In his ‘Astronomie Physique,’ Biot devotes 540
pages to optical instruments, and he is so voluminous that it would
require some patience to be sure of what he has done. I have the
impression that he came near anticipating Gauss. Biot’s first
volume was published in 1841. Gauss read his memoir in Decem-
ber, 1840, but it was not published until 1843. ASAPH HALL.

Washington, Aug. 20.

Queries.

14. AN EXPULSION OF SPARROWS.—A curious thing hap-
pened here a week ago to-day. About four o’clock in the afternoon,
a flock of birds — hundreds apparently — flew in circles round and
round our house and garden, never settling. This continued for
nearly an hour without a sound. Meantime our saucy sparrows
disappeared, and have not yet returned. Our trees, which at dawn
and twilight resounded with their chattering, are now silent and
deserted. I had an opportunity the next morning of seeing closely
one of the army of extirpation, — probably a deserter, for he was the
only one left. I would describe the bird as about the size of the
sparrow, very slender, with full black eye, dark mouse-color, with a
light, almost white, breast. This morning for the first time since
their expulsion came three or four of our native sparrows, but none
of the foreign residents. I am curious to know if this happened
any where else. My place being large, I could not see if my neigh-
bors were visited likewise. W. A. G.

New Brighton, S.I., Aug. 18.

DURE. ede,

FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 2, 1887.

THE ADMIRABLE APPOINTMENT by the President of Mr. G.
Brown Goode as Commissioner of Fish and Fisheries was an-
nounced this week. It meets at once the requirements of an exact-
ing office and the exceptional provisions of the law creating it.
Professor Goode was intimately acquainted with the methods of
Commissioner Baird, whose scientific zeal and knowledge he shared,
and his experience and attainments in practical fish culture and in
the science of ichthyology make him easily first among those whose
qualifications the President has been called upon to consider. But
the fact that the President has been able to select from among the
civil officers of the Government a known scientist, acquainted with
the habits of food fishes, to serve in this important office without
extra compensation, does not remove the absurdity of this special
law. If Mr. Goode should die to-morrow there is absolutely no civi}
officer of the United States qualified, under the terms of the act, to
take his place. The special law was passed when fish culture was
in its infancy. Congress was willing to risk the experiment, pro-
vided it was intrusted to Professor Baird, and framed the law ac-
cordingly. The present provisions of the law have been outgrown.
It is an absurdity to have a Fish Commissioner receiving not as
Commissioner but as Assistant Secretary of the Smithsonian a
salary of $300 a month, and appointing and controlling a Deputy
Fish Commissioner at a salary of $416 a month. Nor is there any
reason why the Fish Commissioner should not be paid a salary
commensurate with the importance of his office, and be exempted
from discharging the duties of two offices with the pay of one,
These matters can be appropriately considered when the Senate is
called upon to confirm the new Fish Commissioner.

IN WRITING of examinations a few weeks since, we mentioned
the fact that we proposed to return to the same subject later. It
gives us pleasure this week to present to our readers the views of
Gen. Thomas J. Morgan of the Rhode Island State Normal School,
Prof. W. H. Payne of the University of Michigan, Supt. Thomas
M. Balliet of Reading, Penn., and Dr. B. A. Hinsdale of Cleveland,
on the function and conduct of examinations. Too many of those
who are engaged in the profession of teaching look upon the
periodically recurring examination as supernaturally ordained, and
therefore not to be altered or questioned. For such persons, and
for their pupils, an examination is a dreary routine to be dreaded.
It is to be looked forward to for months, and ‘ crammed’ for with
assiduity and perseverance. It is this aspect of examinations
which is specially to be criticised and combated. The proper place
and scope of examinations in any educational system must be de-
termined and understood. They must work in harmony with
enlightened instruction, and not project a foreign and inharmonious
element into it. We trust that the present symposium will exercise
a good influence toward this end.

THE QUESTION OF A SYSTEM of improved public roads is one so
closely related to every material interest of the State aS to place it
properly among the most important questions of public economy.
The science of road making and maintaining, though neither diffi-
cult nor abstruse, is nevertheless based on principles so well estab-
lished and so unvarying in their operation, as to render their thor-
ough comprehension an essential to success in securing and main-
taining public roads, at once efficient and economical, whatever the

administrative system under which they are constructed. In other
countries the superintendence of public highways is recognized as
an important and responsible duty, and is usually assigned to spe-
cially-trained, expert government engineers, while in the United
States, where the greater mileage makes the economy, if not the
efficiency, of roads even more important than abroad, the States
depend for this responsible service on private citizens locally and
temporarily appointed to the duty, without having provided for
them the technical instruction and training so essential to success
under any system. In view of this state of affairs we take pleasure
in recording a move on the part of the Engineering Department of
Vanderbilt University, which, under due restrictions, provides for
the proper instruction, free of charge, of those who may wish to
know enough engineering to make them the better road-builders.

ORIGINAL RESEARCH IN THE AMERICAN COLLEGE.

OuR American colleges, with the exception of a few of the
larger institutions, are unfortunately not places of original research.
It has hardly seemed to have entered into the American idea of
education that a college, besides being a place of instruction, should
be the place for the origin of new knowledge. Of late years, how-
ever, the influence of German universities, and of some of the larger
colleges in this country, has been creating the conviction that
original research in some form is necessary for the life of our higher
educational institutions. There are thus numerous indications that
the future is to see our colleges more the home of new learning than
they have been in the past. But while we are beginning to realize
how greatly it is for the interest of our colleges that research should
be carried on within their walls, the prospects are, that, until a
complete change takes place in our system, such research will be
confined to the instructors and graduates, and will not be shared in
by the undergraduate student. With a few exceptional cases we
find the attention of the undergraduate confined to routine work,
and it is only after graduation that he is allowed to specialize so far
as to take up original investigation. Now, while this is due partly
to lack of facilities and opportunities, partly to lack of requisite
knowledge on the part of the instructor to direct such work, partly
to the difficulty of selecting work which a young student can do,
and partly to the universal disinclination to make new moves, it is
at the same time largely due to a more worthy reason than any of
these. There are many instructors in our colleges, who have every
facility for such work, who think it not wise to encourage it, even
though it would make the personal work of teaching a much more
congenial one. It lies outside the scope of our college course.
While, then, we may hope to see a time in the not distant future
when our colleges shall be places of research, it is very doubtful
whether this research will ever be shared in by the undergraduate,
except in isolated cases.

The reason for this lies in the peculiarly American idea of the
scope of and necessity for what we call a liberal education, and not
in any failure to recognize the value of research. The value of re-
search as a means of education in stimulating the student is fully
appreciated. It tends to counteract many evil tendencies of our
college-work. Routine courses in science as ordinarily pursued are
apt to become monotonous and tedious to the student, soon de-
generating into mechanical work. With the experiments detailed
for him in his text-book or laboratory directions, their results cease to
interest him, and a careless habit is almost sure to be fostered. His
thought is hardly stimulated at all, but is rather curbed by the feel-
ing that he is going over a path which hundreds have followed be-
fore, and that consequently his discovering any thing new is an im-
possibility. It is indeed surprising to see what little thought is
required, on the part of the student, to go through some of our
routine science courses. He learns the text-book, mechanically

1 fe)

performs the experiments, and notes results, but the amount of
personal thought which is stimulated is sometimes infinitesimal.
Now, since the design of our college course is to make the thinking
man, it is plain that something is needed to offset these tendencies,
and some of our educators would find this something in original re-
search. That a bit of research will counteract these evils in large
measure is certain enough. When the student is engaged in soly-
ing some new problem, the whole aspect of his study is changed.
It is no longer tedious and dull, but interesting and full of life. A
new world of thought is opened, and scientific methods of thought
and work become engendered. Travelling a new road, the student
is ever on the watch for new facts and thoughts. Carelessness and
mechanical labor are no longer possible, for he soon discovers that
his success depends upon the amount of care and thought that he
puts into his work. In short, original research soon does away
with the school-boy, and makes the student in its best sense.

But while the value of this method of study is apparent, it by no
means follows that such a course is best for our college student.
Most American instructors believe at present that the evils resulting
from such a course would more than counterbalance its advantages :
for it is plain enough that a course founded upon research will tend
to make specialists, and nothing else; and this is not the design of
our colleges. The American college is quite naturally compared
with the German universities; but the comparison is an utterly
false one, for the aim of the two is entirely different. The German
university student is studying a special course, for a special purpose,
and is usually looking forward to government employment. The
government appoints ministers, doctors, lawyers, teachers; and
eighty per cent of the university graduates obtain such employment
after passing a rigid State examination. It is this examination and
government employment which serve as the inspiration of the
student. The German Government has decided that a high educa-
tion shall be the means of entrance into the upper circles of society.
For a German who is not born noble, there is only one way
of gaining an association with the upper classes, and that is by a
university education and government employment. With such an
inspiration, Germany could hardly help developing a high grade of
education and early specialization. Considered in the light of
education alone, her system has certainly been the most successful
ever instituted. But in this country the conditions are very differ-
ent, and such an educational system is both impossible and un-
desirable. Our government has set no premium on education, nor
are our professional men at all dependent upon the government for
success. They are dependent directly upon the people, and there-
fore upon a hundred unforeseen possibilities. There are other ways
of improving one’s condition and rising in the estimation of society
than by becoming professional men, for many other paths of life are
equally respected. We have no educated aristocracy, for we believe
there are other good things besides learning. Our colleges have there-
fore a broad function to perform in meeting these conditions. They
desire, not to make specialists, but to train men. They do not de-
sire to make ministers or doctors or lawyers. This is left to pro-
fessional schools, which therefore compare more nearly with the
German university. The college course is one which we think a
student should have before beginning a special training, believing
that such preparation will result in making better professional men,
better business men, and, above all, better citizens. It is the gen-
eral training of lower schools broadened and expanded. German
university education tends to unfit men for any course of life outside
their specialties, and Germany is becoming alarmed over the in-
creasing class of educated men who cannot obtain government em-
ployment, and are fit for nothing else. The same is true of our pro-
fessional schools and advanced courses in higher universities ; for
they, too, fit men for narrow courses in life. But the college tries
to put men in a position where they are better fitted for any path in
life, from farmer to statesman. The professional school tries to
make the scholar; the college, to make the man. That our plan of
education is not adapted to the production of the largest number of
gifted scholars may be very true; but that it is best adapted to the
needs and demands of our system of society and government is
the firm belief of most American educators. j

Now, if we recognize this as a worthy aim of our colleges,
we shall understand why original research is not encouraged on

SCIENCE:

[Vor. X. No. 239.

the part of undergraduates. We hear a constant demand in this
country for a liberal education. It is for this that our students go
to college, for this that the course is planned. It is planned to oc-
cupy four full years, with little time left for outside work. Fortu-
nately, however, this idea has not been strong enough to oppose
successfully the introduction of the elective system, for this freedom
of choice has fought its way into all colleges. Our education has
been vastly improved by allowing the student the privilege of devot-
ing his energies toward a line of studies congenial to him. This
system of greater freedom is yearly widening its scope, and it is of
course impossible to tell where it will end; but there is no reason
for thinking it likely to go beyond a broad freedom in electives. To
take another step, and introduce the earlier and narrower specializa-
tion which would result from the encouragement of original re-
search, would be to abandon completely our belief in the value of a
liberal education ; for the investigator becomes the specialist from
the start. His attention is withdrawn from other subjects, and,
with the American’s hurry to do something, he is almost sure to
neglect completely all lines of learning except his own. We do not
want our colleges to develop classes of men who are good for noth-
ing outside of one line. For the general student, then, narrow
specialization is always injurious. Still further than this do our
colleges go, insisting that even more should the student who aims
at a special line of work be cautioned against taking it up too:
quickly. The only time that he will ever get for acquiring knowl-
edge of other departments of knowledge is during his college
course; for, as soon as he takes up his own, he will pursue it with
an eagerness which will hide all else. To begin to specialize early
seems at first sight a gain in time ; but it is in reality an irreparable
loss, for it is beginning to build without laying a sufficient founda-
tion. To make the best sort of a scholar requires more than an ex-
haustive knowledge of one thing: it requires a broad knowledge of
thought. It is quite common, therefore, to find our professors.
recommending their own students to keep outside of their special-
ties as long as possible. Practically, too, is it important, for our
educational positions demand it. Our institutions are not yet highly
enough differentiated to offer work for very narrow specialists. We
have many colleges and broad departments. They want teachers
in biology, and not in entomology ; teachers of physics, and not of
electricity. In short, the demand in the country to-day is almost
everywhere for broadly educated men, and not for the narrow
students which are the inevitable result of early attention to original
research. The general training the colleges must give, all special
training being reserved for the professional schools and the universi-
ties. If our colleges fill this demand, they will continue to exert a
powerful influence; but, if they cease to do so, the American
college will disappear, and its place will be supplied by professional
schools and universities. To convert our colleges into universities.
is impossible, since our students have had no thorough training to.
start with, which corresponds to the German gymnasium. In at—
tempting to avoid the old plan of rigid courses, and by electives.
introduce more freedom for the student, our colleges have vastly
improved our system of education. Whether or not this idea
has been carried to excess is still a matter of dispute, as can be
seen by comparing the views of the representatives of our two lead-
ing colleges, Harvard and Yale. But the opinion would be almost
unanimous that a system which enables the student to so devote
himself to one subject that all others are lost sight of, belongs not
to the American college: it belongs to the university or the pro-.
fessional school. At all events, our colleges at present are planned
to give the student a liberal education, and not a special training ;.
and for this purpose routine courses, and not original investigations,
are adopted.

Even with our elective systems in vogue, there are, as we have
seen, two equally undesirable extremes. On the one hand, routine
courses tend to degenerate into mechanical work and monotony,
curb original thought, and generate carelessness. This is the
most common fault of our American colleges. On the other hand,
original research on the part of the young student encourages too
early specialization, and thus defeats the plan of a liberal education..
This is not as common in this country. But neither extreme is neces—
sary ; for a medium course is possible, which shall in a measure
avoid the evils of both extremes, and give the advantages of both.

/

SEPTEMBER 2, 1887. |

‘systems. Such a course we must regard as the most promising one
for the future.

Doubtless we shall always meet with undergraduate students
who are engaged in original research, perhaps in the future more
frequently than at present; for there are certainly instances where
‘such a method of instruction is best. It may be in the case of a
student whose habits of carelessness require some measure for cor-
rection, or whose utter dependence upon teacher or text-book re-
quires vigorous offset. It may be the student whose general
ability is manifest, but whose interest in study has never been
awakened : to him a problem of research may prove a lifelong
blessing in rousing his slumbering energies. It may be the student
who has determined to pursue some special line of scientific work,
requiring no general learning, as that of an analytical chemist, or
that of some of the government scientific staff: about all that can
be said in this case is, the quicker one begins his work, the better.
It may be the student whose general faithfulness elsewhere makes
it evident that he may take up special work in his own chosen line
Without detriment to his general education ; or it may be in other
cases, where there seems to be a particular reason for it. But at
most these instances will be few in number, and such work cannot
apply to the bulk of students who take science courses in our col-
leges. For this larger class some sort of routine class-work is
necessary ; and the question arises whether it is not possible to so
arrange it as to avoid the evils which have been and still are too
largely attendant thereto. That this is possible is proved by the
fact that it is already done in many places.

The methods of conducting the ordinary routine science courses
in our colleges at the present time are extremely varied, ranging all
the way from simple text-book recitations to plans which involve a
jarge amount of independent work on the part of each student.
Experience seems to warrant the statement that the nearer such
work approaches the nature of original investigation for each stu-
dent, the more successful it is in arousing his interest and stimu-
lating his thought. But how is it possible to combine both plans ?
In many places in this country we find the adoption of plans
adapted for this purpose, and implying the minimum amount of
what we have called routine work. In the first place, text-books
are cast aside, except as books of reference or as serving to give de-
tails. The student is thus made to look directly to his instructor
for information. This system of lecturing or talking has been bor-
rowed from Germany, where it is the only method of instruction,
and is capable of yielding the most excellent or the most evil results,
according to the faculty of the lecturer. Where it is simply repeat-
ing verbally to the class the substance of some text-book, as is
sometimes done, it is much worse than giving the text-book to the
student to learn. But where the lecturer's wide knowledge of his
subject enables him to collect material from numerous sources, and
he is able skilfully to arrange it in such a way as to lead the student
from one principle to another, it will give more true knowledge
than any text-book. The chief reason is its flexibility; but an
equally important consideration is that it enables the lecturer to in-
troduce inferences and conclusions, in the midst of the course,
where they belong as drawn from the facts. He can pass from
fact to inference, from inference to theory, at will; and he is not
obliged to crowd all the principles of his science into an introduc-
tion to the course, where they will not be understood, or at the end
of the course, when they have lost their interest, one of which un-
fortunate plans is considered necessary in all text-books. To be
sure, we find good students not uncommonly objecting to lectures.
This is largely because they are anxious for something to learn ;
for such work they have been taught to do. They find it difficult,
however, to comprehend the meaning of a course which uses details
only for their significance, and aims at principles of science rather
than detailed information. They know how to learn a lesson, for
this they have been taught; but they do not know how to think.
In a large class in physiology, scarcely one failed to give the names
of the microscopic layers of the retina, though not asked for them
and distinctly told that they were of little importance to remember.
But quite a number utterly failed to comprehend the significance of
the eye as an optical instrument. The former was something to
learn; the latter, something to think out. Of course, all students
cannot be made to think; but, while it is impossible always to cor-

SCIENCE.

III

rect this error of learning simply by rote, it is certain that the
lecture system, when wisely conducted, tends to correct it, while
text-books tend to foster it. It is very seldom that an instructor
who has once tried the lecture system gives it up, except for matters
of detail. It helps to avoid old ruts, and insures the instructor that
for a time, at least, the students are thinking vigorously, a fact of
which he can never be sure with the use of text-books. It is one
of the important means of bringing the student in contact with
science itself rather than with second-hand learning.

Our science courses are now almost universally accompanied by
a certain amount of practical laboratory-work, and here it is possi-
ble to enforce a great amount of independent observation and
thought. Text-books, except in the form of a library of reference,
can, if desired, be completely eliminated. A series of experiments
following a course laid down in a text-book is of about the same
value as experiments performed before the class, and not very
much more; for, with the details and results given him, the student
usually is concerned only in performing the experiment successfully,
and not in thinking of its significance. But under the direct super-
vision of a wise instructor, each person’s laboratory-work can be
so planned as to force him to draw conclusions, and make his own
discoveries. He may be told little or much, as the case may re-
quire, but always just enough to set him on the track of seeing more
for himself. His experiments may be modified to suit emergencies.
Numerous minor problems may be set for his solution, for which he
has no answer, nor can find one except by studying the experiments,
or as his instructor may be inclined to assist him.

An illustration or two may serve to make this more intelligible.
A student studying biology is given a fish’s skull to examine, with
the aid of the instructor’s directions, or some book of reference.
After thoroughly mastering this, he is given in succession the skull
of a frog, an alligator, a turtle, a bird, and a series of mammals’
skulls, beginning with the opossum and ending with man. These
he compares, in turn, with the fish’s skull and with each other,
using no books, but simply studying the skulls, with here and there
a hint from the instructor, as it may seem desirable. Such a com-
parison can be completed with sufficient accuracy in a few days,
and proves invariably of interest to the student. By the time it is
completed, not only has he gained a good idea of the vertebrate
skull in such a way as to remember it, but he has discovered for
himself the spirit of comparative morphology in such a way that it
can never escape him. Or, again, he may be given a book or a
lecture describing a lobster, and given for dissection, not a lobster,
but a crab; or he may be given a few simple animals, and asked to
arrange them in what he would regard as natural groups. These
illustrations I have taken from the department with which I am
most familiar, but there is no difficulty in applying the same plan
anywhere. There is an endless variety of such work, which shall
compel the student to combine thought with the mechanical work
of the laboratory. Nor does this plan prove as slow as it would at
first sight appear. Perhaps it is slow at first, but the rapidity in-
creases with every advance. Work can be constantly varied from
one subject to another so as to conduct the student over the whole
ground desired. It can be varied with the individual; and, if there
be occasional lectures accompanying the practical work, there is no
difficulty in covering all the ground necessary.

Such a course is simply the ‘object method’ adapted to a larger
scale, and it has many advantages. It trains the observation, de-
velops carefulness, stimulates original thought. It gives the student
the elements of science, but in such a way that they mean more to
him than when obtained by any easier plan. It gives him the satis-
faction of feeling that he is accomplishing something on his own
part, but does not so distract his attention as to injure his work
elsewhere. It fits in with the requirements of a general course, and
at the same time offers some of the advantages of the German sys-
tem of independence on the part of the student. It is the best sort
of science for the general student, for it gives him not only facts
and principles, but some understanding of scientific methods of
thought and observation, which is more valuable than the facts. It
is the best method for the student who is to make the science his
specialty ; for, while introducing him to the elements, it familiarizes
him with the spirit of scientific investigation, and shows him that
nature is the text-book from which he is to learn.

II2

It is plain enough that there are serious practical difficulties in
the way of such courses. The chief one is in the amount of time
required from the instructor for their successful management. It
not only requires that the instructor should have a complete ac-
quaintance with his subject, but requires a constant personal super-
vision and thought, constant variations with different students, and
requires that each instructor should plan his own course, A text-
book is impossible, for it defeats its own end; or, if one instructor
should write a book for his own class, it would be useless for others.
Indeed, it is hardly possible to have any definite course; the aim
being that each student should be brought in contact with the prin-
ciples of nature as best suits his own ability, and not that the class
as a whole should go over a regular course. Such work is by far
the most difficult sort of teaching; and with the present small
faculties of many of our colleges, and the inadequate training of
many of the professors, it is practically impossible. But happily the
faculties are growing larger, and more and more attention is being
paid to selecting instructors fitted for their departments by previous
training. Fewer hours of recitation-work are demanded, and more
time is left to our instructors for thought and personal teaching. In
many places can be seen a constant growth of this personal con-
tact of instructor and student, and as fast as it grows we see the
routine work of classes replaced by the work of students as indi-
viduals.

Along this line, then, we may look for the future development of
sciences in the American college. We may hope for an increase in
the amount of original investigation; but this must come chiefly
from the instructors and graduate students, and it will then serve
as an inspiration to the college. We may look for larger labora-
tories, more apparatus, and greater facilities for practical work on
the part of large classes of students ; but this will be insufficient
unless we see at the same time an increase in the corps of instruct-
ors. Our boards of instructors should be large enough to make
possible some personal supervision of the students, so that the in-
dividual will not become swallowed up in the mass, and large
enough to allow to the instructors some time for research, by which
means alone they can keep apace with the times. The great demand
of higher education in this country is, therefore, not for more col-
leges or more buildings, but for more money devoted to instruction.

H. W. Conn.

THE FUNCTION AND CONDUCT OF EXAMINATIONS.

THE professors of a German university do not assign the student
lessons, or require him to hear lectures. When the time comes to
grant or refuse him the degree, their sole sources of information as
to his fitness to receive it are, the thesis that he hands in, and the
examination to which he is subjected. As respects time, this is a
system of unlimited election. That it develops splendid qualities in
the student ; that it is very grateful to young men who love freedom
and hate task-work ; and that, together with the other features of
the German system, it produces scholars eminent in every branch
of scholarship, — are well-known facts. In a German university,
stated work is at a minimum, and the examination at a maximum,
as a test of proficiency.

At the opposite end of the scale are the primary schools, in the
strictest sense of that term. Here no election of work or time can
be allowed beyond what extra-school conditions call for. ‘ Cut-
ting’ is absolutely inadmissible. The teacher cannot wait until
the end of the term or month, or even day, to discover what
the pupil knows: he must prescribe work every day, and, at the
beginning, every hour, and then see that the work is done. This is
a maximum of lesson, and a minimum of examination.

So far, all is plain and easy. But the moment that we enter the
grades of school-work lying between these extremes, we meet a
wide difference of opinion, and encounter serious practical difficul-
ties. Here Germany has nothing to teach us. The method of the
primary school is then continued to the end of the gymnasium
course, when the student plunges at once into the fullest university
liberty. The proper end is, rather, progressively to lift the pupil
above the task-work level, to give him freedom, and to make him
self-reliant. Two opposite tendencies are now very observable in
the United States : —

SCH NG Ee

[Vot. X. No. 239

1. A considerable number of colleges are allowing a limited elec—
tion of time. This means, if a proper regimen is maintained, less.
dependence upon the daily recitation, and more dependence upon
the examination.

2. In the intermediate public-school grades there is a diminishing
dependence upon the examination, and an increasing dependence
upon the daily work, particularly when the time comes to make the
promotions: in fact, this tendency is declaring itself all along
the public-school line.

These tendencies are both good; something of the freedom and
enthusiasm of the university is finding its way into the college ;
and there is a manifest slackening of the high public-school tension
of a few years ago, that was brought about by the abuse of ex-
aminations. Good results may be expected from both these move—
ments. °

The adjustment of requirement and election, of stated lessons:
and examinations, above the primary grades and below the college,
or possibly the university, is a problem that every teacher and
superintendent will be called upon to solve anew. The elements
will vary, and no formula can be given. The solution in a given
case will depend upon the facts that condition the home, the
school, and even the individual pupil. It is often urged against
examinations that they promote cramming. Teachers who have to-
solve this problem will do well to remember that they also tend to
prevent cramming. Pupils cram for the daily recitation as well as
for the examination; and as the daily recitation tends to check
cramming for the one purpose, so the examination tends to check it
for the other purpose. B. A. HINSDALE.

I AM asked to write a very brief article on the function and con-
duct of examinations. By examinations is meant a formal set of
questions answered in writing. Among the useful purposes which
can be subserved by such tests are the following : —

1. They may serve as a stimulus or incentive to study. Students.
who know that at some period of their work they will be required
to give written answers to questions based on the work done are
likely to be more attentive, industrious, and interested in their
work.

2. They encourage thoroughness. Those who prepare for an
oral recitation may depend upon chance, or artifice, or favoritism, to
help them through ; but a searching examination, calling for exact ~
written statements, is another matter, and demands better prepara-
tion.

3. They afford an opportunity, in some instances, for a review of
the whole subject passed over during the term.

4. They are often valuable as an exercise in English composition,
calling as they do for clear, concise, comprehensive statements.

5. They are a revelation to the pupils of their own ability and at—
tainments, as well as of their weakness and defects.

6. They call for concentration of mind, sustained mental effort,
and a ready use of one’s resources, which is a valuable educationak
discipline.

7. They reveal to the teacher the results of his teaching, the fail—
ure or success of his methods, and thus afford an opportunity
of modifying his work when necessary.

8. The tabulated results of a series of examinations, extending
through several months or years, indicate with considerable cer—
tainty the student’s trend of mind, habits of study, and scholarly
development. These results are specially valuable to parents in de-
ciding what is best for their children.

g. The results are helpful to superintendents and others in
forming an opinion of the progress of the pupils, and the work of
the teacher.

10. They give to school-work a kind of dignity, increase the
student’s self-respect, and impart to the teacher's mind a judicial
habit, freeing him from the great tendency to judge of his pupils
by sentimental regard rather than by a critical judgment.

With these ends in view, how shall the examinations be con-
ducted ?

1. They should be an ordinary, and not an extraordinary, part of
school machinery. If they are held only at the close of a term, or
at the conclusion of a study, the students should be prepared for
them by the character of the daily recitation, and by occasional

SEPTEMBER 2, 1887. |

‘written recitations, and ‘tests,’ which resemble the written exami-
nations, but are less severe.

2. The purpose and method of the examination should be fully ~

explained to the pupils, and their mistakes and failures should be
pointed out.

3. The questions set should be adapted to the age and ability of
the pupils, easy enough to encourage them to attempt all, and
difficult enough to call for their best efforts; should pertain to the
work actually done; should be explicit, concise, logical, and call
for thought and a mastery of principles, as well as for memory.

4. Too much importance should not be attached to the results.
They should be reckoned as only one element, among several, in
determining the standing of the student, and his fitness for promo-
tion or graduation. They should never be made the basis of rank-
ing, or the sole ground of promotion.

5. They should always be regarded and treated as simply one
means or device in the process of education, and should never be
treated as if they were the goal to be gained. They are a means,
and not an end.

6. They should not be so severe or prolonged as to overtax the
students’ powers, should be conducted with absolute fairness and
impartiality, as well as with good sense in regard to time, place,
and circumstances, and proper allowance should be made for any
exceptional circumstances, such as illness on the part of the stu-
dent. The ‘final’ examination should be held long enough before
the close of the term to allow the teacher to make the proper use

of the results before the class separates.
THOMAS J. MORGAN.

IN the current discussions on the use and the abuse of examina-
tions, it seems frequently to be assumed that their one great pur-
pose is to test,—to furnish a basis for estimating the pupil’s
knowledge and ability, and the teacher’s skill and success in in-
struction. If this were really the.only purpose they serve, it would
be easy to justify them, notwithstanding the fact that some evils
undoubtedly flow from them. These evils do not exist in examina-
tions fer se, but are faults of administration; and, if a teacher
proposes to abolish them on the ground that they encourage im-
morality, he utters an indictment of his own professional skill.

But admit, with certain extremists, that examinations have no
- justifiable use as tests ; that, for example, a pupil’s fitness for pro-
motion, or for learning a subject, is best determined by the teacher’s
personal knowledge, without any formal test : even then the exami-
nation can hold its ground, regarded either as a motive or as a
discipline.

I feel sure that my experience in the management of public
schools has taught me that the intellectual tone of a school cannot
be kept at the proper pitch by any other motive. Even the best of
pupils need to feel that they must study with a view to rendering a
formal account of their opportunities. Here, again, the stress may
be too great; but this is simply a fault of administration, which is
a direct reflection on professional skill.

But leaving also the motive power and value of examinations out of
account, they have a third and adequate defence in the fact that they
afford a discipline of incomparable quality. The ability to render a
clear, exact, and comprehensive account of what we know on a given
subject, under some stress, or in view of something important de-
pending on the result, is an endowment of supreme importance ;
and I know of no instrument for this purpose save a judicious ex-
amination.

As it seems to me, the only debatable question in the case is that
of use and abuse: it is simply a matter of administration.

W. H. PAYNE.

THE purpose of all education must be the development of
thought and character in the widest sense of these terms, — “ the
generation of power.”

Examinations are of use only in so far as they are in harmony
with this general purpose. They are a great power for good or
evil; they may be made a blessing or a curse to schools. An ex-
amination of pupils conducted by a supervising officer should have
a threefold aim. :—

First, It should be made a test as far as the pupils are concerned.
Right here comes the danger of all examinations. What shall the

SCIE NEE:

113

test be? Quantity of knowledge? Then ‘cramming’ will be the
inevitable result ; and the superintendent who thus plants thorns
and thistles has no right to expect them to bring forth grapes and
figs.

The examination must test power, and not mere quantity of
knowledge, — power to do intellectual work. As all food that is
eaten is not converted into physical force, so all knowledge acquired
is not converted into mental power. The test-question in the
former case is, not “How much have you devoured?” nor even
“How much do you weigh ?” but “ How much can you lift?’’ So
in the latter case it must be, not ‘‘ How much do you remember? ”
but “How much can you do?”

The examination, therefore, should not require a mere reproduc-
tion of what the pupil has learned, but it should test his power of
dealing with new questions and problems closely allied in principle
to those which he has studied.

Secondly, It should stimulate the pupil to work in right lines.
The pupil will work for the examination, and jt is right that he
should. If by working for it his work is wrong, the fault lies with
the examiner and the examination. A superintendent has it in his
power in this way to direct, in a large measure, the study of all the
pupils in his schools.

Thirdly, It should test the character of the teaching, and should
direct the work of the teacher. The teacher, like the pupil, will
work for the examination to a very large extent. That which is
made the chief test in the examination will be the motive of work
with both teacher and pupil.

The examination is therefore a powerful lever, in the hands of a
competent superintendent, to force school-work into right lines.

THOMAS M. BALLIET,

THE ASSOCIATION OF OFFICIAL AGRICULTURAL
, CHEMISTS.

THE fourth annual meeting of this Association was held in the
Library of the Department of Agriculture, Washington, beginning
Aug. 16, and lasting three days. The president, Dr. E. H. Jenkins
of Connecticut, in his opening address, congratulated the Associa-
tion on the success which had attended its efforts in securing the
adoption of uniform methods for the analysis of fertilizers. He
also recommended that the Constitution of the Association be
amended so as to include chemists of agricultural colleges, and all
official chemists having control of fertilizers, dairy products, and
agricultural products in general.

The first business of the session, after listening to the President’s
address, was the reception of the report of the committee on fod-
ders and feeding-stuffs, of which Prof. G. C. Caldwell of Cornell
was chairman. The committee had sent out a number of samples
of fodders and feeding-stuffs for comparative analysis, and the re-
sults obtained were presented. They showed that in the same
sample widely different results were obtained by different analysts.
These variations showed the necessity of adopting a strictly uniform
method of analysis. Sucha scheme was reported by the committee,
and, after discussion and amendment by the Association, was adopt-
ed to be used by all analysts connected with the Association during
the coming year.

The report of the committee on dairy products was presented by
Dr. H. W. Wiley of Washington. The committee had sent out
various samples of butters and butter-substitutes for examination
by members of the Association. The tabulation of the analyses, as
in the preceding cases, showed wide variations in many particulars.
After discussion and amendment, the following method of analysis
for butter and milk was adopted. For butter, preliminary exami-
nation with polarized light and selenite plate was recommended,
while it was stated that the melting of butters and butter-substitutes,
and their subsequent examination after cooling by polarized light,
appeared to have no value as means of qualitatively sorting butters
and butter-substitutes. The method of determining the specific
gravity of the butter-fat at 40° C., in a picnometer, was adopted.
For Reichert’s method, the saponification is to be made in the flask
to be used subsequently in the distillation, saturated solution of
potash with a small amount of alcohol to be used, and the fat-acids
subsequently to be freed by phosphoric instead of sulphuric acid.

114

For the estimation of fat in milk the Adam’s method is recom-
mended, viz., absorption of the milk by bibulous paper, drying, and
extraction with ether. As alternate methods the procedure of Morse
and Piggot or the lactocrite may be used. In the method of Morse
the milk is dried by treatment with anhydrous sulphate of copper,
and the fat extracted with light petroleum. Afterwards it is esti-
mated volumetrically by saponification with standard alkali. In the
method by the lactocrite the fat is separated in a centrifugal machine,
revolving at the rate of 7,000 turns per minute, the milk being pre-
viously treated with an equal volume of a mixture of 1 part sulphuric
and 20 parts acetic acid.

The method for analysis of fertilizers, with a few slight changes,
remains as last year. The most important contribution in this mat-
ter was from Prof. M. A. Scovel of Kentucky, who showed that
fertilizers containing nitrates could be treated by the Kjeldahl pro-
cess, if the sulphuric acid used in digestion contained a certain por-
tion of salycilic acid. By this means the total nitrogen existing in
the three forms can be determined by an extremely simple and
easy process. ;

The meeting was largely attended and full of practical interest
from beginning to end. Two new committees, viz., one on fer-
mented liquors and the other on sugar analysis, were appointed.

The following are the officers and committees for the coming
year: President, Dr. P. E. Chazal; Vice-President, Dr. W. J. Gas-
coyne; Secretary, Mr. Clifford Richardson ; Members of Executive
Committee, Dr. E. H. Jenkins, Prof. J. A. Myers ; Committees, on
phosphoric acid, W. J. Gascoyne, N. W. Lord, W. E. Moses; on
nitrogen, M. A. Scovel, N. T. Lupton, Wm. McMurtrie; on potash,
J. A. Myers, Wm. Frear, E. H. Jenkins; on feeding-stuffs, G. C.
Caldwell, W. H. Jordan, Clifford Richardson; on dairy products,
H. W. Wiley, S. M. Babcock, H. P. Armsby; on fermented liquors,
W.B. Rising, C. A. Crampton, G. F. Fellows; on sugar analysis,
W. C. Stubbs, N. T. Lupton, H. W. Wiley.

ALASKA LETTER.

IT is strange that so little is known in the United States about
Alaska. It has been a possession of our government for twenty
years, and even now interest in it is only beginning to be developed.
Yet in it we have by far the most remarkable of all our territories.
Its area is not less than 600,000 square miles, or one-fifth of that of
the United States proper. It is equal in extent to all the New Eng-
land states, all the middle states, Ohio, Indiana, Michigan, the Vir-
ginias, the Carolinas, Tennessee, Kentucky, and Mississippi. Sitka
is as far from the parallel of the extreme western boundary of Alas-
ka as it is from the parallel of Eastport, Me. The present governor
of the territory estimates its population to be 35,261, including
whites, creoles, and natives. Of this number, 10,600, including
3,100 whites, dwell in south-eastern Alaska, the part accessible to
tourists.

The native race of south-eastern Alaska is the Thlinket. The
Thlinkets are far superior, intellectually and industrially, to the
North American Indian. They are variously said to be of Asiatic
and Aztec origin, but the majority of observers believe them to be
related to the Chinese. They are skilful workers in wood and
metals, shrewd traders, and very amenable to civilizing influences.

The climate of south-eastern Alaska is any thing but Arctic.
The observations of Sergeant John J. McLean of the Signal Service
at Sitka, for the year ending Aug. 31, 1886, showed an average
temperature of 44°.8 F. The maximum was 72°, reached both in
July and August, and the minimum 4°, reached in January. The
rainfall is very heavy, often being more than foo inches per annum.

Alaska’s resources are timber, mining, furs, and fisheries, but as
they are only just being measured, it is useless to quote figures con-
cerning them.

The trip to Wrangell, Juneau, Sitka, and the great glaciers of
south-eastern Alaska is now easily and quickly made by frequent
steamers from the Puget Sound ports. During the summer season
there are weekly sailings, and the fastest steamer makes the round
trip from Tacoma, W.T., in eleven days. Travellers should pro-
vide themselves with warm clothing, for it will be needed during
the entire trip. Rubber boots or overshoes, a rubber coat, and a
stout pair of walking-boots are desirable. The last-mentioned are

SCIENCE.

[Vor X73. Non239

necessary for climbing on the Davidson and Muir glaciers, and the
rubber articles are a protection against the wet weather.

For maps of the coast, the British Coast Survey maps are to be
recommended, and the ‘ Coast Pilot’ is a most valuable aid in de-
termining the various peaks, glaciers, and channels. Though
numerous books on Alaska have been issued, no one of them is
satisfactory. Lieutenant Schwatka’s book does not treat of south-
eastern Alaska, and those that profess to do so are superficial and
inexact. Hubert Howe Bancroft’s ‘History of Alaska’ is impor-
tant, but far from satisfactory.

Adequate educational provision for the native and white children
has yet to made. The Thlinkets show great ability in industrial
work, and it is a source of great satisfaction to hear that an organ-
ized course of industrial training is to be put in operation in the
Sitka school at once. In the ‘Circular of Information’ of the
Bureau of Education known as No. 2, 1882 will be found an inter-

esting paper on ‘ The Neglect of Education in Alaska.’ B. N.
Sitka, Alaska, Aug. 1.

HEALTH MATTERS.

AGAINST BERGEON’S TREATMENT. — Dr. Townsend and Dr.
Hennessy report, in the A/bany Medical Annals, nine cases of
phthisis treated by gaseous enemata, after Bergeon’s method. The
reporters say that these cases, though few in number and some-
what incomplete, are deemed worthy of publication, as showing
that this method of treatment seems as much of a failure in this
dreaded malady as are others equally highly advocated at the pres-
ent day. Besides these cases, four others have come under the
observation of the writers, in three of which they personally super-
intended the administration of the gaseous enemata, the fourth
being seen only once in consultation, but the records of which were
accurately kept by the attending physician. With reference to all
these cases, it is stated that after a fair trial of from two to four
weeks it was deemed expedient and proper that it be discontinued
for the two following reasons: first, it did no permanent — in-
deed it might almost safely be said not even transient — good ;
while, second, it was most disagreeable and annoying to the pa-
tients, who generally were the first to suggest, or even beg for, its
withdrawal.

CHLOROFORMING WHILE ASLEEP. — In the August number of
the Vew Orledéns Medical and Surgzcal Journal is an editorial
comment on the subject of chloroforming persons while asleep.
The editor says that there are several points relating to the physio-
logical action of chloroform which have an important bearing on
the question. The condition of health and the age of the person
are matters to be considered in regard to the possibility of chloro-
forming people while asleep. To adults in perfect health chloro-
form is a decided cerebral stimulant, and it may be stated as a
rule, to which the exceptions are exceedingly rare, that healthy
adults cannot be chloroformed while asleep, unless their sleep has
been induced by exhaustion or hypnotic agents. Weakly adults
and children take chloroform with less resistance, as the stimulant
effect on the cerebrum is less in degree and shorter in duration.
Weakly adults and those acutely exhausted by disease or injury
may be chloroformed during sleep. Children may also be chloro-
formed while asleep, and especially if they are depressed on any
account. The editor recently demonstrated to several physicians
the ease with which chloroform could be administered to a sleep-
ing child when in a state of depression. The case was one of
cancer of the mesentery, in which the little patient had been ex-
hausted by pain and restlessness. The victims of chloroform at
the hands of burglars are usually at the time in good health. The
more improbable, then, is the story usually told of such burglaries.
Under all conditions anzesthesia by chloroform can be accomplished
during sleep only by skilful administration. Overdosage at the
outset will certainly awaken the sleeper. The ability of burglars to
force the anzesthesia of several persons sleeping in the same room
without raising an alarm is to be doubted. In regard to the im-
pression which prevails that burglars impregnate the air of an
apartment with chloroform vapor, so as to gradually aneesthetize
all the sleepers at the same time, the editor says that the weight of
chloroform vapor and the readiness with which it descends make it
difficult to saturate the air of a sleeping apartment, especially one

SEPTEMBER 2, 1887. |

at the time well ventilated. Besides, the quantity of chloroform
necessary to saturate the air sufficiently to produce anesthesia is
very considerable. Allowing one and a half grain of chloroform to
the cubic inch of air, it would require thirty-eight fluid ounces to
sufficiently impregnate the air of a room ten by twelve feet, with a
ceiling eight feet high. It would certainly take a considerable time
to vaporize this quantity of chloroform, to say nothing of the
probability of awakening sleepers by any act of atomization, and
even if it should succeed, what would be the effect on the burglars
themselves ?

MENTAL SCIENCE.
Why do we Sleep?

IN an address to the Anthropological Society of Brussels, Prof.
Leo Errera has given a véswmé of some points in the chemical
theory of sleep. The phenomena of sleep have in common with
other vital functions the character of periodicity. An examination
of such periodic functions in general may aid in ascertaining the
cause of sleep. The respiratory rhythm is regulated by the amount
of oxygen and carbonic acid in the arterial blood. When the blood
is charged with oxygen the respiratory centre momentarily sus-
pends activity ; but soon the tissues yield their oxygen to the blood,
have it replaced by carbonic acid, and the blood thus modified acts
as an excitant to the respiratory centre. Ranke has shown that the
fatigue and recovery of muscles is due to a similar alternation of
the accumulation and discharge of certain ‘ fatiguing substances,’
chief amongst which is lactic acid. An injection of this acid into
fresh muscle renders it incapable of work; washing the acid out
restores the activity. Cannot sleep be explained by a similar chem-
ical theory? Preyer has extended the views of Binz, Obersteiner,
and others (who all agree in making the accumulation of certain
products of fatigue — ermuidungsstoffe —the cause of sleep), by
calling all such fatiguing products of activity ‘ponogens.’ These
accumulate in waking life, are readily oxidizable, and absorb the
oxygen intended for glands, muscles, and nerve-centres, until action
is impossible and sleep sets in. Gradually the ponogens are de-
stroyed by oxidation, slight excitation is sufficient to arouse the
centres, and waking life begins. Amongst the ponogens, Preyer
counts lactic acid as the chief, but the experimental demonstration
of this has been unsuccessful, and the theory, accordingly, not gen-
erally adopted.

Since these researches Armand Gautier has found in the human
body a series of five organic bases akin to creatine, creatinine, and
xanthine, and calls them ‘leucomiines’ and ‘ptomaines.’ The
physiological properties of these substances are narcotic, fatiguing,
and sometimes lead to vomiting. This is just what the chemical
theory requires. The periodicity of sleep would be explained by
the conservation of energy being applicable to all bodily activity:
work must be followed by repair; life is a slow suicide. There is,
moreover, reason to believe that the action of these leucomaines is
a direct one upon the brain ; it is a direct intoxication of the brain-
centres.

A theory of sleep must take account of three factors, work,
fatigue, and sleep. The chemical theory satisfies these demands.
All work, muscular or cerebral, produces waste products. These
accumulate, make work more and more difficult: this is fatigue.
As the process continues, the waste-products, notably the leuco-
maines, intoxicate the higher nerve-centres (just as a dose of mor-
phine does), and render them incapable of action: that is sleep.
The picture is, however, much more complex. There is a constant
struggle against the fatigue, which for a time, by dint of hard work
shown in increased secretions and so on, may succeed. We proba-
bly never arrive at the extreme limit of work; the sensation of fa-
tigue intervenes to prevent such a disaster. Fatigue, as is well
known, may extend from muscle to nerve, and from nerve to nerve-
centre. We maybe very tired from repeatedly lifting a weight, and
not be sleepy, and may be generally sleepy without any considera-
ble local fatigue. One is peripheral, the other central. As the
waste products accumulate in the centres, motion and sensation be-
come more and more sluggish until the time comes when the or-
dinary stimulation no longer arouses them, and we sleep. Partial
sleep can be similarly explained. The centres go to sleep in a
hierarchical order, the highest serving the most delicate function

SCIENCE:

115

going first. In waking, the reverse is the case; the motor centres
may be asleep while the intellectual centres are awake. In som-
nambulism the latter may be asleep while the former are awake.

The depth of sleep according to this theory ought to be propor-
tional to the number of cortical molecules in combination with the
leucomaines. In the beginning of sleep these are abundant, the
cerebral cells inactive, and a combination easy. The sleep is deep.
Soon the maximum number of combinations is reached, and sleep is
deepest. From here on, the leucomaines are gradually eliminated
and destroyed, and sleep should decrease with a decreasing in-
tensity. Kohlschiitter’s experiments on the intensity of sleep, as
tested by the noise necessary to awake the patient, gives the curve
for the intensity of sleep corresponding to what we should expect by
our theory. Variations in our sleep caused by an excess of work,
etc., are evidently similarly explicable. In short, fatigue is a poison
for which sleep is the normal antidote.

This theory maintains (1) that the activity of all the tissues (and
primarily of the two most active, the nervous and muscular) gives
rise to substances, more or less allied to alkaloids, the leucomaines ;
(2) that these induce fatigue and sleep; (3) that on waking, if the
body is rested, these substances have disappeared.

To complete the demonstration of these statements much careful
experimentation is necessary ; but the facts as far as they go make
it probable that the chemical theory of sleep will gain in strength
as our knowledge advances.

ETHNOLOGICAL NOTES.

THE HAWAIIAN ISLANDS.—Dr. E. Arning’s researches have been
very successful. He was sent there by the curators of the Hum-
boldt Fund at Berlin, in order to study leprosy, which has recently
become the plague of the natives of this group. He stayed there
for two and a half years, and during this time carefully collected
relics of the ancient Hawaiian culture, and succeeded in bringing to
light many points of interest, thus proving that European influence,
which has swamped the islands since 1820, has not totally de-
stroyed the remembrance of olden times. When the missionaries es-
tablished their schools in Hawaii, the natives rapidly adopted Euro-
pean customs, burnt their temples and idols, and cast the stone
images of their deities into thesea. The destruction was so complete
that no traces seemed to remain. Arning, in studying the disease
mentioned, had ample opportunities to come into contact with the
natives in the remote villages of the islands, and here he found still
many relics, and received information about the ancient arts and
customs. His notes on the fishery of the Hawaiians are of interest.
They were skilful divers, and used to frighten the fishes out of the
caves and hollows of the rocky ground with sticks, and then catch
them in nets. When fishing in the canoe, they used a sacred piece
of heavy wood, called ze/omelo, which was kept in the sacred part
of the hut, and was placed, with many ceremonies, in the canoe.
It was attached to the net in order to attract the fish by its magic
spells. A variety of hooks were used for different kinds of fish and
according to the time of day, irisated shells being applied at noon and
in a bright sun, while white ones served early in the morning and
late in the evening. Arning describes their games, the wooden
sledges on which they used to glide down the steep slopes of the
mountains ; the remarkable boards of koa-wood, shaped like an iron-
ing board, standing on which they rode through the surf; the oa,
a spindle-shaped piece of heavy wood, the use of which was allowed
to the chiefs alone, who let it glide down the slope of a hill, at the
foot of which it had to pass between two poles; and the famous
game of mazka, which is similar to the Italian ‘boccia.’ At the
present time, when a powerful reaction against the missionaries is
spreading all over the islands, the old Zz/a dance has been revived,
and the ancient dancing, ornaments, and musical instruments
are used again. Arning describes a foot ornament made of 960
canine teeth of dogs, the work of several generations, —for dogs
were slaughtered only at high festivals, — their drums, flutes, and
xylophones. Arning’s observations and collections form one of the
most important recent contributions to Polynesian ethnology, and
are the more valuable as they were made in a country which
seemed to have lost all its originality by its rapid commercial de-
velopment.

116

THE BOTOCUDOS. — Dr. P. Ehrenreich has published the results
of his study of the Botocudos of the Rio Doce in the Zeztschrift fiir
Ethnologée. We discusses the observations of former travellers, and
compares them with his own experience, thus giving the best sketch
of this interesting nation which can be obtained at the present time.
Dr. Ehrenreich has collected a considerable amount of anthropo-
logical, ethnological, and linguistic material. He gives a number
of craniological and anthropometrical measurements, sketches the
life of the tribes, who live in a remarkably low state of civilization,
and gives a vocabulary — which he has compared with the older
ones of Martius—and brief grammatical notes. His researches
lead him to the conclusion that the Botocudos formerly occupied a
more extensive territory than they do at the present time, inhabiting
a tract of land which extended from the coast far westward. They
are related to the Ges nations, who inhabit the central parts of
Brazil, and a member of whom was discovered by Von Steinen on
the upper Xingu. It is of importance to know that the Ges and the
Botocudos wear labrets and ear ornaments, that their ceramic art
and methods of navigation are very primitive, and that they do not
use the hammock. Ehrenreich is of the opinion that the Botocudos
remained in an earlier stage of development than the Ges nations, who
migrated west and came into contact with other peoples, while the
former remained isolated. He believes that the remains found in
the caves of the province of Minas Geraes belonged to the ancestors
of the Botocudos.

ORIGIN OF THE ESKIMO.—In the Amerzcan Naturalist of August,
1887, Mr. Lucien M.Turner criticises Dr. H. Rink’s theory. The latter
supposes that the Eskimo were originally an inland people, living
somewhere in the north-western part of North America, whence
they descended to the seacoast along the rivers. In several articles,
Dr. Rink tries to prove this theory by comparing the languages and
customs of the different tribes. Though convincing proofs cannot
be given, it seems very probable that the Eskimo have come from
the rivers and lakes in the interior of America. This theory is open
to criticism, but Turner’s objections fail to convince us, and do not
meet Rink’s arguments. The latter is right in laying stress upon
the fact that the Eskimo are not so exclusively a coast people as is
generally supposed. The most difficult problem of the study is the
difference of the tribes west and east of the Mackenzie. Rink
emphasizes the fact that the former have certain inventions which
the latter have not, while other implements are more developed the
farther east we come. From this fact he concludes that the Eskimo
first reached the sea and came into their present environment west
of the Mackenzie, near the mouth of the Alaskan rivers. This
theory, though not improbable, ought to be scrutinized by a study
of the anthropology of Alaskan and eastern Eskimo tribes. It seems
to us that much of the difference may be due to foreign influence.
An interesting paper on the anthropology of the Eskimo, more par-
ticularly of those of East Greenland, is contained in the Bulletin
de la Société d’Anthropologie (ix. p. 608). While the population
of western Greenland is mixed with Danish elements to such a de-
gree that there is probably nobody of pure Eskimo descent in
South Greenland, this tribe has never mixed with Europeans. They
are less dolichocephalic and slightly taller than the West Green-
landers and other eastern tribes. Their noses are described as be-
ing aquiline, but this also occurs among other tribes. The researches
in East Greenland which were carried out by Lieutenant Holm
show definitely that the tribes of the east coast never came into
contact with the ancient Normans.

BOOK-REVIEWS.

The Treatment and Utilization of Sewage.
and LouIS C. PARKER.

By W. H. CoORFIELD
London, Macmillan. 89.

THE fact that this work has reached a third edition is evidence of
its value and usefulness. Since the second edition was published,
sixteen years have elapsed, during which time great progress has
been made in the methods of treatment of sewage, so that it has
been necessary, in order to bring the book up to date, to incorpo-
rate much material which will not be found in the earlier editions.
The historical portions have been retained in their entirety, as being
not only interesting in themselves, but also, on the one hand, descrip-

SCIENCE:

[Vou Xx. eNor 276

tive of a state of things still to be found in many places, and, on
the other, important as a record of methods and processes which
have been adopted at various times, for methods and processes
which have been tried and abandoned as useless are liable to be
brought forward again as new at some future time unless such a
record is kept. Special attention has been given in this edition to
the important investigation of the British Association Sewage Com-
mittee, more especially as regards the determination of the percent-
age of the manurial ingredients of sewage actually utilized by
irrigation on land, and recovered in the form of crops, and the accu-
rate method devised by that committee for taking samples of
sewage and effluent-water for analysis. The practical inquiry
originated by the suggestion of the late Dr. Cobbold that entozoic
disease might be spread through the agency of sewage farming, and
the quantitative examination, with a view to its manurial value, of
the compost resulting from the use of earth-closets, are described
in detail. The table of contents is a very extensive one, occupying
twenty-two pages, and includes many subjects of great interest and
importance of which the title of the book gives no suggestion.

In the opening chapter reference is made to the early systems
for the collection and removal of excreta, the midden heaps, the
stagnant ditches, and the open cesspools. In some of the English
towns, in 1845, the privies were in the cellars, and often overflowed.
This condition of things could not but be detrimental to health, and
must of necessity favor to an alarming extent the spread of many
epidemic diseases. Those who question the relation between
filth and disease will do well to read that chapter in Dr. Corfield’s
book in which he treats of this subject. He succeeds in demonstrat-
ing that the opinion that the pollution of drinking-water by excreta,
and of the air by emanations from cesspools and so forth, on the one
hand, and on the other the amount of general sickness, and, in many
cases, of special epidemics, stand in the relation of cause and effect,
isatrueone. Instances are given of fever, cholera, and other forms
of disease, breaking out in English towns, which are directly trace-
able to the filth which had been allowed to accumulate.

In the reports of the Health of Towns Commissioners it is con-
tinually pointed out that sickness is the chief cause of the non-pay-
ment of rent. One witness says: ‘‘ Three out of five of the losses
of rent that I now have are losses from the sickness of the tenants,
who are working men. Rent is the best got from healthy houses.”
Another says: “Sickness at all forms an excuse for the poorer
part not paying their rent, and a reasonable excuse,” so that filth
causes sickness, sickness inability to work, inability to work poverty
and non-payment of rent, to say nothing of starvation. We not
infrequently hear in this country, the statement that the State has
no right to interfere, that a man’s house is his castle, and that he can
do what he likes within it. It is this sentiment which for so many
years prevented legislation for the protection of tenants in our large
and dilapidated tenement-houses, a sentiment which is, we are glad
to say, being done away with, more, however, we fear, because the
laboring men are beginning to realize and exercise their power than
because of any general awakening of landlords to the duty which
they owe to their fellow-men. Writing on this subject in 1844, with
reference to the then state of Liverpool, Mr. Howe said: “ The man
who, in a crowded street, is living in filth and breathing a putrid
atmosphere, or who makes that street a receptacle for the offal
which he casts from his dwelling, becomes the instrument of danger
to his neighbors by spreading infection, and he not only hazards his
own life, but endangers that of others. The man who erects a
flimsy edifice in a crowded thoroughfare, which by its falling may
destroy life, should be prevented doing so; and he who constructs a
house to let for profit and pays no attention to those matters which
are essential to comfort, but, on the contrary, so constructs it as to
engender fever and endanger the lives of his tenants, —all these
are cases where, with propriety and in justice the legislature ought
to interfere, and to insist upon such a mode of construction as will
not endanger human life.” The earth and ash closets are fully de-
scribed and their advantages and disadvantages discussed. In speak-
ing of this system, Dr. Corfield says that there can be no doubt that a
well-managed dry-earth conservancy system, or midden and ash-pit
system, is better than no system at all, but it by no means follows
that they are free from danger. They both go upon a wrong prin-
ciple: we do not want conservancy at all; our first object must be

SEPTEMBER 2, 1887. |

to get rid of refuse-matters, and not to see how long we can keep
them about our houses in a presumed harmless condition. The
Rivers Pollution Commissioners in their first report, 1868, have no
hesitation in pronouncing the dry-earth system, however suitable
for institutions, villages, and camps, where personal or official regu-
lations can be enforced, entirely unfitted to the circumstances of
large towns.

The subject of sewerage is very fully treated. In the considera-
tion of the separate system, that at Memphis, Tenn., and Pullman,
Ill., are mentioned and described. The best method of sewer-ven-
tilation is still undetermined in this country, and the sanitary journals
are at the present time discussing the subject with a good deal of
earmestness. On this point Dr. Corfield says that the very common
plan of ventilating sewers by means of untrapped rain-water pipes
from the roofs of houses is extremely dangerous. These pipes are
often very loosely jointed, and the air rising from the sewer will
escape through every such joint, possibly into bedrooms; and in
many cases the open head of the pipe is just beneath a dormer or
attic window. During heavy rain the rush of water down these
pipes will force the air of the drain into the interior of the house
through trapped or untrapped openings. He also condemns the
practice of ventilating the sewers by means of the soil-pipes of
houses, as there is constant risk of the escape of sewer-air
through defective joints into the interior of the house. The house-
drain should pass through a disconnecting chamber with an air inlet,
and be trapped before entering the sewer. Connecting the sewers
with furnace chimneys is also condemned. The Shone, Liernur,
and Berlier systems of sewerage are described in a concise but
thoroughly intelligible manner.

Among other interesting topics discussed, and which we are com-
pelled to pass over for want of space, are the sanitary aspects of
the water-carriage system, the value of sewage, the injury which
it works to rivers, the pollution of drinking-water, the discharge of
sewage into tidal waters, the straining and precipitation of town-
sewage, filtration, irrigation, and the treatment and _ utilization
of manufacturing-refuse. In speaking of the influence of sewage-
farming on the public health, the author states, that, as far as
nuisance is concerned, there is no doubt that if irrigation farms are
badly managed they may be made a nuisance to the neighborhoods.
Ordinary sewage is only in a very slight degree offensive when
fresh. What is really the most offensive part of sewage farms is
the black slimy mud which collects along the sides of the carriers
when the sewage is not filtered before being sent to the fields. It is
advisable that sewage should be filtered and strained in the man-
ner practised at several places. There is no reason to spread a
layer of comparatively worthless and necessarily offensive filth over
the surface of the soil. There is good reason to expect that the
utilization of the sewage of towns on the land near them, while pre-
venting the pollution of drinking-water, and the spread thereby of
cholera and typhoid fever, will at the same time maintain the purity
of the atmosphere around and about the towns, and that the result
will be, especially when combined with that produced by the
increased demand for labor and the more plentiful supply of food, a
diminution of the general death-rate.

The late Dr. Cobbold had great fear that entozoic diseases would
be spread by means of sewage irrigation. Although this possibil-
ity has been borne in mind ever since Dr. Cobbold drew attention
to it in 1865, there are no facts reported which connect entozoic
diseases with sewage irrigation. Dr. Corfield summarizes his
views on the question by saying that it has not yet been shown that
sewage irrigation has ever increased the amount of entozoic disease
inmen or cattle. Still less that it is likely to do so to a greater ex-
tent than any other method of utilizing human excrement; and
Were this shown to be the case, the danger would be toa great
extent obviated by some preliminary treatment, with a view to the
Separation of the suspended matters.

The Treatment of Sewage. By Dr. C. M. Tipy.

°

Van Nostrand. 24°.

THis little book, which is one of Van Nostrand’s ‘Science
Series,’ contains in a very concise form a great deal of valuable in-
formation on the subject of which it treats. It goes over necessarily
much of the same ground as Corfield’s ‘Treatment and Utilization

New York,

SCIENCE.

Ly;

of Sewage,’ a review of which we have already given, but in a much
more condensed form.

Dr. Tidy, in marked contrast with Dr. Corfield, thinks that there
is danger that entozoic diseases may be communicated to both man
and beast by means of the products of sewage farms. He says that
the fact has always been recognized that entozoic diseases have an
external origin ; i.e., that the ova or parasites come from without,
and are not generated within, the human body. Millions of ova are
voided with every segment discharged by the person afflicted with
tapeworm, each ovum being capable of producing a measle in the
flesh of an animal, and each measle a tapeworm in the body of the
man. He has seen watercresses and celery grown on sewage
ground, having a quantity of dried sewage matter deposited on the
stems, and he has, with more than a cook’s patience, tried to wash
this matter off, but the tenacity with which it sticks upon the sur-
face of the vegetable when once dry is perfectly astounding. It
should be remembered in this connection that these vegetables are
eaten in an uncooked state. The grass covered with sewage, eaten
as it is with rapacity by the cattle, infects their bodies with the
larval parasite. Thus the meat is measly, and measly meat, except
for efficient cooking, means tapeworm to the human subject. Per-
haps a similar story might be told of trichina, with its ten times
greater danger. The farm, therefore, that receives sewage must be
more liable to produce measly meat than the farm that does not
receive it.

In opposition to these views of Dr. Tidy we have the opinion of
Dr. Corfield, already referred to, and also that of the British Asso-
ciation Committee. This committee made experiments to deter-
mine this very question of the distribution of entozoic disease by
means of sewage irrigation. Dr. Cobbold, at the request of this
committee, examined the carcass of an ox which had been fed for
two years on sewage-grown grass, and reported the perfect freedom
of that animal from internal parasites of any kind, but explained
this freedom in a manner which to his mind did not affect the main
question. The committee did not accept this explanation, but in
their report say that it appears as far as this one case goes (and it
is certainly as conclusive as a single case could possibly be), there is
no evidence that entozoal forms of life are to be found upon the
farm at all, in any stage of their existence, or in the flesh of an
animal fed exclusively for twenty-two months on sewaged produce
grown on the farm. This report was made in 1871, but we have
Dr. Corfield’s statement that since the date of that report no facts
have been recorded connecting entozoic disease with sewage
irrigation.

It would be interesting to know whether Dr. Tidy or others have
any evidence to the contrary. It would seem as though the system
had certainly been in practical operation long enough to have set-
tled this question.

It is a matter of regret that the publisher of Dr. Tidy’s book has
not given the reader a table of contents or an index. In order to
ascertain what it contains it must be read through from title-page
to colaphon, and as a book of reference its value is greatly dimin-
ished from this omission.

NOTES AND NEWS.

A SANITARY Convention was held at Traverse City, Mich.,
Aug. 24 and 25, under the auspices of the State Board of Health.
The objects of the convention were the presentation of facts,
the comparison of views, and the discussion of methods relating
to the prevention of sickness and deaths, and the improvement
of the conditions of living. It was not a doctors’ convention, but
for the people generally. Among the many subjects which were
presented and discussed were the following: disposal of waste in
Traverse City by sewerage and otherwise, the present and future
water-supply of Traverse City, the best methods of warming and
ventilation, the work of the village health-officer, the money value
of sanitary work, the prevention of contagious diseases, school
hygiene, foods and their adulterations, the drink problem, and the
prevention of insanity.

— In the letter on ‘Chrome considered as a Poison,’ by Charles
Harrington, in last week’s Sczence, centimetre (p. 105, col. 2, 4th
line) and centigram (p. 106, col. 2, 21st line) should read ‘gram.’

118

LETTERS TO THE EDITOR.

*," The attention of scientific men ts called to the advantages of the correspondence
columns of SCIENCE for placing promptly on record brief preliminary notices of
their investigations. Twenty copies of the number containing his communication
will be furnished free to any correspondent on request.

The editor will be glad to publish any queries consonant with the character of
the journal.

Correspondents are requested to be as brief as possible.
tn all cases required as proof of good faith.

Wind Pressure and Velocity.

The writer's name ts

THE importance of an accurate determination of the relation be-
tween the pressure and velocity of the wind will be readily recog-
nized. This relation is especially needed by the architect and
bridge-builder, since most instrumental determinations are of the
wind’s velocity. The problem is much more intricate than is ordi-
narily supposed, and the diverse results obtained by experimenters
of great ability show how the determination of the movements and
behavior of gaseous media are hedged about with difficulty, and, as
already pointed out in Sczence for July 8, the absolute necessity of
building up the science of meteorology on a firm foundation of fact
rather than theory.

There have been two methods of experimentation: the earliest,
with plates rotated upon an arm seldom exceeding tro feet in length,
and, later, by the exposure of plates to direct air-motion. Borda,
in 1763, with plates ranging from 16 to 85 square inches area, ob-
tained the following relation,

p = (.0031 + .00035 c) Sv,
in which # = pressure in pounds on the plate, c = contour of plate
in feet, S = surface in square feet, and v = velocity in miles per
hour (this notation will be maintained throughout).

In 1874, Hagen tried most careful experiments with an arm of
8 feet. The velocity ranged from 1 to 3 miles per hour, but the
room was so small that at the latter velocity the air was set in feeble
rotation. The plates ranged in size from 4 to 40 square inches, He
found, as did Borda, that the pressure per square foot increased with
the size of the plate. The following is the relation established by
him,

Pp = (.002894 + .0001403c) Sv?.
This formula for this relation has repeatedly appeared in print, and
each time it has been changed. This is believed to be correct.

Singular as it may seem, these experiments have been almost the
only ones quoted in discussions of this question, and yet it is easy to
see that they are utterly useless for determining the pressure of a 50-
mile wind on the side of a building.

In November, 1886, a few experiments in Washington with an
arm of 4 feet, and plates from 16 to 576 square inches area, gave
the relation,

Bp = (.0032 + .00034 ¢) Sv?.
The agreement with Borda’s results is very interesting.

Afterward, with the same style of apparatus and an arm of 16
feet, the relation found was

p= .0034 S v?.
The velocity of the larger plates was only 4 miles per hour, so that
this formula does not help us for greater velocities. It was certain-
ly established that there was no difference in pressure per square
foot depending on the size of the plate. Turning to experiments
of the second class, we find that Thibault obtains, with plates from
I to I.5 square feet area exposed to the wind, the relation,

p= 00475 Sv.
In France, with plates exposed on a locomotive running 44 miles
per hour, the relation established was

Pp = .00535 Sv”.
In this case, probably, a slight allowance must be made for the
wind with the train.

In the ‘Encyclopedia Britannica,’ article ‘Hydromechanics,’ the
mean of all the better determinations is

Pp = .00496 Sv’.

We may conclude, rst, that experiments with whirling arms of
less than 16 feet are very untrustworthy ; 2d, that we need determi-
nations with rapid, straight-line motion, best obtained, perhaps, by
pushing two or three platform-cars loaded with iron in front of a
locomotive, exposing the plates on the front car; 3d, the relation

SCIENCE:

[Vor. X: No, 239

~=.005 S v”* is the most satisfactory yet determined, and does
not differ by more than four or five per cent from the truth.

While there has been this great difficulty in determining the
above relation, there has been just as much, if not more, in connec-
tion with the relation between the velocity of the wind and that of
the cups of Robinson’s anemometer. Some confusion has arisen from
the fact that the standard anemometer in England has 9-inch cups
and 24-inch arms, while in our country we have 4-inch cups and
7-inch arms. ‘3

It has been determined, by careful experiment in England, that,
if the large type of anemometer has a factor of 2.5, then the smaller
should certainly have 3.00. Dr. Robinson, after a long research
with a whirling machine, decided that the factor (of the smaller
instrument probably) should be about 2.5. After trying a few ex-
periments in the open air, however, he changed his view, and de-
cided that the factor should be 3.00. In Washington, with an arm
of 16 feet, and a velocity of 12 miles per hour, the factor was found
to be 3.00.

Quite recently the Chief Signal Officer, through the kindness of
the officials, as a preliminary to carrying on experiments on plat-
form-cars, as suggested above, has had an anemometer placed
upon a locomotive of the Baltimore & Ohio Railroad running
from this city to Baltimore. Only one round trip has been tried
thus far: in the outward trip the velocity of the train was about 20,
and returning it was about 46 miles per hour. Allowing for the
actual wind, we find the anemometer indication 46 miles going, and
47 returning. The distance was 40 miles, and we may consider
that the excess of about 6 miles was due to the heaping up and
flowing over of the air in front of the locomotive. All things con-
sidered, it seems probable that the factor 3.00 now used in our
anemometers of 4-inch cups and 7-inch arms is entirely correct :
certainly no change in the present factor can be thought of for an
instant. A complete discussion of this question has already been
prepared by me, and will appearin October. The other side of this
question has been recently presented by Professor Ferrel in the
August American Meteorological Journal. H. ALLEN HAZEN.

Washington, Aug. 22.

The Formation and Dissipation of Sea-Water Ice.

Mr. W. A. ASHE’S opinion on the freezing-point of sea-water,
and the conclusions he draws from his experiments, cannot be ac-
cepted. The arrangement of the experiment described in No. 228
of Sczezce seems to be insufficient. A hole was cut through ice 87
centimetres (2.85 feet) thick. The water within was thoroughly
agitated by stirring from below, and during the actual observation
slightly agitated. The thermometer was held nearly horizontally,
the bulb slighty lower than the rest of the instrument, just below
the surface of the water. When the ice-film began to form, the
reading of the thermometer was — 2°.9 C. (269.7 F.), the tempera-
ture of the air being — 24°.8 C. (—12°.6 F.). The greatness of the
difference between the freezing-point of the sea-water and the
temperature of the air detracts from the value of these observations.
The ice is forming so rapidly that brine is included among the crys-
tals: it is even probable that cryohydrates are formed at the sur-
face. On the other hand, the freezing-point of sea-water was not
only found by melting sea-water ice, as Ashe assumes, but also by
freezing sea-water, and was always found to be between — 1°.6 C.
and — 1°.8 C. (29°.1 and 28°.8 F.), according to the concentration
of the solution. Mr. Ashe’s second remark on this subject in No.
232 of Sczence does not agree with Buchanan’s interesting researches
on the melting of fresh-water ice in solutions of salts. He has
shown by an excellent series of experiments (Va¢ure, April 28 and
May 5, 1887), that, when sea-water is frozen to the extent of fifteen
per cent of its mass, and the crystals so formed are allowed to melt
in the liquid in which they have been produced, they melt exactly
as they have been formed. If snow or pure ice be immersed in the
brine formed by partially freezing sea-water, it melts at the same
temperature as the ice which had been formed by freezing the sea-
water, so long as the chemical composition is the same in each case.

In a third letter to Sczence (No. 237), Mr. Ashe makes some re-
marks on the formation and character of Arctic ice. He says, that,
as the density of sea-water increases till the freezing-point is reached,
ice is not formed at the surface, but at a certain depth. In fact, the

SEPTEMBER 2, 1887. |

cooling goes on from the surface, and is far more rapid than the
motion of the water to deeper layers: therefore ice is formed before
the cooled masses sink to the depth and are replaced by warmer ones.

I can confirm Mr. Ashe’s observation that the new ice frequently
forms first on projecting points. It seems to me that particles of
ice which have formed on the shore are driven by wind and waves
into the sea, and act as so many centres of congelation, As these
particles and small cakes are drifting before the wind, long, narrow
streamers are formed, each new opening being rapidly filled by new
ice. These narrow strips do not consolidate, but are driven to a
lee coast, or their motion is stopped in some other way. Then they
are pressed together, the small cakes are broken and overflowed by
ripples, the water freezes on top of them, and within a short time an
extensive field is formed consisting of numerous small cakes pressed
and piled upon one another, and cemented by the water that has
overflown them. Besides this kind of ice, which is formed while
the wind is blowing, smooth floes are formed in small bays during
calm weather. The latter, however, form the smaller portion of
Arctic ice. This process accounts for the great quantity of brine
contained in the new ice. The deeper layers contain far less salt
than the surface ice, as the mechanical admixture of water takes
place on the surface only. The snow, on falling on this kind of ice,
forms a slush, as it melts in the brine oozing out of the ice. This
mixture freezes, and thus the thickness of the ice increases on the
upper and lower sides simultaneously. The different origins of the
layers of ice accounts for their different character.

During the winter the ice undergoes remarkable changes. The
brine contained in ice of different depths is the more concentrated
the lower the temperature of the layer. It is probable that the
cavities between the ice-crystals are sufficient to effect a gradual
decrease in the concentration of the upper parts, which then begin
to freeze, and thus become drier.

When in spring the ice begins to melt, it loses its salt rapidly, and
I observed in latitude 70° north, on the west coast of Baffin Bay,
that it had become entirely fresh about the end of June, the brine
being removed through the capillary cavities.

A remarkable effect of mechanical action upon the dissipation of
the sea-water ice may be observed at places where rapid tides are
running. When the temperature of the air rises to about — 20° C.
(—4° F.), the ice becomes saturated with water, and is being worn
off at its lower side. It seems that the lower surface of the ice is
rough, consisting of ice-needles with isolated points. These are
broken off by the violent motion of the water, and thus by the fric-
tion of the broken pieces the volume of the ice-sheet is continually
being diminished at its lower side. In winter the same process
must be going on, though not to so great an extent. Some places
of this kind are open throughout the winter. Their extent is chang-
ing according to the strength of the tides; and during the spring-
tides ice of about fifteen or twenty centimetres thickness, which
was formed during the preceding neap-tide, is broken up and
pressed under the neighboring floe: consequently the thickness of
this ice would continually increase if it was not worn off at its lower
surface. In fact, the ice in such places is very treacherous and thin :
therefore it seems, that, according to the strength of the current, a
certain low temperature is required to resist its destructive influ-
ence. Below the layer which has this temperature the ice is satu-
rated with water and being worn off,

Mr. Ashe touches upon another subject the explanation of which
seems to me insufficient. On steep coasts in the Arctic regions an
ice-wall is found attached to the rocks, and reaching from high-
water to low-water mark, gradually decreasing in thickness, and
having a vertical side. When the tide ebbs, the wet rocks are ex-
posed to the cold air, and of course are covered with a thin sheet of
ice. This process begins before the sea is frozen over, and, as the
water is still agitated by winds, the thickness of the layer formed
during a single tide is considerable. This process is going on
throughout the winter, and thus this ice-foot continues to increase
in width. At spring-tide its level is overflown by water, which
adds to its height. It is characteristic of this ice-foot that the un-
broken land-floe extends to its foot, a single crack separating the
two masses. Cliffs which are washed by water throughout the
winter have frequently no ice-foot at all. This shows that the floe
favors its formation.

SCIENCE,

1 ey

The ice on shores with a gradual slope is quite different. Here
it is not atfached to the bottom, as Mr. Ashe’s description would
imply, but originates in the following way. The ice which is
formed on the surface at high water strands during the ebb-tide,
and its volume is increased by the freezing of the water left on the
beach. When the tide comes in again, the greater part of this ice
begins to float, increases in thickness, and strands again on the
rocks. By the repeated breaking of these masses on the rocks, the
water is frequently exposed to the air, freezes, and thus the thick
ness of the ice is far more rapidly increasing than that of the un-
broken floe. It is continually growing on all sides, new material
being also added on the sides, and thus a heavy pressure results
which affects the neighboring parts of the floe, which is frequently
pressed under the level of the sea, is overflown, and thus increases
in thickness. If the slope is sufficiently gentle, this part of the floe
strikes also the rocks at low water, and is added to the growing
belt of grounded broken ice that surrounds the coast. Similar
forms of ice are found on mud-beaches, and I believe that such is.
the origin of the unusually heavy mud-colored masses of Fox Basin,
which is known.to be extremely shallow.

The formation of the ice-foot which was described above is
similar in origin and appearance to the frozen freshets which in
winter form ice-walls that are firmly attached to the steep cliffs.
This proves that Mr. Ashe’s explanation of this fact is not correct,
and that fresh water as well as sea-water may freeze firmly to the

ground. Dr. FRANZ BOAS.
New York, Aug. 19.

The Geologists’ Congress.

_ PERMIT me to say a word concerning the generally fair and full
report, in Scezence, of the proceedings in Section E of the American.
Association. By a typographical error, a clause in the conclusion
of the digest of the reporter on the Archazean is made to read
“ American geologists will acquiesce in the recommendations of
the commettee,’ etc. ‘Congress,’ not ‘committee,’ was the word
used. Again, “the recommendation that all pre-Cambrian rocks.
should be called Archzean savors too much of pre-judgment, espe-
cially in view of the recent studies of Irving and Walcott.”

These studies, which have resulted in the theory called’ by Pro-
fessor Walcott, in his letter to the reporter, ‘ Prof. R. D. Irving’s.
view, were very carefully considered in the body of the report.
The sentence above gives no idea of the entire recommendation ; of
how far it differs from the view of Irving, Chamberlin, Walcott, and
others ; nor of why it seems to best reconcile the conflicting views.
expressed by American geologists. 1st. The term ‘Archean’ as
originated by Dana received the unanimous suffrages of the Berlin
Congress, and, so far as the reporter could ascertain, has the in-
dorsement of a very large majority of American geologists as a
general term to cover all pre-Cambrian rocks. Irving would sepa-
rate these rocks into two divisions of equal rank: to the lower
(Laurentian) ‘Archean’ should be applied, the upper (separated
by a physical break from the first, and containing an unspecified
number of smaller breaks or unconformities) he would eréct into a
new group of equal rank with Archean in its new sense, and
would callit, after Chamberlin, ‘ Agnotozoic.’ He recognizes “ great
unconformity between the Cambrian and the Agnotozoic, besides
which there are minor, though still quite extensive, unconformities
between the members of the Agnotozoic itself.” It is evident, from
the tenor of all the views expressed on this proposed new division,
that its exact rank is not certainly understood. All who recognize
it believe that it has at least as high a rank as ‘ Paleozoic,’ ‘ Meso-
zoic,’ etc., but none can yet affirm that it may not consist of several
such groups, divided by one or more of these ‘ extensive uncon-
formities.’ In view of this fact, and also of the circumstance that
to a vast majority of geologists to-day the Archzean includes all
pre-Cambrian rocks, it was thought that the recommendation of the
reporter avoided, to the greatest degree, any pre-judgment of this
question. It is as follows :—

“ The division first in order of time shall have a rank of the first
order, and shall be called ‘ Archzean.’ (a) It shall comprehend all
the rocks of origin anterior to the Cambrian. (4) The lowest sub-
division of the Archean shall be called the ‘ Laurentian.’ (¢) A
division between the Laurentian and the Cambrian, provisionally

120

including the Huronian, Grand Cajion, Llano, Montalban, and Ta-
conian (of Hunt), Animikie, and other divisions, shall be®accorded a
name different from any of these (such as ‘ Eozoic’ or ‘ Protero-
zoic’), and allowing the greatest amount of liberty in the future,
when it shall be determined whether this division shall be entitled
to rank as one or several of the first order having numerous
subdivisions as above mentioned, or with, or including, any of
them of the second order like the class Laurentian. No attempt
shall be made at this time to pre-judge this question, and these
names and this classification shall be regarded simply as the best
that can be accomplished at the present time.”

This plan would seem to be possible of acceptance both by those
who, like Dr. Hunt, recognize many divisions, and by those who
recognize but two: The only sacrifice of individual opinion re-
quired would be as to the rank of such divisions, which the reporter
doubted whether any geologist wished unreservedly to affirm.
When the exact rank of the proposed new division is generally ac-
cepted, if it be a group, the now all but universally accepted word
« Archzan’ can be dropped or otherwise assigned.

As to the resolution approving the action of the committee, if it
only received two or three affirmative votes, it is equally true that it

received no negatives. PERSIFOR FRAZER.
Philadelphia, Aug. 25-

The Pronunciation of ‘ Arkansas.’

I HAVE read with much interest Mr. Robert T. Hill’s vigorous
protest, in the last number of Sczezce, against the mispronunciation
of this word. Nevertheless, it seems to me that Mr. Hill, whose
personal acquaintance with New England is comparatively recent,
has been unintentionally not quite fair to “intelligent New England
circles,” in making them responsible for the “later and improper
pronunciation.” I ama New Englander by education, myself, and
was taught, before I went to school, to pronounce the word
properly. In school, however, gur teachers insisted on the ‘ revised
version.’

I am pretty well convinced that the mispronunciation was the in-
vention of a class of school-teachers, unfortunately too common in
New England, whose training for teaching the ‘ English branches ’
is so specialized as to carefully exclude every thing relating to foreign
languages (including even the English of O/d England). Not a few
other examples might be quoted of similar ‘school-ma’am’ pro-
nunciations. ‘Glou-ces-ter’ and ‘ Wor-ces-ter’ are beginning to re-
place the proper sounds among the younger generation of ‘com-
mon-school’ scholars in New England, at least, and ‘ Norwich’ and
‘Harwich’ are well established. It seems to me that we really do
need more such protests as Mr. Hill’s, before the rage for angliciz-
ing does away with the historical pronunciation of more of our
geographical names.

In regard to the word ‘Cheyenne,’ I suspect that Mr. Hill has
laid the blame on the wrong shoulders. How the western plains-
men (who, one would suppose, would have inherited the correct
pronunciation, or something like it, from the old coureurs de bozs),
came to call the ‘Dog Soldier’ band of Indians ‘shy-ens,’ instead
of ‘chzens’ I cannot say. I do know, however, that this was
the established plains pronunciation. We can scarcely blame the
New England lexicographers,’ — or whoever first wrote the word,
— therefore, for failing to recognize the French word under the

universal Western pronunciation. JOHN MURDOCH.
Smithsonian Institution, Aug. 27.

Eskimo and the Indian.

IN an article on the Eskimo of East Greenland in the current
number of the Amerzcan Naturalzst (p. 749), it is stated that the
eminent savant Dr. Rink has recently advanced the idea that the
‘kayak’ of the hyperborean American aborigines is but a develop-
ment from the birch-bark canoe of the neighboring Indian tribes.
In glancing through Petitot’s ‘ Tchiglit (Mackenzie River) Diction-
ary, I found what seems to be a confirmation of this theory. In
the Tchiglit dialect the word for boat is £rayar&, and the bark of
the birch used for canoes (écorce du bouleau a pirogues) is called
kreyrork. A comparative study of the Eskimo and the neighboring
Indian dialects must certainly result in adding considerably to our
stock of knowledge regarding the interesting Innuit. A few ex-

SCIENCE:

[ VoL. X. No. 239

amples of Eskimo loan-words may be given here. In the dialect of
the Eskimo of Churchill River the word for ‘dead’ is 2zfa, which
agrees with 2zpzw (Cree), 2zp (Chippeway), etc., being entirely
foreign to the stem ¢o%, which pervades the Eskimo dialects from
Cape Farewell to the Anadyr. One of the Tchiglit words for ‘rain’
is 2zpaluwk, evidently related to the Cree zzz (water). In Algonkin
we find this series : 7zfa (moon), 2zf (die), 2zfz (water) ; and it is
worthy of attention that this peculiar concatenation is repeated
with the Eskimo of whom I am speaking, viz., zzJa (dead, in
Churchill River dialect), zfalwk (rain, i.e., water, in Tchiglit),
niptartvark (a Tchiglit term for moon). In the far west we find
the words madsschak (sun, in Kadiac), matschak (sun, in Anadyr
Tchuktchi), szadje (sun, on Kotzebue Sound), madzak (star, in
Kadiac), which bear a suspicious resemblance to #zazfsaca (moon,
in Tarahumara), #za¢zake (moon, in Cora), mecha (in Cahita), and
metztld (in Aztec), and would seem to indicate the great north-
ward extension of Aztec influence along the coast of the Pacific.
Thorough research will no doubt reveal much that is interesting

and valuable in this regard. A. F. CHAMBERLAIN.
Toronto, Aug. 25.

Sea-Water Ice.

In Sczence for August 19, under the heading ‘ The Formation and
Dissipation of Sea-Water Ice,’ Mr. Ashe, in speaking of the forma-
tion of ice along the shore, and the accumulation of films of ice
upon that which is submerged, makes the following statement :
“ Over this, at the surface of the water another film is formed,
which, on reaching the level of the submerged ice, is frozen to, and
remains with it in this position. This operation is repeated till the
result is that a perpendicular wall of ice forms, whose outer limit is
the low-water mark, terminated by a horizontal surface shorewards,
at the limit of high-water mark.”

If it is meant to convey the impression, as it would naturally be
supposed, that this is so in all parts of the world, I must flatly con-
tradict the statement for Cape Prince of Wales, Hudson Strait,
where I was stationed, at the head of a sandy bay, during the
winter of 1885-86, with the object of watching the formation and
dissipation of sea-water ice. Here the distance between high and
low tide mark was about three hundred yards, and, although some
ice did adhere to the sand, it always came to the surface in irregu-
lar pieces shortly after the tide had risen above it. These pieces
were often piled one upon another by the force of the wind, ac-
cumulated, and as the winter advanced they rose to the surface in
larger masses, until the ice in the bay had reached a variable thick-
ness under three feet, when the whole mass floated at each rising
of the tide as one piece, only cracking in a few places, and, with the
exception of its rough surface, no change of level could be noticed
between it and the ice always floating beyond low-tide mark.

A higher tide than usual always forced its way through, within a
few feet of high-tide mark, the ice cracking with a loud report here
and there along the shore, the water again returning through these
cracks when the tide began to fall.

Late in January a hole was cut through the ice between high and
low tide mark, when the sand was found to be perfectly soft, in

which living shell-fish were found. F. F. PAYNE.
Toronto, Aug. 23.

Answers.

14. AN EXPULSION OF SPARROWS. — It was probably a flock
of ‘ white-bellied swallows’ that W. A. G. saw circling about his
house on Staten Island, but they in no way caused the disappear-
ance of the sparrows as intimated. These swallows are here now
in great numbers, perching on telegraph wires and along the sea-
shore on beach, plum, and bayberry bushes, and on hazy mornings
many may be seen flying south along our shore line. As to the
English sparrows, a few still remain about the houses, but this is
their season of flocking, and in some fields, especially where grain
has been raised, they abound. I once knew of a double row of
elms where these birds congregated afternoons in late summer, and
chattered in great convention until the sun went down. They
were gathered from a large circle of country, and I think that W.
A. G. will find a similar meeting place, where the missing sparrows

will be assembled. Wm. T. DAvVIs.
Tompkinsville, S.I., Aug. 29.

Pee ie

FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER g, 1887.

IN A COMMUNICATION made last year to the French Academy
of Medicine (Sczence, viii. p. 29), Dr. Worms gave the results of
his investigations concerning color-blindness among the fersonnel
of the Northern Railway. The figures which he gave showed so
small a percentage of color-blind employees as to warrant the con-
clusion that there is not much danger to be feared for railroad
travellers from these defects. More recently Dr. Worms has informed
Dr. Jeffries of Boston that this percentage was found among those
employed after all had been examined on entering the service pre-
viously, — an explanation which gives an entirely different phase to
the matter. The statistics given by Dr. Worms, and to which we

have already referred, have been repeatedly quoted as an argument ~

by those who do not admit the prevalence of color-blindness among
railroad employees, and who therefore deem color-testing unneces-
sary. This use of the figures of Dr. Worms, which was justifiable in
view of the form in which they were originally given, should now be
abandoned in view of the later information received from him.
This subject of color-blindness among railroad employees is attract-
ing the attention of thoughtful men in all parts of the world. In
our own country, Massachusetts has a statute in relation to the
matter. This directs that no person shall be employed upon a
railroad in any capacity which requires him to distinguish form or
color signals unless he has been examined as to his sight by some
competent person employed and paid by the railroad company, and
has received a certificate. The phrase ‘competent person’ is a
very elastic one, and it is feared that the examiner is not in all
cases competent to make the tests. The Alabama legislature has
enacted a law which is pronounced to be the best yet devised to
overcome this evil. It provides for examinations conducted by ex-
perts, not according to rules of their own, but guided by standards
both of visual power and of color-sense which are fixed by law.
The railroad employees, under this law, are divided into two groups,
—one containing engineers, firemen, and brakemen, in whom a
high visual power and color-sense are demanded, and the other con-
taining gatemen, conductors, and others, to whom an inferior stand-
ard is applied. Connecticut at one time had a law upon this sub-
ject, but, after one year’s trial, so many employees were found
deficient that in obedience to the demand of politicians it was
repealed. In one instance a board of experts found twenty-four
railroad employees to be color-blind. Their report of these facts
created such an outcry among their friends that another test was
demanded, with flags and lanterns and not with colored worsted as
in the former test. This resulted in proving that of the twenty-
four, twenty-one were wholly color-blind, and three color-blind in
part. Dr. Worms has recommended that exercises on the colors
should be carried out in the schools to reduce the percentage of
the color-blind. In commenting on this recommendation, Dr.
Jeffries says that no exercise with colors can change the congenital
color-blind, who are four per cent of males everywhere. We hope
to see this subject agitated until the provisions which are now in force
in Alabama shall apply throughout the United States. It matters
little to a traveller that his life is secure in one State by reason of
stringent laws against color-blindness in railroad employees, if as
soon as he crosses the boundary line and passes into another State,
in which no such law exists, his life may be sacrificed by a color-
blind engineer who, mistaking the red light of danger for the white
light of safety, runs his train through an open drawbridge into the
river below.

CO-OPERATION ON THE CONTINENT OF EUROPE.
II, GERMANY.

THE reply from Germany to Lord Rosebery’s circular letter (see
Science, No. 220, p. 395) is more systematic than that from France.
At the very outset the writer says’ that among the working-classes
of Germany co-operation has met with little favor: the well-to-do
classes, on the other hand, have applied its principles with consider-
able success in many directions. This reluctance on the part of the
working-people to co-operate is ascribed in a large measure to the
fact that as a class they are incapable of appreciating the value of
making provision for the future. They are not yet educated up to
the point of making industrial co-operation a real factor in the im-
provement of their condition. The tendency toward State socialism
in Germany is also an obstacle to co-operative development. Statis-
tics as to co-operation are not easily obtained in Germany. Both
the government and private societies are very reticent when asked
for information on commercial or industrial questions. The most
observant notice of co-operative movements, so far as they concern
the artisan and laboring-classes, is probably taken by the Central
Association for the Welfare of the Laboring-Classes, and its organ,
the Arbezterfreund ; while very valuable statistics are to be found
in the yearly report of the Central Union of German Co-operative
Societies, on all which the report from Germany is based.

Associations belonging to this Central Union of German Co-
operative Societies are entitled ‘Registered Associations,’ and are
established under the Prussian law of March 27, 1867, and the
German law of July 9, 1868. These laws grant special privileges
to co-operative societies ; that is to say, associations not restricting
themselves to any fixed number of the members composing them,
and got up with a view of facilitating the obtaining of credit, the
earning of a livelihood, or prosecution of husbandry by their mem-
bers by means of joint management of their business. A great
number of associations have united themselves under the leadership
of a counsellor in the Central Union.

Such enterprises are in Germany indissolubly connected with the
name of their great founder, Schulze-Delitzsch. The movement,
which he started and organized with extraordinary genius, is en-
tirely based on the principle of ‘self-help.’ “ If a man cannot save
a few pence by denying himself a couple of glasses of beer a
week,” said Schulze, “I can do nothing for him.” The history of
Schulze’s attempts are briefly as follows: In 1849 he founded at
Delitzsch, in Saxony, a ‘sickness and death’ fund, which, for a
small monthly subscription, afforded help and medicine to the
poorer artisans and laborers in case of illness, continuous pecuniary
support in cases of incapacitation for work, and contribution
towards funeral expenses in cases of death. In 1850 Schulze started
a loan society, and, in re-organizing the same in 1851, he introduced
the principle of unlimited liability, and completed his system, as far
as essentials were concerned, by forming capital for individual mem-
bers by the introduction of inalienable shares. The example thus
set was quickly followed, and many mutual help societies sprang up
in various parts of Germany.

The principle of unlimited liability, on which Schulze most
strongly insisted as the keystone of his system, was also adopted by
Raiffeisen, who founded similar societies, chiefly in agricultural
districts. The double effect seems to have been to raise the credit
of co-operative societies, and to confine them to persons of small
means, persons of larger fortune being shy of risking their whole
property.

As mentioned above, the societies on the Schulze-Delitzsch plan
have been regularly organized into an association, the principal ob-
jects of which were briefly described by him in the report of 1874
as being the following: “The General Union of the German In-
dustrial and Economical Co-operative Societies, founded on the
principle of self-help, the affairs of which are at present managed

I22

by me as a salaried agent, sends delegates of the associations be-
longing to it to an annual general assembly, which controls the
affairs of the union as supreme authority, without interfering with
the independence or with the special affairs of the individual socie-
ties. As connecting links between the central authority and in-
dividual associations, subordinate unions, which embrace the socie-
ties of various German countries or provinces, or of special branches,
have been formed, whose task it is to attend to their special interest,
and to communicate between them and the central authority. They
prepare for the general assembly in special assemblies of their own,
and enforce the resolutions of the former in their districts, while the
presidents chosen by them form a committee which assists the
agent in carrying on the business of the union in the interval
between the general assemblies. Thus, without interfering with
the free action of the individual societies, a central point is created
for the exchange of experiences, for the sifting and criticising of the
ever-accumulating material, for advice and help for members in any
kind of embarrassment, and finally for common defence against
threatening danger. Add to these advantages the most valuable
business relations between the several societies in the execution of
commissions, and especially in mutual assistance with capital.”
The resolutions of the general assembly have only the force of ad-
vice, and their acceptance is enforced only by the weight of their
own reasons, and not by pressure of any kind.

The number of societies in this association increased from 171 in
1859, to 771 in 1864, and was 3,822 in 1885. At the last-named
date they were distributed thus: loan and credit societies, 1,965 ;
co-operative societies in various branches of trade, 1,146 ; co-opera-
tive store societies, 678: building societies, 33. At the end of 1884
the membership was 1,500,000. Of their own capital, in shares and
reserve funds, they possessed 300,000,000 marks ; and of borrowed
capital, 500,000,000 marks.

It may be mentioned that the co-operative movement in Ger-
many is unfortunately at present associated with the Radical
political opinions. Even Schulze, though at first he kept the
movement free from political color, was carried along by the tide
in his later years. The consequence has been that co-operative
enterprise on the self-help principle is looked upon rather with sus-
picion by the ruling authorities.

Co-operative store associations exist in considerable numbers in
Germany, and are in the main very successful. They bear the
name of Covsumverezne. Many of the earlier associations confined
themselves to making contracts with dealers, provided that the
latter granted a discount to the association on all goods sold,
which discount was, after deduction of expenses, divided among
the members.

Those formed since 1863 have followed more and more the
principle of similar English associations. They give no credit, sell
at the market price, and, after providing suitable interest for the
business shares of the members, divide the net profits in proportion
to the goods bought, which proportion is marked by dividend
counters ; but there are some very well conducted societies which
sell at the lowest price possible, and divide the profits equally, or in
proportion to the business shares of the members. As in England,
the more developed societies are gradually undertaking the pro-
duction of their own goods. The South German associations have
taken a step towards the establishment of a common wholesale
business by forming a joint stock company for the purchase of
goods at Mannheim: in North Germany this was in 1878 still re-
garded as premature. Nearly all the important co-operative store
associations have registered themselves under the Co-operative
Societies’ Law.

The proper principles on which such associations should be con-
ducted are laid down by Schulze-Delitzsch as follows: 1. Those
who buy from the society should themselves be members of it (sale
to non-members is, however, allowed as being likely to induce the
latter to join); 2. Business shares should be gradually ac-
quired by the members up to a normal sum by the payment
of a small subscription, or by accumulation of their divi-
dends; 3. A common reserve fund is formed by keeping back a
certain number of shares, and by a small entrance fee for mem-
bers; 4. Capital is borrowed on the common security of members,
or (though this should be avoided) goods are bought on their com-

SCIENCE.

[Vot. X. No. 240

mon credit; 5. Sales are for ready money, the profits being divided
between the reserve fund and the members’ dividends ; 6. The
manager and officials are paid according to the work they do; 7.
The number of members is unlimited, entry into and withdrawal
from the society being equally free.

These rules, being stamped with the great authority of Schulze,
represent the general principles on which the vast majority of co-
Operative associations work, and are recommended to all by the
Central Union.

The number of these co-operative stores twenty-five years ago:
was 41; in 1885 it was 678. Their average sales in 1884 were
190,025 marks. Their average holdings in business shares are 24
marks 6 pfennigs per member, and in reserve funds 14 marks 3
pfennigs per member. One hundred and sixty-three of the socie-
ties showed, in 1884, a dividend on capital and purchases of
2,412,366 marks, or 85 per cent.

For the failures in 1884 numerous reasons are given. One society
failed in consequence of their “unfortunate choice of a store-
keeper ;” another in consequence of quarrels among the members ;.
a third society were obliged three times to change their storekeeper,
and eventually came to an end in consequence of the impossibility
of finding a suitable person ; a fourth came to grief in consequence
of the desire of the members to divide the reserve fund. On this.
latter rock many societies have split. As soon as the society finds.
itself possessed of any considerable sum of money, individual con-
fidence seems to give way, and greed of the immediate possession
of their own share prompts the members to dissolve the asso-
ciation.

Co-operative workshops are not numerous in Germany, and the
general opinion is unfavorable to them.

The favorable years, from 1870 to 1873, seemed to bid well for
the establishment of a system by which the workmen should be
made participators in the profits of their industry ; and the govern-
ments of Germany took pains not only to try the system in their
own works, but to obtain information as to its working elsewhere.
The initiative was taken by Bavaria; and from an inquiry made in
1874 from fifty Bavarian firms, of whom about thirty sent replies, it
appeared that in most cases such participation was confined to
premiums, gifts, and a percentage to overseers and foremen. These
cases were chiefly the result of individual liberality on the part
of employers of labor, and, as they ceased in the time of industrial
depression which succeeded, they are without scientific value.

The ‘Report on Arrangements for the Benefit of Workmen in
the Larger Industrial Establishments of Prussia,’ published in 1876
by the Prussian Government, states that at that time there were
439 cases of establishments in which the workmen shared in the
profits, and 61 where they shared in the capital. A closer analysis
of these figures, however, shows that in most cases such participa-

tion was confined to the foremen and overseers, and that in only .

16 cases did all the workmen have a share at once in the under-
taking, and in 18 others after a certain lapse of time.

Schulze-Delitzsch always declared that productive associations,
i.e., “ associations of a number of small masters or of wage-laborers
for the purpose of industry on a large scale for common account
and at common risk,” was the highest form of association, and the
keystone of his whole system. Such associations, he pointed out,
are most easily established the less capital they require, and the
more readily the goods produced are sold. They are most difficult
to establish in branches of industry which, owing to minute division
of labor, require the co-operation of workmen of different trades, or
which entail expensive machinery.

Hitherto the general history of productive associations in Ger-
many seems to have been pretty nearly the following: a not very
large number of workmen join together to establish a common
workshop and sell their products for common account. The
original intention of admitting new working members is frustrated
by the fact, that, whereas an individual capitalist can increase or
diminish the number of his hands according to the requirements of
the market, every unfavorable conjuncture has the effect, in a co-
operative association, of leaving some of the members not fully
occupied. When better times come, the admission of new members
is looked on with disfavor, because it only renders the position of
the others worse if times of depression return. There is, further,

SEPTEMBER 9, 1887. |

the difficulty that the advantages shared by the new members are
the result of sacrifices on the part of the old, for which the latter
are not indemnified. It consequently results that the associations
refuse to admit new members, and in good times employ regular
workmen hired for wages and liable to dismissal, and thus in the
moment of success such associations lose the essential characteris-
tics of co-operative societies.

To meet these difficulties Schulze recommends : —

1. The admission not only of members of the trade, but, as sleep-
ing partners, of persons who, without taking any share in the
industry of the association, are yet willing to venture a deposit of
‘capital ; and of workmen who enter the association at once, but, as
they cannot be employed at once, remain for the time being as
wage-laborers under other employers.

2. The participation of new members in the profits only after a
certain lapse of time.

3. The application of borrowed capital, and not of the society’s
shares, to the acquirement of such real property as is required ;
‘such borrowed capital not being reclaimable before a certain date,
but receiving interest.

4. Withdrawal from the association to be subject to as long
notice as possible.

As to division of the profits, most German associations agree
with Schulze, that, after the reserve fund has been duly considered,
five per cent interest should be added to each business share; that
then half the surplus should go to swell the shares as super-divi-
dends, the other half being divided as bonus among all the work-
men and officials according to the amount of salary they have re-
ceived during the year.

It is very difficult to obtain accurate information respecting co-
operative undertakings for productive purposes, as, from reasons
of trade, such associations are very reticent with regard to their
working.

In the report of the German Co-operative Union for 1884, 145
productive associations are mentioned under the following divis-
ions : —

zr Cabinet and instrument makers’ associations.

17 Spinners and weavers’

13 Millers and bakers’

1z Booksellers and printers’

to Tailors’

7 Butchers and slaughterers”

7 Brewers’

6 Cigar-manufacturers’

6 Carpenters, builders, and stonecutters’
5 Metal-workers’

5 Spirit and brandy distillers’

5 Shoemakers’ 0G
5 Clockmakers’
24 Miscellaneous

The same report gives statistics of 10 associations which made a
net profit of 5.5 per cent, allowing of a dividend of 13.6 per cent, as
against 16.0 per cent in 1883, and 13.5 per cent in 1882. Whether
this dividend is paid to the members in money down or not does not
appear. Of the working capital of these societies, 36.4 per cent was
their own.

Herr Borchet is the only authority who believes that the work-
men’s participation in the profits has prevented strikes.

The most conspicuous examples of co-operation in production
are the Berlin Brass-Work Company, the Windhoff Foundry at
Lingen, Moller’s engine-works at Kupferhammer, Keilpflug’s cigar-
factory in Berlin, and the cotton-mills at Hasel.

Of all co-operative enterprises in Germany, the people’s banks
are the most developed and the most successful, and they appear to
have in a great degree overcome the indebtedness and misery which
were so often the lot of the working-classes a quarter of a century
ago, in consequence of the usurious interest that they were com-
pelled to pay, especially in agricultural districts, on even the smallest
loan.

The main principles on which these banks are founded are again
those of Schulze-Delitzsch. They are :—

1. The loan-seekers are themselves the directors of the institution
established for the satisfaction of their needs, and share the risk and
the profit.

2. The transactions of the association are based throughout on
business principles : the fund of the association pays to the credit-

SCIENCE,

123

ors, and the loan-takers pay to the fund of the association bank,
interest and commission, according to the rates in the money-
market. The managers, especially those who have charge of the
funds, receive remuneration according to their services.

3. By full payment once for all, or by small continuous contribu-
tions on the part of the members, shares in the capital of the asso-
ciation are formed, according to the amount of which the profit is
divided, and placed to their credit till the full normal sum is reached,
by which means an ever-growing capital of its own is acquired for
the business of the association.

4. By the entrance fees of members and by reservation of shares,
a common reserve fund is accumulated.

5. Sums further necessary for the complete carrying-on of the
business are borrowed on the common credit and security of all the
members.

6. The number of members is unlimited. Entrance is open to all
who satisfy the requirements of the statutes, and it is free to any
one to cease to be a member after giving due notice.

Not only artisans and manufacturers, but also others, especially
agriculturists, merchants, and dependent workmen, avail them-
selves of these banks, and they have maintained and strengthened
themselves in the confidence of the public through all crises.

The Giro-Union (‘ Circulation Union’) of German associations
deserves special notice. An account is opened at the Associations’
Bank in Berlin in favor of each people’s bank belonging to the
Union. Each bank keeps a deposit of at least 300 marks there,
which can be increased by deposits in specie, by bills on Berlin or
any Prussian bank, or places where there are other loan associa-
tions, or by the transferrence of the deposit of a third party from
his account to their own: it can, on the other hand, dispose of its
deposit by transferrence to another account, kept by the bank, or
by checks, bills payable at sight, or ordered consignment in specie.
Though Schulze regarded this institution as extremely important,
only a minority of the people’s banks belonging to the general union
belong to it also.

The number of people’s banks belonging to the general union
was 1,961 on Jan. 1, 1885.

Co-operative societies for educational purposes would appear not
to exist in Germany, where educational facilities in every branch of
learning are already amply provided for, and within the reach of
the poor; but co-operative associations of various kinds often pro-
vide educational, social, and recreative facilities for their members.

Societies for building dwellings for the poorer classes have met
with but little success in Germany. They appear to have succeeded
best in Alsace; and one at Flensburg, in Jutland, founded in 1878,
possesses, according to the report of 1884-85, 19 houses, with a
value of 100,000 marks, and 800 members, one of whom has the
sum of 87,000 marks to his credit in the society’s books.

The formerly wide-spread system by which pasture-land, forest,
fisheries, etc., were held in common, has almost entirely ceased to
exist in Germany, in consequence of recent legislation. On the
other hand, a movement has taken place, chiefly under the same
auspices as the co-operative movement on the Schulze-Delitzsch
principle, by which combination now plays a very important part in
German agriculture.

Dairy co-operative associations have been started in all direc-
tions. There are further associations for the purchase and use of
agricultural machines, the members paying a certain sum for the
use of the common property, and associations for cattle-breeding,
sheep-farming, hops, vegetable, and vine-insurance, and kindred
objects.

THE STONE AGES IN TUNIS.

AN interesting report on the relics of prehistoric man in the re-
gency of Tunis appeared in the May number of the well-known
scientific periodical, the Matérzaux pour 1 Hrstotre Primitive et
Naturelle del Homme. The author, Dr. R. Collignon, deputed by
the Anthropological Society of Paris for this purpose, spent three
years in traversing the country in every direction, and in making the
observations and collections which are described in this report.
Only the principal results can here be noticed ; but these, it will be
seen, are of great scientific value.

The most important observations were made in the district about

124

Gafsa, a considerable town in the southern part of the regency, pre-
serving the site and the name of the Roman Capsa. The author
describes three remarkable hills, which rise to a moderate elevation
in the neighborhood of that town. These hills, having been made
posts of observation of the occupying army, are now known as
Posts I., IJ., and III. Post I. is an eminence rising on one side, by
a gradual slope, to a height of sixty metres (about two hundred
feet) above the level of the town, and descending on the other side
in a steep, cliff-like face, of forty-two metres, to an upland plain.
This precipitous face offered to the investigator the advantages of a
cutting, showing the composition of the hill from base to summit.
It proved to be, in the greater part, a limestone conglomerate, in
which are embedded small particles of quartz, with rolled flint-
stones of various sizes, and fragments of brown silex. Geologically,
the hill belongs to the earliest period of the quaternary or pleisto-
cene epoch. The lower half is of stone sufficiently compact to be
quarried for building-stone. Above this is a layer, about eighty feet
thick, of somewhat looser and more friable conglomerate, with larger
embedded stones. And this, again, is surmounted by a stratum of
yellow travertine, about six metres (twenty feet) thick, containing no
flints.

The remarkable fact is, that throughout the conglomerate were
discovered relics of human handiwork, in the shape of wrought
flints embedded in the rock. Still more remarkable is the fact that
in the lower and harder stratum these relics were all of one sort,
while in the upper and looser layer that sort had disappeared, and
other kinds had taken its place. In the lower stratum he found
specimens of that rude tool — the rudest of all tools — which is de-
scribed sometimes as the ‘ drift-implement,’ sometimes as the ‘ axe
of St. Acheul,’ and by Prof. G. de Mortillet, in his noted work ‘ La
Préhistorique,’ as the ‘ fist’ (coup de fozng), —a stone clipped into
an ovoid or almond-like shape, and intended evidently to be grasped
at the smaller end and used in pounding or hacking. With these
were some of the coarse flakes, or clipped fragments, which usually
accompany them. These stone fists and flakes were all in the typical
forms which distinguish the work of the earliest quaternary race, —
variously known as the ‘ River-drift,’ or ‘Canstadt,’ or ‘ Chellean ’
race, — and were the only traces of human industry found in that
stratum.

In the looser stratum above, not one of the ovoid implements was
found, though a single specimen was extracted just on the line of
division between the two layers. All the worked flints in the upper
layer belonged to what M. de Mortillet styles the ‘ Mousterian’”
type, but were mostly of a heavy, coarse, and worn appearance.
They were of various shapes, — triangular points, thick blades, rude
scrapers, and the like. Dr. Collignon is of opinion that the imple-
ments in the upper conglomerate stratum were a development of
those in the lower ; but the facts, as described by him, do not seem
decisively to bear out this opinion. Finally, in the highest stratum
of all, the travertine, as has been said, no flints of any kind were
found. The hill known as Post III. resembles that of Post I., except
that it is lower, and that the layer of travertine is wanting.

The necessary conclusions from these facts, as set forth by the
author, are, that in the earlier part of the quaternary era this region
was inhabited by the race or races of men who formed these im-
plements. During a period of great but unknown length the land
gradually sank, and was finally covered by the sea. When it again
rose above the surface, the currents swept away nearly all the for-
mation which had accumulated during this subsidence, leaving only
a few hills, such as have been described, to indicate the original level.

After this denudation, a new but briefer subsidence took place,
giving rise to a new formation, and followed by a new elevation.
These facts are shown by the evidences displayed in and around
another hill, known as Post II. This is one of the‘ foot-hills’ of a
small mountain-chain which sinks gradually into the plain at a little
distance north of Gafsa. Around these hills and on their declivities
are scattered many small mounds of clayey loam. These mounds
rest on a layer containing many coarse Mousterian implements, exactly
similar to those in the upper conglomerate of Post I. Above this
layer is a stratum of argillaceous earth, between three and four
metres thick, containing no flints. Then follows a thin layer or film
of earth, about four inches thick, full of flint implements of every
description. This layer clearly indicates what was for a considerable

SCIENCE.

[Vot. X. No. 240

period the inhabited surface. Above this layer are a few feet of
earth; but the same implements are scattered profusely over the
present surface, and are found below it where the soil is furrowed
by the rains. They belong to every one of M. de Mortillet’s ‘ ages,”
subsequent to the Chellean and the earlier Mousterian; viz., the
upper (or later) Mousterian, the Solutrean, the Magdalenian, and the
Neolithic. So far as prehistoric Tunis is concerned, Dr. Collignon is
satisfied that no distinction in point of time can be made among
these different industries. It is clear, also, that they have continued
in existence to a very recent period, since the soil which covers some
of the Roman constructions holds flint implements of the same
description.

A very curious fact, ascertained by Dr. Collignon, is that all these
stone implements, of every age, are restricted to a comparatively
narrow area in the south and west of Tunis. While they abound
in that district, they are almost entirely absent from the northerm
and eastern portions of the country. Dr. Collignon does not
attempt to explain this phenomenon. It may possibly be due to an
early condition similar to that which exists at present in parts of our
Own continent, where two hostile races, like the Eskimo and the
Athabascan Indians, are separated by a wide space of unoccupied
land.

It should be mentioned that in the middle of the Tunisian terri-.
tory there is a limited area, quite distinct from that in which the
stone implements occur, where megalithic monuments — dolmens.
and covered passages—abound. In one locality no less than four
hundred dolmens were counted. These monuments Dr. Collignon
believes to have been the comparatively late constructions of an
intrusive tribe; and he is further of opinion that the descendants
of this tribe and of the stone-implement makers still live in their
respective districts, and are distinguishable by their very different
physical traits. In the district of the dolmens the people are of
rather low stature (1.63 metres, or about 5 feet 4 inches, —an aver-
age which must be understood as including both sexes), with long
heads (index 74), and a visage short, broad, and irregular, closely
resembling in outline that indicated by the Cro-Magnon crania..
On the other hand, the people of the south of Tunis are compara—
tively tall (1.69 metres, about 5 feet 6 1-2 inches), very dolichoce-
phalic (index 73), with retreating forehead and chin, and projecting
glabella and brows; the nose turned up, and the lips thick, but with
no prognathism. They are neither negroid, Berber, nor Arab. In
his view, they represent the earliest ethnic stratum of the existing
population, and preserve the blood and the type of the people who
dwelt in this region during the stone ages.

The positive conclusions which we seem authorized to draw from
Dr. Collignon’s report may be stated in a few words. They are,
first, that the human race is of an immense antiquity, dating back
to the beginning of the quaternary age; and, second, that the first
race of men, judged from the relics of their industry, were of a very
low grade of intelligence, little surpassing that of the most saga—
cious brutes ; but how far this apparent defect of intellect was real,
and how far it may have been due to the circumstance, that, as M.
de Mortillet has suggested, the faculty of speech was yet unde-
veloped, is uncertain. Finally, it is plain that the period of this
earliest stone age was of a vast duration, which can only be ex—
pressed in geological terms. The same may be said of the early
Mousterian era, which perhaps formed part of the first age. As for
the various so-called ‘stone ages’ which followed, it seems impos-
sible to make any real distinction of periods among them. They
all apparently form one modern epoch, not of very great duration,
and not yet closed.

CHILLED ARMOR FOR LAND-DEFENCES.

THE Gruson Works of Buckau-Magdeburg have recently pub-
lished a book of some size, written by Engineer von Schuetz, in
which the system of construction of chilled cast-iron armor for use
in the protection of earthworks and in the making of turrets for
land-batteries, as devised by Dr. H. Gruson, some years ago, is de-
scribed at length, and an account is given of the results of the ex-
periments which have been made, from time to time, by several
European governments, to determine its efficiency in resisting the
impact of the heaviest modern ordnance. This work has been

SEPTEMBER 9, 1887. |

translated into English by Commander Grenfell, R.N., and we are
indebted to the courtesy of Captain Piorkowski, Dr. Gruson’s repre-
sentative in this country, for an early copy. The subject and the
matter of the work are of exceedingly great importance to a nation
which, as is the case with our own, is destitute of the most ordinary
means of defence in the event of a foreign attack either by land or
sea. So serious is our case, that, as remarked in a private letter
from the Admiral of the Navy just received and lying under the
hand of the writer, if we desire to learn what advances have oc-
curred during the last twenty years, we must go to England, France,
Germany, Russia, and even to Constantinople, to study those of the
scientific and mechanical departments of the military and naval
establishments, and not to our own army or navy. This work of
Dr. Gruson would seem to illustrate such advances in the defence
of coasts.

Dr. Gruson’s armor is simply a chilled cast-iron shield, of which
the body is a strong normal iron, while the surfaces on the exposed
side are chilled like the ‘tread’ of an American car-wheel. Such
enormous masses are handled, in this case, however, that corre-
spondingly enormous chills are needed, and the manufacture of
these plates becomes a matter of extraordinary difficulty and cost.
All the resources of a great establishment are drawn upon, and all
the ingenuity, knowledge, and experience of an able staff are called
out in the prosecution of the work. Chilling, as is well known,
probably, to most of our readers, consists in the casting of a peculiar
quality of cast-iron, known as ‘ chilling iron,’ in contact with a large
mass of cold iron forming that part of the mould which is to form
the surface to be chilled. The sudden abstraction of heat prevents
the isolation of the carbon in graphitic form, as would otherwise
occur in the slow process of cooling naturally, and insures its re-
tention in the combined form, producing a steel layer of considera-
ble depth. The depth so secured is dependent upon the quality of
the iron and the efficiency of the ‘ chill,’ as the iron mould is called.
The latter must have great thickness and good conducting power
to give best results in these applications. Successfully carried out,
this process gives a surface harder than tempered steel over a
strong and massive interior, the best possible combination, appar-
ently, for an armor-plate.

Dr. Gruson constructs large fixed turrets and land batteries of
such plates, and the results of trial indicate them to be more relia-
ble defences than any wrought metal, whether iron or steel, or
‘compounded,’ yet introduced. The weight of these shields is too
great for use in naval construction. The first trials were made in
1869, at the Tegel range, and it was found that all shots fired
against the chilled plates broke into fragments, and that the plates
bore the hammering with remarkable success. The experimental
committee reported that the chilled armor was well adapted for its
use. Later trials confirmed this opinion, and the Prussian govern-
ment at once gave directions for its adoption in important lines of
frontier defences, and Austria, Italy, and Holland followed its ex-
ample. In all these trials the chilled iron shot were found superior,
if well made, to any steel shot, except in one or two cases in which
makers, like Krupp and the Ternitz company, had either succeeded
in securing an exceptional quality of steel, or had found remarkably
effective methods of tempering. Plates were tested of from 13.77
to 49.21 inches thickness, and were attacked by guns varying from
6 to 17 inches calibre, throwing shot weighing from 61 to 2,205
pounds. The thickness of plate was usually not far from three times
the diameter of the bore of the gun to be resisted. The energy of
impact was, in the case of the largest gun, over 47,000 foot-tons ;
which was only obtained, however, by firing at short range — 150
yards. In all such cases, the shield is subjected to more severe
trial than would be likely to be met in actual battle. In trials last
year at Spezia, with the 1oo-ton gun, the shot weighed a ton, and
the powder charge 327 pounds, the velocity of impact being over
1,700 feet per second. The maximum penetration was four inches,
the plates finally breaking up under repeated blows.

The method of proportioning is to give the plates a maximum
thickness in inches equal to from one-fourth to one-third the fourth-
root of the energy of the attacking shot measured in foot-tons.
The total weight of each plate of which the armor is composed is
not far from the weight of the gun expected to be used in the
attack.

SCIENCE,

125

The system of defensive armor here described is one in which we
have a peculiar interest. We have in the United States, in the
‘Salisbury’ and ‘ Hanging Rock,’ and other brands, the best chill-
Ing irons in the world, and it would seem very possible that this
may prove to be the best system for our purpose yet devised. It is
especially one which we may hope to obtain permanent advantage
from, as it seems probable that its advantages over other forms are
not likely to be soon lost. R. H. THURSTON.

MENTAL SCIENCE.
Heredity of Mental Traits.

STATISTICAL inquiries have become a recognized instrument of
research in mental phenomena. Mr. Francis Galton has set the
pattern in his study of the life-histories of English scientists, in his
investigation on the heredity of physical and other traits, in his
record of development in childhood, in his researches on visual
imagery; and his composite photography is simply a ‘pictorial
average.’ Students of educational science have adopted the same
plan: the contents of children’s minds, the record of the daily pro-
gress of infants as affected by heredity and by environment, have
been registered in almost every civilized country. The increased
activity in this direction is sure to bear good fruit. As soon as
modern psychology substituted, for the old notion of a single,
uniform, typical mind innately endowed with definite faculties and
ideas, and uniformly proceeding in definite grooves, the recognition
of the endless diversity in every particular of human faculty, it was
no longer sufficient to introspect one mind and record the results of
your exploration as psychology : one must now use every possible
method, study mind from all its many aspects, call in the aid of the
psychologist, the pathologist, the educationalist, the anthropologist,
and the sociologist, in order to present a picture that shall have the
slightest chance of truly representing the reality. That such
statistical researches are unusually open to various kinds of falsifi-
cation, and are apt to be ‘worked’ for more than their worth,
every one will admit. It requires great insight as well as caution
and patience to draw from a series of answers on mental topics
such conclusions as are really warranted without going beyond
what the facts logically yield, and again without losing the sug-
gestiveness of incomplete records. But all this is an argument,
not against the use of such methods, but for the need of sore such
researches, i

The French Society of Physiological Psychology —an organiza-
tion constructed on a much more useful plan than our psychic
research societies, and yet including such work as the latter do —
have recently issued a circular of inquiry, similar to the ‘ Record of
Family Faculty’ of Mr. Galton. This blank they send only to
persons of whose reliability, scientific zeal, and accurate observing
powers they have abundant evidence. Each such person fills
blanks describing a person with whom he is intimately acquainted,
another for his friend’s father, and a third for his mother. If he
have sufficient knowledge of any other member of the family to
answer two-thirds of the questions on the blank concerning him or
her, he is to add such information. The person whose traits are
described must be at least twenty-five years old, so that his charac-
ter has fully matured. It goes without saying that the records
will be treated in the most confidential manner.

The questions are grouped under six heads. I. Education and
social position; IJ. Physical traits; III. Physiological traits; IV.
Pathological traits; V. Moral traits; and VI. Intellectual traits.
The first group asks for one’s religion; his mode of education ; his
origin, whether of noble kind, wealthy or poor; and so on: it out-
lines the environment of the individual. Under the second group
are questions regarding height; weight ; size of head, whether small
or large for the height ; shape of forehead; color of hair and eyes,
etc. The physiological questions test the sensibility of the several
senses, — of the eye as to near-sightedness, color-blindness, and the
like; of the ear as to fineness; the development of taste and
smell, and so on. They also include the temperament, i.e., nervous,
melancholic, sanguine, and phlegmatic ; the diet, whether a drinker
of alcoholic liquors, of tea or coffee, and how strongly addicted to
them, and the same regarding smoking ; habits of exercise, whether
regular, violent, and how taken; general health, whether robust or

126

not ; right or left handedness; the number of hours of sleep and
the time of going to bed; whether dreams are frequent, sleep is
deep, and so on.

The pathological section aims to record any serious diseases, and
especially of the nervous system, through which the person has
passed ; the disease of which he died, if the record is of a deceased
person ; the number and sex of his children, and the periods of
their birth ; the occurrence of congenital defects, and whether they
were transmitted to the offspring, and so on. The moral charac-
teristics are more difficult to describe: the plan here followed is to
give the recorder the choice between opposite epithets, and at times
to include a neutral group. Is the temper of the subject of inquiry
joyous, sad, or changeable; calm, or violent ? Is he independent in his
opinions, or easily led by others? Is he vain, or modest; remarkably
truth-loving, or weak in this respect ; credulous, or suspecting ; selfish,
or generous ; harsh, or gentle ; timid in society, or bold; aggressive in
his opinions, or mild? Has he any special talent for music, poetry,
the fine arts, science, etc.? Has he pronounced religious sentiments ?
Is he active, regular in his habits, or sluggish and fitful? Is he in-
tellectually inclined, miserly, or spendthrifty, materialistic, or not ?
Such is the range of inquiry included in this scheme. The intel-
lectual traits are of a similar nature. The maximum of intellectual
work, the manner of working, the nature of the occupations; the
strength of the attention, of his logical powers, of his imagina-
tion, of his insight, of his memory (and in particular of memory for
forms, places, dates, numbers, names, tunes, prose, or verse), of his
generalizing power, his classifying talents, and the scope of his mental
tension; the soundness of his judgment, the ease of speech, the
degree of precocity — these form the last of the group of questions.
Throughout, any characteristic specially hereditary, either from the
parents to the subject of the description, from the latter to his chil-
dren, or in a collateral branch of the family, is to be especially noted
as such.

To accurately fill out such a blank is by no means an easy
matter; it is only of one’s most intimate friends (one’s family and
kindred) that any thing like a complete list can be hoped for. The
society does well in asking that where no definite answer is possible
the question should be left unanswered; they do not want mere
guesses, or phrases that say nothing. M. de Candolle, who has
been influential in arranging this list, is much at home in this field
of research ; and in his seventy-ninth year states that there are
thirty-one persons about whom he would be willing to draw up
such records. This is an unusual number, and the average scien-
tific observer is doing well if he can furnish ten such records. But
even at this rate the society has good opportunities of contributing
a valuable addendum to our information on the heredity of mental
traits. It would be easy to criticise many points in the arrange-
ment of the questions, and point out omissions and ambiguities,
but the main point is the manner in which such answers are used :
after the results of this inquiry are published, such criticism will be
serviceable in making the next inquiry more thorough and valuable
than this.

Recent writers have called attention to the important step in
human evolution that occurs when the principles of development
pass from the stage of being unconsciously intuited and uncertainly
followed, to the stage when they are explicity expressed and pur-
posely aided. If, as many believe, the future of the race is largely
in our hands, the knowledge that such researches as those here
noticed will furnish, must form the groundwork on which conscious
and scientifically-conducted advance will be based.

THE DUCK’Ss BRAIN. — It is well known that the destruction of
the cerebral hemispheres of a bird’s brain reduces the animal to a
Mere automaton. While the functions are all capable of action, all
spontaneity is gone. It is a ‘sleep without dreams. M. Ch.
Richet has recently called attention to the change in these appear-
ances when only a gortzon of the cerebrum is injured. He uses
ducks because the division of their brain is more distinct and the
animal less liable to fatal injury by the operation than in pigeons.
Only such animals are included in the observation as have recov-
ered from the injuries of the operation. In order to detect the ab-
sence of a function as a result of the cerebral lesion, one must
know the normal functions of the duck. In the language of the
duck, M. Richet detects six cries, associated with pain or fright, with

SCIENCE:

[Vor. X. No. 240

being separated from a companion, with the recognition of a com-
panion, with joy, with taking food, and with being chased by a
dog. Add to this the actions occurring in attracting one an-
other and the list is about complete. M. Richet finds that a duck
whose cerebrum is partly destroyed acts exactly as a normal duck :
an accurate observer could probably not tell which is which. The
only difference that was found is this: when a normal duck is
driven into a corner, it tries to escape by going to the side of the
pursuer; a duck with an injured cerebrum huddles against the
wall, and makes no such attempt. M. Richet thinks that this
method of escape is really the only intelligent act a duck performs,
and that the injury of the cerebrum has thus impaired the highest
function ; all the rest of a duck’s actions are almost entirely auto-
matic, and are performed by lower centres. The experiments ac-
cent the importance of correlating the effect of a lesion with the
normal intelligence of the animal acted upon.

BOOK -~ REVIEWS.

On the Relation of the Laramze Molluscan Fauna to that of the
Succeeding Fresh-Water Eocene and other Groups. By
CHARLES A. WHITE. (U. S. Geol. Surv., Bull. No. 34.)
Washington, Government. 89°.

ALTHOUGH it is not distinctly indicated in the title, this is really
an important contribution to Eocene paleontology. Twenty-six
invertebrate species from the Wasatch group, or lowest division of
the fresh-water Eocene beds of Utah, are described and figured.
The stratigraphic and geographic range of each species is pre-
sented in a table, which Dr. White has made the basis of some im-
portant conclusions concerning the relations of the Cretaceous,
Laramie, and Eocene strata.

The intimate stratigraphical relation of the Laramie group to the
marine Cretaceous series beneath it has been recognized by every
field geologist who has studied those strata, and it is this fact, in
addition to the discovery of dinosaurian remains in the Laramie,
that has led them to range that group as a member of the Cretaceous
series. While there seems no reason to doubt that sedimentation
was continuous, not only through the marine Cretaceous series,
but also from that series into and through the Laramie, it is true
that there was at the beginning of the Laramie period a compara-
tively sudden change in the character of the previously existing
molluscan fauna over the whole area which was then occupied by
the Laramie waters; that is, at a certain horizon in the unbroken
succession of strata there is an abrupt disappearance of all dis-
tinctively marine forms, and an equally abrupt accession of brackish-
water and fresh-water forms which continue through the whole
Laramie group.

On the other hand, similar evidence of continuous sedimentation
from the Laramie into the Wasatch group has not hitherto been
publicly announced. And wherever later strata have been discoy-
ered resting upon those of the Laramie group they have been found
to be free from all fossil forms which can be reasonably referred to
even a slightly saline habitat, while the Laramie strata contain
many brackish-water forms throughout their vertical range.

But Dr. White has been able to show that such unconformities as
exist between the Laramie and Wasatch groups are local and un-
important. And, starting with the hope that, although the physical
changes attending the deposition of the last of the Laramie beds
resulted in the extinction of all the brackish-water mollusca of that
group, certain of the fresh-water species would yet be found to
have continued their existence into the Wasatch epoch, he has
proved that this is actually the case. :

In other words, we seem to have conclusive proof that there is a
complete and unbroken stratigraphical series in that western re-
gion, extending from the Middle Cretaceous to the top of the
Eocene, and aggregating nearly or quite two miles in thickness. A
remarkable fact connected with the production of this great series is
that, while sedimentation was evidently not materially interrupted in
at least a large part of the area within which those deposits are now
found, the aqueous life was changed first from that of a purely
marine character to that of alternating brackish and fresh waters,
and finally to that of a purely fresh-water character; that is, the
waters in which this series of strata were deposited were first

SEPTEMBER 9, 1887. |

marine, then alternating brackish and fresh, and finally wholly
fresh. This, of course, implies the occurrence of great physical
‘changes upon the North American continent during the Cretaceous
and Eocene periods, which, however, did not interrupt sedimenta-
tion in a large part of its interior.

Dr. White has also done stratigraphic geology an important
service in his concluding remarks upon the value of fresh-water
fossils in geological determinations.

“The differentiation of the mollusca into generic, family, and
ordinal groups, and the diversification of specific forms among these
groups, are immensely greater in marine waters than in any other.
In brackish waters it is much less than in the open marine, and in
lacustrine waters the minimum of differentiation is found. The
large collections of fossil mollusca which have been made in differ-
ent parts of the world indicate that this slight tendency to differen-
tiation among fresh-water mollusca has always obtained in past
geological time; also, that types once established have persisted
through a long series of geological periods. Therefore it has be-
‘come known that fossils of fresh-water origin are of little value,
compared with those of marine origin, as indices of the true geo-
logical age of the strata containing them. In consequence of this,
the real value of fresh-water fossils as aids in the study of strati-
graphical geology has been underestimated. While it is admitted
that these fresh-water forms are of little value in determining the
geological age of strata, they are really of as great importance in
the study of local, and even of continental, geology as are any other
fossils. Indeed, it would be quite impracticable to ascertain
whether the waters in which formations have been deposited were
marine, brackish, or fresh, except by the character of the contained
fossils.

“ Fresh-water formations of considerable extent can only be pro-
duced upon continental areas, and they consequently record phases
of continental history of which marine formations give no indica-
tion. In western North America the fresh-water deposits rival in
extent and thickness the great marine formations; and it would
have been impossible to arrive at the knowledge of them which we
have now attained except by a study of their fossils. Each of these
great lacustrine formations has its own distinguishing fauna, the
uniform character of which over great areas is quite remarkable.
So large has been the area of some of the fresh-water seas in which
these deposits were formed, and so uniform the conditions under
which they existed, that the geographical distribution of species in
them has been nearly or quite as great as the average of that of
Marine mollusca. For example, some of the species of the Laramie
group have been found at points more than a thousand miles apart ;
and in the fresh-water Eocene groups the molluscan fauna is prac-
tically identical at points as much as 200 miles apart.”

The Margin of Profits.
Putnam. 12°.

By EDWARD ATKINSON. New York,

Mr. ATKINSON'S writings on practical economy are among the
best that we have. They are always interesting and suggestive,
and frequently contain information and advice of much value to
those for whom they are intended. They are not original in a scien-
tific sense, and do not profess to be, Mr. Atkinson being a man of
business rather than of science; yet all his arguments rest on a
scientific basis, and on carefully collected statistics. He is, more-
over, in hearty sympathy with the toiling poor in their efforts to im-
prove their condition in life—indeed, most of his writings are
inspired by this motive; yet he freely criticises them when he thinks
their efforts are in the wrong direction.

The book now before us contains an address delivered before the
Central Labor Lyceum of Boston, together with a reply made on
the same occasion by Mr. E. M. Chamberlin, and Mr. Atkinson’s
rejoinder to the same. The special object of the work is to show,
first, that the margin of profits, that is, the share of the capitalist
in the products of industry, is much smaller than workingmen gen-
erally suppose; and second, that the progress of industry and the
increase of capital, while benefitting the capitalist, of course, ben-
efits the laborer far more. To prove andillustrate the first of these
propositions, he cites the example of the cotton manufacture, in
which the amount of capital used is larger in proportion to the pro-
duct than in any other industry; so that here, if anywhere, we might

SCIENCE.

n27

expect the profits to be unusually large. Yet, according to Mr.
Atkinson, who is thoroughly informed in the matter, the profits are
but a very small portion of the cost of the goods. He says:
“When you buy 40 yards of cotton cloth at $2.50, you pay the
owner of the mill 15 cents profit, but you also pay about 15 cents
more to other people for profit; that is, 30 cents profit in all; and
you pay $2.20 directly for labor’ (p. 28). This statement he
proves by an analysis of the process of production, illustrating the
same by a chart.

He then goes on to show how greatly the working classes have
gained by the improvements that have taken place in production
and the consequent increase of capital. He gives it as his opinion,
and economists generally hold the same view, that “there has never
been a period in the history of the world in which there have been
so many important new inventions or so many applications of pre-
vious inventions, all tending to human welfare, as in the last twenty-
five years” (p. 109). And these improvements, though at first
chiefly beneficial to the few, are now, he thinks, tending rapidly and
largely to the benefit of the many. He cites some statistics show-
ing that during the past twenty-five years the cost of living has
been greatly reduced, while the wages of workmen have largely
increased.

Mr. Chamberlin’s reply to Mr. Atkinson is very feeble indeed, not
one of his opponent’s arguments being met, nor any new ones of
value advanced. That Mr. Atkinson’s views are in the main sound
there can be no doubt; yet the scientific relations of capital and
labor are not yet thoroughly understood, and until they are we
cannot tell precisely how improvements in production and increase
of capital affect the different portions of society. Mr. Atkinson is
doing important service, however, in calling attention to the service
rendered to society by capitalists, inventors, and other brain-workers,
and which laboring men are liable to overlook or underestimate.
He gives also valuable hints on the subject of personal and domestic
expenditure, showing that the poorer classes might save much
more than they now do without diminishing their present enjoyment
in the least. The whole book, in fact, though containing little that
is new of a scientific character, cannot fail to be of use to working-
men, as well as to all others who are studying the labor question
from a practical point of view.

Die Klimate der Erde. Von Dr. A. WOEIKOF. 2 vols. Jena,
Costenoble. 8°. :

DR. WOEIKOF, professor of physical geography in the University
of St. Petersburg, is well known to American meteorologists as the
author of the general explanatory essay in Professor Coffin’s
“Winds of the Globe,’ published after the death of the latter by the
Smithsonian Institution. He has also been a frequent contributor
to the Austrian and German meteorological journals and to other
scientific periodicals outside of Russia, and his essays on the
climate of the glacial period have attracted much attention from
geologists. He has travelled and observed widely abroad, as well
as read exhaustively at home. Students of physical geography are
therefore to be congratulated that he has condensed the results of
his labors in a general work on the climates of the earth, and also
that an authorized German translation of the Russian original has
appeared ; for it is a positive loss to science when an experience as
wide and well trained as Dr. Woeikof’s is not recorded as far as
may be in transmissible form.

The first volume of the work includes a series of chapters on
matters of general importance, several of which have been repub-
lished elsewhere, so agreeable are they in style and treatment. The
chief headings are, ‘ Pressure and Winds, including a Consideration
of Temperature Changes in Vertical Currents;’ ‘ Atmospheric
Moisture and Precipitation ;’ ‘Influence of Snow and Ice on Cli-
mate ;’ ‘ Temperature of Bodies of Water and their Climatic In-
fluences;’ ‘Daily Variations of Temperature, Moisture, and
Wind ;’ ‘ Variation of Temperature with Altitude, with Particular
Regard to the Effect of Topographic Form on Temperature
Changes ;’ ‘ Effect of Climate on Vegetation and of Vegetation on
Climate ;’ ‘General Statement of the Distribution of Temperature
and Pressure over the Earth.’ There is nothing of text-book style
in these chapters: they are rather essays than lessons, fit for read-
ing by the well-informed meteorologist rather than for study in

128

school. Reading of this sort is greatly needed in all branches of
science, and nowhere more than in meteorology. Look, for exam-
ple, at the account given of the effects of melting ice and freezing
water on the temperature of the adjacent air. The effects appear
either in time alone, or in both time and place. When lakes freeze,
they retard the early winter fall of temperature, and when they melt
they retard the spring warming by an equal amount: this effect is
constant in place, but varies in time. On the other hand, when snow
falls, the liberation of energy in its freezing affects the temperature
of the air at some distance above the earth’s surface, making it
warmer than it would have been if condensation had not taken
place ; but the same snow, melting afterwards on the ground, keeps
the air there from warming as much or as soon as it would had the
snow been absent. Here, then, is an effect that varies in place as
wellasintime. It is like carrying ice from New England to India:
if this once famous industry had been extensive enough, it would
have raised our mean temperature, and lowered that of the torrid
zone where the ice melted.

The second volume of the work is given to a general geographic
account of climate. Here a comparison naturally arises with
Hann’s ‘ Klimatologie,’ that appeared a few years ago. The sub-
jects treated are identical; the difference is only in the plan of
treatment and in degree of emphasis given to one part or another
by the two authors. Dr. Hann made free use of original accounts
by travellers and foreign observers, and inserted abstracts of their
writings in smaller type, after presenting his own general state-
ments; he also included the various climatic tables in the text,
alongside of the paragraphs that they illustrate. Dr. Woeikof re-
duces the records that he consults to common form, and postpones
all tables to the end of the book, where they appear with numerous
diagrams that have small representation in Dr. Hann’s book.
Preference between two methods such as these is probably a matter
of taste, my own being for that followed by the Austrian author ;
but the other will doubtless find equal approval. The absence of
sufficient reference to earlier authors makes both books less useful
than they might have been; but the insertion of the references would
have materially increased the size of the volumes, already large,
and I believe it was for this reason that they were omitted.

The duplication caused by the almost simultaneous appearance
of these two books on one subject can only be regarded as a great
advantage. They were independently prepared by leading special-
ists; and the careful reader, who wishes to think as well as to
quote, will gain a solid, stereoscopic comprehension of the subject
by approaching it from these two slightly different points of view.

foods and Food Adulterants. Part I. Dairy Products. (U.S.
Dept. Agric., Bull. No. 13.) Washington, Government. 8°.

THis bulletin, which has been prepared by H. W. Wiley, chemist,
is devoted chiefly to a discussion of the best methods of detecting
the adulteration of dairy-products, that of butter being treated with
greater detail than any other. During the past year the division of
chemistry has been supplied with apparatus for photo-micography,
and most of the illustrations, twenty-four in number, are the work of
the division. Great benefit has been derived from this method of fix-
ing the photographic appearance of the crystalline character of butter
and butter substitutes. The illustrations show the crystalline ap-
pearances of butter, beef-fat, lard, butterine, and oleomargarine, and
are well executed. The bulletin contains the text of the act of 1886,
passed by Congress, defining butter, and imposing a tax upon, and
regulating the manufacture, sale, importation, and exportation of,
oleomargarine ; also a detailed history of artificial butter from its first
manufacture by Mége-Mouriéz, in 1870, to the present time. The
writer of the bulletin believes, that, while a great deal of artificial
butter has been thrown upon the market, that has been carelessly
made, and therefore harmful to the health, still a butter substitute,
made carefully out of the fat of a perfectly healthy bullock or swine,
is not prejudicial to health. This opinion is supported by quota-
tions from the leading authorities, such as Professors Morton,
Chandler, Barker, and others. The best methods of butter and

milk analysis are described in detail, both microscopical and chem-.

ical. Other bulletins are being prepared, and will soon be issued,
treating of condiments, sugar, sirup and honey, drinks and canned
goods, flour and meal, tea and coffee, and baking-powders.

SCIENEGE:

[Vout. X. No. 240

Milton's Paradise Lost. Books J. and II.
and notes, by M. MACMILLAN.

Ed. with introduction
New York, Macmillan. 169.

THE difficulties of Milton’s works are so great, owing to the
Latinized structure of his style and his many learned allusions, that
they require a commentary almost as much as the ancient classics
do. Nor have our scholars neglected to provide such helps; yet
for school purposes most of them leave much to be desired. The
little book before us is one of the best works of the kind that we
have seen, and will help to make the reading of Milton both easier
and pleasanter. It is confined to the first two books of ‘ Paradise
Lost,’ which the editor rightly considers the grandest portion of
Milton’s works. The notes are accurate and very exhaustive, as
may be seen from the fact that they fill eighty-four pages of the
volume, while the text fills only fifty-four. Almost every thing is
explained in them that a student would need to have explained, and
the explanations are simple and clear. An introduction of moderate
length gives an account of the conception and composition of
‘Paradise Lost,’ together with some judicious criticisms on the
poem. The book may be heartily commended for educational use.

Schiller’s Wethelm Tell. With Introduction and Notes by G. E.
FASNACHT. London, Macmillan. 24°.

Schiller’s Wallenstezn. Part I. Das Lager. With Introduction
and Notes by H. B. COTTERILL. London, Macmillan. 24°.

MEssrRs. MACMILLAN & Co. have, in the two books named
above, made valuable additions to their Foreign School Classics
series. The Wallenstein is preceded by a well-written historical
sketch of the origin and character of the thirty-years’ war. The
difficulties in reading Wilhelm Tell do not lie in Schiller’s style and
diction. These are throughout transparently clear. Not so the
subject-matter. The reader’s progress is delayed at almost every
step by historical allusions, provincialisms, topographical and
meteorological terms, for the elucidation of which even the ad-
vanced student needs to have a complete cyclopedia at his elbow.
All this reference-hunting involves a great waste of time, and this
little edition of the work has been edited with the view to placing
these side-lights at the disposal of the reader.

fligher Algebra. By H.S. HALL and S. R. KNIGHT,
Macmillan. 16°.

THE present work is a sequel to the author’s ‘Elementary
Algebra for Schools.’ The first few chapters are devoted to a
fuller discussion of ratio, proportion, variation, and the progressions,.
which in the former work were treated in an elementary manner.
The discussion of convergency and divergency of series always pre-
sents great difficulty to the student. To render this the more in-
telligible, the authors have introduced a short chapter on limiting
values and vanishing fractions. In the chapter on summation of
series they have laid much stress on the method of differences and
its wide and important applications. Permutations and combina-
tions and the theory of probability have received due attention, also
the theory of determinants and their applications. The last chapter
contains all the most useful propositions in the theory of equations
suitable for a first reading.

London,

Naturae Verztas.
millan. 16°.

WE learn from the author’s preface that in this poem he has re-
lated certain things, which, in a temporary absence from this earth,
he received from a being who, having completed the change of ex-
istence, had attained toa knowledge of the universe far transcending
the capacity of man. The poem is descriptive of the author’s sup-
posed stellar visits in quest of information, which should lay at rest
his doubts in regard to the dissipation of energy. Unfortunately
the journey was without result.

By GEORGE M. MINCHIN. London, Mac-

The Owens College Course of Practzcal Organic Chemistry. By
J. B. COHEN. London, Macmillan. 16°.

THis little book on organic chemistry will be received with favor,
doubtless, and has already received the high indorsement of Prof.
Henry E. Roscoe and Prof. C. Schorlemmer. Any course of prac-
tical organic chemistry leading up to original work must mainly
consist in a careful preparation of a well-selected series of organic
compounds. Dr. Julius Cohen has in this little book collected such

SEPTEMBER 9, 1887.]|

a series; and doubtless the book, which is a novel one, will prove
useful alike to professors, assistants, and students. Its primary
purpose is that of a laboratory guide.

four Figure Mathematical Tables.
don, Macmillan, 12°.

THIS is a series of mathematical tables comprising logarithmic and
trigonometrical tables, and tables of squares, square roots, and re-
ciprocals. In an appendix are contained anumber of useful formulas
and numbers, especially for those engaged in work in physical la-
boratories. The book is compiled by a lecturer in natural philoso-
phy in the University of Glasgow.

By J. T. BOTTOMLEY. Lon-

NOTES AND NEWS.

IN order to expedite the publication of short articles upon astro-
nomical and meteorological subjects which may be prepared at
Harvard College Observatory, it has been decided to print them as
successive numbers of a series, which will constitute the eighteenth
volume of the ‘Annals of the Observatory’ when a sufficient
amount of material has thus been collected. Each number will be
published and distributed soon after it has been prepared.

— During this month will appear, under the editorship of Dr. G. H.
Rohé, a quarterly journal, The Climatologist, devoted to the con-
sideration of questions in the domain of medical and sanitary cli-
matology. As there is at present no other journal in the world
exclusively occupying this special field, the editor and publishers
believe that there is room for such a publication. Each number
will contain forty-eight quarto pages of reading-matter, the sub-
scription price will be fifty cents per year, and the place of publica-
tion, S. E. Cor. Baltimore and South Streets, Baltimore, Md.

— Dr. John Vansant of the United States Marine Hospital at St.
Louis claims to be the first to have taken photographs by the light
of fireflies. He placed twelve fireflies in a three-ounce bottle,
covering its mouth with fine white bobinet. The average duration
of the flash of each insect was half a second, and the luminous area
on the abdomen was about one-eighth of an inch square. The
time of exposure was fifty flashes.

— Lieut. J. F. Moser, U.S.N., commanding the Coast Survey
steamer ‘ Bache,’ has just submitted a report of the hydrographic
work executed by that steamer from Cedar Keys southward to a
point off Chasahowitzka River, and the finishing of the hydrog-
raphy from Cape Romano to the delta of the Mississippi. He
refers to the great difficulty of running triangulations, owing
mainly to the obscurity or entire absence of former triangulations,
or other ear-marks of the locality to be surveyed. St. Martin’s
Reef was found to continue as far north as Homosassa, thence
trending eastward to join the shallow waters of Crystal River.
It is on the Florida banks, of which St. Martin’s Reef forms
an inshore part, that many of the commercial sponges are taken,
and a large number of vessels are yearly engaged on the work.
The tides in this locality were found to be easily affected by winds,
causing great irregularity in their range, stand, and times of move-
ment. The coast was found to be low and rocky, and the entire bot-
tom covered with porous rock. The anchorage off St. Martin’s Reef
is good and safe in any weather except a hurricane. Lieutenant
Moser says the country is dreary, desolate, and uninhabited, and
the coast-line consists of fringing islands, thickly covered with
mangrove. On these islands oysters are found growing in trees,
the spawn having attached themselves to the branches at high
water and developed into oysters. Bird-life was not abundant,
even sea-gulls being conspicuous by their absence. Rail and blue
and white herons were found, but even these birds have been
driven away by the plume-hunters.

— A. Auwers has thoroughly discussed the alleged periodical
changes of the diameter of the sun, and finds that in fact they do not
exist. His researches, which are founded on 19 series of observa-
tions, —12 of which refer to the horizontal diameter, and comprise
21,000 observations, while 7 refer to the vertical diameter, — show
that the periodical changes are due to the influence of the tempera-
ture upon the instruments with which the observations were made,
and that for this reason the period corresponds to that of the annual
period of temperature.

SCIENCE.

129

LETTERS TO THE EDITOR,

Experimental Physics for Schools,

FOR years one of the requirements for admission to Harvard
College has been such knowledge of physics as may be obtained
from the study of any one of certain well-known elementary text-
books. To this requirement is now added the study of a certain
astronomical text-book, but as an alternative to both the text-book
physics and the astronomy there is recommended a course of study
in physics involving considerable laboratory work on the part of the
pupil, supplemented by instructions from a text-book or a course of
lectures.

Two questions suggest themselves to the teacher of physics when
he finds himself met by the proposition to give laboratory practice
to a whole class: rst. Is this desirable if practicable? 2d. Is it
practicable ?

Without undertaking to discuss at large the theory of a liberal
education, we can note a few considerations which will enable us to
answer the first of these questions with some confidence: Ist.
Physics is studied partly for training and partly for information.
2d. Text-book physics alone gives but little training that cannot be
given by arithmetic, algebra, and geometry, all of which studies are
pursued by the pupil before he enters college. 3d. Physics as.
taught by the laboratory experience of the pupil gives a kind of
training that is not given by any course of study reguzred for ad-
mission to Harvard College or, perhaps, any other college in the
country. This training is partly of the senses and partly mental.
It is true that many book-studies educate the senses to a certain ex-
tent, and the logical faculties, but unfortunately it is possible for a
person who is observing and logical in things which he is in the
habit of studying to be quite the opposite in dealing with things
which do not habitually occupy his mind. Now, laboratory physics
is the only elementary study for admission to Harvard College that
requires the student to look beyond the pages of a book, and al-
though most students do look at other things than books, they are
not in the habit of stwdyzng things outside of books. 4th. The in-
formation given by the text-book alone is wide but superficial and
vague. It is like that knowledge of a country which one may get
by travelling rapidly over it on a railroad train. 5th. The informa-
tion given by laboratory practice alone is definite but narrow. It is
like that knowledge of a country which one would get if he tried to
go over the whole of it on foot. 6th. Most students show far more
interest in laboratory work than in the study of a text-book, even
when the same subjects are dealt with in both cases. Much of the
repugnance which many students feel for physics as they study it
comes from the almost painful effort of the imagination to body
forth the things described in the text-books, and which might be
seen directly and handled in the laboratory.

From these considerations we reach the conclusion that the
course which Harvard recommends to preparatory schools is desir-
able, if practicable, viz., to have the pupil study intimately certain
topics by the laboratory method, and to enlarge upon, apply, and
connect the knowledge so gained, by means of a text-book or a
course of lectures. In the opinion of the writer, a course of
lectures sufficiently extensive and systematic to take the place of a
text-book for this purpose is beyond the present powers of most
preparatory schools.

It may be hoped that by following such a course in physics the
student will escape, on the one hand, a condition of blind and
helpless dependence upon text-books, and, upon the other hand, the
scarcely less unfortunate state of self-sufficiency which cannot or
will not profit by the literature of the science.

Harvard University has issued for the use of teachers engaged in
preparing students for its college classes a pamphlet giving a list of
forty laboratory exercises, with specifications of the apparatus and
materials to be used in these exercises, and with directions for their
performance, or references to manuals giving such directions. These
exercises are to be performed by the pupil. To speak cursorily, they
deal with certain distinctive characteristics of the solid, liquid, and
gaseous states of matter, the determination of specific gravities, the
first principles of statics and dynamics, evaporation and boiling, the
determination of the fixed points of a thermometer, expansion of solids
and gases, specific heat, latent heat, velocity of sound, interference of

130

‘sound-waves, photometry, plane mirrors, converging lenses, lines of
magnetic force, construction of galvanic cells, action of electrical
‘currents upon magnets, electrical resistance of wires, battery re-
sistance, construction of electro-magnets. Nearly all of these exer-
cises are of a quantitative character, requiring measurements of
some kind. It is expected that they will be liberally supplemented
with other less formal experiments, not necessarily to be performed
by the student, such as are described in ordinary text-books, with
problems, and with general teaching, all of such arange and charac-
ter as to give effect and continuity to the course.

In considering whether such a course of physics is practicable
there are several points to be looked at : —

Ist. The material equipment required. It will not in general be
practicable for a teacher to give proper attention to more than
twelve students working in the laboratory at the same time. The
-cost of the Zor¢ab/e apparatus and material needed to enable twelve
students to follow the course marked out in this pamphlet, each
working upon the same experiment at the same time but in general
independently, may be any thing from $250 to $450, according to
the amount of time and skill the teacher can devote to its prepara-
tion. I think this part of the equipment, with apparatus ready
made, can be bought outright for the larger sum mentioned. There
will be needed also two strong tables, each about twelve feet long
and three feet wide, one or two sinks with water-faucets, and for
‘each student a supply of gas for a Bunsen burner.

For a school already well supplied with the ordinary 2//wstratzve
apparatus, the total cost of adding the material equipment for the
laboratory course, on the scale supposed, may range from $400 to
$800. If only one or two students are to be provided for, the cost
may be not more than $50 or $100.

2d. The demand upon the pupil’s time. In the summer of 1886,
Harvard sent out to a large number of teachers of physics in pre-
paratory schools a circular requesting answers to certain questions,
one of which related to the amount of time devoted to this study in
their respective schools. About eighty replies to this circular were
received, and the conclusion from these replies was, that, in laying
‘out the elementary physics courses for admission to the college, we
might assume that the pupil would have for this subject the equiva-
lent of one school exercise of about forty-five minutes daily for one
school-year of thirty-five or forty weeks, with some hours of study
weekly out of the school-room. The proposed course has been planned
in accordance with this estimate. This is probably about as much
time as will be required for elementary French or elementary
German in fitting for Harvard, and not more than one-half as much
as most candidates have given to prescribed Greek, or one-third as
much as they have given to prescribed Latin.

3d. The arrangement of hours. Experience in the Harvard
physical laboratory, with a course very similar to the one proposed
for the schools, dictates the suggestions, 1, that one school-hour per
week be given to a preliminary explanation, and perhaps hasty per-
formance by the teacher, of the exercises presently to be under-
taken by the pupils, the whole class being assembled for this exer-
cise; 2, that each pupil have two consecutive school-hours per
week for the actual performance of the formal experiments of the
course, the class, if large, being divided for this purpose into sec-
tions of not more than twelve; 3, that the other two school-hours
per week be devoted to the supplementary work of the course with
the whole class assembled. In order that the time alloted for the
laboratory work may be sufficient, the student should be required to
plan his work and his note-taking, so far as this is practicable, be-
fore coming to the laboratory.

4th. The demand upon the teacher’s time. Scholars so young as
those will be who may take this course need much direction in
their laboratory work. The teacher should be in the laboratory
whenever work is going on there. The preparation and care of
apparatus and the proper supervision of the students’ note-books
will take much time, especially at first. After every thing has set-
tled into regular working order, it may require six or eight hours
more, weekly, of the teacher's time to conduct a class of thirty or
forty students in the experimental laboratory course than to con-
duct a class of the same size in the text-book course, which is to be
the alternative.

5th. The fitness of teachers for such work. Probably only a

SCIENCE?

[Vot. X. No. 240

small proportion of the teachers of physics in the preparatory
schools have had such a training as would enable them to arrange
and conduct the proposed course without considerable effort and
some mistakes. For the first year or two crude work is to be ex-
pected, but teachers who are possessed of some mechanical skill, a
good general knowledge of physics, considerable energy, and a
willingness to think, will quickly become accustomed to the duties
of the new course.

Just how great the difficulties which have here been touched
upon will appear to the preparatory schools the writer is unable to
foresee, but there can be little doubt that the larger schools which
send boys to Harvard will, in general, speedily adopt the experiment
method in preparing boys in physics. Last July about eighty can-
didates presented themselves for the entrance examination in the ex-
periment course, and, although this course as now laid out will be
more severe than that which some schools have followed during the
past year, it is unlikely that any school having once undertaken the
experiment course will abandon it for the text-book alternative.

The enthusiasm with which many teachers welcome the oppor-
tunity to follow the experiment method is very striking, and en-
courages the hope that the day of perfunctory cramming in physics
merely for the purpose of getting into college is nearly over.

E. H. HAQL.

Romantic Love and Personal Beauty.

THE above subject in its varied aspects, to which the review of
Mr. Finck’s book in Sczezce has called attention, must be regarded
by all thoughtful men, and above all by the biologist, as one of
great, possibly unsurpassed interest to mankind. The question in
its broadest aspect comes to this: How are the interests of man-
kind dependent on conjugal mating and the circumstances under
which this is brought about? As no one can pretend to see the
whole truth on such a subject (or indeed any other of compre-
hensive range), I shall give the results of my own observations and
reflections, with a view of drawing increased attention to a subject
of such transcendent importance. While every one, in some vague
way, recognizes the importance of the step taken when two human
beings agree to join their fortunes for life, the multiform implica-
tions of such an act require for their comprehension a biological
knowledge that but few, in the present state of civilization, possess.

Mr. Finck, after enumerating the characteristics of romantic love,
grants that many of these are found in the lower animals, but at the
same time leads us to believe that romantic love is wholly amodern
growth, or that it had no genuine existence, at all events, previously.
Is this position consistent for an evolutionist ? If it existed lower
in the scale than man, it seems very unlikely that it should cease to
exist in the higher form. Mr. Finck seems to have rather over-
stated the case. That it never had complete development till
modern times, that it was smothered, dwarfed, or perverted, we will
freely admit; but we must deny that it is purely a mew thing.
Why is it, as we know it, modern in its development? Because
never before was the altruistic conception of human conduct fully
developed. That a man should sacrifice himself for an inferior
was utterly opposed to all ancient ideas. When this concep-
tion took shape it at once began to appear that woman, being the
weaker physically at least, demanded, in harmony with the al-
truistic principle, the service and sacrifice of the stronger, hence
gallantry, etc. Formerly this was but an undeveloped germ in the
breast of man; but it was there, however, and is not an absolutely
new thing. In a word, romantic love demands a relatively high
moral development for its vigorous growth. Perhaps Mr. Finck
would really contend for no more than this. ;

Darwin, consistently with the great influence he assigned to
sexual selection in his scheme of organic evolution, included man
with other animals. He pointed out that ‘the men who are rich
through primogeniture are able to select, generation after genera-
tion, the more beautiful and charming women; and these [he adds]
must generally be healthy in body and active in mind.” No doubt
this explains a great deal, but it does not explain the origin of
beauty in man or woman. In explaining the high average of comeli-
ness and the relative frequency of beauty in human beings in
America, this factor enters very largely into the explanation both of
the preservation and increase of beauty of form and expression,

SEPTEMBER 9, 1887. |

inasmuch as in no part of the world is there such unrestricted con-
jugal choice. But how does beauty originate? Sometimes suddenly,
the offspring being incomparably superior to the parents ; more
frequently by gradual improvement, though certainly very pro-
nounced in a large proportion of cases. A Darwinian would say this
was owing to fortuitous variations and natural selection. But these
‘fortuitous’ variations Darwin did not attempt to explain. To do this
is the task of modern evolutionists. It must be a gradual process
so far as details are concerned.

In a paper read at the recent meeting of the American Associa-
tion, I traced the influence of monotony in the environment, among
other causes, in determining race degeneracy in a small and isolated
community in the Bahama Islands, and endeavored to place this
upon a scientific foundation. In a somewhat elaborate paper just
read before the Canada Medical Association, I have advanced a
new theory as to nutrition; viz., that the nerve centres are con-
stantly exercising an influence over the nutrition of all the tissues of
the body through the nerves distributed to them. This view sup-
plements and explains that maintained in the first paper. It seems
to me that it throws an entirely new light on the whole subject of
evolution, supplies, in fact, a missing link in the explanation, —at
all events for all animals with a nervous system, —and accounts
for the origin of variations as, so far as I know, no other theory does.
It furnishes what the Lamarckians have lacked but never supplied.
I cannot, of course, give in this letter the facts on which this law is
founded, but may say that they are of a threefold character: clin-
ical, pathological, and physiological.

The form, etc., of every organ depends upon its mode of growth,
upon its nutrition. According to the above theory of a constant
neuro-trophic influence, the nutrition is every moment dependent
on the nervous system. Nowasitis through this system the organ-
ism is brought into relation with its environment, so through it the
environment is registering its effects every moment. One thing seems
to be settled in regard to beauty : it cannot originate when the exist-
ence is a purely vegetative one, devoid of all excitement of a psychi-
cal kind. That beauty is most frequent among the classes of the
community in easiest circumstances, with opportunities for varied
excitement of mind (and consequently of body), can thus be under-
stood. That the mental mood causes the face to vary very much
in expression is patent to all, and is understood by the influence of the
mind over the muscles through nerves by influences radiating from
the nerve centres. My theory goes much further than this, however,
and assumes a constant influence of the nervous system directing
the nutrition of every cell and so the form of the entire organism.
By such a view we are able to understand how the young being zz
utero can be moulded to beauty or the reverse, by the environ-
ment of the parent. It may be long before we are able to work out
the details, but we must not be hopeless even as to that.

This then is a physiological explanation of evolution. Now, al-
though on reflection it must appear that all final explanations of
evolution must be physiological, it is remarkable that scarcely a
single physiologist has undertaken the solution of any of its prob-
lems. I hope to be able in the near future to elaborate the subject
from the physiological standpoint and along the lines indicated
above. And it-is because this explanation seems to bear so directly
on vital questions like those treated by Mr. Finck that I write to
Sczence on the present occasion.

It is evident that for the best results to mankind there must be
the freest choice in conjugal mating. We think biology has now
advanced far enough to say of certain persons that they cannot
mate without danger of deterioration in the offspring, e.g., in the case
of those with a pronounced consumptive or strumous ancestral his-
tory; and it says much for the character of those who, with this
fear before them, have sacrificed the prospects of conjugal happi-
ness for a time, for the good of the race, by remaining in celibacy.
An accomplished, experienced, and wise physician, well educated
in the principles of heredity, might often, if consulted, be justified in
saying nay. That he could say that any particular union is the
best possible, is going far beyond our present biological knowledge.

With the inferior animals we can predict results as to off-
spring with a certainty that is remarkable. But with man the en-
vironment is so much more complex, from his more involved social life,
from his high cerebral development (psychical life), that it is impos-

SCIENCE.

13F

sible to estimate all the factors in the environment ; and. if we could,.
we do not yet know exactly how they act. But nature has not left
man without a sure guide. By man’s instincts (intuitions) light is
supplied, in each instance, that science can as yet give only as gen-
eral principles. The individual is a light unto himself, provided
that he has lived an honest, pure life.

For myself, on this point, I hold the strongest views. My theory
as to falling in love would be something to this effect: there are
in normal minds the elements of an unformed ideal, which takes
definite shape when the person answering to that ideal appears,
provided there be no interfering causes. This ideal appertains.
rather to zy#e of individual than to any special person; i.e., there is
the potential capacity to love one of many individuals of the type,
and the exact individual of this type chosen may be a fortuitous
matter. Good results, if not absolutely the best, follow in such
cases, no matter which one of the type-class is chosen. As Carlyle
said, ‘“‘No man can love but once, and some not then.” The
choice of those of opposite tendencies, etc., results in a large pro-
portion of cases in the highest good alike to the individuals them-
selves, their offspring, and the race. Man and woman in the con--
jugal state should be the one complementary to the other. The-
education of the sexes should lead to as much differentiation as.
possible, in order that the total energy available for the race may
be maximal. The education given by parents and the general edu-
cation of the public should be such as to allow of the highest de-
gree of free, intelligent conjugal choice. If this is accomplished the:
results as regards beauty will be equally good with those in other:
directions. I seem, Mr. Editor, to be just getting into the subject,.
but I fear I have already taken up too much of your space; the im-
portance of such a question must be my excuse.

T. WESLEY MILLSs..
Physiological Laboratory, McGill College,
Montreal, Aug. 29.

The Study of Geography.

THE efforts of the Royal Geographical Society towards the-
improvement of geographic teaching in England, as recently
described in Sczence by Mr. Keltie, deserve particular attention,
both from the success already attained and from the need of
going still further. The success is conspicuous, if measured
only by the recognition and opportunity given to Mr. Mackinder
as reader in geography at Oxford; and the advance already
gained in the character of models, maps, and illustrations is ad-
mirable and enviable; but I cannot help feeling that the short-
comings of the scheme are also apparent. It seems to me that
geography itself needs as much attention as tk means of teaching
and illustrating it: the principles to be taugHt and the facts to be-
illustrated need fuller discussion and better choice than they have
yet received. But Mr. Keltie, in his recent article in Sczence, says:
“Of what is known as physical geography—the topographical
surrouadings of humanity—there is ndt much to complain: its.
facts and principles are pretty well known, and fairly set forth in
numerous text-books. It is when we come to apply these facts to-
humanity, and deal with their bearings on the development of man
in communities, that we find so much to desire.” I sympathize
fully with the second sentence of this quotation, but not at all with
the first. Certainly much is still to be done in recognizing and
illustrating the bearing of geographic facts on the development of
human communities, but quite as much, or more, is yet to be
accomplished in the careful study of the facts themselves. Mr.
Mackinder, in his address to the Royal Geographical Society
(Proceedings, March, 1887), includes these geographic facts under
‘physiography,’ and their relations to humanity under ‘physical
geography ;’ but the illustrations that he presents are chiefly of the
latter subject, and the tendency of the Society, judging by the
character of its Journal of former years and its current Pro-
ceedings, is, with small exception, in the same direction. It should
be noted, however, that Mr. Mackinder gives much more importance
to geologic origin of geographic forms than has been usual. Now it
may be true, though I think it is not, that enough is known of
physiography to serve the wants of physical geography; but it is
undoubtedly true that physiography as a science in itself is in a
most immature condition, and is only in recent years obtaining

132

recognition. Physiography now is in the low position that natural
history occupied in the first half of the century, when its text-
books gave brief descriptions and pretty little wood-cuts of a great
variety of forms, dwelling on their slight differences more than on
their great resemblances. In a score or more of years, physiog-
raphy will be fortunate if it attain as high a position as is now
held by biology, the successor of the old natural history, in
which a few forms are first studied minutely, and the knowledge of
detail thus gained is broadened by giving emphasis to the resem-
blances that relate these few types to all the rest of the animal
and vegetable world. As far as the economic relations of plants
and animals to human history are concerned, some might be con-
tent with such a statement as ‘a horse is a horse;’ but the study of
zoology for itself, without regard to its relations to history, must
regard a horse as a highly specialized form of a general type, and
must discover how his specialization was accomplished.

Physiography must make the same advance. It might serve the
needs of physical geography if physiography made no distinction
between a new plain smoothed by constructive process and an old
base-level plain smoothed by destructive process; but to physiog-
raphy itself the omission of this vital distinction is absolutely fatal.
Placing such apparently similar forms together would involve the
same order of error as that of classing whales with fishes, or of
grouping the unwrapped cephalopods of the mesozoic with the
straight forms of the low paleozoic. Time must be recognized as
an element in geographic description even to a greater degree
than it has been by Prof. Archibald Geikie in his study of ‘ geo-
grapic evolution ;’ for topographic development is the key to a
real understanding of the forms of the land about us. Physiog-
raphy must, moreover, follow the example of biology in studying
its simpler type-forms carefully before attempting to understand
the complex associations of forms that make up a country or a
continent.

Continental homologies have gone far enough already, if indeed
not too far, in the present state of knowledge: attention should be
directed instead to the minute morphology and systematic develop-
ment of individual topographic forms. The difficulties of such work
are great, especially in teaching ; for while it is admitted that ‘ seeing
is believing,’ and methods of instruction in chemistry, physics, and
organic natural history are all remodelled with this principle in
view, geography can at best secure but an imperfect application of
the principle, and has to get along with maps, views, and models,
instead of studying actual forms themselves. Maps are nearly al-
ways on too small a scale, and too poorly drawn to show what
ought to be seen. Photographs are of course extremely useful, but
they generally incly4e ivo many varieties of form, and present too
much detaii, to serve best in elementary instruction ; and they are
as a rule taken with a geographic rather than a physiographic object.
Illustrations in books of travel are too often of no scientific value :
the traveller is generally an explorer instead of a geographer, and
the artist too often stays at home. Most of Holzel’s oleographs are
admirably artistic, and all are highly valuable, and they probably
come as near to being ‘ types’ as any thing published. The illustra-
tions in the reports of our Geological Survey are also most excellent
in this respect. Models are too often merely copies of actual places
that have been, for such a reason as complexity of structure or the
like, chosen for this kind of illustration: the model of Monte Rosa
mentioned by Mr. Keltie, excellent as it must be as the work of
so artistic a geologist as Professor Heim, and so appreciative a
topographer as Herr Imfeld, must have about the same relation to
the needs of a class in physiography as a menagerie would have to
the needs of a class in biology, or as Leverrier’s computations about
Neptune would have to a class in mathematics. Mr. Keltie recog-
nizes, however, that, for teaching purposes, “it should be remem-
bered that it is not extraordinary features that are desired, but
typical aspects of the earth’s surface,” but he does not say where
we shall find a scientific and sufficient investigation of the forms
that are to be chosen as ‘ typicalaspects.’ There is no such investi-
gation. The absence of any thorough and consistent physiographic
terminology at once points out the immaturity of this study. Be-
ginnings may be found here and there, but certainly not in ‘ numer-
ous text-books,’ The Sixth Annual Report of the Geological Sur-
vey, just issued, contains, for example, a number of illustrations

SCIENCE:

[Vor. X. No. 240

that will be seized upon when the proper text-book appears. The
choice little woodcuts on page 229, entitled ‘ Topographic Old Age,’
and ‘Topographic Youth,’ are particularly good, but these terms
will certainly be new to most readers.

Let me repeat, therefore, that while the principles of physiography
are coming to be pretty well understood, the facts have yet to be
set forth in their proper light, and the world must be explored
over again to find them, Let any one who doubts this read over
the ordinary books of travel and the older geological and geographi-
cal reports, and see what sort of a physiography he can make out
of them. Before the methods of teaching physiography are per-
fected, before the proper illustrations are constructed, much discus-
sion is needed as to the principles to be taught, and as to the forms
that are to be chosen for types. The Geographical Society still has
a large work before it in this direction. W.M. Davis.

Cambridge, Mass., Aug. 28.

The Blair Educational Bill.

In Sczence of Aug. 19 is a note on the Blair bill, by James Law-
rey of Iowa. Mr. Lawrey declares that “ any State that would ac-
cept national aid has not the spirit necessary to a sound govern-
ment.” Such a statement comes with very poor grace from one
who resides in a State in which the schools are most richly en-
dowed by the general government. Whence came the great educa-
tional funds of the western States, save from the munificent bounty
of the general government? Has the spirit of the people of the
State of Iowa, or of any western State, been, in any way, injured by
the vast donations of land by the general government to these
States? J understand that the great north-west was ceded to the
nation for the benefit of all the people, by certain States having a
good claim to the same. The later acquisitions by purchase and
by conquest were all intended certainly for all the people. But in
what way are the people of Pennsylvania or of Virginia benefitted
by the school funds of Iowa or Nebraska, derived from the sale of
lands belonging to all the people? These great land-grants are
but little understood by the people of the East. A few years ago,
when in Nebraska, I was told that the school lands of that State, if
laid out in a belt two miles wide, would extend from the Atlantic to
the Pacific Ocean.

I believe in the aims of the Blair Bill most fully, but I think it
should be modified, in several particulars. 1. The money should
be given to each State for the benefit of all school children in the
same, but with no other restrictions. 2. The western States should
receive no benefit from the grant until the old States have been
granted sums to counterbalance the grants to the western States.

It is certainly a grave mistake on the part of our rulers to collect
vast sums of money, more than are needed to conduct the govern-
ment in an economical manner, but when once it is collected it
should be returned in the most direct manner possible.

The South needs the aid. With ungallant restrictions removed,
she will accept and make good use of it, I feel as sure as I do that
it would do good in my own State. GEO. G. GROFF.

Bucknell University, Lewisburg, Penn.

Wind Pressure and Velocity.

REFERRING to Mr. H. Allen Hazen’s letter in your issue of the
2d inst., I beg to call attention to the fact that the temperature of
the wind enters as an important factor in the determination of the
pressure due to a given velocity. In 1876 (Engzneering and
Mining Journal) | first pointed out that a variation in temperature
from 0? F. to 100° F. produces a difference in the amount of pres-
sure, for a given velocity of wind, of over one-fifth the total amount.
I have since discussed the subject more fully in a little treatise on
‘The Windmill as a Prime Mover’ (New York, John Wiley &
Sons, 1885), giving detailed formule and complete tables, showing
the relation between the pressure and velocity of wind.

Further accurate experimental determinations are certainly neces-
sary, but all data entering the problem (among them, the temper-
ature of the impinging air) should be carefully noted, and given due
weight in any generalization drawn from the experiments.

ALFRED R. WOLFF.
New York, Sept. 5.

ee 40a Leis

FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 16, 1887.

THE LATEST NEWS from Stanley is dated Yambuya Rapids on
the Aruvimi River. This is the most eastern point that could be
reached by steamers, and here the overland journey to the Mvutan
Nsige was to begin. The expedition, which consisted of 612 men,
left Stanley Pool on May 1, on the ‘Henry Reed,’ of the American
Baptist Mission, with 131 men on board; the ‘Stanley,’ of the
Kongo Free State, carrying 364 men, 500 loads of baggage and
goods, nine riding asses and a herd of goats, and the ‘ Peace,’ of
the English Baptist Mission, with 117 men on board, and towing
two boats. The ‘Stanley’ towed the hull of the steel steamer
*Florida,’ which had been launched the day before. Two miles
above Kinshassa the ‘ Peace’ met with an accident, her rudder be-
ing broken, and she had to return to Leopoldville for repairs. After
this accident the expedition travelled steadily on; but the ‘ Peace’
proved to be very slow, and was unable to keep up with the other
steamers. A short distance below Bolobo another accident befell
the expedition. The ‘ Stanley’ struck a reef, and one of her sections
was completely wrecked. Fortunately she could be restored to use
by patching plates underneath. In order to make up for the time
lost, Major Barttelot marched overland from Wamboko River to
Kwamouth, and his party was afterward brought up to Bolobo by
the ‘Stanley.’ Meanwhile the engineer of the ‘ Peace’ had resolved
to screw down the upper safety-valve, and by this expedient en-
abled the ‘ Peace’ to proceed at the same rate as the other steamers.
The journey from Bolobo to the rapids of the Aruvimi was effected
without any further delays or incidents. On June 18 this place was
reached, and Stanley proceeded at once to build an intrenched
camp, in which Major Barttelot is to remain. While Stanley’s
steamers ascended the Aruvimi, Tippo-Tip was conveyed on the
*Henry Reed’ to Stanley Falls station, of which he is the chief.
He was accompanied by 96 Zanzibari, and Major Barttelot, who
had 40 Sudanese soldiers with him, commanded the steamer. It
seems that Stanley was going to leave the Arabian trader at Stan-
ley Falls, and proceed to the Mvutan Nsige alone. Barttelot was
to return the day after his arrival at Stanley Falls, and to rejoin
Stanley at Aruvimi Falls. The natives of Yambuya would not
allow the expedition to land, but, on hearing the steam-whistles,
fled into the woods. The next day a few returned, and were sent
off with presents. Stanley hoped to gain their confidence within a
short time. On June 20 the ‘Stanley’ left the Yambuya Falls, and
arrived at Leopoldville on July 2. These are the latest letters from
Stanley so far; but the cable informs us that he found the river
navigable above the Yambuya Falls, and that he was able to pro-
ceed in boats. Probably the ‘Henry Reed’ brought this news to
Leopoldville. It may be that the river proves to be navigable for
a long distance, and in this case Stanley's march to the Mvutan
Nsige will be greatly facilitated.

THE TRANSCONTINENTAL RAILROADS.

THE transcontinental railroads cross great plains, high moun-
tains, lofty plateaus, and broad basins, and follow the courses of
long rivers. Nowhere do we find objects of greater interest to the
traveller, geographer, geologist, or the student of natural history,
than along these lines of travel. The rivers that rise on the eastern
slope of the Rocky Mountains pursue an uninterrupted and peace-
ful course from the foot-hills, across the great plains, to the valley
of the Mississippi. The rivers that rise on the western slope en-

1 The unfinished portions of the roads are included in the accompanying map.

counter range after range of mountains, some higher than the
Rockies, and find their way to the ocean over high falls, through
deep cafions, or by forcing a way through mountain ranges. Here
is the longest persistent range of mountains in the world, — broad
plateaus elevated from 8,000 to 10,000 feet above the level of the
sea. Here are deep basins, with mountains so closely surrounding
them that the streams, unable to find a way to the ocean, sink into
the desert. Here is the valley of the Colorado, running through
cafions 3,000 to 4,000 feet high, over 200 miles long, and so deep
that in some places the sunlight never reaches the bottom. The
rain, instead of fertilizing the ground, washes from the rocks
every particle of soil, and leaves the country a desolate wilderness,
devoid of vegetable or animal life. Here are high snow-moun-
tains, and at their base deep valleys, sunk below the level of the
ocean. There are mountains, more beautiful than Mont Blanc or
the Matterhorn, rising directly from base to summit, 14,000 feet in
height, with glaciers exceeding in extent and beauty any in Europe.
From the far north to the extreme south are mines of gold, silver,
and copper, and vast deposits of coal, lead, and iron-ore. Here the
student of natural history finds fossils in endless variety and num-
ber, from the toothed bird to the miniature horse. As a com-
pensation for the want of trees on the mountains, the largest and
finest forest-trees in the world are found at their base, on the
Pacific coast. The millions of buffaloes which formerly roamed
over the plains are all gone, but their places are supplied by count-
less herds of cattle and flocks of sheep. Such a land is worth
visiting ; and the description of the country through which the rail-
roads run, and of the roads themselves, must be of interest.

The traveller from the Atlantic to the Pacific by either of the
transcontinental railroads enters the great plains, soon after crossing
the 95th degree of longitude, near Winnipeg on the north, Omaha
and Kansas City in the middle latitudes, or San Antonio at the south.
Then commences the ascent, steadily continued until the top of the
Rocky Mountains is reached. The land rises, at first slowly, then
on steeper grades, and yet so gradually that the passenger on the
Union Pacific reaches an elevation of one mile before he has seen
the mountains or realizes that he has attained any considerable ele-
vation. From the foot-hills, over the mountains to the Pacific
Ocean, each road follows a route having its own features, so strik-
ing and distinct that no general description is of any value. “The
chief objects of interest are the great plains, the rocky mountains,
the deep basins, the ranges of mountains west of the Rockies, and
the plateau of the Colorado River ; while the railroads — the work
of man —vie in interest with the natural wonders.

The Great Plains.

Looking from Denver towards the west, or, better yet, from al-
most any part of the great plains in Colorado within 50 miles of the
Rocky Mountains, are seen the foot-hills, then the mountains, rising
higher and higher until lost in the distant snow-caps. Looking
towards the east are the green and grassy plains falling in gentle
undulations, north, south, and east, as far as the eye can reach, and
for hundreds of miles beyond. These are the great plains of
America, bounded by the Rocky Mountains on the west, the
Arctic Ocean on the north, the Gulf of Mexico on the south,
the Missouri and Mississippi rivers on the east. The great plains
reach their culminating point between Denver and Colorado Springs,
—at the divide between the waters of the North Platte and Arkan-
sas rivers. From this elevation of 7,000 feet they slope north-
easterly into Wyoming and Canada, towards the Arctic Ocean,
easterly to the Missouri River, and southerly into New Mexico. The
land, only fairly watered on the east, becomes arid towards the
foot-hills of the Rockies, and, though rich and fertile, cannot be
cultivated without irrigation. The rivers grow larger towards their
sources, as the rainfall on the plains is insufficient to supply the

134

loss by evaporation and irrigation; but there is no portion of these
plains that deserves the name of desert, or that is comparable in
degree of sterility with the catoned country west of the moun-
tains. It is only a few years since it was called the ‘Desert of
America,’ and it was then believed that the great plains were unfit
for cultivation or habitation. Then they began to be used for
pasturage of cattle. Now, by a judicious system of irrigation, larger
crops of wheat and grain are grown than in the great prairie States,
while the detritus from the irrigating water more than compensates
for the exhaustion of the soil by the crops.

The Rocky Mountains.

These mountains rise in Alaska, on the Arctic Ocean, far to the
north of Sitka, and attain their highest elevation — 20,000 feet — in
Mount St. Elias. They run through British Columbia, Idaho, Mon-
tana, Wyoming, and Colorado. They appear as high, level plateaus
and spurs in New Mexico and Arizona, joining the Coast Range,
to appear again as the Rocky Mountains or Cordilleras in Mexico,
where they attain the height of 19,000 feet in Popocatapetl, passing
thence through the: isthmus of Central America into South Ameri-
ca, where they form the back-bone of that continent, terminating
near the Antarctic Ocean at Cape Horn. Mount Brown and Mount
Hooker, in British Columbia, rival Monte Rosa in height. The
highest mass of these mountains is in Colorado, where there are
nearly one hundred peaks 14,000 feet in height, none of which are
500 feet above or below that height. It is impossible to give definite
boundaries to the Rocky Mountains, as they enclose many ranges
and systems. Major Powell of the Geological Survey classes the
Rocky Mountains into the Park, the Geyser, and the Basin systems.
In the mountains and plateaus of these systems bare rocks are
seen to an extent rarely found on the globe, and the region is large-
ly destitute of soil and timber. In striking contrast to this destitu-
tion are the parks in Wyoming, Colorado, and New Mexico. The
largest of these are the North, Middle, and South parks of Colo-
rado, — elevated plains containing from 800 to 1,000 square miles,
9,000 to 10,000 feet above the sea-level, surrounded by high moun-
tains, with a fertile soil, furnishing fine pastures for cattle in sum-
mer, but with the warm season so short that wheat and grain do not
ripen. In these mountains rise the great rivers of the world, — the
Missouri, Mississippi, the Columbia, and Colorado, in North Amer-
ica; and the Amazon and La Plata in South America.

The Geyser system is in Wyoming. The mountains are not so
high as in the other systems, but in their recesses lies the Yellow-
stone Park. Before the geysers of this park “all others in the
world, even the celebrated ones of Iceland, sink into insignificance.
This park seems tc have been set aside by the Great Maker for the
exhibition of the action of volcanic forces.”

The Great Basin. ~

The Great Basin, so called because it has no drainage into the
ocean, extends from the summit of the Rocky Mountains and the
plains of the Colorado River west over one thousand miles, far into
California, and from Oregon in the north over fifteen hundred
miles south into Lower California, south of Los Angeles and San
Diego. It includes the middle and western parts of Colorado, the
whole of Utah and Nevada, and parts of Oregon and California.
Numerous short ranges run invariably north and south, with deep
valleys between them. The greatest of the basins is that of Salt
Lake, five hundred miles long and six hundred miles wide, between
the Rocky and Sierra Nevada mountains. Here rain rarely falls, and
the rivers which rise in the mountains surrounding it on every side are
soon dried up, or, like the Carson and Humboldt, after running from
100 to 300 miles, sink into the desert and disappear. Large lakes
are formed in the deeper valleys, but the water in them is salt. For
hundreds of miles the traveller sees only alkali plains, breathes
alkali dust, and drinks alkali water. Far to the south-west is Death
Valley, over 150 feet below the level of the ocean, so called from
the number of emigrants who lost their lives from hunger and
thirst in sight of the snow mountains and close to the promised
land. But, as if to compensate for the desert of death, on the op-
posite side of the Sierras are the Yosemite and the big trees of
Calaveras. The mountain ranges west of the Rocky Mountains
are popularly called the Cascade, Sierras, and Coast Range.

SCIENCE:

[Vor xe Nos 2am

The Cascade Mountains.

The Cascade Mountains rise in the upper part of British Colum-
bia, follow the coast-line through British Columbia’ and Washing-
ton Territory, passing thence through Oregon, and die out in
northern California, to be succeeded by the Coast Range. The
snow-line is reached at a lower elevation than in Switzerland, and,
unlike the Alps, the great mountains rise directly from the sea
14,000, 15,000, and even 20,000 feet in height. From the sides of
Mount St. Elias in Alaska —the highest mountain in America — vast
glaciers run into the ocean, exceeding in grandeur and extent any
found in Switzerland. Mount Baker and Mount Tacoma in Washing-
ton Territory, and Mount Hood in Oregon, radiant with eternal snow,
are more beautiful than Mont Blanc or the Matterhorn ; the glaciers
on Mount Tacoma equal those of these mountains, while, to add to
the sublimity of the scene, smoke is frequently seen rising from the
craters of Mount St. Eliasand Mount Adams. There is probably no:
other country where, on the same parallel of latitude, and at the
same elevation, there are such great differences in climate, soil, and
vegetation as on the east and west sides of the Cascade Mountains.
On the east are barren hills and plains, devoid of all vegetation
save the sage-brush and bunch-grass; the climate is hot in summer,
cold in winter, and dry as that of the Desert of Sahara. On the
west side of the range, and not fifty miles away, the country is
thickly studded with the finest of forest-trees, abounding in vegeta-
ble life, with a continuous rainfall, the climate mild in winter
and temperate in summer. On the foot-hills and in the western
valleys the deep green of the Douglas fir, extending for hundreds.
of miles, contrasts with the pure white of the snow. The only
drawback is the thick clouds of smoke from burning forests, which
usually darken the sun and hide the mountains from view for two
or three months in the summer.

Sierra Nevada.

The Sierra Nevada Range might be called a continuation of the
Cascade Mountains ; but those are of volcanic origin, and the Sierra
Nevadas are granite, though traces of volcanic action are often
found on the flanks and base. It commences at Mount Shasta, 14,-
400 feet high, and runs in a southerly direction to Tejon Pass, where
it joins the Coast Range not far from Mount Whitney, the highest
mountain in the United States south of Alaska. There are but
few passes over these mountains, and the Pacific slope is very
steep, the Central Pacific road descending 6,300 feet in 80 miles.

Coast Range.

This is a long range of sand-stone mountains. Rising in Oregon,
south of the Columbia River, it follows the coast through Oregon
and California into Mexico, where it unites with the Rocky Moun-
tain Range proper. It is lower than the other ranges, attaining an
elevation of 3,000 to 5,000 feet. At the foot of this range, far to the
east, is the Willamette River in Oregon, the Sacramento and San
Joaquin rivers in California, with long narrow valleys unsurpassed
in richness. On the western slope the rainfall is abundant, and the
valley and foot-hills are covered with a luxuriant growth of vegeta-
tion, — the redwood, Douglas fir, and other members of the Seguoze
family, more useful than the big trees, and in large groups scarcely
less imposing.

The Coast and Cascade ranges run parallel with the coast ; and
the Fraser, Columbia, and other large rivers, which rise in the
Rocky Mountains, find a way through these ranges to the Pacific
Ocean. The Fraser River forces its way through a deep cafion,
200 miles long, and makes a route for the Canadian Pacific ; the
Columbia River breaks through the Cascade Mountains at the
Dalles, about three hundred miles south of the Fraser, and makes
a way for the Northern Pacific and Oregon Short Line.

Canadian Pacific Railroad.

From Montreal this road follows the rich and fertile valley of
the Ottawa 350 miles, then through a wilderness of lakes, rocks, and
streams to Lake Superior, around its northern shore, past lakes and
woods and over marshes, to the 94th degree of longitude, about
100 miles east of Winnipeg. A more God-forsaken country I have
rarely seen, — the land too rocky, thickly wooded, and wet for culti-
vation, the trees too low and stunted for timber. Mines are supposed

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to exist, but are not yet worked to any considerable extent. This
was the most expensive section of the road, the outlay being some
$12,000,000 for 200 miles, and a single mile of the heavy cuttings
and tunnels cost as much as $750,000, The company expended
$2,100,000 for explosives, most of which were used on this section.
From the 95th degree of longitude, through Winnipeg to Calgary
at the foot of the Rockies, it runs across the great plains nearly one
thousand miles. The plains are generally rich, and, when irrigated,
yield good crops ; the rainfall, light at Winnipeg, decreases towards
the mountains. The country north of the railroad, on the north
branch of the Saskatchewan, is richer, has a greater rainfall, and
bears heavier crops. It was on the line of this branch that the first
surveys were made, and, under Mount Hooker, the highest of the
Rocky Mountains, a pass was found only 3,760 feet high, and a route
little longer than the one finally adopted; but beyond this pass the
country was so rough and the mountain ridges so numerous that
another route was found after the expenditure of over $3,000,000
in the survey of twelve thousand miles of different routes. The
ascent from Winnipeg, 700 feet high, is gradual to Calgary, 2,900
feet above the sea-level, thence to the summit at Stephen, 5,296
feet, 150 miles from Calgary. Thence the route descends to the
crossing of the Columbia River, where, instead of following the
great bend, some 200 or 300 miles, it climbs the Selkirk Moun-
tains to the Glacier Hotel, 4,300 feet high. The glaciers come
down the mountains close to the hotel, and are easily reached by a
short walk. Here are most beautiful views of glaciers, woods, and
mountain peaks, affording varied and delightful excursions to the
tourist. Between the first and second crossing of the Columbia
River, 80 miles, the road ascends 1,788 feet, and descends 2,761
feet. The Gold Range is then crossed at a low grade, when the
road strikes the Fraser River, about 100 miles west of the Colum-
bia, and follows its course through the Cascade Mountains, in
deep canons for a long time considered impassable. After leaving
the river, the road runs across the low lands to Vancouver on the
sound. This is the shortest line from the 95th degree of longitude to
the Pacific Ocean, with the lowest grade and the greatest length on
the plains. It is claimed to be the only line that runs from ocean to
ocean, and is connected with Japan and China by its line of steamers.
The Canadian Pacific Railroad Company received from the Domin-
ion Government grants of money and land far exceeding those paid
to any of our railroads, and has recently obtained a subsidy for
carrying the mails across the continent.

The Northern Pacific Railroad.

The Northern Pacific Railroad starts from St. Paul on the Missis-
sippi and from Duluth on Lake Superior, 600 feet above tide-
water. It runs nearly due west from Duluth, 1,000 miles to Living-
stone at the foot of the Rocky Mountains. Thecountry, after leav-
ing Lake Superior, is rough, rocky, and is of little value except for
timber, for 150 miles. There the great plains begin, and the land
is fertile, producing abundant crops if well watered, for about 600
miles, when the Bad Lands are reached, about 200 miles west of
the Missouri River.

The other transcontinental railroads, in crossing the plains, have
a regular ascent, following the valleys of rivers, but the Northern
Pacific crosses the Mississippi, Red, James, Missouri, and Little
Missouri rivers, and the divides between these rivers, at right
angles. While thereis a general up-grade, the ascent is not as regu-
lar as on the other lines. West of the Little Missouri the up-grade
continues over the Bad Lands to the valley of the Yellowstone ; the
road follows that valley for 330 miles, to Livingstone at the foot of
the Rockies. The line passes within a few miles of the Big Horn, and
there, where eleven years ago General Custer with his entire command
was massacred by the Indians, now the peaceful settlers herd their
cattle, and cultivate the fields of wheat and grain. At Livingstone
the Yellowstone turns south, opening a way into the mountains.
A branch of the road runs to the Yellowstone Park, about 50
miles distant, and the traveller is well repaid for the whole
journey if he can spend a: week in the park. The main line, on
leaving Livingstone, crosses the first range of the Rocky Moun-
tains at Bozeman summit, 5,570 feet in height. The road then
descends to the valley of the Missouri, and follows down the river,
50 miles, towards Helena, and passes through that mining centre,

SCIENCE

135

brilliantly lighted with electric lights, to Mullen Pass, where it
crosses the great divide at a height of 5,547 feet, 1,200 miles west
of St. Paul, thence, with a general descent, following the waters of
Clarke’s Forks through Montana and Idaho. Montana, the water-
shed between the two oceans, has an elevation of about 4,000 feet
above the sea-level. The winters are very cold, the summers hot
and dry; only scanty crops can be raised, for there is little rain and
few irrigating streams. The cattle range over the plains and moun-
tains in summer, and, if properly fed and protected for two or three
months, will stand the long cold winters. When storms come, the
cattle, unless protected, drift before the wind for many miles until
they find shelter, and when the storm abates slowly return to their
grazing grounds. The general elevation of Idaho is lower than that
of Montana, and its great lakes soften the temperature, while the
warm winds from the Pacific Ocean temper the winter climate.
There is more rainfall and better soil; wheat and grain grow in
greater abundance. In both of these territories there are great
stores of precious metals, the yearly product of Montana being
about $25,000,000. The road runs around the beautiful Lake Coeur
d'Alene, then for many miles down the Spokane River, with its beau-
tiful falls, to Pasco on the Columbia River. Here the road branches,
one line following the Yakima River, crossing the Cascade Moun-
tains at a height of about 4,000 feet, thence to Seattle and Tacoma
on Puget Sound. The other branch follows the Columbia River,
which forces its way through the Cascade Mountains, at the Dalles
and Cascades, to tide-water at Portland, about 100 miles from As-
toria at the mouth of the river. The route over the Cascade
Mountains, reaching the fine harbors of the sound, will eventually
be the main route. The Northern Pacific is comparatively free
from the great alkali deserts found on the more southerly roads,
and is therefore more comfortable for the traveller. Few more
beautiful trips can be found than over this road by the Yellowstone
Park to Tacoma, and thence by the Oregon and California road to
San Francisco, and home by the Yosemite and the Atchison,
Topeka & Santa Fé Railroad.

Union and Central Pacific Railroads.

The Union Pacific Railroad, with its Kansas branches, the
Chicago, Burlington & Quincy, and the Atchison, Topeka &
Santa Fé, cross the great plains from the Missouri River to the
foot-hills of the Rocky Mountains, over a country very similar to
that crossed by the Canadian Pacific, but with steeper grades. The
Union Pacific begins at Omaha, runs thence 500 miles to Cheyenne
on an up-grade averaging ten feet to the mile, increasing in steep-
ness as it approaches the foot-hills; then it rises more rapidly,
reaching the summit at Sherman, 8,240 feet above the sea-level, 550
miles from Omaha. From thence to the top of the Wasatch
Range it runs on an elevated plateau, nowhere less than one mile
and a quarter above the sea-level; it then descends rapidly 3,800
feet to Salt Lake, follows the Humboldt Mountain, and crosses the
Humboldt Valley, over 300 miles, until the river sinks into the
desert, then rising rapidly to the summit of the Sierra Nevadas,
7,000 feet, passing by Tahoe, the most beautiful of lakes, then down
a grade, which when it was built was the longest and most rapid
descent in the world, to tide-water near Sacramento. On turning
round a promontory called Cape Horn, near the top of the Sierras,
the traveller looks down a perpendicular descent of 2,000 feet
into the valley of the American River, — one of the most beautiful
views in the mountains.

The Union and Central roads were the first transcontinental
railroads built. The construction was carried on during the civil
war, and was finished only four years after its close. The grades
are much heavier than those of either of the other roads, and it
runs for a longer distance through the mountains. The grades are
so unfavorable, compared with other lines, that the Union Pacific has
sought another outlet by the way of the Oregon Short Line to the
Pacific, and the Central Pacific has found an easier route to the At-
lantic by its Southern Pacific Railroad. The Oregon Short Line, a
road built and leased by the Union Pacific, leaves the main road at
Granger, 875 miles from Ogden, crosses the Rocky Mountains at
an elevation of 6,279 feet, to the Snake River at American Falls,
I,100 miles from Ogden, and follows the valley of this river to the
Columbia, at Walla Walla junction. The valley of the Snake River

136

is fertile. It produces fine crops with little, and in many places
without any, irrigation, not on account of a greater rainfall, but
from the different character of the soil. The grandest scenery in
the mountains is found on the Denver & Rio Grande Western
Railroad. This road starts from Ogden, the junction of the Union
Central Pacific Railroad, traversing the valley of Salt Lake and
its River Jordan, crossing the many ranges of the Rockies by
passes over two miles above the sea-level, through deep canons
so steep and narrow that in the Royal George Canon the road
is carried along the river on a bridge, no way being found for the
road on the mountain side. At the eastern terminus the Denver
and Rio Grande road connects with the Atchison and Topeka
at Pueblo, and with the Union Pacific at Denver.

Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe.

Kansas City has heretofore been the starting-point of this line,
but it is now being rapidly extended east to Chicago, and will
soon run a through train from Chicago to the Pacific Ocean.
From the eastern boundary of Kansas it follows the line of the
Arkansas River 600 miles west to La Junta, 4,000 feet above the
level of the sea. Here it turns and runs to the south-west, 330 miles,
to Albuquerque, thence turns and runs due west to the Pacific
Ocean. It crosses two ranges of the Rocky Mountains, the first at
Rincon, on the boundary line between Colorado and: New Mexico,
the highest pass on the road, 7,600 feet; the second at the con-
tinental divide, 1,000 miles from Kansas City, 7,200 feet high ; thence
along a high plateau nowhere less than one mile in elevation,
700 miles, following the Little Colorado River; thence it descends
rapidly 125 miles, to the Needles, where it crosses the Colorado
River at the boundary line between Arizona and southern Cali-
fornia, 477 feet above tide-water. Then the Sierra and Coast
ranges are crossed, at a height of about 3,000 feet, and tide-water
is reached at Los Angeles, San Diego, and San Francisco. Near
Albuquerque, 900 miles west of Kansas City, is a branch of the
road to Santa Fé, the old city of the plains, famous for its Mexican
remains. Here, too, are the hot springs of Los Vegas, having a
winter climate unequalled for health. The air is dry and bracing,
and more temperate than that of the far-famed Colorado Springs.
Holbrook, 1,100 miles from Kansas City, is sixty miles from the
renowned Pueblos of the Moquis tribe of Indians.

The Plateau Country, so called, through which the Colorado
River and its branches run, is reached either from Peach Springs,
1,400 miles from Kansas City, by a stage-road, only 16 miles, to
the Grand Canon, or from Flagg Staff, 60 miles from Point Sub-
lime. Here is the sublimest scenery on the continent, as yet but
little visited for want of easy means of access. The more it is
known, the greater will be the number of visitors. The Plateau
Country is the land of canons, all of which lead down to one great
trunk-channel cleft through the heart of the Plateau Country, 800
miles long, and with a depth of from 2,000 to 6,000 feet. Of the
many cafions in the plateau, the Grand Cafion is the “ most mag-
nificent as well as the grandest geological section of which we have
any knowledge.” It is 218 miles long, from 4,500 to 6,000 feet
deep, averaging 5,000 feet. Its width from crest-line to crest-line
is from 4+ to 12} miles, the widest portion being always the
grandest. Not far from the Grand Cajon, near Peach Springs, is
Little Zion Valley, a cafion running into the Grand Cajon. “In its
proportions it is almost equal to the Yosemite, but in its nobility and
variety of the sculptured scenery and wonderful variety of colors,
there is no comparison.

Southern Pacific Railroad.

It is hardly possible to realize how recently the territory through
which this road runs came into our possession. California in 1846
was an “ outlying and neglected Mexican province.’”’ New Mexico,
Arizona, and southern Colorado were purchased of Mexico in
1853, under the Gadsden treaty, for $10,000,000, “ because the low
level of the mountains below the Gila was the natural route for
a southern transcontinental railway.” Soon after the purchase,
schemes were formed in the East for constructing a Southern Pacific
road. Fifteen years ago a few hundred miles of road were built
in Texas, and the promoters applied to Congress for a subsidy.
Then the managers of the Central Pacific, who controlled all
the ‘business of the Pacific slope, determined to construct the

SCIENCE:

[VoLt. X. No. 241

Southern Pacific without a subsidy, and thereby retain their mo-
nopoly. The road was commenced in the year 1875,and was com-
pleted in 1881. The eastern termini of this road are at New Or-
leans and Galveston. Like the Canadian Pacific, it crosses the
continent from ocean to ocean. It passes through the rich low-
lands of Louisiana and Texas, reaching the great plains a little
west of San Antonio. Near this city it meets the Rio Grande
River, follows its valley, ascending by a steady grade to El Paso,
1,200 miles from New Orleans; thence through New Mexico and
Arizona on an elevated plateau about 4,000 feet high for 200 miles,
by the foot-hills and over the spurs of the Rocky Mountains, to the
continental divide at Dragoon Summit, 4,614 feet above tide-water ;
thence over the valley of the Gila and its branches to the Colorado.
River, which it crosses at Yuma near the mouth of the Gila, through
a dry and arid desert rich in mines of silver, copper, and lead, —a
country long desolated by the Arapahoes; thence down into the
great desert of California, 260 feet below the level of the sea, and
over a low range or spur of the Sierras to tide-water at Los Angeles
and San Diego (the country near Los Angeles is the garden of
California, where the orange-tree buds, blossoms, and ripens its.
fruit all the year round); then over the main range of the Sierras at
Tehachapi, 4,026 feet high, and down into the valley of the San
Joaquin and Sacramento rivers to San Francisco. The grade of the
road is lower and more favorable than that of either of the other
transcontinental roads. It is a favorite route for passenger travel
in the winter and spring. In the summer the heat is so intense
and the dust so thick as to render it uncomfortable.

The great plains begin at San Antonio, and run about 700 miles.
to the foot of the mountains near El Paso. They are much lower
than in Colorado, Utah, and Wyoming, but are more arid. Oc-
casionally on the plains west of San Antonio there has been no
rainfall for one and even two years. These plains would make the
finest pastures for cattle when there is sufficient rain, as the snows.
are light, the winters warm, and the pastures good the year through.
This road and the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fé are the only
roads without snow-sheds.

The Union and Central roads, when built, relied almost entirely
upon the through business, now mainly upon local business, as the
through business has become of comparatively little importance be-
cause it is divided among five lines. The increase in the number
of roads and the large reduction of rates have stimulated emigra—
tion, and thus the business, both through and local, is steadily and
rapidly increasing. Each road now does as much business as the
Union and Central when they monopolized the whole. The con-
struction of competing roads has resulted in great benefit to the
public, and, when the local business is built up, the revenues and
profits of the several roads must be vefy large.

Other roads are also seeking new, routes across the mountains.
The St. Paul, Minneapolis & Manitoba has constructed several
hundred miles in Dakota, and is constructing its road at the rate of
five miles a day, through Manitoba and up the Missouri River
to Fort Benton. It is also reported that parties in the interest
of this line have commenced the construction of a line from
Seattle, across the Cascade Mountains, down the Yakima River,
to the Moxee Valley, and thence across to the great bend of the
Columbia. The Chicago and Northwestern has already crossed
the great plains in Nebraska and Wyoming, to the foot-hills of the
Rocky Mountains, 1,000 miles west of Chicago, and will ultimately
be forced to seek a route over the Rocky Mountain’, along the
northern fork of the Platte River.

Comparative Statement.

It will be interesting to compare the elevation and length of the
different transcontinental railroads. The greatest average elevation
of the mountain system of North America is in southern Wyoming
and the western part of Colorado. It therefore follows that the
passes over the mountains should be the highest in this section.

The highest railroad passes are : —

Kicking Horse Pass, on Canadian Pacific.....+--.---++----++e--
Bozeman Pass, Montana, on Northern Pacific. .
Sherman Pass, Wyoming, on Union Pacific.. 8,235
Pass on Denver & South Park Railroad, Union Pacific. - «« 11,250
Marshall Pass, Colorado, on Denver and Rio Grande, about..... 12,000
State Line, Colorado, on Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fé........--
Dragoon Summits, on Southern Pacific..... ---+-.+esees--sseeee

5,596 feet.
5.570 **

SEPTEMBER 16, 1887. |

The length of the several roads, the width of the great plains and
mountains, are controlled by the configuration of the continent.
The Rocky Mountains run in a south-easterly direction, while the
trend of the coast is southerly, even a little south-westerly, to San
Francisco, and then south-easterly.to the Isthmus of Panama.
This causes a diminution in the width of the great plains on the
line of the Union and Central Pacific roads, and a corresponding in-
crease in the width of the mountain systems and in the length of
the road. On the Canadian Pacific the great plains are 1,000 miles

‘wide, and the mountains about 500 miles wide. On the Union
Pacific the plains are 500 miles in width, the mountains 1,300 miles.

The distances on the several roads from a common degree of
longitude, say the 97th, to the Pacific Ocean, is shown in the follow-
ing table: —

Canadian Pacific to Vancouver..........2+-+++-+.++-++++1,480 miles.

Northern Pacific to Portland..........-e.ssseeeeee seen 1,620 ‘
Union Pacific and Oregon Short Line to Portland........ 1,724 ~*
Union and Central Pacific to San Francisco..-...--++-+-+ 1,885 ‘‘
Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fé to San Diego......----.-+-+ 1,694 ‘*
Southern Pacific to San Francisco.... 2,024 ‘*
Southern Pacific to San Diego.... ..----- + eee e ee ee cree 1,610 ‘*

All these roads require a harbor at the terminus on the Pacific
coast. North of the lower end of Puget Sound the coast is studded
with islands and excellent harbors. From Puget Sound south
the mountains rise almost directly from the ocean, there are few
islands, and the only harbors are at the mouths of the rivers, and
these are generally barred.

The Canadian Pacific finds a harbor at Vancouver on Puget
Sound; the Northern Pacific was forced to cross the Cascade
Mountains to reach a good harbor at Seattle and Tacoma on the
sound ; the Oregon Short Line has its terminus at Portland, 100
miles from the mouth of the Columbia River, where there is a bar
which cannot be crossed in stormy weather; the Central and
Southern Pacific have good harbors at San Francisco and San
Diego; the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fé at San Diego.

GARDINER G, HUBBARD.

PSYCHOLOGICAL MEDICINE AT THE INTERNATIONAL
MEDICAL CONGRESS.

THE programme of the Section of Psychological Medicine and
Diseases of the Nervous System, at the recent congress, was a
highly promising one. It announced the reading of a variety of in-
teresting papers, and a very large representation of foreign special-
ists amongst the readers. But the programme was widely diverged
from, and, of the forty papers announced, less than half (and not,
perhaps, in every respect the best half) were presented. Hardly
one-quarter of the foreign delegates who were announced to pre-
sent memoirs were present to doso. While thus the expectations
aroused by the inviting programme were naturally destined to dis-
appointment, the proceedings of the section are by no means to be
considered unsuccessful. Like the other sections, it suffered con-
siderably by the absence of the leading specialists of the United
States. Had the acknowledged leaders of American neurology
been announced to be present and to actively participate in the
proceedings, not only would all the-distinguished foreigners who
announced their coming have had greater inducements to come,
but the meting would have recorded the high-water mark of neu-
rological science. Judging the proceedings by the same standard
that is to be applied to the entire congress, much can be said in its
favor, and some interesting observations and suggestions can be
culled from its deliberations. The address of the president of the
section, Dr. J. B. Andrews, gave a very useful summary of the dis-
tribution and care of the insane in this country. Throughout the
country there is one insane person to 545 individuals ; but this ratio
does not hold for all the various elements. The leaders of our
civilization, and, above all, the foreign element, who have the diffi-
cult problem of adapting themselves to a violent change in their
life-habits amid the pressure of a sharp competition, are the victims
of mental break-down. One in every 250 of the foreign population
is insane, one in 618 of the native whites, and only one in 1,097 of
the colored population. But even in the last mentioned their eman-
cipation and free admittance to civilization have more than doubled
their former percentage of insanity. This fact —that insanity is a

SCIENCE

137

disease of civilization —is also shown by the fact that the preva-
lence declines as we move towards the west and away from the
cities. Insanity, moreover, is on the increase, and in this country
at the startling rate of nine per cent per annum. Dr. Andrews also
described the great improvement in the rational care of the insane
(and this, in part, accounts for the increased longevity, and thus the
increased number, of this class), and added, that, if.this country
had little new to show, it at least manifested its ability to keep
abreast with the progress of other countries.

Dr. D. Hack Tuke of London sent a paper in which he
compared the insane of this country with those of England. The
difference in the nature of the asylums of the two countries makes
an accurate comparison impossible, but such comparison yields
much more similarity than difference. Dr. Tuke favored the
‘segregation’ plan, in which one patient, or at most a few, are
under care in the same homestead, and welcomed the now general
agreement that mechanical restraint was to be used only in excep-
tional cases, but that in such cases it is to be unhesitatingly em-
ployed.

Dr. H. M. Hurd of Michigan presented a valuable sketch of the
development of religious insanity, tracing the relation between the
nature of the morbid delusion and its physical excitant, and again
with the age, sex, mental development, etc., of the individual. The
healthiness of the religious sentiment lies in a just development of
the emotional with the intellectual faculties.

Dr. Langdon Down of London described several interesting cases
in which mental deficiency was associated with a prow-shaped
cranium. The cause of this, Dr. Down referred to an abnormal
juncture of the medio-frontal suture. The break-down in such
cases may occur at any important change, —at first or second
dentition, at puberty, or even later, — and the deficiency may vary
from mere stammering and sluggishness of thought to marked
idiocy. The education of children with this cranial mark should be
a most special and careful one.

Dr. Horace Wardner of Illinois showed most conclusively the
admirable effect of occupation in insanity. In a well-managed
asylum eighty percent of the inmates can be usefully employed,
and this employment made an essential factor in their cure: it
diverts their mind from brooding over themselves and their imagi-
nary ills, prevents e77zz, and establishes a healthy rhythm. Dr.
Wardner cited several cases in which the occupation learned in the
asylum became a means of livelihood after dismissal from the asy-
lum. Such patients, while not cured, were yet able to begin life
anew on a lower and simpler plane: they had not regained full
mental power, but occupation had rescued them from chronic in-
sanity to a condition of social usefulness.

Dr. G. Fielding Blandford of London presented before the entire
congress a paper on the treatment of recent ‘cases of insanity in
asylums and in private houses, originally intended for this section.
He showed how frequently a violent outbreak of mania passes
away quite suddenly, and leaves the patient in full health. In all
such cases the stigma, rightly or wrongly, attached to having been
in an asylum can and should be avoided. The physician should
have the right to keep patients of this general class outside of an
asylum long enough to judge whether such a course is necessary or
advisable. Dr. Blandford then gave criteria for distinguishing be-
tween cases which could be best cured in a private house and those
who needed the ‘ judicious neglect’ of a public asylum. Reform
in the treatment of the insane will certainly take place in the direc-
tion indicated by Dr. Blandford.

Dr. T. W. Fisher of Boston spoke on the modern equivalents of
‘monomania.’ He found these in the current terms ‘ paranoia’
(which corresponds closely to ‘crankiness’), the German ‘ primare
verriicktheit,’ and the like: he argued for the separate recognition
of this form of mental alienation, and gave certain marks by which
to distinguish it.

Professor Mendel of Berlin, in a paper on moral insanity, advo-
cated a disuse of the term on the ground that it was either a form
of congenital imbecility or an accompaniment of paranoia resulting
from a systematic delusion, and that it was a dangerous plea to
bring before the courts.

Several anatomical papers were presented. Amongst these, one
by Professor Mendel, on the origin of the ocular branch of the

138

facial nerve, was especially important. Dr. Mendel experimented
by destroying the muscles supplied by these nerve-branches (mainly
the muscle raising the upper eyelid) in young animals, and then ob-
served the atrophy of nerve fibre and cell in the central nervous
system. He found that the origin of this nerve-branch was not,
as is currently supposed, in the general nucleus of the facial nerve,
but in the posterior part of the nucleus of the oculo-motor nerve.
This is another evidence to the fact that the nerve-centres are
arranged for co-ordination of function (not for topographical con-
venience), those nerves arising from a common centre as must fre-
quently act together in exciting a useful movement.

Dr. Spitzka of New York showed the cerebellum of a child of five
years, who had never learned to speak or walk. The cerebellum
was enormously asymmetric, and the entire brain and much of the
body presented striking abnormalities.

Dr. Homen of Finland described a distinction between the motor
and sensory areas of the spinal nerves as brought about by atrophy
resulting from amputations. Dr. Otto of Munich advocated the use
of magenta as a staining for sections of the nervous system.

Quite a number of papers of much too general a character were
presented. Such papers, however valuable in themselves, are too
much the record of individual opinions to be profitably presented at
an international meeting. Such questions as the ‘definition of in-
sanity,’ ‘ the classification of insanity,’ and the like, are sure to be
profitless; at least, until we know much more of the pathological
nature of mental aberration than we do now. A very opposite criti-
cism is to be passed upon the discussion on the relation of syphilis
to insanity, which aroused much interest, and was practically and
profitably conducted. The leader in the discussion was Dr. G, H.
Savage of Bethlem, England.

MENTAL SCIENCE.
The Chronological Progress of Infants.

THE scientific observation of the early stages of development of
the human infant, though no longer a novelty, can be said to have
yielded only the first suggestions of the valuable generalizations
which this study is destined in part to discover and in part to cor-
roborate. Amongst these generalizations the most important is that
psychological law which finds its analogue in the embryological law
that the early life-stages of a species high in the animal scale re-
peat in part the mature stages of an animal lower in the scale, and
announces that the mental development of the child repeats in part
the development of the race. The many and suggestive analogies
between the emotional traits and thought-habits of children and
of savages have been frequently recorded, and their importance is
more and more widely appreciated. Nor has the practical aspect
of infant psychology been neglected. Once educators have recog-
nized that this study promises a surer basis for early school-room
work than any amount of simplification of exercises originally ar-
ranged for more mature minds, it makes the teacher learn from as
well as teach the pupil. One educational body has asked for sys-
tematic records of child-growth, bodily and mental, and a few nor-
mal schools are substituting for the dry and often narrow course in
“Methods of Teaching,’ a practical and original essay recording ob-
servations of various traits of child-life. One main purpose in all
such records has been to get an average of the date and order of
appearance of the several acts, instincts, emotions, ideas, and so on,
in the child. In the process of obtaining such an average, much in-
formation will at the same time be gained as to the range of varia-
tion in time of appearance of the several traits, of the influence of sex,
of heredity, of nationality, and of environment upon them. When
such a record will be at our command, the rate of progress of any
particular child, whether precocious or backward, will be easily
ascertainable, and much energy be saved in propping up what needs
support, in checking over-development of certain traits, and thus pro-
moting that harmonious all-sided growth which modern education
regards as its ideal. The caution in the process should be in the
direction of remembering the individual variation as wellas the aver-
age, — that by nature men are far from being alike, and civilization
requires them to be so only in a very:restricted though important
field of activity.

Dr. Stanford E, Chaillé of the Tulane University has recently

SCIENCE:

[VoOL. Xe Nomen

put together, in a form very convenient for others to supplement
and perfect, the various stages of infant progress. He gives in a
series of brief paragraphs the chief acquisitions which the average
infant may be expected to exhibit for each month of the first year of
life, and at intervals of several months from then to the third year.
The acts whose appearance he notices include the physical signs as
well as the actions on which mental growth is founded. As the
article of Dr. Chaillé is itself a réseamé, it will hardly be profitable to
further epitomize the facts there given. Referring to the original
paper for the facts (Wew Orleans Medical and Surgical Journal,
June, 1887), it will be sufficient to state that they record the vari-
ous reflexes (sucking, crying, sneezing, etc.) existing from birth, the
order of the development of the senses (taste first) and the gradual
change in their relative educational importance, the accommodation
to the environment, the interpretation of the objective world (as the
inference of distance by sight), the emotional evolution (fear being
the first emotion), the expressions of pleasure and pain, the co-ordi-
nation of the muscle-movement into acts, the gradual voluntary con-
trol of hands and feet, the first sounds and attempts at language,
the appreciation of colors, sounds, odors, and so on. The general
conviction which this study has left upon Dr. Chaillé’s mind is not
in harmony with the popular belief that children are to a larger ex-
tent than adults virtuous and guileless, but agrees with the evolu-
tionary notion that the virtues which civilization has taught us to
admire are of recent growth, and not innate in the infant, whom it
is more truthful to regard as a ‘darling little savage,’ than as a
“dear little angel.’

A point on which this paper is especially complete is the increase
of weight, height, and chest-girth with each month of the first
year of life, and at longer intervals from then to maturity. During
the first three days of life there isa loss of weight, which should
be regained by the seventh day. The greatest gain of ‘weight oc-
curs during the first five months, the maximum amount of growth
falling probably in the second month, when the increase is from
four to seven ounces weekly. From then on, the regular increase
of growth which the table records takes place, leaving more room
for individual variation with increase of age.

THE EFFECT OF OPIUM ON THE HIGHER ANIMALS. —It has
recently been observed that opium affects apes just as it does men,
producing all of the physical symptoms, and strongly suggesting
the presence of some, at least, of the typical psychical accompani-
ments. A certain ape would always follow any opium-smoker,
would look for the remnants which the smoker left unused, would
cry when not admitted to the room where smoking was going on,
andsoon. The habit takes the same possession of them that it
does of men. Apes who are in the habit of getting a little opium
are inactive, dull, and useless if they miss their usual dose; and a
Chinese merchant is recorded as having a large ape who howls
piteously when his usual ration of the drug is denied him. Similar
effects have been observed in dogs, and strikingly illustrate the
functional similarity of the central nervous system of the higher
mammalia.

A CHALLENGE TO THE EVIDENCE FOR THOUGHT PHAN-
TASMS.— An article published in the Vzmeteenth Century for
August, by A. Taylor Innes, and entitled ‘ Where are the Letters ?’
is in substance an attack on the nature ‘of the evidence for death-
bed and other coincidences, which Messrs. Myers, Gurney, and
Podmore have collected in their ‘Phantasms of the Living.’ Most
of these stories are those in which a friend or relative of the person
concerned is suddenly presented with a vivid impression that the
person in question, who is far distant, is threatened with danger;
the case is then made out that the time of death of the individual
coincided with the moment of the apparition to his friend. Ina
large number of cases documentary evidence of the simultaneity
of the two occurrences — as when two letters, each recording one
of the events, cross each other —is naturally obtainable; and the
writer of the above article claims that in such cases the authors
have been satisfied with the mere statement that such evidence
existed without actually seeing the letters, and yet regarding such
evidence as of first-class value. An actual examination shows how
worthless such statements often are. In nine cases in which they
did see the original manuscript the evidence is declared unsatis-

SEPTEMBER 16, 1887. |

factory. On the basis of such omissions, a general distrust is
thrown about the whole work, which only a very careful and ac-
curate refutation by the authors of the work can remove.

BOOK- REVIEWS.

The Origin of Mountain Ranges, considered Experimentally,
Structurally, Dynamically, and in Relation to thetr Geo-
logical History. By T. ME&LLARD READE. London, Taylor
& Francis. 8°.

MOUNTAIN ranges, that show the effects of lateral compression
in their folded structure, are explained by most geologists by means
of Elie de Beaumont’s ‘ contractional hypothesis :’ the interior of
the earth is thought to be contracting as it cools, and the outer
part, or ‘crust,’ wrinkles as it settles down to accommodate itself to
the diminished interior. But in recent years several geologists
have urged that this hypothesis was quantitatively insufficient to ac-
count for the known mountain ranges, and while these criticisms do
not seem to me to be by any means fatal to the effective working of
the contractional process to a considerable extent, they have served
a good purpose in emphasizing the need of further search for meth-
ods of mountain-making.
accounting for plateaus of massive elevation, also points to the im-
portance of further study of the physics of the earth.

The illustrious Playfair, writing early in this century, thought
nothing so capable of causing a slow-acting, irresistible elevatory
force as the expansive power of heat; but he suggested no means
of applying the heat in proper time, place, and quantity. Mr. Mel-
lard Reade, following out an idea advanced by Capt. Thos. Hutton
of New Zealand, and others, attempts to supply this deficiency as
follows : mountain regions were once regions of heavy sedimenta-
tion ; the slow accumulation of sediments caused a depression, and
a consequent warming of the mass beneath them; the warming
mass tends to expand in all directions, but can expand only verti-
cally; and, in this conversion of cubic into linear expansion, Mr.
Reade finds a sufficient cause for the extravasation of lavas, the
elevation of plateaus, and the crushing deformation of mountain
ranges. The last-named process seems to me only remotely con-
nected with this cause, but the other two may find some or much
explanation in it. It is necessary, in order that the process shall
work efficiently, that the depression caused by sedimentation, shall

for a time go on faster than the consequent ascent of the deep
isogeotherms ; if we admit this to be possible, the hypothesis gives
a qualitatively correct explanation of those paradoxical changes of
level seen in the elevation of areas heavily loaded with sediments,
and the depression of lands deeply denuded; it also suggests a
reasonable correlation between the slow, light sedimentation of
such regions as Wisconsin, and their long exemption from serious
disturbance. The process therefore deserves to be discussed rather
than dismissed: working with other processes, it will, I believe,

come to be accepted as a useful aid to a common end.
W. M. D.

The Teaching of Geography. By ARCHIBALD GEIKIE. London,

Macmillan. 12°.

THE book under review is the first volume of Macmillan’s geo-
graphical series, which is edited by Archibald Geikie. It is an in-
troduction on the teaching of geography, in which the author sets
forth his views on the scope and goal of geographical science and
of the methods of teaching it. The book shows in an admirable
way how geography can be made a useful and attractive study, how
in teaching it the mental faculties of the child can be developed and
its power of observation increased.

Of course, the author’s method rests on the views he holds on the
aims and method of geography. He says (p. 2), “It is the special
function of geography to direct our attention to the [phenomena
surrounding us], to increase our knowledge of the country we live
in, and thence to trace analogies and contrasts among the aspects
of nature in other regions of the globe. Geography compares the
topography of one continent with that of another, dwelling upon the
fundamental elements of each, and showing how they have affected
the distribution and development of the human population... .
In gathering the materials for this comprehensive picture of the

The want of any sufficient means of |

SCIENCE, 139

earth as the dwelling-place of man, geography culls freely from
almost every branch of natural science and from history.”

From this standpoint the subject is admirably treated. Geikie
shows how every single fact and every single observation can be
made use of from a geographical standpoint, —the state of the
weather, the furniture of the school-room, the silk kerchief of a
child, or the coal used for fuel. He makes the study of the sur-
roundings the starting-point for teaching phenomena of natural his-
tory, of meteorology, history, and of social science. But it seems
to us that if the curriculum of a school should be planned out ac-
cording to Geikie’s suggestions, the geographical point of view
would become too predominant. His recommendation that actual
observations should always be the foundation of teaching is of emi-
nent importance, but observations must not be exclusively treated
from a geographical standpoint.

Two ends are to be kept in view in teaching: the development of
the power of reasoning’ and of observation, and that of the heart
and feelings. In the elementary stage both goals are attained by
inducing the child to look at the things themselves, and to take a
lively interest in them, and by training it to notice differences in
things. By this method the child gains an active interest in the
subject which it is taught, and a foundation is laid for future ex-
planations and classifications. So far, Geikie’s proposals cannot be
excelled. But later on, the character of the natural sciences and
physics makes it necessary that they deal to a great extent with
generalizations and abstractions which only educate the powers of
reasoning. Geography acts as an important counterbalance against
this tendency, and we should wish that this fact had been more en-
ergetically emphasized by the author. He recognizes this fact, and
mentions it in several passages of the book, e.g., “ The objects of
excursions are to train the pupils in habits of observation and re-
flection, to teach them the elements of topography, to enlarge their
capacity for the comprehension of geography, and generally to
stimulate their love of nature” (p. 73). But it is our opinion that
this last point ought to be made the principal goal of geography-
teaching in all grades. While the teacher of natural science chiefly
develops the power of reasoning, the geographer must always try to
keep alive the actual interest in the individual phenomenon as it
presents itself to the eye, and in the mutual interdependence of its
parts. Therefore geography must be placed in the curriculum of
the school in one class with history and literature, and in advanced
teaching it ought to be treated accordingly.

If Geikie’s proposals for elementary teaching were accepted by
teachers, —not of geography alone, — and if the historical stand-
point were to be taught in the same enlightened way, a great step
forward would be made.

We agree more fully with the author's views on the teaching of
physical geography than with his treatment of political geography.
Many subjects upon which he touches, which belong to linguistics
and social science, seem to be too difficult to be grasped by a child,
and others can be more adequately dealt with from an historical
point of view than from a geographical one. The cultivation of
land, its products, the situation of villages and roads, and similar
subjects, may be treated with advantage, while money, telegraph,
and post, etc., are more satisfactorily dealt with from an historical
standpoint. Particular care ought to be taken in treating anthropo-
geographical subjects, for most of these phenomena are so compli-
cated that the juvenile mind is unable to grasp them. Science itself
has not treated these subjects in a satisfactory way, and most of
its theories are vague and not well founded. We should hesitate,
for instance, to lay any stress on such facts as the position of Brit-
ain in the very midst of the land hemisphere (p. 198), as upon
thorough investigation it may be shown that in fact they are only
of secondary importance. But the elementary problems of anthro-
pogeography may be treated : the influence of climate upon the life
of peoples and man, the means of communication, and their'depend-
ence upon the configuration of the ground, etc.

The present book, and several other publications, are proof of the
stimulus the teaching of-geography has received in England by the
endeavors of the Royal Geographical Society. So far, little interest
has been awakened on this side of the ocean, but publications of
this kind cannot fail to excite the interest of American geographers.

F. Boas.

140

Elements of Botany, including Organography, Vegetable Hestol-
ogy, Vegetable Physiology, and Vegetable Taxonomy, and a
Glossary of Botanical Terms. By EDSON S. BASTIN. Chicago,
G. P. Engelhard & Co. 8°.

IF one can judge by the number of text-books on botany which
have been published in this country during the last few years,
either the number of botanical students must be very large, or the
different text-books must treat the subject inadequately, for each
new work has for its ostensible purpose the ‘filling of a long-felt
want.’ What the want is, is not easy to say, unless it be a book
which shall contain every thing in small compass, and that is a
practical impossibility. The ‘Elements of Botany,’ by Professor
Bastin, certainly gives a great deal in small compass, and must be
considered one of the best treatises on the subject yet published in
this country. It is evidently the work of a teacher, rather than a
specialist, and gives the substance of what must usually be sought
in several different text-books, and, while it cannot replace other
well-known treatises, it forms a good introduction to them. The
illustrations are numerous and generally good, and the style is clear
and as attractive as could be expected considering the condensed
form. Two-thirds of the book are devoted to organography and
histology, — subjects which are best adapted to beginners. The
chapters on physiology are very brief, but the subject is well treated.
The same can hardly be said of the chapters on vegetable taxon-
omy, by which the author understands a description of the different
classes of the vegetable kingdom. The illustrations of this part
are not so good as those of the earlier parts, and the descriptions
are not infrequently obscure, and also at times incorrect. The yeast-
plant, for instance, cannot be said to belong to the Schzzomycetes.
It is to be regretted that authors of botanical text-books to be used
by beginners almost invariably crowd a general account of the dif-
ferent classes into a few pages at the end. Treated in this way,
the subject is always unintelligible, or next to unintelligible, and
the space had better be used in amplifying other subjects and the
student referred to larger and special works for an account of the
classes.

An Introduction to Greek Sculpture.
Clarendon Pr.

By L.E. Upcorr. Oxford,
Tee

No book of similar aim and scope can compare for a moment
with this little book. It was originally written as a guide to the
author’s collection of casts and photographs from the antique at
Marlborough College. It is now enlarged somewhat, and has in
view a museum of casts and photographs adapted to the needs of a
school or college. Mr. Upcott mentions the religious origin of
Greek sculpture, notes its peculiar characteristics, and traces its
development from the half-mythical Dzedalus to the Graeco-Roman
period. The book is at once clear, compact, and comprehensive,
and the best manual of Greek sculpture in the language.

The Graphical Statics of Mechanism.
New York, Van Nostrand. 16°.

THIs is a translation into English of Professor Herrmann’s work,
which has already been published in German and French. The
great advantage which the method presents is its simplicity. By
the use over and over again of a few easily mastered principles, the
most complicated problem may be solved. No knowledge of
higher mathematics is required in its mastery, and no handling of
lengthy and involved algebraic formulas is necessary in its use. The
object of the treatise is principally to facilitate study for the stu-
dents of technical schools, upon whose time and industry increasing
demands are made from day to day.

By GuSTAV HERRMANN.

NOTES AND NEWS.

THE earthquake of Central Asia, the principal shock of which
occurred on June 19, has a remarkable feature in common with the
Charleston earthquake. In most cases chains of mountains prevent
the spreading of the shocks, but in these cases high ranges were
crossed. The Charleston earthquake traversed the Alleghanies,
and that of Vernoye —the situation of which may be seen on our
map of Central Asia (Aug. 5)— was felt on the Issik-Kul, though
the chains of the Ala-tau lie between the centre of the disturbance

SCIENCE:

[VoL Xx. Nor ear

and that lake. The epicentre was in the district of Aksai, about
fifteen miles west of Vernoye. About 800 persons are said to have
been killed by falling houses and rocks rolling down from the
mountains. Numerous fissures were formed on the northern slope
of the Ala-tau, particularly near Vernoye. East of this place the
shocks were less destructive. Part of the shore of Issik-Kul moved
three feet downward. An expedition is at present at work to in-
vestigate the geological structure of the disturbed area.

— We learn that the Signal Service has ordered the abandon-
ment of the following stations on the Pacific coast : Monterey, San
Luis Obispo, Bakersfield, Modesto, Indio, San Bernardino, Carson,
Yreka, Santa Rosa, and Mendocino City. As soon as the official
intention was announced, the publisher of the San Francisco
Chronzcle came forward and offered to provide observers, pay for
telegrams, warnings, and so forth, provided that the government
would allow the instruments to remain. This offer has been ac-
cepted.

— It will be of interest to learn, says The Publishers’ Weekly,
that the adherents of the international language Volapiik have just
held a congress at Munich, presided over by Professor Kirchhoff of
the University of Halle. It was decided to use the home spelling

- for proper names, to drop the ceremonial form ‘you’ (employing

‘thou’ in the singular), and to make some few simplifications in
spelling and grammar. The most important action was the estab-
lishment of a Volapik academy, to whom all future grammatical
and lexicographical difficulties shall be submitted. Eighteen
academicians were elected, representing Germany, Hungary, Aus-
tria, Holland, Russia, Sweden, France, Spain, Portugal, Italy, Asia
Minor, England, and North America. The American representa—
tive is Mr. Charles E. Sprague of New York.

LETTERS TO THE EDITOR.

*," The attention of scientific men ts called tothe advantages of the correspondence
columns of SCIENCE for placing promptly on record brief preliminary notices of
thetr investigations. Twenty copies of the number containing his communication
will be furnished free to any correspondent on request.

The editor will be glad to publish any queries consonant with the character of
the journal.

Correspondents are requested to be as brief as possible.
tn all cases required as proof of good faith.

The writer's name is

Is there a Diamond-Field in Kentucky?

THE great similarity of the peridotite of Elliott County, Ky., to.
that of the South African diamond-fields has attracted considerable
attention, and hundreds of prospectors, moved by ‘interesting
possibilities,’ have visited the region in search of gems and precious
metals.

In May, 1885, when the peridotite of Kentucky was studied in
the field, the character of the diamond-bearing rock in South Africa
was not yet fully understood, and consequently no search was
made at the time for diamonds. Recent developments, however,
rendered it desirable that they should be intelligently sought for;
and upon the invitation of Mr. J. R. Procter, the State geologist of
Kentucky, we were sent by Maj. J. W. Powell, the director of the
United States Geological Survey, to make the investigation.

The locality is easily reached by way of the East Kentucky Rail-
road, which ends in Carter County at Willard, where conveyance
may be obtained of the farmers to traverse the remaining ten miles
to the best exposures of the peridotite along Isom’s Creek, in Elliott
County.

The peridotite alters and disintegrates readily ; but, from the fact
that the declivity of the surface is considerable, the transportation
of material almost keeps pace with disintegration, and there is no.
great accumulation of residuary deposits upon the narrow divides
and hillsides. The specific gravity and durability of the gems
found in connection with peridotite are generally greater than those
of serpentine and other products of its alteration. On this account
the gems accumulate upon the surface and in favorable positions
along adjacent lines of drainage. Our plan was to search by sifting
and carefully panning the stream-beds receiving the drainage
directly from the surface of the peridotite, and to enlist the services
of the people in the neighborhood to scrutinize the steep slopes
where gems weathered out of the peridotite might be exposed.
Particular attention was directed also to the examination of the

SEPTEMBER 16, 1887.]

solid rock and residuary deposits which so closely resemble the
diamantiferous material of the South African mines.

The accompanying map, introduced, with corrections and ad-
ditions, from the United States Geological Survey, Bulletin No.
38, shows the distribution of the exposed peridotite and the soil re-
sulting from its disintegration. It is only a sketch-map, and does
not pretend to a high degree of accuracy, but will be found of great
service in the field.

The embankment, which was formerly regarded as the site of an
old furnace, has proved to be an Indian mound in which arrow-
heads and fragments of celts have been found. Several years ago
the mound was opened to a considerable depth by Mr. James
Maggard, who reports ashes near its centre. The excavation made
for us during our brief sojourn did not reach the ashes. The
mound is composed chiefly of the sand resulting from the disin-

SCIENCE.

141

and are here reported for the first time. When suitably prepared,
they will make worthy additions to the gem collection of the Na-
tional Museum. They resemble the same transparent mineral from
Arizona. The South African specimens of the mineral are a little
more opaque, but of a richer green color.

During a careful search over a small area for nearly two days, no
diamonds were found; but this by no means demonstrates that
diamonds may not yet be discovered there.

The remarkable similarity between the peridotite of Kentucky and
that of the Kimberley and other diamond-mines of South Africa is
very striking, and, when this alone is considered, the probability of
finding diamonds in Kentucky seems correspondingly great ; but
when we reflect that the carbonaceous shale, and not the perido-
tite itself, is the source of the carbon out of which the diamond is
formed, and that the shale in Kentucky is much poorer in carbon

oJamesMaggard

Amiltor.

Exposed Peridotite.

peak}

Scale

oN eM

tegration of the adjacent peridotite, and a number of pieces of
peridotite, preserving all their form, but entirely altered with the
exception of the garnet and ilmenite, which only appear broken up.
The olivine had changed, however, to a deweylite-like mineral, so
soft and of such a structure that it has received the local name of
‘mutton tallow,’ and, when first taken out, can be worked as readily
as that substance.

It is about one hundred feet in diameter and thirty feet in height,
and some large trees had originally grown on the top. Until our
recent visit the actual contact of the peridotite and shale had not
been observed. It is exposed in the bed of a small branch of
Isom’s Creek, within a hundred yards of Charles Isom’s house.
The intrusion of the peridotite has displaced and greatly
fractured the shale, besides locally indurating it, and enveloping a
multitude of its fragments. The latter are dark-colored, like the
peridotite, and are strongly contrasted with the light-colored dolo-
mitic nodules of secondary origin.

Besides the pyropes, a few of which are good enough for cutting,
several fairly good specimens of a green pyroxene have been found,

Eiy7 Soil containing Pyropesand {/menite.

eLoose fragments of
Feldspathic Rocks.

iMule

than that of the South African mines, the probability of finding dia-
monds there is proportionally diminished. H. Carvill Lewis (Scz-
ence, Vili. p. 346) remarks concerning the South African mines,
that “recent excavations have shown that large quantities of this
shale surround the mines, and that they are so highly carbona-—
ceous as to be combustible, smouldering for long periods when ac-
cidentally fired.”” In the chemical laboratory of the United States.
Geological Survey, Mr. J. Edward Whitfield determined 37.521 per
cent of carbon in the shale from near the Kimberley mine, while the
blackest shale adjoining the peridotite near Charles Isom’s in Ken-
tucky, he found to contain only 0.681 per cent of carbon. After all
the carbonates were removed by dilute hydrochloric acid, the residue
was combusted in oxygen, and the carbon weighed as carbonic
dioxide. The peridotite, at the time of its intrusion, must have
been forced up through a number of coal-beds, and at a greater
depth it penetrated the Devonian black shale, which is considerably
richer in carbon than the shale now exposed at the surface. It is
possible, and not improbable, that if the theory of the igneous.
origin of diamonds first proposed by Roscoe Cohen (Proceedings of

142

the Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society, Oct. 7, 1884, p.
5), and later independently advanced by H. Carvill Lewis, be true, a
number of diamonds may have been formed in the Kentucky perido-
tite; but the general paucity of carbon in the rock adjacent to the
peridotite is certainly discouraging to the prospector.

The best time to search for gems in that locality is immediately
after a heavy rain, when they are most likely to be well exposed
upon the surface. It is proposed to keep up the search economi-
cally by those most interested, by furnishing to responsible indi-
viduals in the vicinity a number of rough diamonds mounted in
rings, for comparison, that they may know what to look for under
the most favorable circumstances. J. S. DILLER.

GEO. F. KUNZ.
New York, Sept. 12.

The Classification of Lakes.

SEVERAL years ago I presented to the Boston Society of Natural
History a paper on the classification of lake-basins, in which the
many varieties of lakes were grouped under three heads, according
as they were made by constructive, destructive, or obstructive pro-
‘cesses. The first heading included lakes made by mountain-
folding and other displacements ; the second consisted chiefly of
basins of glacial erosion ; the third contained the greatest number
of varieties, such as lakes held by lava, ice, and drift barriers, delta
and ox-bow lakes, and some others. The classification proved
satisfactory, in so far as it suggested a systematic arrangement of
all kinds of lakes that have been described; but it now appears
unsatisfactory, inasmuch as its arrangement is artificial, without
reference to the natural relations of lakes to the development of the
‘drainage systems of which they are a part. A more natural classi-
fication is here presented in outline.

When a new land rises from below the sea, or when an old land
is seized by active mountain-growth, new rivers establish them-
selves upon the surface in accordance with the slopes presented,
and at once set to work at their long task of carrying away all of
the mass that stands above sea-level. At first, before the
water-ways are well cut, the drainage is commonly imperfect :
Jakes stand in the undrained depressions. Such lakes are the mani-
fest signs of immaturity in the life of their drainage system. We
see examples of them on new land in southern Florida; and on a
region lately and actively disturbed in southern Idaho, among the
blocks of faulted country described by Russell. But as time passes,
the streams fill up the basins and cut down the barriers, and the
lakes disappear. A mature river of uninterrupted development has
no such immature features remaining. The life of most rivers is,
however, so long, that few, if any, complete their original tasks un-
disturbed. Later mountain-growth may repeatedly obstruct their
flow; lakes appear again, and the river is rejuvenated. Lake
Lucerne is thus, as Heim has shown, a sign of local rejuvenation in
the generally mature Reuss. The head waters of the Missouri
have lately advanced from such rejuvenation ; visitors to the Na-
tional Park may see that the Yellowstone has just regained its former
steady flow by cutting down a gate through the mountains above
Livingston, and so draining the lake that not long ago stood for a
time in Paradise Valley. The absence of lakes in the Alleghany
Mountains, that was a matter of surprise to Lyell, does not indicate

any peculiarity in the growth of the mountains, but only that they

and their drainage system are very old.

The disappearance of original and mountain-made lakes is there-
fore a sign of advancing development in a river. Conversely, the for-
mation of small shallow lakes of quite another character marks ado-
lescence and middle life. During adolescence, when the head-water
Streams are increasing in number and size, and making rapid con-
quest of land-waste, the lower trunk-stream may be overloaded
with silt, and build up its flood-plain so fast that its smaller tribu-
taries cannot keep pace with it: so the lakes are formed on either
side of the Red River of Louisiana, arranged like leaves on a stem;
the lower Danube seems to present a similar case. The flood-
plains of well-matured streams have so gentle a slope that their
channels meander through great curves. When a meander is aban-
doned for a cut-off, it remains for a time as a crescentic lake.
When rivers get on so far as to form large deltas, lakes often col-
lect in the areas of less sedimentation between the divaricating

SCIENCE:

[VoL ee eNom erm

channels. Deltas that are built on land, where the descent of a
stream is suddenly lessened and its enclosing valley-slopes disap-
pear, do not often hold lakes on their own surface; for their slope
is, although gentle, rather too steep for that: but they commonly
enough form a lake by obstructing the stream in whose valley they
are built. Tulare Lake in southern California has been explained by
Whitney in this way.

The contest for drainage area that goes on between streams
heading on the opposite slopes of a divide sometimes produces little
lakes. The victorious stream forces the divide to migrate slowly
away from its steeper slope, and the stream that is thus robbed of
its head waters may have its diminished volume clogged by the fan-
deltas of side-branches farther down its valley. Heim has ex-
plained the lakes of the Engadine in this way. The Maira has, like
an Italian brigand, plundered the Inn of two or more of its upper
streams, and the Inn is consequently ponded back at San Moritz
and Silvaplana. On the other hand, the victorious stream may by
this sort of conquest so greatly enlarge its volume, and thereby so
quickly cut down its upper valley, that its lower course will be
flooded with gravel and sand, and its weaker side-streams ponded
back. No cases of this kind are described, to my knowledge, but
they will very likely be found; or we may at least expect them to
appear when the northern branches of the Indus cut their way
backwards through the innermost range of the Himalaya, and gain
possession of the drainage of the plateaus beyond; for then, as the
high-level waters find a steep outlet to a low-level discharge, they
will carve out cations the like of which even Dutton has not seen,
and the heavy wash of waste will shut in lakes in lateral ravines at
many points along the lower valleys.

In its old age, a river settles down to a quiet, easy, steady-going
existence. It has overcome the difficulties of its youth, it has cor-
rected the defects that arose from a period of too rapid growth, it
has adjusted the contentions along the boundary-lines of its several
members, and has established peaceful relations with its neighbors :
its lakes disappear, and it flows along channels that meet no as-
cending slope on their way to the sea. ,

Certain accidents to which rivers are subject are responsible
for many lakes. Accidents of the hot kind, as they may be called
for elementary distinction, are seen in lava-flows, which build great
dams across valleys: the marshes around the edge of the Snake
River lava-sheets seem to be lakes of this sort, verging on extinc-
tion: crater lakes are associated with other forms of eruption.
Accidents of the cold kind are the glacial invasions: we are per-
haps disposed to overrate the general importance of these in the
long history of the world, because the last one was so recent, and has
left its numerous traces so near the centres of our civilization; but
the temporary importance of the last glacial accident in explaining
our home geography and our human history can hardly be exagger-
ated. During the presence of the ice, especially during its retreat,
short-lived lakes were common about its margin. Claypole has
just described the extinct ‘ Lake Cuyahoga’ in Ohio as of this kind.
We owe many prairies to such lakes. The rivers running from the
ice-front, overloaded with sand and silt, filled up their valleys and
ponded back their non-glacial side-streams ; their shore-lines have
been briefly described in Ohio and Wisconsin, but the lakes them-
selves were drained when their flood-plain barriers were terraced ;
they form an extinct species, closely allied to the existing Danube
and Red River type. As the ice-sheet melts away, it discloses a
surface on which the drift has been so irregularly accumulated that
the new drainage is everywhere embarrassed, and lakes are for a
time very numerous. Moreover, the erosion accomplished by the
ice, especially near the centres of glaciation, must be held responsi-
ble for many, though by no means for most, of these lakes. Canada
is the American type, and Finland the European, of land-surface
in this condition. The drainage is seen to be very immature, but
the immaturity is not at all of the kind that characterized the first
settlement of rivers on these old lands: it is a case, not of rejuve-
nation, but of regeneration; the icy baptism of the lands has con-
verted their streams to a new spirit of lacustrine hesitation unknown
before. We cannot, however, expect the conversion to last very long:
there is already apparent a backsliding to the earlier faith of steady
flow, to which undisturbed rivers adhere closely throughout their
life.

SEPTEMBER 16, 1887. |

Water-surface is, for the needs of man, so unlike land-surface,
that it is natural enough to include all water-basins under the single
geographic term, ‘lakes.’ Wherever they occur, —in narrow moun-
tain-valleys or on broad, level plains; on divides or on deltas ; in
solid rock or in alluvium, — they are all given one name. But if we in
imagination lengthen our life so that we witness the growth of
a river-system as we now watch the growth of plants, we must then
as readily perceive and as little confuse the several physiographic
kinds of lakes as we now distinguish the cotyledons, the leaves, the
galls, and the flowers, of a quickly growing annual that produces
all these forms in appropriate order and position in the brief course
of a single summer. W. M. Davis.

Cambridge, Mass., Sept 7.

Corruption of American Geographic Names.

Mr. Murpocx’s friendly criticism and confirmatory note on the
pronunciation of ‘ Arkansas,’ in the last Sczezce, is gratifying from
the fact that it will help disseminate a proper understanding of that
word. But ‘Arkansas’ is only one of hundreds of geographic
names which have been corrupted under our very noses, so to
speak, and I believe it behooves all educators to assist in their cor-
rection. In the West we have many classes of descriptive geo-

graphic names, — first, words in the Indian language, which the *

Spanish, French, or English (and sometimes all) have endeavored
to represent phonetically in their own language, such as ‘ Ouachita,’
‘ Washita,’ ‘ Wichita,’ etc., all derived from the name of a tribe of
Indians first noted by La Salle, and which has now been applied
in its modifications to six rivers (not including creeks) in Indian
Territory, Arkansas, and Texas, two mountain areas, and innumer-
able political divisions, such as counties, post-offices, etc.; second,
descriptive names. To the credit of the Spaniards, it must be said
that they seldom adopted Indian names, but gave either descriptive
names, such as ‘ Sabinas,’ ‘ Ulmas,’ ‘ Puercos,’ ‘Colorado,’ often of
the forest-growth and character of sediment of rivers; or religious
names, such as ‘Corpus Christi,’ ‘Vera Cruz;’ or sometimes a
combination of both, such as ‘ Sangre de Cristo’ Mountains.

Most of our American names in the West, and especially the
South-west, are simply abominable. They are either corruptions of
the French, Indian, or Spanish, or indefinite appellatives, often of
lewd and repulsive meaning. This is especially true of the names
given by my fellow-southerners, as they followed the law of migra-
tions along degrees of latitude. In central and western Texas there
is another corruption which is more misleading than that of mis-
pronunciation or misspelling. The generic topographic terms are
all erroneously used for the subgeneric, such as ‘river’ for ‘creek’
(or what can only be properly expressed by the Spanish arroyo),
and ‘ mountain,’ ‘ peak,’ etc., for ‘ knolls,’ ‘ buttes,’ or ‘mesas.’ For
instance: while there is not a true mountain in Texas east of the
Pecos River, there are no less than a dozen ‘ Round Mountains,’
* Pilot Peaks,’ ‘ Comanche Peaks,’ ‘ Hog and Packsaddle Mountains,’
etc., in central Texas, none of which in any way are entitled to the
dignity of the terms, and which can only be described as buttes and
mesas of secondary proportions. The creeks and rivers are either

“Hog” creeks, ‘Muddy,’ ‘Snake,’ ‘ Buffalo,’ ‘Dry,’ ‘Indian,’ or

‘ Post Oaks.’ ‘

Not only have these corruptions been going on in the past, but
they are being perpetrated at present, and our government publica-
tions are innocently the chief instruments in so doing. A remark-
able instance came under my observation two years ago. While
sitting upon the stone that marks the north-west corner of the State
of Kansas, examining some geological specimens, and conversing

with Texan cowboy friends who had ‘wintered’ near there a year _

or two, I inquired the nearest post-office. One of them informed
me that a [tent] village had just been established a few miles dis-
tant, and that its name was ‘Bueno.’ This word, from my past
experience on the Texan frontier, I knew to constitute nine tenths
of the cow-boy’s knowledge of pigeon Spanish (the other tenth
being ‘cuss’ words), and that it had been imported from the Rio
Grande by him into Kansas, and that the ‘short-horns’ (the cow-
boys’ term-of inferiority for the Kansas settler) had been fascinated
by it, and applied it to their new town. A capital idea, I thought,
until I looked up the name of the town in the latest post-office
guide, when, to my horror, I found my pet Spanish word ‘bueno’

SCIENCE:

143

anglicized into ‘Wano.’ The other instance of governmental per-
petration is on the topographic maps of both the Post-Office and
War Departments, and Geological and Coast Surveys, where these
dry creeks continue to appear as rivers, and buttes as mountains,.
etc.

Since my arrival in Arkansas, I have been delighted to find numer-
ous minor French geographic names which have not been corrupted,
such as ‘ L’Eau Frais,’ ‘ Terre Noir,’ ‘ Antoine,’ and other streams ;
and from the oldest Anglo-American inhabitants I learn that nearly
every geographic feature of southern Arkansas was named, not by
French missionaries, but by the trappers and voyageurs, who had
traded with the Indians for a hundred years or more, and who domi-
nated here almost until the State was admitted to the Union (1836).
Many descendants of these old French pioneers inhabit south-
eastern Arkansas, and it is a source of gratification that the Anglo-
American settlers here, however illiterate, pronounce the names
with approximate correctness, even if their attempts at spelling
them are oftentimes ridiculous. Rope’? T. HILL.

Ouachita River, Ark., Sept. 8.

Romantic Love and Personal Beauty.

THE latest contribution to the theory of evolution is the attempt
of Mr. Finck to show that the phase of human character known as
romantic (pre-nuptial) love is strictly modern, having developed
within the last 1,000 years. The book in which the argument is
set forth, recently reviewed in this magazine, is a remarkable com-
bination, which one hardly knows whether to accept as a joke or in
earnest. In this one work we find a scientific discussion of love as
found in plants and animals, theories as to its origin and import ;
we find many surprising statements concerning modern society,
such as that there can never be too much of flirtation, since it is one
of the most valuable discoveries of the English people ; that beauty
in children is dependent upon the pre-nuptial love of their parents ;
we find directions to the maiden how to win her lover, directions to
the love-sick swain as to his cure, directions to the lover how to
kiss, etc.; the whole making such a curious combination that we
hardly know whether to set the book aside with a laugh, or to re-
gard it as an important contribution to knowledge. The latter
feeling, however, predominates. The fundamental proposition of
the discussion, viz., the strictly modern nature of romantic love, is
one of great importance, giving as it does entirely new thoughts
upon certain phases of modern life. It certainly merits the dis-
cussion given it, as well as the further discussion which is sure to
follow the study of Mr. Finck’s argument.

One cannot read this discussion of romantic love without ac-
knowledging that Mr. Finck has made out a very strong case. The
facts which are brought out plainly show that there has been a
gradual but great change in the pre-nuptial relations of the sexes,
and as a result a great change in the sentiments which precede mar-
riage. A romantic love, which was curbed and repressed by the
customs of ancient nations, has, under the influence of modern
society, expanded into a greatly exaggerated form, until now it is the
theme of about all novels, plays, and poems, occupies largely the
thoughts of all young people, and is perhaps the most powerful lever
for influencing the lives of mankind. But while we may go thus
far with the theory, and recognize that ancient life and literature had
very little of love, though modern life and literature are full of it, and
that it is only modern society that recognizes the desirability
of love-matches, the interpretations which may be drawn from the
facts are varied. Mr. Finck interprets these facts as representing
the development of a new factor in man’s nature, and one which
was not and could not have been present in earlier periods of his-
tory. It is at least questionable whether this interpretation be the
true one.

The author is doubtless right in pointing out the impossibility of
any feeling akin to the higher phases of love in the lower races of
men. Romantic love is a feeling of high sensitiveness, and only
those with highly developed sensibilities can experience it in its
fullest degree. Indeed, the bulk of civilized people to-day are not
capable of having very lofty experiences in this line. The love
which Mr. Finck is writing about is largely ideal rather than actual.
It belongs to emotional poets rather than to the common people.

144

Dante, Goethe, and Heine are exceptional, and their works do not
represent the true feelings of mankind. It is the lot of very few to
love as did Romeo, and most of us poor mortals cannot understand
the feelings of Dante for Beatrice. Highly wrought loves are
mostly found in fiction and poetry, seldom in actual life. And yet
the average person of to-day is doubtless better able to appreciate
such feelings than the average Greek or Roman, both because he is
more capable of loving, and because women have been permitted
to become more lovable. Society to-day has, then, a much higher
development of this feeling than in past times. There has been an
increase in the quantity of romantic love, and doubtless in the depth
of it. But that romantic love of modern times is a new feeling, is
not so evident.

There are many considerations which immediately suggest
themselves as enabling us to understand these facts, and they may
lead us to believe that romantic love can be traced back much
further than 1,000 years, and that it was even in ancient times
essentially the same in its nature as now. First, we must notice
the change which has come over the spirit of literature in modern
times: it is by no means fair to compare modern literature with
the ancient upon this subject. At the time when the classics were
written, books were great rarities, laboriously copied by hand, pos-
sessed only by the rich, and read only by scholars. In modern
times printing has thrown all literature open to every one in civil-
ized communities. The classical authors thus wrote to the few; the
modern authors to the many. The former wrote from love of the
art simply, and were supported by the patronage of rich men: the
latter write for a living from the sale of their works. While the
former were, therefore, free to follow wherever art led them, the
majority of authors to-day must write that which will best please
their readers. In former times it was only the genius who could
hope to acquire any thing by writing: to-day many a writer of me-
diocre aljility makes his living by the use of his pen. It is clear
enough why such writers, wishing to obtain as many readers as
possible, should choose the most common and yet most delightful
experience of life asa theme. It is to these facts largely that we
owe the great development of the love-literature of modern times,
and partly at least the dearth of it in ancient times. If modern
writers thought that only scholars would read their works, and
common people know nothing about them, is it not certain that most
of our love-literature would disappear? Now, it is, we believe, the
development of the modern love-story and poetry, and not the iso-
lated masterpieces of Dante and Shakspeare, which gives us the
impression of the great prevalence of romantic love to-day. Blot
out all our modern light fiction and other works inspired by money-
getting, and Romeo and Juliet would seem as strained and out of
place to-day as Mr. Finck thinks the works of Ovid were in the day
in which they were written. Indeed, there are few of us now who
do not regard this play of Shakspeare as much overdrawn.

We cannot, then, expect love-stories in the literature of early
times, and what few references we may find to love here have for
this reason the more significance. Now, the very citations used by
Mr. Finck in support of his proposition seem to us to go far toward
showing that romantic love was by no means an unknown experi-
ence in the ancient nations. Ovid was certainly a love-poet, and,
even though he was ahead of his age, it is hardly credible that he
would give directions to lovers if lovers were unknown. Modern
literature gives few more romantic love-stories than that of Cleo-
patra. Virgil’s account of the love of A®neus and Dido could not
have been written by one who lived before the time of the birth
of romantic love. Even Mr. Finck admits that the Hetere in-
spired the Greeks with feelings akin to love. Was it not, indeed,

exactly the same feeling as modern love applied to a different end ?

Modern love does not go beyond the extent to which the love of
Paris and Helen went to involve a whole nation in war. More sig-
nificant still, both Greeks and Romans recognized a goddess of
love, Venus; and, though perhaps they did not rigidly distinguish
between romantic and conjugal love, nothing is plainer than that
Venus was not the goddess of conjugal love. The whole account
we have of her shows that romantic love was much more closely
the idea associated with her than conjugal love. Again, Solomon’s
Songs, after all that is said about them, could not have been written
by one of a nation who knew nothing about love. Did not Jacob

SCIENCE.

[Vout. X. No. 241

serve seven extra years for Rachel because he loved her more than
Leah? This is a case which shows that in these early times ro-
mantic love existed, and manifested itself in spite of established
custom, which compelled the wedding of the elder daughter first.

Or look at the matter in a different way: romantic love at all
ages refuses to be trammelled by custom. The French, as Mr.
Finck tells us, being unable to find love in courtship, owing to the
influences which surround French girls, find it in the greater free-
dom of women after marriage. This gives us the numerous illicit
loves of the French novel. Love leaps beyond the bounds of cus-
tom and law. Now, have we not abundant evidence that the same
has been true at all times? As our author shows, the customs of
ancient nations have been such as almost to preclude romantic love
before marriage; but that the feeling has shown itself in other ways
seems evident from the universal existence of laws against adultery,
the numerous instances of conjugal unfaithfulness, and the care with
which husbands have always considered it necessary to guard their
wives from contact with other men. And it is suggestive that this
care is the greatest where pre-nuptial love is the most strictly prohib-
ited. Such extra-marital loves, which are implied by these facts,
though sometimes nothing more than sexual passion, are in many
cases the same feeling which Mr. Finck calls romantic love, only
applied in a different direction. If the various ‘ overtones’ of ro-
mantic love, which Mr. Finck has drawn up, be considered, it will
be found that they all apply to this species of love, except perhaps
the ‘ pride of conquest,’ which is impossible owing to the necessary
secrecy of the matter.

I suspect, therefore, that Mr. Finck has been tracing not so much
the birth of a new sentiment as the growth of the institution of
courtship ; not so much the development of love as the gradual im-
provement of the condition of woman. In all cases he has drawn
a parallel between the stage of development of romantic love and
the freedom of woman. His argument has shown the impossibility
of courtship in ancient times, rather than the impossibility of
love. Where wives were stolen, or bought and sold, or where
marriages are merely a matter of business, #arzages de convenance,
it is plain enough that romantic love could seldom exist in con-
nection with marriage. But even under these circumstances the
feeling existed, as is shown by the conception of the goddess of ro-
mantic love among the Greeks and Romans, the few love snatches
of ancient literature, and as is shown by the numerous extra-mari-
tal loves of all times. But when in modern times and among civi-
lized nations women have been gradually acquiring freedom and
independence, and a right to appear in public before marriage, this ©
feeling of love between the sexes, which had hitherto been usually
an unlawful feeling, gradually became directed toward its legiti-
mate end, as a precursor to wedlock. Courtship is therefore a
modern institution, which has resulted from the improvement in the
condition of woman. But it is more than doubtful whether the
love which accompanies it is any thing more than the same feeling
between the sexes which has always existed, but applied to a differ-
ent condition of society.

It may seem that the above is a distinction without a difference,
and indeed these suggestions are not given in criticism of Mr.

’ Finck’s work, which is certainly to be regarded as one of the valu-

able contributions to the history of mankind ; but there is certainly
room to doubt whether Mr. Finck has put the right interpretation
on his facts. That Dante was the first love-poet, and that Romeo
was the first love-hero of literature, may be true in a sense; and that
romantic love has come to fill a place in courtship which it did not
formerly hold, may be also true; but we can hardly accept the con-
clusion that romantic love is of strictly modern birth. The fact of
the undoubted existence of extra-marital, though perhaps not pre-
nuptial loves at all times, the fact that the literature and mythology
of the ancients did contain references to romantic loves, the fact that
such loves could not have been then regarded as ennobling owing
to the marriage customs, — these, taken with the fact that literature
had a different purpose then and now, seem to the present writer
rather to indicate that romantic love is nothing new, but that its
application to courtship as a preliminary to wedlock is a new phase
of life, found only in the customs of a few of the most advanced of
modern civilized races. H. W. Conn.
Middletown, Conn., Sept. 6.

oe E

FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 23, 1887.

THE UNITED STATES HYDROGRAPHIC OFFICE has already
received about three hundred reports from vessels which encoun-
tered the violent hurricanes which swept the Atlantic during the
last two weeks of August and the first week of the present month.
Many vessels which were in the greatest danger attribute their
safety to the use of oil in the manner so persistently urged by
Commander Bartlett in various editions of the ‘ Pilot Chart of the
North Atlantic Ocean,’ and such incidents will be among the most
interesting facts brought out by the published report. Were it
not for the conclusive testimony received from masters of vessels
of all kinds, from the little fishing-schooner to the great trans-
atlantic liner, the idea that a vessel could escape shipwreck in a
hurricane by allowing a few gallons of oil to trickle overboard
would be regarded as worthy of Baron Munchausen ; but “truth is
stranger than fiction.” These hurricanes seem to have moved
along the usual parabolic track, with the vertex of the curve off
Hatteras and the upper branch stretching across the Atlantic to-
wards the British Isles. Every effort is being made to collect full re-
ports from vessels as soon as they reach port, and to compare their
barometers with standards at the branch hydrographic offices. One
vessel reports a barometer reading as low as 27 inches; but it
was an aneroid barometer, and the reading was not recorded at
the time. The most reliable report thus far received makes the
lowest reading 27.91 (aneroid compared with standard, and reading
corrected), on board the American steamship ‘El Dorado,’ Aug. 23,
4 P.M., in latitude 29° north, longitude 78° west (about 140 miles
east-north-east from Cape Canaveral). With our present knowl-
edge of the character and usual path of these terrific cyclones, and
the destruction wrought in their track along our coast, on the
fishing-banks, and along the great highway of transatlantic travel,
it seems almost criminal carelessness for Congress not to allow
greater use to be made of the telegraph cable through the West
Indies and Windward Islands, by means of which several days’
warning of their approach could generally be obtained, and an
accurate forecast published for the benefit of commerce. The com-
pletion of the report now in preparation will be looked forward to
with interest not only by mariners, but by the public generally.

THE INTERNATIONAL MEDICAL CONGRESS.

THE variety of subjects discussed in the section of special and
general medicine at the recent International Medical Congress was
very great. Many of the papers read were of purely professional
interest, and not such as to be of any value to our readers: others,
on the contrary, were of general interest, and, although read and
discussed by medical men alone, still they contained much of in-
struction for all thoughtful minds. We shall endeavor to give a
brief ~észmzé of those which seem to us of greatest importance.

Dr. William Welch read a paper on vaccination during the incuba-
tion period of small-pox. His experience in one hundred and forty-
four cases has been such as to prove that vaccination at this time
will either prevent the attack of small-pox or so modify it as to in-
sure the recovery of the patient. The discussion which followed
brought out the statement from Dr. Parker of England, that in the
large cities of that country human lymph was generally employed.
Parents are required to bring their children at certain times to pub-
lic stations for vaccination. Although revaccination is performed
upon school-children at the age of fourteen years, this is not com-

pulsory.

A paper on the pathogenesis of yellow-fever was read by Dr.
Alvara of Mexico, in which he expressed the opinion that yellow-
fever is an auto-blood-poisoning, either by the acid phosphate of
soda of the same blood or by the phospho-glyceric acid set free
from the lecithina as a result of the action of microbes on the
blood.

Dr. Lester of Missouri regards pneumonia as an infectious
disease, influenced by malaria and improper hygienic surroundings.
Dr. Didamore of Syracuse referred to the discovery of the micro-
coccus of pneumonia and to the experiments which showed that
when this is inoculated pneumonia will result.

Dr. Gihon, United States Navy, read a paper on the domain of
climatology and demography as dependencies of medicine. He
claimed a place for climatology as one of the sisterhood of medical
sciences. Climatology and demography are contributory sciences
to preventive medicine, and this is more important than curative
medicine. The diseases which are truly climatic are but few.
Malaria is not one of these. The reduction of the death-rate of the
Italian army to one-third what it formerly was, is due to the drain-
age of the Roman marshes. Local unsanitary conditions cause
more disease than the climate. He criticised vital statistics as
usually prepared and published, stating that more facts are needed
than the simple number of births, deaths, and marriages. Records,
if they are to be accurate and of value, must not be voluntary, but
under governmental direction. F

Dr. Rohé of Baltimore, ina paper on the meteorological elements
of climate and their effects upon the human organism, said that
climatologists do not at the present time believe that ozone has any
influence either in preventing or causing disease. Some believe
that peroxide of hydrogen is an important antiseptic element in the
atmosphere, but further investigation in this direction is needed.

Dr. Parker of Newport spoke of a number of health-resorts which
he regarded as adapted for the stay of the sick. He recommended
a wagon-trip across the plains as one of the best means of obtain-
ing the advantages of a health-resort.

Dr. Taylor, United States Army, presented a paper on the neces-
sity for a more careful examination of the water-supply of military
posts, where an unusual amount of sickness prevails, and ex-
amination of hygienic surroundings. At some of the military posts
the death-rate is great, owing to enteric and malarial fevers, which
would be much reduced if proper attention were paid to the water-
supply and to the general sanitation of these posts. Dr. Marston
of England had no doubt but that certain epidemics of disease
which he had observed among soldiers, were caused by impure
water. Whie malaria might be in some instances due to the same
cause, the influence of freshly disturbed soil was a most important
one. It was believed in China that the simple scratching of the
soil by chickens resulted in the production of malaria in those
persons who lived near by. He had also witnessed an epidemic
of goitre, which was directly traced to the use of drinking-water
which contained lime salts.

Dr. Thomas of Baltimore read a paper on the causes of so-called
hay-fever. The exciting causes he classified as follows: 1. Inert
substances floating in air, dust, pollen, etc.; 2. Psychical impres-
sions; 3. Meteorological changes, sunlight, wind, etc. ; 4. Morbid
changes or growths; 5. Irritation reflected from distant parts of
the body. In speaking of the treatment, he said that the use of
cocaine gives temporary relief, but there is danger to tissues from
protracted use.

Dr. Collins of Philadelphia described the construction of field-
hospitals, mentioning more particularly the depot field-hospital of
the army of the Potomac at City Point, Va., in 1864-65. This hos-
pital occupied two hundred acres of land, and could accommodate
ten thousand patients. During the war, 71,223 soldiers were treated
there. Dr. Varian of Titusville, Penn., recommended tents for hos-

146

pital purposes, stating that the liability to enteric fever and other
camp diseases was much lessened when the sick were under can-
vas. The streets between hospital-tents should be at least fifty

Fic. 1
feet in width; and when it was necessary to heat the tents, as in
winter, open fires in front of them gave the best results.

The following resolutions were adopted by the section of cli-
matology and demography : —

“ Resolved, That in the opinion of the section on medical climatol-
ogy and demography, of the Ninth International Medical Congress,
assembled in the city of Washington, Sept. 5-10, 1887, it is impor-
tant there should be established in every country a national depart-
ment, bureau, or commission for the record of vital statistics upon a
uniform basis, to include not only accurate returns of births and
deaths, but the results of collective investigation by government
Officials, of facts bearing upon the natural history of disease as
manifested among men, women, and children separately, especially
with regard to climatic and other discoverable causes of the sev-
eral forms of disease, — race, occupation, and residence being in-
cluded, — that necessary preventive measures may be determined
and enforced for the preservation of the public health.”

Dr. Denison of Colorado read a paper on the preferable climate
for phthisis, illustrated copiously with maps and tables. He be-
lieves that climate is to be preferred for the greater number of con-
sumptives in the United States which is between fifteen hundred
feet elevation in the North in winter, and ten thousand feet in the
South in summer.

Dr. Day of Louisiana presented a report which was the result of
an inquiry into the facts relating to the effects of overflow of the
Mississippi River, and based on communications from five hundred
physicians of the South. His deductions are, (1) that overflows are
injurious to the public health ; (2) that their evil effects upon health
are lessened or entirely antagonized by good natural or artificial
drainage, and by copious showers of rain occurring during the period
of subsidence of the waters; (3) that rice-culture is inimical to
health only by reason of the improper and unsanitary manner of its
cultivation.

Dr. Semmola of Naples delivered an address on bacteriology

SCLENEE:

Dom, 26, IN@, az

and its therapeutic relations. He regards the tendency to con-
sider bacteriology as the key to all pathology to be a great mis-
take. Microbes are not always the cause, but are often the effects,
of disease. Before any microbe is to be regarded as the cause of a
given disease, we ought to reproduce that disease artificially by that
microbe. The experiments made have not given any satisfactory
results, except in carbuncle and tuberculosis. To conclude hastily
that a given microbe is the cause of any disease is to ignore the ex-
perimental method. In the present condition of bacteriology it can-
not be taken as a guide for the treatment of internal diseases.
Modern bacteriology may lead the way to the most fruitful field of
inquiry in the future, but for the present it has produced no practi-
cal results in the cure of internal diseases. It has not yet been
demonstrated in what measure microbes are the causes of diseases.
In future investigations preconceived ideas must be abandoned, and
scientific independence must be preserved.

Dr. Freire of Brazil read a paper on vaccination in yellow-fever,.
in which he renewed his claim to the discovery of a method by
which yellow-fever may be prevented. He also exhibited speci-
mens of the yellow-fever microbe. In families consisting of a con—
siderable number of persons, if vaccination was practised after the
outbreak of the fever, its progress in that family was arrested ; if
not practised, all would be stricken down, and a large proportion, if
not all, would die.

In addition to these papers, of which we have been able to give
only the briefest vészezé, a large number of others were presented
to the congress, which were of great value and importance, and from
which we shall hope to make extracts hereafter.

SOME WESTERN MUMMIES.

EARLY in the present year a party of prospectors were searching
for precious metals and old Spanish mines in the wild regions of

Fic. 2.

Arizona and New Mexico. They happened to win the confidence
of an Indian chief by curing his sick daughter, who had been given
up by the medicine-man ; and he offered to show them a wonderful
cave, where it was supposed that gold bars and immense riches

SEPTEMBER 23, 1887. |

were hidden. But the cave was sealed up with adobe cement, and
the Indians had never attempted to open it. The situation of this
cave, which the miners at once turned to visit, is described as being

i Fic. 3-

on the west side of the cafon of the Gila River, near the bend where
it flows westward into Arizona. On opening the cave, they found
a number of human bodies.

After this discovery, they proceeded more cautiously. The cave
was found to be a natural sepulchre, not fashioned by the hands of
man, about twenty-five feet in diameter, and covered with a peculiar
‘dry dust. Along its irregular sides and roof, not a trace of any
pictographs could be found; but near the entrance one body, and
at the far end four others, were discovered, and all in a wonder-
ful state of preservation. The bodies were wrapped in cloths of
peculiar workmanship, some rich in texture.

The shrouds enveloping the bodies crumbled to dust at the slight-
est touch, as would a piece of burned linen or paper; and only
three samples were saved, — one a coarse cloth, a sort of cordage ;
another similar but finer; and the third of a finer thread texture.

After carefully searching the cavern, and having fully satisfied
themselves that its richness was all a superstitious legend, the
miners prepared to convey the mummified remains to civilization.
Much difficulty and many hardships were encountered during this
undertaking. The Indians of that district have the greatest super-
stitious veneration for the burying-places of the prehistoric races,
amounting in some cases to actual worship ; looking upon the dead
bodies as departed gods, so do they reverence the mounds and
ruins in that locality. The Indians, therefore, protested against the
removal of the remains; and it was only through diplomacy, bribe-
ry, and strategy that we have the bodies here to-day.

A careful examination of these remains leaves no doubt as to
their genuineness. They are desiccated human bodies, wonderfully
well preserved when we consider their probable age and the fact
that I do not find any trace of any embalming process having been
used. They are consequently nothing like the Egyptian mummies.
The viscera, brain, and every thing is in its proper or normal an-
atomical position. Even the sexes can readily be distinguished.
The skin is like dried leather or thick parchment. The hair is well

SCIENCE

147

preserved on the heads and on the eyebrows of Fig. 1, and on
the pubes. The teeth, nails, cartilages of the ears and nose, are in
good condition, and the nipples and mamme in Fig. 4.

It is barely possible that the burying-shrouds may have been im-
pregnated with some preservative chemicals or herbs, although
hardly probable, as these cloths crumbled to dust on exposure.
The only reasonable explanation is, that the hot dry air of this
region absorbed all the moisture in the bodies, and literally dried
them up, skin, muscles, and viscera. The Indians on this coast
dry their buffalo and bear meat in a similar manner in the sum-
mer for food in the winter.

Fig. 1 represents the first body, found sitting in the same attitude
at the entrance of the family sepulchre, face towards the east. It
is a male body, and the giant of the whole group. His stature is
the largest, and will measure five feet six or seven. The frame is
well proportioned. The skin has a dirty grayish appearance, parch-
ment-like to the touch, and closely adherent to the bones. He has
a luxurious growth of black and rather coarse hair. The eyebrows
are jet-black, and stiff like bristles. Very few hairs can be dis-
covered on the face. The forehead is well developed; head meas-
ures twenty and one-half inches in circumference. The hands and
feet are shapely. The dark lines circumscribing the extremities in
this and the following figures are cords, with which they are re-
tained in their original positions, and bound to the cases in which
they are packed.

Fig. 2 shows the mortal remains of an elder male, not quite as
tall, nor with as large a frame, measuring about five feet three. He
was found sitting in his present posture between the other two
bodies, at the far end of the cave. The teeth are well preserved,
and the tongue is like a dried piece of bark. The cloth surround-
ing his extremities is a heavy fabric, through which is woven a
yellowish thread. The small piece of cloth adherent to the tibio-
femoral articulation is the only part of the finer shrouds that was
saved.

Fig. 3 portrays the mother and the child (a little girl about four
years of age). The babe was found as depicted, nestled closely to
its mother’s breast. This group attracts much attention. They

Fic. 4.

are the best preserved bodies in the whole group. The large figure
is that of a woman about five feet tall, small hands and feet, and
well-proportioned features. The child is well formed, has evidently
walked, and reached about four years. Coarsely woven fabric

148

shrouds the lower limbs of the mother. It is of the same general
characteristics as that covering the body in Fig. 1.

Fig. 4 represents the body of a younger woman, although less
perfectly’ preserved. She has small delicate features, very small
hands and feet, and the instep is highly arched. On part of the
head is found long, fine black-brown hair. It comes off readily,
half of it having already fallen out. From the appearance of the
mamme and nipples, I should say she had born children. The
pelvis is large and well formed.

The cranial, throacic, abdominal, and pelvic viscera have not
been disturbed in any case. No violence has caused death; and
why these five remains of ancient civilization should have been
placed side by side in a stone sarcophagus, five thousand feet up in
a cave, must remain a matter of speculation for the present. Per-
haps they all belonged to one family, — father, mother, and child,
with husband and daughter or son and wife.

The heads are well shaped. The measurements of their skulls
would place them among the meso-cephalic, or intermediate be-
tween the dolicho- and brachy-cephalic. The face is oval, high
cheek-bones, long eyes sloping outwards, the fleshy lips and nose
rather flat and wide. In my judgment, these are bodies belonging
to a period not less than four or five hundred years ago. The
owner of these bodies, Mr. Joel Docking of San Francisco, is going
to place them in one of the large museums of the world.

WINSLOW ANDERSON, M.D.

EXPLORATION AND TRAVEL.
New Guinea.

SINCE the Germans have taken possession of the eastern part of
the north coast of New Guinea, and the island has been divided by
treaties among the Dutch, English, and Germans, explorations are
carried on very vigorously. It is only a few years since d’Albertis
discovered the upper part of the Fly River, and thus was the first
to enter the interior of the large island for a considerable distance.
Since that time English missionaries have been very active in the
exploration of the south coast. Of prime importance is the work
of Rev. J. Chalmers, who knows the natives probably better than
any other white man. His remarks on the distribution of a light
and a dark colored population of New Guinea, the former of whom
he considers Malayans, the latter Papuans, are of great interest.
He states that the former, on their migration from the north-west,
located between the Papuan aborigines (Proc. Roy. Geogr. Soc.,
1887).

The Australian colonies take a particular interest in the explora-
tion of the island, as they are watching with jealousy the attempts
of the French and Germans to gain a foothold in the Pacific Ocean.
Since the close of 1885 they have equipped several expeditions, but
so far they have not been very successful. In 1885 the small
steamer ‘ Bonito’ was sent out to explore the high mountain-ranges
in which the Fly River has its source; but this attempt failed, as
the steamer was in the hands of an unskilled captain. The only
geographical result was the exploration of a small tributary of the
Fly River, though the cost of this expedition was about eighteen
thousand dollars.

In 1886 the well-known traveller H. O. Forbes set out to explore the
Owen Stanley Mountains in the south-eastern part of New Guinea;
but unfortunately he arrived on the island in the rainy season, when
travelling is impossible, and later on he had to give up his intention
on account of lack of means. The project has, however, been taken
up again, and Mr. Vogan, the curator of the Auckland Museum,
and Mr. Cuthbertson, are about to start on a journey from the south
coast to Huon Bay.

Besides these attempts, which have so far had no important re-
sults, a great number of successful explorations have been carried
out. The Deutsche Kolonzalzectung reports that a private expedi-
tion was sent by a Sydney house to the Gulf of Papua. The steamer
“Victory ’’ reached Aird River at the northern extremity of the Gulf
on March 21, 1887, and ascended the river for eighty miles. Its
delta is very extensive, and was partly explored by the steamer.
The river was called Douglas River. The ‘ Victory’ returned and
discovered another large river near Bald Head. It received the
name of Jubilee River, and was found navigable for one hundred and

SCIENCE:

[Vor. X. No. 242

ten miles. Even at. this point it was three hundred yards wide and
from two to five fathoms deep. Unfortunately no map of this sur-
vey has been published so far, and therefore these discoveries
could not be inserted in our sketch-map.

New discoveries in the region of Baxter River were made by J.
Strachan, who explored part of the river-branches forming the delta
of Fly and Baxter Rivers. The same traveller has been exploring
the southern coast of Dutch New Guinea, and reports the discovery
of a narrow channel leading from McClure Gulf to Geelvink Bay;
but Mr. Wichmann remarks justly in Petermann's Motteclungen,
that the correctness of this discovery must be doubted, as A. B.
Meyer, who travelled over the isthmus, states expressly that there
is no connection between the bays.

The best surveys made in New Guinea during the last years are
those of the officers of the New Guinea Company and of German
men-of-war visiting these coasts. In these parts of our map will be
found the most important and most extensive alterations, as com-
pared to former maps. The coast from Humboldt Bay to the
southern boundary has been resurveyed for the greater part, and
the results have been published by the New Guinea Company (in
Nachrichten tiber Kaiser Withelms-Land). From these publica-
tions we have taken the course of Augusta River and the coast-
line. South of Cape della Torre another river was discovered
which was called Ottilie River, but “it could not be followed to any
distance on account of its shallowness: it carries a great vol-
ume of water, and may be ascended by a steamer of three or four
feet gauge. The course of these rivers shows that the high part of
New Guinea is formed by a narrow range of mountains which be-
gins at Geelvink Bay and continues throughout the island to its
south-eastern point. The banks of the rivers are inhabited by
natives, large villages being found on their upper parts. It will be
of great interest to learn where the large river emptying itself at
Point D’Urville has its source. So far, the rivers have been the only
means of penetrating into the interior, for the vegetation is so dense
that it prevents extensive journeys. The map shows that the out-
lines of many islands are still unknown, and we must add that the
positions of the small islands and reefs are uncertain.

A great difficulty in all enterprises on New Guinea is occasioned by
the hostility of the natives. In some parts the English missionaries.
have succeeded in gaining their confidence, particularly by the help:
of Polynesian teachers, but generally the natives are distrustful and
aggressive. The same is true in New Ireland and New Britain ;
but it is hoped that in course of time better relations will be estab-
lished. Recently natives of New Guinea and New Britain have be-
gun to work on the plantations of the companies. The climate of
the island is in most parts unhealthy, particularly in the swampy
alluvial districts, which are very fertile. It may be, however, that
it will become more healthful when the woods are cleared and the
swamps drained, as was the case in northern Queensland.

ETHNOLOGY.
Mound-Exploration.

THE second bulletin of the Bureau of Ethnology is a statement
by Mr. Cyrus Thomas, who is in charge of the archeological di-_
vision of the bureau, on the methods adopted for carrying on
mound-exploration, and on the present state of the work of the
division. His method of investigation is to mark out the several
archeological districts by searching for typical forms of remains in
the different parts of the country. For the present the field of re-
searches is limited to the district east of the Rocky Mountains.
Three north and south lines were worked : the first and principal
one, the immediate valley of the Mississippi from Wisconsin south-
ward ; the second, from Ohio southward through Kentucky to Mis-
sissippi; and the third, in the valley of eastern Tennessee and
western North Carolina, thence southward through Georgia and
Alabama io Florida. Sections which had been somewhat carefully
worked over were generally passed by. The specimens found by
the exploring parties are handed over to the National Museum.

Among the results so far obtained, the most important ones are
mentioned in the bulletin. The links discovered directly connecting
the Indians and mound-builders are so numerous and well established
that there should be no longer any hesitancy in accepting the theory

SEPTEMBER 23, 1887.]

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150

that the two are one and the same people; that a great number of
these ancient monuments were built at the time of the discovery of
America by the Europeans and subsequent to it; and that the
archzological districts, as determined by the investigations of the
mounds and other ancient works and remains, conform, to a cer-
tain extent, to the localities of the tribes or groups of cognate In-
dian tribes at the time of the discovery. Conclusions on early mi-
grations of Indian tribes can only be drawn to a limited extent.
The publication of the general report, which may be experted
within a few years, will contain the material from which these im-
portant conclusions have been drawn.

INDIAN BASKETRY.—The annual report of the National Museum
for 1884 contains several interesting ethnological papers. Prof. O. T.
Mason gives a sketch of the basketry of North American aborigines,
which is amply illustrated with drawings of specimens and en-
larged portions of the basket-work, in order to illustrate exactly the
manner of weaving. Mason discusses the methods in use all along
the coast of western America from the Arctic Ocean to California,
in the interior, and among the tribes of the Atlantic coast, and dis-
tinguishes three types of basketry, which he calls the twined, the
coiled, and the woven ones. The first is most frequently found on
the north-west coast. Coiled basket-work is almost exclusively
used by the northern Tinne and by the Apache, while many tribes
apply all methods of manufacture. A great difficulty in determin-
ing the areas of characteristic forms is encountered through the de-
ficiency of the methods of many collectors, and the fragmentary
state of collections ; many specimens which are seemingly charac-
teristic of one tribe having in reality a far wider distribution, while
other characteristic types are wanting in the collections.

OF THE ESKIMOS.— There are two other papers of the same charac-
ter in the National Museum report for 1884,— one by the same author,
on Eskimo throwing-sticks ; and one by Mr. John Murdoch, on bows of
the western Eskimo. The standpoint from which these subjects have
been treated is the same as the one indicated above. A list of the
specimens upon which these studies are founded, such as is attached
to Professor Mason’s paper, ought not to be omitted in publications of
this kind, and the fact that it is wanting detracts somewhat from the
value of Mr. Murdoch’s interesting paper. It is necessary for the
reader to know how many specimens of each locality were studied
in order to form a judgment as to how far the difference in form
may be typical or accidental.

A MYTH OF THE OKINAGEN INDIANS.— Mr. A. S. Gatschet
publishes an interesting myth of the Okinagen Indians in the
Globus. He relates how the animals climbed on a chain of arrows
to heaven in order to obtain the fire. The bird Tskan made a
strong bow of the rib of an elk which he killed by eating its heart.
Then he killed the coyote with his arrows, but the latter was re-
vived by the fox. Then he shot one arrow into the sky. The next
arrow he shot stuck in the end of the first one. Thus he continued
until a chain was formed reaching from heaven to earth. All ani-
mals climbed up this chain, and the beaver obtained the fire. An
analysis of this interesting legend shows that its elements are found
among a great number of tribes of Selish lineage and among
their neighbors, but it seems that the myth of the ascent to heaven
is characteristic of Selish mythology. Gatschet tries to interpret
this legend, and thinks the bird Tskan represents the moon, the
coyote the sun; but this seems improbable, as the myth is ex-
tremely complicated, and is probably derived from a great number
of sources. It is desirable that the mythology of the native tribes
of the upper Columbia should be collected systematically, for the
analysis of tradition is one of the most important methods of study-
ing the history of the native races and the psychology of nations.

BOOK-REVIEWS.

Synopsis of the Flora of the Laramze Group. (Extract from the
Sixth Annual Report of the U.S. Geol. Surv.) By LESTER
F. WARD. Washington, Government. 4°.

THIS synopsis is published in advance of the completion of the
author’s great monograph on the Laramie flora, and is a timely
and important contribution to our knowledge of the thousands of
feet of debatable strata between the Cretaceous and Tertiary. The
literature of the Laramie group is already large and widely scattered,

SCIENCE.

[Vor. X. No. 242

and Mr. Ward has conferred a boon upon future students of this
formation by his clear and comprehensive review of previous re-
searches and opinions.

The Laramie group is described as an extensive, brackish-water
deposit, situated on both sides of the Rocky Mountains, and ex-
tending from Mexico far into the British North American territory,
having a breadth of hundreds of miles, and representing some 4,000
feet in thickness of strata. When this deposit was made, an im-
mense inland sea must have existed, whose waters occupied the
territory now covered by the Rocky Mountains. These waters
were partially cut off from the ocean by intervening land areas,
through which, however, one or more outlets existed, communicat-
ing with the open sea at that time occupying the territory of the
Lower Mississippi and Lower Rio Grande valleys. That this
great inland sea spread over this entire territory, is not at all dis-
proved by the absence of Laramie strata from large parts of it,
since these parts are situated, in most cases, in mountainous regions
where the upper strata might be expected to have been generally
eroded away.

This Laramie sea existed during an immense period of time, and
was finally but very gradually drained by the elevation of its bed,
through nearly the middle of which, longitudinally, the Rocky
Mountains and Black Hills now run. The exceeding slowness of
this event is shown by the fact, so clearly brought out by Dr, White,
that the marine forms of the Fox Hills strata, as they gradually
found themselves surrounded by a less and less saline medium
on the rising of the intervening land area, had time to become
transformed and adapted to brackish-water existence, while these
new-formed brackish-water species, when the sea at length became
a chain of fresh-water lakes, had time again to take on the charac-
ters necessary to fresh-water life.

Dr. White recognizes the fact that the upheaval of the strata that
formed the bottom of this sea took place, not in one uniform pro-
cess of elevation, but in a prolonged series of rhythmic fluctuations
of level, whose algebraic sum constituted at length a mountain “up-
lift. But the numerous coal-seams, one above another, that charac-
terize the greater part of these beds, and equally the successive de-
posits of vegetable remains at different horizons, speak even more
eloquently than any animal remains can, of the oscillatory history of
the bed of this sheet of water.

There may have been, and doubtless were, many islands scattered
over the surface of this sea in Laramie time, and the evidence gen-
erally warrants us in assuming that a low, level country surrounded
the sea, with marshy and swampy tracts. The islands and shores
were heavily wooded with timber that can be as certainly known in
its general character as we can know the timber of our present
forests. But that for the greater part of the Laramie period there
also existed at no great distance a large amount of elevated land,
there can be no doubt. The deposits are chiefly siliceous in the
southern districts, and argillaceous in the northern, but the nature
of their deposition points unmistakably to the existence of large and
turbulent rivers, that fell into the quiet sea and brought down from
areas of rapid erosion immense quantities of silt corresponding to
the nature of the country over which they flowed in their course.
Where these elevated sources of this abundant detritus were lo-
cated is one of the great problems for the present and future geolo-
gists to work out.

The author points out that the apparent impossibility of referring
the Laramie group to either the Cretaceous or the Tertiary is not
the fault of the investigators, but of the facts; for the real disagree-
ment is in the organic forms and the nature of the deposits, so that
omniscience itself could never harmonize them with the forms and
deposits of other parts of the world: in other words, the Laramie
fauna and flora have been developed under physical conditions so
nearly unique that it is extremely improbable that they obtained
elsewhere on the globe at the same time. And even supposing
such a coincidence possible, if the Laramie invertebrate forms are
the modified descendants of antecedent marine forms, there is no
probability that the conditions at any other point on the earth’s sur-
face could be so nearly identical with those obtaining there, that
precisely the same modifications would take place to adapt the
marine forms to the brackish-water habitat. The chances are there-
fore infinity to one against the existence of other beds that shall

SEPTEMBER 23, 1887. |

contain an invertebrate fauna identical with that of the Laramie
group.

With regard to vertebrate remains, this objection does not apply ;
and, could they be made to harmonize with themselves, they might,
perhaps, be trusted to some extent as indices of synchronism in
widely separated localities. But, as shown by Cope, they do not
thus agree, for the Laramie forms include genera that are re-
garded as characteristic of Cretaceous, and others that are regarded
as characteristic of Tertiary strata. This should surprise no one.
The law that has been laid down by paleontologists, that the same
epochs in geologic time produced the same living forms, is contrary
to the now well-established principles of geographical distribution,
according to which the earth is subdivided into a large number of
faunal areas more or less clearly marked off one from another.

The peculiarity of this principle, which is of most importance to
paleontology, is that these territorial subdivisions represent faunas
not merely different from one another, but showing different de-
grees of biologic development as development is supposed to have
gone on in the animal kingdom. Every one knows that the fauna
of Australia belongs to an undeveloped type, being marsupial in
aspect so far as its mammals are concerned. The types of South
America are lower than those of North America, and the latter
lower than those of Asia and Europe. If all the present faunas of
the globe were buried under its soil, it is clear that it would not only
be impossible to harmonize the deposits of different continents, but
that the inference now freely drawn by paleontologists, that the
less developed forms demonstrate their existence at earlier epochs,
would lead to grave mistakes and be generally false. New Zealand
is now in its age of birds, while the Galapagos Islands are still in
that of reptiles, or the mesozoic age.

The difficulties in the way of geological synchronism arising
from the geographical distribution of organisms are not lessened
when we pass from the vertebrate fauna to the flora of the Lara-
mie group; for, taking the present flora of the globe as a crite-
rion, we find that the geographical distribution of plants is more un-
even than that of animals. Floral realms are more numerous and
distinct than faunal realms; and the more serious obstacle, that
some areas furnish types representing less developed floras than
others, exists here, as in the case of animals. The proteaceous and
Mmyrtaceous flora of Australia may be regarded as rudely corre-
sponding to its marsupial fauna. Hence, although the vegetable
fossils of the Laramie group are especially remarkable for their
great abundance and variety, Mr. Ward concedes that the age of
the Laramie group cannot be proved by its flora alone.

The more particular comparison and discussion of the Upper
Cretaceous or Senonian, Laramie, and Eocene floras is introduced
by a table covering 72 pages, and giving the geographical and
stratigraphical distribution of every authentic species from these
formations. The discussion concludes with the statemei- wat the
Laramie flora as closely resembles the Senonian flora as it does
either the Eocene or the Miocene flora. But this does not neces-
sarily prove either the Cretaceous age of the Laramie group or its
simultaneous deposit with any of the Upper Cretaceous beds. The
laws of variation and geographical distribution forbid us to make
any such sweeping deductions. With regard to the first point, it is
wholly immaterial whether we call the Laramie Cretaceous or
Tertiary, so long as we correctly understand its relations to the
beds below and above it. We know that the strata immediately
beneath are recognized Upper Cretaceous, and we equally know
that the strata above are recognized Lower Tertiary. Whether this
great intermediate deposit be known as Cretaceous or Tertiary is
therefore merely a question of a name, and its decision one ey or
another cannot advance our knowledge in the least.

The synopsis concludes with notes on the various localities where
the Laramie plants were collected, and 35 double plates, with 139
figures.

Types of the Laramze Flora. (U.S. Geol. Surv., Bull. No. 37.)
By LESTER F. WARD. Washington, Government. 8°.

THIS rather bulky bulletin is supplementary to the preceding
synopsis. The 139 figures are reproduced on 57 octavo plates,
and are accompanied by critical comments, and descriptions of the
new genera and species.

SCIENCE:

151

NOTES AND NEWS.

ON Tuesday the 2oth, in the presence of the secretary of the
navy, the naval committee of the House of Representatives, and
many representatives of the army and navy of this and other
countries, an exhibition was given in New York Bay of the destruc-
tive capabilities of the Zalinski pneumatic dynamite gun. The
results of the tests made at the time prove conclusively, that, with
the present experimental and necessarily imperfect gun, a shell con-
taining fifty-five pounds of explosive gelatine may be thrown with
accuracy a distance of one mile, and exploded at the proper
moment for producing the maximum of destructive effect. The
target used was the two-masted schooner ‘Stillman,’ eighty tons’
burden, late of the United States Coast Survey, but recently con-
demned, and reserved to be used in torpedo experimenting. She
was anchored 1,980 yards from Fort Lafayette, where the gun was
stationed. After two trial-shots with blank cartridges, a loaded
shell was fired, which struck the water a few yards short of the
target. The explosion threw a column of water nearly a hundred
feet into the air, and the concussion jarred the vessel so that the
mainmast was broken off a few feet above the deck. The next shot
struck the vessel at or below the water-line, with an instantaneously
destructive result. The schooner was lifted up, fairly torn apart
amidships, and the rails were under water in less than thirty
seconds, only the foremast and its standing rigging being left in
view. All around this floated small fragments of the schooner. In
each of these instances the gelatine was exploded by percussion in
this way: a small electric battery was affixed to the side, the only
thing lacking to start its operation being moisture. A thin piece
of blotting-paper kept this out. When the shell was immersed,

‘the moisture admitted generated sufficient electricity to fire a de-

tonator of fulminate of mercury, which exploded the gelatine.

— R. Nahrwoldt has made a series of experiments on the gradual
loss of electricity of electrified bodies (Vaturw. Rundschau, ii. No. 35).
In an essay published in 1878 the author proved that the discharge
takes place by means of the particles of dust suspended in the air.
These are electrified and then repelled from the electrifying body.
The result of these experiments led Lodge and Von Obermayer to
their method of clearing rooms from smoke. Later on, it was shown
that a wire of platina made red-hot by electricity electrified the sur-
rounding air, although it was almost free of dust. For this reason
Nahrwoldt resumed his experiments. He found that electricity was
discharged through a point only in dusty air. He made his experi-
ments in an air-tight glass shade the sides of which were covered
with a thin layer of glycerine. After the dust was precipitated on
the sides of the glass through the action of the electricity, the dis-
charge was very slight. As soon as a wire of platina was electri-
fied, and became red-hot, electricity was again discharged through
the point. Nahrwoldt concluded that this was due to particles fly-
ing from the red-hot wire. This conclusion was proved to be cor-
rect by the occurrence of platina in the deposits on the sides, and by
the loss of weight of the wire. These experiments led him to the
conclusion that air free of dust cannot be electrified statically.

— We learn that the pecuniary loss attending the publication of
the Zoologischer Jahresbericht has been so great as to make it
necessary henceforth to restrict the scope of the work. Systematics
and faunistics are to be excluded. The /ahresberzcht is published
under the able editorial supervision of Dr. Paul Mayer of the Naples
Zodlogical Station, and has now reached its eighth year. Four
heavy volumes have hitherto been issued each year, giving accurate
and comprehensive summaries of all the zodlogical work done dur-
ing the year under review. The /akresberzcht is one of the most
difficult, most expensive, and at the same time most valuable,
zoological serials ever undertaken. About thirty reporters (e/e7-
enten), distributed among different countries, have been employed

in collecting, summarizing, and arranging this vast work. The task

has been faithfully and most thoroughly accomplished, and we
most earnestly hope that the number of subscribers may be at once
increased to an extent that will insure its continuance on the same
broad plan that has hitherto been followed. The /ahresberdcht
has become our vade-mecum ; and we can but regard it as a seri-
ous misfortune to have its scope narrowed. Are earnest zodlogists
in this country willing to see such a work as this interrupted for

152

want of proper support? There are probably not more than half a
dozen subscribers in this whole country. Let those who appreciate
the importance of the work encourage it by giving it a place in their
private libraries.

LETTERS TO THE EDITOR.

*," The attention of scientific men is called to the advantages of the correspondence
columns of SCIENCE for placing promptly on record brief preliminary notices af
their investigations. Twenty copies of the number containing his communication
will be furnished free to any correspondent on request.

The editor will be glad to publish any queries consonant with the character of
the journal.

Correspondents are requested to be as brief as possible. The writer’s name is

in all cases required as proof of good faith.
Romantic Love and Personal Beauty.

YOUR reviewer has pointed out that the light and flippant char-
acter of Mr. Finck’s style prevents his book from being taken as a
serious contribution to science. He has neglected to show that
the unintermitting vulgarity of its tone will cause it to have an ex-
ceedingly vicious effect upon society, if it should chance to have
any effect at all. Romantic love is one of the few thoroughly
beautiful and elevated things that civilization has yet produced. It
is such a means of refining and subduing the brute in man, and of
bringing him a little nearer to the angels, as is no other emotion
which he has yet developed. When a young man and a maiden
are in love, they walk in a very heaven, not of happiness only, but
of delicacy and purity. The poets and the worthy novelists have
invested the subject with a warm glow of high feeling and noble

aspiration, and even the unworthy novelists have not dared to.

drag it wholly in the dust. It has been reserved for a Mr. Finck
to write of it in a tone which is not equalled by the commonest
and most vulgar of the daily newspapers. It is incomprehensible
that a book which is offered to decent people to read should con-
tain such a sentence as this, to take an instance at random: “ Has
Mr. Spencer ever kissed a girl?”’ Romantic love is a precious
possession which the race has been slow to gain. It is possible
that it is like a delicate flower, which cannot be handled by the
botanist without losing its beauty and its fragrance. At all events,
it is of immense importance, if it is to become the subject of
scientific investigation, that it should not be vulgarized and cheap-
ened at the very beginning by such a manner of writing as this.

Mr. Finck’s book contains a number of very clever explanations
of minor points in biology and psychology. His main theses are
not new; and, as Mr. Conn has pointed out, it is premarital court-
ship, and not love, that he has shown, or that can be shown, to be
very modern. His explanations, while they are extremely ingenious,
always need to be carefully examined, and are seldom fortified by
his reasons. His conception of how delicate a task it is to establish
a relation of cause and effect may be gathered from the following
passage: “Large numbers of tourists in Switzerland constantly
suffer from headache, simply because they fail to have the head at
night in the centre of the room, where it ought to be, because the
air circulates more freely there than near the walls.” His literary
style is on no higher level than his taste and his logic. He speaks
of “a blue-blooded youth and a ditto maiden,” and of “knocking
the bottom out of the theory of Alison, Jeffrey and Co.” So utterly
regardless is he of the common decencies of language, that it is
impossible to attribute it to the proof-reader when we find him
saying that one thing is the “ very antipode ” of another.

The second part of Mr. Finck’s book is, if possible, worse than
the first. His ideal of beauty is as poor and mean as his ideal of
romantic love. That kind of beauty which can be heightened by
pomades and powders for the complexion, and by surgical appli-
ances for straightening noses, is not the kind which our descendants
will strive to perpetuate. There is something peculiarly gross and
offensive about all such topics to a right-minded person; and to
find them discussed in fullest detail in a book which is expected
to influence scientific opinion on a subject of profound im-
portance, is certainly one of the most curious freaks that a non-
insane maker of a book has yet been guilty of. Mr. Finck
pretends to be an admirer of expression as well as of mere animal
beauty. But a fine and noble expression is absolutely incompatible

SCIENCE.

[ WoL, X<amiNior242

with such absorption in the details of the toilet as he recommends.
It is impossible for a girl to practise ‘making eyes’ before her
looking-glass, as he urges her to do, without showing the marks of
that vacancy and insipidity by which “the faces of many fair
women are utterly spoiled and rendered valueless.’ He quotes
this other fine passage from Ruskin: “ There is not any virtue the
exercise of which even momentarily will not impress a new fairness
upon the features ;’’ but he is of too insensitive a fibre to know that
there is also not any vanity or vice that will not in time ruthlessly
destroy whatever is admirable in the face of man or woman. H.

[WE think our readers will find the above letter interesting as
containing the strongly expressed views of a woman belonging to
that class which believe they have discovered worthy substitutes
for some of the attractions which have proved successful hitherto in
bringing into existence this much-discussed romantic love. — ED.]

Grindelia squarrosa.

A VERY interesting find was made here recently by one of the
High School boys, who is making botany a specialty. The ‘find’
consisted of several specimens of a composite plant unknown here
before, but which has been decided by several competent authori-
ties to be Grzuzdelza sguarrosa, a plant said by Coulter to occur
“from the Saskatchewan to Texas, and westward to the Sierra
Nevadas.”

The three or four specimens were found in a pasture, at some
distance from the railroad. How they came there is the question
which is puzzling those who have seen them, as their true home is
said to be so far to the westward. I have heard that a few speci-
mens were once found in Ottawa in this State, but cannot vouch
for the truth of the report. L. N. JOHNSON,

Evanston, Ill., Sept. 14.

The Term ‘Topography.’

THE significance of the term ‘topography’ has undergone a
rapid specialization in modern scientific usage that is noteworthy
as an indication of the increased attention incidentally given to the
study of physical geography. A conspicuous improvement in the
methods of geographic teaching in England has been commented
on in recent numbers of Sczemce, and attributed to a growing recog-
nition of the economic bearing of geographic facts. Mr. Keltie has
shown that an entirely novel method of treatment, and a rapid ad-
vance, have resulted from this altered attitude. There is, however,
tacit admission, to which Mr. Davis calls attention (Sczence, x.
No. 240), that the nature of the relations of ‘ physiography’ to
human development is but vaguely understood, and that progress
is at present retarded by uncertainty of aim. Mr. Davis effectively
points out the difficulty: that for teaching-purposes there has not
been sufficient inquiry into the principles of geographic evolution,
“for topographic development is the key to a real understanding of
the forms of the land about us;” that “ physiography now is ina
low position,” and “most immature”’ as a science in itself. Gen-
eralization is as yet difficult, or of questionable profit: “attention
should be directed instead to the minute morphology and syste-
matic development of individual topographic forms.” Physiography
must make the same order of advance that biology has made out
of the old natural history, with its aimless catalogues of wonders,
and study the “simpler type-forms carefully before attempting to
understand the complex associations of forms that make up a
country or a continent.” Mr. Keltie recognizes that it is “typical
aspects of the earth’s surface,” not “ extraordinary features,” that
will serve the purposes of the new geography; “but,” as Mr.
Davis points out, “he does not say where we shall find a scientific
and sufficient investigation of the forms that are chosen as ‘typical
aspects. There is no such investigation. The absence of any
thorough and consistent physiographic terminology at once points
out the immaturity of this study. . . . ‘The Sixth Annual Report
of the Geological Survey,’ just issued, contains, for example, a
number of illustrations that will be seized upon when the proper
text-book appears. The choice little woodcuts on p. 229, en-
titled ‘ Topographic Old Age’ and ‘ Topographic Youth,’ are par-
ticularly good, but these terms will certainly be new to most
readers.” No “scientific and sufficient investigation” of the evolu-

SEPTEMBER 23, 1887.]

tion of geographic forms has been attempted, and there is no
“thorough and consistent physiographic terminology ;” but syste-
matic incursions have been made into this field by meteorologists,
by engineers, and notably by American geologists. The geologist
is not, for example, chemist also, because chemistry aids in geo-
logic investigation, but here, from necessity, the geologist is also
physiographer. The effect of this orderly work upon the study of
physiography, though in the nature of clearing away outlying ob-
structions to adjoining interests, is seen in the scientific beginnings
of a terminology that may be assembled from the writings of Gil-
bert, Davis, Chamberlin, and others.

The term ‘topography,’ it would seem, has, within a few years,
been appropriated as a general designation for those superficial
forms which have recently received attention as both the product and
the promise of so much in geologic evolution. The surveyor made
little progress in hill-drawing until it was seen that many obscure
geologic facts bore, in surface form, a typical expression that could
be readily interpreted. As the director of the Geological Survey
said recently, in his testimony before the ‘Joint Commission’ for
the investigation of the scientific bureaus of the government, “ the
most fundamental connection of geology is with topography, be-
cause geology has for its purpose, either directly or remotely, the
explanation of topography. . . . All the vigor and energy which
are devoted to topography in modern times arise from its geologic
relations.” To meteorology, and to the broader problems of en-
gineering, surface shape, or surface shaping, also bore complex
relations ; to engineering it set examples; to meteorology it was
a known quantity in an intricate problem; to geology it was the
beginning and the end. There were recognized ‘a topography of
the land and a topography of the sea,” and, in each, characteristic
type-forms, both of erosion and of deposition. The type-forms of
erosion were seen to vary with the nature and grouping of mate-
rials, so that each class of rocks had its own distinctive topographic
expression. The recognition ofa ‘topography’ of coal, and of the
allied natural products, in the mining regions of Pennsylvania, is of
acknowledged economic importance ; and glacial history is traced
more successfully through its splendid topographic record than
through the composition characteristics of its drift.

Obviously a distinctive term is needed here, in the more dis-
criminative modern geology and allied sciences: from recent
inquiry into usage, on this point, I cannot but think that ‘topog-
raphy’ has been adopted in this definitely restricted sense, and will
hold. For example, in a standard treatise on roads, by Lieutenant-
Colonel Gillman of the Engineer Corps, this occurs: “In laying
out important roads, and especially in locating streets, in thickly
settled districts, it is well to place contour curves upon the map.
These curves indicate at once, to the practised eye, the topography
of the country which they embrace.” Dr. Woeikof, meteorologist
and professor of physical geography in the University of St. Peters-
burg, devotes a chapter in his recent book, ‘Die Klimate der
Erde,’ to the ‘ Variation of Temperature with Altitude, with Par-
ticular Regard to the Effect of Topographic Form on Tempera-
ture Changes,’ as interpreted in Sczence of the same number with
Mr. Davis's letter, cited above. In the newer geological reports
abundant instance may be found of this use, for example, here and
there: ‘“Changein the character of the rocks produces corresponding
change in the topography ; the soft mica-schists have been worn by
erosion into broad parks and valleys, intervening with rounded
peaks and ridges of harder strata;” ‘the main topographical fea-
tures of this country are the results of erosion, aided and modified
by faults and folds, to which volcanic rocks have added many inter-
esting features, mainly by the resistance which they offer to denuda-
tion ;”’ ‘“‘the contrast of hard and soft has determined the main
features of the topography. . . . These have been made to give ex-
pression to the main facts of the geologic structure ;’’ “ the former
[a beach line] crosses the irregularities of the pre-existent topog-
raphy as a contour, the latter [a fault] as a traverse line ...a
system of shore topography, from which the ancient lake has
receded, is immediately exposed to the obliterating influence of land
erosion ;” “ the topography was not too rough on the one hand, nor
so low and flat as to be submerged, on the other ... as the
peculiar character of the topography of the moraine varies through
a somewhat wide range, and sometimes simulates very closely the

SCLEN Cie

153

surface aspect assumed by other formations, the study of topo-
graphical types becomes one of essential importance . . . a topo-
graphical species absolutely impossible of formation by drainage
agencies.’ Upon the first appearance of the proof-sheets of the
new topographical survey of Massachusetts, a year or more ago,
the work was commented on editorially in Sczence, in part as fol-
lows: ‘The curious Hopper of Mount Greylock, with its deep-cut
valley, is one of the best marked topographic forms in the State
. . . what is now needed is the local examination of minute topo-
graphic details so that we may learn to see and appreciate the forms
about us at home; and nothing will lead sooner or surer to this
long delayed end, than the publication of good topographic maps.”

I do not think that the term has acquired this association through
exceptional fitness of its own, though small objection can be urged
on etymological grounds, but because it was in the field, and out
of serious employment. Originally it meant place-description, or,
as applied to surveying and maps, simply detail, or the art of por-
traying it. Early topography was, however, singularly unobserv-
ant of surface configuration. When the important bearing of
surface expression on geologic problems came to he recognized,
related topographic work became more appreciative of this addi-
tional feature in place-description. Maps of the novel sort were
at once recognized as the only completely topographic maps, and
to their distinctive characteristic, finally, the term ‘ topography”
got exclusively to apply.

From this point of view, then, in a map, the expression given to
the vertical element, whatever the symbol employed, is ‘topog-
raphy;’ the drainage, —stream, pond, or marsh, —the obvious
agent, destructive or constructive; and the ‘culture,’ an incident.
The term is still in use in the old sense, among surveyors and
engineers ; and it may, perhaps, continue so, without confusion, as,

in turn, a technical meaning. WILLARD D. JOHNSON.
Templeton, Mass.. Sept. 13.

A Living Glacier on Hague’s Peak, Colorado.

FOuR years ago, Mr. W. L. Hallett of Colorado Springs, while
crossing an ice-field on Hague’s Peak, stepped into a crevasse
which had been hidden by a thin layer of recent snow, and nar-
rowly escaped a serious accident. The crevasse suggested to him
that this snow-field was really a glacier. Since that time the place
has been visited by only five or six persons. Among these were
Mr. Chapin of Hartford, Conn., a member of the Appalachian
Mountain Club, who is said, during last July, to have pronounced
the formation to bea true glacier. I have recently examined the
region, and the following is a brief statement of the principal facts
observed : —

From Long’s Peak northward to Hague’s Peak is a line of noble
mountains thirteen thousand or more feet high. The numerous
tributaries of the Big Thompson River take their rise in snow or
rather ice fields which are situated in basins or mountain cirques
far above timber-line near the summit of the range. The upper
parts of the valleys of these streams were all glaciated in ancient
times, and are bordered by moraines which in some cases extend
down into Estes Park. This region is marked on the maps of
Clarence King as having formerly been glaciated, but no moraines
are shown on Hayden’s large map of Colorado. Several of the
ancient glaciers are shown by the moraines to have been more than
ten miles long, and some of them were at least fifteen miles. Near
the post-office marked Moraine on Hayden’s map, the moraines
are well developed as ridges having steep slopes on each side,
They are from a few feet up to about two hundred feet high, and
in places are perched on the mountain-sides five hundred feet or
more above the bottom of the valley. Going up these valleys, one
sees a succession of terminal moraines, showing that there has
been a gradual recession of the ice.

The ice-field on Hague’s Peak is in a basin roughly semicircular
in shape, situated on the east face of the northern spur of the
mountain. The basin is small,—hardly one-fourth of a mile in
diameter, — and is at the head of a deep valley which drains east,
and then south-east, into the Big Thompson. This valley was
once occupied by a large glacier, as shown by moraines, by a num-
ber of glacial lakelets in the bottom of the valley, and by mou-
tonned bosses of rock. Just below the ice-field a broad moraine ex-

154

tends across the whole valley. Having climbed to the top of this
huge pile of rather angular blocks, you suddenly discover a small
lake between the moraine and the ice! The moraine, in part at
least, is the barrier that holds back the water of the lake. Except
at the outlet of the lake, this moraine rises above the present level
of the ice, —in some places fifty feet or more, —and therefore
must have been formed at a time when the ice stood at a much
higher level than now. The lake is rather less than one hundred
yards in diameter. It is locally known as the Frozen Lake, being
covered by a weak, granular sort of ice even in midsummer.
Floating on the surface of the lake were several blocks of quite
solid ice from six to twenty feet long, and rising from two to twelve
inches above the water. These little icebergs have evidently
broken off from the thin edge of the glacier, which ends in a small
cliff from one to three feet high.

The material of the ice-field, though somewhat granular on the
surface, is not a mass of snow, but a clear and compact ice. This
was determined by observation at the crevasses, and by cutting into
it. The surface is deeply furrowed by rains and the water of the
melting ice running down the slopes.

The principal crevasse is curved so as to be nearly parallel with
the shore of the lakelet, and is not far from one hundred feet back
from it. On the upper side of the crevasse the plane of fracture is
nearly at right angles to the surface of the ice, but on the lower
side the ice has been tilted over; so that, while the crevasse is about
ten feet wide at the surface, it is very narrow at the bottom of the
ice. The lower parts of the crevasses were filled with snow and
broken icicles, ice stalagmites, etc., so that only from twenty to
thirty feet can be seen. How much deeper the crevasses really are,
is not known; but, from the size and shape of the ice-field, it does
not seem probable that the greatest depth of ice exceeds fifty or
seventy-five feet. Above the main crevasse were two others large
enough to be seen through the recent snow. The number of cre-
vasses is greatest north of the centre of the glacier, where there is
a more direct exposure to the sun.

Standing at the lake, you see the glacier sloping steeply down
toward you from the south, the west, and the north, somewhat like
the seats in a theatre. This causes the ice at the north end of the
glacier to flow south, while at the south end it is flowing in nearly
the opposite direction. As a result of this peculiar shape, the
glacier is somewhat wider than it is long; but it is not exactly
symmetrical. On the north side of the valley the ice reaches about
two hundred feet farther down the valley (eastward) than on the
south side, and it has also extended a tongue of ice southward
across the outlet of the lake, so that the outlet is by a subglacial
‘channel. This tongue of ice is nearly one hundred feet wide, and
rises six or eight feet above the lake. Some interesting questions
suggest themselves as to the cause of the ice having receded farther
on the shady side of the valley, the effects of different exposures to
the sun, the relative protection afforded by different-sized moraines,
inequality of snowfall on the opposite sides of the valley, ete. The
depth of recent snow made it impossible to properly examine be-
neath the edges of the moraines to determine if there is beneath
them any ancient and now quiescent ice. Omitting these more
‘complicated questions, it seems probable that the extension of that
tongue of ice across the outlet of the lake is, partly at least, caused
by a more rapid rate of flow of the ice on the north side of the val-
ley, where there is a more direct exposure of the sun. The slopes
of the ice are everywhere steep. In places they would be con-
sidered steep for the roof of a house.

It was of special importance to determine if moraines are now
being deposited. I saw no evident moraines and only two small
pieces of rock on the ice anywhere. The cliffs around the head
of the glacier are nowhere very high, in places rising only a few
feet above the ice, and they are surprisingly bare of loose frag-
ments. It is just as if the greater glacier of the past had removed
all loose material, and the process of weathering has not yet had
time to split up the rock and furnish fresh déérzs. Some of the
bowlders in the lake come near the surface, and may be a
recent terminal moraine. Perhaps a careful examination when the
ice is bare of recent snow may reveal moraines now forming; but,
if so, they must be small, since there is so little moraine-stuft being
‘cast upon the ice.

SCIENCE.

[Vot. X. No. 242

There are several other ‘snow-fields’ in the vicinity of Long’s
Peak which show some signs of glacial flow. Stakes ought to be
set on the surface of these ice masses (for they are all ice rather
than snow), and their motions accurately observed.

The view from Hague’s Peak is one of the finest in the Colorado
Mountains. A trip to this mountain and its small but interesting
glacier will rank well with the ascent of Pike’s, Gray’s, or Long’s
Peaks. The height of Hague’s Peak, as given by Hayden, is 13,832
feet, only 439 feet lower than Long’s Peak. The glacier is approxi-
mately in north latitude 40° 28’.

From the name of the discoverer, this is known as the Hallett
Glacier. G. H. STONE.

Colorado Springs, Sept. 13.

Condensed Milk.

A CURSORY examination of several cans of preserved milk, that
were offered for sale in this State at a price below the actual cost of
manufacture, revealed the fact that much of this milk was of poor
quality, while some was unfit for use; hence, in the early part of
this year, a thorough investigation was made of all the brands of
canned milk on sale, and samples were sent to Prof. H. B. Corn-
wall, of the John C. Green School of Science, Princeton, for analy-
sis. His report, here printed, is of sufficient importance to warrant
its publication in advance of my annual report to the Legislature.

Wo. K. NEWTON.
Office of the Dairy Commissioner of New Jersey,
Paterson, N.J., Sept. 17.

DURING the first five months of this year a number of samples
of condensed milk were received from the State dairy commis-
sioner, and analyzed by the writer, with the result stated in this
paper. All but two were condensed with the addition of cane-
sugar. While the milks condensed without sugar may be better
for infants and invalids if not kept long in cans, yet they are not
certain to remain sound, even in the sealed cans, for any length of
time, and are therefore of doubtful value.

The milks preserved with cane-sugar, on the other hand, if care-
fully prepared, keep well in cans, and do not spoil very rapidly
even after the cans are opened, provided the can is kept in a dry
place and no water is mixed with it. For use with tea and coffee,
and for making puddings, custards, etc., they are an excellent sub-
stitute for fresh milk.

The very large amount of cane-sugar necessary to preserve
them renders them, however, an unwholesome food for infants,
and they can by no means be regarded as a good substitute for
fresh milk in this case.

The directions on the cans in general state, that, by adding a
certain quantity of water, the condensed milk can be made to re-
semble cream ; by adding more, it becomes the equivalent of milk.
This can never be true: cream contains from three to four times
as much fat as the average condensed milk, and no dilution with
water will make such milk resemble cream except outwardly. It
would be well if all makers would follow the course pursued by a
few, and, while giving such directions as are necessary in using
the milk for making desserts, etc., recommend that the advice of a
physician be obtained as to the diet of infants. Condensed milk
preserved with sugar can never be a fit food for infants.

In some instances very misleading statements as to the quantity
of fresh milk condensed to produce the contents of the preserved
milk cans were made. It will be seen that the condensation is
very rarely more than threefold, and usually somewhat less.

A well-made condensed milk, with cane-sugar, should show
very little if any undissolved sugar, and should be of a nearly
white color, having but a faint yellowish tinge. It should have no
cheesy taste or smell, and should dissolve readily in about four
parts of cold water. Especially should it dissolve without showing
separated flocculent particles of caseine or curds.

METHOD OF ANALYSIS.

To insure thorough mixing, the entire contents of the can were
emptied into a porcelain vessel and thoroughly stirred; 40 grams
of the milk were weighed out and diluted with water to 100 cubic
centimetres, so that 5 cubic centimetres of the diluted milk corre-
sponded to 2 grams of the condensed milk.

SEPTEMBER 23, 1887. |

In the case of sample No. 33, which curdled even when slightly
warmed with water, and would not mix well with cold water, the
portions needed for each determination were separately weighed
out.

Total Soléds.— Of the diluted milk a measured volume was
diluted again with an equal volume of water, so that 5 cubic cen-
timetres corresponded to 1 gram of the condensed milk, and then
5 cubic centimetres were dried in a flat-bottomed platinum dish (40
millimetres in diameter at the bottom), at first on the water-bath,
then in an air-bath at 100° to 105° C., until the loss of weight
after drying half an hour was less than 2 milligrams. Compara-
tive experiments showed that under the above conditions the dry-
ing was as thorough as if the milk had been first coagulated with
acetic acid, while the method was more convenient. At first 2
grams of milk were used, but the result was the same, while the
drying was far more tedious.

Duplicate determinations were made. The greatest difference
was 0.29 per cent; usually it was much less; occasionally the re-
sults were identical.

Ash, — The dried milk was ignited in the same dish at a scarcely
visible red heat, until no black carbonaceous portions were left.
In one case the chlorine in the ash was determined by Volhard’s
volumetric method, and found to be 9.52 per cent.

Fat. — Rather thick white filter-paper was thoroughly extracted
with ether in a Soxhlet apparatus, and 5 cubic centimetres of the
diluted milk (equal to 2 grams of the condensed milk) dropped on
a nearly square strip of this paper large enough to conveniently soak
up the milk. To avoid the formation of candied spots, the milk was
uniformly spread over the paper by brushing with a small, narrow
strip of the same sort of paper. After drying in the air, the paper
was rolled to a loose cylinder, and dried in an air-bath at roo C.
for about an hour and a half. The fat was then extracted with
ether for two hours in a Soxhlet apparatus; and a second extrac-
tion was made, lasting from an hour to an hour and a half longer.
The second extraction usually yielded less than 4 milligrams more
of fat, and often none at all. The fat determination was made in
duplicate. The greatest difference was 0.2 per cent; usually only
a few hundredths of a per cent.

At first, extraction after drying with sand was employed, but
comparative tests showed that the paper method yielded better re-
sults in less than half the time.

It is a very difficult matter to extract all of the fat from a dried
condensed-milk residue in any other way than by using paper, es-
sentially Adams's method. Blotting-paper would not be as good
as the thinner filter-paper, because there is so much cane-sugar
present in some of the milks.

Casezne and Albumen. — Ritthausen’s method was followed, es-
sentially as described by Dietzsch (Waihrungsmzttel und Getranke,
Zurich, 1884); 5 cubic centimetres of the diluted milk, equal to 2
grams of the condensed milk, being further diluted with water to
4o cubic centimetres, and then treated with enough of a solution of
copper sulphate (6.35 grams in 100 cubic centimetres of water) to
insure quick separation of the coagulated albumen after stirring, 15
drops being added in almost every case. Then enough of a 5-per-
cent solution of caustic potash was added to render the mixture
nearly neutral to blue litmus-paper ; an excess of the potash being
avoided, as this would hold some of the caseine in solution and
render the filtrate turbid. In most cases 5 drops was found to be
a proper quantity. After settling clear, the fluid was decanted into
a weighed filter 11 centimetres in diameter, previously dried at 100°
C. The precipitate remaining in the beaker was stirred up with
20 to 30 cubic centimetres more of water, and finally the whole of
the precipitate was brought on the filter, the washing being con-
tinued until 100 cubic centimetres of liquid had passed through the
filter. This filtrate was preserved for the milk-sugar determina-
tion. The precipitate and filter were weighed together, after dry-
ing at 100° C., until the loss of weight after drying half an hour did
not exceed 1 milligram. The filter and precipitate were next in-
cinerated in a porcelain crucible, and the weight of the residue de-
ducted from the weight of the dry precipitate: the difference was
the weight of the albumen (including caseine) and fat; and after
deducting the weight of the fat the percentage of the albumen
(caseine) was calculated. S. W. Parr (Amer. Chem. Journ., vii.

SCIENCE:

155

p. 246) has shown that the results by Ritthausen’s method are
“nearly, if not quite correct.” It is probably the best method for
condensed-milk analysis.

Mzlk-Sugar. — This was determined in most cases by treating
25 cubic centimetres of the filtrate just mentioned with 15 cubic
centimetres of Fehling’s solution (68 grams of caustic soda and 187
grams of tartrate of potassium and sodium in 500 cubic centime-
tres of water; 34.64 grams of copper sulphate in 500 of water ;
the two solutions being mixed at the time of using them combined
as Fehling’s solution) in a porcelain dish resting on wire gauze over
a Bunsen burner. The contents of the dish were rapidly brought
to boiling, and then boiled for four minutes, after which the liquid
was filtered through a filter 6 centimetres in diameter, and the pre-
cipitated suboxide of copper was washed, chiefly by decantation in
the dish, with about 40 cubic centimetres of water, which was also
passed through the filter. As little of the precipitate as possible
was brought on the filter. The filter was then dried and burned,
the residue dissolved in a little nitric acid, this acid poured into the
dish to dissolve the suboxide of copper, and the solution evaporated
with a little sulphuric acid until all nitrous fumes were expelled.
The solution was then diluted with water and the copper deposited
electrolytically in a small platinum dish. Rodewald and Tollens
(Berichte, xi. 2076) have shown, that, when milk-sugar is treated
with Fehling’s solution as above described, the weight of copper
multiplied by 0.763 equals the weight of milk-sugar present. They
worked with asbestos filters, and certainly the paper filter does re-
tain a very little of the copper in the Fehling’s solution ; but a blank
test showed that the filter used in these examinations of condensed
milk ret.ined only 0.0009 of a gram of copper; so that the above
factor, 0.763, was used in calculating the results.

Cane-Sugar was obtained in every instance by deducting the
weight of the remaining solids (milk solids) from the total solid resi-
due of the dried milk.

GENERAL OBSERVATIONS.

The following tables, I. and II., give the results of analysis of the
milks according to the method just described. The last column,
headed ‘ Times condensed,’ indicates the number of volumes of the
original milk that were condensed to one volume. The figures in
this column are obtained by dividing the figures representing the
percentage of milk solids by 12.5, which is assumed as the average
percentage of solids in the original milks. Hehner (4zadysz, iv. p.
44) has calculated the condensation by dividing the percentage of
milk solids not fat by 9.3, the assumed percentage of such solids in
cow's milk. The figures thus obtained would differ in the case of
our samples by less than 0.2 per cent in any instance. The per-
centage of fat in the original milk is naturally obtained by dividing
the figures representing the percentage of fat in the condensed milk
by those representing the condensation. Although No. 21 cannot
be regarded as made from a milk originally very rich in fat, yet
there is nothing to indicate that any of the samples were made from
skimmed milk.

A word or two seems proper with reference to the proportions
of fat and caseine. The average percentage of caseine in cow’s
milk is variously given by different authorities, but is probably
about 0.4 per cent greater than that of fat, as the writer has calcu-
lated from figures representing a very large number of analyses
given in the ‘ First Report of the New York State Dairy Commis-
sioner,’ p. 58. It was stated, moreover, by Wigner (Anadysv, iv. p.
48) that some of the caseine was decomposed during the conden-
sation of milk with sugar, and it would therefore seem that the per-
centage of caseine in average condensed milk should at all events
not greatly exceed that of the fat. In the writer’s analyses it falls
slightly below. The caseine and albumen reported in many of the
analyses quoted in the New York dairy commissioner's second re-
port, pp. 152-154, are very largely in excess of the fat; exceeding
it, for instance, in four out of many cases by the following figures
respectively : 8.1, 6.07, 8.24, 7.72 per cent.

There seems to be but one explanation of such a result, and that
is, that the condensed milks were made from partially skimmed
milk, without regard to the fact that the percentage of fat actually
present in the condensed milk may not be below the average.

Hehner (/oc. cz¢.) found two samples of @ certain brand*of con-

156

densed milk with 11.73 and 11.34 per cent of caseine and 7.19 and
6.98 of fat, respectively, and calculated that they were made from
milks containing originally 2.5 per cent of fat; but he hesitated to
call them skimmed. Judged by the above standard, they give cer-
tain indications of being skimmed.

Hassall’s analyses of condensed milk cited by Hehner show in
general greater condensation than those in this paper, but the aver-
age percentage of caseine is 16.85; of fat, 10.27; and here, again,
skimming is certainly to be suspected.

TABLE I.
Condensed Milk with Cane-Sugar.

Percentages,
oo
. ob a a
z, < ; eal ee 5
as] p I so]
5 | 3 & si) cet A
n of =} a f=) Oo. °
oe “ os 7) f ie) ex 2
tS) g 2 a 2 oi a 3 i 3g g
5 G = a i a = a Br
2 | 2 a Ss) = < S) S | s a
20 28.75 8.90 8.71 11.08 1.62 40.04 30.31 3.67 2.42
2U 25.83 8.25 10.40 13.63 2.01 39-88 34-29 3.01 2.74
26 25-91 9.14 9.17 13.09 1.86 40.83 33.26 3-43 2.66
27 31.45 8.78 8.21 11.43 1.70 38.43 30.12 3.64 2.41
28 23.91 8.94 9-45 12.60 1.85 43-25 32-84 3-4 2.62
29 27.17 9.22 8.22 11.98 1.77 41.64 31.19 3.70 2.49
30 25.00 9.88 8.92 12.58 1.85 41.77 33-23 371 2.66
32 25-49 8.89 9-51 13.05 1.97 41.09 33-42 3.33 2.67
33 28.70 IO 22 8.52 16.74 1.81 34-01 37-29 3-43 2.98
35 28.77 11.06 7-97 15.53 2.40 34.27 36 06 3-74 2.95
36 27.44 9-66 9.24 35-17" 1.82 16.67 - - -
37 29.83 II.17 10.07 15.44 2.31 31.18 38.99 3.59 3.11
38 23-45 I-14 12.20 13.78 1.99 37-44 39-11 3-57 3-12
41 25.63 10.54 8.89 13.06 1.89 39-99 34.38 3.83 2.75
Aver-
age..| 26.95 9-69 9.25 13.38t 1.92 38.82t | 34.26 3-54 2.74
* See ‘Special Remarks,’ below. + Excluding No. 36.
TABLE II.
Condensed Milk without Cane-Sugar.
Percentages.
Ge]
a mt = Q
re s f ape 5
E S) = a a2) cs)
a as oo ao) a a
wn ay 3 irl fe) 8
S 5 EE oa @) ie B
é s a Aa | 4 =e | se il =
A 5 lex is) = < a es a
34 63.25 10.72 10.08 13-79 2.16 36.75 3.64 2.94
40 64-09 9:35 IT.75 12.68 2.13 35-91 3.25 2.87

The results given in the second New York report (doc. czt.) for’
condensed milk with sugar are as follows :—

Average. Minimum. Maximum.
Water.....--se-c0 eenn cence cree 25-43 15-45 30-08
Caseine and Albumen............ 12.15 8.20 18.96
TIEN? 4, a Aogonoe ganSedoaT G00 50000000 10.78 5-96 17-01
IWMIWES EIFS og coandd60 Hoos oOnONS 13.48 10.11 17-77
Cane-Sugar = -
AS Mosooncear ceos 1.62 3.62

SCIENCE.

[VoL. X. No. 242

The average amount of cane-sugar there given is lower than that
in the milks analyzed by the writer, and the latter therefore contain,
on the average, less milk solids, but among them are several milks
of excellent quality. The percentages of fat and caseine are the
most important, provided the milk be of good quality in other re-
spects.

SPECIAL REMARKS.

The following details are of interest in connection with the analy-
ses in Tables I. and II. : —

No. 21 was not in perfect condition; alittle gas escaped on open-
ing the can, and the milk was soon full of bubbles, caused by fer-
mentation.

No. 27 contained a considerable amount of undissolved cane-
sugar. ‘

No. 33 was so stiff that it would not run out of the can, had a
cheesy smell, curdled even when very slightly warmed with water,
was of a brownish color, and altogether was of inferior quality.

No. 34 was apparently in good preservation, but the metal of the
can was darkened inside, as if the tin had been attacked.

No. 36 was a dark brown, glutinous mass, with a smoky and
cheesy taste and odor. Apparently molasses or glucose had been
used in place of at least some cane-sugar in preparing it, as the re-
sult of the analysis indicates. The 35.17 per cent of ‘ milk-sugar’
could not have been pure milk-sugar, and the figures really repre-
sent only a reducing power equivalent to that amount of milk-sugar.

No. 38 was quite stiff, of a brownish color, and had a somewhat
cheesy smell.

No. 40 was not in perfect condition; the tin of the can was
darkened inside, and gas escaped on opening the can. The caseine
and albumen given in the table were calculated from the loss; an
actual determination by Ritthausen’s method gave 9.28 per cent of
caseine.

The other milks, not especially mentioned above, were in good
condition and well put up.

The percentage of ash of all of the milks, with the possible ex-
ception of No. 35, shows that the cane-sugar used was itself free
from excessive ash. H. B. CORNWALL.

Princeton, N.J., Sept. 14.

Chalcedonized Fossils.

A CURIOUS instance of the formation of rose chalcedony on fos-
sils was called to my attention some time ago. The fossils were
mostly specimens of species of Mond¢zculzpora, and often the whole
surface was covered with the ring-like chalcedonic formation. The
cells of the coral were in most cases still plainly seen, but the
whole outer aspect of the fossil was so changed as to make me
think for a time that it might prove to be an undescribed species.

Fic. 2.

xX 4.

Fig. 1 shows the general appearance of one of the best specimens.
Fig. 2 is an enlarged view of some of the rosettes. These corals are
not the only ones having this peculiar feature, for certain speci-
mens of Sz¢reptelasma present the same appearance. In many
cases the rosettes are remarkably perfect, and in places the transi-
tion from the ordinary appearance to that of the chalcedonized sur-
face is plainly seen. JOSEPH F. JAMES.

Miami University, Oxford, O., Sept. 5.

SCIENCE

FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 30, 1887.

IN A RECENT NUMBER of Sczence (x. No. 240) we had occasion
to refer to the beneficent law now existing in several of the States,
prohibiting the employment of color-blind persons on the railroads
of those States, and instanced Massachusetts as the first one to
enact such a law. Ata meeting of the Brotherhood of Locomotive
Engineers, just held in Boston, at which three thousand railroad-
engineers were said to be present, one of the speakers who ad-
dressed the audience was received with great applause, because, as
the chairman said in introducing him, “he secured the repeal of the
obnoxious color-blind law,’ —a questionable honor, if true; but, from
the best information which we are able to obtain, the law still exists,
although it has been modified in a manner which in no wise weak-
ens, but, on the contrary, rather strengthens, its practical working.
It is not to be wondered at that railroad employees object to a test
of their qualifications which may result in the loss of their positions,
but we imagine that any attempt to repeal the law would meet with
the determined opposition of the entire travelling public. The single
instance which occurred in Connecticut, where twenty-one railroad
employees were found wholly color-blind, is sufficient proof of the
necessity of such a law, and, instead of endeavoring to repeal exist-
ing laws, a strong and continuous effort should be made to extend
their provisions to other States.

DISTILLERY-MILK REPORT. — V.

THE attempt which Sczezce has made to obtain facts and opinions
in reference to the effect of distillery-swill upon the animals to
which it was fed, both as to their health and the wholesome-
ness of the milk secreted by them, has been measurably successful.
As was to have been anticipated, the opinions greatly outnumber
the facts. To any one who has had experience in similar inquiries
this will be a matter of no surprise. The difficulties surrounding a
mathematical demonstration of a problem so intricate as this
are well-nigh insurmountable, unless a thorough investigation is
made by skilful and competent men with all the necessary means
at their disposal. The fact that such an inquiry into the matter
under consideration has never been made, is very evident from a
perusal of the replies which Sczence has received from its corre-
spondents. These replies show that medical and other professional
men are divided as to the effect of swill-milk upon human beings,
although those who regard it as unwholesome food, and as injuri-
ous to those who consume it, greatly preponderate. The evidence
seems also to point to the conclusion that when distillery-swill is
fed to cows in connection with other food, and the cows kept in
properly ventilated and clean stables, with a sufficient amount of
exercise in the open air, it is not injurious to these animals. But,
on the other hand, it likewise appears, that as ordinarily fed to ani-
mals that are confined continuously in close and filthy stables, with-
out admixture with other food, the consequences, both to the ani-
mals themselves and to their secretion, are most pernicious.

The lack of definite knowledge on a subject of such vital interest
is greatly deplored by those who have expressed themselves on this
point, and it would seem that the time has come for a thorough in-
vestigation into the question at issue.. Until within a few years,
such an inquiry could only have been made by individuals or by
societies, in much the same manner as was undertaken by the New
York Academy of Medicine in 1858. It is manifest that the results
to be obtained in this way, valuable as they are for some purposes,
cannot definitely settle the question so as to satisfy the minds of
all. If the experimental stations established by both the national
and State governments cannot take up an issue of such general im-

portance as this, it is very much to be regretted. Believing, how-
ever, that such is their legitimate work, we shall endeavor, by every
means in our power, to bring about this desirable action on the part
of the stations, and would solicit the assistance, in the accomplish-
ment of this end, of all who have the necessary influence. We
shall also take the liberty of suggesting the general plan upon
which such an investigation should be carried out. This we do with
the greater assurance, because we have received most valuable sug-
gestions from Professors Law and Brewer, and Drs. Sturtevant,
Newton, Salmon, and other authorities, with whom we are in per-
fect accord.

One suggestion made by Professor Brewer, would, if carried into
practice, be a crucial experiment. He says, “ If you can convince a
few orphan-asylums and foundling-hospitals that it would be an
innocent and harmless experiment to feed half of their children on
distillery-swill milk, and the other on grass-and-grain milk, and
continue this experiment for several years, on different races of
children, in different localities, some of the swill-milk stables to be
kept as clean as other stables may be, by some process not yet an-
nounced, and carefully record and collate all the results, the question
would then be settled, in the usual acceptance of that term.” The
impracticability of such a plan no one appreciates better than Pro-
fessor Brewer. He therefore adds, “ Until some such plan for
‘positive evidence’ be secured, I suggest that you work at the
method of cumulative evidence, which has been so rich in conclu-
sions and beneficent in its results in other departments of sanitary
science.”

There appears to be some difference of opinion as to the exact
chemical composition of distillery-swill, under different circum-
stances; so that in carrying out any experiments the following
points, as suggested by Professor Law, should be ascertained and
recorded: (1) Is the swill fresh? (2) Has it undergone any other
than the alcoholic fermentation? (3) Is it uniform in quality as
supplied from day to day? (4) At what heat is it fed? (5) Does
it contain the simple original grain-products, — gluten, salts, etc.,
— or has there been added any chemical agent used in the manu-
facture of the alcoholic liquid? These inquiries are necessary, be-
cause the effect of swill when fresh may be entirely different from
swill in an acid or decomposed state, and the allegation has also
been made that injurious chemical agents are added. The tempera-
ture of the stables in which the experimental animals are housed
should also be recorded. In short, every condition which is liable
to enter as a factor into the problem should be intelligently re-
garded. Dr. Salmon advises that biological analyses of the milk
should be made, in order to determine the relative number of germs
as compared with milk from country pastures.

Hitherto chemical analysis has been mainly relied on in deter-
mining the quality of the milk; but, as Dr. Sturtevant remarks,
“while this is of assistance, it cannot alone determine the questions
relative to healthfulness. The question should be investigated
from the chemico-physiological standpoint: determine whether
substances not met with in ordinary foods can be traced through
the animal to the milk; whether bacterial germs exist in the food,
and whether such can be traced through the animal to the milk;
whether animals of a delicate nature will succumb, or show indica-
tion of disease, when fed with suspected milk, while other individu-
als thrive upon a milk considered of a fine quality. The develop-
ment of ptomaines in feeding substances through neglect of proper
precaution should also receive investigation, as a food otherwise
useful may at times become dangerous on the neglect of ordinary
precaution.”

Dr. Salmon does not regard the studying of milk from healthy
cattle, fed upon swill under favorable hygienic conditions, as of
much value towards elucidating the practical questions involved.
“« The question,” he says, “is not, whether a small quantity of cool

158

and fresh swill, fed with a suitably prepared ration of other articles
of food to healthy cows, having clean, roomy stables, and plenty of
exercise, i$ injurious to the milk, but it is this: Is wholesome milk
produced by feeding swill under the conditions in which it is fed in
practice, and must be fed in order to make it a profitable industry ?”
And finally, as Professor Rohé so well expresses it, “a scientific
solution of the question will not be furthered by prejudiced appeals
or unreasoning denunciation. Patient investigation, keeping in
view all circumstances of the question, and avoiding all one-sided-
ness in considering the matter, will alone bring about the object
desired.”

With these suggestions to those having in charge the experi-
ment stations, we leave the subject with our readers. We shall be
glad to record any observations or experiences which any one may
send us in the future; so that, even if public interest cannot be
sufficiently aroused to bring about a proper investigation of the
subject at the present time, it may, by a reminder from time to
time, be kept alive until the demand for such an inquiry becomes
irresistible.

SCIENGE.

[Vot. X. No. 243.

up to the present time, about two hundred students. To prepare
for the incoming class of 1887, therefore, it became necessary to
still further extend its buildings. It was thought advisable to more
than double the size of the wood-working shops, to increase facili-
ties for instruction in the other shops, and to secure fifty per cent.
more space for drawing-rooms. The freehand-drawing class alone,
this year, which includes students from several other courses not
included in the mechanical engineering departments, is expected to:
number over two hundred and fifty students, and occupies two
floors of the main building. The wood-working part of the estab-
lishment must accommodate between one hundred and one hun-
dred and twenty-five men, and the other shops as many more. To
meet this emergency, a new building was planned, into which all
the laboratory apparatus used in either instruction or research could
be removed ; thus giving ample space, for the present at least, for
the extension of the shops, by giving to them the considerable space
so vacated, while the remainder of the new structure could be de-
voted to the purposes of the departments of drawing and machine
design.

NortHERN Har oF CAMPuS FROM SAGE COLLEGE, CORNELL UNIVERSITY.

THE SIBLEY COLLEGE EXTENSION, CORNELL UNI-
VERSITY. ;

THE extraordinarily rapid growth of the Sibley College of Cornell
University since its re-organization and expansion of two years ago,
with the introduction of the course and department of mechanical
engineering under Professor Thurston, the extension of its shops
and department of the mechanic arts under Professor Morris, and
the formation of a carefully planned department of the graphic arts
under Professor Cleaves, —all under the general direction of Dr.
Thurston,—has compelled a corresponding extension of the ac-
commodations for class and lecture rooms, and especially for shops
and drawing-rooms. Two years ago, before this re-organization
had taken effect, the number of students taking this course was
very small, varying from twenty to thirty, perhaps. Last year the
freshman class, including mechanical engineers in regular course,
in electrical engineering, and special students with the resident
graduates, numbered above eighty. The number of applicants this
year is so large that the limit for the entering class is necessarily
fixed by the capacity of the shops and buildings, including the me-
chanical laboratory. It is probable that the numbers received in
all classes will exceed two hundred and fifty. When all classes are
filled on the basis now taken, the college will number something
over three hundred students.

But it was originally designed to accommodate very small
classes; and, notwithstanding the fact that within a few years it
has been more than doubled in extent, it could only accommodate,

The engraving on the next page shows the extent and arrangements
of the departments of the original group of Sibley College buildings.
The main building is seen at the front and left ; while beyond it is
the laboratory building, in which instruction in chemistry and
physics, and the principal part of the tuition and practice in elec-
trical engineering, are carried on. The dynamo-room is in the rear
of the main building of Sibley College, and contains a considerable
number, and hardly less variety, of dynamo-electric machines, used
in the course in electrical engineering principally. The lower floor
of this building is devoted to the purposes of library and reading-
room, museums, a lecture-room for the junior class, and the rooms
of the professor of the mechanic arts. The second floor contains
two large drawing-rooms, the lecture-room of the professor of me-
chanical engineering, and the rooms of the director. The third
floor is occupied by the rooms of the professor of drawing, —his
office, lecture-room, and two large drawing-rooms like those below.
All these drawing-rooms are expected to be occupied by the lower

‘classes ;* while the senior and junior-classes will have their drawing-

rooms in the new structure, now just occupied, which building will
also accommodate the resident graduates, professors, and others
coming to Cornell for advanced work in this department of the uni-
versity.

The accompanying plams present the arrangement of the build-
ing forming the last of the Sibley College extensions, and now just
completed for occupation at the beginning of the college-year 1887—
88. It is calculated to be of sufficient size to accommodate the ac-

SEPTEMBER 30, 1887. |

-cessions of the present year. Should the limit of numbers admitted

be increased another year, further extension will be again necessary.
‘This number (one hundred in the freshman class and about three
hundred total) cannot, however, be increased until the science
The physical laboratory, which was

laboratories are enlarged.

SCIENCE

159

courses, this limits the number which can be taken as that of the
entering classes in the Sibley College as effectively as the size of
the college itself. The number of students in the technical courses
of Cornell University this year is not far from six hundred, in the
university a thousand undergraduates.

SrpLtEy CoLLEGeE (FROM THE East).

ae

Fal

UI
my

Sistey CoLtLtEGE Dynamo anpD ELeEcTrRicaL Room.

‘built to give ample accommodation to the classes of three or four
years ago, and to work forty or fifty students, was last year called
upon to receive eighty, and must this year accommodate one hun-
dred. Further extension must precede any further increase in num-
bers received there; and as this is an essential part of the work of
the mechanical engineers, both of the regular and the electrical

Referring to the plans which are given below, it will be seen that
the whole upper floor, an area 150 feet long by 4o feet in width, is
devoted to drawing. The larger rooms are for the use of the lower,
and the smaller for the higher classes. Ultimately it is supposed
that the whole building may be appropriated to the work in machine
design and experimentation, the lower floor being used for the pur-

‘

160

poses of research, and furnishing the data used on the upper floor
in the designing of machines and structures. A room is set apart
on the upper floor for the use of the professor having direction of
the work, and taking charge of the building and apparatus. A
toilet and coat room is provided here, also, for the use of such
students as work on this floor. All these rooms are without other
finish than kalsomining on the walls; but this is of a light-buff
shade, and the ceilings are finished in oiled yellow pine, with the
heavy beams supporting it painted a blue-white. Thus the rooms
are all well lighted, and are exceedingly bright and cheery. All the
heating-pipes are placed overhead ; and it is expected that the ex-
perience already had with this arrangement will be here repeated,
and a thoroughly equable and pleasant temperature obtained. The
steam-pipes are also out of the way, and desks, tables, benches, or
other furniture can be placed at the windows, and no annoyance
felt from the uncomfortable proximity of the source of heat. Lock-
ers are provided for the drawing-boards, while the tables are con-

SCIENCE:

Mor ots ploy

the use of students working up their data, and another room for
special research, which will contain the balances, the few pieces of
chemical apparatus needed for gas-analysis, and:other work which
can best be done here rather than in the general and larger labora-
tories. The centre of the large room is reserved for a very heavy
testing-machine, which it is proposed to place there at some future
time.

At the left of the hall, and in the west end of the building, is a
group of rooms having special interest to the engineer engaged in
work related in any way to steam-engineering. The largest room
of the three is devoted to tests of engines, steam-pumps, and vari-
ous motors (steam, air, gas, and water driven), which will be set up:
permanently, and to the temporary mounting of small motors sent
in for test. A steam-pipe from the boilers in the adjacent apart-

ment, and connecting also with the larger boilers in the main part
of the college group of buildings, supplies steam to the steam-
Amongst the machinery here mounted

engines and steam-pumps.

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structed with drawers to take in the small apparatus ; and cases on
the walls will be arranged for T-squares and other instruments
either too large to be otherwise cared for, or, being the property of
the college, such as must be accessible to the instructors at all
times.

The lower floor is constructed and is finished very much like the
upper ; but it is appropriated to a most interesting and novel part
of the work of the college. In the middle of the building is a trans-
verse hall out of which opens the toilet and coat room. At the
right, on the east side of the hall, is a large room, of similar size to
the great drawing-room overhead, in which are placed all the
testing-machines for use in investigating the strength and other
properties of the materials used in mechanical engineering and con-
struction, including several tension-machines made by Rhiele, Fair-
banks, Olsen, and Brown & Sharpe, a transverse testing-machine
built by Fairbanks, an ‘ autographic recording testing-machine’ of
the Thurston pattern, designed by Bond, and built by the Pratt &
Whitney Company, two sizes of Thurston’s lubricant testing-ma-
chines, dynamometers of various types and sizes, and miscellaneous
apparatus of similar character. Farther toward the right, and at
the east end of the building, are a room for an instructor and for

are a straight-line engine built in the college workshops, a West-
inghouse engine, a Brayton petroleum-engine, an Ericsson engine
(given to the director by his friend, its distinguished inventor), vari-
ous makes of steam-pump of the best types in the market, and
other apparatus and machinery that properly fall into this class.

At the extreme west end of this floor are the boiler-room, in
which are the heating-boilers, which are placed there as a reserve
and for experimental purposes, and all boiler accessories. A spaceis.
reserved at one side for the large experimental boiler, which is pro-
posed to be used in making boiler trials on a larger scale, and for
investigations at pressures exceeding those commonly employed, and
ranging up to possibly five hundred pounds per square inch. The
second of these two rooms is appropriated to calorimetric investiga-
tions, including the calorimetric tests of the quality of steam, which
are to-day — more than fifteen years after their introduction in this.
country by Emery and Thurston, and abroad by Hirn — just com-
ing to be recognized as essential to any satisfactory determination
of the efficiency of boilers. The various forms of calorimeter now in
use will be set up here, and made useful both in regular instruc-
tion, as is all the apparatus of the laboratory, and in special re-
searches involving their use. Just outside this end of the building

SEPTEMBER 30, 1887. |]

is achimney seventy-five feet in height, and having a flue about
‘four feet square, which will be amply sufficient to carry away the
gases, and to provide good draught to all the boilers together. It is
given this height, partly to give a strong natural draught, such as
will be needed in investigations of the efficiencies of boilers at dif-
ferent rates of combustion, and to insure that the adjacent build-
ings, some of which may ultimately be carried up to a considerable
height, may not interfere with its action, and may not receive gases
blown from its top. The ceiling of these rooms, and floor of the
upper portion of the building, are given the standard ‘ mill construc-
tion,’ and consist of two floors of yellow pine, separated by an in-
termediate layer of cement. The floor is carried on heavy beams,
and left unlathed and unplastered ; the lower surface of the ceiling
being given an oil finish, and the beams painted as over the upper
apartments,

The structure is an example of a successful attempt to secure
large, comfortable, and well-lighted rooms at small cost. The
construction is as simple as possible, and the finish is of the most
inexpensive character. The result is thoroughly satisfactory, if
we may judge from the limited experience so far had with it.

CO-OPERATION ON THE CONTINENT OF EUROPE.

IlI.— Austria, ITALY, BELGIUM, SWEDEN, AND THE NETHER-
LANDS.

FROM Austria the answers to Lord Rosebery’s circular (see
Scdzence, No. 220) are based on the reports of the inspectors of in-
dustries. In Vienna there are several societies founded by work-
men, which, from small beginnings, have so developed that they
now afford facilities of cheap supply to many thousand families.
One of the most important of these associations is the Ardezter-
Spar-und Consumverein (Workmen’s Saving and Supply Associa-
tion) in Fiinfhaus (registered as an unlimited liability company),
founded in the year 1865 by fifteen working-men, and which now
contains about 3,800 members. Any person, without distinction
of station or sex, can become a member of the association. Nearly
half the members, about 1,600, belong to the class of working-men,
while the remainder are independent mechanics, tradesmen, small
officials, pensioners, widows, etc. Each member pays an entrance-
fee of 30 kr. to the reserve fund, and a subscription of Io fl. for a
share.

The members have the right of speaking and voting at the
general meetings, of procuring goods at the stores of the society,
and of claiming a share in the profits. In addition, each member is
allowed to make savings deposits to the amount of 500 fl. These
deposits yield an interest of six per cent, and can be withdrawn at
any time, together with the interest, on giving notice beforehand.
All goods bought must be paid for in cash.

At least five per cent of the net profits are paid to the reserve
fund, so long as the latter does not amount to twenty-five per cent
of the members’ capital. Out of the amount which remains, inter-
est at six per cent is paid on the shares, and, should any further
sum remain, it is paid in dividends to members according to the
amount of goods purchased by each during the year from the
society. The association is managed by the board of directors, the
council of inspection, and the general meeting. The board of di-
rectors, which is composed of the manager, the cashier, and the
goods manager, are elected for a period of three years from among
the members in a general meeting. The board of directors repre-
sents the society in its public dealings, and is charged with con-
ducting all its business affairs. The members of the board receive
a salary. The council of inspection, which is charged with watch-
ing over the management of the business by the board of directors,
consists of fifteen elected members, who receive no salary. The
general meeting has to consider and decide upon all matters of im-
portance which affect the society, and these meetings are held
quarterly. The accounts are balanced quarterly.

It seems that the governmental reports furnish no statistics
of the number of co-operative societies in the whole of Austria.
The only reliable information on the subject is found in a report
drawn up in 1881 by Dr. Hermann Ziller, editor of the Gevossen-
schaft, the organ of the General Union of Industrial and Provident
Societies in Austria, of which union he is the founder and director.

SCIENCE.

161

The subjoined table gives the number of co-operative societies in
lower and upper Austria, Salzburg, Tyrol, Vorarlberg, Styria, Co-
rinthia, Krain, the seacoast, Bohemia, Moravia, Silesia, Galicia,
Bukovina, and Dalmatia, in 1881 : —

JO 3a RAS Ene ce dope | dicen sao nee codons eennoceecatecOseUnee 1,129
Consumers’ societies (selling food, clothing, etc.)..-.....-.+.++ 235
Societies for assisting artisans in buying materials wholesale... 6
Societies for supplying agricultural implements, manure, etc... 14

Raw material and selling-depots..
Selling-depot................-.-
Artisans’ producing associations.....

sane oO oo (he
Agricultural producing associations.....-.. noon on 61
Bs tldingySacie tlesi tes )elstelstelelelatelaieisistelais)«laiel=l= Bue a. 5
Trading societies.... Io
Insurance societies... 2
WALA sos ocmootadedasedodscne abooodod Fosesosnoancesncsooces 9

Ws Ot el etetetetefaletatelelatetedetetststeteletelaletetstel<faleleistelatelststeteleieetstst=ia 1,515

All societies in Austria, of which the number of members is un-
limited, and which seek to benefit them by carrying on business in
common, are required, by a law passed in 1873, to be registered
either as limited or unlimited liability companies; the measure of
liability in the former case being fixed by their rules, which, how-
ever, do not generally make members liable for more than double
the value of their shares, and their responsibility terminates by law
after their membership has ceased for a year. In unlimited com-
panies the liability extends through the second year after the
expiration of membership. In 1881 something less than two-fifths
of the societies tabulated above were registered with unlimited,
and rather more than two-fifths with limited liability ; about one-
fifth were unregistered.

People’s banks are the most numerous co-operative societies in
Austria. As has been already seen in Dr. Ziller’s table, there were
1,129 of those associations in 1881. They were unequally dis-
tributed over Io different provinces; Bohemia having 425, Moravia
304, Galicia 140, and Lower Austria 128, the other provinces only

contributing in numbers varying from 2 to 33 to the total. About
half these societies were unlimited as to liability.
The people’s banks may be divided into two groups. The first,

the majority, are open to all classes, and their members are gen-
erally tradesmen, artisans, and farmers; the minority, which form
the other category, are open only to officials. The total number
of the latter kind of societies in Austria was 79, more than two-
thirds of which are in Lower Austria, the metropolitan province.
Only 696 societies made a return of the number of their members,
which amounted to 296,648, giving an average of 426 members per
society.

Austria has no co-operative societies for shipping or fishing. Of
the 61 agricultural co-operative societies, 59 are dairies and cheese-
farms. There is one co-operative association for bee-culture, and
one for hop-growing. In 1881 five co-operative building societies
existed. Their object was to provide dwellings for artisans. They
were not financially successful, and are now in liquidation.

In Italy co-operation has gained much ground since 1883,
though it has been known for twenty-five years. Before 1883 co-
operative institutions were hampered by legal restrictions. The
old commercial code did not recognize co-operative societies as
such, and they had to exist as limited liability companies. The
code of 1883, however, directly recognizes co-operative societies,
and regulates their administration.

Instances of various kinds of co-operative associations are now
to be found in Italy; but by far the most important, in regard to
their numbers, capital, and success, are the co-operative or
people’s banks (6anche popolarz). Co-operative stores (soczeta
co-operative di consumo) for the purchase and retailing of pro-
visions, fuel, and other necessaries of life, are fairly numerous and
successful among the working-classes in cities and towns. In
many cases their establishment is due to the initiative of friendly
and mutual-benefit societies, and sometimes the two objects are
combined by one association.

A law passed in 1870 exempts co-operative societies from the
payment of oc¢roz (or local entrance dues) ‘“‘upon goods provided
by them for distribution solely among their own members, for pur-
poses of benevolence, and for consumption at the homes of those
persons to whom the distribution is made.”

162

This statute led to a considerable increase in the number of co-
operative stores, and cases occurred in which the privilege was
abused ; and the real object of the society itself, or of individual
members, was to defraud the oc¢voz by introducing goods for pur-
poses of trade. In order to prevent similar occurrences, the con-
stitution of most co-operative store associations expressly forbids
the members, under pain of expulsion, from allowing strangers
to deal at the store in their name, or from selling the goods ob-
tained there.

No statistics respecting the number or capital of these stores
have yet been published.

Co-operative associations for purposes of production exist in
Italy under various forms, but they are not very common, though,
since the new commercial code came into force, their numbers
have increased considerably.

They are generally established by and limited to members of
the same trade or occupation, and exist at present among masons,
bakers, macaroni-makers, tailors, milliners, rope-makers, printers,
etc.

The associations for production are either intended (a) for the
purchase of raw materials, tools, etc., or (4) for the exercise in
common of the trade to which they refer, whether in a co-opera-
tive workshop or otherwise.

The fundamental difference between the German and Italian co-
operative banks consists in the varying degree of responsibility im-
posed on their members. While the German institutions are based
on the unlimited liability of their shareholders, the Italian banks
have, from the first, adopted the principle of limited liability. With
regard to this difference, Italian writers point out that the assump-
tion of unlimited liability would have deterred persons of means
and education, whose assistance at the outset was more indispensa-
ble in Italy than in Germany, from becoming members, and at the
same time the character and habits of the people themselves would
have disinclined them from entering any associations involving so
great a risk. ?

Some co-operative banks with unlimited liability have, it is true,
been established in Italy during the last few years, chiefly in Vene-
tia, at the suggestion of Dr. L. Wollenbourg, but these are only
about ten in number.

Industrial co-operative stores are very generally established in
Belgium, having as their main object the wholesale purchase, and
retail sale at wholesale prices, of the chief necessaries of life to the
working-classes, such as food, clothing, boots, linen, ete. Credit is
not usually allowed. A certain portion, sometimes as much as fifty
per cent of the profits, is set aside to form a reserve fund, the re-
mainder being shared amongst the members in proportion to the
amount of their purchases. A member, on joining one of these
societies, is bound to pay in, either at once or by instalments, a cer-
tain sum to the fund. Should he not have paid it up when the
dividend is declared, his share of the profits is withheld, and goes
to complete his contribution.

If a co-operative society has only a small capital, no store need
be opened ; but contracts are made with the local tradesmen, who,
in return for the society's custom, undertake to sell their goods at
reduced prices to the members. The usual practice in such cases
is for the members to buy their goods at the same price as the pub-
lic, receiving at the time of purchase a ticket on which is noted the
amount of their purchases. The owners bring their tickets at
fixed periods to the committee of the society, and receive in ex-
change their share of the percentages allowed by the society’s
tradesmen, and paid direct by the latter into the common.fund of
the society. Such percentages rarely exceed six per cent.

Sometimes, as a substitute for this ticket-system, the societies
distribute to their members counters or tokens, representing 5 fr.,
2 fr., 50 c., 20 c., such tokens being of a different color for each
tradesman. For instance: a member who wants to buy meat ob-
tains from his society a counter in exchange for his money, repre-
senting the cost of the meat he requires, which he receives from the
society's butcher at the ordinary rate, his purchase being entered in
a special register kept by the butcher. At the end of each month
the society's tradesmen receive from the committee the money
equivalent of these tokens. Supposing that the butcher brings
100 fr. worth of tokens, and has agreed to allow a reduction of 10

SCIENCE:

[Vou. X. No. 243

per cent, the society pays him go fr., and the 1o fr. percentage go
towards the society’s general dividend fund. ,

Both these systems obtain in large cities, where the working-
classes are much scattered; but provided the society has sufficient
capital, and can open one or more branch depots, the store system
is, in the long-run, more advantageous to the members.

One of the most powerful of the co-operative societies in Belgium
is the Flemish Vooruit Society, the centre of the socialistic move-
ment in Belgium.

This powerful association counts on its rolls 2,700 heads of
families, each of whom is bound to pay a trifling subscription an-
nually to the general fund. The Vooruit is the type and model of
all similar institutions in the other Belgian cities, is well adminis-
tered, owns premises of considerable extent, and has already at-
tained a good financial position. Attached to it is an admirably
organized steam-bakery, which sells bread at a somewhat lower
price than the other bakers can afford to do, the society guaran-
teeing to the bakery a minimum profit of at least ro c. the kilo-
gram. The profits of the bakery are divided as follows: a certain
portion is paid into the society’s own cazsse de prévoyance, or provi-
dent fund; another into a fund for the support of the workingmen
in their economical struggles and strikes; a third portion is devoted
to the formation af a library; and the remainder is divided amongst
the members, who receive the -profits in kind, that is to say, in
loaves delivered gratis, according to the margin of profit left to be
distributed. This division of profits is made twice annually, —at
the new year, and at the summer ‘ kermesse’ fair.

In June, 1885, the profits amounted to 43,738 fr. 20 c.; in De-
cember last, to 46,233 fr. 80c. This bakehouse may be regarded
as the mainspring of the whole Vooruit organization. It also has
a clothing-store, a pharmacy, and two newspapers.

The Vooruit Society intend to push the principle of co-operation
to its extreme limits, and has already very seriously crippled the
small retail dealers, who formerly enjoyed the custom of the Ghent
workmen.

Hitherto no official returns have been published showing the
progress of co-operation throughout the kingdom, but the present
government have recently re-organized an industrial department in
the ministry of agriculture, which, without infringing on the free-
dom of the societies, will furnish precise statistics respecting all co-
operative institutions.

With the exception of the cotton-manufacturing districts in the
provinces of Drenthe and Overijssel, there are no great industrial
centres in Holland, and, although there is a considerable amount of
manufacturing industry in the country, it is too scattered to favor
the formation of co-operative institutions; besides which, the
southern Catholic provinces of Brabant and Limburg appear up to
the present totally inaccessible to any such efforts, which are not
encouraged by the clergy. The General Workman’s Union of
Holland does not number more than 4,000 members, and the
efforts made to form regular trades-unions have as yet been at-
tended with but partial success. There are not more than a dozen
workmen’s co-operative stores in the entire country, and none of
them are of any importance.

Co-operative societies exist in certain parts of Sweden where
there are large industrial works in the country or in small towns,
the workmen subscribing together to buy the stock of supplies
wholesale, the same being then sold retail to the members at a
cheap rate. Any eventual surplus would probably be divided.

Co-operative stores also exist in Stockholm and other towns
copied from the English system. Mr. L. O. Smith, a capitalist and
member of the First Chamber, went over to England some years
ago, and studied the system as worked at Manchester and
other large centres of manufacture, and started the co-called
Arbetarering, or Working-Men’s Co-Operative Society, with stores
and eating-houses, or ‘steam-kitchens,’ as they are called, where
an ample dinner can be obtained for from about four-pence to four
and one half pence. These stores have been so far successful that
they have lowered the prices of the necessaries of life for the work-
ing-classes; but the hope of the founders was, that, when once
started, the workmen would take over the management of these
stores and keep them going. This hope, however, has not been
satisfactorily realized. The numbers frequenting the stores and

SEPTEMBER 30, 1887. ]

eating-houses have fallen off, and a tendency to go back to the
private shops has manifested itself.

There are numerous co-operative building-societies in Sweden,
but the system has not been extended to agriculture, nor, to any
considerable extent, to fishing.

MENTAL SCIENCE.
Healing Wounds by Mental Impressions.

PROFESSOR DELBOEUF of Liége is certainly the most versatile
of living investigators, when one considers the great originality and
suggestiveness of all the work he does. Ancient and modern lan-
guages, logic, general physics and physiology, and especially ex-
perimental psychology, have received his attention by turns. His
latest contribution is to therapeutics, and is a communication made
on June 4 to the Belgian Academy, which will probably turn out
to be of the greatest theoretical as well as practical importance.

We all are familiar with accounts of the wounds inflicted on
themselves by African dervishes ; but the statement which the nar-
rators always make, that the wounds do not inflame, or may even
be quite healed in twenty-four hours, probably often tends to dis-
credit their whole description in the reader's mind. Delboeuf’s ob-
servations now make these stories wholly plausible. It is well es-
tablished that in certain hypnotic subjects a suggestion made during
trance, that to a part of their body a cautery or a blister is ap-
plied, will produce, after due lapse of time, an actual vesication of
the skin. The hallucinatory feeling of inflammation produces in
these persons a genuine inflammation. M. Delboeuf argued from
this, that the feeling of pain, however useful in other respects, must
itself be an inflammatory irritant, and went on to infer that the
abolition of it from an actual wound ought to accelerate its healing.
He immediately thought of some hypnotic subjects whom he had
made anesthetic, and in whom he had often admired the rapidity
with which the marks of punctures and pinchings disappeared, and
proceeded to more systematic experiments, which, so far as they go,
seem to verify his hypothesis perfectly. Ona young woman whom he
could make insensible by suggestion, he marked two corresponding
spots, one on each arm, and made on each an identical burn with
the hot iron, announcing to the patient that the one on the right
should not be felt. The suggestion took effect ; and the next day,
when the bandages were taken off, and the left arm presented
a vesicled sore with an inflammatory area three centimetres in
diameter, the right arm showed only a clean scorch of the skin of
the exact size of the iron (8 millimetres diameter), without redness
or inflammation. On another subject similar results were obtained
with burns and blisters, the spots chosen being near together on
the same arm or on the neck. The experiments are few in number,
and ought to be multiplied; but the reader will immediately see the
vista which they open. Many of the results of the ‘ mind-cure,’ and
the strange fact, so long known, of opium controlling inflamma-
tions, are explained by M. Delboeuf’s principle. So is the popular
belief in ‘hardening’ one’s self by a little judicious indifference, and
neglect of one’s condition. Local pain is useful in leading us to
protect the wounded part from mechanical abrasion, — several of
M. Delboeuf’s experiments were inconclusive, because the subjects,
being insensible at the seat of their injuries, allowed them to get
scraped, etc.,— but it has the drawback of exciting reflex changes
of nutrition of an unfavorable kind. Anzsthetizing a wound pre-
vents these reflex changes. M. Delboeuf, suggesting to a very
sensitive subject that she should not feel a severe dental operation,
was assured by the dentist that what he found most extraordinary
in the whole performance was the absence of the salivary secretion
which would usually have accompanied it.

It is to be hoped that others, with better facilities for surgical
experimentation than a professor of classical literature like M. Del-
boeuf, will follow the example he has so happily set them.

BOOK-REVIEWS.
Technical School and College Buildings. By EDWARD C. ROBINS,
F.S.A. New York, Van Nostrand. 4°.
THIS handsome volume by a gentleman who holds a most hon-
orable position among architects and friends of technical education,
is inscribed to Professor Huxley. It isa treatise on the design and

SCIENCE:

163

construction of applied-science and art buildings, together with
a description of their suitable fittings and sanitation. Its value will
be apparent at once to every one, but especially to those professors
and instructors who desire to utilize the results of the best Euro-
pean experience in their laboratories, museums, and lecture-rooms.
Our medical and educational readers will recall the pains taken by
the trustees of the Johns Hopkins Hospital in Baltimore to obtain the
benefit of the best thought and ripest experience of the world in
relation to their work, and will readily understand how a book of
this scope relating to hospitals would have lightened their labors.

In this country we are now passing rapidly forward in the con-
struction of school-buildings and laboratories, and, whether they
are large or small, our desire is to have them as complete as
possible. It is here that European experience is so valuable, and
Mr. Robins has done us a great service in putting into a readable
form accounts of what has been done in the great schools and uni-
versities of Europe. His book contains full descriptions of such
famous institutions as the Bonn, Berlin, and Munich Chemical
Laboratories, Du Bois-Reymond’s Physiological Institute at Berlin,
the laboratories of the Royal Trade School at Chemnitz, the Wiirz-
burg Physical Institute, the Royal Technical School at Stockholm,
the laboratories at Charlottenburg, Zurich, Paris, and Strasburg.
Most of these are accompanied with cuts and diagrams, so that
their interior arrangements may be studied in minutest detail.
Following these come full descriptions of the laboratories at
South Kensington, Finsbury, Leeds, Bristol, Manchester, Hud-
dersfield, Oxford, Cambridge, and other English cities. The
chapters which follow on the fittings of these buildings are in one
sense the most valuable of all; for they give us the most detailed
information concerning the hundred and one minor things which
go to make up the perfect laboratory. They discuss and describe,
for example, the working-benches, demonstration-tables, drawing-
rooms, and so on. The heating, ventilation, and sanitation of ap-
plied-science buildings are also elaborately treated and profusely
illustrated. An appendix gives statistics as to the technical schools
in Great Britain, and we find there particulars as to the area occu-
pied by the buildings, their cubical contents, the cost of land, cost
of fittings, annual expense of maintenance, number of students, and
so forth.

Mr. Robins’s book is one which our investigators in physics, chem-
istry, and biology, our university architects, and our technical edu-
cators, cannot do without.

The Natural Hestory of Thought, in tts Practical Aspect from
zts Origin in Infancy. By GEORGE WALL. London, Triib-
ner. 8°,

THIs volume is in many ways a serious disappointment. Much
of this effect is due to the fact that the expectations raised by the
inviting titlepage are not in the least realized. Had these pages
appeared with a less ambitious title, one could have judged them
much more leniently than it is possible to do when considering them
as an attempt to write a life-history of the thinking process; and
this failure is made a hundred-fold more striking by the considera-
tion that science is in a far better position to deal with this problem
than ever before. At no very distant date it will be possible to
write a natural history of thought that shall be regarded as an il-
lustrious consummation of a most important movement, — the ap-
plication (as the term ‘natural history’ suggests) of the biological
point of view to the consideration of mental phenomena. Even now
a master-hand could sketch the outlines of such a comprehensive
undertaking. To blame Mr. Wall for not being such a master-
hand would be very unjust; but the same cannot be said when
fault is found with his lack of appreciation of the complexity of the
problem before him, and the important light which recent experi-
mentally discovered facts have shed upon it. The natural history
of thought can be far better gleaned from such a volume as Mr.
Tylor’s ‘ Primitive Culture,’ or (to make the comparison more im-
mediate) from M. Perez’s ‘ The First Three Years of Childhood,’
than from the pages of Mr. Wall’s book.

The volume is really a collection of educational essays, written
by an observant thinker, deeply imbued with the high pedagogical
value of moral training, and in particular with that portion of it
usually termed ‘religious,’ and appreciating here and there the

164

scientific aspect of these problems. He writes well, says some
things very forcibly, but repeats himself ad xauseam, crowds his
pages with commonplaces, and warps his exposition by an irrele-
vant and forced introduction of religious considerations. With
this survey of the strength and the weakness of the work, a glimpse
at its contents will be in order.

In the introductory chapters, on the nature and the function of
thought, the only point of note is, that, while the author fully recog-
nizes the significance of mind in animals for the understanding of
mind in man, he erects a barrier between them which the evolu-
tionary point of view demanded by the topic finds inconsistent.
This distinction between a lower and a higher field of thought, —
the two sharply defined, — while of advantage in accenting the pe-
culiarity of human evolution, is yet a decided hinderance to the tak-
ing of that general point of view which imbues mental evolution
with a larger interest. Hereupon follow a chapter on language,
and one on temper, containing much sound advice, but nothing
noteworthy. The next four chapters aim to justify the titlepage,
and deal respectively with babyhood, infancy, childhood, and youth.
The characteristics of each of these periods are pleasingly sketched ;
but the sketch is incomplete, and dwells in a disproportionate man-
ner upon the moral-religious side of the question. He believes in
the careful training of children from their first days; denounces the
practice of giving children to the care of ignorant nurses when they
are supposed not to be affected by their surroundings, but are
really forming habits of character for ill or good. A very apt say-
ing is the author’s remark that much that is learned in childhood is
not taught, and much that is taught is not learned. And the reason
for this he rightly finds in the fact that the child, in his own ac-
quisitions, discovers (by repeated trial and failure, it is true) the
natural mode of learning, with interest, timeliness, utility, and at-
tractiveness to help him; while the teacher too often accentuates
the artificiality of his task.

The latter half of the volume is devoted to chapters on the
habit of thought, on the control of the thinking faculty, on
memory, on judgment, on inherited capabilities, and on the
early training of the mind, and, to a much too large extent, is a
repetition of the first half of the book. In the chapter on in-
herited capabilities the writer exhibits a tendency which he has
in common with other thinkers of the day. The writers in ques-
tion are unwilling to dispense with the rich suggestiveness of the
evolutionary point of view, and the light shed upon mental phe-
nomena by the consideration of their physical substrata, but are
equally unwilling to give up the general theories — partly religious
and partly not—inculcated in their early training, but really in-
compatible with a consistent evolutionary treatment. The result is
at times a curious mixture. The arbitrary curtailing of the evolu-
tionary principle at one point, and an omission to carry to its full
consequence the general principle with which it is at variance, give
the appearance of a harmony which a deeper consideration shows
to be due, not to the fact that the two lines do not run in opposite
directions, but that they have been carefully kept from meeting.
Mr. Wall is afraid, that, if we admit that our moral and other quali-
ties are to some extent hereditary, this will loosen the bonds of re-
sponsibility, and do other moral havoc (a fear, by the way, not at
all justified by the history of morality, which clearly shows that
new duties follow in the wake of new knowledge), and so refuses
to accept the doctrine. In this attempted refutal he draws heavily
on preconception instead of on logic and fact. He boldly an-
nounces that the child before birth has no life at all, a statement
which no biologist will accept; speaks of ‘ phrenology’ as though
it were adhered to by scientific men; raises the will into a meta-
physical entity, and makes it dominate the reason (as though the
former were not a brain quality in the same sense as that in which
he acknowledges the latter to be); and refers what we usually call
inheritance to early educational influence and the different use of
faculties originally alike. In short, the chapter lamentably illus-
trates the hopelessness of serving two masters.

To leave the reader with a brief verdict of the book, let it be said
that it will be suggestive to those interested in this line of thought,
but cannot be recommended to those desirous of learning in a
short time the modern view of this problem; but with this verdict
one must remember the inherent difficulty of the problem, and the

SCLENEE:

[Vot. X. No 243

fact that the author pleads temporary blindness as an excuse for
the literary shortcomings of the work.

Public Debts. An Essay in the Science of Finance.
C. ADAMS, Ph.D. New York, Appleton. 8°.

POLITICAL economy in the United States appears to have fol-
lowed the order of development which Auguste Comte maintained
was the law of evolution for all science. We have first the ‘theo-
logical’ stage of science. Certain a przord ideas regarding the
nature of Deity serve as premises from which conclusions are
drawn regarding the phenomena of the industrial world. Carey
gives an example of this when he argues from the goodness of God
that the Malthusian theory cannot be true. Perry’s ‘ Text-Book
of Political Economy ’ is, however, the best illustration in current
economic literature of what is meant by the theological stage of
science.

The second stage in the evolution of science was called by
Comte the ‘metaphysical.’ A grzorz ideas still furnish premises
for conclusions, but they are not theological: rather are they hypo-
theses concerning the mind of man and the material universe,
which have been derived from processes of reflection. Facts are
made to square with theories ; and in case they cannot be made to
do this, why —“‘so much the worse for the facts.” The English
orthodox political economy was well described by Comte’s meta-
physical stage of science; and with the theological political econ-
omy this held sway—almost undisputed sway —in the United
States until some fifteen years ago. Its most distinguished repre-
sentatives declared that it was not eager for facts, because it was
in possession of general principles which explained the facts.

The third stage of knowledge Comte called the ‘ positive.’ This
deals with phenomena, grouping and arranging these. Comte’s de-
scription of the progress of science is, I believe, now allowed to be
faulty in its details, even by his most ardent admirers; but, on the
other hand, those who are not his followers can scarcely deny the
correctness with which he laid down certain main lines along
which human knowledge has advanced, from the time when
Socrates urged his disciples to give up empty speculations about the
heavenly bodies for an observation of human phenomena, up to
the present. The remarkable development of economic and social
science in the United States, now attracting attention in Europe
as well as in our own country, is due to a change of method and of
purpose, both admirably illustrated in the present work on public
debts. Professor Adams examines the facts of our economic his-
tory, and from them he draws conclusions respecting a: sound
financial policy for our Federal government, our States, and our
municipalities. The older method would have been to search our
history for facts to bolster up certain theories assumed before the
book was begun. A change in purpose is as important as one in
method. The change in purpose to which I allude is this: the
tendency of modern economists is to renounce the position of mere
advocates, — almost universally assumed by the older economists,
—and to search for truth, like other scientific men, regardless of
consequences. The old idea of the duty of an economist was that
he must combat heresy, whereas heresy is something unknown to
science. Clark’s ‘Philosophy of Wealth’ and James's ‘ Relation
of the Modern Municipality to the Gas-Supply, both of which have
been reviewed in Sczence, may be cited as other illustrations of the
most recent tendencies in American economics.

The scope of this admirable work can be most readily gathered
from the titles of the parts and chapters into which itis divided. Part
I. treats of public borrowing as a financial policy; Part II., of na-
tional deficit financiering; Part III., of local deficit financiering.
The opening chapter of Part I. first brings before the reader most
vividly the facts in regard to the growth of public debts; and it is
certain that few will read these pages without gaining a new idea
of the tremendous significance of this factor in modern industrial
life. Professor Adams opens his book with these words: ‘“‘ The
civilized governments of the present day are resting under a burden
of indebtedness computed at $27,000,000,000. This sum, which
does not include local obligations of any sort, constitutes a mort-
gage of $722 upon each square mile of territory over which the bur-
dened governments extend their jurisdiction, and shows a fer capita
indebtedness of $23 upon their subjects. The total amount of na-

By HENRY

SEPTEMBER 30, 1887.]|

tional obligations is equal to seven times the annual revenue of the
indebted States. At the liberal estimate of $1.50 per day, the pay-
ment of accruing interest, computed at 5 per cent, would demand
the continuous labor of three millions of men. Should the people
of the United States contract to pay the principal of the world’s
debt, their engagement would call for the appropriation of a sum
equal to the total gross product of their industry for three years;
or, if annual profits alone were devoted to this purpose, they would
be enslaved by their contract for the greater part of a generation.”
Chapters II. and III. treat of the political and social tendencies of
public debts, and reveal the power of analysis which distinguishes
Professor Adams in so high degree. I have particularly in mind
those passages in which he shows, that, while public debts do not
create class distinctions, they tend to render such distinctions per-
petual. The analysis of the public debt of the United States is
likewise specially interesting, for it reveals the surprising extent to
which that species of property, at least, is concentrated. It appears
that out of a total of $664,000,000 registered bonds, $410,000,000 are
held in sums of $50,000 and over. As Professor Adams pointedly
remarks, this shows the absurdity of those who would have us keep
our debt as an investment for widows and orphans. Chapter IV.
deals with industrial effects of public borrowing, and Chapter V.
answers the question, ‘ When may States borrow money ?’

The topics of the chapters in Part II. are these : financial man-
agement of a war; classification of public debts ; liquidation of war
accounts ; peace management of a public debt; payment of public
debts.

Part III. opens with a comparison of local with national debts,
and then passes on to an able account of State indebtedness be-
tween 1830 and 1850. Here, again, we see the difference between the
economist as a man of science and the economist as the advocate of
some powerful interest ; for example, of corporations. The advo-
cate will dwell on the evils of State enterprise when tried, and,
passing lightly over those of private enterprise in the same field,
will draw the contlusion that corporations can provide all things
better than public bodies like cities, States, or the Federal government.
Professor Adams, on the other hand, examines the entire field, con-
ceals nothing, exposes unfortunate failures of public undertakings,
and finds that in the Western States, whose history in this respect
he has most carefully studied, “whether judged from the stand-
points of results or of business probabilities, the State authorities
showed greater foresight and greater business conservatism than
individuals.” While Professor Adams does not wish the States to
undertake those kinds of business which are at all times subject to
the control of competition, and suitable for private enterprise, he
holds —and in this I fully agree with him —“ that it was a mistake
for the States to abdicate certain sovereign functions in favor of
private corporations, for the evils thus incurred have proved greater
than the evils escaped.”

The remaining chapters of the book deal with municipal indebt-
edness and the policy of restricting governmental duties as a cure
for public corruption and mismanagement. Going below the sur-
face of things, Professor Adams finds in the improper restriction of
governmental duties a chief source of bad government. It seems
to me that this is beyond controversy when the facts are all re-
viewed. The whole history of industrial society tends to show
that public duties can best be performed by public and responsible
agents. It was a great step in advance when States ceased to sell
their taxes to corporations and individuals, and to collect them
themselves. Another step will be taken when public bodies as-
sume the direct management of natural monopolies like gas-works,
water-works, and railways. Are not these natural monopolies
now a chief cause of disturbance and corruption? And how cure
the disease without removing the cause, and how remove corpora-
tions from the field of natural monopolies unless governments ab-
sorb the duties they perform? In accordance with this view, Pro-
fessor Adams very properly recommends the purchase of telegraph-
lines by the Federal government as a solution of the difficulty which
the treasury surplus occasions. We might then have as good a
telegraph service as our present postal service.

It is also in accordance with this general view that Professor
Adams recommends that treasury management be kept as free
from bank agencies as possible. Our experience in the United

SCIENCE

165

States seems to have demonstrated the wisdom of this. Before
Senator Sherman became secretary of the treasury, it was custom-
ary to place Federal bonds on the market through the aid of syndi-
cates of bankers, but he saved the United States over a million
dollars in the sale of four-per-cent bonds by dealing directly with
the public.

When I reviewed Professor Clark’s ‘ Philosophy of Wealth ’ for
Scéence, if my memory serves me correctly, I pronounced it one of
the ablest works ever written by an American on the fundamental
principles of politicaleconomy. I have elsewhere spoken of Pro-
fessor Adams’s monograph, ‘ The Relation of the State to Indus-
trial Action,’ as the profoundest study of the industrial functions of
the State in the English language, going far ahead of any thing Mill
ever wrote on that subject. I believe the present work on public
debts the best work, on the topic with which it deals, to be found
in any language. ;

In view of these facts, and others which might be cited, it does
not seem rash to venture to predict that within ten years the recog-
nized leaders of economic thought among English-speaking people
will be Americans. RICHARD T. ELY.

NOTES AND NEWS.

LETTERS have been received by the Montreal Gazette from
Dr. G. M. Dawson, in charge of the Canadian geological party ex-
ploring the Yukon district, to date of July 29. The party con-
structed two boats on Dease Lake, and left on June 3 to descend
the Dease River to its junction with the Liard. From that place
Mr. McConnell left with two men to descend the Liard. The re-
mainder of the party, with five Indians, ascended the north fork of
the Liard to Lake Francis, and, leaving their boats, crossed a long
portage of sixty miles to Pelly River, near the abandoned Hudson
Bay post of Pelly Banks, where they arrived on the 29th of July, all
well. From this place the Indians were sent back, and Dr. Daw-
son, with Mr. McEvoy and two white men, remained to construct a
boat and descend the Pelly to its junction with the Yukon. The
country north of Dease Lake proved somewhat varied in structure,
having a granitic nucleus with paleozoic rocks on its flanks ranging
from Cambrian to Carboniferous, and overlying Tertiary beds. The
old portage was found to be entirely disused, and the party had to
struggle through tangled woods, often knee-deep in moss. They
got over, however, with a month’s supply of provisions for the ad-
vancing party, and leaving stores cached for the returning Indians.
Being north of the latitude of 60°, they enjoyed almost perpetual
daylight, and the weather was good. The country is described as
possessing well-grown trees, and a great number of the ordinary
eastern plants were seen in flower, with some northern and western
strangers. Only the great growth of sphagnous mosses and the
abundance of reindeer moss give the country a different aspect
from that of British Columbia. No Indians had been secn, except
those the party brought with them from the coast. Though some-
what later in the season than he had expected to be, Dr. Dawson
had still good hopes of reaching the coast before the freezing of the
rivers, and the lines of section made by Mr. McConnell and himself
will give a good idea of the structure or resources of the country.

— Since starting the third series of his ‘Butterflies of North
America,’ Mr. Edwards has issued his parts in more rapid suc-
cession than before, a third number having appeared within the
year. As itis the most important iconographic work now issuing
in this country, and in artistic merit the peer of any that have yet
illustrated the natural history of America, we may once more draw
attention to it. Three species are illustrated, all from the Pacific.
coast, to each of which a quarto plate is devoted. Two of them,
species of Welztea and Argynnzs, have liberal illustrations of the
early stages, in which the points necessary to a good understanding
of the structure of the caterpillar at different stages are especially
well brought out. Considering that the insects had to be raised
thousands of miles away from home, from material specially sought
for, the success of Mr. Edwards is remarkable. The text in this
part is almost entirely made up of technical details ; and the third
plate, another of the multitudinous species of Avgyznzs, is inferior
in interest and in execution to the others, though the latter point
would hardly be noticed were it not in a work of such uniform
artistic excellence.

166

LETTERS TO THE EDITOR.

“x" The attention of scientific men is called tothe advantages of the correspondence
columns of SCIENCE for placing promptly on record brief preliminary notices of
their investigations. Twenty copies of the number containing his communication
will be furnished free to any correspondent on request.

The editor will be glad to publish any queries consonant with the character of
the journal.

Correspondents are requested to be as brief as possible. The writer's name ts

en all cases required as proof of good faith.
The Keweenawan System.

THE geologists interested in the discussions that have taken
place during the past eight years, concerning the relations of the
Eastern sandstone to the copper-bearing rocks of Keweenaw
Point, will remember that one of the important localities showing
that relation is situated on the Hungarian River. In company with
James Osborne, F.G.S., superintendent of the Rio Tinto mines in
Huelva, Spain, and William Beer of the Osceola Mine, I have re-
visited this locality. Owing to some changes in the bed of the
stream, we are able to trace continuously the unchanged Eastern
sandstone into the sandstone which has been baked and indurated
by the old lava-flow, and this baked sandstone into the lava-flow
or melaphyr itself, all forming a continuous exposed surface.
There is no fault or plane of separation between the sandstone
and trap, but the two are welded together into one mass. We
procured hand specimens, which in one piece show the contact
of the so-called ‘ Keweenawan’ system with the Eastern sandstone.
The contact is that made by a lava-flow with an underlying
sandstone, and is the same as the contacts so often observed
within the copper-bearing series, while the sandstone is observed
zn situ to pass beneath the melaphyr. It is my purpose to uncover
the contact junction still further, and to publish in time a paper
giving sections and detailing results at this and other localities at
which the contact has been observed. The above observations
sustain fully those made by myself in 1879; and in this case it
would seem to forever settle, beyond any possibility of doubt, that
the Keweenawan system and the Eastern sandstone are one and
the same continuous geological formation, but with the copper-
bearing rocks younger in point of time than the sandstone.

M. E. WADSWORTH.
Michigan Mining School, Houghton, Mich., Sept. 19.

Cause of the Purple Coloring of Pigweed-Leaves.

DURING a number of years past I have frequently been struck
by a prevalent purple coloring of patches in the leaves of pigweed
(Chenopodium album), the cause of which did not appear in any
surrounding conditions, and up to this summer it has remained to
me a mystery. A few weeks ago, however, while examining pig-
weed in search more particularly of plant-lice and leaf-miners, I
again noticed the leaf-coloring, and, upon turning up some of the
colored leaves, found on some of them larve of a leaf-hopper having
the same shade of purple as the colored spots on the leaves. Further
examination brought to light more of the larve, always on the
under surface of the leaf, and within one of the colored spots.
Some of the spots were found without any larve visible, indicating
that they travel about more or less, or that they had been disturbed
and had made use of their legs to get out of the way. A few days
later (July 25) I examined plants in another locality similarly af-
fected, and found, as before, the colored larvze associated with the
spots. On one leaf, I found close by the cast-off pupa-skin, which
still retained enough of the markings to show its relation to the larve
(an adult), which, on comparison, proved to be the Thamnotettéx
seminudus of Say,—a species rather common throughout the
country, but which, so far as I can find, has never been mentioned
in connection with its food-habits or larval life. No such coloring
results from the presence of plant-lice or other insects on the
same plant, and it seems quite certain that we may consider this
species as the cause of the peculiar phenomenon. I am not aware
that any explanation has previously been given. What kind of
secretion is injected into the leaf by the insect, when puncturing it
to obtain its food, and how that acts to change the color in the
plant-cells, are still open questions. It is evident that the simi-

SCIENCE.

[Vot. X. No. 243

larity in color of the spots and the larve are a protection to the
latter. HERBERT OSBORN.
Zool. Lab. Agric. Coll., Ames, Io., Sept. 20.

The Ordinates of Interest in Science at the American Asso-
ciation.

THE oscillations of interest in branches of science, and the rise
of, and rapidly increasing interest in, the more recent and some-
times the less difficult departments of learning, as well as the ap-
parent stagnation in the pursuit of science either locally developed
or affecting larger areas of population, have been often remarked.
It might seem reasonable to suppose that we might be able to re-
view with approximate accuracy the ebb and flow of the scientific
tide by watching the fluctuations of study in a representative and
national body of scientific workers; in such assemblages as the
American, French, and English Associations present us with, where
no discriminations are made, and students of all grades and in-
clinations are welcomed.

The obvious and feasible method to adopt for this purpose would
be to note the varying number of papers by different authors in the
several classes of study, and compare their aggregates distributed
over a number of years. This method we have used here, and yet
a little reflection will show that it is deceptive, and possibly in in-
stances leading to quite wrong conclusions. In the first place,
while the names of all scientific men in these countries, as a rule,
are found on the rolls of these associations, they may, for reasons
of convenience or personal comfort, or because they are asso-
ciates of smaller and more technically limited bodies, choose to
publish or read their papers elsewhere. In the second place,
many conscientious workers cannot enjoy the opportunity of at-
tending the meetings of the association, and, while authors in a
modest way, would be deterred from appearing upon so promi-
nent a platform, though they become members of the associa-
tion for the sake of enjoying its publications and the pleasure of its
recognition. Again, the ‘ambulatory’ habits of the association
may carry it this year into a hot-bed of geologists or in their neigh-
borhood, and in another move it to the hunting-grounds of arche-
ology; so that the method is defective as permitting just infer-
ences as to the fashion or currents of scientific investigations in the
association itself, and more evidently as regards the wholesale as-
pect of national scientific industry.

And yet, with all deductions made, there is a residuum of interest
in the results of this examination. They show how evenly in some
branches the ‘ show of hands’ at the annual meetings of the asso-
ciation has been kept up, in others how the interest has fallen under
the entire average for years, and again risen bya recuperative effort
much above it; they give an idea, at least, how some lines of stud
exceed others in their active participants in the association, and a
measure of the rising importance or popularity of others. —*

In computing the charts, the whole number of papers by differ-
ent authors in each department has been taken, and their percent-
age of all the papers read or accepted, by different authors, used to
fix the point of interest in the column corresponding to the number
of the meeting quoted. Where an author has prepared a paper on
two or more subjects, he is regarded as representing a unit of inter-
est in each; but where he has offered a number on one subject, his
activity entitles him to no further recognition, for our purpose, than
the single contributions of others. The points of interest are meas-
ured from the base-line, and are meant to be strictly comparable ;
so that the greater general height of one series exhibits the pre-
ponderating value of that study. The determination of the proper
reference of a paper is in some cases not easy, and the lines might
in many ways be changed by a redistribution of the papers, ac-
cording as the statistician thought the contents of a paper shifted it
to a different though allied topic.

Of course, the actual number of papers by different authors in
one subject may remain constant, while the percentage of interest
would show a decrease, from the re-enforcement of other depart-
ments and the consequent larger aggregate of individual papers
upon which to reckon. The most instructive conclusions, it seems
to us, are drawn from the relative position of the average line of
interest, in the different subjects, to the maxima and minima points

SEPTEMBER 30, 1887. |

and the line passing through them; thus showing at periods an
excess over the average, maintained for successive years, and at
others a deficit of interest equally prolonged, In many instances
the average line lies above the serial points for years, its position
being secured by intermittent displays of interest, pushing mo-
mentarily the point of interest to a place high above it, for the year
in which the display occurred.

For convenience of reference, the number of the meeting and the
place of meeting are here brought together : —
Saratoga.

Albany. 1g. Troy. 28.

1. Philadelphia. 10.

2, Cambridge. rr. Montreal. 20. Indianapolis. 29. Boston.

3. Charleston. 12. Baltimore, 21. Dubuque. 3o. Cincinnati.
4. New Haven. 13. Springfield. 22. Portland. 3r. Montreal.

5. Cincinnati. 14. Newport. 23. Hartford. 32. Minneapolis.
6. Albany. 15. Buffalo. 24. Detroit. 33. Philadelphia.
7. Cleveland. 16. Burlington. 25. Buffalo. 34. Ann Arbor.
8. Washington. 17. Chicago. 26. Nashville. 35. Buffalo.

g. Providence. 18. Salem, 27. St. Louis.

ATTENDANCE.

The marked feature of this chart is the striking rise in the last
five meetings, the only ones whose percentage is above the average,
with the exception of the 9th and roth. These meetings include
some remarkable assemblages, such as those that met at Boston in
1880, Montreal in 1882, and Philadelphia in 1884. The phenome-
nal nature of those meetings brought large numbers of the mem-
bers together, elicited enthusiasm, and excited public attention.
The Ann Arbor and Buffalo meetings did not continue, we believe,
this upward movement.

lenleal calor

at lea

PAPERS.

The papers contributed to the successive meetings, by which is
here meant only papers by different authors (except in cases where
one author has written in two departments of science), show a syn-
chronous rise with the attendance in the last meetings ; but, what
is more auspicious, they show an inclination upward from the first,
with slight relapses, indicating a prevailing desire among investi-
gators to bring, in some shape, their results before the audience of
the association. The papers for the eighth and ninth meetings are
low, however, though the attendance then is given as above the
average. The rise together of attendance and papers is a healthy
sign. It is assumed of necessity that the conditions for admission
of a paper are no less or more stringent than formerly.

Mathematics, as might be expected from its difficult and unpopu-
lar nature, has a low percentage of interest, 4.16. We do not know
how this compares with the percentage in other countries, but it
must be considered in connection with astronomy, and to some ex-
tent with mechanics, — studies of a mathematical habit. Mathe-
matics maintains itself fairly well near the average, rising and fall-
ing about equally, and in one part of the series running almost on
the line.

Astronomy has a high average percentage of interest, keeps
above the line of average during the first half of the association’s

SCraNG:

167

existence, but is pushed down in the second half by the inrushing
recruits to other subjects. This is well shown by the fact that at
the Boston (29) and Buffalo (35) meetings the actual number of
papers assigned to this subject were only one less in each case than
the number at the Washington (8) meeting, when the interest
reached its highest point.

Mathematics . ~--—-.Astronomy

Mechanics

The chart of mechanics shows that after comparative apathy and:
violent fluctuations the points of interest have started upward with
probably a significance as yet undetermined. The technical socie-
ties, engineering associations, etc., absorb the papers of the me-
chanical minds, and the recent accessions of papers may have some
reference to the condition of these bodies.

Natural philosophy and physics has a high percentage of interest,
and its points oscillate up and down over the average line with
quite even regularity. Its fascinating qualities and intellectual im-
portance will assure it a steady flow of support, though the later in-
dications would suggest that its percentage will be lowered in suc-
ceeding years, as it fails to reach the average for four years. In
this subject persona¥judgment and ignorance may have led us into
error, and papers assigned to chemistry might almost as justly
claim admission with this.

i

T 7) ]

75) 20) 25] cra

——— Chemistry

—— Physics

Chemistry everywhere claims attention, and each year its domain
and its explorers seem increased. Yet its average of interest is kept
up by spurts during the earlier life of the association, a settled
higher tendency becoming established only from the 23d (Hartford)
meeting, onward. The north-eastern cities seem to stimulate its
life in the association, and, generally speaking, it drops as the
meetings recede from the Atlantic area. This is less noticeable in
recent years, and indicates a wider dissemination of its professors.

Meteorology, which has assumed such first-class prominence in
practical affairs, and has attacked new problems formerly un-
thought of, shows a falling-away of interest in the later years of the
association, its average being held up by the tall developments in the
8th to the 13th meetings, when some enthusiastic workers attracted
attention to it, unopposed by the widening scope of other branches.
It seems to have reached a low ebb, and may show a dangerous
facility to disappear altogether.

The average percentage of interest in zodlogy is high, as might
be expected ; but it seems significant that its points lie beneath the
average line in the former part, and above in the latter part, of the
association’s history. A tendency is discernible, however, toward
a lower scale, as from both the 21st (Dubuque) and 29th (Boston)
there has been a falling-off, producing the slopes shown in the
chart. The sharp ascent in the 3d (Charleston) meeting was given

168

by eight papers in a total of thirty-four, but the relative interest de-
clined after this to a low ebb for eight or nine meetings.

Botany has not been a feature in the association until recently,
and its record shows a simultaneous increase in interest. It has not
oscillated widely above or below the average, and has been main-
tained by a band of writers who, while they permitted it to reach
extinction in the 11th (Montreal) meeting, have vigorously kept up
its respectability. The new and younger botanists have made
themselves felt, and it may be anticipated that in the next decade
its percentage will rise.

—--——Microscopy

—— Zoology ———— Botany
Microscopy has only in later years assumed any importance in
the meetings of the association, and in the United States it is only
in later years that the use of the microscope has been widely ex-
tended. Industrially, technically, in biological and botanical studies,
it is beginning to make itself recognized as the handmaid of busi-
ness and science. Microscopy is yet fitful and timid in its appear-
ances at the association, but these erratic fluctuations probably
precede a more even participation in its work.

Geology shows the highest percentage of interest (14.03), as
might have been expected, amongst the departments. The asso-
ciation itself was the child of a geological club; and geology in a
new country, abounding in new details, new material, new problems,
apart from its intrinsic value and fascination, attracts numerous fol-
lowers. Abundance of papers on this subject have always been
forthcoming, in this arena met the veterans of the science, and here
the everlasting quarrel over ‘taconic’ and ‘primordial’ has been
fought over again and again, with the confusion of less noticeable
collisions and the combat of less distinguished warriors. One

thing of interest is observable; i.e., that geology is losing its hold:
as with astronomy and other subjects, the growth of new de-
partments, the increase of papers in other branches, is forcing its
average down, though the actual numerical display of papers is
higher.

teology :_——- Palaeontology ----- Mineralogy ---—Lithology

Paleontology has a fair percentage of interest, has been quite uni-
form, but evincing a downward inclination, caused, as with other
topics, by the enlarging horizon of the society’s activities.

Mineralogy has an intermittent. and rather low pulse, but from
the 15th (Buffalo) to the 28th (Saratoga) meetings was in a rather
healthy state, and has since kept below the average. Its average,
indeed, has been sustained by the high percentages given in the
earlier meetings, and its general temper is debilitated.

SCIENCE:

[ Vou. X. No. 243

Lithology has barely an existence in the association. The
subject is new, its students few and scattered, and much of its ma-
terial absorbed in papers which are properly geological. Lithology

will undoubtedly enter more largely into public scientific discussion
in the future.

DIA nie

ia Pal abs
—- Ethnology

Ethnology and archeology have been the elements of disturbance
which have intruded numbers of papers in recent years, and brought
down the percentage of interest in other branches not sufficiently
recruited by new accessions. The significant coincidence in the
general aspect of these two branches of study shows their im-
portant development in the last ten years. They threaten the
supremacy of the older studies, both because of their popular
character, the interesting nature of their results, and the fertile
soil for anthropological investigation in our country.

And here we are suggestively reminded that a valuable analysis of
the association returns might be made to determine in what quar-
ters the scientific industry of the country is located. Finally, we
offer these observations, imperfectly and too hastily prepared, as a
contribution to the interest this meeting of the association should
excite. L. P. GRATACAP.

Archaeology

A North Carolina Diamond.

A DIAMOND weighing 4} carats and 873 milligrams was found
on the Alfred Bright farm in Dysartville, McDowell County, N.C.,
in the summer of 1886, by twelve-year-old Willie Christie, the son
of Grayson Christie, who was sitting on a box at a spring, and saw,
about two feet from him, what he termed ‘a pretty trick. He
picked it up and carried it home, where it lay on the shelf two
weeks before he gave it another thought. It was then taken to the
village grocer’s, John Laughridge’s, where various opinions were
passed upon it, until at last the conclusion that it was a diamond
was reached. It was then sent to Messrs. Tiffany & Co. for valua-
tion. It is quite perfect, but not pure white, having a faint grayish-
yellow tint. In form it is a distorted hexoctahedron with partial

twinning (See figures of two views). Its specific gravity is 3.549+,
and it measures Io millimetres in length and 7 millimetres in width.

This stone being more than an average find, the writer thought
it would be of interest to visit the locality, and while there in June,
1887, he fully authenticated all the facts of the finding. Dysartville
is sixteen and one-half miles from Morganton, twelve from Marion,
eight from Bridgewater, and four from Capt. J. C. Mills’s gold-mine.
A number of supposed diamonds, which proved to be zircon or
smoky quartz, have been found here before. No trace of garnet,
peridotite, or any of the associations of the diamond, were found
near the spot. The sediment at the bed of the spring was taken
out and carefully examined, as also the small hollows on the adja-
cent hillside. This diamond must therefore have been transported in
decomposing soil from distant higher ground in the vicinity, during
a heavy freshet. Its value as a gem, not counting any value its
American origin may attach to it, would be from about one hundred

to one hundred and fifty dollars. GEORGE F. KUNZ.
New York, Sept. 27.

Bee

FRIDAY, OCTOBER 7, 1887.

ACCORDING TO A Reuter’s telegram, dated Sept. 9, from St.
Paul de Loanda, Major Barttelot, who was left at the camp at
Yambuya, at the foot of the Aruvimi Rapids, with a garrison of
about one hundred men, has forwarded the following information
to Leopoldville concerning Mr. H. M. Stanley’s expedition : ‘‘ Major
Barttelot received news from Mr. Stanley, despatched about July
12, after he had made a ten-days’ march from Yambuya towards
the interior. Mr. Stanley was at that date still proceeding up the
Aruvimi, which he had found to be navigable up to a certain dis-
tance above the rapids. Here he launched a steel whale-boat
which he had brought with him, as well as several rafts manufac-
tured by the expedition, and which had been utilized for conveying
the heavy baggage. All the members of the expedition were in
good health, and provisions were easily procured in the large vil-
lages near the river. The country through which the expedition
was passing showed a gradual rise towards some high table-lands.
Another caravan of 480 men was following the expedition on the
left bank of the Aruvimi; the advanced guard, consisting of forty
Zanzibari, under the command of Lieutenant Stairs, being com-
posed of men lightly burdened, whose duty was to search for pro-
visions. Mr. Stanley hoped to arrive about July 22 in the centre of
the Mabodi district, and expected to reach Wadelai in the middle
of August, or even before. The advance had been so peaceably
accomplished that Mr. Stanley had instructed Major Barttelot, that,
should it continue so, he would shortly send him orders to follow
the expedition by the same route at the head of the one hundred
men left at Yambuya.” A later telegram, dated Oct. 2, from St. Paul
de Loanda, states that the further progress of the expedition was very
satisfactory. About July 25 the expedition had ascended the Aruvimi
to the elevated country belonging to the Mabodi district. The river
becoming too narrow, they left the rafts ; and the men for several days
had to carry a double burden of provisions. The steel whale-boat was
carried past the narrows, and again launched. Stanley calculated,
that, upon arriving at the summit of the table-lands giving shape to
the basin of the Aruvimi, the expedition would halt two days for a
rest, and would establish a camp there to be garrisoned by twenty
men, with a European officer. The districts traversed were tran-
quil, and little difficulty was experienced in obtaining provisions
from the natives. The progress of the expedition averaged twelve
miles daily. Tippo-Tip, in his last message, wrote that he was stil]
at his post at Stanley Falls, awaiting re-enforcements. He had
gained the good will of several neighboring ‘chiefs. Owing to the
disturbed state of the country, Tippo-Tip could not, as he had
agreed to, organize a revictualling caravan to despatch direct to
Mvutan Nsige, but he intended to do so as soon as possible. Dis-
quiet continued between Stanley Falls and the confluence of the
Aruvimi and the Kongo, and many villages had been pillaged. It
is believed that the garrison which Stanley left at Yambuya has
been forced to interfere to maintain order in the neighborhood. It
appears from all reports that Tippo-Tip, since he has become con-
nected with the Kongo Free State, has some difficulty in regaining
his former influence over his countrymen. The disquiet on the
Upper Kongo, to which reference is made in the second telegram,
probably refers to the ravages of the Arabs of Stanley Falls, who
extend their slave-hunting expeditions down the Kongo. It is to
be hoped that Tippo-Tip’s influence, supported by Major Barttelot’s
troops, which are stationed near the mouth of the Aruvimi, will
suffice to confine their raids to the territory above Stanley Falls.

It is in accordance with Emin Pacha’s former actions that he de-
clares at the present time his intention to stay in his province, and
to further the work of civilization he has so successfully begun. It
appears from the meagre news that has reached America, that the
messengers who were despatched to inform him of Stanley's expe-
dition have met him, and that this is his reply to the message.
Emin expresses the hope that England will help him to open a
route of commerce to the Indian Ocean, but it seems more probable
that communication with the Kongo will be opened by Stanley's
expedition. Junker’s travels show that there is no serious obstacle
to travel in the region of the northern tributaries of the Kongo;
and therefore it seems probable, that, while political complications
close the routes of the Nile and of Uganda, Emin and Stanley may
succeed in opening trading-routes from the Upper Kongo to the
Equatorial Province.

IF THE PRESIDENTS of all our colleges would follow the ex-
ample of President Barnard of Columbia, and publish each year a
full report on the progress of the institutions over which they re-
spectively preside, it would be an advantage not only to the institu-
tions themselves, but to the cause of higher education in general.
Mr. Charles F. Thwing, always an observant critic of college
methods, emphasizes this point in a recently published article.
President Barnard’s report for the last academic year has just been
issued, and, with its appendices, is a most valuable document. It
rehearses the changes and improvements of the year, traces the
work of the various schools separately, and discusses such questions
as those of attendance, scholarship, the marking system, elective
studies, and the wonderfully successful public lecture courses of
the past two winters. We are glad to notice the steady growth of
the graduate department, as it augurs well for the future of the in-
stitution. President Barnard says very little concerning the finances
of the college, and we are therefore led to infer that no appreciable
part of the sum asked for three years ago has been obtained. An
announcement reaches us with the president’s report, which should
be referred to in this connection. It is the programme of courses
in the Oriental and Hamitic languages offered for the present year.
From this we learn that the most complete department of its kind
in America exists at Columbia, and that, under the inspiring leader-
ship of so cultured a scholar as Dr. H. T. Peck, no fewer than
nineteen courses in the Oriental and Hamitic languages are an-
nounced. ‘This is a remarkable showing, and when considered in
connection with the courses of Professors Bloomfield and Haupt at
Baltimore, Whitney at New Haven, and Lyon, Toy, and Lanman at
Cambridge, proves that a great impetus has been given to advanced
philological study in this country.

THE HIGHER SCHOOLS OF NORWAY.

THE Norwegian school-laws of the 17th of June, 1869, according
to the Zeztschrift fiir das Realschulwesen, xii. 3, recognize three
fundamental principles. First, all higher schools must have a
lower course in common, so that it will not be necessary at the out-
set, with the choice of a school, to choose also one’s ultimate voca-
tion. Secondly, the length of the course must be so regulated that
the pupil, upon its completion, shall be of an age to enter intelli-
gently upon the active duties of his calling; the curriculum must
also form in itself a whole, and be so arranged that the pupil who
has completed it carries with him into life a good general education.
Finally, the time devoted in the upper classes to preparatory studies
must be so disposed that the pupil may confine himself more espe-
cially either to history-philology, on the one hand, or to mathe-
matics-natural sciences, on the other.

170

The whole system of higher education in Norway is based upon
the intermediate school. It is the preparatory school of the Gym-
nasium, — the Latin as well as the Real Gymnasium, — and has a
six-years’ course. The requirements for entrance are essentially
the same as in the Prussian hohere Biirgerschule. Thenormal age
at entrance is nine years. For the first three years the course is in
common : with the fourth year it is divided. The pupil preparing
for the Latin Gymnasium receives instruction in Latin seven hours
per week, which continues through the remainder of the course.
All others have instead the so-called ‘Real’ course; in the fourth
year, English and drawing; in the fifth and sixth years, English,
drawing, and an hour more of German. Otherwise the courses are
identical. In the fifth and sixth years two hours of French are
elective. A certificate of proficiency from the intermediate school
is required for admission to a Gymnasium ; it also entitles its pos-
sessor to enter a technical school, and is required of a dentist. A
certificate in the Real course only, admits to the naval academy
and to the telegraph service ; in the latter case the pupil must also
have been proficient in French. The future apothecary must pos-
sess the certificate of the Latin course.

The Gymnasium — the Latin Gymnasium as well as the Real
Gymnasium — is the preparatory school of the university and of the
higher technical schools. It has a three-years’ course, arranged as

follows : —
Latin Gymnasium.
I Il. III
INormall/age/at entrance......-----2-5-0-.5-== 15 16 17
Zig IRAYBWNG © ooo sgosbdsanacdenaaoensS doade I I 2
2. Norwegian and Old Norwegian............ 3 3 4
Zp ILAIRIN cosa sscoqeed adaccasn: SosadosqnDa6oGe 9 r0 9
O45 GRAS ase osdeoescoododoasdoeqsdsoasn0ces 7 7 7
Gp INFENE socnscnpg easaccsosasoonasneosence 4 2 2
Gs (COWEN soo-csgvosadosdsde oodbeasesncces I - -
7. History and physical geography........... 3 3 3
Sam MathematicSeenee-meesenccer ci sobaan 2 3 3
Total number of hours..........- ...... 30 29 30
Real Gymnasium.

I II III
Normal age at entrance... ... badoda \oagsdes 15 16 17
To ROW onc tbaodens bedaohoone d6a) osaac I I 2
2. Norwegian and Old Norwegian............ 3 4 4
Bape ng laishih te veetecteiciseiciarc ie eestor aemserectstes 4 5 5
£6 UREA Noosocoadd cbucdond oqvoonond anocoone 4 2 2
Go (Gaaretbagonesisdoone, padpsadaguanueocoudde I I =
Gs 1sbGeinihosoo cose nono pocuaoarvaguoovanceD 3 3 3
7. Physical geography...........-..2-----++- I I 2
8. Natural sciences 6 5 4
Q-Mathematics: pectic) sese cin ctiseleniseeeer 5 6 6
7@o JDRECHIS soso cpne sons BaodoboaD ‘coresea 6S 2 2 2
Total number of hours.............. ..- 30 30 go

The certificate of proficiency from the Latin Gymnasium entitles
its possessor to enter upon any course of study. If, however, the
pupil desires to enter the military academy, he must pass an exam-
ination in mathematics, the natural sciences, and drawing, the re-
quirements in these branches being the same as at the final exam-
ination of the Real Gymnasium.

The certificate of the Real Gymnasium entitles its possessor to enter
the advanced technical courses, to pursue the study of jurisprudence,
and admits to the military academy. If a graduate of the Real Gym-
nasium desires to study medicine, he must pass an oral examination

SCIENCE:

[Vot. X. No. 244

in Latin; the requirement, however, being the same as at the final
examination of the intermediate school, not of the Real Gymnasium.
The candidate must show that he has read three books of ‘ Casar’s
Commentaries,’ twenty-four chapters of ‘Cicero’s Orations,’ and
five hundred verses of ‘ Phaedrus.’ In addition, there is a short
written translation from Norwegian into Latin, in which the use of
a dictionary is permitted. Most of the graduates of the Real Gym-
nasium who are to study jurisprudence also take this examination ;
on the one hand, because Roman law is an important factor in the
State examination, and because those who have passed this exam-
ination have especial prerogatives in the examen philosophicum
which precedes the state examination. In order to study theology
and philology, the graduate of the Real Gymnasium must pass an
oral examination in Latin and Greek, the requirements being the
same as at the final examination of the Latin Gymnasium.

The system of preparatory instruction here described has existed
in Norway now for some twenty years, so that it is possible to
judge, to some extent, of its efficiency. Statistics show that the
great majority of those who discontinue their studies after the com-
pletion of the course of the intermediate school take the Real
course. Of those who take a higher course in the university and
the technical schools, two thirds have been graduated from the
Latin Gymnasium, one third from the Real Gymnasium. This re-
sult, however, is to be explained by the fact that the transformation
of the former Latin schools into Latin Gymnasiums necessitated
comparatively few changes. Where circumstances, accordingly,
allowed but one higher school, the Latin Gymnasium was chosen,
which offers, besides, certain tangible, if not materially important
prerogatives. Real Gymnasiums and Latin Gymnasiums exist side
by side only in the larger cities, the number of which in Norway is
very small. Eight cities have both a Real and a Latin Gymnasium,
and twelve a Latin Gymnasium alone. W. H.C.

ACCLIMATIZATION IN NEW ZEALAND.

IN a former article (Sczence, viii. No. 197) reference was made to
the various species of animals which had been purposely introduced
into these islands. In all cases it is difficult to foretell what effect
will be produced upon any species by bringing about a change in its
environment, and this truth has been well exemplified in the case
of many animals, now, alas! too well established in the colony.
Unfortunately the age of experiments in this direction has only
begun. Rabbits, having no natural enemies to keep them in check,
have become such a pest and source of loss to the colony, that the
latest move—taken up both by interested sheep-farmers and by
the government — has been to liberate sloats, ferrets, and weasels
in many parts. Slowly as these animals increase, they have al-
ready made their presence felt; not, however, in the diminution of
the rabbit-pest, but by their destruction of hen-roosts, and attacks
upon children. Following in the wake of settlement, but not intro-
duced purposely by man, are many other species, mostly small and
noxious. When settlers first penetrate into the untrodden parts,
especially of the South Island, they are attacked by hordes of blood-
thirsty sandflies and mosquitoes; while the greatest care has
to be taken to ward off an abundant blowfly, which lays its eggs,
or ready-hatched maggots, upon every thing exposed. Blankets,
flour-bags, and clothing are just as readily ‘blown’ as meat or
offal. But as cultivation proceeds, and the ground is cleared, these
insects disappear, while common European blue and house flies
take their place. The latter, like the human being they follow after,
even bring their diseases with them; so that every autumn their
distended bodies are found attached to window-panes by the
mycelium of Awpusa musce.

As settlement progresses, and new trees and plants begin to
take the place of the old vegetation, the familiar pests of the
mother-country begin to appear. Aphzdes, Cocczde, various beetles,
moths, and flies, together with parasites which infest man and
beast, become all too familiar. In many cases it would seem at
first as if these were going to have it all their own way. Some
twenty years ago it was considered nearly impossible to grow
Swede turnips in this part of the colony, so enormously abundant
was the 42s upon them ; but within these two decades a small
bird almost certainly of recent introduction from Australia, called
green-eye, wax-eye, or blight bird (Zosterops /ateralzs), has increased

OcToBER 7, 1887. |

very much, and coincidently with this has been such a decrease in
the Aphzs, that it has practically ceased to be a pest.

But the most conspicuous effects of man’s influence is the intro-
duction of numbers of species of plants which find themselves more
or less at home in this new land. [t is matter of common remark
to every person coming to the colony, how English every thing
looks. The wayside weeds, the grass with its daisies and ox-eyes,
the fields and gardens with European chickweed, docks, and
thistles, —all remind him of the old land. English plants chiefly
have spread themselves over the country, wherever the settler has
gone. One might expect that Australia, or America, being so
much nearer, would have furnished the greatest proportion of im-
migrants ; but this is not found to be the case. It is what Sir
Joseph Hooker has called the aggressive Scandinavian flora, which
so strongly asserts itself on all sides. The reasons of this are per-
haps not far to seek. Nearly all the seeds brought to the colony
in the earlier days of settlement came from Britain. English
grasses were brought and sown down, and along with them came
the weeds of English pastures. Compressed hay was brought
frequently with imported stock; straw-packed goods were, and
are, scattered throughout the country; and thus, in one way and
another, it is the European species of weeds which have found their
way here in the greatest abundance. The conditions of acclimatiza-
tion are very dissimilar in different parts of the colony, extending
as it does through twelve degrees of latitude, and thus embracing
very different climates. The southern parts of the South Island
are as different from the Bay of Islands as Scotland is from Italy.
Throughout the greater part of the east side of the South Island,
night frosts are experienced during the winter, even along the coast ;
while inland the cold is much more intense and continued, the
summer being at the same time hotter. But in all other parts,
frost, at ordinary levels, is the exception, while in no portion of the
country are the droughts prolonged, as in Australia.

One of the results of such a distribution of climate is, that fewer
introduced plants have succeeded in acquiring a foothold in the
southern and colder parts than elsewhere in New Zealand;
and as we go farther north we find the number of acclimatized
species becoming more and more abundant. While those of Otago
are chiefly such as are to be met with in England and Scotland,
those of the north of Auckland are largely mixed with mid-
European plants, and many of tropical and sub-tropical distribution.
This is well seen by comparing the appearance at different ports.
On landing in the Bay of Islands, one sees large patches of
Agave Americana marking the sites of old gardens, but spreading
far and wide, as if quite at home. The ground is carpeted with the
familiar ‘ doab-grass,’ as it is called in Bengal (Cyzodon dactylon).
Lily-of-the-Nile (/ezchardza) blocks the water-courses, while other
tropical forms (Amarantus, Aponogeton, Lycium, etc.) occur
freely as wild plants, intermingled with others of much more tem-
perate habitat. Pursuing his journeys south, the traveller enters
Napier, and, passing from the landing-place to the town through a
ravine-like cutting, finds scarlet geraniums and forests of fennel
competing with mesembryanthemum and introduced fuchsias for
possession of every bit of soil. He infers at once a climate quite
free from frost. But now let him land at Dunedin, and none
but old country friends meet him. Shepherd’s purse, groundsel,
and docks occupy the wayside with similar equally familiar weeds.
The meadows and pastures are white with daisies and ox-eyes
(Chrysanthemum leucanthemum), or yellow with cat’s-ear (Hypo-
cheris radicata), buttercups, and self-heal (Prunella), and, with
a slight effort of imagination, he might almost fancy that he was
back in ‘bonny Scotland.’ The tropical element is here wanting.
While nearly four hundred (387) species have been recorded as
occurring in the Auckland district, not more than 160 are known
from Otago in the south.

It is a much-disputed question among local botanists, whether
the native flora can hold its own against the introduced plants, or
not. When we consider that species brought from old (from a
human point of view) and long populated countries, in more or less
close proximity to one another, have acquired their present charac-
teristics after long ages of a keen struggle for existence with one
another, and with herbivorous animals to fight against, we should
certainly expect them to prove extraordinarily aggressive in such a

SCIENCE

nal

country as this. Here the animals are wanting, the climate is
milder, moisture is abundant, and all the field seems to lie open.
Accordingly, wherever the settler goes with the axe and plough,
and, above all, with fire, the introduced plant follows him, and
thrives. But it is now pretty well ascertained that if man stays his
hand, the native vegetation does not continue to recede before the
alien: on the contrary, it seems once more to tend to re-assert
itself. That, at least, is the testimony of our two most competent
botanists, Mr. Cheeseman in Auckland, and Mr. Kirk in Welling-
ton, as well as of the writer in Otago.

The way that some plants have spread is most remarkable. The
common thistle (Carduus lanceolatus) has gone over the country
like smoke, especially following fire and cultivation. When first
established, it forms thickets which frequently are impermeable ;
but this state never lasts long. The soil appears to refuse, at the
end of two or three years, to yield up its former abundance, and the
plant exhausts itself. This process in many parts is absolutely
beneficial to the soil. In the limestone districts to the north of
Otago, the writer has seen vast areas, which had been once
ploughed, covered with an impenetrable forest of thistles six feet or
more in height. In autumn the whole crop dies down, leaving the
rocky soil penetrated in all directions by its long roots. As these
decay, water finds its way down to the lower levels ; and on plough-
ing the soil, and sowing a crop of winter wheat, the farmer is re-
warded by a sixty-bushel crop.

Two or three species truly indigenous are now abundantly repre-
sented by the introduced European form. This is certainly the
case with the dandelion (Zavaxacum) and sowthistle (Sonchus),
and most probably also with the smooth geranium (G. zo//e). The
native form is all but extinct, the introduced being abundant.

In some cases characters are developed which appear to tend
towards the formation of new varieties. Thus Bartsza viscosa,
always considered a root-parasite in Europe, is truly established on
its own roots in this country. Water-cress, which grows to a length
of from two to four feet in its native habitats, attains gigantic pro-
portions in many New Zealand streams. In the Avon at Christ-
church it is frequently found with stems as thick as a man’s wrist,
and twenty feet in length. Sheep’s-sorrel (Rumex acetosella) is
here an unmitigated garden and field pest, especially in poor soils,
where its tough underground stems will creep as much as a yard in
a season, if the soil be kept well stirred. Equally remarkable is the
changed character of Poa fratenszs, so famed as a pasture-grass in
the States. In New Zealand it gives a poor return as a permanent
pasture-grass, while in arable land it is a curse, matting the surface
soil into an unworkable mass. No doubt one cause of the trouble-
some nature of many of the common garden-weeds is the compara-
tive absence of frost. Many plants which are strictly annuals in
Europe or America, become biennial or perennial here. Chickweeds
(Stellarza and Cerastcum) and groundsel flower all the year round.

One of the most aggressive species in the country is the white or
Dutch clover (Zrzfolzum repens), which has shown great power of
spreading, both laterally and vertically. Introduced plants are often
met with also in most unexpected localities. The writer, when
rambling along the slopes of Mount Torlesse, in the Canterbury
Alps, was surprised to find some of the valleys — miles away from
human habitation — full of a common mullein (Verbascum thap-
sus); but such instances are rare. The botanist rather wonders,
that, considering how greatly specialized to their surroundings New
Zealand plants are, they do not more quickly succumb to the in-
truders.

Finally, an interesting question, puzzling to the acclimatizer, is the
difficulty of introducing certain — to him — desirable plants. Prim-
roses and cowslips, foxgloves, and many other sylvan and meadow
beauties, will not run wild. They die out if removed from the
garden. The cause seems to lie in the absence of the insects
necessary for their fertilization.

Both in the case of plants and animals, then, an interesting field
for future observation exists in this country; and fortunately, ac-
curate information on the whole subject has been accumulating
from the very outset, so that the future naturalist has no ‘dark
ages’ to look back to, but will always have some trustworthy record
to refer to. Gro. M. THOMSON.

Dunedin, Aug. 11.

172

MENTAL SCIENCE.
Brain-Growth and Body-Growth.

THE late Dr. Parrot of France was, at the time of his death,
collecting anatomical material for a study of the progressive de-
velopment of the several parts of the body as measured by such
characteristics as size and weight. Some of this material has been
arranged by Mlle. Jeanne Bertillon, and presented by her to the
Anthropological Society of France. The problem there discussed
is the ratio of increase in weight of the brain to the increase in
weight of the body as a whole, of the height, of the heart, and of
the spleen. This is ascertained for the two sexes and for the vari-
ous ages, especially for the first years of life, when growth is at its
maximum. As will be seen, the results given are founded on a
sufficiently large number of measurements to make them generally
reliable.

Expressing the weight of the body, of the heart, of the brain, of
the spleen, and the height, as 1,000 at birth, their condition at sev-
eral periods up to the sixth year is given in the following table : —

|
Weight of||Weight of||Weight of|/Weight of
Body. Heart. Brain. Spleen. Height.
Age.

se MP Seni ee Titec hi seam 2 SH SI Recep os

| & & | & & | = fe | & | &
o to x month ap areas 1,000) nnan I,000]1,000] 1,000]1,000]!1,000 1,000)/1,000|1,000
1 month to 3 months... |r,r90|r,124|!1,179|1,135||1,246|1,348 1,280) 1,286||1,066/1,036
3 months to 6 months. ../1,596/1,486||/1, 487|1,499||1,666|1,579||1,852|1,860 I,202'1,128
6 months to 1 year...... 2,257|2,150||2,280|2,191||2,170|2,137| 2,321|2,153 1,356 |1,315
I year to 2 years ....... 3,200|2,921 ||3,189 }3,095 |o,756 2,647 33230 3+390||1,540]z,513
2 years to 4 years....... 4:341|4,229||4,022|/3,849]/3.210]3,202 49570) 4,210] )15744|1,683
4 years to 6 years........ 5,367|5,480||5.167/5,160 3435 3,461 5330 5,560]|1,971|1,960

Thus it appears that at the end of this period the height has
about doubled, the brain a little more than tripled in weight, and
the weight of the body, as of the heart and spleen, more than
quintupled. In another table is considered how much of this
growth of the first five years has been contributed by each of the
several periods of age above specified. From such a comparison,
it appears that the brain develops sooner and more rapidly in early
life than even the height. The percentage of the growth of the
first five years, that takes place in the first six months, is, for the
body-weight, only 13.66 for females, and 10.82 for males; for the
heart, 11.43 and 11.88; for the spleen, 19.7 and 19.0; for the
height, 20.8 and 11.40; while for the brain it is as much as 27.41
and 23.51; the first figure referring to the females, and the second
to the males. The same fact is more clearly brought out by saying
that at the beginning of the second year the female brain has al-
ready increased by 72 per cent of all the increase it will have made
within the first five years, while the body-weight has not reached
50 per cent of the development it will have at the sixth year. Ex-
pressing the total progress at the opening of the second year in
terms of the total progress at the opening of the sixth year, the
following table shows in detail the relative amount of growth at-
tained by the several parts : —

Body- Weight of | Weight of Weight of
Weight. Heart. Spleen. Height. Brain.
Remaleta ese 50 36 52.54 51.50 55-53 72.33
eM al errs aie kosteas 42.86 50.46 52.50 45.70 66.85

The striking fact here is the advance of the female above the
male. This, it has been suggested, is what one ought to expect, on
the theory that the female organization is nearer the primitive type
than the male, for savages (and animals) are marked by a more
rapid march to maturity than civilized man. In actual weight and
height, however, the male, as is well known, exceeds the female;

SCIENCE.

[VoL Xo INovean

and on the average during the first five years, taking the female
weight (and height) at 1,000, the male weight (and height) is shown
below. It may be noted that the brain-ratio between the two
sexes is larger than that of any other part.

Body. Heart. Brain. Spleen, Height.

1,073 1,077 1,096 1,087 1,030

Greater changes take place within the first three months than
within the period from the third to the sixth month, but the maxi-
mum of growth takes place in the latter half of the first year.

The sexual differences in these respects are very marked through-
out. The disparity diminishes within the first four years, to re-
appear in from the fourth to the sixth year with the same intensity
as in the first months of life. ;

With which of the four measurements does the growth of the
brain in weight keep the most constant ratio? Omitting the weight
of the spleen as unimportant and variable by pathological and
other causes, a glance at the following table will show that the
body-weight and the height give no such constant ratio.

1,000 Grams of Body to too Centimetres of Height
z Gram of Brain. to x Gram of Brain.
Age.
Number Number
Ratio. Ratio.
of Cases. of Cases. |
|
otoxzmonth........ 196 166.6 94 726.5
z month to 3 months. .. 88 186.9 | 46 865.7
3 months to 6 months... 104 175.8 56 1,006.0
6 months to x year...... 120 163.1 60 1,220.0
I year to 2 years........ 202 147.4 142 1,174.0
2 years to 3 years.. o 115 128.7 95 1,371.0
3 years to 4 years....... 60 118.1 48 1,531.0
4 years to 5 years..... 2 44 92.8 34 1,279.0
5 years to 6 years...... 22 101.8 22 1,205.0
6 years to 7 years. ..... 17 100.6 13 1,264.0

If, however, we compare the weight of the brain with that of the
heart, a more constant ratio is found, which Dr. Parrot would dig-
nify with the name of the ‘encephalo-cardiac’’ index to take rank
with other anthropological indices. The constant decrease of this
ratio with age is thus shown, taking 10 grams of heart to 1 gram of
brain.

7
5 oo | Meee . na a a a n
Abe sa a shee) el &
& ise) o co B ise) + Lal eo} i>
Age. eiSi2iele|s)a)es]eies
+ . : a - . 2 .
5) ‘ a wo a a a
Tae | Se Salles tlh ee clierelll eames
Cl a ise} + w oO
| |
IRAWO sscxcca0ne 230 | 257 257 235 216 192 173 158 I5r I5r
No. of cases....| 185 90 go | 114 | 206 | 117 7z 39 22 19
|

It is probable that after the sixth year the ratio would tend to
remain constant. Be this as it may, Dr. Parrot has pointed out
an interesting line of research, and one calculated to shed much
light on the normal development of children.

THE SAVAGERY OF BOYHOOD. — Mr. John Johnston, in an
article in the October issue of the Popular Sczence Monthly, brings
home the forcibleness of the analogy between the traits of savages
and that of developing civilized mankind. He cites a case of
wanton cruelty recorded, by a boy without any apparent feel-
ing for the cruelty of the act. Mr. Johnston, opposing the
sentiment that pervades much of the literature that is supposed
to be written for boys, does not predict for this boy a life of
sin, but gravely contemplates the trait as a step in the normal
development of youth. Pity is a late factor in moral evolution, and

OcroBER 7, 1887.]

a really ‘good’ boy is morally precocious or diseased. This view
does not lower one’s estimate of a boy’s virtues, but accents those
that are suited to his years, as well as the importance of the grad-
ual and timely appearance of the several instincts and emotions
without which civilization would be impossible.

HEALTH MATTERS.
Chest-Expansion and Consumption.

IN Sczence, ix. No. 221, we gave a résumé of the views held by
G. W. Hambleton, licentiate of the King’s and Queen’s College of
Physicians, Ireland, on the origin and prevention of consumption.
These views were presented last year at a meeting of the British
Association for the Advancement of Science. Since then Mr. Ham-
bleton has been engaged in certain experiments upon this impor-
tant subject, and during this research his attention has been drawn
to the fact that the size and shape of the human chest vary ac-
cording as he varied its conditions. So constant was this variation
as to make him doubt the present accepted theory of the inheritance
of chest-types.

Taking a well-marked example of the so-called inherited con-
sumptive chest, he subjected it to conditions that tend to develop
the lungs, till it corresponded in size and shape, first with the town
artisan, then with that of a man of the privileged class, and finally
with that of a man of the best class of insurable lives in America.
By subjecting the same chest to conditions that tend to reduce the
breathing capacity, he brought it back through the same types to
nearly that with which he commenced ; and he claims to have pro-
duced similar results in other chests within a period measured by
months. At birth the average male child of all classes has the
same type of chest, but at maturity he has that of the class to
which he belongs. The types of chest, Mr. Hambleton claims,
vary with the conditions to which these types are subjected. Thus
we have the type of chest of those who use wind-instruments, and
another type of those who compress their chests in their work or
by a corset. In these no one raised the question of inheritance.
This variation of the chest is not peculiar to it: it is true of all other
parts of the body. The shape of the head may be altered by direct
pressure, and the shape and size of the feet in the same way.

According to this theory of Mr. Hambleton, the type of man after
birth is solely produced by the conditions to which he is subject:
hence the formation of race by man’s continuance under the same
conditions, and its subsequent divisions into sub-races and families
by his migrations into new conditions and the minor differences
therein. The field which is opened up for investigation by these
views is, as Mr. Hambleton states, a wide and important one.
When we have ascertained what the conditions are that produce
these differences in man that together make a class or type, we
shall be able to produce that class or type; and we shall also be
able to tell what type of body is best suited for a given occupation,
and for residence in a given country. ‘‘ Then we shall train men so
that we shall no longer send them into occupations with types of
body unfitted for the conditions of that occupation, and conse-
quently we shall be spared the misery and loss of those numerous
breakdowns from unsuitability of type that are now daily brought
before us.”

These views have been referred to a committee of the associa-
tion, with instructions to investigate them ; and in a letter which
we have received from Mr. Hambleton, he requests that they be
thoroughly tested by scientific men in this country. It will, we are
sure, be apparent to our readers, that, if all that is claimed for these
opinions is true, a most important and valuable contribution to
human knowledge has been made; and, if the practical results
which are stated to have been obtained in isolated instances can be
made general, the improvement in the human race which is certain
to follow will be beyond all computation. We shall be glad to
open our columns to those who desire to discuss the question, or
have any facts bearing upon it.

FOODS CONSUMED IN WINTER. — In no particular does the dif-
ference between the customs of the people of the present day and
those of their forefathers show itself more distinctly than in the
amount and character of the food which they consume during the
winter months. The diet of fifty years ago was characterized by

SCIENCE.

173

simplicity, and want of variety: that of to-day is just the opposite.
This is largely due to the improvements in the processes of food-
preserving, by which every form of plant and animal life is as avail-
able at one season of the year as at another. Some of these
processes are so simple that there is no reason for substituting
questionable methods for them, while others require so much time
and attention that packers are constantly on the alert to discover a
way to shorten the time and lessen the necessary watchfulness.
With this object in view, chemistry is often appealed to, to solve
the problems which are constantly presenting themselves. It is in
this way that chemical products of various kinds find their way into
the food-supply. The improvement which takes place in coffee when
it is transported in sailing-ships is, now that a quicker method of
transportation is employed, counterfeited by polishing and coloring ;
and to avoid the trouble of long treatment by heat of some vegeta-
bles and fruits, and their consequent deterioration in appearance,
preservatives of various kinds are employed. One of the most com-
monly used of these is salicylic acid. The effect of this acid upon
health has been thoroughly investigated in France, and its use in
foods and drinks has been prohibited in that country since 1881.
Prof. E. H. Bartley, of the Long Island College Hospital, Brooklyn,
has recently examined this question with great care, and in an article
which appears in the Amerzcan Analyst his views and those of
other authorities are given in full. In the use of this acid in the
treatment of rheumatism, clinical observation shows that it cannot
be continued for a long period of time without impairing digestion,
and in its elimination it passes out undecomposed through the kid-
neys. It has been recognized that under these circumstances it not
only irritates but inflames these organs. In preserved food we have
to do with smaller quantities of the acid, as a rule; though that this
is not always the case is shown by Professor Bartley’s figures. He
says, “The quantity of salicylic acid usually employed in wines is
from six to eight grains per gallon, and in beer from twelve to fif-
teen grains per gallon ; or, in the case of beer, from one to one and
a half grains to the glass. As many men habitually drink twenty-
five glasses during the day, they take from twenty-five to thirty-
seven grains of the acid per day. The medicinal dose is usually
stated to be from ten to twenty grains.” He also calls attention to
the fact that nursing mothers are frequently recommended to drink
ale, porter, or beer, with the idea that it stimulates the mammary
gland, and to the additional fact that temporary renal disease is
frequent during the first weeks of lactation. In conclusion, Pro-
fessor Bartley says, “I should state that another serious objection
to the use of salicylic acid is the fact that many samples found in
the market contain more or less carbolic acid. It is now almost
entirely manufactured from this very poisonous substance, and, un-
less great care is exercised, an appreciable amount of it is left in
the finished product. Indeed, some writers think that some of the
fatal accidents recorded from the use of salicylic acid have been
due to the presence in it of carbolic acid. If the use of this acid is
to be countenanced, impure articles will be used, and greater dam-
age may be done than could come from the pure article. From a
careful consideration of the whole subject, 1 am compelled to re-
gard the use of salicylic acid in foods and drinks, and especially in
lager beer, as at least open to serious objections. If it be harmless
to healthy adults, the evidence of its deleterious action upon the
aged and certain other classes of the community is too strong to be
disregarded by sanitary authorities, and should prohibit its use for
this purpose.”

ETHNOLOGY.

Dwarfish Races.

A. DE QUATREFAGES has recently published an historical review
of the ancient and modern reports on dwarfish tribes. While for-
merly the descriptions of ancient geographers were considered not
trustworthy, many of them have been confirmed by recent explora-
tions. Among these are the tales on the pygmies. Aristotle and
Pliny state that a dwarfish people lived near the swamps of the
upper part of the Nile. De Quatrefages considers this tribe identi-
cal with Schweinfurth’s Akka, who at the present time live a little
farther south. Pomponius Mela mentions dwarfs who inhabited
the neighborhood of the Red Sea. This report was confirmed by

174

Léon des Avancher’s discovery of the dwarfish Wa Berikomo, who
are said to be only four and one-half feet high, and by D’Abbadie’s
visit to the Maze-Mollea, who live a little farther to the north.

Herodotus tells of a dwarfish black people on the banks of the
Niger. His description of the land still holds good; but, instead of
negroes, Berbers and Tuareg inhabit those regions. At the present
time the most northern place in West Africa which is inhabited by
dwarfs is Tenda-Maje, where they were met with by Mollien in
1818.

Pliny mentions, besides the dwarfs on the sources of the Nile,
others living in what is now south-eastern Belutchistan, where the
Brahui, a people of Dravida lineage, are found. Ktesias speaks of
pygmies who inhabited Central India. Mr. Rousselet found in that
region the dwarfish Bandra-Lok, who live in the Vindhias Moun-
tains.

De Quatretages considers all Asiatic dwarfish tribes as one group,
which he calls Negrito, while the African ones are called Negrillo.
His researches lead him to the conclusion that the traces of this race
are found from India to the eastern extremity of New Guinea, and
from Ceylon throughout India, Farther India, the Philippines, to
Japan. In most regions they are mixed with other races. He con-
siders the Dravida one of the most characteristic results of this
mixture. It is only on the Andaman Islands and a few other iso-
lated points that the pure race is still in existence. The author
shows that individuals of Negrito type occur among the Pariahs of
India, and that isolated communities in many parts of south-eastern
Asia have retained the anthropological character of this dwarfish
race. !

De Quatrefages considers the Negrito of all these widely sepa-
rated regions one race, which originated in southern Asia. When
the yellow race migrated southward and the white race eastward,
they were compelled to take refuge on the islands, and to migrate
to more southerly countries. Thus they populated the Eastern
Archipelago, and crossed to Africa.

COELHO ON ROMANIC DIALECTS. — A recent number of
the Boletzm da Soczedade de Geographta de Lisboa contains a third
article by Adolpho Coelho on Romanic dialects of Africa, Asia, and
America. The principal object of these researches is a study of
the development of languages by isolation and admixture of foreign
elements, and much new and interesting material has been collected
by the author. There is a wide field for researches of this kind in
North America. Coelho gives some examples of the French of
Louisiana, and a brief bibliography of jargons based on English and
other Teutonic tongues, many of which are spoken on our conti-
nent. The study of these would be an important goal for an
American dialect society, the organization of which was lately pro-
posed.

METLAKAHTLA.— The Amerzcan Magazine for July contains
a paper by Z. L. White on Metlakahtla, the famous missionary
station on the north-west coast of America, which contains some
interesting information on the Indians of that mission. The same
subject is treated in the recently published book, ‘The Story of
Metlakahtla,’ by S. Wellcome. Though the purpose of both publica-
tions is to extol the work of Mr. A. Duncan, the missionary of the
village, and to support him in a bitter contest against the Canadian
Government, some valuable ethnological information is contained
in them. The horrible cannibal ceremonies of the Tsimpshian,
the inhabitants of Metlakahtla, are described according to Mr.
Duncan’s statements. The initiation of young men who are to
become members of this order takes place as follows: Early inthe
morning the novices would be out on the beach, or on the rocks, in
a state of nudity. Each had a place in front of his own gens.
After he had crept about, jerking his head and screaming for some
time, a party of men would rush out, and, surrounding him, would
begin singing. There are three orders among the Tsimpshian and
their neighbors, — the cannibals, the dog-eaters, and the dancers.
The dog-eating order occasionally carried a dead dog to their
novice, who forthwith began to tear it in the most dog-like manner.
The party of attendants kept up a low, growling noise, or a whoop,
which was seconded by a screeching noise made by means of an
instrument which they believe to be the abode (or voice?) of a
spirit. In a little time the naked youth would start up again, and

SCIENCE:

[Vou X2 Noe! 244

proceed a few yards in a crouching posture, with his arm pushed
out behind him, and tossing his flowing black hair. All the while
he is earnestly watched by the groups around him; and when he
pleases to sit down, they again surround him and begin singing.
This kind of performance goes on, with several little additions, for
some time. Before the novice finally retires, he takes a run into
every house belonging to his gens, and is followed by his train.
When this is done, in some cases he has a ramble on the tops of the
same houses, during which he is anxiously watched by his attend-
ants, as if they expected his flight. After a while he comes down,
and they then follow him to his den, which is signified by a rope
made of red-cedar bark being hung over the doorway, so as to pre-
vent any person from ignorantly intruding into its precincts. An-
other remarkable performance noticed by Duncan is the following :
At low tide an illuminated disk with the figure of a man upon it
was lit up at the water’s edge. It represented the moon, and the
Indians suppose that the shamans are there holding converse with
the man in the moon. Metlakahtla is at the present time a thriving
village, with a saw-mill and canneries. It was founded in 1862 by
a party of Christian Indians, who were converted by Mr. Duncan,
and emigrated with him from Fort Simpson. In course of time
disagreements arose between Mr. Duncan and the Church Mission-
ary Society, to which he belonged. In behalf of his Indians, and
for developing the resources of his village, it was Duncan’s policy
to keep new settlers out of the northern coast of British Columbia,
and his influence helped greatly to suppress the disastrous whiskey
trade. But, as the white population on the coast was increasing,
his policy proved detrimental to the interests of the new settlers, as
Duncan had practically attained a ruling power over the whole
country, from the boundary of Alaska to Vancouver Island. This
was the first reason for his disagreement with the Church Mission-
ary Society and with the Canadian Government. The outcome of
these disputes is the resolution of the Metlakahtlans to emigrate to
Alaska.

BOOK-REVIEWS.

Die Culturvilker Alt-Amerzka’s. By DR. GUSTAV BRUEHL.
Cincinnati, Benziger Bros. 8°.

DR. GUSTAV BRUEHL’S recent work on the civilized nations of
ancient America is of great interest, as it is a comprehensive review
of the culture of the Mexicans, Maya, Chibcha, and Peruvians from
the point of view first expressed and developed by Morgan and
Bandelier. While the Spanish chroniclers considered the consti-
tution of these states as similar to those of Europe, Briihl endeavors
to show, by an enormous mass of testimony compiled from all
available sources, that there were no despots and no feudal institu-
tions, but that the gens was the sole basis of the social organiza-
tion of all American nations, even in the highest state of their civili-
zation. The first part of the work was printed as early as 1875 ;
but while it was in progress the views of the author were so much
modified, and the amount of new material added by his own exca-
vations and researches in Central America and furnished by other
writers on this subject grew to be so large, that the publication was
delayed for twelve years. The first part of the book deals with the
ruins of the Mississippi valley, of Mexico, Chiapas and Yucatan,
Central America, Colombia, and ancient Peru, and with those in
the region of the Rio Colorado and Rio Grande. As it was printed
in 1875, some of the statements made at this place must be modi-
fied; but nevertheless it is an extremely valuable handbook on this
subject, on account of the clearness of the arrangement, and the
care the author has taken in giving the sources of his information.
A review of the methods of writing and of the calendar concludes
the first part.

The second part is far more important, as here the author uses
his extensive knowledge of the subject for proving the theory that
the division into gentes was the foundation of the states of all
American nations. He discusses the separate centres of civiliza-
tion, and expresses his view that the heroes who first brought civili-
zation to the rude tribes’ became their deities. He discusses the
distribution of property, particularly that of land, the plan of the
towns and houses, the giving of names, the religious worship, and
finds his views confirmed in all these phenomena. Therefore the
chapter on the social organization is by far the most important one

OctToBER 7, 1887. |

of the book. Though hardly any explicit statements of the division
of these nations into gentes is given by the ancient authors, numer-
ous remarks indicate that these divisions existed. Each gens had
its own chief, and owned a certain tract of land. In case of war, the
whole army was divided according to gentes, each gens being com-
manded by its own chief. A further proof for this theory is found
in the laws of inheritance and marriage, and in the terms of rela-
tionship. Every gens had even its own deities, temples, worship,
and its separate myths. Briihl considers the great states of Mexico
and Central and South America as confederations of tribes who
subjected other neighboring tribes, whom they compelled to pay a
tribute. Nowhere were states formed by uniform nations.

Die Erde in Karten und Bildern.,

THE publication under review is an atlas, accompanied by text
and numerous illustrations. It belongs to a class of publications
which unfortunately is still entirely wanting in America. Our
atlases are expensive, gorgeously colored, and generally not well
drawn, while there are a number of European atlases which are
sold at a moderate price, the drawing of which meets all reason-
able expectations, and which are tastefully colored. The present
atlas belongs to this class, but its characteristic feature is the
accompanying text. The illustrations are carefully compiled from
works of travel, and represent characteristic views, animals, plants,
and ethnological objects, and may be used to advantage in schools,
as they convey a good idea of geographical phenomena to the
reader. The text, so far as we can judge from the numbers that
have reached us, is not intended to be of a scientific character, but
it is a popular treatise on geography. First, physical geography is
treated. This will be followed by a special part on the geography
of the separate continents and countries, and the last part will
treat of commercial geography. The maps are well drawn, and
the lettering and the topography are clear. The physical features
are distinct, as the maps are not crowded with names. This atlas
shows how far German cartography is advanced as compared to
our own. There is no American atlas that can compare to this
cheap publication, or to the well-known ‘ Handatlas’ by Andree.
Even the large and costly maps which are published in our country
do not meet the wants of geographers so well as the German pub-
lications. But there is little demand for good maps so far. So
long as our teachers are content with the low class of text-books
and maps which are used in most schools, publishers will be reluc-
tant to attempt the publication of costly works of this kind: but as
soon as there is a demand, good maps and good atlases will be
forthcoming ; for there is no absolute want of cartographers, as
the publications of our government, particularly those of the Coast
and Geological Surveys, show.

Vienna, Hartleben. 4°.

Comparative Morphology and Biology of the Fungt, Mycetozoa,
and Bacteria. By A. DE BaRy. Tr. by HENRY E. F.
GARNSEY, and revised by ISAAC BAYLEY BALFOUR. Oxford,
Clarendon Pr. 8°.

ONE sometimes feels that English translations of German works
above the grade of comparatively elementary treatises are unneces-
sary, since all persons qualified to understand the subject are pre-
sumed to be able to read the original. The present translation,
however, shows that this feeling is erroneous. The original work
of De Bary appeared in 1884. We say original, because, although,
in one sense, the work of 1884 is a second edition of the second
volume of Hofmeister’s ‘ Handbuch der physiologischen Botanik,’
published in 1886, the treatment is so different, and our knowledge
of the subject has widened so rapidly within the last twenty years,
that there is not much resemblance between the two editions. The
work of De Bary is so well and favorably known, that we need not
speak at length of its merits. In the chapters on M/ycetozoa the
author includes M/yxomycetes, Acrasze, and some doubtful forms,
but excludes many amoeboid forms classed by Zopf among the
Schleimpilze. The chapters on bacteria have been to some extent
replaced by the more recent ‘ Vorlesungen tiber Bacterien,’ by the
same author. The original, it must be admitted, is rather hard
reading for foreigners, in spite of its clear scientific treatment of the
subject; and all English-speaking botanists will be glad to welcome
the present excellent translation, which, while preserving the sense

SCIENCE.

175

and spirit of the original, presents it in a form which can be much
more quickly and easily absorbed, even by those who have a good
knowledge of German, and are acquainted with the subject treated.
American botanists will now be able to read the admirable treatise
of De Bary with ease as well as with profit.

A Course of Practical Instruction in Botany. By F. O. BOWER
and SYDNEY H. VINES. PartII. Bryophyta and Thallophyta.
New York, Macmillan. 8°.

THE second part of the practical botany by Bower and Vines is
similar in form to the first part, which appeared in 1885, and is in-
tended to be a guide to the student who is studying botany by the
type methods. The common Polytréchum and Marchantia are
used as illustrations of mosses and H/epatice ; but the bulk of the
work is devoted to 7hallophytes, —a group which does not lend
itself to popular treatment in a short space, for the types of repro-
duction are numerous, and the illustrations must be taken largely
from plants which have no common names, in this country at least.
The present volume is a valuable aid in the laboratory where the
instructor prepares and selects the material, but it is not adapted
to those who are obliged to pursue their studies independently of
competent instructors. For the latter class of students, the chap-
ters on Thallophytes are, as a rule, too condensed, and the absence
of plates necessarily makes the text a little obscure for beginners.

The Making of the Great West.
New York, Scribner. 12°.

THIS is a thoroughly commendable volume. It is constructed
on the same general plan as ‘The Making of New England,’ by the
same author, though dealing with a far larger and more complex
subject.

It is too often the case that brief histories of the United States
are written so entirely from an Atlantic coast standpoint that the
great territory west of the Mississippi receives scant treatment at the
authors’ hands. Mr. Drake’s plan of treating the various sections
separately avoids this lack of proportion, and affords an opportunity
of bringing the important facts in the history of each section into
the prominence which properly belongs to them. In this volume
the author makes three subdivisions. In the first we find a lucid
and well-illustrated account of the planting of the Spanish, French,
and English civilizations on this continent. In the second the terri-
tory acquired by the Louisiana purchase is treated, and then follows
the story of the advance of civilization in the West up to the time
that gold was discovered in California. The third section com-
pletes the story from 1848. Mr. Drake’s conception of history is
that of the late John Richard Green, and his narrative is accom-
panied with excellent sketches of the aboriginal and conquering
civilizations. For that reason, as well as because of its pleasant
style, ‘The Making of the Great West’ would be a valuable read-
ing-book for grammar and high-school use.

By SAMUEL ADAMS DRAKE.

Three Good Giants, whose Famous Deeds are recorded im the
Ancient Chronicles of Frangots Rabelazs. Compiled from
the French by JOHN DimirRy. Boston, Ticknor. 20%

IN this volume the works of the old French humorist are pre-
sented in an expurgated form, and profusely illustrated by Gustave
Doré and A. Robida. The result is a book for children; but what
its value in that respect may be, can only be determined by experi-
ence. There is certainly not much in it that is interesting to grown-
up people, the humor of it being so extravagant that it often ceases
to be humor. Children’s tastes, however, are different, and with
them the book may become a favorite. Such attempts to preserve
what is best in old writers are in themselves praiseworthy ; for the
world is not so rich in good literature that it can afford to part with
any of it. The illustrations, which are of the same fantastic type
as the story itself, will add to the attractiveness of the book.

A Collection of Letters of Thackeray. New York, Scribner. 8°.

THE series of letters from Thackeray to Mr. and Mrs. Brook-
field, which were lately published in Scrzdner's Magazzne, are here
offered in book form. They were written between the years 1847
and 1855, after the death of Mrs. Thackeray, and when their author
was in the full flush of early fame. They show him in various
moods, the humorous predominating, of course, yet oftentimes with

176

an undertone of melancholy which enhances their interest. That
he enjoyed his fame at first, and the social entertainments it brought
him, is manifest; and yet in one of the latest letters of the series,
written from Philadelphia, he declares that he doesn’t care any
more for praise, or for abuse, or for reputation of a literary sort.
For the rest, the letters reveal the same qualities of mind and
character that his novels exhibit, with perhaps a little more tender-
ness as he unbosoms himself to his friends. There is the same
smooth and brilliant style, the same satirical wit and badinage, the
same keen eye for the superficial elements of life, and, it must be added,
the same apparent inability to see any thing deeper. Only once or
twice, as on pp. 35 and 95, does he strike a deeper vein; and one
cannot help wondering whether he did not care for such things, or
whether he did not venture to say what he thought about them.
The letters are certainly very interesting, and will doubtless long
continue to be favorites with readers of English literature.

NOTES AND NEWS.

THIS year is remarkable for the number of accidents in the
Swiss Alps. It is stated by a Swiss newspaper that the season’s
death-roll is an unusually heavy one. In the short space of not
quite a month twenty-two tourists met with accidents, of whom
eighteen were killed. The accident on the Jungfrau (canton of
Bern) involved the loss of six lives; that on the Falkniss (Gran-
biindten), three. One life was lost in each case in the accidents on
the Morteratsch glacier (Granbiindten), Molesa (Waadt), Gantrist
(Bern), Leissigergrat (Bern), Sdutis (Appenzell), Kaisereck (Frei-
burg), Dent de Corjan (Waadt), Schachenthal (Uri), and Diablerets
(Wallis). There were no guides among the eighteen killed, and
only too many persons make ascents without guides. The four
injured persons were all tourists.

—Although automatic telegraphy has long been known, says
the London Temes, it has not, so far as we are aware, proved a
commercial success, owing to the circumstance that the instruments
used in conducting it are expensive, the system slow, and the syn-
chronism unreliable. In this system the messages are first written
with insulating ink on tinned paper, and fed into instruments
whereby they are transmitted. At the other end they are received
on chemically prepared paper, but the messages soon fade. A very
pronounced improvement upon this system was made by Mr. E. A.
Cowper, C.E., some few years since, in his writing-telegraph. Here
the movement of a pen at the sending-station introduced varying
resistances into two electric circuits connected with the receiving-
station. The varying currents acted upon two electro-magnets at
the latter station, and caused them to impart movements in two
directions at an angle to each other to a receiving-pen, which was
made to reproduce the writing formed by the sending-pen. Mr.
Cowper, however, was not alone in his invention of the writing-
telegraph, for, as not unfrequently happens, another diligent worker
was busy in the same direction and at the same time. This was
Mr. J. Hart Robertson, an American electrician, who, without being
aware of Mr. Cowper's invention, produced an instrument upon
the same plan. He found, however, that it involved heavy expense
in operating, and, pushing his research further, he in course of time
produced an improved instrument. This is the writing-telegraph
which we recently saw in successful operation in the American
Exhibition. The principle involved consists in changing the strength
of the electric currents by the movements of the pen when writing,
varying the pressure on a series of carbon disks included in the cir-
cuits. By this means simplicity, greater speed, and the utmost accu-
racy in reproduction, are secured. In this apparatus the transmitter
consists of two series of carbon disks placed at right angles to each
other in a hard-rubber receptacle. Each pile of disks has a screw
follower for adjusting the normal pressure of the disks on each
other. A rod carrying the pen or stylus is pivoted at its lower end,
and has pressure-points opposite the piles of disks. The operator
manipulates the stylus or pen as in writing, although he can only
move the point of the stylus over a small circumscribed area. As
the stylus describes the various letters, the pressure-points are
pressed against the carbon disks ; and as this pressure is increased
or diminished, varied currents are sent into the lines to the receiv-
ing-magnets, which cause the receiving-pen to reproduce every

SCIENCE.

[VoL..X. No. 244

movement of the pen of the writer at the transmitting-station. The
receiving-instrument consists of two electro-magnets set at right
angles to each other. At the point where the poles would reach if
extended is a rod for carrying the armatures. Near where the rod
is pivoted at the bottom a spring wire is inserted, so that its arma-
tures can easily and quickly respond to the varying attraction of the
electro-magnets. The armature rod extends above the table, and
carries the recording-pen. Each machine is both a sender and a
receiver, and the working of the system is most simple. The oper-
ator at the sending-station uses the stylus as a pen to form imagi-
nary letters, words, and sentences : in short, to write. He sees the
writing produced by the recording-pen in ink on a slip of ordinary
paper ribbon which slowly passes before his eyes. At the receiv-
ing-end the operator sees precisely the same thing going on, for the
written message is being reproduced by the little pen, line for line,
in perfect facsimile, on a slip of paper passing before him. We
thus have a really beautiful system of written messages, and one
which is already working commercially in the United States, where
it is taking the place of the telephone with marked success. In-
stead of the repeated shouting and comparative publicity of the
telephone, the message is written by the sender and the visible an-
swer received in perfect quiet. But should the surroundings be
noisy, it matters not, for the little pen silently writes away regard-
less of noise of any kind. The writing at both ends has all the
characteristics of the writing of the sender, and the message con-
stitutes a record which cannot be disputed, and is therefore invalu-
able to business-men. There is a facsimile record at each end, and
neither of them can be altered without detection. The invention is
at once ingenious and practical, and is the completed expression of
the long-cherished desire to produce a writing-telegraph.

— Ona part of Sir Joseph Banks’s Museum, at the back of 22
Soho Square, being pulled down, in a recess with doors which had
not been opened for about half a century, a very interesting col-
lection of relics of Captain Cook’s voyages in the South Seas has
been discovered. Inside the panelling the following inscription was
written in the handwriting of Sir Joseph Banks, who accompanied
Captain Cook on his travels: “ Instruments used, carvings, weap-
ons, and heads, collected by Captain Cook during the voyage of
the ‘Endeavour.’ —J. BANKS.” These relics have been bought by
Sir Saul Samuel, the agent-general for New South Wales, and will
shortly be despatched by him to Sydney for the State House
Museum at that place. Among the collection are the following in-
teresting articles: old quadrants and other instruments used by
Captain Cook on board the ‘Endeavour,’ four of which are in oak
cases; two mummied tattooed heads of New Zealand chiefs; two
native models of New Zealand canoes, one carved; two large carved
canoe-paddles ; carved spears and war-clubs; a native chief’s pad-
dle, beautifully worked with idolatrous carving; a very fine stone
hatchet with handle, and upon it the following inscription in the
handwriting of Sir Joseph Banks, “ Brought to England in 1775 by
Captain Cook from Otaheite;’’ and a wooden bowl with lip, used
for handing round human blood in the days of cannibalism. There
is also a carved wooden sceptre with the following words scratched
on it, presumably by Captain Cook: ‘‘ Made for me by Wanga. —
J.C.” Sir Joseph Banks’s handwriting can be identified.

— Asa result of his experiments on the maxillary palpi of man-
dibulate insects, myriapods and female spiders, Plateau comes to
the conclusion that in the arthropods they subserve no functional
purpose whatever, and are to be looked on as organs which have
become useless, like the mammz of male mammals. Plateau also
discovers by experiment that not the slightest trace exists of any
visible external respiratory movements in arachnids, such as Blan-
chard describes, or in chilopod AZyrzapoda, and suggests that the
action must be wholly intrapulmonary, supporting himself partly by
some observations of MacLeod, who thought he had discovered
evidences of muscular tissue between the pulmonary lamelle.
Locy, however, was unable to discover signs of it in the young.

— Dr. Mercier is about to publish, as an introduction to the
scientific study of insanity, a work on the nervous system and the
mind. It will contain an exposition of the new neurology as
founded by Herbert Spencer and developed by Hughlings Jackson ;
an account of the constitution of mind from the evolutionary stand-

OcToBer 7, 1887.]|

point, showing the ways in which it is liable to be disordered ; and
a statement of the connection between nervous functions and men-
tal processes as thus regarded.

— Captain Armstrong of the British steamship ‘ Alps’ reports
to the New York branch Hydrographic Office, Sept. 29, 1887, as
follows: 7 A.M., Sept. 23, 1887, off the south coast of Cuba (lati-
tude 19° 44’ north, longitude 74° 24’ west), Cape Guanos bearing
N. N. E., distant about 22 miles, felt the shock of a submarine
earthquake, lasting about 45 seconds, causing the ship to vibrate
fore and aft. At first it appeared as if the valves were thrown
open to give an extra shake-up on the engine. 7 miles farther
N. E. by N. felt another milder shock, lasting about 7 seconds.
8.10 A. M., about 13 miles from the first disturbance, felt three
shocks, lasting about two-thirds of a second, at intervals of about
asecond. At 8.45 A.M. felt another mild shock, lasting about 2
seconds. The sea was quite smooth, and had been smooth during
the night. When the first shock was felt, the sea appeared to rise
higher in a solid body (without the least break) for about 3 seconds,
and continued smooth after. Light variable winds prevailed, with
calms at intervals. Barometer, 30.05; air, 79; water, 84; mid-
night, barometer, 29.95. The high land of Cuba was enveloped in
dark lead-colored clouds, sky from N. E. by E. to S. was quite
clear, and several water-spouts were visible in a N. N. E. direc-
tion. Noon, after passing Cape Maysi, the weather was clear and
fine. By the charts I should think the disturbance occurred in
more than one thousand fathoms of water. (Civil time.)

— A correspondent of /Vazwre seeks the opinion of psychologists
on the following circumstance: A female child, quick and intelli-
gent, when about fifteen months old, learned to repeat the alphabet,
shortly afterwards the numerals, days of the week, month, etc.,
and subsequently scraps of nursery rhymes, English and German,
then to spell words of two and three letters. All this was learned
readily, eagerly indeed, and for a time she remembered apparently
every word acquired, indelibly. At about two years old, further
teaching was for a time remitted, as she was observed to be
repeating audibly in her sleep what she had learned during the
day. Subsequently, tuition was resumed under a governess ; but
she had not only forgotten much of what she had previously known
perfectly, but learns far less readily than formerly. She is now
about three and a half years old, in perfect good health and spirits,
quick, and particularly observant, but the capacity for learning by
rote is materially diminished. She is remarkably imitative, but
shows no faculty whatever for writing, and as little for music.
The writer would like to hear of any parallel cases, and what the
ultimate development has been, with any opinions upon the cause
of their appearances.

— At the central station of the United States Fish Commission
in Washington may be seen a carload of young trout from Wythe-
ville, Va., for distribution in Maryland, Virginia, and places adja-
cent to Washington. The collection comprises California trout, lake
trout, brook trout, and rock bass. Some handsome specimens of gray-
ling, artificially propagated, are also shown. The young trout have
all been hatched artificially and reared at Wytheville. The com-
mission keeps them until they attain a growth of several inches,
and then distributes them. A supply of trout will be sent to any
person who has on his place suitable waters, and facilities to in-
sure proper protection for the fish. A dozen young trout are suffi-
cient to stock an ordinary pond or lake, and one hundred to stock
arunning stream. The fish should not be molested for at least
three years, until they have had an opportunity to spawn twice.
The commission will send a carload of young carp and other fish
to the Kansas City Exposition in a few days. The car will
remain there a few days, affording opportunity to visitors to
the exposition to inspect the methods of fish-distribution. Some
of the young carp will be distributed from that point, and the
car will then proceed on a trip, for distribution purposes, to the
South-west. It is proposed to use one of the breeding-ponds in
Washington next year for raising shad. Colonel MacDonald says
that a million shad could be raised to such a size, in one of these
ponds, as to insure the return to the Potomac of at least two hun-
dred and fifty thousand shad of full growth. The young shad will
then be turned out into the Potomac.

SCIENCE:

177

— The opening address of Col. Sir Charles Warren, president of
the Geographical Section of the British Association for the Ad-
vancement of Science, deals with the much-discussed subject of
the teaching of geography. The views expressed in this address
are of interest, as the author opposes the new methods advocated
by the Royal Geographical Society, and declares that they will lead
to evil results. “It seems now to be desired to promote the
acquirement of knowledge at the earliest age without effort and
without hard work; but this appears to be directed towards allevi-
ating the toils of the instructor as much as the instructed; and we
have now, as a result, children taught common things without any
effort to strengthen their memories, and then a system of cramming
introduced at a later period, when the memory has ceased to be
capable of responding to the efforts made. ... It seems to me
that the remedy recently adopted is worse than the disease it was
to eradicate, and that, however injurious it was to attempt to store
the mind with mere names, yet the memory was trained thereby to
retain something definite ; and it is still worse to attempt to store
the mind with mere ideas without the connection of names, and
leave the memory to rust. There is obviously a middle course
which may rid us of the errors of the past without leading us into
still greater difficulties; and if we keep the object to be gained
always in view, we cannot fail to take a direct line. We want first
to lead the memory to constant exertion of such nature that it
grows stronger day by day, but is not overstrained or wearied; at
the same time it must be stored with useful facts, which may be
quite above the capacity of the mind to comprehend at the time,
but which will be required all through life: this can readily be done
by means of verses or rhymes set to simple airs and committed to
memory by song.’ As these views are expressed from so promi-
nent a place, they require some comment. In another passage of
his address, Colonel Warren says, that, in consequence of the prog-
ress of science, we are fast losing our human nature, and are
becoming machines, and we call it becoming civilized; that we are
drifting into a condition in which we learn nothing of ourselves or
by our own individual efforts. This is exactly what educationists
complain about,. and the reason why they demand a method of
teaching which develops the mental powers. But this aim will not
be reached by memorizing rhymes containing uncomprehended and
incomprehensible facts. It is a misinterpretation of the method
recently advocated by geographers, if Warren says that it is only
directed to alleviate the toils of the teacher and of the pupil. It
requires much careful preparation on the part of the teacher to:
represent facts to the untrained mind of ‘a child so that they will be
intelligible, and it requires the utmost exertion of the attention,
memory, and the faculties of observation of the child, to meet the
demands of the teacher. The remarks of Colonel Warren on the
desirability of an efficient teaching of geography will be generally
accepted, but there is not much difference between the memorizing
which is still practised in most schools and the methods he proposes.

LETTERS TO THE EDITOR.

*.* The attention of scientific men ts called tothe advantages of the correspondence
columns of SCIENCE for placing promptly on record brief preliminary notices of
their investigations. Twenty copies of the number containing hts communication
will be furnished free to any correspondent on request.

The editor will be glad to publish any queries consonant with the character of
the journal.

Correspondents are requested to be as brief as posstble.
tn all cases required as proof of good faith.

The writer's name is

Over-Pressure in the Schools.

WHEN we ask whether over-pressure in the schools is a fact,
we receive answers ranging all the way from the most positive
affirmatives to the post positive negatives. In fact, it is one of the
‘burning’ educational questions of the times. There now lie before
me two paragraphs cut from the same number of an educational
journal, that speak the two voices. In one, Dr. W. A. Hammond
of New York tells the story of a little girl brought to him from
school affected with St.-Vitus’s-dance, in whose book-bag were
an English grammar, an arithmetic, a geography, a history of the
United States, an astronomy, a physiology, a French reader, a
French grammar, and atreatise on general science. Thedoctor says .
the little girl had learned all these things, but had done so at the ex-
pense of her brain capital, not of her brainincome. Intellectual bank-

178

ruptcy was staring her in the face. Heappears to think that this is
a typical case, and concludes that we are living too much under the
rule of the school-master. The other voice is spoken by Miss Mary
E. Yate, principal of one of the New York schools. She has never
heard of a child that was injured by the school system. Other
causes hurt young people: the dissipations of child-life kills tens of
thousands where study kills one. Too much candy, late parties,
church sociables, story-reading at night, etc., are the real causes
of ills attributed to over-study. Now, where does the truth lie ?

First, if the little girls of the country are swinging to and from
school book-bags filled as Dr. Hammond says he found one filled,
teachers cannot plead social dissipation and candy as the cause of
their failing health. If this is a typical book-bag, then the course
of study is overcrowded, and too much work is demanded by the
schools. But this is not a typical book-bag, and we may set it
aside in seeking an answer to our general questions. No doubt
such book-bags can be found; no dcubt there is great over-press-
ure in some towns and cities; perhaps the average course is too
full: but the little girls of the country are not carrying on at one
time all the studies represented in that fateful book-bag.

Second, as a class, the physicians of the country are disposed
to take the ground taken by Dr. Hammond: as a class, the teach-
ers of the country tend to side with Miss Yate. Such are the two
opposite tendencies, and I do not for the moment attempt to decide
between them. But it is important to observe that the physician
and the teacher alike are each pretty sure to exclude certain impor-
tant elements from the problem. The physician, seeing that the
school is a very prominent, perhaps the most prominent, factor in
a child’s life, is apt to charge to the school ills that spring from
some other cause, or that spring from the school together with
other causes ; while the teacher, disposed to magnify his office, and
to think that school-education should be the main pursuit of child-
hood and youth, is apt to overlook other demands, and necessary
demands, that are made upon the child’s time and energy. The
result is, that neither the doctor nor the teacher deals with a whole
child; the two divide the child between them: whereas the doctor
and the teacher should each treat the child as a whole or unit, —
body and mind, home and school, work and play, —and deal with
him accordingly. There are teachers who need to be reminded
that they cannot absorb, and ought not to absorb, a child’s time
and life over and above sleeping, eating, and dressing. There are
many necessary child activities that fall outside the school, although
wise parents will see that these are kept within due limits. The
school-master is certainly abroad, and in a sense perhaps too much
abroad.

Passing to the main question, over-pressure in the schools is a
fact to the same degree that over-pressure in other departments
of American life is a fact. Here I see no reason to throw aside or
modify the conclusion that I came to three or four years ago, of
which this is the substance. Our inherited Saxon push, our na-
tional environment, our boundless opportunities, and our free in-
stitutions, in respect to courage, audacity, enterprise, and many
forms of achievement, make us a people by ourselves. It would be
hard to name a field of life in which our energy, impatience, and
nervousness do not show themselves. It is notorious that the
average American does more work, whether physical or mental,
than any other average man in the world: hence it is that America
is the gauge for measuring the most energetic communities of the
Old World; as when Lancashire, England, is called ‘America and
water.’ The words in which Mr. Herbert Spencer spoke of the
injury done by our high-pressure life, at the dinner given him in
New York four or five years ago, will not soon be forgotten. His-
tory has charged a good deal to the American spirit, and credited
it with much more. Its worst effects, unfortunately, are seen in
the higher fields of effort, — science, literature, education, and art, —
where time is an all-important factor. The tension of the public
schools is too high in the sense that the tension of our business
and social life is too high: in other words, the schools partake of
the national genius. Dr. Stanley Hall, some years ago, said he had
seen a file of one hundred and fifty small German boys just as they
marched out of the school-house at noon a quarter of a mile away ;
also that he had observed that the little girls at the Victoria school,
Berlin, did not run a step at recess, or do any thing that an equal

SCTRINGE:

[Vor Xs Nor244

number of ladies might not do. But such things as these, it hardly
need be said, cannot be found in the typical American school.

The foregoing remarks have been made with almost sole refer-
ence to our public-school education considered as a whole; but
they can be extended with hardly a word of qualification to our
higher education, professional education, and technical education
considered in the same way. While we have much in these de-
partments of which we may well be proud, we also have much that
we must excuse or altogether abandon without defence. The
causes of this state of things are the restlessness and impatience of
the national character: its conditions are the external facts of Amer-
ican life, and particularly in those communities that are less than
one hundred years old. Nothing but more maturity and the estab-
lished ways of an older and more orderly society, where constant
forces work with more steadiness, and chance plays a less part
than hitherto in success, can remedy these evils.

My answer to the question whether over-pressure in the schools
is a fact, is broad and general, taking no account of a considerable
number of facts that are at variance with it, and that of themselves
would refute it. For example: I can name a city where the prin-
ciple of emulation is greatly overstrained; the scholars of a par-
ticular class, the classes of a particular building, and all the build-
ings of the city, are engaged in an unending competition for
‘marks;’ the teachers cram the children with lessons, and the
newspapers cram the people with tables of percentages; and the
public seem rather to enjoy it. Such facts as these are very impor-
tant in their way, but do not call for a modification of the judgment
presented above. They prove that school tension is sometimes in
excess of the amount found in common life.

From the premises now presented, some important conclusions
follow. Speaking broadly, as before, the teachers of the public
schools are not responsible for such over-pressure as exists. They
show the traits of the national character; they magnify their
office; they are open to severe censure in numerous individual
cases ; but their courses of study and their methods of instruction,
they have invented to meet the popular demand. To be sure, the
impression is common that teachers go counter to the wishes of
parents when they hurry children through school; but the fact is,
the average teacher is not so anxious to hurry the child as the aver-
age parent is to have him hurried. This proposition cannot be
proved by statistics, but it will be indorsed by the sensible school
superintendents of the country. The rank of their children in the
classification, their position in the school, their promotion from
grade to grade, — these are with numerous school-patrons a pas-
sion.

Another conclusion is, that the evils which exist cannot, for the
most part, be remedied by reading school-teachers sharp lectures.
The fundamental trouble is with the public; and it is simply the
educational outcropping of the national genius, push, hurry, im-
patience. Of course, the wrong-doing of particular teachers can
be corrected by criticism, or the faults of a system of city schools
may be remedied by discussion; but the over-tension of the schools
of the country can be fully relieved only by a toning-down of the
national life, and this must come about mainly of itself. So far as
discussion is concerned, the most important thing that can be done
is this : to impress the public with the facts that time is an all-im-
portant element in education, and that knowledge, and, still more,
mental faculties, grow, and are not made. Pressure can never
take the place of time. Warmth is essential to the maturing of the
peach, but the fruit-grower will not promote the process by
building a fire on the roots of the tree. It is very desirable to
get some of the present self-consciousness out of the lives of young
children. And then, how desirable it is that boys and girls go to
the high school with a full year more of life and strength behind
them !

Finally, perhaps the most serious and common fault of teachers
is the tendency to fuss and worry. Teachers worry more children
to death than they work to death. Fretting, an excess of ‘order,’
an overdoing of ‘ position, do more harm than books and lessons.
The topic runs into moral training where we cannot follow it. But
sound digestion, strong nerves, a good appetite, sleep, that “ knits
up the ravelled sleeve of care,’ good temper, self-command, cheer-
ful confidence, and a young spirit, are important elements in moral

OctToBerR 7, 1887. |

training ; what is more, they are not properly appreciated. Not

one man in a thousand knows the amount of harm that is done to

young children by placing them under the tuition of testy, irritable,

explosive, and neurotic teachers. B. A. HINSDALE,
Cleveland, O., Oct. 3.

Objects in Teaching.

THE value of objects in giving correct ideas was brought
forcibly to my mind not long since while teaching a class in natural
philosophy at the New York State Institution for the Blind,
Batavia, N.Y.

It was my custom to place before them, the day before its uses
and the principles which it illustrated were to be discussed, a given
piece of apparatus, that, by becoming familiar with the form and
construction, its application might the more readily be appreciated.
One of the class, a young man blind from infancy, with a fondness
for machinery of all kinds and a quick perception of the use of such
as was placed before him, would frequently study the lesson in
advance, picturing to himself as carefully as possible the apparatus
described. These pictures, as he told me afterwards, were far from
correct.

The thorough examination and understanding of each succeed-
ing object, of whatever kind, add so much to the stock of correct
concepts, which is valuable not only for itself, but for its aid by
comparison in understanding others.

One of our most successful teachers described to her class, ran-
ging in age from eight to twelve, as vividly as she could without
naming it, a ladder. Among other things, she stated that it was
made of wood, had parallel sides, etc., using such terms as would
seem to be most readily understood, and then asked for the name
of the thing described. For some time no one could tell: various
things were mentioned, one boy suggesting ‘map,’ the maps for
the blind being cut in relief from wood, with the sides of the frame
parallel.

A little girl had for the first time a bird, a stuffed specimen,
placed in her hands, and was much surprised to find that it had
but two legs, having supposed until then that birds had four.

Whatever may be said for or against object-teaching for seeing
children, that of blind children is successful proportionately as it is
objective. J. T. Morey.

Perkins Institution, South Boston, Mass., Oct. 3.

Color-Blindness.

In the opening article in Sczence last week (Sept. 30) an idea
was suggested, or recalled, that may be of value; and I offer it
in view of the possible value. I have observed for twenty years
or more a difference in the power of my two eyes, at times, to dis-
criminate in light reds when viewed at a distance of fifty feet or
more; and I think this difference in the visual power of the
two organs depends very largely, if not altogether, on the way in
which the eyes are used. If I have been occupied with work that
called one eye into active exercise, where the mind was occupied
in discussing the surface or object viewed, particularly if the light
was variable, then! find persons appear different, according to
which eye is used. Not only so, but the two eyes do not focus
the same; the image, with the tired eye, being farther off than
that from the eye that is rested, and of a dull gray color. If
I go to a lecture under such circumstances, there appear to be
two lecturers,—one pale and shadowy behind; and above, the
other, which seems, perhaps by contrast, to take on a brighter
hue. Under such circumstances, I close the tired eye, —as I have
come to consider it,—and give it a rest, or go out into the fields
and give it a feast on green. Now, may not the eyes of engineers
vary as to visual power in the discrimination of colors with ex-
cessive use? If both eyes are exhausted and need rest, the in-
dividual would not be able to detect his own disability. Now, if
that is so, it is of importance to the public that no one should be
on duty for a great length of time, where the safety of any depend
on the discriminating power of the eyes as to colors.

And would it not be well, in testing eyes, to note the -condition
of the individual,—whether fresh or tired, just from work or
just from rest ? GEO. F. WATERS.

Boston, Oct. 3.

SCIENCE.

179

Percentage of Ash in Human Bones of Different Ages.

REFERRING to Watt's ‘Dictionary of Chemistry,’ under the
article ‘ Bone,’ we find two tables of analyses of bones, — one by
Von Bibra, and the other by Frémy. These two scientists do not
arrive at the same conclusion. Von Bibra states that “the por-
tion of inorganic matter in bone is smaller in youth than in age, al-
though no regular gradation can be observed;” while Frémy
holds that “the bone of a foetus was found to yield the same
quantity of ash as that of a woman of ninety-seven years of age.”
Although the actual number of analyses made by these investigat-
ors was large, yet simple inspection of their tables will show that
very few were made of the same bone in each case; and it is evi-
dent that a comparison between a femur on the one hand, and a
tibia on the other, could not be trustworthy.

It occurred to me as worth while to supplement their lists; and
I here present what may be considered a report of progress in that
direction, very much yet remaining to be done.

The extreme difficulty of getting supplied with material the his-
tory of which is both certain and satisfactory renders the work ex-
ceedingly slow.

The bone for examination was in every instance cut from the
dense portion of the shaft of the femur. No subject was taken
who had, so far as known, suffered from rickets or other serious
bone-disease, and women of recent confinement were also excluded.
All specimens were obtained either from living persons (amputa-
tions) or those recently dead. After crushing in a steel mortar, ex-
tracting with ether, and again crushing, the ash was determined by
incineration in a platinum dish. The results are in the appended
table.

we
5 F Fre
2 3 : ESI= i
=e rs ‘S Eis) os
5 2) 5 5: Bel ‘a GS
So £ i} 3) oO Ol Tu i]
Oo ° i) = wie 4 o
Al no is) a (o) A |< jay %
1| Specijmen _|lost.
2| Male |White = - Phthisis 65 |67.05
3), Negro =. = OS 21 |65.89| Had scrofula
4; ‘* |White| Russian Sailor ss 23 |67.28| Had syphilis
5 Me “* | American| Farmer - 334\67 63! Amputation
6|Female| ‘ Trish Actress Peritonitis |23 |67 66
7| Male os = - Phthisis 60 |67 55
8|Female| ‘ Trish - Dy 24 |68 29
9| Male | “ = = SS 57 |67 73
10 0G os - = Ou 58 |67.60
Ir Ot Me - = co 57 |68.82| [bowel-disease
12| Female |Negro = = r 25 |68 20] Died of some
13} Male |White| Irish Laborer Killed 21 |67.73
14 OG ¥S English Brewer - 3r |66 51] Amputation
15 S Gs Irish - = 64.8 se
16} Female} ‘* e Domestic Phthisis [46 |69 67 Married
17 oe at French - Peritonitis |57 |67.60 ce
18} Male ‘“« | American| Farmer Old age 8x |68.56
19|Female| ‘ Trish = Apoplexy 60 |69.33 Married
20| Male w cS Laborer Bronchitis |74 |68 72
21|Female| ‘‘ | American - Phthisis 44 |68 30 Married
22} Jie ws Irish = ve 60 |67,.93 Insane.
23| Male a German - ? 40 |69.28
24 ry) “ “ ns ? 53 |68 23
25 ef We Trish - Phthisis 56 |68.94
26 i He a - Bright's disease|41 |68 15
27 Gy he ae Laborer Dysentery 48 |69.73
28| Female] ** |American = Phthisis 29 |g 18
Bal) “ es as “ 34 |69.82
30| Male Sy Italian Laborer Tetanus 29 |68.47| Effect of wound
31| Female} ‘* |American| Domestic | Typhus-fever |24 |67 99
32| Male bu - = Nephritis [49 |69.35
33 Be Se - - Alcoholism {58 |68.69
34 ce ie Irish - - Tr |65.87| Amputation
35 a oo German = Phthisis 59 |68.93
36| Female} ‘‘ Trish = oe 29 |69.03
37| Male wt iS - Pheumonia [55 |69.72
38 Me Negro - = Phthisis 45 |69.06
39 st White} German Brewer ? 40 |69.31
40 fe se English Tailor ? 73 |69.85
4 34 ne Trish Laborer Killed 38 |69.05
42 ng ce " None Phthisis 25 |69.36 Drunkard
43 te ‘““ {American | _ Hostler Alcoholism 63 |68 07 S
44 | ans ss English | Coachman a 43 |65.11| Had syphilis
45 tien er = Shoemaker oY 45 |65.16 Drunkard
46 Se 0 = Lawyer Old age 70 |62.82
47|Female| ‘ - Prostitute Phthisis 26 |65.23
48 ss ss - Domestic se 31 |65.61|Bone very brittle
49| Male os German | Shoemaker Sf 38 |63.98
50 " es Irish Laborer ? 6r 163.54

I think enough has been done to show that the common belief in
the increased brittleness of bone with advancing years being due to
increased percentage of inorganic salts, is without foundation. The
appended table indicates that after manhood is reached, no varia-
tion in quantity of ash takes place as the years roll on.

“The greater brittleness of the bones in age is attributed by

180

Frémy to the increase in the proportion of the spongy tissue, the
thickness of the hard and dense portion of the bones continually
diminishing as age advances.”

This has not been my experience. Transverse sections of the
entire bone were made in each case, in order to test this very point,
by observing the relative size of dense with spongy portion, and I
certainly saw nothing to warrant Frémy’s conclusion.

At the same time, small columns 4 x 4x4 inch were cut from the
dense portion of the shaft, and were broken transversely on a test-
ing-machine, in order to determine the amount of brittleness. The
most brittle specimen I had (No. 48), showed a rather thicker dense
portion than usual.

I find the brittleness to be in the material rather than in the bone
as a structure, and, in view of the analytical results, I cannot ex-
plain that brittleness, as Von Bibra does, by holding for the gradual
increase in mineral salts.

I append a very imperfect table of the results obtained on the
testing-machine. Every bone, as I received it, could not be cut so
as to give a column of the size required for breaking. It will be
noticed, that, in general, strength of bone diminishes as age ad-
vances.

BREAKING-WEIGHT FOR COLUMN OF BONE {x 4 x 2 INCH,
BROKEN TRANSVERSELY.

Pounds.
25 years of age 75
26 “se is 74.

Se pried. Tae 6
as a s°
43 “e te 58
ZAG eG My ORO Us HO PO he Aner a SM ea tobe 60
6x “ cS 55
63 “ “ 30
yo tO et

Loss of material by the burning of the laboratory affected, in a

measure, the completeness of the work.
WILLIAM P. Mason.

Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute,
Troy, N.Y., July 21.

Evidence of a Glacier-like Movement amongst Snow Particles.

It has been conclusively proved that glaciers have a movement
corresponding in every way, except in amount, with that of water
similarly situated. I wish here to point out that snow particles,
under certain corresponding conditions, have the same movement
but of greater amount.

It appears to me that it would be difficult to draw a line with
certainty between those solids whose particles are capable of such
movements, and those which are not. I will admit that it were
easy to point out this limit for solids that would show sensible
movement in limited time; but to do so for solids under unlimited
time and large pressure might not be so easy or possible. It
seems unlikely that the few solids we have evidence of should be
the only ones possessing these movements, particularly when viewed
in the light of the fact that so many solids, after being transformed
from the molten to their solid condition, exhibit the effects of a
movement amongst their particles in longer or shorter periods after
their change of condition. It is not, however, with a consideration
of this limit that we have to do at present.

In Hudson Strait we had banked around the foundation of
our house-walls with moss and rocks, so as to protect ourselves
against the weather. This bank had a slope inwards towards the
walls from the base. When snow remained permanently on the
ground, we made use of it to build up an outside wall, two feet
thick and eight high, over this bank, as a further protection against
the weather.

Snow, it may be necessary for me to explain, exists, in northern
climates, under somewhat different conditions from that in which we
are accustomed to see it ; so that, very shortly after it has fallen, ex-
treme temperatures and high winds so alter it, that, whilst essentially
granular snow, it has become so hard that it requires an iron (not
a wooden) shovel to cut it, when, with sufficient care, blocks of
unlimited size can be hewn out of it and transported. The particles
are now arranged in a high degree of tension; so much so, that,
when a block is struck a blow, it gives out a sound such as could
be compared with that given out by a brick tile. It was with

SCIENCE:

[ VoL. X. No. 244

snow in this condition that our protecting walls were built. My
attention was first called to a movement of the snow by noticing
that the snow walls were leaving the building, as I at first sup-
posed, by a ‘ topping ’ movement : I therefore built relatively heavy
buttresses of snow to retain them, and then found that buttress
and wall had partaken of this movement, which was of course
lessened, as the buttresses had been built on comparatively level
ground. In addition to this, the arches which we had made over
the windows out of blocks of snow, of about a foot square and
four to five feet long, had, of their own weight, passed from the
arch through the straight line into very pendant inverted arches,
having left a space on top of the wall between the snow blocks
on either side, and become considerably attenuated on account of
the increased distance covered, and at the same time remained
cemented to the layer next below in the wall. W. A. ASHE.
The Observatory, Quebec, Sept.,26.

Grindelia glutinosa in Wisconsin.

THE note in Sczence of Sept. 23, on Grindelza sguarrosa, re-
minds me of a curious fact concerning another species of Grzndelia.
Last July I found in the Menomonee valley, near the slaughter-
houses west of the city of Milwaukee, a composite plant which I
could not find in the list of Wisconsin plants published in the first
volume of the ‘Geology of Wisconsin.’ The plant coincided com-
pletely with the description of Grzndelza glutznosa Dunal in Gray’s
‘Flora of North America’ (Gamopetale, p. 119). I found only one
specimen, apparently in perfect health, growing on the Chicago,
Milwaukee, and St. Paul Railroad track. Gray states that the species
ranges along “the shore of California from Humboldt County and
San Francisco to Santa Barbara Islands.” The seed of this speci-
men must have been brought to eastern Wisconsin by one of the
many trains which pass through the Menomonee valley to Milwau-
kee. It is certainly remarkable that two species of a genus not
before represented in Illinois and Wisconsin should have migrated
so far to the east of their original habitat, and should have both

appeared in the same summer in both States.
W. M. WHEELER.
Milwaukee, Sept. 26.

Sections of Fossils.

HAVING lately had occasion to consult a paper published by the
Geological and Natural History Survey of Canada, entitled ‘ Contri-
butions to the Micro-Paleontology of the Cambro-Silurian Rocks of
Canada,’ by Mr. Arthur H. Foord, I wish to call attention to the
method there pursued.

Having devoted considerable time to the monticuliporoid corals
of the Cincinnati group, I have come to the conclusion that magnified
views of the internal structure of these fossils are of little use in the
determination of species. The paper in question deals entirely with
these internal features. Several plates are given in illustration of new
species, and, out of 67 figures of 12 species,23 are of natural size. Many
of these are very poor, and would be of little value in the determi-
nation of species. And as now more stress is laid upon the figure
than the description, it follows that some of the species would be
unrecognizable from either the one or the other. Thin sections to
show the interior cannot be made without considerable skill, much
labor, and time; and [| think I am prepared to show, in a paper now
in press, that even when made the features they show under the
microscope are of no value whatever as specific characters.

JOSEPH F. JAMES,
Miami University, Oxford, O., Sept. 27.

American Caves.

In the October Scrzdner, Professor Shaler states that the reason
caves were not used as much in North America as in Europe, was,
“the first peoples of this country had already attained an advance-
ment in the arts which enabled them to make shelters,” etc. This
is not true. The first peoples of America were as rude as any in
other continents ; and the typical cave-dwellers of Europe were not
any more primitive than Eskimos of recent date. It is much to
be regretted that so erroneous an idea of ancient man in America
should be set forth in a popular magazine. CHAS. C. ABBOTT.

Trenton, N.J., Oct. x.

eae LIVE

FRIDAY, OCTOBER 14, 1887.

IT IS UNDERSTOOD that General Greely has decided to discon-
tinue the collection of marine data from masters of vessels, rely-
ing upon the Hydrographic Office to furnish whatever information
may be needed in the work of his office. This change went into
effect Oct. 1; and at the close of this year the Signal Service will dis-
continue also all work in connection with the international simul-
taneous meteorological observations, excepting so far as may be
necessary to complete the publication of the results up to Jan. 1,
1888, thus bringing to a close a period of ten years’ continuous
observation. It is greatly to be hoped that the Hydrographic
Office will make every effort to continue this very important work,
and that Congress will authorize the further publication of the re-
sults in some such form as has been hitherto done, and so well
done, by the Signal Service. The importance of this comparatively
modern and only really scientific method of studying marine mete-
orology can hardly be overestimated. Indeed, if the vessels of all
nations traversing the North Atlantic could be induced by the Hy-
drographic Office to take not merely one observation, but three
simultaneous observations daily, corresponding in time to those
taken at all our Signal Service stations, it could not fail to result in
such an increase in the safety and certainty of navigation, in this
the most important ocean on the globe to civilized man, as to make
the expense and trouble involved wholly insignificant. The marine
data collected by the Hydrographic Office are immediately utilized,
so far as possible, in preparing the Mascart cablegram, sent to Eu-
rope every night by the Signal Service for the benefit of west-
ward-bound vessels, and in compiling the ‘Pilot Chart of the
North Atlantic Ocean,’ issued the first day of each month by the
Hydrographic Office as a guide to navigation. In addition to this,
all such data have, of course, a further, though less immediate, value
as constituting the foundation upon which future progress in the
study of ocean meteorology must be largely based. Here, as in
every science, old observations and methods of work guide the
way to further advances; so that, with improved instruments and
methods, still greater practical benefits can be looked for. The
results thus obtained can nowhere be of greater importance to
mankind than in the North Atlantic Ocean, the great highway be-
tween the Old World and the New.

THE ATTENTION OF SANITARIANS throughout the country is
centred on New York City and Tampa, Fla. At the former there
arrived, Sept. 22, the steamship ‘ Alesia’ from Naples, Italy, with
four cases of cholera on board. During the voyage eight deaths
had occurred from the same disease. The passengers were not per-
mitted to come to the city, but were at once taken to the quarantine
islands in the bay of New York. Since the debarkation other cases
have occurred among the passengers. The lateness of the season
will undoubtedly prevent any extension of the disease to the city this
year. The presence of this dreaded disease in the port of New
York, and the experience of past years in which the disease became
epidemic in this country, should be a timely warning to all sanitary
authorities. If cholera is to prevail in the United States during the
coming year, it can hardly be expected to appear before spring, be-
fore which time at least six months will be available for purposes of
a thorough cleansing and purifying of filthy spots in both city and
country ; and that community which neglects to take the necessary
preparatory measures to cope with the disease must expect to reap
the consequences. In connection with this subject it will not be

amiss to recall public attention to the recommendations which were
adopted by the sanitary conference which met at Washington in
1884 in anticipation of the arrival of cholera during the following
summer, from which we quote, under ‘Health Matters,’ in another
column. As cholera at New York is attracting the attention
of sanitarians, equally so is the possible existence of yellow-fever
at Tampa, Fla. A telegram from the deputy-collector of Tampa
to the Marine Hospital Bureau announces that there have been
twenty-six cases of yellow-fever in that place; and the additional
information is given that the doctors disagree as to whether the
disease is dengue or yellow-fever. That doctors disagree is not a
strange occurrence, and that this disagreement is in reference to the
existence of yellow-fever is also no new thing. When undoubted
yellow-fever appears in the South, its presence is always denied, and
strenuous efforts are made by the local physicians to conceal it ; so
that to the recognized sanitary authorities must we look for a true
statement of the nature of the disease which now prevails at Tampa. _
Thus far, nothing authoritative has been made public. Dengue
prevailed in the West Indies in 1827, and in the following year
made its appearance in the South. In the city of Charleston alone
there were ten thousand cases, seven-tenths of the population being
attacked. It appeared again in Charleston in 1850, and along the
southern coast in 1880. It is commonly known as ‘breakbone-
fever,’ from the fact that one stage of the disease is characterized by
severe pains throughout the body. It commences with a feeling of
chilliness, followed by fever, during which these pains are felt.
Sometimes the joints in the hands and feet become swollen, as in
rheumatism. Usually there is an eruption resembling measles. The
affection lasts eight days, but a considerable time elapses before the
strength of the patient is fully recovered. Someauthorities regard the
disease as contagious, while others deny it. A micrococcus has
been described as being the germ of the disease, but this lacks con-
firmation. Fortunately dengue is not often fatal. In this respect it
exhibits a marked contrast to yellow-fever, in which the mortality
varies between ten and seventy-five per cent. La Roche states the
average mortality to be I in 2.32.

NOTHING IS ATTRACTING more attention in agricultural circles
just now than the great sorghum-sugar industry. The late results
obtained at the experimental sorghum station at Fort Scott, Kan.,
are most encouraging, and have induced sanguine views of the
future of the industry, which can only be compared with the
dreams of the average land-speculator. As these views are some-
what amusing, we quote below liberally from one of our correspond-
ents. ‘This is a great boon for Kansas and Missouri. There are
enough acres of farm-land that will produce sorghum in Missouri
and Kansas to make millionnaires of every man owning any quan-
tity of land. It is said that the soil will produce from ten to fifteen
tons per acre. One man can farm 50 acres of sorghum very com-
fortably. Fifty acres, yielding 10 toms per acre, is 500 tons
of cane. From this the farmer gets $250 worth of seed. The
last run made at Fort Scott yielded 115 pounds of sugar to each
ton of cane, which is 1,150 pounds per acre, or, for the 50 acres,
57,500 pounds. This, at the lowest figure possible, 5 cents per
pound, is the snug sum of $2,875. Besides this, there is a yield of
15 gallons of sirup to each ton of cane, making 150 gallons per
acre, or 7,500 gallons for the 50 acres. This should sell for 20
cents per gallon, which is $1,500 more, making the sum total of
$4,625 received from the 50 acres. After deducting the sum of
$1 per ton, the cost of milling, which is $10 per acre, or $500 for

182

the 50 acres, there is a net profit of $4,125 from the acreage planted.
This is clear net profit on the cane, and does not include any
charge of profit to the people owning the mill or plant. Kansas has
offered a premium of 2 cents a pound for all the sugar produced in
that State, and there are 150,000 acres of sorghum grown there, and
nearly a million dollars’ worth of machinery has been built for ex-
periments in testing the best manner of extracting the juices.
Sorghum-sugar can be raised anywhere from the Gulf to Minnesota
at less than 1 cent per pound; in fact, one of the sugar engineers of
Cuba, after examining the results at Fort Scott, stated that he could
put up a plant which would produce sorghum-sugar at 59 cents per
hundred pounds. There is no reason why a bounty of $500,000 a
year should not be given to sugar, and as much more to flax, by the
government. In thus co-operating with State experimental stations,
an unexampled prosperity should result from these endeavors.”

THE NICARAGUA CANAL.

On April 24, 1887, the contract between the Nicaragua Canal
Association and the Republic of Nicaragua was signed, and the
work on this important route from the Atlantic to the Pacific will
therefore soon be taken up. *

The principal surveys of the route are those made by O. W.
Childs, in 1850-54, on behalf of the American Atlantic and Pacific
Ship Canal Company, and those of the United States Surveying
Expeditions, 1872-73 and 1885, the former under Commander
Hatfield and later under Commander Lull, the latter under A. G
Menocal, who was chief civil engineer of the expedition of 1872-73,
Our map is compiled from the maps and profiles published in the
reports of these expeditions, and shows the locations of the canal
in 1872 and 1885.

Lake Nicaragua, which occupies the central part of the isthmus,
will form the summit-level of the canal. Its outlet is the river
San Juan, which flows to the Caribbean Sea. Near the lake the
river is broad and flows through an open country. It has an aver-
age depth of nineteen feet. Twenty-eight miles below Fort San
Carlos the river enters a hilly country and forms numerous rapids
which obstruct navigation. The last of these are the Machuca
Rapids, below which the river has a depth varying from 20 to 60
feet, with but little current: this section is called ‘Agua Muerte,’
or dead water. At the foot of the Agua Muerte the San Carlos is
received into the river, and is the first considerable tributary,
This river comes from a long distance up in the Costa Rica hills,
and carries a considerable amount of detritus which consists
chiefly of volcanic sands. Below the confluence the San Juan
changes its character altogether, and is filled with shoals and sand-
bars. An additional amount of detritus of a similar character is
carried into the San Juan by the Serapiqui. While the upper course
of the San Juan, which is almost exclusively fed by Lake Nicaragua,
is not subject to freshets, its lower part, below the confluence of
the San Carlos, partakes of the character of that river, which is a
torrent during the rainy season, and has little water during the dry
season. Therefore the lower part of the river cannot be made use
of for navigation, and an independent canal to the Caribbean Sea
must be built. In the location of 1872-73 the canal followed the
river, and then crossed its delta to the lagoon of Greytown.

Thirteen miles below the confluence of the Serapiqui the delta of
the San Juan begins. The principal arm of the river is the Rio
Colorado, which flows to the eastward and empties into the sea.
The other arm is the Lower San Juan, which passes more to the
northward, and is divided into several mouths, which discharge their
waters into the sea and into the lagoon of Greytown. The delta
consists of the light volcanic sand carried into the San Juan by its
southern tributaries. This silt has almost totally destroyed the
harbor of Greytown by closing up the old entrance and filling a
great part of the harbor. The silt is being carried into it by the
Lower San Juan and the current. Therefore it is proposed to cut
off the Lower San Juan, to send all the water through the Colorado
into the sea, and to build a jetty for keeping the silt out of the
harbor, which will be improved by dredging.

When the project of a canal through Nicaragua was first dis-
cussed, several routes from the lake to the Pacific Ocean were pro-

SCIEN Gis

[Vion Xa) Nop 2am

posed. The one advocated by Napoleon ran from the lake through
the Rio Tipitapa to Lake Managua, and continued to the port of
Realejo. This route, as well as those to Salinas Bay and San
Juan del Sur, was found impracticable, and Brito at the mouth of
the Rio Grande was chosen as terminus. The upper Rio Grande
offers several difficulties on account of the freshets of the river and
the narrowness of its valley. This induced Commander Lull to.
select the Rio del Medio route, though it requires deeper cuttings,
as it avoids the upper part of the Rio Grande, while Menocal favors
the Rio Lajas route.

The route proposed by Mr. Menocal extends from the harbor of
San Juan del Norte, or Greytown, on the Caribbean Sea, to the
port of Brito, on the Pacific, a total distance of 169.8 miles, of
which 40.3 miles are canal in excavation, and 129.5 miles open
navigation through Lake Nicaragua, the river San Juan, and the
basin of the river San Francisco, a tributary of the San Juan. Lake
Nicaragua, some 90 miles long by about 40 miles wide, the sur-
face of which is 110 feet above sea-level, has been taken as the
summit-level of the canal. Leaving the harbor of Brito, the canal
follows the valley of the Rio Grande with a gradual inclination of
about 12 feet to the mile, ascending by means of four locks, 26 to
29 feet lift, to the summit-level extending 8.5 miles west of the
lake. From that point the canal extends easterly, and, cutting
across the divide with a maximum depth of 41.4 feet above the
surface of the water, reaches the lake 17.27 miles from the Pacific
terminus. The summit of the divide cut through by the canal,
151.4 feet above sea-level, is much the lowest depression across the
American isthmus.

The lake navigation extends from the mouth of the river Lajas
to Fort San Carlos at the head of the river San Juan: through that
distance not less than 28 feet of water can be carried to within
2,400 feet of the west shore, and eight miles of Fort San Carlos.
For the former distance, dredging and rock excavation are neces-
sary; and in the latter, dredging in mud to an average depth of
3.5 feet, to extend deep water from shore to shore. Other parts of
the lake are very deep.

The canal then follows the river San Juan for a distance of
64 miles from the lake to Ochoa, just below the confluence of the
river San Carlos (v. map). Here a dam is proposed, 1,255 feet long
and 52 feet high, which will back the water of the river the entire
distance to the lake, maintaining the surface of the latter at the
proposed level of 110 feet. The upper part of the river thus
deepened and widened will be converted into an extension of the
lake, at no place less than 1,000 feet wide, arid, with the exception
of the first 28 miles from the lake, the depth gradually increases
from 28 to 130 feet. Within those 28 miles, dredging and rock
excavation to an average depth of 4 feet will be needed fora dis-
tance of 24 miles. The dam is located between rock abutments,
and is proposed to be built of concrete resting on rock foundations
20 feet below the present water-level.

Just above the dam, a break between the hills confining the
river on the north, affords a desirable basin at the entrance of the
canal, which here leaves the river. After running a distance of .62
miles through the basin, it cuts across a broken country for a dis-
tance of 1.82 miles, and enters the valley of the creek San Francisco.
This creek runs nearly parallel to the San Juan, from which it is
separated by a range of hills, to a point about 9 miles from the
dam, then, receiving a tributary from the north-east, turns
abruptly to the south and empties into the San Juan. Its
valley forms an irregular, flattened Y, with its foot resting
on the San Juan, one arm extending westerly to within a
short distance of the dam at Ochoa, the other easterly in
the direction of Greytown. Across the stem of this Y will be built
an embankment 6,500 feet long on the crest, with a maximum
depth of 51 feet. This embankment will retain the waters of the
San Francisco, forming an artificial lake of 30 to 50 feet depth, at
the level of the river above the dam, or an extension of the summit-
level. The outlines of this lake and the increase in width of the
San Juan, after its waters are dammed up at Ochoa, are shown in
our map according to information kindly furnished by Mr. Menocal.
The extent of country which will be inundated by the San Carlos
cannot be defined, as the valley has not been surveyed.. As its
character, however, is similar to that of the San Juan, the strip of

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PLAN OF THE NICARAGUA SHIP CANAL —

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SCIENCE October 14" 1887 No 245.
Profile of the Nicaragua Ship Canal.

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OcrToBER 14, 1887.]

land will probably be very narrow. The necessary land will be
granted by Costa Rica to the association. The canal route follows this
deep basin to the western slope of the dividing ridge between the
creek San Francisco and the river San Juanillo, 12.55 miles from
the dam, and 19.48 from Greytown. Beginning at the eastern ex-
tremity of this basin, the canal cuts through the dividing ridge, the
summit of which is 280 feet above sea-level, and in a distance of
14,200 feet, in which the average depth of the cutting is 119 feet
above the water in the canal, strikes the eastern slope of the
divide. This point is on the eastern terminus of the summit-level
extending from the upper lock on the Pacific slope, a distance of
144.8 miles. Here it is proposed to carve in the solid rock, at the
end of the deep cut referred to, the upper lock of the eastern branch,
-and drop the level of the canal 53*feet. The ground thence de-
scends gradually to the next lock, .87 miles below, where another
drop of 27 feet takes place ; and the canal for a distance of about
three miles is cut through a broad, slightly inclined valley to the
third and last lock. This lock lowers the canal to the level of the
sea, and -from here it takes a direct course through the alluvial
plains of the San Juanillo to the harbor of San Juan del Norte, or
Greytown, a distance of 11.55 miles; from the last lock to Grey-
town on the east, and to Brito on the west side, the canal is en-
larged, forming extensions of the harbors, where vessels can pass
-each other without detention. Ample provision has been made to
protect the canal from surface drainage. Two basins are proposed
at each lock where vessels can wait or pass each other without
‘delay. The canal is proposed to be 80 feet wide at the bottom in
deep cuts, and 120 feet in the terminal cuts and other enlarged sec-
tions; the width at the surface of the water being 80 feet in deep
rock cuts, and 184, 288, and 342 feet at other points. The locks are
-estimated 650 feet long between mitre sills and 65 feet width of
chamber. The estimated time of transit from sea to sea, on the
basis of a speed of 5 miles per hour in the canal proper, 8 to 10
miles per hour in the river and lake, and 45 minutes’ detention at
-each of the seven locks, is 30 hours. Allowing but one vessel to
each lockage, 32 vessels in one day, or 11,680 in one year, can be
passed through the canal. Breakwaters and dredging will be re-
-quired at the harbors of Brito and Greytown to secure a free
entrance.

It is estimated that the canal and its accessories can be com-
pleted in six years ; and its cost, including 25 per cent for contin-
gencies, is put down at $64,043,697. The estimates are the result
-of an actual instrumental location of the entire line, and the surveys
have been conducted with great care, and sufficiently in detail to
insure a close estimate of cost.

The characteristic features of this location as compared to that
-of 1872-73 are the great extension of the summit-level eastward,
which practically extends Lake Nicaragua to the divide between
the San Francisco basin and the San Juanillo, by the high dam at
Ochoa, and the embankment near the confluence of the San Francisco
and San Juan, and the difference of the location of the upper part
of the western division. Commander Lull recommended the Rio
del Medio route, though it required cuttings of 134 feet, on account
of better natural surface drainage, which is of the greatest impor-
tance for the stability of the work in a country with heavy rainfalls.
On that line no water-course of considerable size would be taken in
the canal, and, as its watershed is quite small, no fears were enter-
tained of damages from freshets. On the Rio Lajas route the Rio
Grande, a mountain stream of extensive and rapidly inclined water-
shed and precipitous channel, with a maximum flow of about Io,-
-o00 cubic feet per second, had to be passed. This difficulty has been
overcome by Menocal by diverting it into the Juan Davila, a tribu-
tary of the Rio Lajas.

Dr. Polakowsky (Pefermann’s Mittezlungen, 1887, p.138) raises
‘several objections against this project, which, however, are not well
founded. He says that it will be necessary to retain the present
devel of the San Carlos, as it would flood extensive parts of Costa
Rica. This, however, cannot be true, as its course is very rapid,
-and as the lower part of its channel passes through a hilly country.
Neither will the banks of the San Juan be fiooded to any consider-
able extent, as may be seen from the accompanying map. The ex-
tent of land owned by private parties and required for the canal is
‘very trifling, and therefore no considerable additional cost will be

SCIENCE.

183

occasioned by this item. The lands belonging to the state of Nicara-
gua will be given to the association without any compensation
whatever. Besides the works belonging to the canal proper, the
association is obliged by contract with the Republic of Nicaragua
to establish a communication between the part of the San Juan not
used for canal purposes and the canal by means of locks suitable
for the navigation of ships of 6 feet draught, and another canal be-
tween Lake Managua and the lower part of the Tipitapa of suffi-
cient dimensions to admit the passage of vessels drawing 6 feet, and
of 150 feet length. The difference in level between the lakes is
22.34 feet. The river Tipitapa is shown in our map: it is full of
rapids, and has a fall of 13 feet above the bridge of Tipitapa.
This canal will be the property of the government.

Besides the land necessary for the construction of the canal, con-
siderable land-grants are ceded to the company. On the left bank
of the river San Juan from the Atlantic to Castillo Viejo it will re-
ceive alternate lots of three miles frontage and six miles in depth;
from Castillo to the lake, on the south side of the river, lots two
miles frontage and two miles depth; all along the south shore of
the lake to the mouth of the Rio Lajas, lots of one mile square; on
the northern bank of the Rio San Juan above Castillo, lots of three
miles frontage and four miles in depth ; and, continuing on the east
shore of the lake as far as the river Tule, lots of two miles frontage
on the lake and two miles depth are ceded to the company. Fur-
thermore, it will receive forty lots of the existing public lands, each
four miles frontage by five miles deep.

Though Menocal’s plan is the result of frequent and thorough in-
vestigations, it is not considered as final, but the Canal Association
intends to have the routes, and particularly the divides, resurveyed in
the coming winter. Operations will be taken up in the present
month. So far the geological features of the country traversed by
the canal are still insufficiently known, and to these particular at-
tention will be paid. From the specimens collected by Lull’s and
Menocal’s expeditions, it appears that metamorphic rocks form the
foundation of the eastern part of the country. Overlying these, vol-
canic lavas, such as very compact basalts, andesites, and rhyolites,
were found. Borings will be made in all the localities where cuts
are proposed. Particular attention will be paid to the eastern
divide, as it is considered desirable to avoid the cutting of 119 feet
above the water of the canal, if possible. The results of these sur-
veys and borings will be laid before the leading engineers of North
America and Europe, and not until then the final route will be
adopted. It is hoped that thus unforeseen difficulties will be
avoided.

The climate of Nicaragua is an important consideration, particu-
larly while the canal is being constructed. The western part is un-
doubtedly healthy, while malaria prevails in the swampy delta of
the San Juan. The following description of the climate by Von
Franzius will be of interest.

In the north-eastern part of Central America the north-easterly
trade-winds are the rainy winds from November until February.
They lose their humidity on the eastern slope of the mountains, and
reach the south-west side as dry winds. Particularly from Novem-
ber to January the trade-winds bring rain on the north-east side,
in February and March rain is scarce, and in April there is none
whatever. In the beginning the rain is even carried across the
mountains to the south-western slope, where it extends a consider-
able distance down the valleys. Particularly in the saddles of the
mountain ranges the rain extends south-westward. In November
and December the rainy spells sometimes last for two or three
weeks. They are called ‘ Navidades.’ At the same season, when in
October and November the north-easterly trade-winds make their
first appearance and bring the first rain on the north-east side, the
rainy season is at an end on the south-west side. The sky is
clearing up, and the trade-winds begin to blow, at first squally,
later on as a strong breeze. There are no thunder-storms during
this season, which is called ‘ Verano.. The mountains are seen
through a blue haze, while the air is very transparent and clear
during the rainy season. The short period of calm weather crosses
Central America twice, — first in March following the receding trade-
winds, and then in October. The trade-winds reach the northern
parts of Central America about the end of September. In the be-
ginning of October they begin to blow in Guatemala, about the end

184

of October in Nicaragua, and in the beginning of November in
Costa Rica and Panama. In Guatemala they blow from the middle
of October until the end of April, in Costa Rica from the beginning
of November until the end of March. At the end of this season,
calms prevail for two or three weeks; then the south-westerly
monsoon sets in, and tropical thunder-storms with heavy rains occur
every day. This period begins in Panama and Costa Rica in April,
in Nicaragua in May, and in Guatemala in June.

It is difficult to estimate the traffic that would make use of a
canal through the American isthmus, as its opening would result in
a complete revolution of trade. The route through the Suez Canal
is taken by about two-thirds of the ships plying between Europe
and Asia. According to C. Eggert the whole traffic of Europe
with India, East Asia, and Australia, in 1883, required 5,707 ships
of 7,773,058 tonnage.

From May 1, 1882, to April 30, 1883, 3,154 steamships, of 4,889,-
928 tons, and from May 1, 1883, to April 30, 1884, 3,407 steam-
ships, of 5,585,504 tons, passed through the canal. Therefore it
will be safe to suppose that in the beginning about two-thirds of
the whole traffic which might avail itself of the American canal
would make use of it. It may be that the figure will be a little
lower, as some seamen will object to the locks of the canal, but this
objection will readily be overcome. According to statements fur-
nished by the Bureau of Statistics, the number and tonnage of ves-
sels that could use a canal through Central America, amounted,
in 1879, to 2,647 vessels, of 2,671,886 tons; in 1885, to 4,139 ves-
sels, of 4,252,434 tons. From data furnished by the Statistical
Bureau of Hamburg, the same traffic amounted, in 1883, to 2,404
vessels, of 2,337,346 tons. In these compilations the figures for
the trade between the United States and foreign ports fairly agree,
as the following table will show. The first line refers to vessels
entered at and cleared from Atlantic coast ports of the United
States in trade with foreign countries west of Cape Horn; the
second, to vessels entered at and cleared from Pacific coast ports of
the United States in trade with foreign countries east of Cape Horn.
The first and third columns are according to the Bureau of Statis-
tics of the Treasury Department; the second, from the Hamburg
Bureau of Statistics.

1879. 1883. 1885.
Vessels. Tons. Vessels. Tons. Vessels. Tons.
zi 273 247,507 462 462,767 72 734236
2 455 551,929 629 792,180 724 957,784

The figures showing the trade between European ports and for-
eign countries other than the United States, and using the route
around Cape Horn, do not agree as well: —

1879. 1883. 1885.

Vessels. Tons. Vessels. Tons.

1,462,897 |

Vessels. Tons.

7,644 1,313 1,082,393 2,473 2,210,675

In the figures compiled from the data of the Hamburg Bureau
the traffic between the Pacific and Atlantic ports of North America
is not included; but there can be no doubt that this trade will
rapidly develop after the opening of the canal, and that it will form
one of the most important items of income of the canal. The
United States Bureau of Statistics states that vessels of 4,252,434
tons might have passed the canal in 1885. If the increase should
continue at the same rate, 6,506,214 tons might use the canal when
opened, on Jan. 1, 1893. The Suez Canal route is used by two-
thirds of the whole traffic; but it must be considered, that, on ac-
count of the winds of the Red Sea, sailing-ships cannot make use
of the canal, while on the coast of Nicaragua the winds are more
favorable. But, even if we suppose that from 70 to 80 per cent of
the whole traffic will take this route, the income will be very con-
siderable. Taking 70 per cent of the whole probable traffic of
1893 passing the canal, not less than about 4,700,000 tons would

SCIENCE

[Vot. X. No. 245

take this route. But to this must be added the trade between the
interior of the United States and eastern Asia, the greater part of
which takes now the route of San Francisco, and part of the trans-
continental trade: therefore it is probable that the figure is too low
rather than too high.

The figures given above show that the tonnage of the vessels which:
will use this canal averages about 1,000 tons. Therefore the traffic
would amount to about 3,500 vessels annually. The average ton-
nage, however, will rapidly increase after the canal is once open to:
navigation, as was the case with vessels passing the Suez Canal.
The average tonnage of vessels passing that canal is given here : —

Years...| 1870] 1871| 1872 “era 1874] 1875] 1876) 1877] 1878] 1879] 1880] 1881] 1882] 1883,

Tons....) 898} 995) 1,073/1,166)1,290]1,345]1,377)1,419|1,425|1,533|1,510|1,517|1,587|1,747

This increase is due to the increase in the number of large
steamers trading between Europe and Asia. The same will be
the case after the opening of the Central American Canal. Though
the navigation of the neighboring seas by sailing-vessels is not so
difficult as that of the Red Sea, steamers will more and more
monopolize the trade.

It is hardly possible to say which country will be most benefited
by the opening of a canal through Central America. For the
United States it is of the greatest importance, as it will open a new
and important route from the Atlantic to the Pacific ports, as well
as to the west coast of South America and to the islands and west
shore of the Pacific Ocean. DR. FRANZ BOAS.

SEARCH FOR GEMS AND PRECIOUS STONES.

THE insatiate desire for ornaments and articles to decorate the
person, and hence the race for the acquisition of wealth, gives em-
ployment to thousands of persons in different parts of the world,
who are kept busily engaged in searching for gems and precious.
stones; and in this aspect Prof. P. L. Simmonds considers it in a
recent number of the Journal of the Society of Arts. It is some-
what difficult to know where the line of demarcation as to ‘ gems
and precious stones’ is to be drawn, and what properly come
within this category; for tastes differ materially, and fashions
change from time to time. About one or two, however, there can
be no doubt as to classification. Diamonds and pearls have al-
ways been highly esteemed and appreciated, and the demand for
these is universal. But there are some stones and substances that
have value chiefly in special localities: such, for instance, as jade
among the Chinese and Pacific Islanders, from its hardness and
rarity ; amber among the Chinese, Turks, and Russians ; and coral
among the East Indians, Chinese, and Africans. The African race
appreciate the artificial Venetian beads above any valuable gem,
because they have long been familiar to them, and are the fashion.

Precious stones have been prized in all ages for their portability,
and high intrinsic value in a small compass. In Christopher Mar-
lowe’s celebrated play, ‘The Rich Jew of Malta,’ the merchant is.
represented as having before him ~

“* Bags of fiery opals, sapphires, amethysts ;
Jacinths, hard topaz, grass green emeralds,
Beauteous rubies, sparkling diamonds,

And seld seen costly stones of so great price,
As one of them, indifferently rated,

And of a carat of this quality,

May serve, in peril of calamity,

To ransom great kings from captivity.

This is the ware wherein consists my wealth !”’

A glance over the various regions of the globe will show us mem
of all races, in large companies, delving in the ground or diving in
the sea for this commercial wealth. Indeed, scarcely a sea or a
river but has its fleet of boats at certain seasons laden with men
eagerly searching for pearls, although it is chiefly in the tropics that
these boats congregate. It may prove interesting to gather a few
facts connected with this important quest, taking the searchers on
land first, and then investigating the rich produce gathered from:
the sea.

In the Indian Empire there is a great commerce carried on in
gems and precious stones, although no reliable data are available,

OcToBER 14, 1887. ]

as they are so portable, and there is no absolute necessity for records
being kept. The Indian trade-returns of the last three years give
the value of the imports at an average of £200,000. A large trade
is carried on in them to Sewistan, Kashmir, Ladakh, Thibet, Ne-
paul, Sikkim, Upper Burma, Siam, and Karennee. There is no
doubt that through private sources four or five times the reputed
values are brought in, and also exported each year to Europe.

There are in India three extensive tracts, widely separated from
one another, in which the diamond has been sought for. The name
of Golconda, originally applied to a capital town (now a deserted
fort in the neighborhood of Hyderabad), seems to have been used
for a whole kingdom; but the town itself is many miles distant
from the nearest diamond-mines, and it was only the mart where
the precious stones were bought and sold. The second great tract
occupies an immense area between the Mahanuda and the Godav-
ery Rivers; and the third great tract is situated in Bundelcund,
near the capital of which — Punnah — some of the mines are found.
For those content with a slowly paying occupation, and a hard life
involving close supervision of the workers, diamond-mining will
pay, provided such persons possess capital sufficient to last them a
few years. The diamonds now are usually brought from Parteal,
close to the southern portion of the Nizam’s dominions. The deep-
est pits are not more than twelve feet. The matrix of the diamond
in those localities is a conglomerate sandstone. The appliances of
modern machinery for excavation, etc., directed by men of science,
may possibly bring to light gems that have not been discovered by
the rude native processes of search.

It would be curious to ascertain the yield of diamonds in the
East from those mines in the last three hundred and fifty years,
and of Brazil in the last one hundred and fifty years since the dis-
covery there; but no such data are obtainable, nor indeed can any
reliable estimate be formed of the value of the diamonds owned in
different countries. In the United States, diamonds to the value of
41,700,000 were imported in 1886. Two million and a half carats
of diamonds are cut yearly in Amsterdam. Precious stones being
free of duty in the chief European countries, no records are obtain-
able. The Brazilian mines are said to yield about £800,000 of dia-
monds, and India, Borneo, and Australia, £200,000; but these
sums are insignificant now, in comparison with the South African
yield of about £4,000,000 yearly.

The only Indian mines now worked for diamonds are the
northern ones in Bundelcund. The produce, between £40,000 and
£60,000, is sold locally, and only about roo carats are sent to Eu-
rope. Diamonds have been found in Sumatra and Celebes, but
Borneo alone now produces a regular supply, sending, it is com-
puted, about 3,000 carats annually into the European market. The
discovery of Cape diamonds has reduced the Brazilian mining to a
minimum of about 24,000 carats. And here it may be desirable to
explain what this fanciful diamond weight is. The diamond grain
is equal to about four-fifths of a troy grain, hence four diamond
grains are equal to one carat, or 3.174 troy grains. But, as half the
rough stone has to be cut away in polishing, to estimate the value
of a rough diamond we must ascertain its weight in carats, double
that weight, and multiply the square of this product by £2, which
may be taken as the average price of rough diamonds that are
worth cutting. Formerly, indeed, the price of diamonds was as
the square of their weight ; but this rule no longer holds good, as
their value mainly depends upon quality.

From the four principal mines in Griqualand (which all lie within
a circle with a diameter of three miles), calculating the amount of
diamondiferous ground removed, and the known average yield per
load in each, it is found that not less than 33,000,000 carats of dia-
monds (or more than 634 tons weight) must have been extracted
since the first discovery ; realizing, in round numbers, £40,000,000
sterling.

The yield of diamonds from the Kimberley mine alone, from the
opening in 1871 to the end of 1885, is stated to have exceeded 17,-
500,000 carats, equal to 34 tons weight of precious stones, in value
about £20,000,000.

To obtain this, as many thousand tons of reef and ground have
had to be excavated. The mine is 450 feet deep, and the cubical
contents of this huge cavity measures about 9,000,000 cubic yards.
Four thousand Kaffirs are employed at this mine, and more than

SCIENCE:

185

20,000 natives of Africa arrive yearly at the mines in search of
work; so that the employment of native labor and the development
of native trade are incidental benefits conferred on South Africa by
the discovery of the diamond-fields.

The Dutch Government are the owners of the diamond-mines in
Borneo, which are situated in the district of Landak, in the terri-
tory of Ponteyanak: they are worked by Dyaks and Malays, but
with far superior skill by the Chinese. The gems are found in a
yellow-colored gravel, at depths ranging to 60 feet. Advances are
made to the miners, who are bound to deliver all stones at 20 per
cent below their market-value.

Diamond-mining in New South Wales is likely to become of
much importance, and the colonists are sanguine of being able to
compete with South Africa in this trade. Twelve thousand dia-
monds have been obtained up to the present time, chiefly from the
tertiary gravels and recent drifts in the Bingera, Inverell, and Chit-
tagong districts. The largest diamond yet found weighed 16.2
grains, or about 5g carats. They are of good color and quality.
Companies with large capital are forming to buy up and work the
extensive diamond-fields in Bingera. Other gem stones found in
that colony are garnets, the common emerald (green beryl), Ori-
ental emerald (green sapphire), royal blue sapphire, white and pale-
blue topaz, and agates.

The ruby-mines of Burma, when scientifically worked, are des-
tined to yield a vastly increased quantity of this precious stone.
There has been lately a sharp competition for the lease of these
mines from the British Government, and it is believed that Messrs.
Streeter have secured the right for £40,000. It is creditable to
England that they have such enterprising firms of jewellers, seeking
the produce at the very sources of production, as is evidenced by
their explorations in South Africa, their employment of fleets of
boats and divers for pearl-fishing round the Australian shores, and
competition against Indian and Continental firms for the Burma
ruby-mines. Rubies are of various reds, and the red sapphire or
Oriental ruby is next in value to the diamond.

It has been well observed that digging for gems, like all gam-
bling speculations, is but too attractive, and great numbers of the
rural population in Ceylon and elsewhere neglect the safer pursuits
of agriculture for the speculative profits of the gem-pits.

Ceylon has always had a reputation for its richness in precious
stones. Inferior kinds, such as the moonstone and the garnet, are
found in the beds of streams about Kandy, Newara Eleya, Badulla,
and some of the small rivers of the south; but the more precious
stones, such as the ruby, the blue sapphire, the Oriental topaz of
various yellows, the Alexandrite, and the cat’s eye, must be sought
within a radius of thirty or forty miles from Ratnapura, the city of
gems.

The Ceylon ruby is more frequently of a rich rose color, having
considerably more light and life than its Pegu rival, and is pre-
ferred by many Orientals to the pigeon-blood ruby, which, although
the more costly stone, is invariably less brilliant than the Ceylon
one.

The search for gem stones is carried on in the most primitive
manner in Ceylon. The soil supposed to be rich in precious stones
is rented for an annual sum from the government. Coolies are set
to work to dig the earth, which is heaped up on one side, and then
washed through a trough with variously sized perforated zinc stops,
which retain all stones, according to their sizes. These are placed
on a table or flat surface, and the gems are easily distinguished and
picked out. The proportion of gems capable of being cut and
really marketable is not more than I per cent.

Of the siliceous gems, the amethyst, of a purplish violet hue,
is the most valuable. The best amethysts are brought from Cam-
bay in India, and from Siberia, Ceylon, and Persia, where they are
found both lining the cavities of geodes and in rolled masses. The
chief supply of the blue turquoise is drawn from the peninsula of
Sinai, the great mining district of the ancient Egyptians.

Among the Moors, rubies and emeralds, generally uncut, are
worn set in finger-rings and huge ear-rings, and necklaces of
amber and coral are also prized. The Moors consider that the
risk of fraud by imitation is lessened by not having precious stones
submitted to the art of the lapidary. This taste for keeping gems
in the rough also prevails among many of the Indian princes.

186

In 1879, thousands of British subjects from Burma passed
through Bangkok on their way to the sapphire-mines of Siam. The
unhealthy condition of the place proved fatal to numbers, and,
although many realized great profits, the rush soon abated. No
royalty was charged on the gems found, but a poll-tax of six shil-
lings was levied at the mines. A sapphire weighing 370 carats in
the rough, and 111 when cut, was the largest known to have been
found: The ruby, onyx, and jade are also found in this district,
but the quality of none of these is such as to make them very
valuable.

Year by year great changes occur in the intrinsic value of
precious stones from frequent plentiful discoveries. The great find
of sapphires in Kashmir and Siam reduced their value some 50
per cent. The discovery of large deposits of amethysts in the in-
terior of Brazil caused 7,000 diamond-washers to abandon their
usual calling and flock to the neighborhood of the city of Caeté, but
the prices dropped so rapidly that the shipments made did not pay.
The diamond market has not been materially affected by any great
fall in price from the enormous production in South Africa.

Art has much to do with the manufacture of gem stones. Chal-
cedony, when stained by metallic oxides, rises to the dignity of a
gem stone, as sard, carnelian, chrysophrase, when uniformly tinted
brown, yellow, or green; as agate, onyx, sardonyx, when the colors
lie in bands or strata. The dull or latent colors are developed by
heat or roasting. Black onyx, that is, black stones crossed by
bands of pure white, are always artificial.

The precious opal was formerly in high repute, but has gone out
of fashion from being considered unlucky, — ‘ misfortune’s stone, —
and yet nothing can be more beautiful than the opals of Hungary
and Queensland. The fine collection of the latter was much ad-
mired at the recent Colonial Exhibition. The area in which opals
are met with in Queensland is large, but only in one or two locali-
ties are opals of any value obtained. They are remarkable for their
brilliancy and variety of color, rivalling in that respect those of
Hungary. The ultramarine blue color so finely shown in the
Queensland specimens is rare even in Hungary. They are obtained
of considerable size, and are of good value. Of other gems, there
have been found in Queensland, diamonds, rubies, sapphires,
topazes, etc., in the tin-bearing drift of Stanthorpe. Agates, which
are also employed as burnishers, are met with in large quantities
in the Agate Creek, Etheridge gold-field. There they can be pro-
cured in all colors and sizes by the hundredweight.

In the opal-mines of Dubreck, Hungary, about two miles of gal-
leries are worked under government supervision, yielding a revenue
of £1,200. The opal-bearing rock is not disposed in vein or bed
form: on the contrary, the precious stone is found in nests, or
pockets, and it not unfrequently happens that a considerable dis-
tance may be passed in the workings without showing a sign of an
opal.

Like some of their more civilized brethren, the Maories of New
Zealand are passionately fond of adorning their persons with trin-
kets and other ornaments, especially of jade. At the present day
many of the decorations formerly used have been discontinued.
Ear-ornaments are still in general use: they are worn by both
sexes, and are of great variety. Those of greenstone, or nephrite, are
the most highly prized. The amulet, or neck ornament, is generally
of greenstone, carved into the resemblance of a human figure. The
image is not unlike a Hindu idol, having an enormous face and
badly shaped legs of disproportionate size. The ear pendants of
greenstone vary in form: some are narrow pieces, from 3 to 5
inches in length, and others are round, thin, and flat. The color
of jade varies from almost white to a dark green, but the lighter
shades of green are the most highly prized. It is hunted for in the
fissures of the precipices and in the streams of Chinese Tartary.
Much of it is found in the rivers there by divers. These men work
by moonlight, under an escort of soldiers, supervised by govern-
ment officers appointed for the purpose, and by whom each piece,
as found, is assayed and valued. The imperial jade is of a bril-
liant green, approaching the emerald in color.

There are jade-quarries in Burma, situated in the Mojaung dis-
trict, at the head waters of the Churdwen, about 90 miles from
Bhamo. They are leased to two companies for £6,000, and the
trade is entirely in the hands of the Chinese.

SCIENCE.

[Vou X. sNom245

The imports of jade into India are to the value of £30,000 to
£40,000. In India jade vases are often ornamented with jewels,
or carved and wrought so as to form elegant devices. The old
Delhi work in cut and gem-incrusted jade is priceless. The
Chinese had cut jade for ages, but never ornamented it except by
sculpture; but, when it was introduced into India, the native
jewellers, with their quick eye for color, at once saw what a per-
fect ground it afforded for mounting precious stones, and they
were the first to incrust them on jade. The Indian Museum at
South Kensington possesses the choicest and grandest specimens
of this work known, of the best Mogol period (Sir G. Birdwood
on ‘ The Industrial Arts of India’).

Blocks of green stone, axes, meres, charms, and other articles of
jade, were shown in the New Zealand Court of the late Colonial Ex-
hibition, evidencing the patient skill of the Maoris in working this
hard material, second in this respect to the diamond, although
nevertheless somewhat fragile.

Passing now from land to sea, we shall find the busy search as
actively carried on. In the coral-fishery of the Mediterranean
nearly 600 boats are employed, manned by about 6,000 men, the num-
ber to a boat varying from 6 to 12 hands. They are sent out from
Torra del Greco, Leghorn, Liguria, Sardinia, and the Algerian
ports. It is a curious sight to see a fleet of these boats, ranging
in size from 3 to 14 tons, employed on the banks with their wooden
windlass amidships, hauling up what is termed the ‘engine,’ a kind
of cross-shaped dredge for tearing off the branches of coral from
the rocks. About 400,000 pounds of rough coral are brought in
annually to Italy; and the shaping and working of this into the
varied forms it assumes for commercial purposes, gives employ-
ment to hundreds in the chief cities. The value of the coral
shipped from Europe used to reach about £600,000 annually; but
with the change of fashion this has declined considerably. Not
long ago there was quite a rage for the pale flesh-colored coral
for jewelry. Coral ornaments may again come into fashion, even if
they do not fetch the high prices at which they were formerly sold.
Coral has the hardness and brilliancy of agate: it polishes like
gems, and shines like garnet, with the tint of the ruby. In
Russia, northern Africa, and India, coral is still much in demand.
The imports into India last year were to the value of £20,000.

Amber was one of the most valuable jewels of antiquity. It
was endowed with manifold sympathetic effects as a talisman
against rheumatism, toothache, and other complaints. The Turks
still believe it to be an infallible guard against the injurious effects
of nicotine: hence its extensive use for the mouthpieces of pipes.
Amber is esteemed for ornaments by many. The cloudy, or milk-
white, and the opaque lemon-colored, are the varieties most valued
by connoisseurs. The imports to this country are to the value of
about £3,000 to £4,000, but it is largely shipped also to Austria,
France, Turkey, and the Eastern nations. In is principally ob-
tained on the Prussian coast of the Baltic, from Dantzic to Memel.
At one establishment near Memel dredging is carried on day and
night by ‘shifts’ of men, 400 being so engaged. At another, in
K6nigsberg, 2,350 persons and nineteen steam-engines are em-
ployed. The pits are 300 feet deep, and 100 carts are employed
on the works. In other localities divers are employed, two to each
boat, with submarine clothing and air-pumps.

The fishing for pearls and mother-of-pearl shells is carried on in
very many quarters: in Lower California, the coasts of Mexico, the
Bay of Panama ; in the Red Sea, the Persian Gulf, Ceylon, Borneo,
New Guinea, the Sooloo Isles, Fiji, the Society and other of the
Pacific Islands, and on the east and west coasts of Australia. The
pearl-fisheries on the coasts of Central America furnish about
£100,000 worth of pearls, and employ about 1,000 divers. Our im-
ports of pearls average. in value about £100,000: France receives
about the same. The marketable value of pearls is much higher
in Asiatic countries than elsewhere: hence the best are sent to
Bombay, where fancy prices are often given for good pearls.

At the Bahrein fishery in the Persian Gulf, many hundred boats
are employed, manned by from eight to twenty men, and the value
of the pearls obtained is stated to average £1,000 yearly, but this
amount of course varies. The larger and more valuable pearls are
believed to be sold secretly. The men receive two-thirds of the
catch, after deducting expenses, and for food, etc.

OcroBer 14, 1887.]

The great pearl-fishery of Ceylon is carried on at stated periods
on the banks of the north-west coast of the island, at the entrance
to the Gulf of Manaar. As it is a government monopoly, great care
is now taken to give rest to the fishery, so as to allow the oysters
to attain a maturity of five or six years, which will warrant a rich
yield of pearls. There is a prospect of a good pearl-fishery in
1888 ; and it is confidently expected that as many as 300,000,000
oysters will be fished, requiring every boat and every diver pro-
curable in Ceylon and southern India. The small, thin shells of
this oyster (Avzcula fucata), unlike the heavy, true mother-of-pear]
oyster (Weleagrina margaritzfera), have little or no commercial
value, and are chiefly burnt for lime.

When a fishery is proclaimed, the arid sands at Arippu, on the
north-west coast, become, as it were, a bustling town of tents,
filled with people of varied races and occupations, including boat-
men from the Coromandel coast, pearl-dealers from India, Malaya,
and China, with the accompaniments of merchants and traders of
all classes. The Ceylon Government takes as royalty two-thirds of
the oysters gathered, which are sold by auction at the close of each
day’s fishing. Only a limited number of boats and divers are
licensed to fish. :

The fishing can be carried on only during the very calmest period
of the north-east monsoon, — February to April. In these months
the wind blows off the land during the night, and off the sea during
the day, which enables the large fleet of fishing-boats to reach the
pearl banks by daylight on each morning, returning with their
cargoes shortly after noon. The boats, containing twenty men
(half divers), are divided into two fleets, which go out to their work
on alternate days. The price realized for the oysters varies from
£2 to £7 the thousand, the value depending to a great extent on
that of a sample of 5,000 lifted in the early part of the fishing.
The contents of the mollusk being allowed to decay before the
pearls can be obtained, the stench is horrible. The congregations
of pearl-dealers, petty traders, official subordinates, and laborers on
the shores, are enormous.

About the island of Borneo there is a good deal of fishing for
pearls, which are found in a thin, flat, pinkish-shelled oyster, known
locally as saZeszep. This lives only in shallow brackish water at the
mouths of rivers. Several boats rendezvous at the same time and
place to frighten the crocodiles and sharks. Twenty or thirty per-
sons will be in the water at once, diving, splashing, laughing, and
shouting, and bringing up three or four shells at a time: extra yells
from all hands salute a rather larger find than usual. Very few of
the pearls obtained are of any value individually : they are chiefly
seed-pearls, which are sent to China, where they are pounded up,
made into powder, and this is swallowed by ladies who desire to
improve their complexion ; at least, such is the story. From British
North Borneo the value of the pearls exported in a year is £500,
Pearls of a very high price are not infrequently to be bought at
Sandakar, but they come principally from the islands of the Sooloo
Archipelago. The largest ever seen there was valued at £1,600.

The formation of pearls is not limited to the bivalves: they are
produced on several univalves, especially on the S¢vombs and Tur-
dinellas, but are more rare in these than in the bivalves. About the
Bahamas group of islands and keys, the shells of the king, queen,
and common conch were much sought after for sale to the cameo-
cutter, but the fashion for cameo jewelry has passed away. The
common conch is the ordinary pink-mouthed shell so frequently
seen in milk-shops. It furnishes the rare pink pearls, so much
appreciated, and these are exported from the Bahamas to the value
of about £3,000 annually. Some fine collections of these pink
pearls, set and unset, were shown at the Fisheries and Colonial Ex-
hibitions in London,

It was once thought that no other pearls than those produced by
the pearl oysters could obtain a rank among gems; but some of the
river-pearls found in species of mussels (Uzzos) compete closely
with those from the Jo//usca of the ocean. . These river-pearls are
found widely diffused in France, Saxony, Bavaria, Bohemia, and
Silesia, as well as in the lochs and rivers of Scotland, Ireland, and
Wales. In China, the rivers of Manchuria furnish a good many.
Delegates from the royal household look out for the best of these
pearls there for the ladies of the imperial court.

In many of the Scotch rivers old men, women, and children may

SCENIC

187

be seen wading about the shallow fords; and, when they discover
a collection of mussels, they thrust down long sticks split at the
ends, and bring up the mussels wedged in the slots. In the shal-
low waters of the Dee, the boatmen look down into the water with a
tin having a glass bottom, and when shells are discovered, they are
brought up by a kind of dredge, or scoop, and frequently some fine
pearls are obtained.

These pearl mussels are also found in most of the small streams
of the Province of Quebec, and in the districts bordering on the
lower St. Lawrence. The streams most abounding in pearl mussels
are but little known, except to Indians and backwoodsmen, who
are careful in guarding the secret of where these mollusks are
found.

Occasionally a party of pearl-seekers may be seen paddling in
a bark canoe, and portaging through a very wild region. After
opening several thousand mussels, they will only succeed in secur-
ing a few good pearls. These vary in color from white to dark
brown: the white are appreciated for their rarity, and the pink on
account of their peculiar brilliancy. In form they are generally
round or spherical, and have a hard skin with an iridescent or
nacreous hue.

It would lead to too much detail to pass under review the various
pearl-fisheries of the Australian coasts, the Eastern Archipelago,
and the Pacific Islands, where the unclothed native divers have to
brave the attacks of sharks, cephalopods, and other dangers. They
especially dread the stings of the jelly-fish, which they say are
speedy death to them. Enough has, however, been stated to show
the importance of this wide-spreading industry of hunting for gems
and precious stones. Fine collections of these are frequently brought
before the public to feast their eyes on, as at the recent Colonial
and Indian Exhibitions in London, and those at Amsterdam, Paris,
and elsewhere.

At the Fisheries Exhibition in London, a firm of Parisian jewellers
showed, among others, a very choice five-row necklace of 355
selected Oriental pearls, weighing 2,570 grains; a matchless and
unique necklace and parure of Scotch pearls; a very important
black pearl necklace, composed of 39 pearls, weighing 1,020 grains;
a round pearl of 96 grains, being one of the finest pearls known,
and worth £20 a grain; a very important collection of Oriental
pearls, composed of 3,345 grains original, such as are most prized in
Bombay, besides black, pink, yellow, and gray fancy pearls.

MENTAL SCIENCE.
Recent Observations in Hypnotism.

THE great attractiveness that the study of the varied and inter-
esting phenomena of hypnotism possesses for the French physi-
cians has been often noticed. Not a month passes without some
new and often startling contribution. The leaders in this move-
ment are eminent scientific specialists, and have been cautious
about accepting all the strange doings of excitable subjects as per-
fectly genuine. They appreciate the readiness with which a shrewd
patient can deceive the unsuspecting observer, and insist upon the
most exacting tests, arranged with a full knowledge of the sources
of error to be eliminated. Under such a scrutiny, many alleged
marvels have taken on a less miraculous aspect, and many startling
interpretations shown to lack validity. Amongst the oldest claim-
ants to scientific recognition in this field is the statement that a
magnet has a peculiar effect upon hypnotic subjects. Sometimes
the application of a magnet causes trembling and tingling ; again it
is said to produce contractions of limbs, and cause such a contrac-
tion to pass from one side of the body to the other; and so on.
Professor Delboeuf, a successful observer in this field, has very in-
geniously tested these claims, and made much progress towards
showing their falsity. He experimented upon a boy of fourteen, an
experienced hypnotic subject susceptible to ‘magnetic’ influence.
In the preliminary trials Professor Delboeuf had a true magnet and
a wooden magnet made to look alike, and each fitting in a case
alike for both magnets. He handed the boy the case containing
the true magnet, but nothing happened: as soon as the magnet
was drawn out, he developed a violent contracture, his usual symp-
tom.

188

Next, Professor Delboeuf had three steel bars made exactly alike,
two of which were strongly magnetized, and the third not. He
gave the boy a real magnet, and asked him whether he felt any
thing. After an exploring glance of from thirty to forty seconds,
the boy felt tingling sensations, then pain and the usual symptoms.
The same was done with the other hand, and he was shown that
the bar was a real magnet. Professor Delboeuf then drew the
false magnet from his pocket and gave it to the boy : no effect fol-
lowed. Then the third (true) magnet was given him, with the re-
quest that he should say whether it was a magnet or not. No con-
traction followed ; and from now on, the boy had no clew as to the
true or the false magnet. Fourteen trials were made, consisting
simply in giving the boy a bar, and noting the result. In eleven of
these trials he either exhibited the contraction when holding the
false magnet, or failed to exhibit it when holding a true one; thus
showing most conclusively that all the effects were self-induced,
and suggested by his belief that a magnet was being applied. The
same was repeated with another subject, with a like result.

Professor Delboeuf similarly tested the powers of the hypno-

scope, which is simply a small hollow magnet to be held on the ~

finger, and, when thus giving rise to peculiar sensations, is claimed
to show that the holder is a good hypnotic subject. Three hypno-
scopes were made exactly alike, only two of which were magnetized.
Of fifteen university students, three claimed to feel glowing sensa-
tions from the instrument, and one of these felt it all the way up to
the shoulder. Strangely enough, this young man held the false
hypnoscope, and on trial proved to be the best subject. The con-
clusion drawn is, that the hypnoscope is useful in detecting hyp-
notic subjects, not because of any magnetic sensibility, but because
persons of such a susceptible temperament as to imagine sensations
from it furnish one of the chief requisites for passing into this con-
dition.

Dr. Voisin indorses this same general view. He has repeated
the noted Paris observations, in which the mere approach of an her-
metically sealed vial containing a certain drug affects the hypno-
tized subject in the same way as a strong dose of the substance in
the normal state. He finds that if the utmost precautions against
talking to his assistants, and other modes of suggesting the ex-
pected effect, are taken, the result is negative, and concludes that
in his subject a wonderfully shrewd appreciation of suggestions ac-
counts for all that was exhibited. He finds, too, that the applica-
tion of a magnet unknown to the subject had no effect, while she
is extremely sensitive when she knows a magnet is about.

Dr. Bernheim has described some remarkable cases in which the

mere suggestion of a certain idea in the waking state serves to im

press this idea with a lifelike reality. His subjects are young men
of neurotic temperaments in their ordinary waking condition. One
patient was told that a certain physician attacked him on the street
and picked his pocket. He at once accepted the tale, added details
of time and place, and no amount of questioning would get him to
give up the notion. Turning to another patient, Dr. Bernheim
asked whether he knew any thing about it. The suggestion was
sufficient. The subject of the attack had told the second patient
all about it in the morning, and so on. The same delusion was
passed on to several patients, and accepted. These observations
show a connection between what occurs in the hypnotic state and
the phenomena observed in weak-willed persons. The possession
by a dominant idea imposed by another or suggested by circum-
stances is the common mark of many of these semi-abnormal states.
They also show how easily such people can be utilized for base
purposes; and Dr. Bernheim believes that the son of the sexton in
the famous Tisza-Eslar affair (who claimed to have seen through
the keyhole the cruelties on which the trial was founded) was a
case in point.

In this connection it may be added that there is a growing sense
of the great danger to which this subject is liable at the hands of
amateurs. Examples of its pernicious effects in individual cases
are accumulating, and a most celebrated French alienist recently
expressed himself thus: “ Hypnotization is not as harmless as it
has been made out to be: the hypnotic state is closely allied to the
hysterical neurosis, and, like the latter, it may in some cases become
markedly contagious. If medicine in the name of science and art
has taken possession of hypnotism, it should keep it within the

SCIENCE:

[Vot. X. No. 245

Strict limits of its own domain, using it as a powerful therapeutic
agent, and never letting it pass into profane hands, where it is
liable to be abused to the detriment of the public health,

HEALTH MATTERS,

Precautions against Cholera.

IN view of the possibility of an attack of cholera during the com-
ing year, we deem it appropriate to quote below from the recom-
mendations of the sanitary conference held at Washington in 1884,
in anticipation of the arrival of cholera : —

First, That all surface wells should be closed at the earliest pos-
sible moment, and that great care should be taken that the water-
supply of all cities, towns, and villages shall be of undoubted
purity.

Second, That all privy-vaults should be abolished wherever
water-closets can be supplied, and that, wherever the existence of
such vaults is necessary, they should be rendered water-tight in
such a manner as to prevent the saturation, not only of the ground
surrounding them, but also of the materials of which they are built,
and that the contents of such vaults should be kept constantly dis-
infected, and removed to a proper place at frequent intervals.

Third, That all stagnant ponds, when ‘practicable, should be
disinfected, and when possible the water removed by drainage or
pumping, and the further accumulation prevented by filling with
fresh earth, or other material free from garbage or other filth.

Fourth, That great care should be exercised to keep at all
times clear and free from obstruction all sewers into which passes
the refuse from dwellings, factories, and other buildings, and that
such examinations should be made as will detect imperfect plumb-
ing in all buildings, and the defects immediately corrected. In this
connection special attention is directed to the necessity for the
thorough ventilation of all soil and waste pipes, and to the dangers
connected with untrapped and unflushed soil-waste and overflow-
pipes.

Fufth, That extraordinary care should be exercised in refer-
ence to all tenement-houses, lodging-houses, and in general all
places where large numbers of human beings congregate; that no
accumulation of garbage or other filth be permitted in cellars or
yards ; and that frequent and thorough cleaning and whitewashing
of such structures be required; and that householders should fre-
quently and thoroughly examine their yards, cellars, closets, and
other out-of-the-way places, to see that no filth of any kind has
been deposited there.

Szxth, That the food-supply be vigorously watched to exclude
from the market all unwholesome meat, all milk adulterated or
from diseased animals, and all unripe fruits and vegetables ; and
that cow-stables be kept at all times clean, well whitewashed, and
free from all excremental accumulations.

Seventh, That all garbage, kitchen and household refuse, should
be promptly removed from dwellings, stores, and other buildings,
to a proper place, where it may be destroyed by fire, or otherwise
disposed of in such manner as to occasion no nuisance.

Eighth, That such material should never be used in the filling of
lots, or disposed of by throwing the same in streets or vacant prop-
erty, where it may decompose and exhale offensive and deleterious
gases.

Ninth, That the attention of the authorities of all institutions,
both public and private, and of individuals as well, be drawn to the
great importance of maintaining a habit of personal cleanliness in
the persons under their charge, as being one of the most efficient
means of warding off an attack of cholera, or, if ithas once ap-
peared, of greatly reducing its virulence and fatality.

Tenth, Should the cholera appear in any place in this country,
the health authorities of the place should have immediate notice of
the first cases, in order that prompt action may be taken for com-
plete isolation and disinfection.

Eleventh, That all authorities of states, cities, or villages be
urged to adopt measures which will result in the amelioration of all
conditions such as have been referred to in the foregoing proposi-
tions, with the warning, that, in the opinion of this conference, such
conditions, if permitted to continue, will greatly promote the spread
of cholera when it comes, and with the assurance, that, if requisite

OcToBER 14, 1887. |

measures are promptly taken to remove them, the disease will be
less likely to attack a community so prepared, and, if attacked, such
a community will be better able to cope with the disease and to
reduce its ravages to a minimum,

PuBLIC HEALTH ASSOCIATION. — The American Public Health
Association will hold its fifteenth annual meeting at Memphis,
Tenn., on Novy. 8, 9, 10, and 11. The following topics have been
selected by the executive committee for consideration at the meet-
ing: 1. The pollution of water-supplies; 2. The disposal of
refuse matter of cities; 3. The disposal of refuse matter of villages,
summer-resorts, and isolated tenements; 4. Animal diseases
dangerous to man. The president, Dr. George M. Sternberg, will
in his address refer to the results of his investigation of yellow-fever
in Brazil and Mexico. In view of the possible existence of this
disease at Tampa, Fla., referred to elsewhere, this subject will be
of absorbing interest. The committee on disinfectants will present
a report embodying the researches and experimental work of that
committee during the past year. Clergymen, teachers, engineers,
architects, builders, and all interested in the practical work of the
association, are cordially invited to be present.

EXPLORATION AND TRAVEL.
Manchuria.

IN Sczence of May 6, 1887, we mentioned the journey of three en-
terprising Englishmen through Manchuria. In a lecture delivered
before the Royal Geographical Society of London, Mr. James, one
of the travellers, gave a sketch of the country they traversed, from
which we take the following notes: The most interesting part of
the journey was that in the Chang Pai Shan (the ‘Long White
Mountains’). These were supposed to be more than 10,000 feet
high, but the measurements of the travellers show that the loftiest
peak is not more than 8,025 feet high. They are supposed to be
sacred to the ancestors of the reigning dynasty of China, and it is
sacrilege to trespass on them. Nevertheless the country has been
rapidly settled in recent times. The colonists have formed them-
selves into associations or guilds for protecting their life and property
against robbers, who infest all parts of Manchuria; and inthis they
have been so successful that their territory is the only one enjoying
perfect security. Here the travellers learned that the highest peak
of the mountains is the Lao Pai Shan (or ‘Old White Mountain’).
The road to this point led through thick forests and over bogs
which were absolutely impassable for any beast of burden whatso-
ever: therefore they had to leave their mules behind, and continue
their march by foot. The peak rises from a grassy plateau dotted
with trees, through which subterranean streams make their way.
The ascent to the summit was not very difficult; and here a crater
350 feet deep was found, at the bottom of which there was a beau-
tiful blue lake, from which, according to the legend, the Manchu
race sprang. The white color of the mountain is due to the color
of the disintegrated pumice of which it consists. The principal
rivers of Manchuria have their source in the Chang Pai Shan.

THE WELLE.—We may expect that the problem of the Welle,
which has baffled geographers for a long time, will soon be solved.
Le Mouvement Geographique says that the government of the
Kongo Free State has charged Captain Van Géle with the explora-
tion of this river. The results of Van Géle’s ascent of the Obangi
in the ‘ Henry Reed’ are shown in the sketch-map in Sczence, No.
233. As the rapids of this river hindered his further progress, an-
other route had to be adopted, and Van Géle has decided to take
that of the Itimbiri (Lubi). The sketch-map shows that the rapids
of the Lubi are only about thirty miles distant from the Welle, and
that Junker’s Alikobo, the most western point reached by him, is
only a few days’ march from that point. Van Géle’s expedition
started on July 1, in the ‘ Henry Reed’ and‘ A.I. A.,’ to ascend
the Lubi, and proposed to cross the country in a north-westerly direc-
tion. Having reached the Welle, he intended to follow it to its
mouth, and thus to ascertain whether it is identical with the Obangi
or not.

DELAGOA Bay.— Consul H. E, O'Neill gives some interesting
information on the state of affairs in Delagoa Bay in the August
number of the Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society. As

SCIENCE:

189

two important routes tothe mining districts of Transvaal start from
Delagoa Bay, the latter place has gained considerable importance.
Though it belongs to the Portuguese, British trade is rapidly extend-
ing over this part of the coast. Upon the roads from Lorengo
Marques, which is situated on Delagoa Bay, to the interior, Eng-
lishmen are establishing themselves, and begin to monopolize the
trade with the Swazi country. Over the inner frontier English
gold-diggers are advancing into: Portuguese territory, and many
claims have already been registered in the secretariat of the govern-
ment of Lorengo Marques. The natives form one of the chief
channels for the spread of English influences throughout this dis-
trict. They work for a number of years in the English colonies,
and then return with what money they have earned. Thus Eng-
lish money has become the currency of the country. The Portu-
guese are working ona railway from Lorencgo Marques to Barberton ;
but the work is advancing very slowly, and it will probably be a
long time before it will be completed. Delagoa Bay is the first
point at which actual contact has taken place between the British
and Portuguese in South Africa; and it will be interesting to see
how the latter, who have confined themselves for more than three
centuries to the shores of the bay, will resist, or adapt themselves to,
the vigorous life that characterizes the former.

THE SAMOA ISLANDS. — It will be remembered that in 1886 the
United States, England, and Germany sent special commissioners
to the Samoa Islands in order to settle the troubles that had arisen
from the lively competition of these nations. It was proposed to
submit the report of this commission to aconference. The Samoan
troubles date from the attempt of the German Government to grant
a subyention to a German firm which had plantations inSamoa, At
that time the Americans, particularly Colonel Steinberger, made
strenuous efforts to give a firm basis to the American influence on
the islands, and made a treaty with King Malietoa. The Germans
made a treaty with the same king in 1884, while the British consul
tried to bring about an annexation of the islands by the colony of
New Zealand. In course of time King Malietoa began to favor the
Americans, and therefore the Germans supported his adversary,
Tamasese. A short time ago the Germans, while the work of the
commissioners was still going on, sent four men-of-war to Apia in
order to demand compensation for certain plunderings. As Malie-
toa refused to pay, five hundred men were landed, and Tamasese
was declared king of Samoa. Malietoa, who first intended to resist,
followed the advice of the American and British consul, and sub-
mitted. It has been said that it is proposed to divide the islands
among the three powers, but this seems improbable. The islands
are at the present time of great importance, but this will be still
more the case when the canal through the American isthmus is
open, as they form an important station between Australia and
America.

BOOK -REVIEWS.
The Social Questzon. By J. H. OERTER. New York, E. Glaeser.

DR. OERTER has produced a small volume on the social ques-
tion, which is all the more interesting because it is from the hand
of a theologian. It does not derive any special authority from this
fact, but it is indicative of what that profession is beginning to
realize in its capacity of public teaching. It signifies the ultimate,
although perhaps gradual, emancipation from traditional specula-
tions that have no relation to the present sphere of human conduct
and duty. Theological speculation, like poetry, may have a place
in our fancies and ideals; it may even exercise a very wholesome
influence in stimulating thought and action upon higher planes: but
it must not set itself up for fact, nor ignore the existence of facts.
No class of teachers needs a knowledge of social questions, facts,
and forces more than the ministry, and we are glad to know that
the number is increasing of those who find time and interest for
studies vital to the moral growth of the future. Dr. Oerter’s book
is one of a number which enable us to measure the possibilities of
the ministerial profession in forwarding the cool consideration of
scientific facts. Dr. Strong’s ‘Our Country,’ although a mission-
ary appeal, and Heber Newton’s ‘Study of Social Questions.’
form a kind of companion issue with this in point of general thought.
They are not large and thorough treatises from men who have

190

mothing else to do, but they show a very healthy development
among a body of men who can more than hold the balance of
moral and social power in the world, if only they have the knowl-
edge on the one hand, and the courage on the other, to improve
their opportunities.

Christianity in its inception was a moral and social reform, and
not a body of dogmatic and traditional beliefs about either the past
or the future. The foremost of the ministry are beginning to see
this, and to return to the original conception of it, by what one
author candidly though forcibly admits to be “in one sense a
backward movement.” Much is to be hoped for in this tendency,
and it is worth recording here as a generous welcome to those who
‘can appreciate the force and value of scientific truth, abandon their
diatribes against science, and fall into line with the inevitable course
‘of history, which usually has an optimistic outcome, unless nature
has to avenge itself for the systematic pursuit of error and wrong.

The volume under notice consists of the ‘ Vedder Lectures’ at
New Brunswick Theological Seminary ; and the keynote to the dis-
‘cussion is well expressed in the reason assigned for the present
revolutionary tendencies, that “ the actual inequality of possessions
is regarded by the great mass as standing in direct opposition to
the generally acknowledged equality of the individual rights of all
men.” In former times men did not have their equality or their
rights admitted, and hence neither arguments nor force could avail
to defend them. The author shows from Bockh that three-fourths
of the population of Greece were excluded from the benefit and
protection of the law; from Gibbon that one-half the population of
Rome consisted of slaves, and that not more than 13.5 per cent of
the population of Attica possessed real estate. The concentration
of power which such a system required was enormous, and no
wonder the liberation of the masses from its abuse is accompanied
with alarming symptoms. But it is a pleasure to see the ministry
recognizing the scientific methods of studying such facts, and not
relying upon their speculations about baptism, inspiration, and the
trinity to regenerate society. The author wisely treats socialism,
whether legitimate or not, as an effect, a phenomenon to be ac-
counted for, something having a cause for its existence, and not to
be gotten rid of until its causes were removed. True to his pro-
fession, the views of the Old and New Testaments upon property
are briefly outlined and candidly handled ; but he frankly admits
that “any attempt to construe out of passages of the New Tes-
tament a specific Christian idea of property, will always fail.”
This is not to exclude ethical from all relation with economical
questions. It is acknowledged that we must reckon with the self-
ish instincts of human nature in all schemes of social government,
at least until those instincts are modified. The discussion of the
principles of Ricardo and the so-called ‘ Manchester school’ is fair;
and more is sympathetically narrated of Proudhon, Fourier, Karl
Marx, Lasalle, Louis Blanc, and the whole history of socialistic
movements, than most men of theological propensities have the
will to read. But there is no disposition to espouse the vagaries of
those men, although their agitation and beliefs receive the ac-
knowledgment of being scientific facts which have to be studied.

The solution of the problem isa very good chapter, as admitting
the place of ethical considerations along with economical in decid-
ing the issue of the question. Here the author has the opportunity
for urging the Christian aspects of the case, which is done in a
way quite foreign to the usual homiletic method. It is made a
purely scientific question of ethics and political economy. We can-
not agree with him, however, that the socialism which he condemns
has its support in atheism, and must be destroyed by uprooting the
latter. It is a re-action against the traditional method of solving
social and moral problems. The age of authority is past, and noth-
ing but facts with reasoned scientific truth based upon them can
meet the exigencies of the case. Atheism has its evils, but it will
be harder to overthrow this than the system of socialism.

Brief Institutes of General History. By E. BENJAMIN ANDREWS.
Boston, Silver, Rogers, & Co. 12°.

WE do not remember having seen any book which is of so much
service to the advanced student of general history as this. Asa
guide to semznar work in history, it would be of the greatest value.
It is dedicated to Professor Todl of Breslau, whose ‘Geschichte

SCIENCE:

[Vou. X. No. 245

der Ethik ’ is well known to our students of philosophy; and there
is no lack of congruity between the work itself and its dedication to
a philosopher, for it is eminently philosophical, both in scope aud in
treatment. Professor Andrews calls his book a ‘ precipitate of gen-
eral history,’ and this describes it excellently. It is not an outline,
and it is not a skeleton, but ‘ precipitate’ seems to us a very happy
designation.

The body of the work falls into eleven chapters, the first dealing
with history and the study of history, and the last with Prussia and
the New Empire. Each chapter is subdivided into short sections
or paragraphs, and each of the latter is accompanied by biblio-
graphical references of great minuteness and accuracy. In this
way the student is enabled to hunt down any particular period or
episode with great ease, and post himself fully before proceeding.
Then each chapter is preceded by an elaborate and more general
bibliography, the preparation of which shows wide reading and
scholarly research.

The full value of Professor Andrews’s volume cannot be appre-
ciated by a cursory examination. We are sure that its excellence
of arrangement and treatment will be seen best when it is in use.
As a guide to the scientific study of history, or as a skeleton
for semznar work, it is not surpassed by any book in the
language.

Nystrom's Pocket-Book of Mechanics and Engineering. Revised
by W. D. Marks. Philadelphia, Lippincott. 24°.

As the author remarked in his first preface, every engineer
should make his own pocket-book, as he proceeds in study and
practice, to suit his particular business. This work was accumulat-
ed in this way during the author’s professional career, and was
first placed before the public in 1854. The reviser has principally
confined himself to corrections in the original text, but has added
an elementary article on dynamic electricity, and also one on the
expansion of steam; and in notes the reviser has taken occasion to
express some differences of opinion, and has referred to the litera-
ture of topics which required more space than can be given to
them in a pocket-book.

Elements of Analytical Mechanics.
York, Wiley. 8°.

By PETER S. MICHIE. New

THIS volume, as the preface states, is a revised edition of the
text taught to the cadets of the United States Military Academy
during the session of 1886-87. Together with a brief chapter on
hydrodynamics, it is intended to comprise a four-months’ course of
instruction for students well versed in elementary mathematics.
The subjects treated of, after the elementary chapters on matter,
force, motion, the physical units, stresses and motive forces, and
gravity, are those usually taken up in a treatise on this subject.
The book closes with a theory of machines. The arrangement of
thesubject-matter, and method of treatment adopted, are such as
have received the approval of several able scientific officers who
have been associated with the author in the instruction of
cadets.

On the Conversion of Heat tuto Work. By WILLIAM ANDERSON.
New York, Van Nostrand. 12°.

THE Council of the Society of Arts invited the author of this
work to deliver a course of lectures upon the conversion of heat into
useful work ; and these lectures, which form the basis of the present
work, were delivered in the winter of 1884-85. The object of the
lectures was to popularize the doctrine that in heat-engines the
work given out is due to the conversion of the molecular motion of
heat into the visible motion which it was desired to produce, and
further to illustrate, by numerous practical examples, the applica-
bility of the doctrine of Carnot to defining the limits within which
improvement in the economical working of heat-engines was pos-
sible. In the hope of making the modern views with respect to the
action of heat more real and practical, the author adopted the
method of working out his investigations by means of numerical
examples, and comparing the results with those obtained in actual
practice. All those who are interested in the elementary instruction

OcrToBER 14, 1887. |

of physics will find this book an extremely valuable aid, and full of
suggestions. The chapters on other forms of heat-engines besides
the ordinary steam-engine tend to make the subject more interest-
ing, and place in the hands of the teacher a vast amount of impor-
tant information.

The Elements of Qualitative Analyszs.
Terre Haute, Ind., Moore & Lanzen.

By WILLIAM A. NOYES.
ne,

PROFESSOR NOYES’s little book on qualitative chemical analysis
is a very brief and highly condensed account of ordinary modes of
proceeding in qualitative analysis of a simple kind, and the reasons
therefor. Of the properties of the elements considered, only such
are discussed as are immediately applicable to the scheme of
analysis, though the deficiency in this respect is supplied to a
certain extent in the table of re-actions, for which the author
acknowledges indebtedness to Biedermann’s ‘ Chemiker-Kal-
ender’ for 1887. Of course,such a book may serve profitably as
the foundation merely, upon which the judicious instructor erects
the superstructure of his teaching, and for such use it will doubtless
find place. Itis clearly written and well arranged.

Elements of Modern Chemistry. By ADOLPHE WURTZ. 3d
Amer. ed. Tr. and ed. by W. H. GREENE. Philadelphia,
Lippincott. 12°.

THE appearance of the third American edition of this well-
known and excellent text-book bears witness to its popularity.
The present edition is based upon the fifth French edition, and is
brought well down to date.

Quantitative Chemical Analyszs by Electrolysts. According to
original methods, by DR. ALEXANDER CLASSEN. Tr. by
WILLIAM H. HERRICK. New York, Wiley. 8°.

Iris perhaps not unnatural that an author who is also an
investigator should attribute to methods of his own finding greater
importance than he is inclined to yield to the devices of others.
Upon some such presumption only does it seem possible to explain
the presence of the phrase ‘according to original methods’ upon
the titlepage of Professor Classen’s book. Scarcely more than half
the fundamental methods of electrolytical analysis which are de-
scribed or referred to are the author's own; and even in the
schemes for the separation of elements, and in the special applica-
tions, where the original methods are employed to the utmost
possible extent (and sometimes, it is to be feared, to the exclusion
of more suitable ones), recourse has been had in fully a fourth of
the cases discussed to the processes of others. For many years a
few electrolytical methods have held high rank, and justly, among
precise analytical processes, and recently the number of such has
increased. To note that these are recognized (though too scantily )
in the text, if not on the titlepage, is gratifying. Professor Classen
has rendered great and undoubted service to analytical chemistry
in arousing and directing attention to the uses of electricity in
chemical analysis; but stress of severe experience (to detail which
would be out of place here) compels the suggestion with reference
to some, at least, of the ‘original methods’ that, before applying
them in work demanding close accuracy of results, to scrutunize
carefully and test by experiment is the part of wisdom.

Elementary Trigonometry. By T. ROACH. Oxford, Clarendon
Rie.

THIS .work on elementary trigonometry is the result of many
years’ experience in teaching the subject, both as assistant master
in Repton School and as a private tutor. The book-work is
divided into short portions, and at the end of each portion is
introduced a set of examples illustrating the point just taught.
The total number of examples in the text is more than a thousand,
and to these is added a graduated collection of two hundred
miscellaneous questions. The author expresses a hope to include
a collection of more difficult questions on the same part of the sub-
ject in a subsequent work on higher trigonometry. At the end of
the book is given a collection of papers recently set in some of the
principal examinations in England, in which a knowledge of
elementary trigonometry is required.

SU aIN (Cla

191

NOTES AND NEWS.

THE interior department of Canada has received advices from
the exploratory survey party sent to northern British Columbia,
near the Alaska boundary-line. Dr. Dawson, who is in charge,
will return to Ottawa before winter sets in. The other section of
the expedition, under the direction of Mr. Ogilvie, has been gather-
ing general information regarding the country, and making a general
survey. Considerable data have been gathered regarding the dis-
puted boundary-line between the Dominion and Alaska. This,
when completed, will be transmitted to Ottawa, when diplomacy
will settle the boundary question. Mr. Ogilvie proposed to winter
near Fort Reliance, a point about one thousand miles north of Vic-
toria. After obtaining more men, he will endeavor to penetrate
across country as far north asthe mouth of the Mackenzie. His pro-
posal to increase his party is simply a precautionary measure, as he
was informed that the Eskimos on the Arctic slopes are very
troublesome. He will start for home by another route, ascending
the Mackenzie River, and entering civilization in the North-west
Territory. He expects to reach Ottawa next fall.

— The Canadian Government is making an effort to settle the
troubles at Metlakahtla, which were mentioned in the last number
of Sczence. Mr. A. Vankoughnet, deputy minister of Indian affairs,
left on Oct. 4 for British Columbia. He has been intrusted with
the task of investigating the troubles among the Metlakahtla In-
dians, who are removing to Alaska. Bishop Sillitoe of New West-
minster, British Columbia, has for the past week been the guest of
Sir John A. Macdonald, the Canadian premier. It is understood that
he visited Ottawa specially to urge the government to back down
with the hope of persuading the Indians to remain on British soil.

— The Nautical Society of Hamburg has offered a prize of 500
marks for the best essay on the subject of calming the sea by the use
of oil. An exhaustive description of experiments of the effect of oil
made up to the present time is required; also a criticism of the ar-.
rangements used so far, and especially complete directions for its.
use by large steamers and sailing-vessels, as well as small vessels, —
pilot, fishing, and life-saving boats, — besides directions for the use
of oil at sea and near the coast. The essays are to be written in
English or German, and sent before Nov. 1, 1887, to the president
of the Nautical Society, director of the Navigation School, Capt. F.
E. Matthiesen, Hamburg. Competition is not limited by nationality.

— According to Nature, the Syndics of the Cambridge University
Press will publish early in October two works on elementary chem-
istry. One, intended as a companion to lecture-work, is by Mr.
Pattison Muir and Dr. Charles Slater: the other, intended to be
used along with the book already mentioned, is a course of labora-
tory work by Mr. Pattison Muir and Mr. Carnegie. Both books.
deal with the subject of elementary chemistry in a manner some-
what different from that usually adopted in text-books.

— Bulletin No. 35 of the United States Geological Survey, on the:
physical properties of the iron carburets, by Carl Barus and Vin-
cent Strouhal, is a continuation of the work published in Nos. 14.
and 27, and the investigation is still incomplete. This contribution
is devoted to the internal structure of tempered steel, and the
color-effect produced by slow oxidation of iron carburets. Bulletin
No. 36, on the subsidence of fine solid particles in liquids, by Carl
Barus, has a more obvious bearing on the proper work of the
Geological Survey, since this and kindred investigations have al-
ready thrown much light upon the process of sedimentation.

— The ‘Digest of the International Law of the United States,”
which has been prepared by Dr. Francis Wharton and issued from
the government printing-office in three volumes, is a splendid work.
The able editor has brought together a most valuable collection of
material, and arranged it in excellent order. This work will long
remain our standard reference-book on topics of international law.

— The number of steamers existing in the world last year is esti-
mated, says the Journal of the Soczety of Arts, at 9,969, of an aggre-
gate burthen of 10,531,843 tons. The corresponding number of
steamers existing in the world in 1885 was estimated at 9,642, of an
aggregate burthen of 10,291,241 tons. The total of 9,969 steamers,
representing the world’s steam-shipping in 1886, was made up as
follows: iron steamers, 8,198, of an aggregate burthen of 8,911,406
tons; steel steamers, 770, of an aggregate burthen of 1,206,962

192

tons ; composite steamers, 109,of an aggregate burthen of 32,820
tons; and wooden steamers, 822, of an aggregate burthen of
380,655 tons. Of the steamers afloat in 1885, 5,792 were owned by
the United Kingdom and its colonies, their aggregate burthen
being 6,595,871 tons. The other countries of the world owned
steamers as follows, last year: Germany, 579; France, 509 ;
Spain, 401; the United States, 400; Norway, 287; Russia, 212;
Denmark, 200; Italy, 173; Holland, 152; Brazil, 141; Japan, 105;
Greece and Turkey, 82 each; Belgium, 68; Chili and the Argen-
tine Republic, 43 each; China and Portugal, 27 each; Hawaii, 21 ;
Mexico, 15; and miscellaneous, 50. It will be seen, that, notwith-
Standing the great depression prevailing in steam-shipping, the
number of steamers afloat has increased to the extent of 327, as
compared with 1885.

— The official returns quoted from the Wochenschrift Sir
Brauered for the first six months of the current year show the
export of a total weight of 64,079 tons, being an excess of 2,789
tons as compared with the same period of 1886, but representing a
decrease of 13,281 tons as against the first six months of 1885.
There has been a progressive export during the earlier part of the
last three years to Hamburg, Bremen, Austria, Switzerland, and
Sweden, while deliveries to France and Belgium have fallen off.
There is an increase this year in exports to Holland and Denmark.
Trade with Great Britain and Russia has been larger than in 1886,
although not up to the mark of 1885; while there is a decrease in
shipments to the United States, Italy, and Spain, ascompared with
1886. Imports from Austria were for the three six-monthly periods,

SCIENCE.

[Vot. X. No. 245

was dug up. Four of them are nearly same size, — about seven
inches long, one and a half inches wide at broadest place, and
about one-fourth of an inch in thickness along the middle line.
The fifth is half an inch shorter, one and one-fourth inches in great-
est breadth, and nearly half an inch thick. It is hardly so well fin-
ished as the other four.

When found, they were all lying close together, their flat sides
in contact, and points up, evidently so placed intentionally. They
were buried about two feet below the surface of the ground. They
are now in my possession. J. W. KILPATRICK.

Fayette, Mo., Sept. 30.

Over-Pressure in the Schools.

I THINK it is an unfortunate fact that our public-school system
is not elastic enough to mould itself to the needs of the individual.
Grades are a necessity in it, and grades must be quite rigidly fixed.
But I think that the parents can mould the system so that there
shall be no over-pressure. A great source of trouble is that the
parents often positively encourage the pressure. A mother brought
to me her daughter, a shamefully overworked high-school scholar ;
no exercise, except the walk to and from school. . If this mother
takes my advice, and sends word to the teacher, “ My daughter is
not going to stand at the head of her class any more; if necessary,
she will be honestly and healthily at the foot,” the teacher may re-
ply, “Then she cannot graduate, and have a diploma.” Then the
mother must mould the public-school system to her daughter’s
needs, and say, “ Then she will not graduate. I am content to have

STONE DAGGER FROM MISSOURI.

¢

5,433, 6,236, and 6,829 tons; and from Great Britain, 404, 441, and
504 tons. Thus it will be seen imports have, on the whole, been
increasing. The imports from Austria have always been much in
excess of the exports to that country, but formerly imports from
Great Britain were inferior in quantity to the direct exports thither.
The quantities were as nearly as possible equalized during the
period under review, but it is conjectured that a portion of the beer
nominally exported to the Hamburg district was subsequently
forwarded to England.

LETTERS TO THE EDITOR.

*," The attention of scientific men is called to the advantages of the correspondence
columns of SCIENCE for placing promptly on record brief preliminary notices of
their investigations. Twenty copies of the number containing his communication
will be furnished free to any correspondent on request.

The editor will be glad to publish any queries consonant with the character of
the journal.

Correspondents are requested to be as brief as possible.
tn all cases required as proof of good faith.

The writer's name is

Stone ‘Daggers’ from Missouri.

THE following may be worth recording. A few days since, near
this place, a farmer, digging to make a pond, in land that has never
been under cultivation, found a ‘deposit’ of five chipped stone
“daggers ’ (or spear-heads ?). I enclose an outline sketch of one
the exact size of the specimen. The ‘daggers’ are of chert, and
so much alike in material, that one can easily suppose them made
from pieces of the same mass of stone. The workmanship, as in-
dicated by the finish of the implements, is of superior merit. Each
implement is chipped to a sharp edge all around, even at the base.
They are all in perfect condition except No. 2, which received
small breaks on one side of base and at extreme tip of point as it

it so.” Perhaps she will not say this, for parental pride is one cause
of the over-pressure.

Another cause is parental laziness. It is easy to keep a boy em-
ployed evenings by compelling him to stay at home and study his
lessons. Otherwise he must either be allowed to choose his own
amusement, in the house or out of it (which, of course, is not the
best thing), or the parents must have him on their minds, and pro-
vide amusements for him, or at least have an oversight of his recre-
ations, which is a trouble. In practice, too many parents either let
their children roam the streets at night, or beg the teacher to give
their children enough to do, so that they must have some lessons to

occupy their evenings. E. P. KING.
Providence, R.I., Oct. 8.

Silver in Oregon.

I FIND silver in minute quantities in several of the eruptive rocks
of north-western Oregon. The upper lava-flows on the Portland
Hills contain, as far as I have investigated them, amounts ranging
from one-tenth of an ounce per ton (or .0000034 of one per cent) to
one-fourth of an ounce (or .oo00085 of one per cent). The lava in
question is a scoriaceous micro-basalt, very much decomposed in
the exposed portions, but becoming sound and hard at a few feet
depth.

Specimens of volcanic tufa from an immense deposit in the west-
ern foot-hills of the Cascade Range, near the Clackamas River,
yield from a ‘trace’ of silver up to the surprising quantity of six
ounces per ton (or .o002 of one per cent).

In the assays I employed the scorification method, using test lead
devoid of silver. HERBERT LANG.

Portland, Ore., Sept. 30.

SCIENCE

FRIDAY, OCTOBER 21, 1887.

THE ENDEAVORS of the Australian colonies to raise money for
resuming explorations in the Antarctic regions have so far been un-
successful. The funds for rewards for whalers extending their
cruises beyond the sixtieth degree of latitude have not been appro-
priated, and, since Allen Young’s offer to take command of an ex-
pedition of this kind, nothing has been done. Sir Graham Berry has,
in accordance with instructions from the government of Victoria,
asked the British Government if they would contribute the sum of
£5,000 towards an Antarctic expedition, provided the Australian
colonies agreed to contribute a similar sum, and the subject is now
under consideration by the British Government. The financial
state of the Australian colonies is not very satisfactory at the
present time, and therefore it is not likely that an energetic attempt
will be made. The movement for resuming these explorations origi-
nated inGermany; but so far nothing has been done there to raise
money and to send out an expedition, as the activity of explorers is
almost exclusively directed towards Africa and the islands of the
Pacific Ocean. Our American whalers are those who have the
most immediate interest in the matter, as they frequent the neigh-
boring seas and derive considerable quantities of whale-oil from
that region. A few years ago one of them landed onm Graha
Land, and found near its shores an abundance of sea-animals ; but
as he had no authority to visit those dangerous latitudes, and as the
ice was closing upon his ship, he did not continue his explorations.
We do not think that the endeavors of the Australian colonies will
be successful for some time to come, and it would be gratifying if
meanwhile American enterprise would take up this important
problem, in which no nation is more interested than we are, as our
vessels are those which visit the Antarctic waters most frequently,
and as a successful approach is most probable close to the south
point of our continent. Arctic navigation shows that progress is
always most promising under the shelter of land. Graham Land
can be reached comparatively easy ; and under its shelter, that is,
on its eastern coast, important discoveries without great risk, and
at no great expense, can be made. This would be a task for one
of our whaling-masters who, in their swift schooners, navigate year
after year the ice-covered waters of the Arctic Ocean.

IN A RECENT SERIES of articles, the London Chemical News has
sought to show the importance of scientific research to nations, and
in the closing article of the series encounters what is the main
question with Englishmen, whether the present position of science
in the United Kingdom is satisfactory, and, if not, why not.
Answering its own queries, Te Chemzcal News says, “To the
former of these queries scarcely any one has the boldness to reply
in the affirmative. Were all well with us in this respect, why that
feeling of dissatisfied excitement rarely felt on any subject which
does not fall within the programme of faction? Why do we send
out commissions to scrutinize the state of scientific and technical
education in continental countries? Why do we institute new
colleges and training-schools of different grades, and why propose,
as it has been lately done, new parliamentary action in this direc-
tion? Why do we hear complaints made, not merely at the
gatherings of purely scientific bodies, but among men of business,
that in this important respect, and in comparison with rival nations,
we are not holding our own, not to speak of gaining ground? That
along with this feeling of discontent and this craving for improve-
ment there is an undercurrent of indifference, or even of hostility to

science, is but too true. Why, else, should Sir Henry Roscoe, in
his late presidential address before the British Association, remark
that science was less respected in Britain than in other civilized
countries ? Or how could a well-informed German contemporary
take occasion to say that Britain had, whichever party happened to
be in power, ‘a government very unfavorably disposed to science
and to her disciples’ (Ezme der Wessenschaft und thren Jungern
sehr abhold gesinnte Regierung) ? In fact, notwithstanding all
that has been done of late years, all the efforts made, and all the
money expended, many of the complaints urged in Babbage’s
‘Decline of Science’ still hold good. It can no longer, indeed, be
said that there is in all the universities of Britain not a single per-
son engaged in any train of original research. We recognize with
pleasure that experimental science has obtained a footing in our
ancient seats of learning, and that fairly efficient laboratories —
chemical, physiological, and biological—have been or are being
organized. Whether these institutions, when compared with those
met with abroad, e.g., at the University of Strasburg, are fairly
commensurate with the importance of their task and with the
wealth of the country, is another question. But we have still to
complain of the paucity of research issuing from the British uni-
versities. We have tilled and manured the soil, and scattered the
good seed ; but the harvest, so far, is of the scantiest.”

THE ‘UMBRIA’S’ WAVE.

Mr. HENRY TOYNBEE, marine superintendent of the English
Meteorological Office, has published in Vature of Sept. 29 a report
by William Watson of the ‘Umbria’s’ wave. Captain Watson, who
is general superintendent of the Cunard line of steamers, states that
no doubt there were some big waves knocking about the Atlantic
on the morning of July 26, but nothing more than could, under the
conditions of weather, be expected. There is no evidence of other
steamers meeting an exceptionally big wave.

Abstract of Log, SS. ‘ Umbria.’

K
Date. Wind. Bar. |-4 | 3 Remarks
<q
pera SL Sn SNE Sh NEA Sa E
July 25. 4
Noon S.W. 29°60 | 62°/ 63° |Strong wind and overcast.
4 P.M. W.S.W. 29°50 | 60°/ 61° |Fresh wind and showery.
8 P.M. W. by N. 29°45 | 60°} 6r°|Fresh wind and clear,
Midnight W. by N. 29°31 | 60° | 62° |Moderate gale, force 9.
26th.
Anare N. W. by W 29°42 | 59° | 6x° ae gale and squally, force
8 A.M. N. W. by W. 29°50 | 60° | 62°
Noon N. W. by W. 29°70 | 59° | 62°

“4.40 A.M., sea came on board over the bows, breaking No. 2
companion-hatch, twisting the forward bridge, breaking some iron
stanchions on the bridge, breaking the short bridge between the for-
ward end of the promenade deck and the break of the forecastle,
and bending the brass rails on the port side of the main upper
bridge, leaving the lower bridge intact. 8 A.M., fresh gale, force 9,
with a heavy, confused sea. Noon, gale moderating and the sea
going down, but still confused.”

At midnight on the 25th the wind was freshening from west by
north, and the weather becoming squally. A long, heavy sea was
coming from west-south-west, but the ship was only taking an occa-
sional spray over all. At 2 A.M., 26th, the wind was west-north-
west, a gale, with heavy and frequent squalls, sea rising fast from
north-west. At 4, the wind had veered to north-west, with heavy
and frequent squalls. At this time the west-south-west sea was
still very heavy, with a high north-west sea running across and over

194

it, making a very high and confused sea; but the ship was making
16 knots, and, though the spray was flying fore and aft, she had
not up to this time taken a drop of solid water on board.

At 4.40 A.M., latitude 50° 50’ north, longitude 27° 8’ west, the
officer of the watch noticed a heavy-breaking sea coming from the
north-west: he ordered the officer at the engine-telegraphs to re-
duce to ‘half speed,’ but, before this could be done, the top of this
sea came on board, but did no damage. The ship rose quickly to
it; but, as this wave passed under the stern, she plunged heavily,
and, dipping her bows into the second wave, — not breaking, or, as
the officer of the watch expresses it, ‘dead water, —scooped up a
mass of water, which, running aft over the break of the forecastle,
fell upon No. 2 companion-hatch, breaking it to pieces, also break-
ing the short bridge between the fore-end of the promenade deck
and the break of the forecastle. The look-out bridge between the
lighthouses was twisted, and five iron stanchions and 20 feet of the
iron rails on it broken, and four brass stanchions on the port side
of the upper main bridge were bent. The middle part of the top-
gallant forecastle deck for 40 feet in a fore-and-aft line was sent
down two inches by the weight of the water passing over it. Some
water got down No. 2 hatchway and frightened a few passengers.

The second officer is certain that the first sea did no damage, as
only the top of it broke over the ship; but he describes the plunge
the ship took, as this wave passed astern, as very heavy, and that
she went bows into the solid water of the second wave, which he
is quite certain was not breaking, but ‘coming smoothly along.’
This made the ship “stagger, and the sensation was as if she had
struck something hard.” After the sea came on board, the speed
was reduced to 10 knots, and was not increased till noon.

The canvas screen on the port side of the upper main bridge was
spread, and the spray striking this bent the brass stanchions. The
lower bridge escaped, through there being no canvas screen spread.

Although the wind was three points on the starboard bow,
with a heavy sea from the same direction, it seems, from the brass
stanchions on the upper main bridge having been bent aft and to
starboard, and from certain marks on the forecastle deck, that the
second officer's statement, as to the damage being done by the
second wave (probably due to the west-south-west sea, which was
still running high and fast), is correct; and on more than one occa-
sion, serious damage has been done by a sea coming up on the lee
bow and breaking on board hours after the wind had been blowing
three or four points on the other bow.

If we take into consideration a long and heavy sea from west-
south-west, a north-west gale, and heavy sea from the same
quarter, we shall have an ugly, confused sea. If a very powerful
ship with very fine lines is driven at the rate of 16 knots through
this confused sea, there is not the least occasion to call in the aid of
tidal or earthquake waves to account for any damage the ship would
receive.

In the engine-room there was no shock felt, and the sailors and
firemen say they did not notice any thing unusual, save only some
passengers making a noise.

The masthead light was extinguished through the chimney being
unshipped and falling across the wick.

THE SHORTHAND CONGRESS.

THE first international shorthand congress ever held was inaugu-
rated in London, Monday evening, Sept. 26, under the presidency
of the Earl of Rosebery. We condense the report of the proceed-
ings from an article in The Atheneum of Oct. 1. Though held in
commemoration of events in the history of English shorthand, its
interest is by no means confined to the English-speaking race, and
several leading representatives of continental systems were pres-
ent; while others, though not able to attend in person, sent papers
on the theory and practice of the art as used in their respective
countries. It is, indeed, acknowledged by common consent that
England was the mother-country of modern shorthand, and that
the tercentenary of English shorthand is the tercentenary of the
shorthand of the world. Very little value can be assigned to the
invention of Dr. Timothy Bright, which is nominally the event com-
memorated. It seems to be far inferior in every respect to the
Tironian notes of the time of Cicero; but it is the earliest English

SCIENCE:

[Vot. X. No, 246

work on shorthand known to bibliographers, and it was followed, at
an interval of only some fifteen years, by a series of publications
(beginning with that of John Willis, 1602) based in the main on the
same principles as are now generally employed.

France began with adaptations of the well-known English system
of Taylor, but the more recent French systems follow generally a
plan peculiarly their own. Their alphabet of consonants contains.
letters of two different lengths, but of one thickness, and their
vowels consist of loops and hooks which are written in with the
consonants, the finer distinctions of vowel-sound being indicated,
when necessary, by detached accents. These accents are seldom
or never used in fast writing: the French reporting style may there-
fore be described as employing a few very simple vowel-signs
written in with the consonants.

The German systems are still more characteristic, being what are
called ‘script’ systems; that is, systems which employ, instead of
straight lines and circular arcs, characters requiring the same
movements of the hand as the letters of common writing. The
vowels are very fully expressed, sometimes by characters of their
own (which are usually either upstrokes or horizontal strokes), but
more frequently by modifications of the form or thickness of the
consonants. It will be easily understood that these forms, not be-
ing geometrical, lend themselves with special readiness to varieties
of modification, just as the Gothic style of architecture is more
adaptable than the Grecian. The indication thus given is often a
mere general indication of the presence of a vowel without showing
what the vowel is.

The founder of the German method was Gabelsberger, whose
first publication is dated 1834, and his system is still the most
widely used of all. Its most prominent representatives at the con-
gress were Dr. Zeibig, professor of the Royal Stenographic Insti-
tute, Dresden, well known for his historical publications; and the
Rey. J. Alteneder, domvicar of Passau, in Bavaria. It is used for
reporting the debates in the Houses of Parliament of Austro-Hun-
gary, Saxony, and Scandinavia. Next in order, both of time and
of present popularity, comes the system of Stolze, first pub-
lished in 1841, but since largely modified. It is used in reporting
the proceedings of the Imperial Parliament at Berlin, and was ably
represented at the congress by some of its leading professors and
practitioners, notably by Dr. Max Backler, parliamentary shorthand-
writer, Berlin. Two other systems, those of Arends and Roller, have
also an established position, but were not, so far as we are aware,
represented at the congress. The total number of shorthand socie-
ties using these four systems is given as about 1,000, and the num-
ber of adherents about 25,000.

The French systems were represented by four parliamentary
reporters from Paris; and the chief stenographer, M. Guenin,
though not able to attend in person, sent a paper which was read
in the congress.

In America the systems mostly used are modifications of Isaac
Pitman’s, one of them bearing the name of his brother Benn Pit-
man, while two others, which aim at a higher degree of abbrevia-
tion, are known as Graham’s and Munson’s. Graham’s was
represented by Prof. W. D. Bridge of Chautauqua University, who
is an expert writer, and well informed upon the state of shorthand
in America. He was,so far as we know, the only member who
crossed the Atlantic to attend the congress.

The first day of papers and discussions brought out several
points of interest. A well-devised list of questions on parliamentary
reporting had been sent to foreign countries as well as to English
colonies ; and the replies, which were both numerous and full, had
been ably condensed into a préczs by Mr. Gurney-Salter, the short-
hand-writer to the Houses of Parliament. A lively debate en-
sued, in which some of the leading men from the gallery (notably
Mr. Storr of the 7zzes) took part, as well as some of the foreign
representatives, Dr. Max Backler especially distinguishing himself
by his ready command of the English language. The inadequacy
of the accommodation provided for reporters in the Houses of
Parliament, especially as regards difficulty of hearing, was made
painfully prominent, while in other countries they are for the most
part placed in the body of the house, in the best situations possible.

It is the practice in the French Senate to employ always two
official shorthand-writers at the same time to check one another,

OcToBER 21, 1887. |

and the same practice prevails at Berlin and elsewhere. There was
some discussion as to the advantages of this practice. The chief
advantage claimed for it by Dr. Backler was that it afforded better
facilities for hearing, as some orators speak from the tribune, and
others from theirseats. One of the two writers remains in his official
place in front of the tribune, and the other places himself near the
speaker for the time being. In America a complete verbatim re-
port of all debates is printed at the public expense. It is even more
complete than the debates themselves, as it frequently contains
speeches which are not actually delivered, but only taken as
delivered (if we may use the expression), owing to lack of time.

The congress, if it serves no other purpose, will at least serve to
show the general public of England that there are other systems
doing good work in the world besides the one with which they are
best acquainted. Mr. Gurney-Salter read a paper giving valuable
information as to the official and non-official reporting performed
by the staff who work under his direction. Each ‘shorthand-
writer’ has his own ‘shorthand clerk,’ to whom his notes are carried
every half-hour, and who reads them aloud to two longhand clerks
at once, the shorthand-writer all the time never leaving his place,
but writing on continuously for two, three, or more hours. When
his ‘turn’ of writing is over, he begins to revise the longhand tran-
script, which is read over to him while he follows it in his own notes.
This is the process pursued in taking the evidence at parliamentary
committees, and about 2,800 words of manuscript are produced per
hour. All the ‘shorthand-writers’ but one use the Gurney system,
and this one is a phonographer.

Mr. Gurney-Salter also gave some interesting information as
to changes which have gradually been introduced in the mode
of writing certain words. Comparing the present mode of writ-
ing with that in use at the beginning of this century, he de-
scribed the changes as including a briefer writing of certain words,
but as consisting chiefly in two things; namely, the writing of every
word separately, and a fuller insertion of vowels — not initial vowels,
for they were always inserted, but vowels in the middle of words.
These medial vowels are inserted by lifting the pen and writing the
remainder of the word in position.

AFGHAN LIFE IN AFGHAN SONGS.

IN The Contemporary Review for October, 1887, is an article by
James Darmesteter on Afghan life in Afghan songs. Mr. Dar-
mesteter has much to say on the political relations of Afghan to
the British Empire of India, but introduces his article with some
account of the native folk-songs. On the night of the 7th of April,
1886 (Wednesday, 11 P.M.), as he was sitting in the garden of his
bungalow at Peshawer, gazing at the stars and the silver moon,
etc., Mr. Darmesteter heard his Afghan chau&zdar (life and prop-
erty not being very safe at Peshawer, it is usual to keep an armed
watchman, called chawkzdar), old Piro, of the Khalil tribe, mutter-
ing in a broken voice fragments of a song that soundled like a love-
song. He asked him to repeat the songto him. ‘This he modestly
declined to do for a long time, but at last he gave way, and began, —

‘© My love is gone to Dekhan, and has left me alone ;

I have gone to him to entreat him.

‘What is it to me that thou shouldst become a Raja at Azrabad?”!

I seized him by the skirt of his garment and said, ‘ Lookat me!’ ”’
Here old Piro stopped, and neither for love nor for money could he
prevail upon him to go on: his vefertocre was exhausted. But
Mr. Darmesteter’s interest had been awakened, and from that night
he resolved to collect what he could of the Afghan popular poetry.
The field was new and unexplored. English people in India care
little for Indian songs.

He had gone to the border to study the Afghan language and
literature, but had soon to recognize that the so-called Afghan
literature is hardly worth the trouble of a journey from Paris to
Peshawer. It consists mainly of imitations and translations from
the Persian, Arabic, and Hindustani. For a time, under the
Moguls, an original and free spirit permeated those imitations, and
Mirza Ansari, the mystical poet, or Khushhal Khan, prince of the
Khatak tribe, would be accounted a true poet in any nation and
any literature. But these are rare exceptions, and the theological

1 Hyderabad, a favorite place of resort for Afghan adventurers and so/dats de for-
Zune.

SCIENCE:

195

lucubrations of the much-revered Akhun Darveza, that narrow,
foul-mouthed, rancorous, and truly pious exponent of Afghan
orthodoxy, the endless rzfaczmentz of Hatim Tai, the most liberal
of Arabs, of Ali Hamza and the companions of the Prophet, or the
ever-retold edifying story of Joseph and Zuleikha, —all seem as if
they had been written or copied by medieval monks or unimagi-
native children.

The popular, unwritten poetry, though despised and ignored by
the reading-classes, is of quite a different character. It is the work
of illiterate poets ; but it represents ¢#ezy feelings; it has life in it,
— the life of the people; it is simple, because the natural range of
ideas of an Afghan is simple and limited ; it is true to nature, be-
cause it represents those ideas without any moral bias or literary
after-thought. Sometimes, therefore, it is powerful and beautiful,
because it renders simply and truly powerful passions or beautiful
feelings.

During a few months’ stay on the border, Mr. Darmesteter col-
lected about one hundred and twenty songs (to be published, with
text, translation, and commentary, in the Bzb/zothéqgue Ordentale of
the French Asiatic Society) of every description, —love-songs,
folk-lore, hymns, romantic songs, and political ballads. If we
want to know what an Afghan is, let us put all books aside and re-
ceive his own unconscious confession from the lips of his favorite
poets. The confession, it is to be feared, would not be much to
their honor on the whole, but it will be the more sincere. This is
the value of the wild, unpremeditated accents of these people: a
poor thing it is, but it expresses their nature.

The Afghans (4/¢/az is their Persian name; their Indian name
is Pathan ; their national name, Pukhtun or Pushtun) are divided
into three independent groups : —

1. The Afghans under British rule, or what we may call the
Queen’s Afghans, who inhabit the border districts along the Indus,
Dera Ismail Khan, Bannu, Kohat, Peshawer, and Hazara. They
were conquered in 1849, with the Sikhs, their then masters.

2. The Afghans of Afghanistan proper, or the Emir’s Afghans,
—the only part of the race that forms something like an organized
power.

3. The Afghans of Yaghistan, “the rebel or independent
country,” that is to say, those Afghans who do not belong either to
the British Raj or to the Emir, but live in the native national an-
archy in the western basin of the upper Indus, — Svat, Buner, Panj-
kora, Dher, etc. The Afghan of Yaghistan is the true, unsophis-
ticated Afghan.

The songs were collected in the British districts of Peshawer and
Hazara, but most of them express, nevertheless, the general views
of the Afghans to whatever part they belong: for though there is
no real nationality amongst the Afghans, yet there is a strongly
marked national character; and though nothing is more offensive
to an Afghan than another Afghan, still there is nothing so much
like an Afghan as another. Moreover, many of these songs come
from Yaghistan, or Afghanistan. Songs travel quickly. The
thousands of Powzndas that every year pass twice across the
Suleiman range, bringing the wealth of Central Asia and carrying
back the wealth of India, bring also and carry back all the treas-
ures of the Afghan Muse on both sides the mountain; and a new
song freshly flown at Naushehra, from the lips of Mohammed the
Oil-Presser, will very soon be heard upon the mountains of Buner,
or down the valley of the Helmend.

There are two sorts of poets, —the Sha-zr and the Dum. With
the Sha-zr we have nothing to do: he is the literary poet, who can
read, who knows Hafiz and Saadi, who writes Afghan Ghazals on
the Persian model, who has composed a Divan. Every educated
man is a Sha-zr, though, if he be a man of good taste, he will not
assume the title. Writing Ghazal was one of the accomplishments
of the old Afghan chiefs. Hafiz Rahmat, the great Rohilla captain,
and Ahmed Shah, the founder of the Durani empire, had written
Divans, were ‘ Divan people, — 42/ Dzvan, as the expression runs.
The Sha-zr may be aclever writer, he may be a fine writer; but he
has nothing to teach us about his people. We may safely dismiss
him with honor and due respect.

The Dum is the popular singer and poet, for he combines the
two qualities, like our Jong/eur of the middle ages. The Dums
form a caste: the profession is hereditary. The Dum is despised

196

by the people with literary pretensions, who fly into a passion when
one of these ignorant fellows, flushed with success, dubs himself a
Sha-iy. He is not a Pathan by race, though he has been Ja-
thanzzed: heis a low sort of creature, whom the Khans and Sardars
treat as the medieval barons might have treated the itinerant
Jongleur, — despised, insulted, honored, liberally paid, intensely
popular amongst the people.

The novice Dum goes to a celebrated Dum, who is a master, an
Ustad ; he becomes his disciple, his skagzrd. The master teaches
him first his own songs, then the songs of the great Dums of the
present and past generations. The Ustad takes his shagzrds with
him to the festivities to which he has been asked, private or public,
profane or religious: he takes them to the Azra, the ‘common
house’ or town-hall of the village, where idlers and travelling
guests meet every night to hear the news that is going round, and
listen to any man that has a tale to tell or a song to sing. The
Ustad pockets half the sum given by the host, and the other half is
divided between the skagzrds. When a shagzrd feels he can com-
pose for himself and is able to achieve a reputation, he leaves his
master and becomes himself an Ustad. I am sorry to say that
Dums generally are not over-sensitive about literary honesty :
plagiarism is rife among them. A Dz will readily sing, as his
own, songs of the dead or the living. It is the custom that poets
should insert their names in the last line: you have only to sub-
stitute your own name for the name of the real author or of the
former plagiarist. People will not applaud you the less, though of
course the injured party may retort with a satire or a stab. A
good Dum may die a rich man. Mira would hardly open his
mouth anywhere under fifty rupees. He was an illiterate man: he
could not read, but he knew by heart a wonderful number of songs,
and could improvise. You would ask him for a song in a certain
shade of feeling; then he would go out with his men, and an hour
afterwards they would come back and sing a beautiful chorus on
the rebab. His song of ‘Zakhmé’ is sung wherever there are
Afghans, as far as Rampor in Rohilkhand, and Hayderabad of
Dekhan, and sets them a-dancing as soon as the first notes are
struck. It was sung at the Ravul Pindi interview as the national
song of the Afghans, though it is nothing more —or, rather,
nothing less — than a love-song. An Irish journalist — Mr. Grat-
tan Geary, of the Bombay Gazette—was struck with its melody,
and had it printed. It is probably the only Afghan song that has
ever been published (two songs have been translated by Mr. Thor-
burn in his book on Bannu, and another by Colonel Raverty in
the introduction to his Afghan grammar).

The people piously inclined object to song, among the Afghans as
well as elsewhere; and the Mollahs inveigh against the Dums.
There is only one occasion when even a Mollah will approve of the
song of a Dum : it is when the Crusade, or, as the Anglo-Indians
say, the Crescentade, has been proclaimed ; then is the time for the
Dum to rehabilitate himself, as he sings the glories of the sacred
war, the bliss reserved to the Gazz, the roses that grow for him in
the groves above, and the black-eyed houris that come from heaven
and give the dying man to drink of the sherbet of martyrdom.
But, in spite of the Mollahs, the Dw is as popular in his profane
as in his semi-sacred character. Song is a passion with the Af-
ghans ; in fact, one of the few noble passions with which he is en-
dowed. Whenever three Afghans meet together, there is a song
between them. In the Zra, during the evening conversation, a
man rises up, seizes a rebab, and sings, sings on. Perhaps he is
under prosecution for a capital crime ; perhaps to-morrow he will
be hunted to the mountain, sent to the gallows; what matters ?
Every event of public or private life enters song at once, and the
Dums are the journalists of the Afghans. Possibly the Duwz of to-
day has preserved for us faithfully enough a picture of what the
Bard was with the Gauls.

ENGLISH COIN-SALES OF 1886 AND 1887.

As the English season for coin-sales will soon begin again, The
Atheneum gives its readers some information on the general re-
sults of those which have taken place during the last ten months.
The coin-selling year may be said to commence in November, and
to end in July: sometimes it is extended into August, but, if so, it

SCIENCE:

[Vot. X. No. 246

never oversteps the first week of that month. Even between No-
vember and August there are certain periods which have to be
avoided, especially immediately before and after Christmas and
Easter. The reason for these precautions arises from the circum-
stance that collectors of coins are comparatively few, and some of
the largest buyers five out of London: consequently those who have
collections to dispose of must be careful to offer their wares for sale
when these rare birds are most likely to be in town. Sales of
pictures and china will generally secure a good attendance, but not
so is it with coins: so these precautions must be taken.

Coin-sales may be divided into two classes, — ancient and mod-
ern; the former dealing chiefly with the coinages of Greece and
Rome, the latter with those of nations of modern times. It will be
found, on looking through the sale-catalogues of the last season in
England, that those of modern coins predominate. Of ancient
coins there have been only three collections sold: viz., a portion of
the stock of the late William Webster, the well-known dealer, Dec.
22; a collection of “a gentleman relinquishing the pursuit,” June
14 and 15; and a cabinet of select Greek coins, June 27 to July
I. On the modern side there have been three sales of four to six
days each, in December, May, and August: others of the war med-
als, etc., of Capt. E. Hyde Greg; the coins of the late Joseph Mayer
of Liverpool ; of the late Archdeacon Pownall, vice-president of the
Numismatic Society ; and of Major W. Stewart Thorburn.- There
has been one very important sale in Paris of Roman and Byzantine
gold coins, belonging to the Vicomte Ponton d’Amecourt; but, as
we are concerned chiefly with what has taken place in England, we
shall not enter into any particulars of that sale, beyond remarking
that the prices yielded on that occasion far surpassed those of any
previous sale of this class of coins. We mention it as it attracted
many English buyers.

A general glance at the above-mentioned catalogues will show
that there is, and has been for some few years, a considerable
falling-off in the prices of ancient coins, while a more than corre-
sponding increase has taken place in the sums realized by modern
coins and medals. Rare and fine Greek and Roman coins wilk
always command a market, but these pieces are exceptional; and a
general good average depends principally on the more ordinary
pieces in silver and on the copper coins. The sale of a “cabinet of
select Greek coins” in June and July, when the catalogue was
issued, bid fair to witness some big prices; but unfortunately, when
the coins came to be examined, by far the greater portion, at least
of the rarities, were pronounced to be forgeries, and the conse-
quence was that those collectors who went to London bent on
making some good purchases for their cabinets returned home with
their purses but little lightened. It was a bitter disappointment to
many; but it has served as a warning, to those who have collec-
tions to dispose of, to be careful and see that what they offer for
sale is ‘above suspicion. A coin, before it passes from the
auctioneer’s hands into those of the buyer, has to undergo a severe
and critical examination. It is turned over and over, its merits or
demerits are discussed on all sides, and, if any doubt is expressed
as to its genuineness, rumor soon spreads the doubt, and it is
generally doomed. In the sale referred to, among the false coins
there were many genuine pieces, and some of considerable rarity ;
but their character was damaged by their false brethren, and they
paid the penalty of being in such bad company. The other sales.
show a fair average of prices for the finer pieces, but a very low one
for the more common ones, especially those in copper. As an illus-
tration we may give a few examples. Syracusan decadrachms, or
‘medallions’ as they are more commonly called on account of their
size, realized from £19 to £20 tos.; a tetradrachm of Naxos, with
seated figure of Silenus on the reverse, £7 1os.; similar coins of
Aenus, £10; of Akanthus, £7 7s.; of Ariarathes IX., king of Cap-
padocia, £18; an electrum stater of Cyzicus, £13; a tetradrachm
of Antiochus VI. of Syria, £12, etc. These pieces are all some-
what rare; but, when we examine the lots containing the smaller
silver coins and those of copper, we find as many as twenty or
more going for only a few shillings. These results are very disap-
pointing, especially to those who formed collections some years ago,
and consider them in the light of invested capital.

Let us now turn to the modern side, and see what is taking place
with English coins and medals. Other European coins, for the

OcToBER 21, 1887. |

most part, must be placed outside our consideration. They never
had a market in England. The fact is, these coins are much too
numerous for any private individual to make any thing like a repre-
sentative series of each class, and their acquisition must be left to
national collections, where one naturally expects to find every coin-
age well represented. The result of our observations on the
English side of numismatics will be found to be just the reverse of
those on ancient coins, and in all cases prices have considerably
advanced. Taking the sales of the last twelve months or so, we
will note the prices of a few pieces, none of which can be said to be
of very great rarity. Pennies of William the Conqueror, when fine,
sold from £2 to £2 tos. each; a light groat of Henry VI., £7 tos. ;
another of Edward V., £7 5s.; a crownof Elizabeth with m.7. 2,
£7 5s. and £7 1os.; another of James I., with reverse inscription
QV DEVS CONIVNXIT NEMO SEPARET, a common type, £7 17s.
6d. ; an Oxford crown of Charles I., £11 11s.; Tanner's copy of
the sixpence of Cromwell, over £50; a half-broad of Cromwell,
£32 15s.; a half-crown hammered of Charles II1., £8 8s. ; a proof
crown of George II., £11 5s.; a pattern crown of William IV., £21
Ios., etc. Such prices as these a few years ago would have been
deemed almost incredible. Even the ordinary pieces, if in any
thing like fine condition, of the reigns of the Georges, William IV.,
and Victoria, many of which are only just out of currency, and
some few still current, cannot be purchased excepting at high
prices; and the copper coins and tokens of the seventeenth and
eighteenth centuries have risen several hundred per cent in value.
A corresponding result is also shown with regard to English
medals of all classes. For some years the value of English coins
had been rising steadily, but it was the Shepherd sale in 1885 which
gave the great impetus, and since that time it would appear as
though collectors do not place any limits on their bids if they happen
to come across desirable acquisitions.

How, then, can this great change be accounted for? The
answer to this question is a very simple One. The old class of
coin-collectors is fast diminishing, and a new one has sprung up in
its place. Twenty years ago there were in England a considerable
body of collectors of ancient coins, but now they can almost be
counted on one’s fingers; while, on the other hand, for one collector
of English coins there are now ten. This falling-off in the old stock is
much to be regretted ; for many a man in advanced life has been
induced, by the sight of Greek and Roman coins, to open those
books which had remained closed since he left school or college.
On these small pieces of metal we find illustrated the myths of the
gods and heroes of the Greek world ; we are brought face to face
with the portraits of the great generals of ancient times, Alexander
the Great, Lysimachus, Julius Cesar, and Pompey, of the long line
of the Ptolemies of Egypt, of the kings of Syria, Cappadocia, and
Bactria, and of the still longer series of Roman and Byzantine
emperors and empresses. The student of palzography, too, will
glean much information from the examples of various ancient
alphabets, such as the Lycian, Cyprian, Phoenician, Greek, and
Latin; and to the metrologist are laid open the various systems of
weights employed by the great nations of the ancient world, and
through these the principal lines of trade of the Greeks and
Romans. The artist, too, will find on coins the various
phases of ancient art clearly defined. They show art in its origin,
in its growth towards perfection and in its perfection, in its decline,
and in its degradation. These are but a few of the charms offered
by the study of ancient numismatics, and it is these which will be
lost when coin-collecting is abandoned.

Fortunately, while the general taste for these objects in England
appears to have been on the wane, those who remained constant to
the study of ancient numismatics have worked with all the more
ardor, and in few departments of learning has more progress been
made in the last few years. But the results of these labors, till re-
cently, have never been embodied in a compact form, and were
only to be found scattered over many volumes of periodicals and
journals. The Clarendon Press has, however, taken the matter in
hand, and, under the guidance of Mr. B. V. Head, has issued a
‘Manual of Greek Coins’ (‘ Hzstorza Numorum’), which gives ina
concise form the history and description of ancient Greek numis-
matics (Azhen., No. 3098, p. 357). It also deals with their art,
metrology, types, etc. The work commences with the coinages of

SCIENCE,

197

Europe, beginning with that of Spain, and, journeying eastwards to
Greece proper, crosses over into Asia, and ends with the series of
Africa. This is the order adopted by Eckhel over a century ago,
and, being generally accepted by numismatists, has been followed
by Mr. Head. The work does not claim to be complete, for it was
impossible to aim at completeness when the author was so limited
in space; but nevertheless the student of Greek numismatics will
find in it all that he needs at first, and when he has mastered it, if
inclined, he can easily turn to the more lengthy dissertations, a list
of which is given by Mr. Head in his introduction. The work is of
so recent a date that the extent of its influence on the numismatic
world cannot at present be gauged; but that it will bear good
fruit we do not for a moment doubt, and it may even increase the
list of those collectors whose falling-off we are now regretting.

We may add that what has been done by Mr. Head for Greek
numismatics had recently been done by several other well-known
numismatists for English coins and medals ; and this may, perhaps,
in some degree account for their popularity at the present time.
Two new editions of Hawkins’s work on the silver coinage have
been issued, Mr. Kenyon has written on the gold coins, Mr. Mon-
tagu has described the copper coinage, and Hawkins’s long-
promised work on English coins has at last appeared.

HEALTH MATTERS.
Grinder’s Consumption.

Dr. CANEDY of Shelburne Falls, Mass., recently read a paper
before the Franklin District Medical Society‘on grinder’s consump-
tion, being the results of his observations on the grinders employed
by a cutlery company at that place, numbering, on an average,
forty men and boys for the past twenty-five years. During the ten
years just ended, twenty-three grinders have died with chronic dis-
ease of the air-passages, and three are now confined to the house
with similar affections ; and five in whom the disease has made
considerable progress are still at work in the cutlery. Of all the
occupations in which the workers are compelled to inhale an at-
mosphere loaded with irritating dust, as coal-mining and iron and
metal polishing, none seems more certain or fatal in its effects than
grinding. Investigations made at Sheffield, Eng., fix the average
period which grinders can work at thirteen years. The first
symptom which manifests itself is cough, soon followed by short-
ness of breath upon exertion, as walking up hill. During all this
time an inflammatory process is going on in the lung, which re-
sults in a gangrenous or purulent condition ; the patient having fever,
and often a terrible cough. During this attack the patient is con-
fined to bed from ten to twenty weeks. After six weeks an ab-
scess forms in the lung, and, when the pus is expectorated, im-
provement begins. The progress of some cases is exceedingly
slow; some of the patients living ten years or more, after being
compelled to leave the shop by their cough, most of the time in
chronic invalidism, and dying at last from the exhaustion dependent
upon pulmonary disease.

In spite of all treatment, the inevitable tendency of the disease
seems to be toward a fatal termination, and Dr. Canedy states
that he has never seen any recoveries. The picture which is given
us in this paperis a most distressing one; and it would seem that
some attention should be paid to the subject by those in power.
The improvements which have been made in unhealthy trades by
the substitution of sanitary for unsanitary conditions have been so
marked that some of them can certainly be applied to the reduction
of the great suffering and mortality among the cutlery grinders. The
State Board of Health can here doubtless find an opportunity to do
more good work in a field in which it has so long and so well
labored.

THE CHILDREN OF NEW YORK.—At a meeting of the New
York County Medical Association, Dr. Charles A. Leale presented
a paper on the prevention of chronic disease among the children of
New York City. The facts which formed the basis of this paper
were obtained by Dr. Leale and his associate physicians, from their
gratuitous visits to the tenement-houses of this city during the
summer of 1886. Their work extended over a period of six weeks,
during which time they visited 3,659 families, representing 7,146
adults and 10,086 children. Of these, 217 adults and 3,376 children

198

were found sick; measles, diphtheria, scarlet-fever, scrofula, and
syphilis being the prevailing diseases. In nearly every instance the
sick children were not only without proper medical attendance, but
were living in places rendering complete recovery to the majority
almost impossible. To give the sick children the benefit of fresh
air, 6,312 free tickets were distributed for the excursions of the St.
John’s Guild Floating Hospital, where they and their parents were
given a sufficient quantity of good foods. Twenty-four very sick
children were sent to a hospital on Staten Island, where they re-
mained for a week or two. In the final report of one of these

physicians, he gave it as his opinion that the great death-rate among _

children under five years of age was attributable to over-crowding,
filth, filthy habits, and bad drainage. He says, ‘“‘ Upon a hot sum-
mer’s day to enter a room in a rear house, whose walls were
cracked and besmeared with refuse, and perhaps dead vermin, oc-
cupied by a family of six or eight, harboring three or four boarders,
upon the floor of which might be seen soiled linen, particles of food,
and children, with a mother standing about the red-hot stove,
washing and cooking, and perhaps attending to a sick child, lying
in a dark bed-room, suffering from cholera-infantum, diphtheria, or
scarlet or typhoid fever, was a spectacle frequently indeed brought
to my attention.” Another physician observed a great number of
cases of diseases of the eye and ear, especially among those sub-
jected to bad hygienic conditions. All the houses, without exception,
were overcrowded and in a filthy condition, the rear houses being
dark and badly ventilated. In one apartment having three rooms,
from twelve to fourteen persons were often found; in some of these,
father, mother, and grown-up sons and daughters all sleeping in
one room, without any regard for delicacy or decency. A third
member of this visiting corps describes the small yard of a rear
tenement, containing an open cesspool, around which groups of
sickly children were playing; these children being stunted in
growth, pale, and, as a rule, having some form of ophthalmia. Of
thirty children found in one of these small yards, only one could be
said to be in vigorous health.

CAUSE OF TYPHOID-FEVER. — Investigations made by Beumer,
Peiper, and others seem to have demonstrated that a ptomaine pro-

duced by the typhoid-bacilli when injected into animals may cause-

a disease resembling typhoid-fever. This ptomaine was discovered
by Brieger, and named by him ‘typhotoxine.’ It is this substance,
and not the germ directly, which is the cause of typhoid-fever in
man, according to the most recent theory. The Loxdon Medical
Record, in commenting on these researches, draws the following
conclusions from them: “1. The symptoms and alterations ob-
served in animals in which cultures of typhoid-bacilli had been in-
jected are due to the toxic substances secreted by these bacilli. 2.
The noxious germs, which secrete the typhotoxine, are repro-
duced in the intestinal canal. From these the ptomaine is taken up
by the circulation, and carried to all the organs liable to be affected
by this poison. 3. It is most probable that the same takes place
in abdominal typhoid-fever of man. 4. A first infection induces
immunity against the injurious effect of a later infection, even
of large quantities of the toxic substance. 5. Further experi-
ments and careful clinical investigations are necessary in order
to establish a scientific support of the theory of immunity from
infections of sterilized cultures containing not more than a de-
termined quantity of typhotoxine. 6. In case this theory be an
ascertained fact, the reproduction of the same immunity in man
would be justified by commencing with very minute doses of
typhotoxine, which would be gradually increased according to the
results obtained.”

.

A TEST FOR THE CHOLERA-BACILLUS. — Bujwid, in the Zezz-
schrift fiir Hygiene, describes a chemical test for the detection of
the presence of the cholera-bacillus. He adds to a bouillon-culture
of the bacillus from five to ten per cent of ordinary muriatic acid.
In a few minutes a rose-violet color appears, which increases in in-
tensity for half an hour. It remains unchanged for several days.
This re-action occurs in bouillon-cultures ten to twelve hours old,
and in gelatine-cultures after twenty-four hours. The coloring is
increased by heat. It is claimed by Bujwid that this color is
characteristic of the bacillus of Asiatic cholera, and distinguishes it
from all others.

SCIENCE:

[Vor. X. No. 246

BOOK-REVIEWS.

The Elements of Political Economy, with Some Applications to
Questions of the Day. By J. LAURENCE LAUGHLIN. New
York, Appleton.

iG),

THE author of this work is impressed, as many other people are,
with the importance of a more general training in economic science.
Almost all of the questions with which our national government
will soon have to deal are of an economic character, or involve
economic considerations; while the conflict between labor and cap-
ital shows the importance of economic science in purely industrial
affairs. To supply the needed information, it will be necessary to
introduce the study of economics into our high schools and acade-
mies, and for this purpose good elementary treatises are necessary.
Such treatises, however, are by no means numerous; and hence a
work like Professor Laughlin’s is to be welcomed. It is intended
as an introductory work merely, and for the use of schools: “The
main topics are treated, the fundamental principles are empha-
sized, but no effort is made to produce a detailed and exhaustive
treatise” (p. vii.). The author’s object, we think, has been success-
fully accomplished. The adaptability of the work to school
use must, of course, be tested by actual practice; but it certainly
has many of the qualities that such a work ought to have. The
division and arrangement of topics are excellent, and the style
clear; while the choice of matter is appropriate toan elementary
treatise. The work is divided into two parts, the first demonstrat-
ing the principles of the science, the second applying them to the
economic problems of the day. The doctrines and method of the
work are those of the standard English school. Indeed, that school
seems to have been followed a little too strictly; for, though its
method is the leading and most productive one, yet the compara-
tive and historical methods have their uses.

Professor Laughlin gives the usual definitions of ‘wealth’ and
‘value,’ and the usual account of the agents of production. He
lays special stress, however, on the important function in contem-
porary industry of the skilful industrial manager. In treating of
exchange, he follows Mill in the main, while adopting something from
Cairnes on the subjects of supply and. demand, and foreign trade.
On the subject of distribution he holds the views that have prevailed
generally among English writers, with the fiction of the wages fund
left out. He argues that “the proportional shares of labor and
capital out of the product will depend upon the relative scarcity and
abundance of labor and capital” (p. 186); while ‘‘the productiveness
of a country’s industries determines whether the general level of
wages shall be high or low” (p. 198). Interest, or the share of the
capitalist, he considers a reward for abstinence merely, while the
profit of the industrial manager is treated as the wages of a supe-
rior kind of labor.

In the second or practical part of the work, Professor Laughlin
seeks to apply economic principles to such questions as socialism,
taxation, free trade, and others, while recognizing that such ques-
tions cannot be settled by economic considerations alone. His
remarks on the subjects of money and taxation, if generally read,
can hardly fail to be useful. He condemns socialism, as all econo-
mists do, and holds that the prosperity and advancement of the
working-classes depend on their own mental and. moral improve-
ment. He favors individualism, and deprecates undue interference
by the State, holding that “it is high time that the weak and nar-
row-minded recourse to the State for legislation on every conceiv-
able subject should be abandoned for a greater growth of self-help
and a more independent and self-confident manhood” (p. 349).
The book may be commended not only for schools, but also for
private students, and we should be glad to see it extensively read
by the working-people.

Animal Life in the Sea and on the Land. By SARAH COOPER.
New York, Harper. 12°.

IT is impossible to give, in large type, in the space of about three
hundred double-leaded, duodecimo pages, a satisfactory account of
several hundred species of animals, from the lowest to the highest.
Yet this is what the author attempts in this volume; and she throws
in, besides, a chapter on coral-reefs, and many pages about fossils.
The result is a curious cross between a grammar-school text-book

OcToBER 21, 1887. |

on zodlogy and a child's picture-book of animals. The chapters
are divided into short, numbered paragraphs, each headed with a
full-faced subtitle, in the style of a school ‘reader.’ This, and the
rather pedagogical style, render it nearly certain that young people
will not ead it; while the necessary sketchiness of its contents,
and the innumerable omissions, render it nearly useless as a book
of reference. It may have some value in the hands of a teacher as
suggesting a series of topics for elaboration, but, even so, we are
confident that the patient examination of half a dozen typical speci-
mens would furnish better results than this fragmentary treatment
of several hundred. It is essentially a compilation. After reading
the book, one dare not swear that the author has ever seen a single
one of all the animals described, unless it be some of the common
sea-creatures of the Massachusetts coast. The illustrations are

attractive, reasonably accurate, and many of them artistic. The
mechanical part of the book is well done.
Die Psychischen Stérungen des Kindesalters. Von Dr. H.

EMMINGHAUS. Tibingen.

WHILE this work by an eminent German alienist is primarily
designed for specialists, it contains a number of interesting obser-
vations valuable to all who are concerned in the training of chil-
dren, and illustrating from an unusual point of view certain marked
characteristics of child-mind. The limitation of ‘ childhood’ strictly
to the period before the establishing of the functions that connect
the individual with the race is at once significant: it gives the
physiological basis for much of what is distinctive in child-life, and
accents the enormity of the field of thought and feeling which the
approach of adolescence suddenly reveals. As mental disease is to
a large extent a concomitant of civilization, and this in turn is
dependent upon a general and prolonged brain-culture, it is easy to
see that the child who has not yet reached the stage where char-
acter is established, where keen competition excites each brain-cell
to a maximum of action, is spared a large proportion of mental
disease. This fact, then, that mental diseases are far less common
among children than among adults, with the further fact that the
affliction of children by a large class of mental diseases not uncom-
mon in adults is a sporadic occurrence, it is essential to bear in
mind. Since the influence of a pernicious environment is respon-
sible for only a small share of mental breakdown in childhood, it
follows that heredity — ‘the sins of the fathers ’—is the great dis-
posing cause. And this shows itself in the production of two
classes of children: (1) those who from birth show the marks of
mental deficiency or perversity, or who, without any accident or
maltreatment, are sure to show such marks within a few years ;
(2) those who show almost no suspicious symptoms in early child-
hood, but in whom the strains demanded of a civilized city child
cause mental breakdown. It is this last numerous class of children
that is open to the wise treatment of the intelligent parent and
teacher as well as of the knowing physician. Another noteworthy
point is that the mental abnormality of achild can be determined
only by reference to a normal child of the same age, and with an
appreciation of certain traits, which, almost always pathological
when occurring in adults, are within the range of normal indi-
viduality in children. The analogy between the acts of the insane
and the traits of children is often drawn. This includes more than
the degenerative processes of senile dementia (second childhood),
and is shown, for example, in the passion for collecting all sorts of
curiosities, odds and ends, and the like (common to certain forms
of mania). The most striking instance of this analogy is that of
the wantonness of the actions in the transition period between boy-
hood and youth, for which the Germans have the term /Vegeljahre.
Here there is all the recklessness of demeanor, bigness of plans,
swaggering egotism, and excitable caprice characteristic of devel-
oped mania. But it is only in the presence of predisposing causes
that this period leaves the region of the normal; and the frequency
of runaways from home, and other cravings for a free roaming life
that appear at this age, suggest that a rational outlet for this
superfluous energy ‘might be provided.

Leaving these general considerations, a few points of illustrative
value should be mentioned. Inan interesting chapter on suicides
in children, Dr. Emminghaus accents the importance of one-sided
precocity as a disposing factor. Ideas belonging to a more mature

SCIENCE

199

period of life are by accident, by exciting literature or other cause,
planted in a yielding brain, that has not yet acquired the stability of
will, or the firm distinctiveness of moral habit, that keeps such
weird notions from realization in action. Nothing could better
illustrate the mischievous tendency fostered by competitive exami-
nations, to goad children on ahead of their years, with a show of
great brilliancy, but a brilliancy dangerous by lack of a sound
physiological basis. The triviality of the alleged cause of suicide is
only a further evidence of the abnormality (usually hereditary) of
such children.!

Idiocy and imbecility have always been the type of mental dis-
ease in children. Their ultimate relation with other forms of in-
sanity is likewise well understood, and it has been spoken of as
nature’s method of cutting off the progeny of a degenerate strain.
While by its nature incurable, modern study has succeeded, by an
early appreciation of the condition, in rescuing all but the severest
forms from the utter helplessness formerly so common.

Finally, this very imperfect sketch of Dr. Emminghaus’s point of
view should not be completed without mentioning that the sharply
defined plan of his work prevents him from recognizing that host
of mental affections whose germs are often innate, and whose
prodromal symptoms often clearly manifest in childhood, but
which come to distinct view only later in life, especially at the
periods of intense physiological change.

The Relative Proportions of the Steam-Engine. By WILLIAM
DENNIS Marks. Philadelphia, Lippincott. 8°.

THE little book lying before us is a volume containing matter of
value and interest to technical schools. It represents the first
attempt which, so far as we are aware, has ever been made to de-
termine, by correct methods and in any considerable detail, the
proportions of the parts of the steam-engine. It is a singular fact,
that notwithstanding the importance of the steam-engine, and its
attractiveness to scientific writers on applied mechanics, no treatise
of this character has ever before been produced. The general
theory of the heat-engines has, especially during the present gener-
ation and since the time of Rankine and of Clausius’ work, been
written and re-written by many writers, great and small, and has
been elaborated with all the ingenuity that such authors are capable
of; but not one has hitherto had the good judgment, the patience,
and the ability, to produce a good book on the proportioning of its
rods and cranks, its fly-wheels and its cylinders. Some such work
has been done by a few European writers; but none have devoted
themselves to the production of a special treatise upon the subject.

Professor Marks has gone into the work with a zeal which could
not but be fruitful of result, and has produced a book which
will be of very great value to the profession and in the schools.
Collating all that could be found in standard writers on the strength
of materials and on machine design, he has added much useful
material as the result of his own investigations, and has thus put
into convenient form and into a single volume a very large amount
of fact and calculation indispensable to the student in engineering
and to the designer of machinery of this kind. A chapter is devoted
to the study of the proportions of the steam-cylinder and the calcu-
lation of power; another to the sizes of bolts, areas of ports, and
size of piston-rods. The proportions of fastenings, such as gibs and
keys; the size and shape of the connecting-rod and its connections ;
the sizes, forms, and proportions of crank-pins, and the proportion-
ing of the crank in wrought or cast iron and in steel, — form the sub-
jects of succeeding chapters ; and the size of the crank-shaft in the
several available metals is calculated by carefully established for-
mulas and rules. Among the best parts of the book are the studies
of the effect of the fly-wheel, and its action as a regulator. This is
probably the most complete and practically valuable discussion of
this subject to be found. The last chapter, that on the governor,
is the least satisfactory in the book; and it would seem that the
writer had not yet worked up to that point in his progress toward
his ideal of his book.

1Tt is interesting to note that even in children the modes of suicide in the two
sexes are strikingly different. The boys in seventy-five per cent of all cases hang
themselves, in fifteen per cent drown themselves, in three percent poison themselves,
and never stab themselves. Of the girls, only ten per cent meet death by hanging,

but sixty-four per cent by drowning, thirteen per cent by poison, and eight per cent
by stabbing.

200

Two chapters are given to the study of the ‘limitations of the
steam-engine,’ a phrase of somewhat awkward form rhetorically,
but which is familiar to all engineers interested in the subject as
relating to, the limits set to the efficiency of the machine by the
counteracting influences of ‘ cylinder condensation,’ — another awk-
ward phrase, meaning condensation of steam in the steam-cylinder,
—and of conduction and radiation or other forms of waste which
distinguish the actual from the ideal engine. Here the author takes
the hitherto unconquered bull by the horns, and gains the honor of
having been the first to produce a rational formula embodying what
are supposed to be the laws of this method of transmission of heat,
and of loss of engine efficiency due toit. The resulting expression is
somewhat complicated; but it is justified by experiment, so far as
comparison has been carried by its author, and may be expected to
stand until further progress is made in investigation of the actual
conditions, — which are unquestionably far from being few or unin-
volved, — and extended research shall have thrown more light upon
a problem which is to-day the most important in the whole theory
of the steam-engine.

Space does not permit the criticism in detail of this or of any
other part of the book. It is rich in valuable material, and al-
though, like the angels, not absolutely without fault, in the opinion
of well-informed engineers, either in matter or in manner, deserves
exceptionally high praise for its wealth of excellences.

The Ancient Cities of the New World. By DESIRE CHARNAY,
New York, Harper. 8°.

IN the present volume Désiré Charnay gives the results of his
long and careful explorations in Central America, which were begun
in 1857. Since that time, all his energies have been directed to-
wards the collection and preservation of the antiquities of that
country. As the expenses of his expeditions were defrayed in part
by the French Government, in part by an American citizen, Mr. P.
Lorillard, his collections are deposited in the Trocadero in Paris,
and in Washington: they are indispensable for all future studies of
the culture of ancient Central America. The book under review is
as well pleasant to read — describing, as it does, the travels of the
author and the present state of the country —as of scientific value,
giving the results of his studies, and showing in numerous splendid
illustrations the ancient monuments and other kinds of relics, as
well as beautiful views and characteristic groups.

It was the main object of the expedition with which the author
was intrusted to collect authentic material for a thorough study of
the ancient civilization of Central America: therefore his studies
were almost exclusively directed to the collecting of relics, photo-
graphing of buildings and reliefs, and making casts of the inscrip-
tions and bas-reliefs. The material he gives in this line cannot be
excelled. His researches lead him to the conclusion that the
American civilization at the time of the conquest was of compara-
tively recent origin. It is his opinion that all its branches bear. the
characteristics of Toltec civilization, and that, by studying the monu-
ments, the migrations and the gradual development of Toltec art
may be discovered. A map shows the author’s opinion regarding
the subject. He lets the prehistoric Toltecs immigrate from the
north-west. From the plateau of the City of Mexico two branches
emigrated, — the Gulf branch and the Pacific branch. Subdivisions
of the former invaded Yucatan. He lets the two principal divis-
ions meet in Copan, the south-eastern terminus of their migrations.
“The Toltecs,” he says, “migrated south, following the coasts of both
oceans. They ceased to exist as a nation after the disruption of
their empire; but their scattered remnants carried on the work of
civilization in Central America, on the high plateaus, and in
Anahuac, evidenced in the strong resemblance that the civilizations
of these various regions bear to one another.” The time of the
erection of the largest buildings and temples he supposes to be about
the twelfth century.

We cannot accept those theories of the author referring to the
connection between the art of eastern Asia and Central America. A
thorough and detailed comparison has never been made, and super-
ficial similarities of monuments and customs cannot be a sufficient
proof of a common origin.

Since the present volume was written, the author has accom-
plished a new journey to his favorite field of explorations, a pre-

SCIEINGIE:

[Vou. X. No. 246

liminary report of which is being published in Le Tour du Monde
and in the G/obus. The recent enterprise of this devoted explorer
has not been less successful than the former ones, some results of
which are fortunately made accessible in the volume just published.

Living Lights.
Scribner.

By CHARLES FREDERICK HOLDER. New York,

12e3

Mr. HOLDER has thrown into a popular form the substance of
what is known about phosphorescent animals, illuminated by oc-
casional coruscations of imagination. Most of his readers will be
surprised to learn that the power of emitting light is so widely
shared by animals of all classes. Not only do fire-flies fly, glow-
worms glow, and zodphytes twinkle in the sea, but sea~anemones,
alcyonarians, gorgonias, star-fishes, earth-worms, crabs, shell-fish,
lizards, frogs, toads, fishes, birds, monkeys, and men must be added,
according to Mr. Holder, to the number of animals capable of giv-
ing forth light. In the author’s preface, he says, “In the United
States there are ten thousand enrolled young naturalists, compris-
ing the Agassiz Association. As one of a committee solicited to
answer questions propounded by the young people, .. . I have
often been surprised at the nature of the queries, which shows that
this army of young observers includes many who are not merely
collectors of curiosities, but are naturalists in the best sense. They
are systematic inquirers, and working in the right direction to be-
come scientists, should they continue. It is to these young scien-
tists . . . that this volume is addressed.” While we welcome any
book that will serve to awaken in the young an earnest desire to
study nature, and while this fascinating volume will certainly awaken
interest, it is all the more to be regretted that the author is so fond
of pyrotechnical natural history. He loves to hear the sigh of
pleasurable surprise that rises from his audience as he sets off a py-
rosomatic rocket, or kindles pavonian flame. This fault appears es-
pecially in the illustrations, which, for young people, should be accu-
rate, since from them they derive their lasting impressions. Not to
rely on our own judgment, we quote the author’s own words, “It
is evident that illustrations of the phosphorescence of marine animals
must be more or less conjectural ;” and again (the Italics are ours),
“Tn Plate XXVII. [XXVI.?] an zd@ea/ view is given of the Posszble
appearance of the light of a large heron.” There is no excuse for
“conjectural illustrations’ and ‘ ideal views of possible appearances”
in a book of this nature. They are distinctly misleading and
wrong, and have the obvious and inevitable effect of throwing dis-
credit on some of the more highly-colored portions of the text, into
which the phosphorescence of herons, lizards, monkeys, and men
seems to have been admitted on very slender evidence. Those por-
tions of the book which record the results of Mr. Holder’s own
observations are the most interesting, and perhaps the least illu-
mined by fancy.

The Ventzlation and Warming of School-Buzldings.
BERT B. MORRISON.* New York, Appleton. 8°.

By GIL-

IT seems a long leap from Rosenkranz’s ‘ Philosophy of Educa-
tion,’ which opened the International Education Series, to this suc-
cessor, which discusses practical schoolhouse-building. But Dr.
Harris shows how catholic his conception of education is by in-
cluding the two books in the same series.

Mr. Morrison truly says that no “subject has been more carefully
and intelligently studied than the direct and ultimate effects of im-
pure air on the human system, and on no subject is there more
unanimity of competent opinion ” (p. 18) ; butnevertheless the want
of sufficient and definite information regarding the ventilation of
schoolhouses is general. The lack of general information on
this particular point is the more blameworthy, inasmuch as the
effects of breathing impure air are not only pathological, but peda-
gogical and economic. The author instances this (p. 22).

A short chapter deals succinctly with the physical aspects of the
air, and then the various tests for its examination are briefly de-
scribed. The general theory of ventilation is illustrated by a simple
experiment (p. 47) ; and then the natural and artificial methods of
ventilation are discussed with more attention to detail. The remain-
ing chapters discuss the general problems of ventilating and heat-
ing, and include descriptions of many of the expedients that are
used for these purposes. The treatment of each question is abreast

OcToBER 21, 1887.]

of the times, and eminently satisfactory ; and, if the book is referred
to half as frequently as it should be, our schoolhouses will be
healthier and better adapted to serve the purpose for which they
are erected.

Azimuth. A Treatise on this Subject.
CraicG. New York, Wiley. 4°.

By JOSEPH EDGAR

THE determination of azimuth comes up as an important practi-
cal problem on board ship, in ascertaining the variation or deviation
of the compass, or on land in fixing a true meridian line, and it is
desirable that the necessary astronomical observations should be
made under conditions which give, at least theoretically, the most
accurate results attainable. Lieutenant-Commander Craig’s book
is a mathematical study of the spherical triangle with respect to
the azimuth problem, supplementing the text-books, and he calls
attention to certain statements in the latter on some points refer-
ring to the most favorable conditions of observation, which he re-
gards as misleading.

After devoting several pages to the elementary formule for the
solution of a spherical triangle, and the differential variations of its
parts, he considers the conditions of maximum and minimum errors,
and the most favorable and least favorable position of a heavenly
body for observation in a given latitude. Two-thirds of the text
are then taken up with an analysis of the equations to the loci of
maximum and minimum errors, and the book concludes with some
thirty plates illustrating these loci.

The Ethical Import of Darwinism.
MAN. New York.

By JACOB GOULD SCHUR-

THE excitement following the appearance of Darwin’s works
rendered a fair criticism of their merit and import impossible. The
younger generation, who had been trained to some extent to think
by the methods of which Darwin forms a model, were ready for the
announcement, and were at once transformed into a body of enthu-
siastic followers. The older thinkers, and especially such as were
by their profession devoted to upholding a theory of the universe
established by tradition, and in entire opposition to the discoveries
of science, met the new theory with violent protestations of incon-
sistency with established beliefs, and denounced it as fraught with
danger to morality and the religious sentiment. It is only within a
few years that the smoke has been lifted off the battle-field, and
made it possible to calmly contemplate the justness and the out-
come of the battle. As has frequently happened before, it is found
that the party who asked, not “Is it true ?”’ but “ What does it lead
to?” has been the loser. The general point of view of which
Darwinism is an expression, the ingenious and valuable explanations
which that master-hand collected, the healthy ferment penetrating
through all departments of knowledge that his writing brought
about, —all these have become the inalienable inheritance of man-
kind. On the other hand, the majority of evolutionists will admit
that their doctrines have been regarded as solving certain vexed
problems of mankind which really remain as unsolved as ever; and
the province and exclusiveness of the mechanism of development
which Darwin discovered have been likewise exaggerated. Recent
writers, such as Romanes, are acknowledging the former and sup-
plementing the latter. The one has been termed a ‘ pseudo-Dar-
Winism,’ and in addition to natural selection we speak of ‘ physio-
logical selection,’ and so on.

Professor Schurman’s book gives every mark of having been
written in the latter half of this decade. There is no attempt to
dwarf or warp (much less ridicule) the evolutionary position: on
the contrary, its strictly scientific character is appreciated, and its
main tenets admirably sketched. Contrary to the usual method in
such discussions, the author has taken the trouble to find out what
Darwinism is. Nor do these negative virtues complete the list of
the merits of the book. The author practically illustrates, by avig-
orous and intelligible style, his opinion that “there is no theory, or
criticism, or system (not even Kant’s or Hegel’s), that cannot be
clearly expressed in a language which in Locke’s hands was strong
and homely, in Berkeley’s rich and subtle, in Hume’s easy, graceful,
and finished, and in all three alike plain, transparent, and unmistak-
able.” Moreover, each chapter is devoted to the expression of a
real point without irrelevant matter or needless repetition. The

SCIENCE.

201

several chapters form a logical train of argument, and the book is
thus worthy of the attention of the scientist. The unfortunate fact
that so many works in this field are strikingly deficient in all these
qualities makes it necessary to signalize the exceptional character
of this work.

Professor Schurman holds that ‘evolution’ is a strictly scientific
hypothesis warranted by facts, and is to be accepted, whether for
the sake of argument or as a real belief, by all who seek to deter-
mine its ethical import. He denies that the system of utilitarian
hedonism which Darwin and Darwinists have attached to the
theory is at all a legitimate inference from that theory, and regards
it as accidental, and due to the fact that these men were raised in
this school of ethics. Darwinism is to him consistent with any
theory of ethics, and does not favor one aboveanother. As longas
evolution simply explains the method of development, and not the
fact that there is something to develop, a further philosophic theory
is made necessary. In the second place, the author holds that the
attempt of Darwin himself, as of his followers, to account for the
existence of a moral sense, is deficient, and does not make unne-
cessary the assumption of an omnipotent and authoritative ‘ought.’

To the reviewer’s mind, this argument is open to the following
criticism. In the first place, the ‘ethical import of Darwinism’ that
we to-day are interested in is not that here discussed, but consists
in very practical and momentous questions: ‘How does heredity
affect responsibility?’ ‘What does evolution show to be the best
method of treating criminals?’ It is in this field of practical ethics,
formerly neglected or dogmatically passed upon, that the spirit of
evolutionary research has and will radically modify our views and
practices. Second, the author fails to recognize that the kind of
chance with which evolution deals is synonymous with ‘something
that needs no explanation.’ If I hazard the guess that a die I am
about to throw will fall on ‘six,’ and it really does so, I say it is
‘chance,’ and thereby mean that it needs no further explanation. The
fact that this ‘chance’ may have momentous consequences does
not change its character. That there is a strong temptation to be
dissatisfied with this casual answer will be readily admitted, and it
is this temptation to which the author has yielded in a portion of
his criticism. Finally, the fact that the followers of Darwin tend
to take a view of life easily distinguishable from that of those who
oppose him, is itself significant of the ethical import of Darwinism.
It may be true that it is @ przorz as possible to be a Darwinist and
at the same time an adherent of any one of a half-dozen schools of
ethics; but, as a matter of fact, ethics takes its character quite as
much from the relative order and dignity of the several virtues lead-
ing to the samme bonum as from the view of the szmmum bonum
itself.

It would be unjust to close this notice without calling attention
to the plea for a science of historical ethics, and the contribution to
it, by way of criticism, of current theories of ‘family development,’
to which the last chapter is devoted.

NOTES AND NEWS.

A VOLUME of great interest to the meteorologists of the country
has recently been issued by the National Academy of Sciences, con-
taining the first chapter of a revision, by Prof. Elias Loomis, of his
numerous ‘ Contributions to Meteorology,’ or studies based on the
daily weather-maps of the Signal Service during the last thirteen
years. These contributions in their original form, as presented to
the National Academy and published semi-annually in the Amerzcan
Journal of Scéence, considered one topic after another in sequence,
determined by convenience rather than by system, and therefore
were greatly in need of orderly revision for use by the many students
who must make frequent reference to them. Translations and ab-
stracts of the originals have appeared in France, England, and Italy ;
and a serviceable review and discussion of the results gained have
recently been prepared by Mr. H. H. Clayton for the Amerzcan
Meteorological Journal, but a revision by the author of the papers
himself has naturally an interest and a value of its own. Professor
Loomis has performed a threefold service in this work, — first, in
utilizing the weather-maps to an extent not approached by any one
else in the country; again, in now systematizing the results gained ;
and, most of all, in developing his method of simple, inductive in-

202

vestigation, that will long stand as a model for meteorologists to
follow. It is to be hoped that the later chapters of the work may
appear in due time.

— Lieutenant Dunwoody of the Signal Service, who for a
number of years has taken an active interest in developing the
State weather-services, has recently accomplished a good piece of
work in securing the adoption of a uniform system of summarizing
and tabulating the data published monthly in the various State bul-
letins. Hitherto every State has had pretty much its own plan,
and the change to a single form of statement cannot fail to be ad-
vantageous to all concerned. The reports of fifteen State weather-
services are abstracted in the last monthly weather-review of the
Signal Service.

— The second annual meeting of the New England Association
of Colleges and Preparatory Schools will be held at the College of
Liberal Arts, Boston University, Oct. 28 and 29. The programme
of the meeting will be as follows : ‘ The Place of the Fitting-School
in American Education,’ paper by Prof. George T. Ladd of Yale
University, discussion to be opened by Dr. Walter Q. Scott, princi-
pal of the Phillips Academy, Exeter, N.H.; ‘Aims and Methods in
Modern-Language Teaching,’ paper by Mr. Samuel Thurber, mas-
ter in Girls’ High School, Boston, discussion to be opened by Prof.
Richard A. Rice of Williams College ; the following question may
also be taken up for discussion: ‘ How can the Interests of Higher
Education securea more Appreciative and Hearty Support?’

— Dr. Simpson, health-officer at Calcutta, reports two simultane-
ous outbreaks of cholera, — one on land, and the other on the ship
« Ardenclutha,—both being due to the same cause. The land epi-
demic was cause by drinking-water into which the dejections of a
cholera patient had found their way. In the epidemic on board the
ship it was demonstrated that milk had been drunk by those who
afterwards suffered from the disease, and that to this milk cholera-
infected water had been added.

— Mr. G. Taylor, inthe Chzma Revzew, March and April, 1887,
gives the following amusing Chinese stories: A young tiger met
an old one and said, “I got hold of a man to-day whose upper
parts were so tasteless and his nether parts so sour, that, hungry as
I was, I left him in disgust. I wonder what sort of a man this
could be.” — “A student who has had to buy his degree,” was the
reply. The Lord of Hades considered a certain spirit to have been
a great sinner indeed, so he adjudged that he should re-enter the
world to become a poor scholar with five children. “Is not that a
rather light punishment ?” remonstrated an angel. “No,” said his
Eminence, “the five hungry children will soon drive him mad.”
Chang and Chung mutually agreed to start abrewery. Said Chang
to Chung, “ You supply the rice, and I will furnish the water.” —
“But,” queried Chung, “if the profits are divided according to the
capital embarked, I am afraid it will be difficult to apportion your
share.” —‘Oh, I’m not afraid,” said Chang: “when the brew is
over, give me the water; you can have the remainder.” A man
was seized by a tiger. The victim’s son took his bow and pursued.
“ Hit him in the leg,” cried the father, “else you'll spoil the market-
value of the skin.” A bibulous individual, on entering a restaurant,
noticed that the wine-cups were small. After seating himself, he
gave vent to a most demoniacal series of howls and groans.
“What is the matter?” asked the startled landlord. “Ah!”
answered the man, “my father, a hale, hearty man, met his death
at a friend’s table by accidentally swallowing a small wine-cup, so,
whenever I see similar ones, the memory of the sad event overcomes
me.’ It is needless to add that the cup was replaced by a larger
one. A hard drinker dreamed that he had become possessed of a
bottle of genuine stuff, but, determined to enjoy it thoroughly, he
had begun to heat it. During the heating process he awoke.
“Hoo, hoo!” he groaned, “if I had known this was to happen, I
would have drunk it cold.” A servant did not fill a guest’s cup to
the brim. The latter, holding it up, remarked, “This cup is too
deep,” and broke a piece off. ‘ How isthat?” criedthehost. “If
the upper part can’t hold liquor, of what use is it?” was the smart
retort.

— Dr. Daniel G. Brinton, professor of American archeology and
linguistics in the University of Pennsylvania, will read twice a

SCLENGE

[Vot. X. No. 246

week with students who desire to pursue these branches. The
course on archeology will be associated with the examination of
specimens and visits to typical collections. The readings in Amer-
ican linguistics will begin with the structure of American languages
in general, and proceed to the special consideration of the Nahuatl
and Algonkian groups.

— The British Medical Journal reports a case of leprosy which
is believed to have been contracted through vaccination. A physi-
cian living in the tropics vaccinated his own son with virus obtained
from a native child in whose family leprosy existed. At the time
the virus was taken, the child gave no evidence of being affected
with the disease, although subsequently it manifested itself in him.
A third child was vaccinated by the physician with virus taken from
his own son. Subsequently the son developed leprosy in a mild
form; but the child who was vaccinated with virus taken from him
had the disease in a most severe form, and died from it. The
physician’s son is now attending school in England, eminent physi-
cians having given the opinion that there is no danger that the other
students will contract the disease.

—A correspondent of /udzan Engineering points out that the
fibre industry of Burma is well worthy of attention and develop-
ment, at a time when energy and capital are being expended in in-
creasing the resources and industries of that province. The country
abounds in fibre-producing plants, and the different species of
bamboo, China-grass, and pineapple, grow wild everywhere. Some
years since, an American missionary at Toungoo prepared a quantity
of paper stock and fibre from these plants, and sent it to the United
States, where it was manufactured into a superior kind of cloth,
much resembling silk, and also into paper of different qualities.
Subsequently the same gentleman modelled a loom from the
bamboo, which he instructed the Karens how to use, and coarse
cloth is now woven by them for their own use. Bamboo is
pre-eminently the best substitute, if properly prepared, for esparto
grass, rags, and other materials used in the production of paper,
and it has been so stated by one of the leading authorities in Eng-
land on commercial fibres. In Burma the bamboo grows in pro-
fuse luxuriance and variety. It ranges from the thickness of the
ordinary rattan to two feet in circumference. The stems of the
latter, the Bamdbusa gigantea, are used by the natives for water-
pails. The bamboo needs preparation to fit it for commerce, like
hemp, jute, and other articles, and this preparation, the writer
argues, should take place in Burma. Favorable sites for erecting
factories for this treatment are to be found on the banks of the
Irrawaddy and Salween, where communication is easy both with the
interior and the principal seaports. The fibres of bamboo, China-
grass, and pineapple, can be treated in the same manner as jute,
and spun so fine that an expert could barely distinguish the prod-
uct from real silk. These fibres possess an advantage over jute,
in that they require little chlorine when bleaching, and they remain
stronger in consequence. At present large quantities of cloth
woven from China-grass and bamboo are brought into the Ran-
goon markets by Chinese from Bhamo, and, although the material
is not manufactured with modern looms, the quality appears so fine
as to resemble tussore silk. The cultivation of jute as an experi-
ment undertaken by the government was very successful. With
a view to encourage the industry, the authorities offer to purchase
good jute from Karen cultivators, and also offer a bonus for the
largest production.

— By a decree dated July 20, M. Bihourd, resident-general in An-
nam and Tonquin, has laid down the regulations by which opium
can be sold, wholesale or retail, or transported in the country. The
exclusive right to open opium-shops in a district is given to a
farmer or contractor, and is to extend over a definite area corre-
sponding with one or more of the administrative divisions. A fee
must be paid for each shop, of roo francs in the three chief towns,
50 francs in the capitals of districts, and 20 francs elsewhere.
Trading wholesale in the drug is only permitted in places where
customs stations exist. Wholesale merchants must pay an annual
tax of 600 francs for each place at which businessis carried on, and
they can sell only to the licensed farmers: they must keep a
register open to official inspection, recording each sale, the name of
the purchaser, and the place to which the opium was sent. Each

OcToBER 21, 1887.]|

package containing more than a certain amount must be accom-
panied by a customs permit or certificate from the local farmer, and
heavy penalties are appointed for breach of these regulations or in-
fringement of the privileges of the farmers. The effect of the
decree is to establish a monopoly in the trade in opium in the gov-
ernment, which will work through the licensed farmers. But no
provision is made for the sale by public auction of the right to deal
in opium, as is usual in British and other colonies where opium is
farmed.

— We learn from The Crétéc that a periodical of a somewhat new
character is to appear in The Hague (Netherlands). It will be a
fortnightly in four languages,—English, French, Spanish, and
Italian, —containing original correspondence on letters, arts, and
science from London, Paris, Madrid, and Naples. A New York
correspondent has been invited to contribute an American letter to
the quartet already named. The object is to promote the study of
languages. The editor of the new periodical is to be M. Taco H.
deBeer, editor of de Portefeuzlle, the Dutch Art Chronicle, and
Literary Review.

— A new process of electroplating natural objects, such gs ani-
mals, flowers, and tissues, has been brought out in France, and, as
described in Engzmeerzng, is as follows: An albuminous liquid is
obtained by washing some slugs or snails in water to clean them,
then placing them in distilled water until they give off their albumi-
nous matter. This is filtered and boiled for an hour, then distilled
water is added to make up for that lost by boiling, and also about
3 per cent of nitrate of silver. This solution is then kept in bottles
hermetically sealed, and in a dark place. When required for use,
about 30 grams of the liquid are mixed with about Ioo grams of
distilled water, and into this solution the objects to be electro-
plated are immersed for a few moments. They are then put into a
bath consisting of about 20 per cent of nitrate of silver dissolved in
distilled water, and afterwards submitted to the action of sulphu-
retted-hydrogen gas, which reduces the nitrate of silver on the
albumen-coated object. Thus treated, an organic object becomes
fitted to receive the electro-deposited metal intended for it; and
the layer is said to be of superior fineness to that produced by the
other known processes for coating natural objects with metal by
galvanoplasty. It shows the texture of the object with much
delicacy.

—Improvements have been made at the glacial pot-hole on
Colonel Hackley’s land in Archbald Borough, Lackawanna Co., Penn.
Mr. Hackley has generously appropriated the sum of five hundred
dollars for the purpose of protecting it against the action of the
weather, and also to make it more attractive to visitors. All the
underbrush has been cleared and the ground graded, leaving the
shade-trees standing, forming a little park. At present the pot-
hole is divided in two by a wooden brattice for the purpose of
mine-ventilation. All this timber-work will be taken out, so that
the entire pot-hole can be seen.

— Reports of two journeys through Yemen have recently been
published, — one of a German scientist, E. Glaser, who visited the
country for the purpose of collecting Sabian inscriptions and manu-
scripts, in which he was eminently successful; one by the English
major-general, F. T. Haig. The latter made only a flying trip
through the country, starting from Hodeida on the western coast,
to Sanaa, the capital, a distance of 140 miles, and from Sanaa turn-
ing due south to Aden, 260 miles. Including a week spent in
Sanaa, the journey occupied, in all, thirty-one days. The object of
the journey was to ascertain whether it might be possible to do any
thing for the Christianization of the inhabitants. Glaser, on the other
hand, staid in southern Arabia from October, 1882, to March, 1884,
and from May, 1885, to February, 1886; and at the present time he
is again at work in his old field. It is somewhat amusing to com-
pare the statements of both travellers. Haig describes the severity
of the Turkish taxation, and their cruelty against the natives.
Glaser, on the other hand, praises the safety of the territories occu-
pied by the Turks, and states that the English have no control
whatever over the tribes inhabiting the colony of Aden, who
receive an annuity amounting in the aggregate to twelve thousand
dollars a year. During the last fifteen years the Turks have suc-

SCIENCE.

203

ceeded in establishing their authority in several parts of Arabia, but

it is only in Sanaa that the influence extends into the interior..
According to Haig’s description, they cannot feel very safe here :

“The town has an Arab population intensely hating the few

thousand Turks by whom it is held down, heavily taxed, and gen-

erally obliged to furnish gratis the supplies required for the large

garrison of Turkish soldiers. The latter are not allowed to go into

the narrow streets for fear of assassination. There is a citadel at

one part of the walls, with its guns turned significantly, not to the-
outside, but upon thetown. Glaser staid most of his time in Sanaa,.
and made numerous excursions in the neighborhood. He made

astronomical observations and surveys in addition to his important

archeological collections. The following notes are taken from his.
description in the Proceedings of the Geographical Society of Vienna..
The west side of Arabia is occupied by a mountain-range from:
eight thousand to ten thousand feetin height. The western declivity
of this range is very steep, falling abruptly to the Tihama, a plain
about two thousand feet in height, with a gradual slope towards.
the sea. The eastern slope of the mountain-range is very gradual.
The south coast of Arabia is also occupied by high mountains..
While the high land between these ranges is a desert, the slopes are
drained by numerous rivers, some of which are running throughout
the year. The slopes of the mountains are highly cultivated, ter-
races being built from the summit of the range to its foot. Those
which can be easily irrigated yield four crops annually, and are

highly prized. Coffee is one of the principal products of “this
country. While Haig describes the climate of the high parts as.
wholesome and agreeable, it is quite the reverse according to.
Glaser. He says that malarial fevers prevail in the high land as.
well as in the lowland. In Sanaa the temperature frequently falls.
below the freezing-point, and during the hottest season a tempera--
ture of 92° F. was observed. In winter the daily variations are-
very great, a temperature of 32° in the morning being followed by
one of 68° after noon. The western slopes of the mountains are
moistened by heavy fogs which every day ascend from the low

land to the summit, though they do not extend into the interior of
the country.

LEDOCERS) LO) HE EDITOR:

*." The attention of scientific men is called to the advantages of the correspondence
columns af SCIENCE for placing promptly on record brief preliminary notices of”
thetr investigations. Twenty copies of the number containing his communication
will be furnished free to any correspondent on request.

The editor will be clad to publish any queries consonant with the character of
the journal.

Correspondents are requested to be as brief as possible.
zn all cases required as proof of good faith.

The Scientific Swindler Again.

A MAN answering the description of the impostor given in pre-
vious numbers of Sczezce, appeared at the rooms of the Boston
Society of Natural History on Saturday last, having in his possession
a microscope, which he offered for sale at a very low price. We
suspected his character. but, having no charge against him, were
unable to do any thing, and were in hopes he would return on Mon--.
day with his microscope, as he engaged to do. He did not return,.
and we could therefore do nothing. ALPHEUS HYATtT.

Boston, Oct. 18.

The writer's name is-

Savagery in Boyhood.

EVERY thing, we suppose, must be considered hereditary in the:
present age; even the tendency to wear cocked hats, or to throw
cabbage-heads on hallow eve. At anyrate, the Popular Scéence
Monthly for October brings this doctrine to bear upon the phe-
nomena of savagery in boyhood, as noticed in Sczence of Oct. 7..
The author explains that cruelty in children is the transmitted habit
of ancestral savages, and observes that “the emotion of pity ap-
peared late in the history of the race.” In the same connection we
may mention the intense interest which children take in narratives
of warfare: torturing animals is a less general incident. But the
callousness of children in contemplating the horrors of war and its
consequences has always been an interesting fact to us. However,
is no other analysis of this possible than the supposition that our
savage forefathers were cruel? May we not be in danger of making

204

too much of heredity here? No doubt its importance cannot be
exaggerated. But if, as the author admits, “the early appearance
of the sympathies depends upon an early development of mental
functions which are properly dormant until later in life,” may not
the cruelty of children be an incident of ignorance, and not due to
the entire absence of pity? As admitted, pity is a state of mind
which belongs to the reflective stage of consciousness, when we are
able to compare ourselves with others, and, in however indistinct a
form, to apply the method of doing as we would be done by. It is
quite possible that children know nothing about the pain they
inflict by cruelty and torture. They may be governed in
their conduct by much the same curiosity that prevails to
permit vivisection, and most probably never inflict pain for the sake
of creating suffering. Blind Tom, when a boy, used to pinch and
torment his brothers and sisters until they cried, and all for the
sake of the pleasure he himself received from a new and peculiar
kind of sound, his mind being interested in all sounds alike, and
passing no intellectual or moral judgments upon their occurrence. It
is no doubt much the same with most children until their experience
enables them to realize a ‘solidarity’ of interests between them-
selves and others. Then they will begin to show sympathy and to
shrink from producing pain, not because it is hereditary, but because
social environment exerts such a pressure in favor of learning the
consequences and moral significance of our actions. At the same
time heredity cannot be ignored. But the phenomena of cruelty
and*pity are much more complex than heredity, while including it.
Besides, it may be misleading to say that “the emotion of pity ap-
peared late in the history of the race;” for it may not have been
so much the sympathies that appeared late as the extent of their
application. So of the individual. Pity may be instinctive, but the
complicated range of circumstances which require its exercise may
demand more knowledge and experience than are possible to child-
hood. Indeed, children may very early begin to cry from sympathy
at the spectacle of suffering in others, when conscious of it, but are
indifferent to its infliction upon animals, most probably because they
donot realize any thing about it. Pity will show itself, then, in pro-
portion to the extension of their knowledge of what is reciprocal to
their own interests or sense of pain. Hence may we not say of
sympathy, both inthe race and in the individual, what T. H. Green
said of humanity in comparing Greek and modern civilization;
namely, that the standard of conduct in this respect was the same
to the Greek as to us, but that more persons are to-day included in
the right to be judged by it? That is, “the conviction of the
brotherhood of all men does not bring a new conception of what is
due towards those who have claims upon us, but a new view of the
range of persons who have such claims.” Certainly it seems a
little violent to suppose the absence of sympathy altogether because
the extensive conditions under which it is exercised at present were
wanting in the earlier history of the race or of the individual.

J. H. H.

The Purslane-Worm (Copidryas Gloveri Grote).

DURING the past season the entire State of Kansas has suffered
an invasion of caterpillars of a species not previously known to exist
except upon the plains of Colorado, New Mexico, Arizona, and west-
ern Texas. This insect has occurred in such numbers as to suggest
to many of our citizens the idea of spontaneous generation, and the
writer has received many inquiries indicating alarm lest it should
prove to be anew edition of the real ‘army-worm,’ and become a
great crop-destroyer in the year 1888. Such fears, however, are
entirely groundless. I have not been able to make the caterpillars
eat any thing but purslane; and the insect may be regarded as a
friend rather than a foe, since its chief mission in life appears to be
the destruction of one of our most troublesome weeds.

The eastward progress of this species reminds one of the similar
advance of the Colorado potato-beetle. My first acquaintance with
it was made in August, 1884, at Deming, New Mex., nearly twelve
hundred miles from Lawrence, where I captured some twenty of
the moths during my summer collecting-expedition. They were
attracted by the lamps at the station-hotel of the Atchison,
Topeka, and Santa Fé Railroad Company. They proved to be a
rare species in collections, and were in great demand among my
entomological correspondents. My next acquaintance with this

SCIP NG

[Vot. X. No. 246

insect was from two specimens of the moth captured at the electric
lights in Emporia, Kan., by my student-friend and assistant, Mr.
V. L. Kellogg. Professor Popenoe of Manhattan observed the cat-
erpillars and bred the moth in 1886. Emporia and Manhattan are
each about a hundred miles west from Lawrence, and the first
observed appearance of the species at the latter place was in 1887.
It remains to be seen whether the purslane-destroyer will become
acclimated in a moister and colder climate than that of its original
habitat. If it succeeds in adapting itself to its new environment, it
may push on to the Atlantic seaboard, and delight the farmers and
gardeners of the whole country by assisting to exterminate the
hated ‘ pursley.’ If not, it will disappear from view, as did a certain
New Mexico butterfly (Co/zas Mexzcana), which appeared suddenly
in Kansas in large numbers in November, 1875, and has not since
been observed in the State, having been unable to survive the first
winter. Inasmuch as this latter immigrant has already survived
one Kansas winter in safety, it is probable that it will become a
permanent resident.

I would offer the following explanation of the fact that this insect,
indigenous to the Far-Western plains, should so long have delayed
its invasion of Kansas and its possible ‘march to the sea.’ Its
native food-plant being a Western species of purslane (Portulaca
retusa Engelmann), it did not extend beyond its original habitat
until the building of the Atchison, Topeka, and Santa Fé Railroad
had resulted in the western extension of our common Eastern purs-
lane (P. oleracea L.). As soon as the Eastern purslane reached
the home of the Far-Western species, forming a sufficiently contin-
uous connection, the purslane caterpillar, finding the two plants
equally palatable, began its eastward march. In precisely the same
way the Colorado potato-beetle, having for its original food-plant a
wild Western species of Solanum (S. rostratum), began its journey
to the Atlantic just as soon as the cultivated potato (Solanum
tuberosum) was extended westward to meet the wild Solanum,
commonly called the Texas thistle and Santa Fé burr.

To the entomologist it will be interesting to know that the scien-
tific name of the purslane moth is Copzdryas Gloverz. It was
described by A. R. Grote in 1868 as belonging to the genus Z7s-
ctrrhopterus, but at a later date it was placed by him in the new
genus Copzdryas. Mr. Herman Strecker has referred it to the
genus Exzdryas, but the peculiarities of the caterpillar, hitherto un-
known, confirm the propriety of separating it from that genus. It
belongs to the family Zyg@nzde, and is anear relative of the ‘ beau-
tiful wood-nymph’ (Eudryas grata) and the ‘eight-spotted for-
ester’ (Alypza octomaculata). As both the latter species feed upon
the foliage of the grape-vine, it would not surprise me to find the
purslane-worm occasionally making use of the same food-plant. I
do not, however, apprehend any serious danger of making such a
discovery. F. H. Snow.

University of Kansas,
Lawrence, Kan., Oct. 10.

Queries. 5
15. IS THE TRUMPET-CREEPER POISONOUS ?—I should be very
glad to hear of any positive evidence in regard to the alleged poi-
sonous property of the trumpet-creeper (Zecoma radzcans). This
beautiful vine is very abundant in this neighborhood, and there
seems to be a pretty general belief that it is poisonous to the touch,
the effect being like that of the poisonous Rus. I have not, how-
ever, been able to get hold of any well-authenticated cases of poi-
soning from this plant. A child of my acquaintance was said to
have been poisoned from handling it, but it is not at all certain that
the eruption was not a return of a slight cutaneous affection from
which the child had suffered shortly before. Such cases as this
prove nothing, nor, on the other hand, does the fact that I, and
others, have handled the plant with impunity. Our immunity
may have been due to our individual constitutions. Every one
knows, of course, that there are plenty of people who are not at all
susceptible to R/us-poisoning, and yet no one would hesitate to
call either species of RAs a very poisonous plant. As far as I can
learn, the poisonous property of the trumpet-creeper is not gener-
ally recognized by botanists. I shall be very glad to hear what the
experience of other people has been with this plant.

JOHN MuRDOCcH.
Smithsonian Institution, Oct. x2.

wae CINE

FRIDAY, OCTOBER 28, 1887.

AT NAAs, SWEDEN, the third summer course of normal training in
slojd, which is the equivalent of our manual training, began towards
the end of July with a total attendance of eighty. Of these, twelve
were English and eighteen were Italians, sent by their government
to receive the training. New and commodious buildings had been
erected during the past year, and the school was favored with many
distinguished visitors during the summer. Encouraged by the re-
ception of her article in the London Journal of Educatzon on slojd,
Miss Evelyn Chapman announces a sléjd training-course for
teachers, to be held at Birmingham during the holidays. Miss
Chapman has an efficient colleague in Miss Nystrom of Stockholm,
who was the first directress at the Naas seminary. It is hoped that
the efforts of these two ladies will result in introducing manual
training in the board schools of Great Britain. In this country the
progress of manual training has been very rapid of late, and we
hear almost daily that some new locality is considering the subject.
Paterson, N.J., is about to take favorable action in this matter, and
Hoboken and other cities of the same State are expected to fol-
low Paterson’s example.

THE New York Tzmes, a paper which has in earlier days, in the
contributions of Holley and Newton and their successors, supplied
much more valuable and interesting scientific matter to its readers
than the average daily newspaper seems to feel called upon to give
the intelligent portion of its patrons, and which has dealt less in the
coarse and vulgar accounts of crime and folly which make up the
average staple than many of its contemporaries, recently, under the
heading, ‘Is Heavy Artillery doomed ?’ presents an account of an in-
vention, destined, apparently, to overthrow all existing methods of
ordnance construction and operation. Since the 7z7zes has allowed
its ‘funny man’ entrance into its editorial columns, its readers have
sometimes been at loss to know whether some of its articles are
genuine ‘information,’ are the product of an overworked vender of
the ‘humorous,’ or are simply the gossip of an ignorant penny-a-
liner. The several characters are sometimes found to operate in so
circumscribed a field, that it is difficult to say whether the article
of the day is to be assigned to one or to another of these usually
far-removed classes. Possibly it may be the intention, as appar-
ently in the article here referred to, to kill two birds with one stone,
amusing the smaller and more intelligent class of readers, while
gulling most mercilessly the larger and less well informed body of
its patrons, who may not have had the advantages of a good com-
- mon-school education. It certainly cannot be presumed that its
editors are of the latter class. The general make-up and character
of the Zzmes, and the fact that its proof-reading and orthography
are very correct, would forbid that supposition being held a moment.
The story which it is so difficult to classify, and of which it is so
utterly impossible to guess the origin, is that a distinguished Rus-
sion chemist has discovered a new explosive, of extraordinary
power, and endowed with a capacity for evading or directly over-
coming the second of Newton’s laws. This new compound fur-
nishes an exception to the general rule, and here action and
re-action are zo¢ “equal and opposite in direction.” In fact, the
re-action is turned directly about, apparently, and effectively assists
direct action in its destructive mission. This wonderful explosive
acts in but one direction, and that is the direction which is sug-
gested to it by its manipulators, A tube of cardboard, of tissue-

paper, —or, we may presume, the geometrician’s imaginary cylinder,
—serves to communicate the intent of the ‘ captain of the gun,’ and
the stored energy of the combustible starts off in the indicated
direction, impelling the projectile with inconceivable force, and with
not even sufficient recoil or lateral expenditure of force to crumple
the imponderable gun. The latter, it may be presumed, is, when
out of action, packed down like an opera-hat into the least possible
space, and put in the pocket of the officer in command, or stored in
the caisson until again required for the demolition of an iron-clad
or the destruction of a fortress. The only really puzzling fact is,
however, that the inventor of this extraordinary explosive, in the
quiet seclusion of the Zz#mes office,—for the Russian must have
become domiciled there, — does not seem to have successfully ap-
plied the tremendous brain-power, which has thus defied the laws
of nature, to the completion of his work by also inventing a projec-
tile of lightness commensurate with that of his gun, and to have
endowed his explosive with a ‘ negative gravity’ such as readers of
his article must experience and appreciate. He would thus have real-
ized the idea of Lord Lytton, and would have won immortal fame
by presenting to the world the blessed ‘ VRILL, which we now
know only in the fictions of that great novelist. We would suggest
to our neighbor of the 7zmes that he secure a good supply of that
marvellous ‘ sleetover,’ and turn it, first upon his ‘funny man, and
then upon those unsympathetic neighbors among the ‘great New
York dailies’ who are prone to smile at such facezze.

AT THE RECENT meeting in New York, of the American As-
sociation for the Advancement of Science, the fact that the remains
of the great naturalist Audubon lie in an obscure and little-visited
portion of Trinity Cemetery, New York City, and that his tomb is
unmarked by any distinguishing monument, was brought to the at-
tention of the members. The demands upon the time of all in at-
tendance at that meeting were so great, that no action was taken
by the association, although the most lively interest was expressed
by individual members, and the propriety of marking the resting-
place of the founder of American ornithology by a suitable monu-
ment was appreciated. The Audubon plot in Trinity Cemetery
will probably be disturbed by the continuation westward of 153d
Street. The trustees of the cemetery have with commendable
liberality assigned the Audubon family a new lot close to 155th
Street, in full sight of Audubon Park, and near the end of Audubon
Avenue, when this shall be continued from the north, and are in
hearty co-operation with the monument enterprise. At the first
autumn meeting of the New York Academy of Sciences, a com-
mittee was appointed to solicit funds and make all arrangements
for a monument. Vice-President Trowbridge then appointed as
such a committee, Prof. Thomas Egleston of the School of Mines,
chairman, Prof. Daniel S. Martin of Rutgers Female College, and
Dr. N. L. Britton of Columbia College. This committee has or-
ganized with Dy. Britton as secretary and treasurer, and is now
ready to receive subscriptions, which will be properly acknowl-
edged. Checks should be made payable to N. L. Britton, treas-
urer, and post-office orders should be drawn on Station H, New
York City. The committee estimates that between six and ten
thousand dollars will be required to erect and engrave a shaft
worthy the memory of America’s first naturalist, and, while con-
fident that this amount will be forthcoming, desires to have interest
taken in the project by scientists in all departments, in all portions
of the country.

206

ASPECTS OF EDUCATION.

Naturalism.

THE two aspects of education which we discussed in Sczevce, ix.
Nos. 211, 215, 227, have reference to the different ways of training the
intellect. They are, however, both liable to degenerate into pedan-
try. With regard to the study of language, this statement needs
little proof. Itis difficult, under any circumstances, to reconcile an
education which is merely linguistic with the preparation of the
active business of life. Perhaps the best example of such a train-
ing was the rhetoric of the Romans. Quintilian’s famous treatise
on education described the training of the orator, and it requires
some reflection to discover how so narrow and restricted a course
can be co-extensive with all that is demanded by the public service.
It might, however, be soin imperial Rome. The business of Rome
was to govern subject populations. A Roman statesman would
have occasion for oratory in the senate, at the bar, in the governing
of the province. Given the traditional inspiration which would be
imbibed from a race of rulers, and the practice of public affairs,
with which every Roman patrician would be familiar from his
childhood, the training of the orator in its widest acceptation might
be the only addition which was considered necessary. Humanism,
however, lay but little stress on the public use of knowledge which
it gave. It taught dead, not living languages. The greatest
scholar might live secluded from the world, and, as his erudition
deepened, might become less fit either to influence or to under-
stand it.

Realism was by its nature more closely connected with actual
life; but that, too, might content itself with books, and the study of
books produces book-worms. The rebellion against received
opinions which followed the Reformation brought every thing into
question, and the groundwork of education with the rest. As
feudalism disappeared, there was more need of such aninquiry. In
the middle ages the education of the castle had existed side by side
with the education of the cloister. The knightly arts of shooting,
hawking, swimming, riding, and other bodily accomplishments,
were taught to the young page, as the seven studies of the trivium
and quadrivium were taught to the young monk. As years went
on, the idle governing classes were gradually subdued by aggres-
sive instruction. The schools of the Jesuits were eminently fash-
ionable, and it became necessary to appeal once more to nature.
Men of the world and philosophers said, in giving what we call a
training to the mind, “ Let us not forget that nature has determined
the quality, and a large part of the development, of the mind which
we aspire to train. If we do our utmost, we can effect but little:
let us be quite sure, that, in attempting to produce this small
amount of good, we do not cause real harm. Let us educate, not
for the school, but for life. Let us see what inherent force will
effect for the mind and character of which we think ourselves mas-
ter.” There is some trace of this reasoning in Rabelais; but,
although heis certainly an anti-humanist, he should be classed as a
realist rather than as a naturalist. The three great naturalists in
education are Montaigne, Locke, and Rousseau. Although their
characters were very different, there is a strong similarity in their
teaching. We will give a short account of the views of each.
This is the more necessary, as naturalism is now rampant in our
public schools, but its advocates and supporters have little notion
to what philosophers they owe the principles which they enthusias-
tically support.

The contrast between monkish erudition and the training for the
world given in the castle of a wise noble is shown by Rabelais in
the contrast between the clownish awkwardness of young Gargantua,
and the modest self-possession of the page Eudaemon,who,“ although
not twelve years old, first asking leave of his master so to do, with
his cap in his hand, a clear open countenance, beautiful and ruddy
lips, his eyes steady and his looks fixed on Gargantua, standing
up straight, on his feet, began to commend him with proper ges-
ture, distinct pronunciation, and a pleasing delivery, in choice
Latin,” whereas all Gargantua did was to cry like a cow, and hide
his face with his cap. Rabelais also lays great stress on bodily
exercises, and shows that he considers the training of the body
quite as important as that of the mind.

The educational ideas of Montaigne are principally contained in

SCIENCE.

[Vou X.¥ No: 277

two essays,—one on pedantry, the other on the instruction of
children. The one deals with the objects of education, the other
with its methods. Montaigne says that the end of education is not
to fill the head with a mass of knowledge, but to form the under-
standing and the heart; not to burden the memory of the pupil,
but to make him better and more intelligent. Antiquity presents
us with well-educated statesmen and commanders, with philoso-
phers fit for practical life. On the other hand, learning, which is
only for show, is of no use to its possessor. If we only knew what
Cicero or Plato thought about a matter, we are merely the guar-
dians of some one else’s property instead of making it a possession
of our own. We warm ourselves at our neighbor's fire instead of
making one on our own hearth. We fill ourselves with food which
we cannot digest. The most important object of education is in-
dependence. The scholar must be able to consider and to employ
what he has learned in a hundred different ways. He must be
taught to prove every opinion, submit to no authority as such.
Learning by heart is no learning at all. Just as we cannot dance,
ride, or fence without moving the body, so we cannot speak or
judge with advantage without acting for ourselves. The mind
must be supported by a healthy body. There must be no coddling
or spoiling by foolish parents: the boy must be hardened to endur-
ance and to pain. We are educating, not a mind and a body, but
a man, who is compounded of the two. The pupil must be taught
to mix with the world, to observe carefully every thing he sees.
He must learn more from experience than from books. The
character of great men is more important for him to know than
the dates of their actions. The greater number of sciences which
we are taught are of no use. The pupil must not become a book-
worm, but all the conditions of his life—his walks, his meals,
solitude, and society — must be made serviceable for his training.
He must be taught to speak naturally, with strength and emphasis ;
not by erudition, but by force of character and clearness of thought.
For discipline we must use a kind severity, not punishment and
compulsion. The school-life must be full of joy and cheerfulness.
The most important thing is to excite a desire for study. Fathers
should stimulate their children by their own example, and not keep
them morosely at a distance. Montaigne says that he was first
taught Latin by conversation, and he recommends the same course
for imitation. He tells us that when seven years old he was
entirely ignorant of French, but he was well acquainted with pure
Latinity, and that without books and without tears. From this
sketch we find that Montaigne’s object was to educate the man of
the world. He wished to bridge over the gulf between the gentle-
man and the scholar, which existed in his time ; but he would pro-
duce a gentleman at any price, a scholar if possible.

We cannot tell whether Montaigne had a direct influence upon
Locke, but there is no doubt that they agreed very materially in
their views. The keynote of Locke’s thoughts concerning educa-
tion is a sound mind in a sound body. This, he says, is a short
but full description of a happy state in this world. He that has
these two has little more to wish for, and he that wants either
of them will be but:little the better for any thing else. The first
thirty sections of his treatise are occupied with the training of
the body. His maxims are summed up in the words, “plenty of
open air, exercise, and sleep; plain diet, no wine or strong drink,
and very little or no physic; not too warm and strait clothing ;
especially the head and feet kept cold, and the feet often used to
cold water and exposed to wet.” The next hundred sections
are devoted to methods of education, but there is nothing in
them about books. Virtue, wisdom, and breeding are to come
before learning. These are to be taught more by precept than by
example. We are to guard ourchildren against the evil influence
of servants, and to rely particularly on the persistent effect of the
home. Above all, we are to teach knowledge of the world. Much
of the danger which surrounds young men arises from ignorance
of the world. A man forewarned is fore-armed. Breeding must
come before book-learning. Teaching is for the purposes of life, and
not for the school: Won schole sed vite discemus. The tutor you
choose for your son should be a man of the world. Locke puts
learning last, because he considers it as the least important learn-
ing. He says it must be had in the second place, as subservient
only to greater qualities. Seek out somebody that may know how

OcTosER 28, 1887. ]

discreetly to frame his manners; place him in his hands, where
you may as much as possible secure his innocence; cherish and
nurse up the good, and, generally, correct and weed out any bad
inclinations, and settlein him good habits. This is the main point,
and, this being provided for, learning may be had into the bargain,
and that, as I think, at a very easy rate.

The subjects which Locke selects for learning are very
characteristic. He begins with reading, writing, and drawing.
He then goes on to French and Latin; the latter to be taught in
the same way as French, by conversation and without grammar.
He then passes to geography, arithmetic, astronomy, geometry,
chronology, and history. Then follows ethics, a certain amount of
law, —chiefly civil and constitutional law, — rhetoric and logic, and
natural philosophy. Great importance is attached to acquiring a
good English style. Greek is omitted; for Locke says that he is
not considering the education of a professed scholar, but of a gen-
tleman, to whom Latin and French, as the world now goes, is by
every one acknowledged necessary. ‘‘ When he comes to bea man,
he can learn Greek for himself. What a small percentage there is,
even among scholars, who retain the Greek they learned at school !”
The education thus commenced is completed by dancing, music,
riding, and fencing. Every one should learn one trade at least, if
not two or three. Gardening and carpentering are especially
recommended, but not painting. The pupil is to be well skilled in
accounts and book-keeping, and his education is to be completed
by foreign travel, which is to be deferred to an age when he can
profit by it most completely.

Locke is a great enemy of those specious and spurious studies
which were so much affected by the Jesuits. He is a declared
enemy to Latin verses. ‘Do not,” he says, “let your child make
verses of any sort; for, if he has no genius for poetry, it is the
most unreasonable thing in the world to torment a child, and
waste his time, about that which can never succeed; and, if he has
a poetical vein, it is to me the strangest thing in the world that a
father should desire or suffer it to be improved. Poetry and gam-
ing, which usually go together, are alike in this too,—that they
seldom bring any advantage but to those who have nothing else
to live upon. He does not care any more for music, which wastes
so much of a young man’s time to gain but a moderate skill in it,
and engages often in such odd company that many think it better
spared.” Locke here would differ much from Milton, who gave
music a more dignified place in his programme. In conclusion,
Locke tells us that what he has written is designed for the breed-
ing of a young gentleman, but that he is fully aware that every one
cannot be educated in the same mannef; that each man’s mind has
some peculiarity, as well as his face, which distinguishes him from
all others; and that there are possibly scarcely two children who
can be brought up by exactly the same method.

Although public schools in England educate their pupils very
much according to the precepts of Locke, they probably do so un-
consciously, and are very little aware whose example they are
following. Many have heard of Locke’s treatise on education, but
few have read it or tried to understand it. Whatever effect he has
had has been confined to his own country, and he cannot be
reckoned as a great influence in Europe. Rousseau, on the other
hand, burst upon the world with tremendous force. ‘Emile,’
although its teaching about education is so little precise and syste-
matic, has made an epoch in educational systems, and is the parent
of Pestalozzi, Froebel, and the most modern educators of the
present day. The keynote of Rousseau’s system is to educate in
accordance with nature: he may therefore be regarded as the chief
of the naturalists. It is true that his conception of nature was
warped by the principles of his philosophy. He considered that
man in his natural state, as he came from the hands of his Maker,
was perfect, and that he has been spoilt by civilization. This idea
was present to the mind of Rousseau in his very earliest writings.
By what means, he asks, are we to bring back the child of nature ?
How are we to form that strange character, natural man? Our
particular care must be to provide that he is not prevented from be-
ing natural; we must not educate him for any particular function,
but merely for the art of living. Aman must be taught, above every
thing, to lead the life of a man, and that must be done not so much
by precept as by exercise. In the time of Rousseau children of the

‘ SClENCE:

207

upper classes were brought up entirely in an artificial atmosphere.
This, he says, we must do away with: great social changes may be
before us, and we must prepare our children to meet them, The
reformation must date from the very birth: mothers must take to
nursing their own children. He says, speaking of the unnatural
society of his own time, ‘‘ Once let women become mothers again,
and men will then become fathers and husbands.” As the child
grows, the advice of Milton corresponds with that of Locke. Heis
to be brought up in the fresh air of the country, set free from bands
and swaddling-clothes, taught to endure pain and hardship and
change of temperature, he is to be fed on very simple food. The
father has duties as well as the mother. As soon as the child is
old enough to be influenced by the father’s education, it is wicked
of him to hand him over to another. Rousseau passes the strongest
condemnation on fathers who neglect their children, whereas he
sets them the worst example by depositing all his children, as they
were born, in the turning-box of the foundling-hospital. Unfortu-
nately many fathers are so occupied that they cannot give their
children the minute attention which is necessary for their education,
so that there is no remedy but to find a tutor who will as nearly
as possible supply the place of the father. The tie between tutor
and pupil is to be of the closest character. The second book
of ‘Emile’ is concerned with the education of a child up to
twelve years of age. The principal object of this education is
courage. The child must learn to bear suffering, and to put up
with tumbles and knocks, without uttering acry. Strength, health,
and a good conscience are the objects to be aimed at. Do not.
reason too much with children at this age: they must be made
obedient by authority, and reason will come later. The great
object of this early education is to lose time. The child is not old
enough for good impressions to be firmly fixed: we must be con-
tent with averting bad ones. A child is to learn the elements of
property, that some things do and some do not belong to him ; but
of erudition he is to learn very little. At twelve years, Emile is
scarcely to know what a book is. You have educated his character
by strengthening his body: if he has the vigor of a man, he will
soon have the reason of aman. During this age the process of
hardening is to go on: he is to wear loose clothing, to go with his
head uncovered, to lie on the damp grass when hot with exercise,
sleep all night, to rise with the dawn, to know nothing but a hard
bed, to fear no danger, to be accustomed to toil, unpleasantness,
and pain, and to defend the soul with the breastplate of a strong
body. Thus armed, he will not even be afraid of death. He is to
be as much at home in the water as on dry land. He is to acquire
arts which are found in the natural savage, the instinct of finding
his way in dark places, of measuring distances with eyes and feet,
and of beating all those of his age by swiftness of foot. He is to
learn the piano rather than the violin. He is to draw from nature,
to learn geometry rather by observation than by definition, to learn
singing by the ear rather than by the notes. His appetite is to be
the measure of his food. The sense of smell is to be educated
with all his other senses. At twelve years old, he ceases to be a
child: we are now to prepare him for manhood. We find that he
is fresh, lively, open, and simple; his thoughts are limited but clear ;
he knows nothing by heart, but much by experience; he has read
more in the book of nature than in any other book; his wit is not
on his tongue, but in his head; his judgment is better than his
memory ; he only speaks one language, but that sensibly. Others
may speak better: Emile will act better. He does not follow for-
mulas and authorities, but in every thing which he says and does
he is inspired by his own good sense. There is nothing artificial
in his manner and bearing, but they are the true expression of his
ideas, and the result of his disposition. In this language, and much
of the same kind, Rousseau sketches the child of nature. One
would think again, that, like Locke, he is depicting the English
public-school boy; but he could not have known any such, and the
country gentleman who favors such institutions would rather follow
any counsel than that of a dreamy revolutionist.

The intellectual education which Emile receives between the ages
of twelve and fifteen is not less remarkable than his social training.
Nothing is learned from books, every thing from observation. The
pupil is notasked to understand what he has taught, but to discover
things for himself: for instance, as he takes his morning and even-

208

ing walk, he is led to observe the course of the sun, how it rises
and sets in different places according to the time of the year. In
this manner he is led to ask questions about the course of the
heavenly bodies, the form of the earth, and the calculation of
eclipses. For the study of geography, no maps are placed before
him. Starting from his home, he is led to make maps for himself.
In this manner the natural desire of the child for knowledge is
taken as the starting-place for learning, which in itself is never al-
lowed to be a burden or trouble. Just as growing plants require
not only light, but heat, so the growing man needs not only in-
struction, but amusement. Emile finds out by himself the existence
of the meridian line and the peculiarity of the magnetic needle. He
observes that by rubbing amber, glass, or sealing-wax, he is able to
attract pieces of straw. In this way he learns the properties of
positive and negative electricity, and connects them with the mag-
net. Going to the fair, he finds a conjurer who draws a waxen
duck in different directions over a basin of water by presenting to
it a piece of bread : he soon guesses that the bread contains a mag-
net, and is able to imitate the trick to the astonishment of the
conjurer. The conjurer takes his revenge by placing a stronger
magnet under the table, so that the duck resists all Emile’s efforts.
The revelation of this trick is an avenue to still further knowledge.
We see here that education is made not to depend on words, but
on things. No formal instruction is given. Certain things are ob-
served to take place, and the instruction lies in the conclusions
which are tobe drawn from them. In a similar way great impor-
tance is attached to what would now be called technical education.
Emile is to have no books except ‘Robinson Crusoe,’ from whose
example he is to learn how to supply all his needs. Instead of
reading, he is to visit workshops and practise handicrafts : he will
learn more in an hour's work than he would in a whole day’s ex-
planation. Even trades are to be estimated by their usefulness.
The blacksmith is placed higher than the goldsmith: the baker is
worth the whole academy of sciences. Emile must learn a trade.
What trade is best for him? Agriculture is exposed to too many
casual losses. Many trades are merely the handmaids of luxury,
and produce nothing worth having: others are unwholesome either
from confinement or from the attitude in which they are practised.
There are objections to the more violent trades, such as masons
and smiths. The best of all is to be a cabinet-maker, which is use-
ful, cleanly, and instructive. The modern development of technical
education seems to have followed on Rousseau’s lines, and to have
placed working in wood in the first rank.

Thus, when his boy’s years come to an end, he possesses, not a
great number of opinions and accomplishments, but the capacity
for acquiring them. Such learning as he has, is thoroughly natural.
He does not know even the names of history, metaphysics, morals,
but he is accustomed unconsciously to reason about all of them.
He is industrious, moderate, patient, and courageous. He does
not know what death is, but, if necessary, he would die without a
sigh. He demands nothing from others, and is under no obligation
to them, but stands alone and independent in human society. He
has no errors but those which are avoidable, and no faults except
those from which no man is free. He has a healthy body, active
limbs, a mind free from prejudices, a heart without passion.
He has been scarcely affected by self-love, the first and the most
natural passion: he has lived contented and happy, and free, so
far as his nature allows. Do you think, asks Rousseau, that a
child who has thus reached his fifteen years can have lost the
years which have preceded ?

Rousseau’s book produced a great effect throughout Europe. It
is said that Kant, the philosopher of K6nigsberg, whose habits
were more regular than the town-clock, suspended even his daily
walk in order to read him, yet the practical teacher will learn but
little from him. His principal effect lay in the strength by which
he combated existing prejudices. When Rousseau wrote, educa-
tion had become not only formal and artificial, but hollow and
frivolous. The French revolution might have altered this by its
unaided force, but ‘Emile’ still remains the book in which the
ideas of the revolution about education were expressed with the
greatest eloquence and vigor.

What shall we say about naturalism in the present day? It is
largely practised unintentionally. While different studies are

SCIENCE:

[Vot. X. No. 247

struggling for the mastery, the natural desire for games and open-
air activity occupies the field, and claims more and more of the
pupil's life. In the vast development of modern industries requir-
ing capacities of all kinds, some educationalists have seen an indi-
cation that special courses of teaching are unnecessary or useless.
Nature, they say, and the pressure of the world’s business, are the
best teachers. How much skilled labor is demanded by a railway ?
Who trained the pointsman, the engine-driver? Who directed the
complicated lines of trains, following and meeting each other with
lightning rapidity, yet never colliding except by a terrible catastro-
phe? The teacher who follows the methods, either of humanism
or realism, strives to make the best of the human mind intrusted to
him. He wishes to develop its faculties to their highest point, to
stimulate its natural capacity to its furthest limit. But when this
is done, what guaranty have we that nature has any place for the
instrument we have so carefully finished? If every mind were
developed to the fullest extent which its powers admit of, yet a
large proportion of such minds might remain useless and barren,
because they fitted into no place which human society supplies.
Leave every thing to Nature, she will fashion the material better
than you can, into the form in which she most requires it. This
statement is a paradox; and, indeed, natural education is in its
essence paradoxical. It will always have advocates and apostles,
especially in times when there appears to be a danger of over-re-
finement or over-pressure ; but the wise educationalist will turn to
it as a repository of cautions and warnings rather than as an
armory of weapons fit for fighting against the ever-present enemies
of ignorance and sloth. OscAR BROWNING.

THE ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
OF CORNELL.

THE equipment at Cornell in the line of electrical engineering
bids fair to become, if it is not already, the most complete in the
country, and probably in the world. It has been almost wholly
contributed by friends of the university, at the suggestion of the
director of Sibley College and others interested in its progress. The
last and most important addition to the collection is that of the West-
inghouse 650-light alternating current dynamo, exciter, lamps, and
other material required in establishing the plant. The list of dyna-
mos now includes the Edison, the Gramme, the Mather, the West-
inghouse alternating current, the Westinghouse continuous, a num-
ber of Weston and minor makes, and all sizes, from a little toy
machine made in the university shops, to the 50 or 60 horse-power
machines just added to the list.

There comes with this liberality on the part of friends of the
university an embarrassment of real importance: there is no im-
mediately available room for the installation of these machines.
The dynamo-room now appropriated to the purpose is hardly large
enough for the ‘cradle’ used in conducting experiments on a single
machine. The Weston machine is tucked in one corner, and the
Edison and Mather machines are temporarily placed in the middle
of the floor, and driven as best can be done from there. There is
actually no room even to lay down the new machines now ez route
from Pittsburgh, still less to place them foruse. Inthis emergency,
the director has obtained permission from the trustees to make
temporary provision for them by throwing the existing toilet-rooms
into the machine-shop, thus securing a space of some fifteen or
eighteen feet by nearly forty, in which to place all these machines.
It has long been considered advisable, on the score of safety and
convenience, to remove all heavy machinery from the main building,
and this transfer of the dynamo-room will give opportunity to effect
other improvements there in time. Professor Morris is already
arranging new toilet-rooms, and getting ready to tear down the
brick partitions which have been found to be in the way of the new
arrangement. Professors Van Vleck and Smith are preparing
plans for the belting and countershafting, in consultation with Pro-
fessor Nichols, and the work is to be proceeded with at once. The
space now given up to this machinery must, however, in time be
required for the extension of the machine-shop, and it is only a
question of time when a building must be constructed for this course
and its collections. Nearly forty students now enter the course
annually, and it is only second to the regular course in mechanical

OcToBER 28, 1887. |

engineering in importance in the Sibley College organization. The
expenditure of all that may be needed to make its material part
complete, aided as it is so effectively by its friends outside the uni-
versity, will be more than justified.

Professor Thurston estimates that about $100,000 should be ex-
pended in its permanent establishment: $60,000 on building, includ-
ing $15,000 on water and steam power, each of which should give
150 horse-power, the one for use in ordinary work, the other when-
ever experimental work compels the utmost possible regularity of
speed; and the balance, $40,000, in supplying needed additions to
the equipment of apparatus of exact measurement for heavy currents,
and to furnish the income needed for running expenses, including
fuel, one workman, and an assistant to the professor of physics,
who should be placed in charge of this valuable property ; which, al-
though a part of the Sibley College establishment, is really managed
by the department of physics in all except its power-supply. It is
not impossible, that, as Mr. Cornell used to say, ‘there is some one
walking around who wants to provide this” now greatly needed
laboratory. It is certainly an opportunity for some wealthy and
public-spirited friend of the university and of this side of its work
to immortalize himself, while doing a noble work for his fellows.

THE STUDY OF MODERN EUROPEAN LITERATURE
IN AMERICA.

THERE has been a marked change in the subjects of instruction
and study in American colleges within the last few years. In
literature, the study of French and German and early English has
been substituted for Latin and Greek: physical science has won
larger recognition, and political economy, history, and the science
of government, have become prominent subjects of instruction.
The change which has effected this result in the leading universities
has been gradual, but many institutions are as yet untouched by its
influence.

A comparison of the curriculum of any college now and that of
fifty years ago would show that modern subjects now share the
time formerly devoted exclusively to the classics, mathematics, and
philosophy. The value of the old is not less, but new discoveries in
science, and the recognition of the value of modern European
literature, have displaced in part the former subjects of education.
The pressing demands of modern life and modern culture have
modified views, and the practical claim has been felt that the years
of study should contribute to getting on in the world. These views
have changed the direction of instruction, while the end of all edu-
cation, intellectual discipline and the training of all the powers, has
not been forgotten. What results have been attained, and what
further changes are necessary that the new education may bear the
choicest fruit ?

The results of the study of the modern languages can be char-
acterized as only in part successful. One American university still
announces in its catalogue that the ‘‘ modern languages are taught
like the classical tongues.” Until recently the instruction in French
and German followed strictly the old method of teaching Latin and
Greek. The fact that the language was still a living speech was
ignored, and the pupil went forth as powerless in the presence of
the language itself as a classical student would have been if he
stood before an ancient Greek or Roman. Much time is undoubt-
edly still wasted by confused, illogical, and misdirected efforts on the
part of teachers. The learning of a foreign tongue embodies the
training of the eye to distinguish the printed words, the tongue to
utter them, and the ear to recognize them when spoken. Lin-
guistic training is not simple in the sense that one method will ac-
complish all these aims. There is beyond this the higher disci-
pline of the study of language as the expression of thought, and its
critical and philological study. The student who learns a living
language as he learns a dead language will know no more of the
one than of the other. Experience verified in the lives of all
scholars shows how an ability to read a given language carries
with it no practical mastery of the language : the ability to speak
or write the language, and to understand it when spoken, is apart
from a mere reading ability. Even the familiar sentences of the
New Testament will not call up their Greek or Latin or German
equivalent without special study. Instruction hitherto in modern

SCIENGE,

209

languages has been directed to impart a knowledge of the literature.
The key to the literature has been found in the grammar and the
lexicon. After a mastery of grammatical forms, reading has been
begun.

The defects of this method are the same that have characterized
all classical study,—the laborious acquisition of words, the per-
plexing idioms, the search after the true translation, now success-
ful and now futile, a correct knowledge of which is only possible to
one familiar with the genius and spirit of the language, and its
idiomatic, provincial, or possibly archaic use.

The subtle flavor of a foreign expression cannot be distilled by
the aid of the dictionary alone: it must come from a knowledge of
the distinctive meaning and uses of words, and an intelligent ap-
prehension of delicate shades of expression.

Only an exhaustive knowledge of literature and of the multiform
usages of popular speech can give an inner insight into the spirit of
a foreign language. Such knowledge is impossible to ordinary
scholars; and even advanced study, unless covering the works of
different authors and periods, cannot guide the student ata dis-
tance to a critical acquaintance with the language. The method is
in itself inadequate, and the results unsatisfactory. Mental dis-
cipline of a high order may be associated with this method of
study ; and a language is often valuable as an instrument of cul-
ture from the fact that it transplants the scholar into a new world
of thought, presenting sharp features of contrast with one’s
native speech, exhibiting new grammatical forms and new words
as the images of things.

But science has brought the nations of the world nearer; and
the intellectual, political, and social life of one affects all others.
Every day new discoveries in art and science and in the relations of
States are flashed across the sea. Other literatures are filled with
the thought, the poetry, and the throbbing life of the century. The
ancient world no longer fills the domain of knowledge, and new
subjects of study demand recognition.

We pass from the classical method of study to the conversational
method of acquiring language, not in all cases a real advance, but
in the main a positive progress. Language was studied in its com-
mon forms: familiar expressions interpreted the formal grammatical
rules, and impressed them upon the mind. But multitudinous ex-
ercises often meant perpetual revolution without progress. The
entire time available for the student was spent in the exhausting
study of exercises: little of the literature was read, and the new
tongue became a confused and endless mass of idioms. Exercises
were not merely used to illustrate grammatical principles, but be-
came an end in themselves. Few students sought an acquaintance
with German or French in order to speak these languages, and yet
the entire time of the student was consumed in these exercises.

A vza medza was then attained by the production of grammars,
scientific in arrangement, brief and clear in statement, with exer-
cises sufficient to illustrate the rules : idioms were simply studied to
facilitate translation.

The ‘natural’ method, or method of oral instruction, followed.
The popularity of this system has been increased by its use in the
various summer schools of languages. As an accompaniment of
any course of study, this method possesses real merits. Its motto
is, “ Learn a foreign language as a child learns its mother-tongue.”
This system has also been applied to teaching the classics. It re-
quires from the first the use of the language itself by the pupil.
Brief sentences are learned, and then translated so as to assert, to
ask, to command, and to express conditionality: the subject be-
comes in turn object, and the object subject. By continuing the
process, the forms of the article, adjective, and the indirect cases of
nouns and pronouns, are learned. Later the forms of tenses and
modes are learned. This method trains pre-eminently the memory :
as a phase of instruction, it is important and valuable, but when it
claims exclusive possession of the field of languages, and seeks to
dominate the entire system of instruction, it is not justified in sup-
planting established methods.

A noteworthy application of this method has been made in teach-
ing Hebrew, and a modified form of it has been used in instruction
by correspondence.

From the Hebrew text of the Bible a living language has been
constructed, and made the vehicle for the expression of familiar

210

thought. In many cases the English text has been retranslated
orally into Hebrew. A thousand students in a single year have
been engaged in this study, and the Semitic languages are now
subjects of study in this country to an extent unknown before.

The modern languages are far from full recognition in the
courses of study in the greater number of colleges. The demand
for their study as part of a liberal education is not emphasized by
their position and the amount of time devoted to them. They are
tolerated rather than regarded as essential. Out of sixty-four rep-
resentative colleges, fifty-eight require neither French nor German
for admission to the course in arts, four require French, and two
either French or German. The colleges are thus reduced to the
necessity of giving elementary instruction in the modern languages ;
and the college does not to this extent imply advanced instruction,
but simply the teaching of the rudiments. A knowledge of French
and German is necessary for the highest scientific as well as classi-
cal study. The use of French and German works, the consultation
of authorities found only in these languages, is impossible if their
study is postponed until late in the academic course. Thecolleges do
not reap the fruits of a knowledge of the modern languages in their
subsequent instruction. The philological study of Latin embraces

law Latin and the forms that have survived in French and the other -

Romance languages. A critical knowledge of early English is not
possible without a study of the French element in English derived
from the Latin. Thus the advanced study of the classics, as well
as our heritage of the English tongue, is dependent upon an ac-
quaintance with French.. The study of Anglo-Saxon is promoted
by a preliminary knowledge of German. Our colleges are thus
fettered in their work by the lack of the elementary knowledge on
the part of pupils essential to its successful prosecution. An intelli-
gent acquaintance with modern European literature is not possible
when the time which should be devoted to it is occupied with
elementary study. The time which is devoted to the modern lan-
guages forms in most institutions but a small part of the regular
college course, necessitating imperfect and hasty study. In sixty-
four colleges conferring the degree of bachelor of arts, the amount
of time required to be spent in the study of French and German is
seven and three-tenths per cent of the entire four years’ course. It
is required that less than four per cent of the entire time of the stu-
dent shall be devoted to one of these languages. It is not to be
assumed that this low amount adequately represents the entire time
devoted to the modern languages, for through electives in the best
colleges the study can be greatly extended; but it represents the
current estimate of college faculties of the value of these studies,
and the amount required to enable the student to prosecute his later
work. During the same period, at least twenty-five per cent of the
student’s time is consumed, by compulsion, in classical study, in
addition to the preliminary knowledge required before entering
college. The revised curriculum which has been adopted at Yale,
and other colleges where the strict classical requirement has not
been retained in full force, is very encouraging. Several Western
and Southern institutions, as the Universities of Michigan, Indiana,
and Virginia, exhibit a thorough and extended course in the
modern languages. The scientific and technical schools recognize
the indispensable character of a knowledge of French and German
for purposes of all advanced investigation in science and engineer-
ing. The most recent discoveries in these and allied branches are
published in monographs and reviews, and it is safe to say that the
highest expert testimony on a question of engineering cannot be
secured except from one familiar with the constantly increasing
results of foreign investigation. Such results are not immediately
attainable except in the language itself; and the final word which
has been uttered in discovery is often of priceless value in all
industrial enterprises. There is a loss in the equipment of every
scientist or engineer who cannot at once obtain from original
sources the knowledge which he needs. There is an additional
reason why the instruction in modern languages in our scientific
courses should be increased rather than diminished. The require-
ments for admission to these courses are less than to the classical.
An exclusively professional or technical course, unless conceived in
a broad spirit, fails to give a view of the connection and relation of
the physical sciences. No branch of study stands alone, and can be
built up from itself. Geology embraces paleontology, and paleon-

SGLENICE.

[Vot. X. No. 247

tology demands a knowledge of animal and plant forms, hence of
zoology and botany. Chemistry touches, on the one hand, organic
forms, and, on the other, inorganic, and involves the laws of physics.
The highest results in every field of learning demand the highest
preparation for them, and the student going out into life will find a
sphere corresponding with his highest fitness. It is a misfortune
to educate men out of sympathy with other fields of knowledge.
The scholar whose work will be confined to a single branch needs
the broadest attainable culture, which would be impossible for him
later. Knowledge loses half its value when it cannot be communi-
cated clearly, forcibly, and persuasively. Thus the student with an
exclusively practical life before him cannot dispense, even for suc-
cess in his own department, with the culture which springs from
a linguistic training. The scholar with a clear insight into the
meaning of words, and the power to marshal his thoughts
effectively, can make his knowledge useful to himself and the
world. Any course, whether technical or scientific, which sends
out graduates without that literary training which will give a com-
manding weight to their views in any community, is to that extent
defective, and fails to prepare them for the widest usefulness.
Minor defects in subordinate, technical matters can be more readily
repaired by experiencé than a lack of linguistic training, which will
give clearness and definiteness to their thinking, and make the
publication of the results of their experience a contribution to the
world’s knowledge.

The experiment by which in certain courses the modern lan-
guages are substituted for the classical, is one of extended applica-
tion in the colleges of this country. In many institutions the
students in courses in philosophy and literature are more numerous
than the classical students.

We conclude that the elementary study of French and German
should be begun in the public schools; that there are years in
youth in which languages are acquired with unusual facility, which
should be improved in any system of education.

This would enable the instruction in the modern languages in
colleges to be advanced in character, so that by their use the full
value of a literary, scientific, or historical course could be realized.

By requiring French or German for admission to technical
courses, the benefits of a thorough knowledge of these languages
would be attained without crowding the strictly professional
studies, and some literary study should accompany the whole four
years’ course in such schools. W. T. HEWETT.

BRITISH UNIVERSITIES AND THE TRAINING OF
TEACHERS.

THERE is no professorship of education at any university of
England, Wales, or Ireland. At the universities of Cambridge
and London there are special examinations for teachers, on the re-
sults of which certificates or diplomas are granted; but there are
no educational degrees. Technically speaking, therefore, education
is not a university subject in these countries. At Cambridge,
under the auspices of a teachers’ training syndicate appointed by
the university early in 1879, lectures on teaching have been given
for eight years past; but they are not permanently established, and
may come to an end at any time. They are, as a rule, fitfully and
poorly attended, and cannot as yet be pronounced a decided suc-
cess. Except in the training-colleges and at the College of Pre-
ceptors, there is no other systematic course of lectures for teachers
outside Scotland. In Scotland there are two chairs of education,
established in 1876 out of funds left by the well-known Dr. Bell, —
one at Edinburgh, and the other at St. Andrew’s. Both these
chairs are very illendowed. In 1886 a school-masters’ diploma was
established at the University of Edinburgh.

I shall not attempt to criticise this state of things, — looked at
from any point of view, it is far indeed from satisfactory, —but I
shall endeavor in the space at my disposal to describe what is ac-
tually being done for the training of teachers by these various
agencies.

I will begin with Cambridge, and first as to its courses of lec-
tures. They usually consist of one set on psychology in its bearing
on teaching, delivered as a rule by Mr. James Ward of Trinity Col-
lege; another set on the history of education; and a series of dis-

OcrosER 28, 1887.]

connected lectures on practice delivered by prominent head masters
and other teachers. Amongst these last may be mentioned as
specially valuable the lectures on stimulus and on discipline, by
Mr. Arthur Sidgwick, formerly an assistant master at Rugby; and
one on ‘A Day in a Class-Room,’ by Dr. Abbott, head master of
the City of London School. As far as I know, only one connected
course of lectures on the practice of education has ever been de-
livered before the university; viz., that by Mr. Fitch, which has
since appeared as his well-known ‘ Lectures on Teaching.’ It may
well be doubted whether the sporadic lectures by eminent school-
masters above referred to can be properly said to form a part of
training in any real sense; but they are certainly more attractive
than a prolonged course, and are in many ways suggestive and
stimulative. The reasons why these lectures as a whole are not
more satisfactorily attended are mainly two, —first, because under-
graduates, while reading for their degrees, have very little time to
devote to other subjects; and, second, because it is the habit at
Our universities to look upon lectures as merely preparation for ex-
aminations, and to value examinations solely by the prizes attached
to them. Now, there are no prizes attached to the teachers’ ex-
aminations, and the head masters of our public schools practically
ignore them altogether, while the University Agency for the sup-
ply of masters does not even mention the certificates on its form of
qualifications. It is no wonder, therefore, that undergraduates do
not crowd the lecture-room. It is only fair, however, to state that
the lectures on education suffer no more than others under similar
drawbacks. The writer of this paper, when lecturing at Cambridge
a short while ago, on the history of education, can remember on
one occasion to have counted as many as seventeen undergraduates
present. At the time there were about nineteen hundred under-
graduates at the university, of whom perhaps one-quarter were
destined to become school-masters, at least for a time.

Before a candidate can enter for the examination of the Cam-
bridge Teachers’ Training Syndicate, he or she must have given
- evidence of something of the nature of a sound general education.
The test is not, as at London and Edinburgh, that the candidate
must be a graduate of the university. Some nine fairly simple ex-
aminations are named, one of which must have been passed; or, to
make the condition still more elastic, the candidate must have “ been
presented for examination by a training-college approved by the
syndicate.” This lowering of the initial test, no doubt, still further
removes education from the status of a university subject; but it
renders the examination far more widely available, especially for
women, who form about nine-tenths of the candidates as a rule.
In the examination of June, 1886, held at the three centres, Cam-
bridge, London, and Cheltenham, fifty-one candidates passed, of
whom only three were men (students of the Finsbury Training-
College). There are two certificates granted, — one for the theory,
history, and practice of teaching; and, where this has been won,
another may be obtained for practical efficiency in teaching. The
subjects for the former are:—(1) The theory of education: (a)
the scientific basis of the art of education, or pure psychology ;
(4) the elements of the art of education, or the application of
psychology to school-work in the training of the faculties (the
senses, memory, conception, etc). (2) The history of education in
Europe since the revival of learning, a general knowledge being re-
quired of systems of education which have actually existed, of the
work of eminent teachers, and of the theories of leading writers on
education up to the present time. A more detailed knowledge is
required of special subjects set from year to year. For example,
the special subjects for 1887 are, ‘John Amos Comenius, his Life
and Educational Works,’ by Professor Laurie, and ‘ The Life and
Work of Arnold ;’ those for 1888 will be ‘Locke’s Thoughts con-
cerning Education,’ and ‘The Teaching of the Jansenists at Port
Royal.’ (3) The practice of education: (a) method, which deals
with actual teaching and examination; (4) school management,
which deals with hygiene, furniture, apparatus, time-tables, etc.
One paper is set on each of three groups of subjects; and a fourth
paper is added, containing a small number of questions of an ad-
vanced character on each of the three groups. It is into this paper
that questions on physiology and physical training are usually in-
troduced ; but, notwithstanding this, I cannot but think that these
last-named subjects are not sufficiently represented. Candidates

SGIENGE:

211

must be twenty years old before entering for the examination, and
must pay a fee of fifty shillings to the syndicate.

The certificate for practical efficiency, as I have pointed out, can
only be obtained by those who already hold the certificate which I
have just described. Candidates must “have been engaged in
school-work for a year in some school or schools recognized for the
purpose by the syndicate.” Training-colleges of course come under
this designation, “if the syndicate is satisfied with the duration and
character of the training in practical work received by the candi-
dates.” The bases for the certificate are, (2) examination of the
class taught by the candidate; (4) an inspection of the class while
being taught; (¢) questions put to the teacher in private after the
inspection; and (@) a report made by the head master or mistress.
I do not think there have been many candidates for this certificate
other than the students of those few training-colleges which are es-
tablished for teachers of middle and higher schools. But then they
are almost the only people who use the examination at all.

It may be as well to mention here that the syndicate does not
prescribe the use of any particular books for its examination, except
those mentioned under the head of ‘special subjects.’ Mr. Ward
has, however, from time to time put forth a list of some of those
books which may be safely recommended to students, and from
which they can make their own choice. I need scarcely say that
Dr. Barnard’s admirable compilations play a prominent part in
this list.

I have given a very full description of the Cambridge scheme,
both because I consider it, on the whole, the best unconnected
with a training-college in Great Britain, and because by so doing I
shall be saved the trouble of entering into such minute detail again.
Let me mention here, for the information of the curious in such
matters, that in the charter of Cavendish College, founded at Cam-
bridge in 1876, the objects mentioned are, ‘‘(1) To enable students
somewhat younger than ordinary undergraduates to pass through a
university course, and obtain a university degree; (2) To.train in
the art of teaching those students who intend to become school-
masters; (3) To secure the greatest possible economy in cost as
well as time.” I cannot ascertain that any steps have ever been
taken to realize the second object. Probably all that was meant
was that the college was intended to provide ‘ pupil-teachers’ in
the elementary schools, with an opportunity for finishing their gen-
eral education. Who knows but that some day we may get it to
mean both that and something more ?

The University of London is simply a corporation for examina-
tion purposes. It provides no lectures of any kind ; that is, it does
not educate, but only tests education. It is hoped by many that
before very long this state of things may be changed ; but for the
present the fact stands as [havestated it. For the present, there-
fore, the only part the University of London can play in the higher
training of teachers is that of an examiner. As I have already
said, it possesses an ‘ examination in the art, theory, and history of
teaching.’ Unlike the University of Cambridge, it restricts its ex-
amination to its own graduates, and it grants a ‘teacher's diploma ’
on the result. There is no restriction as to age, and the fee is five
pounds. Four papers are set, — one on ‘mental and moral science
in their relation to the work of teaching;’ two on ‘ methods of
teaching and school management;’ and one on ‘the history of
education.’ The science and the methods are very much the same
as atCambridge; but the history consists solely of set books. It
is described as “the lives and work of eminent teachers, and the
systems of instruction adopted in foreign countries.” The set
books for 1887 are as follows : ‘ History of the University of Cam-
bridge from the Earliest Times to 1535 A.D.’ by Bass Mullinger;
‘Education and School,’ ‘Theory and Practice of Teaching,’ by
E. Thring ; ‘On the Action of Examinations,’ by Latham; ‘ Quelques
mots sur |’Instruction publique en France,’ by Michel Bréal.

There are no doubt great advantages in the direction of definite-
ness and thoroughness to be derived from the use of set books; but,
on the other hand, it leads to this unsatisfactory position, — that
in 1887 teachers will gain their diploma without having shown any
particular knowledge of the public instruction of England, Germany,
and Switzerland, and, what is worse, without having shown any
particular knowledge of the theories and methods of Froebel and
Pestalozzi. As a matter of fact, one or two questions on these last

212

are generally introduced into the other papers. It may be well to
note that among the many things coming under the head of
methods of teaching and school management we find mentioned
physical exercises, drill, and recreation. But there is another point
of still greater importance. The University of London grants but
one certificate, — not two, as does Cambridge, —and includes in
that one, as a szze gua non, practical skill in teaching and in the
management of aclass. No directions are given as to how this
last and most difficult test is to be applied. But hitherto the plan
adopted has been to require the candidates to send in sketches of
lessons on four different subjects chosen by themselves, and to give
one or two of these lessons to a class in the presence of the examin-
ers. But inasmuch as, in the necessity of things, such classes as
can be got near at hand have to be chosen, the teachers know noth-
ing personally of the children, and are quite in the dark as to the
actual knowledge which the class possesses. The consequence is,
that the test is far from satisfactory, and merely serves to show
what a teacher will do under very distressing circumstances. At
the best, it can only reveal whether a teacher is altogether incom-
petent : all the higher qualities must remain unassessed. A large
part of those who take degrees at the University of London are the
teachers of elementary and middle schools; and these, by the time
they have graduated, have already had many years of school ex-
perience : hence the insistence on the practical test as an integral
part of the London examination for teachers. The Cambridge ex-
amination is rather designed for those who intend to become school-
masters and school-mistresses. The London examination has only
been in existence some three or four years, and so far has been but
very little made use of.

As I said at the commencement, there are two chairs of pedagogy
in Scotland, — one at the University of Edinburgh, and the other
at the University of St. Andrew’s. Their work is sufficiently alike
to allow one description to do for both. I will choose the chair of
Edinburgh, held by Prof. S. S. Laurie.! This chair was founded in
1876, and commenced work with fourteen students, —a number
which has steadily been added to, until the total has now reached
fifty-one. Of these students, about three-fifths are ‘ senior students ’
of the denominational training-colleges, who, having passed a quali-
fying examination in Latin and mathematics, and stood in the first
division of the government list of successful candidates for Queen’s
scholarships (i.e., entrance scholarships at the training-colleges),
are allowed to attend the university. The remainder are students
who have graduated or are about to graduate. This latter class
will not be likely to attend in larger numbers until either the subject
of education isincluded in the studies qualifying for an M.A. degree,
or an act is passed requiring all school-masters in Scotland above
the elementary grade to holda diploma in education. A long course
of eighty-five lectures is delivered between the first of November and
the first of April. Of these lectures, about a dozen are purely psy-
chological, dealing with the intelligence and moral nature; fifty are
on method, dealing with principles of teaching and the detailed ap-
plication of these; the rest are on the history of education. These
last naturally vary considerably from year to year; but every year
a careful analysis of Quintilian and Locke is given. I must confess
that the choice of these two last as staple subjects seems to me
peculiar. All the students attend three examinations, and write
three essays. These form the subject of professorial criticism.
Those students who have not been, or who are not, training-college
students practise the art of teaching in the normal schools (by
permission), and are examined by the head masters of those schools
on practical matters of school management. The head masters
report to the professor. Last year the university instituted a
school-masters’ diploma specially for secondary school-masters,
which, however, is to be conferred only on graduates in arts of
Edinburgh. Candidates, moreover, must have attended the class
of the theory, art, and history of education in the university, and
must pass an examination in these subjects conducted by the
professor and an examiner appointed by the university court. The
subjects of examination in April, 1887, were, (a) the professor’s
lectures; (0) Locke, ‘On the Conduct of the Human Understand-
ing; (¢) Milton, ‘Tractate on Education ;’ (¢) Comenius, ‘Great

1 The chair at St. Andrew’s is held by Prof. J. M. D. Meiklejohn, whose name
and work must be well known in the United States.

SCIENCE,

(Vou: X.. Nos 247

Didactic.’ Each candidate must further give evidence either that
he has attended a course of practical instruction in a training-col-
lege; or that he possesses the government qualification in the prac-
tice of teaching required of graduates and provided in the ‘ Scottish
Code ;’ or that he has taught publicly for at least one year ina
school, and holds such a certificate of practical skill from the head
master as may be considered satisfactory by the university. Lastly,
each candidate must satisfy the university of his practical aptitude
as a teacher in some special subject or subjects in which he has
received instruction in the university or in any institution recognized
by the university as qualifying for degrees. I may note in conclu-
sion that the fee for the diploma is two guineas. I have not yet
been able to ascertain whether St. Andrew’s is likely to follow the
lead of Edinburgh in instituting a school-masters’ diploma.

It only remains for me to speak of the College of Preceptors in
London. This institution provides three courses of evening lectures
for teachers, and confers diplomas of three grades, — associateship,
licentiateship, and fellowship. The lectures are on (a) psychology
and its relation to teaching; (4) practical teaching; and (¢) the
history of education. The courses used to consist of ten lectures
each; but in future the number of lectures on the first two subjects
will be doubled. They are open free to all members of the college
(annual subscription one guinea), or to any one else on payment
of half a guinea for each course.

The examinations for the three kinds of diploma all include tests
of a general education of gradually increasing severity; but these
tests may be omitted in the cases of persons possessing a university
degree, or who have passed some examination equally satisfactory
to the college. What most concerns us here are the strictly peda-
gogic subjects. To begin, then, with the associateship. Candi-
dates must give evidence of having been at least one year engaged
in teaching, or of having attended a year’s course of the lectures for
teachers at the college. The subjects are, (1) the elements of
mental and moral science; (2) physiology, with special reference
to its application to the laws of health and to physical and mental
education ; and (3) lesson-giving and criticism of methods, includ-
ing the sketching of a lesson on some assigned subject, the sug-
gesting and discussing of cases of difficulty in teaching and disci-
pline, and the proposing and criticising of methods. For the licen-
tiateship the candidates must give evidence of having been at least
two years engaged in teaching. The subjects are the same as for
the associateship, with the addition of logic in its application to
education; while the third section now includes “a thesis on the
life, character, methods, and influence of some distinguished edu-
cator to be selected by the candidate, or a description of the organ-
ization and methods of some school of repute derived from personal
inspection and examination.” The candidates for the fellowship
must give evidence of having been not less than five years engaged
in teaching. Sections No.1 and No. 2 are the same as before, but
of a more advanced character. Section 3 becomes “government of
a school, including lesson-giving and school organization in all its
departments.” Section 4 is ‘‘the history of education and educa-
tional methods, with studies of distinguished educators, English
and foreign; and a description and discussion of the methods and
organization of schools and colleges of note at home and abroad.”
The fees in the first case, for examination and diploma together,
are two guineas; in the second, three guineas; and in the third,
six guineas. Examinations are held twice a year, — at midsummer
and Christmas. During 1886, for the three diplomas together, 136
candidates entered,— 70 men and 66 women. Of these, 45 ob-
tained the associateship, 4 the licentiateship, and 1 the fellowship.
This will serve to show both how much the examinations are used,
and the severity observed in awarding the diplomas.

I fear that all this will read as a very dry statistical account. It
would have been pleasanter and easier to have flowered forth into
criticism and exhortation; but those who really wish to know how
matters now stand, will, I believe, find my facts more useful than
my views are ever likely to be. H. COURTHOPE BOWEN.

THE total number of children within the age of compulsory
school years in Prussia is 5,500,000, of whom 4,800,000 attend
school. There are more than 700,000 teachers, in 33,000 elemen-
tary schools. The average number of pupils to one teacher is 78.

OcrToBerR 28, 1887.]

EXPLORATION AND TRAVEL.
Brazil.

Dr. HASSLER, who returned last April from an interesting jour-
ney through the Brazilian province of Matto Grosso, has described
the results of his journey in a lecture delivered before the Geo-
graphical Society of Bern. The expedition, which was organized
by the Brazilian Government, consisted of Dr. Hassler, an English-
man, a Brazilian lieutenant with forty soldiers, and several natives.
They ascended the Paraguay, and began their explorations from
Cuyaba, the capital of Matto Grosso. Having ascended the Rio
Cuyaba, they crossed the divide between the La Plata and Amazon
systems, and tried to reach the Rio des Mortes. Having first
struck the little-known rivers feeding the Xingu, they found the
Rio des Mortes, which they descended to its confluence with the
Araguaya, and followed the latter river to its confluence with the
Tocantins. They returned by the Araguaya, and, having traversed
an extensive part of the plateau of Matto Grosso, they reached the
Rio Lourengo, and returned by this way to Asuncion. Dr. Hassler
discovered and explored several large tributaries of the Araguaya.
The region traversed by this expedition is not far east from where
Von der Steinen made his important discoveries in 1883, and the
results of this journey will undoubtedly forma valuable contribution
to our knowledge of the geography of central Brazil. The topog-
raphy of the plateau of Matto Grosso and of its northern slope is
little known, and it is fortunate that the Brazilian Government
should at last undertake the exploration of this extensive country.
Dr. von der Steinen, who is now on his way to the sources of the
Xingu, was unable to carry out his plan, to reach the Matto Grosso
from the east coast of Brazil, but had to take the Paraguay route.
His last letter is from Cuyaba. The expedition was detained in
Brazil by the prevalence of cholera in the Argentine Republic.
They used this time for exploring the saméaguz (or shell-heaps) of
Santa Catharina. They intended to start from Cuyaba to the head
waters of the Xingu, where they will establish a camp and study
the interesting Indian tribes inhabiting this remote region.

NEw GUINEA.— Since we published the sketch-map of New
Guinea in No. 242 of Sczence, several interesting reports on new
journeys have been published. Dr. Schrader, the leader of the ex-
pedition of the New Guinea Company, has ascended the Augusta
River in a small steamer some distance beyond the point reached
on the first expedition. The Proceedings of the Royal Geographi-
cal Society say that Mr. C. H. Hartwig and Mr. G. Hunter suc-
ceeded last July in reaching the summit of the Owen Stanley Range.
They appear not to have reached the highest elevations, but by a
judicious choice of route, along the valleys of the Kemp Welsh and
Musgrave Rivers, ascended to the saddle between Mounts Obree
and Brown, and crossed to the eastern or inland slope of the
range. They started with twenty-seven friendly natives, but had
some difficulty, in commencing the ascent, with the hostile tribe
who guard the great mountain Paramagoro, which they believe to
be the abode of the spirits of the departed. Their hostility was
eventually overcome by peaceable measures, and upward of two
hundred of them followed the expedition in the ascent, conciliated
by the daily supply of meat of wild pigs, which the travellers ob-
tained by means of their rifles, though the chief cause of the suc-
cess is attributed to the great experience of Mr. Hunter, who had
for a long time prepared for the expedition by making friends with
the tribes, several of whose languages he speaks fluently. The
flora is described as magnificent in the extreme, including palms of
many species, tree-ferns, marantas, orchids, and an endless variety
of tropical flowering plants. East of the range the country is more
open and richly grassed. The same number of that journal con-
tains a full report of the discovery of two large rivers, the Douglas
and Jubilee Rivers, emptying at the head of the Gulf of Papua, ac-
companied by a map and several illustrations. Their discovery
was mentioned in a recent issue of Sczence. The well-known trav-
eller, Capt. Adrian Jacobsen, has been sent out to New Guinea and
the neighboring islands by the Ethnological Museum of Berlin,
principally for making collections among the various Papuan tribes.

TIMBUKTU.— Timbuktu and the upper Niger have lately at-
tracted considerable attention. The French are rapidly extending
their possessions toward this important place, starting from the

SCIENC I=

Bais,

Senegal. The Geographical Society of Paris has published several
sketch-maps showing the advance that has recently been made.
The upper Gambia and the neighboring districts have been sur-
veyed, and extensive stretches of land on the upper Niger have
been placed under French protectorate, which now extends from
the right bank of the Niger to Sierra Leone and Liberia, including
the whole of Futa-Djallon. Roads are being built, and much ad-
vance is being made in our knowledge of these districts. While this
is asafe and reliable way of progress, Mr. George Angeli’s scheme
of a railway from Cape Juby to Timbuktu seems rather vague, and
unlikely to be carried out. Of great interest is an approach to the
upper Niger by Dr. A. Krause through a country which was for-
merly considered impenetrable. We mentioned the beginning of
his journey, on which he started from the Gold Coast, in No. 218 of
Sczence. He succeeded in entering the totally unknown region in
the great bend of the Niger, but had to return when about one
hundred and fifty miles from Timbuktu. The results of this journey
will be of great importance. As it is generally accepted that
journeys in Africa are very expensive, it will be of interest to learn
that Krause had no more than twenty-five dollars on landing.

STANLEY FALLS.— The London Zzmes publishes an interesting
letter of Major Barttelot on the state of affairs in Central Africa.
This letter makes it clear that Tippo-Tip’s authority in Stanley
Falls is very limited, and that he will require support from the
Kongo Free State to suppress the slave-hunters, who extend their
raids almost to the confluence of the Aruvimi. The Kongo Free
State has decided to send some troops to his assistance, and, in
case this effort should prove unsuccessful, to endeavor to obtain the
support of the Sultan of Zanzibar. If Tippo-Tip is true to his
obligations, it may be that the efforts of the state will be successful.

HEALTH MATTERS.
Vital Statistics in Massachusetts,

THE Massachusetts State Board of Health has issued the forty-
fifth registration report of that State, containing the vital statistics
for the year 1886. During this year the public health has markedly
improved; the birth-rate being greater, and the death-rate less,
than in any other year since 1879. 50,788 births, 18,018 marriages,
and 37,244 deaths were recorded, being an increase of 1,998 births
and 966 marriages, and a decrease of 850 deaths, as compared with
1885. The death-rate was 18.85; the birth-rate, 25.69; and the
marriage-rate, 9.12. The number of illegitimate births was 1,034,
or 20.3 per thousand. The rate in Russia is 29, and in Bavaria
152, the average for Europe being 64. In Massachusetts, and also
in Rhode Island, Connecticut, and Vermont, as well as in most
countries of Europe, the marriage-rate has decreased during the
past twenty-five years. 601 divorces were granted during 1886, 45
less than in 1885, but 105 more than the average for the preceding
twenty years. Of these, 20.8 per cent were for adultery, 45.7 for
desertion, 16.3 for intoxication, 5.3 for extreme cruelty, 10.3 for
cruel and abusive treatment, and 1.2 for neglect to provide mainte-
nance. The infant mortality was greater than in any year since
1875, and also greater than the average of the past fifteen years.
The average age of all persons at death was 34 years, the extremes
being 48.63 in Barnstable County, and 30.29 in Suffolk. The ratio
of deaths from zymotic diseases to all deaths has steadily decreased
from 28.6 in 1876, to 18.5 in 1886. The death-rate from consump-
tion has decreased from 3.25 per thousand in 1867, to 2.98 in 1886;
that from cancer has, during the same period, increased from 0.29
to 0.56. During the ten years ending 1886, there have been the fol-
lowing deaths: from typhoid-fever, 8,466; from whooping-cough,
2,765 ; from diphtheria, 15,288; from measles, 1,832; from scarlet-
fever, 5,130; and from small-pox, 193. The increase in the mor-
tality from diseases of the brain during the past twenty-five years is
very marked. In 1865 the rate per ten thousand for this class of
disorders was 12.06; in 1865, 14.39; in 1870, 14.35; in 1875, 16.42;
in 1880, 17.00; and in 1885, 20.01. In this class are included ap-
oplexy, softening of the brain, paralysis, insanity, cephalitis, and
brain disorders generally. There were but 32 deaths reported from
ague and remittent fever during the year: 62.5 per cent of these
were in the five western counties, having but twenty-six per cent of

214

the population. One-fourth of the whole number occurred in
Hampden County. Eastern Massachusetts suffered severely from
malarial fevers in 1884, 1885, and 1886, but few of the cases, how-
ever, proved fatal.

MICHIGAN SANITARY CONVENTION. — A sanitary convention
is to be held at Albion, Mich., under the auspices of the State Board
of Health, Dec.6 and 7. The objects of the convention are the
presentation of facts, the comparison of views, and the discussion
of methods relating to the prevention of sickness and deaths, and
the improvement of the conditions of living. It is intended to be a
convention of the people generally. Among the subjects which it
is expected will be presented and discussed are the following: 1.
The present and future water-supply of Albion; 2. Disposal of
waste in Albion by sewerage and otherwise; 3. School hygiene; 4.
Money-value of sanitary work; 5. Restriction and prevention of
communicable diseases, from four standpoints,— (a) of the State
Board of Health, (4) of the health-officer, (c) of the clergyman, (@)
of the lawyer.

CHLOROFORMING WHILE ASLEEP. — We had occasion in a recent
number of Sczence to refer to the possibility of chloroforming per-
sons while asleep without awaking them. In confirmation of the
statement which was then made, that under favorable circumstances
this could be accomplished, we quote a case which occurred in the
New Orleans Charity Hospital and is reported in the Vew Orleans
Medical and Surgical Journal. A child six years of age was
suffering from pleurisy, and it became necessary to draw off the
fluid effusion which had accumulated in his chest. He was very
much afraid of the operation, and it was determined to attempt it
while he was asleep. On the following day, while sound asleep,
chloroform was administered without awaking the child, and twenty-
four ounces of fluid were withdrawn. The child continued to sleep
throughout the night, and when it awoke the following morning
knew nothing of the operation.

FLIES AS CARRIERS OF CONTAGION.—A report was made to
the French Academy of Sciences by Spillman and Hanshalter, giv-
ing the results of their investigations into the possibility of flies
acting as carriers of contagion. These observers examined the
excrement and intestines of flies that had fed on the contents of
spit-cups used by consumptive patients, and found the bacilli of
consumption in abundance. These bacilli were also found in the
dried excrements of flies scraped from the windows and walls of
rooms occupied by consumptives. These facts are in perfect con-
sonance with the recommendations of the American Public Health
Association, that the sputa of consumptive patients should be re-
ceived in vessels in which disinfectants have been placed.

THE PLYMOUTH TYPHOID EPIDEMIC.— Our readers will re-
member the epidemic of typhoid-fever which created such conster-
nation in Plymouth, Penn., in 1885. The population at that time
was 8,000. Of these, 1,153 contracted the fever, and 114 died, a
mortality of nearly 10.33 per cent. It is now stated that typhoid
again prevails to an unusual extent in Plymouth, and that fears are
entertained of another epidemic. There are said to be thirty cases
of the fever there at the present time. In connection with the sub-
ject of typhoid-fever, there have been reported in France three
cases in which the disease seems to have been transmitted through
the air. A patient suffering with typhoid-fever stopped at a hotel
in Eaux-Bonnes. In four weeks she recovered, but the three
daughters of the hotel-keeper were attacked. Eaux-Bonnes is said
to have a bountiful supply of excellent spring water, and there was
no other case of typhoid in the town. The discharges from the
stranger were thrown, in an undisinfected state, into the water-
closet, the door of which communicated with the room in which the
landlord’s daughters slept, at a distance of only three feet. It
seems reasonable in this instance to eliminate the drinking-water
from the factors in causing these three cases, and to charge the in-
fection to the neglect of disinfection of the excreta.

SEASICKNESS.— The Semazne Médzcale contains the views of
Dr. W. Skinner on seasickness. He looks upon it as the expression
of certain purely functional or dynamic disturbances of the organ-
ism, some of the symptoms indicating a general fall of the arterial
blood-pressure. The starting-point is probably a reflex inhibition

SCIENCE:

[Vor. X. No, 247

coming from the sensorium or from the nerves of the abdominal
organs, which is brought about by a contusion or stretching of these
organs due to the motions of the vessel. His treatment consists in
the use of vaso-motor stimulants, strychnia, atropia, and caffeine,
introducing them hypodermically. Dr. Skinner reports thirty-nine
cases in which his treatment was efficacious, one of them being an
infant of two years and a half.

HYDROPHOBIA. — In the latter part of September three children
died in England from hydrophobia, having been bitten by rabid
dogs. Their mother was bitten at the same time, and has gone to
Paris to be treated by Pasteur. Another child, not of the same
family, was bitten by a rabid dog at Lancaster. Seven days after,
he went to Paris, where he remained a month under treatment. The
day after his return the first symptoms of hydrophobia appeared,
and in two days proved fatal.

YELLOW-FEVER AT TAMPA. — Dr. Porter, president of the Key
West Board of Health, has gone to Tampa, Fla. He reports that
the disease which lately appeared there is undoubtedly yellow-fever.
To Oct. 14, there had been eighty cases, of which twelve had
proved fatal.

MENTAL SCIENCE.
Bilateral Asymmetry of Motion.

Dr. J. LoEB of the University of Wiirzburg has made some
very interesting observations on the motion of the two arms. A
thread is stretched between two uprights at such a height, that,
with the fore-arm bent at a right angle at the elbow, it can be
conveniently held between the thumb and forefinger of either hand.
In the first series of observations, the two hands started together
at the middle of the string, and moved outwards to either side
until signalled to stop by the experimenter. The object was to
move the two hands with equal speed ; but it was found that every
subject either constantly moved the right hand farther than
the left, or the left constantly farther than the right. Right-
handed persons who were not handicraftsmen, usually allowed the
right hand to make the longer excursion, and contrariwise for the
left-handed. The difference between the movements of the two
hands varied from one-tenth to one-half of the space moved over.
If, instead of the operator’s signal, a clamp was placed upon the
thread on one side to indicate when the subject should stop, the
general result was the same, though the hand on the side of the
clamp usually moved more cautiously.

Thinking it probable that the difference was due to the difference
in the nature of the voluntary impulse imparted to the two hands,
Dr. Loeb himself moved one of the subject’s hands to one side,
while the latter was to simultaneously move the other out to an
equal distance. But the result was as before: the asymmetry con-
stant for each person remained; and that, too, no matter whether
the right hand was passively moved and the left hand moved volun-
tarily, or the reverse. The size of the error, however, is reduced in
the sense, that, compared with a voluntary motion under the same
conditions, a passive motion seems larger. This Dr. Loeb thinks
may be due to the fact that there was a conscious fear of moving
the active hand too far, and that the attempt to correct this re-
sulted in an error in the opposite direction. All the above obser-
vations were made upon persons ignorant of the resulting asym-
metry. Those who were informed of the result, or discovered it
for themselves, thereafter much diminished their error.

The next variation consisted in having the two hands move, not
in opposite, but in the same direction ; that is, either with the left
hand starting in the middle and the right hand to the right side to
move towards the left, or with the right hand in the middle and the
left hand to the left side to move towards the right. As before, the
two movements were simultaneous, were to be made equal in ex-
tent, and the motion of one hand was arrested by a clamp set upon
the string, Here a new law enters; and the result is, that, inde-
pendently of the hand and of the direction of the motion, the motion
from the exterior towards the middle is always distinctly larger
than from the middle towards the exterior.

To eliminate the asymmetry between the two hands, the experi-
ment was made with one hand only, first moving out a given dis-

OcToBER 28, 1887. |

tance, and then attempting to repeat the motion. The general re-
sult was, that the reproduced motion was larger than the original,
when the motion was made on the hand’s own side, — for the right
hand on the right side, and for the left hand on the left.

In conclusion, Dr. Loeb asks the question, “On what basis
does the mind conclude that the motions of the two hands
are equal?’’ He answers that it is due to the time element.
There is an unconscious attempt to translate space into time, be-
cause we can judge the latter more accurately; and, in several

ries of experiments in which the time was recorded, it was found,
fat even when the two hands moved quite different distances, the
times of the two motions were approximately the same. The
mind, then, judges two motions to be the same when they are in-
nervated by equally intense impulses, and consume equal times;
and the asymmetry is referred to the fact (due to increased practice,
or what not) that an equal impulse will impart a larger motion to
the one (the preferred) hand. That other factors enter into the
problem is not to be doubted: for example, if one thread is rough
and the other smooth, the same distance on each will seem longer
on the rough thread, by more frequently stimulating the skin. Dr.
Loeb promises a continuation of the observations.

FALSE TESTIMONY OF CHILDREN.— The trial at Tisza-Eszlar
is probably sufficiently well in mind to serve as a type of the false
evidence given by children. Dr. A. Motet has collected a number
of similar cases, and shows very distinctly that the children in
question are quite generally the subjects of morbid tendencies.
Frequently they are the offspring of a degenerate stock, and are
characterized by weakness of will, and a love for excitement. The
analogy between these suggestions accepted and elaborated by
these children in a waking condition, and precisely the same phe-
nomena in hypnotic states, is evident. Dr. Motet suggests several!
hints by which such testimony can be prevented from imposing
upon the courts, and urges that a careful physician be summoned
when any such suspicious testimony by a child is deposed. It il-
lustrates anew the close connection between responsibility and
nervous affections as well as between the doctor’s study and the
court’s dictum. '

SMELL AND TOUCH VERSUS SIGHT.— Dr. Fauvelle calls at-
tention to the inverse relation between the development of the
visual and the olfactory apparatus, and holds that smell, when sup-
ported by touch, can in some forms of life outweigh sight. The
snout, when it occurs, is always at the most anterior portion of the
body in progression, and through this heralding position becomes
endowed with a most delicate sensibility, often of mobility too, and
at the same time brings into prominence the olfactory mechanism.
The changes in the form of this naso-labial organ of touch follow
all the changes in the prominence of the organ of smell, and pre-
vent a special development of the organ of vision. In man and the
primates this loses its importance and yields to sight, which superi-
ority is assigned to the parallelism of the visual axes, and establish-
ing of the biped position, where the organ of smell is no longer at
a prominently anterior position of the body.

BOOK-REVIEWS.

Industrial Education, a Guide to, Manual Training. By SaM-
UEL G. Love. New York and Chicago, E. L. Kellogg &
Connor:

IT is inevitable that there should spring up in the earlier stages
of amovement for educational reform a large literature. Some of this
will naturally be good ; but much of it, owing to superficial knowl-
edge or misconception, will be bad. Public opinion on the reform
in question is in large measure formed by these early books, and
for that reason, if for none other, the critic should scan them with
great care,

Mr. Love's book is one of the first in this country that undertakes
to explain in detail what manual training really means; and, as a
great many people are just now asking the very question which it
professes to answer, it will naturally have a large number of readers.
But it is extremely important that only correct information should
be given concerning manual training, and that one or two sources
of general confusion as to its purpose and aim should be removed.

SCIENCE:

215

We have read Mr. Love's book carefully with these points in
view. The book is divided into five parts and an introduction. The
first part discusses the claims of manual training, and the second
describes what has been done in Jamestown, N.Y., — in which town
Mr. Love is superintendent of schools, —in development of this
training, and gives the course of study pursued therein. The third,
fourth, and fifth parts discuss the organization and carrying-out of
manual training in the various grades of the primary, grammar,
and high schools, respectively. Mr. Love has worked conscientious-
ly, and has beyond question accomplished a great deal of good.
His fellow-citizens seem (pp. 27-29) to approve his work, and to
be in harmony with his ideas. But, we regret to say, taking Mr.
Love's own language as the expression of his ideas, he himself is
still very much in the dark as to what the movement in favor of
manual training really signifies.

Those persons who have an insight into the real aim of manual
training know how difficult it is to make others understand that
the manual training urged is mental training: for no one who
understands our public-school education would for a moment urge
that any thing which is not purely and simply educational should
find a place in it. Manual training would not train the hand per
se, but the hand as the servant of the mind, and as one of the
mind’s agents of expression. Manual training, which is technical
and not mental, must be provided for, but apart from and not in the
public schools. This has been insisted upon so often lately, that
we had hoped the point was clear to all, and it is extremely dis-
couraging to find Superintendent Love marking off his manual
training as something foreign to mental training, as he explicitly
does in several passages of his introduction, and impliedly does
throughout the book. In fact, the author's idea is that manual
training should be added on to the school course, as a matter of
privilege. The correct idea is that manual training should be in-
corporated in the common-school course as a matter of right.
The two conceptions differ widely in theory, and still more in prac-
tice. For example: the clear-sighted advocate of manual training
would never urge, as does the author (p.7), that it should be in-
troduced because ‘very many children dislike books.” This
argument, if pursued logically, would create havoc in any system of
education.

Every once in a while the author seems to approximate the
proper point of view, as when (p. 33 e¢ fasszvz) he classifies writ-
ing, drawing, gymnastics, and card-board work together under the
head of manual training. But when we turn to his carpentry
course, and see how wholly blind he is to the proper relation of
drawing to constructive work, we despair again.

Minor criticisms might be passed on various portions of the
book, but this fatal misconception of manual training in general
renders them unnecessary.

Superintendent Love has proved to the satisfaction of himself and
his townsmen that the old-fashioned curriculum does not satisfy
the educational demands of to-day, and in adopting manual train-
ing he did a wise thing; but his book proves that he adopted it for
the wrong reasons and in the wrong way.

Philosophy of Thedism.
Harper. 8°.

PROFESSOR BOWNE'’S reputation as a thinker rests on a secure
foundation, and that alone would entitle this his latest volume to
careful consideration. But the ‘Philosophy of Theism’ will com-
mand attention and respect on its own account, for it is in many
ways a remarkable book.

In the first place, it is a new evidence of the interest now being
taken in the philosophy of religion, and may well take a place
beside the volumes of Flint, Diman, Fisher, and others as a masterly
exposition of the theistic argument. It is superior in profundity to
the recent philosophico-religious books of ,Royce and Abbott,
although we miss in it some of the flashes of brilliancy which make
the latter books such interesting reading and constitute so much of
their charm.

But Professor Bowne’s aim in the work before us is not, as it
seems to us, wholly religious. He aims to show that both theism
and modern science stand upon a common substructure; namely,
the philosophy of belief or faith. Indeed, the author goes even

By BORDEN P. BOWNE. New York,

216

further than this. He claims that a common postulate underlies
not only theism and natural science, but our whole mental life. His
position may best be elucidated by this passage from the preface :
“Kant pointed out that the ontological argument properly proves
nothing, and that the cosmological and design arguments depend
on the ontological. The argument, then, is not demonstrative, and
rests finally on the assumed existence of a perfect being. In a dif-
ferent form I have maintained the same position; but, so far from
concluding that theistic faith is baseless, I have sought to show that
essentially the same postulate underlies our entire mental life.
There is an element of faith and volition latent in all our theorizing.
Where we cannot prove, we believe. Where we cannot demon-
strate we choose sides. This element of faith cannot be escaped in
any field of thought, and without it the truth is helpless and dumb.”

Professor Bowne starts with the very evident fact that man is
religious. He points out that we may properly inquire as to the
source of religion, as to its history, andas to its foundation. Merely
pausing to aim a shaft at that sensationalistic philosophy which
would trace religion to some non-religious sources, the author sets
aside the first two questions as beyond his province, and addresses
himself to the third. In an analysis of the data of the religious
consciousness, it is conceivable that one of these results might be
reached. Either the theistic idea might be found to be (1) contra-
dictory or absurd; (2) an implication of the religious sentiment
only, and without any significance for pure intellect; or (3) a de-
mand of our entire nature, intellectual, moral, esthetic, and reli-
gious. To establish the last alternative is Professor Bowne’s aim in
this volume. He paves the way for his constructive argument by
pointing out the unnaturalness of subjective idealism and the irra-
tionality of chronic scepticism. It is not possible for us to follow
the author’s elaborate argument. He aims to establish on the
principle noted above, the unity of the world-ground and then its
intelligence and personality. Its metaphysical attributes, its ethical
nature, and its relation to the world, form the subjects of subse-
quent chapters. The influence of Lotze, so strongly marked in
the author's work on metaphysics, is still seen here, and particularly
in his treatment of interaction. A brief concluding chapter passes
from the intellectual to the practical applications of the theistic
implication. The steps in the closely reasoned argument can
hardly be indicated without doing them an injustice. We therefore
refrain from making the attempt, and earnestly commend Professor
Bowne’s book to all philosophical students. Even where it fails to
convince, it will stimulate and enlighten.

NOTES AND NEWS.

THE death has been announced of Gustav Robert Kirchhoff,
the famous physicist. He was born March 24, 1824, and became
lecturer of physics at the University of Berlin in 1847. In 1850 he
was appointed professor in Breslau, and in 1854 in Heidelberg. It
was here that he and Bunsen made their famous optical researches
which led to the discovery of spectral analysis. The results of these
investigations were published in Berlin in 1861, under the title
‘Untersuchungen tiber das Sonnenspectrum und die Spectren der
chemischen Elemente.’ It is well known that these discoveries
were the foundation of astrophysics, and that they led to numerous
unexpected discoveries in chemistry. But this is only oneof Kirch-
hoff’s important works, which covered all parts of mathematical
physics, particularly the theories of electricity, galvanism, and elas-
ticity. In 1875 he accepted the professorship of physics at the
University of Berlin.

LETTERS TO THE EDITOR.
Romantic Love and Personal Beauty.

YOuR correspondent of Oct. 14 might have observed a feature in
this book which would have explained and justified the repulsion
she felt in reading it. The author cannot resist the temptation to
be funny. He may be coarse, or refined; but he must be witty.
He cannot carry us along in an uninterrupted narrative of sober
and well-digested facts. He must stop to make us laugh, or suf-
fuse his pages with ill-disguised humor that constantly divides our
interest between fact and fancy. This is hardly tolerable in what
aims to be in many respects a scientific discussion. It spoils both

SCIEINIGE:

Mor! exe Se Nios 2407

its science and its wit. The instance quoted, “ Did Herbert Spencer
ever kiss a girl?” is not a solitary one. French and German girls
simulating horror of some men whom “they secretly consider a
darling creature,” he says, have a “spring-chicken coyness.” Of
a certain class he says, “It would be absurd to include in this state-
ment people of refinement, who through misfortune have been
plunged into abject poverty. They do not belong to the ‘ Great
Unwashed’ (ol roddoi).” Again: “The modern ideal of woman is
exclusively feminine, i.e., devoid of hackles, spurs, cock-a-doodle-
doo, and pugnacity.” “As for those old maids who are neither
ugly nor masculine, some of them are quondam coquettes, who
practised their arts just one season too long, and ‘got /eft’ in con-
sequence.” “There is one difference between undervalued men of

. genius and old maids: the men of genius admit that they are in

advance of their age, and are proud of it; the old maids never, at
least hardly ever.’ Then, in the passage about woman’s universal
tendency to fall in love with officers, he says it is not because of
their valor: “for they have perhaps never yet been opposite the
‘business end’ of arifle.” If you want to win a woman’s love, “ put
brass buttons on your coat, have it dyed blue, and wear epaulettes
and a waxed mustache. This love charm as never been known to
fail.” “What is fat ? It is an accumulation of unburnt dody-fuse.”’
Then this generalization of woman’s love: “O Arthur! how happy
I would be alone with you on a quiet island in the distant ocean!”
— “Have you any other desire, dearest Ella?” —“ Oh, yes! do get
me a season-ticket for the opera.” “As a rule, the preliminaries to
animal marriages are doubtless brief. If a healthy, vigorous male
comes across a mature, healthy female, it is usually a case of
mutual venz, véd2, vzcz.” We might go on with pp. 5, 6, 9, 11, 22,
38, 103, 114, 122, 123, 164, 196, and no doubt to the end of the book,
with numerous instances of just such coarse humor in a scientific
work. We have referred only to the most striking, and his pages
everywhere abound in the use of some word or phrase that takes
all the color of seriousness out of the narrative. Nor is the trait of
which we complain confined to this book. In a letter to the Vazzon
of Oct. 20, the same author, speaking of Oregon, which he says is
called ‘ Boomland,’” could not resist adding, “ As I write, I hear
a mother scolding her baby for putting a handful of dirt in her
mouth. Real estate is too valuable hereabouts to be thus squan-
dered in luxurious living.”

Such a man cannot write science. He cannot state rightly a
plain fact : he can only see fun, and that of the coarsest kind too
frequently. It is provokingly offensive in such a mass of facts as
this book collects, because there is such a mixture of things which
we have to consider seriously, along with the absurd. But at the
same time you cannot take it so seriously as to condemn his theo-
ries: for you may be criticising an exhibition of wit or a joke. On
the other hand, too many. of his facts are collected from poetry,
newspapers, and the by-paths of literature, to possess either psy-
chological value or scientific interest. It is only his pedantic ref-
erences to evolution, sexual selection, etc., which every one must
take seriously to-day, and some pertinent moral reflections on cus-
toms and manners, that can give any flavor of scientific earnestness
at all to the book. The encyclopedic collection of facts and quo-
tations makes it seem pretentiously scientific, and no doubt much of
it is intended to be; but the flippant tone everywhere visible, and
its humorous levity so frequent}ought to disarm all serious censure
except for bad taste. His use of evolution is not dangerous, be-
cause he has only a dilettante’s knowledge of it. The book needs
‘editing.’ J. H. H.

Answers.

15. IS THE TRUMPET-CREEPER POISONOUS? —While I was
in south-west Missouri during 1879, I found a general belief that
the trumpet-vine (Zecoma radicans) was poison to the touch,
like Rhus toxicodendron. Upon investigation, however, I found
that most people were in the habit of confounding the two, RAus
toxicodendron there climbing to the tops of tall trees, often having
stems three or four inches in diameter, the external characteristics
of the two vines being somewhat alike. I could not learn that the
idea had any other foundation than this failure to distinguish be-
tween the two species, and am satisfied that Zecoma is never poi-

sonous in any case. WILLIAM F. FLINT.
Winchester, N.H., Oct. 24.

ENCE

FRIDAY, NOVEMBER 4, 1887.

THE NUMBER OF PERSONS who have been killed by explosions
in mines during the past fifty years is 11,000, as stated by Mr.
Ellis Lever in a recent number of the London Zzizes. This num-
ber is, however, only a small proportion of those who have met
their deaths by colliery accidents. The number of deaths
through accidents of all kinds in mines since the Queen’s accession
is nearly six times greater, — 60,000, Mr. Lever says, — while
4,000,000 persons have been maimed or otherwise injured. Mr.
Burt, M.P., an undoubted authority, states that the average num-
ber of those killed in mining operations is now 1,200 a year, and
that 100,000 persons annually are injured in following the hazard-
ous occupation of the miner. What are the causes which conduce
to this terrible loss of human life? Mr. Lever says the want of a
better and safer light is mainly responsible. The Royal Commis-
sion on Accidents in Mines has condemned as unsafe the lamps of
Davy, Clancy, and Stephenson. The House of Commons con-
firmed the conclusions arrived at by the royal commissioners, and
government inspectors of mines are now advocating and hoping
for the immediate and universal introduction of the electric light

“into coal-mines. This state of affairs leads the English Electrzcal
Review to say that it is to the electric light that the miner must
look for emancipation from many of the horrible dangers to which
he is subject. There aremany forms of electric lamps now com-
peting for the favor of miners and mine inspectors, and some of
them possess undoubted advantages over the older types of safety-
lamps. But there are also, in most of these, serious drawbacks
which prevent their speedy introduction to mine uses. Weight,
complication, and cost are among the principal disadvantages; and
it behooves electricians to give their utmost thought to the task of
overcoming the difficulties which the peculiar needs of the miner
present. We have it on the testimony of Sir Frederick Abel that
very great progress has been made towards providing the miner
with a thoroughly safe, sufficiently portable, and generally efficient
self-contained electric lamp since the Royal Commission submitted
its final report; but the same authority is of opinion that strenuous
exertions are yet needed before the comparatively heavy first cost
of electric lamps will be so greatly counterbalanced by their dura-
bility and simplicity in construction and maintenance as to afford
hope of their being generally or even very extensively substituted
for oil-lamps. So that it is evident that the electrician is, in this
direction as in many others, still behind the needs of the age, and
behind what is expected of him.

AN EARLY MAP OF THE FAR WEST.

THE classic transcontinental expedition of Captains Lewis and
Clarke, under instructions of President Jefferson to cross the plains
and mountains to the Pacific Ocean, left the Mississippi on their
venturesome journey, May 14, 1804. Their first winter encamp-
ment was made among the Mandan Indian villages, not far from
the present site of the town of Bismarck. During the winter of
1804-05 their time was mainly occupied in preparation for the con-
tinuation of their journey westward. They were in frequent com-
munication with the Indians, and received occasional visits from a
few straggling French voyageurs and traders of the North-west
Fur Company, who came from their headquarters in Canada as far
as the Missouri. On the eve of the departure of the expedition, the
following spring, Captain Lewis sent back a number of men with
despatches, journals, and collections addressed to the government
at Washington.

Among the articles forwarded was a map, prepared by Captain
Lewis from all available data, of the country lying between the
Mississippi River and the Pacific Ocean. The information obtained
of the country to the westward of their winter quarters was for the
most part derived from Indians more or less acquainted with the
country near the head waters of the Missouri and Columbia.

In a letter of transmittal to President Jefferson, dated Fort Man-
dan, April 7, 1805, Captain Lewis says, “The map which has been
forwarded to the secretary of war will give you the idea we enter-
tain of the connection of these rivers, which has been formed from the
corresponding testimony of a number of Indians who have visited
that country, and who have been separately and carefully examined
on that subject, and we therefore think it entitled to some degree
of confidence.” In a following paragraph, he adds, “ You may
therefore expect me to meet you at Montachello in September, 1806.
On our return we shall probably pass down the Yellowstone River,
which, from Indian information, waters one of the finest portions of
this continent.”

On Feb. 19, 1806, President Jefferson, in amessage to Congress
communicating the discoveries of Lewis, says, “ During his stay
among the Mandans, he had been able to lay down the Missouri,
according to courses and distances taken on his passage up it, cor-
rected by frequent observations of longitude and latitude; and to
add to the actual survey of this portion of the river, a general map
of the country between the Mississippi and Pacific, from the thirty-
fourth to the fifty-fourth degrees of latitude. . . . Copies of this map
are now presented to both houses of Congress.”

After despatching the party for the return trip, the main body of
the expedition crossed the mountains, wintered near the mouth of
the Columbia, and, returning, reached St. Louis in September the
following year.

As is well known, they brought back a large amount of most
valuable geographical knowledge. In the map compiled by Captain
Clarke, published in the authorized editions of the history of the
expedition (Philadelphia and London, 1814), the main features of
the country are in very many essential particulars different from
the way they were originally represented on the preliminary map
forwarded from Fort Mandan. The map was never ordered by
Congress, and, so far as I can ascertain, was never published.
It seems quite probable that after the return of the expedition
means may have been taken to suppress so erroneous a production.
At all events, no mention is made of this map in the published his-
tory of the expedition. In their journal they say, “At the same
time that we took our departure, our barge, manned with seven
soldiers, two Frenchmen, and Mr. Gravelines as pilot, sailed for the
United States loaded with our presents and despatches.”

To-day, however, the original drawing has considerable historic
interest, as it gives the opinions of the highest authorities of the
time upon the physical geography of the country and its inhabitants,
and at the same time presents a clear idea of the value of the aid
they received from Indian guides and others.

One of the copies of this map has been preserved in the Archives
of the War Department, and through the courtesy of Gen. J. C.
Duane, chief of engineers, I have been able to photograph it for re-
production.

The only public reference to this map which has come to my
attention is a short editorial notice in the Wedzcal Reposztory, New
York, 1806. The journal was edited by Dr. Samuel Latham
Mitchell, who was also a member of the House of Representatives.
While in Congress, he served upon the Committee on Commerce
and Manufactures, and in that capacity advocated all measures for
the exploration of the Louisiana Purchase. There is evidence to show
that he was one of the pioneers in Congress in favor of the explora-
tion of the Far West by the general government. A copy of the
map accompanies this communication. It was reproduced for

218

other purposes, but it cannot fail to interest a large number of the
readers of Sczence. By reference to the map, it would appear that
Captains Lewis and Clarke received no intimation whatever of the
interior drainage of the Columbia. They represent the entire area
of the Great Basin and the Snake River country as drained by the
Missouri and the Yellowstone. The Yellowstone, named by them
before reaching it, is shown as a longer river than the Missouri,
rising as far south as the 39th parallel of north latitude, near the
sources of the Rio Grande. In their map published in 1814 the
drainage-area is already much restricted, and the river represented
as finding its source in a large lake.

It is well known to all students familiar with the history of the
North-west that the Yellowstone received its name in very early
times. To most visitors to the Yellowstone National Park, how-
ever, the origin of the name is always a matter of special inquiry.
It may be well, therefore, to add that Lewis and Clarke encamped
near the junction of the Missouri and Yellowstone, April 26, 1805,
seventeen days after leaving Fort Mandan. In their journal occurs
the following: “‘ This river, which had been known to the French
as the Roche jaune, or, as we have called it, the Yellowstone, rises,
according to Indian information, in the Rocky Mountains; its
sources are near those of the Missouri and the Platte, and it may be
navigated in canoes almost to its head.”

On the map there is one very significant designation to a com-
paratively small river quite remote from the country the party
intended to traverse. In the region which has since been set apart
as the National Park a small stream is shown tributary to the
Yellowstone River, and curiously designated as ‘Stinking Cabin
River.’ ‘Brimstone’ and ‘Stinking Water’ are names found on
the maps of this region since the days of Colter’s trip through the
Yellowstone Park region, in 1807. But this still earlier name suggests
that some adventurous voyageury unknown to history had already
penetrated the country which has since become world-renowned for
its remarkable thermal waters.

On the north side of the Missouri, Milk River is well represented
on the map, but undesignated except by the amusing note, “ The
Indians call this the river which scolds at all other rivers.”

The coast-line of the Pacific and Puget Sound is of course taken
from early English admiralty charts, and doubtless in the -posses-
sion of the distinguished explorer, Meriwether Lewis.

ARNOLD HAGUE.

SANITARY SCIENCE AND EDUCATION.’

GENTLEMEN, — When I accepted the invitation of your pres-
ident to participate in this discussion, it was not in the hope of
being able to add any thing to the general store of information on
sanitary topics, for sanitation and hygienic science are subjects that,
on their technical side, I know very little about; but I accepted Dr.
Newton's invitation because as a teacher, and one who is engaged
in the training of teachers, I desired to express my appreciation of
the importance of sanitary science for sound educational doctrine
and correct educational practice, and to add my testimony to
that of the other gentlemen who are to address you, to the fact
that your researches and conclusions are of the greatest practical
value to us.

Mens sana tn corpore sano is as much to be prayed for now as
it was in the time of Juvenal, and we are far better equipped than
was the satirist or his contemporaries to work toward that end.
The sound mind and the sound body seemed to the Roman to be
two distinct and separate things whose conjunction was desirable.
We have come to know that the two are so intimately related, in-
deed so interdependent, as to be practically one thing. Aristotle
furnished the educators of antiquity with a psychology upon which
to base their praxis. It was a wonderful achievement. But the
great modern science of physiology, whose beginnings are to be
seen in the discoveries of Servetus, Harvey, Leeuwenhoeck, and
others, compelled the entire rewriting of that science; and the re-
sult is an infinitely more complex and accurate and practical,
though less final psychology, than that which was bequeathed to

1 Abstract of an address by Nicholas Murray Butler, Ph.D., president of the In-
dustrial Education Association’s College for the Training of Teachers, delivered at

the thirteenth annual meeting of the New Jersey Sanitary Association, held at Tren-
ton, Oct, 28, 1887.

SCIENCE.

[Vou 2X) No. vas

us by the great Stagyrite. This new psychology has taught us how
truly vital the dependence of mind on body is. We know, for ex-
ample, that a decreased or impoverished supply of blood to the
brain produces mental inertia and lassitude. We know that an or-
gan develops by exercise, and that the neglect of an organ or its
excessive stimulation is alike harmful, no matter whether the or-
gan be mental or physical. Wecan promptly and surely trace the
mental results from unduly intense or too prolonged brain-work,
from lack of exercise, and from improper nutrition. We are aware,
in like manner, of the bodily results induced by the various emo-
tions and passions, by expectant attention, by concentrated will-
power, and other mental phenomena.

Now, it seems to me that it is just at this point that the sanita-
rian and the educator join hands. Both having a full understanding
of the relation that subsists between mind and body, the former
brings the results of his studies to the latter, and formulates them
into suggestions and rules for the teacher’s guidance. The teacher,
in return, adopts these suggestions and rules as parts of his science,
and communicates to the sanitarian in due time the effects ‘that fol-
low such adoption. Thus sanitary science is aided in one of its
most important applications, and the science of education adds a
most valuable chapter to its book.

Perhaps this co-operation of sanitarian and educator is more
ideal than real, but it is nevertheless far more noticeable now tham
it was twenty-five or even ten yearsago. This is proved, if proof
be needed, by the fact that instruction in physiology and hygiene,
and in the mental and physical effects of stimulants and narcotics,
has been generally added to the curriculum of the common school
within that period. It is not to be disputed, on the other hand,
that much remains to be done. An illustration of this will be found
in one of the opening pages of a recent book on the ventilation and
warming of school-buildings, by Mr. Morrison of Kansas City. The
author reminds us (p. 18) that “no subject has been more carefully
and intelligently studied than the direct and ultimate effects of im-
proper air on the human system, and that on no subject is there
greater unanimity of competent opinion.” School-building goes on,
however, year after year, and it goes on in too many cases utterly
regardless of whether a child vitiates two cubic feet of air per hour |
or two thousand cubic feet, whether 62° F. is the better average
temperature or 82°, or whether 45 per cent of saturation is desirable
in the atmosphere or 70 per cent. Nevertheless, science and com-
mon sense are making headway, and there is every reason to be-
lieve that in a few years’ time all the school-buildings that are
erected, however humble and unpretentious they may be, will be
well ventilated and properly heated.

You will pardon, Mr. President, my apparent digression from the
four specified subjects of this evening’s discussion, for it seems to
me that itis only on such broad lines as those which I have indi-—
cated, that these questions can profitably be considered. It would
be no great advantage were we to bring together a mass of merely
empirical statements. We must get below the statements to the
facts and principles which explain them. We want to get at the
philosophical and scientific reason for the relation that sanitation
bears to education. We want to understand exactly what it is that
is common to both sciences. That much being clearly before us,
the application of the results of the former science to the problems
of the latter is not a difficult matter.

The educational topics before you are four: (A) the length of
school days and terms, (B) recesses, (C) competition, (D) indus-
trial education. I shall pass over the first two in order to say a
word about each of the others. These are competition and in-
dustrial education. Permit me a few words concerning each.

Competition may be defined as a common striving for the same
end. It involves two or more competitors. As a principle it has
long been dominant, not only in business-life, but in the science_of
economics. It has been prescribed as the proper stimulus for all
stagnation, and as the solvent for all difficulties. Oflate years, how-
ever, a school of economic thinkers has arisen which asserts that
unrestricted competition is an evil to humanity and to the State.
We are told that it is proved to be demoralizing, destructive, and,
as a principle of political economy, inefficient. Have not you sani-
tarians and have not we teachers reached an analogous conclusion
as to competition in our common field? Is not competition, when

NovemMBER 4, 1887. |

left to itself, in danger of emphasizing material success at the ex-
pense of the disciplinary process? I take it we are all agreed that
how a pupil learns is of more importance than what he learns. His
faculties are developed and his character formed by the process of
learning, far more than they are by the thing learned. The ten-
dency of unrestricted competition is to alter this relation, to exalt
the result, and to depreciate the process. This is contrary to the
teaching of mental hygiene, and in consequence is.to be condemned
by sanitarians and educators alike. I say nothing of the pallid
faces, the disordered nerves, the sleepless nights, and the loss of
appetite, that result from competition for competition’s sake. Were
those results not present, I should still oppose it as an unsound edu-
cational principle. Therefore I repeat, competition must be re-
stricted and kept within reasonable bounds. This topic gives rise to
many other fruitful suggestions, but I must pass them by.

There remains the subject of industrial education. Let me, in as
few words as possible, place that properly before you, and then I
am confident that the attitude toward it of a science of sanitation
that is broad enough to demand a well-developed mind in a well-
developed body will not be for a moment doubtful.

Industrial education is not technical education, the preparation
for trades. It isa term invented to signify an education in which
mental training through the hand and the eye occupies its proper
place beside mental training through the memory and the other
means of approach to the mind. Mental training through the
hand and the eye is generally known as ‘manual training,’ which
term is only satisfactory in case its proper signification is un-
derstood. This manual training is graded instruction, the object
of which is to develop the pupil’s powers of expression. No piece
of knowledge is really our own until we can express or apply
it. Mere memorized knowledge is parrot knowledge. It is men-
tally indigestible and innutritious. It is the pastry of the intellect.
Well enough, perhaps, if taken in proper. quantities and at
proper times, but very unsatisfactory and unwholesome as a steady
diet. :

Reading and writing both appeal in a measure to the child’s
powers of expression, but not sufficiently nor in the most natural
and simplest way. Expression by means of language is abstract
and comparatively difficult. When carried to any great degree of
fluency or accuracy, it is universally looked upon as an accomplish-
ment. The earlier and simpler methods of expression are by ges-
ture, by delineation, and by construction. Industrial education
takes these powers of expression, delineation, and construction, and
trains them together with the other faculties. Drawing and con-
struction, the latter in material suited to the strength and capacity
of the pupil, are reduced to a system, and go hand in hand with in-
struction in the three R’s. Thus the sense of form, of proportion,
of accuracy, and of truth is developed as is possible in no other
way. The judgment and the executive faculty, the most important
of all our powers in the practical work of life, are provided for and
trained in the scheme of industrial education, though accorded no
place in the old-fashioned curriculum.

Now, sanitation has been called the ‘science of preventive med-
icine,’ and lectureships with that title have been founded in Great
Britain. In connection with this description of your science, let us
remember that we are told on high authority that the number and
variety of diseases and disorders that are traceable to the mind are
rapidly increasing. If this statement is true (and I know of no
reason to doubt it), in what direction can our sanitarians better ex-
pend their energies than in furthering the adoption and develop-
ment of an educational system that is complete, that is thorough,
and that is healthy? This is certainly a proper field for the ac-
tivities of ‘ preventive medicine.’

Time will not permit me to follow out this suggestive theme. I
will simply state, in conclusion, a few of the reasons why I con-
sider industrial education a matter of importance to sanitarians.
In industrial education, properly organized and administered, I
claim that we have for the first time a system that trains all the
mental faculties, and each at the proper time and in proper propor-
tion. It gives us no abnormal and mechanical memories without
judgment and executive ability, no hunched backs without arms and
legs. Every faculty is considered, every power is taken into ac-
count. The conditions of nineteenth-century life are kept in mind,

SCIENCE

219

and the ideally educated man is not held to be the medizval recluse
or the eighteenth-century English gentleman. Incidentally, indus-
trial education affords a pleasant and healthful alternation of exer-
cise from faculty to faculty. No one is overstrained, no one is al-
lowed to become atrophied and die. Muscular exertion is called
in to supplement and relieve mental activity.

My own belief is that the mere recital of these facts determines
the attitude of sanitarians toward the system which permits and
causes them. As friends of educational and scientific progress you
will approve industrial education, and then as sanitarians you will
indorse it as a long step toward the much-to-be-desired AZens sana
tn corpore sano.

THE AMERICAN ORIENTAL ASSOCIATION.

THE fall meeting of the American Oriental Society was held on
Oct. 26 and 27, at the Johns Hopkins University. Since the
establishment of this university a little over ten years ago, Balti-
more has grown to be one of the great centres of education and
learning in this country. A ‘university’ atmosphere pervades the
place, and the large audience that gathered in Hopkins Hall at
the opening session on Wednesday afternoon may be taken as an
indication that the interest felt there for higher studies and re-
searches extends to regions that seem (but only seem) to lie so far
off as those covered by the Oriental Society.

In the absence of Professor Whitney, who, although considerably
improved in health, is still obliged to be sparing of his strength
Vice-President Dr. W. H. Ward of New York presided.

The reading of papers was begun by Professor Haupt of the
Johns Hopkins, who presented the prolegomena to his forthcoming
Assyrian grammar, — a work on which he has been engaged for a
number of years. The extent of the literature in cuneiform charac-
ters is appreciated only by very few persons; and even of those
present at the meeting, no doubt quite a number were surprised to
learn, that, as far as known to us, it covers a period of at least
forty centuries. There is a short inscription of King Sargon of
Agade, the date of which can be fixed with certainty at 3800 B.C.,
and on the other side Antiochus Soter (280-261 B.C.) tells us in.a
cuneiform tablet of a temple he had erected in honor of a Babylo-
nian deity. Professor Haupt, after speaking of the various periods
to be distinguished in Babylonian-Assyrian literature, dwelt at
length on some of the features of the Assyrian language, showing,
more especially, the relationship that existed between it and the
cognate Semitic tongues. Ina brief discussion of the paper, Pro-
fessor Jastrow, after alluding to the eagerness with which students
and scholars have been looking forward for some time to the gram-
mar of Professor Haupt, who stands to-day without a superior, and
with but few equals among Assyriologists, spoke of the ‘Sumero-
Akkadian’ controversy, which is attracting considerable attention
just at present. He regretted the confusion which incautious writ-
ers are bringing about by unnecessarily complicating the points at
issue with questions and theories that have no bearing on the
subject.

Professor Bloomfield followed with an exhaustive study of certain
magical rites in cases of disease, as laid down in the Athavar-Veda.
Professor Lyon of Cambridge announced the recent purchase by
the Harvard University of a collection of Babylonian so-called
“contract tablets.’ These tablets, of which the British Museum
possesses many thousand specimens, have afforded us a wonderful
insight into the daily life of the ancient Babylonians and Assyrians.
They show us that legal proceedings were quite as complicated in
days of antiquity as they are to-day ; they give evidence of extensive
commerical transactions in those days; and, while the lengthy in-
scriptions of the kings give us valuable information of the wars and
campaigns, these little bricks tell us much of the ways and manners
of the people.

The most interesting feature of the convention was the gathering,
at the residence of President Gilman, of the university in the even-
ing, which partook partly of the nature. of a reception, and in part
of an informal session of the association. Besides the members of
the Oriental Society, a number of prominent gentlemen, including
some of the trustees of the university, had been invited. President
Gilman welcomed his guests in a few well-chosen remarks, where-

220

upon Mr. H. F. Allen, a fellow at the Johns Hopkins, made the
announcement that the Semitic seminary of the university pro-
posed publishing at an early date a complete Assyrian glossary.
The work would be issued under the superintendence of Professor
Haupt, and, while not intending to supersede the great Assyrian
dictionary now in course of publication by Prof. Friedrich Delitzsch
of Leipzig, will aim to supply the need of students of Assyrian
better than the latter work does. The principles which will guide
the compilers in their work were briefly set forth. Professor Haupt
followed with a second announcement, also of great interest to
Semitic scholars, regarding a series of contributions to Semitic
comparative philology, which he proposes editing in conjunction
with the above-mentioned Professor Delitzsch ; and it must have
seemed to many as though an Assyriological ‘craze’ had broken
out when Dr. Cyrus Adler added a third announcement, which
was no less gratifying than the preceding ones.

The National Museum at Washington has recently entered into
an arrangement with the Johns Hopkins University with a view of
obtaining as complete a collection as possible of facsimiles and
casts of seals coming from Mesopotamia, and to include eventually
in the collection also important cylinders and tablets bearing cunei-
form inscriptions. The beginning will be made with the antiquities
scattered throughout the museums and private collections in this
country. Besides the copy of each piece to be deposited in Wash-
ington, another copy will be given to the Johns Hopkins, in consid-
eration of which the latter institution will superintend the collection
at the national capital. The project is one which promises to
arouse considerable interest ; and the hope that it may yet lead to
an exploring and excavating expedition from this country to the
mounds in Mesopotamia, which still harbor such untold treasures,
may not be an utterly futile one.

President Gilman exhibited photographs of the famous Greek
manuscript, ‘The Teachings of the Apostles,’ the discovery of
which some years ago created a veritable sensation. The original
manuscript is in an Eastern monastery, but the photographic req
productions are executed with an excellence that makes them fully
as reliable for students as the original copy. Dr. Binion of Balti-
more had some specimens of a magnificent illustrated work on the
art of ancient Egypt, which he is about issuing. The cost of the
work, which will contain all the important Egyptian monuments,
will be one hundred and fifty dollars a copy. Professor Frothing-
ham closed the interesting programme with a description of a monas-
tery he recently saw in Italy, dating from the Byzantine period, and
which possesses a most remarkable twelve-sided tower, — the only
instance of the kind in the world.

Thursday morning again found the members in Hopkins Hall.
Professor Lanman presented a brief paper from Professor Whitney.
Dr. Peet had an interesting treatise on animal and sun worship
among the American Indians, which brought forth some curious
points of coincidence between the religious notions of the Indians
and other ancient peoples. Dr. Cyrus Adler of the Johns Hopkins
presented two papers bearing on Assyriological research, One of
these treated of the views of the Assyrians on life after death. They
believed in a future life, but the notion of a future punishment does
not seem to have arisen among them, nor do we find that any dis-
tinction is made by them between the abode of the good and of the
wicked. Itis probable that they supposed all would share in the
life to come.

Professor Hopkins of Bryn Mawr called attention to some prov-
erbs in the Mahabharata paralleling those found among other
nations. Among these, there is the ‘golden rule, which, how-
ever, is formulated negatively in the Sanscrit : ‘Do not unto others
what thou wouldst not have others do unto you.” A discussion
followed in which several members participated. Professor Lan-
man remarked that in Chinese the maxim also has the negative,
form, as is also the case in the Talmud, where the saying is put in
the mouth of the famous rabbi Hillel.

Mr. Allen had a suggestive paper on a proposed method of trans-
literating the letters of the Semitic languages. There is scarcely
any point in regard to which scholars differ so much as in the
method of reproducing the Semitic sounds, and yet it is eminently
desirable that some uniform method be adopted. The system pro-
posed by Mr. Allen endeavors to proceed upon the principles of

SCIENCE:

[VoL. X. No. 248

phonetics, and has at least the advantage of simplicity; but
whether it will meet with the approbation of scholars remains to be
seen.

Further papers were presented by Dr. Ward on some Baby-
lonian mythological symbols; by Professor Bloomfield on ‘ The
Fire-Ordeal Hymn in the Athavar-Veda, by Dr. T. W. Jackson;
and finally one — which, however, was only read in abstract by
Professor Lanman — from Mr. Rockhill, of the American legation
at Pekin, on the relations of Corea to China. Mr. Rockhill is en-
gaged in important researches which promise to clear up many ob-
scure points in Chinese history. In a communication to Secretary
Lanman, he cites an instance to show how untrustworthy the or-
dinary information concerning China is. It seems that in the re-
cent census an entire province was overlooked, which contained
some sixty million inhabitants; so that the figures usually given
must be changed to three hundred and seventy-nine millions. A
number of new members, both corporate and corresponding, were
elected, and the following honorary members: Sir Henry C. Raw-
linson, the well known Assyriologist, and editor of the great publi-
cation undertaken by the British Museum, ‘The Cuneiform In-
scriptions of Western Asia;’ Prof. George F. Biihlan, a distin-
guished Sanscrit scholar of Germany, and editor of the latest vol-
ume of the ‘ Sacred Books of the East;’ and Prof. Edward Sachan
of the University of Berlin, who has been called to take charge of
the Oriental institute which has just been established by the Ger-
man Government for the training of diplomates and officials in the
Eastern service. All the chief European capitals, with the excep-
tion of London, now possess institutions of this nature, where the
important Oriental languages are taught, and it has been said that
the Emperor of Brazil contemplates the establishment of one at Rio
Janeiro. The Berlin school has opened with the amazingly large
number of one hundred pupils.

The next meeting of the Oriental Association will be held in
Boston during the month of May, 1888.

HEALTH MATTERS.
Cholera Cases at Quarantine.

IN Sczence of Oct. 14 we noted the arrival at New York of the
steamship ‘Alesia’ from Italy, with cholera on board. Since then
another steamer, the ‘ Britannia,’ from the same ports, has arrived.
This vessel was detained at quarantine, and during this detention
one of the passengers, a child, was taken sick with what is now
known to have been cholera. Two other cases of cholera have de-
veloped on this same vessel, the latter of them on Oct. 24. It is said
that the report of the surgeon of the vessel gave not the slightest
indication of the existence of cholera on board, and it is more than
probable, that, had not the arrival of the ‘ Alesia’ with developed
cholera on board occurred prior to that of the ‘ Britannia,’ the cases.
of cholera which occurred on the latter steamer would have first
been heard of in some hotel or boarding-house of New York.

So far as we have seen, no statement has yet been made of the
health of the passengers and crew of the ‘Britannia’ during the
voyage from Italy to New York. It would be criminal on the part
of the surgeon of that steamer to have concealed the fact if cases
of cholera occurred during the voyage; and, if they did not, it
would seem to be a warrantable inference that cholera may develop:
on a ship even after a voyage across the Atlantic, and that, as hap-
pened in the case of the ‘ Britannia,’ the health-officer is justified in
detaining in quarantine a vessel from ports in which cholera is
known to exist, even though she may not have had sickness on
board during the voyage. It is stated that urgent demands were
made on the health-officer to permit the ‘ Britannia’ to come to the
city without detention, and that it was claimed that the sickness of
the child passenger was simply cholera-infantum.

Dr. Smith is to be congratulated on having exercised the author-
ity which the State has conferred upon him, in having detained the
‘Britannia,’ and he may be assured that the people of this great
country will uphold him in the exercise of the most arbitrary pow-
ers so long as the public health is in the imminent danger that it is
in at the present time. A lack of intelligent action now may result
in the introduction of cholera germs, which, though they may lie
dormant during the winter, may result in a plentiful harvest when
next summer comes.

NovEMBER 4, 1887. |

AMERICAN CATTLE-PLAGUE. — Dr. Frank S. Billings, director
of the patho-biological laboratory of the State University of Nebraska,
claims to have discovered the germ of the American cattle-plague,
commonly known as Texas-fever. This germ, he says, belongs to
that class of septic germs represented by our swine-plague and rab-
bit septicemia. It is a bacterium. It colors at its poles, and has a
clear or non-coloring middle piece to its body. It has a motility in
hanging drop-cultures, and also in the blood serum from the origi-
nal blood of a diseased animal. Dr. Billings gives no experimental
evidence to support his claim, but states that this will follow in
course of time.

HEALTH OF PRISONERS. — Dr. Watkins, inspector of the State
Board of Health of Louisiana, has recently examined the prisoners
in the parish prison of New Orleans. He found a number of the
inmates suffering from acute dropsy of the legs, arms, face, and
body, due to confinement and insufficient and unwholesome food.
Each prisoner is allowed a piece of bread and a pint of tea early in
the morning, and one meal consisting of soup, the beef cooked in
the soup, and bread. The beef is supplied by a contractor at five
cents and a half per pound, and has been repeatedly condemned by
the resident surgeon.

TYPHOID-FEVER CONTAGION. — We have repeatedly called the
attention of our readers to what we believe to be a dangerous error
in the management of typhoid-fever. The tendency to look upon
drinking-water as the usual, if not indeed the only, channel by
which the disease is propagated, is so prevalent among sanitarians
and physicians, that other means are very liable to be overlooked,
and the necessary precautionary measures neglected. An instance
of the probable communication of this fever by other instrumen-
tality than water is reported by M. Bonamy of Nantes. Two
households used drinking-water from the same source. In one six
cases of typhoid-fever occurred, four of which were fatal: in the
other no cases occurred. It is true that this is negative evidence.
It is, however, notwithstanding, of some value; not perhaps taken
alone, but in connection with other facts which have from time to
time been recorded touching the methods by which typhoid is
propagated.

SCARLET-FEVER IN LONDON. —Scarlet-fever is very prevalent
in London, there being in the hospitals alone nineteen hundred
cases under treatment.

YELLOW-FEVER AT TAMPA.— The disease which appeared in
Tampa, Fla., in the early part of October, has developed into un-
doubted yellow-fever. To Oct.24 there had been 180 cases re-
ported, with 27 deaths. Under the auspices of the United States
Marine Hospital Bureau, a hospital has been provided, and a corps
of experienced nurses has been obtained from Savannah to take
care of the sick. The weather is very favorable for the spread of
the fever, and the extension of the disease to the suburbs of the
town is conceded.

EXPLORATION AND TRAVEL.

The Kuango.

Mr. MENSE, who accompanied the energetic missionary Gren-
fell on his exploration of the lower Kuango, has described the inter-
esting journey in a lecture delivered before the Geographical Society
of Berlin. He describes the exploring of the tributaries of the
Kongo as not connected with great difficulties, which only begin
when an overland journey is attempted. In the trip up the Kuango
a lady even participated. The principal difficulty was the obtaining
of fuel for the boiler of the steamboat. Food was plentiful, as the
river swarmed with hippopotamuses. In many places their meat
could be bartered for fuel. When arriving near Kindjungi, a reef
running right across the river, the hippopotamuses got scarce, but
in their stead an abundance of shell-fish was found. The inter-
course with the natives was generally peaceable; but, as those
tribes who had hostile intentions had no fire-arms, their attacks
werenot dangerous. Grenfell had provided his steamer with a net
of steel, which protects the crew and the passengers from the
arrows. The reef Kindjungi stopped the progress of the expedi-
tion. The river formsa fall three feet in height, and has dangerous
whirlpools. It rushes through a narrow gorge cut about a thou-

SCIENCE.

221

sand feet into the plateau, which consists of laterite. The tribes
inhabiting this district have had no intercourse with Europeans.
They wear self-manufactured clothing, and their language differs
from those spoken near Stanley Pool. The country is thickly
wooded, and caoutchouc is found in considerable quantities. Ele-
phants and buffaloes are numerous, but there are only few villages.
The lower part of the river runs through a grassy plain, while near
Kindjungi the country becomes mountainous. As Major von
Mechow descended the Kuango to Kindjungi, and as Dr. Biittner
reached its middle course coming from the west, the position of
the whole river is now fairly laid down.

TRAVELS IN AFRICA.— Captain van Géle’s attempt to reach
the Welle, according to Le Mouvement Géographigque, has unfor-
tunately been unsuccessful. When he arrived on the upper Itim-
biri, he unexpectedly found the country uninhabited and poor. As
he was not prepared for this, and had no provisions to last him for
a journey through unknown territory, he had to return. He will
probably resume his enterprise. According to the Proceedings of
the Geographical Society of Berlin, Dr. H. Meyer has succeeded in
reaching the summit of the Kilima Njaro, while all former travellers
failed in their attempts. The summit is occupied by a crater. It
is covered with snow, which sends forth a glacier that extends to
a comparatively low level. The Germans are making vigorous
attempts to penetrate into the extensive unknown area of West
Africa. Two expeditions are’ being organized in Kamerun to ex-
plore the interior, which forms the watershed between the Kongo
and Benue systems. Lieutenants Kund and Tappenbeck, who
made important discoveries in the southern Kongo basin, will
push eastward, while Dr. Zindgraff will try to penetrate into the
interior in a north-easterly direction. So far, the hostility and
jealousy of those tribes who command the trade between the
interior and the coast have prevented all expeditions from entering
the unknown country.

GREENLAND. — The Danish expedition to the coast of northern
Greenland, says /Vatzre, has just returned to Copenhagen. It has
been absent since the spring of 1886, and was directed by Mr. C.
Ryder. During the two summers it was enabled to proceed from
latitude 72° to latitude 743°. It investigated the Upernivik glacier
during the winter. Many meteorological, magnetic, and astronomi-
cal observations were made, many anthropological measurements
were taken, and botanical and zoological collections have been
brought back.’ The investigations of the western coast of Green-
land are not likely to be continued for the present. It is to be re-
gretted if the latter statement should be true. The Danish expe-
ditions to Greenland have resulted in so numerous and valuable
contributions to our knowledge of this immense island that their
continuation seems very desirable’ The exploration of Melville
Bay is of the greatest importance, as here many questions regard-
ing the character of the ice of Davis Strait must be solved, and as its
topography is utterly unknown; but so far the Danes have not
extended their researches beyond their most northern settlement,
Tassiussak, which lies at the southern extremity of Melville Bay.

BRITISH COLUMBIA.— Dr. George M. Dawson, chief of the
party sent by the Canadian Government to explore the country ad-
jacent to the Alaska boundary, has returned to Victoria. Two of
his party, Messrs. Ogilvie and McConnell, will winter in the district,
making astronomical observations, which will give data for the es-
tablishment of the international boundary. The expedition so far
has secured a great deal of geological, geographical, and general
information of the country. The point from which the doctor
turned back was at the junction of the Lewis and Pelly Rivers. It
is one thousand miles north of Victoria. There the flora was found
to differ but little from that on the banks of the Fraser. A great
deal of open, grassy country exists along the streams tributary to
the Yukon. No areas of tundra or frozen swamps, such as are to
be met with in the interior of Alaska, were discovered by the expedi-
tion. The doctor’s conclusion is that the whole country from Cas-
sian to the vicinity of Forty Mile Creek, on the Yukon River, yields
more or less gold in placer deposits. This would constitute a gold-
bearing region fully five hundred miles in length by an indefinite
width, and which so far, in comparison to the area, has been very
little prospected.

222

BOOK —-REVIEWS.

Psychologie tm Umrissen auf Grundlage der Erfahrung. Von
Dr. HARALD H6rrpINnc. Tr. from the Danish by F. BEN-
DIXEN. Leipzig.

Essai de Psychologze Generale. Par CHARLES RICHET.
Bibliotheque de Philosophie Contemporaine.

Paris,

Few philosophical reformations have a more instructive history
than that which introduced experimental methods and scientific
conceptions into the study of mental phenomena. The cleft be-
tween the student of matter and the student of mind had_no ex-
istence in the harmonious mental culture of Greek philosophers.
The nature that is the common storehouse of the pfyszcist, the
physiologist, and the P#yszcian, was also the mine from which the
philosopher drew his lore. The great modern revival that sepa-
rates the sciences, and forces a medical congress to separate into
nineteen sections to insure that he who reads will be understood,
has left the philosopher in the high altitudes of the mountain-top,
while the busy scientists throng down into the mine. Not until our
day has the philosopher taken much interest in the carloads of rich
ore dug out by the miners, and come to seriously consider the
announcement that this patient digging had discovered many rich
veins of thought suggesting those unifying generalizations for which
he was searching in the clouds. The good effects of this change
of method and re-arranging of interest are easily discerned. The
‘know thyself’ has been interpreted as including the whole man,
body and mind, past and present, as modified by all kinds of
natural and artificial agencies. But the most distinctly new con-
tribution that this revival of nature-philosophy has brought about
is the origination of a scientific psychology, borrowing its methods
as well as many of its facts and conceptions from other sciences, —
and so re-uniting what should belong together, — while maintaining
its distinct character by the use to which it puts this material, and
the point of view from which it regards it.

The two volumes before us are both typical results of the new
psychology. The one comes from the professor of philosophy in the
University of Copenhagen; the other, from a professional physiolo-
gist of Paris... Their purpose is to set forth in plain language the
conclusions which experimental research and observation have al-
lowed us to draw regarding the nature and function of psychical
phenomena, and to delineate the general conceptions to which
these facts give warrant. As text-books, both will be eminently
useful, and an English version of either would be a welcome con-
tribution to our literature. The point at which the works divide
is that the one is written especially for those in whose minds the
philosophical interest is uppermost, while the other appeals more
directly to the physiologist.

Professor Hoffding, while seeing in objective research the central
method of psychology, fully recognizes in self-consciousness a most
important supplementary means of study. Not only that we can
only make our own what we assimilate to our past selves, — the
deposit of a host of conscious acts, —but also that the higher men-
tal processes are amenable to no other mode of study. Onthe other
hand, he recognizes in consciousness asomewhat subordinate con-
comitant of certain psychical acts, and regards with equal interest
such acts as have not this accessory; moreover, he holds that the
latter can alone determine what is the ‘ naturally’ correct mode of
viewing the former. The author thus sees growing around the
central ‘natural’ view of man several psychologies,—a physio-
logical psychology, a psychophysics, a comparative psychology, a
sociological psychology. He does not attempt a strict definition of
his science, and is more anxious that it should receive the benefit
of a number of lights reflected from several quarters than that it
should stand out as a distinct, self-made, smoothly finished speci-
men.

“The experimental basis’ on which this psychology rests, in-
cludes quite as much such every-day facts as are made interesting
by the tact of a humane observer, as rows of formidable tables
fresh from the laboratory. The criticism passed upon Wundt’s
‘Physiological Psychology,’ that it is simply a physiology with a
psychology attached, would not be applicable here. Professor Hoff-
ding makes the physiology distinctly subordinate to the psychology,

1 M. Richet is also editor of the Revue Scientifique.

SCIENCE.

[Vou. X. No. 248

while constantly utilizing the facts that physiologists have dis-
covered. For the non-technical student this is perhaps the better
plan: it retains for psychology that general broadening interest
which its pursuit as a technical specialty may for a time weaken.
The plan of the work is somewhat different from those of our text-
books of psychology, and is an improvement upon them. After
defining his point of view, he considers the relations between body
and mind as well from the physiological as the philosophical
point of view, and passes to the study of the conscious and the un-
conscious, treating the phenomena of instinct, unconscious cere-
bration, etc. Here, as elsewhere, his acceptance of the evolution-
ary theory, and his use of the analogy between the growth of the
individual and that of the race, give life to his pages. He next ac-
cepts the trifold division of the intellect, the feelings, and the will,
though -accenting the fact that each depends upon the other, and the
development of all three follow the same path. His chapters upon
the mutual relations of intellect, emotions, and will, are full of sound
educational material. He devotes an unusual space to the emo-
tions, while rather slighting the will. To single out any points for
special treatment would hardly be serviceable: the important as-
pect of the volume is its modern appreciation of the intimate con-
nection between fact and theory. Dr. Hoffding has made a dis-
tinct advance in the problem of adopting new psychological results
into the body of accepted truth, which serves to educate the next
generation.

The main purpose of M. Richet’s work is to give a useful sum-
mary of those general propositions regarding the functions of the
nervous system that have a direct psychological bearing. In this
he has succeeded very well, and his success makes us realize the
progress made in recent years. It is a book of this nature that im-
presses one with the rapidity with which mental science is taking
on that long-desired scientific aspect. It is no longer meaningless
to speak of psychological laws.

What M. Richet means by ‘general psychology’ can be best
gathered from the titles of his chapters. These treat of irritability,
the nervous system, reflex action, instinct, consciousness, sensation,
memory, ideation, will. Under each heading the treatment is gen-
eral, stating in brief the conclusions accepted by modern psy-
chology. Within two hundred pages one has here a convenient
handbook of the main principles on which an elementary course in
psychology should be based.

There is one point in the volume which M. Richet has singled
out for separate treatment elsewhere, and which should be noticed
here. Between an ordinary reflex action and a conscious act, the
author introduces a ‘psychic reflex,’ and by this he means all those
involuntary acts which have become so by interposition of con-
scious, inferential elements. The dog that trembles when his
master shakes a stick at him; the man who feels nausea while
reading of a disaster; the vertigo experienced when looking down
from a height; many kinds of laughter, as of tears, fear, pain, and
pleasure, — are likewise psychic reflexes. These actions all take
place involuntarily, but they would not happen if a psychic element
did not intervene. Disgust would not occur if the tale were writ-
ten in an unknown tongue. A psychic reflex is a response to a
peripheral irritation insignificant in itself, but so transformed by
anact of the mind as to put in operation the reflex centres of the
spinal cord. This distinction is a convenient one, and the term will
doubtless be adopted.

Ancient Nahuatl Poetry. By DANIEL G. BRINTON. Philadel-
phia, The Author. 8°.

THE recent volume of the author's valuable Library of Aboriginal
American Literature, the seventh of this series, contains a num-
ber of ancient Mexican poems with translation, notes, a brief
vocabulary, and an introduction. The poems are from a manu-
script volume in the library of the University of Mexico, entitled
‘Cantares de los Mexicanos y otros opusculos,’ and printed from a
copy made by Abbé Brasseur de Bourbourg. It is unfortunate that
the author has not been able to have the texts collated with the
original, but his efforts in this direction were unsuccessful: there-
fore it is probable that some corrections will have to be made in
the texts. But scientists will nevertheless be thankful to Dr.
Brinton for the publication of the interesting collection of poems

NovEMBER 4, 1887.|

which are here for the first time made accessible to the student, and
it is to be hoped that all that is extant of ancient Nahuatl literature
will be printed ere long.

The texts are preceded by a brief introduction, in which the
character of Mexican poetry is discussed. The importance of
poetry, music, and dance among the Mexicans is set forth, and
their method of delivering the songs is described. Of particular
interest are the remarks of the author on prosody; and these are
the more weighty, as he has studied this subject among many North
American tribes. It is very difficult to decide whether accent or
quantity is the ruling element of poetry, and the author does not
attempt to decide which is more important. It seems to us that
this question can only be solved by studying music and poetry
jointly.

Dr. Brinton finds another wide-spread peculiarity of Indian poetry
occurring in Mexican poetry. It is the inordinate lengthening of
vowels and reduplicating of syllables for the purpose of emphasis
or of metre, and the insertion of meaningless interjections for the
same purpose. It is an interesting question whether the accent in
Mexican poetry is always on the vowel, or whether certain combi-
nations of consonants can form a syllable, as is the case in some
American languages. The instrumental accompaniment of the
songs is described, and the connection of the rhythm of the drums
with the prosody is emphasized. In the present collection, as well
as in those of other nations, we find a peculiar poetical language
which makes their translation very difficult. Dr. Brinton describes
this poetic dialect as abounding in metaphors. Birds, flowers, pre-
cious stones, and brilliant objects are constantly introduced in a fig-
urative sense, often to the point of obscuring the meaning of the
sentence. The grammatical structure is more complicated and
elaborate than in ordinary prose writing, and rare words occur fre-
quently. The rhetorical figure known as aposiopesis, when a sen-
tence is left unfinished and in an interjectional condition, in conse-
quence of some emotion of mind, is not rare, and adds to the
obscurity of the wording. The last peculiarity is characteristic of
the popular songs of all nations, while the occurrence of rare words
may be due to the fact that many of them are sacred songs. The
richness of metaphor, and the complicated grammatical structure,
are also wide-spread qualities of poetry.

Dr. Brinton considers some of the songs as belonging to a time
anterior to the Conquest, and gives in the brief notes which accom-
pany each of the twenty-seven songs his reasons for this opinion.
Undoubtedly most of them belong to the time of about 1500.
Others are evidently ancient songs, composed before the Spaniards
influenced the native customs and ideas, and this makes the present
collection the more interesting. It is welcome material for the
student of the Mexican aborigines.

Guatemala, the Land of the Quetzal, By WILLIAM T. BRIGHAM:
New York, Scribner. 89°.

_ THE author terms his book very properly ‘a sketch.’ It is the
tale of his journeys in Guatemala, adorned with some remarks on
the geography and history of the country. The author does not
claim to give any new information, but it is pleasant to follow him
on his ride through a semi-civilized country. The book is profusely
illustrated, and the illustrations have the merit of being new, char-
acteristic, and trustworthy, most of them being reproductions of
photographs. The scientific contents are selected somewhat at
random, but will serve the purpose which the author has principally
in view, — “to awaken among Americans greater interest in the
much-neglected regions between the Republic of Mexico and the
Isthmus of Darien.” There are several maps in the volume, but
they are of no great value. The map of Guatemala, which is
claimed to have been compiled from various sources, is only a very
rough sketch of that country. By far the greatest portion of the
book is taken up by the author’s journeys; and this is the most
interesting part, as it gives a fair idea of Central American life, and
valuable hints to future travellers. It is followed by a chapter on
the ancient inhabitants of Guatemala, a brief history of the Repub-
lic, and a sketch of its volcanoes and produce. In an appendix,
which the author compares to the attic-room of a thrifty housewife,
information about a variety of subjects and a partial bibliography
of Central America are given.

SCIENCE.

223

The Principles of Elocution. By ALEXANDER MELVILLE BELL,
5th ed., revised and enlarged. Washington, John C. Parker.
Wee

VERY many intelligent readers of the great orators, ancient and
modern, must have experienced a feeling of keen regret that they
themselves were unable even to approximate the directness, force,
and fluency of those masters of the art of expression. It would
almost seem that the power to rouse multitudes to action, to stir
the deepest and most masterful emotions, to control and direct
action, by the use of language, is so dangerous a one that it has
been granted to but few. As a matter of fact, however, oratory
or eloquence is nothing more than highly developed and cultivated
power of expression. It implies the possession of something to
express. The full head and the sympathetic heart are essentials.

But without aiming at the ambitious height of eloquence, there is
a power of forceful and adequate expression by the use of language
that belongs to us as human beings, but which is almost wholly
overlooked in the training of the young. Not only is this undesir-
able in itself, but the conditions of our modern life render it more
so. In politics, in religion, in practical life, and in social activity,
men are endeavoring to communicate their own thoughts and con-
victions to others; and very many are the embarrassments that
result from the lack of ability to properly express these thoughts
and convictions. There is, therefore, a practical as well as a senti-
mental reason why our natural gift of expression should be culti-
vated.

All of this is very familiar to Mr. Bell, and, in addition, he has
given so much time and study to the working-out of the practical
applications of the thing, that he is to-day easily our first authority
on the subject. In this last edition, the fifth, of his ‘Principles of
Elocution,’ he has given us the ripest fruits of his thoughts and
study.

Mr. Bell deprecates in his introduction the neglect of elocution,
and ascribes it to two causes, —first, it is neglected because it is
misunderstood and therefore undervalued; and, second, it is mis-
understood because it has been confounded with recitation, and
otherwise misrepresented by many writers on the subject. Mr,
Bell defines (p. 6) elocution as “the effective expression of thought
and sentiment by speech, intonation, and gesture.” Inasmuch as
it involves the exercise of language, elocution must embrace the
physiology of speech. It must study carefully the instrument of
speech, so that the elocutionist may have all its parts under his
complete control. The author therefore takes the pupil back to
respiration as the first step toward making him an expressive and
agreeable speaker. Suggestions in respiration lead naturally to
the principles of vocalization, and these to those of vowel forma-
tion. From this point on, the book is made up largely of practical
exercises on the successive steps in the elocutionary process. These
exercises and illustrations are a peculiarly valuable feature of the
book; for they are not roughly thrown together, but carefully
arranged on scientific principles.

We know of no higher praise of Mr. Bell’s book than to say that
it is pre-eminently fitted to be recognized in our high schools and
colleges as the authoritative exponent of that branch of training
which has too long been left out of their curriculum.

Bau und Verrichtungen des Gehirns.
BOHON. Heidelberg.

Uebersichtliche Zusammenstellung der Augenbewegungen, etc.
By Dr.E. LANDOLT. Tr. by Dr. H. Macnus. Breslau.

THESE contributions to the anatomy and physiology of the nervous
system are evidences of the time and attention now devoted by the
Germans to the preparation of aids to instruction whereby the
student can readily obtain correct notions of his subject. Especially
in the nervous system, where recent research from a variety of
sources has so essentially altered the accepted views, is such an
elementary reconstruction of the subject necessary. Dr. Rohon’s
pamphlet contains a lecture delivered before the Anthropological
Society of Munich, setting forth in clear language the main outlines
of current notions of the structure and functions of the brain. The
main interest in the pamphlet will centre in the colored chart,
which illustrates with great clearness the points referred to in the
text.

Von Dr. JOSEF VICTOR

224

Dr. Magnus presents a chart for the use of physicians and in-
structors, showing the main points with regard to the motion of the
eyes that one ought to retain. The main laws of motion of Donders,
Helmholtz, Listing, etc., are given; then a cut illustrating the origin
of the motor nerves of the eye. This is followed by a table giving
the origin, course, insertion, axis of rotation, etc., for each muscle
of the eye. The second part of the chart explains very clearly the
effect of paralysis of each of the muscles; how such paralysis
limits motion of the eye ; what position the eye assumes; whether
double images arise, and how they are placed; and so on. The
chart shows careful preparation, and will doubtless be widely
used.

The Journal of Morphology. Ed. by C. O. WHITMAN, with the
co-operation of EDWARD PHELPS ALLIS, Jun. Vol. I., No. 1.
Sept., 1887. Boston, Ginn & Co. 8°.

THE new zodlogical periodical, the first number of which has
been so long expected, has at last made its appearance in the shape
of a thick and handsome volume of more than two hundred pages,
issued from the well-known press of Messrs. Ginn & Co. of Boston.
It has been delayed almost unpardonably long, and yet its make-
up and the character of its contents compel us to forget the delay,
and confess that it was well worth waiting for. The plates alone
would make the journal unique among American periodicals de-
voted to the subject ; for they are mostly from the hands of Wer-
ner and Winter, the Frankfort (Germany) lithographers, whose
names alone are ample guaranty of excellence. In brief, the jour-
nal appears to us admirable in almost every particular. The paper
is good ; the press-work is well done; the minor details of arrange-
ment of footnotes, titles, headings, etc., give evidence of care and
forethought.

In this periodical we have a substantial token of the progress of
two distinct undertakings of which all American scientists ought to
be proud. The first is that of Dr. Whitman, the editor, whose hope
and struggle for many months have been to set going in the right
way a zoological periodical that shall worthily represent American
morphologists before the world, and be a suitable outlet for our
strong and increasing zoological literature. Professor Whitman
has certainly succeeded in making a good start.

A word is due also to the publishers, Messrs. Ginn & Co., for
their courage in undertaking such a periodical, which can never be
expected to be a financial success, as the demand must always be
extremely limited. The difficulty of establishing such a journal
will be the better understood when we consider that the proceed-
ings of societies, supported by large endowments, meet with practi-
cally no sale, but are distributed throughout the world by exchange,
and furnish a very excellent means for the placing on record of such
papers as are given in this magazine.

The other undertaking is that of Edward Phelps Allis, ee of
Milwaukee, with whose co-operation the journal is edited by Dr.
Whitman. Mr. Allis first formed, and then put into active opera-
tion, the idea of a private biological laboratory of research. For
this he was fortunate to secure Dr. Whitman as director, and to it
the name of the ‘Lake Laboratory’ has been given. Besides the
director, Mr. Allis has added to his laboratory Dr. William Patten
as assistant, and it is understood that Mr. Allis is himself at work
upon important investigations.

NOTES AND NEWS.

IN September a school of Oriental languages was opened at
Berlin, the object of which is to give merchants and civil officers an
opportunity to learn the languages of Asia and Africa. The staff
of the school consists of two teachers of the Arabian language,
while Persian, Chinese, Suaheli, and Herero have one teacher each.
These have studied the languages they teach in the country where
it is spoken, and they are assisted by natives. This school will un-
doubtedly prove of great value to the commerce of Germany with
_ the countries of Asia and Africa. The merchant or consular official
who understands and speaks the language of the country in which
he lives and works will have a great advantage over competitors
who have to make use of the service of interpreters. Formerly
students had the opportunity of studying Oriental languages at
German universities, but there they were taught from an exclusively

SCIENCE.

[Vot. X. No. 248

scientific point of view; and it is well known that a language
learned in this way, though its grammar may be well mastered, is
of no practical value to the student, particularly where the differ-
ence between the written and spoken languages is great, and where
the dialects are numerous. In the new school the languages are
taught as living languages, and this gives the institute its principal
importance.

— The semi-annual session of the National Academy of Sciences
will be held at Columbia College, Nov. 8, at noon, and continue for
three or four days.

— The question of teaching physiology and hygiene to elemen-
tary classes in the public schools is one that is far from a success-
ful solution. With a criminal rashness, legislatures have been
induced to prescribe alcohol-teaching as a requirement, and the
result has been to create noxious temperance-tracts with a smatter-
ing of physiology attached, instead of scientific text-books. A very
great improvement in this direction is a recently issued primer of
health lessons by Dr. Jerome Walker. Around the main facts of
physiology, the author has woven an attractive text, fully and well
illustrated, and has given the subject that kind of interest which
healthy children appreciate. He has very much reduced the space
usually allotted to alcohol and narcotics, but it may be questioned
whether the reduction is sufficient. A few very objectionable
passages (considering the age of the children to whom the book
is addressed) still remain. On the whole, Dr. Walker has set an
example in the right direction, and the instruction to teachers is not
the least valuable chapter in the book.

—One of the subjects discussed at the annual meeting of the
French Association for the Advancement of Science, which has just
been held at Toulouse, was the project for making a maritime canal
between Bordeaux and Narbonne. The different phases of this
project, which was first mooted twenty years ago, were passed in
review by M. Wickersheimer, deputy for one of the departments
through which the canal will pass. The latest project was pre-
pared this summer by a company which has been formed for the
purpose of making the preliminary survey; and according to this
scheme, the canal, which would be about three hundred and thirty
miles in length from sea to sea, would start from the western side
of Bordeaux, and follow the left bank of the Garonne for a dis-
tance of fifty miles, crossing that river at Castel-Sarrasin bya font-
canal (or aqueduct), and follow the right bank of the river as far as
Toulouse, where a large port would be created. From Toulouse
to the Mediterranean seaboard at Narbonne, the maritime canal
would be quite independent of the railway from Bordeaux to Cette,
but it would twice cross the Canal du Midi. The curves of the
canal would be of the same radius as those in the Suez Canal; that
is to say, not less than 6,000 feet, and there would be 38 locks, the
fall of which would range from 20 feet to 30 feet. The depth would
be about 24 feet, but if the minister of marine should determine to
make use of it for the first-class ironclads of the French navy, con-
trary to what was originally determined, the company will be pre-
pared to make it three feet deeper. It is estimated that the mean
speed of vessels passing through the canal will be seven miles an
hour, and they would be drawn by locomotives running along a
line of rails placed on the banks, a force of from 1,000 to 1,200
horse-power being required to produce this rate of speed. The
canal is to be lighted by electricity, the electric light being gener-
ated upon the engines used for the traction of the vessels. The
total cost is estimated at £130,000,000, or less than half of the esti-
mate originally prepared. The distance saved for vessels coming
from the western ports of France into the Mediterranean would be
680 miles.

— It is noted in the Journal of the Soczety of Arts, London, that
while the consumption of the other dietetic articles used for bever-
ages —tea, coffee, and chiccory — show a decline last year, cocoa
is marked by a considerable increase. This is remarkable, since
for about four years, from 1875 to 1879, it remained pretty station-
ary at about 10,000,000 pounds, but after 1880 it began to make
steady progress, advancing from 10,500,000 pounds in that year to
over 15,000,000 pounds last year. Of powdered cocoa and choco-
late England received 1,332,000 pounds, chiefly from Holland. She

NovemBER 4, 1887. |

also imported 3,211 hundredweight of husks and shells of the cocoa-
bean, which are also used up for cheap cocoa. There are about
ten chocolate and cocoa manufacturers in Holland, whose yearly
requirements of cocoa-beans may be estimated at 3,000 tons, in
round numbers, principally of Guayaquil, Caracas, and Domingo
kinds. They mostly manufacture cocoa preparations, known by
the name of soluble cocoa, cocoatine, and cocoa-powder; viz., the
roasted and powdered cocoa-beans deprived of most of their natural
fat, or the cocoa-butter, which is used as a valuable ingredient by
manufacturers of chocolate and cocoa sweetmeats, and also for
pharmaceutical preparations. In the early part of last month no
less than twenty-five tons of this cocoa-butter was sold in Holland,
and fifty tons in London. The oldest of the Dutch cocoa-works
was founded on a small scale more than a century ago, and most
of the other works have existed from forty to sixty years; but all
of them remained insignificant until the before-mentioned powdered
preparations found their way to foreign countries, especially Eng-
land and Germany, where certain Dutch brands of powdered cocoa
have been very well received: and enjoy a large sale. There are
people who suppose that the superiority of the Dutch cocoa-powder
is to be attributed to a peculiar mode of manufacture, different from
the methods followed in other countries. The idea to extract the
fat from the roasted cocoa-beans, and to sell the powder, is said to
have originated in the brain of a Dutch chocolate-maker about
1830. It is now generally practised in France and England. The
average consumption in the United Kingdom last year, per head of
the population, was, of cocoa, 0.41 pounds ; coffee, 0.86 ; tea, 4.87.
Tea brings into the revenue £4,500; coffee, only £200,000; and
coffee mixtures and chiccory, £5,273. The latter seem to be de-
clining.

LETTERS TO THE EDITOR.

* * The attention of scientific men is called tothe advantages of the correspondence
columus of SCIENCE for placing promptly on record brief preliminary notices of
their investigations. Twenty copies of the number containing his communication
will be furnished free to any correspondent on request.

The editor will be glad to publish any queries consonant with the character of
the journal.

Correspondents are requested to be as brief as possible.
tn all cases required as proof of good faith.

Recent Methods in the Study of Bryozoa.

IN Sczence for Oct. 7, Prof. Joseph F. James refers to certain
new methods in the study of Bxyozoa, and doubts their efficacy in
classification ; he also refers to a forthcoming publication which
shall make this clear. Pending the publication of this paper by
my esteemed friend, I cannot help expressing my decided approval
of the methods he calls in question. Theoretically, development
has proceeded in two lines, —one internal, to accommodate itself
to the needs of internal, function; and one external, to accommo-
date itself to environment, to the world with which the being
comes in contact. Variations of function are far less frequent
than those of environment: hence internal structure may still be
very similar when external features have already extensively varied.
Hence internal structure usually furnishes the reliable characters,
which distinguish genera and higher groups; external features are
used for specific determination.

Very few who have practically attempted the classification of
paleozoic Bryozoa into genera as defined according to the old
method have failed to see that such genera contained heterogeneous
assemblages of forms, often ran into each other, and contained no
distinct positive characters which were useful when great numbers
of Bryozoa were to be classified. The new method has furnished
solidity to this structure. The species fall into easily recognized
groups, as distinct as those of other organisms on the same scale of
development ; all this simply because of the abandonment of external
characteristics in the distinguishing of genera, for those of an inter-
nal nature, made easily accessible by the slide and the microscope.

In this department of study, Prof. H. A. Nicholson took the first
decided stand, and is still contributing at short intervals valuable
papers on this interesting group of fossils; but I believe that to
one of our fellow-countrymen, Mr. E. O. Ulrich, belongs the credit
of the perfection of this system. His work, which expresses his
matured views on this subject, is now in the press, forming a part
of Vol. VIII. of the forthcoming ‘Illinois Report.’ By his kindness

The writer's name is

SCIENCE:

225,

I have been permitted to see plates, and furnished with private:
extracts from the same, and I feel free to say that it will be a mon-
umental work in history of the study of Bryozoa.

The practical test of the theory of development, which holds
good everywhere else in animated nature, is also satisfactory here..
Instead of artificial we have natural classification, and that also of
a more definite and practical form. It remains to be seen whether
microscopic sections are sufficient to determine the species. A
circumstance peculiar to Bryozoa makes this in almost all cases.
possible. The form, size, and arrangement of cells may be readily
seen in tangential section; the presence of interstitial cells may
also be thus discovered ; whereas the little elevations or low spines.
around the apertures of some cells may be seen in the sections as.
spiniform tubuli. Elevated patches of cells may usually be recog—
nized by the local increased size of cells in the sections, and macu-
lz will be shown by judicious longitudinal sections.

It remains to be seen what characters of specific importance can—
not be shown in microscopic sections. One of these is the size of
the specimen ; another, its method of branching; a third, its gen—
eral contour. These may all be expressed by a simple drawing,
taking no cognizance of individual cells. Besides the details above
referred to, microscopic slides will of course furnish numerous others.
referring to internal structure alone. The fact, however, is, that not
only do microscopic slides reveal the characteristic features of the
surface, but they often reveal them in a much better way than the
specimens at hand ; for these may be abraded, perhaps ever so lit—
tle, but just enough to rub away the little spines, or to remove the
walls of interstitial cells, and, by thus exposing the diaphragms of
the same, lead to the conclusion that they do not exist. Any one
who has ever looked over a quart-measure of specimens without
finding one suitable for description will know what this means.

As regards the publication of Mr. Foord, ‘ Contributions to the
Micro-Paleontology of the Cambro-Silurian Rocks of Canada,’ it is.
an excellent exemplification of the methods (for this is what Pro-
fessor James criticises) of the advanced school of students of the
Bryozoa, and is a practical recognition of the merits of a work done
by an American paleontologist. All of the species figured are ac—
companied by magnified sections .of the same, and all except
Montzculipora Westond have also figures of the specimen’s natural!
size; and perhaps the shape of that species, “ Zoarium irregularly
hemispherical,” would not be difficult to grasp by the working
paleontologist. The fact that Prof. H. A. Nicholson, immediately
after the separation of Mr. Foord from the Geological Survey of
Canada, was pleased to publish papers conjointly with that gentle-
man, serves to show what that eminent authority’s opinion as to:
the merits of Mr. Foord’s specific work was.

These remarks I hope represent fairly the claims of the new
school as to the advantages of their methods of study. One ob-
servation alone remains to be made. I suppose that Professor
James was not in earnest when he objected to the new method on
account of the difficulty of making slides, no more than the physi-
cist who should object to the advance made in his science simply on:
account of some of the refined mechanisms now used in his depart-
ment, no more than the student of Avztomostraca who should ob-
ject to the classification reached in his science from the difficulty im
finding a specimen which-is willing to be quiet enough to let itself
be accurately drawn. He simply expresses the difficulty he finds in
leaving his old methods of study and adapting himself to new ones,
and this accidentally escaped into print, not in the form in which he
would be willing to have it remain at second thought. But the
truth is, that microscopic slides are not difficult to make. Messrs.
W. F. and John Barnes of Rockford, Ill., manufacture an instru—
ment which I know from experience to be both cheap and useful.
The specimen to be cut is ground with emery until a plane is
formed having the same direction as the intended section. Then
successively finer grades of emery are used until a fine polish is ob-
tained, which can be made very fine indeed by using polishing-
powder sprinkled over a piece of plate glass. Then the specimen
is carefully washed, dried, and glued with Canada balsam to the
slide which is to retain the specimen. Then the specimen is ground
away until only a thin sheet remains fastened in the Canada bal-
sam, after which it is again smoothed, washed, and protected by
a thin cover-glass. Forty.to sixty slides can be made in a day.

226

Some of my first slides I find useful to this day, and every day adds
experience, or a word from some friend working in the same field.
The difficulty of making sections is a myth.

Cambridge, Mass., Oct. 3r. AUG. F. FOERSTE.

Search for Gems and Precious Stones.

IN reference to the interesting article of Prof. P. L. Simmonds onthe
search for gems and precious stones, read before the Society of Arts
of England recently, reprinted in your issue of Oct. 14, allow me to
suggest a fewcorrections. Professor Simmonds estimates the yield
of the Brazilian diamond-mines at £800,000 annually, while a little
later on he says that the yield has dwindled to 24,000 carats, which
at the outside will not yield more than £2 to £3 a carat, and that of
India, Borneo, and Australia at £200,000, when these latter figures
would probably cover the annual product of Brazil as well as that
of the other three countries named. Australia produces so very
little as scarcely to be a factor in the computation. Even before
the opening of the African mines, in 1867, the estimated value of
the product of Brazil from 1861 to 1867 was only £1,888,000, or
something over £300,000 per annum, at a time when Brazilian
diamonds commanded a higher price than at present, and now they
produce much less. His statement that the opal is out of fashion
would have been true several years ago, but is not to-day, when
more of these stones are sold, and at better prices, than ever before.

The carat is given as 3.174 grains; whereas, since there are 151.5
English diamond carats inan English Troy ounce of 480 grains, an
English carat would be 3.1683168 Troy grains, or, less exact, 3.168.
A diamond carat is always divided into four diamond grains equal-
ling .792074 of a Troy grain. If 31.103 grams equal an English
Troy ounce, a carat would be .205304 of a gram.

An international syndicate composed of London, Paris, and
Amsterdam jewellers, wishing to establish a uniform carat, in 1877
confirmed .205, however, as the true value of a carat, in which case
we have 151.76 carats in an ounce Troy.

These may seem trifling differences, but yet they are enough to
affect a $10,000 lot of diamonds, worth $100 a carat, to the amount
of $4.83 between the 3.174 carat and the 3.168 carat, and $19.80
between the former and the syndicate carat.

It would perhaps have been better to make the reference to
imperial jade, which he mentions several times, under the head
of the jade-quarries of Burma, as this (/ez¢swz) imperial jade is
jadeite, not jade, and is generally only emerald green in spots or
streaks, the mass being a dead white, lending a vividness to the
green which occasionally almost rivals the emerald, and has the
hardness of 7.

Of the articles of jade shown by the New Zealand Court at the
colonial exhibition, England, Professor Simmonds says, “‘ Evidencing
the skill of the Maoris in working this hard material, the second
in this respect to the diamond, although much more fragile,” etc.
This would lead one to infer that the material possesses great
hardness, when, in fact, the hardness of jade is only 6.5, less even
than that of rock crystal, and it can be worked with sand, by which
laborious means, undoubtedly, all of the aboriginal ornaments of
the Maori were made. So far as its fragility is concerned, it is
the toughest of all known minerals, and this is the reason why it is
so difficult to work. It would require less time to polish twenty
surfaces of agate, which is harder than jade, than it would to polish
one of jade on the same wheel. Krantz, the mineral-dealer of
Bonn, having a fifty-pound piece of jade which he wished broken
into small hand specimens, a friend kindly offered him the use of a
large half-ton trip hammer to break it with. At the first blow the
hammer was demolished, and the jade was only fractured by being
heated and thrown into cold water.

We frequently hear minerals or gems loosely spoken of as
second or third in hardness to the diamond. On the Mohsscale of
hardness, the diamond is represented by ro, the sapphire by 9, topaz
8, and quartz 7; but, although the difference on the scale is only 1,
there is room for several substances between the diamond and the
sapphire; and, as we have no such known substance in nature, we
place diamond onto. In reality,so great is the difference between
these two substances, that, if the hardness of the sapphire is 9, that

of the diamond would be fully 100, relatively to the rest of the -

scale. Professor Simmonds also says that coral has the hardness

SCIENCE.

’

[Vor. X. No. 248

and brilliancy of agate. Quartz and agate are placed at 7 in the
Mohs scale, whereas coral has only the hardness of about 3, the
same as that of marble (calcite), and can be scratched by fluorite.
It is impossible to see how this opaque substance can be said to
“shine like a garnet, with the tint of the ruby.”

A word, in closing, about the hardness of agate and rock crystal.
Mineralogically these are classed together at 7; but in reality the
crystalline varieties should be 7, and the crypto-crystalline varieties
7-3, since they will readily scratch quartz, and quartz will not

scratch them. GEORGE F. KUNZ.
New York, Oct. 31.

Living Lights.

WE have noticed in your journal (Sczence, x. No. 246) a review
of the book on phosphorescence called ‘Living Lights.’ The
writer, it seems, must have made a very hasty perusal to have
failed to see that the statements therein are not conjectural, but in
each case are from individuals we are accustomed to honor as
credible witnesses,

The fact of this review being in the columns of a science journal
is, of course, the only reason for our interest init. The most chari-
table construction which we can put on this surprising exhibition
of lack of knowledge is that the reviewer did not notice the array
of great names which support the statements of the book, for we
cannot think that any one would knowingly dispute the words of
such men — and naturalists.

The reviewer starts off by throwing discredit and ridicule on the
entire world of luminosity, seemingly denying that attribute to all
living objects. He says, “ Not only do fire-flies’ fly, glow-worms
glow, zodphytes twinkle in the sea, but sea-anemones, alcyonarians,
gorgonias, star-fishes, earth-worms, crabs, shell-fish, lizards, frogs,
toads, fishes, birds, monkeys, and men must be added,” etc.

We confess to embarrassment in approaching the task of replying
to such, for one is impressed with the notion that some occult jest
isintended; but again we are reminded of the character of the
journal, and a feeling of surprise follows at the incomprehensible
lack of knowledge displayed regarding the subject in hand.

The reviewer continues, “ There is no excuse for conjectural
illustrations, and ideal views of possible appearances.” Shall we
inform him that twelve of the plates in ‘ Living Lights’ are process
copies taken from lately published bulletins of M. Filhol, M. Dubois,
and from sketches of the deep-water dredged objects obtained by the
gentlemen of the‘ Challenger,’ ‘ Travaileur,’ ‘ Porcupine,’ ‘ Majenta,’
and others, several of whom kindly furnished the author with ad-
vanced papers for use in his work ?

Thus for twelve of the illustrations: for the remaining ones, it
were absurd indeed to defend them. The former, as being matter
not yet widely extant, some of it not published outside of society
bulletins, may well be regarded as unfamiliar. The quotation which
the reviewer takes from the book is treated soasto mislead. The
author evidently meant to convey that it is difficult to represent the
phenomenon of luminosity in marine animals, as their integrity is
injured on exposure to air, though no question is entertained of
their luminosity. A kindly review of this portion would rather
praise the caution exhibited by the author in stating that the
pictures may possibly not exactly portray the real appearance as it
exists in the sea. The statements of the reviewer are so sweeping
and (possibly) damaging among those not informed, it would seem
advisable to state facts, though it is a humiliating thought that the
brilliant work of so many eminent men should in such quarters be
unknown.

It is but justice to do this, as the author of ‘ Living Lights’ is at
present beyond reach, at a distance from home, and of course un-
able to reply seasonably.

The statement, “zodphytes twinkling in the sea” might well
have covered the ground for one group, without enumerating “‘sea-
anemones, alcyonarians, gorgonias,” etc., also; but this enumera-
tion will serve to suggest what objects concern us, as those arraigned
for false attributes. We presume that few will deny the luminous
gift to fire-flies, glow-worms, etc., which are mentioned in this
connection. Let us, then, pass to the sea-anemone record. Colo-
nel Pike of Brooklyn, an American naturalist not to be ques-
tioned, has given at length his testimony, and we know that the
author himself has an experience as to their luminosity, which,

NoveMBER 4, 1887. |

coupled with that of Van Benedin and numerous other European
zodlogists, we assume is weight enough to give respectability.

The luminosity of gorgonias, sea-worms, star-fishes, etc., is a well-
known fact to us from long residence on the Florida reefs; but,
should it be desirable to fortify such evidence, we would refer to testi-
mony of Sir Wyville Thompson, and several other successful dredgers.

It would have saved somewhat of the task of this exposé, had the
reviewer read the history of the Brzszmga, the luminous star-fish,
which ‘Living Lights’ gives amply, and illustrates by process
picture from the original, through courtesy of M. Filhol and M.
Dubois, the latter having had some of the dredgings of the ‘ Talis-
man’ for examination. The work of Charles Abjordsen of Nor-
way, on the luminosity of this creature, is also extant, who pleas-
antly named it Glorza marzs. M. Quatrefages may also be called
to testify, if need be, whose valuable work on the luminosity of the
star-fishes is well known. P. Martin Duncan and some others are

.remembered in this connection.

The crustaceans are next summoned to show cause. Must we
arraign our own Verrill and Smith? Shall the ancient Viviani be
questioned? May we lightly dispute the words of Nordenskiold,
Giglioli, Sir Joseph Banks, MM. Eydoux and Souleyet, Norman,
Vaughn, Thompson, Murray, V. Willemoes Suhm, and a host of
others whose descriptions of the luminosity of crustaceans are not
in sober earnest to be called “displays of pyrotechnical natural his-
tory”? The attractive picture of Colossendezs, copied from M.
Filhol’s delightful work, is one with others which the reviewer
chooses to designate as “‘conjectural illustrations ” and “ideal view
for which there is no excuse.”

Regarding fishes, Dr. Gunther’s views and statements are con-
sidered good science. His kindly correspondence with the author
pleasantly confirms all that he has written on phosphorescence of
fishes.

M. Carlo Emery, of the Italian Zodlogical Schools, kindly com-
municated his experiments to the author, with drawings, on the
luminosity of the insect Zucczola ztalica. It were better due
this eminent naturalist in the pages of an American science journal
to acknowledge his original investigations in the spirit of science,
rather than pronounce them examples of “pyrotechnical natural
history,” etc.

It certainly cannot be necessary to go further; but as the picture
of a heron was particularly mentioned as “distinctly misleading,”
etc., it may be well to direct attention to the facts in the case. At-
tention to the text will show that the author carefully and at much
trouble set about gaining, if possible, any additional knowledge
concerning the alleged luminosity of the breast of the night-heron.
It has long been a widely known belief among hunters that the
powder-down patches on the heron’s breast are at times luminous.
We have learned from very many ornithologists that tne belief was
familiar to themselves, and in general there is an inclination to con-
sider it true. The editor of ‘Living Lights’ received some re-
markable confirmations of the long-existing say-so, and in his book

plainly exhibits several of the most convincing, —no less than pos-

itive statements in answer to categorical inquiries by the author.

It chanced that we were able to ask the opinion of the eminent
English naturalist, Mr. Alfred Russell Wallace, to whom this sub-
ject was familiar. He expressed readiness to believe the existence of
luminosity in such birds, notwithstanding the literature on the sub-
ject is so meagre, and quoted the well-known case of the lantern-
fly. Mr. Wallace was an explorer in South America, as is well
known, and in answer to our question he said, “I did not observe
the phenomenon of luminosity in the lantern-fly, but Madam
Meérian, the distinguished entomologist, and the Marquis Spinola,
did ; the former giving detailed accounts of several which emitted
such powerful luminosity, on opening the box in which they were
confined, that she was alarmed. I am therefore not entitled to
deny the statements.”

Regarding the higher animals and man, as in relation to the
phenomenon of luminosity, the long-recorded example of the bril-
liant eyes of the South American monkey should be regarded; and
if the statements concerning man, as published by Dr. Phipson in
his nearly unique treatise on this subject, as quoted by the author,
are not entitled to respect, and protection from the assertion that
such “statements are distinctly misleading and wrong. . . and

SCIENCE,

227

highly colored, and admitted on very slender evidence,” then we
have no remedy.

In a few words, the considerable fresh material in ‘ Living Lights’
should have received favorable notice; for, added to the large
amount of facts in marine zoology long familiar to the author
through actual personal contact with marine life on all parts of our
coast, on the extreme northern and on the Florida shores, and on
the two oceans, here is presented noticeable examples of luminosity
in every grand division of zodlogy, and in the vegetable and min-
eral worlds, all furnished by the eminent zoélogists, with accom-
panying figures, which the reviewer has chosen to ignore or ridi-
cule.

The amount of information and data obtained by the author
through the United States Fishery Commission is very great, and
it is due to the memory of the late lamented commissioner to say
that the work of the ‘Albatross’ and ‘Fish Hawk’ exceeds all
others in the contributions to science derived from the deep-sea
dredgings. The history of luminous marine animals, judged by
those acquainted with marine zodlogy, is by no means exhausted.

A.
New York, Oct. 26.

Sorghum-Sugar.

IN an article under the above caption published in Sczence about
a year ago (viii. p. 361), I ventured to make the following prediction
with reference to the experiments which were being carried on in
Kansas under the direction of the United States Department of
Agriculture : —

“The indications from the present results are most hopeful, —
that, with the expenditure of a small fraction of the money and
brains that have been required to develop the sugar of the beet, the
sorghum-sugar industry will take a leading place among American
industries, and enable Uncle Sam to accomplish a long-cherished
hope, viz., of making his own sweets.”

The results of this season’s work, while it is not yet fully com-
pleted, would seem to show that this prediction is in a fair way to
be fully confirmed within a very few years, for a great advance has.
already been made towards the solution of the problem of the
profitable production of sugar from sorghum.

The final outcome of last year’s work was extremely discouraging:
to many friends of the industry, and it was only by strenuous efforts.
on the part of the few who still retained their faith, that the neces-
sary appropriation for the continuation of the experiments could be
obtained from Congress. Many thought that the question would
be definitely settled by the experiments last year, and, as the results.
achieved were chiefly of a negative character, they considered that
it was proved a failure. Perhaps too much was expected to be
accomplished in so short a time. It has often been the case with
great undertakings, and in the accomplishment of scientific prob-
lems, that their prospect looked darkest just before the dawn of
their success. Such has been the case with sorghum-sugar. Nega-
tive results frequently contribute greatly toward ultimate success,
and the lessons taught by some of last year’s failures have been
turned to very valuable account in this year’s work.

The two difficulties mentioned in the article referred to as en-
countered in last season’s work — viz., the cleaning of the chips, and
the treatment of the juice —have been successfully grappled with.
The former is accomplished by ingenious yet simple mechanical
devices. The cane is fed, leaves and all, to an ordinary ensilage-
cutter, which cuts it all into pieces about one and a half or two
inches in length. These are carried to a height by an elevator, and
thence dropped through a series of separating-fans, where the ref-
use, consisting of the blades and sheaths, is blown out ; its separa-
tion from the sections of cane being quite complete on account of
the much greater weight of the latter. The cleaned pieces of cane
are then carried to a small cylindrical cutter, whose operation is very
similar to that of a planing-machine, and which cuts the cane into
quite small chips, or shreds. Thus the diffusion is effected upon
well-cleaned cane, —a fact which doubtless contributes greatly to
the purity of the juices obtained. The inversion of the juice in the
cell, which is very apt to occur with sorghum on account of its
large content of various vegetable acids, is controlled by the use of
precipitated carbonate of lime, which is added to the contents of

228

each cell. By this a considerable proportion of these acids is
neutralized. In the treatment of the juice the solution of the prob-
lem seems to have rested rather in the simplification of the method
to be used than in its further complication. In fact, it is really a
return to first principles, as it were; for the method which was
finally adopted, and which has given such excellent results, is
the old method of liming the juice to a slightly alkaline re-action,
and boiling and skimming in an open pan. No filtration is used
whatever, the scums being simply returned to the cells, where they
are again extracted, so that no loss of sugar is sustained. Treated
in this way, the diffusion juice shows a higher coefficient of purity
than juice obtained from the same cane by pressure, also an in-
‘creased ratio of sucrose to glucose.

Single experimental runs have given a yield as high as one hun-
‘dred and thirteen pounds of ‘first sugar’ to the ton of cleaned
-cane, with seventeen and a half pounds of ‘second sugar,’ or a total
of one hundred and thirty pounds to the ton. This is at least twice
as large a yield as has ever been obtained by pressure extraction,
even under the most favorable conditions. The results on the sea-
son’s work have not yet been ascertained.

The people of Kansas are highly pleased over the results of the
work so far, and, with characteristic Western energy, are preparing
to rush into the sugar-business immediately, and make Kansas, in
the language of the local newspapers, ‘ rival Louisiana’ as a sugar-
producing State. A few words of caution to these would-be sugar-
growers might not come amiss. No industry requires more careful
management, or a greater amount of scientific knowledge and skill,
to make it a success, than the production of sugar. In order to
compete with other sugar-producing countries and plants, the most
careful system of cultivation should be combined with the most
skilful and economical methods of manufacture. The beet-sugar
industry of Europe may well serve as a model in this respect, in
that the proper cultivation of the beet-roots is regarded as of prime
importance, and in the manufacture of the sugar every pound of
waste or by-product is utilized, and every ton of fuel is made to
yield its maximum equivalent of power. The most careful and
thorough scientific supervision is exercised over the entire process
‘of manufacture. At the present prices for sorghum-seed, which is
in great demand for planting for forage purposes and for the sirup,
a yield of any thing in the neighborhood of one hundred pounds of
sugar to the ton of cane would afford a very wide margin on the
‘cost of production, since the cane can be grown for one dollar and
fifty cents per ton; but the success of the industry would necessa-
rily involve the reduction of the prices for these important by-prod-
ucts to a much lower figure, and cut off a very considerable pro-
portion of the present profits in the production. On the other
hand, much is to be hoped from the apparently great adaptability of
the plant to the soil and climate of a large area of this country, and
from scientifically conducted experiments for the increase of its sac-
charine content. Judging from analogy, it is reasonable to expect
that the latter can be greatly increased by the well-known methods
of selection and cultivation. Sorghum-cane has been grown on the
grounds of the Department of Agriculture at Washington, which
‘contained as high as eighteen per cent of sucrose in the juice, or
sixteen per cent of the cane. If a field of sorghum could be raised
which would average fifteen per cent of sucrose without too great
an expenditure for cultivation, the question of the profitable pro-
duction of sugar from the plant would be solved at once.

This much, at least, can be said of the experiments that have
been carried on by the Department of Agriculture: they have
shown that good marketable sugar can be made from sorghum-
cane in sufficient quantities to pay at the present prices for the prod-
ucts and by-products of the manufacture. The question as to
whether we are to have a national sugar-industry in the United
States will probably work out its own solution before many years.

These experiments in the manufacture of sugar should have a
particular interest for scientific men, for their success means not
only a triumph of science, but also a complete vindication of the
policy of giving governmental aid to scientific investigations. The
development of the sorghum-sugar industry so far has been carried
on entirely by the Department of Agriculture, with appropriations
made by Congress for that purpose. Numerous objections have
been raised against these appropriations, and both loud and deep

SCIENCE.

[VoLt. X. No. 248

have been the repinings as the years went on and no practical out-
come was obtained. In case they are crowned with ultimate suc-
cess, these objectors will be most fitly answered; for the money
spent would be but as a molecule of water to the Mississippi River
in comparison with the stream of wealth which would flow from
the establishment of a national sugar-industry. Let us hope the
lesson will have its effect upon the people in the adoption of a still
more liberal policy in aiding scientific research in the future. The
experiments in the application of the diffusion to Louisiana cane
will be commenced some time in October. From the favorable
results which were obtained last fall at Fort Scott in operating upon
a few carloads of cane after the close of the sorghum season, it
may reasonably be expected that the yield obtained will be very
satisfactory, although the problem is somewhat more difficult than
in the case of sorghum, as the results obtained by mill-extraction
from the Southern cane are much superior to those obtained from

sorghum. C. A. CRAMPTON.
Fort Scott, Kan., Oct. 23.

The Purslane-Worm.

IT may be of interest to note that the ‘purslane-caterpillar,’ de-
scribed in a recent number of Sczence (x. No. 246), has made its
appearance at this point; at least, a new species of caterpillar, new
to all observers, and feeding on purslane, has made itself very con-
spicuous for a few months past. In this vicinity the early summer
was very dry, and the purslane, which is not yet so common a weed
with us as farther east, was not very plentiful. But late in August,
after a series of heavy showers, it sprang up, more suo, abundantly, _
and with it came this stranger in such numbers as to attract the
notice of one quite unlearned in such matters. Both the plant and
its boarder flourished along the line of a railroad leading south-east
into Kansas, from which State it is in all probability an emigrant;
but, if so, one would think that it must have advanced farther last

season than your Kansas correspondent noted.

GEO. M. WHICHER.
Hastings, Neb., Oct. 25.

Queries.

16. PENNSYLVANIA PoT-HOLES.— Can you tell me where I
can find an account of the glacial pot-hole noticed in your ‘ Notes ’
in No. 246? I presume it may be in some volume of the Second
Geological Survey of Pennsylvania, but I do not know which one.
Perhaps some of your readers can say, if you cannot.

JOSEPH F. JAMES.
Oxford, O., Oct. 23.

17. DOES BITUMINOUS COAL CONTAIN ANY BITUMEN ? —
Many text-books and dictionaries define bituminous coal as con-
taining bitumen, and mislead the student into the belief that its
name is due to this fact. In Vol. VI., ‘Encyclopeedia Britannica,’
ninth edition, Mr. H. Baurerman, F.G.S., Royal School of Mines,
says on p. 46, under the subject coal, ‘The most important class
of coals is that generally known as bituminous, from their prop-
erty of softening, or undergoing an apparent fusion, when heated
to a temperature far below that at which actual combustion takes
place. This term is founded on a misapprehension of the nature of
the occurrence, since, although the softening takes place at a low
temperature, still it marks the point at which destructive distilla-
tion commences, and hydrocarbons both of solid and gaseous
character are formed. That nothing analogous to bztumen ex-
zsts in coals, 7s proved by the fact that the ordinary solvents for
bituminous substances, such as bésulphide of carbon, and benzole,
have no effect upon them, as would be the case if they contatned
bzetumen soluble zn these re-agents. The term is, however, a con-
venient one, and one whose use is almost a necessity from its hav-
ing an almost universal currency among coal-miners.” Impressed
with the above statement, and recognizing its importance to
teachers of science especially, I call attention to it, under the head
of ‘Queries,’ that hereafter truth shall be taught, and not error. I
sometimes entertain a suspicion that many errors continue to be
accepted as facts, because writers simply copy from their prede-
cessors, instead of actually testing or proving them to be facts.

GEORGE GLENN WOOD, M.D.
Muncy, Penn., Oct. 28.

Se CENCE

FRIDAY, NOVEMBER 11, 1887.

THE ANNOUNCEMENT which has been going the rounds of the
press, of the perfecting by Mr. Edison of his phonograph, certainly
seems startling, and one which might be denied without arousing
surprise; but it now appears as if the world were soon to be
treated to another great fruit of inventive genius, and that one of
the great R’s may soon be displaced. Mr. Edison, in a letter
to the editor of The Engineering and Mining Journal, has ex-
pressed in his frank and usual hearty way such utter confidence in
the successful performance of all, or even more than all, that is
hoped for, that we look forward to the receipt of our first phono-
graph with anxious curiosity. Those who remember the phono-
graph of ten years ago will recall that it was next to impossible to
reproduce tones that were absolutely distinct; that is, sufficiently
distinct to be recognized without difficulty or mistake by some per-
son who had not heard the original utterances. To-day these dif-
ficulties have been overcome; and the sender of a message, after
setting the machine in motion, need only talk into the machine
with his natural and usual voice, then withdraw the phonogram,
which corresponds to the old sheet of tinfoil, which could not be
withdrawn, and mail to his friends in this way his verbatim utter-
ances. These phonograms will cost but little more than an ordi-
nary sheet of letter-paper, and will be made in various sizes to
accommodate messages varying in length from eight hundred to
four thousand words. On the receipt of such a phonogram, it can
readily be placed in the apparatus of the receiving instrument, and
it will at once speak out with distigctness and clearness equal to
that of the human voice at the same rate of speed at which it was
originally dictated. These phonograms will not be obliterated by

the first use, but may be kept on file, ready for reproduction when-
ever necessary.

THE OCTOBER NUMBER of the /ournal of the Soctety for
Psychical Research contains this statement; “It will be remem-
bered that the earliest experiments in thought-transferrence de-
scribed in the society’s Proceedings were made with some sisters of
the name of Creery; and that, though stress was never laid on any
trials where a chance of collusion was afforded by one or more of
the sisters sharing in the ‘agency,’ nevertheless some results ob-
tained under such conditions were included in the records. In a
series of experiments recently made at Cambridge, two of the sis-
ters, acting as ‘agent’ and ‘percipient,’ were detected in the use of
a code of signals; and a third has confessed to a certain amount of
signalling in the earlier series to which I have referred. This fact
throws discredit on the results of all former trials conducted under
similar conditions. How far the proved willingness to deceive can
be held to affect the experiments on which we relied, where col-
lusion was excluded, must of course depend on the degree of strin-
gency of the precautions taken against trickery of other sorts, as to
which every reader will form his own opinion.” The prompt pub-
lication of this damaging discovery, and it is a very damaging one,
is only another evidence of the thorough candor and fair-minded-
ness with which Messrs. Myers and Gurney have conducted the
experiments in behalf of the society. These Creery girls, daughters
of a Devonshire clergyman, and from ten to seventeen years of age
when the experiments were originally tried, were among the first in
whom the so-called ‘telepathy’ was discovered. The record of
the experiments with these girls was one of the most interesting

chapters in the society’s early history. It is extremely mortifying,

therefore, to find them tainted with fraud; and the exclamations,
“T told you so!” will be numerous. Yet it does not follow that all
the experiments were worthless. A searching revision of them
must, however, be made, and we may rest assured that the able
and untiring executive officers of the society will make it.

AN INVESTIGATION OF DREAMS.

THE American Society for Psychical Research is collecting ac-
counts of cases where one person has had some remarkable experi-
ence, such as an exceptionally vivid and disturbing dream, or a
strong waking impression amounting to a distinct hallucination,
concerning another person at a distance, who was, at the time,
passing through some crisis, such as death, or illness, or some other
calamity. It appears that coincidences of this sort have occurred,
but it may be alleged that they are due to mere chance. For the
determination of this, it is desirable to ascertain the proportion
between (a) the number of persons in the community who have
not had any such experiences at all; (4) the number of persons who
have had such experiences coinciding with real events; (¢) the
number of persons who have had experiences which, though simi-
lar to the foregoing in other respects, did of coincide with real
events.

The society has therefore issued a circular requesting every one
who receives it in the course of the next six months to repeat the
questions given below, verdazzm, to as many trustworthy persons as
possible, from whom he does not know which answer to expect,
and who have not already been interrogated by some one else, and
communicate the results. The questions are so framed as to re-
quire no answer but ‘yes’ or ‘no.’ Special attention is drawn to
the fact that the object of the inquiry would be defeated if replies
were received only from persons who have had remarkable experi-
ences of the kind referred to (whether coincident with real events
or not); and there should be no selection whatever of persons who
have had such experiences. In case of negative answers only, it
will be sufficient if the collector will send (not for publication) his
own name and address, with the replies which he has received.

If there are any affirmative answers, the society desire to receive
also (not for publication) the name and address of any person who
answers ‘yes.’ If the experience has been coincident with a real
event, they specially request the percipient to send an account of it.

All communications should be sent to the secretary, Richard
Hodgson, 5 Boylston Place, Boston, Mass., from whom additional
copies of the circular may be obtained. It is of the utmost impor-
tance to obtain answers from a very large number of persons, and
it is hoped that many thousands of replies will be received. The
questions are as follows :—

I. Have you, within the past year, when in good health, had a
dream of the death of some person known to you (about whom you
were not anxious at the time), which dream you marked as an ex-
ceptionally vivid one, and of which the distressing impression lasted
for at least as long as an hour-after you rose in the morning?

II. Have you, within the past three years but not within the past
year, when in good health, had a dream of the death of some per-
son known to you (about whom you were not anxious at the time),
which dream you marked as an exceptionally vivid one, and of
which the distressing impression lasted for at least as long as an
hour after you rose in the morning ?

III. Have you, within the past twelve years but not within the
past three years, when in good health, had a dream of the death of
some person known to you (about whom you were not anxious at
the time), which dream you marked as an exceptionally vivid one,
and of which the distressing impression lasted for at least as long
as an hour after you rose in the morning ?

IV. Have you, at any time during your life but not within the past
twelve years, when in good health, had a dream of the death of

230

some person known to you (about whom you were not anxious at
the time), which dream you marked as an exceptionally vivid one,
and of which the distressing impression lasted for at least an hour
after you rose in the morning?

V. Have you, within the past year, when in good health, and
completely awake, had a distinct impression of seeing or being
touched by a human being, or of hearing a voice or sound which
suggested a human presence, when no one was there?

VI. Have you, within the past three years but not within the past
year, when in good health, and completely awake, had a distinct
impression of seeing or being touched by a human being, or of
hearing a voice or sound which suggested a human presence, when
no one was there?

VII. Have you, within the past twelve years but not within the
past three years, when in good health, and completely awake, had
a distinct impression of seeing or being touched by a human being,
or of hearing a voice or sound which suggested a human presence,
when no one was there?

VIII. Have you, at any time during your life but not within the
past twelve years, when in good health, and completely awake, had
a distinct impression of seeing or being touched by a human being,
or of hearing a voice or sound which suggested a human presence,
when no one was there ?

HEALTH MATTERS.
Cholera at Quarantine.

IT will, we imagine, be somewhat of a surprise to our readers to
learn that there have been thirty-eight cases of cholera at the quar-
antine islands in the port of New York since Sept. 22; and yet from
reputable sources this seems to be the fact. From the report just
made to the College of Physicians of Philadelphia, and published in
an extra issue of the Wedzcal News, we learn that eight persons
sick with cholera were removed from the steamship ‘Alesia,’ to
which Sczence referred in its issue of Oct. 14, to Swinburne Island ;
five of these died: subsequently twenty-seven others were stricken
with the disease, of whom nine died: of the passengers of the
‘Britannia,’ whose arrival from Italy was recorded in Sczence of Nov.
4, three have been attacked with cholera, at least one of whom has
died, —a total of thirty-eight cases and fifteen deaths. So far as
we know, no new case has developed since Oct. 24.

The report to which we allude is a most important one, and one
which will attract the attention and thoughtful consideration of
physicians and sanitarians, not only in the United States, but through-
out the civilized world. On Oct. 5, the College of Physicians of Phila-
delphia appointed a committee to consider the present danger of
the importation of cholera into this country, and to secure con-
certed action among the medical societies of the land in urging upon
the State and National authorities the adoption of a uniform and
efficient system of quarantine for all exposed ports. This com-
mittee consisted of Drs. James C. Wilson, E. O. Shakespeare, and
R. A. Cleemann. It will be remembered that Dr. Shakespeare was
selected by President Cleveland to investigate cholera in Europe
and India. These gentlemen investigated the quarantine stations
at New York, Philadelphia, and Baltimore, and presented their re-
port Oct. 28. The following day an extra issue of the Medical
WVews of Philadelphia, one of the leading medical journals, was
published with the following editorial comment: “The paramount
importance to the public of preventing the importation of cholera
into the United States calls for a special issue of the AZedzcal News,
giving in full the report of the commission appointed by the College
of Physicians of Philadelphia .. . to investigate the condition of
affairs in the quarantine of New York. It will be seen that the
grave dangers which exist may render prompt action necessary
with a view to establishing some national system of quarantine for
the protection of the country.”

The committee visited personally the quarantine stations at the
three ports mentioned, and made a careful and thorough exami-
nation of every thing pertaining thereto. It will be impossible for
us to do more than refer to their conclusion. In reference to the
stations at Philadelphia and Baltimore, they say that it is evident
that they fail in the most essential requisites of the necessary num-
ber of properly equipped buildings for the isolation and observation

SCIENCE:

[Vor. X. No. 249

of a large number of immigrants. In regard to the station at New
York, they find the buildings to be sufficiently large and numerous,
and to have adequate arrangements for heating and cooking, but
that they are not divided into a sufficient number of small compart-
ments to permit the strict isolation of the immigrants into small
groups. The water-closets and bath-tubs are inadequate, the pumps.
by which sea-water is obtained for flushing the water-closets were
out of order, and the soil-pipes from the water-closets had a number
of right angles in their course to the sea, thus interfering with
thorough scouring. There is no provision for the general washing
of clothing, and the immigrants performed this work for themselves
in such proximity to the underground cisterns of water as to render
it possible for this water to become infected. The use of this cis-
tern-water for drinking had been forbidden, and other water sup-
plied for this purpose; but there were no means of enforcing the
order, and access to the cistern could be had at all times. The
lack of bedsteads, chairs, tables, and proper eating utensils, added
to the hardships of the immigrants and to the dangers of infection.

The committee comment on the absence of a resident medical
officer, and of an adequate force of watchmen, patrolmen, and at-
tendants. The possibility of occasional clandestine communication
between the detained immigrants and their friends by means of
small boats, constituted a danger to the country difficult to esti—
mate, and against which, so far as could be learned, there were no
precautions. At Swinburne Island, where the hospital is situated,
there were, at the time of the committee’s visit, nine cases of cholera
in the wards, and they noted with surprise the absence of a resident
physician. It was also a reversal of modern ideas to find male
nurses in charge of female patients. The clothing of patients is
sent back to Hoffman Island to be disinfected, although there is a
disinfecting-chamber in connection with the hospital ; and the com-
mittee were informed that the convalescents were, as soon as they
were strong enough to be about, returned to Hoffman Island with-
out having been previously bathed and disinfected.

In reference to the steamship ‘ Britannia,’ it would appear that
the committee believe that cholera appeared during the voyage
from Italy, and that its existence was either not recognized by the
ship’s surgeon, or else concealed by the deliberate falsification of
the ship’s sanitary record. In either case the committee think that
this has seriously increased the present danger of the ultimate in-
troduction of cholera into the country through the port of New
York. They state that the continuance of cholera among the pas-
sengers of the ‘Alesia’ so long after their removal to the station of
observation, in itself demonstrates the inefficiency of the measures
which have been adopted and enforced, and further add, that, al-
though they have not heard of the development of the disease any-
where on the mainland, nevertheless, in view of the almost un-
controllable tendency of cholera to spread at times, and of the origi-
nal insufficiency and the present faulty constitution of the police
force on Hoffman Island, they feel impelled to believe that the im-
munity up to the present time has been owing to singular good
fortune rather than to good management.

Having pointed out the defects of the quarantine stations, the
committee turn their attention to the principal cause; namely, the
cost of supplying these defects. Were it not for the question of
money, there would have been physicians constantly in attendance
at the New York station, and, consequently, better management
and discipline would have been maintained; while at Philadelphia
and Baltimore there would have been adequate establishments pro-
vided for the isolation and observation of large bodies of immi-
grants. The remedy suggested is to put quarantine into the hands
of the national government. The committee recognize the difficul-
ties in bringing this about, but at the same time they regard this as
the only efficient remedy.

In reference to this report of the Philadelphia committee, we
have little to say at this time. It certainly is a very serious indict-
ment of the quarantine stations and methods of the three ports
specifically mentioned, and of the other ports of entry upon the At-
lantic and Gulf coasts, in reference to which the committee state,
that, although they have not inspected them, there is no reason to
believe that they are in any respect superior. It will not answer to
say, as officials are reported in the daily press to have said, that
this is an attack by a jealous city upon New York in order to divert

NovemBer 11, 1887.|

commerce from its port, nor are all the charges contained in the
report to be met by the statement that the governor of the State of
New York is responsible, by reason of having vetoed appropriations.
The report is a serious reflection upon public officials in whom the
public and sanitarians have placed implicit reliance, and should be
met in the same official way that it has been issued. Unless it is
so met, the quarantine authorities must not expect public confidence ;
and, whether they do or not, we fear they will not receiveit. We
shall be only too glad to open the columns of Sczevce to them, and
present their statements as fully as we have those of the committee
of Philadelphia physicians:

AMERICAN ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF PHYS-
ICAL EDUCATION. — The American Association for the Advance-
ment of Physical Education will hold its third annual meeting at
the Adelphi Academy, Brooklyn, on Noy. 25. The following pro-
gramme has been announced: paper by the retiring president,
Prof. Edward Hitchcock, A.M.,M.D., Amherst College; ‘ Physi-
‘cal Training in Elementary Schools in the United States’ (ex-
tract from report of New Hampshire Board of Health for 1887),
E. H. Fallows, Adelphi Academy; motion by C. G. Rathman,
N. A. T. B., relative to physical training in elementary schools in the
United States ; discussion ; report of work done by the N. A. T.B.
ithe past year, H. M. Starkloff, M.D., president N. A. T. B;.‘ Phys-
ical Measurements, their Use to the Individual, Edward Hitch-
cock, jun., M.D., Cornell University; discussion opened by W. L.
Savage, A.M.,M.D., director Berkely Lyceum, New York City ; gen-
eral discussion; ‘Military Training as an Exercise,’ J. W. Seaver,
M.D., Yale University ; discussion opened by Gen. E. L. Moli-
neux, Brooklyn, N.Y., and John White, Ph.D., head master Berkely
‘School, New York City.

REMOVAL OF NEEDLES FROM THE BoDy.— Dr. Littlewood
describes in the Zazce¢ a method which he has used successfully
in seven cases for the removal of needles from the body. The
part supposed to contain the needle is thoroughly rubbed over with
an electro-magnet, so as to magnetize the metal, if present. A
delicately balanced magnetic needle is held over the part. If the
needle is present, its position can be ascertained by the attraction
or repulsion of the poles of the magnetic needle. Having ascer-
tained the presence of the needle, and rendered the part bloodless
and painless, an incision is made over the needle; the electro-
magnet is then inserted in the wound, and the needle felt for and
withdrawn. Ifthe needle is firmly embedded, the positive pole of
a galvanic battery is placed on the surface of the body of the
patient, and the negative pole in contact with the needle, which be-
‘comes loosened by electrolysis, and can then be easily removed by
the electro-magnet.

ETHNOLOGY.
Were the Toltecs an Historic Nationality?

Dr. BRINTON has for a long time maintained that the Toltecs -

were no historic nationality, but an entirely legendary people. In
a lecture delivered before the American Philosophical Society on
Sept. 2, he takes up the question, and ably defends his standpoint
which he first expressed in 1868 in his ‘ Myths of the New World.’
The present paper was written to criticise the statements of Char-
nay and others who maintain the historical character of this people.
The enthusiastic Frenchman Désirée Charnay considers the Toltec
civilization the basis of all Central American culture, and traces
their migrations from the northern boundary of Mexico to Copan ;
but the reasons which he brings forth to support his theory, and
which are entirely founded on the character of Central American
arts, are not at all conclusive. The Mexican and Central American
styles are not sufficiently studied to draw any conclusions as to
what is original in each tribe, and what is borrowed from the other ;
and Charnay’s assertion of a connection between East Asian and
‘Central American arts warns us from accepting his arguments
without a thorough criticism. Brinton’s opinion is that the emi-
gration of the Toltecs from the north, the foundation of Tula in
the sixth century, and the dispersion of the Toltecs all over Central
America, are entirely fabulous. He compares the facts known

SCIENCE.

231

about Tula and the legends as told by the best authorities, and
finds that Tula was nothing else than one of the stations the Aztecs
occupied in their migrations. To explain the wide celebrity of the
place, which extended to Guatemala and Yucatan, Brinton recurs
to its etymology. As the meaning of the name, which is not of
rare occurrence in Mexico, he gives ‘ the place of the sun,’ and this,
he thinks, broughtit into connection with many a myth of light and
of solar divinities. This process is one often occurring in the de-
velopment of folk-lore. There can be no doubt that Brinton’s
opinion, that no immediate truth underlies the myth which makes
Tula the birthplace and abode of gods, and its inhabitants the civ-
ilizers of Central America, is correct.

ANTHROPOLOGY IN .THE AMERICAN AND BRITISH ASSOCIA-
TIONS FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE. — It is of interest
to compare the papers read in the Section of Anthropology of these
two associations. While the section of the British Association de-
voted much of its time to considering theoretical questions, such as
the probable existence of an Archaian white race, the origin of
totemism, etc., such questions were hardly touched upon at the
meeting of the American Association, which devoted most of its
time to listening to the reports of results obtained by explorers in
the ethnological and archeological field. This may in part be due
to the fact that the field of researches in America is sovast. The
amount of unknown material is so large, that every year brings
some new and unexpected discoveries. But there is another char-
acteristic feature of the American Association. What little discus-
sion of theories there was, referred principally to the discussion of
classifications, — a subject which seems to have been entirely
wanting among the papers of the British Association. If we con-
sider that classifications are only a help, not an aim, of science, and
that the great goal of ethnology and anthropology is to outline the
early history of mankind and to work out the psychology of nations,
we must concede that the work of the British Association is su-
perior to ours. We do not mean to say that there are no vague
theories held by British scientists, or that no eminent work is done
by Americans; but the favorite studies of ethnologists as a whole,
and as expressed in the subjects of papers presented to the English
Association, seem to be of a more general and of a higher scien-
tific character than they are here. We mention a fewof the papers
read at the Manchester meeting of the British Association accord-
ing to the reports published in ature. Mr. I. Taylor discussed
the probable origin of the Aryans. He dwelled on the recent lin-
guistic researches, which show that the primitive Aryans must have
inhabited a forest-clad country in the neighborhood of the sea, cov-
ered during a prolonged winter with snow ; the vegetation consist-
ing largely of the fir, the beech, the oak, and similar trees, while
the fauna comprised the bear, the fox, the hare, the deer, and the
salmon. These conditions restrict it to a region north of the Alps
and west of the Black Sea. The author attempted to show, both
from the anthropological and the linguistic point of view, that the
Aryans have evolved from a Finnic people. J. S.Stuart maintained
the existence of an Archaian white stock, from which he is inclined
to derive so widely different phenomena as the American and
Chinese civilizations, as well as the origin of Hittites, Iberians, and
Picts. C. Staniland Wake treated the problem of totemism from
the point of view that the totem is the re-incarnated form of the
legendary ancestor of the gens or family group allied to the totem,
—a view which is undoubtedly correct in many cases. S. J. Hick-
son gave a few remarks on certain degenerations of design in
Papuan art. It would have been more proper to speak about con-
ventionalism in Papuan art, —a field that offers many interesting
problems, and to which Dr. O. Uhle of Dresden recently made a
valuable contribution in the publications of the Ethnological
Museum of Dresden. Miss A. W. Buckland spoke about the cus-
tom of tattooing, which, although almost universally practised,
varies so much in the mode of performing the operation; the
various methods seeming to have such definite limits as to make
them anthropologically valuable as showing either racial connec-
tion or some intercourse formerly existing between races long iso-
lated. This paper belongs to a class of inquiries which have of late
been carried on by a number of ethnologists, and which yield valu-
able results. We call to mind Prof. E.S. Morse’s researches on the

232

release of arrows, which lead the distinguished scientist to so re-
markable conclusions. The well-established fact that the non-ex-
istence of certain color-names does not prove color-blindness, was
shown by Mr. W. E. A. Axon to hold true among the English
gypsies. Besides these papers, reports on new explorations were
not wanting. Papers on psychophysics, which we consider an im-
portant branch of anthropology, were not included in the list of
papers read before the Section of Anthropology of the British Asso-
ciation.

MENTAL SCIENCE.
Drawing among Primitive Peoples.

THE application of the inductive method to the study of mental
facts —and that, too, from its first appearance in Locke or Her-
bart — inevitably brought into prominence the observation of minds
different from our own, and in particular of peoples less advanced
than ourselves in the march of civilization. The seed thus sown
has borne good fruit ; and in the works of Lubbock and Tylor, of
Bastian, of Steinthal and Lazarus, and many others, we have an
excellent foundation for an anthropological psychology. The object
of this movement is not only to record as far as possible the prob-
able history of our early attempts at culture and the long succes-
sion of gradually outgrown customs and beliefs, but also to co-or-
dinate the various works of mental evolution, to arrange them in
some serial order, —as Romanes does with animal evolution, — and
thus help to furnish the categories for a general psychology, which
will be none the less scientific because it needs to be enlivened by
the tact of a humane observer.

Among the characteristics that contribute most to this end are,
what have always been and still remain the two great kinds of
human expression, language and handiwork, and especially art.
The permanence of the latter mode of expression makes it of cru-
cial value to the anthropologist. Dr. Richard Andree, in reviewing
the art-productions of savage tribes as shown by their drawings,
emphasizes the great development which this talent can attain in
conjunction with a low state of psychical development. Travellers
often mention the power of savages to rapidly sketch characteristic
figures, and among the oldest relics of the cave-dwellers we find
distinct tracings of animal forms. As in so many other respects,
an analogy is present between the drawings of primitive men and
of children. Figure sketching (in outline) and ornamentation are
the prominent characteristics of both; while the power of land-
scape-sketching, as well as a sense for natural beauty, is a much
later acquisition. Among the forms drawn, plants are seldom
found: what is full of motion and life—the horse, etc. — first
attracts the attention, and is transferred to bone, clay, or stone.
At times ornamental and figure work go together, but much oftener
a development of the one or otheralone is possible. The Maoris and
the Fiji-Islanders confine themselves to ornaments, and seldom
draw a figure. Among the Australians the development of orna-
mentation has stopped at a certain stage, — with recurrent stereo-
typed forms of wedges, crosses, and ‘ herring-bone’ patterns, —
while scenes from their doings are recorded with much fidelity, and
color is often used to lend reality tothe design. The Bushmen excel
in painting (though without perspective), and trace with great ac-
curacy the scenes of daily life, of hunting, warring, etc. As figure-
painting allows of very various development, we find different styles
of conventionalism — the art of ancient Peru is a notable example —
in different tribes. Other peoples—and here the Arctic tribes
stand in the first rank—aim at a faithful representation here:
ornafhentation finds no place, and such subjects as fishing, sleigh-
ing, etc., are the usual ones. The attempts at human forms are
often failures; but the drawings of their most common animals, as
the reindeer, are sufficiently exact to serve as a means of zodlogical
identification.

Even the humerous is found on the primitive ‘ canvas,’ and es-
pecially among the fun-loving negro tribes. Exaggeration of small
peculiarities (as in children) is the marked trait. The natives of
the Loango coast carve in a spiral on elephant’s tusks a whole
carnival of ridiculous figures, — sailors, officers, savazzs, etc.

The material of the artist is very various. Many cut and daub

SCIENGE:

[Vot. X. No. 249

their utensils; the Peruvians decorate their woven fabrics; the
Australians draw on blackened bark; the Africans carve in ivory.
The universal imitative bent, of which the desks and walls of a
school-room often show striking evidence, appears in many
curious savage ‘art-galleries.’ On the island of Depuch, off the
north-west coast of Australia, are found scratched on the smooth
rock a crowd of men, birds, fish, crabs, bugs, etc., and colored
black, white, red, yellow, and (seldom) blue. This seems to have
been a pastime of these fishermen for generations.

While the drawing talent is thus quite a general one, the possi-
bility of a large development of it is limited. It usually stagnates
in conventionalism, and seldem reaches the stage, as it does in the
Eskimo, of being utilized as a pictographic language.

In conclusion, Dr. Andree calls attention to the fact that almost
everywhere the men alone are the artists. In one case this rather
anomalous phenomenon leads to curious results. Among the
Papuans of New Guinea, vessels and implements of wood are quite
generally decorated, while the pots made by the women are devoid
of all ornamentation.

RE-ACTION AND INHIBITION TIME. — If it is arranged that a
certain action is to take place at a given signal, it will be found that
a quite constant time elapses between the signal and the re-action.
Besides executing a motion, we can exert our will towards restrain-
ing an act; and this not always by the contraction of an antagonis-
tic muscle, but by a direct inhibitory action of the nervous centres.
Dr. Gad of Berlin has measured the time necessary to thus inhibit
the action of the muscles used in mastication, and announces the
important result that this time is the same as is necessary for an
ordinary re-action. This is true not only under ordinary conditions,
but the variations in the time by practice, by fatigue, under the in-
fluence of narcotics, etc., for the two acts, is about the same, as is
shown in the following table : —

Re-action- Inhibition-
time. time,

Before practice 0.25 Sec. 0.30 sec.
After practice o b 3 6 f 0.15. 0.14 **
With weak stimulus 0.20 ‘ 0.17 **
With strong stimulus. 0 5 0.12 “* Ope
Afterfatigue . . . 6 2 5 0.18 < 0.16 ‘*
8 minutes after taking alcohol 0 o.12 ‘* 0.09“
30 minutes after taking alcohol. Ove sae 0.20 “

In short, the mechanism of inhibition works as accurately and as
delicately as that of re-action.

A REMARKABLE CASE OF AMNESIA. — The many strange phe-
nomena of amnesia have been enriched by the experience of one of
the ablest living psychologists, Professor Bain. Some months ago.
Professor Bain fell from his horse, and was unconscious for about
three hours afterwards. During this time his shoulder, which had
been sprained by the accident, was set without his knowledge.
Upon regaining consciousness, it was found that he had lost all
remembrance of what had occurred an hour before the accident, as
well as of the three hours following. He was found on a different
road from that which he can remember having intended to take,
and so must have changed his mind. Of this he has lost all recol-
lection ; otherwise there were no mental effects. The editor of
Mind, who tells the story, adds another case in which a gentle-
man, after falling from a carriage, remained unconscious for nearly
four months. Upon re-awakening, not only was this interval a
total blank to him, but the events of the week preceding the acci-
dent were equally lost. Important transactions which he had
made during that week were forgotten. This suggests that there
may be some relation between the duration of unconsciousness
after the accident and the memory-blank before. At all events,
the phenomena, mysterious as they are, deserve to be recorded.
The authenticity and careful analysis of the above cases add to
their value.

‘

NoveMBER II, 1887. |

EXPLORATION AND TRAVEL.

Notes from the Arctic.

Mr. WILLIAM DUVEL, who returned a few days ago from Cum-
berland Sound on board the New London schooner ‘ Eira,’ gives
us some interesting information on the events in Cumberland Sound
during the last years. The whalers, who had been unsuccessful for
a great number of years, have been more fortunate since 1885,
while the catch of the Davis Strait fishery shows a sudden falling-
off. In 1884, when ten vessels were fishing in Lancaster Sound,
the catch aggregated some eighty whales, but in the following years

narnitund ae

Sartiel i fi

SCIENCE

230

lowest temperature of last winter was—46° F. The snowfall was
very scanty, the ice being hardly covered with any snow. As, in
addition to this, the ice was very smooth, travelling in winter was
easy. In February, however, the much-dreaded dog-disease made
its appearance, and swept away the dogs of the natives. In Black
Lead, among a party of thirty-three natives, only nine dogs re-
mained, In the spring of 1886 the same disease made its first
appearance in the settlements of Davis Strait, where it was unknown
up to that time.

Last summer the ice of Cumberland Sound broke up on the 6th
of July. As the whaling inthe Sound has become more profitable,

a)

‘

(i
pt { <
*Sarbakidjuye g eee
fous

\
Sarbakdusl

. A U
:
‘
ee
Kognung
Es

Edge of ice

Open water in winter

Open water in spring

Icze-CHART OF CUMBERLAND Sounp.

not more than ten or twelve were caught by the whole fleet. In
1884, the pack-ice was remarkably loose, and the first ship entered
Cumberland Sound as early as the middle of July. The floe, how-
ever, which was attached to the land, lasted until the 5th of August,
a date unprecedented in Cumberland Sound. This corresponds to
the character of the land-ice in Davis Strait, which, as was formerly
reported by Captain Spicer, did not break up in three subsequent
summers, from 1884 to 1886. In 1885 the land-floe in Cumberland
Sound extended very far south, as may be seen on the accompany-
ing sketch-map. In1886its position was a little farther north, while
last winter it extended again to the entrance of the Gulf. This fact
is very remarkable, as in many former years the head of the open
water reached up to Kekerten, and even as far as Haystack. The

Coburg I. 8

Compiled by Dr. F. Boas.

a greater number of vessels frequent the Sound, and several per-
manent stations are established. There is a Scottish station in
Kekerten, while American whalers have stations on Black Lead, in
Nugumiut, and in Hudson Strait. The sanitary condition of the
natives was very good. In Cumberland Sound five deaths occurred
during the last year, while three children were born in a single set-
tlement. In the fall all natives belonging to the tribe inhabiting
the west coast of Cumberland Sound gathered in Black Lead, and
celebrated the great annual festival which is known to all the
tribes of northern Labrador and Baffin Land, and in which masked
men, who represent certain spirits, make their appearance. Early
in spring south-westerly winds carried the heavy pack-ice of Davis
Strait into the Sound, and kept it there for a number of weeks.

234

While in 1883 and 1884 a great number of flat icebergs, most of
which were the scattered remains of one enormous berg, filled the
Sound and the neighboring parts of Davis Strait, this form was not
observed during the last years ; all bergs, with one single exception,
being very high and pointed.

The ice-chart of Cumberland Sound, which accompanies these
notes, has been compiled from observations made by F. Boas in
the winter of 1883-84, and from reports of American and Scot-
tish whalers. The edge of the floe as indicated on the map shows
the greatest extent of the ice in each year, which is attained about
the end of February. Besides this, the water-holes, which are kept
open throughout the winter by swift-running tides, are indicated on
the map, and so are the places where the ice is worn through by
the currents in March and April.

BRITISH COLUMBIA. — Dr. G. M. Dawson has kindly sent us a
more detailed account of his work in British Columbia. Leaving
Victoria early in May, the expedition reached Fort Wrangel, from
which point they proceeded up the Stikine River to Cassian. The
expedition consisted of two branches, Dr. Dawson leading the geo-

logical department, while Mr. W. Ogilvie made an instrumental
survey of the country, on behalf of the Dominion Land Office. His
surveys extend from the seacoast by way of the Lewis River, up the
Yukon to the 141st meridian, which constitutes the eastern bound-
ary of Alaska, and his measurements will serve as a basis for
further work in the district. The object of Dr. Dawson’s researches
was a thorough exploration of the tributaries of the upper Yukon.
Messrs. R. G. McConnell and James McEvoy were his special as-
sistants. His party proceeded up the Stikine River as far as Dease
Lake, where they built three boats. As soon as the ice broke up
and left the lake, which was on the 18th of June, later than it ever
has been known, they went down the Dease River and into the
forks of the Dease and Liard Rivers. Here Mr. McConnell sepa-
rated from the rest of the party for the purpose of descending and
surveying the Liard and the Mackenzie Rivers. Dawson went
up the Liard and Frances Rivers to Francis Lake, which drains
into the Liard, and not into the Pelly River, as shown in most
maps of that country. From Francis Lake, the party crossed a
difficult portage of about fifty miles to the Pelly River. From here
Dawson sent back the five Indians who had accompanied him from
the coast, and then proceeded down the Pelly River, accompanied
by Mr. McEvoy and Messrs, Lewis and Johnston of Victoria, in a
small canvas boat which they had built on reaching Pelly River.
At the confluence of the Pelly and Lewis Rivers, Mr. Ogilvie and
his party were met. After whipsawing the lumber and building
another boat for the purpose, the Dawson party ascended the
Lewis River, which Mr. Ogilvie had already surveyed instrumen-
tally. A geological survey of the country along the Lewis River was
made. Then the party crossed the Chilcat portage to the head of
Lynn Canal, and came by canoe to Juneau, where, after waiting
for a few days, the steamer ‘ Ancon’ was taken for Victoria. Mr.
Ogilvie, in separating from the rest of the party, continued down the
Yukon River, prosecuting his survey. He intends wintering on
that river, and resuming his work in the spring, continuing it over
to the Mackenzie River. He will return next fall to Winnipeg by
way of that stream and the Hudson Bay Company’s route to
Carlton on the Saskatchewan. Mr. McConnell will probably win-
ter at Fort Simpson, on the Mackenzie River, and continue his ex-
plorations from that point next summer.

BOOK -REVIEWS.

Our Heredity from God, consisting of Lectures on Evolutzon. By
E. P. POWELL. New York, Appleton. 12°.

WE have not yet recovered from the re-adjustment of the views
of life brought about by the new knowledge which the movement
of which Darwin is the centre has accumulated. From the very
first, the notion of evolution was most strongly opposed, because it
was antagonistic to certain widely spread but in no way verified be-
liefs. As the facts in favor of a derivative theory became more com-
plete and the theory more invincible, a shifting of the ‘ theologist’s’
position took place. Some held that evolution simply described a
method, but in no way removed the necessity of an anterior cause ;
others attempted a twisted and allegorical interpretation of the

SCIENCE:

[Vot. X. No. 249

authoritative beliefs so as to minimize the antagonism between
them and the doctrines of evolution; but in every direction, and
without regard to the final outcome, evolution has introduced into
ethical discussion a healthy ferment, the fruits of which the next
generation will appreciate even more than the ‘liberals’ of this.
The variability of moral codes and their close interdependence with
the environment and thought-habits of different peoples have been
emphasized; and the too dogmatically asserted connection between
moral actions and religious rites and beliefs has been broken
through. That among the products of this violent fermentation
should be found much that is analogous to waste-matter is not
striking. Truth-loving disciples of science do not hesitate to admit
that some of their over-ardent brethren have overstepped the lines
of strict validity in claiming for evolution the solution of many of
the vexed world-problems of mankind. The very fact that this
aggressive kind of writing has been taken up by the lower ranks. of
evolutionists, while its leaders have rather acted upon a policy of
reserve and awaited developments, makes it easy to admit that one
does not always open a book treating the moral aspects of evolution
with an anticipation of pleasure or instruction. Mr. Powell’s book
is both deeply interesting and scientifically valuable.

‘Our Heredity from God’ is a poor title; not only because the
author uses the term ‘God’ in an unusual sense, but because the
book is really a study of evolution with special reference to its
moral and religious bearings. Mr. Powell avows himself a disbe-
liever in any personal deity, and is among that ever-increasing body
of thinkers who draw their enthusiasm and inspiration from a con-
templation of the vastly suggestive generalizations of science, and
the deep significance of a natural morality. The author has not
inherited this position, but has worked his way to it through a
period of traditional sectarianism; and this leaves its mark in the
many references to the biblical cosmogony. It may well be ques-
tioned whether it is still worth while antagonizing this biblical ac-
count of genesis as though it posed as a scientific explanation
(which its truest admirers never claimed). With this exception,
Mr. Powell is content to let the facts speak for themselves, simply
placing them in such a light that their ethical import may be re-
flected, and adding to the exposition a depth of natural feeling that
leads to an admiration of the man. Science is certainly not as cold
as she is often pictured to be. It is impossible to give even in out-
line a sketch of the long and accumulative argument by which
the moral beauty and religious satisfaction of the evolutionary
aspect of nature is unfolded in Mr. Powell’s mind. All that can be
done is to cite a few sentences which shall at the same time illus-
trate the attractive style and happy suggestiveness that make the
pages readable. What Mr. Powell means by the title of his book
may perhaps be gathered from these words: “The hypothesis of
evolution opens our eyes to the magnificent panorama of an eternal
unfolding of relations of life, full of purposive love, which rising
from the vast unfathomableness of the sentient universe, at last
lifts us as conscious beings near to the heart of the Supreme All in
All; and with Him, and in Him, and by Him, bid us consciously to
live, and move, and have ourbeing. This I call our heredity from
God. To trace our descent from animal progenitors is but a frac-
tion of the problem: the longer sweep of vision beholds an ances-
try that embraces all life and all purposive being.”

The author holds that the widest gap is not between man and
the animals, but between savage and civilized man: he adores civ-
ilization as man’s handiwork, and regards as most immoral all
that hinders its progress. Many of the notions associated with
religious doctrines are thus condemned and fearlessly denounced.
The view, however, is broad enough to see in many such beliefs
stages of ethical development. They are denounced, not because
they never formed an advance step in moral evolution, but because
they cease to do so any longer. Contrasting, thus, man’s present
with his past history, —still epitomized in the early stages of each
one of us, — Mr. Powell sees a glorious future, when the develop-
ment of ethical notions, now barely dreamt of, will be wide-spread,
in accordance with the sound ethical nature of the universe.

Among the sentences worth repeating for their own sake are the
following: “Suspension of judgment is another faculty that is steadi-
ly becoming the common property of mankind. It is a growing
power, under civilization, to hold the mind in hand, to restrain it by

NOVEMBER 11, 1887. |

ascertained laws.”” “All religions, all philosophies, all parties, have
sought to establish an eternal camp at some mile-stone of progress,
but all have failed. It is difficult to grasp the full force of this idea
—the individual. . . . Men of lower races are much of one pattern.
Civilization is an individualizing process; so in turn men of intense
character have done most of the propelling that has constituted
civilization.” “ The first need of a plant is precisely the first need
of an animal; and that of man is the same. This common need
of all life is to find out facts, — facts about what is not itself, — and
then to adapt itself to what it finds out.” ‘ Nowhere in nature has
there been as much parasitic life as among human beings. It takes
a large degree of wit to live idly, and off your neighbor's industry.
But some vegetables learned to do this before man did it; and
many animals have done the same. The result has been degenera-
tion, loss of structure, loss of faculty, and, as arule, final helplessness
and degeneration of the whole being.” “But it is not simply at
the height of national existence that this impulse for self-preserva-
tion responds to the mimicry of lower life. You will observe its
operation in our social customs and common propensities; for it is
a fact that not any thing is more dreaded or shunned by average
human beings than originality, — that is, unlikeness to others. It
has always been dangerous. It is even yet likely to secure for its
possessor a great deal of annoyance.” “Strange views break out
all over the globe by apparent spontaneity. . . . Darwin, and Wal-
lace, and Haeckel, without intercommunication, propounded simul-
taneously the hypothesis of evolution. It is as when three moun-
tain-tops of equal height catch the morning sunbeam at the same
moment.”

Stxth Annual Report of the United States Geological Survey
(1884-85). J. W. POWELL, director. Washington, Govern-
ment. 4°.

ALTHOUGH on account of the tardy appearance of this volume,
for which the management of the survey does not appear to be re-
sponsible, the administrative portions have lost some of their fresh-
ness and interest, the work as a whole fully sustains the splendid
reputation of its predecessors. These annual reports are admirably
designed, when promptly issued, to place the Geological Survey ez
rapport with the general public: for they consist of, first, the re-
port of the director, which is devoted to the organization, new fea-
tures, and general operations of the survey; second, the short ad-
ministrative reports of the chiefs of divisions, showing in greater
detail the progress made in every department of the survey during
the year ; and third, and most important of all, the scientific papers
or monographs completed during the year. The monographs are
also published separately, and appear in the annual report 27 extemso
or in abstract form, as convenience or their general interest may
demand. The bulletins of the survey are shorter but more technical
papers, which are not represented in the annual report; the object
being to include in this volume only the results of most general
interest, with the view of making it a somewhat popular account
of the doings of the survey, that it may be widely read by the in-
telligent people of the country.

The reportis accompanied by the following monographs : ‘ Mount
Taylor and the Zuni Plateau,’ by Capt. C. E. Dutton; ‘ Driftless
Area of the Upper Mississippi Valley,’ by T. C. Chamberlin and R.
D. Salisbury; ‘The Quantitative Determination of Silver by Means
of the Microscope,’ by J.S. Curtis; ‘Seacoast Swamps of the East-
ern United States,’ by Prof. N. S. Shaler; ‘ Synopsis of the Flora of
the Laramie Group,’ by Prof L. F. Ward.

The last-named paper has already been noticed in the pages of
Sczence, and several of the others are of such great importance and
general interest as to demand fuller comment than it is possible to
accord them in this preliminary notice.

The force of the survey is now, and must be for several years to
come, largely devoted to the construction of a topographic map of
the United States; and the director’s report begins with the plan
and progress of this work, and illustrations of the lettering and con-
ventional signs to be used on the map. The scale of the map is
approximately one mile, two, or four miles to the inch, according to
the character and prospective needs of the country; the mapiscon-
structed in contours, with vertical intervals of 10, 20, 50, 100, and
200 feet, varying with the scale of the map and the magnitude of

SCIENCE:

235

relief features ; and, finally, the map is to be engraved in sheets, of
which the unit is to be the square degree, i.e., one degree of latitude
and one of longitude. An area of 57,508 square miles was surveyed
in the year 1884-85, at an average cost of about three dollars per
square mile.

The organization of the survey is more fully explained here than
in any of the previous reports. Besides the large topographic corps
under Mr. Henry Gannett, it includes the following divisions, each
chief or head of division being provided with a strong corps of as-
sistants : 1. Glacial geology, in charge of Prof. T. C. Chamberlin ;
2. Volcanic geology, in charge of Capt. Clarence E. Dutton; 3.
Archean geology of the Appalachian region, including all the
metamorphic or crystalline strata, of whatever age, extending from
northern New England to Georgia, in charge of Prof. Raphael
Pumpelly; 4. Archean geology of the Lake Superior region, in
charge of Prof. Roland D. Irving (it is not proposed at present to
undertake the study of the crystalline schists of the Rocky Moun-
tain region); 5. Areal, structural, and historical geology of the Ap-
palachian region, in charge of Mr. G, K. Gilbert; 6. A thorough
topographic and geologic survey of the Yellowstone National Park
is in the charge of Mr. Arnold Hague. When the survey is com-
pleted, Mr. Hague’s field will be extended So as to include a large
part of the Rocky Mountain region. The general geologic work
relating to the great areas of fossiliferous formations is very im-
perfectly and incompletely organized, and this must continue to be
the case until the topographic survey approaches completion.

The paleontological work of the survey is carried on in five lab-
oratories, as follows: vertebrate fossils, in charge of Prof. O. C.
Marsh ; invertebrate fossils of quaternary age, in charge of Mr.
William H. Dall; invertebrate fossils of cenozoic and mesozoic age,
in charge of Dr. C. A. White ; invertebrate fossils of paleozoic age,
in charge of Mr. C. D. Walcott; and vegetable fossils, in charge of
Mr. Lester F. Ward.

The chemical laboratory, with a large corps of chemists, is in
charge of Prof. F.W. Clarke. There is a physical laboratory in the
survey, with a small corps of men engaged in physical researches
of prime importance in geology. A large corps of lithologists is
engaged in the microscopic study of rocks. Besides the division of
mining statistics, economic geology is represented by two parties,
in charge of Mr. George F. Becker and Mr. S. F. Emmons, engaged
in studying various mining districts in the West.

The survey also comprises a division, in charge of Mr. W. H.
Holmes, organized for the purpose of preparing illustrations for
paleontologic and geologic reports. Illustrations will not hereafter
be used for embellishment, and, so far as possible, will be prepared
by relief methods, and held permanently for the use of the public at
large in scientific periodicals, text-books, etc. The large geologic
library and the bibliographic work of the survey are in charge of
Mr. C, C. Darwin.

The remaining topics discussed by the director are the publica-
tions, appointments, and finances of the survey, and the relations of
the Government and State surveys.

Elementary Text-Book of Physics. By Profs. W. A. ANTHONY
and C. F. BRaCKETT. 3d ed. New York, Wiley. 8°.

THIS is the first appearance, in a complete form, of a long-ex-
pected text-book from two well-known American physicists. It is
designed to furnish what is necessary and sufficient for that part of
a well-adjusted college course which is devoted to the study of
physics, and it is the only college text-book of that science which
has appeared in this country for several years, aside from revisions
and new editions of old works.

Many institutions have hitherto made use of English books, or of
translations from the French which have come to us through
English hands. This volume is offered as a substitute for such
works, and it is little enough to say that it will be found in general
to, be a very acceptable one. In some respects the book is almost
unique. When compared with those largely in use at the present
time, it illustrates in a very striking manner the great progress in
college instruction in physics during the past decade.

In its plan there is a distinct recognition of the competent in-
structor with a well-stocked cabinet at his command. Pictorial
representations of apparatus are entirely wanting, and the illustra-

236

tions are only such simple diagrams as are required to elucidate
the text. Besides being an advantage in other respects, this plan
sets free a yast amount of space which can be utilized in the more
thorough presentation of the principles of the science. For illus-
trations of these principles, by experiment or from facts drawn
from observation, the instructor is held responsible, as he is also
for their practical application.

In adopting this plan, the authors have unquestionably made a
decided advance. Although the treatment is mathematical wher-
ever desirable, it is assumed that the student has no knowledge of the
differential and integral calculus. In several instances the method
of limits has been used, however, and students who are familiar
with the calculus will have no difficulty in its application. The
subject is treated in the usual five grand divisions, mechanics, heat,
magnetism and electricity, sound, and light.

Many physicists will not be able to agree entirely with the authors
in some of their fundamental definitions and statements in the
chapters upon mechanics. A close examination of these reveals
several inconsistencies, into which they appear to have been led by
the adoption of certain time-honored definitions and terms. Some
of these questions have received a good deal of attention during
the past few years, in the columns of this journal and elsewhere,
and probably the disputants are no more nearly in agreement than
they were in the beginning; but it seems tolerably certain that
even the average student will experience a certain turbidity of mind
when he places the definition of ‘momentum’ (viz., “ the omentum
of a body isits quantity of motion” ) and that of ‘ motion’ (viz., “ the
change in position of a material particle is called its szofzon”) a
very little nearer together than they are now found on the pages of
the book. The first sentence of the introduction, “ Every thing
which can affect our senses we call #za¢¢er,” has a ring of material-
ism about it which one would hardly expect from at least one of the
two famous institutions of learning from which the book comes.

If these and other similar statements are admitted to be defects,
they are of minor importance, and do not materially detract from
the general excellence of the treatise. It is to be greatly regretted,
however, that the publisher has not done his part as well as the
authors have done theirs. In mechanical execution the book is
substantial, but very far from attractive in its appearance.

Industrial Peace. By L. L. F. R. PRICE.

8°.

THOSE who have given attention to the treatment of the labor-
question in England have heard of Arnold Toynbee, the young Ox-
ford graduate who founded an institution in the eastern part of
London for the purpose of bringing young men of education into
contact with the ignorant poor. After the death of Toynbee at an
early age, a memorial fund was raised in his honor, and devoted to
the work of spreading information by lectures and publications on
the subjects in which he was interested ; and the volume before us
is the first to be issued by the trustees of that fund. The greater
part of the work was first read before the Statistical Society of
London, and was published in the journal of that society for March,
1887.

Mr. Price opens his work by remarking, what is sometimes lost
sight of by enthusiastic reformers, that “ there is not, nor indeed is it
probable that there can be, any single panacea for social ills... .
So diversified are the details of even contemporaneous industrial
society, that any scheme which professes to cure all economic mal-
adies by an uniform unalterable method of treatment may almost
be said to carry with it its own condemnation ”’ (p. 1). Some persons,
he remarks, think that co-operation is destined to remove all indus-
trial difficulties; but upon this point he thinks that experience is
not encouraging. Co-operative distribution has prospered in Eng-
land to a surprising extent ; but in co-operative production there
were in 1884 only £800,000 of capital employed, and only 6,300
men. He believes, therefore, that whatever advance may be made
in co-operation and profit-sharing, the old relation of wage-payer
and wage-receiver will still continue; and the object of his essay is
to inquire by what means this relation can be made more harmo-
nious.

The means that he relies on are the creation of boards of concil-
iation and arbitration, and the establishment of sliding scales of

New York, Macmillan.

SCIENCE,

[Vor. X. No. 249

wages. Asan example of the former class, he describes the for-
mation and working of the board of conciliation organized in 1869
in the iron trade of the north of England, which he considers an
excellent test of the system, since the fluctuations of wages in the
iron trade are greater than in most others, and also because before

the board was organized the relations between workmen and em-

ployers was very unfriendly. In spite of these difficulties, however,
the method of conciliation has proved a great success. The
machinery consists of a board comprising representatives of both
sides and a standing committee appointed by the board. All
questions are first investigated by the committee, and, if they can-
not agree, the matter is laid before the board; and, if an agree-
ment is not reached there, an arbitrator is called in to render a de-
cision. The system is similar to the consezls de prud’ hommes
that exist in France and Belgium; but Mr. Price objects to these
on account of their legal character, which is contrary to the tradi-
tions of English, and, we may add, of American life. He examines
at length the working of the boards of conciliation, and then pro-
ceeds to consider the method of sliding scales, by which wages are
made to vary with the price of the product. The establishment
and maintenance of such scales have been attended with consider-
able difficulty, owing to disagreements as to what standard of
prices and wages should be taken as a basis; but nevertheless
they have proved successful in many English collieries, and are still
in force there. The special advantages of these scales, in Mr.
Price’s opinion, are their elasticity and their automatic action; but
he does not fail to point out at considerable length the difficulties
attending the working both of the sliding scales and of the boards
of conciliation. The chief of these are, ‘the possibility that the
decision might fail to secure loyal adherence, the contentiousness
connected with the preparation and discussion of elaborate argu-
ments, and the difficulty of determining upon a satisfactory basis
and of ascertaining accurate data” (p. 89).

Such is a brief analysis of the methods of ‘industrial peace’
that have been tried with no little success in England; and we
would earnestly recommend a study of them to the leaders of our

American trade-unions and to the employers with whom they are

perpetually contending. It is the duty as well as the interest of
both parties to maintain peace, and any methods that have been
successfully employed for this purpose ought to be carefully con-
sidered by them, and, if possible, put into practice. They will not,
of course, solve all industrial problems; but the substitution of
peaceful methods for contentious ones would of itself be a great gain,
and would pave the way for further improvements in the future.

Elementary Practical Physics.
GEE.
millan.

By B. STEWART and W. W. H.
Vol. II. Electricity and Magnetism. New York, Mac-
16°.

ALL who are familiar with the contents of the first volume of
this work will extend a hearty welcome to the second. Every
teacher of physics by laboratory methods has felt the need of a
good handbook or guide, which, in the hands of the student, would
afford some relief from the labor of giving individual instruction in
the details of manipulation, which, when the number of students is
large, becomes simply enormous.

Since the publication of Pickering’s ‘Physical Manipulations’
fifteen years ago, the pioneer in this field, a number of attempts
have been made to supply the want. It is safe to say that none
have been more successful in producing a book at once satisfactory
in plan and material than Professors Stewart and Gee, in this series,
the second volume of which has now appeared.

In its general character it resembles the first volume. One of
the leading features of the series, very prominent in this volume, is
the fulness of detail concerning all operations, the making of every
experiment, and the nature and construction of every piece of ap-
paratus used. Nearly all of the instruments described are such as
were constructed in the laboratory of the authors: they are simple
in design, and instructions for their reproduction are so clear that
even the unskilful can hardly fail. The amateur instrument-maker
is also greatly aided by the numerous diagrams and cuts illustrat-
ing methods of construction.

The value of this feature of the work can hardly be overesti-
mated, for it is a fact that many good teachers have little inventive

NovemBER 11, 1887. |

or mechanical skill. Besides, it will generally be admitted that the
construction of the simpler apparatus by the student himself is a
most valuable and useful exercise, giving him a firm and lasting
hold upon fundamental principles which he can attain in no other
way. But this attention to detail does not stop with the instrument
itself. All of various steps to be gone over in its use, its proper
adjustments, the errors to be looked out for, etc., are carefully con-
sidered; and in nearly every instance a numerical example is pro-
vided, generally taken from real laboratory note-books, and the
solution and reduction are gone through with.

In short, in this respect, as many others, the book comes as near
taking the place of the living instructor as can well be imagined.
It must not be understood that the book is for the beginner in the
study of electricity. It must at least be taken in connection with,
and better after, a course in some elementary text-book on the sub-
ject, and, in addition, may go along with a course of lectures upon
fundamental theories. The recognition of this fact is shown in
the plan of the book itself, in which, in the first three chapters,
the student is introduced to the leading principles of the science,
its nomenclature, units of measure, etc., that the less elementary
chapters which follow may offer less difficulty.

The chapter on resistance measurement is naturally full and
complete, nearly all important and useful methods being given. A
full discussion of the tangent galvanometer is given, together with
the methods of determining its constants. Related to this is the
determination of the magnetic elements} and a good deal of space is
devoted to a very complete description of the Kew magnetometer: its
use is described, and a series of observations is completely worked
out. Other parts of the work are equally worthy of commendation,
especially the series of appendices at the end, containing among
other things a number of valuable hints as to the manipulation of
material used in the construction of apparatus.

Nearly all of the formulas used in the reduction of observations
are derived from elementary propositions, but the mathematical
treatment of the subject is elementary, and well suited to the char-
acter of the work. In addition to its adaptability to class-room
work, the book can be highly recommended to private students of
electricity and magnetism.

Introduction to a He¢storzcal Geography of the British Colonies
By C. P. Lucas. Oxford, Clarendon Pr.

THIS little book is the first instalment of a larger work, to be
published in parts, and dealing separately with the various depend-
encies of the British Empire. It gives not only a brief history of
the founding of the British colonies, but treats of colonization gen-
erally, ancient and modern, and gives some chapters to what may
be called the philosophy of colonization. Mr. Lucas defines a col-
ony as a body of persons who have left their native country and
permanently settled in another, and who in their new home form
the bulk of the inhabitants. He then proceeds to consider the mo-
tives of colonization, the chief of which he finds to be these four:
“love of enterprise, desire of wealth, social or political discontent,
and religion.’ He does not attribute so exclusive an influence to
over-population in the mother-country as some writers do, but
thinks that the other motives have in many cases been more im-
portant than this. He gives a brief but interesting account of the
influence of religion in the founding of colonies and the conquest
of dependencies, and also of the effects of climate and race. A col-
onizing race should be not only enterprising and inclined to emi-
grate, but also endowed with an aptitude for commerce, and
especially for law and government. Of these characteristics the
last named is the most important: ‘‘ Colonizing on any large scale
must imply dealing with subject races, and the past has shown,
that, in spite of other defects, the people which can govern will in
the end prevail” (p. 27).

The brief history of colonization, ancient and modern, which the
book contains, and the special account of the English colonies
with which it closes, contain a large amount of information in a
small compass, and, though treating of matters that are familiar
to most readers of history, will be useful for reference. If the pro-
jected historical geography of England’s colonies is carried out as
well as it is begun, it will prove a valuable addition to historical
literature.

na,

SCIENCE.

237

Electricety for Public Schools and Colleges.
London, Longmans, Green, & Co. 12°.

By W. LARDEN.

THE ceaseless activity in all matters pertaining to electricity is.
shown in the continued appearance of books relating to the subject,
in all parts of the world and in all languages.

This book is intended, as its title implies, to serve as a text-
book for high-class public schools, and for colleges in which a
thorough training in the fundamental principles of electricity and
magnetism is furnished, in the development of which the instructor
is restricted to elementary mathematics.

Few institutions of learning in this country can offer to their stu-
dents more than this, and, in fact, not very many have found it pos-
sible to make use of a separate treatise upon the subject, except, of
course, in the way of special elective courses.

Of the several books containing an elementary treatment of elec-
tricity and magnetism which have appeared within the last ten or
fifteen years, this by Larden has the advantage of being one of the
most recent, and in breadth of treatment, and thoroughness of
execution, one of the best.

Only elementary mathematics is made use of, and it is therefore
necessary occasionally to state a proposition onauthority. Frequent
references are given, however, to treatises in which such proposi-
tions will be found fully discussed. In some instances where
elementary demonstrations are presented, the author has not
selected the easiest and most simple. An illustration of this state
ment is to be found in his proof of the condition under which a
battery gives a maximum current. Some of his discussions are
also open to the objection of an excessive conciseness and brevity
of statement, thus presenting difficulties which the average student
of the class for which the book is intended will have difficulty in
overcoming. The diagrammatic illustrations have been drawn
especially for the work, and are generally very clear. A number
of cuts of complete and well-known forms of apparatus are also:
furnished.

Among the commendable features of the book may be mentioned
a very full discussion of induction machines (electro-static), includ-
ing the Voss machine, the Holtz machine, and others, the operation
of which is often very perplexing to students.

The author is not fortunate in his chapter on atmospheric elec-
tricity, and especially where he attempts to account for the vary—
ing potential of the atmosphere.

The treatment of electric measurements is tolerably full, suf-
ficiently so for a book of this kind, in which one ought not to expect
to find all of the now nearly innumerable methods and devices.
The chapter on Joule’s law and the conservation of energy is es-
pecially complete, although not long; and other chapters, on elec-
tro-dynamic induction, the dynamo, induction coils, etc., will be
found quite satisfactory. Many teachers and students of the science
will welcome the book, and find it useful in their work.

The Science of Politics. By WALTER THOMAS MILLS.
York, Funk & Wagnalls. 12°.

IN taking up a book with the above title, we naturally expect to
find it treating of the duties and functions of the State, or of its or-
ganization or its history; but these topics are scarcely touched upon
in the work before us. The author himself states his subject to be
the duties of citizenship and the means of performing them; but he
confines himself mostly to the treatment of political parties. Mr.
Mills, as he tells us on his titlepage, is a journalist; and the influ-
ence of his profession is a little too plainly visible in this work, the
style showing some of that offhand infallibility which many journal-
ists affect. As regards matter, the book is not specially profound
or original, yet it nevertheless contains much that is good. The
author has in the main very correct ideas as to the nature and
functions of parties and the rights and duties of the citizen with re-
gard to them. He sees clearly that a party without principles is
worthless, and that the fact that a party has done well in the past
is no guaranty that it will always do well in the future. He vigor-
ously maintains the right to bolt a bad nomination, and the right
and duty of leaving an old party and joining a new one in case the
old one proves recreant to its trust. Such views as these are not
yet so widely accepted in this country as they ought to be; and, if
this book should be read by the right persons, it can hardly fail to

New

238

have a beneficial influence. Mr. Mills sees, as most of us do, the
evils attendant on caucuses and on party management generally,
but he does not suggest any thing new in the way of remedy. He
has also some good remarks on the folly of mere office-seeking and
the nobleness of disinterested statesmanship. We are sorry to
have to add that the typography of the book is very bad indeed.
Such misspellings as ‘monopilies,’ ‘forsee,’ ‘weich’ for ‘ which,’
and ‘ptofit’ for ‘profit,’ are frequent. On p. 159 there are three
words misspelled ; and on p. 73 is the following sentence: “A
party as a party cannot refuse to meet an issue sgwarly at the bal-
lot box, and then as a party sgzarly meet it anywhere else.” Surely
American typography can do better than that.

Grundriss der Psychologée. Von Dr. F. WOLLNY. Leipzig,

Thomas. 8°.

IT is difficult to classify this pamphlet. It is not an elementary
text-book, because it lacks all system, and treats special topics.
It is not a technical contribution, for it is full of commonplaces, and
has no definite end in view. Perhaps it is best to regard it as an ex-
pression of the author’s interests, and as such it has little interest.
The author declares his atheistic tendencies, and introduces much
not very relevant ethical matter. After discussing in a very unsys-
tematic and eclectic manner the elementary mental powers, — sen-
sation, will, perception, memory, — both separately and in combined
action, he adds a few short chapters on sleep and dreams, on in-
sanity, on animal mind, and on alleged higher psychic powers.
About the only noteworthy passages are to be found in the preface
and in the appendix. The former announces that the author in-
tends to keep psychology and physiology distinct, and has no sym-
pathy with tedious and meaningless psychophysical experiments.
As a matter of fact, the topics treated often demand a physiological
treatment, and many of the chapters begin with the statement of
such a fact. Instead of taking it from a physiological text-book,
the author records it as his own experience. It is difficult to take
his objections seriously. The appendix contains a great ‘ discovery.’
The human body is susceptible to magnetic influence. Furthermore,
if one person in the neighborhood of a magnet concentrates his at-
tention upon another, a subtle connection between the two is made,
and one can read the thoughts of the other without sensory trans-
fer. To this so-called ‘fact’ are added a host of fanciful notions
with much mysticism. It is queer in what various forms these un-
scientific notions arise. Finally, the book is written in orthodox
German style, — ponderous, ‘baggaged’ sentences and involved
constructions.

Italian Grammar. By C. H.GRANDGENT. Boston, Heath. 12°.

IN this volume the author, who is tutor in modern languages in
Harvard University, has attempted, and very successfully we think,
to put into convenient form and small compass sufficient of the
grammar of the Italian language to meet the requirements of the
ordinary student. The book, though representing Italian as at
present spoken and written, gives as many obsolete forms as may
be necessary for a student of the Italian classics. It is prepared
specially for use in colleges, but it will prove serviceable to any stu-
dent familiar with English grammar.

NOTES AND NEWS.

A PARTY of forty engineers and their assistants, about a hun-
dred and fifty in all, will leave this city about the end of this month
for Nicaragua, to locate the exact route of the inter-oceanic canal,
and to obtain data from which to make accurate estimates as to the
cost of the work. The expedition will be in charge of Engineer
Perry, and will be joined a few weeks later by Chief-Engineer
Menocal.

— A recent public test of the consolidated railway telegraph
system of train-telegraphy, made on the Lehigh Valley Railroad,
gave very satisfactory results. On a train moving sixty miles an
hour, messages were sent and received to and from other trains on
the road, and communication was had with this city and with dif-
ferent stations on the line.

— We have received from the Clarendon Press the first number
of Annals of Botany, edited by Isaac Bayley Balfour, Sydney How-

SCIENCE.

[Vor. X. No. 249

ard Vines, and William Gilson Farlow, assisted by other botanists.
The contents are, ‘On Some Points in the Histology and Physiol-
ogy of the Fruits and Seeds of Rhamnus, by H. Marshall Ward;
“On the Structure of the Mucilage-secreting Cells of Blechnum
occidentale, L., and Osmunda regalis, L., by W. Gardiner and
Tokutaro Ito; ‘On Laticiferous Tissue in the Pith of Manzhot
Glazzoviz, and on the Presence of Nuclei in this Tissue,’ by Agnes
Calvert and L. A. Boodle; ‘ Anomalous Thickening in the Roots of
Cycas Seemannz, Al. Braun, by W. H. Gregg; notes; review of
Sachs’s ‘ Physiology of Plants;’ and record of current literature.

— The fifth biennial report of the Kansas State Historical Society
shows the work of the society for the two years ending Jan. 18,
1887. The society was then eleven years old. The primary object
of the society is that of collecting, arranging, and cataloguing a
library of the materials of Kansas history, including books, pam-
phlets, newspapers, maps, pictures, and, in short, every thing which
contains information concerning and going to illustrate the history
of Kansas. Incidentally, so interwoven has been the history of
Kansas with that of the whole country, and so much has it enlisted
a general interest, its library has come to be the recipient, largely
by gift, of not only the materials of the history, but of every thing
of a literary and scientific character relating to all parts of the
country. The total of the library in January last was, of bound
volumes, 8,352; unbound volumes, 21,103; bound newspaper files
and volumes of periodicals, 5,986; making the total of the library,
35,441. Its yearly accession of the files of local newspapers is no
doubt greater than that of any other library in the country. The
regular issues of all the local newspapers, daily and weekly, pub-
lished in every county in Kansas, are freely given the society by the
publishers, and are bound, and placed on the shelves of the library.
Thus is being preserved the best of all materials of the history of
every town and neighborhood in the State. The report, among
other lists and tables, contains a list of the newspapers at the pres-
ent time published in Kansas; viz., 72 dailies, 12 semi-weeklies, 722
weeklies, 38 monthlies, 1 semi-monthly, 1 bi-monthly, 4 quarterlies,
and 2 occasionals, numbering 852 in all. The library is the prop-
erty of the State, and is kept in rooms in the State Capitol.

— Among the latest issues of the Clarendon Press (Macmillan &
Co.) is a batch of classical books that are worthy of careful exam-
ination. The list includes the ‘ Phormio’ of Terence, Cicero’s Cati-
linarian orations, ‘The Knights’ of Aristophanes, the ‘ Eclogues’
of Vergil, the first book of Tacitus’ ‘ Annals,’ and, in the Elementary
Classics Series, the seventh book of Czsar’s ‘Commentaries.’
They are all gotten up in that attractive and elegant way that
characterizes the Macmillans’ work. Particular attention is due,
perhaps, to Dr. Merry’s careful and accurate edition of the
‘Knights’ of Aristophanes. Both introduction and notes are ex-
tremely well done.

—A series of lectures (twenty to twenty-four in number) will be
given at the Museum of Comparative Zodlogy, Cambridge, by Pro-
fessor Whitney, on geographical methods and results. The course
will begin on Wednesday, Nov. 9, at 3 P.M. Admission free; but
tickets must be obtained of the lecturer, by application through the
mail or in person; and in their distribution, since the accommoda-
tion is limited, preference will be given to teachers, for whom the
course is specially intended.

— The frequently observed longevity of eminent English scien-
tists is again shown in the high ages at which recently deceased
fellows of the Royal Society have died. Of fourteen fellows, six
lived to more than eighty years, and only one was under sixty at
the time of his death. The average age at death of the fourteen is
no less than seventy-five years.

— Oscar Harger, for eighteen years the chief assistant of Prof.
O. C. Marsh, died in New Haven, Noy. 6. Mr. Harger was born at
Oxford, Conn., and was graduated from Yale College in the class
of 68. He was one of the high-stand members of his class, and
was looked upon at graduation as a young man of exceeding great
promise. When he graduated, his health had been considerably
impaired in consequence of hard study and application to literary
and other work, which he did in order to secure money to pay his
expenses through college. In 1870 Mr. Harger became assistant

NoveMBER 11, 1887. |

instructor in geology at Yale, and rapidly became known among
literary men as a logical thinker and superior instructor. He ac-
quired a knowledge of local botany that was considerably more ex-
tensive than was possessed by any other scientist in the city or
state. Professor Marsh valued his assistant very highly, and the
two geological works of which Professor Marsh is the author were
given to the printers in Mr. Harger’s handwriting, having been
very largely prepared by him under the immediate direction of the
professor. In 1878 Mr. Harger married Miss Jessie Craig, sister of
James R. and Alexander Craig of New Haven. Mrs. Harger survives
him, but he leaves no children.

— Mr. P. W. M. Trap of Leyden is about to issue the first num-
ber of the /zternatzonales Archiv fiir Ethnographie, which will be
edited by Dr. J. D. E. Schmelz, curator of the National Ethno-
graphical Museum at Leyden. The principal object of the new
journal is the study of ‘descriptive ethnology ;’ i.e., of the ma-
terial, form, method of manufacture, and use of objects made by
peoples still extant. It will be illustrated by color-plates, a mag-
nificent sample of which accompanies the publisher’s announce-
ment.

—In Sczence of Nov. 4, p. 226, 23d line of ‘Search for Gems and
Precious Stones,’ ‘.792074’ should read ‘.7920792.’

LETIERS TO THE EDITOR.

* * The attention of scientific men ts called-to the advantages of the correspondence
columns of SCIENCE for placing promptly on record brief preliminary notices of
their investigations. Twenty copies of the number containing his communication
will be furnished free to any correspondent on request.

The editor will be glad to publish any queries consonant with the character of
the journal.

Correspondents are requested to be as brief as possible.
zn all cases required as proof af good faith.

The writer's name is

Cheyenne.

YOUR espousal of the true pronunciation of ‘ Arkansaw’ should
give a shock to New England self-conceit, unaware that the New
England type of mind is essentially shallow.

Inregard to the name‘ Cheyenne.’ In youth I was able to speak
enough Sioux to trade with the Indians. The French trappers told
me that the Sioux say that the first Cheyennes they ever saw had
their thighs painted red, and they (Sioux) remarked to them, Shah-
ee-aze-loo-hah, which means, ‘You have painted yourselves red.’
They call the Cheyennes ‘.Sy-aze-/ah,’ an abbreviation of the above
sentence. Shaf-shah means ‘red ;’ and /oo-yah,‘ you have.’ The
change to ‘Cheyenne’ might easily occur in the transfer from
Indian to white, and the first attempt to spell it by Frenchmen
would of course be with c# instead of sk. The ‘squaw-men,’ trap-
pers and hunters, do not believe it has any connection with the
French word czev, notwithstanding the name of the Cheyennes in
the intertribal sign-language is ‘ wolf-ears made with forefingers

and thumbs at sides of head.’ GEO. WILSON.
Lexington, Mo., Nov. 5s.

The American Physique.

LAST spring I received a letter from an English gentleman who
is interested in anthropology and biology, asking me if there were
any facts to sustain the impression abroad that the white man is
deteriorating in size, weight, and condition in the United States. I
had no positive information of my own to give, and I could only
refer my correspondent to the data of the measurement of soldiers,
and to some other investigations of less importance.

It occurred to me, however, that, since by far the greater part of
the men of this country are clad in ready-made clothing, the experi-
ence of the clothiers might be valuable, and that, from their figures of
the average sizes of the garments prepared by them for men’s use,
very clear deductions could be made as to the average size of the
American man.

I therefore sent a letter to two clothiers in Boston who have been
long in the business, one in Chicago, one in New York, one in Bal-
timore, one in Detroit, one in Texas, and one in Montreal. The
information received in return is to this effect.

In any given thousand garments the average of all the returns is
as follows: chest-measure, 38 inches; waist, 334 inches ; length

SCIENCE.

239)

of leg inside, 324 inches; average height ranging from 5 feet 84 to
5 feet 9 in New England, up to 5 feet ro for the average at the
South and West. A few deductions of weight are given from
which one can infer that the average man weighs between 155 and’
160 pounds,

These measures cover the average of the assorted sizes of gar-
ments which are made up by the thousand. There are a few small
men who buy ‘youths’ sizes’ so called, and a few larger men who.
buy ‘extra sizes.. The remarks made in some of these letters are
interesting.

My correspondent in Chicago states, “that, so far as relates to.
the assertion that the race in this country deteriorates, our experi-
ence teaches us that the contrary is the case. We are now, and
have for several years past been, obliged to adopt a larger scale of
sizes, and many more extra sizes in width as well as length, than
were required ten years ago. I find that occupation and residence
have a great deal to do with the difference in sizes, the average of
sizes required for the cities and large towns being much less than
that required for the country. Again, different sections vary very
much in those requirements. For instance, an experienced stock-
clerk will pick out for South and South-western trade, coats and
vests, breast-measure 35 to 40, pants always one or two sizes
smaller around the belly than the length of leg inside ; for Western
and Northern trade, coats and vests, breast-measure 37 to 42, pants
33 to 4o around the belly, 30 to 34 length of leg inside.”

My correspondent in Texas gives the average 38 inches chest, 33
to 34 inches waist, 324 leg-measure, 5 feet 10 inches height, adding,
“We find that the waist-measure has increased from an average of
32, to 33 inches during the past five years, and we think our people
are becoming stouter built.”

My correspondent in Baltimore had previously made the same
statement ; to wit, ‘Since the late war we have noticed that the
average-sized suits for our Southern trade has increased fully one
inch around the chest and waist, while there has been no apparent
change in the length of pants.”

I asked this firm if the change could be due to the fact that the
colored people had become buyers of ready-made clothing, but have
for reply that the fact that the negroes are buying more ready-made
clothing now than previous to the war, accounts in only a small
degree for the increase of the size, but is due almost entirely to.
the increased physical activity on the part of the whites. The ex-
periences of this firm covers thirty-five years.

My correspondent in New York states that “for the last thirty
years our clothing, numbering at least 750,000 garments yearly, has
been exclusively sold in the Southern States. We find the average
man to measure 37 inches around the chest, 32 to 33 around the
waist, 33 to 34 inches length of leg inside, average height 5 feet 10
inches. The Southerner measures more in the leg than around the
waist, —a peculiarity in direct contrast to the Western man, who
measures more around the waist than in the leg.”

My correspondent in Canada gives the following details; experi-
ence covers twenty years, about 300,000 garments a year: —

Breast-measure.......+...---.++-- 375 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 44.
Waist OY i BocAaepdo Jee eeeeees 33, 345 355 36, 3746, 305 42.
Cut per 1,000 of above sizes....- 160, 240, 240, 140, 0, 60, 20.
Average weight for each size I40, 150, 160, 168, 175, 180, 200, 225.

“ The information about the weight I got from a custom tailor of
some years’ experience, and cannot, of course, vouch for its cor-
rectness.”

My correspondent in Detroit says, ‘“‘ We notice marked peculiar-
ities in regions where dwell people of one nationality. The Ger-
mans need large waists and short legs; the French, small waists
and legs; the Yankees, small waists and long legs; the Jews,
medium waists and short legs. We have found a decided demand
for larger sizes than we formerly used.”

This subject is foreign to my customary work. I give these state-
ments as a matter of general interest, and perhaps some of the
students who are engaged in this branch of investigation may take
a hint from this method and extend it still further.

Possibly the average size for a woman could be deduced from
the data of the manufacturers of knit goods. From what I know
of the business of the clothiers to whom I made application, I should
infer that the figures which I have submitted above would cover
more than one hundred million garments ; and I know of no better’

240

method of coming at a rough-and-ready conclusion regarding the
size of men, than the one which I have adopted.

This subject has interested me from the standpoint of better
nutrition. *It will be observed that the American man is decidedly
gaining in size and weight. If this has happened during twenty
years of the American frying-pan, dyspeptic bread, pale pie, and
cooking in general under the supervision of cooks who were sent
from the wrong place where the meat did not come from, what
may be expected -when the American woman learns how to cook?
Cannot some one obtain data for comparison with these sizes from
the statistics of military recruits and conscripts in Europe, or
from the contractors for army clothing ?

EDWARD ATKINSON.
Boston, Noy. 3.

The Sense of Smell.

IT is quite customary, when treating of the senses, to speak
slightingly of smell and taste, as if they were of little importance in
the economy of life. When the subject of training the senses is
under consideration, little is ever said of training the nose, while
much space is devoted to educating the eye, the ear, and the hand.
It is certainly true that smell does not rank with sight and hear-
ing, and demands less care, perhaps, for its cultivation; and yet it
plays an important 7é/e, and should receive its due share of atten-
tion in any scheme of education.

The function of smell is fourfold. Like the higher senses, it be-
longs to the intellectual endowments. It is a part of the mind.
Through it the mind is reached, roused, and quickened. The per-
‘cepts and concepts gained through the sense of smell can be named,
described, analyzed, compared, and classified. They may thus be-
come the means of a good degree of intellectual life. Smell is a
source of knowledge. Through it the mind discerns those quali-
ties in things which we denominate odor. This knowledge it can
obtain in no other way. A surprisingly large number of objects
have their own peculiar odor. The onion, the carrot, the beet, and
all other vegetables have characteristic odors; so have fruits,
flowers, spices, and many gases, as well as animals, meats, etc.
The knowledge of the kind, quality, and condition of things that can
be obtained by the sense of smell, is very extensive. Not only the
‘druggist, the chemist, the cook, but others likewise, make much
practical use of the nose as a source of knowledge, having its own
special scientific interest. But smell does a highly important work
in enabling us to detect foul, hurtful odors. The nose is placed at
the entrance to the mouth as a sentinel to guard it from receiving
unwholesome food. Itis the watch-dog of thestomach. A fourth,
‘scarcely less important function of smell is that of giving pleasure.
The nose is capable of ministering to our happiness even more,
perhaps, than the touch or the taste. One with a cultivated nose
has delights that another knows not.

There is even a greater need for some systematic training of the
sense of smell than of the so-called higher senses. The ordinary
experiences of life and the regular work of the school-room neces-
sarily give to the eye, ear, and mind considerable exercise; while
the smell is called into use much less frequently out of school, and
scarcely at all in school. Besides, the words expressive of smell
percepts and concepts are far less numerous and exact than corre-
sponding words for sight and hearing ; so that the training incident
to the use of language is likely to be far less extensive and accurate
in the case of the nose than in that of the eye, ear, and hand. Add
to this the low estimate generally placed upon the sense of smell,
and the popular indifference to its training, as shown in the fact,
that, while we have elaborate schemes for training the eye in knowl-
edge of form and color, we have practically none for training the
nose in the performance of its proper functions, and we may chal-
lenge for this useful member the sympathy and interest due to neg-
lected merit and overlooked modesty.

In every primary school there should be some special attention
paid to the education of this sense. This should aim to secure,
first, the frequent exercise of the sense until it acquires strength
proportionate to its duties. It should not be overworked, nor called
into undue prominence, but should receive its proper share of at-
tention till it acquires both strength and sensitiveness. Second, the
training should be such as to develop a high power of discrimi-

SCIENCE.

[Vor Xa No. s246

nation, so that the pupil can discern quickly and accurately the dif-
ferent odors that are presented. Third, the growth in discrimi-
native power should be accompanied parz passu with language.
Each distinct odor should be named, and the closest association
should be created between the idea and the word, so that the one
shall recall the other. The pupil should be exercised in analyzing
complex odors, so as to be able to detect the presence of different
substances in the same compound. He should be instructed’ in
noxious smells, which indicate the presence of harmful substances,
and should have some knowledge of the disagreeable odors, their
origin, and the method of their removal.

Boys might receive a little special training as a preparation for
laboratory or scientific work, and girls be instructed in view of their
possible duties as cooks or housekeepers. A few very simple prin-
ciples suffice for suggesting a plan of carrying this scheme into
effect. The work should be begun inthe primary grades. This is
a period of sense-activity, when the child is being aroused to men-
tal life through sense-perception, acquainting itself with the sense-
qualities of the universe, and storing up ideas for future use. If the
senses are neglected at this period, the opportunity for training
them may never return. At first the work should be simple, mak-
ing very light demands upon the sense. A few common fruits,
flowers, and spices or gums may be used, with a view of forming a
sharp discrimination, quick recognition, and accurate naming. The
drill exercises should be very brief, aiming at thoroughness rather
than multiplicity, and may be alternated with lessons in form, color,
place, number, etc. The lessons should be graded so as to increase
in difficulty, and should be so systematized as to secure the fourfold
end of varied activity, knowledge, health, and pleasure. Each step
forward in sense-discrimination should be accompanied with drill in
oral and written language. For ordinary purposes it will be suffi-
cient to make the child well acquainted with perhaps one hundred
distinct odors, separate and in combination ; and these for the most
part should be of those things a knowledge of which will be of most
service in daily life.

When the sense has been properly trained in childhood, and a
habit of wise use established, the pupil will be able to call it into
exercise on all needful occasions, and, on the basis of this general
culture, can, if need be, secure a highly specialized development of
the sense, meeting all the requirements of extraordinary occasions.

THOMAS J. MORGAN.
Providence, R.I., Nov. 3.

Answers.

15. Is THE TRUMPET-CREEPER POISONOUS ?—The belief is gen-
eral in many parts of the South and South-west that both the trum-
pet-creeper and the Virginia creeper (A7mfelopsis guénguefolia) are
poisonous. Ihave always acted upon the opinion that this belief is
as unfounded in the one case as in the other. A little experience
of the poisonous zs will make an ignorant person afraid of every
vine found growing in the woods. JOHN C. BRANNER.

Little Rock, Ark., Oct. 3r.

15. Is THE TRUMPET-CREEPER POISONOUS?—No. This is
Tecoma radzcans, and climbs trees, posts, walls, etc., by means of
thousands of rootlets. It is trained around many verandas and
about door-yards for ornament. No one was ever poisoned by it.
It has been often mistaken for Rhus radzcans of Linnzus (the
climbing variety of 2. coxzcodendron), which also climbs by means
of thousands of rootlets. The stems of the two clinging to trees
resemble each other very much. I have had many cases of Rhus-
poisoning, but never heard of any thing being poisoned by the Ze-
coma. Many times when persons have exclaimed in alarm, “ That
is poison-vine, don’t touch it!” I have, to their consternation,
seized the leaves of Tecoma, rubbed them over my face and hands,
and even chewed them. With sixty years of daily intimacy with
these plants, I feel justified in these statements. D. L. PHARES.

Agricultural College P.O., Miss., Nov. 5.

16. The Archbald pot-holes were described by Dr. John C. Bran-
ner in the Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, vol.
xxiii, pp. 353-357 (read Feb. 19, 1887), and Mr. Charles A. Ash-
burner in the ‘ Annual Report of the Pennsylvania Geological Sur-

vey for 1885,’ pp. 615-626. CHARLES S. PROSSER.
Cornell Univ., Ithaca, N.Y., Noy. 7.

Se IENCE

FRIDAY, NOVEMBER 18, 1887.

THE CLOSING SESSION of the National Academy of Sciences,
which was held Friday at Columbia College, was perhaps the most
interesting of the series that occupied the greater part of last week.
Unfortunately, in view of this fact, the attendance was smaller than
on any of the previous days, as several of the members had ac-
cepted an invitation from Professor Edison to visit Menlo Park. The
session opened with an interesting paper by Prof. W. P. Trow-
bridge. It has always been a puzzle how the muscular action
necessary to keep birds on the wing so long as they often remain
could be possible ; and Professor Trowbridge explained the recent
discovery by his son, which is that birds of prey and some others
have the power to lock securely together those parts of the wing
holding the extended feathers and corresponding to the fingers of
the human hand. The action of the air on the wing in this con-
dition extends the elbow, which is prevented from opening too far
by a cartilage, and the wings may keep this position for an indefi-
nite length of time, with no muscular action whatever on the part
of the bird. While resting in this way, the bird cannot rise in a
still atmosphere ; but, if there be a horizontal current, it may allow
itself to be carried along by it, with a slight tendency downward,
and so gain a momentum by which, with a slight change of direc-
tion, it may rise to some extent, still without muscular action of the
wings. The professor also believed it quite possible for a bird to
sleep on the wing. In discussing this paper, Prof. J. S. Newberry
said that he had once shot a bird which came slowly to the ground
as if still flying, but reached it dead. He believed that it had died
high in the air; but he had never been able to account for the man-
ner of its descent till now, when he found an explanation in the state-
ment of Professor Trowbridge. Professor Newberry read a paper
on the future of gold and silver production. Beginning with gold,
he said that he had spent a part of nearly every summer since 1855
among the mines of the West, and he believed that the production
of the United States was past its maximum. The present annual
production amounts to $30,000,000. In the northern parts of the
mountains of the West there is probably gold, and it may be hoped
that a considerable contribution to the gold of the world will be
made from this region. There are no important deposits of gold
in Mexico. The western coast of South America, rich in silver, is
poorin gold. It is likely that the ancient inhabitants practically ex-
hausted the supply, and the images of this metal which they buried
with the dead have been sought, with some success. The product
of Europe is about $30,000,000 annually, more than three-fourths
of which is from the Ural Mountains. We need not expect any
such quantities of gold as flooded the world from California, Aus-
tralia, and New Zealand, but it may be hoped that the present pro-
duction may be kept up for many years. The problems of silver-
production for the future seem to lie wholly within our own coun-
try. There has been a production amounting to more than six
thousand millions of dollars since the discovery of America, and it
is likely to reach from forty to fifty millions annually for some years
to come. The mines of Peru and Bolivia are the most famous in
the world, and it is estimated that they have yielded $2,493,268,-
800. Their yield has been comparatively little for many years. On
Wednesday evening Mrs. Henry Draper gave a reception at her
home, No. 271 Madison Avenue, to the members of the academy.
The leading feature was an account given by Prof. E. C. Pickering,
director of the Harvard Observatory, of the work in stellar photog-

raphy under the provisions of the Henry Draper Memorial Fund.
A full list of the papers read is given in another column.

AT THE ANNUAL FALL MEETING of the trustees of Princeton,
held Noy. 10, Dr. McCosh resigned the office of president, his resig-
nation to take effect at the end of next term. In closing his annual
report, Dr. McCosh said, “ For several years past I have been sen-
sitive as to whether I may not be continuing in my office to the
detriment of the college. I am so far relieved by finding that no
such effect has yet followed. Our entrance class this year, 179, is
larger than ever it was before; as also our total number of students,
603. It was 264 when I came here, and this while we have grad-
ually been raising our standard of scholarship, Thanks to our
generous benefactors, our grounds and buildings, books and appa-
ratus, have been doubled or trebled. But having been in your ser-
vice for over nineteen years, and being several years above the
threescore and ten, the time has come to look to my retiring from
the presidency of the college. I see it clearly to be my duty to ask
the board to accept my resignation at its next meeting in February,
and appoint a successor to me, it being understood that I retain my
office till the beginning of the third term. I leave the college in a
healthy state, intellectually, morally, and religiously.” Dr. McCosh
was born in Ayrshire, Scotland, in 1811. Educated in the univer-
sities of Glasgow and Edinburgh, he early began to show signs of
literary and philosophical talent of a high order. His first serious
work, an essay on the Stoic philosophy, obtained for him the honor-
ary degree of M.A., and he was ordained a minister of the Church
of Scotland at Arbroath in 1835. In 1839 he removed to Brechin,
and from that time he took a prominent part in the disputes which
arose in connection with the disruption of the Scotch Church, and
the organization of the ‘ Free Church,’ which was effected in 1843.
His next work to attract attention was ‘The Method of the Divine
Government, Physical and Moral,’ which was a theological applica-
tion of Sir William Hamilton’s philosophy. In 1851 he was ap-
pointed professor of logic and metaphysics in Queen’s College, Bel-
fast, and wrote, in collaboration with Prof. G. Dickie, ‘ Typical
Forms and Special Ends in Creation,’ and ‘Intuitions of the Mind,’
which were followed by ‘An Examination of Mill’s Philosophy.’
Dr. McCosh was elected president of the College of New Jersey at
Princeton in 1868, and has held that office up to the present time.
Among the works he has written in the mean time may be men-
tioned, ‘The Laws of Discursive Thought,’ ‘ Treatise on Logic,’
‘Christianity and Positivism,’ the ‘Scotch Philosophy, Biographical,
Expository, and Critical, from Hutcheson to Hamilton,’ and his
famous ‘ Reply to Professor Tyndall’s Belfast Address.’

THE ‘ACT OF GOD’ AND THE RAILWAY-COMPANY.

So far back that memory of man runneth not to the contrary —
imported into the very earliest English jurisprudence from the
Roman Code — was the theory of Nemesis, of the Inevitable, the
Unavoidable. When it reached our motherland and Christian
times, and clamored for recognition in the Common Law, our rev-
erent Norman-Saxon lawyers, to be sure, called it the ‘Act of
God.’ But it was the Stoic ‘Fate’ of the Roman — his ‘ Nemesis,’
his ‘Adrastea’ — just the same; and the earliest English digests
declared that ‘the Act of God or of the public enemy’ discharged
all legal responsibility. In our day the doctrine is oftener laughed
at than applied. A Western counsel for a railway-company, who,
in defending an action for damages for haystacks destroyed by fire
communicated from the company’s locomotive, claimed that his

242

client had no control over the winds of heaven, speedily found him-
self out of court — his client should have used spark-arresters. But
until a very recent date, courts of justice habitually saved time and
routine labor by assuming accidents far less remote from their
proximate causes than the distance between a haystack and a smoke-
stack to be ‘ Acts of God;’ though, indeed, a very recent English
court, while recognizing the principle, declared that a shipwreck, to
be a veritable act of God, must have happened in extremely bad
weather.

But, though to-day in the United States the principle has all but
disappeared from our digests, its existence is rather suggested by
the somewhat startling fact, that, in all our recent chronicle of rail-
way casualty (and I confine myself to the United States in this
paper, because our safety appliances are invariably the latest, cost-
liest, and most elaborate in the world, our corps of watchmen and
care-takers the most numerous, and our estimates of the value of
human life incomparably the largest), as a rule the simplest acci-
dent is the deadliest, and the utmost perfection of life-saving appli-
ances (whose adoption saves in nine hundred and ninety-nine cases
in the thousand) may yet turn out to be helplessness itself in the
thousandth case when the calamity arrives: in other words, the
disaster, when it comes, will be found to consist in the operation of
some perfectly familiar law of nature (as of gravitation or inertia),
set in motion by the simple oversight of some trained and trust-
worthy subordinate; which would have resulted from identical
causes thirty centuries ago to the most primitive of conveyances
equally as well as to our own limited expresses, with their air-brakes,
vestibules, and coupler-buffers.

In examination of the history of railway-accidents in the United
States, the physical conformation of the country should not be
overlooked. As railways were first constructed among us, and had
their formative days of operation in the Eastern States rather than
among the flatlands and ordinarily easy grades of the Ohio valley,
it was only natural that the bulk of experiment, mismanagement,
error, and fatality, should have been expended on our Atlantic
slopes. The period of the railway in the United States is yet one
very insignificant in point of years. To-day, in 1887, the maps of
our territory of greatest railway-development have Lake Michigan
and the Mississippi, instead of the Atlantic Ocean, for their east.
But by the time that railway-construction had begun to extend
westwardly from those boundaries, those greatest insurances of
safety —the air-brake, the coupler-buffer, the steel rail, the im-
proved means of communication between the engineer, conductor,
and his crew, which had been slowly wrought out in the East
had come into practical use. Hence it is that the Pacific railroads,
though spanning gorges, climbing summits, and surmounting
problems of construction to which the achievements of our Atlantic
slope railroads are moderate, have no such records of manslaughter
and destruction as we find in the records of Eastern rail-transpor-
tation. At present every American railway is equipped — is obliged
by law to be equipped — with the last improvement in safety-insur-
ing devices, not only for the convenience of the passenger, but for
the safety of the employee against his employer as well as against
fellow-employee. And it is an amenity to the credit of the railway
system (which ought not to be lost sight of in these days when
wage-workers are taught to look upon any thing incorporated as
their deadliest foe) that it has introduced into the common law of
the land the principle that an employer’s duty to his employees is
only discharged by furnishing him the safest tools for his work
which the strides of science have devised.

Until within a very few months, these strides of science seemed
to have happily abolished —in the United States—the great rail-
road-disasters of the past. Since the frightful catastrophe at Carr’s
Rock on the Erie Railway of twenty years ago, science and ex-
perience have rendered the giddy curves and bold escarpments of
its Delaware division as safe as the tangents crossing an lowa
prairie. The Angola and Ashtabula terrors on the Lake Shore
Railway wound up practically the list for that line; while, had it
not been for a phenomenal piece of silly and unaccountable care-
lessness at Spuyten Duyvel (when Mr. Wagner, an inventor of
parlor-car conveniences, was crushed to death in one of his own
coaches), the New York Central would have closed up its own
perspective of great calamities at New Hamburgh, something in

SCIEINGE:

[Vot. X. No. 250

the neighborhood of fifteen years ago. But this fifteen years of
wonderful immunity from great railway-disaster — most wonderful
when we consider that it corresponds with an era of railway-build-
ing in the United States unparalleled in the history of human in-
dustry — has been brought to a termination by a rapid succession
of calamities, grouped into a period of ten months, which, in point
of loss of human lives (and no other point is worth considering),
are, if not the most terrible in railway annals, yet fall little in horror
below the Wigan slaughter, or the annihilation at Tay Bridge, of
the multiple horrors of which (analogous to those of shipwreck and
railwreck combined) no living tongue shall ever tell the story.
These five occurred during the first ten months of the present year,
(1) on the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad at Republic, Jan. 4, 1887; (2)
on the Central Vermont Railroad at White River, Vt., Feb. 11; (3) on
the Boston and Providence Railroad at Forest Hills,, March 14; (4)
onthe Toledo, Peoria, and Western Railroad at Chatsworth, Aug.
10; and (5) at Kout’s Station on the Chicago and Atlantic Rail-
way, Sept. 12 of the present year. These five are, I think, remark-
able not only because breaking in upon the long immunity, but be-
cause upon examination it will, I think, be found that they were
each and all due, not to any defect of machinery, signals, or other
mechanical appliances which the corporation could have supplied,
or to any defective or careless management, but to those unaccount-
able omissions of trained minor servants to perform a perfunctory
detail of their routine work—a detail which it was their second
nature to perform— which it would have ordinarily required a
physical effort for them zo¢ to perform, or to have kept them from
performing; that is to say (for it is difficult to exactly formulate it
in words), an instantaneous mental incapacity on the part of a
trained workman or care-taker, over which laws, rules, and incor-
porations have no control, and against the possibility of which
neither hope of reward nor fear of loss or punishments can afford
any defence or protection whatever. They all occurred on perfectly ~
equipped roads, and from the simplest natural causes. Each of
the accidents might have happened to the rudest contrivance of
primeval or prehistoric man, — to the cart which used the section
of a tree-trunk for a central wheel, or to the hollowed tree-trunk
which itself formed a means of water-transportation, as will ap-
pear from their recapitulation.

The Republic accident was in this wise: a freight-train, which
had ample time to make a run of some dozen miles to get out of
the way of a through express coming in an opposite direction,
which had made that run easily every night for years, for once
failed to accomplish it. All the mechanical appliances and motive
power of the train werein perfect order ; its crew were old servants
of the company. But the weather was exceptionally cold, the
water in the tank of the engines was all but congealed, and the
crew of the freight-train found themselves encroaching on the time of
the express. Here was not only no novel situation, but, on the con-
trary, perhaps the simplest which can occur in any railway manage-
ment. There was no emergency to meet. Probably not an hour
passes in a day but that, somewhere in the vast railroad operations
of the country, the case is paralleled. But here at Republic, on the
night of the fourth day of January, 1887, the hand sent ahead with
the signal failed to carry it: two trainsmet. Theold catch problem
of the irresistible force meeting the immovable body demonstrated
itself ; namely, the trains were destroyed, and twenty human
beings lost their lives.

Just a month later, Feb. 5, came the disaster at White River. A
night express thundered upon a bridge, which was supposed to be
properly inspected. Every mechanical portion of the train was
working as it should; every servant of the company wasat his post ;
nevertheless, the locomotive left the rails instead of following
them; the express-train was plunged to the frozen surface of the
river fifty feet below ; and, of its three hundred passengers, thirty-
two never breathed again, or were roasted in slow agony from
burning dérzs upon a floor of ice. Every bridge on every railroad-
line in the nation is ordered to be watched. A corporation must
act by its agents. This bridge had probably been hourly inspected
for years, but somebody had failed to inspect it on the fifth day of
February, 1887. Another month went by, and on the morning of
the 14th of March a packed train on the Boston and Providence
Railroad of three hundred mechanics and working-women was

NovemBeER 18, 1887. |

moved into Boston for the day’s business. Somebody had failed to
report or to discover a flaw in the iron-work of a bridge at a point
called Forest Hills. The locomotive followed the rails. Every
thing upon the train was in perfect order; no appliance in the
‘company’s power to provide was lacking; but the bridge sank.
The entire train except two rear cars was piled up in kindling-wood
in a defile made by a passing road below; and from the undistin-
guished mass forty persons were drawn out dead. Four months of
absence of great calamity by rail was then to succeed. But on the
evening of the roth of August an excursion party, gathered at
Peoria and other points in Illinois, was to be carried to Niagara
Falls. There were sixteen cars loaded with excursionists, and two
engines were needed to draw them. The ordinary rules were ob-
served, and due notice of the extra movements of such an unusual
train was duly wired ahead for the guidance of watchmen and
track-walkers. All went regularly; but it seems that a side-fire
had been kindled on the right of way for clearing-up purposes, and
that some track-walker whose duty it was to watch it had allowed
it to communicate to the beams of the wooden bridge at or near
Chatsworth. The train reached the bridge, but the bridge was al-
ready disabled by fire. It sank as did the one at Forest Hills, and
eighty-five passengers were killed, —a most unprecedented death-
list for an American railway-accident. Compared to the above,
the fifth of these fast-recurring disasters seems almost dwarfed,
and yet it was the most wonderful — from the standpoint of our
present examination — of all. An engine drawing an express pas-
senger-train on the Chicago and Atlantic Railway became disabled
iby the breaking of an eccentric strap. The engineer hauled up at
a water-tank for repairs. A freight-train which followed, relying
upon the schedule which the first train should ordinarily make, ran
into the rear of the train with the disabled engine. Nine persons
only were killed, —a small list compared with those we have pre-
viously noted. But doubtless it is as terrible to the victim to be
killed in a list of nine as in a list of eighty. It was the story of the
Republic disaster over again. Some brain had failed to do the
regular act which it had performed for years as regularly as clock-
work.

Now here, in less than nine months, one hundred and eighty-six
lives, all precious to their owners if to nobody else, are sacrificed.
Nobody but the claim agents of the corporations can ever know
the number of wounded and maimed (nor even they, since many of
those who escape do not care to press their undoubted claims), and
the stockholders of the unfortunate corporation do not care to ad-
vertise the dead loss of material which it costs in cash to replace
its ruined rolling-stock and transported material, lest the news-
papers of the country dilate upon the preference shown for income
over flesh and blood, and lash the popular dislike of corporations
into fury with the stereotype with which every railway-accident fills
‘our admirable press. But allowing four to one, —a minimum al-
lowance, — nearly eight hundred more human beings have suffered
a loss of limb or extreme physical pain, and several hundred thou-
‘sands of dollars’ worth of direct expenses incurred, for every one of
these accidents, which should never, in the ordinary course of
human procedure, have happened at all.

I say, should never have happened; but where shall the respon-
sibility be placed? By law itis placed, and rightly, so far as human
laws go, upon the railway-companies. But every railway-officer
knows that the penalty his company suffers for such accidents as
the five above described is exemplary, —a vindication only, so far
as the companies themselves are concerned. That they have done,
were doing at the time the accident happened, all that experience
and science had taught them how to do, or that their professional
or expert brethren employed in the same industry could have done
under like circumstances, they know, and every railroad-man in the
‘country knows, perfectly well. But the railway-official also knows
very well, however, and realizes very submissively, that for these
accidents he will be held to answer, and of beforea jury of experts,
or of his peers. The newspapers in no one of the above instances
fail to ascribe these accidents to the ‘greed of corporations.’ The
‘greed of corporations, to be sure, is only another name for the
‘duty of every corporation to pay dividends, if they can; and doubt-
less, were there no such duty or no such chance of payment, there
would be no railroads, from the simple disinclination of ordinary

SCIENCE,

243

mortals to invest money in costly enterprises without hope of
return or increment. But waiving that consideration, certainly it is
hedging on the superfluous and the elementary to say that no rail-
way-company courts accidents; that, no matter how large any in-
dividual loss by reason of the casualty may be, the company (that is
to say, its stockholders collectively) must be the largest losers of all.
When Sir James Coke said that corporations had no souls, he did
not utter an epigram : he simply stated a fact. A corporation has
no sentiments: it is simply put together for business purposes, be-
cause a number of individuals see in association the means of in-
vesting in a lawful industry too heavy for any one of them to singly
handle. An attempt to earn dividends is properly described as
‘greed,’ of course. But what reader of newspaper denunciation
pauses to subtract from any particular year’s ‘ greed,’ of any particu-
lar corporation, the million of dollars or less that a great disaster
like that at Chatsworth or Forest Hills draws out of a company’s
treasury? Whatever the present state of clamor against corpora-
tions may develop, it is at least apparent, from considerations of
pure ‘greed,’ that a railway-corporation is not a Moloch, or a con-
trivance incorporated for the purpose of burning or mutilating
human beings, or crushing their bones, or mangling their limbs.
Philares is said to have built a hollow bronze ox in which to roast
his subjects for fun, and the druids to have made wicker cages in
which to burn as many living babies as possible for economy’s sake.
But bronze oxen and wicker cages are comparatively inexpensive,
and there were no courts handy in which damages could be recov-
ered by the survivors. Locomotive engines and Pullman coaches
are, however, rather costly receptacles in which to holocaust pas-
sengers. In spite of newspaper declamation, is it not self-evident
that no railway-company gloats over the ruin caused by an accident
upon its line ?

To return to the five accidents above mentioned. In not one of
them does it appear from the reports to the company — the news-
paper accounts, or even the findings of the local coroner’s jury (a
class of valuable material which is not apt to be over complimen-
tary to the railway-company) —that any of the mechanical agen-
cies — operating-gear, engines, couplings, air-brakes, signals, wheels
of the trains wrecked — were old, superannuated, or in bad repair ;
that the track was in bad condition; or that ordinary wear and
tear had been allowed to remain unmet or exceeded. The utmost
that can be said was, that, out of some three millions of men em-
ployed in the service of the railway-companies of the United States,
fiveseem, for some utterly unaccountable reason, to have each failed
in his duty of a moment, and that that moment in which he failed
happened in the course of chance to be the supreme and crucial
moment respectively in the lives of some two hundred human beings.
It is too late in the day to call these failures, perhaps, ‘ Acts of
God,’ but what else are they? They are not the fault of the com-
pany. The company has no control over the minds of their ser-
vants. Itcould, indeed, negatively control their minds by so over-
working them that nature refused longer to perform its functions.
And for the safety of the community we think the law ought to take
cognizance of a company which overworked its employees, and hold
it to the same responsibility in that case as in cases where the com-
pany furnished dangerous conveyances to its patrons, or old, worn,
and imperfect machinery to its servants. But in the five cases
above selected there is no such allegation. The men sent out to
warn an approaching train at Republic and at Kout’s Station for
once omitted their routine duty. The track-walker at Chatsworth
forgot the bonfire kindled on the right of way. The bridge-in-
spector at White River and at Forest Hills failed to discover, or,
discovering, to report, a flaw in a girder or a brace. To say that
the companies failed to provide proper persons to perform these
duties, is to say that they were willing to take the risk of losses run-
ning into millions rather than spend from five to a hundred dollars
in cash. And most people who know any thing, know that (news-
paper reporters and leader-writers, even, to the contrary) that is not
the way railroads are managed in the United States, at all events.
And we may add, that, had it been, the above enumerated acci-
dents would not have waited until the year of grace 1887 to have
transpired. The railroad-company, then, is at the mercy of its em-
ployees. I will not cite figures, because figures can be ‘ cooked.’
But if anybody will sit down and compute the millions spent annu-

244

ally —not on public grounds, but for the purely selfish purpose of
avoiding expensive accidents (that is, in self-preservation) — by the
railways of the United States, in premiums for new inventions, in
training-schools and shops for the education of its servants and the
development of improvements, for the purchase of the latest devices
for the saving of life and property, he will find his command of fig-
ures taxed to express the aggregate result. And if he will remem-
ber the number of courts and lawyers in this great country of ours,
and the general gusto with which juries mulct railway-companies, he
will not wonder, I think, that science cannot move fast enough in
devising improvements to be utilized in the physical management
of railways. The presumptive margin of profit in railway-operation
is small enough as it is; but whenthe recurrence of such accidents
as those at Republic, at White River, at Forest Hills, at Chatsworth,
and at Kout’s Station are admitted into the forecast, it is apt to
produce a rather considerable shrinkage in the prospect, or in the
temptation of stockholders to build more railroads.

Congress has lately established a bureau at Washington for the
filing of railway-schedules, and for discovering what, if any, ‘long
hauls’ and ‘short hauls’ can possibly be “ under substantially sim-
ilar circumstances and conditions.” What public benefit this
bureau may become to the public, it remains to be demonstrated.
But, if the establishment of another bureau or commission to devise
a means for supplying railway-companies with infallible employees
were contemplated by the government, the government's good in-
tentions, at least, could not well be questioned. Of the three mil-
lions of railway-employees in this nation, the percentage who do not
do their duty is too microscopical for expression in decimals; but
the railway-industry happens to be one in which an invisible per-
centage of carelessness produces enormously visible calamitous re-
sults; that is the price we pay for being carried back and forth to
our business at five miles in ten minutes instead of five miles in an
hour. But before the absolutely infallible employee is found, some
eminent counsel of a railway-company may yet be bold enough to
claim, that, since railroad-companies cannot take their brakemen
and track-walkers from the class of the community which produces
Sumners, Websters, and Conklings, the unknown mental processes
which sometimes lead a brakeman or a track-walker, from causes
entirely and subjectively mental, to happen to think of something
else than his routine duty, ought to discharge a corporation which
has no soul —if not from pecuniary damages for loss of life, limb,
or property it has no agency in procuring, at least from newspaper
declamation, and charges of sacrificing its passengers and patrons
to mere ‘greed.’ Since, however we may explain it, it happens to
be one of the most persistent of truths that accidents are of more
frequent occurrence upon bankrupt or non-dividend paying than
upon solvent and dividend paying railroads, one might say, logi-
cally speaking, that the ‘ greed’ of a railway-company was a public
security rather than a danger.

There is an apparent moral to be drawn from these records of
casualty, which, from one point of view, perhaps, is safe enough.
We may say, and say with great truth, that no achievement of ap-
plied science can be substituted for human watchfulness and care,
but only for human skill. But to this there would be exceptions.
The automatic hay-press, which rams and packs and binds not
only, but debouches the completed ball in time to pack another in
the place from which that ball is debouched; the Hoe printing-
press, which counts the sheets it prints ; and hundreds of others, —
are watchfulness personified (andI am told that there are mechanics
employed in the most delicate processes of watch-making which
are said even to correct a chance misplacement of the material to
be worked upon) ; but, since the operation of none of these is occu-
pied with the transportation of human beings, should these autom-
ata fail, no lives are lost, and no public outcry awakened. The
better statement is, I think, that no machine can counteract human
wilfulness or neglect. The machine can only do the share of work
allotted it. If the man fails in his, no accuracy of invention can
suffice. A dial may register the failure of a watchman to visit a
certain point so many times a night, and tell its unalterable tale in
the morning. But, where a train of human freight rushes on to
death and disaster, death and disaster tell the tale, upon the instant
of the dereliction, and when it is too late to correct the fault or
supply the omission. And the public scarifies with its denuncia-

SCIENCE:

[Vor. X. No. 250

tion the owners of the machine, and not the man or men who
ought to have cleared its track but did not.

Everybody must trust somebody, corporations must trust every-
body they employ : nay, more, the railway-company must not only
trust everybody, but it is at the mercy of every track-walker on its.
line; and, worse than that, every passenger that a railway transports,
every pound of freight it moves, is at his mercy too. Should that
track-walker’s eye be turned from an obstruction or overlook a de-
tail, the eternal vigilance of every other servant of the company is
worse than useless. The crash must come, and all the sooner be-
cause the machinery which moves the train is of the latest and best,
and the coaches the completest and most luxurious, that human in-
genuity has devised. Penalties, threats, the prospect of rewards,
alike fail to make the man do his duty, or to prevent his forgetful-
ness or wilful absence of mind or body at a crucial point, or the
intellectual hiatus of a moment which causes his hand to forget
once in a halfa million of times the required act which it is quite his.
second nature to do at all the other times. Whatisit? Is it an
“Act of God?’ Is it inevitable necessity, or is it Nemesis ?

The physical perils of the sea appear to have been already over-
come. But the peril of panic remains, that no human ingenuity
can prevent, and no human discipline, however it may foresee, con-
trol. The wheelsman of the ‘ Ville de Havre’ had watched a ves-
sel steering towards them for hours in aclear night; but when that
vessel was about to crush the great steamer, the very thought of
the monumental magnitude of the approaching peril paralyzed that
wheelsman’s brain, and the brain-paralysis steeled his hand, and he
could not turn his wheel the few points that meant safety to a
priceless human freight. What is there to provide against here?’
Shall we still preserve the antique phrase ‘ Act of God,’ or merely
say that it is fate or luck? Call it what we will, there is yet, it
would seem, an element in all mundane affairs for which nothing
human can invent an antidote or remedy, and which possibly
should relieve us, under our human laws, of the responsibility.
Whether or not mere human framers of human laws ever devise a
statute for the emergency, of one thing, however, we can, I think,
be sure enough; namely, if a relief from this ‘ Act of God’ should
ever come, it will be because science, and not the reporters, nor yet
the leader-writers of our daily newspapers, have grappled with the
problem. Every thing except the human brain, the human brain
appears to have conquered or to be in a fair way to conquer. But
to go outside of itself to control itself —that, it seems, so far, to:
have been unable to do. APPLETON MORGAN.

SOUND-BLINDNESS.

THE phenomena of color-blindness are well known, and have
been carefully investigated. We know that some persons can see
to great distances, discern minute objects, enjoy works of art, and
yet are unable to distinguish certain colors. Physiologists, and
especially psychologists, have also found that there is a similar
series of phenomena to be observed in connection with the sense of
hearing. Ifa word were coined to describe these phenomena, it
would naturally be ‘ sound-deafness,’ but many who have written.
on this subject seem to prefer the term ‘sound-blindness.’

A writer in the London Journal of Education uses the term
‘sound-blindness, and seems to have come to the subject from a.
pedagogic standpoint. He states that the difficulties which some
persons have in learning to spell and in learning how to pronounce:
foreign languages suggested to him the possibility of the existence
of such a thing as sound-blindness, — an inability to distinguish
particular shades of sound, arising from some organic defect in the
ear which is distinct from deafness, as that term is commonly un-
derstood.

The writer in question noticed that a small boy, in writing down
a line of poetry which he had learned by heart, had spelled the
word ‘very’ ‘voght.. When some experiments were tried, it was
found that the boy could hear no difference between ‘ very,’ ‘ perry,’
and ‘polly,’ and yet he was not deaf. The boy in question had
great difficulty in learning to read, and, on inquiry being made,
many teachers were found who testified to the fact that it is quite
a common thing to meet with children who are very slow in learn--
ing to read precisely, because sounds, different to the teacher, were:
not different to them. It was also found, that, when a class of

NoveMBER 18, 1887. |

boys reads aloud, some of them often give, instead of a word, its
synonyme, though the latter be quite different in sound from the
former. ‘The boys who were most apt to do this were the boys
whose power of hearing was already under suspicion ; and I inferred
that they associated the printed letters, not with their sound, but
with the concrete thing which they represented, much as if they
had been a picture.”

Avcther interesting observation is that of a boy of eleven years
of age, who is a bad speller, and, when writing from dictation,
makes mistakes in words which have an 7 or an Zin them. He
cannot pronounce those letters; but his failure is believed to be the
result of a defect of ear, though he is by no means deaf, quite as
much as the result of a defect of tongue or palate. Some of his
misspellings are ‘sunderelents’ for ‘sundry rents,’ ‘compreated ’
for ‘complicated,’ ‘laserlacions’ for ‘ lacerations.’

The writer points out that a want of power to distinguish vowel-
sounds is quite as likely to be the cause of bad spelling in common
words as carelessness amounting to malice prepense, or a weak-
ness in the machinery which connects the movements of the hand
with the orders of the ear. He continues, ‘‘ We might have expected,
that, on the analogy of color-blindness, vowel-sounds would be
more likely to be confused than consonant-sounds, So far as my
present experiments have gone, I infer that the inability to distin-
guish consonants is as common as a want of discrimination be-
tween vowels.

“The confusion caused by explosive consonants is, however,
more remarkable than that from vowels; the inexperienced ear
which is dull at catching consonants is capable of any distortion of
sounds. To illustrate this, an experiment was tried with a class of
eleven boys, averaging ten and a half years of age, and all able to
read fluently, one or two of them being somewhat extensive read-
ers. Some short ordinary words were selected, which nearly all
got right, and then words specially to test the power of hearing,
some of which, it was hoped, the subjects of the experiment had
never heard before. Here are the variations of five words (the
Italicized vowels show interchange in the*hard-vowel scale) :—

different capable ultramarine spectroscope Epaminondas
I. dirfreant capbul ultremean spaccrow apnonas
2. different ultramarine specorourscOpe aparmondas
3. diferent capeperbul altrermerine speckshow aponedondas
4. diferrent capperble altrermerein speckros-cop achappynomeen
5. diferant cameble _ oltremer spkerrope appanandex
6. drifrent capable untummerrein specteroskop eupameondeous
7. diffrent capabybely ultriean spesptrocope emeandass
8. drifent capebibel ultrenn spectuscope epermondes
g. different capebale ultermeriem specktrocope apporymondas
10, differant ackable ultomarien spreting apanenondes
It, differint caperble ultrumeree _—_ spatroscope appongamanges

“ The room was a small one, and the words slowly pronounced
twice, each word being written immediately after it had been read
out. The majority of these boys are unusually intelligent.. The
worst speller but one recited, soon after his eighth birthday, ‘The
Battle of the Lake Regillus.’

“ Twenty words inall were read out. Among them were‘ yellow,’
which all got right ; ‘instance,’ five right, one of the best readers
giving ‘insentsess;’ ‘aniline,’ of which there appeared these varia-
tions, ‘haniyne,’ ‘anileling,’ ‘anelile,’ ‘animiene,’ ‘aleline,’ the
rest being at any rate phonetically correct.

“Tn the majority of these misspellings we at once detect want of
experience in the use of the arbitrary connection between signs and
sounds, and feel confident of improvement in course of time; but
when we find a particular phonetic mistake frequently recurring,
such as the substitution of 7 for # in ‘aniline, we suspect some
defect either in the writer or dictator; and if the possibility of mis-
pronunciation in the reader is eliminated, then we have to look for
defect of ear or hand, or both, in the writer. Supposing that in
correcting the misspellings we find that one or two subjects can-
not recognize a word after the correct spelling has been shown
them, while others have no difficulty, we must conclude that the
ear is at fault, in the one or two; and if we find that the same in-
dividuals can recognize some sounds and not others, then the phe-
nomenon of sound-blindness is established, and we have a satis-
factory reason for the fact that some persons seem to spell natu-

SCIENCE:

245

rally, while others never learn ; as, indeed, how should a man learn
to spell even phonetically to whom not only the printed sign, but
also the distinction of sounds, is arbitrary and conventional ? and
how should he not learn whose ear is a torturing conscience?
Sound-blindness will account for dialectic variations. The ear
being, as physiologists tell us, an even more delicate and complex
structure than the eye, we can understand that the physical con-
ditions of certain localities may produce insensibility to particular
variations of sound. Perhaps the interminable rattle of London
may account for the awful vowel-system of commercial men in the
metropolis.”

ETHNOLOGY.
American Languages.

IN the Proceedings of the Canadian Institute, Toronto, October,
1887, Mr. A. F. Chamberlain discusses the relation of American
and Asiatic languages in connection with the question of the origin
of the Indians. The concluding remarks of his article are so
judicious that we wish to repeat them here: “The case for the
eastern Asiatic origin of the American peoples rests too much upon
apparent phonetic resemblances. Before any (phonetic) law like
that of Grimm can be discovered and demonstrated between the
American and related linguistic families, a thorough understanding
of the relations which exist between the individual members of
each branch of the American stock is requisite and of paramount
importance.” But we believe that an application of such principles
to Chamberlain’s own remarks will show that they are not well
founded.

The author first discusses the Eskimo dialects, and gives a brief
comparative vocabulary of different tribes in order to show their
similarity. The words contained in this table are not taken from
the best originals, and, besides, words of different meaning are
compared. What the author considers as differences of dialect
must in many cases be ascribed to a difference of the grammatical
forms, or to the nationality of the collector. As his material is of
so little value, the comparative Eskimo-Turanian vocabulary can-
not be considered a good proof for his opinion that the American
and Turanian languages have a common origin. We cannot con-
sider the similarities of sound between the two groups other than
fortuitous. There is another point of view in the paper which we
cannot accept. Chamberlain uses the migration legends as a proof
of earliest migrations. Toa certain extent this may be right, but
it is well known, that, if a tribe changes its seat, its legends are
attached to new localities, and for this reason no conclusion on
the migrations in a very remote period can be made from such
facts. The migration of legends among aboriginal tribes is a prob-
lem of great difficulty, and one in which rash conclusions ought not
to be made. The study of European folk-lore has shown that the
origin of legends and their migrations are often wonderful, and that
the most painstaking care must be taken in dealing with this sub-
ject. These considerations prevent us from accepting Chamber-
Jain’s theories as superior to those propounded by other authors.
Our knowledge of American and North Asiatic ethnology and phi-
lology has not yet arrived at that stage in which we can deal satis-
factorily with the question discussed by Chamberlain.

ETHNOGRAPHICAL MusruMS.—Dr. Kristian Bahnson pub-
lishes an interesting account of his thorough study of the principal
European ethnographical museums (‘Ethnografiske Museer i
Udlandet,’ in Aarbiger for nord. Oldk.og Héstorie). His conclud-
ing remarks are of particular interest, as they refer to the much-
discussed question of museum arrangement. He shows that the
arrangement according to objects has gradually been abandoned
by all museums, and that the ethnological method, ie., the arrange-
ment according to tribes, has been adopted in its stead. He says
about the former, the sociological plan, ‘“‘ The plan as a whole is
absolutely wrong, in the first place, because those groups which
ought to be the principal divisions in an ethnological museum, are
made subdivisions. The ethnic individuality, which is a whole, is
decomposed into a great number of elements. By an arrangement
according to the character and purpose, the objects are taken out
of their natural place, and they want the environment, which alone
can explain their real meaning. In each stage of civilization there
is a deep connection between the several ethnological peculiarities

246

of a people. Although this connection is not that ‘harmony’ from
which conclusions have been made from the development in one
region upon a similar development in another, it exists, influenced
by numerous conditions, — climate, nature of the land, mental de-
velopment, intercourse with adjacent countries, etc.,—and it is
necessary to convey the idea of such a connection in a museum,
the object of which is to throw light upon the origin of a certain
stage of civilization. Groups of objects, severed from their ethnic
environment, may be valuable for the study of industry and tech-
nology, but an ethnographical museum cannot be arranged in this
way, as objects belonging together from an ethnographical point of
view are separated, while others of entirely different origin are
united in one group. The other system of arranging museums is
the ethnographical one. The system according to which all ob-
jects belonging to one tribe are placed together, and the single
tribes are joined to ethnic groups according to their affinity, is so
simple and natural in itself, that it has been generally accepted. It
is a long time since ethnologists have ceased to invent more or less
valueless systems of mankind which played an important part in
the early history of ethnography. The attempt is being made to
construct, by the use of strict inductive methods, the science of
ethnology on the foundation of careful researches on single tribes
and nations; and not until this has been done will problems of the
mutual relation of tribes be taken up. In this way the foundation
is laid for researches on the history of civilization. There is no
lack of theories on the material and intellectual development of
man, on the progress and decline of primitive nations; but here,
also, the only way to reach satisfactory results is the inductive
method ; here also, a vast number of researches is necessary, be-
fore it is possible to gain that general point of view which is the
ultimate aim of ethnology. In consideration of these facts, the eth-
nological arrangement is the only one fit for a museum. It does
not give a solution of great problems, it does not give results of
doubtful value, but it gives, what must be asked by the descriptive
treatment of ethnography, the material arranged in such a way that
it may be as easily accessible to students as possible. It is only in
this way that the museum is able to illustrate the different states of
civilization which occur in a single tribe, and, as the principal
groups of nations are kept together, it shows the peculiar de-
velopment in each group. All museums of any importance have
adopted the ethnographic principle in laying out their plans, but
not all have been equally successful in carrying their plans out.
There are collections in which incidental arrangements disturb the
general plan, and they show that the utmost consistency in adher-
ing to the plan is necessary, else the museum will become a mere
store-room.’’ Dr. Bahnson further says, that, in carrying out such a
plan in a large museum, the ethnological collections of each tribe
must be subdivided according to sociological principles. These
statements and views of the author are of great weight, as they are
based on the study of a great number of collections and of a vast
material. He shows plainly that there is no foundation to the al-
leged impossibility of arranging ethnological collections on an eth-
nological plan, and his idea that such a museum is the only one
that can serve for the study of the history of civilization is undoubt-
edly correct.

THE BASQUES. — Chamberlain’s view in regard to the connec-
tion between the Basques and Americans is in part founded on the
alleged similar character of their languages. Many grammatical
forms of the Basque consist of a combination of mutilated elements,
and it was believed that this process was similar to the synthesis of
American languages. Recent researches do not confirm this view.
W. J. van Eys, one of the most learned Basque scholars, considers
such combinations or contractions as similar to those occurring
frequently in the vulgar dialects of Romanic and Teutonic lan-
guages. He mentions the Dutch 4y’Z’7, which stands for edt
gy het hem. Our ‘ain't ye’ for ‘are you not,’ and others, belong
to the same class. He ascribes the occurrence of such contractions
in literary Basque to the late date at which the literature of this
people developed. Gerland, who gives a very clear sketch of the
Basque language and its relation to the ancient Iberian in
‘Grober’s Grundriss der romanischen Philologie,’ expresses the
same opinion, and thus far-reaching conclusions on the connection
between Americans and Basques must fall to the ground.

SCIENCE.

[Vot. X. No. 250

HEALTH MATTERS.
Cholera and Cold Weather.

IN a recent editorial in the Vew Vork Medical Record the state-
ment was made that ‘cholera is always stopped by cold weather,
and an epidemic here now would be impossible.” In a letter to the
editor of that journal, Dr. Reginald H. Sayre of New York takes
exception to the statement, and quotes a number of instances to
show that cholera is one of those scourges whose march is not
stopped by heat or cold, high or low altitude, dryness or dampness,
or any other condition of the weather. He says, —

“Tn 1830 the cholera appeared in Moscow in the month of Oc-
tober, and continued its ravages until the end of December, in spite
of the severities of a Russian winter, and caused the death of 8,130
persons out of a population of 250,000, or about I in 30. From
Moscow it went north to Yarasy, thence to Rybinsk, sixty leagues
north of Moscow, where it appeared on March 19, 1831, in spite of
the ice and snow which covered the ground.

“In October, 1831, the cholera appeared in Great Britain, and
continued there until March, 1832, doing most of its destruction in
December. About one-third of the people affected died.

“On the 27th of March, 1832, the disease appeared in Paris, and
the mortality was so frightful that 861 people died in ten days.

“Tn 1848 the emigrant ship ‘ New York’ left Havre on the 9th
of November, having no sickness on board, and no cholera being
then in Havre. During the voyage the weather became bitterly
cold. There were some German emigrants on board, from a town
where cholera had prevailed, who had a trunk which had belonged
to a man who had died of cholera. They opened the trunk, took
out the clothing, and wore it. On Nov. 22 a child died of cholera,
and seven persons in all succumbed to it before reaching New York
harbor. They were strictly quarantined, and the disease limited to
those who died on Staten Island in the quarantine.

“ About this same time another vessel from Havre, bound for
New Orleans, developed the cholera on the twenty-seventh day out,
and, owing to imperfect quarantine regulations, the disease spread
rapidly through the town $oon after the arrival of the. vessel, there
being then no other cases in the United States except those in the
quarantine on Staten Island. From New Orleans the disease tray-
elled to Memphis, appearing there toward the end of December,
and at St. Louis in the first week of January, 1849. Toward March
several places in the Upper Mississippi valley were affected, and
then gradually the disease moved east through Chicago, which it
reached in May, to New York, which became infected then, azd
not tll then, although the disease had been imported to the city
six months previously, but had not been allowed to land; and the
city in this way kept free from infection until the cholera effected a
flank movement, by way of New Orleans, and attacked her in the
rear, having made its progress in spite of the winter, and having
attacked the cities through which it passed in the cold weather.

“ These facts in regard to the prevalence of cholera in spite of
cold, and the well-known futility of a quarantine on land, make any
attempt to lull the medical profession into a false sense of security
fraught with great danger to the country, and I have therefore
wished to call attention to the fact that cholera is 7o0¢ stopped by
cold, and that to be quarantined effectively it must be arrested in
our ports, which can only be done by having a general quarantine
under the direction of the Federal Government.”

In answer to this, the editor of the Record says that cholera has
never prevailed in New York City in the winter-time, and rarely in
any northern latitude save under very peculiar and exceptional cir-
cumstances. In support of this view, he quotes from Ernst’s ‘ Ref-
erence Handbook of the Medical Sciences,’ which states that ‘the
progress of an epidemic is invariably arrested by cold, the winter
season having always stopped those of which we have any record.”
He further says that cholera has frequently been imported into
warm New Orleans in the winter-time, notably in 1873, when it
commenced in February. But it did not winter over that year, or
notably any other year. But constant importations into New Or-
leans almost every month of the year during the California gold-
fever times sent much cholera to St. Louis and Chicago, and other
Western places, almost every month in the year; so that it seemed
to winter over, but, in fact, was kept alive by almost incessant new
importations. The effect of cold on the further spread of cholera,

NovemBer 18, 1887. |

and upon the vitality of its germs, is a matter of deep moment at
the present time, and we shall be glad to receive any information
from our readers which will throw light upon the subject.

SEWER-GAS.— In an editorial on the subject of the air of sewers,
the New York Medical Journal refers to the fact that some authori-
ties do not regard sewer-air as of itself usually deleterious, while
others attribute to it cases of sickness which have from time to time
been reported, and asks how this apparent discrepancy is to be ac-
counted for, Sewer-air is regarded by some sanitarians as danger-
ous only when it contains the germs of specific diseases ; but the
many instances in which it has seemed to-be the sole cause of per-
sistent sore throats, headaches, and diarrhceal troubles without the
development of any well-defined disease would seem to militate
against this view. Dr. Playfair reports a case in the Zazce¢ in
which serious symptoms were developed in a puerperal woman,
which were undoubtedly due to exposure to foul air from the house-
drains. In the Proceedings of the Royal Society is a paper on this
subject by Professor Carnelly and J. S. Haldane, M.B., in which it
is shown that the air of large and well-ventilated sewers is compara-
tively free from noxious gases, and contains proportionately fewer
micro-organisms than the outer air of the same locality. These ob-
servers also found that most of the micro-organisms found in the
sewer-air were drawn in from the outer air, and not developed in
the sewer; that micro-organisms tend to settleinstead of remaining
in the air; and that, when bubbles of sewage burst, a number of
micro-organisms are set free into the air. The editor of the Vew
York Medical Journal states that it has been noticed that illness
traced to defective drainage is more frequent in houses.where there
are holes in the pipes, open joints, or unused fixtures, than where
there is simply an absence of traps under fixtures in constant use.
Holes in vertical or branch pipes, and open joints, will often be
found covered about the edge with slime deposited from fluids that
have spurted through the holes during their passage. The outer
border of this deposit is often dry and crumbling, and from that
point to the edge of the opening will be found all degrees of moist-
ure. He asks whether it may not be that such deposits around
holes and lining dry unused pipes are the real breeding-places of
the micro-organisms believed to be productive of so much sickness
in houses, every outward current of air passing into the room being
loaded with them. He calls attention to what is undoubtedly the
fact, that pathogenic micro-organisms may produce their injurious
results by being swallowed, as well as inhaled, and that the im-
munity of sewer-men, scavengers, and plumbers may be due to
tobacco-chewing, and the ejection of the buccal fluids instead of
their deglutition. The value of bacteriological science was well
illustrated recently in the recognition of the cholera microbe, the
comma bacillus or cholera spirillum, in cultures obtained from the
excreta of cases at the quarantine of New York, which were sus-
pected to be cholera. Such cultures were made by Drs. Biggs,
Prudden, Kinyoun, Armstrong, and Weeks, and the microbe was
discovered by each one of these investigators, thus determining
absolutely the nature of the disease. Ina paper on the diagnostic
value of the cholera spirillum, read before the Society of Bellevue
Hospital Alumni, Dr. Biggs gives a history of his experiments, and
states that this is, he believes, the first case in this country where
a diagnosis of Asiatic cholera has been based upon biological ex-
aminations.

»

HEALTH OF SCHOOL-CHILDREN. — The following recommenda-
tions have been made by the State Board of Health of New York,
and will doubtless be brought before the Legislature at its next
session: I. That its organic law be so amended as to authorize
its executive officer, where an emergency arises and the local
board of health of the town or village in which the emergency oc-
curs has not organized and appointed a health-officer, to appoint a
physician as acting health-officer at the expense of the town or vil-
lage concerned, who shall, until such time as a board of health for
said place has been organized, as provided for in Chapter 270, Laws
of 1885, have and exercise, under the direction of the secretary of
the State Board of Health, all the powers and duties of a board of
health regularly appointed. II. That the following requirements be
embodied in a law as essential to the sanitary welfare of the school-
children of the State: (a) Building should rest on a good dry founda-

SCIENCE.

247

tion, and be constructed to insure the comfort of children during |
inclement weather ; (4) Class-rooms should be arranged so as to
admit light from left side and back of pupils, and the area of win-
dows should be one-fourth of floor-space; (¢) Not less than 250
cubic feet of air-space should be allowed per pupil, and provision
for changing air should be made, so as to secure each pupil not
less than thirty cubic feet of fresh air per minute; (@) The tem-
perature of the school-rooms should in winter be maintained at a
range not to exceed from 68° F. to 70° F.; (e) Closets should be
provided for each sex, entirely separate from each other, and hav-
ing entirely separate means of access; when situated outside the
building, they should be about fifty feet distant, and should be con-
nected with it by a covered walk; privy-vaults should be utterly
abolished ; movable boxes or buckets should be placed under the
seats, and earth or ashes provided as a deodorant; buckets should
be cleaned out at least once a week; (/) In addition to his other
powers over schools, the superintendent of public instruction should
have authority to oblige school-trustees to make improvements or
repairs in school-buildings for sanitary purposes, whenever the local
board of health considers such necessary, and their judgment is
supported by that of the State Board of Health.

YELLOW-FEVER AT TAMPA. — During the week ending Nov.
2, there were at Tampa, Fla. 74 cases of yellow-fever, with 9
deaths. The total number of cases during the epidemic is approx-
imately 325, of which 48 have proved fatal. On the 3d instant
there were three new cases and 2 deaths. The quarantine inspect-
or telegraphs that he thinks the epidemic is rapidly subsiding.
Two cases, one of which died, occurred three weeks ago at Many
Lakes, Fla., but there has been no spread of the disease. At Man-
atee, having a population of 300, it is reported that there are 16
cases of yellow-fever, and that there have been 3 deaths from that
disease.

OLD OBSERVATIONS ON HyDROPHOBIA.—In a letter to the
Boston Medical and Surgical Journal, Dr. Goodale of the Botanic
Garden of Harvard University says, ‘‘ In the course of my reading,
Ihave chanced upon the following passage, which may prove of
some interest to your readers. It is taken from ‘Observations on
Hydrophobia,’ by James Thacher, M.D., Plymouth, Mass., 1812.
It seems as if Dr. Thacher’s project was in a fair way of being car-
ried into successful execution, after a lapse of more than seventy
years. From p. 300 of the work cited above, the Italics standing
as in the original: ‘Experiments made upon the canine poison in
brutes, might be considered as an arduous and hazardous under-
taking, but it is not to be deemed altogether impracticable and I
will suggest the following project for the purpose. In the first place,
dogs when affected with madness, instead of being killed, should
be confined and secured that the disease may run its course, and
for the ascertainment of many useful facts connected with its sev-
eral stages. If experiments on dogs should be deemed too hazard-
ous, let other animals of little value be selected, provided a sufficient
number can be procured. Having provided for their security in
some proper enclosure, let them be inoculated with the saliva of
the mad dog, by the point of the lancet, which would undoubtedly
prove as effectual as the dog’s teeth. The animals thus infected,
are to be the subjects of various experiments and the most atten-
tive observation. With some, the inoculated part might be cut out
at different stages, to ascertain the latest period in which it may be
done successfully. To others, various counter-poisons and specific
remedies might be applied to the wound and administered inter-
nally. In fact, it would be difficult to determine, @ przorz, the ex-
tent of the advantages of this novel plan, if judiciously conducted.
You may smile at my project, but however chimerical and vision-
ary it may appear, I would rejoice to be the /ewmer of the proposed
institution; though I might fail in realizing my thousands, I could
pride myself in being the candidate for the honor, and the author
of an attempt to mitigate the horrors attending one of the greatest
of all human calamities.’” It will be seen from this that Dr.
Thacher anticipated Pasteur by many years.

IN Sczence of last week, first column, 4th line from bottom,
©7886’ should read ‘1885;’ same column, 6th line from bottom,
“1885 ’ should read ‘1886.’

48

BOOK -REVIEWS.

The American Journal of Psychology. Ed. by G. STANLEY
HALL. Baltimore.

THE announcement made some months ago, that a journal de-
voted to the scientific aspects of psychology was to be published
under the auspices of the Johns Hopkins University, excited con-
siderable comment. Some seemed to think that we had philosophi-
cal journals in abundance, and whatever surplus energy America had
in reserve in this direction might well be utilized in strengthening
the journals of England and the continent ; others doubted whether
so small a department could really supply material enough to sus-
tain even a quarterly periodical; while those who have not yet be-
come acclimatized to the new atmosphere that is slowly but surely
displacing the old, dogmatic, non-progressive, and lifeless treatment
of psychological topics, intimated that they saw in the new-comer a
further belittling of a noble study, and the harbinger of a much hated
‘materialism,’ The first number of the journal proves beyond a
doubt, that, for a time at least, the material will not be wanting,
and quite as certainly shows that the movement in favor of an ex-
perimental psychology is strong and important enough to merit a
separate organ of publication. If we add to this the guaranty of
sound scholarship and all-sided appreciativeness that the name of
the editor (as also of the university from which it comes) affords,
we seem justified in welcoming the journal as an ornament to
American science, and as promising to mark an era in the develop-
ment of one of the most significant movements of our age.

The two main purposes of the journal are to publish original
studies, and to review the psychological literature. The first is
represented by four articles, all worked out upon an experimental
basis ; while the critiques and notices fill no less than seventy-eight
finely (perhaps too finely) printed pages. The leading article is con-
tributed by Dr. Warren P. Lombard, and describes a very remark-
able series of experiments upon the variations in the extent of the
‘knee-jerk’ under various conditions of the nervous system. It is well
known that if one leg is supported, and the knee partly flexed (most
conveniently by crossing one leg over the other), a sudden blow
upon the ligament just below the knee-pan will cause an involun-
tary and jerky movement of the foot. This apparently insignifi-
cant phenomenon became of special importance when it was ob-
served that it was generally absent ina common form of spinal-cord
affection known as Tades dorsalis. The nature of the process is
discussed in quite an extensive literature, and the two main opinions
regard it as (1) a simple reflex act, with a direct course from the
tendon to the lumbar cord and back to the muscle, and (2) as an
act not reflex (because the time it takes is much too short), but
rather as a mechanical effect under the influence of a reflex centre,
—a ‘tone’ rendering the muscle more or less susceptible to such
stimuli. In either case the variations in the extent of the move-
ment are co-ordinated with the condition of the nervous centres,
and thus become an index—and, as Dr. Lombard shows, an in-
credibly delicate index—of a very mysterious central process.
Previous observers had shown that a violent contraction, such as
clinching the hands, or even slighter movements, as well as strong
sensory stimuli, just before the striking of the ligament, greatly
increased the extent of the resulting movement. This was ex-
plained by supposing that the effect of the movement was to in-
crease the irritability of the cord-centres (perhaps by removal of
inhibitory influence from the brain), on whose integrity the knee-
jerk depends. Dr. Lombard was able to secure more delicate re-
sults by substituting a blow from a hammer swinging through a
definite arc, and striking with a constant force for the unequal
movement of the hand, and the writing of the resulting movement
of the foot on smoked paper instead of its rough estimation by the
eye. The first result of this method was to show that the extent
of successive knee-jerks produced by equal blows of the hammer
was very different ; and this, too, when the subject was lying per-
fectly at ease, and so avoided all re-enforcements by voluntary mo-
tion. On comparing these variations with those resulting from true
re-enforcements, it was clear that they might be due to very slight
changes in the individual; and, by taking the average of a score of
movements, it was found that their extent varied quite constantly
with the force of the blow.

SCIENCE:

[Vor. X. No. 250

Dr. Lombard then subjected himself for two weeks to a tedious
routine of work, recording his knee-jerk under precise conditions at
eight definite times of the day, and keeping a diary of his general
condition, as well as recording the condition of the temperature,
barometer, etc. In this way he accumulated the records of over six
thousand observations, suggesting several interesting results. In
brief, he shows that this index of the condition of the nervous sys-
tem is sufficiently delicate to be regularly influenced by the time of
day (it begins low, rises very much after breakfast, and then grad-
ually sinks with several ups and downs); by the taking of a meal
(notably rising after breakfast) ; by fatigue, either physical or mental
(in both cases showing marked decrease) ; by the slightest movement
(i.e., the re-enforcements by talking, swallowing, etc.) or attractive
sensations of sound, light, etc.; by all kinds of mental excitement ;
by holding the breath (a very marked increase when held for a
minute or so); by the state of the thermometer (in general dimin-
ishing as the temperature increases), as of the barometer (quite
closely rising and falling with a rise and fall in the barometric
column).

An adequate idea of the delicacy of these variations with different
mental conditions can only be gained by a citation. “One day
during the experiments a procession passed the end of the street, a
short distance away, and the effect of the music was very evident.
The twenty-five experiments of the examination which had just
been made had shown the average knee-jerk to be 32 millimetres.
At the approach of the procession, the subject resumed his place on
the apparatus, but the first blow was not struck until the first band
was passing the end of the street, —60,' 71, 74, 70, 60, 55; another
band immediately followed, and it began to play ‘My Maryland’
just before it reached the street, — 62, 76, 76, 74, 71, 66, 59, 64, 59;
this was followed by a drum corps, — 48, 55, 51, 55, 53,49, 52; and
then the music died away in the distance, and only the ordinary
street-sounds remained, — 40, 45, 37, 30, 39, 53, 37, 29. In short,
not only does music re-enforce the knee-jerk, but the character of
the music, especially its emotional power, determines the amount of
such influence. That these results are not the result of an anticipa-
tion by a theory is shown very conclusively by the fact that on
several occasions Dr. Lombard fell into a more or less deep sleep
during the experiments, and, if the blow happened to come just
after dreaming of an exciting event, the knee-jerk (very low by the
inactive condition of the subject) showed a sudden rise. The phe-
nomena are thus taken outside the conscious realm. It seems no
illegitimate use of the imagination to picture the time when the
inquiry after one’s health will take the form of, “ How is your knee-
jerk?” or the poet describing the effect of anger will exclaim,
“ Truly, my knee-jerk arose.”

The remaining articles —on dermal sensitiveness to gradual
pressure-changes, by Prof. G. Stanley Hall and Yuzero Motora; on
a method for the experimental determination of the horopter, by
Christine Ladd-Franklin; and on the psychophysic law and star-
magnitudes, by Dr. Joseph Jastrow —are of a more technical
character ; and this is a very laudable feature, for it serves not only
to frighten off the many dilettanti of psychic research, but to justify
the strictly scientific methods of psychology. Professor Hall and
Mr. Motora describe a new method of experimentation, by which a
weight pressing upon the finger is either gradually increased or
gradually diminished, and the sensibility is measured by the time
necessary for the subject to decide in which direction the change
has been made. The problem is a very complex one, involving not
only the amount of change, the rapidity of change, and the initial
pressure, but also the ‘confidence’ of the subject. The interesting
results reached are only preliminary, but foretell a hopeful future
for this valuable new method. Mrs. Franklin describes a very
striking illusion, consisting of the appearance of a third line at right
angles to the plane of the paper, on which a pair of crossed lines,
with their acute angle towards the observer, are viewed in a certain
position relative to the eyes. These small upright phantom-lines
are so distinct that they furnish a means of determining the shape
of the horopter (i.e., the sum of the points which in a given position
of the eyes will seem single), at least in its simpler forms. Dr.
Jastrow utilizes the comparison of the photometrically measured il-
luminating powers of the stars (made by the Harvard Observatory)

1 The numbers refer to the extent of the knee-jerk in millimetres

NoveMsBer 18, 1887. ]

with the naked-eye estimation of their serial magnitudes, to find
what is the relation between the two series; i.e., as the magnitudes
increase by apparently equal intervals of brightness, how do the
measured illuminating-powers increase? He finds, that, as the
psychophysic law requires, the latter increase by a constant razzo,
but that this ratio is not exactly constant, but decreases slightly
(according to a formula given in the paper) with the brightness of
the stars.

The critical portion of the journal will perhaps arouse more com-
ment than the original part, because it comes more in conflict with
current views on psychological topics. While not taking an ag-
gressive tone, the policy of the journal is evidently to plainly and
forcibly state the broader inferences upheld by a technical study of
mental facts, and, if necessary, to fearlessly combat views opposed
to or neglecting such considerations. The able detailed review of
the work of the English Society for Psychic Research is sure to
attract attention. The point of view is decidedly negative. The
evidence in favor of ‘ telepathy’ is regarded as entirely inconclusive
by lack of a host of necessary precautions, as well as a considera-
tion of other modes of explanation. It is an aspect of the question
the importance of which will be more and more generally recognized
as the first gust of enthusiasm excited by apparently wonderful re-
sults subsides. A review of the psychological text-books of Pro-
fessors McCosh, Bowne, and Dewey is a destructive criticism of the
standpoints from which these writers set out, while Professor
Ladd’s ‘Physiological Psychology’ receives very.just proportions of
praise and blame.

In addition to this, there is a review of the ‘brain-localization’
question by Dr. Starr, of Mr. Galton’s views on the persistency of
type by Professor Brooks, of Delage’s researches on the functions
of the semicircular canals by Professor Sewell, and a note on logi-
cal machines by Mr. C. S. Peirce, together with a large number of
useful minor reviews and notes. An undue number of misprints
disfigure some of the pages.

Greeko-Slavonic Literature.
See

THE importance of researches on the growth of folk-lore is more
and more recognized. While in the early times of this study the
lore of each nation was considered as an outcome of its ancient
mythology, later on the interdependence of the traditions of nations
widely separated in space and time was more clearly understood,
and researches on the origin and migration of legends became of
greater importance. While this historical point of view is the lead-
ing one in the inquiries of most students, the psychological char-
acter of each nation as influencing its folk-lore must not be disre-
garded. The present volume treats of the connection between
European folk-lore and the early literature of Slavonic nations.
The author treats first of the influence of Bogomilism upon the
religious literature which later on became folk-literature of the
European nations. He traces the latter back to Greek texts which
came to Constantinople from the east, and passed thence to the
Bogomils. A second source, equally Oriental in its origin, was sup-
plied by Jewish legends. He discusses the Apocrypha of the Old
and New Testaments in its influence upon European literature, and
shows in a few instances the interesting phenomena of their tran-
sition from tales into ballads, and from ballads into lyrics, in which
the name of the hero disappears gradually, and a personal song is
changed into a general impersonal one. The author finds in the
belief of witchcraft in the Graal legend and other traditions, not those
relics of hoary antiquity which they are generally considered, and
as which they have become the object of a reconstructive mythol-
ogy, but a result of the Christian legends and myths, which be-
came the property of the people at a comparatively recent date. In
discussing the origin of the romantic literature, Gaster favors the
opinion that it was also introduced into Europe by the Slavonic
nations, and rejects Benfey’s theory that it was communicated to the
western people by the Mongolians. In an appendix Gaster tries to
solve the problem of the origin of the Glagolitic alphabet, and
shows that a connection with the Armenian alphabet is at least
probable. The whole volume is an extremely interesting study of
the growth of folk-literature, and shows how intricate the channels
are from which its sources flow. Great care must be taken in treat-

By M. GASTER. London, Triibner.

SCIPNECE:

249

ing questions of this kind, particularly among nations which have
no literature, where historical facts, upon which the study must be
founded, are entirely wanting. Particularly in this case rash con-
clusions must not be made until we are better acquainted with the
psychological laws of the growth of folk-lore. The historical
method as applied by Gaster is the only one that can lead to
satisfactory results, but it must be supplemented by an inquiry into
the assimilation of legends by different nations and their blending
with the more ancient stock of folk-lore. The latter point has
been disregarded by the author, and therefore some of his conclu-
sions on the Oriental origin of certain legends cannot be acc epted
until fuller proof is given.

An Elementary Treatise on Analytical Mechanics.
LIAM G. PECK. New York, Barnes. 12°.

THIS is, as its title implies, an elementary treatise on the subject
named, and is of substantially the same character as the majority
of works of similar purpose, intended for the introduction of the
student into the study of analytical mechanics. Dr. Peck, however,
has the advantage, as an author, of having had an unusually ex-
tended and very fortunate experience in teaching, and his book may
be taken as the embodiment of so much of the subject as he has
found the average college-man capable of taking up during the
average college course of advanced mathematics. It is intended,
as stated in the preface, to include all the principles needed by stu-
dents in technical courses of study, and the calculus is used to a
moderate extent in their development.

This work is by no means such a treatise as that of Bartlett, and
is necessarily given a much more condensed and less logical form.
It covers, however, the full range of work which the student can be
ordinarily expected to take, and it may be made to pave the way
most satisfactorily to the use of advanced treatises and the works
on applied mechanics which are now studied in the best technical
schools and schools of engineering. Its accuracy is vouched for by
the reputation and experience of its author, and its plan may be
seen by inspection to be good and satisfactorily complete. Kinet-
ics and the doctrine of energy are given the place to which they are
entitled, — a place denied them in books following the older writers
on this subject. We should suggest that the discussion of the
mechanics of gases and vapors might be enlarged profitably by the
introduction of the pure thermodynamics of the subject, and that
the last chapter, that on machines, might be improved by the re-—
vision of the descriptive matter, and by a study of modern exam-
ples of such apparatus. No criticism lies against this work espe-
cially; but it is time that all these elementary treatises on this sub-
ject were pruned of their antique illustrations, —the compound
balance, for example, — and modern sketches substituted, such, for
example, as Dr. Peck gives us in his article on the rotary-pump.
On the whole, this book is one of the very best of its class; and the
writer has found, by experience in its use, that it is a most excel lent
text-book.

By WIL-

NOTES AND NEWS.

THE account of the recent trial in England of the Spanish
cruiser ‘Reina Regente,’ resulting in the development of a speed
of 20.6 knots over a measured mile, has been received with keen
interest at the Navy Department, where every effort has been made
to design vessels of like high speed to meet the demands of Con-
gress. The number of war-ships able to make above 19 knots is
much smaller than is commonly supposed, and, in fact, the records
of the department show that but two other vessels have been able
to attain that speed. These are the ‘ Dogall,’ built in England for
the Italian Government, which made one run over a measured mile
at the rate of 19.66 knots per hour; and the ‘Orlando,’ built by
private contractors for the English Government, which made one
run at the rate of 19.25 knots per hour. It is said at the depart-
ment that these two vessels, together with the ‘ Reina Regente,”
are the outcome of efforts to reach 19 knots, running through many
years ; and the small measure of success attained renders it unsafe
to guarantee so high a speed for the cruisers now building, and
known as the 19-knot cruisers.

— A complete list of the papers presented at the meeting of the
National Academy of Sciences, held at Columbia College, New

250

York, recently, is as follows : ‘ Seismoscopes and Seismological In-
vestigations,’ T. C. Mendenhall; ‘On the Primary Specializations
of the True Fishes,’ E. D. Cope; ‘A Study of the Behavior of
-Metals under Variations of Temperature,’ William A. Rogers;
“Chemism in its Relations to Temperature and Pressure,’ T. Sterry
Hunt; ‘On the Mechanical Origin of the Structures of the Hard
Parts of the ammalza,’ E. D. Cope; ‘ Progressive Series in Chem-
istry, T. Sterry Hunt; ‘ Kilauea, a Basalt Volcano,’ J. D. Dana;
“Circulation of the Sea through New York Harbor,’ Henry Mitchell ;
“On a Study of Color Contrast,’ Ogden N. Rood ; ‘ On the Relative
Variability of Men and Women,’ ‘On a New Form of Reproduc-
tion in Medusz.’ and ‘On the Lucayan Indians,’ W. K. Brooks;
«Experiments in Measurements of Statical Electricity in Absolute
Units,’ and ‘ On Potential as measured by Work, a Mathematical
Discussion,’ A. M. Mayer; ‘A Comparison of Antipodal Faunas,’
‘Theo, Gill; ‘On a Discovery Recently made in Connection with the
Flight of Birds,’ W. P. Trowbridge; ‘On the Determination of
Star Magnitudes by Photography, E. C. Pickering; ‘On the Con-
stant of Aberration,’ A. Hall; ‘The Cretaceous Coals of Western
North America,’ and ‘ The Future of Gold and Silver Production,’
J.S. Newberry; ‘The Temperature of the Moon,’ S. P. Langley;
“On a Method of Making the Wave-Length of Sodium Light the
Absolute Standard of Length,’ A. A. Michelson and E. W. Morley.

— The increase of interest in the sciences centring about a
scientific education in England is well shown in the announce-
ments of lectures to be given in connection with the Associa-
tion for the Education of Women at Oxford. The three courses
are, on mind, its conditions and functions, by Mr. W. L. Courtney ;
‘on the outlines of the history of education, by Mrs. Scott; and on
elementary physiology, by Mr. Dixey.

— It is encouraging to see the appearance of new editions of
books of acknowledged excellence. Macmillan’s publishing-house
has just prepared new editions of Lotze’s ‘Metaphysics’ and of
Sidgwick’s ‘ Principles of Political Economy.’ The latter contains
some emendations and omissions from the text of the first edition,
and the preface credits Schonberg with exerting an influence on the
author's economic thought. The new edition of Lotze is in two
volumes, handsomely gotten up, and offered at a very low price.
We trust it will be widely read, for the S#ectator only expressed the
opinion of all philosophical workers when it said, “‘ No man of let-
ters, no specialist in science, no philosopher, no theologian, but
would derive incalculable benefit from the thorough study of Lotze’s
system of philosophy.”

— The Industrial Education Association is about to issue leaflets
giving concise information on points of its work regarding which
questions are continually asked. The first will be ready in a few
days, and will state compactly what the argument for manual
training is.

— Several of the commissioners of Chinese customs, in their re-
ports for the past year, which have just reached this country, says
the London Zz7es, refer to the competition in the English market
‘between teas from India and China. The commissioner at Han-
kow says that at that port for the year the fine teas bought for
England have lost all around. “ All tea-buyers say that Indian tea
is the tea of the future for people who can afford to pay for a
good article. There is no reliable market for choice China tea,
Cheap tea — ‘beautiful two-shilling tea’ —bought here to land at
sixpence a pound, is what seems to be wanted. It can be sold at
a price to suit any pocket, and can be made quite drinkable and
given a body by the addition of a few pennyworths of good, full-
flavored Indian.” Similarly the commissioner at Foochow remarks
that one feature of the tea trade of the year has been the neglect of
teas over a shilling a pound in the London market almost through-
‘out the season. This discourages the production of the finer kinds
of tea in China. Year by year the competition of the Indian teas
displaces the finer qualities of the China leaf, “‘in spite of which
there are many of experience in the trade who maintain that if the
old quality were again forthcoming from China she would soon re-
cover the position she seems to be losing in the world’s consump-
tion of this article.” In Shanghai the commissioner reports an
increase in the export of tea, but says it is due to the improved

SCIENCE

[Vor. X. No. 250

demand in England and Russia for low-grade teas, but the, mer-
chants have lost no medium and fine quality teas, the rates for them
being unprecedentedly low. “This depreciation in their value in
England is partly assignable to a falling-off in the Russian demand
for fine tea; but the want of keeping properties in China leaf, prob-
ably owing to hasty and imperfect preparation, has also a good
deal to do with it.” Fine China teas have not been bought for
Russia because of an increase in the import duty, and, in place of
increasing the price to the retail purchaser, an inferior leaf has been
purchased.”

— The German Academical Union, in its last general meeting
at Berlin, laid down the following principles of reform for the Ger-
man schools: (1) The children are in many ways overburdened
by the present scholastic system; (2) There is not sufficient har-
mony between the school and the home life; (3) The training of
the body is not attended to in proportion to that of the mind; (4)
The exclusive privileges belonging at present to the classical
schools, as securing an entrance to the learned professions, ought
to be extended to the modern schools; (5) There ought to be an
easy access from the elementary schools to the middle and higher
schools; (6) The Ezzheztsschule is the most pressing need of the
present time.

— The forty-third annual meeting of the Massachusetts Teachers’
Association will be held in the Girls’ High-School building, Boston,
Friday and Saturday, Nov. 25 and 26. The following programme
is published :— Nov. 25, ‘ English in Secondary Schools,’ by Wil-
liam R. Shipman, D.D., professor of rhetoric, Tufts College, dis-
cussion to be opened by W. C. Collar, head master of Roxbury
Latin School ; ‘What the Public demands from the Public Schools,’
by N. A. Calkins, superintendent of schools, New York City ; ‘ The
Care of Children, by Henry C. Hardon, master of the Shurtleff
School, Boston ; ‘The Care of Our Younger School-Children,’ by
Ann E. Newell, Alger Primary School, Boston; ‘Can the Principles
of Civil Government be taught in Schools?’ by Albert Bushnell
Hart, Ph.D., instructor in history, Harvard University, discussion to
be opened by Ray Greene Huling, principal of the High School,
New Bedford; ‘Some Notes on Secondary Schools in Europe,’ by
George A. Bacon, Ph.D., editor of The Academy, Syracuse, N.Y.;
‘Arithmetic in the Grammar School,’ by Francis A. Walker, Ph.D.,
LL.D., president of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, dis-
cussion ; ‘Modifications needed in the Grammar-School Curricu-
lum,’ by A. P. Stone, LL.D., superintendent of schools, Springfield,
discussion ; ‘Language,’ by George I. Aldrich, superintendent of
schools, Quincy, discussion to be opened by Larkin Dunton, LL.D.,
head master of the Normal School, Boston; ‘ Sight-Reading,’ by
Mary I. Lovejoy, principal of the Broadway School, Chelsea, to be
followed by class exercises, illustrating progressive stages in the
first, second, and third years, discussion to be opened by William
T. Harris, LL.D., Concord. Nov. 26, ‘Report of the Committee on
Necrology,’ by Nathaniel T. Allen, chairman; ‘Grammar-School
Education ’ (report of the Committee on Educational Progress), by
Ray Greene Huling, chairman ; ‘ Character as an Object of School-
Education,’ by Louisa P. Hopkins, supervisor of schools, Boston,
discussion to be opened by Robert Swan, master of the Winthrop
School, Boston; ‘How to secure the Better Preparation of Teach-
ers,’ by Ellen Hyde, principal of the State Normal School, Framing-
ham, discussion to be opened by A. G. Boyden, principal of the
State Normal School, Bridgewater.

LED GERS LO) THE EDIMOR:

* * The attention of scientific men ts called tothe advantages of the correspondence
columns of SCIENCE for placing promptly on record brief preliminary notices of
their investigations. Twenty copies of the number containing his communication
will be furnished free to any correspondent on request.

The editor will be glad to publish any queries consonant with the character of
the journal.

Correspondents are requested to be as brief as posstble.
in all cases required as proof of good faith.

The writer's name is

Amnesia.

IT seems to me that cases of amnesia like those mentioned in
Sczence for Noy. 11 are not very rare; certainly three such cases
have fallen under my own observation within the last twenty years.

NoveMBER 18, 1887.]|

One was of a lady who suffered from violent puerperal convul-
sions, followed by fever, which rendered her practically unconscious
for ten days. After her recovery she found that she had lost en-
tirely the recollection of every thing that happened during the
week before her sickness.

In another case two gentlemen of my acquaintance, while driv-
ing across a railroad, were struck by the engine. One of them was
instantly killed : the other was so seriously injured that he was un-
conscious for twenty-four hours, and for several weeks lay at the
point of death; after his recovery he never regained the recollec-
tion of going to drive on that fatal morning.

In another instance a gentleman well known to me was thrown
from his carriage by a runaway horse and by collision with another
team. He was rendered insensible for fifteen or twenty minutes,
and after regaining consciousness, although he remembered his
horse running away with him, he never had any recollection of the
collision or of falling.

In each of these cases there seems to have been some relation
between the length of the period of unconsciousness after the sick-
ness or accident, and the memory-blank before it.

JOSEPH HALL.
Hartford, Conn., Noy. 12.

Changes in Indian Languages.

THAT unwritten languages might change more rapidly than
those which are preserved in books is very evident, though the verses
of Chaucer and Spenser would puzzle the modern school-boy. Yet
the vocabulary of an unlettered people has elements of stability in
its comparatively few words, and often in the songs and ceremo-
nies preserved through many generations. How rapidly they may
change is not so easily proved, for this requires accurate vocabularies
made long ago, which must be carefully compared with a language
at a recent period. A moderate basis may be found for such a
comparison in the case of some of the New York Iroquois, who
early attracted the attention of learned men, and from this may be
drawn a few suggestions.

I make this comparison now, in the case of the Mohawks, be-
tween Father Bruyas’ lexicon, written about A.D. 1700; the ‘ Mo-
hawk Prayer-Book’ of 1769; and Schoolcraft’s ‘Notes on the
Iroquois,’ written in 1845. The later prayer-book of Rev. Eleazar
Williams might also be cited, as the work of an educated man
brought up as a Mohawk; but its marked differences from all other
books printed in that language would require a good deal of com-
ment. Father Bruyas’ lexicon is of radical words, and deals with
phrases and verbs much more than with nouns and adjectives; yet
I make the comparison on the latter. In a little over one hundred
words common to both Schoolcraft and the missionary, fifty-one
differ almost entirely, while fifty-eight are either alike, or so nearly
so as to have the resemblance apparent. Perhaps half of the latter
number are modified forms of the same words. These represent
the changes of an existing Indian language in about a century and
a half, so far as they may be called changes. About one fourth are
the same as they were in A.D. 1700; another fourth are partially
changed ; nearly one-half differ entirely.

It is to be remembered in this, that, in a language whose words
are often descriptive, several words might represent the same ob-
ject, and often do so, while a writer may choose but one of these.
Many synonymes appear in Bruyas’ vocabulary and in the ‘Mo-
hawk Prayer-Book.’ One of these words, once common, might dis-
appear and be succeeded by another, not new, but for a time
obscure. In Schoolcraft’s vocabulary each English word has a
single Mohawk word as its equivalent. There may have been many
others which do not appear.

The ‘Mohawk Prayer-Book’ of 1769 was the work of several
hands, and has comparatively few of the words found elsewhere. I
have not made aclose comparison, but have noted twenty-five names
agreeing with Bruyas, and thirty with Schoolcraft, while it has very
many given by neither. It is hard to catch or represent the Iro-
quois inflection, and so spelling has made a difference where the
word is clearly the same, though possibly changed. Thus ‘ice’
was rendered Gawzsa in 1700, Owzese in 1769, and Ozse in 1845,
the latter perhaps approaching our own word. Some words which

SCIENCE. 251

I have classed as similar are much farther apart than these, often
differing greatly.

As this paper is only suggestive, I note some changes in the On-
ondaga language, based on a comparison of Zeisberger’s dictionary,
made subsequent to 1750, and Schoolcraft’s vocabulary of 1845.
In comparing nouns and adjectives common to both, out of one hun-
dred and fifty, I find eighty-six entirely or widely different, and sixty-
four the same or plainly similar. In regard to the nature of these
changes, the same remarks apply as to the Mohawk. Relatively
the latter might be called a written language, and had changed
much less in a century and a half than the Onondaga had in less
than acentury. Inasense the latter might seem almost a new
language. Many words in it, of course, are new, as those of ani-
mals and articles of which their fathers knew nothing, and doubt-
less others were assumed for familiar things when some one hit on
a new characteristic. The word for ‘ hog’ is expressive of its voice,
and is better rendered by Zeisberger as Kweas weas than by the
modern Quzs guzs. Gzt gzt does very well for a hen, and others as
good might be cited. The Oneidas and Onondagas formed different
names for the elephant, yet easily understood by both; the one
calling it ‘that great naked animal,’ and the other terming it the
‘long nose.’ The Onondaga name for the black raspberry is de-
scriptive, ‘the plant that bends over,’ and many are quite as pictur-
esque. This shows how a vivid imagination could readily multiply:
or change names among a primitive people, and how verbs might
persist long after nouns had vanished. Place such a people by
themselves, amid new scenes, and how quickly their speech might
alter! The Onondagas have not moved over twenty miles in two.
hundred and fifty years, yet how much their tongue has changed in
less than half that time! A migration to new and distant homes
would have produced many new words, and then the language
would have remained much the same fora time, waiting for other
disturbing causes. W. M. BEAUCHAMP, D.D.

Baldwinsville, N.Y., Novy. 11.

Distillery-Milk.

AFTER the grain is mashed (corn comprises three-quarters of the
grain used), it is cooled and run into the fermenting-tubs, where
theyeast is added. The period of fermentation is seventy-two hours.
the first three days in the week, and ninety-six hours the last four
days, which include Sunday; this length of time being considered
by the government sufficient to ferment all of the saccharine. It is.
during this period that the acetic acid is formed, unless very great
careistaken. It doesnot necessarily follow that acetic acid appears
but acetic fermentation occurs more often than otherwise.

At the expiration of the fermenting period, the ‘beer’ (the en-
tire mass in fermentation) is run through the ‘still’ at a tempera-
ture supposed to evaporate all the alcohol and fusel-oil; which
vapor is run into a worm from the top of the still, and the ‘slops ’
run from the bottom of it. The mash or beer can be distilled so.
as to leave little if any alcohol or fusel-oil in the slops, or feed; but
in general practice there isa trace of alcohol and fusel-oil left in
the feed.

I have tested slops coming from a still when the instrument va-
ried from o to 3 per cent alcohol. No test was made for fusel-oil.
So large a per cent of alcohol as 3 per cent is unusual, and it would
be found very unprofitable to the distiller. The slops are fed to.
the cows while hot. Each cow’s ration is thirty-six gallons a day.
If the water was evaporated from that quantity of slops, it would
leave about twelve pounds of grain; or, in other words, there is
2,400 per cent more water than grain in the slops.

With the entire system in practice to-day, the food is not desir-
able for milch-cows, but it might be made so. But the sanitary
conditions at Blissville and Chicago were a thousand times more
harmful to the cows, and necessarily to the milk also, than the food
upon which they were fed.. I speak from observation of cows.
under good and bad sanitary conditions and care, fed on distillery
slops.

The Germans would be horrified to see any kind of animals sur-
rounded by the conditions at the places named. Europeans excel
Americans in the sanitary condition and care of their stables and
stock, etc.

252

Our general system is not only wasteful, and based on false econ-
omy, but the quality of milk is not up to a proper standard. As
a matter of fact, the milk supplied to New York City is inferior
(much of it is unwholesome, and unfit for use) to that of any city in
Europe.

The question of still-fed milk is of little moment as compared to
milk from so much greater quantity of other and more injurious feed,
now in general use, and as compared to the sanitary conditions and
treatment of the cows, stables, and milk, and the water the cows
consume, — one of the most important elements in dairying. There
is not one well in a hundred that furnishes pure water.

Brewers’ and glucose grains are shipped into the country by the
millions of bushels annually. Brewers’ grains are good feed for
milch-cows if fed the day they are produced. Glucose grains, with
the sulphuric-acid treatment necessary in the factory, are injurious
to both cow and milk. These grains are sent into the country wet
and hot, fermenting, souring, and spoiling as they go. So the farm-
ers’ cows, with every shipment, have feed in a state of fermentation,
often rotten, and fit only for the dung-hill. Distillers’ slops, as fed,
have undergone fermentation, while the grains are fed while fer-

menting, —a strong point in favor of slops. B. M. W.
New York, Nov. 2.

Microscopic Sections of Corals.

IN Sczence, No. 248, Mr. A. F. Foerste takes exceptions to a note
of mine in No. 244, and contends that the internal features of Lower
Silurian monticuliporoids are not only of value in classification, but
that they are the ones most worthy of study, and of almost sole
use. I ask space for a brief reply.

I have, in the first part of a paper on monticuliporoids, given
quotations and references showing that even by the new method of
work in the corals it is not always possible to separate either species
or genera. To state that this method gives ‘solidity ” to classi-
fication, and allows “the species to fall into easily recognized
groups,” is, I believe, a mistake. Dr. Nicholson, for example, in
speaking of two genera, says (Zadbulate Corals, p. 99), “ There is,
indeed, no feature in the way of internal construction which could
be brought forward as separating S¢rzatofora from Pachypora ;
and in distinguishing these two types we have to fall back upon a
well-marked external character.” The distinctions between Defa-
yta and Monticulépora are external, and not internal. Between
Species there is even less difference. One of Mr. Ulrich’s species,
for instance, is almost the exact counterpart of another: so here,
again, the separation is made on external features.

My examination and study of the descriptions of the genera
made by Mr. Ulrich has led me to discard all of them. The fea-
tures upon which they are based are so few, so trivial, and so in-
constant, that it becomes an utter impossibility to separate them
with any certainty. I have not had the opportunity of seeing
Mr. Ulrich’s latest ideas in regard to the subject upon which he
has written so much, so that I cannot tell how he may have modi-
fied or changed his conclusions: It is my belief, however, that it is
impossible for one who studies the descriptions of genera and
species as given by Mr. Ulrich to state positively, after he has ex-
amined a specimen macroscopically and microscopically, that he
has a desired genus or species in hand.

Mr. Foerste lays stress upon the form of the cells as seen in tan-
gential section. The same features are to be seen on the exterior,
and are free from errors likely to result from sections made at a
slightly different angle from the one intended. “Elevated patches
of cells” cannot be recognized in internal sections in very many
cases, as Mr. Foerste states is the case; for these are often of the
same size and shape as surrounding cells. It were useless to deny
the difficulty of finding specimens suitable for description. In many
cases it were best had they not been described at all.

Finally, in relation to the difficulty of studying microscopic char-
acters, I have but this to say: that it is not the difficulty itself or
alone, but the unreliability of the work. I would be the last one to
discard a method of work simply because it was difficult. But
when it becomes difficult (and there can be no denying this, in
spite of the assertion to the contrary), tedious, and uncertain, and
when finally we are compelled to fall back upon external features
because the internal ones fail, I contend that their use for ordinary

SCIENCE:

[VoL. X. No. 250

practical work in the field or in the study is of little or no value. I
can quote no higher authority than Mr. Archibald Geikie (Tex/-
Book of Geology, pp. 85-88, where elaborate directions are given for
making rock sections; Professor Prestwich also considers it “an
expensive and tedious process,” Geology, i.p. 43) as to the tedi-
ousness of the process, nor a better one than Dr. Nicholson. as to
the uncertainty of the results (Paleozoze Tabulate Corals, and The
Genus Monticulipora). In conclusion, I can only refer to the
paper on the subject by Mr. U. P. James and myself, for the full
expression of my views, and I shall be happy to furnish a copy of
the paper to any of those desirous of seeing these views in full for
their own satisfaction.

JOSEPH F. JAMES.
Miami University, Oxford, O., Nov. 7.

Indian Names.

THE publication of the ‘ Early Map of the Far West,’ in your last
issue (Sczezce, x. No. 248) gives occasion to draw attention to the
changes in pronunciation which have been brought about by peda-
gogic conceit. ‘Arkansaw’ or ‘ Arcansaw,’ of Lewis’s map, gives
the old pronunciation. ‘Chipaway’ of Lewis’s map gives the true
pronunciation of ‘Chippewa.’ ‘Ojibwa’ is the same word, and is
pronounced ‘Ojibway.’ The pronunciation of ‘Kansas’ has not
changed. It is givenas ‘ Kanzas’in Lewis’s map, and ‘ Canzes’ in
the map of Louisiana by De L’Isle, eighteenth century. ‘Iowa’ has
suffered much from the pedagogues. The polite pronunciation now
is ‘ I-o-wah,’ with the accent on the first or second syllable. The
old pronunciation was ‘I-o-way, accent on the last syllable. In
Lewis’s map the word is found as ‘ Ayauwais;’ in De L’Isle’s
map, as ‘ Aiaouez’ or ‘ Yoways.’ ‘ Euisconsin’ (Wisconsin) has
fortunately remained unchanged; so has ‘ Pani,’ which we now
spell ‘ Pawnee.’

I once met an Indian who called himself a ‘ Taw-wah,’ accent on
first syllable. Unable to recall a tribe of such name, I had him re-
peat the word several times, and at length discovered an almost
silent vowel before the 7. It is Ottawa. I am not sure, however,
whether this man pronounced his tribal name correctly, for he had
long lived among the whites, and had goneto school. I find that
tribe’s name in Jeffery’s map of Louisiana and Canada, 1762, given
as ‘ Outawais,’ where the final syllable is ‘ way.’

JOSEPH D. WILSON.
Chicago, Nov. 8.

The Temperature Sense.

IT may be interesting to those who have been acquainted with
the experiments of Goldscheider, and of Dr. Donaldson and Prof. G.
Stanley Hall in Johns Hopkins University, to prove the existence of
a separate system of nerves for temperature, to know that the dis-
covery was anticipated by Sir. William Hamilton. His observations
of psychological phenomena seem to have been nearly as extensive
as his philosophic reading. Inhis edition of Thomas Reid's works
(vol. ii. p. 875), after commenting on a singular and exceptional
case of paralysis, in which sensations of touch did not seem to be
localized, he takes the occasion to hazard the conjecture, based
upon observations of his own, that there is a distinct set of nerves
for sensation of temperature. His language is, —

“-T may notice also another problem, the solution of which ought
to engage the attention of those who have the means of observation
in their power. Is the sensation of heat dependent upon a peculiar
set of nerves? This to me seems probable, (1) because certain
sentient parts of the body are insensible to this feeling, and (2) be-
cause I have met with cases recorded, in which, while sensibility in
general was abolished, the sensibility to heat remained apparently
undiminished.” J. H. HysLop.

Baltimore, Md., Nov. 1o.

Answers.

16. PENNSYLVANIA POT-HOLES.— Described in Report Z,
Geological Survey of Pennsylvania, p. 111, footnote, by Professor
Lesley; also in the Scranton Republzcan of Nov. 4, 1887.

JOHN C. BRANNER.
Little Rock, Ark., Nov. 7.

See EINGE

FRIDAY, NOVEMBER 25, 1887.

NOTHING IS GAINED by maintaining profound secrecy and mys-
terious silence regarding the affairs of any institution that appeals
to the general public for support and encouragement. This is es-
pecially true in the case of educational institutions; and, as arule,
those colleges which have frankly stated their financial condition
and needs have been the first to be provided with the means of re-
adjusting and supplying them. The more progressive of the alumni
of Columbia College have for many years insisted that that college
was out of touch with the community because of the unwillingness
of the trustees to make known their plans and to ask for financial
aid. There was unquestionably much force in this position; and
it was not surprising, therefore, that when, three years ago, after a
century of dignified reserve, an appeal was finally made for four
million dollars to equip the university, no response was received.
It is to the credit of the alumni that they persistently criticised the
policy of the trustees, until now the point has been yielded by the
latter. Hereafter the alumni and friends of the college will receive
each year a digest of the annual reports of the president and treas-
urer on the state of the college. The first of these digests has just
been issued, and a copy is before us. We need not refer to that
portion of it which is taken from President Barnard’s report, for
that was commented on in Sczence, No. 244. The abstract of
the treasurer's report, however, is new, and it presents many points
ofinterest. It shows thetotal income last year to have been $388,-
544.13, and the total expenditure $365,582.25. The surplus was
$22,961.88. By far the major portion of the income ($224,062.61)
was derived from rents, the next largest item being students’ fees
($142,127.50). Of the amount expended, $249,199.67 went for sal-
aries of professors and instructors, and only $8,744.25 was used to
buy books with. The bonded debt of the college is shown to be
$330,240, and the available cash to meet it with will be, by June 30,
1888, $239,317. It will therefore be seen, that while Columbia is
heavily in debt at present, yet in two years at most the debt will be
paid, and thena large annual surplus will be available for the much-
needed extensions. It will be a glad day not only for Columbia,
but for the cause of university education in this country, when its
board of trustees has sufficient money to vote a generous sum for
the purchase of books, to properly equip the graduate departments
in philosophy and social science, —in which particularly the demand
exceeds the supply, —and to make marked extensions of the scien-
tific departments. We hope yet to hear that President Barnard
has been able to work out these problems, and to crown his distin-
guished and successful administration by the creation of a university
faculty of philosophy — in the German sense — which shall be ab-
solutely distinct from the faculties of arts and mines, as at present
organized. In this step lies the possibility for Columbia’s becom-
ing the metropolitan university.

BY THE SUDDEN DEATH of Rev. Edward Thring of Upping-
ham School, England, the cause of sound education is deprived of
the services of one of its ablest and best advocates. Mr. Thring’s
name is as familiar on this side of the Atlantic as in Great Britain,
and his ‘ Theory and Practice of Teaching’ has had many readers
in this country. Mr. Thring was born in 1821, and was just com-
pleting his sixty-sixth year when he died. For thirty-four years he
has labored as a teacher, having been made head master of Up-
pingham School in 1853. When Mr. Thring went to Upping-
ham, he found a local grammar-school of an Elizabethan foun-

dation. He leaves it one of England’s great public schools. Mr.
Thring’s cardinal principle was the necessity for giving every pupil
individual care, and not treating a whole school as a mass. The
faithful application of this principle was one cause of his great suc-
cess as an educator. Asa speaker and writer he was direct and
inspiring, and his voice and pen will be greatly missed. Mr.
Thring stood side by side with Mr. Quick and Mr. Fitch, as one of
the three great public educators of England.

THE FORTHCOMING CROP REPORT from the Department of
Agriculture will contain an interesting article from J. R. Dodge,
the statistician of the department, on India in wheat-competition,
that will go far toward dispelling the growing fear that competition
from India would seriously affect the wheat-growers of the United
States in the markets of Europe. Mr. Dodge points out the signifi-
cant facts, that, while a largeincrease in the wheat-growing area of
India is impossible, the annual home consumption of wheat is con-
stantly increasing; and that, while it is true that with improved
methods of agriculture the present acreage will become more pro-
ductive, the increasing prosperity of the people will bring about a
corresponding increase in wheat-consumption. Mr. Dodge thinks
that much of the increase in the exportation of wheat from India
which followed the opening-up of railroads into the interior was
due to the shipping of the accumulated surplus that had been
stored up for use in the famine years. The conclusion to be drawn
from Mr. Dodge’s article is, that the export for 1887, of about 42,-
000,000 bushels, is very near the maximum that may be expected
from India.

ASPECTS OF EDUCATION.
The English Public School.

THE term ‘ public school’ is “difficult to define. In England it
has a meaning different from what it has in America. The Ameri-
can public school is a school supported by the community, and open
to all the world. When it is said that public schools are the back-
bone of the American system of education, it is implied that there
exists all over America a number of schools affording a liberal ed-
ucation, either free or very inexpensive, accessible to all classes of
the community alike. An English public school implies something
exclusive and privileged. A public-school man is different from other
men. The question as to whether a particular school is a public
school or not, depends not upon its size or its efficiency, but upon its
social rank. The American public schools are day schools: the Eng-
lish public school in the strict sense is essentially a boarding-school.
Our public schools are few in number, confined to particular districts,
costly, and very diverse in individual character; yet it is said that
they represent more completely than any other English institution
the chief peculiarities of our national life. It is the public school
that forms the typical Englishman: it is the ordinary boy of the
upper classes who gives his character to the public school. We
have to inquire, first, what are the English public schools ? second,
how did they come to be what they are? third, what are their prin- ~
cipal characteristics, and what relation do they bear to the educa-
tional system of England ?

When the English Government undertook, some twenty-five years
ago, to inquire into the condition of our secondary education, nine
schools were singled out from the rest aspre-eminent. These were
Winchester, Eton, Westminster, Charter House, Harrow, Rugby,
Merchant Taylor’s, St. Paul’s, and Shrewsbury. Captain de Car-
teret Bisson, in his valuable work ‘ Our Schools and Colleges,’ ap-
parently disputes the right of the last three, and reckons our public
schools at six. Thesesix, between them, do not educate much more

254

than four thousand boys; and yet they are so typical of all schools
which may have a claim to the title of public, that we may conven-
iently confine our consideration tothem. Ofthese, Winchester dates
from the fourteenth century; Eton from the fifteenth; Westmin-
ster, Harrow, and Rugby from the sixteenth, these three having all
been founded within eleven years of each other; and Charter
House from the seventeenth. Westminster, the oldest of the

schools, has probably kept its character most unchanged. It has
never been a fashionable or a court school. It has maintained un-
Noth-

impaired its close connection with New College at Oxford.
ing can show more clearly the strength and unity of English tradi-
tions than the fact, that, five hundred years after the establishment
of the two foundations of William of Wykeham, they should stand
in the face of England, holding the highest place, one as a college,
and the other as a school. Eton, the next on our list, is confessedly
the first of public schools, but it was not always so. During the
first eighty years of the seventeenth century, Westminster undoubt-
edly held the position of pre-eminence. Dr. Busby, who read the
prayer for the King on the morning of Charles I.’s execution, and
who refused to take off his cap in the presence of Charles II., was
the first schoolmaster of his time in England. But Westminster
was faithful to the Stuarts : Eton supported the cause of the Whigs.
Its supremacy, beginning in the reign of William III., continued in
that of Anne, reached its height under the Hanoverian kings.
George III. took a strong personal interest in the school. Eton
boys walked on the terrace of Windsor Castle in court dress, and
the King often stopped to ask their names and to speak to them.
William IV., with boisterous good humor, continued the favor of
his dynasty. He took the part of the boys in their rebellion against
the masters, and he used to invite the boys to entertainments, at
which the masters stood by and got nothing. During this period
Eton became a political power in England. The upper school at
Eton is decorated with the busts of statesmen who swayed the
destinies of England, and who were the more closely connected to-
gether from having been educated at the same school. Chatham,
North, Fox, Grenville, and Gray are among the ornaments of that
historical room. Eton and Christ Church had the monopoly of
education for public life, and the claim of the school to this dis-
tinction received its fullest recognition when Lord Wellesley, after
a career spent in the most important offices of the state, desired
that he might be laid to his last rest in the bosom of that mother
from whom he had learned every thing which had made him fa-
mous, successful, and a patriot. Better known, perhaps, is the
boast of his brother, the Duke of Wellington, that the battle of
Waterloo was won in the playing-fields of Eton.

Charter House, established in London, has held since its founda-
tion a position very similar to that of Winchester, not of great impor-
tance in politics or fashion, but highly influential and respected.
These four schools were probably founded for the purposes which
they have since succeeded in carrying out. Eton was always a
school for the governing classes. Winchester and Charter House
have received the uninterrupted support of the gentry and clergy
of England. The history of Harrow and Rugby has been different.
They have been lifted by circumstances into a position for which they
were not originally intended. They were founded as local schools,
—one in the neighborhood of London, the other in the heart of
the midlands,— for the instruction, first of the village lads, and then
of such strangers as came to be taught. But they have reached,
owing to special circumstances, a position equal to that of any of
their rivals. Harrow emerged from obscurity in the middle of the
eighteenth century, owing, as it is said, her success to head masters
who were sent to her from Eton. Rugby is known throughout the
world as the school of Arnold, who was head master from 1827 to
1841. Even before his time it had attained a high rank among
English schools ; but he, followed by a line of distinguished suc-
cessors, left it in scholarship and energy of thought at their head.
Rugby and Baliol are to English education after the reform bill,
what Eton and Christ Church were before.it. This sketch will
show how different the genesis of our public schools has been, and
what various courses they have pursued to arrive at the same con-
clusion.

We will now briefly trace the history of the education they aim
at. Their curriculum is essentially classical: indeed, a public-

SCIENCE:

[Vorn. x eNowerm

school man means, in common parlance, one who has been edu--
cated mainly in Greek and Latin. The two oldest schools, Win-
chester and Eton, founded before the Reformation, naturally began
with monkish learning. There was a great deal of grammar and
a great deal of church-going. The pupils were children, and were:
treated as such. Westminster was founded after, and in conse-
quence of, the Reformation, and the breach with the old learning
necessitated new arrangements.

The author of the Protestant curriculum of public education was.
John Sturm, the friend of Roger Ascham, the head master of the-
great school of Strasburg during a large portion of the sixteenth.
century. A complete account of Sturm’s methods and organization
is preserved, and we may be sure that its main outlines were adopted
at Westminster and at Eton. Latin grammar and Latin style were-
made the principal subjects of education. The school was launched
upon the full flood of humanism. The connection between a scholar
in the narrow sense, that is, aman not of erudition but of finished
taste and polished style, and the gentleman, was now fully estab-
lished. Sturm was so despotic in the arrangements of his school,.
that he not only laid down what boys were to learn at each epoch
of their career, but he forbade them to learn any thing else. It
was as great a fault to begin a subject prematurely as to neglect it
in its due time.

Many of Sturm’s arrangements are familiar to public-school men
who are now living, but in the following century they underwent a
further change. This was due to the Jesuits, who obtained their
reputation partly by their devotion to the study of Greek, and partly
by the pains they took to understand the individual character of
their pupils. The Jesuits have probably done more harm to sound
education than any prominent body of men who ever undertook the
task. They had two objects in view, —to gain the favor of the rich,
and powerful, and to prevent the human mind from thinking.
Humanistic education skilfully employed was an admirable in—
strument to this end. It flattered the pride of parents, while it
cheated the ambition of scholars. The pre-eminence given in
education to original Latin verses is typical of the whole system
of the Jesuits. No exercise could be more pretty and attractive,
or bear more clearly the outward semblance of culture and learning,
yet no employment could more effectually delude the mind by an,
unsubstantial phantom of serious thought. The sturdy humanism
of Sturm became corrupted by the graceful frivolity of the Jesuits,
and in this condition public-school education remained until the-
efforts of a few obscure reformers, the genius and energy of Arnold
and the growth of the new spirit in England, forced it into other
channels.

Arnold is typical of the new public school, but we must distin—
guish between Arnold and the Arnoldian legend. Like other great.
reformers, his name has become a nucleus round which the reputa-
tions of all other reformers, good as well as bad, have coalesced..
The most prominent fact about Arnold is, that he was the first
Englishman of quite first-rate ability who devoted himself to school--
education. The traditions of Sturm and the Jesuits shrivelled up:
before the manly touch of a teacher who was fit to be prime min-
ister. After his career no one could despise the profession of a.
schoolmaster. What did Arnold actually effect? He taught boys.
to govern themselves. He substituted for a system in which the
governors were allowed any license on condition that they denied
it to every one else, one in which the responsibility of the ruler was.
rated even more highly than the obligation of the ruled. He also.
taught boys to think for themselves, to pierce beyond the veil of
words into the substance of things, to see realities, to touch and,
taste and handle the matter of which they had before only talked.
Thus he produced a vigorous character and a manly mind. Rugby
boys, on passing to the university, thought and acted for them—
selves. They might be pardoned if in the first flush of enthusiasm.
they acted priggishly and thought wildly. But Arnold’s teaching
contained within it germs of much which he had never contemplated,
and of which he would have disapproved. It contained the germs
of the modern civilized lifein schools, of which Rugby knew nothing
in 1840. Far, indeed, is the cry from that dim and crowded dining-
room where boys, sitting at a bare table, wiped their knives on the
iron band which surrounded it, and ate their meat and pudding off
the same? plate, to the luxurious arrangements of a modern pre—

NOVEMBER 25, 1887. |
paratory school. It contained the germ of modern-side education.
Arnold did not know that he was passing from Melanchthon to
“Comenius, and that the study of things once set rolling would soon
‘displace the study of words. It contained the germs of a new con-
fidence and friendship between boy and master quite as different
from the sly sentimentality of the Jesuits as it was from the pom-
pous neglect of the old-fashioned courtly don. It contained, alas!
in germ the subjection of the master to the boy in standard,
tastes, and habits, which threatens to be the ruin of our public
schools. It crystallized also the idea, which otherwise might have
disappeared, that ahead master must be of necessity a clergyman,
and that no school could be properly conducted unless its chief
sums up in the pulpit every Sunday afternoon what are supposed to
be the spiritual results of the week’s emotions. It stamped also
with permanence, by a natural misunderstanding, that conviction of
-a head master’s autocracy which prevents the formation in England
of a profession of education. The history of English public schools
since Arnold is merely the carrying-out under varying circumstances
of the teaching of his example, and the development, sometimes to
‘disastrous ends, of abuses to which that example may seem to lend
currency. :

A few words only are needed in conclusion as to the present and
future of our public boarding-schools. Nothing has altered their
‘character more than their growth in numbers, which has been the
result of popularity. In Arnold's time no public school except
Eton exceeded three hundred boys. Arnold and his contemporary
head masters might boast with truth that they knew every boy in
their school by sight, his habits, his capacity, his friends. A school
thus governed by one man, and penetrated by his influence, differed
not only in degree, but in kind, from a school which has of neces-
sity become a confederation. Ina public school of Arnold’s date
‘games were still amusements. Formerly neglected and ignored by
pedagogues, they became the nurse of every manly virtue when a
more sympathetic eye was turned upon them. Tom Brown’s
school-days represents the heroism of the forties, — the high-water
mark where boyish enterprise and independence reached their
height under the influence of manly recognition. During the last
~quarter of a century, games have become a serious business, instead
-of the wholesome distraction of public-school life. They are organ-
ized as elaborately as the work. Masters are appointed to teach
them like any other branch of study: they form the basis of ad-
miration and imitation between boy and boy, and the foundation of
respect and obedience between boy and master. It is difficult to
keep large numbers of boys, with only five years difference in their
~ages, quiet and wholesome without a large development of games.
They have been admitted to their full share in the school curricu-
lum. A public boarding-school is no longer a place where, amidst
much liberty and idleness, there reigns a high respect for character
and intellect, and where the ablest boys are left ample room to
fashion each other and themselves. It is a place where the whole
‘life is tabulated and arranged, where leisure, meditation, and indi-
vidual study are discouraged, and where boys are driven in a cease-
less round from school to play-room, from play-room to school,
regarding each as of equal importance, and bringing into the most
‘delicate operations of intellectual growth the spirit of coarse compe-
tition which dominates in athletics.

It is difficult to say what changes public boarding-schools are
‘destined to undergo, or whether in an age in which education is so
much extended a system so expensive and so exclusive can continue
to flourish. The last few years have witnessed the growth of large
public day-schools, and any development of national education
would be certain to increase their number. Although the Arnol-
‘dian system is little applicable to them on its best side, yet they are
of necessity free from most of the abuses to which that system has
given rise. An idea may grow up that the home is, after all, the
best place for children, and that children are the best safeguard of
a pure and happyhome. Should English society in its new develop-
ment prefer a kind of education which is the normal type of all
countries but our own, which improved communication makes it
easier to adopt, we shall still have public schools of Which we
should be proud : they will continue to represent our best national
‘qualities, but they will be very different from the public boarding-
=schools of the past. OSCAR BROWNING.

SCIENCE:

255

THE NAAS SEMINARY FOR TEACHERS OF MANUAL
TRAINING.’

IF any inquiring friend of manual training endeavors to find
Naas on any ordinary map of Sweden, he will be disappointed. It
is an old Swedish country-seat, beautifully situated on the pretty
lake Savelangen, about ten hours’ journey from Gothenburg. The
railway from Gothenburg to Stockholm passes in the vicinity, and
the intending visitor to Naas leaves the train at Floda station.
From Floda to Naas is a short journey by boat or on foot. The
two settlements are not more than an hour's walk apart.

Naas itself is situated on the highest point of a narrow strip of
land. The lake here is about thirty metres broad, and is spanned
by a substantial stone bridge. The castle is attractive, but repre-
sents no particular style of architecture. On both sides of the lake
are beautiful woods in which the birch and the alder predominate.
The situation is as lovely as nature and art can make it.

Herr August Abrahamson bought this place about fifteen years
ago. He began at once to set aside a certain portion of his great
wealth, acquired as a merchant in Gothenburg, to aid the popula-
tion of his own neighborhood, and to improve their condition. He
began by rebuilding many of the peasants’ poor houses, and by
teaching them something of systematic agriculture. Afterwards
he built three schools in which instruction is given free, and for
their support he donated the handsome sum of 225,000 crowns, or
over $50,000.

In the year 1872, Herr Abrahamson opened a school for boys
from ten to fourteen years of age.2 The curriculum of this school
contains twenty-two hours weekly of instruction in religion, lan-
guage, history, geography, natural science, writing, arithmetic,
singing, and gymnastic and military exercises,’ and twelve hours
weekly of instruction in manual training. The manual training has
in this, as in almost all the other schools of Sweden (those of
Gothenburg alone are an exception), no other aim than to prepare
the boys for any trade whatsoever. The aim is thus a purely ped-
agogic one. Manual training is treated as a means of education,
and is placed side by side with the other school-studies. By means
of the methodical instruction in the use of tools and in the con-
struction of one hundred objects, carefully arranged and graded,
the pupil acquires a general manual ability which is of great ad-
vantage to him, no matter what calling he afterwards follows. Be-
sides this, the manual training furnishes a healthy physical exercise,
and, with the gymnastic instruction, affords an excellent means of
escape from over-brainwork. It is also found that manual training
gives the pupils a love for work and an enjoyment in it, and de-
velops in a thorough manner their independence, attention, in-
dustry, and perseverance.

In the year 1874, Herr Abrahamson established a similar school
for girls between ten and fourteen years of age; and the aim
of this school was not only to instruct the girls in the usual subjects
of a school course, but to make them adepts in the domestic arts.
In the plan of studies, twenty-one hours a week are devoted to the
usual studies, and fifteen hours a week to manual instruction.

Herr Abrahamson was, however, determined to extend his phi-
lanthropy as widely as possible, and to work for the cause of edu-
cation, not in his neighborhood alone, nor in Sweden only, but in
general. Thoroughly imbued with the idea of working out an
harmonious scheme of jnstruction for children, to the completion of
which the greatest educators have urged as necessary a graded
course of instruction in manual work, Herr Abrahamson founded
in June, 1875, the Seminary for the Instruction of Teachers in
Sléjd (manual training) ; and this institution has since acquired a
wide and well-deserved reputation.

During the first five years of its existence, the seminary course
had in view the preparation of special teachers for the courses in
manual training. The course lasted one year. To enter the sem-
inary, a candidate must be at least eighteen years of age, in good
health, and with such preparation in school-subjects and physical

1 From S. Rudin’s Bericht iiber eine Studienreise.

2 The Swedish public schools are of two distinct grades, — the elementary school,
for children of from six to ten years of age; and the common school proper, for
children of from ten to fourteen years.

3 The Swedish boys receive in the public school their military instruction, and are
exercised in the handling of weapons, as are cadets in other countries.

256

exercises as was necessary to pass the examination for graduation
from the Swedish common school. The instruction given in the
seminary was partly theoretical, and partly practical. The theoreti-
cal instruction occupied eighteen hours weekly, and included arith-
metic, geometry, physics, mechanics, mechanical drawing, and
pedagogics. The practical instruction occupied eighteen hours a
week, and was intended to teach the use of the various implements
of the joiner, the turner, the modeller, and the smith, to impart
familiarity in the use of these tools, and to enable the pupils to
make the furniture and implements that are found in every house-
hold. For practice, the students gave instruction, under the su-
pervision of a trained teacher, in the schools for boys and girls above
mentioned. On graduating, the student had to pass an examina-
tion in the theoretical subjects, and demonstrate his practical ability
and his fitness to teach. On meeting these requirements satisfac-
torily, a diploma was awarded.

In 1880 this plan of instruction was essentially altered. The
scientific subjects were dropped, and the entire time devoted to in-
struction in manual training. The length of the course was re-
duced to six weeks, and the training was arranged to meet the
needs of certificated teachers who wished to fit themselves in these
other subjects. Several, usually four or six, of these six-weeks’
courses are given each year, and so popular have they become that
many applicants have to be turned away. An account of one of
these courses is interesting. That given in 1885 from July 8 to
Aug. 18 was attended by 42 students, of whom 28 were Swedes, 3
Norwegians, I a Dane, 1 a German, I a Swiss, and 8 were female
teachers from Sweden, Norway, and Finland. Six hours daily were
spent in the workshop, under the supervision of Herr Salomon.
The same gentleman, who is the director of the seminary, lectured
seven hours each week on the historical development and the
methods of manual training, and also presided twice weekly at as-
semblies of the students, held for the purpose of discussing the
Naas system in general and in its details. The results of these
discussions were registered in a book kept for the purpose, and
they accomplished diverse improvements in the details of the course.

Throughout the course a religious service was held daily, which
was opened and closed with prayer and sacred song. No one was
compelled, however, to attend this service.

The programme of instruction included a daily lecture from seven
to eight o’clock in the morning, slojd exercise from 9.30 to 1.30 and
from 2 to 6 P.M., excepting Saturdays, when the sléjd ended at
noon, and the remainder of the day was devoted to school-work
and trial lessons. Two evenings weekly were given over to the
discussions, and two more to lectures by Director Salomon. Herr
Abrahamson was often seen in the work-rooms, and for every
student he had a cheering word or a suggestion, and his personal
influence was strongly felt among them.

In his lectures, Director Salomon developed the ends which man-
ual training is to subserve, with great ability and perspicuity. He
distinguished these ends as formal and material. The formal ends,
he showed, were, (1) to arouse a desire for work and a pleasure in
it; (2) to accustom pupils to independence, and to fit them for it;
(3) to instil the virtues of exactness, order, and accuracy; (4) to
train the attention; and (5) to train pupils in habits of industry
and perseverance.

The material ends of manual training, Herr Salomon explained to
be as follows: (1) to win the interest of the children, and therefore
(2) to give them something useful to work at; (3) to require and
promote orderliness and exactness; (4) to develop cleanliness and
neatness ; (5) to provide an opportunity to exercise and develop the
sense of form ; (6) to appeal to both the mental and physical powers
of the child; (7) to strengthen the muscles ; (8) to afford a relief
from long-continued sitting at school; (9) to train’ the pupil to
methodical and accurate expression; and (10) to promote a general
ability to do hand-work. NICHOLAS MURRAY BUTLER.

IN IPILIB/N IWOIR AMEN SIC VIONY ONT ILOKEnC.

Most intelligent persons are very lavish in their expressions of
admiration for the many important aids to the science of education,
and consequently to the armamentarium of the teacher, which have
been developed during the last fifty years. And yet, notwithstand-

SCIENCE.

(Mon, <7 a Nowest

ing our progress in the methods and appliances which aid the
teacher so much, many of our best educators are not satisfied with
much of the work at present accomplished, and remedies are sug-
gested from various quarters. It seems to me that most persons
fail to appreciate the direct cause of the trouble, and in consequence
their proposals are not such as will cure the ills of our great school
system.

The object of an education should be to so train the faculties.
which nature has given the student, and to impart to him such
knowledge, that he will be the better prepared to fill that particular
station in life for which he seems destined, and which will enable
him to grow in knowledge with his years, if he will continue the
same methods of study after his graduation.

The school and college course should be regarded only as a be-
ginning ; and by reason of this education, if it has been as success-
ful as we have a right to expect, the further acquisition of knowl-
edge will be much easier. It is a source of great satisfaction to
perceive that the old idea of a higher education, which consisted in
turning out a polished man or woman upon society, who was.
almost wholly ignorant of the laws of nature, and especially so in
all that pertained to their own organization, is no longer defended
in the institutions of learning in this country. It is so at least in
those worthy of any consideration as educational centres, and yet
much remains to be accomplished under the new régz7me.

One of the desirable objects at present is to educate a man so
that he may be able to overlook intelligently the whole field of
knowledge, and to know how and where to obtain what he needs.
The departments of human learning are already so numerous, that
a general education can give but an insight and acquaintance with
the many; while, if excellence in any one is desired, one must be-
come a specialist.

Up to the present time, our greatest achievements in knowledge
have been effected by our adherence to a certain form of reason—
ing known as the ‘scientific method,’ which combines the induc-
tive and deductive processes. Until the full recognition and defini-
tion of this combination, progress was painfully slow, and was often
retarded by the timely discovery that what had previously been re-
garded as truth, was, by reason of the imperfect methods made use
of, only partly true, or altogether false. Certainly we had a right
to expect that when the new method had been worked out, and
had achieved grand results, every educator would be enthusias-
tic in its praise, and never cease to urge its study upon those who.
are seeking the knowledge in possession of the race at the present
time, and especially upon those who hope that they themselves may
be able to make some additions to the common fund of knowledge.
But instead of this, it seems to have been forgotten, at least as any
thing of importance with which young students should become ac-
quainted ; and when it is taught, it is reserved until they have
nearly completed their school-education.

The very principles that would be of incalculable advantage to.
the student, if inculcated early, are reserved until he has, perhaps,
formed vicious habits of statement and reasoning, and which are
not then so easily described. Perhaps the greatest defect of our
educational system at present is the almost universal manner in
which logic as astudy has been ignored by our educators.

It may be urged that the logical principles are contained in some
of the other branches taught; and as, in this way, knowledge is.
gradually increased, the pupil naturally appreciates the laws of
reasoning involved in these studies, and therefore does not need the
separate study of logic. But I do not believe this ground is well
taken; for, although it is true that we are all to some extent logi—
cians, too many are very imperfect ones, and they are unfortunately
in the majority.

When a boy is placed at a trade involving the use of tools, the
first step usually taken is to acquaint him with their construction,
use, and care. But such delicate and intricate instruments as those
which make up the human mind, seem to call for nospecial knowl—
edge or training as to their use or care. Would it not be fully as.
wise to teach the younger scholars in the beginning of their edu—
cation, soon after learning to read cleverly, — say, between the age
of ten and twelve, — the fundamental principles of correct reason—
ing? The study of logic would be likely to cultivate the faculty of
observation, which is so necessary in a true education.

NOVEMBER 25, 1887. |

Professor Farlow of Cambridge gave utterance, in the Popular
Sctence Monthly about a year ago, to these sentiments in the fol-
lowing language: ‘I have said enough to show that unless my
experience is an exceptional one, in spite of all the talk on the sub-
ject, boys at school are not taught to observe as they should be,
and that even those teachers who use good text-books, frequently
use them as means of imparting facts easily and quickly by the
old method, rather than as an aid in the scientific training of the
faculties which must form the basis of any serious study of biology.”
And again he says, “It seems a great pity that students should
come to college so ill fitted, as are the majority, to undertake bio-
logical work. But we must accept things as they are; and there is
no use in attempting to take the second step before the first has
been taken. If the school can not or will not teach observation,
then it must be taught in college, no matter if it does seem to be
child’s work. In colleges, however, it is absolutely impossible to
find the time or the means for training every one to become an ob-
server, and we are obliged to distinguish between two different
classes of persons in arranging courses in biology.”

These are the words of a professor in one of our best universi-
ties, as to the condition of the students sent there from the best
schools in our land. In his sphere as an educator he has discov-
ered this logical deficiency in the students who are anxious for a
higher education. In a different sphere of life, no part of which
has been spent in teaching, I have observed this great deficiency
among the people who have received their education in our public
schools, as well as in some of our colleges. There must bea cause
for such a general condition as that referred to, and the one to
which I attribute it may not be the only one, or a correct one. Be
that as it may, it will perhaps occasion no surprise when the posi-
tion is taken that the most important factor tending to perpetuate
this imperfect development of our perceptive faculties is that logi-
cal methods have not been taught in our schools.

I believe nothing of greater importance can be taught children
in the earlier periods of their education than this ; but it should not
be attempted by simply placing text-books in their hands. The
teachers should first be familiar with the elementary principles of
logic themselves, and spend a portion of each day, or several days
each week, in an endeavor to teach the pupils the art of observa-
tion, together with the proper use of words, and how to draw cor-
rect conclusions from an observation. It is of vast importance that
words should be correctly used in the formation of terms and prop-
ositions ; and the study of reading and grammar alone is not likely
to secure this.

If you do not teach children these principles of-logic in early life,
when they grow up, they are too prone to accept all that has been
taught them as true, because the source from whence they received
it was so eminently respectable. Thus they will lose or suppress
their critical impulses, which are so necessary to mental growth :
they will, in fact, be smothered by authority, and the result will be
just what Professor Farlow has described as the deficiencies of his
students.

Logie will continually incite the pupil to question things ; and to
do that, they must be observed and their characters noted, whether
they be objects in the animal world about them, or some arrange-
ment of words by which an endeavor is made to express a definite
idea. The assertion made by some, that we are naturally logical,
only tends to confirm the importance of these principles in any sys-
tem of education. We can hardly have too many persons in this
world who understand logical methods of reasoning, no matter how
many there may be to whom reasoning according to these princi-
ples comes without education.

We know too well that most persons use exclusively the fost hac,
ergo propler hoc method of reasoning ; and they make up the im-
pressionable portion of humanity. The views generally entertained
about the nature of evidence are also exceedingly varied and fanci-
ful. One has only to listen to a group of men of ordinary educa-
tion and a fair endowment of common sense, discussing any sub-
ject of interest, to become convinced that this defect of early edu-
cation is a glaring fact.

Even among laborers and mechanics, we can see the disastrous
effect of this deficiency in early training. Could they have had
these principles drilled into them by teachers who really under-

SCIENCE.

257

stood and practised them, they would be more inquisitive in their
work, in order to see whether it was the best that could be effected
for the end in view.

It is useless to cite examples, for they are familiar to all. Much
has very justly been said, in derision of the differences of opinion
among professional men, upon topics which should not, from their
nature, give rise to such varied conclusions; and especially has
this been enlarged upon in its application to the medical profession.
“Ts there any sufficient reason for such a state of things?” has
often been asked. This is probably not to be attributed to one
cause alone, where so many different individuals have to be taken
into account, although I believe it is to be explained in large part
by their deficiencies in the science of logic; otherwise the uniform-
ity of their conclusions based upon the same facts would be
greater.

The records of medical literature are filled with rubbish, that no
man, with any knowledge of the elementary principles of logic,
would think for a moment worthy of preservation. A medical man
has, for example, a peculiar and protracted case of disease: he
employs a number of different remedies, and after weeks, or per-
haps months, the patient recovers. The delighted physician at
once rushes into print with an account of the wonderful virtues of
the remedy last administered to his patient, and no suggestion as to
the insufficiency of the evidence adduced in order to establish a
new truth seems to intrude itself upon his consciousness. And it
is in this way, and for this reason more than any other, it seems to
me, that medicine continues to deserve the designation of an art
rather than that of a science.

But it may be asked, is there no danger that the uniformity that
might result from such a general study of logic would become so
great as to hinder the development of new ideas and methods? I
think not. For although the methods of logic to which we owe
our greatest triumphs—and consisting of the four following steps :
(1) preliminary observation, (2) construction of hypotheses, (3)
deductive reasoning, (4) the process of verification —are the
nearest possible approach to perfection in reasoning, and may not
be at present susceptible of improvement, it would not prevent
some genius from unfolding a new and better system, should such
be within the bounds of possibility. I think we need have no fear,
even though we were all accomplished logicians, that there would
be too much uniformity in our conclusions.

Thinking is no doubt the most important function or attribute of
man ; and, as the brain will continue to think, let us do what we
can to encourage its very best performance.

In an examination of such reports as I could obtain from the
Bureau of Education at Washington, with the view of ascertaining
whether any of our schools were teaching logic, I was unable to
find it in the curriculum of any State, though it is true that only a
few were given. The sole reference to it in connection with the
schools of the United States was in a list of books considered suit-
able for teachers’ libraries, and prepared by the librarian of the
Bureau of Education, which recommended Professor Jevons’s ‘ Ele-
mentary Lessons in Logic,’ and a work by John Stuart Mill.

In a programme of the studies in a mixed school in a certain de-
partment in France, I found the upper class, from eleven to thir-
teen years of age, devoting thirty-five minutes in the afternoon to a
recitation of which logical analysis was a part; and this is the only
reference to it as an object of study I have been able to find.

Professor Agassiz, in speaking of the study of natural history
being of great value to all scholars in urging its importance, goes
on to say, “The difficult art of thinking can be acquired by this
method in a more rapid way than any other. When we study logic
or mental philosophy in text-books which we commit to memory,
it is not the mind we cultivate, it is the memory alone. The mind
may come in, but if it does in that method, it is only in an acces-
sory way. But if we learn to think by unfolding thoughts ourselves
from the examination of objects brought before us, then we acquire
them for ourselves, and we acquire the ability of applying our
thoughts in life. JZ¢ 2s only by the ability of observing for our-
selves that we can free ourselves from the burden of authority.
So long as we have not learned how to settle a question for our-
selves, we go for authority, or we take the opinion of our neighbor ;
that is, we remain tools in his hands, if he choose to use us in that

258

way, or we declare our inability of having an opinion of our own.
How shall we form opinions of our own otherwise than by examin-
ing the facts in the case? and how can we learn these facts which
are unchangeable, those facts over which man, with all his pride,
can have no control?”

I have no hesitation in thus quoting Professor Agassiz, although
he seems to be against me, judging from his reference to logic
alone, because his remarks seem so applicable to what I am urging,
in that they so strongly inculcate the necessity for logical training
(and which the study of natural science gives) in what is certainly
a convincing manner. Still, I am fully persuaded that he would
not have spoken in this way about logic, if it had been understood
that it was to be taught in the way he urged with natural history ;
viz., to take the objects or words and propositions in use every day,
and apply these principles to them. It then becomes something
very much higher than a mere feat of memory, and I fail to see why
instruction in logic would be any waste of time, even when natural
history was being studied, and where the kind of work to which
Professor Agassiz refers is out of the question ; and for the present
this seems to be the case in all our grammar-schools. The great
desideratum is the proper presentation and teaching of logic by
those who really understand it themselves.

In conclusion I would say that it is very difficult for me to un-
derstand why, if logic is ever worthy of study, it is not more neces-
sary in the beginning of an education than at its close. I will
therefore hope that all who are engaged in the profession of teach-
ing will give this subject their serious consideration, and perhaps
trial. Let us not forget that logic teaches us to reason correctly ;
that good reasoning will give us more knowledge, and this will
give us power; which, if combined with good character, cannot
help making its possessor more valuable to himself and to his
fellows. S. J. BUMSTEAD.

THE AMERICAN PUBLIC HEALTH ASSOCIATION.

THE American Public Health Association held its fifteenth annual
meeting at Memphis, Tenn., on Nov. 8, 9,10,and 11. The attend-
ance was good, among those present being many of the promi-
nent sanitarians of the United States and Canada. At the first
session ninety-four new members were elected. The annual ad-
dress was delivered by the president, Dr. George M. Sternberg,
U.S.A. The following is an abstract of the address : —

“Tt was due to the yellow-fever epidemic of 1878, in which Mem-
phis was the chief sufferer, that steps were taken at our meeting of
that year, in the city of Richmond, to urge upon Congress the im-
portance of a national board of health. Recognizing the fact that
epidemics do not respect State boundary-lines, and that an efficient
sanitary service in times of emergency requires a liberal expendi-
ture of money, and unity of action onthe part of sanitary officials,
we urged the formation of a central health board, and for a time it
seemed as if our well-meant plans would be crowned with success.
Indeed, they were crowned with partial success, for all must recog-
nize that in the early days of its existence the National Board of
Health accomplished much good. It is unnecessary for me to
refer to the various circumstances which conspired to paralyze the
effective energy of this board. Unhappily it is a thing of the past,
and the hopes which we had founded upon this our bantling are
but a memory of the past. But we should not be discouraged that
our first effort has failed. A careful consideration of the circum-
stances which led to this failure may enable us to mature a better
plan. Such a plan, indorsed by the judgment of the experienced
sanitarians here assembled, and properly presented to our national
legislators, could not fail to receive respectful attention.

“ One thing appears to me to be thoroughly demonstrated by the
experience of the past; namely, that a central health board, to be
efficient, must be attached to one of the departments of the govern-
ment now in existence, so that it may be under the protection of a
cabinet officer. It would be useless to ask at the present time that
the sanitary interests of the country may be represented by an ad-
ditional cabinet officer, a minister of public health, although there
can be no doubt that the interests involved are sufficiently impor-
tant to justify such an innovation. But we may at least demand
that the sanitary interests of the people of the United States shall
receive the same consideration from the national government that is

SCIENCE:

[Vox. X. No. 251

accorded to the educational interests, the agricultural interests, etc.
We may at least ask for a bureau of public health, with a commis-
sioner at its head, and with the necessary secretaries and clerical
force to make it efficient; and attached to such a bureau should be
a well-equipped laboratory, in which expert bacteriologists, chem-
ists, and sanitary engineers should be employed in the experimental
investigation of unsettled sanitary problems, such as the natural
history of disease-germs, the best methods of destroying them, pro-
tective inoculations against infectious diseases, problems in sanitary
engineering (such as the disposal of sewage, domestic sanitation,
etc.), food-adulterations, and a variety of other questions of equal
importance, which will readily occur to you. I do not approve of
the plan of having a central board of health, composed of members
located in various parts of the country. Such an organization is
cumbersome, and it cannot be expected that a board which is only
assembled at long intervals, and of which the members are occu-
pied by various pursuits, which claim their time and best thought,
will render the most efficient service. On the other hand, by diver-
sity of opinions they may greatly embarrass their executive officer,
who must necessarily be located in Washington. Nor, in my opin-
ion, would a board composed of officials at the head of various de-
partments in Washington, such as the surgeon-general of the army,
the navy, and the marine-hospital service, as has been suggested,
be much better. These officials are fully occupied with the duties
pertaining to their office, or at least have not sufficient leisure to
undertake the executive work of a central health bureau. I would
therefore expect better results from the untrammelled action of a
single commissioner, who would be responsible directly to the cab-
inet officer to whose department his bureau was attached, and who
would necessarily be controlled by the law defining the nature of
his duties. In this case it is evident that the good accomplished
would depend largely upon the fitness of the man selected for the
special duties intrusted to him, and that a political appointment in
the first instance, or the removal of a suitable man for political
reasons, would entirely defeat our object.

“ We may, however, ignore this possibility, and trust to the good
judgment of the chief executive and the growing public sentiment
in favor of retaining efficient bureau officers, without regard to
party changes.

“In connection with a bureau of public health, it would certainly
be desirable to have an advisory board of health, to which the
commissioner could refer questions for consideration, or which
could advise him of new mzasures, or desirable changes in his regu-
lations, which, after full discussion, commended themselves to the
judgment of the board. Such a board should have no executive
power, and the members should receive no pay beyond their actual
expenses in attending the appointed meetings. I would suggest
that such a board should consist of the surgeons-general of the
army, the navy, and the marine-hospital service, and of the presi-
dents of State boards of health. One annual meeting in Washing-
ton would probably answer the purpose for which a board would
be constituted, except in case of an actual or threatened epidemic,
when it might be convened, at the suggestion of its president or of
the commissioner of health. ;

“T request your careful consideration of the plan here suggested,
and, if it meets your approval, would urge the importance of taking
such action at the present meeting as will insure its being properly
brought before the Congress of the United States.”

Dr. Sternberg referred to the epidemic of yellow-fever at Mem-
phis in 1878, and the sanitary improvements made in the city since
that time, and then gave its inhabitants the following advice : —

“Do not allow yourselves to fall into a state of inaction and false
security because for several years our foe has been kept at bay. Al-
though it is now evident that yellow-fever is not epidemic in any
portion of our land, and we have learned by recent experience that
by proper measures it is possible to exclude it for a series of years,
even from the city of New Orleans, yet there are so many possibili-
ties of its introduction, in spite of the vigilance of those. who have
charge of the gateway of the Mississippi valley, that it would be
folly to neglect those local measures of sanitation which remove the
vulnerability of cities in the presence of the germs of pestilential
diseases. Shutting the door is of prime importance, and while the
keys are in the hands of our energetic and able colleague, Dr. Holt,

NovEMBER 25, 1887. ]

we may feel comparatively safe, But the efficient president of the
Louisiana State Board of Health cannot guarantee that all ave-
nues of approach are securely guarded, inasmuch as some of these
avenues are quite beyond his control. This is exemplified by the
Biloxi epidemic of 1886. Local outbreaks, such as that at Biloxi,
and the epidemic at Key West and at Tampa during the present year,
show that the conditions upon our Gulf coast are no less favorable
to the presence of yellow-fever than they were in former years, and
that our immunity depends solely upon the exclusion of an exotic
germ. Unfortunately, also, the Biloxi epidemic illustrates the very
greatest liability of physicians to fall into error with reference to
the diagnosis, when yellow-fever unexpectedly makes its appear-
ance outside of its habitual range. History repeats itself in this
particular. The early cases in an epidemic, which are often mild,
are pronounced to be malarial-fever; and this diagnosis is often sus-
tained by those who have committed themselves to it, when’ no
reasonable doubt remains in the minds of unprejudiced physicians
as to the true nature of the malady.

“ The question whether it is practicable to make a city, which
lies in the area subject to invasion, proof against epidemics of yel-
low-fever and cholera, is one of very great importance, At the In-
ternational Sanitary Conference at Rome the delegates from England
and from India opposed all quarantine restrictions as unnecessary,
and pointed to the fact that for years there.,has been constant and
free communication between cholera-infested ports in India and
the seaport cities of England, but that cholera has not effected a
lodgement in that country. Dr. Thorne Thorne, of the local gov-
ernment board, a delegate to the conference, ascribed this immunity
to the sanitary improvements which have been carried out in Eng-
land during the past ten or twelve years. He stated, that, during
the period included between the years 1875 and 1884, an amount
exceeding six and one-quarter millions sterling per annum had been
expended in England ‘under private and public acts mainly of a
sanitary character.’ Dr. Thorne Thorne, in his report of the pro-
ceedings of the conference referred to, says, —

“*«Lastly, I would note that I took occasion to explain to the tech-
nical commission that expenditures such as I have referred to are,
with only very trivial exceptions, voluntarily incurred in the interests
of public health. A

“«T then went on to show, in connection with this expenditure, that
the average annual mortality for England and Wales was now
only 19 as opposed to 22 per 1,000 in the decennial period
1861-70, and this notwithstanding increase in population of some
5,000,000; and taking the continued fever mortality of this country
as that which, in point of causation, most nearly resembled cholera,
I pointed out, that whereas, in the five years 1865-69, this mortality
was at the rate of 934 per 1,000,000 living, it had steadily fallen to
428 per 1,000,000 during the period 1880-82, and that it is now only
307 per 1,099,099,’

“In a later communication, published in the Practztzoner for
October, 1887, Dr. Thorne Thorne gives fuller details of the Eng-
lish system of protection against cholera as follows: ‘ Having de-
liberately abandoned the system of quarantine, we began many
years ago to organize the system of medical inspection with isola-
tion. The medical inspection comes first into operation on our
coasts. The customs officers board the vessel coming into our
port, and they at once communicate to the sanitary authority the
occurrence of any case of cholera, choleraic diarrhoea, or suspected
cholera. A vessel so affected is detained until the medical officer of
health has examined every member of the crew and passengers.
Those actually sick of cholera or choleraic diarrhcea are at once
removed to the port sanitary hospital, and any person certified to be
suffering from any illness which that officer suspects may prove to
be the cholera is detained for a true period of observation not ex-
ceeding two days. The medical inspection is thus followed by iso-
lation of the sick. Unlike a quarantine system, this process does
not interfere with the healthy, or expose them to risk by herding
then: together with the sick; but the names of the healthy, and the
places of their destination, are taken down, and the medical officers
of health of the districts in question are informed of the impending
arrivals. This part of our system has been named our first line of
defence, but it would be of little value if we stopped there. Our
main trust is in the promotion of such local sanitary administration

SCIBNCE:

259

in every part of the country as shall rid us of the conditions under
which alone cholera can spread. In periods of emergency, as dur-
ing the past three years, a special medical survey of such districts
as are most exposed to risk is organized under the supervision of the
medical officer of the local government board, and, where needed,
the sanitary authorities are urged to action. Important as have
been the results of the recent survey, they would go for little were
it not for the steadily maintained work of the sanitary authorities
and their officers throughout the kingdom; and we who have been
taunted abroad for opposing quarantine, because its restrictions
touched our commercial interests and pockets, may justly feel
proud that in England and Wales alone the people have, during
the past ten years, of their own accord, and apart from government
dictation, spent, by way of loan or in current expenditures, over
£80,000,000 sterling for purposes mainly of a sanitary character.
And we may fairly ask whether any corresponding expenditure has
in other countries given evidence of real faith in a quarantine
system.’

“Without denying the value of the sanitary improvements which
have been carried out in England, and the possibility that her immu-
nity from cholera is largely due to them, the delegates from more
exposed countries, such as France and Italy, demanded a quaran-
tine station upon the Suez Canal, and pointed out the fact that their
seaport cities were not in such a sanitary condition that they could
hope to escape the ravages of the pestilence, in case of its introduc-
tion, and that to place them in such a state of defence would re-
quire time and the expenditure of large sums of money. It was
noticeable that those countries (such as Turkey, Egypt, and Spain)
where sanitary improvements have made the least progress were
the most exacting with reference to quarantine restrictions. They
evidently looked upon these as their only hope, and were advocates
of the old-fashioned time-quarantine, which, as carried out in these
countries, has often been attended with barbarities which are intol-
erable for civilized nations. Self-preservation is, indeed, the first
law of nature; but it is barbarous to sacrifice the life of another to
save our own, and, in guarding the lives of a community, we are
bound to show due consideration for the health and comfort of
those who are believed to be the possible bearers of disease-germs.

“ Recognizing this humane principle, a majority of-the delegates
to the sanitary conference of Rome were anxious to effect a com-
promise between the old-fashioned time-quarantine and the British
practice, which they could not rely upon for the countries of south-
ern Europe. It was believed that such a compromise was practi-
cable, and that the plan agreed to by a majority of the delegates
present was more reliable than a simple quarantine of detention.
I must refer you to the published transactions for the details of this
plan; but in brief it consisted of a sanitary supervision of ships at
the port of departure, when this was an infected port or in com-
munication with an infected locality ; in the sanitary supervision of
ship and passengers while in transit, by a properly qualified physi-
cian upon all passenger-ships; and in such detention at the port of
arrival as might be necessary for the disinfection of the ship, the
personal effects of the passengers, etc. If one or more cases of
cholera should appear on board during the voyage, they were to be
isolated, and rigid measures of disinfection carried out, and the ac-
tion of the health authorities at the port of arrival was to depend
upon how effectively this had been done. In short, the treatment
of the vessel and its passengers was not to be determined in ad-
vance by arbitrary rules, but was to be governed by an intelligent
consideration, by an expert, of all the circumstances relating to the
sanitary history of the ship from the date of its departure from the
infected port. This rational quarantine service, which is far less
burdensome to the commerce of a country than the arbitrary time-
quarantine of former days, has proved itself to be also more effec-
tual in accomplishing the end in view. This is amply proved by
recent experience in our own country, where, to a large extent, the
principles indicated control the action of the health-officers of our
principal seaports. Look at the city of New Orleans, where epi-
demics of yellow-fever were formerly so frequent as to lead to the
belief that the disease was endemic, and a necessary evil appertain-
ing to the situation of the Crescent City. Happily, under an effi-
cient quarantine service, she has now a record of seven years’ ex-
emption from the dreaded pestilence.”

260

In discussing cholera and its probable appearance in the United
States, Dr. Sternberg said, —

“Tt is perhaps too soon to speak with confidence with reference
to the action taken by the sanitary officials of the port of New York
upon the recent arrival of two cholera-infected vessels from the
Mediterranean; but we have good reason to hope that the meas-
ures taken will prove sufficient, and that this pestilential disease,
which has for several years been threatening us from a distance,
has not effected a lodgement upon our shores. Whether it would
be practicable to put our seaports in sucha state of sanitary defence
that it would be safe to open the door and defy the foe, is extremely
doubtful. I have never believed that yellow-fever was excluded
from New Orleans in 1862 and 1863 by the sanitary regulations
enforced by General Butler, as has been claimed. The exemption
from this disease enjoyed by the unacclimated soldiers from the
North, who filled the hospitals in that city at the time mentioned,
was due, in my opinion, to the absence of commerce during the
military occupation of the city, and to the rigid enforcement of
quarantine restrictions.

“But I do believe that this and other cities similarly located can
be preserved from such devastating epidemics as have too often oc-
curred in the past, and that, by the carrying-out of needed sanitary im-
provements and the constant supervision of expert sanitary officials,
supported by an enlightened public sentiment and sufficient appro-
priations, the ravages of pestilential diseases may be restricted
within very narrow limits.

“ As regards cholera, the system of local defence is even simpler
than in the case of yellow-fever. Ample evidence demonstrates
that the epidemic extension of this disease depends largely, if not
exclusively, upon the water-supply. Where this is subject to con-
tamination by the discharges of the sick, there cholera is liable to
become epidemic. On the other hand, cities like Rome, in Italy,
which have an ample supply of pure water, drawn from a source
not likely to be contaminated, seem to be cholera-proof, notwith-
standing the filth and squalor in which a considerable portion of the
population live. The same thing is seen in Naples, which in 1884
suffered terribly, but which, since the completion of its new system
of water-works in 1885, has enjoyed a comparative immunity, not-
withstanding the fact)that cholera still prevails in Italy, and that we
have evidence of its presence in a malignant form in the city re-
ferred to. When I was in Naples, in 1885, the mayor of the city
invited a number of the delegates to the sanitary conference to the
municipal palace for the purpose of conferring with them with ref-
erence to projected sanitary improvements, and especially with
reference to the best system of sewerage for the city, which, up to
the present time, remains destitute of sewers, and which, I may add,
is a noted stronghold of typhoid-fever. In the course of the con-
versation, I suggested to the mayor Colonel Waring’s American
system, which has been tested with such favorable results in this
city. My recommendation was sustained by the distinguished
German _bacteriologist, Dr. Robert Koch, who was one of the dele-
gates present. I may remark that I have recently received a letter
from Dr. Koch, asking me to give him full particulars with refer-
ence to the details of this system as carried out in the city of Mem-
phis.”’

In commenting upon quarantine as at present practised in this
country, the president said that he considered it a wrong principle
that commerce should be taxed for the support of quarantine
establishments. In his judgment, the people who are protected
should pay the cost of such protection. He was not so much con-
cerned with the unjust tax laid upon ship-owners as with the gross
injustice to passengers practised at many ports in various parts of
the world where they are so unfortunate as to be detained at a
quarantine station. He narrates the history of a case of this kind
which fell under his own observation. He says, ‘‘ When I left
Brazil, in the month of August last, small-pox was epidemic both
in Rio de Janeiro and at Para. Our ship touched at Para, and five
days later at Barbadoes. A passenger for this port was not al-
lowed to land, beeause of the prevalence of small-pox in Brazil.
Proceeding to St. Thomas, less than two days’ sail from Barbadoes,
our passenger was again refused permission to land, except to go to
the quarantine station for a certain number of days. This was all
right, but the conditions upon which he would be received seemed

SCIEN CE:

[Vor. X. No. 251

to me to be all wrong. Either he himself or the ship must guaran-
tee the payment of the quarantine fees, which would be three dol-
lars a day for his board, and five dollars a day to the quarantine
physician, if he were alone. If others were at the station at the
same time, this fee would be divided between them. One can easily
imagine what a hardship such a tax would be for a person of lim-
ited means, who had only provided himself with funds for the
journey he had undertaken. The agent of the ship refused to take
any responsibility, and our passenger had no resource but to sub-
mit to the imposition, or to come on to New York, paying his pas-
sage to that port.”

Another illustration of the evils arising from the present system
of supporting quarantine establishments was given by Dr. Sternberg,
in his address, as being his own experience when he recently arrived
at New York quarantine on his return from Brazil. ‘“ With the
deputy health-officer, who boarded our ship, came a man with a
jug. I was informed by one of the officers of the ship that he was
to disinfect the vessel. Being somewhat curious to know the
method of disinfection employed, I asked the ship’s surgeon to go
with me to inspect, when, after a detention of less than one hour,
we had started from the quarantine station for our wharf. We
found that the man with the jug had lowered a bucket by means of
a rope through one of the hatches between decks. Upon pulling
up this bucket, I found that it contained two or three pounds of
some powder which had been wet, probably with acid solution, and
which gave off an odor of chlorine. No doubt, when first lowered
between decks, there had been a considerable evolution of chlorine ;
but, in the vast space to be disinfected, it was so diluted that at
the end of an hour I did not detect the odor of chlorine-gas when I
lifted the hatch, and it was only by approaching my nose to the
bucket that I was able to ascertain what disinfectant had been used.
The most curious part of the story is, that I was informed that the
bucket had been lowered between decks to disinfect a quantity of
hides which were stored in the hold. What was the object of this
‘disinfection’? Evidently not to disinfect, for no one at the pres—
ent day would think of maintaining that the hides in the hold had
been disinfected by the procedure of the man with the jug. The
only object that I can conceive of depends upon the fact that there
is a fee for disinfecting, which must be paid by the agents of the
ship; at least, I was so informed by one of the officers of the ship.”

The president referred to the fact that while exotic pestilential
diseases, such as yellow-fever and cholera, were the levers which
move corporations to make necessary sanitary improvements, these
are, as compared with certain indigenous or naturalized infectious
diseases, of secondary importance. The chief aim of the American
Public Health Association should be to ascertain what measures
are most effectual for the restoration of their endemic maladies,
such as typhoid-fever and the malarial fevers, and for the banish-
ment of all diseases in which the contagion is given off from the
persons of the sick, such as scarlet-fever and small-pox. So
far as the diseases of the class last mentioned are concerned, we
may safely say that we know how they may be banished from a
community; viz., by isolation of the sick, and disinfection of all
infectious material, and, in the case of small-pox, by vaccination,
The main mission of the sanitarian, therefore, is to insist upon the
thorough execution of these measures.

Other topics dealt with in the address were the necessity for
instruction of the people in the principles of personal hygiene, in
which labor Mr. Henry Lomb of Rochester had borne so noble
and generous a part, by giving prizes for essays on the construc~
tion of the homes and the composition of the food of the working-
man; the erection of laboratories, such as that at Johns Hopkins
University, the Hoagland at Brooklyn, and others at New York,
Philadelphia, Boston, and Ann Arbor; the infectious diseases of
animals, —anthrax, swine-plague, hydrophobia, ete. With refer-
ence to the germ of cholera, Dr. Sternberg said, —

“With reference to cholera, 1 may say to you that recent re-
searches give support to the conclusions of Koch as to the path-
ogenic vé/e in this disease, of the spirillum discovered by him in
the intestines of cholera patients. Its constant présence in this
disease seems to be demonstrated, and it is now generally admitted
by bacteriologists that there are definite characters by which it
may be distinguished from similar organisms obtained from other

NovEMBER 25, 1887.]

sources, such as the Finkler-Prior spirillum and the cheese spirillum
of Deneke, which closely resemble it.

“ Lustig, director of the cholera hospitals at Trieste, examined
the dejecta in one hundred and seventy cases of cholera, and found
the spirillum of Koch in every case: on the other hand, the bacillus
of Emerich was only found in forty out of the whole number of
cases examined. Tizzoni and Cattani also found Koch’s spirillum
in the contents of the intestine in twenty-four cases examined by
them during the epidemic at Bologna in 1886. At Padua, also,
researches made by Canestrini and Morpurgo gave the same result:
the spirillum was constantly found in the dejecta in recent cases.
These observers state that the cholera spirillum retains its motil-
ity and reproductive power for a considerable time in sterilized
distilled water. They were able to obtain cultures after two months
from such water. This important fact has been verified by Pfeiffer,
who found, however, that in the presence of common saprophytic
bacteria the cholera microbe soon died out. Hueppe has shown
that the cholera spirillum forms reproductive elements, which he
calls arthrospores. These are not so readily destroyed by desicca-
tion as are the fresh bacilli, but they have nothing like the resisting
power to heat and chemical agents which characterizes the en-
dogenous spores of the bacilli. The exact proportion in which vari-
ous disinfecting agents are destructive of the vitality of the cholera
spirilla has now been determined with great precision, and will be
stated in detail in the report of the committee on disinfectants for
the present year. This committee has also made extended experi-
ments of the same kind, in which the typhoid bacillus and various
other pathogenic organisms have served as the test of germicide
power. The chemical products developed in cultures as a result
of the vital activity of the cholera spirillum have been studied by
Bitter, Buchner, and Contani. The last-named author claims to
have demonstrated the presence of a poisonous ptomaine in cholera
cultures, which, when injected into the peritoneal cavity of dogs,
gives rise to symptoms resembling those of cholera. A recent
observation of value is that of Bujwid, who finds that bouillon
cultures of the cholera spirillum have a peculiar chemical re-action
by which they may be distinguished. According to this author,
the addition of a 5-10-per-cent solution of hydrochloric acid to sucha
culture gives rise, within a few minutes, to a rose-violet color,
which subsequently, when exposed to light, changes to a brownish
shade. The re-action does not occur in impure cultures. The
Finkler-Prior spirillum is said to give a similar re-action after a
longer time, but the color first developed is of a more brownish
hue.”

The etiological 76/e and biological character of the typhoid ba-
cillus, discovered by Eberth in 1880, were fully discussed. Dr.
Sternberg says that there is very little doubt that this organism is
the cause of typhoid-fever, although no satisfactory proof by inocu-
lation in lower animals has as yet been found. This, however,
he does not regard as surprising, inasmuch as we have no evi-
dence that any of the animals experimented upon are liable to
contract the disease, as man does, by drinking contaminated water.
In speaking of malaria and its causative micro-organism, he said, —

“Among the most important investigations of the past year are
those of Councilman of Baltimore, and Osler of Philadelphia, with
reference to the presence of micro-organisms in the blood of ma-
larial-fever patients. Both of these observers confirm the discovery
of Laveran, who in 1880 announced, as the result of extended re-
searches made in Algeria, that blood drawn from the finger of such
patients during a febrile paroxysm contains a parasitic infusorium,
which presents itself in different phases of development, and which
in acertain proportion of the cases was observed as an actively
motile flagellate organism. Osler and Councilman have found all
of the forms described by Laveran; and the last-named observer
reports that in recent researches in which blood was obtained di-
rectly from the spleen, the flagellate form was almost constantly
found. Whether the amceboid ‘plasmodium’ found by Marchiafava
and Celli, of Rome, represents an early stage in the development of
this organism, or whether it simply represents a change in the red-
blood corpuscles, which occurs also in other diseases, as is claimed
by Mosso, has not yet been definitely determined. It is somewhat
curious that just when we are receiving satisfactory evidence of
the parasite of Laveran in the blood of malarial-fever patients, the

SCIENCE.

261

bacillus of Klebs and Tomassi-Crudelli, which appeared to be
dead and buried, has again been introduced to our notice by the
distinguished German botanist Ferdinand Cohn. In his paper,
published in June last, he gives an account of the researches of a
young physician named Schiavuzzi, who has made researches in
the vicinity of Pola, a malarial region in Istria. The method fol-~
lowed was that of Klebs and Tomassi-Crudelli; viz., examination
of the air and water in malarial localities, and inoculation experi-
ments in rabbits.

“ The bacillus was constantly found in the air, and the rabbits
inoculated presented symptoms and pathological lesions believed
to be identical with those of malarial-feverin man. I cannot at the
present time go into a critical discussion of the evidence presented,
but would refer you to an experimental research made by myself in
New Orleans in the summer of 1880, in which I repeated the ex-
periments of Klebs and Tomassi-Crudelli, and arrived at the fol-
lowing general conclusions : —

“ Among the organisms found upon the surface of swamp mud,
near New Orleans, in the gutters within the city limits, are some
which closely resemble, and perhaps are identical with, the bacillus
malariz of Klebs and Tomassi-Crudelli; but there is no satis-
factory evidence that these, or any of the other bacterial organisms
found in such situations, when injected beneath the skin of a rabbit,
give rise to a malarial-fever corresponding with the ordinary palu-
dal fevers to which man is subject.

“T see noreason to modify the opinion here expressed, notwith-
standing the indorsement given by Cohn to the results announced
by Schiavuzzi. These researches relating to organisms in the air
and water, and experiments on rabbits, especially in the hands of
an inexperienced investigator, cannot have any great scientific
value in the elucidation of an etiological problem. The sources
of possible error are too numerous, and the method is in any case
inadequate for the complete solution of the problem. It is essential
that the infectious agent, especially one so easily demonstrated as
this bacillus, be proved to be present in the blood or tissues of
malarial-fever patients ; and in the absence of such proof, experi-
ments on rabbits, and researches in the air of malarial regions, can
have but little weight. It may well be that in the swampy districts
of warm climates, where malarial-fevers prevail, one or more species
of bacillus will be found in the air or in the water, which are absent
from the drier air and running waters of non-malarious uplands ;
but this is simply an interesting fact in natural history, relating to
the distribution of organisms of this class, and by itself cannot be
accorded any value in a consideration of the important question of
etiology. The method of research pursued by Laveran, by Marchia-
fava and Celli, by Councilman and by Osler, is the true one, and
none of these gentlemen have encountered the bacillus of Klebs
and Tomassi-Crudelli in their extended researches. On the other
hand, they are in accord as to the presence in the blood of a
flagellate organism, and of certain spherical and crescentic bodies,
which are believed to represent different stages in the life-history
of this infusorium.”

The address, taken as a whole, is one of the best which has ever
been delivered before the association, and will doubtless excite
great interest among sanitarians. We shall take occasion to refer
hereafter to some of the recommendations made by Dr. Sternberg.

THE THEOSOPHICAL MOVEMENT IN INDIA.

ERNST VON WEBER prints in Ueber Land und Meer an inter-
esting paper on the theosophists of India, and accompanies it with
the illustration which is reproduced on p.262. He calls attention to
the fact that students of Vévkerpsychologze cannot fail to be im-
pressed by India’s awakening from her long intellectual sleep.
To-day the new and fresh intellectual life may be observed from
the Himalayas to Ceylon, and from the Indus to the fruitful lands
of Burmah. This movement owes as much to the spread of the
English language as to any other one cause. It is now customary
for all educated Hindus to be able to speak the English language
fluently, and the British Government has helped this on by its sys-
tem of schools.

The Aryan Hindu is naturally of a metaphysical and speculative
turn of mind, and it is therefore not to be wondered at that the

No. 251

[VoL X.

SCIENCE.

262

*aaYSSUISUB PY VOUT

UvAadv

LV SXadHLoud

“updo [e19Uay

‘ta]vaqpeay “AA

TIVOIHGOSOUHL AHL AO SSHAYDNOD ITVONNV

“TeSuvysiuvATg
MOTO TPU}OD! “Peay eqans

“AIqa MW "ACH

*zadoop “yA,

NOVEMBER 25, 1887. |

newly aroused intellectual activity should have found expression in
the so-called theosophical movement. The first impulse to this
idealistic development did not come, however, from India itself, but
from abroad. It came from the land which, as the writer cynically
expresses it, is the most unfruitful soil for idealistic fruit, the United
States of America. It was in New York, aslong ago as 1875, that
Colonel Olcott laid the corner-stone of the theosophical structure
which was soon to exercise so wide-spread an influence. The prin-
ciples of the cosmopolitan brotherhood of theosophists, which in
certain particulars resemble those of the Freemasons or those of the
Jewish sect of the Essenes, rapidly spread through other countries.
The indefatigable apostle of the new society did his work so well,
that the number of associate societies, which in 1879 was only two,
increased in 1883 to ninety-three, and in 1886 to one hundred and
thirty-two. Of this last number, 107 are in India, 8 in Europe, 15
in America, 1 in Africa, and 1 in Australia. The headquarters and
administrative centre of all these societies is Adyar, a rural capital in
Madras, where Colonel Olcott dwells, on the banks of a river in a
paradise of palms and flowers. His villa also serves as the gather-
ing-place where each year in Christmas week more or fewer of the
delegates of the theosophical societies throughout India assemble
in convention. Colonel Olcott has managed to imbue thousands of
men of the higher circles of India with his ideas. He is greatly
honored by his fellow-theosophists, and is loved as a father and
benefactor. His occasional journeys through the country are
like triumphal processions, and his influence over the cultured
classes of the Hindus throughout India is extraordinary.

Some idea of the objects and aims of the Theosophical Society
may be gathered from the following selection from the declaration
of principles adopted at the annual assembly of the delegates in
1886. The objects of the society are there set forth as, (1) to lay
the foundation for a universal brotherhood of man, without distinc-
tion of race, religion, or color; (2) to promote the study of the
Aryan and other Oriental literatures, religions, and sciences ; (3) to
investigate hitherto unknown natural forces and the psychical
powers of man (which is pursued by a part of the brotherhood
only). The brotherhood invites to membership all those who love
their fellow-men, and who believe the divisions following from dif-
ferences of race, religion, and color, to be an evil; all students and
scholars ; all earnest seekers after truth; all philosophers in the
East as well as in the West; all those who love India and desire
the return of its former spiritual greatness; and, finally, all those
who are striving after permanent good, and not mere passing
pleasures and the interests of a wordly life, and who are ready to
make personal sacrifices in order to attain to knowledge of the
highest good. The society professes no special religion, and has
in no wise the character of a sect, for it includes followers of all
religions. It demands of all its members only such tolerance of
other faiths as each man asks for his own. The society interferes
in no way with the Indian laws of caste, nor with any other social
customs and usages.

To exemplify these tolerant principles, the assembly hall at
Adyar contains life-size portraits of the representatives and found-
ers of all the great religions. One of the matters in which the
society is busily engaged is the collecting of rare books of the old
Indian literature, written often on palm-leaves. The value of this
‘Sanserit library increases daily, and it is hoped to make it in time
the most complete in the world.

The illustration on p. 262 shows the delegates who assembled at
Adyar in 1885. The beautiful Indian costumes, with their bright
colors, and the high turbans often sewn with gold and silver
threads, made the group peculiarly artistic and pleasing. Among
the distinguished theosophists shown are President Olcott, Prince
Harisingshee, the English general Morgan, the theosophist evan-
gelist Leadbeater (formerly an Anglican clergyman), the Sanscrit
scholar Bavanishangar, Mr. Cooper Oakley, an American and the
editor of the 7eosophzst, and the Hindu philosopher Subba Rad.
At these assemblies it is noticed by visitors that the delegates con-
fine themselves to a vegetarian diet, and do not partake of any
liquor whatsoever. The assembly closed with a brilliant garden-
party, at which old Sanscrit songs were sung to Indian music, and
the delegates were sprinkled with rose-water and bedecked with
flowers.

SCIENCE,

263

BOOK -REVIEWS.
The Education of Man. By FREIDRICH FROEBEL. Tr. by W..
N. HAILMANN. New York, Appleton. 12°.

Elementary Psychology and Education. By J. BALDWIN.
York, Appleton. 12°,

Dr. HARRIS is issuing the volumes of his International Educa-
tion Series with great promptness. Volume V. in the series is
Froebel’s classic work translated. Since this was written, now
more than sixty years ago, its readers have increased in number
year by year. Inaccessibility and bad translations have hindered
its progress in this country, but both these obstacles are now over-
come, and no teacher who is imbued with the spirit of his profes-
sion will fail to have the ‘Education of Man’ by him for careful
study and constantreference. We believe that posterity will award
to Froebel the highest place among modern educators. He was
infinitely more practical than the authors of ‘ Emile’ and ‘ Levana,’
and infinitely more profound and philosophical than Pestalozzi.
The spirit of the kindergarten is Froebel’s greatest achievement :
the kindergarten itself is a mere detail. The spirit runs through
all sound education, and the great manual-training movement, now
the distinguishing feature of our educational development, is but
another manifestation of it. The present translation of Froebel is
a very good one, and leaves little to be desired. We regret that
the translator has disfigured the text and broken the continuity by
interjecting observations of his own,

Volume VI. is Baldwin’s ‘Elementary Psychology and Educa-
tion.’ Of it we cannot conscientiously say any thing complimen-
tary, and we confess our surprise at its finding a place in the series,
We do not object to making psychology as elementary as one
pleases, but we do object to making it pre-Kantian. The present
author may have heard of the Arztzk der reznen Vernunft, but he
certainly has never read it. We agree most heartily with Dr. Har-
ris, that a teacher should know something of psychology, and we
would go considerably further than he does in emphasizing the fact,
But we submit that to teach psychology that is positively wrong
and unscientific under the pretence that it is elementary, is worse
than to teach nothing of it atall. Illustrations of loose statement
and positive error abound in this book. We read, for example, of
“ sense-perception, conscious perception, and noumenal perception.”
The ‘enduring self,’ matter, mind, space, causation, right, beauty,
and the like, are included under ‘noumena.’ We are told also that
“choice is uncaused cause,” and the fact that “literature represents
man as free and responsible ”’ is cited as an argument for freedom
of the will. It is not profitable to multiply the evidences of the
author's incapacity to write the book. It is in no respect worthy
of a place in this series.

New

NOTES AND NEWS.

ANOTHER important acquisition to our store of knowledge has
recently been made, says (Vature. Glucose, commonly called
grape-sugar, has been artificially prepared by Drs. Emil Fischer
and Julius Tafel in the chemical laboratory of the University of
Wiirzburg. This happy achievement, which is announced in the
number of the Berzchte just received, is one which has long been
looked forward to, and which cannot fail to give deep satisfaction
in chemical circles all over the world. As is generally the case in
syntheses of this description, not only has the sugar itself been
actually prepared, but, what is at least quite as important, consid-
erable light has been thrown upon that much-discussed question,
the constitution of sugars. A most remarkable, and yet only to be
expected, attribute of this artificial sugar is that it is found to be
entirely incapable of rotating a beam of polarized light. Asis well
known, there are several naturally occurring varieties of glucose, all
of which may be expressed by the same empirical constitution, and
all possessing the power of rotating the plane of polarization: dex~
trose, or grape-sugar, the best-known of these varieties, as its name
implies, deviates the plane of polarization to the right, as do several
other less important varieties; while levulose, or fruit-sugar, ro-
tates the plane to the left. But in artificially preparing a glucose
there is just as much tendency for one kind to be formed as an-
other, and the probability is that both dextro and levo are simulta-
neously formed, and thus neutralize each other, producing a totally
inactive mixture. It may be that, as in the case of racemic acid,

264

the two kinds are formed side by side, and neutralize each other in
the solution; or it may even be, that, as is the case with truly inac-
tive tartaric acid, there is a true neutralization within the molecule
itself, Which of these hypotheses is correct is a question for fur-
ther work to decide.

—Gaillard’s ‘French for Young Folks’ (New York, Werner) is
constructed on a sound pedagogic plan, has numerous and good
illustrations, and is nicely gotten up. It devotes special attention
to the subject of French pronunciation, and gives some very prac-
tical directions on the subject. We only question whether the intro-
ductory chapters do not employ too many long words to be easily
comprehended by the beginner.

— The Fish Commission steamer ‘ Albatross’ left Washington
last week on her extended cruise to the Pacific coast. The voyage
was arranged by the late Professor Baird, and is now being carried
out by his successor, Mr. G. Brown Goode, the new commissioner.
The ‘ Albatross’ has been engaged for several years in the deep-
sea work of the Fish Commission in the Atlantic, the results ob-
tained being of great economic and scientific value. There has
come a demand from the Pacific coast for similar work there, where
the fisheries have not been developed to any extent, little being
known of the number or character of the food-fishes of that coast.
To hunt out the food-fishes, locate their habitats, and to develop
the resources of the great Pacific, is the task before the ‘ Albatross,’
which is thoroughly equipped for the scientific work. The scien-
tific party aboard will consist of Prof. Leslie A. Lee of Bowdoin, who
goes as chief naturalist ; Mr. Thomas Lee, who has been engaged
on the deep-sea work of the commission for a long time; and Mr.
C. H. Townsend, who has just returned from an expedition to
Central America. The ‘ Albatross’ is officered and manned by
the navy, and is under the command of Lieut.-Com. Zera L. Tan-
ner. The ‘ Albatross’ will reach California next May. Stops will
be made ez route, which will delay the voyage somewhat, the time
being occupied by the scientists in making shore-collections. The
ship goes out without any definite period fixed as to its return, but
it is not probable the vessel will be seen in the Atlantic again for
three or four years. It is deemed important to carry on investiga-
tions not only in the latitude of California, but off the Alaska coast.
The ship will touch frequently at ports on the Pacific coast, and be
in constant communication with the Fish Commission. It is prob-
able, too, that from time to time other scientists will join her for
the purpose of doing special work. The scientific outfit of the
vessel is declared by those who have examined it to be the best
that was ever put aboard a vessel.

—Dr. Cohn, oculist at Breslau, has invented a new apparatus for
testing the eyesight of children. This is a matter which is scarcely
attended to at all in this country. Periodical tests have shown that
there is much more small mischief in the eyes of young students
than is generally supposed, which can easily be stopped if the neces-
sary precautions are taken in time. Dr. Cohn’s invention con-
sists of a white board twenty-five centimetres square, to which are
fastened six rows of hooks, shaped thus =, one centimetre square.
He who possesses a normal eyesight will be able to tell, at a dis-
tance of six metres in ordinary daylight, in which direction — up-
wards, downwards, to the right, or to the left — the hooks, which
are painted of different colors, are turned. Pupils who cannot do
this injure their eyes by constantly looking at the blackboard. The
same board may be used to determine whether the ordinary day-
light is sufficient for the rooms. As soon as the teacher cannot
distinguish the direction of the hooks at a distance of six metres
without straining his eyes, the gas ought to be lighted at once.

—In the December number of Harfer’s is an article by Mr.
George F. Kunz, the gem expert of Messrs. Tiffany & Co., on the
precious stones of America. Mr. Kunz makes it clear that the al-
leged recent discoveries of diamonds in Kentucky amounts to noth-
ing ; but sapphires, spinels, crystals of topaz, beryls, garnets the
finest in the world, tourmalines, amethysts, and turquoises are ob-
tained in several localities in considerable profusion. The striking
feature of the article is the lithographed page of these gems, contain-
ing a diamond, Manchester, Va. ; sapphire, Helena, Montana; sap-
phire, Franklin, N.C. ; topaz, Crystal Peak, Col.; emerald, Stony
Point, N.C. ; aquamarine, Stoneham, Me.; beryl (golden-colored),

SCIENCE:

[Voie SING v2 51

Litchfield, Conn.; garnets (cut and natural), Gallup, N.M.; peridot,
Gallup, N.M.; tourmaline, Mount Mica, Paris, Me.; tourmaline
(green with red centre), Paris, Me.; lithia emerald (hiddenite),
Stony Point, N.C.; amethyst, Stow, Me.; cairngorm stone, Pike’s
Peak, Col. ; turquoise, Nevada; arrow-points of obsidian, carnelian,
and agatized wood, Oregon; pearl, Paterson, N.J. To produce
this plate, fully twenty impressions were required, and we believe
this was the first colored plate ever published in Harfer's.

—At a special meeting of the Board of Regents of the Smith-

sonian Institution held Nov. 18, Prof. S. P. Langley was elected
secretary of the institution, to succeed the late Prof. S. F. Baird.

LEDIERSEwO; DEE DIOR

*.* The attention of scientific men ts called tothe advantages of the correspondence
columns of SCIENCE for placing promptly on record brief preliminary notices of
thetr investigations. Twenty copies of the number containing his communication
will be furnished free to any correspondent on request.

The editor will be glad to publish any queries consonant with the character of
the journal.

Correspondents are requested to be as brief as possible.
tn all cases required as proof of good faith.

Cheyenne.

The writer's name is

IN the note published in your issue of Noy. 11,1 made an un-
accountable mistake, and wish to correct it. The Cheyennes are
the ‘cut-arms,’ and in the sign-language are designated by drawing
the hand, in imitation of a knife, across the biceps of the arm. It
is the Pawnees whose sign is wolf-ears made with thumb and fore-
finger.

Your types say /oo-yah erroneously for Joo-hah.

The French trappers told mea legend of the Sioux to the effect that
once in holding a council they were disturbed by the noisy play of
the children, and moved over to another creek to hold the council
in quiet. In attempting to overtake their parents, the children took
the back track on which the village had lately come in. They kept
going, and the boys and girls grew up and intermarried, and be-
came another tribe, the Cheyennes. The Sioux call themselves
Lah-ko-ta (the ¢ strongly dental), not Dakota, meaning ‘ cut-
throats,’ the sign being the open hand drawn edgewise across the
throat. GEO. WILSON.

Lexington, Mo., Nov. 15.

The ‘Act of God’ and the Railway-Company.
RETURNING from New York Nov. 12, the train was crowded
with passengers. At the forward end of the car was a large stove
full of red-hot coals. This stove had no guard, nor hardly any
thing to prevent it from upsetting. A slight collision would have
emptied the contents of the stove, and probably several people
would have been burned to death. Would Mr. Appleton Morgan

consider such an affair an ‘ Act of God’? ASAPH HALL.
Washington, Noy. 19.

Changes in Indian Languages.

I OBSERVE a blunder I made in attributing the word guzsguzs
(<a hog’) to Schoolcraft instead of Zeisberger, in my communica-
tion on changes in Indian languages, in Sczence of Nov. 18. The
Onondagas now pronounce it £weaskweas, almost in four syllables,
and with a resemblance to a hog’s melodious note. I mayadd that
the Onondagas divide ‘ Hiawatha,’ a name of their own, differently
from many white people. It is pronounced by them ‘ Hi-a-wat-ha.’
‘Onondaga’ they sound like the whites in talking with them, but
retain the old broad sound among themselves.

W. M. BEAUCHAMP.
Baldwinsville, N.Y., Nov. 19.

Natural History Notes on Alaska.

IN my ‘ Natural History Notes on Alaska,’ forming Part III. of
the ‘ Report of the Cruise of the Steamer “ Corwin” in the Arctic
Ocean in 1885,’ which has recently been published as Ex. Doc. 153,
Forty-ninth Congress, second session, I notice two plates of fishes,
and one plate representing a plant. I desire to say that I never
saw these plates before they appeared in this sketch, nor can I ex-
plain how they came to be inserted in it. I disclaim all responsi-
bility for the plates, and I do not indorse them. They are inaccu-
rate, and absurd pictures of what they purport to represent.

CuHas, H.. TOWNSEND.
Washington, Nov. 20.

Se LIN GCE

FRIDAY, DECEMBER 2, 1887.

A VERY SIGNIFICANT DISCUSSION on the subject of manual
training took place at the late annual meeting of the school super-
intendents of New York State, held at Rochester. A year or two
ago such a discussion would not have been possible. In the first
place, the superintendents themselves would not have been able to
discuss the subject intelligently at that time, nor would it have been
regarded as at all a pressing matter. The events of the last twelve
months have, however, conspired to bring about the result which
made possible the discussion to which we refer. The continued
agitation of the subject by those best qualified to discuss it, the in-
crease of the intelligent literature on manual training, and the mag-
nificent display of the results of this training which was made at
the meeting of the National Educational Association at Chicago
jast July, have all had their effect. They have brought light to
many minds where darkness was before, and produced a conviction
even among the most determined scoffers at the movement. The
discussion at Rochester was introduced by Superintendent Cole of
Albany, in which city a very gratifying progress has been made
toward the introduction of manual training, and whose school board
has a most intelligent idea of the whole subject. The superintend-
ents of Newburg, Dunkirk, Ogdensburg, Binghamton, Owego, and
Elmira seem to have been to a greater or less extent in favor of
manual training. The event of the discussion, however, must have
been the remarks of State Superintendent Draper, for it was re-
served for him to advocate manual training in the public schools,
not because it is disciplinary, but because of its eventual utility.
The attitude of the State superintendent only shows to what remark-
able extremes the complete misunderstanding of this subject may
be carried. We have frequently heard manual training opposed
because of its utility, and because it was claimed that it has no
disciplinary value; but Mr. Draper is the first person who has dis-
cussed the subject in public who has sufficiently misunderstood the
whole subject to advocate it on that ground. He is reported as
saying that he had no sympathy with the argument advanced, that
industrial training should be carried on for its intellectual force.
He claimed that the present school system of the State contained all
the intellectual force that was needed. We fancy that the mere
statement of these two propositions is sufficient comment upon
them. It is hardly necessary to undertake to controvert them
seriously. It would be interesting to know, however, whether Mr.
Draper proposes to carry his theory into practice, and to eliminate
from the school course all subjects which have a disciplinary value,
and to replace them with those which have a practical utility. If
so, the coming generation in New York may not know how to
read, write, cipher, draw, and parse, but it certainly will be able
to manage a steam-engine, lay transatlantic cables, and drive
horse-cars.

THE DANGER TO COMMERCE from derelict vessels on the high
seas cannot be too often pointed out, as it is not generally realized
how long they are liable to keep afloat and pursue their aimless
course, —a constant menace to navigation, and the cause, no doubt,
of the loss of many a fine vessél by collision. This is well illus-
trated by the following instances, taken from the records of the
Hydrographic Office, and it should be remembered that no such
record can be complete. Long intervals often elapse without any
report being made, and the track during this time, assumed as a
straight line on the chart, must generally fall short of the actual

distance travelled. The ship ‘ Ada Iredale’ (voyage from Andros-
san, Scotland, to San Francisco) was burned in the South Pacific
through the spontaneous combustion of the coal with which she
was laden. She was abandoned Oct. 15, 1876, latitude 13° 30
south, longitude 107° 45’ west, about 1,900 miles east from the
Marquesas Islands. The crew of twenty-three men reached the
Marquesas group in twenty-five days, with the loss of one man and
one of their three boats. The still burning wreck of the vessel
drifted slowly to the westward in the south equatorial current, to
Tahiti, Society Islands, 2,423 miles distant, and was towed into
port by the French cruiser ‘Seignelay,’ June 9, 1877. She con-
tinued to burn till May, 1878, when she was repaired, and as a
handsome iron bark, named ‘ Annie Johnston,’ has done good ser-
vice in the trade with China. The drift was 2,423 miles, and the
time nearly eight months. The ship ‘ Oriflamme’ was abandoned,
on fire, in June, 1881, latitude 18° 12’ south, longitute 92° 42’ west.
On Oct. 24 the steamship ‘Iron Gate’ (voyage from Adelaide, Aus-
tralia, to Portland, Ore.) passed in latitude 13°27’ south, longitude
125° 19’ west, an iron ship, apparently burned, with no masts
standing, and sent a lifeboat alongside, but could see no signs of
life. On Feb. 12, 1882, the hull of an iron ship laden with coal and
iron drifted ashore on the island of Raroia, one of the Paumotu or
Low Archipelago (latitude 15° 55’ south, longitude 142° 12’ west).
She was visited by some natives, who brought away a small bell
upon which was engraved “‘ Oriflamme,’ 1865.” She was com-
pletely burned out, and in a short time sank in deep water. The
drift was 2,840 miles, and the time about eight months. The aban-
doned schooner ‘ Twenty-one Friends’ was first reported March
24, 1885, about 160 miles off the capes of Chesapeake Bay, latitude
36° 45’ north, longitude 72° 40’ west. The Gulf Stream carried
her in a direction about east-north-east, to latitude 51° 30’ north,
longitude 27° 4o' west (2,130 miles in four months and a half).
Thence she drifted in an easterly and south-easterly direction to-
wards the northern coast of Spain, and was last reported Dec. 4 of
the same year in latitude 45° north, longitude 8° west (about 130
miles north-north-east from Cape Finisterre). She was reported,
in all, twenty-two times, which in itself shows how especially dan-
gerous such a derelict is on the North Atlantic. The drift was
3,525 miles, and the time eight months and ten days.

A CONSPIRACY OF SILENCE.

THERE is an interesting discussion going on in England at
present between Professor Huxley, Professor Bonney, and the Duke
of Argyll. The question at issue is whether the influence of a great
name has become so great in science as to interfere with free dis-
cussion in questions of a purely scientific nature. It seems that
some seven or eight years ago Mr. Murray offered an explanation
of the origin and structure of coral reefs which controverted some
of the opinions expressed by Darwin. It is maintained by one side
that this theory of Murray’s has not been given free publication and
discussion, and that, while it is intrinsically more probable than the
older theory of Darwin, it is still held in obscurity by a conspiracy
of silence on the part of the leading men of Great Britain. To
make clear the present state of the controversy, we publish below
the articles published in (Va¢ure by Professor Bonney and the Duke
of Argyll.

[CommunicaTION FROM PRoFEssoR Bonney.]

THE Duke of Argyll is eminent as a statesman, and has won
distinction as a man of science. The mental qualities, however,
which lead to success in these capacities are widely different ; nay,
in the opinion of some, are almost oppugnant. To the man of

266

science, truth is as a ‘a pearl of great price,’ to buy which he is
ready to part with every thing previously obtained: to the states-
man, success is the one thing needful, for the sake of which hardly
any sacrifice appears too great. This is not said wholly as a re-
proach: it “takes all sorts to make a world.” The ardor of the
follower of the ideal, which may degenerate into recklessness, is
wholesomely checked and beneficially qualified by the calmness of
one who has to deal practically with mankind, and has learned by
experience that evolution rather than catastrophic change is the law
of life, and is in accordance with the analogy of nature. Still the
two types of mind are commonly diverse, and the Duke of Argyll
has recently afforded a remarkable instance of the extreme difficulty
of combining in one person these apparently opposite characters.

This instance is afforded by an article which appeared in the
Nineteenth Century for September last, and is commented on by
Professor Huxley inthe number for the present month. The duke's
article bears the somewhat imposing title of ‘The Great Lesson.’
Professor Huxley’s reply forms a part of an article entitled ‘Science
and the Bishops.’ As the charge which the duke has in effect
brought against men of science is a very grave one, and as some of
the readers of Vature may not be constant readers of the chief
monthly magazines, a brief notice of both accusation and reply may
not be without interest.

The moral of ‘The Great Lesson’ is practically, ‘Beware of
idolatry.’ The scientific world, in the duke’s opinion, has been for
some time bowing down to the idol of Darwin and the theory of
evolution, which is the fundamental dogma of that cult. Like a
prophet of old, he raises a warning voice, and points out that the
feet of the golden image are in part composed of clay. In the
North has been hewn the stone which shall shatter those fragile
supports and lay the idol prone in the dust. To abandon meta-
phor, this is the state of the case. Among the results of Mr. Dar-
win’s labors during the voyage of the ‘Beagle’ in the years 1831-
36, when he accumulated that vast store of observations which
served as a foundation for ‘The Origin of Species by Means of
Natural Selection,’ was a theory of the formation of coral reefs and
atolls, set forth in a volume entitled ‘On the Structure and Dis-
tribution of Coral Reefs’ (published in 1842 and republished in
1874). Of this theory the duke gives an outline in ‘The Great
Lesson,’ executing this portion of his task so fully in the spirit of a
just judge, and with so little of the craft of an advocate, as to leave
nothing to be desired for lucidity of statement and cogency of rea-
soning. In fact, in the judge’s summing-up, the case for the de-
fence appears stronger than that for the prosecution; so much so,
indeed, as to suggest that the difference is due to their inherent
merits rather than to the mode of statement. Howefer, be that as
it may, the duke thus pronounces judgment, and in so doing passes
a censure, stinging if deserved, on the men of science of this gener-
ation.

These are his words (Vemeteenth Century, p. 305) : —

“ Mr. Murray’s new explanation of the structure and origin of
coral reefs and islands was communicated to the Royal Society of
Edinburgh in 1880, and supported with such a weight of fact and
such a close texture of reasoning, that no serious reply has ever
been attempted. At the same time, the reluctance to admit such
an error in the great idol of the scientific world, the necessity of
suddenly disbelieving all that had been believed and repeated in
every form for upwards of forty years, of cancelling what had been
taught to the young of more than a whole generation, has led to a
slow and sulky acquiescence, rather than to that joy which every
true votary of science ought to feel in the discovery of a new truth,
and —not less —in the exposure of a long-accepted error.”

Again : —

“ The overthrow of Darwin’s speculation is only beginning to be
known. It has been whispered for some time. The cherished
dogma has been dropping very slowly out of sight. Can it be pos-
sible that Darwin was wrong? Must we indeed give up all that
we have been accepting and teaching for more than a generation?
Reluctantly, almost sulkily, and with a grudging silence so far as
public discussion is concerned, the ugly possibility has been con-
templated as too disagreeable to be much talked about; the evi-
dence old and new has been weighed again and again, and the ob-
viously inclining balance has been looked at askance many times.

SCIEN CE.

[Won XX. “INowes2

But, despite all averted looks, I apprehend it has settled to its place
forever, and Darwin’s theory of the coral islands must be relegated
to the category of the many hypotheses which have indeed helped
science for a time, by promoting and provoking further research,
but which in themselves have now finally kicked the beam.”

This, then, is ‘ The Great Lesson :’—

“Tt is that Darwin’s theory isa dream. It is not only unsound
but is in many respects the reverse of the truth. With all his con-
scientiousness, with all his caution, with all his powers of observa
tion, Darwin in these matters fell into errors as profound as the
abysses of the Pacific.”

This is plain speaking. In words which admit of no ambiguity
the duke declares that Darwin was wrong; that Mr. Murray set
him right ; and that the latter, instead of receiving a welcome, was
met with a virtual conspiracy of silence on the part of scientific
men. Of these three assertions, — which are to a considerable ex-
tent independent one of another, —the first and second are ob-
viously very much matters of opinion, because, if the third state-
ment be true, it is clear that no verdict has been delivered by ex—
perts, but that, like an Irish jury, they have professed themselves.
unable to agree, because the facts were so strong that even they
could not bring in a verdict of acquittal. The third assertion, how-
ever, is much more a matter of fact, not difficult to substantiate,
and at any rate, if incorrect, easy to disprove.

In regard, then, to the first and second, it may suffice to follow
Professor Huxley's example, and be content with expressing a
doubt as to the accuracy of the duke’s assertions. In the face of
statements so definite as those quoted above, this may seem pre-
sumptuous. They read almost like the sentence of an ecclesiastical
court, which it is heresy to question. Caledonza locuta est, causa
jinzta est, seems to be their tone; and if one whisper a doubt, one
expects the familiar conclusion, Avathema szt/ But men of
science, as all the world knows, are sceptics. Have they yet
awakened and rubbed their eyes, and said of Darwin’s theory,
“Lo! it was a dream”? What says Professor Huxley? He as-
serts that Darwin's confidence in the accuracy of his own theory
was not seriously shaken, as the duke alleges, and quotes as con-
clusive evidence a letter from Professor Judd, who gives the results
of a conversation which he had with Darwin no long time before
the death of the latter. Professor Huxley also intimates that to
himself, though tolerably familiar with coral reefs, the new theory
is at first sight so far from fascinating, that, until he can devote a
considerable time to a re-examination of the whole subject, he must
be content to remain “in a condition of suspended judgment,” and
that Professor Dana, ‘an authority of the first rank on such sub-
jects,” has pronounced against the new hypothesis in explicit terms.
Undoubtedly, Mr. Murray has obtained distinguished converts, but
with such differences of opinion among those best qualified to
judge, it is certainly going further than is warranted by facts to in-
sinuate, if not to assert, that he has convinced the scientific public.
Very probably more thana minority of them are in my own position,
which perhaps I may be pardoned for stating. They, like myself,
have never had the opportunity of forming an independent judg-
ment upon the matter, but they see some very serious difficulties —
difficulties which are of a general rather than of a special nature —
in the new explanation. At present these difficulties do not appear
to them to have been overcome; so that, while admitting that Mr__
Murray’s hypothesis may sometimes apply, and that Darwin either
may have expressed himself a little too sweepingly, or may have
been understood so to do, the theory of the latter is capable of a
more general application, and presents less serious general difficul-
ties, than does that of Mr. Murray.

We come, then, to the third charge, which is the most serious
one, because it affects the morality of scientific men; and many of
them, like myself, are old-fashioned enough to resent being called a
knave more than being called a fool. Has Mr. Murray been met
by ‘a conspiracy of silence’? The duke, in asserting this, must
have been strangely oblivious of, or, among the cares of a states-
man, have failed to keep himself az courant with, the literature of
geology. Professor Huxley denies the assertion, and adduces in
his support an answer to an inquiry which he had addressed to
Professor Judd. The facts according to these authorities are
briefly as follows: Mr. Murray's views were duly published, as the

DecemBER 2, 1887.]

‘duke himself states ; they were favorably regarded by the authori-
ties at the ‘Challenger’ office; they were expounded, one might
almost say advocated, on more than one occasion by Dr. A. Geikie.
His text-book in the year 1882 not only took the leading place, as
it still does, but also was then the only complete text-book on a
large scale for this country. On p. 468 is a full statement of Mr,
Murray’s views. They have also been referred to at more or less
length in many treatises and journals, both English and foreign.
As Professor Judd remarks, “If this be a ‘conspiracy of silence,’
where, alas! can the geological speculator seek for fame?”

Thus the main charge is disproved. One special item in it, how-
ever, as peculiarly offensive, yet calls for a brief notice. The duke
states, “ Mr. John Murray was strongly advised against the pub-
lication of his views in derogation of Darwin’s long-accepted theory
of the coral islands, and was actually induced to delay for two
years.” Now, if these words do not amount to an imputation of
bad faith on the part of Mr. Murray’s adviser, and are not by insin-
uation extended to others, I do not know what they mean, or why
they have been penned. But, as Professor Huxley observes,
“‘whether such advice were wise or foolish, just or immoral, de-
pends entirely on the motive of the person who gave it.” The re-
mark is perfectly just. Who, I would ask, who is old enough to
look back on a quarter of a century of work, has not occasionally
said, “ Wait a bit,” to some younger friend, who has come in the
first incandescence of a brilliant hypothesis? I have so sinned.
Sometimes I have been wrong and my young friend right, but not
always. Still, I know myself fallible. As the late master of Trinity
said, “ We are all fallible mortals, even the youngest amongst us.”
Yet Iam not ashamed. I will not put on sackcloth and ashes, and
I mean to sin again. Perhaps it is because I am naturally unim-
aginative ; perhaps I am come to the season of autumn leaves ; but I
have always looked askance at a brilliant hypothesis, and now dis-
trust it more than ever. I have lived long enough to see many a
one go up whoosh! like a sky-rocket, all stars and sparks, and
come down exploded, all stick and stink. .

So the ‘great lesson’ has been read, and the scientific world, I
fear, has not repented or rent its clothes. But it has heard, and
not without indignation. The Duke of Argyll has made grave
charges against the honor and good faith of men of science, and
they ought to be grateful to Professor Huxley for his prompt re-
pulse of the attack and his stern rebuke of the assailant. As it
seems to me, reply is only possible on one point; namely, the
special charge mentioned above. Hence the Duke of Argyll is
bound to establish or to withdraw the accusation.

Men of science are justly sensitive on this question. Doubtless
they are no more exempt from human frailty than any other class of
men: we all fail sometimes — nay, too often—to live up to our
ideal standard ; still, such shortcomings are not common, and any
thing like a ‘conspiracy of silence’ or any kind of scientific ‘ boy-
cotting’ is a thing so improbable as to bealmost incredible. Each
man must testify according to his own experience : so in conclusion,
though it may be deemed impertinent, I will express my own. I
have lived now for not a few years among the rank and file of
scientific men on more intimate terms than can have been possible
for the Duke of Argyll, owing to his exalted station and his high
occupations of state, and Iam bound to declare, that, in a fairly
wide experience, I have never found men as a class less self-seek-
ing or more earnest in their desire for truth, more steadfast as
friends, or more generous as antagonists. T. G. BONNEY.

[ComMuNICATION FROM THE DUKE oF ARGYLL.]

THE article which I contributed to the September number of
the Wineteenth Ceutury, on the coral islands of the Pacific, has
done what I intended it to do. It has called wide attention to the
influence of mere authority in establishing erroneous theories and
in retarding the progress of scientific truth. The vehement assault
made upon it in the current number of the same review by Profes-
sor Huxley, and the article by Professor Bonney in this journal, are
to me gratifying evidences of success. But both of these writers
are entirely wrong in the interpretation they put on a few expres-
sions in my paper. They interpret these expressions as conveying
imputations on the probity and honor of scientific men in the habit-
ual and wilful suppression or discouragement of what they know

SCIENCE.

267

to be truth. But there is nothing to justify this interpretation. I
have made no such accusation, and, if any one else were to make
it, I should join the two indignant professors in repudiating it.
Scientific men are not only as good as other men in this way, but
generally a great deal better. Professor Huxley has been irritated
by some ‘anonymous sermon,’ which I have not seen, and for
which I am not responsible. He admits that it is in this anony-
mous production that the ‘slanders’ against scientific men have
taken the peculiarly offensive form; but he maintains that this un-
known writer has been ‘inspired’ by my article on coral islands.
On the strength of this assumption, — which may be true, for aught
I know, — he goes on through some seven pages to dissect certain
parts of my paper, and to read into it a great deal that is due to
his own excitement, and to nothing else.

I have no difficulty in expressing clearly, and without any cir-
cumlocution, exactly what I do mean, and what I have intended to
say. Professor Bonney interprets it very fairly, in abstract, when
he says that the moral of my paper is, ‘ Beware of idolatry.’ Some
theory, hypothesis, or doctrine is propounded by a great man. It
becomes established, partly perhaps by certain inherent elements
of strength, or, at all events, of attractiveness. But soon it stands
unassailable and unassailed upon the vast foundations of general
acceptance and admitted authority. It becomes what Professor
Huxley on a celebrated occasion, and with at least a momentary
insight, called ‘a creed.’ The effect of such a position is tremen-
dous. Some men who see cause to doubt are daunted. They keep
silence. Others are prevented from even thinking on the subject.
A few who do think, and who do doubt, and who do venture to ex-
press their doubts, are discouraged and discountenanced. A great
many others take refuge in a suspended judgment, even after the
production of evidence, which, in the absence of a ‘creed’ and of
authority, would have been deemed conclusive. In all this there
may be, and in general there is, nothing worse than timidity on the
part of those who are the laggards, or the opponents, in some great
advance. It is more difficult for some men than for others to face
a prevalent opinion or an accepted doctrine. It is all very well to
say, as Professor Bonney says, that ‘‘to the man of science truth is
a pearl of great price, to buy which he is ready to part with every
thing previously obtained.” But scientific men are human. They
are, 1 admit, immensely superior to the politicians, especially just
now. But they have their failings; and every one who knows the
history of science must be able to call to mind not one instance
only, but many instances, in which the progress of knowledge has
been delayed for long periods of time by the powerful and repres-
sive influences of authority, exerted in one or other of many ways.

My contention is, that Darwin’s theory on the origin of the coral
islands is a case in point. I believed in it, or accepted it, for many
years, as others did. Professor Bonney admits that I have de-
scribed it not only fairly, but as forcibly as if I were still its advo-
cate. This is exactly what I tried to do. I now hold that it has
been disproved, and has been replaced by another theory quite as
grand, and more in harmony with other natural laws which are of
universal operation, but have been only lately recognized. I affirm,
further, that this new theory or explanation has been received with
the timidity, the discouragement, the discountenance, and the ob-
struction which are characteristic in such cases. That Dr. Geikie
has supported it, is most creditable to him. But his voice is not
enough to disprove the truth of my contention. That Professor
Huxley and Professor Bonney should be unable to make up their
minds upon such evidence as has been before us now for several
years, is, in my opinion, a strong confirmation of the law which is
operating upon them. There are some discoveries in science —
some explanations of curious phenomena—which are self-lumi-
nous. They shine with their own light. The moment they are
suggested, with a few cardinal and certain facts to illustrate them,
they are their own proof. Every thing that turns up speaks in
support of them. My conviction is that such is the character of
Mr. Murray’s theory of the coral-island formations in the Pacific.

Professor Huxley challenges me to re-affirm with better proof the
fact I allege, — that Mr. Murray has met with discouragement. I
respond at once to that challenge. I have seen the letter from Sir
Wyville Thomson in which that naturalist urged and almost in-
sisted that Mr. Murray should withdraw the reading of his papers

268

February, 1877. No special reason was assigned, but the terms
of the letter indicate clearly that Sir Wyville dreaded some injury
to the scientific reputation of the body of naturalists of whom he
was the chief, and for whom, as connected with the ‘Challenger ’
expedition, he was in some degree responsible. He had not him-
‘self at that time, I believe, fully accepted the new doctrine. But
that would have been no sufficient reason for discouraging free dis-
cussion, if it were indeed as free as it ought to be. In my article I
understated the delay which was thus occasioned. Three years,
not two, elapsed before Mr. Murray was at perfect liberty to advo-
cate his views in the proper place, before a scientific body.

But the challenge of Professor Huxley has brought to my knowl-
edge a new bit of circumstantial evidence to the same effect, which
is highly significant. Among the investigators of the Pacific corals,
no man has done better work than Dr. Guppy, surgeon of H.M.S.
‘Lark.’ Since my article was written, his volumes on the Solomon
Group of islands have been published. The geological volume is
an admirable memoir. It is the record of observations as patient,
detailed, and conscientious as have ever been made on the great
geological problem which is at issue. After his return home, he
was advised by Mr. Murray to offer a paper on his researches to the
Geological Society of London. He did so in the spring of 1885.
But his paper was refused, much to Dr. Guppy’s disappointment.
It was not orthodox. His facts effectually removed some difficul-
ties in the way of Mr. Murray’s theory, — facts which in more than
a corresponding degree were adverse to the theory of Darwin. As
a consequence the Royal Society of Edinburgh has had the honor
of receiving and publishing Dr. Guppy’s most interesting memoir.
As a Scotchman, I am proud of this contrast. I make no accusa-
tion of wilful unfairness against the authorities of the Geological
Society of London, of which my critic Professor Bonney was, I be-
lieve, at that time the president. They did not consciously dis-
courage truth. On the contrary, they probably smelt heresy. But
if their minds had been free from this prepossession, —if they had
been alive to the breadth and sweep of the questions at issue, and
open to receive with welcome the crucial evidence bearing upon
them which is contained in Dr. Guppy’s paper, — the rejection of it
would have been impossible.

As regards Darwin’s own state of mind upon the subject, I can
only say that my information was as good as that in the possession
of Professor Huxley. I am not struck by the perfect candor of his
reference to Darwin’s letter to Professor Semper in October, 1879.
If he had quoted the very next sentence to that which he does
quote, a very different impression would have been left on the
reader's mind. But I attach no importance to this point. I prefer
to believe that Darwin’s mind was open to conviction, and to hope
that others will follow his example. ARGYLL.

THE AMERICAN PUBLIC HEALTH ASSOCIATION.*

Dr. CARL HORSCH of Dover, N.H., read a paper entitled ‘ The
Necessity of Burial-Permits and Inspection of Bodies of Deceased
Persons. He based this necessity on the following grounds. (1)
It is the best safeguard against the possibility of premature burial,
and also that the apparently dead.may not be placed in cold rooms
or on ice, and frozen to death. (2) Cases of concealed contagious
and infectious diseases will be detected, and an epidemic may be
averted. (3) Murder and suicide may be detected; and if crema-
tion, the surest method for the destruction of disease-germs, is gen-
erally established, there will be also less danger that the body of a
murdered person will be cremated, and the crime concealed. (4)
Life-insurance frauds may be prevented. (5) Where the fear exists
of being buried alive, the family physician can overcome that fear
by that examination, and his assurance that the loved one is dead.
(6) In order to sign a certificate for a burial-permit legally, that in-
spection gives the most important evidence. If a physician gives
his signature to such a certificate without seeing the body, he may
be brought in the following unpleasant position: he is called into
court, the certificate is laid before him, the questions asked, “ Did
you sign that certificate ?*” Answer, “Yes.” ‘ Did you know that
the person was dead?” The only answer could be, “The under-

1 Continued from Sczence of Nov. 25.

SCIENCE.

on the subject from the Royal Society of Edinburgh. This was intaker or somebody informed me.”

[Vou. X. No, 252

Then the culprit is brought be-—
fore him, and the fact revealed that he indirectly aided a criminal.

Dr. Rohé, secretary of the committee on disinfectants, presented
the report of that committee. The following conclusions were
drawn from their work :—

I. The temperature required to destroy the vitality of pathogenic
organisms varies with the different organisms.

2. In the absence of spores the limits of variation are about 10°
C, (18° F.)

3. A temperature of 56° C. (132.8° F.) is fatal to the bacillus of
anthrax, the bacillus of typhoid-fever, the bacillus of glanders, the
spirillum of Asiatic cholera, the erysipelas coccus, the virus of vac-
cinia, of rinderpest, of sheep-pox, and probably of several other
infectious diseases.

4. A temperature of 62° C. (143.6° F.) is fatal to all of the patho-
genic and non-pathogenic organisms tested, in the absence of
spores (with the single exception of sarczza lutea, which in one
experiment grew after exposure to this temperature).

5. A temperature of 100° C. (212° F.), maintained for five min—
utes, destroys the spores of all pathogenic organisms which have
been tested.

6. It is probable that some of the bacilli which are destroyed by
a temperature of 60° C. form endogenous spores, which are also:
destroyed at this temperature.

Dr. John S. Billings, U.S.A., read a paper on some forms of
tables of vital statistics, with special reference to the needs of the
health-officer.

A resolution was adopted to appoint a committee, with Dr.
Sternberg as its chairman, to study experimentally the methods and
effects of protective inoculation against infectious diseases.

Dr. Horsch presented a paper entitled ‘Inspection of Animals.
required for Food,’ in which he recommended the inspection of ani-
mals by competent persons before they are slaughtered, and a
thorough examination of their viscera afterwards.

Dr. Azel Ames, jun., of Chicago presented a paper on the meat-
food supply of the nation, and its future. In it he gave statistics of
the resources of the country with reference to its animal food, and’
showed, that, as the population increased and the grazing country
diminished, these resources were proportionately declining. He
criticised adversely the policy of the general government in dealing
with the public lands. Legislation was asked of Congress for the
suppression of pleuro-pneumonia, and for the taking of a thorough:
census of the cattle of the country and their products. Dr. Ames
denounced the tax imposed by the oleomargarine act as being un—
just to the poor, and wrong in principle, and demanded its repeal.

A paper by Dr. J. H. Rauch, secretary of the State Board of
Health of Illinois, dealing with the subject of cholera and quaran-
tine, excited great interest. Dr. Rauch described the defects of the
quarantine at the port of New York, and said that in the West its
results were looked upon with distrust. He asked that the entire
quarantine system of the United States should be placed under
national control. In the discussion which followed, Dr. A. N. Bell
criticised most severely the arrangements of the New York quaran-
tine, but expressed the opinion that the measures which had been
applied by the health-officer in the management of the passengers.
of the steamers ‘ Alesia’ and ‘Britannia’ had been successful.

The paper of Dr. Dickinson was discussed by a number of the
members of the society. Dr. Eliza M. Mosher remarked that the
point of greatest interest in connection with the subject was whether
the loose corset injured the health of the wearer, and, if so, what
could be offered as a substitute. Most girls, according to her experi-
ence, wore them sufficiently tight to limit respiratory movements. It
was difficult to measure the injury done, since the chest was already
crippled, and its expansion was below its possibilities. In addition
to the thinning of the abdominal wall described by Dr. Dickinson,
there was atrophy of the entire surface covered by the corset, with
lack of development of muscular tissues due to restricted move-
ment. This was apparent by the often-repeated remark of ladies
that they could not sit up straight without their corsets. It was
often observed how useless were the arms of most young ladies for
any manual labor, even though their lower extremities were capable
of long-continued muscular movement. A well-developed nipple
was almost an unknown thing with a woman or girl who had worn.

DECEMBER 2, 1887. |

a corset for any length of time. The respiratory murmur below
the fifth rib was very faint compared with the sounds above, and
these ladies found it impossible, as a rule, to move the strength
‘spirometer’ the fraction of a degree. From these facts, she con-
cluded that the capacity of the chest had become limited, and the
muscular fibre of the diaphragm impaired, by the unyielding walls
of the corset-prison. Not very great compression upon the line of
attachment of the diaphragm was required to interfere with its
contractile power. Loss of strength in the abdominal muscles and
diaphragm prepared the way for a slow and painful, if not instru-
mental, labor. Loss of respiratory capacity implied increase in
rapidity of the heart’s movements: this meant weakening of its
force, and thus came the cold extremities and easily chilled skin so
common in those who wore corsets. She had not been able to de-
monstrate the displacement of the liver spoken of, because doubt-
less the examinations were made with the corset off. Witha large
experience in treating girls suffering from displacements of the
uterus (mainly retroversion and downward crowding), little could
be done to relieve the sufferers until the corset was laid aside.
Active muscular movements and corsets were not compatible,
and unless the corset and its equivalent, tight clothing, were
discarded, she was not sure but girls were better off without
active physical exercise. What could we substitute for the corset,
which, without producing pressure or displacement, would give
the trim and tidy look so much admired by the sterner sex? A
good dressmaker had more to do with this matter than the corset
had. An underwaist without bones, with skirts snugly fastened
to it; a dress-waist well shaped, containing a few bones, and
loose enough to permit a long breath without limitation, — would
make nine girls out of ten look just as trim and tidy as a corseted
waist. If something more supporting was demanded, the ‘ Ferris
waist’ was all that was required. Without steels in front, and
without bones, if worn loosely with the skirts attached, it might
be accounted healthful. Dr. R. G. Eccles spoke of the comfort
women derived from the corset. He had noticed that the more
intelligent the women, the more they were corset-wearers. Dr.
Jerome Walker spoke of the evils of corset-wearing, among
which he mentioned the shallow breathing as particularly objec-
tionable. Dr. William Anderson thought if we educated the
women to despise the corset, it would disappear. The president
remarked that we did not use our chests to their full capacity ex-
cept when making unusual exertion. A woman under ordinary
circumstances had her breathing but little restricted. If the servant
laced herself in her ordinary working costume as she did on Sun-
day, she would suffer severely.

MENTAL SCIENCE.
The Mechanism of Attention.

M. TH. RIBOT, whose useful compilations on English and Ger-
man psychological movements, on heredity, on the diseases of mem-
ory, of will, and of personality, have gained for him a world-wide
reputation, contributes to the Revue Phzlosophzgue (of which he is
the editor) an interesting and convenient account of the mechanism
of the processes of attention.

Attention is not so simple a phenomenon as popular analysis
makes it. It is not always one and the same state, but varies in-
definitely in intensity, from the momentary attention necessary to
brush off a fly, to the most complete absorption. This intensity is
gained either by the accumulative results of a long-continued strain,
or by an intense focusing of all energies to one group of sensations.
Regarding attention thus as a state varying in degree, we are ready
to make a distinction on which M. Ribot lays much stress; namely,
between spontaneous and voluntary attention. Our notion of at-
tention is derived almost exclusively from the latter. Attention we
regard as a purposive effort. But this is really not the typical nor
the most important aspect of attention. The former has been much
neglected, and to it M. Ribot devotes his first article. The distinc-
tion between the two forms of attention is easily made clear. The
first is a natural impulse to let such things make an impression
upon us as excite our interest. The second is an artificial product
of civilization, that we have learned at school. To look at flowers
and be impressed by them is a result of spontaneous attention; to

!

SCIENCE,

269

dissect and minutely analyze their parts, of voluntary attention.
The main characteristic of attention, and especially of its typical,
natural form, now under discussion, is its motor aspect. As
Maudsley puts it, whoever is incapable of controlling his muscles
is incapable of controlling his attention. All attention, how-
ever, is, in a sense, an abnormal, exceptional state. Such
states cannot last long, because they are opposed to the ever-
present change that is the law of life. We see this abnormality
when attention is carried to the extreme, producing clouding of
the mind, a mental void, or vertigo. Their analogy with fixed
ideas and states of ecstasy is also close. The normal process of
‘cerebrising’ consists of an ever-changing focusing on one set of
impressions, then a diffusion of these to give place to another group,
and so on in an ever-successive lighting and skipping; the laws of
association governing the order and connection of the several foci.
Normal thought is thus a ‘ poly-ideism,’ while attention is a ‘mono-
ideism.’ It is a focus concentrating into itself all the available
energies ; it is the substitution of unity for diversity. Attention is
further characterized by being directed towards an end: it is not
a subjective process, but is adaptive, convergent. If a definition
be desirable, we might define attention as “ an intellectual mono-
ideism with spontaneous or artificial adaptation of the individual.”

Spontaneous attention is well seen in children and in the higher
animals. Its cause is universally an emzotzonal state. It is only
the sensation-exciting, the interesting, the agreeable or disagree-
able, that is naturally attended to. An animal incapable of feeling
pleasure and pain would by that fact be incapable of attention.
This general fact is exemplified in the biographies of great men,
showing in some cases how the hero of the tale is for a long while
restless, listless, until he falls upon the occupation that interests
him, enthuses him, and brings out his genius by focusing his atten-
tion to a single line of thought. This passion for work has its ana-
logue in other less desirable passions. The drunkard’s attention is
critically intense in the presence of the glass. But these intense
states cannot endure long, and they only last as long as they do
because a small amount of flitting really goes on, continuous as
the state seems to us.

The physical conditions and accompaniments of attention are of
great importance. The general law under which they are to be
considered is that there is no thought without a tendency to its ex-
pression in motor terms. Thought is initial action. The motor
expressions of attention are visible in three directions, — the vaso-
motor phenomena, the respiratory phenomena, and the expressional
phenomena. The first is recognized in the increase of blood in
certain parts of the brain under mental work, as ascertained by
direct experiments of Mosso and others. The slightest mental
strain produces this result. The second is characteristic of the
attitude of attention. The breath is slowed or held; sighs occur ;
and all this suggests the abnormality of the process. The third
kind of movements are psychologically the most interesting; and
many theories, notably that of Darwin, have been proposed to ex-
plain their origin. Duchenne experimented by applying electrical
stimuli to muscles of etherized patients, and noting the facial ex-
pression thus aroused. He regarded the contraction of a single
muscle as characteristic of one emotion. The frontal muscle fur-
rowing the forehead is the muscle of attention; the orbiculars con-
tracting the orbital space and lowering the eyelid of reflection, and
soon. The motor expressions will be different according as the
attention is directed inwards (reflection, contemplation) or outwards,
as is usually the case. The motor expressions of the two are op-
posed : in the one the forehead is lowered, in the other the eyelid is
lowered, the mouth closed as in effort, and so on. Darwin calls
the attitude of reflection that of difficult vision turned inwards. The
general attitude of attention is immobility, a tendency to unity of
action, to convergence. It is a concentration of both motions and
thoughts ; and the degree of attention is inversely to the amount of
motion. An attentive audience is quiet: an inattentive one shuffles
and moves in a hundred ways.

To this rule there is an apparent exception in the common habit
of walking, beating, etc., when deep in thought. This is to be ac-
counted for by the increase of brain-activity thus brought about.
Such movements are dynamogenic, re-enforcing, arousing the motor
centres, and thus adding to the available energy.

270

The accompanying motions of attention are not merely signs of
the former, but are essential, constituent factors of it. Suppress
the expressive movements, and you suppress the whole process.
The fundamental 7éZe of these movements is to keep up and re-
enforce the attentive consciousness. The brain in attention acts
both as an intellectual and as a motor organ.

A special form of spontaneous attention is surprise, and it is sim-
ply an exaggerated form of it. Descartes has given a good ac-
count of it, recognizing (though in other terms) the increase of
nervous influxes that accompany it, the direction of energy towards
muscles, and the typical facial expression. Surprise is a shock
caused by the unexpected, a sort of emotional hiatus. This lasts
until the object that caused the surprise is apperceived, recognized,
adapted to. In surprise one feels much, and knows little ; and the
intense emotion rivets the attention. On the physical side the
symptoms are exaggerated, the eyelids are widely opened,’ perhaps
the mouth too.

The utility of attention in the struggle for lifeis evident. The mo-
ment differentiation is clear, one part of the organism concentrates
the energy and arouses arudimentary attention. Riccardi places the
origin of attention in the arthropods. The attention gets centred
upon the most perfect sense in the animal, whichever that is. In
the higher animals attention is marked, and in all such as play,
showing thereby a surplus of energy, there is also an attention to ob-
jects not directly useful in the struggle for existence. This is the
higher form of attention, equally evident in children.

In a succeeding article Professor Ribot will give a similar ex-
position of voluntary attention.

PRIMITIVE MIND. — An interesting glimpse into the thought
processes of unenlightened peoples is furnished by the following
observation of the Ainos (a degenerate Japanese tribe distinguished
for their long growth of hair) during the recent eclipse. The Aino
is said not to be imaginative, but, on being shown the eclipse
through a smoked glass, he cried out that the sun was fainting
away and dying. A silence ensued, broken by an exclamation of
fear that the sun would dry up. They brought water and sprinkled
it upwards towards the sun, crying, “ O god, we revive thee! O god,
we revive thee!” Some squirted the water upwards with their
mouths, some threw it up with their hands. A group of women
and girls sat down with their heads between their knees, as if ex-
pecting some calamity. Their tradition with regard to the eclipse
says that “ when my father was a child, he heard his old grand-
father say that his grandfather saw a total eclipse of the sun. The
earth became quite dark, and shadows could not beseen ; the birds
went to roost, and the dogs began to howl. The black, dead sun
shot out tongues of fire and lightning from its sides, and the stars
shone brightly. Then the sun began to return to life, and the faces
of the people wore an aspect of death; and, as the sun gradually
came to life, these men began to liveagain.” Otherwise they have
no theory of the eclipse, but their personification of the phenomenon
is evident.

EXPLORATION AND TRAVEL.
Wissmann’s Expedition across Africa.

LIEUTENANT WISSMANN, whose journeys in the Kongo basin
won him a well deserved fame as a traveller and energetic explorer,
has just returned from his second expedition across the African
continent. In the spring of 1886 he started from Angola for Lu-
luaburg, a station of the Kongo Association which is situated in the
empire of the Muata Yambo. Since Pogge’s first journey in 1876,
there have been six Muata Yambos, and, as at the death of the
ruler the capital is changed, six capitals of the empire. We gave a
report of Wissmann’s expedition from Luluaburg to the Baluba
country in No. 228 of Sczence. On his return from this excursion,
he found one building of the station, which contained twenty-one
rooms, burnt down, and the commander sick with malaria. His
description of the station is of some interest. It consists of a num-
ber of houses for the officers of the station, barracks, a house for
twelve women, stables, and a prison. The latter is called the

cold house,’ as it is not permitted to have a fire in it during the

1 That this is instinctive is borne out by the fact that it occurs in those blind from
irth, and in whom opening the e es could not thus increase sensation.

L

SCLENCE:

[Vour. KX. No.:252

night, —a regulation which is much feared by the negroes, the
nights being very cool on the high plateau. The stationis protected
by a stockade, and a glaczs three hundred feet in width. The
roads in the neighborhood of the station are fifteen feet wide, and
kept very clean. About two thousand feet from the station a vil-
lage of the Bassilange is situated.

Wissmann’s expedition, when starting from Luluaburg in
October, 1886, consisted of eighty-nine persons, among whom were
an interpreter, a Zanzibari, and thirteen Angola men, while the rest
were Bassilange. The number of people, however, rapidly increased
to about one thousand, as the Lukugesha, the empress of the Muata
Yambo Empire, and the son of Kalamba, with their followers, joined
the expedition. When they arrived on the Lubi, an excursion into
the country of the Benangongo, who live on the right bank of the
river, was made. Then the river was followed to its confluence
with the Sankuru, which was crossed below the mouth of the Lubi.
It was originally Wissmann’s intention to explore the country north-
east of this river, which forms the watershed between the Sankuru
and the Kongo. He found, however, the state of affairs in the
country east of the Sankuru so much changed since the time when
he visited it first, four years ago, that he was unable to carry out his
purpose. While formerly the cowry was the principal object of bar-
ter, now guns and ammunition were in demand. The slave-trade is
flourishing. The chiefs of the Bassonge and Bassenge, frequently
supported by slave-traders, make raids upon the neighboring tribes
in order to procure slaves. These are bartered to the traders for
guns and ammunition, or for ivory to the Bakuba, who buy the
women for their household, the men for being sacrificed at burials.
A short time before Wissmann’s arrival a chief of the Bakuba had
died, and two hundred slaves were killed when he was buried.
Travelling eastward, Wissmann crossed a vast belt of primeval
forest which is inhabited by Batetela and the dwarfish Watwa.
The woods are almost void of large animals, and even birds are
scarce. On the Lukassi the-expedition was attacked by the natives,
who killed several persons with their poisoned arrows. But after
a lively skirmish the natives were driven off, and, when the expedi-
tion reached their villages, they were found deserted. During the
month of January, 1887, Wissmann crossed a territory depopulated
by war and small-pox. The country of the industrious Beneki,
whom he visited on his first journey, he found entirely devastated.
Famine and small-pox prevailed among the members of the expe-
dition, and it was not until the Lomami was crossed that matters
became more favorable. At last Nyangwe was reached. Wiss-
mann found the Arabs of this place in astate of great excitement
on account of the events at Stanley Falls. Nevertheless he suc-
ceeded in returning the Bassilange to their native country, but
Wissmann himself had to give up the hope of further explorations,
and proceeded on the well-known route to the Tanganyika and by
way of Lake Nyassa to Zanzibar, whence he returned to Europe.

The results of this expedition are not so important as it was
hoped they would be when Wissmann started from Luluaburg.
Anexpedition from the Kongo southward, or from Luluaburg north-
eastward, is what is wanted to give us a more thorough knowledge
of the hydrography of Central Africa.

THE HUDSON BAY EXPEDITION OF 1886.— Lieutenant Gor-
don’s report of the last expedition of the ‘ Alert’ to Hudson Bay
makes it clear that all hopes of establishing a trading-route from
England to the west coast of Hudson Bay must be abandoned.
The navigation of Hudson Strait proved extremely dangerous on
account of the prevailing fogs, the strong tides, and the narrowness
of the waters, but principally on account of the heavy ice of Fox
Basin, which frequently obstructs the western entrance of the
Strait, and of the faulty working of the compass. Besides, vessels
navigating these waters must be fortified for meeting the ice, and
must not be larger than two thousand tons, because a larger ship
would be somewhat unwieldy, could not make such good way
through the loose ice, and, being unable to turn so sharply, she
would get many a heavy blow, that a smaller ship would escape.
Gordon supposes that navigation can be opened between the Ist
and toth of July, and that the closing of the season would be about
the first week of October. These results of Lieutenant Gordon’s
experience agree exactly with what was maintained by all experts
when the scheme was first propounded; but at that time their

DeceMBEk 2, 1887.]|

views were disregarded in Canada. Although the principal object
-of the expedition has failed, its scientific results are considerable.
These consist chiefly of the meteorological and hydrographical ob-
servations of two years, from the fall of 1884 to the fall of 1886,
cand other occasional remarks of the observers. The results of
these observations are laid down in a meteorological atlas of Hud-
son Bay, but it seems to us that the available material is too scanty
for constructing the monthly isothermal lines over so vast a terri-
tory. The report is accompanied by a plan of Churchill Harbor
and York Roads (at the mouth of Nelson River), from the surveys
of Lieutenant Gordon. The general track-chart is not very elabo-
rate, and in many parts not up to date. Several changes in the
coast-line appear, for which no evidence is given; e.g., the division
‘of the mainisland of Southampton into two parts. The publication
of several charts and plans based on surveys of the expedition is
promised at the end of the report.

ETHNOLOGY.
The Eskimo Tribes.

Dr. RINK, who has for a long time maintained the American
origin of the Eskimo, has published the results of his long-con-
tinued observations and studies in the eleventh volume of the AZed-
delsery an Grénland. Fortunately the volume, the publication of
which has long been wished for by all students of Arctic America,
is written in English, and thus made accessible to a wide circle
of readers. Rink has propounded his views on the origin of the
Eskimo in several papers, which were published in various journals.
He believes that they descended from the interior of Alaska to the
coast of the Arctic Ocean, and gradually spread eastward. His
arguments, which form the first part of his book, are based on a
‘comparison of the implements, dress and ornaments, domestic in-
-dustry and arts, religion and folk-lore, and sociology of the Eskimo
of the various parts of Arctic America. The results of this investi-
gation are, that the hunting-implements are the more highly devel-
oped the farther we proceed eastward, that the style of dress and
ihabitations show a gradual approach to the Greenland style from
west to east, and that the western tribes occupy a higher stage of
social organization than the eastern ones. Among the customs
which prevail among the western tribes, but gradually disappear
eastward, he mentions the use of the labret, and the religious
festivals in which masks are used.

Conclusions drawn from these facts are necessarily open to dis-
cussion, as these phenomena may be explained in different ways.
I think attention should be called to the fact that all the peculiari-
ties of the western tribes may be derived from an influence of the
North-west American culture. We have the extensive use of
masks, the peculiar wooden hat of the southern ‘Eskimo tribes, the
use of the labret, the festivals in which property is given away, the
houses built on the same plan as Indian houses, the sweat-bath,
the existence of slavery, and the high development of the art
of carving. The existence of so many similar or identical phenom-
ena in two neighboring nations cannot be fortuitous. Besides, I
have to mention that the folk-lore of the tribes of British Columbia
refers to the Eskimo country and to the Eskimo as plainly as pos-
sible. The legends of tribes of Vancouver Island speak of a
‘country in the far west, where the sea is always covered with ice,
where the nights are very long, and where people live who use skin
boats. Considering the great uniformity of Eskimo life all over
Arctic America, I cannot but conclude that here an immediate in-
fluence of the North-west Americans upon the Eskimo had place,
and that west of the Mackenzie we do not find the latter in their
primitive state ofculture. It is not impossible, that, in consequence
of this influence, inventions and customs which were originally Es-
kimo (as the kayak) became more neglected than they are in other
regions where foreign influences were not so strong.

But we have to consider several other points. The use of masks
representing mythical beings, which is peculiar to North-west
American tribes, is not entirely wanting in the east. The giving-
away of property at certain festivals, and the use of the singing-
house, with a central fire and places for the people all around the
wall, may also be traced as far as Davis Strait. It may even be
that the plan of the stone or snow houge of the central Eskimo,

SCIENCE:

271

with elevated platforms on three sides of a central floor, must be
traced back to a square house similar to that of the western tribes.

I will not enter into a discussion of the similarity between Eski-
mo and Indian folk-lore, as we are not sufficiently informed about
this subject. The few traces which are common to both are so
wide-spread that they cannot be considered proof of an early con-
nection between these nations. The story of the dog who was
the ancestor of certain tribes, the transformation of chips of
wood into salmon, the idea that animals are men clothed in the
skins of animals, stories of children who were deserted by their
relatives and became rich and powerful by the help of spirits, are
common to the folk-lore of North-west America and the Eskimo.

It seems that the only safe conclusions one can arrive at are the
following. The Eskimo reached an ice-covered ocean as one body.
At that time their religious ideas and implements were similar to
what we observe at the present time. They knew the kayak and
the sledge, they lived probably in large square houses, they had
domesticated the dog, and it is not improbable that they had cer-
tain festivals which referred to the seasons or to the sun. Besides
this, we are inclined to suppose that they were fishermen, and were
accustomed to the use of boats before they came to the Arctic Sea.
These conclusions seem to point out that the Eskimo spread from
the great rivers of central Arctic America.

In order to make satisfactory progress in the puzzling problem of
the origin of the Eskimo, the influence of the North-west Americans
upon their Arctic neighbors, and the origin of the folk-lore of the
Tinne and western Eskimo, must be studied. In our present state
of knowledge, we can consider the American origin of the Eskimo
only a theory, which is more probable than an immigration from
Asia.

The principal part of Rink’s book is an excellent treatise on the
Eskimo grammar, and a comparative list of the independent stems of
the Eskimo dialects. The stems are arranged in alphabetic order,
and to each is added the dialect in whichit occurs. As the Green-
land dialect is by far the best known, it is made the basis of the
list, and all other dialects are referred to it. A discussion on the
modes of spelling applied by different writers and the probable
differences of dialects precedes the linguistic part. We believe that
the material for studying the phonetic laws of the Eskimo language
is large enough to allow a more thorough investigation, and we con-
sider the latter very desirable. Among the contents of the collection
of stems, we have to call particular attention to the Greenland
words occurring in traditions and in the sacred language of the
priests. These words, as well as those which I collected among
the central Eskimos, tend to show that many of the Alaskan stems
which are lost in the common language still exist in the sacred
language, and thus the most distant branches of the Eskimo stock
are linked closer together. Besides, Rink has shown that a number
of words that were considered exclusively western occur in certain
derivations among the eastern tribes. Among these I mention the
word sz (‘man’) of Alaska, which is found as swrose# in the east.
All recent researches tend to show that foreign influences upon the
language are very slight, and the difference of dialect is probably
entirely due to evolution.

The work of Dr. Rink will be highly appreciated by all ethnolo-
gists, and we have only to add the wish that the learned author
will publish the originals of his large collection of Eskimo tradi-
tions, which would be highly welcome to students of American
philology. F. BOAS.

BOOK-REVIEWS.

The Children of Silence ; or, The Story of the Deaf. By JOSEPH
A. SEISS. Philadelphia, Porter & Coates. 8°.

THE object of this book is to excite interest in behalf of the deaf and
dumb; and the means by which the author aims to do this is by
presenting statistics of the numbers thus afflicted, the sad condition
in which the deprivation leaves them, and an account of what has
been done for their relief. Judged by the lenient standards which
one must apply when considering it as a benevolent enterprise, the
work is quite successfully done, and throughout urges the reader to
a deeper knowledge of the subject than is here available. Re-
garded as a contribution to educational science, a less favorable

272

verdict must be passed. There is a lack of unity in the pages, and
a much more serious lack of appreciation of the best literature
(even that in English) on the subject. Books of this order have
been frequently published, and have done much good in arousing
the public to an intelligent interest in the lives of the defective
classes. In 1835 Mr. John R. Burnett published at Newark, N.J.,
his ‘ Tales of the Deaf and Dumb,’ which, though introducing much
irrelevant matter, shows a deeper insight into the mental condition
of the deaf-mute than the pages of Dr. Seiss; and, best of all, the
“Lost Senses,’ by Kitto, contains a highly valuable description of the
world, from the deaf man’s point of view, by an eminent and ob-
servant scholar. Neither of these sources seems to have been
utilized by the author. Again, in discussing intermarriage of near
relatives as a cause of deafness, the author leaves the most interest-
ing contribution to the subject (the memoir of Prof. Graham Bell)
with a merest notice, though this is one of the topics to which he
devotes most space.

The statistical element in the volume is as good as any thing we
have. There are about thirty-five thousand deaf-mutes in the
United States, but the defective method of taking the previous sta-
tistics makes it impossible to say whether deaf-mutism is on the
decrease or not. The most probable average ratio of deaf-mutes to
the population at large is 1 to 1,500, and this would give about a
million of deaf-mutes in the world; and yet (in the United States at
least, and probably elsewhere) the deaf form the smallest element
of the defective classes, including under this term the blind, deaf,
idiotic, and insane. Deafness, however, is a disease of childhood,
and the number of deaf persons of school age is double that of the
blind. It is interesting to add that there are about six deaf males
to five deaf females, and that the notion that the deaf have an im-
munity from other diseases of the sense-organs is not borne out.
Among the causes of deafness the intermarriage of near relatives is
regarded as a very serious one. While some authors look upon
such marriages as harmless when both parties are of a sound con-
stitution, yet the bulk of the evidence is decidedly opposed to such
unions, and finds in their offspring an undue proportion of nervous
defects of all kinds. That the intermarriage of deaf-mutes is a fer-
tile source of the increase of deaf-mutes is now generally admitted,
and some regard one-third of all cases as due to this origin. A
very large number of deaf-mutes are deaf from birth; and of those
who become deaf, a very large percentage lose their hearing in the
first, second, or third year of life. After this the liability to deaf-
ness rapidly decreases.

The relation between deafness and muteness is not a necessary
one: it is because the ear educates the vocal mechanism that deaf
persons become mute, not because their vocal organs are not cor-
rectly formed. This fact makes it possible to teach the deaf to
vocalize; and the system by which they are taught to read the
sounds on the lips of the speaker, while they answer by speaking
as well as they can, is already the most widely adopted, and seems
destined to supersede the finger-alphabet for general purposes.
The question whether the blind or the deaf suffer the worse afflic-
tion has often been asked; and it is not generally known that on
this point there is quite an agreement, among those most compe-
tent to judge, in favor of the blind. The deprivation of spoken
language is in our civilization the most serious deficiency. The un-
sympathetic nature of the deaf as contrasted with the cheerfulness of
the blind, as well as the fact that eminent blind persons are much
more numerous than eminent deaf ones, speak for blindness as the
less serious loss.

The history of the treatment of the deaf-mutes is an interesting
one. Among savages they were generally considered as monsters,
and put to death; for a long time they were held on a par with
idiots; and the idea of their being educable was regarded as pre-
posterous. When it is remembered that the first institute for their
instruction was founded in 1765, and that the demonstration not
long before of a deaf-mute’s capacity to read was regarded as a
miracle, one appreciates the truly modern mode of regarding them.
It is not many years ago that they were first regarded as having the
right of citizenship and other legal privileges.

While Dr. Seiss has thus put together in a shape likely to attract
readers some useful information, he has left the field free for a really
valuable and scientific treatise on deaf-mutism. Such a treatise

SCIENCE.

(Mor. 35. Neiwse

should contain a full account of the way in which they were re-
garded ‘by different peoples, a history of the methods used to edu-
cate them, a psychological analysis of their state as illustrated by
recent research, with special attention to their language, a good
account of the physiology and pathology of deafness, and as much
biographical matter as is really authentic. Such a general cyclo-
pzedia of deaf-mutism, and of blindness too, would be a great addi-
tion to the scientific appreciation of a most interesting portion of the
human species.

NOTES AND NEWS.

THE Aristotelian Society of London has issued a very attrac-
tive programme of its winter work. The president, Mr. S. H.
Hodgson, read a paper entitled ‘The Unseen World’ on Nov. 7,
and the subsequent meetings are to be devoted to the following
subjects : Noy. 21,‘ The Psychological Laboratory at Leipzig,’ Prof.
J. M. Catteli; Dec. 5, ‘Is Mind Synonymous with Consciousness ?’”
the president, Messrs. S. Alexander, Bernard Bosanquet, D. G.
Ritchie, and G. F. Stout; Dec. 19, ‘Philosophy during the Period of
the Renaissance, Miss C. E. Plumptre; Jan. 9, 1888, ‘ Darwinism
in Relation to Design,’ G. J. Romanes; Jan. 23, ‘ The Philosophical
Importance of a True Theory of Identity,’ Bernard Bosanquet ;
Feb. 6, ‘Wundt's Theory of Apperception,’ J. S. Mann; Feb. 20,
‘The Real Essence of Religion,’ Rev. E. P. Scrymgour; March 5,
short papers on various subjects; March 19, ‘ Attention, G. F.
Stout ; April 9, ‘ Heraclitus and his Philosophy,’ Dr. Clair J. Grece ;
April 23, ‘Conscience Theories,’ Pasco Daphne; May 7, ‘ What is
the Distinction between Desire and Will?’ Professor Bain, W. R.
Sorley, J. S. Mann; May 28, ‘The Demarcations and Definitions of
the Subject Sciences,’ Professor Bain.

— The second number of the Journal of Morphology willappear
about the first of January. The endeavor has been to produce,
without counting expense or effort, a journal that will stand in the
very first rank, and worthily represent its department of American
science. The first number has been out long enough to be passed
upon by the scientific public, and we think we may say without
hesitation that the verdict has been as favorable as could possibly
have been desired. Professor Mark of Harvard University writes,
“The first number of the Journal of Morphology, so anxiously
awaited by zodlogists, seems to me to surpass in every way the ex-
pectations even of those who have had the highest hopes for its
success. Evidently no pains have been spared by either editor or
publisher to make it first class. Every one inthe country interested
in zodlogy will be justly proud that at last we possess a zoological
magazine which is equal to the best European publications.”
As a specimen of foreign opinion, we may quote from Prof. J. B.
Carnoy of Louvain, Belgium: ‘This new review is splendid. I
congratulate you sincerely on having treated science as it deserves.”
Of course, the expense of such a publication is very great, and the
circulation necessarily limited ; but it is, of course, very desirable
that the journal should be self-supporting. All interested should
at once send in their subscriptions to Ginn & Co.

—At a meeting of the Engineers’ Club of St. Louis recently,
Professor Nipher exhibited a steam-pipe 5 feet long and 6 inches in
diameter, one end of which had been closed with a plain cast-iron
cap. The cap of the pipe had been blown off bodily, without being
broken up. The break extended around the cap just at the end of
the pipe which had been screwed into it. He explained that the
cap had been blown off by a ball from a Winchester rifle. This.
was done by standing the pipe vertically on its closed end, filling it
with water, and firing vertically down upon the water. The floor
upon which the pipe stood had yielded, and the cap of the pipe had
been forced down so quickly that the pipe could not follow, so
that the cap and pipe parted company. To force this cap off re-
quired a force of between 135,000 and 150,000 pounds, or about 70
tons. The ball was a 38-caliber ball, and the charge was the
ordinary one of 40 grains of F. G. Dupont rifle-powder. The pipe
weighed, exclusive of the cap, 96 pounds, and the cap weighed 9
pounds. The ball was greatly flattened by the water, but had not
battered against the bottom of the pipe. Other experiments.
showed that the ball was stopped by the water by the time it had
reached a depth of one foot.

DECEMBER 2, 1887. |

— The appointment of Dr. J. H. Kidder assistant commissioner
of fishand fisheries gives very general satisfaction. Dr. Kidder
has devoted the recent years of his life to the work of the commis-
sion, which has been most valuable in its results. He isa profound
student, and takes a deep interest in his work. The appointment
is commended on all sides, and, should Dr. Kidder consent to re-
main in the commission, the government will secure a most faithful
and efficient officer.

— A steam-catamaran, intended for whale and walrus hunting in
the Arctic regions, is being built at Montreal, Canada. It has two
steel cigar-shaped hulls, each sixty-five feet long, and built in two
compartments, one for water ballast, and the other to carry petro-
leum for fuel. The catamaran is constructed so that it may be
taken apart for transportation on the deck of a whaler.

— About a year ago the steamer ‘Gluckauf,’ the first vessel
specially constructed for the transportation of petroleum in bulk
across the Atlantic, was described in Sczence. A year’s trial has
convinced the leading oil-exporters that the new method of ship-
ment is far more economical and expeditious than the old system
of transportation in casks and cases, and as a result several tank
vessels are now being built in England to ply between New York
and the different European ports. The fact that Russia is shipping
petroleum in bulk from Batoum, on the Black Sea, direct to Europe
and India, has perhaps hastened the adoption of the bulk system
by the American exporters.

—Seventeen steel canoes form part of the equipment of the
Nicaragua Canal Company’s surveying parties, which sail from this
city in a few days. The canoes are built of galvanized steel one-
twentieth of an inch thick, and are intended for the transportation
of the different parties to their stations along the route of the canal,
as well as to facilitate the making of the surveys.

LETTERS TO THE EDITOR.

*." Correspondents are requested to be as briefias possible. The writer's name is
tn all cases required as proof of good faith.

Twenty copies of the number contatning his communication will be furnished
Sree to any correspondent on request.

Eskimo and the Indian.

THE subject of past relations between the Indian and the Eski-
mo must, in the light of recent investigations into the origin and
migrations of the latter, become intensely interesting. In the issue
of Sczence for Sept. 2, I gave an instance or two of what seemed to
be loan-words from the Indian to the Eskimo. These concerned
only the Central Eskimo. I have since succeeded in tracing these
words throughout the Eskimo territory from Labrador to Siberia,
as follows :—

Wabradorasesieticsnisay cle), wissisoseiienre tae niptar-pok (‘ foggy’)

Hudson Bay... a - Joona, che nepewoke (‘sunset’)

Churchill River..... ... . nipalukunz (* to rain’)

“ Ud) Heeiar aly . nipa (‘dead’)

. nipaluk (‘rain’)
SO EASES RSECOGG Roodee acre nipaluk-toark (‘to rain’)
Capoasnao veseseeee . «..22fta-toark (* moon’s quarter’)
.nipi-york (* sunset ’)
. 2ipi-yoark (‘to set,’ of stars)
. niptschuku (‘rain’)

Tschuakkak Island

Malemute........... doz ¢ .niptiga (‘night’)

Tchuktschi of Anadyr..............-.-5 ..2eptschuk (‘rain’)
With these I would compare the following : —

MMiamiirs Arete) j ar seco a aise ie sere ete nipanoue (‘ cold’)

. nepeh (* water’)

Penobscot. nipongi (‘night’)

os noe neebunst (‘moon’)
Ghippeway souwedehe sees sisnenisesecn ces nip (*I die’)

Kye esd acHeehenonnoono Gpaonccaeee nibz (‘water’)

(oS iy eotigunodockaueoncascos Bosbiogwoeosd niprw (‘dead’)
SOME Ia Rrmiacht BPN St? OSC epatorag SOG nipry (‘water’)
PAY or oxsieaml ease e hacronstete abaversie taystehal se toie ..nipa(* die’)

te) pneedcideseacnaodeodous . nipourtn (* death’)

Ce batar rae ean ntiner cohen ..nipan (‘sleep’)
Menape sy.) =~ 2 ..2ipaont (‘by night’)
Massachusetts... .. .nepaushadt \‘ moon’)

we 3 ....nippe (‘ water’)
Marraranset bac aaiccicneisivieajcicentenoe meses nippitchewo (‘ die’)
2° Reece . nip (‘ water’)

Oe -nepouckttowt (* kill”)
Minsi........ -nipahump (* moon’)

Fae erate n7bi(* water’)
Montauk. . -neepa (*moon’)
=) a3 . nip (* water’)
Mo hawe later etetciactsis siaais s|sisemniesies ie ceteicste .nup (‘die’)
oe

nc necice dtac pnbocooeea bens 1s... mtbey (* water’)

SCIENCE

273

and elsewhere throughout the great Algonkin stock of languages.
Now, if we adopt the view of Mr. Horatio Hale, that the primitive
seat of the Huron-Algonkin-Cherokee family was ‘ox the banks
of the St. Lawrence,” and that of Dr. Franz Boas, that the
primitive seat of the Eskimo race was “27 the west of the Hudson
Bay region,” have we not an explanation for the coincidences noted
above, and may we not expect more as research progresses? Dr.
Rink, in his ‘Eskimo Tales and Legends,’ tells us of a journey
made ages ago, by the Eskimo, in search of copper, to a southern
country and people. Now, the word for ‘copper’ in the Eskimo
dialects is Kanooyak (Hudson Bay), Kanznoyark (Mackenzie River),
Kannujak (Unalashka), Kanuja (Kadiak), Kanujak, Kennijak
(Tchugazz), and it is interesting to find that in Mohawk the word
for ‘copper’ is gwennzes, and in Iroquois kanadzza. Did the Es-
kimo borrow this word from the Iroquois, or did both borrow it
from a people with whom they both must have come into contact,
the copper-using mound-builder of the Ohio and Mississippi val-
leys?

The following short list of words common to the Eskimo and
more southern tribes of American aborigines may serve to strengthen
the views advanced by Dr. Boas and Mr. Hale :—

I NST eAeRacdoane se hasosteecaie tps | PEACE WO)

tnnyak (Unalashka, ‘ sky’)
) onna (Huron)

LO scdacsosnone scouentos oueaosas | hrownee (Hudson Bay)
( haenyeha (Huron)
Brother was rec-ciicencsscuaee anayva (Mackenzie River)

Jjattatege (Onondaga)
agituda (Aleutan)
. cheahhah (Huron)
hile cota rete tadee at { Parr pean es
( guennzes (Mohawk)
Copperas. shdstcmseeeciete clea ,; Aanadzia (lroquois)
) kannooyak (Hudson Bay)
{ exn7sera (Iroquois)
| eghnisera (Mohawk)
aghynak (Tchuktschi)
| annehak ( Unalashka)
lanyark (Mackenzie River)
Do 5S Zonnzs (Iroquois)
radbbecdvasoconoddapeoor aa sons lifcheneay/oarel (Mackenzie! River)
soluck (Mohawk)
LOG) aa sence uBeeOEee sesoSBd son 0 Neopecoe (Mackenzie River)
suntunke (Nottoway)
EB uryate mie tears tarc te mretsieter aisle tocsol avast ePaieretene ieee ae (Tchuktschi)
; aitaa (Huron)

anaga (Kadiak)

ata (Tuscarora)
atta (Tchuktschi)
| ayinga (Huron)
athanka (Tchuktschi)
gee (Tuscarora)
Wes peste se seseeeses =**** loonoktook (Hudson Bay, ‘to burn’)
( achita (Huron)
abaya tate Maret Be as A So ieee (Onondaga)

Bin zershnnpe meee eiselsteratee

etscheak (Kotzebue Sound)
akseit (Greenland, “hand ’)
Zoyanere (lroquois)
Goods sy qirennce etre DSBe ts ey ee ET eed
chotta (Iroquois)
eshet (Kadiak)
tshax (Aleutan)
noatsshera (Huron)
HWE sue ‘tho soo bean aceon snn homeo | aschRo (Tehuktschi)
if hechkwaa (Iroquois)
IeneaGoanoo cat poe dococoussanoSON Bapisorcn (iadnecis Ren)
eniha (Nottoway)
aneehah (Vuscarora)
innuk (Greenland)
innuk (Mackenzie River)
| aingahon (Huron)
oonguich (Mohawk)
angut (Greenland)
Langut (Hudson Bay)
anehah (Huron)
eanuh (Tuscarora)
ana (Nottoway
| anaha (Kadiak
annak (Unalashka)
lanaan (Aleutan)
yaunga (Huron)
INOS Gh cette deietevateletancicielehars's deaooas { chinga (‘Tchuktschi)
guechtaha (Seneca)
alas cise Re a a a eacec ere | Cook beschi)
; onyeiak (Seneca)

ouniyeghte (Mohawk)
annu, annzu (Tchuktschi)

ennasa (Lroquois)

pL Ong Eterm statalelalele siaterete cieis i=! (ol sions eee Hasan)
oxhey (Huron)
ukshiok (Kadiak) j
uktschuk (Tchuktschi)
ekening (Tuscarora)
aganak (Kadiak)
aganak (Tchuktschi)

I have also found resemblances no less remarkable between the
Eskimo and the Cherokee-Choctaw, as well as the Tlingit and the

274

languages of British Columbia. All this, it seems to me, argues in
favor of the indigenous, American origin of the Eskimo.

: A. F. CHAMBERLAIN.
University Cdllege, Toronto, Noy. 12.

If seems to me that the similarities of sound mentioned in Mr.
Chamberlain’s letter cannot be admitted as evidence of a connec-
tion between the Eskimo and other American languages. The
Eskimo words which he classes together are derivatives of entirely
different stems, that cannot be traced to a common root. In the
first table we recognize the following stems: zpza- (‘clear weath-
er’), zzpzg- (‘to stick’), 2zpag- (‘to vanish’). Under the heading
man the words zzuk and angud are classed together, although they
have no connection whatever. In comparing languages, compli-
‘cated derivatives must not be used, but the words must first be
traced to their stems, and the meaning of the stems must be ascer-
tained as well as the phonetic laws obtaining in the dialects of the
stock, before it is possible to make a satisfactory comparison.
Fortuitous coincidences of sound like those given by Chamberlain

‘cannot be admitted as evidence of relationship. F. Boas.
New York, Nov. 25.

Rate of Change in American Languages.

THE letter of Dr. Beauchamp (Sczence, Nov. 18) opens an inter-
esting linguistic question. My own impression is that the rapidity
of changes in unwritten, at least American, languages has been
overestimated.

Sagard, in the preface to his ‘ Dictionnaire de la Langue Hu-
ronne’ (Paris, 1632), asserted that the Huron was constantly chan-
ging, so that in a generation or two it would seem like a new lan-
guage. Two hundred years afterwards, Duponceau took Sagard’s
very imperfect book, tried it on some intelligent Hurons, and found
that “the language had not undergone any essential change”
(Wémotre sur les Langues del Amérigue du Nord, pp. 444, 445).

In 1578 Jean de Lery printed his ‘ Histoire d’un Voyage faict
en la terre du Bresil,’ containing long conversations in Tupi.
Three hundred years later, Dr. Nogueira republished these conver-
sations, with their equivalents in modern Tupi. The differences
are surprisingly small, — with proper allowances for dialect and
varying phonetics, scarcely more than between Lery’s French and
the French of to-day (see NOGUEIRA, Afontamentos sobre o
Abaneenga ou Lingua Geral dos Brasts, Rio de Janetro, 1876).

Ihave recently completed a comparison between the Alagiiilac
of Guatemala, which is the most southern dialect known of the
Nahuatl, by means of a vocabulary obtained in 1878, with that
‘tongue as spoken in the valley of Mexico in 1550, preserved in the
‘Vocabulario’ of Molina. The separation of the two peoples
‘could not have been less than four hundred years; but the diver-
gencies are so slight that I could easily have believed the Alagiiilac
words to have been obtained by a German (my informant was of
that nationality) in ancient Tezcuco.

Dr. Beauchamp, in referring to conflicting orthographies of the
same word, points out a real but not the only cause of apparent
without actual change in these tongues. He also touches on the
‘confusion liable to occur from the natives forming diverse figura-
tive compounds to express objects and ideas new to them. I was
‘struck with this lately in comparing the expressions in the Lenapé
for ‘faith,’ ‘regeneration,’ ‘repentance,’ and such theological terms,
as introduced, on the one hand, by the Moravian missionaries, and,
on the other, independently, by the Anglican Church. They are
usually totally dissimilar.

But a much more curious and important law underlies the appar-
‘ent variability of many American tongues. I refer to that of ‘al-
ternating consonants’ and ‘ permutable vowels.’ In a number of
these languages it is entirely optional with the speaker to articulate
any one of three or four consonantal sounds for the same phonetic
element. For example: he may at will pronounce the syllable ¢oz
either thus, or /oz, nod, rod, etc., alternating the elements J, x, 7, Z,
at will. I have little doubt but that something of the same kind
obtained in ancient Accadian, which will explain why the same
cuneiform character stands indiscriminately for the sounds 47, Zzs,
pun, and dur ,; and the recent researches of Dr. Carl Abel on the
phonetic modifications of the ancient Coptic radicals hint strongly
-at the prevalence of this peculiarity in that venerable speech.

t

SCIENCE:

[Vou X, “Nor 252

In America, I name as special examples of this the Klamath and
the Chapanec. But that these phonetic variations are within fixed
limits, and do not involve the integrity of the language, is curiously
proved by the last mentioned. Remesal, the early ecclesiastical
historian of Chiapas, states that the Chapanec was introduced into
that department from Nicaragua many generations before the Con-
quest; probably it was not later than the year 1300. Now, in 1872,
my late friend, Dr. C. H. Berendt, collected in Nicaragua, from a
few old Indians, the only survivors of their tribe who spoke its
tongue, a number of words and phrases of a dialect called the
‘Mangue.’ A comparison proves it to have been beyond question
a very close relative of the Chapanec, essentially the same in fact,
though separated from it for more than five hundred years (see an
article on the Mangue by me in the Proceedings of the American
Philosophical Soczety, 1885).

As in the Turanian tongues, the Turkish, for example, there is a
“vocalic echo,’ the leading vowel of the word forcing the others to
assimilate to it in sound, so in some American tongues there is a
“consonantal echo,’ the presence of one consonantal sound requir-
ing more or less changes in the others. The Tupi, the Chapanec,
and the Klamath offer examples of the ‘ consonantal echo,’ while
a certain degree of the ‘vocalic echo’ is observable in the Kiche
and Cakchiquel.

These phonetic laws must be thoroughly understood and al-
lowed for, before any one pronounces positively on the rate of

change in American languages. Dr. D. G. BRINTON.
Media, Penn., Nov. 23.

Amnesia.

THE cases cited in Sczence (Nov. 11, 18, pp. 232,250) remind me
of the following. Some twenty-seven years ago, a neighbor of
mine (a young man of twenty-five or under), springing from the
vaulting-horse in a gymnasium to catch the trapeze, fell, striking
apparently upon his shoulders, and was taken up insensible. Con-
sciousness soon returned, perhaps in a fraction of an hour, but
there was no recollection of the few hours just previous to the fall.
As recovery progressed, however, it was said that his recollections
came down closer and closer to the time of the accident; and that
in a week or less he could even remember taking the leap, though
not his striking the mattress.

Whether it be common that the progress of recovery should thus
lessen the period covered by the amnesia, might no doubt be
learned from such data as many professional athletes could furnish.
An athlete once told me how, some years before, he had fallen on
his forehead in the circus, and had been taken up for dead. His
recovery, I think, had taken several months. He could remember,
not indeed the blow, but the sense of powerlessness with which, in
mid-air, he had realized that ‘his balance was lost.” But perhaps
he did not say whether, a few hours or weeks after the accident,
his recollections had come down so far. J. E. OLIVER.

Cornell University, Nov. 18.

THE cases of amnesia mentioned in Sczezce of Nov. 18 recall in
my own experience cases which may be of sufficient interest to be
recorded.

When about fifteen years old, I went into a stable to stanchion
cows for milking. About an hour afterwards I was found wandering
about the yard unconscious, and bleeding profusely from wounds
in the face. I have not been able to this day to tell how I was hurt.
I have no recollection, beyond going into the stable and fastening
afew cows. My hat was found under the cattle’s feet. My front
teeth were loosened, a hole cut through my lip, and my shoulder in
front badly bruised. I was feeling well at the time, and have
never fainted, and cannot refer the injury to that cause. The
nature of the injury would indicate that it came from the front,
and must have appealed to my senses in their normal state.

From other experiences I have always believed that it is more
common to remember the cause of an injury producing temporary
unconsciousness than to forget it. I became unconscious once
from drowning, but remembered vividly every thing when restored.
I was once prostrated by lightning, but remember having seen the
flash. :

I think one’s remembering the cause of an injury depends largely

DecEMBER 2, 1887. |

on whether it appeals strongly and for some time to the senses,
especially of sight. ;

I know, from personal experience and observation, that it is not
uncommon for man to temporarily lose the power of the senses
under excitement, while the body still performs its normal functions
intelligently. Perhaps this would explain the third case men-
tioned by Mr. Hall. The gentleman remembered the runaway, but
became so excited in checking the horse that his senses were
oblivious to all surroundings.

In my own case the cause evidently acted before my eyes, and I
have been led to believe that the cause of an injury may act so sud-
denly as to produce unconsciousness before the impression made
on the senses can reach the brain.

Another case was unconsciousness produced by poisoning with
sulphuretted hydrogen. I went into the attic to regulate a gener-
ator, and shut the trap-door, as I had to pass over it to reach the
generator. There was but one window in the room. It was down,
and about fifteen feet away. There being no gas at the hoods in
the laboratory led me to think the iron sulphide was out. I dis-
connected the tubing, and found high pressure, which forced several
gallons of gas into my face. It produced involuntary respiration,
and my lungs were drawn full. Deeply impressed that my only
hope of life was fresh air, I started for the window at once. Al-
most instantly I began to get dizzy, and my vision was strongly
impaired. The window, only a few feet away, seemed very re-
mote, and no larger than my hand. My rapid advance toward it
gave me the strange impression that my legs were half a mile long.
I became unconscious before reaching the window, and all is a
blank until I found myself rushing down the stairs, two stories be-
low, still impressed with the necessity of reaching pure air. In an
unconscious state, I raised the window about eight inches, raised
the trap-door, and fell headlong down the stairs to the laboratory,
and was found by one of the students deathly pale, the blood set-
tled under my eyes, my muscles rigid, and large drops of cold per-
spiration on my face. Soon after the student reached me, I began
to show signs of recovery, and suddenly sprang to my feet, exclaim-
ing, ‘I must have air!” and rushed down the stairs, regaining
consciousness on the way.

This case shows suspension of a train of thought which was
taken up where it was left off, and pursued aftera season of uncon-
sciousness. It also shows several intelligent trains of thought
pursued in the absence of general consciousness, leaving no im-
pression on the memory. I have often asked myself what directed
me to raise the window and the trap-door, and have wondered
whether there are centres in the brain to direct intelligent action
for self-preservation in the absence of consciousness.

My intention was to open the window for air, but I have no
knowledge of having done it. This has led me to ask whether im-
pressions made on the brain during consciousness may not be au-
tomatically executed after the avenues to the external world are
closed. May not a state of partial unconsciousness, as in som-
nambulistic sleep, be produced by injury, and well-directed trains
of thought be executed and leave no impression on the memory ?

A friend of mine has a blank of three weeks in her life while sick
with typhoid-fever, yet was unconscious only the last ten days of
the time. I have always explained such cases on the basis that

bodily condition has much to do with the indelibleness of impres- .

sions made on the brain. When the body is weak, the impressions

are weak and forgotten. Even in a state of health there are many

perceptions that make no lasting impression. F. L. HARVEY.
Maine State College, Orono, Me., Nov. 22.

American Microscopes. — A Complaint.

EVERY autumn when the colleges and medical schools of the
country begin their academic years, there are many students who
come to their instructors seeking advice in regard to the purchase
of microscopes. Often they appear already furnished with an in-
strument of which they are anxious to learn that the lenses are
particularly good.

As it has been my duty for several years to conduct a large class
in practical histology, I have had frequent applications for advice
about microscopes, and have seen and examined a great many dif-
ferent stands, and the lenses of many manufacturers. I have had

SC LENCE:

275,

therefore, opportunities to test the practical convenience and ad-
vantages of the many sorts of microscopes which the students have:
brought along with them. The result of this experience is the con-
viction that it is undesirable to recommend a student to purchase
any microscope whatsoever of American manufacture, and to
always counsel him to obtain, if possible, one of the German or
French instruments.

In order to make my judgment more clear, 1 may add that I
know of no American microscope which I should like to purchase
at any price, for my own use in histological or embryological work.

I venture to express this adverse opinion in regard to American
microscopes in the hope of inducing some of our opticians to man-
ufacture a stand for a microscope suitable for the use of students
of histology and biology. It appears to me that the simple model
now almost universally adopted in Europe is far superior to every
thing offered us in rivalry to them by our own dealers.

To justify myself, I should like to give, first, the reasons for my
disapproval of the American forms; and, second, the reasons for *
my preference of German forms. The fundamental error in micro-
scopes of American manufacture is that they are for the most part
constructed with a view of, I might almost say, entrapping inexpe-
rienced purchasers. The zeal of the maker is turned too much to.
decorative lacquering and nickel-plating: he adds to his stands as.
great a variety of mechanical contrivances and adjustments as the
price of the stand will permit, and many of these contrivances are
not really commendable for their utility. In the majority of cases.
the stands are made to tilt, which, for one that uses the microscope
for real work, is an almost useless luxury, because he who really
works in histology necessarily examines fresh specimens in fluids,
or at least constantly has on the stage of his microscope prepara-
tions in various stages of unreadiness, and not mounted in a perma-
nent form. All this implies the constant use of fluids, and, if the
stage of the microscope is inclined, the use of liquids is impracti-
cable. Any one, therefore, who uses his microscope for the ordi-
nary purposes of a student or an investigator, or in connection with
clinical or pathological work, very soon falls out of the habit of
tilting his microscope. Hence it is, that, while making a micro-
scope to tilt renders it considerably more expensive, it adds nothing
essential to the convenience of the stand forlaboratory work. This.
same fact, that most of the work must be done with the tube of the
microscope vertical, renders it indispensable that the microscope
should not be too high; so that we must put down the ten-inch
tube as a bad feature for a student’s microscope. A rack and
pinion is undoubtedly advantageous: it renders the use of the
microscope more convenient, and increases its durability by dimin-
ishing the strain upon the stand during the coarse adjustment of
the focus. When this adjustment is effected by shoving the tube
with the hand, the microscope wears out sooner than with the rack-
and-pinion movement; yet even the rack and pinion, which are so
generally put on our American microscopes, are not indispensable,
and the greater part of the histological and embryological investiga-
tions of the past twenty years have been made without the employ-
ment of this convenience.

The stage of the American microscope is very faulty. The large
movable glass plate with a hole through it is a toy fit only for an
amateur or fancy collector: it interferes with the use of fluids, and
with the freedom of movement of the slide over the field of the
microscope,— the two things which are most indispensable in
practice. A good stage should be large and flat, with nothing upon
jt except a pair of spring clips and a hole for a diaphragm. The
diaphragms are often a matter of particularly fanciful construction.
Thus the Iris diaphragm is often introduced to allure the inexperi-
enced, but it is not a good form except in conjunction with an
acromatic condenser. There are other details of construction
which are equally open to unfavorable criticism, but it is unneces-
sary to go into their discussion.

Unfortunately, while we see so much pains expended upon the
brass-work of the microscope, we see a neglect of the optical mem-
bers of the instrument ; so that the microscope as a whole is con-
verted into a showy piece of apparatus, and the eye-pieces and ob-
jectives are generally, though not always, of a decidedly inferior
character: when they are really good, the lenses are very expensive.

If, now, our manufacturers would reverse the distribution of their

276

\painstaking, and make a simple stand of small size and compact
model with first-class lenses, they would furnish something which
could be recommended to students and others by conscientious
advisers. »

Turning now to the consideration of continental microscopes, so
universally used in Europe, and now happily gaining supremacy in
this country, we see at once that they conform to the practical re-
‘quirements which are disdained in the making of most American
microscopes.

They are built with a firm base. The stage is easily reached by
the fingers when the hand is resting upon the table. It carries no
superfluous appurtenances, but is large and flat. The eye-piece is
of such a height, that when the instrument is vertical it is easy to
look into it. Concerning the lenses, it must be said that most of
the European manufacturers are very conscientious in regard to
those which they furnish. There are, of course, some makers who
put upon the market objectives of inferior quality, and which are
sold as such, and therefore at a correspondingly low price. This
is of course legitimate, as there is a demand for cheap microscopes.

The price of these desirable microscopes is very much less than
that of undesirable American ones. According to our system of
protection, the physicians, scientific men, and students are taxed
enormously if they buy a foreign instrument. Put into plain Eng-
lish, this means that we are heavily fined if we secure what we re-
quire in the way of microscopes, while a small number of manu-
facturers, whose money-making is of very little significance to
the public, receive a bonus for furnishing an inferior article at a
high price. Thus what is really important is sacrificed for what is
unimportant. Many valuable members of the nation are sacrificed
by being obliged to pay*for the advantage of a small number of
men who have never shown themselves willing to supply to those
by whose sacrifices they benefit, the kind of instrument wanted.

Can any thing be more unjust? and are not we, who are engaged
in university careers, in the practice of medicine, or any other use-
ful occupation requiring the employment of microscopes, justified in
complaining of the condition of affairs, which is little short of a
national calamity ? Is it unreasonable to ask the manufacturers of
microscopes in this country tq furnish us instruments of the kind
we really need, as some sort of acknowledgment of the money they
extract from us whether we will or not?

In expressing myself so decisively and emphatically upon the
subject of American microscopes, I have not considered it neces-
sary to give a detailed discussion of the relative merits and demerits
of the different makes, because what I have expressed is the opin-
ion, in these matters, of all the competent judges with whom I have
talked on the subject.

I know positively that many of the best scientific men of America
are ready to join me in saying, as I said at the beginning, that there
is no American microscope which we should like to buy at any

price for our own use. CHARLES SEDGWIGK MINOT.
Boston, Nov. 24.

The ‘ Act of God’ and ‘Fuerza Mayor.’

Mr. MORGAN ’S article in Sczence of Nov. 18, ‘ The “ Act of God”’
and the Railway-Company, is highly interesting, and suggests an
illustration drawn from comparative national jurisprudence. The
English common-law doctrine of the ‘ Act of God’ appears very

scientifically elaborated in the laws of Mexico under the title of ;

‘fuerza mayor.’ Our neighboring republic is greatly advanced in
the science of law. While certain disturbing elements there inter-
fere somewhat with the practical application of statutes at times,
according to our views at least, nowhere on the continent has the
science of law been more carefully studied, and the results of that
study more accurately defined and set forth in both constitutional
and statutory form. Religious faith, too, in Mexico is to-day as
living and active a force in common personal life with the great
body of the people as it was in Europe in the middle ages; and
this fact again, as Mr. Morgan’s article suggests, illustrates how,
while the limitations of the Old-World doctrine have been gradual-
ly narrowing in the United States, it still holdsits ground in Mexico
with proportions which practically make it the leading condition of
all contracts, expressed and implied.

As an instance of how this provision enters into express contracts,

SCIENCE.

[Vor. X. No. 252

let us take the great railway-concessions to the leading American
companies. Inthese concessions ‘fuerza mayor’ generally appears
in three distinct places. The obligations of the company to build
within certain fixed periods are suspended in case of ‘ fuerza mayor.’
The concessions are forfeited by the companies carrying any foreign
armed force or goods contraband of war, unless they can show that
this was done because they were unable to resist ‘fuerza mayor.’
Certain bounties granted to the railways cease during the time that
the operation of the lines is suspended, even if the suspension
should take place by reason of ‘ fuerza mayor.’

In the smaller transactions of daily life this doctrine continually
appears as an unwritten law, which suspends all other laws, or
contracts, or obligations. Superior force, which often in Mexico
means what would simply be called disaster in the United States,
is to the Mexican mind a good defence against almost any obliga-
tion. For instance: should one lease a boat fora month at a fixed
sum, and unusual storms prevent using the boat for half the month,
that would be ample reason why the lessee should tender only half
the rent to the lessor, and he feel constrained to accept the offer.

‘Fuerza mayor’ is translated as ‘ superior force,’ or ‘ uncontrolla-
ble circumstances.’ These circumstances are nowhere, to my
knowledge, defined, but the facts of what are uncontrollable cir-
cumstances are to be decided in each case. The coercion of an
armed force is ‘fuerza mayor.’ The violence of storms is ‘ fuerza
mayor.’ The flooding of a river is ‘fuerza mayor.’ And, as before
remarked, very generally what we are apt to consider as disaster,
in Mexico becomes ‘ fuerza mayor, and operates to relieve a con-
tract ofits obligations. To the American mind a contract made
must be carried out, and disaster, if there is any, falls on the man
who has loosely guarded his contract. In the confluence of the
American and Mexican civilizations now taking place, it becomes
an interesting question how this wide difference between the usage
and thinking of the two countries will adjust itself.

W. W. NEVIN.
New York, Noy. 2r.

The American Physique.

IN order to find out how closely the figures of makers of knit
goods would correspond to those of the clothiers, I sent a letter to
one of the largest manufacturers. I enclose his reply, together with
the figures. You will observe that the figures on men’s ware cor-
respond very closely with those of the clothiers, making allowance
for the tighter fit of the undergarments.

EDWARD ATKINSON.
EDWARD ATKINSON, ESQ. |

Dear Sty, — Your favor of the 11th inst. was duly received, but
the article referred to was not enclosed. It is impossible to give a
perfect assortment of sizes of underwear for men and women, as
the assortment varies in the weight of goods, and the section of
country they are for. I enclose, however, a copy of an average
order for 1,040 dozen of men’s shirts and drawers, and one for 507
dozen ladies’ vests and drawers, which will show very closely the
sizes that we sell, and the proportion of shirts and drawers :—

34 | 36 | 38 |40 | 42 | 44 | 46 | 48 | 50 | 52

88 |124 |128 |84 | 52 | 32 | 16 | 10 | 4 I

g2 | 68 | 44 |28 | 20] 12] 4 | 2

26 | 28 | 30 | 32 | 34 | 36

45 113 |12776|827¢|347¢) 15 | 728] 176
Ladies’ Drawers,...... 43§| 15 | 22 |x8 |x2 |6 | 3

- Queries.

18. METEOR-FALL.—A few days ago there appeared in the
newspapers a circumstantial account of the fall of a two-ton
meteorite in front of a bank in the town of Amsterdam, N.Y. I
have seen nothing but this first announcement about it, and fear
the whole story may be a canard, yet would like to know that it
was a genuine happening. Can you report the matter in Sczence,

and doubtless oblige many others besides ? C. H. AMES,
Boston, Nov. 27.

See LINC E

FRIDAY, DECEMBER 9, 1887.

IN OUR ISSUE of Oct. 28 we called attention to the fact that a
committee had been appointed by the New York Academy of
Sciences to raise funds to erect a monument over the remains of
Audubon, who now lies buried in the south-western portion of
Trinity Cemetery, near 153d Street and North River. Two or
three years ago some gentlemen who visited the cemetery noticed
the name of Audubon on a vault which was then in much need of
repair, and finding, on inquiry, that this was the burial-place of the
great ornithologist, suggested the plan of having his remains re-
moved to a more conspicuous position. On making proper repre-
sentations to the authorities of the cemetery, they were met with
great courtesy; and after some months, with the consent of the
Audubon family, it was decided to change the position of the plot
to a place which will be opposite the extension of Audubon Avenue
when it is continued to 155th Street, as it probably will be. This
plan was accepted by the Audubon family during the last summer,
and it was then proposed to erect in the new plot, by national sub-
scription, a monument worthy of the greatness of the man. After
these arrangements had been completed, the plan was laid before
the meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of
Science in this city, but no action was taken. At the first meeting
of the New York Academy of Sciences this fall, a committee was
appointed to raise funds for the monument. Since the date of its
appointment, this committee has been quietly at work. After or-
ganizing, it communicated with different scientific societies all over
the country, from which the most enthusiastic replies have been
received. It was decided by the committee, that, on account of the
near advent of the election, it was unwise to do much active work
at that time; but now that the election is over, the committee are
actively at work, are preparing the designs for the monument, and
wish to solicit subscriptions from all parts of the United States.
The whole country has for years been justly proud of Audubon’s
work, which was received both at home and abroad with the great-
est enthusiasm. It is considered one of the greatest treasures of
any public or private library. Some of the copper-plates of this
great work now hang in our museums, and are framed and hung
like valuable pictures in the houses of patrons of the arts in this
city. It is the founder of American ornithology that it is sought to
honor, to whom natural history in this country is almost as much
indebted as England is to White of Selborne. It is hoped that
every one that loves nature will subscribe, and ask others to sub-
scribe, to this fund. It is intended by the committee, as soon as
the monument is ready, to have some public ceremonial worthy of
the occasion at its unveiling in Trinity Cemetery, and in this way
bring into further prominence the great services which Audubon has
rendered to the scientific study of natural history in this country.
Contributions, however small, may be sent to the treasurer, Dr. N.
L. Britton, of the School of Mines of Columbia College.

IT IS CURIOUS to watch the different approaches made to the
same question by various countries. There is now, as is well
known, a very general movement throughout this country in favor
of what is known as manual training in education. After much
misapprehension and tedious explanation the leaders of this move-
ment have finally managed to make the educational public under-
stand that they advocate manual training mainly for its educational
value, and only incidentally for the economic benefits which will

undoubtedly flow from it. In England, however, where a similar
movement is gaining force, the point of view is almost exclusively
the economic, and but little is heard of the educational value of man-
ual training. The Englishman desires manual training to take the
form of technical or trade instruction, in order that England’s
waning commercial supremacy may be restored and retained. It
is very necessary, therefore, in following the English movement in
favor of manual training, to understand that its arguments and its
point of view are wholly at variance with those of the American
movement to introduce manual training into the public schools.
Indeed, Mr. William Mather, one of the best authorities in Eng-
land on the subject, as well as one of the few Englishmen who
thoroughly comprehend the American movement, has said that the
English mind has not yet sufficiently advanced educationally to
adopt the American view, and that the only sort of manual train-
ing which can be successfully advocated in England at present is
that which will come under the head of technical education. The
inaugural address delivered at University College, Liverpool, by
Prof. Hele Shaw, and reported in a recent number of WVature,
illustrates excellently what is said above. Professor Shaw began
his address by calling attention to the vast and almost incredible
change which the present century has witnessed in the industries of
the world, and he emphasized the fact that a few years ago circum-
stances combined to make Great Britain the principal commercial
and manufacturing country of the world. The artificial conditions
which brought about this state of things could not and did not last,
Foreign nations began to establish mills and work-shops of their
own, and, what was of even greater importance, they recognized
the necessity of spreading technical knowledge by all possible
means. To accomplish this, technical schools instituted and sup-
ported by the state, at which instruction could be obtained free or at
a merely nominal expense, were established by the more progres-
sive countries. The result has been that during the past twenty
years numbers of highly educated men have been sent out who
were prepared, on becoming foremen, managers, or employers of
labor, to take advantage of the latest discoveries and improvements
in the various branches of industry, in other words, to use their brains
with their hands. The eventual effect of this on England’s indus-
trial status could be safely predicted, and that it was disastrous the
reports of the recent royal commissions on trade depression and on
technical education conclusively prove. It must not be thought,
however, that the English themselves are not alive to what is going
on about them, and the importance of late assigned to the subject
of technical education proves that they are looking in the right di-
rection for the remedy. The National Association for the Promo-
tion of Technical Education has on its roll of membership some of
the foremost men of science, men of business, and men of literature
in Great Britain. The special government bill which was intro-
duced on this subject at the last session of Parliament is proof that
official circles are alive to what is needed. Professor Shaw then
asks what the term ‘technical education’ really means, and with
a touch of humor says that one very general answer to the ques-
tion is, “Something to meet the German competition.” “This,” he
adds, ‘‘ grotesque as it may seem, is much nearer the truth than
most of the other definitions of technical education.” Of these he
quotes a number, and then proceeds to discuss the results attained
by the Science and Art department during the pasttenyears. The
other central agency, which has been at work for several years in
promoting technical instruction, is the City and Guilds Institute of
London, and he points out the very interesting and valuable results

278

which this institution has accomplished. ‘‘ When it is considered,”
he continues, “ what splendid technical training the workshops and
manufactories of England have afforded, there will appear to be very
good reasons why, originally, technical schools were not so exten-
sively instituted in England as on the continent.” The speaker
pointed out that England was, taken as a whole, after all not in
such a deplorable state with regard to technical education, and
then described that education as of two kinds, general and
special. ‘‘ General technical education may be said to be that ne-
cessary in all large centres of population, being the preparation for
such callings as engineering, architecture, medical science, and
other professions which a certain percentage of the inhabitants will
always follow, besides training of another kind suitable to the arti-
sanclass. Special technical education is that necessary in a locality
where there are special industries, instances of which willreadily sug-
gest themselves.” The remainder of the address was devoted to
considering the educational work of Liverpool and its technical re-
quirements. This brief abstract will suffice to show how diverse
are the means of approach to the manual training problem which
are being followed in England and in this country.

PHYSICAL TRAINING.

THE American Association for the Advancement of Physical
Education held its third annual meeting in Brooklyn on Nov. 25,
and was well attended. Prof. Edward Hitchcock of Amherst Col-
lege presided. Papers were read by him, and also by E. H. Fal-
lows of the Adelphi Academy. The title of the latter paper was
‘Physical Training in Elementary Schools in the United States,’
being an extract from the report of the Board of Health of New
Hampshire. Dr. Edward Hitchcock, Jun., of Cornell University,
read a paper on the uses of physical measurements to the individual.
In the attempts to establish anthropometry on a scientific basis the
weight of individuals was first taken as a standard, but this had to
be abandoned, and he thought we could now say with a certain
degree of exactness that human measures increase with the height.
It is extremely difficult, if not indeed practically impossible, to
secure the exact dimensions of any man. Especially is this so
when it is attempted to obtain the measurements of the chest and
shoulders. Six experts might examine the same individuals, and
their measurements would probably all differ. The testing of lung
capacity is very variable, some individuals giving results which are
of value, while others do not use the thoracic muscles at all, but
simply bring into play the muscles of the pharynx. Some foreign
countries, recognizing the difficulties in the way of obtaining exact
measurements of parts which were liable to vary, had adopted the
length and breadth of the head, ear, foot, and finger, and the height
of a man in the sitting position, as the best, making use of them in
descriptions of criminals. Dr. Hitchcock thought that to determine
the physical powers of an individual, good judgment on the part of
the examiner was of great value. In fact, a good judgment without
measurements he regarded as better than good measurements
without judgment.

Dr. Savage, director of the Berkeley gymnasium, New York, and
Dr. Sargent of Harvard University discussed Dr. Hitchcock’s paper.
The latter said that while some foreign nations had done more in
obtaining and recording measurements of parts of the human body,
the United States was far ahead in true anthropometry, that is, the
measurement of the whole man; but this subject was still in its
infancy, and it would be folly for the association to publish views
which in the present inexact state of the science of anthropometry
might and probably would be controverted in a short time. He
did not think it was proper for an association which had had but
two or three years’ experience to express views which might be
taken by the world at large as a basis for physical education. For
his part he regarded it as a life-work, and he proposed to remain
silent until he had arrived at results which he could swear by. Dr.
Hitchcock of Amherst differed with Dr. Sargent. No science ever
approached exactitude except through a long course of mistakes
and subsequent corrections.

The next paper was on military training as an exercise, by Dr. J.

SCIPIMNGE:

[ VoL. X. No. 253

W. Seaver of Yale College. He took the ground that while mili-
tary training was well adapted to the adult, it was not the best for
the young. The element of sport or fun which characterized the
active life of all animals in their early years should not be wanting
in the exercise of the human young. General Molineux of Brook-
lyn, in the discussion of this paper, said that although colleges, by
their well-equipped gymnasiums, had done much for their students,
they had done but little for the masses. He hoped to see physical
training adopted in the public schools, and urged the association to
do all in its power to accomplish that object. He thought that
military training even for the youth was very valuable, not only as.
a means of developing their strength but as fitting them for the de-
fence of their country, a duty which they might be called upon to
perform. John S. White, LL.D., head master of Berkeley School,
New York, took similar ground with General Molineux, but be-
lieved that calisthenics and military drill should be combined inthe
development of youth. At the termination of the discussion the:
association adjourned.

AMERICAN PUBLIC HEALTH ASSOCIATION.?

ONE of the most instructive papers read before the American
Public Health Association at its recent meeting at Memphis was.
that of Dr. E. M. Hunt, Secretary of the State Board of Health of
New Jersey. It is entitled ‘The Prevention of Microphytic Dis-
eases by Individual Prophylaxis.’ It is so full of suggestion, and
the subjects which it discusses are matters of such general in-
terest, that we reproduce the paper zz foto. \ ;

[Paver By Dr. E. M. Hunt.]

During the last twenty-five years no subject has been more
prominently before the students and practitioners of hygiene than
the consideration of new methods, or new applications of old meth-
ods, for the prevention of disease.

This inquiry, to some extent, involves investigation into the
specific entity of disease. But a still more hopeful direction of in-
vestigation is to find out what fertilizes it or makes it more likely
to be severe, what sterilizes it or makes it more likely to be mild, or
what will make the human system resistful to the sedation or prop-
agation of the disease, so that it will not occur.

The first great discovery in this direction was that of the modi-
fying influence of inoculation.

It could not have been merely the cathartic and the changed diet
of a few days that reduced the mortality from inoculated small-pox
to such a minimum. The prevalence of the custom was at once
the certification of the terror of the caught disease and the inno-
cency of the conferred or inoculated disease. Yet it was the same
disease without any effort at attenuation.

It was the introduction of the virus into the skin or areolar tis-
sue, instead of by inhalation, that seemed to result in modification.
Its approach was through the periphery, instead of by a central and
vital organ. The chief safety was in the fact that the involvement
of the lungs and the secondary fever were avoided.

Somehow, by the metastasis or diversion or mode of attack, the
dystem grew tolerant of the malady, and was able to throw it off
with comparative harmlessness.

It has fallen to my lot frequently to see the same remarkable
mitigation in the inoculation of cattle with the virus of contagious.
pleuro-pneumonia.

When the infection is conveyed by the breath, it seizes upon the
lungs and pleura. Frequently, in three days after it is manifested,
the spongy organ of two or three pounds has become so solidified
with tenacious lymph that it has a weight of thirty pounds, and
death is the speedy result.

But introduce this virus into the muscular tissue of an extremity
and all symptoms are more gradual. There are local swelling, the
throwing-out of lymph amid muscular tissue, and slight constitu-
tional disturbance; but the lungs escape, and fatal cases are ex-
ceedingly rare. Not only this, but other animals will not contract
the disease, and immunity is secured. These facts as to the effect
of the different modes of conveyance of a disease have their prac-
tical bearings, and still invite investigation.

1 Continued from Sczence of Dec. 2.

DeEcEMBER 9, 1887. |

It was another wonderful fact when scurvy yielded to the pre-
ventive art. The great naval hospital at Haslar, England, had
been built with special reference to the fearful inroads that this dis-
ase was making amid the British fleets. When, in 1796, Sir Gil-
bert Blane and other medical officers of the navy obtained the order
that lime-juice be supplied to the seamen, the terror of that disease
was taken away. Studying the facts by the history and peculiar-
ities of that disease, we cannot dismiss it as a mere error of diet-
tics. It was not simply that fruits and fresh vegetables prevented
the disease. It was a far-reaching lesson as to how diseases may
be modified by medicines as well as by foods; how the presence of
‘something administered may prevent a disease.

As to the next wonder of the preventive art, that of Jennerian
vaccination, it is so often presented as to need only our passing rec-
‘ognition. Yet it is to be remembered that it is a subject not yet
exhausted. Whether something of the modification is owing to
the mode and place of introduction, whether it is a modified small-
pox, whether it is attenuated virus and may be in different degrees
of attenuation, and so differently protective, these and other ques-
tions are left over to be determined in this period when the micro-
scope, the pathological, the chemical, and the biological labora-
tories have come to the aid of the clinician, and we can study and
compare the accumulated facts.

The Pasteurian vaccination may stand next, if not in order of
time, since Pasteur opened his Copenhagen address by profound
acknowledgment of his indebtedness to Jenner as the great fore-
father of preventive medicine.

Here the mode and place of introduction, degree and permanency
of effect, and the nature and cause of the so-called attenuation, are
still before us with unanswered inquiry.

Next, while the doctrine of the prevention by isolation is old, yet
new methods and new results, as to it, almost make it a new pre-
ventive art. Sea and land quarantines are modified, and ought to
be. How far it is to be isolation of the person, or only isolation of
the personal effects, is unsettled. What the forsaking of an in-
fected house or ship will do, what the camping-out of all the well
from a sick city will do, what isolation alone will do, as in Lei-
cester, with small-pox, and what is the most perfect plan of organ-
ized systematized isolation,—all these are before every health-
officer as large and most practical questions.

Next comes disinfection, in all it means by the new light of biol-
ogy and the study of micro-organisms—whether it be the de-
struction of animal or vegetative parasitic life —of these as larve, as
spores, or as sporeless plants, at any and all stages of existence and
development; also what is meant by inhibiting or thwarting action,
even when we do not destroy life; also what disinfectants can do
with the surroundings in destroying the pabulum or nutrient media ;
also what these can do in the system, either to destroy the microbe
which is setting up pernicious activity there, or in some way to de-
prive it of its food or limit its power.

For the present we confine ourselves to the last item. So soon
as it became certain that many diseases depend upon, or are asso-
ciated with, micro-organisms, the inquiry was in order, whether
there could not be some method utilized and applied by which the
presence or activity of these in the blood-tissues or secretions could
be so interfered with as to prevent or mollify disease. Passing for
the present certain facts as to septic and non-pathogenic organisms,
which, introduced into the system, may of themselves, or by their
ferments or alkaloids (ptomaines), cause disease, we confine our in-
quiry to the question whether it is possible to thwart the action of
the specific or pathogenic micro-organisms in their attempt to in-
vade or after they have invaded the system. We get some light or
some analogy as to this from considering the life-history and be-
havior of these organisms outside the system. First of all, we find
that pathogenic organisms are dependent for their growth on the
presence of the suitable nourishing material. In this respect they
are far more selective than the septic organisms, which “find in
almost all animal and vegetable fluids the substances necessary
for nutrition.” It is further found that there are substances which
inhibit the growth of, or altogether destroy, these micro-organisms,
such as corrosive sublimate, salicylic acid, etc. To do this they
do not always need to be germicides.

Far short of destruction, such substances are capable of restrain-

SCIENCE.

279

ing the morbid action so far as to thwart their pernicious activity,
which, in the case of an invading disease, is really the gravity of
the disease.

Klein gives abundant evidences and references, on p. 208 of his
book on ‘ Micro-organisms and Disease,’ to show that “ pathogenic
micro-organisms are capable of suffering some modifications in
their morphological and physiological behavior.” He adds, “ Now,
itis known of many micro-organisms, bound up with infectious
diseases, that temperature, the medium in which they grow, and
the presence or absence of certain chemical compounds, are capable
of materially affecting them” (Klein, p. 207).

Inasmuch as this growth and multiplication are known to go on
in the bodies of living animals, and to constitute the identity and
gravity of many diseases, it is a radical and very essential and hope-
ful inquiry whether we may not, by some change in the animal, or
in some of those chemical compounds referred to, either destroy the
micro-organism or inhibit its activity.

It is very suggestive of the possibility of this to remind ourselves
of the probable reason why some are unsusceptible to disease. Dr.
Klein (p. 247) argues that it is because there is ‘something or
other present in a particular tissue to which the latter owes its im-
munity.”

He infers, that, although this is “ dependent upon the life of the
tissue, it is not identical with any of the characters constituting its
life.’ He says, ‘‘ The most feasible theory seems to me to be this,
that the inhibiting power is due to the presence of a chemical sub-
stance produced by the living tissues.” This puts the body in such
a condition that in the particular case, “the organisms cannot
thrive and produce the disease.” It is true that he suggests that
the germicide or inhibitive material is a product of living tissue.
This is not necessarily so, or, if so, would not necessarily be a prod-
uct of the living tissue of the human body.

If the non-activity of the organism, and so the non-occurrence of
the disease, is owing to “the presence of a chemical substance”
in the tissues or blood, it is a very pertinent and natural inquiry
whether we can not and do not produce the same result by putting,
and for a time sustaining in the system, certain “chemical sub-
stances,” which, so introduced, interfere with the processes sought
to be set up, and which would constitute the disease.

’ The analogy is strengthened by the fact that chemical products
are so much coming to be suspected or recognized as constituting
the virus or specificity of diseases in which the micro-organisms
are the initiative factors.

Still more, however, it behooves us to find out whether, either in
chemical or laboratory experience, there has been any confirmation
of such views. In clinical experience we have long had not only
the fact that quinine will cure chills and fever, but that it is a sub-
stance which, introduced into the human system in advance, will
prevent those processes which constitute the disease. So soon as
it was made probable that the malarial diseases belong to the
species or genera of microphytic diseases, so soon it seemed
probable that the result was due to this inhibitive effect of the al-
kaloid. Asa result of experiences with epidemics of diphtheria
and scarlet-fever, so long ago as at our Chicago meeting in 1877
(see American Public Health Assoczatzon, vol. iv. p. 348), I pre-
sented a paper on this mode of assisting and preventing pestilential
diseases (see also two articles on the subject in Te Medical Rec-
ord, vol. ii. 1877).

The next year the subject was more fully presented in a paper
read at the Richmond meeting.

In the intervening time Professor Cabell was so impressed by
the facts presented, as to note it in his address before the Ameri-
can Medical Association in the spring of 1878. A reference to the
paper of 1878 will show how fully this idea was insisted upon and
illustrated. It was claimed that by the use of certain medicines
we could prevent the sedation or interrupt the development of that
which constituted the infection. Many of the facts in support of
this view at that time were collated, and since then, from time to
time, medical men have corroborated these views from their own
experience.

It is of value that since then we have come into a knowledge of
several other diseases as microphytic, and this has greatly fortified
the position then taken.

280

Says L. Brunton, “ Facts seem to point to ferments or enzymes
as the agents by which the tissues are built up and pulled down in
their constant change, which continues during life; and the action
of drugs on these enzymes is becoming one of the most important
questions of pharmacology” (see Amerzcan Public Health Assocz-
ation, vol, vi. p. 103).

From time to time in the last five years the journals have con-
tained records as to this possibility of individual prophylaxis. But
all this was only the clinical experiences of physicians. Too often
these are not accorded the same consideration as what are called
crucial or laboratory experiments.

It has recently been necessary for Sir James Paget, as president
of the Pathological Society of London, to contend that clinical ob-
servation is scientific, and that the sick-room is a laboratory with
its crucial experiments, as real as those in which culture-experi-
ments are instituted.

But now experimental tests have come directly to our aid in de-
termining the effects of prophylactic remedies. Before this we
knew that arsenic, potassium chloride, quinine, and excess of iron,
etc., could be made constant for days and weeks in the blood by
medication.

In 1884, under the direction of the Local Government Board of
England, Dr. J. T. Cash instituted a series of experiments as to
chemical disinfectants, and made report thereon. The object of
the earlier investigations, recorded in a late report, was to inquire
whether certain substances belonging to the aromatic series, when
introduced into the body of a living animal, were capable of pre-
venting the development of a particular virus within that animal.
Later research was extended to a metallic salt (corrosive subli-
mate), which acts otherwise than aromatics with regard to albumi-
nous bodies.

It was with this that the most decided result was secured. The
result sought was to find “ its power of resisting, in the condition
in which they occur within the animal body, the multiplication of
the active principle of the virus against which they are directed to
such an extent that the virus is destroyed, or only reproduces itself
so fully as to cause a modified or abortive attack of the disease in
the animal body experimented on.” The disease chosen for the
experiments was anthrax, the severest test of all. The result of
the first series of experiments was such as to show that the previous
administration of corrosive sublimate may considerably modify the
course of the anthrax disease in rabbits. The paper concludes by
saying, “that, although these few experiments are not conclusive,
they cannot fail to encourage the hope that we may yet succeed in
creating with precision, within the animal economy, by the action
of this and perhaps other drugs, a temporary condition of resist-
ance (in this case seven weeks), which may so limit the activity of
the anthrax virus that it will merely produce a passing, and at the
same time protecting, disorder, instead of a fatal disease.”

The next year (1885) Dr. Cash made to the Local Government
Board a further report on mercury as a means of prophylaxis to
anthrax. In this he says, “I have followed up the investigation of
the prophylactic action of the perchloride still further, and the
favorable opinion I was before led to entertain of its efficacy has
been abundantly confirmed.”

Dr. Klein has also satisfied himself of the restraining powers of
the perchloride of mercury. Tomassi-Crudelli and others claim
that arsenic has the same control as a preventive of malaria.
These results may be taken as a confirmation of the clinical evi-
dence given, and of the view we long since expressed as to the
coming importance of various allied modes of prophylaxis in the
prevention of various communicable diseases.

Heretofore we have mentioned some other prophylactics which
we believe to have been effectual in preventing or mitigating some
of the parasitic diseases. With this new evidence, I believe the
time has come for a thorough testing, both by the practitioner and
the biological investigator, of this new method of preventing and
controlling disease. There are now many who believe that the real
action of some of our most successful remedies is just this: the
mitigation or prevention of a microphytic disease does not neces-
sarily mean the destruction of the organism, but its inhibition zz
loco, or the modification of its chemical action on the tissues or of
its products so as to render it harmless. It is a part of that anti-

SCIENCE:

[Vout. X. No. 253

septic medication which Professors Yeo and Brunton, and many
others, recognize as steadily gaining ground for approval.

If, in an individual case of exposure, or an outbreak in a family
or a neighborhood, this kind of prophylactic treatment is available,
it is easy to forecast the wonderful beneficence of the result.

If, for instance, in an outbreak of diphtheria in a family or in a
neighborhood, we can put all persons exposed to it for a few days
upon a prophylactic treatment, or if in the first outbreak of cholera
in a locality all exposed persons can be rapidly brought under the
inhibitive effect of a prophylactic administered promptly and con-
tinuously, we will have in our possession a mode for the limitation
or prevention of epidemics far more likely to have practical appli-
cation than any system which involves the cutting of the skin, or
the introduction in any form of the actual virus of the disease. At
any rate, with two such modes of defence at hand, we might hope-
fully expect to substitute the’ word ‘sporadic’ for ‘epidemic,’ and
to bring many a vagrant pestilence within the range of our control.

The present age of advancing medical art will be rendered still
more notable if it can be found that simple and active medication,
on the outbreak of any communicable disease, will protect all those
exposed thereto from contagion, or so modify its effect as to make
the attack benign.

THE ALASKAN SOCIETY OF SITKA.

IT seems that the opening-up of Alaska to tourists is to result in
some real benefits to science. An exceptionally intelligent and in-
fluential body of visitors appears to have visited the Territory
during the past summer ; and in the last issues of the A/askan and
the orth Star, both of which are published at Sitka, are to be
found the practical results of the presence of the body of visitors
referred to. The /Vorth Star states that the training-school at
Sitka particularly interested the tourists, and their interest seems to
have taken a practical form. In this paper’s account of the visit
we read that at the instigation of President Butler, of the College
for the Training of Teachers in New York City, and under his
leadership, a large subscription was made for the purpose of equip-
ping the kindergarten and the wood-working departments of the
training-school. The list of subscribers is printed in full in the
Alaska papers, and it contains the names of many prominent per-
sons in the educational, political, and business worlds.

The same visitors were very much impressed with the necessity
of taking steps to preserve information concerning the folk-lore and
arts of the native Alaskan population. After leaving Sitka, Presi-
dents Gilman and Butler were appointed a committee to draw up a
constitution for a society which should have for its object the col-
lection and preservation of such information. This constitution
was drawn up, and signed by most of the visitors, and was then
submitted to the residents of Sitka, who a few weeks ago called a
public meeting, and proceeded to organize a society, which is to be
known asthe Alaskan Society of Sitka. The constitution as adopted
states that the purpose of the society is to collect and preserve in-
formation in regard to the arts, history, language, religion, and folk—
lore of the native population of Alaska, and also in regard to the
structure, climate, mineral resources, fisheries, flora, and fauna of
the country, and in brief to observe, collect, record, and publish
facts in regard to the entire Territory, continental and insular.

The members of the society are the following founders, and such,
others as may be elected to membership from time to time. The
founders are Pres. D. C. Gilman of Baltimore, Pres. Nicholas Mur-.
ray Butler of New York, Senator C. B. Farwell of Chicago, Edwin
H. Abbott, Esq., of Milwaukee, Prof. Louis Dyer of Cambridge,
Prof. A. V. Young of Evanston, Ill., Thomas Hill, Esq., of San
Francisco, and Elliot F. Shepard, Esq., and John B. Pine, of New
York.

Resident members are to be chosen from the residents of Sitka
who by their tastes, studies, or pursuits are qualified to promote
tbe objects of the association. Corresponding members are to be
chosen from those interested in the object of the society in all parts,
of Alaska, and from those officers who have been stationed in the
Territory. Honorary members are to be chosen from those who:
have in any way distinguished themselves in promoting the study of
Alaskan geography, natural history, ethnography, or other branches.

DEcEMBER 9, 1887.]|

of science. An annual report is to be made, and scientific papers
may be published from time to time in the name of the society,
after they have obtained the approval of a committee of scientists
to be designated by the directors,

It is also intended to establish a museum at Sitka in which a
large portion of the material to be collected by the society can be
preserved. It is doubtful if any of our Territories possesses greater
geographical and ethnographical interest than Alaska, and we trust
that the Alaskan Society of Sitka will make the best use of its op-
portunities, and collect material which will be invaluable for scien-
tific purposes.

So little is generally known in the United States concerning the
meteorology of Alaska, that it will be of interest to read the sum-
mary of the report of the Signal Service officer stationed at Sitka,
for the month of September last. The highest barometer for the
month was 30.38, and the lowest 29.26." The monthly range of the
barometer was 1.12. The mean temperature was 57°, the highest
point reached being 60°.5 and the lowest 36°.5. The least daily
range of temperature was 5°.5, and the mean daily range 11°.6.
The mean daily dew-point was 45.5, and the mean daily relative
humidity 80.7. The total movement of the wind during the month
was 6,030 miles, the highest velocity reached being 46. The total
precipitation for the month was 10.57 inches, and on 20 days .o1
of an inch or more of rain fell. The number of clear days during
the month was 5, of fair days 8, and of cloudy days 17. On three
days light frost occurred.

HEALTH MATTERS.
The Corset.

Dr. ROBERT L. DICKINSON, lecturer on obstetrics at the Long
Island College Hospital, has prepared a very elaborate paper on the
corset, discussing from a scientific standpoint the questions of pres-
sure and displacement caused by it. This paper was read before
the Brooklyn Pathological Society, where it excited great interest
and discussion. It has been published in full, with seventeen fig-
ures, all of which were drawn by the author of the paper, illus-
trating the effects of corset-pressure on the chest and abdomen and
their contained organs, in the Wew York Medzcal Journal of Nov.
5. Dr. Dickinson says: “Ridicule, argument, and invective have
been freely expended upon the artificial small waist since the days
of Martial and Galen. Yet the habit of corset-wearing has received
little systematic study, and men’s opinions are widely at variance.
We frequently meet with the statement that corset-wearing works
great injury; we discover a catalogue of five and ninety different
diseases and disorders due to tight lacing; we find Bouvier, who
has written the elaborate and interesting history of this article of
dress, vigorously asserting that ‘the modern corset, moderately
tightened, is without appreciable influence on the health of the
healthy woman :’ and we encounter all shades of opinion between
these extremes. But unsupported assertion is poor evidence, al-
though a general impression must carry some weight. To obtain
clear perceptions of the action of the corset, I have endeavored to
measure the amount of pressure it exerts, to ascertain the distribu-
tion of the pressure, and to determine the displacements resulting
therefrom, studying the subject with as little bias as possible, stat-
ing bald facts, and rarely expressing opinions.”

The first tests which Dr. Dickinson applied were to determine
the external pressure by the manometer ; and as a result he givesa
table of the various pressures within the body, as that of the blood
and of the expiratory force of the lungs, when compared with the
pressure exerted by the corset.

In reference to the words ‘tight’ and ‘loose’ as applied to cor-
sets, the author says these words need to be defined. They lack
precision, but are necessary. We cannot determine any limit of
contraction in inches as the dividing-line, since in certain cases an
inch and a half lessening of waist-measure with one woman will
cause more pressure and more distress than five inches in another.
The guide must be the patient’s sensations, when we can trust her
testimony, and signs that are readily appreciated, such as the re-
stricted respiration and movement, evident discomfort when the
corset is first hooked, flushing of the face in a warm room, and the

SCIENCE.

281

indentations in the skin after removal of the corset. Appearance
goes for nothing: a large bust and wide hips or shoulders give an
impression of slenderness in the waist which may be entirely deceit-
ful. The least pressure he has estimated from a corset is twenty-
one pounds : the greatest pressure is eighty-eight pounds. Within
the half-minute that follows any exertion, such as rising, lying
down, turning over, or straining, the mercury in the manometer
rises from a half-inch to an inch and a half, then gradually falls to
its steady level. On taking off a corset, one often observes that if
the circumference of the waist is taken at once, and again a few
minutes later, an increase of about an inch will haveoccurred. Six
inches difference between the circumference of the waist over the
corset and the waist with the corset removed is the greatest differ-
ence which he has measured. Five and a half and five he has met
with once each. In the woman who wears no corsets the many
layers of bands about the waist, on which heavy skirts drag, are
sufficient to cause considerable constriction, as Dr. Mosher states.
The thoracic cavity suffers less diminution in size and alteration in
shape from corset-wearing than the abdominal. The principal
constricting effect is exerted below the fifth rib. The inferior edge
of the lung is compressed, and its ability to distend the lower part
of the pleural cavity seriously crippled. Compensation in part is
effected by the tendency of the corset, when firmly adjusted, to
raise the shoulders, forcing the upper lobes to do the breathing, as
Sibson has proved, raising the thoracic, or five upper ribs, widening
the interspaces (also a constant condition in the female), and in
this way expanding the highest part of the conical thoracic cavity.
Freer play of the apices in women who wear corsets would lead
one to expect consolidation at these points to be relatively less fre-
quent than in men, while affections at the base should be more
commonly met with. An increased tendency to emphysema of the
upper lobes might also be anticipated.

The author raises this interesting question, May the peculiar char-
acter of the respiration in women be attributed to the use of cor-
sets ? Two observers who are especially qualified to testify have
stated the case very forcibly. Sibson says, “In the adult female
the form of the chest and abdomen and the respiratory movements
are often undoubtedly modified by tight lacing. The form of the
chest and the respiratory movements do not differ perceptibly in
girls and boys below the age of ten. Although the form of the
chest remains nearly the same until the age of twelve, the abdomi-
nal movement is then somewhat less, and the thoracic somewhat
greater, in girls than boys. At this age and earlier, stays are worn,
and, though they do not compress the body materially, yet they re-
strain the free expansion of the lower ribs during free exercise.
After the age of fourteen the form of the chest and the respiratory
movements differ materially in females and males. I think it prob-
able that in females, even if they wore no stays, the thoracic res-
piration would be relatively greater, and the diaphragmatic less,
than in man; but this is only surmise. Delicate men,” he says
further, “approximate to the female thoracic breathing; vigorous
women, to the male abdominal breathing; and long-distance run-
ners have the least thoracic breathing of all men (in the quiescent
condition). The diaphragm would seem, therefore, to be a muscle
capable of developing to meet increased demands as much as any
other that the athlete strengthens.”

Walshe says, “ The agricultural woman, who knows not stays,
breathes more like a man than the town female. Besides, during
sleep the conditions of pectoral and ventral action of the female are
much less strikingly different from those in the male than in the
waking state: the waist is relieved for a time from constriction.
And, further, the male and female dog breathe almost exactly
alike, as do the horse and mare: the action is abdominal and lower
costal.”

Dr. Dickinson calls attention to the observations of Dr. Mays of
Philadelphia, who has recently studied the respiratory movements
of Indian girls in the Lincoln Institution, and whose results have
been referred to in Sczence. These girls had always worn loose
clothing. They ranged between ten and twenty years of age.
Tracings from their costal and abdominal respiratory movements
showed a very close analogy to those of the civilized male, and that,
“50 far as the Indian is concerned, the abdominal is the original
type of respiration in both male and female, and that the costal type in

\

282

the civilized female is developed through the constricting influence of
dress around the abdomen. This is markedly shown in the greater
prominence of the costal movements in those girls who were either
one-half or three-fourths white, and who were hence dominated to
a greater or less extent by the influence of civilized blood... . It
is also evident that the costal type of respiration in the civilized fe-
male is not due to the influence of gestation.”

Long-continued compression, by the corset, of the wall of the
abdomen in the epigastric and hypochondriac regions, gradually
brings about a thinning of its adipose layer. Below the ring of
constriction the fat accumulates. The woman who abhors ‘a
stomach’ yet adopts the most effective means of cultivating one.
Flabby, old, or obese persons are especially prone to pile up panni-
culus adiposus below the navel. Many stout young men in good
condition have been examined, and not one has been found in whom
this tendency is evident. On the contrary, the fatty layer above the
umbilicus is usually thicker than that below it. These men wear sus-
penders. In eleven healthy women below thirty who have'been in
the habit of wearing corsets (of varying degrees of tightness) the
fat below the navel has always been found to be more than twice
as thick as that above, while one to three is no uncommon ratio.
That this is not normal is proved by the fact that in two teachers
of gymnastics measured for me by Dr. Mosher the fatty layer was
thicker above. With a corset that is ‘quite tight,’ but not so tight
as the patient “could bear it, as in a new dress or at a ball,” the
displacement of the uterus is a third of an inch. The distance
seems insignificant, and may only be considered of importance in
view of the following facts: 1st, That this is almost the deepest
position to which the structures can be forced by straining down;
2d, That the long-continued action of the depressing force is ex-
erted during the period of growth; 3d, In view of the results likely
to ensue in case of weakened and enfeebled supports, in case of in-
creased size and weight of the uterus (normally present during
menstruation), and in case of incipient displacement; it naturally
follows, 4th, That this forcing downward is sufficient to render the
uterine supports tense (be they ligament, ‘column,’ or pelvic sur-
roundings zz ¢ofo), and that in their taut condition any extra or
added stress, like deep breathing, or exertion, or bending, might
well be enough to each time slightly overstrain these stretched sup-
ports. Slowly and steadily as this force acts, yielding must in
time occur. In fact, Engel states that in every one of thirty autop-
sies in which evidences of tight lacing were found, prolapsus of the
uterus was present in some degree, except where adhesions had
prevented it. Willnot this account in part for the uterine troubles
of women supposed to be due to many of their sendentary occupa-
tions, such as sewing-machine work? The man bending forward
relaxes his abdominal wall, and enormously lowers his intra-abdom-
inal pressure by so doing (Schatz), but the corseted female, who
writes or sews, produces the opposite effect. The earlier corsets
are worn, the more the liver would be affected, since it is propor-
tionately much larger in the child than in the adult. Previous to
puberty its weight may be as much as one-thirtieth, or even one-
twentieth, of that of the entire body: in the adult it averages one-
fortieth. “The practice of tight lacing,” says Murchison, “may
cause displacements and malformations of the liver, which may
simulate enlargement, and which are of considerable importance in
diagnosis. Tight lacing may act on the liver in three ways, — ac-
cording to the situation, the tightness, and the duration of the con-
stricting cause. (@) The liver may be displaced upward or down-
ward, according as the pressure is applied below or above. The
precise situation where the pressure is applied will vary with the
prevailing fashion of dress; but most commonly in this country the
displacement is downward, and this may be to such an extent that
the lower margin reaches theilium, and the liver appears to fill up the
whole of the right side and front of the abdomen. [Frerichs and
other writers speak of this amount of change in location]. (4) In
consequence of lateral compression the liver may be elongated in
its vertical diameter so that a larger portion of it is brought into
apposition with the abdominal and thoracic walls. This is a very
common result of tight lacing. (¢) When the pressure is exerted
by a tight cord, it may produce deep fissures in the substance of
the liver, as the result of which, portions of the organ may be more
or less detached, and may even be felt as movable tumors through

SCIENCE:

[Vor 2. ~ No e253

the abdominal parietes. Apparent enlargements of the liver from
tight lacing are far more common than is generally believed.”

If, from the testimony of these five observers, — Braun, Corbin,
Engel, Frerichs, and Murchison, —the extreme mobility of the liver
has been proved, although we grant that these extremes result from
tight lacing, are we not justified in believing that even a loosely ad-
justed corset must definitely displace so mobile an organ? The
difference between the loosest corset and the tightest is less than
might be imagined. Dr. Dickinson has not been able to double the
pressure on requesting a patient to lace her loose corset to the ut-
most she could bear.

Engel found the stomach displaced in the following remarkable
manner. It was shoved to the left. Its long axis, from a horizon-
tal or oblique direction, was changed to a vertical, so that the lesser
curvature ran down directly to the left of the spinal column. The
pyloric end was depressed as far as the fourth lumbar vertebra.
Constriction not unlike the liver-furrow was occasionally met with,
but without pathological changes in the walls. The pancreas may
be dragged down to a perpendicular position on the face of the
vertebral column, reaching down to the promontory. These were
extreme cases, of course.

A few of the most palpable changes brought about by corset-
pressure have thus been briefly described. There are many others
as much more important as they are more subtle and difficult of
proof, such as the disturbances of abdominal circulation, the effect
on digestion, the limitation of exercise, and the slowly increasing
action on the general health.

The conclusions reached by the author of this interesting paper,
are: I. The maximum pressure at any one point was 1.625 pound
to the square inch. This was during inspiration. The maximum in
quiet breathing was over the sixth and seventh cartilages, and was
0.625 of a pound. 2. The estimated total pressure of the corset
varies between thirty and eighty pounds, —in a loose corset
about thirty-five pounds, in a tight corset sixty-five pounds. 3.
Within half a minute after hooking the corset, such an adjustment
occurs that a distinct fall in pressure results. 4. The circumference
of the waist is no criterion of tightness. The difference between
the waist-measure with and without corsets gives no direct clew
either to the number of pounds pressure or to the diminution in
vital capacity. Relaxation and habit seem to affect these factors
largely. 5. The capacity for expansion of the chest was found to
be restricted one-fifth when the corset was on. 6. The thoracic
character of the breathing in women is largely due to corset-wear-
ing. 7. The thoracic cavity is less affected by the corset than the
abdominal. 8. The abdominal wall is thinned and weakened by
the pressure of stays. 9. The liver suffers more direct pressure,
and is more frequently displaced, than any other organ. to. The
pelvic floor is bulged downward by tight lacing one-third of an
inch (0.9 cm).

BOOK-REVIEWS.

The Study of History in American Collegesand Uncversitzes. By
HERBERT B. ADAMS, Ph.D. Washington, Government. 82.

The Study of History tn England and Scotland. By PAUL
FREDERICQ. Baltimore, Johns Hopkins University. 89.

By a pleasant coincidence these two volumes reach us together,
and they have a great and reciprocal interest. When Dr. Adams
comes to look over the present series of his Studies, we believe that
he will find it the most interesting, and perhaps the most valuable,
of all. It will be remembered, that, after half of the series had
been devoted to studies of local government, a pleasant essay on a
recondite subject in the political history of the United States was
introduced, and that this was followed by Dr. Adams’s own contri-
bution on the literature of charities. The present paper, which is
translated from the French by Miss Henrietta Leonard, is the re-
port on the study of history in England and Scotland, which was
prepared by Professor Fredericq at the invitation of the Belgian
minister of public instruction. The report is very complete, and
the author seems to have spared no pains to gather all the informa-
tion available. Courses of study and examination-papers have been
drawn upon ad /zbztum.

Decemser 9, 1887. |

The author finds that the “ study of history in Scotland ” is some-
thing which does not exist. He says frankly that “‘history is in
reality excluded from the curriculum of Scottish universities.” At
Aberdeen and St. Andrew's it is not taught at all, except when
some historical information is necessarily imparted in the course of
instruction in literature. He is hopeful, however, that a new act of
Parliament will remedy this glaring defect, and afford history at
least a decent recognition in the land of Robertson, Walter Scott,
and Carlyle.

With Cambridge and Oxford, Professor Fredericq was very much
impressed, and he grows quite enthusiastic over the system of fel-
lowships which permits men like Max Miiller and Mr. S. R. Gardi-
ner to secure an academic income while devoting their lives, not to
teaching, but to advancing the cause of science. The historical in-
struction at the two universities is outlined for us by the author,
and we learn exactly what courses each professor and fellow gives,
and how he gives them. The description of Professor Seeley as “a
master whose first care is to make his pupils think for themselves,”
is a very pleasant one, and his adaptation of the German Semznar
method is highly praised. Mr. Oscar Browning, well known in this
country for his pedagogical writing, also comes in fora special word
of praise.

At Oxford it was found that the programme of the historical in-
struction was more grandiloquent than the instruction itself justified.
The lecturers are referred to as generally restricting themselves to
an elementary style of teaching, and as not using any of the scien-
tific equipment on which the continental student depends so much.
Professor Fredericq notes that “‘ the remarkable development in his-
torical instruction that has taken place at Oxford since 1870, and at
Cambridge since 1875, leads one to think that the practical course
will soon be felt a necessary complement to the already brilliant
theoretical.course.” The corps of instructors at both universities
is ample; and, when modern methods and gwedlenstudze shall
have replaced much of the present antiquated instruction, then, we
are led to believe by the perusal of this essay, little else can be
asked for. ;

Dr. Adams's paper on the study of history in American colleges
and universities is quite as painstaking and far more comprehensive
a study than that of Professor Fredericq. The substance of some
of the chapters has previously appeared as articles in Hducatzon,
but they are now reproduced with many additions. Dr. Adams
traces the study of history at Harvard from its foundation up to the
preparation of Mr. Winsor’s ‘Narrative and Critical History of
America,’ and at Yale from the seventeenth century to the founda-
tion of the courses now given by Professors Wheeler and Dexter.
To Columbia College the writer awards the honor of being the first
institution in America to recognize history as worthy of a professo-
rial chair. His sketch of the historical teaching at Columbia, which
embraces the work of Vardill, Anthon, McVickar, Lieber, and
Burgess, is in many respects the most interesting in the volume,
and to it a very appreciative account of the School of Political
Science is added. The University of Michigan and Cornell receive
separate and generous treatment. The chapter on the Johns Hop-
kins University is a slightly revised reprint of Dr. Adams's earlier
paper on the subject. We were very much interested in reading of
the excellent instruction being given in the colleges for women, par-
ticularly at Wellesley. The paper concludes with an extract from
Mr. Carroll D. Wright's impressive address before the Economic
and Historical Associations at Cambridge in May last, and some
statistical tables.

Read in connection with each other and together with Professor
Fredericq’s articles on the teaching of history in Germany and
France, published some little time ago in the Revue [nternatzonale
del Enseignement, these pamphlets afford us the data for deter-
mining with some approach to exactness the comparative value of
the historical instruction now being given at the world’s great col-
leges and universities. We find advance everywhere, — promising,
hopeful advance. The spirit of Savigny, Ranke, and Draysen is
abroad ; and the work of Freeman and Seeley in England, and of
Burgess, Emerton, Adams, and Channing in this country, is in the
right direction, and productive of excellent results. But the next
generation will be even better able than our own to appreciate what
the modern method of studying and teaching history really means.

SCIENCE

283

The Family: An Historical and Social Study. By CHARLES
FRANKLIN THWING and CARRIE F. BUTLER THWING.
Boston, Lee & Shepard. 8°.

BOOKS on sociology increase in number and interest. The one
under notice is indeed a very good summary upon the subject in its
historical, social, and moral aspects; but it gives no hint of a defi-
nite purpose other than can be ascertained by reading it. It is
without a preface, — an omission which we think a defect in so im-
portant a discussion.

The first chapter treats of the prehistoric family, and examines
this institution in the Semitic and Aryan races, as a type of differ-
ent social structures. “The Semitic family is patriarchal, the
Aryan is individual : one makes the father the unit, the other makes
the family itself the unit; one is polygamous, in the other monog-
amy prevails; one gives all duties to women, the other gives some
duties to men, and somerights to women. The patriarchal Semitic
system is the germ of monarchy ; the Aryan family is the beginning
of the political commonwealth.” The patriarchal system is shown
to prevail among the Greeks, Romans, and Hebrews, with the
strict responsibility of woman for fidelity, and considerable laxity in
tolerating male infidelity. Then Christianity modified this system.
Two characteristics mark its influence and improvement upon pre-
vious conceptions of the family: monogamy and mutual chastity.
The same rule of purity was applied to the husband as to the wife,
which had been limited previously to the latter. The middle ages
are considered to mark a conflict between the Roman patriarchal
system, and the republican conception of the family in northern
races, based upon the capacity to bear arms. It is a chaotic period,
the first of which shows little respect for woman. The decline of
virtue in the Roman Empire had to burn out its course; but the
rise of chivalry was the restoration of the Christian conception,
which in one form or another continues to make improvement.

The general contrast between modern and ancient conceptions of
social life is that between the individual and the family. The in-
dividual is the legal and social centre of modern life; the family, of
the ancient. In modern jurisprudence the individual is made to
suffer for his own crime alone; in ancient, the family and kins-
folk were also made to suffer for the crime of a guilty member.
This is important for illustrating the tendency in mdividualism
to distribute the rights and responsibilities among a larger number
than the centre of a group or community. This elevates woman
above the position of a servant or of property.

The drift of rural into urban population is noticed, and is thought —
to endanger the family in such a way as to require correction by a
re-action in the opposite direction. We think, however, that eco-
nomic forces have determined this more than moral, although the
latter are strong factors in the movement. Fourierism, the Oneida
Community, and Mormonism do not pass unnoticed.

The last two chapters are an elaborate discussion of divorce in a
very scientific manner, but with some unconsciousness of the diffi-
culties in the way of correcting the evils of it, due to social cus-
toms which must first be amended before the problem of divorce
can be solved. The causes of divorce are assigned to two classes,
—general and special. The general are, (1) growth of individualism,
(2) secularization of marriage, (3) change in social and political con-
dition of woman. The special are, (1) husband's belief in ownership
of wife’s person, (2) property, (3) wife’s failure to assume her share of
the burdens of the family. The remedy lies, as the author thinks, (1)
in a proper conception of a woman’s responsibilities, (2) in a higher
standard of belief and practice as to domestic institutions, (3) in
the restoration of marriage to a religious basis, and (4) in uniform-
ity of law as to marriage and divorce.

We will not criticise this. The subject merely suggests the
remark that there is a growing tendency to make married life a
commercial matter, one of the most dangerous influences that ever
affected human life. On the other hand, both as a corrective of
this, and as a check upon population of which Malthus may not
have dreamed, there is a tendency to enfranchise woman, socially
and legally, so as to make her independent of the marital relation
for her support. It isnot a little remarkable, that, just as popula-
tion is beginning to approach the limits of its expansion by occupy-
ing all the material resources for its subsistence, the combined in-

284

fluence of chivalry, Christianity, and individualism should have an-
ticipated the pressure which their occupation or exhaustion must
produce by emphasizing the moral, social, and legal rights of
woman, .and thus confer upon society the power to exercise a
check upon the terrible consequences of over-population. Evolu-
tion seems to be creating motives and an environment that will
modify the effects of the most powerful of human instincts, and
just at a time that will prevent the pressure from being too abrupt-
ly imposed upon civilization.

Conscious Motherhood ; or, The Earliest Unfolding of the Child
in the Cradle, Nursery, and Kindergarten. By EMMA MAR-
WEDEL. Chicago, Interstate Publ. Co. 8°,

THE reviewer has a difficult choice to make with regard to the
proper mode of viewing such a book as this. He is tempted, in
the first place, to regard the book as a scientific contribution, and
finds the justification of such a method in the fact that the psycho-
logical development of infant mind is well on its way towards as-
suming the character of a scientific body of truths. Regarded as
such, no favorable notice can be passed upon it. It lacks through-
out a systematic and symmetrical exposition: it fails to distinguish
the important from the trivial, the scientifically established from the
popularly supposed: it uses new words where we have good tech-
nical words in their stead, ¢,g., ‘sensoric,’ ‘motoric,’ “peripheric,’
for ‘sensory,’ ‘ motor,’ ‘ peripheral,’ the German ‘rzzde’ instead of
“cortex, and so on: it includes several rather serious blunders in
stating anatomical and physiological points, and shows the mark of
an ‘atechnical’ hand. In this sense the contribution here made is
of no high order of merit, and adds little of value to our knowledge
of the subject.

If, on the other hand, the reviewer asks himself the questions,
“What will be the practical effect of the book?” “How does it
stand as a means of propagating sound doctrines not yet univer-
sally understood?” he has the pleasanter task of finding many
commendable doctrines emphatically expressed. The keynote of
the volume, as indicated in its title, is to arouse mothers to a proper
appreciation of their privileges and duties. Education begins in the
cradle: the child is not one being in its infancy and another when
it comes under school influence. There is a continuous psychical
development paralleled by a physical development, taking place in-
dependently of the technical ‘instruction’ and based upon natural
laws. These laws are to be explicitly unfolded, and are to form
the guiding spirit under which the child is to be viewed and its true
education directed ; to reveal the all-important truth of the supreme
value of these early years of life when habits far deeper than the
artificial learning of later years are iaid down, when the most diffi-
cult actions of life are learned, when the child is passing with
lightning speed through the history of the race, epitomizing the
characteristics of remote ancestors as well as of its parents. The
duty of this sphere of education falls upon mothers: it is to be res-
cued from the hap-hazard spirit in which it is cultivated, to be
made a serious occupation and not a dilettanti toy, to be recog-
nized as the true mission of ‘conscious motherhood.’ Theadvance-
ment of woman is to consist in the increase in dignity and impor-
tance of the duties which have in all ages fallen to her share. The
appeal is a noble one; and while not always made with a full view
of the many-sidedness of the problem involved, is presented in a
way likely to attract the audience to which it specially addresses
itself.

The author is the head of a kindergarten in San Francisco, and
an enthusiastic follower of Froebel, taking from him some of his
peculiar symbolism and mystic imagery. Her other altar is erected
to Professor Preyer, as the representative of the modern scientific
study of child-mind; and from these two lines of interest she con-
fidently awaits the time when the relation of mother and child will
be practically appreciated in all its fulness, grandeur, and impor-
tance. The offshoot which the kindergarten has sent off from the
technical education will spread down to the home, there to plant
the real root of a natural education. Her next greatest interest is
in developing the technical side of kindergarten work; she here
falls into the common error of overestimating the importance of
doing things in just such and such a way to the neglect of the im-
portance of having them done in any of half a dozen ways: her

SCIENCE:

[Wor 26 © Nox 253

devices are plausible, but worthless if made a ritual. What is
wanted is a good teacher with a talent for adapting all methods.

So much for the original portion of the book. The second part
is devoted to a véswmé of the work of Preyer on child-mind, The
work of selecting the abstracts and putting them into good English
is fairly well done. Here and there the real important point is
omitted, and much detail is found in its place; and the physiological
portion is rarely accurately set forth. But the object of the transla-
tion is to arouse an interest in the observation of children, and in
this good cause the book is a desirable aid.

Die Welt in chren Spiegelungen unter dem Wandel des Volker-
gedankens. Von A. BASTIAN. Berlin, Mittler. 8°.

IN the present publication the author sets forth his ideas of the
principles on which the science of ethnology must be founded. He
considers ethnology the only sound basis of psychology. His ar-
guments are these. The inductive method of science as developed
in our century is founded on comparison. If psychology is to attain
the same scientific character which the natural sciences have
reached, the same methods must be applied. If, however, psychol-
ogy is exclusively based on the facts given by our self-conscious-
ness, it is impossible to apply this comparative method, as only a
single phenomenon — our own Psyche —is given. The first thing
to be done, therefore, is to establish sound methods of psychology.
The connection between physical and psychical phenomena must
be studied by the science pf psychophysics. The study of psychi-
cal phenomena can only be begun after an exhaustive knowledge
of such phenomena has been gained: therefore it is necessary to
know all ideas that exist, or have existed, in any people, at any
time. These must form the material for psychical researches. He
calls this method the ‘ statistics of ideas.’ Bastian has emphasized
these theories in all his recent publications, and his point of view is.
one of eminent importance.. It cannot be said too frequently that
our reasoning is not an absolutely logical one, but that it is influ-
enced by the reasoning of our predecessors and by our historical
environment: therefore our conclusions and theories, particularly
when referring to our own mind, which itself is affected by the
same influences to which our reasoning is subject, cannot be but
fallacious. In order to give such conclusions a sound basis, it is.
absolutely necessary to study the human mind in its various histori-
cal, and, speaking more generally, ethnic environments. By apply-
ing this method, the object to be studied is freed from the influences
that govern the mind of the student. b

There are two objects of ethnological studies. The one is to
trace an idea in its origin and growth and in its offshoots; but,
after this has been done, the problem remains to be solved, what
are the psychical laws that govern the growth of ideas in the mind
that holds them? We may know the whole history of an idea, still
we do not know why this idea is taken up by a certain people and
developed in a certain way, or why similar ideas are found in
regions widely apart. It is this branch of ethnology which Bastian
has in view when he again and again emphasizes the absolute
necessity of collecting what can be collected. The individuality of
uncivilized nations is disappearing so rapidly that we may expect it
to die out ere long. For this branch of ethnology particularly, all
phenomena of the life of uncivilized nations are of the highest im-
portance, and therefore their study must be carried on vigorously.

Bastian calls the present volume ‘ Prolegomena to the Statistics
of Ideas.’ We find in it a vast amount of material referring to the
ideas of uncivilized races, and of scientific men of various epochs,
on life and death, on the origin of the world, and on its end. It is
accompanied by a collection of pictures illustrating these ideas.

FE. Bs

Naturforschung und Schule. Von W. PREYER. Stuttgart.

IN this pamphlet Professor Preyer, the noted physiologist, vigor-
ously attacks the present educational system of Germany. His
main thesis is that the Gywznaszum — which, in spite of a few con-
cessions, still proclaims as the necessary education for all cultured
Germans a long drill in the classics, and still holds the only key to:
the university and the governmental posts—is an institution en-
tirely out of date, ignoring all that enormous addition to human

DECEMBER 9g, 1887. |

knowledge which forms the pride of our civilization, and using
methods that are in direct antagonism to the teachings of modern
educational science. What he asks is, that the Readschule, where
science is represented and the classics find but a small place, shall
be placed on equal footing with the Gymmnaszum ,; that its certifi-
cate be on a par with that of the Gymmnaszum as a credential for
entering the university and as a step toward official advancement.
When the two systems are allowed to compete on equal terms, a
healthy rivalry will give each its proper position in the educational
system.

In support of this position, Professor Preyer recounts some inter-
esting facts. In the first place, the present constitution of the
Gymnaszum is complained of. It puts too much strain on book-
knowledge, on memory-cram, on non-useful accumulation of dead
words, and allows no place to fresh, living facts. A very small
portion (only about fifteen per cent) go through the Gywnaszum and
receive the mark of proficiency, and many of these are older than
they should be. The school must be arranged so that the majority
of the pupils pass the examination with credit. Their physical
health suffers, as is shown very conclusively by the number of re-
jections for the military service. The number suffering from short-
sightedness (7zyofza) is startling. Furthermore, the university pro-

fessors are very rapidly coming to prefer students who have some ,

practical training; and more than half have, in answer to a circular,
expressed themselves in favor of placing the two schools on an
equal footing. The students of the sciences are increasing, in re-
cent years very rapidly; and yet the whole world of science must
accept all such recognitions of its disciplinary and culture value as
patronizing concessions from the powerful ‘dead-word’ scholars.
Professor Preyer wants no concessions, but a complete recognition
that the ‘ new education’ offers a training at least as valuable, from
a practical as well as a humanitarian standpoint, as the traditional
schooling of Germany.

As the charge is often brought that the objectors do not state
what they want, but only what they object to, the author
sketches a plan of school which he regards as in harmony with the
needs of modern life and the teachings of a sound physiology.
“Much more time must be devoted in the schools to character-
building, that is, to moral education and to physical culture, and
much less to instruction, that is, memory work.” First of all, he
asks a thorough systematic course in the mother-tongue, so that
every young man can express himself correctly and promptly, can
write a satisfactory letter, and arrange what he has to say so that
it is readily understood,— an accomplishment very rare among
present university students. He wants a sound course in general
practical ethics; a good knowledge of French and English; a
drill in Alezmatskunde, so that every German knows his own
country ; a careful instruction in history; a systematic training of
the senses and observing powers, by drawing, by manual skill, by
scientific tasks of all kinds, — mathematics, physics, chemistry, and
physiology. In addition, the hygienic condition of schools and
scholars should be under the official charge of a physician, whose
special duty it shall be to prevent the many causes of mental break-
down now so prevalent.

The usual counter-arguments, that our culture is staked upon
that of Greece and Rome, that these things are necessary for their
culture-power, etc., Professor Preyer admits, as far as they mean
that every opportunity should be given to study them, but entirely
opposes when it is held that @// must study them without reference
to their future career. Those who believe in the ‘new education’
must now, like Professor Preyer, send their sons to the Gym-
nasiunt to spend years in (to them) comparatively useless instruc-
tion, spoiling their powers for fresh fact investigation, and then
suddenly emerge in the sphere of university freedom where they
attempt to forget their previous word-lore, and strive to re-adjust
themselves to a new field of activity; must do this in order to se-
cure for their sons the entry into the full privileges of the university
and the governmental appointments. The removal of this restraint
he regards as a national necessity, and sees the fate of Germany
hanging upon its speedy adjustment to the needs of modern living.

One sees from this pamphlet that the Germans have their educa-
tional problems still to work out, and must go through bitter con-
troversies before advance is realized, quite as much as we in

SCIENCE.

285

America. Our institutions are younger and more plastic :- they’
should accordingly be in the van of the ‘new education.’

M. Tullé Ciceronzs Cato Major et Lelzus. With an Introduction
and Commentary by Austin Stickney, A.M. (Harper’s Classi-
cal Series, under the editorial supervision of HENRY DRISLER,,.
LL.D.) New York, Harper. 12°.

PROFESSOR DRISLER is laying classical instructors under great
obligation to him by providing them with a series of text-books
whose editors have kept always in view the practical needs of the
college class-room. In so many of the editionsof Greek and Latin
authors lately issued from the press, both in England and this.
country, there is an attempt on the part of the editors to overwhelm
the student with a display of erudition whose only effect is to dis-
courage him from any attempt to search for the notes that he really
needs, but which are only to be found zantesin gurgitevasto. In
the series now publishing, however, in which Professor Stickney’s
volume is the seventh, the results of careful and scholarly investi-
gation are set forth without any unnecessary and tiresome recapit-
ulation of details, that are of course interesting to the critical lin--
guist, but of no importance to the undergraduate, for whom these
volumes are primarily designed.

Professor Stickney has, in the ‘Cato Major et Leelius,’ given us
a companion to his excellent edition of the ‘ De Officiis,’ and one
that exhibits the same good judgment and knowledge of the needs.
of the class-room. The notes are admirably selected, concisely
given, and amply illustrated. Of course, after what Mr. Reid has
done in his masterly edition of these two treatises, one does not
look for much original matter; but a great deal that Mr. Reid dis—
cusses and illuminates with the light of his own very elegant schol--
arship is of interest only to the critical student of Cicero, and pre-
supposes an extensive acquaintance with that author. Professor
Stickney’s purpose is a different one. Conciseness is his object ;,
and the only criticism that one can reasonably make is, that brevity
is sometimes gained at the expense of strict accuracy of statement,.
as in the note on guo .. . vé@ (vi. 16), where the true locative
force and form are ignored in his explanation; while in the same
chapter the interesting form cedo is passed over with a mere trans—
lation. So, too, Cicero’s blundering derivation of occazzo is allowed
to stand, and the famous vzam quam .. . ingrediundum sit is dis-
missed with the perfunctory remark that it is “an archaism,”
though any fifth-form boy of an inquiring turn of mind would feel
a genuine interest in a fuller explanation.

The orthography of the book is, in the main, that of C. F. W..
Miiller’s edition, and is consistent and Ciceronian, —a delightful.
contrast with that of so many school editions published in this
country. The few changes which Professor Stickney has intro—

duced are, on the whole, improvements upon the Leipzig text.
Vals 10, 12

Die Kunst Ghicklich zu Sein. Von PAUL MANTEGAZZA. Jena..
(Translated from the Italian.)

WE have recently become very much interested in the personal.
characteristics of eminent men. So many of us feel that the.
changed conditions of modern life carry with them so entire a re—
adjustment of habits and views, that many of the commonly ac-
cepted guides for conduct are no longer applicable. We thus look.
about to see how men wiser than ourselves have solved these old.
yet ever new problems. A prominent magazine has recently col—
lected short accounts of the education of livingscholars. In a sim—
ilar autobiographical strain they have discussed the ‘objects of
life,’ and from what literary resources they drew most aid. Sir
John Lubbock reveals his practical philosophy by discoursing upom
the ‘ pleasures of life.’

In the above little volume the eminent Italian anthropologist,
Mantegazza, expounds in a highly entertaining manner his opti-
mistic life-philosophy. The author has no sympathy with the view
that this life is a vale of tears: he believes that the good is the pro-
motion of life. Health and morality are both life-favoring, and
both lead to happiness. Practically, happiness is rare because it is
hunted after too eagerly and too consciously, and not quietly en-
joyed by the way; again, because it is regarded as implying the
satisfaction of all wishes, while such a condition would really lead

286

‘to a state of stagnation. There is an art of being happy, a very
essential part of which is the power to enjoy the little every-day
‘comforts of living, and the absence of excessive worry about the
morrow.’ To assure the reader that all this is not simply theory,
ithe author plainly announces that he is happy. This is indeed a
healthy optimism, and, if happiness is at all a scientific topic, the
anthropologist is entitled to an authoritative voice in the matter.
But one cannot escape the conviction, even in the midst of the most
glowingly pictured pages, that the balmy air of Italy has allowed
the poet torun away with the scientist, and that the problem of
living is not so simple as we would like it to be. Be this as it may,
these pages contain the very interesting observations of a very in-
teresting man.

Winter. From the Journal of Henry D. Thoreau.
G. O. BLAKE.
Co.

THIS volume is the third that has been made of selections from
its author's journal. This singular man withdrew toa great extent
from the interests and the society of his fellow-men, and devoted
himself to the contemplation of nature. He was a naturalist; yet
there is very little of scientific interest in the volume before us. He
blames men of science for giving too exclusive attention to the
physical structure of animals, with too little regard for their men-
tal characteristics and their habits of life; yet he has not much to
say on these subjects himself. He was evidently more interested
in the esthetic aspect of nature than in the scientific, though he
shows but little insight into the deeper poetical significance of
natural objects. His remarks run largely on the trivial every-day
aspects of things, such as the tracks of animals on the snow, the
appearance of buds and catkins in the winter, and the bark of the
yellow birch ; and he goes into ecstasies over the humming of a
telegraph wire, which he declares to be superior to all the poetry of
antiquity (p. 106). The journal is full of complaints about the loss
of early friendships, several of Thoreau’s friends having become
estranged from him, which he seems to have been at loss toaccount
for. But surely a man who took so little interest in human affairs
as he seems to have done could hardly expect very warm sympathy
from others. The journal contains many observations on moral
and intellectual matters, which are often of much higher value than
the descriptions of natural objects that make up the greater part
of the work. The author’s delineation of the character of Wash-
ington is correct and well expressed, and he has several remarks
here and there on the subject of authors and authorship which are
quite interesting. Thoreau’s style is generally clear and refined,
both in descriptive and in reflective passages ; and if he had had a
higher purpose in life, and more interest in the affairs of men, he
might have been an eminent author.

Ed. by H
Boston and New York, Houghton, Mifflin, &

ee,

Natural Law in the Business World. By HENRY WooD. Bos-
ton, Lee & Shepard. 16°.

THE author of this work is a practical business-man, and writes
throughout from a practical point of view. He disclaims all pre-
tension to scientific profundity, yet he shows a clear grasp of scien-
tific principles and of their relations to the business world. He
speaks of his work as “‘ an honest attempt to trace out the working
and application of natural law, as it runs through the economic and
social fabric, in a plain and simple manner” (p. 5). The attempt,
‘we think, is in the main successful. The author’s style is direct and
‘clear, and his method of treatment better fitted to win the attention
‘of practical but unscientific minds than the method of the regular
economists.

The main thesis of the book is the supremacy in industry of the
aw of supply and demand, and the necessity of adherence to this
Jaw as acondition of industrial prosperity. Many other subjects,
however, are treated in the various chapters, which cover a wide
range of topics. Mr. Wood is strongly opposed to labor combina-
tions, partly because of their antagonism to capital, and partly be-
cause they are sometimes unjust to non-unionists, and because, as
he thinks, they unduly restrict the individual freedom of their own
members. In condemning them so strongly as he does, we think
he goes too far, for he seems to have judged them almost exclu-
sively by their bad side, without regard to the benefits which may

SCIENGE:

[Vot. X. No. 253

and often do result from them. He shows, however, a lively inter-
est in the laborers themselves and a strong desire for more harmo-
nious relations between them and their employers. He emphasizes
the fact that brain labor is more important than muscular labor, a
fact that is too often overlooked by labor agitators; but he honors
honest labor of every kind, and declares that labor is a blessing,
and not acurse. Socialism, of course, meets with Mr. Wood’s un-
sparing condemnation, and he looks with little favor on any species
of State interference. The chapters on the unequal distribution of
wealth, on dependence and poverty, on the railroad system, and on
the management of corporations, are well considered, and worthy
of perusal by both laborers and capitalists. The book is now issued
in cheap form, with paper covers, and deserves a wide circulation.

NOTES AND NEWS. ’

THE twentieth annual meeting of the Kansas Academy of
Science was held in the Capitol Building, Topeka, Oct. 26, 27, 28,
1887. There was an excellent attendance of members, but the
local attendance was not quite equal to that of last year. The
capital has too many things in the way of meetings, etc., so the
citizens become a little weary. The papers read were unusually -
valuable. The Academy of Science is growing. The annual
meeting next year will be held in Wichita in October. The follow-
ing is a list of the papers read: address of the retiring president,
Rev. John D. Parker, on ‘ Progress in Astronomy ;’ Lucien J.
Blake, ‘Practical Electricity and the Laws of Energy;’ H. W.
Everest, ‘The Utilization of Mental Power;’ Robert Hay, ‘ The
Lignite of the Kansas Dakota,’ and ‘Notes on Salt in Kansas;’
W. R. Lighton, ‘On the New Coal-Shaft at Leavenworth;’ F. H.
Snow, ‘Fossil Flora of the Kansas Dakota, and‘A List of the
Fauna and Flora of the Kansas Coal-Measures;’ D. S. Kelly,
“Notes on Fossil Elephas from Morton County;’ Joseph Savage,
“A Fossil Deposit at Garden Park, Colorado;’ E. H. S. Bailey,
‘On the Recently discovered Ellsworth Salt-Beds;’ Robert Hay,
‘Notes on Building-Stones in Kansas;’ N.S. Goss, ‘On the Nest-
ing of the Mississippi Kite and Snowy Plover in Central-Southern
Kansas,’ ‘Notes on the Yellow-Tailed Cassiques,’ and ‘ Feeding-
Habits of the White Pelicans ;’ F. H. Snow, ‘Notes on the Purs-
lane-Worm (Copzdryas Gloverz) ;’ W. Knaus, ‘ Notes on Calopte-
ron reticulatum Fab. ;’ Charles R. Carpenter, ‘On the Black Rot
of the Grape;’ Mrs. A. L. Slosson, ‘ Personal Observations on the
Kansas Flora;’ F. H. Snow, ‘The Desmids of Kansas;’ W. A.
Kellerman, ‘Some New or Little-Known Kansas Plants;’ L. E.
Sayre, ‘Report of Further Observation on the Loco-Weed,’ and
‘The Resin of Sz/phzum lactnzatum (Rosin- Weed) ; W.R. Lighton,
‘Notes on the Circulation of the Sap ;’ J. T. Lovewell, < Alcohol in
Temperance-Drinks;’ T. H. Dinsmore, ‘Should Malt be con-
sidered an Intoxicant?’ and ‘On the Effect of Oxygen on Animal
Life;’ E. H. S. Bailey, ‘On the Relation between Taste and the
Acidity of Certain Acids;’ L. E. Sayre, ‘The Action of Chromate
of Lead upon the Gastric Fluid;’ T.H. Dinsmore, ‘ Color-Blind-
ness in the State Normal School ;’ J. T. Lovewell, ‘ Further Studies
onthe Rainfall in Kansas;’ F.H. Snow, ‘ Rain Cycles in Kansas ;’
George E. Curtis, ‘ Weather-Predictions in the United States;’ T.
B. Jennings, ‘Needs and Utility of the Kansas State Weather-Ser-
vice ;’ George B. Curtis, ‘The Exposure of Meteorological Instru-
ments,’ and ‘Chimney-Hoods;’ W. S. Franklin, ‘ Continuation of
Some Studies of Lissajous Figures.’

— The steamship ‘Hondo’ sailed on Wednesday, Nov. 30, with
the Nicaragua Canal Association’s survey expedition. The work
will be in immediate charge of E. S. Peary. The instructions is-
sued by Chief-Engineer Menocal are very minute. The Axgzmeer-
ing News says that five parties will be organized. First the sur-
vey by all the parties of the north-eastern section of the canal, with
special attention to Greytown Harbor, is contemplated, estimated
to take three months’ time, when most of the parties are to be
moved over to the comparatively short western section. The im-
portant detail of boring to ascertain the nature of the material is
not to be neglected. The present idea is that six to nine months
in all will cover the work of preliminary location enough to base
tolerably exact estimates on.

DeEcEMBER 9, 1887. |

—The annual meeting of the American Society for Psychical
Research was held in Boston last week. After the opening re-
marks, Dr. Minot introduced Prof. H. P. Bowditch, who presented
the report of the committee on thought transferrence. ‘‘ Among the
conditions possibly favorable to thought transterrence, supposing it
to be a genuine phenomenon, the effect of asudden and unexpected
impression made on the mind of the agent seemed particularly
worthy of investigation. For this purpose experiments were made
in which a brilliantly illuminated figure or diagram could be sud-
denly displayed to the agent while sitting in a darkened room. The
chairman of this committee, Mr. Hodgson, and Dr. W. S. Bigelow
took part in these experiments, which were twenty or thirty in num-
ber, and conducted on different days in the month of July last. As
absolutely no evidence of thought transferrence was obtained, the
details of the experiments may be omitted. The suggestion made
in the last report of this committee, that a drug might be discovered
which by its action on the cerebral centres might favor thought
transferrence, seemed also worth testing. For this purpose experi-
ments were tried, with Mr. Hodgson acting both as agent and per-
cipient while partially under the influence of ether, but the results
differed in no respect from those obtained when he was in the nor-
mal state.” In some other experiments made by Mr. Hodgson,
Professor Bowditch added, there was a degree of success which
warranted a continuation of the investigation. “It will be evident
to those who have followed the work of the American Society thus
far, that the attempt to obtain evidence as to the reality of ‘thought
transferrence’ has been attended with very meagre results. If
thought transferrence be a genuine psychological phenomenon, it is
evident that the conditions favorable to its manifestation are not
generally understood. Judging from our experience thus far, it
would seem that an inquiring attitude of mind is certainly not one
of these favoring circumstances.” Other interesting reports to
which the audience listened were those of the committee on experi-
mental psychology, by Dr. Minot; the committee on apparitions
and haunted houses, by Prof. Josiah Royce; the committee on
hypnotic phenomena, by Mr. Charles B. Cory; and the committee
on mediumistic phenomena, by Dr. W. N, Bullard.

—The reports of M. Larrieu, late missionary in China, who
maintains that the great wall of China has never existed (Za
Grande Murazlle de Chine, Paris, 1887), has been widely spread
by the American daily papers. He claims that the wall consisted
merely of watch-towers, built of earth and bricks, about twenty-five
feet high and a thousand feet apart. In a few places they were
connected by an embankment. He also says that the wall north of
Peking and the palisades west of Sian-tung never existed. These
views cannot be correct, as numerous travellers have seen the wall
or its ruins. In regard to the palisades of Sian-tung, H. E. M.
James, who recently visited Manchuira, says that at the present day
they have disappeared entirely, though a mound or row of trees
occasionally marks the place where they stood. The gateways,
however, he found still maintained as customs-posts, at which tran-
sit duties arelevied. Undoubtedly the wall consisted in many parts
of earth, but there is no reason to maintain that it never existed.

LETTERS TO THE EDITOR.

"." Correspondents are requested to be as brief as possible.
in all cases required as proof of good faith.

Twenty copies of the number containing his communication will be furnished
Sree to any correspondent on request.

The editor will be glad to publish any queries consonant with the character of
the journal.

The writer's name is

Rock Specimens from Cumberland Sound, Baffin Land.

THE following specimens were collected by Mr. W. Whiting of
the whaling-station of Messrs. Williams & Co., New London, Conn.,
on Umanaktuak, an island on the south-west coast of Cumberland
Sound. The specimen No. 10 was found by an Eskimo on a hunt-
ing excursion, and sold as a curiosity to Mr. Whiting, from whom
I received the specimens for examination.

1. Bowlder from the Bed of a Torrent Umanaktuak.— Com-
pact limestone, almost black, and somewhat argillaceous. It
weathers dark gray, and shows on the surface slightly projecting,
fine, parallel lines of stratification from one-quarter to one-half an
inch apart. No trace of fossils can be detected, either by inspection

SCIENCE.

287

or in microscopic sections. Under the microscope it is seen to con-
sist of gray, rounded, fine calcareous grains with a few black ones,
all apparently deposited from water.

2. South-west Corner, Umanaktuak.
faces, and holding drusy white quartz.

3. Same Locality. — A decomposing black crystalline rock, which,
On microscopic examination, proves to consist of graphite, with
hornblende, a triclinic felspar, and a little quartz. It breaks into.
angular fragments along thin layers of graphite, which are sliken-
sided, and give each one the appearance of a piece of this mineral
alone.

4. Little Hill (Kagodloaping), Umanaktuak. —Hornblendic
gneiss, of a rather coarse ‘ pepper-and-salt’ appearance, consist—
ing of about equal parts of quartz and felspar, forming the white
portion, and of black hornblende with smaller quantities of brown
mica, the dark.

5. Big Hill, Umanaktuak, High Level. —Light gray gneiss of
medium texture, composed of about equal parts of orthoclase and
quartz, with a subordinate proportion of fine scales of black mica,
Occasional crystals of the felspar are much larger than the rest.

6. Beg Hill, Umanaktuak, Shore Line Eastward.— Gray
gneiss, consisting of layers of mixed orthoclase and quartz, alternat-
ing with others composed of scales of brown mica.

7. Umanaktuak.— Rusty mica-schist of medium texture, the
quartz in small proportion.

8. Vein x Umanaktuak.— Translucent white vitreous quartz
having exactly the appearance of alum.

9. Umanaktuak. — White rather coarsely crystalline felspar and
quartz, with a few small scales of white mica, being a very light-
colored variety of granite, apparently from a small vein.

10. About 40 Moles Inland, ina South- Westerly Direction from
Umanaktuak.— Foliated graphite with rusty surfaces and part-
ings.

11. Umanakituak. — Vitreous translucent gray quartz with thin
plates of brown mica traversing it in different directions.

Thesé specimens indicate the ordinary Laurentian system, and
are of much the same character as on the north side of Hudson
Strait, where the rocks appear to be allied to those of the lower
Ottawa valley, and to be somewhat nearer and more modified than
the great mass of the Laurentian in the Hudson Bay territories.

Dr. ROBERT BELL,
Asststant Director Geological Survey of Canada.

Graphite with rusty sur-

Ottawa, Noy. 28,

‘Eskimo and the Indian.’

I WISH to add my voice to emphasize Dr. Boas’s criticism of the
method employed in Mr. Chamberlain’s article with the above title.
Though I should be sorry to hurt Mr. Chamberlain’s feelings, I
am obliged to say that there has been a great deal too much of the
same sort of work done, and erroneous comparisons of this kind
seem particularly alluring to those who attempt the study of the
comparative philology of American languages on a large scale.

One reason for these errors is not far to seek. "They of course
are obliged to work with the published vocabularies of the Eskimo
language. Now, as they have no knowledge of this language (and
the number of those who have even an elementary knowledge of it,
outside of the Danish settlers in Greenland, might almost be
counted on the fingers), they are entirely unable to realize how bad
most of those vocabularies are phonetically. Even the best of these,
Dr. Rink’s lately published comparative list of stem-words (see Dr.
Boas’s articlein Sczezce, Dec. 2), is written in the modern Green-
landic alphabet, which, in my opinion, masks many important pho-
netic relations, and they seem to havea sort of fatal instinct for get-
ting hold of the oldest and least phonetic vocabularies. This is
specially evident in Mr. Chamberlain’s list of words. Dr. Boas has
sufficiently disposed of the first table, but to show how misleading
such things are, I have taken the trouble to go through his second
list, taking such words as can be recognized as Eskimo words at all,
and showing how their resemblances to the Indian words are due to
a misapprehension of the real sound of the words. In expressing the
sounds phonetically, I have used the alphabet employed by the
Bureau of Ethnology in writing Indian languages, as the one with
which Iam most familiar. I think it will be sufficiently intelligible.

288

1, hrownzk, ‘bone,’ is the well-known Eskimo word saumeg (the
initial s is perhaps merely an aspirate in some parts of the central
‘region). é

2, anayva, ‘ brother,’ isa misprint or misquotation of a#ayoa of
Father Petitot’s Mackenzie vocabulary. This means ‘his elder
brother,’ being the well-known azayo (Greenland spelling, azgajo)
~with the so-called suffix.

3, tchene-yoark, ‘do,’ is phonetically ¢cexeyoag, the regular Mac-
-kenzie dialectic variant of sazavog, ‘he works.’

4, anyark, ‘day’ (Mackenzie), is a misprint for azyaps, defined
by Petitot as ‘jour long.’

5, tschzntak, ‘ear’ (Tchuktschi = Asiatic Eskimo), is an evident
error for szzza, ‘his ear.’ In this case the correction makes the
comparison a little better, for the words compared at least begin
with the same letter.

6, atta, ‘father,’ is the baby-word atata, adada (perhaps the
ssame as ‘ daddy’).

7, athanka, ‘ fingers,’ is probably a Reindeer Chukch or Siberian
~word.

8, oonoktook, ‘to burn,’ is a well-known compound of which the
-stem-word is zvog.

9, aksezt, ‘foot’ (hand), is properly axcaz¢ (Greenland spelling,
.arssazt), which appears in the other dialects as aggazt, adrzgaz, etc.

10, ayunitork ‘ good ' (Mackenzie), is really a compound, ayunzt-
-sog, ‘not bad’ (Greenland spelling, ajzngztsok).

11, eshet, ‘hand’ (Kadiak), is evidently arssaz¢ again.

12, kakkazrar, ‘lip’ (Mackenzie), is meant for akkzvzap of
‘Petitot’s vocabulary, which is a well-known compound of £akzz.

13, azaha, etc., ‘mother,’ is evidently another well-known baby-
word, azana, sometimes amama (really, I think, mama).

14, chinga, ‘nose’ (Ychuktschi), is gzzgd, ‘his nose,’ of all the
dialects. (The initial sound is perhaps nearer to 4, though a well-
marked guttural.)

15, annu, annju, ‘snow, should probably be azzgo.

16, ukshiok, uktschuk, ‘winter, is wkzog in at least five other
-dialects.

17, aganak, ‘woman,’ loses all resemblance to efenzug in the
forms in which it is usually seen, axzaq, azina.

Thus I have shown that out of twenty-five comparisons, at least
‘seventeen depend on a total misapprehension of the pronunciation
-or meaning of the words for even the “ fortuitous coincidences of
sound” alluded to by Boas.

I must, however, do Mr. Chamberlain the justice to say that his
remarks about the possibility of the Eskimo name for copper hav-
‘ing been derived from the language of the Indians from whom they
obtained the copper, are certainly suggestive. The Greenlandic word
for copper is Zangnusak, which is much more tike Zamadzza than
ithe words used for comparison by Mr. Chamberlain, and this word
is called a stem-word, z.z., nothing is known ofits etymology. Such
-a case is, however, of no value in arguing any relationship between

the two languages. JOHN MURDOCH.
Smithsonian Institution, Dec. 3.

The Eskimo Tribes.

I HAVE just read with great interest the notice by Dr. F. Boas
Gn Sczence of Dec. 2) of Dr. Rink’s latest work. Dr. Boas has to
a certain extent anticipated my own intentions, as I had already
‘handed in to the publishing committee of the Washington Anthro-
pological Society a somewhat lengthy review of the same work for
publication in the first number of the new periodical which that
society is about to publish. I have, however, discussed the subject
in much greated detail than would be suitable for the columns of
Science, and therefore venture to believe that my paper has not
-been rendered superfluous even by Dr. Boas’s excellent article.

I am glad to find that Dr. Boas agrees, in the main, with the
conclusions I had arrived at myself, though I have had the boldness
to carry further than he has done the theory of the dispersion of
the Eskimo race on this continent. In my discussion of Dr. Rink’s
arguments, there were so many points of interest that the question
of Indian influence entirely escaped my attention, so that I am
much pleased to see that Dr. Boas has presented this side of the
‘question. A somewhat detailed study of the arts of the Western
Eskimos leads me to agree entirely with his opinion.

SCIENCE.

[Vou. X. No. 253

I am strongly inclined to believe, though the evidence is not yet
complete, that the use of the birch-bark canoe by some of the Es-
kimos on the Alaskan rivers, which Dr. Rink believes is an evidence
of their primitive culture, is simply an adoption of the habits of
their Indian neighbors, induced by the fact that where they live it
is easier to obtain birch-bark than sealskins. Though it is by no
means unlikely that, as Dr. Rink believes, the Eskimo skin-boat is
descended, so to speak, from a birch canoe, I do not believe that
the canoes just mentioned are in the same line of descent.

Dr. Boas’s view of the condition of the Eskimos before their
separation into their present divisions seems to me highly probable,
though I think a little more study will enable us to add to it con-
siderably.

I have already at hand nearly enough linguistic material to pre-
pare a good-sized list of the animals that must have inhabited the
original home of the Eskimos.

In conclusion, I most heartily concur in Dr. Boas’s opinion that
Dr. Rink’s work will be highly appreciated by all ethnologists. It

certainly deserves to be. JOHN MURDOCH.
Smithsonian Institution, Dec. 3.

Queries.

19. WHO FIRST SAID IT ?— The very interesting discovery an-
nounced by Professor Trowbridge, that birds havea power of sleep-
ing on the wing, brings to mind that it is not a recent observation,
but was anticipated by a very astute philosopher and poet, Edgar A.
Poe. Ina poem which he says was written in his youth, and pub-
lished more than thirty years ago, are these lines :—

““O is it thy will
On the breezes to toss ?
Or capriciously still
Like the lone albatross,
Incumbent on night
(As she on the air).”

To which he appends this marginal note: “The albatross is said
to sleep on the wing.” This poem, however, was criticised by an-
other philosophic writer, ‘ John Phoenix,’ who gave it as his opinion
that the poet invented the fact in natural history because he found
there were no words to rhyme with ‘toss’ but ‘hoss’ and ‘alba-
tross. This is now happily discredited ; but the question remains,

Who first “said it” ? P.J.F.
Clinton, Io., Nov. 26.

Answers.

18. METEOR-FALL.—In reference to the query “Was the
Amsterdam meteorite a hoax ?” the following from the Amster-
dam Democrat of Nov. 19 explains it in fewer words than perhaps
I can: “A man came down from Fort Hunter this morning to see
the ‘aerolite.. A meteorologist from Troy arrived in town to-day,
having come in haste without his dinner, and was much disap-
pointed when told that the ‘aerolite’ was a hoax. It is also stated
that a party are on their way hither from Philadelphia. A big
stone did fall in the place indicated. The only trouble is, instead
of falling from the sky, it fell from a wagon, which was loaded and
broke down with it, that’s all, but it rather spoils the sensation.’
Newspaper statements report that on Aug. 30 a meteorite had
been seen by a number of people on Main Street between Howard
and Milk Streets, Spokane Falls, Wash. Ter. It was said to have
struck the electric wires, cutting one of them in two. It was de-
scribed to be a ball of fire ten feet in diameter. This proved to be
nothing but the crossing of the electric light wires, which resulted
in the melting of one of them. On the evening of Nov. 7 a large
meteor shot over St. John’s University, St. Cloud, Minn., and de-
cended within two miles of the University. A vigorous search was
made by professors and students, but no trace of the meteorite was
found. It was concluded by all that it had fallen in the lake, in the
direction of which the meteor had passed. The many sensational
accounts of meteoric falls at Wellsburg, N.Y., Evansville, Ind., the
Georgia metal ball, etc., are all the productions of a so-called re-
porter’s fertile brain. GEORGE F. Kunz.

New York, Dec. 5.

Sec VCE

FRIDAY, DECEMBER 16, 1887.

THE AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR PSYCHICAL RESEARCH evident-
ly finds difficulty in securing haunted houses to be submitted to
their searching investigations. Professor Royce, whois the chair-
man of the committee on apparitions and haunted houses, jocularly
referred to this difficulty in his report at the recent meeting of the
society in Boston. As Professor Royce said, the name, suggesting
as it does that the time of the committee is mainly spent in visiting
haunted houses and ghost-ridden graveyards, does not describe
its actual office. The committee has often expressed its willing-
ness to visit haunted houses, or to pass the night in any promising
place, for the sake of seeing, explaining, or of converting from the
error of its ways, any genuine ghost in the city or in the neighbor-
hood of Boston. The committee has heard of several houses that
once were believed to be haunted, but in no case has the present

‘condition of these houses warranted any interference on the com-
mittee’s part. The phenomena have in all cases so far reported
ceased for some time, usually for many years. A more hopeful
field is in the direction of tracing some coincidence between a
dream or presentiment and its supposed verification by events
afterwards, but even in this direction the results are so scattering
as hardly to justify the belief in any special significance in the few
coincidences which have been traced.

“AMERICAN PUBLIC HEALTH ASSOCIATION.!

ONE of the most original papers presented at the recent meeting
of the American Public Health Association was by Dr. E. M. Hunt,
secretary of the New Jersey State Board of Health, on the origin
of some diseases. It was as follows :—

[Paper By Dr. E. M. Hunt.]

The class of diseases variously known as contagious, transmis-
sible, or communicable has ever attracted the most earnest con-
sideration of medical men and of all sanitarians. By the quickness
and often obscurity of their invasion, by the malignant type they
too often exhibit, and by the large areas over which they extend,
they not only make large demands upon the skill of the profession,
but arrest the attention of all mankind.

The study of epidemiology has enlarged their numbers, and now
shows us that many diseases once regarded as constitutional or
septic are in reality specific and pathogenic or mostly parasitic.

The prevention and limitation of this class of maladies must ever,
therefore, largely occupy the attention of all of those who study the
causes, the courses, and the results of disease.

The study of their etiology is always a fundamental inquiry.
While to a degree it is possible to treat a disease skilfully without
knowing its causes, it is always more satisfactory and generally
more skilful to know something of the causes.

But what do we mean by etiology or causes? Surely not always,
not generally, the beginning or efficient or final cause. Professor
Semmola of Naples, at the recent meeting of the Medical Congress
at Washington, may have startled some by these words: “ Medi-
cine, like all other sciences, never demands why, well knowing that
the first causes of things are inaccessible, and that to every scien-
tist it should suffice to know in which physical and chemical con-
ditions this or that phenomenon manifests itself, so that he can
modify and govern it at his will.” This is true. The best that we
can generally hope is to find the conditions, physical, chemical, or
biological, in which phenomena manifest theniselves. The word

1 Continued from Sczence of Dec. 9.

‘cause’ is often in the same sentence used in two or three differ-
ent senses. In our etiology we must remember that by ‘cause’
we mean mostly the ‘ conditions under which phenomena manifest
themselves;’ also that these conditions (thus called causes) mean
the modifying influences present in the host or person, and the
modifying influences of surroundings, much oftener than they mean
any thing in the specific entity which we are so often calling the
germ, and then calling it the cause.

While reaching back toward the beginning, even though we sel-
dom reach the starting-point, we do come to see how it is true of
every disease, as of every living thing, that it must have had a be-
ginning. Itis nota mere platitude to say that there was a day
when the first case of small-pox occurred.

Nor does it necessarily belong to the sphere either of creation or
spontaneous generation. A case of some new disease may put in
an appearance, as did cholera on the Ganges, or a case of a known
and existing disease may happen that is not derived from another
precisely like it, but occurs because analogous conditions to those
which gave rise to the first case of the kind have again occurred,
and produced a pronounced deviation.

So it is possible that at the same time, as to some one disease, we
may have cases of a communicable disease which have arisen from
previous cases, and other cases that have resulted from a combi-
nation of influences or conditions such as gave rise to the first
case. There are at least two reasons why the old dictum of omne
uivum ab ovo cannot now be applied with the precision or with the
finality with which it used to be quoted.

I. There is such a thing as evolution, which, while recognizing an
original type, also recognizes departures from the normal which
may have come to be so representative and paramount as to con-
stitute newness in all essential particulars. Since we have come to
recognize that many diseases are but developments and cultures of
microphytic or microbic life, we very appropriately turn to the facts
of botany, not only for illustration, but for verification of our
theories. And what a change has taken place in its facts since the
days of Linnzus! We no longer cling to the divisions of orders,
genera, and species so closely laid down by him. We recognize
two forces, —nature or heredity, and environment. A plant in-
herits a likeness which it tends to retain, but it is often so modified
by environment as greatly to change, and so sometimes as even to
lose, its identity. Environment comes to predominate over heredity.
The horticulturist often takes a plant which he has found to be sub-
ject to variations, and fixes and perfects it in some one of them by
cultivation.

Professor Huxley has recently contributed to the Linnzean Society
a paper on the classification of gentians, in which he claims that
gentians are all specialized ; that is, become gentians from some
other form. Permanency of type has so many exceptions, that
variations of type, and the power to give fixity to some of these
variations by means of cultivation or environment, must be accepted
as a doctrine and a fact. Species and genera have variations,
sports, modifications not dreamed of by the earlier botanists. ‘Some
of these departures are so marked and so predominant as to ob-
scure the relationship and so far ignore it as to have individuality
of their own. If, as we know, cultivation or surroundings can
change a poisonous plant into a mild one, or can wholly modify it,
it is not remarkable that a microphytic disease should lose its ap-
parent identity, and at length in a new culture-medium, or under
special conditions, become specialized. It is a law abundantly il-
lustrated in the vegetable world, that environment causes variations,
and that some of these variations tend to fixity of type, while others
do not. All the wonderful facts of evolution show full well that we
may in this way have what in respect of symptoms and treatment
is anew disease. Yet it is not a de ovo origin in an absolute
sense, or, if practically de zovo, it is not de nzhzlo. It is, that a

290

series of changes has been evolved by environment, by conditions
in persons or in surroundings, until the result of some of these
changes becomes self-assertive, and prevails over its heredity so as
to secure for a longer or shorter period a fixity of its own. This
fixity may be a new disease.

II. The history of hybrids, the so-called accidents of their occur-
rence, and the fertility of hybrids, are such that we are forced to
look upon them as new forms of life — as becoming established into
an autonomy or individuality of their own.

The horticulturist in some of the wonderful productions of new
plants in the last score of years has come to be familiar with hy-
bridisms that wholly obscure origin, and that come to have a fixity
of their own as much as some new diseases with which we have to
deal, or as much as cases of disease which we cannot trace to a
contagious source.

All this has been greatly emphasized by what we have come to
know as the fertility of hybrids. Not over thirty years ago the gen-
eral view of botanists was that hybrids were sterile. But so numer-
ous are the exceptions, and so abundant have been the results of
new cultivations, that this view is fully disproven. Says a recent
botanical authority, ‘“‘ Among plants there are many instances of
hybrids between species being perfectly fertile, and continuing so
for an indefinite period. Experiments during the last twenty-five
years have increased the number of such fertile crosses manifold.
. . . Fertility of hybrid plants is the rule, and sterility the ex-
ception. So far as plants are concerned, there is not the slightest
ground for considering sterility as a distinctive bar, separating
species. These hybrids come to have a specificity of their own so
different from the parentage as to be unrecognizable, and so special-
ized as to be permanent.” As another expresses it, “ The hybrid
becomes an individual not responsible to its species.”

Nor is this confined to plants with spores. Some of our most
skilful horticulturists are now producing varieties of ferns by hybrid-
ism, and every now and then some so-called chance growth or
sport shows wide departures.

The bearing of all this on the parasitic forms of disease is not
far to seek. If, as now seems so nearly proven, so much of disease
has to do with elementary and minute forms of vegetative life, it is
easy to see how the facts of evolution and hybridism have a bearing
upon the appearance and propagation of disease. The light of the
botanical world and its marvellous revelations as to the actualities
and possibilities of the origination of new forms distinct from the
parentage, penetrates the hidden sphere of disease-origin, and
shows how some diseases cease, how others arise, how some lapse
back to their heredity, while others are made permanent or special-
ized by their environment, and how others still are hybridized into
specific forms, and acquire a fertility and fixity of their own. This
range of deviation is so wide as to account for very many of the
anomalies of disease, and for the organization, cessation, or modi-
fication of form.

In reply to my inquiry on this particular point, Mr. Mehan, the
distinguished botanist of Germantown, Penn., writes me, “ All
hybrids, that we know by actual experiment ave hybrids, are fertile
as far as I know, and reproduce their originals just the same as if
they were ‘original’ species. I think almost every botanist of note
believes in abundant, fertile hybrids in nature. Coming down
nearer to your own line of thought, I believe it is conceded that all
lichens are hybrids between fungi and alge. It is tenable that new
forms of disease are continually coming into existence, which can
only arise from new forms of disease-producing plants (micro-
scopic fungi) being evolved from older species; but I do not know
.whether there is an opinion that these new forms are the result of
hybridization or of that natural law of change which seems to be a
constituent part of existence —in vegetation, at least.”

In a paper read by Dr. M. W. Taylor before the Epidemio-
logical Society of London, April 13, 1887, he notes the fact that
many of the fungoid varieties were but ‘“ conversions of elementary
states of pencillium and oidium. It is also maintained by Zopf (the
botanist) that there may be a pleomorphism amid pathogenic
micro-organisms, and that there are stages of intermediate forms
resulting from the nature of the nutrient media” (see Lance?,

May 7, 1887, pp. 933; 934).
The view is, we believe, gaining ground, that harmless micro-

SCIENCE:

[Mouwex: sNoness

phytes may become pathogenic, and that the different forms of
micro-organisms present have relation to each other, and that the
culture-medium in disease, viz., the person and his surroundings,
determines the character of the micro-organisms full as much as
the micro-organisms determine the character of the disease.

If the views as to the microphytic origin of most of the com-
municable diseases are correct, the study of the laws of this evolu-
tion and hybridism is vital. We believe it is in this direction that
we are to account for the origin of new diseases, or for such vari-
ations in type as obscure or destroy identity. If we can, through
this study, arrive at the evidence that in this sense many diseases
begin, we have a new department of study, in that we are called
upon to define with accuracy how and why this origin takes place,
in order that we may thwart or circumvent the conditions.

If it is the result of evolution through a long series of changes, it
behooves us to study the normal, and to watch and record all the
gradations by which the unfriendly result is attained, so that, at
some stage, we may intercept the progressive and threatening
changes that are occurring, or ascertain what condition of the per-
son, or what condition of surroundings, constitutes the influence
which brings about the change, or provides the fertilizing medium
for the disease, and causes it to break forth. If it is the result of a
hybridism which occurs spontaneously or rapidly, we need to study
precisely what forms of vegetative life thus incline to coalesce, un-
der what condition the union occurs, and how their conjunction,
development, and fertility are to be interrupted.

If special conditions of some parts, —as the throat, for instance,
— or certain conditions of the secretions, furnish a special soil or
culture-fluid for the propagation of low forms of vegetative life,
this is to be studied with exactness.

In each of these lines the same method of technical study and
close record and analysis of facts by competent observers which
has prevailed in the study of minute plant-life by botanists, and
which has obtained in many other sciences, will, in this compara-
tively new field of biological and botanical research, accomplish
equally valuable results. In it we are attempting to find out how
much and under what circumstances micro-organisms imperil
human life.

The practical value of such an inquiry is apparent, for sooner
than is the case with most of the studies of nature, the results will
be applicable in the prevention and treatment of disease. It will
be a great gain if we can come to know, that either under the laws
of evolution, or as the result of admixture or hybridism, symptoms
and pathological effects become specialized so as to constitute a
new disease which maintains its type.

As examples of how proximity of different diseases may modify
symptoms, we have many suggestive facts in the history of disease.
Yellow-fever is believed by many to be a mongrel, born on the high
seas by admixture of the jungle-fever of Africa with the typhus of
the pent-up hold of the filthy vessel. It is not certain that typhoid-
fever was not once nearer to typhus, until it came to be called ab-
dominal typhus, and then to have modifications because surround-
ings and the acquired power of self-propagation gave it an autonomy
of its own.

It is not even now certain that there are not grades of cesspool and
other adynamic fevers that will some day declare another well-
marked departure from what we now call typhoid, and come to
have an individuality of their own. It is not certain, that, when
Sydenham treated scarlet-fever and measles as one disease, their
lines of difference were as well marked as now.

Diphtheria so often seems to have a localized origin, and com-
mon forms of sore throat are so often seen to pass away from their
general into a special type, that it will not be strange if we can
come to the law of departure (see views expressed in the Sanzfary
Record of Aug. 15, 1887, p. 88, and the contribution of Dr. Wor-
din, in the Connecticut State Health Report for 1887, that diph-
theria results from the special virulence of amicrococcus which is
not specific, put present in forms of foul or septic sore throat).

While typho-malarial fever has no pathognomonic lesion to dis-
tinguish it from the ordinary typhoid, yet we do know it has symp-
toms to distinguish it. The advances of biological investigation
have put us in regions of new possibilities, that do not involve
spontaneous generation, but yet do render probable what is equiva—

DeEcEMBER 16, 1887.]

lent to the de zovo origin of cases of disease which afterward are
chiefly communicated by the first and succeeding cases.

Having settled that such origins do take place, we shall then pry
into the secret of the laws of combinations and the conditions
which favor the evil evolution or the facts of hybridism, and seek
to combat these by starting similar processes in opposite directions,
or by sterilization, neutralization, disinfection, and all the details of
radical sanitation.

Such a view of the occurrence of old or new diseases, and of the
reasons for fixity in some and changing forms and types in others,
leads to several practical results.

1. The study of parasites, or germs, as they are called, is only
one of the methods of informing ourselves as to the phenomena of
disease, and in itself is not likely to be the key to rational and suc-
cessful treament.

2. Our attention should be directed, far more than now, to the
study of conditions and circumstances under which new forms ap-
pear; to the influence of persons and surroundings, instead of to
the mere finding of a specific form. The latter would, of course,
be most valuable as one of the facts in the chain of evidence, but
we should not, as now, seek so much to look to it as the cause of
‘disease as to inquire what conditions have caused this or that par-
ticular microphyte to be present. ;

3. We should be able to account for the occasional occurrence of
a disease independent of any previous case, and for changing types
‘of disease and new diseases, and would come to treat diseases less
by their names and more in view of their type and the effect of
surroundings upon them.

4. The tendency of all this is to magnify the importance of close
‘observation, and to lead us to feel that success in warding off dis-
‘ease, and in treating it when it appears, depends mostly upon close
‘observation and that experience which is derived from actual
practice.

If we are looking to the biological laboratory for the natural history
of disease, or to the chemical laboratory for the application of rem-
‘edies, we shall surely fail. It is not so much that we need to find
the specific germ or the specific methods. The world is always
looking after specifics. But the science and art of sanitation has
far more to expect from a study of the conditions of persons and
surroundings under which diseases, or types and modifications of
disease, manifest themselves, as also from a study of the prevention
or obliteration of such conditions, than it has to expect from the
finding of microphytes as the source of disease, and seeking to
‘cure disease by expelling micro-organisms or attenuating them.

Our only design in this paper is to awaken inquiry as to modes
of accounting for the localized origin of disease, without any
antecedent case, on the proposition that the laws of evolution, envi-
ronment, hybridism, or modification by culture, give rise to diseases
so different from their prototypes as to have individuality and per-
manency of their own.

Because such inquiry is relevant to prevention, there is good
reason to believe that by ascertaining the laws of these transforma-
tions and modifications of type and of the origination of special
varieties, we shall ere long find new means for the prevention or
limitation of many diseases.

e

‘The Malarial Germ of Laveran’ was the title of a paper read
by Dr. William T. Councilman of Baltimore. He considers that
this organism probably belongs to the Protozoa, a group of unicell-
ular organisms noted for the varied changes of form which the
individual examples undergo in the course of development. Of the
malarial germ there are ten more or less distinct forms, of which
five are always found in intermittent-fever. During the chill of the
fever a definite form is seen, in which multiplication takes place
by segmentation. One form has actively moving filaments. This
was found in blood taken from the spleen in ten cases of malarial
cachexia, and in five cases of intermittent-fever. Dr. Councilman
says that too much importance cannot be assigned to this organism
as ameans of making a differential diagnosis between malarial-fever
and typhoid-fever. In outbreaks of fever which occur in small
country-towns, where it is of the greatest importance that the char-
acter of the disease should be recognized promptly, the advantage
of this mode of diagnosis is most evident. There is too much

SCIENCE:

291

reason for believing that in localities where malarial-fevers prevail,
epidemics of typhoid-fever are frequently mistaken for fevers of a
malarial type.

Mr. H. Lomb of Rochester offered prizes of $500 and $200 for
the best essays on practical sanitary and economic cooking adapted
for persons of moderate and small means. Dr. LaBerge, health-
officer of Montreal, described the system employed in that city for the
collection of garbage, and for its destruction by the Mann furnace.
Committees were appointed on State boards of health, pollution of
water-supply, disposal of garbage, animal diseases and animal food,
forms of statistics, incorporation, protective inoculation, Lomb prize
essays, national health legislation, and improvement of the sanitary
and medical service on emigrant ships. It was decided to hold
the next meeting of the association at Milwaukee. The following
officers were elected for the ensuing year: president, Dr. Charles
N. Hewitt, Red Wing, Minn.; vice-presidents, Drs. G. B. Thorn-
ton, Memphis, and Joseph Holt, New Orleans; executive commit-
tee, Drs. Henry B. Baker, Michigan, S. H. Durgin, Massachusetts,
and J. N. McCormack, Kentucky. The secretary, Irving A. Wat-
son, M.D., of Concord, N.H., holds over.

THE SURFACE-TEMPERATURES OF THE OCEANS.

A NUMBER of researches on the surface-temperatures of the
oceans,which have recently been published, throw a new light on this
complicated phenomenon. The maps accompanying the present
number of Sczewce have been constructed according to Dr. O.
Krtimmel’s maps, showing the surface-temperatures of the oceans.
As the Arctic Ocean must be considered part of the Atlantic, of
which it forms the most northern extremity, it was desirable to in-
clude it in the map. Besides this, the Antarctic Ocean exerts a
great influence upon the southern part of the Atlantic Ocean, and
therefore the latter has also been included in the map, which shows
two-thirds of the earth’s surface in a perspective projection. The
lateral parts, however, have been left off, as they do not belong to
the system of the Atlantic Ocean. The Pacific Ocean has been
constructed in the same way, the map extending from its northern
limits to the entrance of the Atlantic Ocean. The latter map makes it
very clear that the Pacific Ocean forms a comparatively well-defined
basin connected by narrow straits with the basin of the Atlantic
and Indian Oceans. Its southern limit is indicated by the east
coast of Australia, Wilkes Land, Graham Land, and the southern
portion of America.

A glance at the lines showing the surface-temperatures of the
oceans reveals the remarkable fact that the warm water is accumulat-
ed in the western parts of the oceans. Kriimmel designates water of
more than 24° C. (75° F.) as ‘ tropical water.’ In August the belt of
such water is 21 degrees of latitude wide in the eastern part of the
Atlantic, while it occupies 61 on its western side. In February it
is 22 degrees wide in the eastern part, while it is 56 degrees wide in
the western. In the Pacific Ocean it does not occupy more than
17 degrees in August and 25 degrees in February, while in the
western parts its width is 57 degrees and 49 degrees respectively.
In comparing the amount of tropical and extratropical water,
Kriimmel finds that twenty-nine per cent of the whole surface of the
oceans has always a temperature of more than 25°C., while almost
one-half of it temporarily attains this temperature.

It will be observed that in certain parts of the oceans the lines of
equal temperature are much crowded, and show sharp angles.
This is entirely due to currents, whicly carry warm water to high
latitudes, and cold water to warmer regions. Thus the influence
of the Agulhas current may be observed in the sharp angles of
these lines near the Cape of Good Hope, while the cold Cape Horn
current lowers the temperature along the eastern coast of South
America. The influence of the Gulf Stream may be seen in the
crowding of the lines of equal temperature near Newfoundland.

The accumulation of warm water in the western parts of the
oceans is entirely due to the action of the trade-winds, which blow
continually from the eastward, and drive the warm water of the
ocean westward, where it is accumulated on the coasts of the conti-
nent. Buchanan has explained this phenomenon in a paper on
similarities in the physical geography of the great oceans, which
has been published in the Proceedings of the Royal Geographical

292

Soczety. The trade-winds, he says, produce not only dry places
on the land, but also comparatively dry places on the sea, and
therefore the areas of maximum density or salinity of the surface-
water are situated in the trade-winds region. In passing over the
surface of the ocean, the winds impart motion to the water imme-
diately under their influence. The effect of this is to produce a
general motion of the denser intertropical water towards the equa-

SCIBINGI:

[VoL xe /Now25 a)

west coast of North Africa the line of 24° C. (75° F.) extends far
southward. Similar phenomena occur on the west coast of Ameri-
ca. Formerly the reason for the low temperature of these waters.
was looked for in polar currents, but recent observations show that
it is caused by cold water of deeper layers rising to the surface.
So far as we are aware, E. Witte was the first to express this opin-
ion, in a paper published in 1878; but recently a considerable

MAP OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN, SHOWING THE SURFACE-TEMPERATURES IN AUGUST (ACCORDING TO 0. KRUMMEL).

tor and towards the west. At the same time the surface-water is
evaporated, and thus becomes more concentrated than the deeper
and colder layers. In consequence of its greater salinity, the warm
surface-water sinks to a certain depth, and thus conveys its higher
temperature to the deeper layers. Thus the western parts of the
ocean are supplied with water of high temperature, which is col-
lected in the Atlantic Ocean in the immense bay formed by the
coasts of North and South America.

Another remarkable fact is shown in our map. It is the preva-
lence of cold water along many coasts. In South Africa we see
the line of 16° C. (61° F.) extending far northward, and on the

amount of material has been contributed by numerous investiga-
tors. Among these, I mention Buchanan's researches in the region
of the counter equatorial current on board the ‘Buccaneer,’ Cap-
tain Hoffmann’s observations off Cape Guardafui, and Dr. G. Stapff’s
off Angra Pequefia in South Africa. All these observations tend
to show, that wherever the prevailing winds are blowing off the shore,
and the water is thus removed without a possibility of being replaced
by superficial currents, cold water rises to the surface. But it.has »
been pointed out in an essay published in the Aznalen der Hydro-
graphie, that, wherever a current is deflected from a coast, cold
water must rise to the surface. This fact accounts for the low

é
&S
BESS

\ Sout Georgia

> South Orkney Te.

South Pole

. 28°-30° C. 309-32° C.

LY, Ys
26° C. 26°-28° C

Fi

C. 16°-20° C

= 24° C.

na202-

8°-12° G. 12°-16° C.

4°-8° C.

—4° C.

oe

Map Showing the Surface Temperatures of the Atlantic Ocean in August.

According to O. Krummel.

SCIENCE, December 16, 1887. No. 254- F

DecEeMBER 16, 1887. |

temperature off the west coasts of California and South America. A
number of profiles showing the temperatures of the Pacific Ocean
off the coast of California, which were published by Dr. C. M.
Richter in the Budletin of the California Academy of Sctences, show
very plainly the rising of cold water near the shore ; and although
the author tries to prove, by means of these charts and profiles, the
existence of a cold current, they seem to be far more in favor of the
theory advanced above.

It will be seen that in the equatorial parts of the Atiantic Ocean
two regions of remarkably cold water occur. One of these is on
the coast of Guinea; the other, east of St. Paul. Kriimmel be-
lieves that they are also due to a submarine source, the cold water
of the depth taking the place of the warm dense water which is
driven westward by the wind. He points out that it is situated
between the equatorial current and the counter equatorial current,
and that thus the cold water supplies a deficiency caused by two
currents flowing in opposite directions. Therefore this area of cold
water does not exist in February, when both currents are less
strong. The Guinea current he considers entirely caused by the
southern equatorial current, and as supplying the Gulf of Guinea
with water instead of that which is drawn from it by the southern
equatorial current. We ought to point out here the fact shown by
Buchanan, that all counter equatorial currents are very superficial,
that their velocity is the greater the less the density of this
water, and that the isothermal gradients are very great below these
currents, as the light water of the surface prevents the heat from
penetrating into the ocean,

The problems of the equatorial circulation of the oceans is ex-
tremely complicated, and the observations mentioned above show
that the vertical as well as the horizontal circulation of the waters
must be studied. The dynamics of the counter equatorial current
are particularly obscure, and a careful investigation of its density,
temperature, and strength is very desirable.

MENTAL SCIENCE.
The Mechanism of Attention.

VOLUNTARY attention is an artificial act: it grafts itself upon
spontaneous attention, and takes its nourishment from this. In
spontaneous attention the object acts by its intrinsic power; in
voluntary attention the subject brings an alien power to bear upon
the process. Spontaneous attention represents the maximum of
attraction between subject and object ; voluntary attention, the
maximum of resistance. It is the voluntary form of attention that
is here to be considered.

In the first place, how is so artificial a process as voluntary at-
tention brought about? The method, says M. Ribot, is to make
attractive artificially what is not so naturally; to arouse an artificial
interest in things naturally uninteresting. The process by which this
is done is infinitely varied, but consists always of arousing an in-
terest by playing upon some emotional state.

The infant, according to Preyer, at first is under the sway of
spontaneous attention alone: it looks only at bright objects, at
sustenance-giving objects. At about the end of the third month
it explores the field of vision, and glances at less and less (selfishly)
interesting objects ; and it is the same with the other senses. The
path is from the most intense, most impressive sensations to the
finer, more delicate ones. The child naturally flits from one sen-
sation to another: to fixate and hold one sensation is an art that
must be learned. A child, for example, refuses to learn to read,
but is vastly interested in the pictures in the book. The father says
that reading will show the meaning of the pictures. This acts as
an artificial inducement, and the child goes to work, substituting
an artificial attention to arbitrary signs for the natural attractiveness
of pictures. M. Ribot distinguishes three periods in this substitu-
tion process. In the first we can appeal to bodily feelings alone.
The child can be taught voluntary attention only by playing upon
its fear, its egoistic tendencies, by rewards, sympathetic emotions,
natural curiosity. In the second period the emotional nature is still
the most powerful motive, but the kind of emotion is higher. One
can here appeal to ambition, to emulation, to duty. In the final
period the attention is maintained by habit. The student at his

1 A résumé of an article by Prof. Th. Ribot (v. Sczence, No. 252).

\

SCIENCE,

2OS

desk, the workman at his shop, often wish they were elsewhere;
but the habit as formed by past appeals to pride, ambition, etc.,
chains them to their tasks. Art has done its work, and attention
has become second nature. Granted a certain environment, and
the work goes on almost of itself. Many persons never reach this
third organized stage of voluntary attention: there is a vast body
of unsteady, Bohemian, vagabond types of character in whom volun-
tary attention is sporadic only, and not habitual.

The training of animals proceeds by the same steps. An ape is
taught to do things meaningless to it by connecting such acts with
rewards and punishments. The factor of attention in the process is
well shown, in that such animals are selected for training as most
readily attend amid distractions.

The genesis of voluntary attention is to be found in its utility.
When the conditions of life become at all hard, and especially if
they become so by more or less sudden changes, the power of
adaption to them is dependent upon voluntary attention to details ;
upon consideration of something besides the immediately attractive
and useful. The savage is lazy, is inspired only by chase, by war,
by play; his interest is in the unknown, the unforeseen, the chance.
He is not capable of continuous labor. In half-civilized com-
munities work is repugnant. Voluntary attention is-a factor of civi-
lization, and is maintained with effort. The most constant char-
acteristic of criminals is lack of power to pursue a steady calling ;
and the Italian anthropologists regard this as a reversion to primitive
habits. Voluntary attention thus came in, and is maintained as a
sociological power.

While we all have quite a definite notion of the feeling of effort
in fixing the attention, the nature of the process escapes our obser-
vation. We feel that the struggle is to focus the thought upon one
topic to the exclusion of others, all knocking for admittance into
consciousness. The question isnot, ‘How does a concept come to
be attended to?’ but ‘ How is it maintained in the focus of atten-
tion? How do we inhibit other concepts?’ The answer is very
incomplete. The physiology of inhibition is in its infancy. The
fact itself simply states that the excitation of a nerve may not only
produce motion, but may cause a motion tocease. Stimulating the
pneumogastric nerve arrests the heart-beat. The highest form of
this power of inhibition is attention : this Ferrier locates in the frontal
lobes of the brain. The intelligence would thus be proportionate to
the development of these lobes ; stimulation of them would never pro=
duce movements ; and their disease would cause no paralysis, but a
lowering of the mental life. All thisis found to be true. Inhibition
is likewise late in appearing, coming long after impulsive will in
child-development. We know only the initial and final steps of the
process, the will not to do an action, the fact that it is not done;
but we have good reason to believe that the muscles play an active
vole in the process.

Attention may be fixed upon three kinds of mental objeets, —
perceptions, images. ideas. In perception the dominance of the
motor element is evident. In seeing, touching, etc., there is always
a motion; and the law that the more mobile the part the more
sensitive it is, is quite a general one. To fixate an object steadily
without moving the eye soon reduces the field of vision to a blank ;
a weight constantly pressing upon the skin is soon not felt. Con-
sciousness is always of change, and change is based upon move-
ment, Attention is the repression of foreign, irrelevant movements
and the concentration upon pertinent ones. Distraction is a dif-
fusion of movements. Next with regard to images. Here the
attention is turned inwards, and becomes reflection; but the motor
element has not been lost. The motor element of the perception is
only weakened (not lost) in its recollection. The two processes
are the same in kind, and differ only in degree. As, the vividness’
of the recollection increases, it approaches the perception in the
prominence of the motor element. The intense thought of falling
down an abyss has led some persons to throw themselves down.
Mind-reading is really muscle-reading. When we pass to ideas
(and especially abstract ideas), the problem is more difficult. M.
Ribot confines his attention to three types of ideas. The first are
such as are formed by the fusion of like images without the aid ofa
word. Their type is the idea of a class, a species. This is within
the grasp of animals, children, and deaf-mutes. It is a generic
image, like acomposite portrait. Here the question as to the motor

294

element is unnecessary, because there is no voluntary reflection in-
volved in attaining this idea. The second class includes the fusion
of images in different objects, still without the aid of words, and is
represented in the common abstraction. This is a much higher
process, and many peoples have stood still at the early stages of it.
The Fuegians have no abstract terms; the Indians have words for
‘red oak,’ for ‘white oak,’ but not for ‘oak’ in general; the Tas-
manians have words for different kinds of trees, but not for ‘tree.’
In all these processes there is a motor element in the word, and
perhaps in the image too. Finally, as the image becomes more and
more abstract, the word becomes more and more fundamental.
That the word contains a prominent motor element (varying, how-
ever, in its strength in different persons) is generally accepted, and
is shown by the fact that this element in language can be lost while
the rest remains unlost.

We are thus led to the conclusion that thought without motion is
impossible; and, though we cannot have the opportunity of de-
monstrating this absolutely, we can make it extremely probable.
Severe activity is incompatible with intense thought. To direct
one’s attention is work, and the less natural interest in the topic
the more fatiguing the strain. It is not a purely mental process,
but is connected with nerve-activity and such movements. Mono-
ideism is work, destruction is rest.

Finally the hints as to the action of attention to be derived from
experimental study should be noted. In re-acting toa stimulus, the
time is shortened when the attention is fixed, and is lengthened
when the attention is wandering. So, too, the more cultured
classes can re-act more quickly than the ignorant, because their
power of voluntary attention is drilled. If the physical state pre-
vents sharp attention, the time is lengthened. A headache length-
ened a re-action-time from .133 to .171 of a second, and severe
fatigue to .183 of a second. In various stages of paralysis the time
lengthened to .166, .281, and .755 of a second; while in hypnotism,
when there is an extraordinary concentration on one perception, the
time was shortened from .328 to .193 of a second. Again: the
most influential factor in the re-action-time is the expectedness of
the impression. If the sensation is preceded by a signal announ-
cing its approach, the time is much shortened. According as the
nature, intensity, and time of the stimulus is known, the time is
more and more shortened. The unexpected delays the re-action.
Again: Wundt has shown that when two impressions — say, the
ring of a bell and the movement of an indicator — are simultane-
ous, the one that is attended to gets first perceived. The adjust-
ment accommodation of the attention in all these cases is again a
motor act. >

SCARLET-FEVER REPORT.—I.

THE success which has followed from the collective investigation
into the subject of distillery-milk and its effects on the lower
animals and man when used as food, which was made by Sczence
in June, has induced this journal to undertake other inquiries into
similar matters which affect the public health. Correspondence
has been opened with a number of prominent sanitarians of the
United States, and as a result scarlet-fever has been selected as the
next subject for inquiry. The following letter has been prepared,
and forwarded to leading sanitarians and physicians, and others : —

The prevalence of scarlet-fever in all parts of the civilized world,
and the great mortality therefrom, amounting in England alone
during five years to 88,273 deaths, have induced Sczence to institute
an inquiry into the reasons for sucha condition of things, — whether
it is a fact that this disease is not amenable to control by sanita-
tion; or whether sanitarians have not suggested any practical
method by which it may be controlled ; or whether parents, teach-
ers, health authorities, and others neglect to carry out the recom-
mendations which sanitary science has made. With the object of
helping to determine these questions, will you kindly answer the fol-
lowing inquiries :

1. Do you believe that scarlet-fever ever arises, at the present
time, de zovo, as distinct from a pre-existing case? If so, on what
grounds do you base that belief ?

2. Is there any doubt in your mind that scarlet-fever is a com-

SCLENCE:

[Vot. X. No. 254

municable disease, and, if so, what reasons have you for that
doubt ?

3. If you believe it to be communicable, can you give any instances
which have come under your own Personal observation, tending to
prove its communicability ? If so, please give them in detail.

4. Have you any information touching the communication of
bovine scarlet-fever to man, either by contagion or the milk of the
affected animal ?

5. When does a patient who has had scarlet-fever cease to com-
municate it to others ?

6. Can you give any instances which have come under your own
personal observation in which clothing, toys, books, or other ar-
ticles have communicated the disease? If so, please give them in
detail.

7. How long have you Personally known such articles to retain
the infection ?

8. Should boards of health require reports of cases of scarlet-
fever to be made to them, and, if so, by whom and why ?

g. What is the duty of boards of health if such reports are re-
ceived ?

10. Is there any plan which, if put into execution, would, in your
judgment, prevent the spread of scarlet-fever ?

11. Ifso, can you give instances in which it has practically done
so?

12. Do you believe that any thing can be done, by the use of
remedies or otherwise, to prevent well persons from contracting
scarlet-fever when they are exposed to it ?

13. Can you give any evzdence not under your own personal ob-
servation, but sufficiently authenticated by competent authorities,
printed or otherwise, touching any of the questions propounded in
this circular?

To these inquiries a large number of answers have been received,
which we now propose to lay before our readers :—

(Wituiam K. Newron, M.D., Paterson, N.J., State dairy commissioner.]

Below please find answers to your circular relating to scarlet-
fever :

1. I have often seen isolated cases of this disease beginning at a
time when no other case existed in the city. Many times I have
seen a single case begin without any probability of an exposure to
another case, but I do not think that we are justified in accepting the
theory that the disease may arise de zovo because of our inability
to find the original case. But there is much to lead us to study
this side of the question, for filth may be a possible cause.

2. It is no doubt communicable.

3. It is communicable, and scores of instances might be men-
tioned to substantiate this statement. Cases where children have
been exposed at school for a few minutes to one sick with the dis-
ease have come under my notice, and, where they have not had the
disease before, they have taken the disease in due time. It is a
common occurrence for children exposed to the sick to contract
this disease.

4. No personal information. The London Zamce¢ during the
past two years has contained many articles on this subject.

5. As long as there is any roughness of the skin.

6. Have known of many instances where woollen clothing has
been the means of carrying the disease.

7. Three weeks.

8. Yes, if the proper officers are prepared and authorized to en-
force strict separation and quarantine. If reports are required, and
on receipt by the authorities are filed, or only tabulated, and no
repressive measures employed, no good is done; and the reports
should not be required, for they only go to swell the statistics with-
out benefit. The attending physician is the proper person to notify
the authorities, and for this work he should be compensated. Re-
ports from the householder or the family are not reliable, and are
not promptly made. As was said, these reports are for the pur-
pose of enabling the health authorities to restrict the spread of the
disease, and, if notification is required, restrictive measures should
be followed up.

g. The reports should first be recorded, and the location of the
case marked on a map of the city kept for that purpose, the latter
entry being a record of location to enable us to ascertain if locality

DeceMBeER 16, 1887. |

thas any thing to do with the disease. Next the proper officer
‘should be sent to the house to instruct the family in methods of
disinfection, and to note the condition of the house, He should
leave with the family a circular, issued by the board of health, giv-
ing an account of the disease, its methods of spreading, and its
dangers, also brief directions for disinfection. On the recovery of
the patient, or in case of death, the premises should be disinfected
by an officer of the board. People from infected houses must be
excluded from school, church, factories, etc., and a strict quaran-
tine maintained until the premises shall have been disinfected. In
case of death, the body should be interred as speedily as possible
and no public funeral allowed. No person should be allowed to
‘enter the house except the regular attendants.

to, If the above plan is rigidly carried out, it is possible to check
the spread of the disease; but at present it is not possible to
‘strictly quarantine or isolate cases of this disease, because many
think it a mild one and of little consequence. Again, many cases
are so mild that the sick person is not confined to the bed or even
‘the house, and hence mingle with the well, and these mild cases
are often not recognized.

11. I know of no instance where the spread of scarlet-fever has
been certainly and completely stopped by restrictive measures; but
-could we enforce rules as rigidly as is done in epidemics of small-
pox or cholera, where the public is prepared for harsh methods, it
is probable that the disease might be stamped out for a time.

12. I know of none.

({(SamueLt W. Assotr, M.D., Boston, Mass., secretary State Board of Health of
Massachusetts. ]

In answer to your circular relative to scarlet-fever, I have the
honor to reply as follows; my reply being based upon an active
country-practice of twenty years, and also upon five years’ experi-
ence as the health-officer, and secretary of this board, during which
time I have had opportunity to observe a considerable number of
epidemics of scarlet-fever of varying extent and severity.

tand2. No. :

3. An instance under my observation is the following: A health-
“officer visited a public institution for the purpose of giving advice as
ito preventive measures. While there he saw several children ill
with scarlet-fever, in various stages of the disease, and examined
them at the bedside. He then returned to his home, a hundred
miles distant. On his way home, and before returning to his
family, he took the precaution to take a thorough bath, and, on
reaching home, sent his clothing to a cleansing establishment.
About eight days afterward, three of his children were taken ill
with scarlet-fever, one of whom died on the fifth day afterward.
‘There were no other cases of scarlet-fever in the town at that time.

4. A limited outbreak occurred last spring in the town of Welles-
ley. Four children were taken ill in two families who took milk
from one man who had two cows. There were no other cases in
the town at that time. One of these cows had an eruption on the
udder, which, on examination by a competent veterinary surgeon,
did not appear to have the characteristics described by recent Eng-
lish reports. Ido not regard this as a conclusive case.

5. Not until after desquamation has been completed, and all germs
of the disease originating from the patient have been destroyed.

6. I have no doubt that such is the case, but have no positive
evidence on this point.

8. Yes, by the attending physician, who is the only competent
authority to judge of the character of the disease. The law of this
State makes it incumbent on both physician and householder to re-
port, but reports from the latter are rare.

g. To isolate the sick, and see that proper measures are taken
for the continuance of such isolation, and of disinfection upon re-
covery ; and in case of death the funeral should be private.

1o. Nothing short of complete isolation of the sick, and absolute
destruction of all germs of the disease.

1r. The following statistics are suggestive. By circulars, reports
of boards of health, public lectures, and by every possible means,
the contagiousness of scarlet-fever has been taught, and the com-
munity has been led to see the dangerous character of the disease,
and its destructiveness as compared with other diseases, until pub-
lic opinion will tolerate much more decisive measures than were
possible twenty years since. The following table (from the

SCIENCE:

295

‘Massachusetts Registration Report for 1886’) shows that the dis-
ease has not been so destructive in the past fifteen years (1872-86)
as it was in the previous fifteen years (1857-71) in this State: —

Mortality from Scarlet-Fever, 1857-86.

£2 |2 £3 4/6

a =} =)

ge 8 as |
YEARS. ‘S 2 8 to YEARS. 6 ‘4 8 =
c=htly Wea nl cen Sop ate ene
lil eri allen 20S ee ee
1857, 2,013 9.36 17.2 1872 1,377 3-93 8.9
1858 T,05t 4.99 8.8 1873 1,472 4:34 9-4
1859 1,038 4.88 8.6 1874 . 1,382 4.33 8.6
Mey gg g16 3.92 7-4 1875 1,684 4.81 10.2
1861 1137 4.66 9-2 1876 I,222 3-79 74
1862 1,261 5.42 10.1 1877. 467 1.53 2.8
1863 1,399 5.01 II.1 1878 . . 404 1.33 2.4
1864. 1,503 5.2 I.9 1879. . 850 2.63 4-9
OOS es 807 3.06 6.4 TOSOM ins 574 1.63 3.2
1866 . = 385 1.58 2.9 r88r . 5 397 1.09 22
1867. o 828 3.63 6.2 1882 . é 318 -87 Ie7
1868 1,369 5-35 Q-t 1883 . . 575 I-52 35
1869 1,405 5-39 9.9 EEE G8) 6 627 1.69 3-3
187 Oe it. 683 2.49 4.7 || 1885 587 1.54 3.0
187r 5 867 3-10 5.8 MY 5g 331 89 1.7
Average 15 yrs. 4.51 8.5 Average 15 yrs. 1.97 3.9

(1857-71) (1872-86)

Undoubtedly several extensive epidemics might upset these statistics-
I think, however, that the length of time included (30 years), and
the size of the population (1,231,067 in 1860, and 1,942,141 in 1885),
may be taken as conclusive that something has modified the prog-
ress of the disease, the death-rate in the last fifteen years being
less than one-half as large as that of the fifteen years previous
(1857-71). Ifthe period of ten years 1857-66 be compared with
the last ten years (1877-86), the result is still more striking, the
death-rate of the latter period from scarlet-fever being less than
one-third as great as that of the former period.

12. By remedies. No.

13. I beg leave to mention one or two popular errors in this con-
nection. There is a singular notion that physicians’ families are
comparatively exempt from infectious diseases. On the contrary, I
can call to mind at least a dozen families of country physicians
in active practice, within five miles of my present home, which have
been invaded by this destructive disease. Another error is the
notion that a dead body is more dangerous than a living one.
There is no evidence, so far as I can learn, in support of such a
notion. One living, breathing body, sick with infectious disease,
must necessarily produce more infectious material than a dead one.

[R. B.S. Harais, M.D., Pensacola, Fla.]

In relation to the questions concerning scarlet-fever stated in
your circular, I proceed at once to answer them in order : —

1. I have seen scarlet-fever on two occasions, in an isolated
house, —no other cases in the city nor in the neighboring places,
— the source of which could not be traced to any focus of infection
outside the walls of the dwellings in which the cases existed. I
have also seen measles, a congener of scarlet-fever, undoubtedly a
contagious disease, spring up spontaneously, and spread from a
single isolated place all over the city, thus apparently arising de
novo. Uponcareful and anxious inquiry in regard to the above-men-
tioned instances of spontaneous development of scarlet-fever and
measles in isolated places, I was informed that none of the parties in
those houses had had any correspondence, by letter or otherwise, or
purchased or received any fabrics, or indeed articles of any kind, from
persons at a distance anywhere. All infectious and contagious dis-
eases are associated, asarule, with cutaneous eruptions or glandular

296

affections, and capable of propagation by inoculation. Whooping-
cough may be an exception so far as eruptions and glandular affec-
tions are concerned.

2. I have not the least doubt of the communicability of scarlet-
fever. I know that it can be propagated by fomztes. Diseases that
can be communicated and transmitted by fomz¢es are absolutely
contagious: this is self-evident, and cannot be disputed with any
show of reason.

3. I know a remarkable instance of the communicability of
scarlet-fever by things. It occurred in my own family, living more
than two thousand yards from any infected place. The subjects of
it got the disease from the clothes of a person who had visited a
house in which there were two or more cases.

4. I have no information touching bovine virus.

5. I have known children who had had scarlet-fever, a week after
the process of desquamation had been completed, and after anti-
septic baths, and their clothes and house environments had been
subjected to a disinfecting process, to return to school, and mingle
freely with other pupils without communicating the disease to any
one. Some writers in the medical journals express the opinion
that from four to six weeks should be allowed to elapse before
those who have recently had scarlet-fever be permitted to have free
intercourse.

6. This question is answered in Paragraphs 1 and 3.

7. [have no experience with regard to the length of time the in-
fection of scarlet-fever may be retained in any articles, but authors
will be referred to when Question 14 is under consideration.

8. Boards of health should be empowered by legislative enact-
ments in every State to enforce physicians, and the laity also, —
every citizen who may know of a case, or even a ‘suspicious case,’
anywhere in his vicinity, or indeed in any place from which the dis-
ease might be introduced, — to report without delay to the proper
authorities.

9. The duty of boards of health and others in authority is to act
promptly on receipt of the report of the first case of scarlet-fever,
and enforce isolation and disinfection rigorously ; and it should be
made incumbent on the attending physician to change his clothes,
and bathe, etc., before visiting other houses not infected. I have
known the morbific principle, both of small-pox and yellow-fever, to
be carried in men’s beards, and communicated to their wives and
children. Indeed, the materzes morbz, or germs of all contagious
diseases, can be transmitted from place to place by any thing
capable of absorbing, or holding adherent to it, any substance,
dead or living, whether in a solid, fluid, or gaseous form.

10. Besides what I have already indicated in answer to Question
9, I know of no other plan of preventing the spread of scarlet-fever
except inoculation and the administration of small doses of bella-
donna, which should be considered as only a small part of the plan
already indicated.

12. As just stated in answer to Question 9, I should state that I
gave belladonna to three children for whooping-cough, living in the
same house, situated in the very heart of a district infected with
scarlet-fever, which was epidemic, and whose parents communi-
cated freely with persons who had the disease, and every one of
them escaped.

13. Touching the questions stated in your circular, I can give no
further evidence of importance as the result of my own personal
observations, but refer to the following authorities, which I have
selected from many others in my library: viz., Watson’s ‘ Practice
of Medicine’ (American edition, edited by Dr. Francis Condie),
p. 1180; Ziemssen’s ‘ Cyclopzdia of the Practice of Medicine,’ vol.
li, pp. 161 e¢ seg.; Aitken’s ‘Science and Practice of Medicine,’ 6th
edition, vol. i. p. 480.

Scarlet-fever, in my opinion, is certainly amenable to control by
proper sanitary measures under ordinary circumstances; but if a
case occurs in a town or city where there exists a certain condition
of the atmosphere, or certain meteorological states of the air (of
which we know very little, and which has been significantly termed
“epidemic constitution of the air’), spreading diseases will extend
per se through it as a medium. Yellow-fever does this, and travels
about forty feet a day, and thus, by the concurrent existence of a
line of personal communication, spreads over a city and its
suburbs, and even beyond. Small-pox has been known to spread

SCIENCE:

[Vou Xa sNolr254

from certain centres (hospitals, for example) for over one thousand
yards. Itisshownlately (see The American Journal of the Medicat
Sciences for July, 1887, p. 300) by the ‘ Report of the Local Govern-
ment Board of England’ that from small-pox hospitals.the #aterzes
morbz of varzola will travel per se through the air to the extent of
at least half a mile.

I would refer you to the Medical News, Nov. 26, 1887, p. 627,.
for a short but excellent paper on the contagion of scarlet-fever.
From its tenor the contagious nature of scarlet-fever is admitted, but
it is assumed that it is caused by a germ or living organism which
has not been shown toexist. I am one of a small minority among
the medical profession who cannot accept the germ theory of dis-
ease. Germs of microscopical organisms may, nay, no doubt do,
carry contagion, but have no etiological relations as to the primary
cause, Or causa causans, of contagious diseases; and I say this im
spite of my familiarity with the literature of the subject, — the latest
experiments of Pasteur, Koch-Klein, Edington, Jamieson, Dale,
Unger, and others are right now in arm’s reach of me, and have
been carefully read by me, several for the third time, —I cannot yet
accept the germ theory of disease.

[G. C. Asuman, M.D., Cleveland, O., health-officer.]

1. I do not. But I think it possible, and even probable, that
some of the lower animals have scarlatina, or a disease of which
scarlatina in man is a modification.

2. None whatever.

3. (a) An instance where clothing worn by children having the
disease in January was brought into another family the following
April, cases occurring within ten days thereafter ; (4) an instance of
school-books used in a family suffering from scarlatina in June,
upon being opened and used by other children the following Sep-
tember, appeared to cause the disease; (c) a large number of in-
stances where physicians and others coming in contact with cases
have appeared to carry a germ of disease to their own or other
families.

4. None.

5. 1donot know. My observation leads me to the conclusion
that the disease is communicable at any stage after fever begins,
and at least until desquamation is completed; and this last stage
is often very prolonged.

6. As in No. 3.

7. Three to four months.

8. Most certainly. By the physician or other person making
diagnosis. \ For the prevention of extension, thereby saving life and
health. As it is a disease of childhood chiefly, prompt notification
of school authorities enables them to exclude infected or infectious.
children from schools. A placard upon the infected house notifies
all who are about to enter of the nature of danger to which they are:
exposed. It educates the people, and favors isolation.

g. To notify the public of danger, and torender the infected such
assistance as may be necessary; to have, if possible, a hospital to
which all cases not otherwise isolated should be removed promptly ;
to give information as to the nature and prevention of the disease.

10. Yes, prompt and complete isolation of every case.

11. Aninstance of a child in a family of four, none of whom had
had the disease; the child affected at once isolated in the same house >
the skin in every part washed twice a day with a solution of mur-
curic chloride (1 to 1,000), and all secretions and excretions treated’
by the same solution; the isolation maintained for nine weeks; no
communication in any way.

12. Yes, ina measure. I believe thereis in every individual a nat-
ural resistance to diseases, varying in individuals and the same in-
dividual at different times, and in respect to certain diseases. This
natural resistance is at its best when all bodily functions are best
performed.

13. Text-books can do it better.

[To be continued.|

BOOK -REVIEWS.
Higher Grounds. Hints toward settling the Labor Troubles. By
AUGUSTUS JACOBSON. Chicago, McClurg & Co. 16°. $1.
THISs is a small book, as books go nowadays, for it may easily
be read through at a sitting. But it demands comment out of

DecEMBER 16, 1887. |

all proportion to its size, for it is both original and powerful.
The author’s style is clear, crisp, and concise, and, as we shall
show by some quotations, is very striking and attractive. Take
this as a specimen: “Everybody wants to settle the labor ques-
tion, but nobody is willing to sacrifice any thing to settle it; nobody
appears to be willing to pay out any money to settle it. The labor
question will not be settled without sacrifice ; it will not be settled
without a large expenditure of money. To settle the labor question
without sacrifice, would be to get something for nothing. The
settlement of the labor question will in some way have to be paid
for.” The one hundred and sixty pages of the book are full of just
such epigrammatic passages as that.

Mr. Jacobson’s line of argument is this. The so-called labor
problem is the great problem, not only of our time, but of all times.
It cannot be settled without expense, and large expense at that.
Although any thing but settled, it has already cost this country
hundreds of millions of dollars in the way of disturbance of busi-
ness. The demand of the man who is at the bottom for better
things in life is in the nature of things. It is a demand which
sooner or later must be met, and it is to the interest of every one that
it should be met. The man who works with his hands sells by the
quantity, and at the lowest possible prices, all he produces. What-
ever he has to buy he buys at the highest retail price. In the game
of life the cards are stocked against the man who labors with his
hands. Nearly all the wealth of modern times is earned by steam,
which does for man his work. The wealth which steam earns
should belong to all mankind ; but, instead of going to the many, it
goes to the few, and the many continue to hopelessly drudge and
slave on. But the labor question is not merely a question of fewer
hours and more pay: it goes deeper thanthat. It can be settled,
but it can be settled by nothing short of revolution, This revolu-
tion, however, will be peaceful: there will be no lawlessness, no
destruction of property, nobody would be maimed, nobody would
be killed. The revolution is to be effected through the manual-
training school.

In June, 1886, the Chicago Manual-Training School sent an en-
tirely new product into the world. It graduated a class of boys
about eighteen years of age, who three years before had never
touched tools with a view to becoming skilled in their use. Yet,
without neglecting their books, they had in those three years drawn
the plans for several steam-engines, had made the patterns in wood,
had done the chipping, filing, and lathe-work (the casting was done
elsewhere, because the school lacked facilities for doing it), had put
together the engines, and had run them. This manual education
was not special, but general. It mattered not what profession the
boys chose: it was useful to them. The product of the manual-
training school does not compete with the wage-earning masses, for
his skill and intelligence raise him above them. The manual-train-
ing school is popular, and destined to become still more so; for at
the present time the school facilities that exist for the children of the
laboring people, after they are ten or twelve years old, are only a
hollow mockery. The manual-training school should become part
of the American school system; and, to enable all children to get
the benefit of the school, parents or guardians should be paid for
keeping the children at school. The compensation should begin
at the child’s twelfth year, and be fifty dollars: per year: it should
continue till his twentieth year, when it should be three hundred
dollars a year. The proposition includes both boys and girls.
The expense thus incurred would be enormous, and could not
be met by any taxation now in vogue. It could be met, how-
ever, by a graduated tax upon estates. In war times we had a
succession tax, and it never failed to be collected, simply because
the probate judge could declare no estate settled until the tax had
been paid. The law imposing this tax was passed in 1861, and
amended in 1862. Both acts were signed by Abraham Lincoln. In
war times we also had a graduated income tax; so that a gradu-
ated tax is not new to the American people. But the income tax
was odious, because only the scrupulous paid, and the unscrupulous
escaped by swearing falsely. A succession tax is a fair tax, because
nobody can escape paying it. The State of New York hasa gradu-
ated succession tax, passed by the Legislature of 1885. It is now
proposed to enact a graduated tax for all estates. It should be 4
per cent on estates less than $25,000, 4 per cent on all above

SClLENCE:

smeasure can be.

207

$25,000 and less than $50,000, # per cent on all above $50,000 and
less than $100,000, then increasing gradually until it becomes 107
per cent on estates above a million, and 50 per cent on estates.
above five millions. The tax would not fall heavily upon anybody..
It would only be $2.50 on an estate of $1,000, and only $1,000 on
an estate of $100,000. It would yield from twenty-five to fifty mil--
lions annually in New York City, and from three to six millions.
annually in Chicago. Its proceeds would be ample for the proposed
expenditure. This measure is expedient, and as just as any tax
It would increase individual power and individual
intelligence, and would produce no unhappiness or suffering. The
very rich man might say that he should be permitted to do what he
likes with his own; but this he cannot do now, and in the nature
of things will never be allowed to do. The law interferes at every
step, and tells him what he may do with his own, and what he
must not do. Many rich men give as much now for benevolent
objects as the succession tax would take from their estates; but

they rarely give it so as to accomplish the most good. Untold
benefits would arise from this law. The child-labor problem would
be settled, because it would now pay to keep the children at school.
Wages would rise, because the competition of thousands under
twenty years of age, who are now laborers, would be withdrawn.

Intelligence shall make the people strong, the people shall be the
government, and the strength of the people shall be the strength of
the government. This is, in briefest outline, Mr. Jacobson’s argu—
ment. Its novelty, its brilliancy, and its apparent cogency, nobody
will deny; but will it stand the test of practicability ? We are com—
pelled to ask this question seriously, because Mr. Jacobson’s proposi-
tion is made thoughtfully and in good faith : it is not the vagary of
a fanatic, or the raving of a lunatic. “It is a business proposition,
and as such it demands fair treatment.

Thesecond half of Mr. Jacobson’s book is devoted to an explana-
tion and eulogy of the manual-training school. We will grant for
the sake of argument — though we agree with Mr. Jacobson in the
matter, and therefore really grant nothing — that the manual-train-
ing school will accomplish all that is claimed for it by its thoughtful
and influential advocates. It is then necessary to consider obvious
objections to Mr. Jacobson’s plan. So far as the graduated tax on
estates is concerned, it is an excellent, safe, and easily collected tax..
And while it may at first sight seem absurd to talk about subsidiz—
ing parents to keep children at school, yet we must take other con-
siderations into account. It is just as absurd, and no more so, to
levy a school-tax upon a man who has no children to be educated-
Furthermore, it is an expense incurred in order to solve the labor
question, which Mr. Jacobson holds, and rightly, cannot be solved
without sacrifice and expense. All this being acceded to, it re-
mains to ask whether the proposed tax would pay the bill. The
author claims that it would, but offers no statistics in support of his.
assertion. An examination of the census of 1880 may enlighten us.
Mr. Jacobson proposes to pay certain fixed sums per annum for each.
child over twelve and under twenty. In 1880 there were 8,347,731
such children in the country. To be reasonably successful, Mr.
Jacobson’s plan should reach at least three-fourths of them. If it.
should reach so many, and payments were made at the rates laid
down by the author, the disbursements under this head in 1880
would have amounted to the enormous sum of $919,502,737.50, or
nine times more than our present total outlay for educational pur-
poses. In the census year there died 756,893 persons. Of these,
202,806 were children under five years of age, whose opportunities.
of accumulating fortunes were restricted. But let us suppose that
one-half of all those who died, or 378,447 persons, left estates valued.
at $1,000 and over (we are construing these figures in as liberal a
spirit as possible toward Mr. Jacobson, and if we err it is not against
his theory). Suppose now, and it is almost unreasonable to sup-
pose so, that 370,000 of these left fortunes averaging $5,000, that
8,000 left fortunes averaging $25,000, that 400 left fortunes aver—
aging $100,000, and that 47 left fortunes averaging $1,000,000. If
Mr. Jacobson’s graduated succession tax were levied on these es—
tates, it would net $10,830,585, making no deduction for cost of
collection. And this $10,830,585 seems paltry when brought face to:
face with $919,502,737.50. Mr. Jacobson claims, however (p. 44), as
was quoted above, that the tax would at present yield from three
to six millions annually in Chicago, and from twenty-five: to. fifty

298

millions annually in New York City. We cannot understand on
what he bases that assertion. Take the two cities separately. The
Illinois counties of Cook and Lake, that in which Chicago is sit-
uated and its neighbor on the north, lost 11,433 inhabitants by
‘death in 1880, Of these, 6,230 were infants under five. If, of the
remaining 5,203, 5,000 had died with average estates of $5,000,
175 with $100,000, and 28 with $1,000,000, —a most preposterous
‘assumption, — then in those two counties Mr. Jacobson’s tax would
have netted $3,075,000. But the conditions are impossible. It is
the same with New York.
‘counties had 25,239 deaths of persons over five yearsof age. Mak-
ing an assumption regarding their estates as preposterous as that
made in the case of Chicago, the return from Mr. Jacobson’s tax
would have been less than $7,000,000.

Two things are very evident, — first, that Mr. Jacobson made no
‘estimate of what his plan would cost; second, that he very much
overestimates the number of fortunes of $20,000,000 and over, in
this country. His tax is 50 per cent on fortunes of $5,000,000 and
over, to be sure; and, if a few persons possessing that sum were to
die at once, the return would be far greater than we have estimated.
But such persons do not all die at once, and moreover, in the long-
Tun, Our overestimate of the number of millionnaires would suffice
to make up the sum their deaths would contribute. It might even
happen that Mr. Jacobson’s estimate of the number of immense
fortunes is approximately true: the amount raised by the tax would
still be far short of the necessary expenditure. The plan is a bril-
liant one. It has many excellent points. We admire its author’s
enthusiasm for the manual-training school.
a graduated tax on estates commends itself to our judgment. But
as a plan to solve the labor®problem, it will not work. This is
partly because the income under the plan would not pay the expen-
diture, and partly because the labor problem is, in many respects,
the problem of humannature. In Mr. Jacobson’s sense of the word
“solution,’ it cannot be solved.

NOTES AND NEWS.

THE annual meeting of the Association of the Colleges of
‘Ohio will be held at Athens, Dec. 26, 27, and 28, 1887. The fol-
lowing is a list of the papers expected: Monday, Dec. 26, opening
address, by Pres. Eli T. Tappan, commissioner of common schools.
Tuesday, Dec.27, ‘The Aim of the College,’ by Prof. C. L. Ehren-
feld, Wittenberg College ; ‘Rhetorical Studies and Literary Work
in College,’ by Prof. W. B. Chamberlain, Oberlin College; ‘The
Claims of Classical Archeology on Classical Teachers,’ by Prof. B.
Perrin, Adelbert College; ‘Geology and Mineralogy in our Col-
leges,’ by Prof. J. F. James, Miami University; Symposium, ‘ The
Elective System with Us, What we Do and What we Think,’ by
the presidents or other representatives of all the institutions in the
association. Wednesday, Dec. 28, ‘Preparation for College in
Ohio,’ by Prof. Charles Chandler, Denison University. Meetings
of the association will be held inthe chapel of the Ohio University ;
entertainment at the Central Hotel, at $1.50 per day, and at the
Warren House at $2 or less, according to the number stopping
there. Trains leave Columbus for Athens at 7.45 A.M., 3.10 P.M.,
and 6,10 P.M., standard time.

— A literary and musical entertainment was given at the resi-
‘dence of Mr. and Mrs. H. Herrman in New York on Wednesday
evening, Dec. 7, in aid of the Erminnie A. Smith memorial prize
fund at Vassar College. The evening was a very enjoyable one,
there being two hundred and fifty persons present, and a fine colla-
tion being furnished by Mrs. Herrman.

— The five lessons on problems in physical geography delivered
by Prof. W. M. Davis, under the auspices of the Teachers’ School
of Science of the Boston Society of Natural History, during the
winter of 1886-87, were so novel and useful to teachers, that he has
been invited to give a course during the coming winter upon the
physical geography of the United States. This course will be in
part a continuation of last year’s lessons; but the addition of new
matter, new models, more extended illustrations, and the special
attention given to our own country, will make the lectures prac-
itically distinct from those given last winter.

SCIENCE.

In 1880, New York and six adjoining.

His suggestion as to.

[Vor X. No. 254

LETTERS TO THE EDITOR.

".” Correspondents are requested to be as brief as possible.
in all cases required as proof of good faith.

Twenty copies of the number containing his communication will be furnished
Sree to any correspondent on request.

The editor will be glad to publish any queries consonant with the character of
the journal.

The writer's name is

Conspiracy of Silence.

THE discussion published in a recent number of your journal
(Sczence, x. No. 252), relative to the faith of scientists, is the revival
of a topic which seems to have been long since detinitely settled.
If history can be credited, scientific men in every age have fought
vigorously against progress. An interesting example is furnished
by a brilliant French novelist, Mr. Paul Féval, and probably few
will fail to recognize the truth of the following quotation : —

“Jl fallut cependant des années encore pour que ce savant et
illustre corps, le marine de l’Etat, voulit bien prendre en considéra-
tion cette force qui fait reculer le vent et se rit de la violence méme
des courants. Il est vrai que l’Académie professait, vers le méme
temps, cette opinion: qu’une vitesse de dix lieues a l’heure, sur un
chemin de fer, supprimerait la respiration chez l’homme et tuerait
tous les malheureux assez fous pour se livrer a ces folles expériences.
Il serait puéril d’accuser notre marine ou nos académies. Le
monde est ainsi fait. Tout progrés géne quelque intérét ou froisse
quelque orgueil.

“Dans le doute, abstiens-toi, disait la sagesse antique; la sagesse
moderne répond: Sz ¢z me sazs pas, empéche! Fera-t-on jamais
le compte des hommes et des idées mis 4 mort au nom de ce fan-
tome idiot que les sages nomment /’zxvrazsemblance?”

The zaive confession of Mr. Bonney practically concedes the
whole case. Here are two theories of the formation of coral reefs,
each dependent upon a certain set of facts, accessible to all investi-
gators. Mr. Bonney says that the scientific method is to wait, and
not to investigate. He is not able, he says, to make up his mind
which theory is correct. Is this really a scientific method ?

The ideal scientist, it will readily be admitted, is a person whose
sole aim is to discover the truth of any matter under investigation, _
regardless of all personal or partisan feelings. The actual man of
science, for the reason that he is a man, is influenced, unconsciously
it may be, by his human characteristics, and frequently allows preju-
dice to overcome reason. In the particular case already considered
in your columns, it appears that Mr. Murray discovered some facts
which were unknown to Darwin, and that, these facts admitted,
Darwin's theory must necessarily be modified. This is the precise
point which Mr. Bonney adroitly evades: does he believe the facts
stated by Mr. Murray; and, if so, can he reasonably continue to
accept Darwin's theory? What excuse is there for waiting, unless,
indeed, Darwin is an idol whose sayings, because they were made
by him, must be received with reverence by all his followers?

This theory of Darwin’s is only one of anumber of beliefs which
scientists uphold with obstinacy, in the face of contrary evidence ;
but, as is well said by the writer already quoted, —

“ Mais, en tout siécle, les sages eurent beau se coucher au travers
de la grande route vi marche l’humanité, /humanité passa. L’in-
vraisemblance, grotesque épouvantail, recule ses brouillards devant
la lumiére. Des miracles, déclarés impossibles, se promeénent
paisiblement dans nos rues. Et tout va vite: voyez! il y a de cela
quarante ans a peine; en cherchant bien, vous trouverez certes en-
core, vivant et grignotant sa bribe du budget, quelqu’un de ces
Spartiates dont la main tremblotante essaya d’arréter la vapeur!”

It may be of interest to glance briefly at another celebrated
theory, which has been treated by scientists in a manner very simi-
lar to that pursued in the case of coral formations. About the year
1844, Messrs. Favre and Silbermann experimented on the heat
evolved by the combustion of certain elementary and a few com-
pound combustibles. Their experiments, far surpassing in accura-
cy all those hitherto made, were accepted by scientific men gener-
ally, and their results are given in most text-books and treatises
on heat. These distinguished experimenters did not think it neces-
sary to test the heating-power of the familiar compound, coal, but
considered that it could be calculated with sufficient accuracy by
analyzing the coal, and assuming that the heating-power was the
same as the sum of the heating-powers determined for the various
combustible elements, less the unavailable heat of so much of the

DeceMBER 16, 1887. ]

hydrogen as would unite with oxygen in the formation of water ;
and this is the theory contained in most modern text-books on
combustion prepared for the use of English-speaking students, and
generally employed in calculations by the scientific men of England
and the United States.

About the year 1860, Messrs. Scheurer-Kestner and Meunier-
Dollfus made experiments on the heat evolved by the combustion
of various coals; using the same method as that employed by
Messrs. Favre and Silbermann, and checking the latter's experi-
ments on wood charcoal and hydrogen gas, before testing the
coals. The experiments on coals showed that it was incorrect to
calculate the heat of combustion of coal from the heat of its com-
bustible constituents as determined by Favre and Silbermann ; or,
in other words, that it was not correct to assume that the carbon
in coal was of the same density as wood charcoal, and that the hy-
drogen of the coal was in a gaseous state: these being the neces-
sary assumptions, when Messrs. Favre and Silbermann’s constants
are used in the formula to which reference has been made above.
The report of Messrs. Scheurer-Kestner and Meunier-Dollfus has
been well named ‘classical,’ — all operations and calculations being
fully detailed, —so that, speaking rationally or scientifically, the
conclusion seems inevitable that a scientific investigator must
either find some error or accept the results. Well, how has the
scientific world, that is to say, the English-speaking scientific
world, received these results? Generally by ignoring them, and
going on in the good old way, according to the creed formulated by
Messrs. Favre and Silbermann. Here is a scientific (?) statement
made by one investigator who has carefully studied the report
(Mr. B. F. Isherwood, in Journal of the Franklin Instztute, July,
1884) :—

“The results of the calorimetrical experiments made by Scheurer-
Kestner and Meunier-Dollfus on the heat of combustion of the
Alsatian coals, were never accepted by the British scientists, not-
withstanding that no error was ever pointed out in either the appa-
ratus or the method employed. Nor could the writer ever accept
them, although he bestowed the closest scrutiny and study upon
them.”

This is science, with a vengeance! “I can’t findany mistakes in
the methods or calculations,” says the scientist, ‘‘ but the results are
opposed to my present belief, and I can’t accept them. I have pub-
lished numerous treatises containing calculations founded on the
methods and data of Favre and Silbermann, and these new results,
which would condemn my work, must be ignored or denied.” !

The statement contained in the above quotation, that the results
of the experiments made by Messrs. Scheurer-Kestner and Meunier-
Dollfus were never accepted by the British scientists, is not abso-
lutely correct. Mr. John Percy, in the last edition of his treatise on
fuel, gives the results, and calls attention to the inaccuracy of the
ordinary method of calculation. Similar corrections are made in
the last supplement of Watt’s ‘ Dictionary of Chemistry.’

Quite recently, Messrs. Scheurer-Kestner and Meunier-Dollfus
have repeated their former experiments, obtaining substantially the
same results as before; and it seems probable that right methods
of calculating the heat of combustion of coal will be generally
adopted beforelong. If the results are true, they will certainly be
accepted, some day; but the length of time during which they
have patiently awaited admission to the temple inhabited by Eng-
lish-speaking scientists is a sufficient answer to the question, ‘If a
new fact, overturning some established theory, is presented, do the
scientists examine it critically, and either disprove or accept it, or
do they ignore it as long as they can, and only take it into their
hearts when worn out by its persistent demands?’ Ifa ¢ruth is
announced, there need be no fear that it will not prevail in the end;
but numerous facts, similar to that just cited, sufficiently disprove

_ 1 Scientific men seem to hunt in couples, so to speak ; and Mr. Bonney, in answer-
ing the Duke of Argyll (Nature, Nov. 24). argues in the same manner as his Ameri-
can brother in the above quotation. He does not accept the new theory, and thinks
that no reasons are required for his disbelief. Here are his words : —

“To conclude, the Duke still—and this is our special complaint — treats the
matter rather according to ecclesiastical than to scientific method. He is fully per-
suaded of the excellence of Mr, N{urray’s hypothesis, and considers it to be ‘ one of
those discoveries in science which are self-luminous,’ and ‘ must carry conviction to
all.’ Very well, but there are some people, not yery few in number, who do not share
this opinion.”

Hail to the new science, announced by Mr. Bonney!

The voice of many people
is the voice of God.

SGIE NCE:

2oF)

the theory fondly entertained by many scientists, that they have
reached the ideal state where they desire only to know the truth,.
regardless of consequences.

Another brilliant French writer, Mr. Alexander Dumas, well sums.
up the matter, as follows :—

“Tl est vrai que peut-étre les contemporains ne me croiront pas..
. . . Quimporte! je l’aurais dit; d’autres me croiront : la vérité est
une de ces, étoiles qui peuvent rester des mois, des années, des.
siécles, dans les profondeurs du ciel, mais qui finissent toujours par
étre découvertes un jour ou l’autre. J’aime mieux étre le fou qui
se voue a la recherche de ces étoiles-la, que le sage qui salue et qui
adore, les uns apres les autres, tous ces soleils que nous avons vus.
se lever, que l'on nous a donnés pour des astres immutables, et qui,
a tout prendre, n’ont jamais été que des météores plus ou moins.
durables, plus ou moins brilliants, plus ou moins trompeurs, tou-

jours fatals!” RICHARD H. BUEL.
New York, Dec. 7.

The ‘Act of God’ and ‘ Fuerza Mayor.’

Mr. APPLETON MORGAN'S ‘Act of God’ and Mr. Nevin’s
‘fuerza mayor’ appear to me to be pretty much alike, and to,
threaten a new peril to railway travel, —a peril, according to. Mr..
Nevin, which in Mexico is already to be encountered. I tremble
to think what might happen, for example, if the engineer of the
locomotive should happen to sneeze just as he passed a signal that
a bridge had been carried away somewhere on the Mexican Central
Railroad by “ the flooding of a river.” Here would be a double:
‘fuerza mayor ;’ for an inclination to sneeze is certainly irresisti-
ble, and, besides, “‘the flooding of a river” certainly relieved from
the responsibility for the irresistible inclination, even if, according-
to Mr. Nevin, it did not relieve the watchman from the duty of
putting up the danger-signal. But, although we may have to take-
our lives in our hands when we travel by rail in Mexico (according
to Mr. Nevin), I hope that time has not yet come in the United,
States.

In short, this is the actual practical answer to Mr. Morgan’s:
cleverly reasoned and delightfully zsouczan¢ paper. It may not be
the answer a railway lawyer would write, or would recognize as,
sufficient, but, from the travelling public’s standpoint, it is all there:
is to be said. It is all very well for the sleek attorneys of great
railroad corporations to say that so long as the company provides,,
as Mr. Morgan says, “the last improvement in safety-insuring de-
vices,’ its responsibility for the safety of those it transports ceases.
“Let us bow to the Divine Will, gentlemen of the jury,” says Mr.
Morgan. “An overruling Providence has decreed that my client
should “roast thirty-two human beings in slow agony on a floor of
ice at White River. But our track was in perfect order, our engine
was all right, we were running on time. We are not legally to
blame.” Would Mr. Appleton Morgan have bowed to the Divine:
Will if he had happened to have been rescued in a half-roasted con—
dition at White River, less an arm, or an eye, oraleg? I venture
to say he would have done nothing of the sort. I venture to say
he would have commenced proceedings against the company for-
twenty-five thousand or fifty thousand dollars as soon as he could,
swear to a complaint. And yet Mr. Morgan will concede that the
accident at White River could not have happened in spite of the-
Divine Will.

The people of this nation do not exist at the will and pleasure of
the railway-companies; nor is this nation governed by Mexican
laws. Mr. Morgan’s familiarity with his subject enables him to.
write very plausibly concerning the rights and duties of railway-
companies; but he cannot convince me, for one, that they are not
more sinning than sinned against. If the principle of the ‘Act of
God ’ is to be resurrected in the United States, as in Mexico, where:
is the line to be drawn, and who is to draw it,— the railway-com-
panies, or their ingenious lawyers ? GEORGE BRADWIN.

Jersey City, Dec. 6.

The Flight of Birds.

My friend, Prof. Frank H. Storer, has called my attention to an,
important note on the wings of birds, by that accurate and inde-
fatigable investigator, Prof. Jeffries Wyman. It is to be found on
p- 169, vol. v., Proceedings of the Boston Natural Hzstory Society.
This note is all too short, but forms an interesting adjunct to the-

300

paper by Professor Trowbridge, read before the National Academy,
and noticed in Sczence of Nov. 18,1887. Those who heard or have
read Professor Trowbridge’s paper will remember that it reported
rthe discovery by his son of a peculiar structure in the primary
wing-feathers of soaring birds, by which they are locked when ex-
panded, and are thus maintained in position without muscular
-effort. This structure is shown only in the primary feathers, and
iis therefore a character belonging to the last division of the arm.

Professor Wyman, in the note referred to, describes “a peculiar
varrangement of the bones and ligaments in the wing of the pin-
tailed duck, by which, while the wing is fully extended, all the seg-
«ments of this extremity are fixed and retained in position independ-
-ently of muscular action.” His account of the mechanism of the
<wing is as follows : —

“The structure of the articulations of the elbow and wrist is
such, that during flexion and extension the radius advances and
recedes upon the ulna, carrying with it the upper carpal bone, and
-this last the hand: in this way flexion and extension of the bones
_are effected. The lower carpal bone is attached to the upper by

strong ligaments : consequently, when the upper carpal bone is
drawn over the extremity of the ulnaas the radius recedes, the lower
one is drawn up between the hand and the extremity of the ulna,
.and, acting as a wedge, maintains the hand extended, until it is dis-
placed by the reversed action of the radius.” This structure, ac-
cording to Professor Wyman, shows how the extension of the bony
framework of the wing may be maintained indefinitely without
‘fatigue. The structure of the primary wing-feathers described by
Professor Trowbridge indicates that they too may be locked in
-position, and thus the rigidity of the wing may be maintained auto-
matically to its extremity.

None of the members of the National Academy who took part in
the discussion which followed the reading of Professor Trow-
‘bridge’s paper seemed to have any knowledge of this discovery of
Professor Wyman; and it was remarked, that, while the facts cited
iby Professor Trowbridge seemed to explain the automatic exten-
-sion of the primaries which are appendages of the manus, the
‘rigidity of the arm itself, apparently manifested in the flight of soar-
sing birds, was yet unaccounted for. That missing link was sup-

plied by Professor Wyman, but, from his characteristic modesty,
-so quietly announced that it has been known to few.

The case cited by me at the meeting of the National Academy
-was a turkey-buzzard, shot when soaring over the prairies in the
‘Sacramento valley. Its wings remained rigidly extended, and it
descended slowly like a parachute and settled in the grass very
mear me, quite dead; even then the wings remaining expanded.

Professor Storer gives other interesting examples. He says,
~« Upon the New England seaboard nothing is more familiar to old
gunners than the phenomenon that a bird shot in mid-air will often
~set his wings’ and scale down toward the horizon, to reach the
water dead, often at a great distance from the boat whence the
«shot was fired. Even in childhood I remembered to have won-
dered, when ‘assisting’ at the shooting of duck and coot, as to the
smeaning of the not infrequent exclamation, ‘That fellow has set
this wings; watch him !’”

Dr. Storer writes that he was present at the meeting of the Bos-
‘ton Natural History Society, Sept. 1, 1855, when Professor Wyman
exhibited his preparation of the duck’s wing, and gave an explana-
tion of its structure which seemed a demonstration.

Now, if some good anatomist would review the subject again,
‘combine the results reached by Professor Wyman and Professor
Trowbridge, and illustrate his memoir with good figures, he would

make an important contribution to biological science.
J. S. NEWBERRY.
New York, Dec. 10.

The Origin of the Tritubercular Type of Mammalian
Dentition.

PROFESSOR COPE has fully demonstrated that the molar teeth
of many divisions of the higher mammalia are derived from the
itritubercular type of molar which is so abundant in the mammals
of the Puerco, or lowest eocene period. He has further (‘ Origin
of the Fittest,’ p. 347) shown that the tritubercular type may be
traced back to the single cone of the reptilian crown by the follow-

SCIENCE.

[Vor. X. No. 254

ing succession : ‘ first, a simple cone or reptilian crown alternating
with that of the other jaw; second, a cone with lateral denticles ;
third, the denticles to the inner side of the crown forming a three-
sided prism, with tritubercular apex, which alternates with that of
the opposite jaw,’ etc. In the last meeting of the American Asso-
ciation for the Advancement of Science, Professor Cope applied this
succession to the origin of what he has called the ‘ tubercular-sec-
torial’ molar, citing the molars of Owen’s genus Sfalacotherium as
an instance of the transformation into the tritubercular crown 27
process. 1 had independently arrived at the same conclusion, and,
moreover, found that the origin of the tritubercular crown in all its
various stages could be traced in the mesozoic mammalia. This
is traced in a memoir now publishing by the Philadelphia Acad-
emy. Iam glad to be able to confirm Professor Cope’s views in
every particular, for his numerous and suggestive papers upon the
mechanical genesis of tooth forms have placed comparative anato-
mists generally in his debt. Among the mesozoic mammalia the
simple large cone with small lateral denticles is seen in the Ameri-
can triassic genus Deomotherzum. From the same beds JMZzcro-
conodon furnishes a more advanced stage in the growth of the lat-
eral denticles into cusps. The mandibles of Jurassic genera
Phascolothertum, Menacodon, Spalacotherzum, furnish three
stages of the rotation inwards of the lateral cusps, accompanied
probably by the rotation outwards of the lateral cusps in the upper
jaw. In Stylodon this process is complete, the teeth being dis-
tinctly tritubercular, with the addition of a posterior heel, the upper
molars reversing the pattern of the lower. In another line of gen-
era the lateral cusps show no tendency to rotate inwards, but con-
tinually augment in size, such as 7yzconodon and its successors,
leading to the modern 7hylacznus type of molar. In Amphzthe-
vtum and many other genera it appears as if the posterior lateral
cusp had never been acquired, and the crown is re-enforced by the
inward extension of the cingulum, as seen in an early stage in
Diplocynodon. In Kurtodon, by the union of the external tuber-
cles in the upper jaw, we observe a columnar molar of the rodent
type. It now appears as if we should soon be in possession of
sufficient data to trace the entire history of the multi-cuspid and
multi-fanged mammalian molar from the single reptilian cone and
fang. HENRY F, OSBORN.
Princeton, N.J., Dec. x2.

Iroquois and Eskimos.

IN connection with the dicussion which has recently appeared in
Sczence on the ancient relations of the Iroquois and Eskimos, a
passage which I recently came across in the manuscripts of the
Moravian missionary Christopher Pyrlzeus is worthy of note.

The active work of Pyrlzus was between 1740 and 1750, and he
became an accomplished scholar in one or more of the Iroquois
dialects. In July, 1749, the Iroquois sent a deputation to a council
at Philadelphia, when Pyrleeus acted as interpreter. In his notes
of his conversations with the deputies he has the following :—

“Tschzechrohne heissen die Gronlander ; Tschze, ein See-
hund. Die drei obgenannte Seneker wussten nicht nur von den
Gronlandern, sondern auch ihrer Contry (szc), Landsart, Kleidung,
Nahrung,” etc.

Of course, Pyrleus used the term ‘ Greenlanders’ as generic for
‘Eskimos.’ Evidently the Iroquois, who pushed their war parties
to the south as far as the present State of Louisiana, carried their
excursions also as far north as the shores of the Frozen Ocean.

D. G. BRINTON.
Media, Penn., Dec. 7.

The Sioux.

IN your issue of Nov. 25 (p. 264) your correspondent from Lex-
ington, Mo., says, “‘ The Sioux call themselves Zak-Zo-ta.” In
this he is correct ; but when he adds, “not Dakota,” he is in error.
The sounds of Z and d@ are interchanged among certain Dakota dia-
lects. The Sioux who dwell east of the Missouri say DaZoza, while
most of those on the west side (Tetons) say La#ota (uzde Riggs’s
Grammar and Dictionary of the Dakota Language, p. 133).

In giving the meaning of the name as ‘ cut-throats,’ he is at vari-

ance with the best authorities on the Dakota language.
W. MATTHEWS.
Washington, D.C., Nov. 26.

Ser cN GE

FRIDAY, DECEMBER 23, 1887.

A MOST INTERESTING CELEBRATION took place in Philadelphia
on Dec. 12. The occasion was the one-hundredth anniversary of
the birth of Thomas Hopkins Gallaudet, the pioneer of the move-
ment for the instruction of the deaf in this country. A short bio-
graphical sketch of Gallaudet was read, and one of his poems was
recited by four deaf girlsin thesign-language. The address of the
evening was delivered by Prof. A. Graham Bell of telephone fame,
and well known for his researches into the heredity of deaf-mutism.
Professor Bell gave an interesting history of the knowledge of deaf-
mutism, pointing out how completely its nature was misunderstood
until within very recent times. Not two centuries ago the legal
status of a deaf-mute was like that of an idiot. The notion of his
being capable of receiving education was ridiculed, and the only
attempts to make them speak was by a church miracle. Three
names in the eighteenth century stand out as the successful teach-
ers of the deaf, — Heimcke, De l’Epée, and Braidwood. Gallaudet
became interested in the deaf-mute by meeting the young daughter
of his neighbor at Hartford, Dr. Cogswell. Hesucceeded in teach-
ing her a little ; and when, later, it was found out how many more
were similarly afflicted, a meeting was called at Dr. Cogswell’s
house, and it was decided to send young Gallaudet to England to
learn the methods of teaching, and introduce them into America.
He arrived in England, and found that Braidwood had bound all
his teachers under a heavy fine not to reveal his methods to any
one. It was a money-making institution, and after long delays he
saw that it was hopeless to stay in England. He then fortunately
met the Abbé De |’Epée, who welcomed him to France with open
arms, taught him all he had to teach, and sent with him one of his
most talented pupils, Laurence Clerc, to spread the great gift to
America. On their arrival they founded the institution at Hart-
ford, which soon gave rise to others all over the land. The perse-
verance and self-sacrifice of Gallaudet were the means of bringing
a life worth living to thousands of the deaf of America. The ad-
dress was interpreted into the sign-language as rapidly as it was
spoken, and was greatly appreciated by the many deaf persons in
the audience. The two sons of Gallaudet, both of whom are en-
gaged in continuing the work of their father, — one as the president
of the deaf-mute college at Washington, the other as a pastor for
the deaf, — were present, and made remarks suitable to the occa-
sion.

THE DEATH HAS BEEN ANNOUNCED of Gustav Theodor Fech-
ner, professor of experimental physics at the University of Leipzig.
Fechner has been before the scientific world in many fields of
activity, and for many years. He began his career as a physicist,
and for many years devoted himself to experimental work, and
edited a physical journal. But the chief work of his life was be-
gun when nearly sixty years old. This was the work on psycho-
physics, —a field hitherto touched upon in only the most meagre
way, and owing its scientific recognition as well as its systematic
development to him. He here announced the psychophysic law,
stating the relation between the intensity of the stimulus and that
of the resulting sensation, and verified it with a large number of
ingenious and laborious experiments. Around this central con-
ception of Fechner’s has sprung up a large literature, in part criti-
cising his fundamental points, in part developing and adding to his
work and his methods. Whatever the final outcome of the move-

ment, it will always owe its vitality and its scientific development
to Fechner. This interest was maintained by Fechner until his
death. Two more books on psychophysics appeared from his pen,
and a large number of articles, the last of which were written only
a few years ago. Fechner’s mind was characterized by two streams
af interest; the one leading him to exact science, the other to a
somewhat imaginative speculation. He was deeply impressed with
the poetic, the mystic side of nature, and struggled to make the
world seem rational without losing any thing of grandeur or mys-
tery. These two streams of thought come nearest to meeting in
the second part of his psychophysics, but it is greatly to his credit
that he succeeded so well in keeping science and speculation apart.
Only once did he seriously confound the two, and that was in the
somewhat subordinate part he played in ‘the fourth-dimension
experiments’ of Zéllner. Besides his scientific works and his
speculative ones, he was the author of a book of poems and a book
of riddles. He died at the advanced age of eighty-six. He had
been troubled for many years by a double cataract, and was pre-
vented from doing much work by this disease.

THE WOMAN’S TEMPERANCE PUBLICATION ASSOCIATION of
Chicago has just issued a little book by William T. Hornaday, en-
titled ‘Free Rum on the Congo.’ This bookis an earnest appeal to
Americans for the suppression of the liquor traffic in Africa, espe-
cially in the Kongo basin. As might be expected, the author
ascribes the destructive influence of European civilization upon the
natives of all countries almost solely to the influence of alcohol, and
overlooks other important agents which nobody, however deep his
sympathy with the unfortunate victims of European civilization may
be, can remedy. The physical destruction of uncivilized races is
brought about by diseases introduced by Europeans, among which
alcoholism takes its place, although not by any means the most
prominent one. But the mental deterioration of the natives is not
less important. The cheap products of European manufacture,
which are in every respect superior to those of native manufacture,
make the native arts and industries decline rapidly, and vanish with-
in a few years. As nothing new is given to the natives in place of
their lost arts, their lost culture, they sink to a far lower stage than
they occupied before the advent of the whites. It is at this moment
that the missionary generally makes his appearance. It is only in
rare instances that he succeeds in raising the natives to a higher
standard. Generally the Christianity he introduces is nothing else
than a new fetich instead of the old one. He is taught that agri-
culture is the only means of civilizing a nation, and applies this
theory regardless of the character of his pupils and without effect.
Thus the native falls into a state in which he requires European
products, and has little to offer inexchange. He is not accustomed
to work hard and steadily, and therefore the sole effect of his con-
tact with the white man is the promotion of his laziness and of all
his bad propensities. In these two facts lies the root of the de-
struction of uncivilized peoples. Alcoholism is only a small part of
the evil influences threatening the natives, and the suppression of
the liquor traffic will not go far to improve their condition. It is well
known that the negroes throughout Africa, with the exception of a
few tribes, were acquainted with alcoholic drinks before the advent
of the whites. The Kaffres, the Balunda, the Waganda, brew beer
and make palm-wine, which they drink in excessive quantities. But
rum and gin are more dangerous, as they contain more alcohol ;
and a law prohibiting their importation would be a gain for the
natives. But the Woman’s Temperance Association, in endeavoring

302

to arouse an interest in the suppression of alcohol traffic in Africa,
ought to know, that, even if its aims were reached, the negroes would
be little better off. There is only one way to improve their state:
it is to develop their arts and industries; to improve the methods
of agriculture where such is practised, to further stock raising and
trading where the negroes are stock raisers and traders. After this
has been done, the missionary may be able to Christianize his pupils.
The intelligent missionaries, who understand that an improvement
of the material welfare of the natives must precede any teaching
of religion, are not many. The author, whose aims are very praise-
worthy, has not grasped the question of education of the natives
He overestimates one cause of their ruin, and underestimates their
faculties. The spread of Mohammedanism shows that the natiye
is well able to protect himself from alcohol, if his other energies are
not destroyed by foreign influence. This shows that the principal
problem is not the prohibition of alcohol, which of course is the
chief aim of the Woman’s Temperance Association, but the
stimulation of the energies, and development of the faculties, of
the natives.

THE GERMAN SYSTEM OF NORMAL SCHOOLS."

IN Germany schools have a social as well as an educational
rank. They may in general be divided into lower, middle, and
higher schools. The tuition, which is common to all, is graded, so
that the poorer and lower social classes are driven into the lowest
grade of schools. These are called Vo/ks, or people’s schools. In
Prussia ninety-one per cent of all children attend them ; in Bavaria,
ninety-six per cent. Their course of study is rounded up and com-
plete in itself. This school leads into no higher school. The
length of its course of study is eight years, — from the age of six
to that of fourteen. It is for this grade of schools that the Ger-
man normal schools prepare, and have always prepared, teachers.
The higher schools are taught by classically trained university men,
even in the elementary grades.

German normal schools arose in the middle of the eighteenth
century, and were established and maintained almost wholly from
philanthropic motives. They educated pious young people for a
business to which was attached neither competence nor worldly
honor. Externally their growth was greatly stimulated by the rise
of that great democratic wave which has swept through the world
during the present century ; furthermore, by that fear of an unedu-
cated proletariat which arose with the French revolution; and,
finally, by that high patriotism which saw in the education of the
German people the hope of freeing Germany from the domination
of Napoleon. Internally the normal schools received a new birth
through the educational revival which arose with Rousseau and
Pestalozzi.

But at the close of the Napoleonic wars, Germany relapsed into
the old police state, and soon suffered the internal contradiction of
a free intellectual development of the people in its schools, and the
cast-iron rigidity of a bureaucratic and despotic system of govern-
ment. This contradiction culminated in the revolution of 1848. A
re-action followed, and the normal schools, which had grown nu-
merous, were accused of being the main disseminators of revolution-
ary ideas. In 1854 there followed the three famous Prussian Reg-
ulations, which eliminated from the normal schools the spirit of
Pestalozzi and modern development, and reduced them to medieval
handmaids of the Church and a bureaucratic State. Other German
powers followed the example of Prussia. Authority took the place
of self-activity in the schoolroom, and German education sank
from its high estate. This was the condition of education in Ger-
many until the great day of German unity, which came at the close
of the Franco-Prussian war. The oppressive Regulations were re-
pealed, the spirit of progress and free development of mind re-
turned, and Germany resumed her former place as the leader of
educational advancement.
creased, until there were enough to supply all teachers needed for
the people’s schools. The number in 1882 in Prussia was one
hundred and eleven, nine of which were for women, the rest for
men, there being no co-education in German normal schools. Each

1 Read at the National Teachers’ Association, in Chicago, July, 1887.

SCIENCE:

The number of normal schools in- |

[Vor x VNom2st

school has a director, a head teacher, four ordinary teachers, and)
one assistant. It is attended by about a hundred students, about
two-thirds of whom board in the school. The board is very cheap,
not exceeding a dollar a week. The State pays the deficit, if one
occurs. I apprehend that the main reason for this close connec-
tion with the school is to be found in the tendency of the normal
students to imitate the excessive beer-drinking and carousing so-
common among the students of the university. The employment
of women as teachers in Germany is yet regarded as an experiment
in many parts of the country, and occurs usually only in graded
girls’ schools. Director Leutz of Karlsruhe said to me, ‘So far,
they give good satisfaction, for they are still young and fresh,
but who knows what they will become when they get old and
cross P”

The fact that Germany can supply all its Vo/ks schools with
graduate teachers from the normal schools, finds its explanation in
these facts: 1. All students take a continuous course, and all
graduate, as indeed they must before they can become teachers; 2.
Nearly all graduates remain teachers, for a German rarely becomes
that for which he was not specially educated; 3. Teaching is a pro—
fession in Germany, since none but trained persons are allowed
permanently to teach in that country. The teacher is a civil officer,
and holds his position with a life-tenure. I find by computation
that the average length of service of Prussian teachers for the last
fifty years is sixteen and nine-tenths years; so that, aside from the
increase in the number of schools, but five and nine-tenths per cent
of the whole number of teachers must be renewed yearly. Direc-
tor Rein of Eisenach, in Sachen-Weimar, and Director Leutz of
Karlsruhe, in Baden, both assured me that not more than five per
cent of the number of teachers in those states is renewed yearly.
This makes it possible, with a reasonable number of normal schools,
perhaps one for each hundred thousand inhabitants, to supply
trained teachers for all schools. Every year, however, in Illinois,
over twenty per cent of all teachers are beginners. At this rate, to
supply our Illinois schools with trained teachers, it would take one
hundred and forty-two normal schools, each having one hundred
students, a three-years’ course, and graduating thirty-three students
annually. We have, in reality, two normal schools, which gradu-
ate from twenty-five to forty students each year.

German normal schools are administered by the state educa-
tional minister or commissioner, a provincial school commission, and
by the director.

The same difficulties which have beset us, concerning the proper
preparation of candidates for the normal schools, exist in Germany.
Most of their candidates come naturally from the Vo/ks or people’s
schools; but, as we have seen, their course of study is strictly ele-
mentary, and closes when the student is at the age of fourteen.
The common rule is to require three years of preparation before
entering the normal school. This preparation is obtained in any
one of three ways: 1. Privately (this happens in villages where
only the Vo/ks school is found); 2. In the advanced grades of mid-
dle and higher schools; 3. In special preparatory schools. Of
this kind, Prussia has thirty, whereas each normal school of Saxony
has its own preparatory school. The pupils are here taken at four-
teen direct from the Vo/ks school, and graduated six years later.
The course of study in the preparatory schools is purely academic,
and consists of (1) religion, (2) German (reading, grammar, etc.),
(3) mathematics (arithmetic, algebra, geometry), (4) history, (5)
geography, (6) natural science, (7) writing, (8) drawing, (9) singing,
(10) violin, (11) piano, (12) harmony, (13) gymnastics.

That every normal school must have a model and training school
has long since been established by law in Germany, and is no
longer a question of debate. As the late Director Kehr, of the
Halberstadt Normal School, said, ‘(a normal school without a
training-school would be like a swimming-school without water.”
The only feature to which I wish to call your attention is the fact
that in Prussia each training-school has a country or district schoo
department, i.e., a model of a school taught by one teacher, so that!
the students have a complete picture of a village ungraded school.
I do not dwell upon the subject of the training-school, for I believe
that this country has now become pretty thoroughly converted to
the idea that the training-school is a necessary part of any thor-
oughly equipped normal school. Some of you will remember, how-

DECEMBER 23, 1887. |

ever, in the discussion of my paper on model schools, at Saratoga,
in 1883, that one of your members indulged in a prophecy concern-
ing a gentleman who was advocating the need of training-schools
in New England normal schools, to the effect, that, if the gentle-
man lived five years longer, he would not know so much about the
subject as he did then. Only four of the years set by the prophecy
are past;- but, if that gentleman has even begun to know less on
this topic than he did then, he can tell us to-day, for, by a coinci-
‘dence, he is to discuss this paper also. I may remark in passing,
that the training work takes place during the second and third
years of the course, and consists of, observation, 60 hours; model
lessons by the faculty, 120 hours; trial lessons by the pupils, 80
hours ; special preparation for teaching in the training-school, 40
hours ; teaching in the training-school, about 200 hours; critical
‘discussion of class exercises conducted by the pupils, 40 hours.

We come now to what has long been a serious problem in
American normal schools ; viz., the arrangement of the curriculum,
and the relation of academic to professional work. There has
been a growing feeling in some parts of this country that the nor-
mal school has no business with academic training, but should con-
fine itself strictly to professional work. I judge from last year’s
report to this body, that some, wishing to conform to modern senti-

* ment but not seeing how to do so in reality, have apparently re-
christened some of their departments; so that that which used to
be known as academic work, has now become professional work
of the strictest kind. This may look well on paper, but it only re-
itards a true solution of the difficulty.

It may in general be remarked that the curriculum of the
Prussian normal school consists of the same subjects pursued
in the preparatory course, together with the theoretical and prac-
tical professional work proper. From this we may infer, what is
the fact, that it is the concurrent testimony of schoolmen in Ger-
many that no amount of theory about teaching the various branches
‘can equal a thorough review and study of them in their relation to
the teacher and the children to be taught. Academic instruction
is, then, in their view, a necessary branch of normal-school instruc-
tion, and not something which, under changed conditions of prep-
-aration, might be dismissed with profit. This does not mean,
however, that academic instruction in a normal school should not
differ essentially from academic instruction in a high school. As I
apprehend the matter, it is in this particular that we have the most
room for improvement. I will explain, later, the way in which I
think this improvement can be made.

No subject is pursued for less than one year, while many subjects,
such as history, geography, drawing, gymnastics, and certain
branches of music, are studied throughout the entire three years.
Many other subjects are studied continuously for two years. This
arrangement is made possible by the fact that attendance by the
students is continuous throughout the entire course, whereas our
broken attendance compels us to make the school term the unit of
time for a study. It is curious that the number of hours per week
assigned to any given subject does not exceed two, except for
arithmetic and algebra, biblical history, and teaching in the train-
ing-school.

Such, in brief, is the German normal school system. But what
‘of it? What does it mean for us? Can we attain to any such re-
sults? What are the conditions by which its development must
‘be determined ?

The average American normal school may, perhaps, be fitly de-
fined as a high school with a training attachment, having the
limitations of a low-grade high school, and the ambition of a high-
grade college.

In order that the changes which I have to suggest may be seen
to have some basis in reason, I wish to make certain propositions,
which, since I shall not have time to demonstrate them, may be
considered as self-evident truths until they are shown to be erro-
neous : —

1. That, since the great majority of students who enter a normal]
school leave at or before the end of the first year, the curriculum
for this year ought to be a fair, though elementary, representation
of acomplete professional education. In the Illinois Normal School
at Normal, seventy-two per cent of the students do not enter upon
the second year’s work. If the principle stated is a sound one, no

SCIENCE,

303

great educational department ought to be entirely neglected in the
first year’s course; yet in our curriculum, psychology follows
theory and art of education, and is found first in the second year.
Again, natural science is a great and growing department of edu-
cation, yet we meet its first manifestation in our course of study in
the second term of the second year. I propose to put physiology,
at least, into the first year’s course. A little further on, I shall
propose changes in the theoretical professional work.

2. That the education given in the great mass of normal schools
must, in the nature of things, remain elementary in character.
College and university trained teachers do not compete for posi-
tions in the district and village schools, even in old countries, where
the struggle for existence is sharpest; much tess are they likely to
do so in this country. Schools paying from three hundred dollars
to five hundred dollars only, must be filled by persons having only
secondary education. Since, then, the normal school cannot com-
pete with the college in higher education, it is idle to load up the
curriculum with so many college studies, but is wiser to spend more
time on fewer subjects. For example: we at Normal teach six
sciences, one of which gets fifteen weeks, while each of the others
is studied for a bare twelve weeks. Further, we devote six weeks
to the history of education, and another six weeks to Rosenkranz’s
‘Philosophy of Education, —the best yet the most difficult of
works on education in the English language. It needs no argu-
ment to show the folly of making so many beginnings which lead
to so little, or of making so large a contribution to the mushroom
education of the times. I make the very modest proposal in regard
to natural science, that astronomy be dropped, and that the two

_great representative sciences, physics and zoology, receive at least

two terms each.

3. That any serious attempt greatly to raise the standard of ad-
mission will end in driving most of the male students out of the
normal school. Witness the advanced State normal school at
Milwaukee, which enrolls but one man. Any other normal school
which demands the completion of a high-school course of study as
a condition of entrance, will, I imagine, contain few male students.
From this it follows, that, if the normal school is made purely pro-
fessional, it is likely to become purely female.

4. That every normal school in America should teach gymnastics
two hours a week throughout its entire course. It is exceedingly
rare to see a stoop-shouldered or consumptive-looking man in Ger-
many. Sitting one day in the Garden of the Luxembourg, in Paris,
I began to count the number of round-shouldered people who
passed. All classes were represented. Of those I counted, thirty-six
were straight, and sixty-three were more or less round-shouldered,
many of them seriously so. Gymnastics is thoroughly universal in
all German schools, but is, or at least has not been, in France.

5. That our normal schools should make a much more serious
business of music. There is not time to discuss this point.

6. That since the normal school is elementary in its scope, and
since the American teacher, unlike the German, has no limits set to
what he may become, the thing of most lasting benefit which the
normal school can do for him and the State is to quicken him to
the widest professional growth. I have little doubt that some of
the early normal schools; with their one-year courses, did far more
towards implanting a growing inspiration in their pupils than we
do with our three years of grind. To this end I would havea more
rational and far-reaching professional course of study. I propose,
therefore, the following : /zrst year, first term, observation ; second
term, elementary psychology; third term, elementary theory and
practice of teaching. Second year, first term, logic and advanced
psychology ; second term, history of education ; third term, philos-
ophy of education (Rosenkranz). Thzrd year, entire year, two to
three hours per week, illustrative teaching, united with the princi-
ples of methodology, —a subject which, so far as I am aware, has
received little or no attention in American normal schools.

7. That it is time for the normal school in America to pass that
stage of its development in which it is a high school with a training
attachment, and that therefore, aside from the strictly professional
work, a more pedagogical treatment of the academic branches is
needful. To this end I propose the following: (a) that the teacher
in charge of any given branch should give instruction in that sub-
ject throughout its entire scope as an organic whole, and not merely

304

in its high-school phases ; (4) that he should consider his subject
in its rise and development as a factor in education; {c) that he
should present an historical view of his subject in regard to methods
as the best safeguard against a mechanical and slavish copying of
educational devices ; (7) that he should consider the educational
function and value of his subject; (e) that he should treat his sub-
ject in its co-ordinate relation to the other subjects of the curric-
ulum.

8. That, finally, since a large part of normal-school work is to fit
teachers for the district and country school, it is advisable to havea
type of this kind of school in the training department.

CHAS. DEGARMO.

THE CONTENTS OF CHILDREN’S MINDS.

Ir will be remembered that several sets of interesting investiga-
tions have been carried on in Germany and France with a view to
determine what the actual content and capacity of the child’s mind
are. In 1882 Prof. G. Stanley Hall tried experiments with Boston
school-children, similar to those made abroad, and published his re-
sults in the Przmceton Review. The December issue of the Lon-
don Journal of Educatzon contains the record of a similar investi-
gation undertaken by an English teacher. The following abridged
report of it is not only of interest in itself, but especially for the
purpose of comparison with the results of the attempts elsewhere
made for the same purpose. The answers were given by six
children. Unfortunately, the results obtained under the heads of
‘Observation ’ and ‘ Information’ — the most valuable of all —are
very briefly given in the original. The following are some of
them : —

What is bread made of? What is the use of sleep? How
would you get a garden full of flowers? What is the color of
railway-signals P? How do chickens come into the world? In re-
spect to all these questions, the children failed to differentiate to
any great extent. To the question ‘ How many legs has a spider?’
A answered, “ Six;” and E, “I almost think six. I killed all the
spiders in aunt’s garden yesterday.” — ‘‘ Why?” — “Oh, just for
sport.” To the question ‘Mark the length of a foot on this bit of
paper, A marked 1 foot 3 inches; B had never heard of a foot; C,
8 inches, remarking, ‘Some people’s feet are as long as this, aren’t
they?” D drew a correct foot, having toes and heel; E marked
2 inches; F, a foot anda half. To the question ‘Who rules over
England?’ A and E answered, “Queen Victoria;” B, ‘The
King, I don’t know who the King is;” C and F did not know;
and D made a rigmarole statement about railway-lamps, because
he could not answer the question, but wished to show that he knew
something else.

The questions were put to each child alone, and they had no
opportunity for talking about them with their companions. The
questions were introduced after a friendly talk with the child, and
after shyness had somewhat worn off. The attempts to draw out
a child’s moral notions almost invariably failed, as the children
grew shy. The children are indicated by letters. A, B, and C
were girls, aged respectively 8, 7, and 6. A was F’s sister, and
came from a cultivated home, as did all but C. D, E, and F were
boys, aged respectively 7, 7,and 6. A had been running wild for
weeks, F for months. Dhad attended school for a short time. C
and F had had home teaching. The children enjoyed the ques-
tioning greatly, and it was more difficult to keep them to the point
than to extract answers from them.

Below are given a selection of the questions and answers, under
the heading of the faculty which they were designed to test :—

Reasoning Power.

1. Why do children have to go to bed so much earlier than
grown-up people ?
A. Because it is better for them; I don’t know why. Is
it to make them strong?
B. Because they are not so old.
else.
C. Because they are little. To make them get up early.
D. Because they get so tired. I think it is a good plan.
E. Because they get so tired, and because they are
smaller.

I don't know any thing

SCIENCE.

[Vor Xx. No: 2255

F. Because children are younger, and they must get more
sleep, and that they don’t get so tired as grown-up people.

2. If your porridge is hot, why do you eat the outside edge first ?

A {had never heard of porridge, so took soup]. Because
it would be cooler. I don’t know why.

B [pea-soup taken]. Because it is colder; because the
edge of the plate goes round it.

C [porridge]. The edge, because it is cooler, because the
plate is cold.

D. I should eat the edge first because it is cooler; be-~
cause it touches the mug, and the mug is cold.

E. Round the edge because it is coolest, because it is.
against a cold basin.

F [had heard of, but never seen, porridge; soup taken].
Because it is cooler. I don’t know why it is cooler.

3. Do crossing-sweepers like fine or wet weather better? Why?

A. Wet, because they have more crossings to sweep, and
will get more money.

B. Fine, because it does not rain.

C. Wet weather, because they get more money.

D. Fine, because he can be outter more, and can sweep:
the roads more. Do they get money forit? I should not
do it unless I had money given to me. j

E, Fine weather. Well, perhaps they do like wet weather
for more sweeping. They like it wet, and then to leave off
raining while they sweep.

F. Wet, because they get more money, because people
don’t want to walk in the mud.

4. What is the good of going to school ?

A. To learn your lessons; to learn every thing. [ “ Will
you have learnt every thing when you leave school?’’] No.
(“Then why don’t grown-up people go to school?” A
looked puzzled, then said] Because they know what little
people don’t, but they don’t know every thing.

B. To learn to write and to play.

C. To get you clever. I think every one gets clever who
goes to school.

D. Because it teaches you to know things when you grow
up. [‘‘What things?”] Oh! about trains and how the
lines are made and laid down, and all that —and — Oh! [he
looked quite awe-struck] is it not a wonderful thing how an
engine is made?

E. To learn things; reading and writing, sums, and the
multiplication-table.

F. To learn something. I don’t know any thing else.

5. I gave the child several sticks of the same length, and asked it
to make a cage for a bear with four sticks, so that it could not
get out; then with three sticks, then two.

A. I don’t know how. [‘Try.”] How big is the bear ?
[Gave a piece of paper to represent bear.] First took
five sticks, then right with four, then right with three. [‘* Now
try with two.”] Promptly, “I can’t, unless the bear can get
in here,” putting the sticks side by side, and she slipped the
bit of paper between, but said at once, “It would slip out at
the end.”

B. Did all right; tried a little with two sticks, then said
emphatically, ‘“‘ No.”

C. Four and three right at once; when asked to try two,
said roguishly, “I'll have to make a cage with one next, I
can’t do it with two.”

D. Four, right; three, first wrong, then right; with two,
tried again and again, and needed help to see that it could
not be done.

E. Four and three, right; then said, “I don’t know how
We are going to manage with two.” He tried, but at once
gave up.

F. Four, right; three, “I can’t;” then, very quickly, “ Yes,

I can” —right. Tried two, but said at once, “ No, I can't.”
Imagination.
1. What is the moon ?
A. A light.
B. Aman. I don’t know why I think so.

DECEMBER 23, 1887. |

C [laughing]. We call it a cheese, but it isn’t really. I
don’t know.

D [reverently]. The moonis God. [Is that exactly what
you mean?”] No; I mean because God made the moon; I
don’t know what it is at all.

E. I know it is a big thing, and I think to myself it’s
something like the sun: it shines just as bright.

F. Don’t know, never thought.

2. What is thunder?

A. When clouds meet together and make a great noise;
when they bang together.

B. Don’t know.

C. Thunder makes a noise, that’s what it is.

D. Long pause; then, “Is thunder God ? Well, God sends
thunder, does not he?” Then followed a long outpour on the
folly of standing under a tree during a thunder-storm.

E. A rolling thing that makes a great deal of noise, that’s
what it is.

F. Nasty little beasts. Further inquiry brought out, “It
kills nasty little beasts that eat the cabbages.”

3. If you went up in a balloon higher and higher, what would you
come to at last ?

A. The sky. The sky is heaven.
what heaven is.

B. We should come to the sky : the sky is water.

C. I don’t know.

D. I don’t know; but I know if you go up high enough
you can’t breathe [here followed remarks too numerous and
rapid to be taken down].

E. Clouds and heaven.

F. Come to the sky. I don’t know what the sky is.

4. What age do you think it would be nicest to be, and why ?

A. I don’t know. I don’t want to grow older all of a
sudden.

B. Twelve [but she was too shy to tell me why].

C. Seven, because it is a year older, because then I should
not have to go to school so long.

D. Nine, because I think then I should know a little
more.

E. Well, for myself, I should think about thirty, because
you would be of age, and could do nearly what you liked.
I should go to theatres and cricket, and play football and
run races. [“Shall you do any work?”] Oh, yes!
[‘ What should you do?”] Well, if I had my own choice,
I should not mind being a coachman, that’s what I like —
horses. [Do you like dogs too?”] Well, I haven’t had
much to do with dogs.

F. Twenty, because I could wear trousers then — and
what age would yoz like to be?

5. What do dogs think about? Can they talk to each other?
How?

A [much amused]. Oh! I don’t know; I don’t know if
they think or not. They talk in their way, I don’t know
what they say.

B. Don't know. I don’t think they do think. No.

C, They don’t think at all, do they? They can bark, not
talk properly, but they understand each other.

D. Think about nothing but eating. No, except they can
bark.

E. Some dogs think about biting people, some about eat-
ing things, and some dogs think about being kind to people.
They talk in a dog language that people can’t understand.

F. Biting and fighting. I don’tknowany thingelse. Yes,

[Very shyly] I forget

they bark.
6. If you could go to the bottom of the sea, what should you expect
to see ?
A. Sand and stones and fish. I don’t think there is any
thing else.

B. Animals, fishes, sand, and stones; nothing else.

C. You would not see any thing, because it is so dark when
you are under the sea.

D. I have never seen the sea. [“ Tell me what you think
it is like.”] It’s blue, and the waves come up higher than

SCIENCE,

395

this chair. I should see a lot of sand, and a lot of shells, and
a lot of fishes, and a lot of crabs. They bite your legs dread-
fully, crabs do.

E. Fish and shells, seaweeds, and some boats, perhaps,
that had sunk; jelly-fish, I dare say, and I’ve heard [very
mysteriously] that there are mermaids, but I don’t think so,
do you ?

F. Fishes, people which have been drowned.

7. What are fairies? Where do they live?

A. There aren’t such things.

B. Don’t know. They are fairies; they are just fairies. I
don’t know where they live.

C. Don’t think I ever heard of them.

D. Fairies are spirits: they look ratherlikeanangel. Yes,
rather. We can’t see angels; there might be an angel in,
this room, and you and I could not see it. Angels are so:
light, any one could lift an angel. When Jesus wason earth
there were angels. Do you know what wonderful things,
Jesus could do? [A fluent story of the paralytic man fol-
lowed.] That was years ago, they don’t do such things.
nowadays. Fairies live under trees; acorns are their tea~
cups.

E. I know there are those, because there was one screamed}
out to mother. Very little things, I expect, not much larger
than this [he measured about an inch and a quarter]. They
live in the woods and under toad-stools. I expect they come:
into our houses at night.

F. There are none.

Sense of Beauty.

1. What flower do you think the prettiest, and why?

A. Oh! they are all so pretty; I don’t know. [“Suppose
I promised to give you a nosegay of several pretty flowers,
which would you choose?”’] Forget-me-nots and violets
and daisies and may-blossoms; I don’t know what else.

B. Gardinias, because they smell so nice.

C. A rose, because it is a very pretty flower; there is
nothing else like a rose.

D. Asunflower, I think, don’t you? [“I think I likesome
others better.”’] Oh! but just you remember how long they
last, and those tiny flowers don’t last very long. I say [very
confidentially], do you like bread-and-butter pudding ? [‘* Not
much.”] I'll tell you what I like, andI amsure you will too,
and that’s suet-pudding smoking hot with raisins in it [a long
outpour on puddings followed].

E. A rose. It has a lot of sort of little things inside,
petals, red and yellow, cream-colored and white.

F. A white rose. I like them because I think them pret—
tier than any other flower. I don’t know what itis like. I
can’t tell you.

2. What is the most beautiful thing you ever saw ?

A. Don’t know [thought had, still didn’t know. “Have
you seen any beautiful thing lately?’”] Yes, the sea, whem
it is calm, and sometimes when it’s rough.

B. Roses.

C. Stuffed animals and things.

D [thought along time, then asked] An animal? [“ Just
as you think, any thing.”] Well, then, I think an air-ball;
how difficult they must be to make! [Too rapid a descrip-
tion followed to be taken down. ]

E. I like the mountains very much. [‘‘ Have you ever seem
any?”’] Oh! I’ve been to Italy and France and Paris. I
was very little, but I remember the mountains.

F. I don’t know. [He thought hard, and then said, almost
as if watching them] Fireworks, sky-rockets, lovely !

BOOK-REVIEWS.

Grundziige der phystologischen Psychologie. Von WILHELNA
WuNDT. 2vols. 3ded. Leipzig, Engelmann. 8°.

PROFESSOR WUNDT of the University of Leipzig has indelibly
associated his name with the development of the scientific study off

306

mind that plays so prominent a 7é/e in the science of this century.
Beginning his career as a physiologist, he soon saw in the pursuit
of his specialty the opportunity of bridging over the gap between
body and mind, or, better, of restoring to its original unity the
study of the two as different aspects of one phenomenon. The
field of physiological psychology had been simply touched upon
here and there. It lacked systematic treatment as well as recogni-
‘tion as a distinct science. Both of these he attempted to supply;
and the attempt, considering the inherent difficulty of the subject,
has been eminently successful. He published the first systematic
‘text-book in this field in 1874, a second and much enlarged edition
appeared in 1880, and the third has just appeared. In these thir-
teen years the growth of the science has been rapid, and the fact
that the validity of this increase is in great part not yet tested
makes it necessary to record much that our successors will be able
to omit. But independently of this technical aspect of the study,
‘science owes a debt to this movement similar to that it owes to
Darwin. The one introduced the same rejuvenating ferment into
the discussion of philosophical problems as has the other into that
of biological problems. It has given meaning to facts formerly
isolated and uninterpreted, has erected a sign-post directing the
way for the future, and has prevented much useless and irrelevant
‘speculation. It is to be hoped that the objects and methods of this
science are to-day too well known to need more than a mention in
this connection.

The question of most natural interest in the notice of this text-
book is the extent and nature of the changes that have been made
in passing from the second to the third edition. While the author
has made alterations in all parts of the work, the topics that have
been most altered are the following, and they indicate very well the
fields in which recent research has been active. The anatomy
and physiology of the central nervous system, and particularly of
the parts connected with the highest psychic activities, have been
much revised. Next, the experimental study of sensation, both
qualitatively and quantitatively, has received valuable additions
from many hands. The chapter on auditory perceptions has been
rewritten, and that describing the measurement of the times of psy-
chic processes has been made to include the most recent studies,
especially those made in Professor Wundt’s own laboratory.
Whether these changes justify the publication of a new edition is a
‘question upon which opinions will differ. A great deal of what has
been added has been already published in the Phzlosophische
Studien, edited by Professor Wundt; and, as most of this material
is only of technical interest, its incorporation into a text-book is
hardly an advisable step. Again, the advance in the knowledge of
facts has brought with it an advance in the presentation of theoreti-
cal views, and Professor Wundt has hardly undertaken the radical
kind of revision that the appreciation of these would justify: in
other words, if a text-book in physics were written upon the plan of
this work, it would amount to a cyclopeedia, and the reader of that
cyclopedia would be at a loss to distinguish the important and
clearly established from the unessential and provisional. The
‘book has grown thicker where it should have grown deeper.
Finally, at the risk of singling out a trivial matter, an American
reader is very much struck with the absence of all mention of the
studies that have been contributed to this science on this side of
the Atlantic within the last few years. These studies to a large
extent fallin those chapters that have been most fully revised; and
this, together with the fact that they have been noticed in Profes-
sor Ladd’s ‘ Psychology,’ makes the cause of this omission all the
more strange.

Spestal Karte von Afrika. Gotha, Justus Perthes. f°.

THE second edition of this valuable work on African geography
is now complete. It consists of ten sheets, and contains all the new
discoveries made during the last years. The coloring of the new
edition is more delicate than that of the first edition, and the politi-
cal boundaries have been indicated in colors that do not obscure
the physical features of the country. The map is carefully com-
piled from all the available material, and is indispensable to the
student of African geography. Although it is only a year since the
first edition was completed, the additions to our knowledge of some
parts of Africa are so considerable that the sheets had to be practi-

SOO Cle,

[Vor ix. INoi 255

cally redrawn. On the sheet Kongo we find the results of Capello
and Ivens’s journey, Reichard’s journeys west of the Tanganyika,
and the numerous explorations on the tributaries of the Kongo.
The contour line of 1,000 metres, which was indicated by a heavy
buff line in the first edition, has been corrected according to recent
observations, and is shown by a broken red line. Another techni-
cal improvement of the new edition is the use of a dark green color
for indicating oases. On the sheet Western Sudan we find A.
Krause’s important journey through Mosi indicated, although the
details are not yet known. The leading principles in constructing
the map are thoroughly scientific. The lettering and the outlines
show plainly the parts that are known by exploration, and those
which are only known by reports of natives. The scale is I : 4,000,-
000 (about 60 miles to an inch), large enough to show all important
features of the geography of Africa.

The Driftless Area of the Upper Mississitppz. By T. C. CHAM-
BERLIN and R. D. SALISBURY. (A monograph accompany-
ing the Sixth Annual Report of the Director of the United
States Geological Survey.) Washington, Government. 4°.

IN no direction is the Geological Survey advancing the science
more rapidly than in the department of glaciology. The monograph
on the great terminal moraine has done more than any other single
research to make the continental ice-cap a reality, and to silence
the iceberg theory of the drift; and the present contribution is
scarcely less valuable or wide-reaching in its conclusions.

In the midst of the great mantle of drift that overspreads the
Upper Mississippi basin, there lies a drift-barren tract of about ten
thousand square miles, — the driftless area of Wisconsin and adjoin-
ing States. This island in the sea of drift is unique ; and, strangely
enough, the margin of the drift on almost every hand lies on aslope
descending toward the driftless area. Probably no other district
on the globe is so favorably situated to serve as a standard of com-
parison and contrast between glaciated and unglaciated areas, and
a means of estimating the results of the drift agencies. All of
the formations of that region, with their attendant topographies,
sweep curvingly across the driftless area from an ice-ridden region
on the one hand, to a like ice-ridden region on the other, displaying
in a most striking manner the contrasts that arose from the single
factor of glaciation. The driftless region is especially instructive
concerning glacial extension and restriction, and it throws impor-
tant light upon the movements of the ice-sheet over a very large ad-
jacent territory. The great drift-burdened ice-stream, as it moved
south-westward from the Canadian heights, was divided and di-
verted; and the separated currents swept around the area, and
mingled their burdens below it.

The facts bearing upon these and many minor aspects of the
driftless area are marshalled and discussed in a masterly manner,
the more important features being also clearly exhibited in a series
of well-executed maps and cuts. Among the subordinate contrasts
which this region presents, none are more noticeable than the ab-
sence of falls in the driftless area, and their comparative abundance
beyond its limits, — falls indicating a youthful, and usually a post-
glacial, topography. And certainly there could be no more con-
vincing evidence that the region has never been invaded by glaciers
than is to be found in the fragile pinnacles of rock which abound
over a large part of its surface.

The residuary earths of the driftless area are compared physi-
cally, microscopically, and chemically with the glacial clay or till.
Nearly one million measurements of the ultimate particles show
that the residuary earths are much finer grained and more homo-
geneous than the drift clay ; and they are also remarkably free from
calcareous matter, which forms a large proportion of all the true
drift of that region.

In its remarkably sinuous course across the continent, the great
terminal moraine impinges upon the eastern side of the driftless
area, and affords specially fine contrasts between the characteristics
of driftless and drift-bearing regions; while upon the west it is
bordered by the loess; and the much-disputed question as to the
origin of this interesting formation is settled provisionally in favor
of its being essentially an aqueous or lacustrine deposit of glacial
clays.

In the concluding chapter, on the history and genesis of the drift-

DECEMBER 23, 1887. |

less area, it is shown more clearly that the marginal] phenomena
confirm Professor Chamberlin’s previously published classification
of the quaternary epochs. He recognizes (1) an earlier glacial
epoch, in which two successive ice-sheets were separated by an
interglacial period sufficiently marked to permit the growth of vege-
tation over the surface; (2) a prolonged interglacial epoch, during
which the land was elevated to the extent of eight hundred to one
thousand feet, and again forest-clad ; (3) a later glacial epoch, dur-
ing which the great terminal moraine was formed, while subordi-
nate moraines and vegetal deposits testify to repeated recessions
and advances of the ice; (4) the Champlain epoch, during which
marine and lacustrine deposits were formed; (5) the terrace epoch,
when the streams carved the flood-plains of the Champlain epoch
into terraces.

The origin of the driftless area is found in the fact that the ele-
vated land lying north-east of it must have acted as a wedge to
divide the ice, while the diverging troughs of Lake Superior and
Lake Michigan tended to prevent the streams from re-uniting im-
mediately south of the obstruction. Climatic influences also prob-
ably played an important part in staying the progress of the ice
which was advancing directly toward the driftless area. In the
language of the authors, diverted by highlands, led away by valleys,
consumed by wastage where weak, self-perpetuated where strong,
the fingers of the #zer de glace closed around the ancient Jardin of
the Upper Mississippi valley, but failed to close upon it.

A History of Elizabethan Literature. By GEORGE SAINTSBURY.
New York, Macmillan. 12°. $1.75.

THIS book forms the second part of a general history of English
literature from the earliest period to the present day. The whole
work will be completed in four volumes, by four different writers,
each specially qualified for his individual task. Mr. Saintsbury has
‘been for many years an enthusiastic student of the period of which
he treats, and he here gives the main results of his studies in a clear
and well-ordered form. He wisely confines himself in the main to
the purely literary aspects of his subject, with much less attention to
biography and bibliography than some writers would give. He
allows considerable space to the minor writers, a knowledge of
whom he thinks essential to a correct understanding of the period.
His enthusiasm for his subject is almost unbounded, and some
readers will think it excessive. He styles the Elizabethan era “the
greatest period in the greatest literature of the world,” and seems
too little aware of its defects. His admiration for Shakspeare is
carried to the verge of idolatry, and he does not appear to see any
faults at all in him.

Spenser he esteems almost as highly, and thinks the ‘Faérie
Queen’ the greatest poem in the English language. With regard

to the forms of poetry, he maintains that “every English metre-

since Chaucer at least can be scanned, within the proper limits,
according to the strictest rules of classical prosody,” — an opinion
with which very few persons will agree. The greater part of the
book is of course devoted to the writers of verse, yet the prose writers
are treated with sufficient fulness. Bacon, in Mr. Saintsbury’s opinion,
was more of a rhetorician than a philosopher, and might better have
gone into the Church than into politics. Hobbes is spoken of as
the first prose writer whose style is clear and uninvolved; while
the general style of the period is well characterized in the remark,
that at that time “the sense of proportion and order in prose com-
Position was not born.” Mr. Saintsbury’s work, notwithstanding
some defects, will be valuable both to the student and to the gen-
eral reader ; and, if the other volumes of the series are equally well
done, the whole work will be the standard history of English litera-
ture.

Hegel's Philosophy of the State and of History. By GEORGE S.
Morris. Chicago, Griggs & Co. 16°.

THIs book is the sixth in the series of philosophical classics now
in course of publication under the editorial supervision of Professor
Morris. It gives in a brief, by no means superficial form the theo-
ries of Hegel on the constitution of the state and of civil society, and
also on the philosophy of history. Hegel’s terminology is so strange
to the English reader, and his processes of thought often so obscure,
that it is not an easy task to make his meaning plain and compre-
hensible, but Professor Morris has succeeded in doing this as well

SCIENCE.

So

as could be expected. The theory of the state which the German
philosopher has given is not in all respects such as the people of a
free country are likely to accept. He repudiates the intention of
describing an ideal state, such as Plato and others have dreamed
of, and he has little respect, apparently, for such attempts on the
part of others; yet it is not difficult to see that a constitutional
monarchy is in his eyes, if not an ideal state, at least the most per-
fect type that has yet been devised. He divides the powers of gov-
ernment into three classes, —the legislative power, the executive
power, and the power of ultimate decision, which properly resides
in the monarch alone. He is strongly in favor of a representative
assembly to take part in legislation, but he regards with great dis-
trust the influence of public opinion, which is the inevitable conse-
quence of representation. On the subject of war, Hegel is not in
accord with the peacemakers, his view being that “ war is to nations
what wind is to the sea, —it preserves them from stagnation and
putrescence.”

On the subject of history the views of Hegel are in some respects
a little behind the age, owing partly to the new theories of develop-
ment which now prevail, and partly to the discovery and interpreta-
tion since his time of the ancient records of Egypt and Assyria.
Still his theories are well worth pondering. He holds that history
as a whole is “the development of the conception of freedom,” —
a remark that seems to apply rather too exclusively to mere politi-
cal history. He passes in review the history of the leading nations,
briefly characterizing the civilization of each, and showing the con-
nection of them all with the life of modern Europe. In the course
of this exposition he has many interesting observations on special
points which we should be glad to quote if space permitted, but
Wwe must content ourselves with recommending our readers to look
them out for themselves.

NOTES AND NEWS.

IN compliance with what seems to be a wide-spread desire on
the part of the geologists of America, a few have united in an effort
to establish an American journal devoted to geology and its allied
sciences. The subscription price is three dollars ,per year, and the
place of issue for the present is Minneapolis, Minn., where corre-
spondence should be addressed to Te Amerzcan Geologzst. From
all geologists the editors solicit original contributions and items of
scientific news. The editors and publishers, for the year beginning
Jan. 1, 1888, are as follows: Prof. S. Calvin, Iowa City, Io. ; Prof.
E. W. Claypole, Akron, O.; Dr. Persifor Frazer, Philadelphia,
Penn.; Prof. L. E. Hicks, Lincoln, Neb.; Mr. E. O. Ulrich, New-
port, Ky.; Dr. A. Winchell, Ann Arbor, Mich. ; Prof) Ne Ee
Winchell, Minneapolis, Minn.

— A company has been incorporated for building a railroad from
Winnipeg to Fort Simpson, British Columbia, crossing the Rocky
Mountains by way of the Peace River Pass. This is one of the
routes surveyed by the Canadian Pacific Railroad. It was recom-
mended, as the distance from Fort Simpson to eastern Asia is still
shorter than that from Vancouver. Part of the country through
which this road would pass is suitable for agricultural purposes.
The charter compels the incorporation to build at least fifty miles
each year, the whole distance being a little more than sixteen hun-
dred miles.

—Thesecond number of the bibliographies of Indian languages
by James C. Pilling has just been issued by the Bureau of Ethnology.
It treats of the Siouan stock. The plan of this bibliography is the
same as the one followed in the ‘ Bibliography of the Eskimo Lan-
guage,’ which was referred to in No. 235 of Sczence. The dictionary
plan has been followed to its extreme limit, the subject and tribal
indexes, references to libraries, etc., being included in one alphabetic
series. The arrangement is excellent, and makes the bibliography
very handy for use.

— The Pennsylvania State College Agricultural Experiment Station
was established by vote of the trustees June 30, 1887, in accordance
with the provisions of the Hatch act, and will continue and greatly en-
large the experimental work of past years. Itinvestigates such sub-
jects as are of immediate importance to the farmer of the State,
and publishes the results in reports and bulletins, which are distrib-

308

uted free of charge to all citizens of the State who apply for them.
Specimens of agricultural products, when of public interest, are
examined and reported upon free of charge. Theboard of directors
is as follows : H. P. Armsby, Ph.D., director; William Frear, Ph.D.,
vice-director and chemist; William A. Buckhout, M.S., botan-
ist; George C. Butz, B.S., horticulturist; William C. Patterson,
superintendent of farm. Correspondence is invited, and inquiries
upon agricultural matters will be answered as far as possible. Ad-
dress Agricultural Experiment Station, State College, Centre
County, Penn.

— We learn from Na/ure that in a Russian paper of Oct. 22 last,
appears a preliminary report of the examination by Latschinof and
Jerofeief, professors of mineralogy and chemistry respectively, of a
meteoric stone weighing four pounds, which fell in the district of
Krasnoslobodsk, Government of Pensa, Russia, on Sept. 4, 1886.
In the insoluble residue, small corpuscles showing traces of polari-
zation were observed. They are harder than corundum, and have
the density and other characters of the diamond. The corpuscles
are said to amount to one per cent of the meteoric stone. Carbon,
in its amorphous graphitic form, has been long known asa constitu-
ent of meteoric irons and stones. Lately, small but well-defined
crystals of graphitic carbon, having forms often presented by the
diamond, were described as having been found in a meteoric iron
from western Australia. If this supplementary discovery be con-
firmed, we may at last be placed on the track of the artificial pro-
duction of the precious stone.

— The loss of electricity by a conductor in moist air, says Wa-
zure, has been lately studied by Signor Guglielmo (Turin Acade-
my). He finds that with potentials less than 600 volts, moist air
insulates as well as dry air, but with higher potentials there is more
loss in moist air, and more the moister the air and the higher the
potential. The potential at which the difference becomes percep-
tible is the same for a ball as for a fine point. It occurs with ex-
tremely smooth surfaces, and so cannot be attributed to discharges
in consequence of roughness of surface. With equal potential, the
loss of electricity has the same magnitude, whatever the dimensions
of the balls used as conductors. In air saturated with vapors of
insulating substances, the loss of electricity of a conductor is nearly
the same as in dry air.

— According to Nature, frozen fish are now imported into
France, and a society formed in Marseilles for the purpose of de-
veloping the trade (the Société du Trident) has a steamer and a
sailing-vessel engaged in it. The steamer ‘ Rokelle’ lately came
into Marseilles with some 30,000 kilograms of frozen fish inits hold,
the temperature of which is kept at 17° C. below zero by means of
a Pictet machine (evaporating sulphurous acid). The fish are
caught with the net in various parts of the Mediterranean and Atlan-
tic. After arrival they are despatched by night in a cold chamber.
Experiment has shown that fish can be kept seven or eight months
at low temperature without the least alteration. These fish are
wrapped in straw or marine alge, and have been sent on to Paris,
and even to Switzerland.

— We learn from ature that the fourth session of the Interna-
tional Geological Congress will be held next year in London.
The congress was founded at a meeting of the American Associa-
tion for the Advancement of Science, at Buffalo, in 1876, the first
session being held at Paris in 1878, the second at Bologna in 1881,
the third at Berlin in 1885. The following is a list of the organiz-
ing committee appointed to carry out the arrangements : H. Bauer-
man; W. T. Blanford, F.R.S.; Rev. Prof. T. G. Bonney, F.R.S.;
Prof. W. Boyd Dawkins, F.R.S.; John Evans, F.R.S.; Prof. W. H.
Flower, F.R.S.; Arch. Geikie, F.R.S.; Prof. James Geikie, F.R.S.;
Sir Douglas Galton, F.R.S.; Prof. A. H. Green, F.R.S.; Rev. Prof.
S. Haughton, F.R.S.; Prof. T. H. Huxley, F.R.S.; W.H. Hudleston,
F.R.S.; Prof. T. McK. Hughes; J. W. Hulke, F.R.S.; Prof. E. Hull,
F.R.S.; Prof. J. W. Judd, F.R.S.; Prof. J. Prestwich, F.R.S.; F. W.
Rudler; H. C. Sorby, F.R.S.; Sir W. W. Smyth, F.R.S.; W. Topley;
Rey. Prof. Wiltshire ; Henry Woodward, F.R.S. The duty of this
committee will be to nominate the officers, to appoint executive
committees, and to fix the exact date of meeting. The congress
at Berlin requested that the meeting should be held in London be-
tween Aug. 15 and Sept. 15.

SCIENCE.

[Vo. X. No. 255.

— The theory is advanced by Professor Mendeleef that petroleum.
is of mineral origin, and that its production is going on, and may
continue almost indefinitely. Zngzneering states that he has suc-
ceeded in making it artificially bya process similar to that which he-
believes is going on in the earth, and experts find it impossible to.
distinguish between the natural and the manufactured article. His
hypothesis is that water finds its way below the crust of the earth,
and then meets with carbides of metals, particularly of iron, in a
glowing state. The water is decomposed into its constituent
gases ; the oxygen unites with the iron, while the hydrogen takes.
up the carbon, and ascends toa higher region, where part of it is
condensed into mineral oil, and part remains as natural gas, to es-
cape where it can find an outlet, or to remain stored at great press-
ure until a bore-hole is put down to provide it a passage to the-
surface. il-bearing strata occur in the vicinity of mountain
ranges, and it is supposed that the upheaval of the hills has dislo-
cated the strata below sufficiently to give the water access to depths.
from which it is ordinarily shut out. If the centre of the earth con-
tains large amounts of metallic carbides, we have in prospect a
store of fuel against the days when our coal will be exhausted.

—In ‘Notice to Mariners,’ No. 94, published by the United
States Coast Survey, some very interesting information is given re—
garding the Gulf Stream. Between Rebecca Shoal and Cuba the
current was found to vary in velocity, the maximum velocity arriv—
ing about nine hours and twenty minutes before the transit of the
moon, and between Cuba and Yucatan the greatest velocity was-
found at ten hours before the moon’s transit. The greatest velocity
of the current was observed fifty-one miles south of Rebecca Shoal,
at which point the stream moved 3.73 knots per hour. Between.
Yucatan and Cuba the stream’s greatest velocity was 6.32 knots,
about thirty miles from Yucatan toward Cape San Antonio.

— The United States Coast Survey Steamer ‘ Blake,’ Lieut. J. E.
Pillsbury commanding, will continue the investigation of the Gulf
Stream currents during the coming winter and spring months at
the places mentioned below ; and shipmasters, when in the vicinity,.
are requested to look out for and keep clear ofher. During January
and the first part of February the ‘ Blake’ will be anchored about
six hundred miles north-east of Barbadoes Islands, and in the track
of vessels bound to the United States from the South Atlantic or
off the South American coast to the eastward of Trinidad Island;
the last part of February and until May, between the West India
Islands, commencing at Trinidad, and ending at the old Bahama
channel. When at anchor, she will hoist three balls from the fore—
topmast stay, and at night-time she will show from the same pomt
three lights, —red, white, and red.

LETTERS TO THE EDITOR.

* .* Correspondents are requested to be as brief as possible. The writer's name is
tn all cases required as proaf af good faith.

Twenty copies of the number containing his communication will be furnished
Sree to any correspondent on reguest.

The editor will be giad to publish any queries consonant with the character of
the journal.

Conspiracy of Silence.

I THINK your correspondent (Dec. 16, p. 298) is unjust to Pro-
fessor Bonney, placing a meaning on his words which they wilk
indeed bear, but which was not Professor Bonney’s meaning. E£
am not a Darwinist, and have never accepted the Darwinian hy-
pothesis so called ; and I can therefore dispassionately defend Profes-
sor Bonney. But I should like to volunteer a rather unnecessary
defence of men of science as a class, whether Darwinists or anti-
Darwinists, whom your correspondent attacks indiscriminately.
‘Conspiracy ’ is an ugly word; and it is, as both Professor Huxley
and Professor Bonney assert with good reason, not only an ugly
word, but an improbable thing; and not only improbable, but (as
the scientific world is now constituted) impossible in a large way.
A conspiracy within the limits of one scientific institution, to sup—
press a paper, may be planned and executed with some success by
one or more of its officers and one or more of its members opposed
to the writer of that paper. Thus far, but no farther, can a scien-
tific conspiracy go. The thing has been often done, and will be
often done; but it is a foolish thing to do, perfectly futile, injurious
to the society in which it happens, and in the end injurious to the
conspirators. But the writer of a paper, if it be a good one, can
find many other ways of publishing it, without encountering a con—

DECEMBER 23, 1887.]|

spiracy. If it be a poor paper, it will probably be suppressed sev-
eral times before it gets published ; and no one is to blame for that
but its author. But a general conspiracy among men of science to
suppress views because they are new, and unacceptable to old
fogies, is impossible; and your correspondent and the Duke of
Argyll must certainly know that fact; and it will remain a fact, in
spite of any number of instances of special local repression that
can be cited. When such repression happens, the fault lies with
the man of new views, who will not or can not speak out boldly ;
who will not or can not make his conclusions irresistibly ; who is
too shy, or too limited in his personal associations, or too obscure
in his language, to compel general attention to what he believes.

Younger men of science with new ideas seem to think that older
men in science have no business of their own to attend to, but must
drop all their personal investigations to discuss and investigate,
prove or disprove, each new theory as soon as it is promulged.
The fact is, every new presentation in any department of science is
read with interest and attention by scores, hundreds, and in some
rare cases by thousands, of experts working in that particular de-
partment. But, ifit be an important new theory, it requires, on
that account, to be carefully studied; which, of course, takes time,
—months, sometimes years. The delay will always be in propor-
tion, first to the importance, and second to the difficulty, of the
subject-matter of the theory. The few whom it most interests are
separately making up their minds about it, and consulting each
other. The wisest and strongest minds take the longest time, re-
sisting all pressure to force them to a premature conclusion.
there is 4 personal equation. Men of science differ greatly in their
reticence and in their cautiousness. What is denounced by the
author of the novelty, and by his friend or friends, as a conspiracy
of silence, and a scandal to science, is in fact the involuntary cau-
tiousness of men who know much and have been often mistaken ;
and it is the glory of science that it keeps its head level, as it keeps
its eyes open and its heart warm. Let your correspondent reflect
that there are two natural classes of men of science,—the daring
and useful, and the cautious and useful. Both classes are equally
useful and equally honorable; and the charge of a conspiracy of
silence can no more justly be brought against the one class than
the charge of a conspiracy of notoriety against the other.

Whenever ‘Mr. Bonney says that the scientific method is to
wait, and not to investigate,” I shall go to London to ask him what
he can mean by such language; but if I have to wait until he
actually says so foolish a word, I shall never again see London.
In fact, Mr. Bonney never has said any thing of the sort, in the
sense assigned to his words by your correspondent; meaning by
“scientific method’ the mode of pursuing truth proper for all
the pursuers of truth. What he meant in his rebuke of the Duke
of Argyll is evident: he meant that any one man of science not en-
gaged in a given special line of research can not and dares not
make up his own mind as to the validity of one of two opposing
theories until those others who have that special line of research in
hand have practically reached some consent on the subject.

Your correspondent’s quotation from Professor Bonney (on p.
299, footnote) does him another injustice. Mr. Bonney writes,
“Very well, but there are some people, not very few in number,
who do not share the opinion.” Your correspondent exclaims,
“Hail to the new science! The voice of many people is the voice
of God.” But the people of Mr. Bonney are not the people of Mr.
Buel. Professor Bonney has said plainly enough that by ‘people’
he means such men as Darwin and Dana, the greatest investigators
of these special coral phenomena. If Mr. Murray’s ‘ people’ are
numerous, Mr. Darwin’s and Mr. Dana’s ‘ people’ are also numer-
ous. Most of the ‘ people’ on both sides are of no value as rea-
soners on coral formation; but a few — a very few on both sides —
have some right to an opinion. But Mr. Huxley and Mr. Bonney do
not claim to be of these few — on either side. Of course they wait.

It is a curious fact, and rather pathetic withal, that a man of
science seldom or never opens his mouth but he puts his foot in it.
At all events, there is always some half-man of science standing by
ready to say so, and run for a doctor. But curious and even
pathetic as the fact may be, it has its good and its bad conse-
quences: it makes thoroughbred experts more cautious, both in
framing their own opinions respecting the researches of others,

SCIENCE:

But

399

and in expressing such opinions publicly; and it makes experts of
the second, third, and fourth order of breeding correspondingly.

reckless in both thinking and speaking. J. P. LESLEY.
Philadelphia, Dec. 19.

A Wind-Register for Direction and Velocity.

FOR some years it has been considered very important that not
only the total amount of wind should be recorded on self-registers,
but that some simple means should be brought into use by which
the recording sheet should give directly the number of miles or
kilometres per hour of wind blowing from the various points of
compass.

The plan usually adopted is to mark off on the velocity record
the spaces of time during which the wind was blowing from the
various quarters as indicated by the record sheet for the directions,
or the direction is stamped on the velocity sheet at regular intervals,
of time (say, every ten minutes) by the automatic closing of an
electric circuit by means of a clock.

A method of registering the wind’s velocity so as to give a mini-
mum amount of labor in reading the recording sheet has suggested
itself to me, and I have given below a short account of the princi-
ples of construction. I do not remember having seen mention of

a

such an apparatus before, but it is so simple that it is probably not
wholly new ; and asimilar form of instrument may even be inactual
use, but, if so, I cannot recall any such, and I am somewhat
familiar with the instruments of the various meteorological obser-
vatories.

In the accompanying figure, 4 represents the Robinson anemom-
eter; P, the supporting frame; and C and 4, the posts to which
the conducting wires are attached in the ordinary form of electrical
self-registering anemometer, in which C and & have metallic con-
nection through P at the completion of each mile or kilometre of
wind as shown by the anemometer dial: at other times the connec-
tion between C and B is broken. By means of a wire, Bis con-
nected with one pole of the battery Z. Wires also pass from C to
binding-screws on 5, 6, 7, 8, electro-magnets of the recording appa-
ratus.

The left-hand part of the diagram is shown in horizontal plan.
G is the lower end of a rod passing from the roof to the room be-
neath. This rod being in rigid connection with the wind-vane, it
will revolve with the latter. Near the lower end of the rod, at G,
an arm is placed at right angles to the rod, and terminates in the
small friction-wheel A.

310

This wheel H runs along a metallic rim encircling G, the rim
not being continuous, but having small breaks at the points touched
by the wheel A when the vane points VZ,S4,S W,N W.
These breaks are so short that when JZ, in its revolution around G,
leaves one segment of the rim, it almost instantly rests against the
next.

The segment Z is connected with the binding-screw of 4, by the
wire passing through O. Similarly A is connected with 3, /V is
connected with 2, and JZ is connected with 1.

The wire G F is in metallic connection with G H, and is also
‘connected with the free pole of the battery Z.

We will now suppose that the anemometer and vane are exposed
‘to the wind, and the wind is from the west. We shall then have
the arrangement shown in the diagram.

The metallic connection C7 3K HGF ED B&B will be complete ;
and whenever the anemometer closes the circuit BC, the armature
R' will be attracted by the double coil magnet 3 7. So, for any
winds between S Wand VV W, the armature 2’ will indicate each
mile or kilometre of wind. Similarly the armatures 2, 2”, 2’” will
indicate northerly, southerly, or easterly winds.

By attaching recording pencils to the armatures 2, FR’, FR’, R,'”
and allowing a chronograph sheet to pass beneath them, we can
register in separate columns the amount of wind from the four
points. By doubling the number of segments, electro-magnets, and
recording pencils, the velocities can be recorded for eight points of
compass.

The recording pencils can be made to register their marks in
lines running side by side and parallel, and within narrow limits, by
bending the pencil-holders attached to the armatures in such a
manner as to bring the pencil-points close together, and into an
alignment transverse to the motion of the recording sheet.

In reading the record sheet, the sums of the registrations in the
separate columns will give directly the amount of wind blowing
from the different quarters.

So far as the apparatus for wind, direction, and velocity is con-
cerned, the method that I have here described is applicable to most
of the electrical registering anemoscopes and anemometers now in
use, with very little change; but the registering apparatus (chrono-
graphs, pencils, electro-magnets, etc.) will require more alteration,
especially for the American form of cylinder chronograph. The
European chronographs, with the long narrow paper strips for
recording sheets, will answer the purpose very well, and they
are usually of much betterconstruction than the cheaper American
chronographs.

In actual practice a single wire connecting C 5 6 7 8 would be
used in place of the four wires shown in the diagram (Cs, C6, C7,
C8).

It might perhaps also be found best to make a continuous
record of the wind direction by means of a cylinder encircling the
rod G with a sliding pencil, the motion of this last being regulated
by the chronograph clock-work. FRANK WALDO.

Cincinnati, O., Dec. 14.

American Microscopes.

THE complaint which Dr. Minot makes in a recent number of
Sczence (x. No. 252) about the tendency of American microscope-
makers to furnish instruments which are much more decorative
than useful, and which are seriously lacking in the optical excel-
lence which the genuine scientific worker requires, expresses, I
think, the feeling of every one who is frequently called upon to pur-
chase microscopes, or advise about their construction.

It seems to me, however, a matter for regret that Dr. Minot,
through inadvertence, I feel sure, should have made so sweeping
and indiscriminate a condemnation of all American microscopes,
I think that he must have been unaware of the excellent instru-
ments which have been furnished of late from the workshop of J.
‘Grunow in New York.

The useless and positively objectionable features which Dr.
Minot so justly attributes to the American microscope in general,
are absent from these new forms of stand, while the requirements
which he so admirably summarizes are just those which Mr.
‘Grunow has succeeded in covering.

SCIENCE.

[ Vion, 2c" Nor 255

A firm base; low, large solid stage, with simple clips for the
slide; excellent brass-work ; with or without knee, nose-piece, and
rack and pinion, coarse adjustment, Abbé condenser, as the pur-
chaser may desire; and optical qualities in the lenses which bring
them strictly within the category of first-class, —these are the
qualities which the new Grunow instruments present. Forty of
these microscopes have recently been added to the supply of the
laboratory of the Alumni Association of the College of Physicians
and Surgeons, New York, after a full personal examination of in-
struments supplied by the more prominent continental makers.

I feel greatly indebted to Dr. Minot for clearly indicating, as
only an accomplished microscopist like himself could, the direction
in which American microscope-makers should work, and I am cer-
tain that he will learn with pleasure that by one American maker
at least, his requirements are being scrupulously met.

T. MITCHELL PRUDDEN.
New York, Dec. 12.

THE issue of Sczence of Dec. 2 contained an article which is so
sweeping in its denunciation “of any microscopes whatsoever of
American manufacture,” and its commendation of the German or
French instruments, and places the motives of American manufac-
turers in such questionable light, that as one of them, and especially
in consideration of circumstances hereinafter mentioned, I con-
sider it proper to say something in answer.

The objections in the article can be enumerated as follows : —

1. “ The fundamental error in microscopes of American manu-
facture is that they are for the most part constructed with a view
of, I might almost say, entrapping inexperienced purchasers. The
zeal of the maker is turned too much to decorative lacquering and
nickel-plating ; he adds to his stands as great a variety of mechani-
cal contrivances and adjustments as the price of the stand will
permit, and many of these contrivances are not really commendable
for their utility.”

The supply of a product is created and controlled by the demand
for it. As the microscope is an instrument for scientific research,
it is used by a class of people of more than ordinary intelligence ;
and, as most of the instruments purchased pass through the hands
of persons of wide experience, they are fully capable of determin-
ing what is best suited to their wants, and will certainly not permit
the maker to prescribe what they should take. The American in-
struments as constructed to-day are almost generally a combina-
tion of improvements, such as have suggested themselves to the
practical mind of the advanced American worker, and which have
been adopted and carried out by the maker; and this co-operation
between worker and maker has long been a matter of congratula-
tion. That the majority of American innovations are real improve-
ments is shown by the fact that the need of them is felt abroad,
and that many of them are being gradually embodied into foreign
instruments. That the American maker “adds to his stands as
great a variety of mechanical contrivances and adjustments as the
price will permit,” is certainly not to his discredit, neither is the
fact that he endeavors to make the outward appearance of his in-
struments conform to that of its general workmanship.

2. “In the majority of cases the stands are made to tilt, which,
for one that uses the microscope for real work, is an almost useless
luxury.”

Whether an instrument shall be used in an upright or inclined
position depends upon the requirements of the worker. It is true
that “in the majority of cases the stands are made to tilt;” but as
this feature adds, not a considerable, but, on the contrary, a very
trifling expense, there is no reason why it should not be used con-
tinually in an upright position if so desired; and it gives the ad-
ditional advantage that it may be inclined, and there is no doubt
that much real work is accomplished when it is in this position.
However, instruments without the joint are catalogued by some
makers, and may be had by those who desire them ; but the fact
that the maximum ratio of instruments without joint, as against
those with them, is as I to 100, is sufficient evidence of the desir-
ability and inexpensiveness of the hinge.

3. “This same fact . . . renders it indispensable that the micro-
scope should not be too high, . . . so that we must put down the
ten-inch tube as a bad feature for a student’s microscope.”

DECEMBER 23, 1887.]

To the best of my knowledge, a//7 American makers provide
draw-tubes to their smaller instruments, by means of which they
may be contracted to as great an extent as any of the foreign ones,
and in my opinion the ten-inch tube is most decidedly not an un-
desirable feature. For a long time many of the best microscopists
of this country, as well as of Europe, have complained of the want
of unanimity among manufacturers in the construction of those
parts which are absolutely necessary in the microscope. Thus the
size of screw in objectives is probably definitely settled in favor of
the English standard, as this is almost universally accepted; and
when not, it is by a few German and French makers. The length
of tube has for many years been the subject of agitation, and the
tendency is slowly but surely in favor of the ten-inch standard, and
_ by far the largest proportion of instruments are now constructed
accordingly.

4. “ The stage of the American microscope is very faulty.”

The stage of the American microscope does not differ materially

rom the majority of foreign ones. In almost all of the cheaper
forms it is “large and flat, with nothing upon it except a pair of
spring clips and a hole for a diaphragm.” Iam quite sure that it
is not only the amateur or fancy collector who uses the supple-
mentary glass stage; and as to the mechanical stage, I think that
this originated in Europe, and is used even more there than in this
country.

5. “ Then the Iris diaphragm is often introduced to allure the in-
experienced, but it is not a good form except in conjunction with
an achromatic condenser.”

The apparatus is a European invention: it is widely used, and
highly valued by many persons. No doubt many would be pleased
to know what optical or mechanical reason exists, which prevents
it from being a good form. Besides this, the honesty of the Ameri-
can manufacturer will not permit him to stoop to any subterfuge
whatsoever to allure a purchaser; and the application of the Iris
diaphragm to an instrument can in no manner be construed to be
such, especially as the purchaser may select the diaphragm of his
preference.

6. “There are other details of construction which are equally
open to unfavorable criticism, but it is unnecessary to go into their
discussion.” If there are any other points, it seems but proper
that they should be stated.

7. “ The eye-pieces and objectives are generally, though not al-
ways, of a decidedly inferior character : when they are really good,
the lenses are very expensive.”

This statement is a condemnation of American optical work,
which, with a knowledge of the literature on the subject, and ac-
quaintance of work which has been and is to-day produced, simply
cannot be made. Many of the important improvements have been
inaugurated by American opticians, and their work has been of a
high character, — a fact which is willingly conceded by a large
number of European microscopists who are fully qualified to judge.
That they have not retrograded is evinced by what they are doing
at the present day. Taken as a whole, I believe it can be safely
claimed that American objectives are of a higher grade, and more
uniform, than the European. More than this, the prices, compar-
ing quality for quality, are to-day fully as low as, and have been the
means of lowering, the prices of those which have been brought to
this country. The quality and prices of objectives, more than any
other part of the microscope, are less liable to conjecture and dif-
ference of opinion, from the fact that they can be determined by
actual comparison.

8. “ Many valuable members Of the nation are sacrificed by being
obliged to pay for the advantage of a small number of men who
have never shown themselves willing to supply to those by whose
sacrifices they benefit, the kind of instruments wanted. .. . Is it
unreasonable to ask manufacturers of microscopes in this country
to furnish us instruments of the kind we really need, as some sort
of acknowledgment of the money they extract from us whether
we will or not?”

This complaint is not borne out by facts. As already stated,
there are, among all the manufacturers of microscopes, none more
progressive than the Americans. They have ever been ready to
accept suggestions and to make improvements when occasion to do
so presented itself. They are of sufficient business sagacity to

SCIENCE. 311

undertake to make whatever may be called for, when there is a
prospect of a reasonable remuneration for the outlay. I hope I
may be excused in mentioning my personal experience in this con-.
nection.

Some years ago it came to the notice of the firm of which I am a
member, that there was at a certain quarter a decided opposition,
to American instruments, and an influence exerted on students in
favor of certain foreign ones.

To find the cause thereof, I made a special trip to Boston, and,
visiting a number of gentlemen, learned that the reason of their
preference was the pattern of the European instruments. Among
the gentlemen consulted was the writer of the article in Sczence. I
expressed a willingness to undertake to make an instrument which
should meet his views, and, after receiving a general outline of his.
preference, returned home and began to construct an instrument in
accordance therewith.

After the completion of this, I made it the object of a second
visit. The instrument was thoroughly inspected and criticised, and
a number of minor changes recommended, which, upon my return.
home, were strictly carried out. The instrument was again sent
for examination, April 23, 1884, accompanied by a letter, from
which the following extracts are made : —

“As you will see, we have adopted the suggestions as made by
you and Prof. , and believe that they add considerably to.
the value of the instrument. . . . We send the instrument for ex-
amination, and hope you will make it severe; for we are anxious to.
make just such an instrument, which you consider best suited to
students’ use, and are convinced that we are able to do it.”

Later, in reply to an inquiry about his opinion of the {nstrument,
we received the following : —

“We have examined the Harvard microscope, and find it to be-
very excellent in many respects, and the objectives good.”
(Signed) CHARLES S. MINOT.

During my visits I was kindly treated, received every reasonable
encouragement and the promise of support in the undertaking, and.
was therefore the more surprised to read such charges.

If European instruments are now happily gaining supremacy, it
must be of exceedingly recent date. Many scientists of this country
‘happily’ manifest great interest and pride in home productions ;.
and as the American manufacturers undoubtedly will endeavor to
combine in their instruments efficiency with high standard of work-.
manship, as they are perfectly willing to make whatever may be re-
quired, and as they will ever welcome improvements by whomso-.
ever suggested, there seems no reasonable doubt that the ‘ suprem-
acy’ will be in future, as it is now, on the American side.

EDWARD BAUSCH.
New York, Dec. 13.

Dr. C. S. MINOT, the able histologist of Harvard Medical School,
has, in a late number of this journal, given expression very freely
to his views in regard to the respective merits of microscopes of
foreign and domestic make. While the present writer cannot agree-
in detail with Dr. Minot’s conclusions, many of the points made-
against American instruinents are, unfortunately, justified more or-
less completely by the facts, and by the experience of teachers and
pupils in biological schools throughout the country, but similar-
charges can be aimed with just as much truth and equal force.
against many of the instruments which are imported from abroad
and commended as laboratory instruments. There are many of
them that I would absolutely not take as a gift if I could get the
best instruments of American make, and the best of those made.
abroad are open to objections when considered merely as tools for
general biological work. A microscope is, or ought to be, an in-.
strument of precision, and as such it is a tool which, according as
it is well or poorly made, will work satisfactorily or unsatisfactorily
in the hands of the skilled manipulator. I hold that nothing is too.
good as a tool for either pupil or teacher in biology. Histological
research and technique have reached that degree of development
and perfection within the past fifteen years, that the man who was.
a master in histology that long since, if he were to return to
the work in one of the many recently founded biological labora-
tories in the United States, would find that in cytology both,

ate SCIENCE.

pupils and teachers were speaking a language which he could
scarcely understand. He would also find that it was a common
thing for a teacher to demonstrate to his pupils with actual
specimens, day after day, things which in his own day it was
utterly impossible to demonstrate except by the most laborious and
roundabout methods, and which at best gave unsatisfactory results.
With this enormous advance in technique or in the processes of re-
search, has arisen a demand for a better class of laboratory instru-
ments, which, while they are compact, simple, and of moderate
height and weight, are constructed with a view to durability, and
at the same time admit of use for all the ordinary purposes of the
investigator or student. Such instruments should possess such
qualities as would enable one to use them for the most elementary
as well as for the most advanced work requiring the highest grade
of manipulative skill. The senseless catering of makers to the
lovers of ‘ brazen elephantiasis’ (as I once heard an eminent histol-
ogist express himself), with their large and costly instruments, has
wrought a kind of mischief which teachers have every now and then
to contend against, in the tendency of poorly informed tyros buying
at large cost these brazen giants, which they soon find are not what
they want.

My own deliberate conviction is, that the ideal microscope for
the student and investigator still remains to be devised ; that neither
Europe nor America has yet produced it; and that any attempt to
produce such aninstrument, without considering every possible and
reasonable demand that can ever be made of it as a table micro-
scope, must end in failure. Looking over the vast amount of rub-
bish which is constantly being figured in microscopical journals as
something new and valuable, one is often tempted to make the
‘comment, “ Why could not that person have been more usefully em-
ployed than in devising that perfectly useless piece of apparatus ?”’
There are, however, many exceptions; and I do not mean to be
understood as scoffing at all new pieces of apparatus, because
many of them first devised within the last ten years have been of
the greatest value. ;

How is this ideal microscope to be realized? Who will design
it, and who make it after it is designed? I would suggest that
every piece be made to a standard gauge, and that thus, if any
parts are broken or worn out, they may be replaced with a mini-
mum of trouble. I would advise that the existing rack and pinion
be replaced by a better construction, as no rack and pinion yet
made is so constructed as to remain firm and steady after prolonged
use of the instrument. The fine adjustment can be made a part of
the coarse adjustment, provided the cogs of the rack and pinion are
accurately cut ; and this adjustment can be placed at the back of
the instrument, near the fingers of the manipulator. In this way a
‘source of weakness in the construction of both American and foreign
instruments may be avoided. The outside tube in which the opti-
cal tube slides must be fixed, and form a part of its support. The
optical tube must be short ; tube length, with draw-tube out, not
over 155 millimetres, so as not to make the instrument uncomfort-
ably high when the tube is vertical. The support for the tube must
be in a single, solid piece, which may also support the simple, flat,
wide stage covered with a thin piece of hard rubber firmly fastened
to its upper surface. The stage clips must be so placed that they

do not interfere with moving the slide over the whole width of the
stage. The base or tripod upon which the whole rests must\be cast
jn a single piece, and the joint at the back, between the base and
the supporting piece for the tube, to be made simple and strong,
and so that it may be quickly tightened by the manipulator if it
should get loose. This joint for tilting I hold to be necessary for
certain kinds of work and for photography. The mirror bar must
be large and strong, and made as nearly concentric with the surface
of the stage as possible. The attachment for the condenser should
be made so that it is firm, and so that the condenser is easily swung
into and out of position, and rapidly adjusted up or down with as
little accessory mechanism as possible. A condenser of the Abbé
type is of course the only one to be considered for general work,
and it should be as short as possible, so as to make it possible to
keep the stage as low down or near the table as is consistent with
ready and successful illumination. The concave mirror should be
larger than on the most of the laboratory microscopes used here
and abroad.

[Vor ier Nor 2565

Now aword as to the camera lucida. This absolutely necessary
piece of apparatus must be adjustable to every eye-piece, and it
should be available for use with the tube upright, inclined, or
horizontal, without the addition of any desks or drawing-boards to
the outfit of the microscope. If the rack and pinion is properly
constructed, and an adjustable or sliding collar with the Royal
Society screw fitted into the optical tube or body, with this camera,
and a proper combination of eye-pieces and long or short focus ob-
jectives, drawings of objects may be made, ranging from 5 to 1,500
diameters, without difficulty, and the use of an embryograph largely
if not entirely dispensed with. Searcher eye-pieces might be added
to the combination, which would make the outfit still more com-
plete and varied for the use of the investigator who needs to make
figures of the subjects which he studies.

It will thus be seen that the prime requisites in the microscope
for the investigator are simplicity and mechanically correct con-
struction. No instrument yet made fulfils in the largest possible
measure these requirements. Mr. Zentmayer has really added im-
portant improvements to the instruments constructed in this coun-
try; and for solidity and fewness of pieces, his work (which has
always been honest) has been among the very best. American
observers of world-wide reputation have used American instruments
and objectives with success. Among these may be mentioned men
no less famous than Profs. H. James Clark, Alpheus Hyatt, and
Joseph Leidy, while Prof. J. F. Rothrock’s studies with American
lenses upon the strength of wood as illustrated by sections has
started a most important line of practical inquiry.

But notwithstanding this, as stated at the beginning, the ideal
microscope is still to be placed upon the market. To have the
matter assume the importance which it demands, I would suggest
that the American Society of Naturalists, at their next meeting,
take into consideration the question of securing a satisfactory de-
sign for a standard instrument. Let this be done by offering a

‘prize to be competed for, and let us for once have something like

uniformity of pattern in this most important instrument of re-
search. The teacher would then have no difficulty in suggesting to
his pupils what make of microscope they should buy, and every
maker would not be offering instruments departing more or less
from a recognized standard.

And finally, as suggested by Dr. W. P. Wilson, now that the
surplus from revenue and tariff is stirring the political wiseacres at
Washington, where a plethoric treasury is threatening the financial
prosperity of the country, let our universities and colleges make an
appeal to members of Congress, in co-operation with the American
Society of Naturalists, to have the absurd tariff on imported scien-
tific books and apparatus removed. This senseless tax on knowl-
edge, which it seems is to be catalogued among the ‘luxuries,’ is a
glaring and shameful disgrace to American institutions. As it is,
neither American publishers nor manufacturers are profiting to any
extent from this absurd regulation, nor are they likely to, even
after the duties are removed. JOHN A. RYDER.

University of Pennsylvania, Dec. 15.

Sound-Blindness.

IN Sczence for Nov. 18, p. 244, | observe some remarks on cer-
tain phenomena of defective hearing, which, from their supposed
analogy to color-blindness, is called ‘sound-blindness.’ I am very
much interested in the facts, but the name I do not at all like. It
seems to me very misleading. But neither is the term ‘ sound-deaf-
ness, which was proposed as a possible substitute, any better.
Comparing the eye and the ear, ‘sound-deafness ’ corresponds with
‘light-blindness ;’ but these terms express simply blindness and
deafness without qualification. The correspondent of co/or-blind-
ness is not sowsd-deafness, but pztch-deafness. But the phenome-
non spoken of in the article referred to is neither sowsd-deafness
nor #ztch-deafness ; for the characteristic of vowel-sounds is not
musical pitch, but ¢¢dre. In so far as the phenomenon is physio-
logical at all, the defect is therefore ¢z7bve-deafness. But it seems
to me that the defect is probably, largely at least, a defect of per-
ception, and not of sensation, and therefore psychological, not physi-
ological. JOSEPH LECONTE.

Berkeley, Cal., Dec. 9.

ENG E

FRIDAY, DECEMBER 30, 1887.

THE PILOT CHART OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC OCEAN for
December, issued by the United States Hydrographic Office, calls
~ special attention to the importance of an understanding among
transatlantic steamship companies and captains relative to the
routes followed by eastward and westward bound vessels, in order
to diminish as much as possible the dangers of collision on this
great race-track of the ‘ocean greyhounds. A reprint from the
chart is devoted to a brief discussion of the routes recommended
this month, with the addition of a chart showing graphically their
positions relative to the December storm-belt; storm-tracks are
plotted by means of dotted lines; and the average force and fre-
quency of prevailing winds in each 5° ocean square north of the
4oth parallel are also given, as indicated by the results of the inter-
national system of simultaneous meteorological observation, so far
as now available. It is an appropriate time to bring up this sub-
ject, now that the proposed international conference relative to the
increase of safety at sea bids fair to be held. The well-known
“steam-lanes’ planned by Maury in 1855 at the suggestion of Capt.
R. B, Forbes have never been followed to any great extent, and
indeed were never obligatory. At present each captain is allowed
to use his own discretion to a very large extent, and almost every
consideration is secondary to the desire to ‘beat the record’ by
making a fast passage. If the thousands of passengers who cross
the ocean every season could read the thoughts of their captains
during the sleepless nights they pass on the bridges of their vessels,
while rushing at full speed through a dense fog, it would hardly
add to their comfort. The hydrographer, in his recommendations,
marks out a new policy, and instead of the old lanes plots two
routes on the chart, — eastward-bound vessels to follow the south-
ern line, or nothing to the northward of it; and westward-bound
vessels the northern line, or nothing to the southward of it; the
two lines crossing the 50th meridian in 45° and 46° north latitude
respectively. This is regarded as the best and only practicable solu-
tion of the question likely to meet with general acceptance, all things
considered. The great difference between this plan and Maury’s
lanes is in the much wider limits allowed, which are thought to be
necessary and reasonable on account of present conditions of navi-
gation, the different destinations of vessels, the increased knowledge
and better forecasting of the weather, and the necessity of room to
allow for change of course in avoiding storms whose probable paths
are now comparatively well known. The prompt use which is thus
made by the Hydrographic Office, of the results of the simultaneous
observations made by international agreement and published by the
United States Signal Service, shows an appreciation of this impor-
tant system of observation which is especially gratifying as indi-
cating that the collection of these observations from masters of
vessels will be energetically continued, now that it is in the hands
of this office. It is understood that General Greely has, at the re-
quest of Commander Bartlett, ordered the immediate compilation
of ten-year normals for each ocean square in the North Atlantic,
for use in connection with the Pilot Chart ; and the vast interests
involved make this subject of such paramount importance, that it
is a cause for congratulation that the United States has taken the
lead not only in the inauguration of the system and the collection
and publication of the observations, but also in the immediate and
practical utilization of the results.

THERE IS IN SESSION this week at Trenton, N. J., a body
which is something of a novelty in educational organizations, but
from which great good isexpected. We refer to the New Jersey
Council of Education. We do not know of the existence of any
similar body in any other State, and we do not believe that the or-
ganization of the New Jersey Council is as yet very well or generally
understood. In his presidential address at the meeting of the New
Jersey State Teachers’ Association last year, Superintendent C. E.
Meleney of Paterson advocated the formation of a State council of
education which should have general unofficial supervision over
the educational interests and educational legislation of the State.
The idea proved to be a popular one, and a committee was ap-
pointed to prepare a plan for the organization of the council. The
body has since been regularly organized, and is now holding its first
annual meeting. Its constitution lays down as its aims the inves-
tigation and discussion of topics relating to education, the dis-
semination of information bearing on these topics, the consideration
and recommendation of the best means of advancing the education-
al interests of the State, and the consideration of means by which
the policy of the State may be modified in view of the progress of
educational thought. The constitution limits the membership to
forty-eight, and these are divided into three classes, each class to
serve three years. The places of the sixteen whose terms expire
each year are to be filled at the time of the meeting of the State
Teachers’ Association. The election of members rests with the
council itself, but one-half of the nominations to fill vacancies are
to be made by the State Teachers’ Association, and one-half by the
council. The names of the present members of the council show
that its deliberations are to be participated in by representatives of
every phase of education, from the sub-primary to the university.
The council proposes to be the embodiment of the power of the
teaching profession of the State, and will unquestionably do a
great service in the cause of educational advancement. The present
president of the council is Superintendent W. H. Barringer of New-
ark, and his address at the present meeting was to be on ‘ Educa-
tion as a Problem.’ The various working committees and their
chairmen are as follows: school organization, Principal B. C.
Gregory of Newark; course of study, Superintendent C. E. Meleney
of Paterson; high schools and colleges, President Merrill E. Gates
of Rutgers College; normal and training schools, Principal J. A.
Reinhart of Paterson; supervision of schools, Superintendent
Charles Jacobus of New Brunswick; school law, Principal J. M.
Green of Long Branch; examination and tenure of office of
teachers, Superintendent Randall Spalding of Montclair; hygiene
and sanitation, Prof. S. A. Farrand of Newark; moral education
and discipline, Dr. J. H. Vincent of Plainfield; statistics, Mr. A.
Scarlett of Burlington; industrial education, President Nicholas
Murray Butler of Paterson. It will be seen at a glance that the
New Jersey Council is a working, not a talking body, and the ex-
ample it sets could well be followed in other States.

THE RECENT MEETING of the American Public Health Asso-
ciation at Memphis, Tenn., of which a summary has been given in
Sczence, was one of the most interesting and important which that
association has ever held. Nine years ago its members convened
in Richmond, Va., many of them having just come from cities which
had been almost decimated by yellow-fever, first among which was
Memphis itself. The National Board of Health had its birth in
this meeting; and had the same broad and liberal spirit which
characterized that meeting been fostered and encouraged, that board

314

would doubtless bein existence to-day, having had nearly ten years
of experience, which would have enabled it to cope with any epidem-
ic which might visit our shores. But petty jealousies arose, and as a
result that board has now no existence. Its work was of the best,
and five volumes of its records attest this fact. The need ofa
national health department in some form was dwelt upon at length
by the president, Dr. Sternberg, in his address. He thinks that at
the present time it would be useless to ask that the sanitary inter-
ests be placed under the charge of another cabinet officer, a minis-
ter of public health, but that sanitarians should demand that their
interests receive the same consideration from the national govern-
ment as is accorded to the educational and industrial interests of
the country. He recommends the organization of a bureau of pub-
lic health, with a commissioner at its head, with the necessary as-
sistance to make it efficient. It has been suggested that a board
of health would be better than this plan contemplates, its members
coming from different sections of the country. Dr. Sternberg is
right, we think, when he speaks of such a board as not calculated
to do the best work. Another plan is to have such a board made
up of the surgeon-generals of the army, navy, and marine-hospital
service; but these officers are already fully occupied with their
duties, and could not with advantage undertake the executive work
of a central health bureau. Such a board would act well as an ad-
visory body, but its work should be limited to that. It is sincerely
to be hoped, that, as a result of the discussion of this important
question, the next Congress will provide for a central health organ-
ization. Such action would meet with the hearty support of sani-
tarians throughout the United States, and would do much to quiet
the minds of these gentlemen who to-day look with anxiety and
concern upon the possibilities which might occur should cholera or
other epidemic disease visit this country in the present unsettled
condition of its sanitary administration.

SNOW HALL OF NATURAL HISTORY AT LAWRENCE,
KAN.

THE Legislature of the State of Kansas, during its biennial ses-
sion of the year 1885, appropriated fifty thousand dollars for the
purpose of erecting a natural history building for the University of
Kansas. The erection of such a building was rendered imperative
by the extensive botanical, entomological, zoological, and geologi-
cal collections brought together under the supervision of Prof. F.
H. Snow, whose connection with the institution dates from its
foundation in the year 1866. The building was completed in the
autumn of 1886, and was formally named and dedicated to the pur-
poses for which it was erected, on Nov. 16 of that year. It has two
principal stories, each sixteen feet in height, together with a base-
ment and attic so commodious and well lighted as to make the
structure practically four stories in height. The building from
basement floor to attic roof is divided into two portions, partially
separated from each other by the main entrance-hall and stairways.
The portion to the west of the entrance is devoted to the exhibition
of the various cabinets, while the opposite portion is assigned to
the work of instruction. The collections belonging to each de-
partment are upon the same floor with the laboratories of that de-
partment, easily accessible to both students and instructors. The
arrangement of the various apartments is so well indicated in the
accompanying plans as to require no verbal description. This
arrangement was suggested by Mr. J. H. Emerton of New Haven,
Conn., who furnished the preliminary plans which formed the basis
upon which the Legislature was solicited to make the appropriation.
Mr. Emerton’s outlines were placed in the hands of Architect J. G.
Haskell of Topeka, Kan., who completed the architectural adapta-
tions in the matters of construction, light, heat, ventilation, and ex-
terior style, in a successful and satisfactory manner. The rooms
most naturally grouped themselves so as to form a rectangular
building; but for the purpose of increasing the volume of light,
and also improving the architectural effect, their form was some-
what changed.

The building is most admirably lighted; the volume being so

SCIEN

[Vot. X. No. 256

great that on a cloudy day the occupants of laboratories need not
seek proximity to the windows for microscopical work, and the
museum halls may have cases arranged in any desired relation.
The large museum roomsare lighted on three sides, and necessarily
have one side not lighted. To prevent this from being a dark side,
a plate-glass window, eight feet wide and eleven feet high, opposite
the centre of the unlighted wall, was added to the ordinary means
of lighting, and has the effect of giving uniformity of volume
throughout the entire space.

The exterior is in the Romanesque style, with rock-face ashlar
and cut stone dressings, the stone being from the well-known Cot-
tonwood quarries of Kansas. The main approach is by a broad
flight of buttressed stone steps under a handsomely decorated por-
tico, the decorations being suggestive of the uses of the building.
Numerous stone panels are provided about the building, which
may, if desired, be utilized for illustrations of natural history sub-
jects cut in bas-relief.

The construction of the building is nearly fire-proof. All bear-
ing-girders are of iron, and all floors are deadened with mortar on
corrugated iron laid between the joists. All partitions are non-
combustible, all lathing is of wire cloth, the roof is covered with
slate and dressed with iron cornices, ridge and hip rolls. All in-
terior finish is polished hard wood, so that little material is presented
to feed combustion.

Heating is by steam, the ‘indirect’ method being employed to
furnish the rooms with warm fresh air, and the ‘ direct ’ method for
securing proper temperature.

Fresh air is introduced into the building by means of a ‘ plenum’
extending under the entire building, and connecting with the outer
air by arched openings and areas. Ventilation is accomplished by
means of large flues leading from near floor and ceiling of all rooms
to a large iron chamber in the attic, in which sufficient radiation is
located to insure a successful movement of the foul air through a
ventilating cupola to the exterior.

The construction of the building was by contract with McFar-
land & Son of Lawrence, and completion was accomplished within
the prescribed appropriation, and without ‘ extras.’

INDIAN WHEAT.~

AT a recent meeting of the English Farmer's Club, Professor
Wallace of Edinburgh University read a paper on agriculture in
India.

Professor Wallace said he went to India not only to study agricul-
ture in view of the important influence it was likely to exercise over
British agriculture, and forestry in view of the likelihood of a chair
of forestry being established at his university, but he had the further
object of wishing to see for himself why it was that the government
had practically given up the idea of improving Indian agriculture.
He found that the apathy on the part of the government in the di-
rection of advancing agriculture was exhibited not only in the, case
of the native scholars, but was general. Practically all that was
left of the Agricultural Department was the name, and this was
not always recognized in the presidencies. The ryots’ faith in the
proposals of the government to improve their practices had entirely
vanished. The speaker then went on to explain the character of
the Indian cattle, and showed that these were raised, not for
meat, but for sinew; and he pointed out the lessons to be learned
from color, the black cattle better resisting heat. As to the wheat-
growing, he said, that, in order to produce wheat for the market,
the ryots increased the area cultivated by taking in more land from
the wastes or jungle the most convenient, in the first instance, to
their holdings; but, in addition to this, they grew wheat in many
cases in place of some other crop. There was a limit to the exten-
sion of the so-called ‘substitution ’ wheat area; and the area of ex-
tended wheat-growth was, as time went on, always becoming more
difficult to increase, and, even after difficulties are surmounted, less
remunerative. A tract of country where extension would be the
main source of wheat-supply skirted the eastern border of the
desert of north-western India. Supplies of wheat were also expected
to be forthcoming from the rich black soils of the southern Mah-
ratta country when the railway communication was better estab-
lished. It had been thought by some that the future supplies of
Indian wheat would so increase as to flood the English markets to

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overflowing. He did not deny that Indian wheat would for many
years remain a substantial item in the annual wheat imports, but
there was no indication that the amount of it would increase at any
thing like an alarming rate. With the extension of railways, new
wheat-growing districts would be tapped, but the supply of easily
available land was by no means unlimited, and the drawbacks and
disadyantages were far more numerous than most people supposed.
He then commented upon the likelihood of the yield decreasing and
the quality degenerating by too frequent growth on the same land.
He believed that the land was not seriously impoverished by the
native systems of rotation, or by the practice which they had of
growing mixed crops; but it would be strange if they altered those
time-honored practices, and grew wheat year after year with suc-
cessful results, as if the land were in the condition of virgin soil. It
had been the history of every great wheat-growing region that the
yield and quality came down if the land was not kept up by manur-
ing, asin England. He cited America as a typical example. The
point where the best wheat grew had steadily marched westward,
and he claimed that it had left as a record of its course the ruins of
disused and deserted mills. It is not perfectly clear wherein he has
evidence of this. Sir Donald Mackenzie Wallace, the author of
“ Russia,’ and now private secretary to the viceroy of India, related
an excellent illustration of the case in point. A district in southern
Russia was suddenly stricken with the wheat-growing mania. For
a few years the yield, for size of grain, quality, and quantity, was
simply marvellous; in a few more years the excess in every way
became normal ; and in yet a few more years, the produce dimin-
ishing in every respect, it became impossible for wheat-growing to
continue, and the people had to go back to their rye-crops and
other coarser grains. He dealt with the character of the wheats
grown in India, and commented upon their inferiority in several
respects.

Sir James Caird, in thanking Professor Wallace for his interest-
ing lecture, said that he thought Mr. Wallace had not given as
much credit as they deserved to the various agricultural departments
in India for their exertions. But in a country so populous, and
with an agricultural practice to a certain extent established by a
long line of experience of climate and soil, the cultivators have not
been slow to avail themselves of the extending facilities of trans-
port, which, in regard to cost on the great railway-lines in India,
are now brought very much on a par with the charges in America.
An increasing demand, caused by facility of transport, has stimu-
lated production, and has shown that instruction in the art of agri-
culture is not so much required as access to good markets. India
has a great variety of products, and though wheat interests British
agriculturists more than any other, cotton stands highest on the
list of exports, next to it opium, then oil-seeds, then rice, and fifth
wheat. But wheat had, no doubt, gained the most increase of any.
The rapid extension of exports of native produce from India in the
last ten years is, indeed, very remarkable. The total value in 1877
was sixty-five millions sterling, and in 1886 eighty-five millions, —
an increase of nearly thirty percent. There could be no great de-
ficiency in the knowledge of the cultivators where sucha result was
possible ; and probably the best aid that the government of India
could give to native agriculture would be to proceed steadily with
the construction of railways in all the richer parts of that vast country
which are still without them. With regard to a continued supply of
wheat to Europe, he agreed with Professor Wallace that there is
neither the same facility for its increased production as in America,
nor the same likelihood of a surplus. The population of India and
the native states at the last census was two hundred. and fifty mil-
lions. It is believed to be increasing at a rate which, in ten
years, might add twenty million more mouths to be fed. This in-
crease must be provided for, and the periodical return of famines
must not be forgotten. We are within a short period of the time
when one will be due. He did not, therefore, think that Europe
could depend on India so much as America for future supplies of
wheat.

HEALTH MATTERS.
Quarantine Systems.

THE quarantine systems of the United States were fully discussed
at the Memphis meeting. For years that of New York has been

SCIENCE.

315

regarded as the best which could be found along either coast, and
its methods have been copied by the quarantine officers of other
ports. The condition, however, in which the quarantine arrange-
ments were found to be, when the ‘Alesia’ and ‘ Britannia’ ar-
rived last fall with cholera on board, has done much to destroy the
confidence which up to this time had been reposed in the New
York system. For the defects which then existed, and many of
which doubtless still exist, the responsibility has not yet been deter-
mined. The health-officer places it upon the governor of the State,
inasmuch as he has vetoed appropriations which were needed to
put the hospital islands and appliances in fit condition to receive
immigrants suffering from epidemic disease. On the other hand, it
has been attempted to throw the blame on the health-officer him-
self for not supplying what was needed at his own expense. This
latter criticism is unjust. He is not called upon, either as a matter
of obligation or duty, to expend the amounts necessary to remedy the
defects, and certainly there is no precedent for it either at the port
of New York or elsewhere.

During nearly fifteen years of active connection with health or-
ganizations, the writer can recall but one instance in which a sani-
tary official paid out of his own pocket the amounts necessary to
prosecute sanitary work, when the authorities failed or refused ta
appropriate public funds for that purpose. That official was Dr.
Davenport of Boston, chemist and milk-inspector of the board of
health. The amount expended was, if we remember correctly,
more than three thousand dollars, and the last we heard he had not
been repaia. If there are other instances, we should be glad tu put
them on record.

The Philadelphia committee reflected very severely on the man-
agement of the quarantine authorities at New York, and their com-
plaints have not been fully met. It appears, however, that cholera
has not spread from the hospital islands, and it is to be hoped that
the measures taken to extinguish it have been successful. The
systems at Baltimore and Philadelphia have been condemned as
entirely inadequate to the task of coping with epidemic disease
should it make its entrance at either of these ports. These defects
were the foundation for the request, made especially by Western
sanitarians, that a national quarantine system should be organized,
whose restrictions should be similar at all the ports of the United
States, thus leaving no port unprotected, but keeping such a vigi-
lant watch over all, that cholera and yellow-fever might with cer-
tainty be excluded.

The quarantine system of Louisiana has been brought to such a
state of perfection by Dr. Joseph Holt, president of the State Board
of Health, that itis now looked upon as the best in the United
States. A description of this system was given by Dr. Holt at the
Memphis meeting, and is a part of the report of the committee on
disinfectants. In this description the writer says there are three
maritime approaches to New Orleans, — the Mississippi River, the
Rigolets, and the Atchafalaya River. The two latter are closed
against all vessels from quarantined ports, compelling such to use
the Mississippi as the only available route to New Orleans. The
quarantine is a system composed of three stations, the first of which
is an advance-guard inspection station situated at Port Eads, one
hundred and ten miles below New Orleans. Here vessels are
boarded by the medical officer, who inquires as to their sanitary
record and present condition. If from a non-quarantined port, and
all is well, they go to the city. If a vessel comes from a quaran-
tined port, but gives no evidence of present or past sickness among
passengers or crew, she proceeds to the upper station, seventy
miles below the city, where she is subjected to sanitary treatment.
If, on the other hand, the vessel gives evidence of being infected,
she is sent to the lower station, located on Pass 4 l’Outre, one
hundred and three miles below New Orleans. The sick are at once
removed to a hospital. The vessel, with the well on board, is
thoroughly disinfected by the aid of the quarantine tugboat. The
atmosphere below decks is completely replaced with one heavily
charged with sulphurous oxide, and wherever possible a solution of
bichloride of mercury is applied to effect thorough disinfection.

In speaking of this treatment, Dr. Holt says, “ A ship known to
be infected with one of the three great pestilential diseases — small-
pox, cholera, or yellow-fever — can stand and must endure extraor-
dinary treatment, even if clothing is wetted and some articles

316

damaged. ‘They who go down to the sea in ships’ assume the
perils of the voyage, among which is this occurrence of finding
themselves on an infected vessel, and being compelled to undergo
a cleansing; for they have no right to bring their perils ashore and
endanger others.” The ship, with those on board, is held ten days
for observation, and then allowed to proceed to the upper station,
where she undergoes further treatment, and then goes to the city.

The methods practised by Dr. Holt are very thorough, and in
their application, a tugboat, fitted up with all the necessary ma-
chinery, is employed. The bedding of the vessel, together with
cushions, mattresses, carpets, rugs, etc., is removed from the ship
to a commodious building in close proximity to the disinfecting
wharf, where they are treated by moist heat at a temperature of
not less than 230° F. During this process of steaming, every article is
perceived to be saturated and intensely hot, the steam freely pene-
trating to the interior of mattresses, double blankets, etc.; but so
great is the heat in the texture of the fabrics as to immediately
expel all moisture upon drawing the racks and exposure to the open
air. Shirts and collars instantly assume the crisp dryness they
possessed before exposure, losing the musty smell of long packing
inatrunk. Silks, laces, and the most delicate woollen goods show
no signs of injury whatever fromthe treatment. Articles of leather,
rubber, and whalebone would be injured by the heat, and are
therefore disinfected with the bichloride-of-mercury solution. The
time required to charge the chamber with apparel for disinfection
is thirty minutes; time required for action of moist heat, twenty
minutes ; for removal of articles, fifteen minutes, —a total of sixty-
five minutes.

The report of Dr. Holt is amply illustrated with figures of the
apparatus used in disinfection, and the method of its application,
and should be in the possession of every sanitarian as furnishing
a model which can be adapted to the requirements of every quaran-
tine station.

MENTAL SCIENCE.
Ideas of Number in Animals.

THE study of comparative psychology labors under two difficul-
ties: the facts upon which it is to build cannot be accurately ascer-
tained without great difficulty; and the intrepretation of the facts
is a still more delicate and laborious task. Civilized man has looked
upon the facts of nature with so entirely a modern mind, that it is
arare gift to be able to appreciate the elementary thought-pro-
cesses of uncivilized communities or of animals. Every attempt at
improving the methods of presenting these phenomena should be
received with sympathetic consideration, without regarding as final
what is probably only a step to something better. Mme. Clemence
Royer has recently made a study of the mathematical powers of
animals that deserves the consideration of all students of psychol-
ogy.

Among men we find all grades of mathematical ability, from that
of a Newton and Laplace to that of one who cannot conceive the
abstract notion of number. What the savage lacks is not the
knowledge of the difference between three men and ten men, but
the power to abstract the notion ‘three’ from men, trees, hands,
and soon. The first step in this process is the distinction of unity
from plurality, then of duality, etc., from plurality. The relic of this
appears in the prevalence of the dual number in rudimentary
languages.

What impresses itself upon the primitive mind is the sensory
images of objects: he knows the difference between four trees ar-

ranged in a quadrilateral and in a row, between the general look of -

three trees and of four trees, but cannot see any thing in common
between four trees and four stones. He isa poor arithmetician,
but a good geometer; he is impressed by space relations, not by
numerical characteristics. Hecan judge of distance, of the outlines,
of the sizes of objects, but all by an instinctive visual talent. If,
then, arithmetical notions appear late in human development, we
can hardly.expect it to be prominent among animals, lacking an
intellectual language. What we can speak of as the language of
animals is limited to the expression of the emotions. Their
mathematical distinctions are sensory in nature. They distinguish
between unity and plurality of certain objects, but we cannot credit

SCIENCE:

[Vot. X. No. 256

them with abstract notions of ‘one’ and ‘two.’ They have a
kaleidoscopic, photographic memory, not an abstract verbal one.
All the wonderful powers of animals finding their way, of regularity
in time, must be accounted for by an accuracy in the perception of
outlines, and the unconscious registration of general intervals by
feelings of fatigue, number of steps, and so on.

There is no unit of distance or time. Distance is to them a
perception, not an idea. Just so a dog, in attacking a boar, accu-
rately judges the length of his leap, the size and strength of the
enemy; but this does not involve any mathematical calculations.
The apparent understanding of language by trained dogs comes
under the same head. The dog does not appreciate the phonetic
value of the words, but takes his clew from the intonation, the little
gestures, and the like. The horse understands the ‘ language of the
bit’ better than that of his master. Animals, in brief, have their
geometrical sense of relations well developed (better than men in
some respects), but are not arithmeticians.

They do not, however, lack all appreciation of number. They do
distinguish between numbers, for this is necessary to their exist-
ence; but their distinction, when it goes above a few simple units,
isin the form of a bunch-estimate, depending as much on the ar-
rangement of the group as on its size. They cannot estimate as.
we do when we divide an army into regiments, into companies, and
so on, and thus estimate the number of men.

Birds, it is true, are much alarmed if an egg be removed from
their nests, but they are equally alarmed if the arrangement of the
eggs be disturbed ; thus indicating that it is the general disturbance
that causes the alarm, not a counting of the eggs. The mother
recognizes her young individually, and thus can notice the absence
of one; but she probably sees no more difference between the eggs
than we do, and judges their number only by their arrangement.
Cats probably distinguish their young by differences in the fur, and
so on: they are little affected if one kitten be removed; but, if more
than four be taken away, they are greatly disturbed, and especially
so if but one be left. If the kittens are weaned, the loss is not taken
So seriously.

Dogs notice the absence of one of their number; but that they
recognize each other individually is shown by their preferences
and jealousies, both among themselves and towards men. Shep-
herds’ dogs do not count their fold, but simply have a general pic-
ture of its size. Likewise trained dogs do not count, but have
simply learned to associate mechanically certain geometrical forms
with certain actions. Sir John Lubbock’s dog, that brings a different
label according as it wants something to eat, to go out, and so on,
does not appreciate the intellectual value of the letters, but regards
the label as an artificial means for gaining certain ends. Thedog’s
faculties in these respects, however, seem to be not inferior to those
of the Bushmen, who count only to two, and call all above that
‘many. Number is here concrete only with reference to objects.
where plurality is a useful trait: it is never abstract, and so can no
more reach the stage of mathematical art than can their emotional
language reach the stage of ideational abstraction to which ours
has attained. By this is not meant that animals can form no ab-
stract notions, but that their general notions are very limited in
scope, and are along the line of directly useful interests only. The
animal thinks by generic images, does not err in its judgments, is.
not liable to fallacies, all of which are distinctly human because we
think by the intervention of words; and this difference forms the
difficulty of our communication with them.

Animal-trainers have ignored these facts, not recognizing that
geometry is more fundamental than arithmetic, and have attempted
to make animals arithmeticians when nature has made them geom-
eters. Ourselves accustomed to look on every thing from its
numerical aspect, we fail to see how trivial a part this plays in
animal life.

There remains the consideration of number, not of objects in
space, but of succession in time. This faculty has been claimed
for the higher animals. There are many stories of pets keeping up
the same action at regular intervals, and always the same number
of times per day or per week,—the story of a dog who always
wanted three pieces of sugar, of the dog who would always keep
out of the way on Sunday, and so on. Mme. Royer explains this
as due to ordinary associations without the intervention of abstract

DECEMBER 30, 1887. |

notions of time-units. Houzeau took his dogs out walking every
alternate day, and after ten walks did not notice a spontaneous de-
sire of the dogs to go out, although they enjoyed the walk. The
dogs did not estimate the interval, but took hints from trifling indi-
cations. They notice the return of a complex series of circum-
stances. On the other hand, Houzeau ascribes an instinctive time-
sense to the crocodile that comes back to its eggs after a definite
interval, varying from ten to fifteen days in different species. The
mules on the horse-cars in New Orleans make five trips a day, and
are always very restless on completing their fifth trip. Such facts
need more exact experimentation before they can be ascribed to
real counting on the part of the animals.

THE INFLUENCE OF SENSATIONS ON ONE ANOTHER. — Under
this head Dr. Urbanschitsch of Vienna reports some curious ex-
periments, the value of which must be left to future research to
decide. His general conclusion is, that the excitation of one sense-
organ increases the acuteness of the others. If a disk be regarded
at such a distance that its color is indistinct, the hearing of a sound
will bring out the color. The beating of a watch is heard more
clearly with the eyes open than with the eyes closed. Red and
green increase auditory perceptions ; blue and yellow weaken them.
The fact that we listen to music with our eyes closed is due to
other reasons, and also to the fact that the evsemd/e appears best
when the tones are not at their clearest. Smell, taste, and touch
are open to the same influence. Red and green increase the sensi-
tiveness of each of these senses; yellow and blue weaken their
sensitiveness. Touch and temperature have a reciprocal influence.
If one tickles the skin and plunges it into warm water, the tickling
ceases ; if into cold water, the tickling brings out the feeling of cold.
These observations are regarded as showing the same re-enforcing
action between sensations as has been shown to exist between
motions, and as offering a mode of explanation of those curious
associations between colors and sounds so insistent in some minds.

BOOK-REVIEWS.

Greek Life and Thought, from the Age of Alexander to the
Roman Conquest. By J. P. MaHArFFY. New York, Macmil-
lan. $3.50.

THIS work is in the main acontinuation of the author’s previous
volume, ‘ Social Life in Greece from Homer to Menander,’ though
somewhat wider in its scope. It lacks the absorbing interest that
belongs to the history of the great days of Greece, but it has a new
interest of its own in the spread of Hellenic civilization in Egypt
and western Asia. The work is not confined to the moral and
social life of the times, though this is the most prominent feature,
but contains a great amount of information and discussion on al-
most every phase of Hellenic life. The political interest of the age
immediately succeeding the death of Alexander centres partly in
the division of his empire into various kingdoms, and partly in the
struggles of the cities in European Hellas to recover their independ-
ence. Of the various kingdoms of the Hellenistic world, Egypt
was, in Mr. Mahaffy’s opinion, the most important and the most
prosperous, —a fact which he attributes in great part to the states-
manlike genius of its founder, the first Ptolemy. In dealing with
the cities of Greece, the author shows a lack of sympathy with the
spirit of freedom and local patriotism which is not quite creditable
in a citizen of a free country and a historian of Hellenism. It is
true, the struggles of the cities to regain their autonomy proved un-
availing, and perhaps they were not sufficiently cosmopolitan in
their views ; yet freedom is better than empire, and, while we ac-
knowledge the defects and the failure of the patriots, we cannot but
sympathize with their misfortunes.

Of the moral life of the period, we get glimpses from many points
of view, and yet, as a whole, it is somewhat difficult to judge. The
sins of the royal courts, especially the frequent murders, the use of
torture, and the perpetual wars, are sufficiently prominent; yet Mr.
Mahaffy thinks that the morality of private life was purer and more
refined than it was in earlier times. In one respect there was cer-
tainly a real moral advance: it was during this period that the
great schools of ethical philosophy were founded, and men came to
regulate their lives by reason instead of by tradition and custom.

1208

SCIENCE:

317

The author gives aninteresting account of the philosophical schools
at Athens, which were established by law as religious corporations
with regular endowments; and he shows clearly that during most
of the period under review they were highly respected and influen-
tial.

The intellectual life of the Hellenic world is treated by the author
with considerable fulness. The history of physical and mathemati-
cal science is omitted, on the ground that the author lacks the
special knowledge requisite for treating it. In art the Rhodian and
Pergamene schools are of course the most conspicuous; and Mr.
Mahaffy shows, that, though this was an age of decadence, the
number of excellent artists was by no means small. In literature,
after the decline of the New Comedy at Athens, the chief interest
centres in Alexandria. The establishment of the Museum and the
great library in that city, and the liberal patronage of both by the
Ptolemies, made the place the chief seat of literature, as it after-
wards became of philosophy. Of the quality of this literature, Mr.
Mahaffy expresses the opinion usually held of it by modern scholars.
It was distinguished by erudition and imitation of earlier models
rather than by original genius or power of style. It is worthy of
note, however, that it was at Alexandria that the practice arose of
writing poems, and afterwards prose fictions, on the theme of
romantic love, — a theme which has since become the most prolific
in literature.

The concluding chapter of the book gives an account of the in-
troduction of Hellenic civilization into Rome consequent on the
conquest of Greece by the Roman arms; but the subject is only
just introduced, as the author intends writing another work on the
spiritual life of Hellenism in the Roman Empire. Those who have
read his other works will look with interest for the promised
volume. j

Mount Taylor and the Zunz Plateau.
Washington, Government. 4°.

By Capt. C. E. DUTTON.

STUDENTS of American geology who have learned to expect in
Captain Dutton’s contributions important results ably elaborated,
and presented in a style which is simply fascinating, —clear and
graphic, and worthy of the geological wonderland in which it has
been his fortune to work, — will experience no disappointment in
this paper. The district to which it relates (longitude 107° to 109°,
and latitude 35° to 36°) liesin the western part of New Mexico,
and in the south-eastern corner of the great plateau country, and
embraces two distinct geological problems of the first order, — the
volcanic region of which Mount Taylor is the culmination, and
the Zumi Plateau. Captain Dutton’s previous studies, as well
as those of Gilbert, Powell, and others, were confined mainly to the
western side of the plateau province, and especially to the portion
traversed by the Grand Cafion of the Colorado. But although no
geologist possessing any breadth of comprehension could enter the
plateau country, and, after gaining an extended knowledge of its
physical features, fail to perceive that it is a great unit, and sharply
delimited from every thing which surrounds it, it was still extremely
desirable to study the south-eastern extensions of these vast masses
of strata and the features carved out of them, in the hope that
problems which could be only half solved on one side of the pla-
teau could be completely solved on the other. It was felt that the
history and evolution of this unique region could be ascertained
satisfactorily only by knowing the whole. The survey, therefore,
embraced the first opportunity of attacking it from the eastern side ;
and the admirable monograph before us sufficiently attests the wis-
dom of this policy.

With the view of putting this new field at once into its natural
relations with the whole of which it forms a part, Captain Dutton
begins with a summary account of the plateau country in its entirety.
The area of the plateau country, south of the Uinta Mountains, is
about one hundred and thirty thousand square miles. A shaded
map shows its form and its position with reference to the other
portions of the western United States. The topographic features
and extraordinary scenery of this region have been described many
times, and it is deemed needless to descant upon them ; but several
pages are devoted to the general geologic features underlying these
wonderful reliefs. The strata are normally approximately horizon-
tal; and such slight inclinations as occur are very persistent, car-

318

rying the strata from very high altitudes to very low ones. But no
structural features of the plateau country are more truly character-
istic than the monoclinal folds and faults.

The marginal portions of the plateau country abound in volcanic
rocks and extinct volcanoes, while they are almost wholly wanting
in the great central areas. The eruptions vary in age from the
middle eocene almost to the present, the latest being probably less
than three centuries old. This volcanic border is so nearly com-
plete, that, if a geologist were making the circuit of the plateau
province, he could so shape his route that for three-fourths of the
way he would be treading upon eruptive materials, and pitch his
camp upon them every night.

The classic group of laccolites known as the Henry Mountains is
situated in the northern plateaus, and it is now known that this
highly interesting type of eruption has been repeated at various
points in the province. But perhaps no geological feature of the
plateaus is of greater interest in connection with this monograph
than the ‘swells,’ of which the San Rafael ‘ Swell’ is the type; for
the Zuni Plateau is a noble example of this structure. There is a
considerable number of swells in the plateaus, and they are of great
importance by reason of their association with the most impressive
features of the region. They are the localities of maximum erosion,
—the centres from which the dissolution of the strata, through the
wasting of their edges, has proceeded outwards, in ever-expanding
circles, one bed or formation following another, until thousands of
feet in thickness, and thousands of square miles in area, have been
swept away. Along with this denudation has occurred a doming-up
of the strata into a broad, gently swelling boss.

Captain Dutton’s beautiful colored map, and the accompanying
sections, bring out the topographic and geologic features of the re-
gion to which this monograph especially relates with wonderful
distinctness. They show that the Zuni Plateau is simply a great
swell in a vast regional expanse of mesozoic rocks, breaking for a
brief space the continuity of that system of strata, and presenting a
well-marked monocline on either flank, a long, gentle slope of the
strata on the north-east, and ashort, abrupt slope on the south-west.
From its broad surface the mesozoic has been denuded, leaving the
edges of the strata, more or less upturned, to face it round about
on all sides in rainbow cliffs. Away from the plateau the strata re-
sume their normal horizontality, and the cretaceous becomes again
everywhere the surface of the land. Vast and imposing is the ex-
panse of this mighty cretaceous system. If we could rise in a
captive balloon two thousand feet above the Zuni Plateau, the radi-
us of vision would embrace more than twenty thousand square miles
covered with it. Yet this is but a trifle in comparison with its
whole extent, which embraces half of the North American conti-
nent. Its thickness is equally matter of wonder. Whence came
this stupendous mass of material? This is undoubtedly one of the
most important and difficult questions in American geology.

North-east of the Zui Plateau, beyond the noble valley of the
San José, rises Mount Taylor. It is a large volcanic cone planted
upon a lofty and very extensive mesa of cretaceous strata heavily
sheeted over with lava, the lava-cap being seldom less than three
hundred feet thick. The cone occupies but a small part of the
high platform on which it stands. It is merely the focus and cul-
minating point of a rather large field of volcanic action. It is also
clear that the immense cap of lava did not all come from this main
orifice, but that the greater part was disgorged from numberless
vents scattered over its entire surface, both the concentrated and
the diffuse types of volcanic action being well exhibited in the same
tract.

The great mesa on which Mount Taylor stands is only one of a
series, and it forms only a small part of a great volcanic field.
From its southern and eastern margins other mesas of similar com-
position are plainly visible ; and it is certain that the sheet of lava
once extended, perhaps without a break, across the broad interven-
ing valleys of erosion, for they are now thickly studded with vol-
canic necks. These necks are ancient vents which have been ex-
posed and left in striking relief by the wearing-away of the softer
cretaceous strata over which their flows once spread. They form
one of the most interesting and instructive features of the region,
and Captain Dutton has described and illustrated them in consider-
able detail. It is impossible to follow him further in these interest-

SCIENCE.

[Vou. X. No. 256

ing descriptive chapters; but we must pass on to the general con-
clusions.

In the stratigraphy of the plateau country there is no fact of
greater importance than the general if not complete absence of
Devonian and Silurian strata below the carboniferous. In the
Grand Canon of the Colorado the carboniferous beds rest directly
and conformably upon the Cambrian; and in the Zuni Plateau the
Cambrian is also wanting, and they repose upon the Archzan.
But, although we thus have evidence of considerable areas of dry
land in the Far West before carboniferous time, the strata of the
latter age present, except where interrupted by subsequent erosion,
one almost universal sheet of marine sediments over the whole
western country.

The whole tenor of the evidence accords well with the inference
that the surface of the plateau country during the Jura-Trias coin-
cided very nearly with sea-level, but was continually oscillating
from a little above to a little below that level, and wzce versa. This
is proved by the character of the sediments and the numerous un-
conformities by erosion, only without any discordance of dip.
At one time it was a land area, sustaining a great forest vegetation,
through which many species of dinosaurs wandered ; at another it
was overflowed by the ocean, and received deposits of fine sand,
clay, and gypsum. Whatever may be the true explanation, it is a
most extraordinary fact that three thousand to four thousand feet
of strata were accumulated upon an area of over ninety thousand
square miles, and yet the surface of deposition was maintained
throughout at approximately the same level.

Very similar considerations are presented by the cretaceous sys-
tem. Asin the Jura-Trias, there were alternations of land and
sea; and whenever the sea withdrew, the land thus laid bare
bloomed with forests and swarmed with dinosaurs. Here we find,
for the first time in the West, conditions favorable for the forma-
tion of coal. From top to bottom the shaly beds of the cretaceous
include coal-seams and carbonaceous layers, while the intervening
beds abound in fossil leaves. The carboniferous age of the Appa-
lachians repeated itself here in the closing stages of the mesozoic,
and upon a scale of equal if not greater grandeur.

An interesting question arises here. How does it happen that
coal did not form in the Western Trias also? That vegetation was
exuberant in that age is fully attested by the enormous abundance
of fossil plants, which are usually silicified. The problem still
awaits solution, but certain it is that the Jura-Trias has never
yielded. in the West a trace of carbonaceous matter. Its trees
and shrubs have turned into stone instead of coal.

The source of the detritus forming the mesozoic strata of the
West is found chiefly in the Great Basin of Utah, Nevada, etc.
The fact is general that these strata grow thinner from west to
east, indicating a western origin for its sediments. But the stupen-
dous volume of the sediments in the United States and British
America also indicates that they came from a source which was
much more extensive than any island; in short, from some conti-
nental area, including the Great Basin, and having a shore-line
many hundreds of miles long, with numerous large rivers dischar-
ging sand and silt.

The movements which ultimately isolated the plateau province,
and gave it its distinctive history and development, began in the
Laramie period ; and during eocene time its area was a vast inland
lake with an outlet. In this lake eocene sediments were deposited
to a maximum thickness of five thousand feet toward the north, and
thinning southward, indicating that they were derived mainly from
the Rocky, Uinta, and Wasatch ranges, which were then in exist-
ence. The plateau lake finally disappeared in the miocene period,
and thus closed the long period of almost continuous deposition
which began in early carboniferous time, and during which from
ten thousand to fifteen thousand feet of sediments were accumu-
lated.

All this region proclaims an ancient erosion far more vigorous
than the present. This is seen in the wide, eroded valleys, fit for
the passage of great rivers, but vacant now of flowing waters, their
troughs half filled with alluvium, and the grass growing over their
flood-plains. We are obliged to refer this erosion to the miocene,
and the great elevation of the country which followed it probably
occurred during the pliocene.

DECEMBER 30, 1887. |

The elevation of the Zuni Plateau was attended by the marked
bulging or protrusion of limited portions of the Archean mass
carrying up with them the overlying sediments, and forming
Mount Sedgwick and other elevations borne upon the plateau. The
forms of these granite bosses, as well as the remarkable metamor-
phism of the immediately overlying carboniferous sandstone, would
seem to suggest very strongly that they may be true laccolites.
And this view relieves us of the necessity of accounting for the
softening 27 sz¢z of the Archzan so near the surface, since these
bosses can never have been covered by more than ten thousand
feet of strata. There is evidence that the basic eruptions which
built up Mount Taylor and the volcanic caps of the mesas were
subsequent to some part of the principal erosion of the country,
though contemporaneous with a large part of it.

None of Captain Dutton’s conclusions will interest the general
student more than those relating to the formation of mountains.
He traces a series of mountain forms from the extreme simplicity
of structure disclosed in the Zuni Plateau to the comparatively
complex structure of the Wasatch and Basin ranges, and finds a
generic idea running through them all. It is the idea that was
taught us when we were school-boys, that mountains consist of
granitic or metamorphic cores, with sedimentary strata upturned
upon their flanks.

“Within the past twelve or fifteen years it has become a widely.
accepted view among the geologists of Europe and America that
the forces which have elevated mountains are derived from the
strains set up in the outer envelopes of the earth by the secula
cooling and shrinkage of its interior; but it should be borne in
mind that geological science has flourished most in those countries
where the best known and most thoroughly studied mountains and
ridges are greatly plicated. To the European geologist the Alps
and the Jura have always been the most commanding and interest-
ing of orographic structures. To the Briton the highlands of Scot-
land and Wales have been equally absorbing fields of research, in
which the solution of the problem of mountain-building has been
attempted. In America geology had its first and most rapid growth
in the Appalachian region, and, when it sought fresh fields in the
Pacific slope, it first found them in the Coast Ranges and in the
Sierra Nevada. All of these regions are more or less plicated ; and
it is not to be wondered at that a universal conviction should have
grown up that plication and mountain-building are only different
names for one and the same thing, or that the process which built
the mountains folded the strata at the same time. But as soon as
the geologists penetrated the vast mountain-belt which lies east of
the Sierra and west of the Great Plains, and proceeded to a careful
study of the forms there presented, a wholly different state of
affairs was revealed. Not a trace of a systematic plication has yet
been found there. The terms ‘anticlinal’ and ‘synclinal’ have
almost dropped out of the vocabulary of the Western geologist.
The strata are often flexed, but the type of the flexure is the
monocline.”

“The Rocky Mountain region discloses whatever it has to tell us
about physical geology with marvellous clearness and emphasis,
but there is no teaching more clear or more emphatic than the
absence of plicating forces from among the agencies which have
built its magnificent ranges and hoisted its great plateaus. They
have been lifted by vertical forces acting beneath them. The coun-
try at large shows no traces of a widespread, universal, horizontal
compression; on the contrary, it discloses the absence of such stress.”

These statements are undoubtedly correct, so far as the paleozoic
and later formations, and the existing reliefs of the West, are con-
cerned; and Captain Dutton probably did not intend that they
should be applied to the Archean strata of that region, since these
are everywhere as strongly plicated as the rocks of any district on
the globe. When these ancient crystalline schists of the Rocky
Mountain region were folded up, mountains of the Appalachian
type must have been formed. But these were largely swept away
by erosion before the beginning of the grand cycle of events which
Captain Dutton has outlined.

NOTES AND NEWS.
AT a meeting of the Biological Society of Washington, Dec. 17,
an interesting paper was read by Mr. C. L. Hopkins on the sense of

SCIENCE.

yg)

smell in buzzards. This much-debated point was strongly set
forth by Mr. Hopkins relating his experience in Florida. It was the
uniform testimony of the Florida ‘ crackers’ that buzzards obtained
food by smell. He observed that buzzards never left their roosts on
damp, foggy mornings until the ground and shrubbery were dry.
They would then move slowly across the wind until a scent was
struck, when they would work up the wind until the carrion was
found. Sometimes they would drift down the wind, past their
prey, until they struck the scent, which would be followed up, find-
ing the object of their search sometimes in the densest scrub, He
had on several occasions killed wild hogs in the scrub, and after
dressing them, and taking what meat he wished, would see twenty
or more buzzards coming down with the wind. On several occa-
sions, covered offal had been detected by them. They had also
discovered a buried snake. Several other instances were related,
which, in Mr. Hopkins’s opinion, conclusively proved that buzzards
find some of their food by scent, though that did not preclude the
possibility or probability that they obtain other food by sight.

— An interesting event took place at the Perkins Institute for the
Blind at South Boston on Dec. 21. It was the celebration of the
fiftieth anniversary of the entrance into that institution of Laura
Bridgeman, the famous blind deaf-mute. Her first instructor, Dr.
Samuel G. Howe, is long since dead ; but his wife, Mrs. Julia Ward
Howe, presided at the reception. The phenomenal education of
Miss Bridgeman will always remain a monument of pedagogic
skill. She lost her sight and hearing when two years old, and her
taste and smell are both very defective. She speaks by making the
manual signs of the deaf-and-dumb, and reads the similar motions
of the ‘speaker’ by feeling the letters as they are formed. She does
this with marvellous rapidity, and all the addresses were interpreted
to her as they were delivered at the reception. Among the speak-
ers were Dr. Edward Everett Hale and Dr. Phillips Brooks.

— The only railway extending into the Arctic zone runs north
from the port of Lulea, in Sweden, at the head of the Gulf of Both-
nia, toward the iron-mines of the Gellivara Mountains. The first
train to cross the Arctic circle passed over this road a few weeks
ago.

— Mr. J. A. Brashear gave an exhibition at his works, Alleghe-
ny, Penn., on Dec. 8, 9, and 10, of the large star spectroscope designed
and constructed for the Lick Observatory, Mount Hamilton, Cali-
fornia.

—The secretary of the committee for the organization of the
American Folk-Lore Society, W. W. Newell, Cambridge, Mass.,
announces that the society will organize in a meeting to be held on
Jan. 4 in Cambridge, Mass. The number of members amounts at
the present time to two hundred, and, as the society has thus ob-
tained an income sufficient to support a journal, it will begin work.
The plan of organizing a society of this kind must recommend itself
to all interested in the science of man. The scope of the society’s
work will be the study of the relics of Old English folk-lore, the
lore of negroes in the Southern States of the Union, lore of the In-
dian tribes of North America, and that of French Canada, Mexico,
etc. Furthermore, the study of the general problems of folk-lore,
and publication of the results of special students in this department,
will form one of the objects of the society. Our country is partic-
ularly adapted to the study of certain problems connected with
folk-lore, such as the development of European and African lore in
a new environment, and the origin of a new lore in mixed races.
The material furnished by such researches is of prime importance
for a study of the psychology of nations. It is hardly necessary to
emphasize the fact that the collection of the rapidly vanishing re-
mains of Indian folk-lore must be carried on vigorously, and on an
intelligent plan, else it will be too late. The publications of the
society will undoubtedly contain a vast amount of interesting ma-
terial, and will amply repay the annual fee of three dollars. Our
knowledge of the subject of American lore is still so slight, that
almost any one who comes into contact with Indians, negroes, or
the less educated white men, can make valuable contributions to
this science; and therefore we would wish that the membership
of the new society were thousands instead of hundreds.

320

— An interesting geographic sketch lies before us, which refers
to a country but seldom described. It is Charles Bell’s ‘ The Sel-
kirk Settlement and the Settlers ’ (Winnipeg, 1887, 44 pp.), its con-
tents being a concise history of the Red River Country of Canada
from its discovery. It is also made to include local information
from original documents lately discovered, and many biographical
notes from old Selkirk colonists. A considerable portion of the
pamphlet is taken up by the narration of the Selkirk colony’s founda-
tion under the leadership of Miles MacDonell, born in Inverness,
Scotland, in 1769, and selected by Lord Selkirk in 1810 for the pur-
pose above mentioned. The colonists started from Stornoway to
the number of one hundred and twenty-five, and consisted of Lon-
doners, Scotchmen, Irishmen, and inhabitants of the Orkney Is-
lands. The party did not arrive at Red River, Manitoba, before
August, 1812, and then set themselves to erect buildings on the
west bank of Assiniboine River. The colony already exceeded the
number of two hundred colonists, when in 1814 trouble arose with
the employees of the North-west Company. Several bloody con-
flicts took place before tranquillity was restored, four years after.
Numerous woodcuts contribute largely in enlivening our interest in
the narrative presented by Mr. Bell.

— The explosion of a water-reservoir or boiler in the kitchen of
the Kirby House, Milwaukee, recently was perfectly recorded in the
vibrations given by the shock to a ruling-machine in the bindery of
The Sentinel, The machine is directly opposite one of the win-
dows of the bindery, and was in full motion when the explosion took
place, drawing straight lines. The first impulse of the shock car-
ried the pen nearly half an inch from the true line; then for some
distance it approached the true line again without wavering, when
it suddenly drew waving lines for the final reactionary vibrations.
The lines are just such as are made by the seismometer in an earth-
quake shock.

— Recent soundings in Lake Leman and the Lake of Constance
have shown that the beds of the Rhone and of the Rhine may be
traced for a considerable distance on the bottom of the lakes. It
is well known that the deposits of these rivers forma flat cone ex-
tending farinto the lakes. Onthese cones embankments are found
which enclose the bed of the river. That of the Rhine is cut into
the deposits, while that of the Rhone is not deeper than the surface
of the cone. F. A. Forel has studied these phenomena thoroughly.
He determined the density of the water of the Rhone and of Lake
Leman, and found that the former is almost throughout the year
denser than the latter. A series of experiments on the influence of
suspended matter upon the density of water shows, that, if the
matter is moving vertically downward, the density of the mixture
may be found by adding the weight of the suspended matter to
that of the liquid, and dividing the total by the volume of the mix-
ture. As the Rhone carries a great amount of suspended matter,
the latter must be taken into consideration; and Forel’s researches
show that the density of the water of the Rhone, as dependent on
its temperature and the amount of dissolved and suspended matter,
is greater than that of the lake except during a brief period in
spring. On the sides of the current, where it adjoins the stagnant
water of the lake, the suspended matter is precipitated, and thus
the dikes are formed. It is possible, that, in addition to this, the
water of the rivers has a slight eroding action.

— On Dee. 1, Sir John Lubbock, we learn from MWadure, read a
paper before the Linnean Society, in continuation of his previous
memoirs, on the habits of ants, bees, and wasps. He said it was
generally stated that the English slave-making ant (Formzca san-
guinea), far from being entirely dependent on slaves, as was the
case with Polyergus rufescens, the slave-making ant par excellence,
was really able to live alone, and that the slaves were only, so to
say, a luxury. Some of his observations appeared to throw doubt
on this. In one of his nests the ants were prevented from making
any fresh capture of slaves. Under these circumstances, the num-
ber of slaves gradually diminished, and at length the last died. At
that time there were some fifty of the mistresses still remaining.
These, however, rapidly died off, until at the end of June, 1886,
there were only six remaining. He then placed near the door of
the nest some pupe of Formica fusca, the slave ant. These were
at once carried in, and soon came to maturity. The mortality

SCIENCE:

[Vor. X. No. 256

among the mistresses at once ceased, and from that day to this
only two more have died. This seems to show that the slaves per-
form some indispensable function in the nest, though what that is
still remains to be discovered. As regards the longevity of ants,
he said that the old queen ant, which had more than once been
mentioned to the society, was still alive. She must now be four-
teen years old, and still laid fertile eggs, to the important physio-
logical bearing of which fact he called special attention. He dis-
cussed the observations and remarks of Graber as regards the senses
of ants, with special reference to their sensibility towards the ultra-
violet rays, and referred to the observations of Forel, which con-
firmed those he had previously laid before the society. Professor
Graber had also questioned some experiments with reference to
smell. He, however, maintained the accuracy of his observations,
and pointed out that Graber had overlooked some of the precautions
which he had taken : his experiments seemed to leave no doubt as
to the existence of a delicate sense of smell among ants. As re-
gards the recognition of friends, he repeated some previous experi-
ments, with the same results. He took some pupz from one of his
nests (A), and placed these under charge of some ants from an-
other nest (B) of the same species. After they had come to ma-
turity, he placed some in nest A, and some in nest B. Those
placed in their own nest were received amicably ; those in the nests
of their nurses were attacked and driven out. This showed that
the recognition is not by the means of a sign or password, for in
that case they would have been recognized in nest B, and not in
nest A. Dr. Warsmann had confirmed his observations in opposi-
tion to the statement of Lespis, that white ants are enemies to those
of another nest, even belonging’ to the same species: the domestic
animals, on the other hand, can be transferred from one nest to
another, and will be amicably received. In conclusion, he discussed
the respective functions of the eyes and ocelli, and referred to
several other observations on various interesting points in the
economy of the social Hymenoptera. 5

— The reports of the German factory inspectors for 1886 con-
tain some interesting statistics respecting the hours of labor, acci-
dents, etc., in various districts and in different employments. On
the whole, the number of work-people increased, in the fifteen dis-
tricts for which reports are published, from 596,561 in 1884, to
642,386, being an increase of 33,496, or 7.7 per cent, of males, and
12,329, or 7.6 per cent, of females. The industries in which the
chief increase took place were textiles, food, wood, and carving.
There was a great decrease in the number employed in mining.
In some districts there was a great lack of employment, while
farmers were complaining that they could not find laborers to do
their work. In Bavaria, in 29.4 per cent of all industries the hours
of labor were from 11} to 16 hours daily ; in 59.6 per cent from Io
to 11 hours; and in the remainder from 11 down to 5 hours. The
last-named time applied only to the work of putting the quicksilver
on the backs of looking-glasses. Excessively long hours prevail in
breweries, where they are never less than 16 hours a day. In the
Diisseldorf district nearly 40 manufacturers of textiles have entered
into a convention not to make the working-day longer than 12 hours.
According to a regulation made in 1885, all accidents in factories.
must be brought to the knowledge of the inspectors. This ac-
counts for the apparently enormous increase in the number of acci-
dents : 2,394 were brought to the inspectors’ notice during the year.
These are arranged under two heads: (1) The causes; (2) The
consequences to the victim. More than one-half are put down to
inevitable accident, and more than one-third to carelessness and
want of skill. More than four-fifths were attended only with tem-
porary incapacity for work. The work-people appear to under-
stand and enter into the spirit of the recent insurance laws ; but it
seems from the reports that the increase of children’s labor, the
night-work of women, and the prolonged hours of labor of women
and children in certain places, are the next subjects connected with
German labor that call for legislative regulation and interference.

— The attempt is being made to organize a debating club in the
American Geographical Society for the purpose of discussing geo-
graphical questions and results of new investigations. It is hoped
that all cultivators of geophysics, geography, commercial geography,
and allied sciences, as well as teachers of geography and those in-
terested in its study, will join the club. All intending to become

DEcEMBER 30, 1887. |

members of the club will please send their names and addresses to
Dr. F. Boas, 47 Lafayette Place, New York.

—Mr. Montagu Kerr has left for Zanzibar to undertake a jour-
ney of some venture across Africa. Mr. Kerr has already done
good work in Africa, in the journey which he made, almost single-
handed, from the Cape to the Zambesi and Lake Nyassa, partly
through new country and among some very troublesome tribes,
whom he managed with great tact. In his present expedition,
which he undertakes entirely at his own charge, Mr. Kerr means
to proceed through Massai-land to the north end of Victoria Nyanza,
and thence to Emin Pacha's station at Wadelai. His further course
will be to some extent guided by Emin Pacha’s advice; but his
present intention is to proceed westwards to the Lake Chad region,
where he hopes to do some good exploring work, and then, if pos-
sible, go on to the Niger and descend that river. Mr. Kerr has a
strong letter of recommendation from the Marquis of Salisbury to
the British consul at Zanzibar. It is possible that when he reaches
Zanzibar Mr. Kerr may meet Mr. Stanley, or at least hear of the
results of his mission, and may thus be led somewhat to modify his
plans. But whatever course he may take, if he keeps his health, he
is pretty sure to do some good work. He has, since his return from
his last expedition, done every thing possible to qualify himself for
scientific observation, and is quite prepared to pass muster as a
Mohammedan in the most fanatical Moslem districts. Mr. Kerr is
furnished with a set of instruments by the Royal Geographical
Society. All who know him have confidence in his pluck and dis-
cretion.

—In the October Monthly Weather Review, the long drought
of 1887 is discussed. During the six months from May to October
inclusive, the rainfall has been largely deficient over the district
between Dakota, Michigan, Kentucky, and Kansas. Less than
one-half the usual amount of rainfall during these months has fallen
in central Ohio. Less than three-fourths of the average amount of
rain has fallen during these few months from Michigan, Ohio, and
Kentucky westward, to include Missouri and Iowa. Of special
interest is a compilation of excessive rainfalls in the month of Oc-
tober for a series of from ten to sixteen years. In a letter to the
Engineering News, General Greely says, “It is the intention of this
office to continue this discussion by months. A systematic effort
has been made to make the data for succeeding months more com-
plete and full than for October. In addition, the chief signal-officer
has issued instructions to the observers, calling their especial atten-
tion to heavy rainfalls.” The Engzneerzng News, in an editorial,
had emphasized the importance of measurements of heavy rain-
falls; and in reply to this the chief signal-officer writes, that if the
engineers of the country are in earnest about this matter, and will
persuade Congress to appropriate twenty-five hundred or three
thousand dollars for the purpose of buying self-registering rain-
gauges, efforts will be made to spend the money economically, and
to distribute the gauges so as to completely cover the country. It
is very desirable that the plan should be carried out, as these obser-
vations, in connection with the gauge measurements published in the
reports of the chief of engineers, would be highly valuable from a
scientific as well as from a practical point of view, as the interval
between excessive rainfalls and floods and the influence of the char-
acter of the rainfall upon that of the flood is of eminent importance
for the low parts of the country and for the construction of roads,
canals, and other works.

— The first number of The Amerzcan Geologést has just been
issued. It is stated in the prospectus that the journal will be de-
voted to geology in its widest sense, and to allied sciences in all
those directions where their special investigations bear directly upon
the constitution and history of the globe. A journal of this char-
acter will be highly welcomed by all interested in the subject; and,
as the amount of geological work done in North America is very
great, it will undoubtedly flourish, and become indispensable to
students of American geology. The continuous increase in the
number of journals devoted to special sciences is highly gratifying,
as it is proof of a rapid progress of science, and as it prevents the
scattering of investigations in one branch of science through numer-
ous journals. The editors are Prof. S. Calvin, T. W. Claypole, Dr.
Persifor Frazer, Dr. L. E. Hicks, E. O. Ulrich, Dr. A. Winchell, and

SCIENCE.

325

Prof. N. H. Winchell. It is published in Minneapolis. The first
number contains interesting communications on the International
Congress of Geologists, on geological problems and observations.
in Minnesota and Iowa, editorial comments, and a review of recent
literature.

LETTERS TO THE EDITOR.

*.* Correspondents are requested to be as brief as possible.
in all cases required as proof of good faith.

Twenty copies of the number containing his communication will be furnished
Sree to any correspondent on request.

The editor will be glad to publish any queries consonant with the character of

the journal.
The Mechanism of the Flight of Birds.

THE subject of the interesting letter by my friend Prof. J. S.
Newberry in a late number of Sczezce is an extremely important
one, which has lately been discussed before the National Academy
of Sciences and the Linnzean Society of New York, by Professor
Newberry, Professor Trowbridge, and others. Much as I regret
my absence on those occasions, I am still more sorry to be obliged’
to dissent without qualification from the position taken by these:
gentlemen, which is, to my knowledge, quite untenable. Since the
matter has been published, I crave permission to state the facts in
the case, and incidentally to present the very curious history of the
discovery of the remarkable mechanism of flexion and extension in
birds’ wings, involving what I would call the ‘ precession and re-
cession of the radius along the ulna.’

First, With regard to the alleged locking of the primaries : 1. It
does not take place; 2. Did it take place, flight would be impossible..

Second, Extension of the carpo-metacarpus upon the ante-
brachium is automatically effected whenever the antebrachium is
extended upon the brachium ; and, conversely, flexion of the carpo-
metacarpus upon the antebrachium is automatically effected when-
ever the antebrachium is flexed upon the brachium. In other
words, the elbow and wrist of a bird work together, and neither
can be bent or straightened to any considerable extent without the
other being also bent or straightened. This motion, be it observed,.
in the cubito-carpal joint, is not flexion and extension in the usual
technical sense of those terms, but is the movement commonly
called, as in human anatomy, adduction and abduction. Moreover,.
the peculiar movement of the cubital bones (radius and ulna) which
produces pronation and supination (as in man and many other
mammals which use their fore-paws as hands) is reduced to a min-
imum, if not absolutely ~zZ, in a bird’s wing. It is just these
points : (a) substitution of adduction and abduction for flexion and
extension; (6) substitution of the lengthwise sliding back and forth
of the radius along the ulna, or recession and procession, for that roll-
ing sidewise of the radius upon the ulna which is pronation and supi-
nation ; and (c) the reciprocal interaction of the elbow and wrist—
joint, —it is just these points, I aver, which are the gist of the
peculiar mechanism of birds’ wings, so far as the bones themselves.
are concerned.

All these points are fully described, and illustrated by figures, in
two of my works; namely, ‘ Proceedings of the American Associa-
tion for the Advancement of Science, for 1871’ (vol. xx., pub. 1872,.
pp. 278-284); and ‘ Key to North American Birds’ (2d edition, 1884,
pp- 106 seq.). 3

Third, The history of the case is curious, showing the quadrupled
discovery of the precession and recession of the radius by fourinde-
pendent observers: (a) Bergmann (1839), (6) Wyman (1855), (€):
Coues (1871), (d) Garrod (1875). To take these up in reverse
order : —

(d) GaRRoD (A.H.), ‘On a Point in the Mechanism of the
Bird’s Wing,’ Proceedings of the Zoological Society, Feb. 16, 1875,.
pp. 82-84. [The gist of the paper is the peculiar sliding motion of
the radius along the ulna. Garrod writes as an independent dis-
coverer, as no doubt he was, or he would of course have referred to
the previous writers. |

(©) CouEs (E), ‘On the Mechanism of Flexion and Extension in
Birds’ Wings,’ Proceedings of the American Association for the
Advancement of Science, xx. for 1871, pub. 1872, pp. 278-284; ab-
stract in Amerzcan Naturalist, v. 1871, pp. 513, 514; reproduced
in substance, Key to North American Bzrds, 1884, pp. 106 seq.
[See text above. The writer, like Garrod, was ignorant when he
made the discovery that any one had preceded him.]

The writer's name ts

B22

(6) WYMAN (J.) [Remarks ona duck’s wing, etc.] Proceedings
Boston Soctety of Natural History, v. 1855, p.169. [As I say in
my ‘Bibliography,’ Bull. U.S. Geogr. Surv. Terr., v. 1880, p. 952,
this is a paper “ showing mechanism of flexion and extension, con-
tributing to fixity of the limb, independently of muscular action.”
Wyman evidently discovered it himself, and was ignorant of Berg-
mann’s discovery. |

(a) BERGMANN (Dr. C.), ‘Ueber die Bewegungen von Radius
und Ulna am Vogelfliigel,’ Miiller’s Archzv f. Anat. u. Phys., Vi.
1839, pp. 296-300. [This is an important, interesting, and so far
as I know a novel paper on the peculiar mechanism of the fore-arm
of birds, before mentioned in none of the works of Meckel, Cuvier,
Tudemann, Wagner, etc. The sum of his paper is, that sliding
motion lengthwise of the bones, whereby extension of the fore-arm
upon the arm, and flexion of the same, respectively reproduce the
same movements at the wrist. ]

The last four paragraphs are extracted from my ‘ Bibliography of
Ornithology,’ most of which is still unpublished.

It is fortunate that the mechanism of the wing does not permit
the primaries to lock in the manner that has been supposed, for, if
it did so, birds could not fly.

One point more, and I hasten to conclude remarks that I wish
were not necessarily so ungracious. The ‘ fixing of the wing’ of
a mortally wounded bird, in the manner described by Professor
Newberry, does not bear on the case. It is simply a muscular ri-
gidity, due to nervous shock, and of a part with the convulsive mus-
cular action which, under similar circumstances, results in the well-
known ‘towering’ of hard-hit birds. ELLIOTT COUES.

Smithsonian Institution, Washington, Dec. 21.

THE recent discovery of the power possessed by soaring birds to
set their wings when fully expanded, and to remain locked in-
dependent of muscular action, explains to my mind a phenomenon
that has puzzled me for many years. It has been my custom for
many seasons to spend a few days each fall duck-shooting at the
lakes bordering the Illinois River in central Illinois. The birds
were almost invariably shot in mid-air, while flying rapidly by, and
often, when not killed at once, they would set their wings and sail
gradually down to the water or ground, which they would reach
dead, the distance being from one hundred yards to a quarter of a
mile, apparently corresponding to the height of the bird when shot.
And it was a maxim with duck-shooters on these lakes, ‘“‘ That
bird is killed, for he has set his wings.”

Besides the ducks, I have seen this phenomenon illustrated in the
wild turkey and prairie-hen. In wing-shooting the wild turkey,
if it set its wings, and gradually came to the earth a quarter of a
mile or more away, we always marked the spot, well expecting to
find the dead body when we reached it. With Mr. J.S. Newberry,
I trust that some student of anatomy will take up this subject, and

demonstrate it to a certainty. W.S. STRODE, M.D.
Bernadotte, IIll., Dec. 22.

Eskimo and Indian.

CONSIDERING the intimate knowledge of the Eskimo language
possessed by the two gentlemen who have passed their criticisms
upon my remarks on the subject of the past relations of the Eskimo
and the Indian, it would be of little avail for me to enter into any
lengthy argument upon the matter, although I still consider that
there is room for difference on many of the points raised. On a
later occasion, I intend elsewhere to treat the subject, both in its
ethnographic and philological aspects, on somewhat broader lines
than in the article referred to. The evidence in favor of some re-
lation in the past between the Eskimo and the Iroquois seems to
me to be convincing, aside altogether from philological data. Kohl-
meister and Kmoch (p. 37) state that there is a legend among the
Eskimo that the “ Greenlanders originally came from Canada, and
settled on the outermost islands of the coast, but never penetrated
into the country before they were driven eastward to Greenland.”
Dr. Brinton (in his AZyths of the New World, p. 24, note) says,
“Tt is curious that the traditions of the ZYwscaroras, who placed
their arrival on the Virginian coast at about 1300, spoke of the
race they found there (called Tacci or Dogi) as eaters of raw flesh,
and-ignorant of maize.” Dr. Rink (Zales and Traditions of the

SCIEN Ci:

[Vor. X. No. 256

Eskimo, p. 11) has the following interesting passage zz rem: “In
the most remote ages the Eskimo, on their trading expeditions, ap-
pear to have overpassed their present southern limits. This may be
gathered partly from pure Eskzmo words being found in the lan-
guage of more southern tribes, partly from the sagas of the old Scan-
dinavians, who seem to have met travelling Eskimo, even to the
south of Newfoundland.” With regard to the general subject, M.
Petitot (‘De la prétendue origine orientale des Algonkins,’ Bw/Z.
Soc.@ Anthrop. de Parzs, vii. p. 248) expresses himself thus: ‘“ Ce
qui est bien certain c’est que les /7zz7z ne sont pas sans posséder
de nombreux rapports de moeurs, de coutoumes, de physionomie, de
traditions, et #zéme de langue avec leurs voisins les Pzeds-lVozrs les
Tetes-Plates, et méme avec les Esquimaux.” Elsewhere the same
writer observes, “Il n’ai pu trouver dans l’esquimau du Mackenzie
un seul mot qui provint de l'idiome déne-dimajzé. 1 aura plus de
corrélation grammaticale avec le crzs, dialecte algonquin . . . si
dans cette langue les pronoms ne précédaient aussi la racine verbal
comme en d@évé, au lieu dela suivre. La consonnance des mots y est
a peu prés laméme. Dans les deux langues on remarque quantité
de mots commengant par une voyelle et terminés en @&, zk, ok, zn,
zt” (Vocab. Francazs-Esguzmau, Introd. p. v.). This, to be sure,
may not be strong evidence, but it points in a certain direction.
From a comparative study of the Eskimo and Iroquois-Algonquin
languages, it is certain there is much to be learned. If I have not
succeeded in proving, from philological evidence, relations in
the past between these people, I can only wait until others shall
have done so. Mr. Murdoch has referred to the lack of phonetic
vocabularies, and the errors consequent upon the use of such as are
at present available. Surely, all the blame cannot be laid upon in-
vestigators, who endeavor to do good work with poor material. A
glance at the ‘ Eskimo Bibliography,’ lately compiled by Mr. Pilling,
is sufficient to convince one that a very great portion of Eskimo lin-
guistic material (and presumably the most valuable, because the
most recent and scientific) is still in manuscript in the Library of
the Bureau of Ethnology and other great institutions. When this
shall have been published, and so distributed throughout the con-
tinent, so as to insure facility of access to students, then, I trust,
the evidence of past relations between the Eskimo and Indian will
be forthcoming, and the fact of their occurrence be capable of proof
on scientific grounds. Elsewhere have discussed the broad ques-
tion of the pre-history of the Eskimo race, judging them to have
been the dolichocephalic people who formerly extended over a
great portion of the North American and perhaps of the South
American continent. They have been intruded upon and pushed
back by more warlike and aggressive races. Not alittle interesting
is the remarkable correspondence of the Botocudos and other South
American tribes in many respects to the Eskimo; and the same
remarks apply to some of the so-called ‘fossil-men’ of Brazil.

A. F. CHAMBERLAIN.
Toronto, Dec. 17.

Weather-Predictions.

PERHAPS it can hardly be said that there is a science of weather-
prediction at the present time ; yet interest in the subject is increas-
ing, and there are several persons in this country who are issuing
daily scientific forecasts. While the basis upon which forecasts
shall be issued admits of little discussion, yet it is far otherwise
with their verification, and it would seem that much confusion has
arisen on this account. The following comparison of weather-fore-
casts is given with the hope that others will enter the field outlined,
and that a general discussion may clear up some of the misty
points. The forecasts were made during October for Boston,
Mass., by Mr. Clayton at Blue Hill, and by the writer at Washing-
ton, D.C. The predictions were for ‘ fair,’ ‘ rain,’ and halfway be-
tween, or ‘threatening.’

The verifications were to be by the observations at Boston, made
at 7 A.M., 3 and 10 P.M., each day. As there was no specific record
of ‘threatening,’ the amount of clouds was to determine this con-
dition. The prediction was made at Blue Hill at 2 P.M. each day
from an examination of the Signal Service observations made over
the country at 7 A.M., together with a study of the local conditions
at 2 P.M. The Washington prediction was necessarily made from
the 7 A.M. observation alone. The interval predicted for was from

DECEMBER 30, 1887. |

midnight of each day to the succeeding midnight. The following
table exhibits each prediction and the weather that followed :—

Prediction. Weather. | Prediction. Weather.
| .
(x) | (2) 7 3 to | rain|| (x) | (2) 7 3 xo | rain
rain} rain | cloudy} cloudy} clear | .o5 | fair | fair | clear | clear | clear °
rain| rain | fog | clear | cloudy] .o2 || fair |threat.| fair |cloudy/cloudy| .or
rain |threat.| cloudy} fair | clear ° | fair |threat.| cloudy) clear | clear °
fair |threat.| clear | fair |cloudy| o ‘rain fair | clear |cloudy|cloudy; o
fair |threat.) clear | fair fair ° | rain rain | It. rain| cloudy} cloudy| .96
fair| fair | clear fair fair ° | fair] fair | clear |cloudy|cloudy} o
fair| fair | cloudy|cloudy|cloudy| o | fair| fair | clear | fair | clear °
rain} rain |lt. rain|cloudy| cloudy} .76 | fair fair |cloudy|cloudy|cloudy| o
fair| fair fair fair | clear ° etn threat.| clear | clear |cloudy| o
fair| fair fair | cloudy} clear ° fair | fair fair |cloudy| cloudy! o
fair| fair | clear | cloudy] clear o | th. | fair |cloudy|cloudy| fair °
fair] fair | clear | clear | clear o | rain |threat.|cloudy| clear | fair °
| th. | fair fair |cloudy| fair °
|

It will be seen that the prediction was the same in fifteen cases,
and eleven of these were fully verified. In order to obtain a fair
comparative estimate for the remaining ten days, the predictions
and the succeeding weather were referred to Prof. I. Russell, who
decided that No. (1) agreed better with the weather twice, and No.
(2) eight times. If these ten be regarded half verified, we shall
obtain for No. (1) 48 per cent and No. (2) 60 per cent.

The predictions were also referred to Professor Upton, who sug-
gested two schemes for verification, by one of which he computed
No. (1) 67.2 per cent, and No. (2) 69.6 per cent; and by the other,
No. (1) had 61.0 per cent, and No. (2) 65.0 per cent. As Professor
Upton preferred the second scheme, I give it in detail. His plan
was as follows :—

Arrange all possible weather-combinations in a table, and give
to each prediction a certain weight according to its position in the
table, as follows :-—

Predictions.
Weather.
fair threatening ra
clear clear clear 3 ° °
clear clear fair 4 I °
clear fair fair a I °
fair fair fair 4 I °
clear clear cloudy 3 2 °
clear fair cloudy 3 2 °
fair fair cloudy 3 2 °
clear cloudy cloudy 2 3 I
fair cloudy cloudy 2 3 I
cloudy cloudy cloudy I 4 2
trace of rain ° 3 3
rain ° 2 4

In this scheme it is possible that too much weight has been given
‘fair,’ and too little ‘threat.’ However, as the prediction ‘ threat.’
seems of doubtful utility, it should have less weight.

This discussion has brought out one fact of great interest regard-
ing methods of verification. Mr. Clayton verified the same predic-
tions by the observations at Blue Hill, a station very near Boston.
He makes the percentage 85. This great difference of 24 per cent
seems very surprising, and can hardly be due to the difference in
weather at the two places. It seems probable that this difference
is due to the method of verification, and that a mere percentage
obtained from an arbitrary verification cannot be relied on for com-

SCIEN CE:

a25

paring the relative merits of two predictions. It is to be hoped
that a further discussion of this question may lead to clearer light
and understanding of the methods of prediction and verification

best suited to the needs of the public. H. A. HAZEN.
Washington, D.C., Dec. rq.

The Chinese Wall.

THE note on the Chinese wall in a late issue of Sczence (x. No-
253), calling attention to Abbé Larrieu’s assertion that the wall
does not exist, recalled to mind Abbé Huc’s account. Turning to
it, I find that he was a believer in it, and with good reason. In Vol.
II. of his ‘Journey through Tartary, Thibet, and China,’ p. 31, he
gives the following account, which may interest some of your
readers, and serve to correct an erroneous impression : —»

“The part of the wall immediately to the north of Pekin... . is
really fine and imposing; but it must not be supposed that this
barrier is equally large and solid throughout its whole extent. We
have had occasion to cross it at more than fifteen different points,
and have often travelled for days together without ever losing sight
of it ; and instead of the double battlemented stone wall which is seen
at Pekin, it is sometimes a very humble-looking wall of clay; and
we have even seen it reduced to its simplest expression, and com-
posed only of stones piled up together.”

Thus, though the wall maynot and does not have the magnitude
and solidity often attributed to it, yet in one form or another it cer-
tainly seems to exist, and is not, as we are told Abbé Larrieu says,
‘a huge Chinese lie.’ JOSEPH F. JAMES.

Miami Uniy., Oxford, O., Dec. 20.

Tornado Force.

I SEND you some facts in relation to tornado forceand its pecul-
iarities of action, which may not be uninteresting to your readers,
on either side of the question, involving the nature of the force or
forces.

The tracks examined by me did not present continuous lines of
destruction, but areas of destruction separated by intervals entirely
or almost entirely exempt from destructive forces, from which it is
inferred, that while the storm, in its common and ordinary features,
pursued its way steadily onward by bodily transferrence, the tor-
nadic action was developed interruptedly, and progressed by suc-
cessive transplantings.

The first area examined, tornado of April 23, 1883, was composed
of two distinct parts. The first was a long rectangular space of
about half a mile in length, from west-south-west to east-north-east,
and a hundred and fifty to two hundred yards in width. Within
this space the trees were prostrated from south-east, south, south-
west, and west, and intermediate points; and, wherever two or
more were found lying across each other, the one thrown from the
direction nearest to east, or farthest round from west,was always at the
bottom. Thus, those thrown from south always lay on top of those
from south-west, those from south-west on top of those from south
and south-east, and those from west were always on top of all other
directions. This order was without an exception. The rectangu-
lar area terminated at the east end in an irregularly circular area of
about eight hundred yards diameter, either east and west or north
and south. Bisecting this area both ways, and dividing it into four
quadrants, the south-west and south-east were found to correspond
in all respects with the rectangular area, except that in the south-
east there was a greater proportion of trees thrown down from
east-south-east and south-east than in the other sections; and in
the south-west quadrant, near the centre, a tree thrown from south-
west was overlain by one from south, the single exception to the
ordernoted above. In the north-east quadrant the destruction was
less than in either of the others, and trees were thrown down from
east, north-east, north, north-west, and west. In the north-west
quadrant the trees were thrown from north, north-west, and west,
chiefly from north-west, west-north-west, and west; and in the in-
stances where they crossed each other, the order in relation to the
west was similar precisely to that of the other parts, progressing
from east round by north to west, as, on the other side, the pro-
gression was from east round by south to west; so that in these,
the north-east and north-west quadrants, trees thrown from north-
east lay under those from north, those from north under those from

324

north-west, while, as in the south quadrants and in the rectangular
space, those from west were on top of all. The central line, west
to east, through the circular area, corresponded very closely with the
prolongation of a line running through the north border of the
rectangular area, In the south-west quadrant a slim pine seventy
to seventy-five feet high was left standing, surrounded by seven
‘stumps or shafts varying in height from ten or fifteen to forty or more
feet, and in distance from the standing tree, from five to twenty-
five feet. Near the centre of the circular area two trees stood side
by side, east and west of each other, and so near that their trunks
at the bases could not have been more than a few inches apart, if
they did not actually touch. The tree on the east side was thrown
from west to east, and the other in the opposite direction, from east
to west. e Two pines fifty to sixty feet high and thirty to forty feet
apart, one in the south-east, the other in the north-east quadrant,
and about equidistant from the east and west central line dividing
these quadrants, were thrown towards the central line, the one from
north to south, the-other from south to north (tornado of Dec. 22,
1884). They apparently fell simultaneously, and met in the fall;
for their broken trunks and branches were mingled together in a
confused heap, the branches of one tree undistinguishable from
those of the other. The cabin of Isaac Johnson, a negro laborer,
‘situated in the track, near the western end of the rectangular area,
was partially unroofed and otherwise damaged. He stated that
his table-ware — plates, spoons, knives and forks —went flying out
‘of the door like so many birds; and after the storm he found his
fanner securely poised on a stump, bottom upwards, about seventy
yards from his cabin; and on the fanner lay his nutmeg-grater, as
though placed there by hand (the fanner is a shallow, tray-like vessel
made of straw). The trunks of some trees, pine and hickory,
seemed to have been rent asunder, as by a splitting force acting
within the trunks, and in these cases the upper segment was scarce-
ly ever entirely separated from the stump; and from both stump
and upper fragment, long, thin, lath-like splinters projected, some
of them eight to ten feet in length, an inch or two in width, and a
half to three-quarters of an inch in thickness. About half a mile to
the east of the eastern terminus of this tornadic area, the second
area of destruction began, and presented a rectangular area like
the first, several hundred yards in length; but here the conformity
with the first ended, the forces appearing to have become scattered.
The circular area was undeveloped, the north-east and south-east
quadrants being entirely wanting, and the north-west quadrant de-
fective, in so far as the forces acting from north and north-west
were concerned. The south-west quadrant presented patches of
destruction here and there, with features similar to those of the like
quadrant of the first area; and here, too, was a single exception to
the order in which the forces everywhere else acted, namely, a tree
thrown from south overlying one from south-west. The trees pros-
trated in the north-west quadrant were thrown from the same
directions as those in the south-west, as though the forces acting
in this section had burst through the barriers of the central line, or,
finding them defective, had swept on through the north-west
quadrant, thus giving a zigzag shape to this area.

Appearances seem to indicate that the work of destruction began
and progressed throughout all parts of each area almost if not quite
simultaneously.

During the tornado of Dec. 22, 1884, in Clarendon County, alady,
perceiving the approach of the storm, was in the act of closing a
glazed door, which extended down to the floor and opened on a
piazza ; but before she could fasten it, the house was enveloped by
the tempest, the door flew open, and she was drawn out and dashed
violently against the balustrade running around the piazza, and re-
ceived injuries and bruises which confined her to bed for several
weeks. In the same room there was a heavy pine press, the door
of which was locked. This door was burst open, torn from its
hinges, and, in the language of the narrator, “ shivered into kin-
dling splinters.” There was no other damage done to the house,
at least none mentioned. I have examined the tracks of three tor-
nadoes, — April 23, 1883 ; Feb. 19, 1884; and Dec. 22, 1884, — and
they corresponded so exactly in their various parts, that the convic-
tion is irresistible that the features described, especially those indi-
cating the directions and order in which the forces acted, will be
invariably found in the track of every tornado. 4

519

SCIEN CE:

[VoLt. X. No. 256

Notwithstanding the intense atmospheric disturbance, which,
judging from ordinary thunder-storms, is of just such a character
as to produce vast supplies of electricity, the usual electrical mani-
festations, lightning and thunder, are tame, and out of all propor-
tion to the intensity of the atmospheric disturbance in the tornado
as compared with an ordinary thunder-storm. In the tornado
there are never, I think, any discharges from the clouds to the
earth; objects are never struck by lightning; the thunder, when
it occurs, is always high up among the clouds, and rolls away across
the sky in long reverberating peals; showing that the static elec-
tricity is confined to the upper clouds, and the supply by no means
superabundant. What, then, becomes of the electricity of the lower
clouds ? Does it remain dormant, or doesit in some way aid in the

destruction ? W. W. ANDERSON, M.D.
Stateburg, S.C.

The Study of Languages.

IN the number of Sczence issued July 8 of this year, p. 19, is the
following passage : “ The advantages of the ability to read an ordi-
nary classical author without the aid of a dictionary are so obvious
as to need no comment.” :

I was called from home immediately after reading the above,
hence my delay in seeking from the writer an extended explanation
of the means by which the student can read an ordinary Latin
author without a dictionary.

Is there really any practical method by which he can accomplish
this, except by employing his dictionary so faithfully that he has no
further use for it ?

I do not believe an accurate knowledge of a language can be ac-
quired by reading at sight one page or any number of pages, unless —
the student comprehends the exact signification of each word as he
passes it. It is true, such an exercise increases his facility in under :
standing the words and sentences he has already studied. it

Reading aloud over and over again what one has already read,
together with committing to memory poems and passages from
prose authors, is, I believe, the best if not the only practical method
of acquiring an ability of reading Latin or any language at sight.

L. Es
Chicago, Dec. 20.

Queries.

20. STAR OF BETHLEHEM. —I see paragraphs going the rounds
of the papers about the ‘Star of Bethlehem,’ that is claimed to be a
binary system, and to give its maximum light once in three hun-' —
dred years. Some claim it was the star in the east, seen by the —
wise men. Please tell us in Sczence if there is any thing in these
rumors, and, if so, where in the heavens the star can be seen. i

JOHN D. PaRKER. —
Fort Riley, Kan., Dec. 24.

21. GLOBULAR LIGHTNING.— The following report from the
Hydrographic Office relates to one of the rarest and most inexplica-
ble forms of lightning. Can any of the readers of Sczence giv
any information on the subject? A globe of fire floats cane :
along in the air in an erratic sort of a course, sometimes exploding
with great force, at other times disappearing without exploding.
On land it has been observed to go into the ground and then re-
appear at a short distance, and where it entered the soil it lefta
rugged hole some twenty feet in diameter. Although there is no
doubt as to the facts regarding the phenomenon, no satisfactory
explanation of the cause has ever been given. It is, of course, en-
tirely different in character from St. Elmo’s fires, so often seen on
board vessels during thunder-storms: these remain stationary at the
yard-arms and mast-heads, and are analogous to the ‘brush dis-
charge’ of an electric machine. Captain Moore, British steamship
‘Siberian,’ reports, ‘‘ Nov. 12, midnight, Cape Race bearing west by
north, distant ten miles, wind strong south by east, a large ball of
fire appeared to rise out of the sea to a height of about fifty feet,,
and come right against the wind close up to the ship. It then
altered its course, and ran along with the ship to a distance of about’ —
one and one-half miles. In about two minutes it again altered its
course, and went away to the south-east against the wind. It lasted,
in all, not over five minutes. Have noticed the same phenomenon
before off Cape Race, and it seemed to indicate that an easterly or _
south-easterly gale was coming on.”

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