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SCIENCE

A WEEKLY RECORD OF SCIENTIFIC

PROGRESS.

JOHN MICHELS, Editor.

PUBLISHED AT
229 BROADWAY, NEW YORK.

P, O, Box 8888.
29. 84595 -Gunel @

SATURDAY, JANUARY 8, 1881.

NOTICE TO SUBSCRIBERS.

We considerit due to those subscribers who have favored
us with their subscriptions, previous to the publication of
our club rates, that they should have the privileges of the
list. They can therefore send us subscriptions for any or
all of the publications named at the reduced double rates,
less $4, the subscription price of ‘‘ SCIENCE.”

Tue Report of the United States Fish Commission*
for the year 1878 constitutes a volume of nearly 1,000
pages of interesting matter, and, from the economic
interests involved, should command more than a pass-
ing attention from those who are desirous of having
the natural resources of this country fully developed.

- A large portion of the Report, relating to purely
scientific work, will be highly appreciated by every
naturalist. For instance, the first division of the work
including researches into the character of the fishes
belonging to the North American fauna, was in charge
of Mr. G. Brown Goode, assisted by Dr. T. H. Bean ;
while it is sufficient to say that the collection and in-
vestigation of marine invertebrates was conducted by
Professor A. E. Verrill, assisted by Mr. Richard Rath-
bun, Mr. Sanderson Smith and Mr. Warren Upham,
to show the value of the researches in this direction.

Few persons will peruse this Report without feeling
an. obligation to Professor Spencer F. Baird for the
very thorough manner in which he is carrying out the
objects of this Commission; for the ground he pro-
poses to cover would appall one of less experience.

The amount of labor involved in carrying out the
work of this Commission may be estimated by a brief
reference to the programme which Professor Baird has
sketched for future guidance :

.

*United States Commission of Fish and Fisheries, Part VI. °
the Commissioner for 1878.

A. Inquiry into the Decrease of Pood-Fishes.
B. The Propagation of Food-Fishes in the Waters of the United States.
Washington Government Printing Office, 1880.

Report of

SCIENCE. | 12°

% es WIND
1st. The Nannerl. of reports upon

the various groups 6f faq@atic animals and plants of
North America, especially those having relation to the
wants or luxuries of mankind, to be afterwards pub-
lished as monographs, with suitable illustrations.

2d. The distribution of specimens of aquatic ani-
mals and plants, not required for the National Mu-
seum, to the numerous educational and scientific es-
tablishments in the United States.

3d. A complete account of the physical character
and conditions of the waters of the United States, as
to chemical composition, temperature, etc., with spe-
cial reference to their availability in nurturing the
proper species of food fishes.

4th. A history and description of the various me-
thods, employed in the United States, in the pursuit,
capture and utilization of fishes and other aquatic
animals.

5th. Statistics of the various branches of the Amer-
ican fisheries from the earliest dates to the present
time, so as to show the development of this important
ndustry and its actual condition.

6th. The establishment by the General Govern-
ment, or in connection with the States, of a thor-
oughly reliable and exhaustive system of recording
fishery statistics for the future.

7th. The bringing together in the National Museum
not only of a complete collection of the aquatic ani-
mals and plants referred to, but illustrations of all ap-
paratus or devices, used at home or abroad, in the
prosecution of the fisheries.

8th. An investigation of the movements and habits
of various kinds of fish, to serve as a basis for legisla-
tion, either by the General Government or by the
States.

9. The arrangement of a code of regulations in re-
spect to close seasons, and other matters of detail
respecting the capture of fish.

toth. The stocking of the various waters of the
United States with the fish most suited to them, either
by artificial propagation or transfer, and the best ap-
paratus and methods for accomplishing this object.

Professor Baird intends to supplement this immense
amount of work by collecting and compiling statistics
for the proper treatment of international questions
connected with the common use, by the United States
and the British Provinces, of the waters of the North
Atlantic.

The volume before us bears ample proof of the
power of Professor Baird and his assistants, to carry
out this programme to its fullest extent, and if the
work progresses at the present rate, its accomplish-
ment will not be so far in the future as many would
suppose.

SCIENCE. :

We do not propose in this notice to epitomize the
report; we prefer to do more justice to the subject by |
presenting from time to time brief abstracts of the
paper, some of which are very elaborate, occupying
160 pages of closely printed matter, and go illustra-
tions.

That part of the report describing the success of the
commission in propagating salmon has been anticipa-
ted by the public press, but many of the details now
given are new and of great interest. Many persons in
the East will be astonished at the large scale of the
salmon fishery in the Western rivers, where seven to
nine thousand fish are sometimes taken in one day.
From one station (the St. Cloud river), fourteen mil-
lions of eggs of salmon were secured and embryonized
—sufficient to keep up the supply being returned to |
the river, the remainder were sent East; 7,250,000
arrived in Chicago between the 3rd and 7th of Oc-
tober. The reportstates that, after supplying the home
demand, 500,000 were presented to Canada, 100,000
to England, 100,000 to France, 100,000 to Holland,
250,000 to Germany and 200,000 to New Zealand.

In regard to shipments to the last named country,
it is satisfactory to be able to state, that they not only
arrived in perfect condition, but that by the latest
advices the young fish were seen in every direction,
promising to be the ancestors of a numerous progeny.

Reference is made to Professor W. O. Atwater’s
investigations upon the food qualities of various spec-
ies of fishes, the chief facts relating to which we were
able to present in an abstracted form, to the readers
of “‘ScrENCE,” a few weeks since.

Various attempts have been made to introduce live
specimens of the English Sole, one of the most de-
licious and prolific of British fishes. The last attempt
by Mr. Fred. Mather, whose skill in fish culture is ac-
knowledged in the report, was unfortunately like the
rest—a failure. Mr. Mather gives a very reasonable |
explanation of his want of success, and it must be ad-
mitted that he was not supplied with the necessary con- |
veniences. During 1880, Captain Mortimer was
more successful, and succeeded in placing living spec-
imens of the Sole (.So/ea vulgaris) in New York harbor.
Captain Mortimer explained to us that his apparatus
consisted of a tank having a fixed cover, to which were
attached two globes, the constant rolling of the ves-
sel causing the water of the tank to pass to the globes
and return, thus keeping up a constant aeration for
the fish, which naturally remained at the bottom.

We reluctantly close our notice of this most valua-

ble and interesting Report feeling that our task has
been but half fulfilled. We shall, however, again take
up the subject in greater detail, and present our read-
ers with many facts of much scientific interest.

THE AMERICAN CHEMICAL SOCIETY.*

The January meeting of the above Society was held in
their rooms, Monday evening, January 3, 1881, Prof. C. F.
Chandler in the President’s chair. The nominations of
Messrs. James F. Slade, Theodore M. Hopke, A, F. Hop-
pick as regular, and of Mr. E. K. Dunham as associate
members were made. The resignations of Prof. Ira Rem-
sen, Prof. S. P. Sadtler and Mr. L. W. Drew, read and

| accepted. A motion for the reduction of the annual dues

from $10 to $5 was favorably considered, and the day of
meeting was changed from Thursday to Monday, so that
in the future, meetings will be held on the first and third
Mondays of each month, instead of on the corresponding
Thursdays. There beiag no papers before the society, the
meeting was adjourned. We add herewith a list of the
officers chosen at the December meeting for the present
year: President, Prof. C. F. Chandler; Vice-Presidents,
A. R. Leeds, G. A. Koenig, E. R. Squibb, Charles A.
Goessmann, Henry Morten, [ra Remsen ; Corresponding
Secretary,-P. Casamajor; Recording Secretary, Albert H.
Gallatin ; Treasurer, W. H. Nichols; Librarian, E. Waller ;
Curators, W. Rupp, A. J. Rossi, A. A. Fesquet.

+

ON A THERMO-MAGNETIC THERMOSCOPE.

By Sir WILLIAM THOMSON.

This thermoscope is founded on the change produced
in the magnetic moment of a steel magnet by change of
temperature. Several different forms suggest themselves.
The one which seems best adapted to give good results
is to be made as follows:

I. Prepare an approximately astatic system of two thin
hardened steel wires, 7 6,71 5', each one centimetre long,
one of them, ~ 4, hung by a single silk fibre, and the other
hung bifilarly from it by fibres about three centimetres
long, so attached that the projections of the twoona
horizontal plane shall be inclined at an angle of about .o1
of a radian (or .57°) to one another.

2. Hang a very small, light mirror, bifilarly from the
lower of the two wires.

3. Magnetize the two wires to very exactly equal mag-
netic moments in the dissimilar directions. This is easily
done by a few successive trials, to make them rest as
nearly as possible perpendicular to the magnetic me-
ridian.

4. Take iwo pieces of equal and similar straight steel
wire, well hardened, each two centimetres long, and
about .o4 centimetres diameter. Magnetize them equally
and similarly, and mount them on a suitable frame to
fulfil conditions.

5 and 6. Call them R B and R' B', B and B! denoting

| the ends containing true north polarity (ordinarily marked

B), and R R' true south (ordinarily marked red), The
small letters, 7, 4, ~', 6!, marx on the same plan the polar-
ites of x6 and 7! 6}.

3. The magnets R B, R! B', are to ve relatively fixed in
line on their frame with similar poles next one another, at

| a distance of about two centimetres asunder, as thus,

RB B! R!, with B B! = two centimetres.

6. This frame is to be mounted on a geometrical slide -
upon the case, within which the astatic pair, 7 4, 71 0, is
hung in such a manner that the line of R B, B R bisects
y 6, approximately at right angles, and that R BB R may
be moved by a micrometer screw through about a milli-
metre on each side of its central position, the line of
motion being the line of R B, B! R', and the “ central
position” being that in which B and B! are equi-distant
from the centre of 7 4.

7. A lamp and scale, with proper focussing lens if the
mirror is not concave, are applied to show and measure
small deflections asin my mirror galvanometres and elec-
trometer.

* Communicated by M. Benjamin, Ph. B,

SCIENCE. | | 3

8. Place the instrument with the needles approximately
perpendicular to the magnetic meridian, turning it so as
to bring 4 and 4' to the south of the vertical plane bisect-
ing the small angle between the projections of 7 4, 71 0!
and 7, and 7! to the north side of it.

- 9. By aid of the micrometer screw bring the luminous
image to its middle position on the scale.

to. Cause R B, B' R' to have different temperatures.
The luminous image is seen to move in such a direction
as is due to x approaching the cooler, and receding from
the warmer of the two deflectors B R, B! R'.—Proceed-
znes Royal Soctety, Edinburgh.

[Continued from page 270.]
THE UNITY OF NATURE.
By THE DUKE OF ARGYLL.

IV.

ON THE LIMITS OF HUMAN KNOWLEDGE CONSIDERED WITH
REFERENCE TO THE UNITY OF NATURE,

And yet, although it is to Nature in this highest and
widest sense that we belong—although it is out of this
fountain that we have come, and it is out of its fullness that
we have received all that we have and are, men have
doubted, and will doubt again, whether we can be sure of
anything concerning it.

If this terrible misgiving had affected individual minds
alone in moments of weariness and despair, there would
have been little to say about it. Such moments may come
to all of us, and the distrust which they leave behind them
may be the sorest of human trials. It is no unusual result
of abortive yet natural effort and of innate yet baffled curi-
osity. But this doubt, which is really nothing more than a
morbid effect of weakness and fatigue, has been embraced
as a doctrine and systematized into a philosophy. Nor can
it be denied that there are some partial aspects of our
knowledge in which its very elements seem to dissolve and
disappear under the power of self-analysis, so that the sum
of it is reduced to little more than a consciousness of ignor-
ance. All that we know of Matter is so different from all
that we are conscious of in Mind, that the relations be-
tween the two are really incomprehensible and inconceiv-
able to us. Hence this relation constitutes a region of
darkness in which it is easy to lose ourselves in an abyss of
utter skepticism. What proof have we—it has been often
asked—that the mental impressions we derive from objects
are in any way like the truth? We know only the phen-
omena, not the reality of things. We are conversant with
things as they appear, not with things as they are ‘‘in them-
selves.” What proof have we that these phenomena give
us any real knowledge of the truth? How, indeed, is it
possible that knowledge so “relative” and so ‘‘ condi-
tioned ”—relative to a mind so limited, and conditioned by
senses which tell us of nothing but sensations—how can
such knowledge be accepted as substantial? Is it not
plain that our conceptions of Creation and of a Creator are
all mere ‘‘anthropomorphism?” Is it not ourown shadow
that we are always chasing? Is it not a mere bigger image
of ourselves to which we are always bowing down?

It is upon suggestions such as these that the Agnostic
philosophy, or the philosophy of Nescience, is founded—
the doctrine that, concerning all the highest problems
which it both interests and concerns us most to know, we
never can have any knowledge or any rational and assured
belief.

It may be well to come to the consideration of this doc-
trine along those avenues of approach which start from
the conception we have now gained of the unity of Nature.

Nothing, certainly, in the human mind is more wonder-
ful than this—that it is conscious of its own limitations.
Such consciousness would be impossible if these limita-
tions were in their nature absolute. The bars which we
feel so much, and against which we so often beat in vain,
are bars which could not be felt at all unless there were

_ something in us which seeks a wider scope. It is as if

these bars were a limit of opportunity rather than a bound-
ary of power. No absolute limitation of mental faculty
ever is, or ever could be, felt by the creatures whom it af-
fects. Of this we have abundant evidence in the lower ani-
mals, and in those lower faculties of our own nature which
are of like kind to theirs. All their powers and many of
our own are exerted without any sense of limitation, and
this because of the very fact that the limitation of them is
absolute and complete. In their own nature they admit of
no larger use. The field of effort and of attainable enjoy-
ment is, as regards them, co-extensive with the whole field
in view. Nothing is seen or felt by them which may not be
possessed. In such possession all exertion ends and all
desire is satisfied. This is the law of every faculty subject
to a limit which is absolute. In physics, the existence of
any pressure is the index of a potential energy which,
though it may be doing no work, is yet always capable of
doing it. And so inthe intellectual world, the sense of
pressure and confinement is the index of powers which
under other conditions are capable of doing what they can-
not doat present. It is in these conditions that the barrier
consists, and atleast toa large extent they are external.
What we feel, in short, isless an incapacity than a restraint.

So much undoubtedly is to be said as to the nature of
those limitations on our mental powers of which we are
conscious. And the considerations thus presented to us
are of immense importance in qualifying the conclusions to
be drawn from the facts of consciousness, They do not
justify, although they may account for, any feeling of
despair as to the ultimate accessibility of that knowledge
which we so much desire.. On the contrary, they suggest
the idea that there is within us a Reserve of Power to some
unknown and indefinite extent. It is asif we could under-
stand indefinitely more than we can discover, if only some
higher Intelligence would explain it to us.

But if it is of importance to take note of this Reserve of
Power of which we are conscious in ourselves, it is at least
of equal importance to estimate aright the conceptions to
which we can and do attain without drawing upon this re-
serve atall. Not only are the bars confining us bars which
we can conceive removed, but they are bars which in cer-
tain directions offer no impediment at all to a boundless
range of vision. Perhaps there is no subject on which the
fallacies of philosophic phraseology have led to greater
errors. ‘‘That the Finite cannot comprehend the Infinite,”
is a proposition constantly propounded as an undoubted
and all-comprehensive truth. Such truthas does belong to
it seems to come from the domain of Physics, in which it
represents the axiom that a part cannot be equal to the
whole. From this, in the domain of Mind, it comes to rep-
resent the truth, equally undeniable, that we cannot know
all that Infinity contains. But the meaning into which it is
liable to pass when applied to Mind is that Man cannot con-
ceive Infinity. And never was any proposition so commonly
accepted which, in this sense, is so absolutely devoid of all
foundation. Not only is Infinity conceivable by us, but it
is inseparable from conceptions which are of all others the
most familiar. Both the great conceptions of Space and
Time are, in their very nature, infinite. We cannot con-
ceive of either of these as subject to limitation. We cannot
conceive of amoment after which there shall be no more
Time, nor of a boundary beyond which there is no more
Space. This means that we cannot but think of Space as in
finite, and of Time as everlasting.

If these two conceptions stood alone they would be
enough, for in regard to them the only incapacity under
which we labor is the incapacity to conceive the Finite. For
all the divisions of Space and Time with which we are
so familar,—our days and months and years, and our vari-
ous units of distance,—we can only think of as bits and
fragments of a whole which is illimitable. But although
these great conceptions of Space and Time are possibly the
only conceptions to which the idea of infinity attaches as an
absolute necessity of Thought, they are by no means the
only conceptions to which the same idea can be attached,
and probably ought to be so. The conception of Matter is
one, and the conception of Force is another, to which we
do not perhaps attach, as of necessity, the idea of inde-
structibility, or the idea of eternal existence and of infinite
extension. But it is remarkable that in exact proportion as
science advances, we are coming to understand that both of

4

SCTENGE:

these are conceptions to which the idea of infinity not only
may be, but ought to beattached. That is to say, that the eter-
nal existence of Matter and the eternal duration of Force are
not only conceivable but true. Nay, it may be our ignor-
ance alone, that makes us think we can conceive the con-
trary. It is possible to conceive of Space being utterly

devoid of Matter, only perhaps because we are accustomed |

to see and to think of spaces which are indeed empty of
visible substances. We can expel also the invisible sub-
stances or gases of the atmosphere, and we can speak and
think of the resultas a vacuum. But we know now that

when air and all other terrestrial gases are gone the lumi- |

niferous medium remains; and so far as we have means of
knowing, this medium is ubiquitous and omnipresent in
the whole universe of Space. Inlike manner we are accus-
tomed to see solid matter so dissipated as to be invisible,
intangible, and wholly imperceptible; and therefore we
think we can imagine matter to be really destructible. But
the more we know of it the more certain we become that it
cannot be destroyed, and can only be redistributed. In
like manner, in regard to Force, we are accustomed to see
Matter in what is called statical equilibrium—that is to say,
at rest; and so perhaps, we think, we can conceive the ces-
sation or extinction of Force.
of research is tending more and more to attach irrevocably

the idea of indestructibility—that is, of eternal existence—to |

that which we know as Force. The truth is, that this con-

ception is really implicitly involved in the conception of the |
For all that we know of Matter |

indestructibility of Matter.
is inseparably connected with the forces which it exerts, or

which it is capable of exerting, or which are being exerted |

init. The force of gravitation seems to be all-pervading,
to be either an inherent power or property in every kind, or
almost every kind of Matter, or else to be the result of
some kind of energy which is universal and unquenchable.

All bodies, however passive and inert they may seem to be |
Grove and others have proved to be ‘‘ correlated "—that is,

under certain conditions, yet indicate by their very existence
the power of those molecular forces to which the cohesion
of their atoms is due. The fact is now familiar to us that
the most perfect stillness and apparent rest in many forms
of Matter is but the result of a balance or equilibrium
maintained between forces of the most tremendous energy,

which are ready to burst forth at a moment’s notice, when |

the conditions are changed under which that balance is
maintained. And this principle, which has become familiar
in the case of what are called explosive substances, because
of the easeand the certainty with which the balanced forces
can be liberated, is a principal which really prevails in the
composition of all material substances whatever ; the only
difference being that the energies by which their molecules
are held together are so held under conditions which are
more stable—conditions which it is much more more diffi-
cult to change—and conditions, therefore, which conceal
from us the universal prevalence and power of Force in the
constitution of the material universe. It is, therefore, dis-
tinctly the tendency of science more and more to impress us
with the idea of the unlimited duration and indestructible
nature both of Matter and of the energies which work in
and upon it.

One of the scientific forms under which this idea is ex-
pressed is the Conservation of Energy. It affirms that
though we often see moving bodies stopped in their course,
and the energy with which they move apparently extin-
guished, no such extinction is really effected. It affirms
that this energy is merely transformed into other kinds of
motion, which may or may not be visible, but which,
whether visible or not, do always really survive the motion
which has been arrested. It affirms, in short, that Energy,
like Matter, cannot be destroyed or lessened in quantity,
but can only be redistributed.

As, however, the whole existing Order of Nature depends
on very special distributions and concentrations of Force,
this doctrine affords no ground for presuming on the per-
manence, or even on the prolonged continuance, of that
order. Quite the contrary ; for another general conception
has been attained from science which at first sight appears
to be a contradiction of the doctrine of ‘‘ Conservation of
Energy ’’"—namely, the ‘‘ Dissipation of Energy.”
doctrine, however, does not affirm that Energy can be dissi-
pated in the sense of being wholly lost or finally extin-
guished. It only affirms that al! the existing concentrations

But here again the progress |
| doctrine which gives strength and substance to the meta-

of force are being gradually exhausted, and that the forces
concerned in them are being diffused (generally in the form
of Heat) more and more equally over the infinitudes of
Matter and of Space.

Closely connected with, if indeed it be not a necessary
part and consequence of, these conceptions of the infinity
of Space and time, of Matter and of Force, is the more gen-
eral concept of Causation.

It is impossibe to conceive of anything happening with-
out acause. Even if we could conceive the utter destruc-

_ tion or annihilation of any particular force or form of force,

we cannot conceive of this very destruction happening ex-
cept as the effect of some cause. All attempts to reduce
this idea of causation to other and lower terms have been
worse than futile. They have uniformly left out something
which is of the very essence of the idea. The notion of
‘uniform antecedence” is not equivalent. ‘‘ Necessary
antecedence”’ is more near the mark. These words do
indeed indicate the essential element in the idea with toler-
able clearness. But like all other simple fundamental con-
ceptions, the idea of Causation defies analysis. As, how-
ever, we cannot dissociate the idea of Causation from the
idea of Force or energy, 1t may perhaps be said that the in-
destructibility or eternal duration of Force is a physical

physical concept of causation. Science may discover, and
indeed has already discovered, that, as regards our applica-
tion of the idea of cause, and of the correlative idea of
effect, to particular cases of sequence, there is often some
apparent confusion arising from the fact that the relative
positions of cause and effect may be interchangeable, so
that A, which at one moment appears as the cause of B,
becomes at another moment the consequence of B, and not
its cause. Thus Heat is very often the cause of visible
motion, and visible motion is again the cause of Heat. And
so of the whole cycle of physical forces, which Sir W.

to be so intimately related that each may in turn produce
or pass into all the others. But this does not really obscure
or cast any doubt upon the truth of our idea of causation.
On the contrary, that idea is confirmed in receiving a new
interpretation, and in the disclosure of physical facts in-
volving the same conception. The necessity of the con-
nection between an effect and its cause receives an unex-
pected confirmation when it comes to be regarded as simply
the necessary passing of an energy which is universal and
indestructible from one form of action into another. Heat
becomes the cause of Light because it is the same energy
working in a special medium. Conversely Light becomes
the cause of Heat, because again the same energy passes
into another medium and there produces a different effect.
And so all the so-called ‘‘ correlated forces” may be inter-
changeably the cause or the consequence of each other, ac-
cording to the order of time in which the changes of form
are seen. This, however, does not confound, but only

_ illustrates the ineradicable conviction that for all such

This |

changes there must be a cause. It may be perfectly true
that all these correlated forces can be ideally reduced to
different ‘‘forms of motion;” but motion itself is incon-
ceivable except as existing in Matter, and as the result of
some moving force. Every difference of direction in mo-
tion or of formin Matter implies a change, and we can con-
ceive no change without a cause—that is to say, apart from
the operation of some condition without which that change
would not have been.

The same ultimate conceptions, and no other, appear to
constitute all the truth that is to be found in a favorite doc-
trine among the cultivators of physical science— the so-
called ‘“‘ Law of Continuity.” This phrase is indeed often
used with such looseness of meaning that it is extremely
difficult to understand the primary signification attached to
it. One common definition, or rather one common illustra-
tion, of this law is said to be that Nature does nothing sud-
denly—nothing “ per saltum.” Of course this can only be
accepted under some metaphorical or transcendental mean-
ing. In Nature there is sucha thing as a flash of lightning,
and this is generally recognized as sufficiently sudden. A
great many other exertions of electric force are of similar
rapidity. The action of chemical affinity is always rapid.
and very often even instantaneous. Yet these are among
the most common and the most powerful factors in the me-

SCIENCE. 5

chanism of Nature. They have the most intimate connec-
tion with the phenomena of Life, andin these the profound-
est changes are often determined in moments of time. For
many purposes to which this so-called ‘‘ Law of Continuity ”
is often applied in argument no idler dogma was ever in-
vented in the schools. There is a common superstition
that this so-called law negatives the possibility, for exam-
ple, of the sudden appearance of new forms of Life. What
it does negative, however, is not appearances which are sud-
den, but only appearances which have been unprepared.
Innumerable things may come to be,—in a momenft—in the
twinkling of an eye. But nothing can come to be without
a long, even if it bea secret, history. The “Law of Con-
tinuity ” is, therefore, a phrase of ambiguous meaning ; but
at the bottom of it there lies the true and invincible convic-
tion that for every change, however sudden—for every
“leap,” however wide—there has always been a long chain
of predetermining causes, and that even the most tremon-
dous bursts of energy and the most sudden exhibitions of
force have ali been slowly and silently prepared. In this
sense the Law of Continuity is nothing but the idea of
Causation. It is founded on the necesary duration which
we cannot but attribute to the existence of Force, and this
_ appears to be the only truth which the Law of Continuity
represents.

When now we consider the place in the whole system of
our knowledge which is occupied by these great fundamen-
tal conceptions of Time and Space, and of Matter and of
Force, and when we consider that we cannot even think of
any one of these realities as capable of coming to an end,
We may well be assured that, whatever may be the limits of
the human mind, they certainly do not prevent us from ap-
prehending infinity. On the contrary, it would rather ap-
pear that this apprehension is the invariable and necessary
result of every investigation of nature.

It is indeed of the highest importance to observe that
some of these conceptions, especially the indestructibility
of Matter and of Force, belong to the domain of science.
That is to say, the systematic examination of natural phen-
omena has given them distinctness and a consistency which
they never possessed before. As now accepted and de-
fined, they are the result of direct experiment. And yet,
strictly speaking, all that experiment can do is to prove that
in all cases in which either Matter or Force seems to be de-
stroyed, no such destruction has taken place. Here then
we have a very“limited and imperfect amount of ‘ expe-
rience ” giving rise to an infinite conception. But it is an-
other of the suggestions of the Agnostic philosophy that
this can never be a legitimate result. Nevertheless, as a
matter of fact, these conceptions have been reached. They
are now uniyersally accepted and taught as truths lying at
the foundation of every branch of natural science—at once
the beginning and the end of every physical investigation.
They are not what are ordinarily called “laws.” They
stand on much higher ground. They stand behind and be-
fore every law, whether that word be taken to mean simply
an observed order of facts, or some particular force to
which that order is due, or some combinations of force
for the discharge of function, or some abstract definition
of observed phenomena such as the ‘‘laws of motion.”
All these, though they may be “invariable” so far as we
can see, carry with them no character of universal or neces-
sary truth—no conviction that they are and must be true in
all places and for all time. There is no existing order—no
present combinations of Matter or of Force—which we cannot
conceive coming toanend. But when that end is come we
cannot conceive but that something must remain,—if it be
nothing else than that by which the ending was brought about
or, as it were, the raw materials of the creation which,
has passed away. That this conception, when once suggested
and clearly apprehended, cannot be eradicated, is one of
the most indisputable facts of instructed consciousness.
That no possible amount of mere external observation or
experiment can cover the infinitude of the conclusion is
also unquestionably true. But if ‘‘experience” is to be
upheld as in any sense the ground and basis of all our
knowledge, it must be understood as embracing the most
important of all kinds of experience in the study of Nature
—the experience we have of the laws of Mind. It is one
of the most certain of those laws, that in proportion as the
powers of the understanding are well developed, and are

prepared by previous training for the interpretation of
natural facts, there is no relation whatever between the time
occupied in the observation of phenomena and the breadth
or sweep of the conclusions which may be arrived at from
them. A single glance, lasting not above a moment of
time, may awaken the recognition of truths as wide as the
universe and as everlasting as Time itself. Nay, it has often
happened in the history of science that such recognitions
of general truths have been reached by no other kind of
observation than that of the mind becoming conscious of its
own innate perceptions. Conceptions of this nature have
perpetually gone before experiment—have suggested it,
guided it—and have received nothing more than corrobora-
tion from it. I do not say that these conceptions have been
reached without any process. But the process has been to
a large extent as unconscious as that by which we see the
light. Ido not say they have been reached without ‘‘ ex-
perience,” even in that narrow sense in which it means the
observation of external things. But the experience has
been nothing more than the act of living in the world, and
of breathing in it, and of looking round upon it. These
conceptions have come to Man because he is a Being in har-
mony with surrounding Nature. The human mind has
opened to them as a bud opens tothe sun and air. So true
is this, that when reasons have been given for the conclu-
sions thus arrived at—these reasons have often been quite
erroneous. Nothing in the history of philosophy is more
curious than the close correspondence between many ideas
enunciated by the ancients as the result of the speculation,
and some, at least, of the ideas now prevalent as the result
of science. It is true that the ancients expressed them
vaguely, associated them with other conceptions which are
wide of the truth, and quoted in support of them illustra-
tions which are often childish. Nevertheless the fact re-
mains that they had attained to some central truths, however
obscured the perception may have been by ignorance of the
more precise and accurate analogies by which they can be
best explained, and which only the process of observation
has revealed. ‘‘ They had in some way grasped,” says Mr.
Balfour Stewart,* ‘‘the idea of the essential unrest and
energy of things. They had also the idea of small particles
or atoms ; and finally of a medium of some sort, so that
they were not wholly ignorant of the most profound and
deeply seated of the principles of the material universe.”
There is but one explanation of this, but it is all-sufficient.
It is that the mind of Man is a part, and one at least of the
highest parts, of the system of the universe—the result of
mechanism most suited to the purpose of catching and
translating into thought the light of truth as embodied in
surrounding Nature.

We have seen that the foundations of all conscious re2-
soning are to be found in certain propositions which we call
self-evident. That is to say, in propositions the truth of
which is intuitively perceived. We have seen, too, asa
general law affecting all manifestations of Life or Mind,
even inits very lowest forms, that instinctive or intuitional
perceptions are.the guide and index of other and larger
truths which lie entirely beyond the range of the perception
or intuition which is immediately concerned. This law
holds good quite as much of the higher intuitions which
are peculiar to Manas of the mere intuitions of sensation
which are common to him and to the animals beneath him.
The lowest savage does many things by mere instinct which
contain implicitly truths of a very abstract nature—truths
of which, as such, he has not the remotest conception, and
which in the present undeveloped condition of his faculties
it would be impossible to explain to him. Thus, when he
goes into the forest to cut a branch fit for being made into a
bow, or when he goes to the marsh to cut a reed fit for
being made into an. arrow, and when in doing so he cuts
them off the proper length by measuring them by the bows
and arrows which he already has, in this simple operation
he is acting on the abstract and most fruitful truth that

_‘‘things equal to the same thing are equal to one anothe:.”

This is one of the axioms which lie at the basis of all mathe-
matical demonstration. But as a general, universal, and
necessary truth the savage knows nothing of it—as little as
he knows of the wonderful consequences to which it will
some day lead his children or descendants. So in like

*‘* Conservation of Energy,” p. 135.

6 SCIENCE,

manner when the savage designs, as he often does, most
ingenious traps for the capture of his prey, and so baits
them as to attract the animals he desires to catch, he is
counting first on the constancy and uniformity of physical
causation, and, secondly, on the profoundly different action
of the motives which determine the conduct of creatures
having Life and Will. But of neither of these as general
truths does he know anything, and of one of them at least,
not even the greatest philosophers have reached the full
depth of meaning. Nevertheless, it would be a great error
to suppose that the savage, because he has no conception
of the general truth involved in his conduct, has been guided
in that conduct by anything in the nature of chance or acci-
dent. His intuitions have been right, and have involved
so much perception of truth as is necessary to carry him
along the little way he requires to travel, because the mind
in which those intuitions lie is a product and a part of
Nature—a product and part of that great system of things
which is held together by laws intelligible to Mind—laws
which the human mind has been constructed to feel even
when it cannot clearly see. Moreover, when these laws
come to be clearly seen, they are seen only because the
mind has organs adjusted to the perception of them, and
because it finds in its own mechanism corresponding se-
quences of thought.

It was the work of a great German metaphysician towards
the close of the last century to discriminate and define more
systematically than had been done before some at least of
those higher elements of thought which, over and above
the mere perception of external things, the mind thus con-
tributes out of its own structure to the fabric of know-
ledge. Indoing this he did immortal service—proving that
when men talked of ‘‘experience” being the source of
knowledge, they forgot that the whole process of experience
presupposes the action of innate laws of thought, without
which experience can neither gather its facts nor reach their
interpretation. ‘‘ Experience,” as Kant most truly said, is
nothing but a ‘‘ synthesis of intuitions ’’—a building up or
putting together of conceptions which the access of exter-
nal Nature finds ready to be awakened in the mind. The
whole of this process is determined by the mind’s own laws
—a process in which even observation of outward fact must
take its place according to principles of arrangement in
which alone all explanations of them consists, and out of
which any understanding them is impossible.

And yet this great fact of a large part of our knowledge
—and that the most important part—coming to us out of
the very furniture and constitution of the mind itself, has
been so expressed and presented in the language of philos-
ophy as rather to undermine than to establish our confi-
dence in the certainty of knowledge. For if the mind is
so spoken of and represented as to suggest the idea of
something apart from the general system of Nature, and if
its laws of thought are looked upon as ‘‘forms” or molds
into which, by some artificial arrangement or by some
mechanical necessity, everything from outside must be
squeezed and made to fit—then it will naturally occur to us
to doubt whether conceptions cut out and manufactured
under such conditions can be any trustworthy representation
of the truth. Such, unfortunately, has been the mode of
representation adopted by many philosophers—and such
accordingly has been the result of their teaching. This is
the great source of error in every form of the Idealistic
philosophy, but it is a source of error which can be per-
fectly eliminated, leaving untouched and undoubted the
large body of truths which has made that philosophy attrac-
tive to so many powerful minds. We have only to take
care that in expressing those truths we do not use metaphors
which are misleading. We have only to remember that
we must regard the mind and the laws of its operation in
the light of that most assured truth—the Unity of Nature.
The mind has no ‘‘ molds” which have not themselves been
molded on the realities of the universe—no ‘‘ forms”
it did not receive as a part and a consequence of a
unity with the rest of Nature.
manufactured ; they are developed.
they simply grow.
which it renders intelligible to itself all the phenomena of

They are not made;

the universe, is not an order which it invents, but an order |

which it simply feels and sees, And this “ vision and
faculty divine” is a necessary consequence of its congeni-

Its conceptions are not |

The order of the laws of thought under |

tal relations with the whole system of Nature—from being
bone of its bone—flesh of its flesh—from breathing its at-
mosphere, from living in its light, and from having with it
a thousand points of contact visible and invisible, more
than we can number or understand.

And yet so subtle are the suggestions of the human
spirit in disparagement of its own powers—so near and
ever present to us is that region which belongs to the un-
satisfied Reserve of Power—that the very fact of our know!l-
edge arising out of our organic relations with the rest of
Naturé has been seized upon as only casting new discredit
on ail that we seem to know. Because all our knowledge
arises out of these relations, therefore, it is said, all our
knowledge of things must be itself relative; and relative
knowledge is not knowledge of ‘things in themselves.”
Such is the argument of metaphysicians—an argument re-
peated with singular unanimity by philosophers of almost
every school of thought. By some it has been made the
basis of religious proof. By some it has been made the
basis of a reasoned skepticism. By some it has been used
simply to foil attacks upon belief. The real truth is that it
is an argument useless for any purpose whatever, because
it is not itself true. The distinction between knowledge
of things in their relations, and knowledge of things “in
themselves,” is a distinction without a meaning. In meta-
physics the assertion that wecan never attain to any knowl-
edge of things in themselves does not mean simply that we
know things only in a few relations out of many. It does
not mean even that there may be and probably are a great
many relations which we have not faculties enabling us to
conceive. All this is quite true, and a most important
truth. But the metaphysical distinction is quite different.
It affirms thatif we knew things in every one of the rela-
tions that affect them, we should still be no nearer than be-
fore to a knowledge of ‘‘ things themselves.” “It is proper
to observe,” says Sir W. Hamilton, ‘‘ that had we faculties
equal in number to all the possible modes of existence,
whether of mind or matter, still would our knowledge of
mind or matter be only relative. If material existence could
exhibit ten thousand phenomena,—if we possessed ten
thousand senses to apprehend these ten thousand phenom-
ena of material existence, of existence absolutely and in
itself we should then be as ignorant as we are at present.”*
The conception here that there is something to be known
about things in which they are not presented as in any rela-
tion to anything else. It affirms that there are certain ulti-
mate entities in Nature to which all phenomena are due,
and yet which can be thought of as having no relation to
these phenomena, or to ourselves, or to any other existence
whatever. Now as the very idea of knowledge consists in
the perception of relations, this affirmation is, in the purest
sense of the word, nonsense—that is to say, it is a series of
words which have either no meaning at all or a meaning
which is self-contradictory. It belongs to the class of pro-
positions which throw just discredit on metaphysics—mere
verbal propositions, pretending to deal with conceptions
which are no conceptions at all, but empty sounds. The
“unconditioned,” we are told, ‘is unthinkable ;” but words
which are unthinkable had better be also unspeakable, or at
least unspoken. It is altogether untrue that we are com-
pelled to believe in the existence of anything which is “ un-
conditioned ”—in Matter with no qualities—in Minds with
no character—in a God with no attributes. Even the me-
taphysicians who dwell on this distinction between the
Relative and Unconditioned admit that it is one to which
no idea can be attached. Yet, in spite of this admission, -
they proceed to found many inferences upon it, as if ithad |
an intelligible meaning. Those whohave not been accus-—
tomed to metaphysical literature could hardly believe the
flagrant unreason whichis common on this subject. Itcan-
not be better illustrated than by quoting the words in which

| this favorite doctrine is expressed by Sir William Hamilton.
which

Speaking of our knowledge of Matter he says: “ Itisa name
for something known—for that which appears to us under
the forms of extension, solidity, divisibilitv, figure, motion,
roughness, smoothness, color, heat, cold,” etc. “ But,” he
goes on to Say, ‘as these phenomena appear only in conjunc-
tion, we are compelled by the constitution of our nature to
think them conjoined in and by something; and as they

’

*** Tectures,’’ vol. i. p. 145.

i

SEV et wos j

EINE nnn nn nnn nnn nn Ree

evw
are phenomena, we cannot think them the phenomena of
nothing, but must regard them as the properties or quali-
ties of something that is extended, figured, etc. But this
something, absolutely and in itself—7. e., considered apart
from its phenomena—is to us as Zero. It is only in its
qualities, only in its effects, in its relative or phenomenal
exiStence, that it is cognizable or conceivable; and it is
only by a law of thought which compels us to think some-
thing absolute and unknown, as the basis or condition
of the relative and known, that this something obtains a
kind of incomprehensible reality to us.” The argument
here is that because phenomena are and must be the “ prop-
erties or qualities of something else,” therefore we are
“ compelled to think” of that something as having an ex-
istence separable from any relation to its own qualities and
properties, and that this something acquires from this
reasoning a ‘kind of incomprehensible reality!” There
is no such law of thought. There is no such necessity of
thinking nonsense as is here alleged. All that we are com-
pelled to think is that the ultimate constitution of Matter,
and the ultimate source of its relations to our own organism,
are unknown, and are probably inaccessible to us. But
this is a very different conception from that which affirms
that if we did know or could know these ultimate truths,
we should find in them anything standing absolutely alone
and unrelated to other existences in the Universe.

It 1s, however, so important that we should define to
ourselves as clearly as we can the nature of the limitations
which affect our knowledge, and the real inferences which
are to be derived from the consciousness we have of them,
that it may be well to examine these dicta of metaphysicians
in the light of specific instances. It becomes all the more
important to do so, when we observe that the language in
which these dicta are expressed generally implies that
knowledge which is ‘‘ only relative” is less genuine or less
absolutely true than some other kind of knowledge which
is not explained, exccpt that it must be knowledge of that
which has no relation to the mind.

There is a sense (and it isthe only sense in which the
words have any meaning) in which we are all accustomed
to say that we knowa thing ‘‘in itself,’ when we have
found out, for example, its origin, or its structure, or its
chemical composition as distinguished from its more sup-
erficial aspects. Ifa new substance were offered to us as
food, and if we examined its appearance to the eye, and
felt its consistency to the touch, and smelt its odor, and
finally tasted it, we should then know as much about it as
these various senses couldtell us. Other senses, or other
forms of sensation, might soon add their own several con-
tributions to our knowledge, and we might discover that
this substance had deleterious effects upon the human or-
ganism, This would be knowing, perhaps, by far the most
important things that are to be known about it. But we
should certainly like to know more, and we should prob-
ably consider that we had found out what it was “in itself,”
when we had discovered farther, for example, that it was
the fruit of a tree. Chemistry might next inform us of the
analysis of the fruit, and might exhibit some alkaloid to
which its peculiar properties and its peculiar effects upon
the body are due. ‘his, again, we should certainly con-
sider as knowing what it is “in itself.” But other questions
respecting it would remain behind. How the tree can ex-
tract this alkaloid from the inorganic elements of the soil,
and how, when so extracted, it should have such and such
peculiar effects upon the animal body; these, and similar
questions, we may ask, and probably we shall ask in vain.
But there is nothing in the inaccessibility of this knowledge
to suggest that we are absolutely incapable of understand-
ing the answer ifit were explained to us. On the contrary,
the disposition we have to put such qtestions raises a
strong presumption that the answer would be one capable
of that assimilation by our intellectual nature in which all
understanding of anything consists. There is nothing in
the series of phenomena which this substance has exhibited
to us—nothing in the question which they raise which can
evei suggest the idea that all these relations which we have
traced, or any others which may remain behind, are the re-
sult of something which can be thought of or conceived as
neither a cause nor a consequence—but solitary and unre-
lated. Onthe contrary, all that remains unexplained is
the nature and cause of its relations—its relations on the

VVEVV
one hand to the elements out of which vegetable vitality

has combined it, and its relations on the other hand to the
still higher vitality which it threatens to destroy. Its place
in the unity of Nature is the ultimate object of our search,
and this unity is essentially a unity of relations, and of
nothing else. That unity everywhere proclaims the truth
that there is nothing in the wide universe which is unre-
lated to the rest.

Let us take another example. Until modern science had
established its methods of physical investigation, Light and
Sound were known as sensations only, That is to say, they
were known in terms of the mental impressions which they
immediately produce upon us, and in no other terms what-
ever. There was no proof that in these sensations we had
any knowledge “in themselves” of the external agencies
which produce them. But now all this is changed. Science
has discovered what these two agencies are “‘in themselves ;”
—that is to say, it has defined them under aspects which are
totally distinct from seeing or hearing, and is able to de-
scribe them in terms addressed to wholly different faculties
of conception. Both Light and Sound are in the nature of
undulatory movements in elastic media—to which undula-
tions our organs of sight and hearing are respectively ad-
justed or “attuned.” In these organs, by virtue of that
adjustment or attuning, these same undulations are “ trans-
lated” into the sensations which we know. It thus appears
that the facts as described to us in this language of sensation
are the true equivalent of the facts as described in the very
different language of intellectual analysis. The eye is now
understood to bean apparatus for enabling the mind instan-
taneously to appreciate differences of motion which are of al-
most inconceivable minuteness. The pleasure we derive from
the harmonies of color and of sound, although mere sensa-
tions, do correctly represent the movement of undulationsin
a definite order; whilst those other sensations which we know
as discords represent the actual clashing and disorder of in-
terfering waves. In breathing the healthy air of physical
discoveries such as these, although the limitations of our
knowledge continually haunt us, we gain nevertheless a tri-
umphant sense of its certainty and of its truth. Not only
are the mental impressions, which our organs have been so
constructed as to convey, a true interpretation of external
facts, that the conclusions we draw as to their origin and
their source, and as to the guarantee we have for the accu-
racy of our conceptions, are placed on the firmest of all
foundations. The mirror into which we look is a true mir-
ror, reflecting accurately and with infinite fineness the reali-
ties of Nature, And this great lesson is being repeated in
every new discovery, and in every new application of an old
one. Every reduction of phenomena to ascertained meas-
ures of force; every application of mathematical proof to
theoretical conceptions ; every detection of identical opera-
tions in diverse departments of Nature ; every subjection of
material agencies to the service of mankind; every confir-
mation of knowledge acquired through one sense by the
evidence of another—every one of these operations adds to
the verifications of science, confirmis our reasonable trust
in the faculties we possess and assures us that the knowl-
edge we acquire by the careful use of these isa real and
substantial knowledge of the truth.

If now we examine the kind of knowledge respecting
Light and Sound which recent discoveries have revealed to
us, as compared with the knowledge which we had of them
before these discoveries were made, we shall find out that
there is an important difference. The knowledge which we
had before was the simple and elementary knowledge of
sensation. As compared with that knowledge, the new
knowledge we have acquired respecting light and sound, is
a knowledge of these things ‘‘in themselves.” Such is the
language in which we should naturally express our sense of
that difference, and in so expressing it we should be ex-
pressing an important truth. The newer knowledge is a
higher knowledge than the older aud simpler knowledge
which we had before. And why? Wherein dces this
higher quality of the new knowledge consist? Is it not in
the very fact that the new knowledge is the perception of a
higher kind of relation than that which we had perceived
before? There is no difference between the two kinds of
knowledge in respect to the mere abstract character of re-
lativity. The old was as relative as the new; and the new
is as relative as the old. Before the new discoveries sound

8 SCIENCE;

was known to come from sonorous bodies, and light was
known to come from luminous bodies. This was a rela-
tion—but a relation of the vaguest and most» general
kind. As compared with this vague relation the new re-
lation under which we know them is knowledge of a more
definite and of a higher kind. Light and Sound we now
know to be words or ideas representing not merely any one
thing or any two things, but especially a relation of adjust-
ment between a number of things. In this adjustment
Light and Sound, as known to sense do “in themselves”
consist. Sound becomes known to usas the attunement be-
tween certain aerial pulsations and the auditory apparatus.
Light becomes known to us as a similar or analogous at-
tunement between the ethereal pulsations and the optic
apparatus. Sound in this sense is not the aerial waves “in
themselves,” but in their relation to the ear. Light is not
the ethereal undulations ‘‘ in themselves,” but in their rela-
tion to the eye.

It is only when these come into contact with a pre-ar-
ranged machinery that they become what we know and
speak of as Light and Sound. This conception, therefore,
is found to represent and express a pure relation ; and it is
a conception higher than the one we had before, not because
it is either less or more relative, but because its relativity
is toa higher faculty of the intellect or the understand-
ing.

And, indeed, when we come to think of it, we see that all
kinds of knowledge must take their place and rank accord-
ing to this order of precedence. For, as all knowledge con-
sists in the establishment of relations between external
facts and the various faculties of the mind, the highest
knowledge must aiways be that in which such relations are
established with those intellectual powers which are of the
highest kind. Hence we have a strictly scientific basis of
classification for arranging the three great subjects of all
human inquiry—the What, the How, and the Whence or
Why. These are steps inan ascending series. What things
are, how they come to be, and for what purpose they are in-
tended in the whole system of Nature—these are the ques-
tions, each rising above the other, which correspond to the
order and the rank of our own faculties in the value and im-
portance of their work.

It is the result of this analysis to establish that, even if it
were true that there could be anything in the Universe ex-
isting out of relation with other things around it, or if it
were conceivable that there could be any knowledge of things
as they so exist, it would be no higher knowledge, but in-
finitely lower knowledge than that which we actually pos-
sess, It could atthe best be only knowledge of the ‘‘ What,”
and that, too, in the lowest conceivable form—knowledge
of the barest, driest, nakedest existence, without value or
significance of any kind. And further, it results from the
same analysis that the relativity of human knowledge, in-
stead of casting any doubt upon its authenticity, is the very
characteristic which guarantees its reality and its truth. It
results further, that the depth and completeness of that
knowledge depends on the degree in which it brings the
facts of Nature into relation with the highest faculties of
Mind.

It must be so if Man is part of the great system of things
in which he lives. It must be so, especially ifin being part
of it, he is also the highest visible part of it—the product
of its “laws” (as regards his own little corner of the
Universe) the consummation of its history.

Nor can there beany doubt as to what are the supreme
faculties of the human mind. The power of initiating
changes in the order of Nature, and of shaping them from
the highest motives to the noblest ends—this, in general
terms, may be said to include or to involve them all. They
are based upon the ultimate and irresolvable power of Will,
with such freedom as belongs to it ; upon the faculty of
understanding the use of means to ends, and upon the
Moral Sense which recognizes the law of righteousness
and the ultimate Authority on which it rests. If the
Universe or any part of it is ever to be really under-
stood by us—if anything in the nature of an explanation
is ever to be reached concerning the system of things in
which we live, these are the perceptive powers to which
the information must be given—these are the faculties to
which the explanation must be addressed. When we de-

desire to know the highest of their relations which are con-
ceivable to us: we desire, in the words of Bishop Butler,
to know ‘the Author, the cause and the end of them.”

ASTRONOMY.

ELEMENTS OF SWIFT’S COMET.

COMPUTED BY PROFESSOR E. FrisBy, U. S. NAVAL OBSERVA-
TORY, WASHINGTON.

(Communicated by Rear Admiral John Ro?gers, U. S. Navy, Superin-
tendent.]

To the Editor of SCIENCE:

The following elements of Swift’s comet have been com-
puted by Professor Frisby from three observations made
with the Transit Circle at Washington by Professor
Eastman on the nights of October 25th, November 7th
and 2oth, with these results. No assumptions about any
periodic time have been made.

Epoch—Perihelion passage.
November 7.77568d, Wash. M. T.

N= 296° 48’ 19".9

T= 42 59 15.8

g= 42 26 48.5 z

OG uta Mean equinox 1880.0
log a= 0.517002
log #= —-2".774504

The comet approached very near to the Earth on No-
vember 20th, its distance being less than +th of the Sun’s

distance. We have for the dates given:
log r log A
October 25 0.035328 9.221510
November 7 0.029018 9.141693
2 20 0.034558 9.119295

Its perihelion distance thus appears to bea little greater

. than the distance of the Earth; and its aphelion lies

just beyond Jupiter’s orbit. The periodic time from
these observations being about 2178d., or a little less
than 6 years, there can be no doubt that the preiodic
time of about 54 years is the correct one.

U.S. NAVAL OBSERVATORY, WASHINGTON, D. C.,
January 6, 1881.

THE SOLAR ECLIPSE.—The last contact of the par-
tial solar eclipse on the morning of December 31, 1880,
was seen at Harvard College: Observatory under quite
favorable circumstances. The mean of six observations
by as many different observers gives :

Last contact, December 30, 2th. 13m. 3s. Cambridge
Mean Time.

At the United States Naval Observatory the last con-
tact was observed by Prof. Hall, with a comet seeker of
4in. aperture and magnifying power of 19 diameters, as
follows : '

Last contact, December 30, 20h. 32m. 36s. Washing-
ton Mean Time. Owing to the extremely low tempera-
ture (11 degrees below zero, Fahr.) at Washington, the
images were very poor and the observation somewhat
uncertain. WCW

NEW YORK MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY.

The annual meeting for the selection of officers for the
year 1881, took place on the 31st ultimo, when the follow-
ing officers were elected: President, Romyn Hitchcock ;
Vice-President, E. C. Bogart; Recording Secretary, W.
H. Mead ; Corresponding Secretary, Benjamin Braman ;
Treasurer, W. C. Hubbard ; Curator, Dr. Deems.

This Society will shortly give a public conversazzone,
when a variety of interesting objects will be exhibited,
and an opportunity afforded to Microscopists to examine
many new forms of Microscope stands which have been
recently produced. Those who desire to assist or be
present on this occasion should address Professor Romyn

desire to know the nature of things ‘‘in themselves,” we | Hitchcock, 53 Maiden Lane, N. Y.

SCIENCE.

)

EPHEMERIS OF SWIFT’S COMET.

The following is a continuation of Mr. Upton’s Ephe-
meris, which he has corrected by observations made at
Washington up to Jan. 7, 1881. Mr. Wendell, at Har-
vard College Observatory, obtained an observation for
position on Jan. 3, and Prof. Hall is of the opinion that
the comet can be followed without great difficulty, even
after the present moon.

EPHEMERIS—WASHINGTON MIDNIGHT.

1881 R. A. Dec.
h, m. s, $ f
RU AEYS OUR s Nape cass ase « bcs Sis OP ON 2GN Nou = sonia 3! e oe +26 57.4
ie Hn CERO aca Te GRBBEG Arar cule cgoetse teers 26 23.6
BEB rise ey oier be, cl ae Gee WS, suas sesso atans aisishe ZB Abe 2
57 Satie oe G7 BAtlas k komen « 25 22.9
Teese etter isola OM GSE sae okies snot 24 556
Zu BAS Sco mAneac GRUNT Ars lett oe rahe 24 30.2
QB ues eidietsttiay dlvve,0's ORTAV OE goat ack he 24 «6.5
Se amtraas {0s nie GHEE QE ocala wei cc 23 443
pea gate eee Gen OSHS. a titan dl aee sts 23 235
QO eretacl cede tes Grete Ora. Peta ae 23 40
Zuo Shes Hoes GL 2a 1G. aya thts) ne aida +22 45.8
WASHINGTON, D. C., January 8, 1881. WIC. W.

ECLIPSE, OF THE. SUN:

The partial eclipse of the Sun which occurred on De-
cember 31, 1880, was observed with the spectroscope at
my private observatory.

For this purpose, the instrument was so adjusted that
it would present its slit radially to the limb of the Moon;
and the C line was placed in the centre of the field, in
order to see any solar protuberance that might be at the
place of observation.

At about the time of greatest obscuration, the slit was
directed on the Moon’s limb outside of the Sun, at some
distance from its western cusp. Although the limb of
the Moon was absolutely invisible in the telescope out-
side of the Sun, as ascertained before, yet, the presence
of the satellite was immediately made known in the
spectroscope, where it gave a very distinct broad grayish
band spectrum, running along the brighter spectrum of
the vicinity of the Sun.

The phenomenon became more apparent the nearer the
slit was moved towards the Sun, and it vanished from
sight when it was at a distance estimated at 3 or 4 min-
utes from the solar limb. :

As the eclipse drew nearer the end, the phenomenon
became less and less conspicuous on the western side,
and at about 9 o’clock it had almost entirely ceased.

An wnsuccessful attempt was made to observe the
phenomenon taking place at the point of last contact,
when the Moon’s limb left that of the Sun. For this

purpose the slit of the instrument was placed radially to
the point of emergence. But either because no phenom-
enon was perceptible, or perhaps rather because the slit
was not exactly at the right place, nothing was seen.

If the dull spectrum obtained when the slit of the spec-
troscope was placed in the immediate vicinity of the Sun
was due only to the solar light, which is reflected by our
atmosphere, it is plain that this spectrum would have
been as bright on the Moon as it was outside of it, since
the terrestrial atmosphere lies as necessarily between the
observer and the Moon as it does between us and the
Sun, and therefore no dark. band spectrum could have
been seen. But as it was visible, it must be inferred that
besides the spectrum given off by the solar light reflected
by our atmosphere, there must have been some other
light, either emitted or reflected, coming from a point
situated beyond the Moon, which reinforced the spectrum
given off by the solar light reflected by our atmosphere.

This ligh:, undoubtedly, can be no other than that of
the solar atmosphere, or Corona, visible during total
eclipses of the Sun.

If this reasoning is sound, the conclusions to be drawn
from these observations are that the Corona, or at least

traces of it, was visible during this partial eclipse, and

that it was much brighter in the northwest equatorial

regions than it was in the East ; and, furthermore, that in

the West it was less and less brilliant as it was observed

northward, until it was completely invisible in the north-

ern regions of the Sun. L. TROUVELOT.
CAMBRIDGE, December 31, 1889.

>

JUPEEER
OBSERVATIONS OF THE GREAT RED SPOT.

Having devoted most of my observing time this year
to the phenomene of Jupiter, I would respectfully sub-
mit a few observations of the great red spot, situated in
the south temperate zone of the planet.

Up to December 14, (the last observation on account
of cloudy weather,) I have observed forty transits of the
red spot across the central meridian. Thirty-four of these
have been complete transits, z. ¢., the preceding end the
middle and the following end being observed.

The following table contains twenty-nine of these
transits and is given in Greenwich mean time. The first,
third and fifth columns give the observed time of passage
of the preceding end, the middle and the following end
of the spot.

Columns two, four and six, contain the times by which
each portion of the spot preceded the passage of an as-
sumed meridian that has a rotation period of 9' 55™
27.508 (an ephemeris of the transits of this meridian has
been published at intervals in the English Jechanic, by
Herr A. Marth of the Royal Astronomical Society, and
is corrected tor parallax, velocity of light and phase).

The last column (7) contains the duration of transit
in minutes, that is, the interval between the passage of
the P and F ends.

TRANSIT OF JUPITER’S GREAT RED SPOT.

|
1 | 2 | 3 4 | 5 6 | 7
|
: H S
12 a § fe l&
GREENWICH m. t. S MS | SS ee Spec yO ae
1880, 2U 35 | +8 gin SE 205. | (Cra
‘a5 Sit ne ow D px os | os
ge | $2 | ge | ge | BP leeds
Bo | fo | SS | Bo | fa | Bo) sa
a Aan & Any, ic Am 1
un n * | a
| < <
2 oa | =
| h. m. lh m.| h. mt. | h.m.| h. m.\| m MW.
AUpUSt.302--2-2.25 17 21.9 | 1 34.7 | 17 45-4 | 1 r1.2 | 18 11.4 | 45.2] 49.5
September 9 ------| 15 38.9 | ¥ 26.6 | 16 02.4/ 1 03.1 | 16 26.4 | 39-1 | 47.5
ny 14 15 14.4] 55-4| ------ bs /|| Sone
aa T6_. F 16 49.4 57-2| 17 11.4 | 35.2 | 52.0
ee 18 ; 18 24.9 58.5 | 18 50.4 | 33-0] 49.0
he) 25 i 19 09.7 54-9 | 19 32.3. 32.2| 47.3
22 28 4 16 40.1 51.9 | 17 03.9] 28.1 | 484
oh tee : 18 19.5] 49-3 | 18 44.0 | 24.9 | 52.5
October 1. - Ee 14 12,0 47-5 | 14 39.0 | 20.5 | 54.7
“i eee 13 16.7 47-1 | 13 44.7] 19.1 | 56.0
‘ cae 32. IQ 00,2 49.7 | 19 27.0 | 22.9 | 54.8
uy NOs oe : 16 26.7 50.7. | 16) 55:7.| 21.7°|! 55.0
ees S85 - oS z 13 57.2 47.8 14 23.0 | 22.0} 51.8
ae heme aes | I4 40.0 46.5 | 15 03.8 | 22.7] 47.8
SO eee = i SES lees 16 17.2 AC2i|) ee ee onal eae
November 1---.-- 14 04.9] 1 O8 I 14 34.7 38.3 | 14 56.5 | 16.5] 51.6
= fe | ee a eee 12 O1.0 39-9 | 12 25.2 | 15.7| ----
“s Bees 14 52.0] 1 03.3 | 15 16.7 38.5 | 15 43.1 | 12.2] 51.1
x LO) ois 16 30.2] I 02.2 | 16 55.0 37-5 | 17 19.4 | 13.0] 49.2
. Tee 12 20.1 |*I 03.2 | I2 42.9 40.4 | 13 11.2 | 12.1] 51-1
a [fee a a 13 03.2] 1 02.8 | 13 23.0 40.0 | 13 54.8 | 11.4 | 51.4
e BM ean 14 44.2 59-1 | 15 08.7 34.6 | 15 34.0| 9.4] 49.8
a eet 2 Nee 16 25.9 54.8 | 16 47.2 33-5 | 17° 15-5 | 5.2 | 49-6
oe Vinh ea 12 18.2 53-4 | I2 39-5 32.1 | 13 06.2} 5:4] 48.0
December 2.-.---- | 14 42.9 49-5 | 15 02.2 30.2! 15 27.9 | 4.5| 45.9
Fy eee I2 12.9 48.1 | 12 32.2 28.8 | 12 57.2 | 3.8) 44.3
me F 52.0 | 14 10.0 Beaute eee Ee ee
ie 50.2 | 15 49.3 25.8 16 12.7| 2.4| 47.8
= 49-3 | 14 56.0 26.5/15 21.4] 1.1| 48.2
| |

The above table shows that the red spot varies consid-
erably in length. These variations are shown in the last
column, marked “ Duration of Transit.”

fe)

SCIENCE.

Assuming that the red spots period of rotation is 9"
55™ 378.065—which is probably very near the truth—we
find that in one minute of time 0°.604 of the surface will
pass a given meridian. Multiplying the minutes in the
last, or column 7, by .604, we get the following table of
lengths in longitude on the surface of Jupiter. The first
nine are taken trom a table of eleven transits observed by
me previous to August 30, and published in Hugdesh Me-
chanic, No. 809:

july, toy T8805. 2... 2 Hodis | MOYO @ | lopli} pn nsencabc 33°.82
Go Meir Reet Octo 26 .58 PO. on poapanEPoueRe 33.10
Pik EN cele ror itue toot 27 .78 SMT On Pcguniusen Rita emc te 33.22

on, Sk RE Gano ooo nor 32 .62 Bn ee fees Matensrehass 3I .29

US eis arene nit 30 .20 PE, .28 .87
LATTES He BN i Fearn cick 93) C2 | ING se yn metre ae Beni
JE He ae: eto eroigca 23 .86 SRY . -30 .86
Same el eects castor sichnuetsye Pyke icy alte ol hoe SS ods amon tat 29 .72

SEE y) i mee ihe Ceres: 27. (76K5|" Sacre nee neers 30 .86

HO ra oyy IS Sn Ree ae AAT c 29 .gO | DADE BS cae oheaeeh Ramen pies 3I .05
Ss Oy aaeeonb eons 28.75 © BO {AEE SER Ns ote Ra 30 .08
Pm LOMA Viera Et cxsvefatenaiolases 31 41 NE Ae Bik OOK 29 .96
OF pris tO ASA Sos ocean 29 .60 | SS A Merete © ai cecrs tera 28 .99
SAGE A le assais'2 cisuecteras els? Wi Oeess ey WS Wo cl et onac Fig) its)

Se Z Oat hero iatyelessperer3 FXO ES SR OS tis ads aSer: 26 .76

mG BOn waa sees BEL. 20" Oye Ree aero 28 .87
Oct. 7 °° BB O40 Maras Ue meena ara 29.11

On July 10 the spot had a narrow strip running from
its preceding end. To this is due the great length of the
spot on that date. This does not indicate the true length
of the spot proper, but as it was a portion of the spot,
or continuation, I give the length on that date.

It must not be supposed that, because I have carried
the lengths to two places in the decimals, I consider the
length accurate to that degree, for the observations have
been entirely eye estimations, yet they were very care-
fully made. I think a variation of one degree in the
length of the spot would be easily detected, and probably
a less amount, as the agreement between most of the
figures is too close and regular to attribute to chance.
As my method of observing may be of interest, I will
give an example from my note book. First: I watch
closely the first end of the spot, and imagine a line drop-
ped from it to the equatorial belt and observe when this
is central, for it is much easier to halve the straight edge-
like line of the equatorial belt than to halve the disk on
a parallel with the spots centre, because the spot itself
being on one side of the meridian biases our judgment
to a certain extent, while the clean edge of the equatorial
belt is free of any obstacle to interfere with our judg-
ment. Second: I compare the spaces between the limbs
of the planet and the ends of the spot, when these are
seen to be equal, of course the spots centre is in transit.
For determining the transit of the following end, the
same method as that in determining the preceding end is
followed. At the observation of each part of the spot
there exists for a short while a period of uncertainty.
The beginning of this uncertainty I indicate by zw, noting
the time. Ina minute or so I feel sure the time of true
phase has arrived, this is noted by ¢, with its time.
Shortly, | am certain the phase has passed, this I note as
c, With its time. ‘The mean of the three is taken for the
true phase,

The following is an observation of the transit of the
red spot on October 13, 1880, Nashville, #¢, taken from
my note book.

h.m.\
u7 40(h.m.

The mean of the nine observations agrees with the

observed middle transit to .1 m. This close agree-
ment cannot, of course, be expected often. How-
ever, they generally agree to within a few fractions of a
minute. Inno case have I allowed myself to know be-
forehand what time any phase shou/d occur, as this might
influence the observations.

The variations in length of the spot are not only
shown by the duration of transit, but are sensible to an
observing eye. At each observation I estimate its
length, comparing it with the breadth of the disk on the
same parallel of latitude. These comparisons show changes
in its length, as they vary from 1-3.5 to % the breadth
of the disk, but it is generally the slightest bit less than

| one-third.

The variations in breadth are compared with the great
equatorial band, but unfortunately this is a standard that
probably varies itself. The spot’s breadth is generally
slightly less than % the width of the equatorial belt,
sometimes it is probably fully half as broad as the belt,
but I have never seen it broader than that.

Changes in the width of the space between the south
edge of the equatorial belt and the north edge of the
spot, are more readily detected, as the space can be
easily compared with the breadth of the spot. This
space is generally equal to % the spot’s breadth, yet it
is sometimes nearly one-half as broad as the spot. I have
seen it diminished to one-sixth. These changes are due
either to a swelling out of the spot or a broadening of
the equatorial belt. It is more likely due to changes in
the spot. I have on several occasions estimated that the
distance between the southern edge of the equatorial
band and the southern edge of the spot was about equal
to one-third the distance from the south pole to the
equatorial belt.

There are sometimes slight changes in the general
form of the spot ; at times the ends are blunt or rounded,
again they are cigar shaped. One end has been seen
rounded while the other was very much pointed. The
sides are at times a little flattened, but are generally
slightly rounded. On July 24 the south-side was curved
or convex, while the north-side was somewhat flattened.
It is sometimes Jong and lanky and then again it is fat
and ‘chubby ’—neither of these have been carried to
extremes. Faint continuations, or trails, have been
visible, sometimes from one end and then from the
other. These have on several occasions been seen trail-
ing from both ends at once, but are not always seen
without close looking. At times the spot is a deep solid
brick color; then again it is lightish red and pale. I
have never, for certain, seen any detail on the surface of
the spot, but I have sometimes thought that there was
detail but just too indefinite for my aperture. The out-
line of the spot is always clean—no diffusion.

These observations are from notes and sketches which
I have made this year with a 5-inch Byrne refractor.

E. E. BARNARD.

NASHVILLE, TENN., December 27, 1880.

NoOTE.—The motions of the spots on Jupiter, in an
article by me in ‘“‘SCIENCE” No, 24, are referred to an
assumed rotation period of gh. 55m. 27.08s., which
should have been stated in that article. IB Ee

PENNULE’S COMET.

The following position of this comet was obtained by
ring micrometer, on December 30, 1880, Tht O1.2°m,,
Nashville m. t.:

R. A. 19h. 55m. 38.55.
Dec.+ 18° 52’ 39.6”

It is several minutes in diameter and very brightly
condensed. E. E. BARNARD.

NASHVILLE, Tenn., Jan. 2, ’81.

SCIENCE. nee

THE CAMBRIDGE OBSERVATORY.

The Annual Report of Prof. Pickering, Director -of
Harvard College Observatory, shows that the Observa-
tory has been in a most prosperous condition during the
past year, and if the same financial support is extended
to it in the future that has been so generously offered in
the past few years, it will be enabled to retain its place,
inferior to no other Observatory in the country. The
work carried on at the Cambridge Observatory consists
of observations with the 15in. Equatorial, with the Meri-
dian Circle and Meridian Photometer, together with the
attendant reductions; and in the distribution of time-
signals over the greater part of New England.

With the large equatorial, many important observa-
tions upon the satellites of Mars were made during the
opposition of that planet. Employing the method of
reducing the light of the planet, by colored glass (a
method first used at this Observatory), the number of
observed position angles of Deimos was 825 ; of Phobos,
278 ; and that of observed distances, 248. The probable
errors of one setting were respectively 0.6", 0.9° and 0.6".
Besides the micrometric work, many photometric obser-
vations were made, the results of which indicate that if
we assume the satellites to have a capacity for reflecting
sunlight equal to that of Mars itself, Deimos has a diam-
eter of about six, and Paobos of about seven miles. The
photometric observations upon the eclipses of Jupiter’s
satellites give reason to believe that by this method the
determination of longitudes may be made as accurately
as by occultations or lunar culminations. Measurements
of the light of planetary nebule have been continued.
The spectra of nebule are also observed through a direct
vision prism placed between the object glass and eye-
piece of the telescope. The planetary nebulz retain
their shape under these circumstances, obviously indi-
cating that their light is monochromatic. The difference
between monochromatic objects and ordinary stars is so
marked when thus examined, that a method of detecting
small nebule was at once suggested, and a compara-
tively short search revealed three such objects. The
most remarkable discovery, however, was in the spec-
trum of the star Oeltzen 17681, R.A. 18h. Im. 17s.,
Dec. —21° 1’, which shows that the light is concentrated
in two points of the spectrum, one in the blue, the other
in the yellow. A faint, continuous spectrum is also seen.

Between Sept. 24, 1879 and Nov. 1, 1880, observations
were made with the Meridian Circle on 277 days, the
work being confined to the determination of the absolute
co-ordinates of rog fundamental stars, in connection
with which observations of the sun and of Polaris were
made as often as possible. Up to Nov. 1, 1880, 183 ob-
servations of Polaris had been obta.ned, 131 of the Sun
and 1760 of Fundamental Stars. To furnish the means
of measuring the variation of the instrumental changes
between one culmination of Polaris and the next, a col-
limator with focal length of 206 feet was constructed
and has given excellent results. ;

A Meridian Photometer devised by Prof, Pickering has
been used in continuing the measurement of the light of
all stars visible to the naked eye between the. north pole
and the parallel of 30° south declination. Over 40,000
separate settings have already been made,,and it is prob-
able that the work will be completed in October next.
The instrument, as its name implies, is mounted in the
meridian and forms polarized images of the pole star
and the star to be observed, which are brought to equal-
ity by turning a Nicol prism.

The time signals from the Observatory are distributed
to the railroads and several prominent jewelers in Boston,
and through the railroad companies to many of the
neighboring towns. By the co-operation of the United
States Signal Service Officer a time-ball is dropped in
Boston at noon. The signals are also used in connec-
tion with those from the United States Naval Observa-

tory, and the Allegheny City Observatory for the regu-

lation of the New York time service.

During the past year, the second part of Volume XI of
the Annals of the Observatory, containing a discussion
of 25,000 photometric observations made with the great
equatorial, and Volume XII containing the results of ob-
servations made by Prof. W. A. Rogers in 1874 and
1875 with the Meridian Circle have been completed and
distributed, and six more volumes are in a more or less
advanced state of preparation. W.C. W.

WASHINGTON, D. C.

ON THE THERMAL BALANCE.*
By Pror. S. P. LANGLEY.

When the thermometer is not sufficiently sensitive for
delicate investigation of radiant heat, scientific men have
been accustomed, since the time of Melloni, to the use
of the thermopile, an instrument which, employed in
connection with the galvanometer, permits the making
of numerous important measures. It has not been im-
proved materially in the last fifty years. Meanwhile, many
problems of both high theoretical and practical interest
have arisen, which cannot be solved without a more
sensitive and accurate instrument. One of these prob-
lems is the measurement of the distribut'on of radiant
energy in a pure spectrum, when the rays have not passed
through any prism. I could obtain no accurate results
with the thermopile. I was forced to invent a more sen-
sitive instrument for this special investigation, and, having
done so, | believe it will be of generalutility. The prin-
ciple of the new apparatus has been applied by Dr. Sie-
mens and others to other purposes. I spent several
months in making it, as I hope, a useful working tool for
the physicist and the physical astronomer. It is founded
on the principle that, if a wire conveying an electric cur-
rent be heated, less electricity flows through it than be-
fore. If two such wires, carrying equal currents from a
powerful battery, meet in a recording apparatus (the
galvanometer) the index of the instrument—pushed in
two opposite ways by exactly equal forces—will remain
at rest. If one current be diminished by warming ever
so little the wire that conveys it, the other current causes
the index toswing with a force due, not directly to the
feeble heat which warmed the wire, but to the power of
the battery which this feeble heat controls.

The application of this principle is thus made: Iron or
steel is rolled into sheets of extreme thinness. I have
succeeded in rolling sheets of steel made at the works of
Miller & Parkin, Pittsburg, Penn., until it took 8000 of
them to make the thickness of an inch. Of the platina
sheets rolled at the United States Mint in Philadelphia,
fifty laid one on another do not together equal the thick-
ness of light tissue paper. Minute strips of these, 1-32 of
an inch wide and ¥ of an inch long, were united so as
to form a prominent part of the circuit, through which a
part of apowerful battery passed to the galvanometer,
Experiment proves that an almost inconceivably minute
warming of a set of these strips reduced the passage of
the electricity so as to produce very large indications on
the registering instrument. I have in the course of my
experiments thus far, found iron the most advantageous,
though other metals are still under trial. The instru-
ment thus formed is from ten to thirty times more sensi-
tive than the most delicate thermopile ; but this is almost
a secondary advantage compared with its great precision
and the readiness with which it is used. The thermo-
pile is very slow in its action. This new instrument, the
thermal-balance, takes up the heat and parts with it
again in a single second. It is almost as prompt as the
human eye itself.

With reference to its accuracy, experiments prove
that the probable error of a single measurement made

* Read before the National Academy of Sciences, N. Y., 1880

12 SCIENCE:

with the instrument can be reduced to within I per cent.
of the amount to be measured. It will register a
change in the temperature of the strips just described,
not exceeding 1I-50,000 part of a Fahrenheit degree.
When mounted in a reflecting telescope it will record
the heat from the body of a man or other animal in an
adjoining field, and can do so at great distances. It
will do this equally well in the night, and may be said,
in a certain sense, to give the power of seeing in the
dark. A more valuable proof of its efficiency is shown
in a series of measurements of the heat of the moon,
made under varied circumstances, to guard against error,
but each made in a few seconds. All these measure-
ments show that the almost immeasurably minute am-
ount Of heat from the moon can be certainly measured by
it, even with a common refracting telescope.

CORRESPONDENCE.

| The Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed
by his correspondents. No notice is taken of anonymous communi-

cations.]

To the Editor of SCIENCE :—

In a recent issue of “SCIENCE,” ‘‘B. G. W.” in a very
instructive review of Marsh’s monograph on the limbs
of the Sawranodon, speaks of Darwin’s hypothesis re-
garding sexdzgztzsm in man, as reluctantly abandoned
by that evolutionist, but as now standing some chances
of rehabilitation owing to the discovery of sexdigztism
as a normal feature of the extinct genus Sauranodon.
Probably the reviewer has not met with a treatise, in
in which a certain discovery of an embryonic peculiarity
is detailed, and which explains not only the occurrence
of sexdigztism but of polydactylism in man. As this
treatise is in the hands of few comparative anatomists, I
may refer to the facts here at some length. In figure 76
on page 137 of Schenk’s Lehrbuch der vergl. Embryo-
logie der Wirbelthiere (Vienna, 1874), is represented a
section taken flatwise through the embryonic human
paw. The chondrogenic elements of the mesoblast can
be seen arranged in strands, indicating the metacarpo-
phalangeal rays. A sixth ray seems very clearly present,
and from some of the other rays lateral processes spring,
which in the course of normal development become
merged into the main ray, no doubt.

On this head, as well as some others related to the
temporary presence of ancestral features in the exiremi-
ties of the human embryo, I have written as follows in
a series of lessons on embryology, published in the S¢.
Louts Clinical Record:

At the points where the head and tail were respectively
deflected from the trunk the peripheral protovertebrol
inasses are buiged out, as it were, and thus we have twa
anterior and two posterior ill-marked eminences com-
posed of mesoblast elements covered by the cutaneous
epiblast. These are the anterior and posterior extremi-
ties. The posterior pair is the earliest to be discovered,
but it is so rapidly outstripped in growth and develop-
ment by the anterior extremities, that the belief has be-
come current that the anterior are the first to appear,
which is incorrect.

At the time when the hand has become demarcated
from the forearm by the wrist constriction, the forearm
has not yet become separated from the arm. And in
like manner the foot is individualized before the leg and
thigh are demarcated. The fingers are developed before
the toes, and in both the hand and foot the digital seg-

mentation is preceded by a stage in which there is a fold
formed separating a main mass from the aggregate
digital mass, and which persists in the adult.

If a surface section be made of an embryonic hand or
foot before the digits are formed, we will find that the
cell-strands which constitute the basis for each meta-.
carpo-phalangeal ray are not five, as in the adult and
developed foetus, but are from seven to nine (at different
periods) in number. This remarkable fact, discovered
by my teacher, Prof. Schenk, of Vienna, points, in a man-
ner, to the descent of the pentadactylous animals, to
which man belongs, from the enaliosaurians or analogous
groups of the jurassic and triassic periods of the earth’s
history whose fossilized remnants clearly show that they
had seven or more fin rays.

To many, another and related fact will prove still more
convincing in an evolutional point of view, although
Schenk’s observation is of more fundamental importance
than the following to zoétomists :

Hensen, of Kiel, discovered that, in a human embryo
of the seventh week, the fingers and toes are provided
wzth claw-like appendages like the claws of carnzvora,
and that these structures are exfoliated to make way for
the true nails. Further, he found plantar and palmar
eminences like the fvot-fads of the dog, cat and mar-
supial carntvores.* EK. C. SPITZKA,

NEW YORK Jan. 7, 1881.

BOOKS RECEIVED.

WaS MAN CREATED? By HENRY A. MOTT, JR., PH.
D. Griswold and Company, New York.

The time is still distant when conclusions will be
drawn on the subject of the Origin of Man and many
other problems treated by the author of this book.
Material is accumulating faster than it can be arranged,
but in all probability, a thousand years hence we shall
still be without sufficient data and be diligently searching
for evidence.

The scientific man is not discouraged on this account,
but is well content to work on, adding daily to the great
store-house of knowledge, indifferent as to whether
final results are arrived at in his own day or in the
future.

There is, however, another class of persons in society,
who, finding ,that certain scientific truths, which are
undeniable, conflict with revealed religion, desire a more
speedy solution of these questions.

Dr. Mott in his book attempts to outline a middle
course for those who are forced by scientific discovery to
renounce the Biblical teachings respecting the Origin of
Man, by showing from a large number of authorities,
that a belief in the dual existence of man may be held
upon reasonable testimony.

Had Dr. Mott called his book ‘ An Introduction to
the Study of the Origin of Man and his Future Destiny,”
we think it would have been an appropriate title, and
would have commanded a large class of readers who are
unable to obtain the larger works consulted by the au-
thor; and the seventy-five illustrations, which are well
selected, would have been of considerable service to such
persons in grasping the subject which is naturally com-
plicated to those who approach it for the first time.

+

Dr. IRVINE, of Glasgow, recently exhibited and ex-
plained before the Mining Institute of Scotland, his new
safety-lamp, which is constructed to emit a loud sound
when an explosive mixture of gas and air enters it, and
thus consequently indicates fire damp in colleries.

* Development of the Human Ovum Embryo, and Feetus, S¢, Lours
Clinical Record, (Lecture VIII.) June, 1880.

SCIENCE. 13

BNC

A-WEEKLyY RECORD OF SCIENTIFIC

PROGRESS.

JOHN MICHELS, Editor.

PUBLISHED AT
229 BROADWAY, NEW YORK.

P, O. Box 8888.

SATURDAY, JANUARY 15, 1881.

NOTICE TO SUBSCRIBERS.

We consider it due to those subscribers who have favored

us with their subscriptions, previous to the publication of

our club rates, that they should have the privileges of the
list. They can therefore send us subscriptions for any or
all of the publications named at the reduced double rates,
less $4, the subscription price of ‘‘ SCIENCE.”

The lecture of Dr. George F. Beard on what he
prefers to call ‘‘ Mesmeric Trance,” delivered this week
before the New York Academy of Sciences, in the hal
of the New York Academy of Medicine, received the
close attention of an audience the majority of which,
- apparently, witnessed the experiments for the first
time.

Dr. Beard described, briefly, the various forms of
trance with which neurologists are familiar, and was
supported by eight trance subjects, who exhibited
manifestations of trance phenomena, to the equal sat-
isfaction of the lecturer and his appreciative audience.

In regard to the genuineness of Dr. Beard’s demon-
Strations we have no doubt that, substantially, they
were dona fide, but it seemed apparent that the mis-
erable objects who did duty on the occasion over-
acted their parts, and it may be even now an open
question whether Dr. Beard or his audience was
more imposed upon. Without intending to assert
that an imposition was intended or practiced on the
Occasion, it is not difficult to show; probably, that
many of the experiments might have been illusions.
Two of the so-called patients were evidently trained
performers, if not professional actors ; if merely ama-
teurs they surely missed their vocation. One of these
patients could throw himself from an erect position
to the stage, on his face, with the ease of an acrobat;
the other declaimed Shakesp2are at short notice, with
the energy and persistence of a barrel organ. Other
experiments also developed phenomena, which were
not part of the programme. The boy who ate

Cayenne pepper in a trance, believing it to be sugar,
appeared to be not inconvenienced in the least when
he returned to a normal condition. But still more re-
markable was the behavior of the patient who was
made “stone deaf.” Dr. Beard shouted in vain to
this man, a tuning fork was sounded, a bell rung, and:
even a pistol fired close to his devoted head, while the
patient remained eloquently silent and apparently
oblivious to all external sounds.

To de-hypnotize the subject, Dr. Beard, unmindful
of the fact that he was supposed to be addressing a
deaf person, said, in an ordinary tone of voice: “It’s
all right !” that being the usual phrase employed. To
the surprise of many present, the patient (perhaps not
desiring a contretemps to mar the perforrmance) took
the cue and quietly resumed his seat.

To a popular audience Dr. Beard’s theories and ex-
periments might have partaken of the character of a
revelation, but we believe that nearly all our present
knowledge of the subject dates from Braid’s book: on
Hypnotism, published more than twenty years ago.

The policy of such public exhibitions may be well
questioned ; in Vienna they have been prohibited,
and as no new truth can be gained or science ad-
vanced by repeating these experiments in such a man-
ner, why make them the subject for an evening’s
amusement before a scientific society ?

The patients selected perform their parts constantly,
and thus become finally, perhaps unconsciously, more
and more trained to elaborate their antics, so that,
even admitting the genuineness of the performance,
the experiments may be, at least so far, manufactured.

The subjects of Dr. Beard are chiefly selected from
the nervous classes of our population, and although
they may be willing to air their peculiarities before a
fashionable audience, it would appear to be a charita-
ble course to keep them from such public exhibitions
which can result only in aggravating their morbid
tendencies.

NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.

The Committee on Lectures announces that the re-
mainder of the course will embrace five lectures, to be
delivered at the new Hall of the Academy of Medicine,
No. 12 West Thirty-first street, New York City, on the
third Monday of each month.

These lectures are free to the public, but admission is
strictly confined to those holding tickets, which may be
obtained of D. S. Martin, 236 West Fourth street; W. P.
Trowbridge, School of Mines, East Forty-ninth street,
and Alex. A. Julien, School of Mines, East Forty-ninth
street.

The programme includes the following lectures : Jan-
uary 17th, Respiration, by Dr. J. W. S. Arnold; Febru-
ary 21st, The Reptilian Affinities of Birds, by Professor
Edward S. Morse; March 21, Sensation and Pain, by
Dr. Charles Fayette Taylor; April 18th, Temple Archi-
tecture of the Tenth to the Fifteenth Century, by Pro-
fessor George W. Plympton; May toth, The Organic
Elements, by Professor Albert R. Leeds.

14

HUNGER THE PRIMITIVE DESIRE.
By S. V. CLEVENGER, M. D.

A paper on Researches into the Life History of the
Monads by W. H. Dallinger, F. R. M.S., and J. Drysdale,
M. D., was read before the Royal Micrscopical Society,
Dec. 3d, 1873, wherein fission of the Monad was de-

*scribed as being preceded by the absorption of one form
by another. One Monad would fix on the sarcode of an-
other and the substance of the Jesser or under one would
pass into the upper one. In about two hours the merest
trace of the lower one was left and in four hours fission
and multiplication of the larger monad began. A full
description of this interesting phenomenon may be found
in the Monthly Microscopical Fournal (London), for
October, 1877.

Professor Leidy has asserted that the Amceba is acan-
nibal, whereupon Mr. J. Michels in the Amerzcan Four-
nal of Mzcroscopy, July, 1877, calls attention to Dallin-
ger and Drysdale’s contribution and draws therefrom the
inference that each cannibalistic act of the Amceba is a
reproductive one, or copulative, if the term is admissible,
The editor (Dr. Henry Lawson), of the English journal,
Oct., 1877, agrees with Michels.

Among the numerous speculations upon the origin of
the sexual appetite, such as Maudsley’s altruistic conclu-
sion, which always seemed to me to be far-fetched, I have
encountered none that referred its derivation to hunger.
At first glance such a suggestion seems ludicrous enough,
but a little consideration will show that in thus fusing
two desires we have still to get at the meaning and deri-
vation of the primary one—desire for food.

The cannibalistic Amoeba may, as Dallinger’s Monad
certainly does, impregnate itself by eating its own kind,
and we have innumerable instances among Alge and
Protozoa of this sexual fusion appearing very much like
ingestion. Crabs have been seen to confuse the two de-
sires by actually eating portions of each other while cop-
ulating, and ina recent number of the Scéentéfic Ameri-
can,a Texan details the Manizs religvosa female eating
off the head of the male Mantis during conjugation. Some
of the female Arachnide find it necessary to finish the
marital repast by devouring the male, who tries to scam-
per away from his tate. The bitings and even the em-
brace of the higher animals appears to have reference to
this derivation. Itis a physiological fact that association
often transfers an instinct in an apparently outrageous
manner. With quadrupeds it is undoubtedly olfaction
that is most closely related to sexual desire and its re-
flexes, but not so in man. Ferrier diligently searches the
region of the temporal lobe near its connection with the
olfactory nerve for the seat of sexuality, but with the di-
minished importance of the smelling sense in man the
faculty of sight has grown to vicarate olfaction; certainly
the “lust of the eyes” is greater than that of other spe-
cial sense organs among Bimana.

In all animal life multiplication proceeds from growth,
and until a certain stage of growth, puberty, is reached,
reproduction does not occur. The complementary nature
of growth and reproduction is observable in the large
size attained by some animals after castration. Could
we stop the division of an Amoeba a comparable increase
in size would be effected. The grotesqueness of these
views is due to their novelty, not to their being unjustifi-
able.

While it would thus seem apparent that a primeval
origin for both ingestive and sexual desire existed, and
that each is a true hunger, the one being repressible and
in higher animal life be.ng subjected to more control than
the other, the question then presents itself: What is
hunger? It requires but little reflection to convince one
of its potency in determining the destinies of nations and
individuals, and what a stimulus it is in animated crea-
tion, It seems likely that it has its origin in the atomic

SCIENCE.

| affinities of inanimate nature, a view monistic enough to
please Haeckel and Tyndall.

—_——_~<o——_—_—————.

NOTES ON THE ANATOMY OF THE ENCE-
PHALON, NOTABLY OF THE GREAT GAN-
GLIA.

By EDWARD C. Spitzka, M. D.

The anatomy of no portion of the brain is so obscure
and so imperfectly known as that of tHe so-called Thala-
mus opticus. One of the first requisites to a comprehen-
sion of its relations is the establishment of a proper
nomenclature, and the point to start from is the very
name under which the great ganglionic mass is known.
Since it is not exclusively or even in the main connected
with the optic tracts in any animal or map, and, indeed,
is in the lower sauropsidz and amphibians not connected
with them at all, the affix of¢zcus should be dropped, and
the first word involving that very uncompromising con-
ception of an elevation at the ventricular floor may be
retained: Zhalamus.

The current conception that the Thalamus is an eleva-
tion at the floor of the Zatera/ ventricle is incorrect. One
of our leading comparative anatomists will shortly review
this question, and it will therefore be but necessary for

-me to refer to the matter.

In the cat’s brain it can be clearly seen, that (aside
from membranous separations) the great mass of the
Thalamus is excluded from the cavity of the lateral ven-
tricle by the fusion of the lateral edge of the fornix with
the corpus striatum, or rather with the ependyma of that
ganglion. Consequently, the two thalami are included in
the third ventricle, which cavity on cross section resembles
an upright T, whose vertical branch descends between
the thalami, as a deep ditch, the vulva cerebré of the old
anatomists.!

Luys, who was unfortunately wedded to certain physi-
ological prejudices as to the function of the thalamic cen-
tres, restricted the term Zha/amus to the most external
mass. Meynert called all the centres in the aggregate by
that term as a collective designation. He excluded,
however, that gray mass which lines the sides of the ver-
tical slit of the third ventricle. -

Now, the third ventricle, as shown by Hadlich and
Wilder, extends over the entire thalami; it would be,
therefore, incorrect to limit the designation “central
tubular gray of the third ventricle”’ to that portion only
which lines the vertical slit. Either this Jatter designa-
tion should be extended to the entire thalamic masses or
the term thalamus should be extended to the so-called
central tubular gray.

Thus interpreted there would be, strictly speaking, but
a single thalamus, consisting of two main masses, and a
commissural part. The commissure is double, The
thalami are primitively united by the lower of these com-
missures, which I propose to term “basilar commis-
sure.”? Secondarily, and only in animals above marsu-
pials (as far as I am aware), do we find another commis-
sure produced at an advanced period of embryonic de-
velopment by apposition of the main masses. This is the
so-called middle commissure of the brain, the commzssura~
grisea, c. mollzs. J should consider the least ambiguous
designation, “‘ the ¢halamzc fusion.”

In a manner similiar to that which separates the can-
date and lenticular nuclei from each other, and which
divides the latter into subsidiary “articuli,” the chief
mass of each thalamus is separated into an inner and
outer zone. The zones are separated from each other by

1The corresponding penis cerebri of the same anatomists has, by more
fastidious colleagues, been rebaptized Ainus cerebri and later pineal
gland, now known as the epiphysis cerebri.

“Continuous in front with the doc? Jerforati antict, behind with the in-
fundibulum, Atrophic over the chiasm, it exhibits a set of transverse
fibres and gray substance elsewhere,

SCIENCE.

15

a white intercalation, and especially the outer zone (also
in part the inner) presents a beautiful alternation of
gray and white lamine.’ :

These two gray zones constitute the fundamental de-
marcation of the thalamus; they may be termed zona
grisea medtalzs and zona grisea lateralis. In animals
above the rank of marsupials we find added a round

nodular mass, distinctly prominent at the ventricular |

floor, which lies anteriorly, while in still higher groups a
second nodular prominence develops posteriorly. The
latter is known as the posterior tubercle or pulvinarium,
the former as thé azterzor or supertor tubercle. The

former designation seems the best to me, for although |
what I call the undifferentiated parent mass of the thal- |
ami is visible in sections anterior to those in which the |

anterior tubercle is reached, yet the latter, which I pro-
pose to term the azterzor nodule of the thalamus, is the
first differentiated centre reached. In man the zona
grisea medzalts is faintly seen before the anterior nodule
is reached, but the anterior nodule reaches its main de-
velopment before the zones do, and is absent where
these are most prominent. In the carnivora generally,
the anterior nodule projects far in advance of the zones.
In these animals, too, a more complex arrangement of
this nodule is found than in man, inasmuch as the ante-
rior part of the internal slope of the thalamus shows sev-
eral elevations absent in the human thalamus.

The zona grisea medéalés appears pretty equally dif-
- fused and exhibits its lamination evenly both in front and
in the middle of its course. The same applies to the
human brain for the zona grzsea /ateralzs. In the cat,4
however, the anterior part of the external zone appears
as a beautiful round compact ganglionic mass, protrud-
ing boldly into the internal capsule, and which acquires
the characteristic lamination only in posterior planes.

It is interesting to note that the ganglionic matter of
the thalamus is continuous with that ot the ventricular
nucleus of the corpus striatum (nucleus caudatus). In-
directly it is connected with the extra-ventricular nucleus,
through that great common basilar gray mass, which is
the revdezvous, as it were, of all the gray categories of
the forebrain.®

In an earlier publication (Architecture and Mechanism
of the Brain—Journal of Mental and Nervous Diseases,
1879), I have called attention to the fact that the ventri-
cular nucleus of the corpus striatum is the representa-
tive of the primordial cerebral gray, inasmuch as the
nerve cells of the embryonic and lower amphibian hemi-
sphere are concentrated immediately subjacent to the
ependyma of the latter ventricle. The majority of these
cells are crowded away from the ventricular floor by the
white substance developed in higher animals, and only a
portion of the primitive gray remains subependymal.
This is precisely what constitutes the corpus striatum.
Now the corpus striatum actually /zes the ventricle; it
not only lies at its floor! Any section transversely to
the cerebral axis and striking the forepart of the lateral
ventricle in the Hippopotamus, Horse, Dog or Cat, will
show that an attenuated part of the corpus striatum is
continued around over the ventricle, and‘ constitutes a
greater part of its roof.

A similar comparative study shows that the nucleus
lenticularis is also a subcortical development, that is, it
results from the individualization of a gray mass origin-
ally continuous with the cortex, by means of an irruption
of white masses. These at first separate fasciculi (as in

SAnd yet the latest pretended description of these Ganglia, admitted,
notwithstanding numberless glaring errors, into a journal of the standing
of ** Brain’’ (that by Dalton), has the Thalamus * homogenous.”

4 As seen in a series of transverse sections prepared by Dr. Graeme
Hammond.

5 Here meet the olfactory gray, the cortex,’ the dasis capitis nuclei
caudati, the nucleus lenticularis, the claustrum, the thalamic axial
gray, etc., etc, :

the dog) in higher animals coalesce to constitute the ex-
ternal capsule. The. segmentation of the lenticular
nucleus into three distinct ar¢zcul¢ so characteristic of
the human brain, is not found in the carnivora ; only the
outer articulus is demarcated, and that but imperfectly.

In the carnivora the damznae medullares or white
streaks of the lenticular nucleus are conspicuously absent
in the anterior half of that ganglion; in its posterior half
they appear and they rapidly increase in bulk as we pro-
ceed backwards, so that in planes where the human
lenticular nucleus is still quite massive, we have in the
dog only slight ganglionic masses intercalated between
the fibre tracts. The clawstrum is, in the carnivora, not
the thin expanded lamina found in man, but a low and
massive accumulation, hardly separated from the cortex
of the Island of Reil. This fact strengthens Meynert’s
view that the claustrum is but an individualized cortical
layer.

In conclusion I would mention as an isolated fact, and
disconnected from the main subjects dealt with in these
notes, that the anterior pyramids of the brain of the
large Ceylon fruit bat (Pteropus fuliginosus) undergo a
superficial decussation, as patent, and more so, as that
of the optic chiasm. The pyramidal tract after decus-
sating is continued as a distinct fasciculus on the lateral
aspect of the medulla oblongata. In the same brain the
fibres of the fornix can be clearly seen to terminate in
the thalamus without descending to the base of the
brain. Whether this applies to the whole of that tract,
I am not able to say.

I would also note that in the brain of a large Ara
(Ara ararauna) obtained from the Superintendent of the
Central Park Zoological Gardens, Mr. W. A. Conklin, I
found what appeared to be a thin commissure uniting the
two cerebral hemispheres in their posterior half. This

| (commissure! if the observation was ccrrect) was not,

like the Corpus callosum, a connection between the inter-
nal white matter of both hemispheres, but merely a union
of the superticial white, which in lower animals is well-
developed outside of the cortical gray.

In the carnzvora the Ganglion of Soemmering (the
Substantza nigra in the human brain) is continuous with
the innermost part of the lenticular nucleus. This fact
strengthens Meynert’s proposition, that the Ganglion of
Soemmering, like the caudate and lenticular nuclei, should
be considered as parts of one system, whose ganglia are
connected with the fibres of the pes pedunculz.

In the elephant, whose brain, both in its mass, the pre-
ponderance of the hemispheres, and the concealment from
view of the so-called “trapezium,” takes a high rank as
regards the grade of development, I had the opportu-
nity to make and examine transverse microscopic sec-
tions from the Pons Varolii. The remarkable discovery
was made that the descending (longitudinal) fibres of
the Pons are wanting. Nothing but transverse fascicult
are seen in the field. Since the former fibres constitute
part of the pyramidal tract, it follows that the tract of
the voluntary impulses, the ‘ will-tract,” must take
another course in the elephant, one which may be con-
sidered aberrant; for in all other placental animals so
far examined by myself, the pyramidal tract runs
through the Pons Varolii, as in man.

———$_$_$_$_<q——_—_—__—_—_-

On WALDIVINE.—Waldivine, Cse¢H21O20, is a neutral
principle, without rotatory power, very sparingly soluble
in cold water, freely soluble in chloroform, insoluble in
ether, and remarkable for the ease with which it is decom-
posed by alkalies.

CERTAIN OpricAL’ AND VISUAL PHENOMENA—If the
flame of a lamp is viewed through a narrow slit, the lustre
of the,flame and the effects of diffraction vary much accord-
ing as the slit is vertical or horizontal, the light being much
more considerable in the latter case. —M. TREVE.

16

EFFECT OF PRESSURE ON THE FUSION
¢ ODN re

Dr. Carnelly recently read a paper before the Chemical
Society of London, in which he thus explains the device
which he has adopted in order to secure and maintain a
vacuum in a case of ice. For the success of the experi-
ment the tension must be below 5 millimetres. The ap-
paratus consists of a wide glass tube 3 inch in diame-
ter, and about 5 to 6 feet high. This is placed in a ver-
tical position, and is connected at its upper end witha
strong glass flask placed horizontally, and surrounded
with a freezing mixture. The apparatus having been in-
verted and filled with mercury, the lower end of the tube
is closed with the thumb, and placed under the surface
of a layer of mercury about 10 inches deep. On with-
drawing the thumb the mercury sinks in the tube to the
barometric height, and a large Torricellian vacuum is
obtained, which is surrounded, as far as the flask is con-
cerned, with a freezing-mixture. A small quantity of

boiled water is now introduced, which rises to the top of |

the mercurial column, and surrounds the bulb of a ther-
mometer suspended inside of the tube. The water is
then frozen, and the depth of the layer of mercury in
which the tube stands reduced to abcut 3 ins. ; in conse-
quence the mercury in the tube sinks, and Jeaves a de-
tached column of ice with the thermometer bulb in its
centre. This column acts as a cork, shutting off the
large vacuous space aboye from the small vacuum below.
By carefully heating the tube the ice is melted round the
circumference of the plug, and a fine annular opening is
made between the ice and the inside of the glass tube.
This restores the communication between the upper and
lower portion of the vacuum. As soon as this is effected,
any aqueous vapor which is formed is at once condensed
eby the freezing-mixture, and the vacuum is kept intact.
Under these circumstances the author has made the ice
so hot that the thermometer in the centre of the cylinder
stood at 180° C. before the ice melted.
ment shown to the Society the thermometer only rose to
30° C. when the cylinder (which was too large and there-
fore too heavy) dropped off the thermometer. To prove
that the ice was really hot Dr. Carnelly has contrived and
carried out some experiments, in which the cylinder of
hot ice was dropped into a small calorimeter filled with
water; the temperature rose when the ice was intro-
duced, whereas if ordinary ice it would of course have
been lowered. He then showed two experiments
with camphor and mercuric chloride, which were per-
fectly successful. The camphor was contained in a glass
tube closed at one end and connected at the other with
a Sprengel pump. On heating the tube the camphor
melted, but on starting the Sprengel pump the camphor,

as the pressure decreased, solidified, though the heating |

was continuous. The mercuric chloride was similarly
raised many degrees above its ordinary melting-point,
when kept under diminished pressure, without liquefying ;
but on allowing the atmospheric pressure to enter, by
cutting the tube, the solid mass immediately melted and
began to boil.

THE PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY

INGTON.

OF WASH-

We are informed by Professor Cleveland Abbe that
the following are the newly elected officers of the Philo-
sophical Society of Washington: President, Dr. J. J.
Woodward ; Vice-Presidents, Dr. G. K. Barnes, Wo 125
Hilgard, J. C. Welling, William Taylor ; Secretaties, Is
N. Gill, C. E. Dutton; Treasurer, Cleveland Abbe.

In the experi- |

SCIENCE.

HYPNOTISM.

A writer in the Wedzcal Record sums up the result of
his experiences of. Hypnotism and its phenomena as
follows:

Furst. Impressions cannot be communicated to indi-
viduals in the hypnotic condition, except through the ex-
ternal senses. The mind of the operator cannot influ-
ence that of the subject by a purely mental effort. He
must either speak, write, or gesticulate to convey his
ideas,

Second. Remembrance of what has passed, during the
hypnotic state, in the mind of the subject, is very slight,
but if he is told to remember any particular thing while
so affected, he will recollect it when he awakens.

Third. A\though I pursued the method used by others,
I am satisfied that the employment of any means that
will induce a temporary abstraction of the mind is all
that is required to induce the peculiar condition.

fourth. Although the subjects seem to be entirely
oblivious to all that is going on, they are not perfectly
so. In the case of a young lady, who was told that she
was a bird, and thereupon ccmmenced to hop, her dress
became disarranged, and, although continuing to hop like
a bird, she was careful to keep her dress in its proper
condition.

Fifth, \t is not necessary that the operator nor the
one operated upon believe in the truth of hypnotism, or
the success of the trial. If the necessary conditions are
complied with the effect will follow. One case mentioned
above proves this to be true.

All the strange psychical conditions under the names
of hypnotism, magnetism, braidism, mesmerism, trance,
somnambulism, ecstacy, etc., come under the same cate-
gory, and I believe that clairvoyance and spiritualism
can be included in the list.

As far as I have seen, I have never observed contrac-
tion of muscles, areas of hypereesthesia, or other disorder
of sensibility, or any unnatural condition or action of any
part of the body in the persons affected, unless the oper-
ator should direct their attention\to themselves by speak-
ing or motioning to them ; for example, he would indi-
cate that their faces were away, that their arms or fingers
were stiff, or that they had a pain in the head, back, or
some other part. In such a case what was told them
would be the basis on which they would feel or act.

If I should venture an explanation, or more properly a
description of the phenomena of hypnotism, I would say
that they resulted from a suspension of function of the
centre for ideas in the brain of the subject, and also of
his will, while the infra-cortical ganglia remain free to
act from a reflex excitation imparted by the voice, ges-
tures, or manners of the operator,

eS ooo

THE HAMMOND PRIZE.

The American Neurological Association offers a prize
of five hundred dollars, to be known as the “‘ William A.
Hammond Prize,” and to be awarded, at the meeting in
June, 1882, to the author of the best essay on the Func-
tions of the Thalamus in Man. The conditions under
which the prize is to be awarded are as follows:
prize is open to competitors of all nationalities. 2. The
essays are to be based upon original observations and
experiments on man and the lower animals, 3. The
competing essays must be written in the English, French,
or German language; if in the last, the manuscript is to
be in the Italian handwriting. 4. Essays are to be sent
(postage prepaid) to the Secretary of the Prize Committee,
Dr. E. C. Seguin, No. 41 West Twentieth street, New
York City, on or before February 1, 1882 ; each essay to
be marked by a distinctive device or motto, and accom-
panied by a sealed envelope bearing the same device or
motto, and containing the author’s visiting card. 5. The

I, Thez

SCIENCE.

17

successful essay will be the property of the Association,
which will assume the care of its publication. 6. Any
intimation tending to reveal the authorship of any of the
essays submitted, whether directly or indirectly conveyed
to the Committee or to any member thereof, shall ex-
clude the essay from competition. 7. The award of the
prize will be announced by the undersigned Committee ;
and will be publicly declared by the President of the As-
sociation at the meeting in June, 1882. 8. The amount
of the prize will be given to the successful competitor in
gold coin of the United States, or, if he prefer it, in the
shape ef a gold medal bearing a suitable device and in-
scription.

F. T. MILES, M.D., Baltzmore.

Signed, < J. S. JEWELL, M.D., Chzcago.
E. C. SEGUIN, M.D., Mew York.

erie eee ae
CHESAPEAKE ZOOLOGICAL LABORATORY.

Dr. W. K. Brooks, Director of the Chesapeake Zoo-
logical Laboratory, established under the auspices of the
the Johns Hopkins University, in his report for 1880
states: By the liberality of the Trustees, it was pos-
sible to spend a much longer period than hitherto at the
seaside, and provided with a more liberal outfit, includ-
ing a steam launch which was built, for our use in the
last spring, at Bristol, R. I., and has proved a very
efficient auxiliary. The necessary books, dredges, and
other instruments were also provided by the University.
In addition to the opportunities afforded to three of the
members of our own academic staff, three other gentle-
men, devoted to the study of Zoology, were invited to
avail themselves of the scientific facilities of the station.

The laboratory was opened at Beaufort, N. C., on
April 23, 1880, and closed on September 30, after a
session of twenty-three weeks. It was supplied with
working accommodations for six investigators, and the
facilities which it afforded were used by the foliowing six
persons: W. K. Brooks, PH. D., Director; K. MIT-
SUKURI, PH. B., Fellow in Biology ; E. B. WILSON, PH.
B., Fellow in Biology ; F. W. KING, A. M., Professor of
Natural Science, Wisconsin State Normal School ; H. C.
Evarts, M. D.; Academy of Natural Sciences, Phila-
delphia ; H. F. OSBORNE, PH. D. Fellow of the College of
New Jersey.

Beaufort was selected for our third season’s work be-
cause it is the nearest accessible town, south of Balti-
more, which is favorably situated for zoological study.
The advantages of a location in a town are well shown
by the ‘act that the expenses of a session of twenty-three
weeks this year were considerably less than those of a
ten weeks session the year before.

The scientific advantages of Beaufort are very great;
the most important is the great difference between its
fauna and that of our northern Atlantic coast.

The configuration of our coast line is such that Cape
Hatteras, the most projecting point south of New York,
deflects the warm water of the Gulf Stream,away from
the coast, and thus forms an abrupt barrier between a
cold northern coast and a warm southern one. The fauna
north of this barrier passes gradually into that of southern
New England, while the fauna south of this barrier passes
without any abrupt change into that of Florida, but the
northern fauna-is sharply separated by Cape Hatteras
from the southern.

As the laboratory of the U.S. Fish Commission and Mr.
Agassiz’s laboratory at Newport afford opportunites for
work upon the northern fauna, it seemed best for us to
select a point south of Cape Hatteras in order to study
the southern fauna with the same advantages, and as
Beaufort is the only town near the Cape which can be
reached without difficulty, it was chosen as the best place
for the laboratory.

The situation of this town is exceptionally favorable for

zoological work, for the surrounding waters present such
a diversity of conditions that the fauna is unusually rich
and varied.

Close to the town there are large sand bars, bare for
miles at low tide, and abounding in animal life. From
these we could collect an unfailing supply of Amphzoxus,
Renilla ; Limulus, Balanoglosus, Sea Urchins, and a
great variety of Molluscs and Crustacea.

The mud flats furnished us with another fauna, and
yielded a great variety of Annelids, a new set of species of
Crustacea and Molluscs, Gephyreans, Echinoderms, and
Polyps. The large salt marshes gave us a third fauna,
and a short distance inland large swamps of brackish and
fresh water furnished still other conditions of life.

As the town is situated at the point where Gore Sound
connects Pamlico Sound with Bogue Sound we were
within easy reach-of a continuous sheet of landlocked
salt water more than a hundred miles long, and these
Sounds furnished still another collecting and dredging
ground, abounding in Corals, Gorgonias, Ascidians, Star
Fish, Sea Urchins, and a new set of Molluscs and Crus-
tacea.

As most of the shores are flat and sandy, those ani-
mals which live upon a sandy bottom are much more
abundant than those which attach themselves to solid
bodies, but the stone breakwaters at Fort Macon, the
wharves at Beaufort and Morehead City, and the large
oyster beds which are found in the sounds furnish a proper
habitat for many fixed animals, and yielded us a rich sup-
ply of Hydroids, Corals, Ascidians, Sea Anemones,
Sponges, Cirrhipeds, &c. The ocean beach, within a
short distance of the town, furnished still another fauna,
and a soil of three miles from the laboratory carried us to
a good locality for ocean dredging.

The greatest advantage of the locality is the richness
of its pelagic fauna. There are very few points upon
land which are so situated that the surface animals of
mid-ocean can be procured in abundance for laboratory
work, and as careful work is very difficult on shipboard,
a laboratory which can be furnished with a good supply
of living pelagic animals presents opportunities for work
in an extremely interesting and almost new field.

The Gulf Stream is constantly sweeping these animals
northwards along the North Carolina coast, and as the
tide sets in through Beaufort Inlet into the Sounds the
floating animals are carried with it. Such oceanic ani-
mals as Physalza and Porpzta were frequently thrown,
uninjured and in perfect health, upon the beach within
twenty feet of the laboratory, and during the season we
found nearly all the Siphonophoree which are known to
occur upon our Atlantic coast.

With all these advantages we enjoyed a mild and uni-
form climate which enabled us to work in perfect com-
fort during the hottest months of summer.

The zoGlogical resources of Beaufort have not escaped
the attention of American naturalists, and there are few
places upon our coast, outside of New England, where
more zoological work has been done. In 1860, Drs.
Stimpson and Gill spent a season in dredging and collect-
ing in the vicinity of Beaufort, Cape Lookout and Cape
Hatteras, and an account of their work was published in
The American Fournal of Sctence. Dr. Coues, who was
stationed at Fort Macon during the war, occupied him-
self for two years in collecting the animals which are found
here, and he published a series of papers on the “ Natural
Histsry of Fort Macon and Vicinity’ in the Proceedings
of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia.

These papers, which were continued by Dr. Yarrow,
contain copious and valuable notes on the habits and
distribution of the animals which were observed, and we
found them a great help to us. These two naturalists
found four hundred and eighty species of animals in the
vicinity of Beaufort. Of these four hundred and eighty,
two hundred and ninety-eight are vertebrates, and one

18

hundred and eighty-two are invertebrates. Of the verte-
brates twenty-four are mammals, one hundred and
thirty-three are birds, twenty-seven are reptiles, six batra-
chians, ninety-seven fishes and eleven selachians. Of the
invertebrates, one hundred and forty-seven are molluscs,
twenty-one are crustaceans. The list of vertebrates is
very nearly exhaustive, and we made no additions to it,
but the list of invertebrates is obviously very imperfect,
and, although we made no attempt to tabulate the species
which we observed, there would be no difficulty in en-
larging the list twenty or thirty fold.

Among other naturalists who have spent more or less
time at Beaufert, I may mention Professor L. Agassiz,
Professor E. S. Morse, Dr. A. S. Packard, Professor
Webster, and Professor D. S. Jordan. Professor Morse
procured most of the material for his well known paper
on the Systematic Position of the Brachiopoda on the
sand bars in Beaufort Inlet.

I will now attempt to give a very short statement
of some of the leading points in our own summer’s work.
Much of our time was spent in studying the devel-
opment of the Crustacea, since this is one of the
most important fields for original work upon our
southern coast. The supply of mat-rial is almost

nexhaustible, and would employ a number of students for
imany years. The life history of the Crustacea is of great
interest in itself, and the recent species are so numerous
and diversified that there is no group of animals better
adapted for studying the general laws of embryonic de-
velopment in their relation to the evolution of the group.

These considerations have led us to devote especial at-
tention to this group during this and the preceding sea-
sons. One of the published results of the first season’s
work was an illustrated account of the metamorphosis of
Sguzlla,a representative of a somewhat aberrant group
of Crustacea. During the second season, a member of
our party, Professor Birge, made a very thorough study
of the development of Pazafc@us, one of our crabs, and
the account ot his observations, with drawings, was ready
for publication several months ago. At Beaufort, we
spent most of our time upon this subject, and figured
more than cight hundred points in the development of
various Crustacea.

Among these, I wish to cail especial attention to our
observations upon the development of the Sergestidae ;
the least specialized of the stalk-eyed Crustacea. This
very peculiar group was not known to occur upon our
coast until we found a few specimens of one genus at
Fort Wool, and the same genus —Luczfer—in great
abundance at Beaufort, associated with another genus
which is also new to North America. As nothing what-
ever was known of the development of Luczfer, we made
every effort to obtain the eggs and young, and after four
months of almost fruitless labor we finally succeeded in
finding all the stages of the metamorphosis, and figured
them in a complete series of ninety-nine drawings. We
also obtained a somewhat less complete series of figures
of stages in the life history of the second Sergestid.

Our only motive in this work was the desire to fill a
gap in our knowledge of crustacean development, by
supplying the life history of a very interesting group of
animals, but the result was found to have a very unex-
pected value, since it contributes to the discussion of a
number of problems in general embryology and morphol-
ogy, and is the most significant crustacean life history
which has ever been studied.

The following are some of the more important points :

The egg undergoes total regular segmentation.

There is no food yolk, and cleavage goes quite through
the egg.

There is a true segmentation cavity.

Segmentation is rhythmical.

There is an invaginate gastrula.

The larva leaves the egg as a Nauplius, and passes
through a protozoan stage, and a schizopod stage.

SCIENCE:

_ made.

The fifth thoracic segments and appendages are en-
tirely wanting at all stages of development.

Another interesting group which was studied is the
Porcellanidae, the least specialized of the true crabs.
The adults of our American species are almost restricted
to our southern waters, although the swimming larve
are carried north by the Gulf Stream. Within the last
two years two northern naturalists have studied these
floating embryos upon the south coast of New England,
but as they were working upon stragglers so far from
home their accounts are incomplete and somewhat con-
tradictory. Our advantages at Beaufort enabled us to
contribute towards the solution of this confused subject
by raising one species of Porce//ana from the egg.

We also raised six other species of crabs from the egg,
and made drawings of the more important stages of de-
velopment. One of the species which was thus studied
is the edible crab. Its metamorphosis has never been
figured, and although it presents no unusual features, its
economic importance gives value to exact knowledge of
its life history.

Mr. Wilson also studied the development of one species |
of Pycnogonida, a group of very peculiar Arthropods,
distantly related to the spiders. As he has paid especial
attention to the systematic study of this group, and is
now engaged in describing the Pycnogonids collected in
the Gulf Stream by Mr. Agassiz, the opportunity to study
them alive in the laboratory has been a great advantage
to him.

Another important investigation is the study, by Mr.
Wilson, of the embryology of the marine Annelids. Al-
though the representatives of this large group are abund-
ant and widely distributed, little was known of the early
stages of their development until he procured the eggs
of several species and studied them at Beaufort. This
investigation has shown, among other things, that the
accepted division of Annelids into two great groups, the
Oligochzta and Polycheta, is not a natural method of
classification. The work upon the development of marine
Annelids was supplementary to an investigation which
Mr. Wilson carried on last spring at Baltimore, and
which he will continue this winter, upon the development
of land and fresh water Annelids. ©

As much time as possible was given this season to the
study of the hydroids and jelly-fish of Beaufort. The life
histories of several of them were investigated, a thorough
anatomical study of some of the most important forms
was carried on, and nearly two hundred drawings were
It is almost impossible to complete a study of
this kind in a single season, but if one or two more sum-
mers can be given to the work, we have every reason to
hope for valuable results ; for although the North Carolina
coast is the home of many species which are only found
as stragglers upon our northern coast, and of other species
which are not known to occur anywhere else, and of
some genera and families which are new to the North
American coast, this field has suffered almost total
neglect.

Nearly three months of the time of two members
of our party, Mitsukuri and Wilson, were given
to the study of the habits, anatomy and develop-
ment of Renzl/la, a compound Polyp very much like~
that which forms the precious coral, but soft and
without a stony skeleton. The animals which form the
community are so intimately bound together that the
community, as a whole, has a well marked individuality
distinct from that of the separate animals which com-
pose it. The compound individuality of Rezd/a is quite
rudimentary as compared with that of a Siphonophore,
and as there is no trace of it in the closely allied Gor-
gonias, it furnishes an excellent field for studying the
incipient stages in the formation of a compound organ-
ism by the union and specialization of a community of
independent simple organisms. With this end in view

the anatomy of the fully developed community was care-

fully studied, and the formation of a community was
traced by rearing a simple solitary embryo in an aquarium
until a perfect community has been developed from it by
budding. During the process of development the law
of growth by which the characteristics of the compound
orgahism are brought about was clearly exhibited, and
it is fully illustrated by nearly one hundred drawings.

One of the most interesting results of our work is the
explanation, by Mr. Wilson, of the origin of the meta-
morphosis of the larva of Phoronzs, a small Gephyrean
worm which lives in a tube. Several of the most noted
embryologists of Europe have studied the development of
Phoronzs, and our knowledge of its life history is due to
their combined labors. Last summer Mr. Wilson re-
viewed the subject, and added some important points,
and during the present season he has shown by the
comparison of a great number of allied forms, that the
very peculiar metamorphosis admits of an extremely
simple explanation. The adult is sedentary and confined
to its sand tube, while the larva is a swimming animal
totally different in structure. Thechange from the larva
to the adult is very rapid and violent. It occupies only a
few minutes, and during the change the larva becomes
turned wrong side out, so that what was internal is
external. Mr. Wilson’s comparison shows that Phrronzs
was originally a free animal, and that the structural
peculiarities which fit the adult for sedentary life in a
tube are of recent acquisition. The larva has, however,
retained its ancestral adaptation to a swimming life in
order to provide for the distribution of the species. There
must have been atime, in the evolution of the species,
when the adult was imperfectly adapted to a sedentary
life, and also imperfectly adapted to a swimming life, and
if the development of the individual were a perfect recap-
itulation of all the stages in the evolution of the species,
we should have, between the swimming larva and the
sedentary adult, a stage of development during which the
adaptation is not quite perfect for either mode of life.
It is clearly an advantage for the animal to pass through
this stage as quickly as possible, or to escape it altogether.
The peculiar metamorphosis enables the larva to remain
perfectly adapted to a locomotor life until the occurrence
of the sudden change which fits it for life in a tube, and
Mr. Wilson has pointed out the manner :n which the
metamorphosis has been acquired in order to bridge over
the period of imperfect specialization. This explanation
is somewhat similar to that which Lubbock has given of
the origin of the metamorphosis of insects, and we may
hope that the same method of investigation will throw
light upon the significance of other remarkable ins‘ances
of metamorphosis in the Invertebrates.

EO

THE MATERIALISTIC ORIGIN OF THE SEXES.
By ANDREW DEWAR.

Materialism is yet in its infancy. Born of human
learning, weaned in scientific research, and cradled in
the toleration of an enlightened civilization, its advent
marks an epoch in the history of humanity. Should
there be fearful shadows in its progress, where loiter
grim doubts and gloomy forebodings, these are only con-
sequent to its youth, and the necessary result of the light
from a sun whose slanting rays only reach us. But
even as the noonday sun chases away the shadows in its
splendor, so we are assured that no doctrine in these en-
lightened days will ever be accepted which does not in its
maturity shine on the human race for true knowledge
and good.

“ All knowledge is our province,” said Bacon, and we
would be less than men if any phenomenon in nature
was considered inscrutable by us, the highest outcome of
Nature. Thinking thus, one of the most curious prob-
lems is that of the sexes ; and the value of the doctrine
of Materialism is apparent when we come to question its

goes is perfectly clear and logical.

7 aaa J: 19

cause, for no natural law professes even to offer an hypo-
thesis on the subject.

It may here be asked, what is the doctrine of Mate-
rialism? As enunciated by the most advanced’ physic-
ists, it is that ‘‘ Matter contains within itself the promise
and potency of every form and quality of life.” This, it
will be correctly said, is only a statement, not a cawse—
an assumption that requires proof, not a proposition of
fact which may be demonstrated with the facility of a
problem in Euclid. Granted; but it will be admitted
that if we can show how the sexes originate from matter
and its inherent properties, Materialistin must be more
than an assertion. This without further introduction
we now propose to discuss.

Taking matter and its properties as the only founda-
tion we can build on with safety, we ask What is
Matter ?

After long years of experiment and failure we answer
this question with a firm assurance in several things :

First. The Indestructibility of Matter. This involves
both the eternity of matter and the eternity of the prop-
erties of matter. Nothing exists outside of matter.
Nothing but matter and its properties exist. Nothing
can be taken from matter, nothing can be added to it.
Whatever properties matter may have had, matter must
have now; and, vzce versa, whatever properties matter
has now, matter has always had.

Secondly, Matter is composed of elements of which
sixty-four are known. Everything consists of those ele-
ments, their combinations, changes, and_ properties.
Whatever form they take now, under similar circum-
stances they would either in the past or future also
assume.

This is the foundation of Materialism, and so far as it
Presuming that no
force exis!s outside of matter, the propertzes of matter
must account for every phenomenon in matter, and
should they fail the premises fail also, and the fact is
made certain that a force exists outside of matter, and
ergo that Materialism is dead.

What, then, are the properties of Matter ?

Here there is confusion and disagreement. Gravita-
tion, cohes‘on, and chemical attraction are the three
forces which have been popularly supposed to control
matter; but when Huxley pertinently asked what these
forces are, he found them not forces at all, but mere
names or effects of a cause or causes unknown. Even
Evolution, from which so much was expected and
preached, has fallen into disgrace, and proved to be no
force or cause either, but merely an “orderly sequence
of phenomena” from some cause or causes unknown.
How are we, then, to discover those unknown causes ?
If Materialism be true, they must exist ; but Materialism
cannot be maintained as a doctrine until we show that
they do exist and what they are.

We are thus led back to our premises again—to mat-
ter and the elements-—and we say, according to mate-
rialistic doctrine, if sex exists in matter now, sex must
always have existed. Consequently, if matter was once
a sheer chaos, or, as the most daring of physicists assert,
a universal firemist, then sex in some form or another
existed in that chaos or in that mist. As, assuredly, it
did not exist in the form of any kind of life we are ac-
quainted with, we are led to ask zf matter does not con-
tain within ztself some tnherent sexual or dual qualities.
if it does, Materialism is alive; if not, Materialism is
dead.

Matter is composed of sixty-four elements, more or
less ; are these elements all alike in kind, or can we trace
a sex or duality in them? Fortunately for our doctrine
wecan. Although stated by eminent chemists to be of
no importance, and made “solely for the sake of simpli-
city,” the elements have long been divided into metallic

_ and non-metallic classes. All the elements belong either

SCIENCE.

to one class or the other. So far success seems to favor
us. Doubt is the mainspring of progress, and this
doubting of a fact which has long been maintained to be
of 0 zmportance may be the key to open up unknown
vistas of research.

It will, however, be conceded in a matter of no import-
portance that this dual classification .may be incorrect.

This we believe to be the case, for one very important |
every classification |

element—hydrogen—is_ given in
among the non-metellic elements, while tke element
itself is admitted to be metallic ; a strange and incom-
prehensible misplacement. Whether the others are right
or not only extensive experiments will determine. With
this rectification, however, they are so far correct that
the movements of Nature are opened to us as by a mira-
cle. The lock cleared of this obstruction opens readily
to the key, and Materialism rules triumphant. We seem
premature ; how does the duality of the elements solve
all mysteries ? ;

The object of this paper was to prove the materialistic
origin of the sexes—that sex had ils origin in matter.
That matter is dual is part confirmation of it, but, like its
antitype, we must also prove dual matter to be product-
ive. Two females will not produce, neither will two
males. If a production can be formed from the non-
metallic elements only, or metallic only, then our theory
is false ; production should only ensue from the connec-
tion or interaction of opposite sexes and elements.
Chemical analysis in this particular shows that we are
right. Vo natural production can be found containing
the elements of only one class; both metallic and non-
metallic are essential to a formation. In simple labora-
tory experiments the opposite elements will combine
readily with one another, while combination cannot be
produced among the elements of either class alone.
Even the simplest natural productions, such as air and
water, are of dual combinations. Air composed of oxy-
gen, nitrogen, carbonic acid gas, hydrogen, etc. Water,
composed of oxygen and Aydrogen, is the great medium
also of life and production. Even the old e/ement, fire
or combustion, can only be produced from oxygen and
hydrogen, with other opposing dual elements. All rock
formations, crystals, stratas, are produced from combina-
tions of the dual elements. All plants and vegetation
are of dual formation and dual in sex, while all animals
are undoubtedly male and female.

Our premises being thus clear and true regarding the
elements of the matter, it follows that—as all plants and
animals are composed of the same elements, of oxygen,
hydrogen, etc., in different proportions and combinations
—the conclusion we have been seeking is inevitable,
namely, sex 2” ezther animal or vegetable life ts derived
Jrom and had tts origin tn the duality of matter.

What causes dual matter to combine and be product-
ive would lead us into another inquiry as to the origin of
life from matter; but this we reserve for future consider-
ation.— Fournal of Sczence, England.

THE MECHANICS OF BIRD-FLIGHT.

The mechanics of the flight of birds have been much
studied, and considerable space has been recently giyen
to the subject in the columns of the Luglésh Mechanic.
A new contribution has been recently made to a Silesian
Society by MM. Legal and Reichel, whose researches
deal with the relations of the size of the muscles of flight.
and the size and form of a wing-surface, to the power of
flight, and a short account may be of interest. (An ab-
stract of the authors’ observations appears in a recent
number of Vaturforscher.)

The authors begin by considering the question, whether
the absolute size of a bird is of importance with regard to
its flying power, z. e., whether two birds, which consid-
erably differ in size from each other, but are geometri-
cally similar in their whole bodily structure, fly equally

| surface extends.

well. The final answer to this is (as we shall see) a dis-
tinct negative. The authors have measured in a great
number of birds, the weight of the muscles of flight,
especially the most important of these, the great breast
muscle, as also its antagonist, the wing raising musculus
subclavzus, and compared it with the body-weight. The
ratio of weight of the right and left large breast-muscle
to the body-weight varied in the different bird species
that were examined, from 1: 3.4 in the pigeon, to 1: 10.5
in the gull. But if the bird-species are arranged accord-
ing to the amount of this quotient, neither the equally
gcod flyers come together, nor birds of equal absolute
size; ¢. g., the partridge stands pretty well forward in the
series with 1: 4.8, near and before the hawk 1: 5 ; while
the sparrow, stork, and eagle, stand with about 1: 6
near one another. Certainly, with increasing body-
weight, the muscular system concerned in flight does not
become relatively greater. The size of the muscles of
flight is only one factor in flying-power.

A second, and very important factor is the surface pre-
sented by the outspread wing (the wing-surface); and
here, again, it is not immaterial in which direction the
With equal wing-surface, a long nar-
row surface has more effect than a short and broad one,
as a long rudder is more powerful than a short one. The
authors have therefore given drawings of the form of the
outspread wings for 37 different bird species, and indi-
cated in figures the surface and length (wing configura-
tion). A calculation of the mechanical action showed
that where the ratio of the surface and length of the wing
to the size of the bird remained the same, the angle of
the wing motion and the angular velocity of the wing
also remain the same ; also that with the absolute size of
the bitd the air-resistance against the wings increases in
the fourth power, but the body-weight only in the third.
In order to compare the significance of wing-configura-
tion for flight in large and small birds, one must there-
fore introduce into the numbers, expressing wing-config-
uration, a correction according to the absolute size of the
bird, and the result of this correction the authors name
the wing-number. Now, if the various birds be arranged
in series according to wing-number, z. ¢., according to
wing-configuration, with comparative preference of the
smaller, the good flyers are found to be at one end of the
series, the bad at the other, ¢. ¢., partridge 4, wild duck
10, jackdaw 20, sparrow hawk 24, sea-swallow 50. If
we now multiply this wing-number with the ratio of the
weight of the breast-muscle to the body-weight, z. ¢.,
combine the consideration of the actual wing-configura-
tion with that of the relative size of the muscles of flight,
which are related to the effectiveness and velocity of wing-
beat, we obtain the flight number as measure of the flying
power, and this appears, ¢. g., as follows: Sparrow 0.43,
partridge 0.48, wild duck 0.98, jackdaw, 1.72, gull 2.15,
kibits 2 92, eagle 2.95, stork 2.97, sea-swallow 3.28. °

A comparison of the seri:s thus obtained with the
actual flying power, shows that the flight-number in gen-
eral rises and falls with the flying power and in particu- —
lar corresponds the better where birds of equal body-size
are considered ; and less well, the more different the size
of the birds compared, so that in larger birds the actual
flying power falls behind the comparative flight-number;-
that even appears, e.¢., from a comparison of the par-
tridge with the sparrow. Or conversely, when we com-
pare birds of equal flying power, but different size, 2. ¢.,
larger and smaller, but adult examples of a species, or
species of a genus, the flight-number increases with the
body-size. It is indeed difficult and always somewhat
erroneous, to measure the actual flying powers of differ-
ent birds together, one bird accomplishes more in dexter-
ous and quick movements, another in rapid flight in a
short time, athird in duration of flight. Still, the result
may in general (says the reporter), be regarded as cor-
rect. Now, as the flight-numbers express the combined
mechanically measurable factors of flight, it follows tha.

SCIENCE. 21

with the absolute size of the bird, some flight-hindering
element not yet therein contained, increases. We might
therefore put the question, whether equally rapid, and
(comparativeiy) equally great contraction in a small bird.
In fact, too, it is chiefly the larger birds that present the
phenomenon of soaring, a condition in which, the body
being maintained at the same height for a certain time,
muscular work is saved by special arrangements. It
soaring be an advantage, it must, in alternation with
periods of active rise by means of rudder-like mechan-
ism, be extensively utilized for the problem of a flying
machine.

i

COLOR RELATIONS OF METALS.

In a paper on the color relations of copper, nickel,
cobalt, iron, manganese, and chromium, lately read be-
fore the Chemical Society, Mr. T. Bayley records some
remarkable relations between solutions of these metals.
It appears that iron, cobalt, and copper form a natural
color group, for if solutions of their sulphates are mixed
together in the proportions of 20 parts of copper, 7 of
iron, and 6 of cobalt, the resulting I'quid is free from
color, but is gray, and partially opaque. It follows from
this that a mixture of any two of these elements is com-
plementary to the third, if the above proportions are main-
tained. Thus a solution of cobalt (pink) is complement-
ary to a mixture of iron and copper (bluish green); a
solution of iron (yellow) to a mixture of copper and
cobalt (violet) ; and a solution of copper (blue) to a mix-
ture of iron and cobalt (red), But, as Mr. Bayley shows,
a solution of copper is exactly complementary to the red
reflection from copper, and a polished plate of this metal,
viewed through a solution of copper salt of a certain
thickness, is silver-white. As a further consequence, it
follows that a mixture of iron (7 parts) and cobalt (6
paris) is identical in color with a plate of copper, The
resemblance is so striking that a silver or platinum vessel
covered to the proper depth with such a solution is indis-
tinguishable from copper.

There is a curious fact regarding nickel also worthy of
attention. This metal forms solutions, which can be ex-
actly simulated by a mixture of iron and copper solu-
tions; but this mixture contains more iron than that
which is complementary to cobalt. Nickel solutions are
almost complementary to cobalt solutions; but they
transmit an excess of very yellow light. Now, the ato-
mic weight of nickel is nearly the mean of the atomic
weight of iron and copper; but it is a little lower, that
is, nearer to iron. There is thus a perfect analogy be-
tween the atomic weights and the color properties in this
case. This analogy is even more general, for Mr. Bayley
states that in the case of iron, cobalt, and copper, the
mean wave length of the light absorbed is proportional
to the atomic weight. The specific chromatic power of
the metals varies, being least for copper. The specific
chromatic power increases with the affinity of the metal
for oxygen. Chromium forms three kinds of salts. Pink
salts, identical in color with the cobalt salts ; blue salts,
identical in color with copper salts; and green salts,
complementary to the red salts.

Manganese, in like manner, forms more than one kind
of salt. The red salts of manganese are identical in
color with the cobalt salts, and with the red chromium
salts. The salts of chromium and manganese, according
to the author, are with difficulty attainable in a state of
chromatic purity. He thinks these properties of the
metals lead up to some very interesting considerations.

:

FirE AND WATER-PRooFr Paper.—A mixture is made of
two-thirds ordinary paper pulp, and one-third asbestos.
The whole is then steeped in a solution of common salt and

alum, and after being made into paper is coated with
an alcoholic solution of sheliac.

DETECTION OF STARCH-SUGAR MECHANI-
CALLY MIXED WITH COMMERCIAL CANE-
SUGAR.*

By P. CASAMAJOR.

In a previous communication on the same subject,+ read
before the American Chemical Society at the meeting of
March, 1880, I gave several processes for the detection of
starch-sugar in commercial sugars. One of these con-
sisted in adding to the suspected sugara quantity of cold
water, scmewhat less than its own weight, and stirring
the mixture for a fewseconds. Ifstarch-sugar is present,
it will be seen in the shape of white chalky specks.

Quite lately a sample of yellow refined sugar was given
to me which was supposed to be adulterated by being
mixed with starch glucose. By applying the test just men-
tioned, there seemed to be left a few sma)l chalky specks,
which dissolved after standing a minute or two, making it
very uncertain whether any starch glucose was present.
Upon repeatedly trying the same test the result was al-
ways doubtful.

I was then lead to treat the suspected sugar by a liquid
capable of dissolving sugar, but without any solvent action
on starch-glucose. After many trials, 1 found that methy-
lic alcobol of sych density as to mark 50° by Gay-Lussac’s
alcohometer answered the purpose very well, if previously
saturated with starch-sugar, as this solution dissolves cane-
sugar, either white or yellow, very readily, but does not
dissolve starch-glucose.

Methylic alcohol at 50°, saturated with starch-sugar,
gives a solution of specific gravity = 1.25. 100 c.c. of
methylic alcohol at 50° dissolves 57 grms. of dry starch-
sugar, the volume ot the solution being 133 c.c. A solu-
tion of starch-sugar in ethylic alcohol does not answer so
well, because ethylic alcohol does not dissolve so readily
the gummy matters found in soft sugars, which are those
generally chosen for adulteration with glucose.

To test the presence of starch-sugar in a commercial
cane-sugar, the suspected sugar should, in the first place,
be thoroughly dried, as otherwise any water present will
weaken the alcohol, and enable it to dissolve more starch-
sugar. It should then be stirred for about two minutes
with the saturated solution of starch-sugar in methylic
alcohol. After this, the residue is allowed to settle, and
the clear solution poured off. The residue may then be
washed with a fresh quantity of the same solution. After
stirring again and allowing the residue to settle, there
will remain, if any starch-sugar is present, a certain quan-
tity of chalky white specks, accompanied by a fine deposit,
formed by the starch-sugar present in power of fine grains.
These finer particles are never seen when water is used
for detecting the presence of starch-sugar, as they dissolve
in water very readily. It seems probable that by using
this solution of starch-sugar in weak methylic alcohol, the
starch-sugar in an adulterated sample could be estimated
quantitatively by a process somewhat analogous to that
of Payen for estimating cane-sugar.

Not having had any occasion for such a process I have
not determined experimentally the degree of approxima-
tion obtainable in this way.

The methylic solution of starch-sugar should be poured
ona filter, after it has dissolved all it can from a commer-
cial sugar, and the residue should be washed out with the
same solution, and everything poured on a weighed filter.
After all the liquid has run off, the filter and the residue
may he rapidly washed with the strongest methylic alcohol
fuund in commerce, which tests 92%4° by Guy-Lussac’s
alcohometer, and which dissolves starch-sugar with great
difficulty.

By a dexterous use of this process it seems probable
that very approximate results may be obtained, although
what is said here is merely in the nature of a suggestion
to those who may have use for quantitative results.

* A paper read before the American Chemical Society, Nov. 4, 1880. -

t Chemical News, vol. xli., p. 221; Yournal of the Americau Chemical
Society, vol. ii., p. 1113 Sugar-Cane, vol. xii., p. 283.

22

ASTRONOMY.

THE LATE PARTIAL ECLIPSE OF THE SUN,
AND PENNULE’S COMET.

To the Editor of ‘“SCYENCE:”

Though rather late in the day, I send the results of
our eclipse observations on the morning of December 30
and 31: I observed the last contact with the diffraction
spectroscope attached to the 9% inch equatorial. The
observation was made through the C line, the slit being
tangential to the limb at the point of contact, and some-
what widely opened. Although the air was very unsteady,
and the seeing simply “horrible,” yet the instant of the
moon’s leaving the limb of the sun, as shown by the
sudden reappearance of the chromosphere, was well
marked. The time was 20" 49™ 515.0 + O*%.5, Princeton
mean time, or 20" 4o™ 16°.5 Washington mean time.

Mr. McNeill, with a telescope of 3 inches aperture and
power of about 40, lost sight of the moon at 20" 49™ 36°
P.M. T., 15 seconds earlier.

I may mention in this connection that Pennule’s comet,
as observed here December 18th, 19th and 22d, showed
?wo faint tails. One of them was directed, as usual, very
nearly opposite to the sun. The other was pointed
roughly towards the sun, though deflected some degrees
toward the north; the twostreamers made an angle of
about 150° with each other. Each was about 30’ long on
the 18th, and neither was seen after the 22d.

C. A. YOUNG.
PRINCETON, N. J., January 12, 1881.

4

To the Editor of ‘‘ SC1ENCE:”

Mr. Edwin F. Sawyer has given a very interesting de-
scription (‘“SCIENCE”’ No. 19, p. 236), of the iarge bolide
of October 25, and the special meteor stream, to which it
probably owed its origin, is one which merits prominent
notice from the fagt that it supplies fireballs of the largest
type.
aT have collected accounts of no less than 26 bolides,
seen during the interval October 26 to November 9, within
the last 15 years, which distinctly radiated from this re-
markable shower near e Arietis.

Isaw a large meteor belonging to it on Oct. 30, (g'50™),
1880. While engaged in telescopic observation I was
somewhat startled by two prolonged brilliant flashes,
which caused me to tuin quickly and I saw at oncea
very intense meteor streak projected on the sky just S. of
a Arietis. It was broken in the middle and endured 25
seconds. Its position was from 38°+18° to 26°+22°.

I received a letter the following day. from Mr. I.
Baxendell, F. R. A. S., of Southport, saying he had ob-
served a large meteor on October 29, at 9" 50™, with a
path from 31°—1%° to 16°—17°. The time agreed ex-
actly with that recorded at Bristol, and the two paths
gave the radiant at 46°+15°, which agrees fairly well with
that of the notable shower alluded to by Mr. Sawyer.

In further confirmation I may add that on November
1, Io" so™, Mr. H. Corder, of Chelmsford, observed a
bright meteor — Jupiter, which had an apparent path
from 275 +56 to 257°+43° and obviously took its de-
parture from the same radiant as that of the fireballs of
October 25 and 30.

W. F, DENNING.

ASHLEY Down, Bnistol, Engiand.

al

The “ Report of the Kew Committee for the year end-
ing October 31, 1880,” contains some interesting infor-
mation connected with an institution which is engaged
in a department of research not, as yet, covered by any
observatory in this country. The work at Kew is di-
vided into seven sections :—Magnetic observations ; Me-
teorological observations; Solar observations; Experi-
mental in connection with either of the above depart-

SCIENCE,

ments; Verification of instruments ; Aid to other Ob-
servatories ; Miscellaneous.

The Magnetic observations, embracing the automatic-
ally registered curves of the Magnetograph, and obser-
vations of Declination, Dip, Deflection and Vibration,
seem to indicate the approach of a more disturbed period
than has occurred for several years. In order to collect
more accurate data relating to this subject, arrange-
ments have been made with other magnetic observatories
in different parts of the globe to carry on a series of syn-
chronous observations, and the comparison of the results
will probably throw some light upon the laws which
govern many of these phenomena. In the Meteorolog-
ical department, self-recording instruments for the con-
tinuous registration, respectively, of atmospheric pressure,
humidity, wind (direction and velocity) and rain have

| been maintained in regular operation throughout the
| year, in addition to standard eye observations made five

times daily for the control of the automatic records.
Abstracts of the meteorological results are published
weekly.

Observations of the sun were made on 246 days, and

| on only 27 of those days was the sun’s surface found to

be without spots. A complete copy of the solar draw-
ings made by Schwabe between 1825 and 1867 having
been obtained, the Obseivatory has now in its posses-

| sion a complete record of the condition of the sun’s sur-
| face from November, 1825, to the present date.

Transit
observations of the sun have also been obtained at in-
tervals to correct the local time.

The Experimental department embraces work upon a
‘“Winstaneley’s Recording Radiograph,” for registering
the amount of radiation from the sky, a “ Glycerine
Barometer,’ a ‘‘ Standard Air Thermometer,” and various
other instruments. A large number of meteorological
instruments have been verified and their constants de-
termined for other Observatories and for instrument
makers, and facilities for study and experiment have been
furnished to a number of individuals interested in the
various branches of the institution.

The new observatory which is being erected at Nice
under the auspices of the Bureau des Longitudes, will
probably cost over two million francs. The buildings
are partly finished, and Thollon has already done some
excellent work there, in spectroscopy. Besides a small
equatorial, a meridian circle, and accessory instruments,
there is to be a large equatorial of 29.9 in. aperture and
59 ft. focal length, constructed by M. M. Henry, of the
Paris Observatory. W.C. W.

WASHINGTON, D. C., Fanuary 12, 1881.

St

THE OBSERVATORIES OF THE UNITEDSTATES,
i
CARLETON COLLEGE OBSERVATORY, NORTHFIELD, MINN.

The United States is fortunate in possessing a greater
number of well equipped astronomical observatories than
any other country in the world. These are distributed
over a wide extent of territory, ranging from the shores
of the Atlantic to the Pacific coast, and extending from
the tropical regions of the Gulf of Mexico, to Lake
Superior on the North.

A brief description of some of these Observatories and
the appliances at their command may be of interest to
our readers, and we propose on this occasion to offer
some interesting facts regarding one which has been
more recently organized.

The course of instruction in Astronomy at Carleton
College, Northfield, Minn., appears to be well organized,
and, although the College was fully organized so recently

_ as 1874, it appears to have a well equipped astronomical

observatory and every requirement for teaching Astron-
omy. We are informed by Professor W. W. Payne, in

SCIENCE.

charge of the Observatory, that the instruments in use are

a Clark equitorial telescope, focal length 103% feet, aperture
- 8¥ inches ; a portable equatorial made by John Byrne, of
New York, aperture 4.3 inches; a Howard sideral clock ;
a Howard mean-time clock, a Bond sideral chronometer,
a Fauth transit instrument with telescope of 3 inches
aperture, a Clark chronogragh ; meteorological apparatus,
and a complete set of Johnson’s large astronomical maps,
recently imported. By courtesy of Lieut. Edw. Maguire,
Chief Engineer of the Department of Dakota, the
Observatory has also the use of an excellent zenith tele-
scope for special work,

The time of the Observatory is the standard for the
State of Minnesota and parts of those States adjoining,
and given to the railroad companies daily by telegraph.
The distribution of the time of the Northfield meridian
by the aid of excellent instruments, is said to be easy,
exact and reliable. .

The object of erecting this Astronomical Observatory
appears to have been three-fold. 1. To give instruction
to undergraduate students. 2. To offer opportunities for
a complete course of study in Theoretical and Practical
Astronomy. 3. To aid in useful investigations.

$$$ nn

ON THE LIMIT OF PLANETARY STABILITY.
By PROFESSOR DANIEL KIRKWOOD.

Laplace, in his Systeme du Monde, pointed out the
limit at which, according to his estimate, the moon’s at-
traction could have retained an elastic atmosphere.*
The question of a satellite’s stability was also considered
by the late Professor Vaughan, of Cincinnati.t I have
seen no attempt, however, to obtain for the different
members of our system any definite numerical results.
In the present paper it is proposed to find the approxi-
mate limits of stability in the cases of the eight major
planets and certain of the satellites, on the hypothesis
that their primitive condition was either liquid or
gaseous.

Let 47 = the mass of the larger or central body,

m = that of the dependent planet or satellite,

x = the distance from the centre of the former to

the limit of stability of the latter,

a= the distance between their centres; then,
since the disturbing or separating force of the larger
upon the smaller mass is the difference between the at-
traction of the former on the nearest point of the surface
of the latter and that on its centre of gravity, we have

M MT pase m
Mae a (ay? (Ot
or putting @ = 1 and reducing,
m
20+ pe + 2 = lie (2)

If we adopt the masses and distances given in New-
comb’s Popular Astronomy and solve equation, (2) for
each of the eight principal planets we shall obtain the
distance from the centre of each to its limit of stability,
as given in the second column of the following table.
If, moreover, the planets, with their present masses, be
reduced to the sun’s mean density their radii as stated
in the third column are found by the forniula

7 = 430,000 ie

and the respective ratios of the limits of stability to these
radii are seen in column fourth.

* Syst. du Monde, B. IV., Ch. X. ik

+ Pop. Sci. Monthly for Sept. 1878. See also the Proc. of the A. A. A. S.
for 1856.

$~ We neglect the centrifugal force due to the planet’s rotation, as the

modification would be slight and we propose to obtain merely approxi-
mate results. .

23
TABLE,

PLANET. Ra | i | _R,

r
IG KOT Cobar cee ene 165,165 ms | 2,5146ms, 65.7
MONT CAS eGR ae eno Aaa ee 701,746 5,719.2 122.7
1B 38.08 ae ae e ,059,386 6,242.7 169.7
IGE S len b RGA ee MEE Hagar 764,900 2,951.1 259.2
5 [DTS ah Cee eo 37,354,287 42,335 882.35
VIN A cteckeatta: CEeeieraa 45,859,381 28,317 1619.48
Wa Seeteiacsis wise sa eietoe oe 2 49,512,900 | 15,209 | 3255.51
INEpHIMer ee. le sek ons | 81,663,510 | 16,009 | 5101.10

On the assumption that in each case the mean density
of the separated mass was equal to that of the central
body, the sun’s present radius multiplied by the respec-
tive numbers in column fourth will give the radii of the
solar nebula when the planets extended to their respec-
tive limits of stability. These radii are less than the
mean distances of the planets in the ratio of 1 to 1.265.
This fact may have some significance in regard to the
former oblateness of the solar nebula or the law of its
density.

The Earth and the Moon—F¥or the moon, which in
perigee approaches within 221,500 miles of the earth, the
limit of stability is about 38,000 miles. Were the
moon’s density reduced to that of the earth its radius
would be 916 miles, the ratio of which to the limit of
stability is 1: 41.6. The moon’s least distance dimin-
ished by 38,000 miles is 183,500 miles. If our satellite
originally extended to the limit, and if the moon and the
earth had the same form and density, the radius of the
latter was 165,000 miles.

The Martian System.—The diameter of Phobos, ac-
cording to Prof. Pickering, is 5.57 miles. If its density,
therefore, be equal to that of Mars the limit of stability
is about two miles exterior to the ,surface; or, if the
density be to that of the primary in the same ratio as the
density of the moon to that of the earth, the limit is less
than a mile from the surface of the satellite ; and finally
if the density were no greater than that of water the
satellite, if fluid, would be unstable, the limit being ac-
tually within the surface. Since, therefore, the satellite
could never have existed at its present distance in a neb-
ular state, it must follow, if any form of the nebular
hypothesis is to be accepted, that its original distance
was much greater than the present. Can we find a
probable cause for this ancient disturbance ? ;

If we suppose the former period of Mars to have been
very nearly one-sixth that of Jupiter the close commen-
surability would render the orbit of Mars more and
more eccentric. The planet in perihelion would thus
pass through the sun’s atmosphere, or rather through
the outermost equatorial zone of the solar nebula. This
resisting medium would not only accelerate the motion
of Mars but alsoin a much greater degree that of his
extremely small satellite. The solar mass contracting
more rapidly than the orbit of Mars would finally leave
the latter moving in an eccentric path without sensible
resistance,

Other Secondary Systems.—For the first satellite of
Jupiter the limit is 5250 miles, or 4% times the radius of
the satellite. For Mimas, the innermost satellite of
Saturn, it is less than twice the radius. The rings of
Saturn, in all probability, could not exist as three satel-
lites, the limits of stability being interior to the surface.*

The effect of preturbation in the dismemberment of
comets is known to all astronomers. The nucleus of the
great comet of 1880, which approached within less than
100,000 miles of the sun’s surface, must have had a den-

* It has been recently shown that Bessel’s mass of the ring is much
greater than the true value.

24

SCIENCE:

sity greater than that of granite, as well as a strong co-

hesive force between its parts, in order to withstand the |

tendency to disintegration during its perihelion passage.

Had the nuclus been either liquid or gaseous, or even a |

cluster of solid meteorites, the difference between the
sun’s attraction on the central and the superficial parts
would have pulled the comet asunder, spreading out the
fragments into somewhat different orbits, like the mete-
oric streams of August and November.— Zhe Analyst.

a

LETTERS TO THE EDITOR.

[The Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed
by his correspondents. No notice is taken of anonymous communi-
cations.]

To the Editor of “SCIENCE :”

I have much pleasure in enclosing you a copy of the
particulars respecting the formation of our ‘“ Field Club,”
which I believe to be the third in England of similar pre-
tentions, its original founders being Mr. Thomas Kiddie

and myself, both being science students, and by profes- |

sion analysts in manufactories on Coaly Tyne. We were
at first inclined to restrict the Club to those of our own
class, namely, Students in Chemistry, but knowing the in-
timate connection between all the other branches of
Science and that of Chemistry, we determined to throw it
open to all science students, and we are now pleased to
find that our efforts have had such a successful issue so
far, and met with such general approval throughout the
whole district, as we have at present, after two months
establishment, about Ioo members, some living as far as
fourteen miles from our centre; also having the counte-
nance of fourteen gentlemen interested in scientific edu—
cation as honorary members. The officers consist of
students or teachers (under the Science and Art Depart-
ment, London). Should you consider our club worthy a
comment in your excellent journal, which latter must act
as a valuable adjunct to the aims of scientific education,
I shall be exceedingly obliged if you will forward me a
copy to read at one of our excursions.

M. THEODORE DIXON, Hon. Sec.
5 BRANDLING PARK, Newcastle-on-Tyne, Eng.

[We print the above letter in the hope that it may sug-
gest the formation of Field Clubs in the United States. The
value of such organizations cannot be overrated, and we
shall be glad to hear that some of our subscribers have
taken the initiative in such an agreeable enterprise. “We
shall send information to those who desire it.—ED. ]

CHEMICAL NOTES.

THE Marquis TomMasst has succeeded in sending a
message across the Atlantic with two Minotto elements.

AN APPLICATION OF ACCIDENTAL IMAGES.—J. Plateau,
from some experiments performed by his son, concludes
that the apparent distance of the full moon is only 50 metres
from the observer.

PROPAGATION OF L1GHT.—M. Gouy has shown that there

is not, for a given homogeneous source, a determined |

speed of light independent of the manner in which the am-
plitude is caused to vary.

PHYLLOXERA IN FRANCE.—It appears that more than a
third part of the vines in France have been already de-
stroyed by the phylloxera.
Savoie and Jura are now attacked.

The departments of Haute |

{
|

SPONTANEOUS OXIDATION OF MERCURY AND OF METALS. |
—Mercury, as well as iron, zinc, cadmium, lead, copper, |

and tin, undergoes on exposure to the air a superficial oxi-
dation, very slight, and restricted by the difficulty of renew-
ing the surfaces and by the want of contact which results

~~

from the layer of oxide formed at the outset. For the oxi-
dation to continue this layer must be constantly removed,
as in the case with rust of iron formed in moist air, or for
each hydrocarbonate produced in distilled water.—M.
BERTHELOT.

WINEs MIXED WITH GRAPE SUGAR.—The non-ferment-
able part of the grape sugar which is introduced into wines,
if administered to dogs by way of subcutaneous injection
produced. vomiting and other morbid symptoms. A.
Schmitz claims that these residues contain a poison similar
to that present in potato-oil.

ACTION OF PHOSPHOROUS UPON HypRIOopIC AND Hypro-
BROMIC ACIDs.—With hydriodic acid and white phosphor-
ous the latter melts and becomes covered with a reddish
layer of biniodide, while phosphonium iodide sublimes.
With red phosphorous even at 100°, there is produced
merely a small quantity of phosphonium iodide. Upon
dissolved hydrobromide acid, phosphorus does not react
in the cold. At from 100° to 120°, phosphonium bromide
sublimes, but no phosphorous bromide is produced.—
A. DAMISEAU. .

THE SOCIETE D’ENCOURAGEMENT POUR L'INDUSTRIE NA-
TIONALE has awarded the Le Blanc prize of tooo francs
for the utilization of manufacturing refuse to M. Vincent,
for his process for obtaining methyl chloride from the
vinasses of the beet-root sugar manufacture. A sum of
1000 francs has also been awarded to M. J. A. Martin for
his mixtures for rendering textile articles, paper, &c., unin-
flammable. His ordinary mixture for light goods is:
Pure ammonium sulphate, 8 kilos ; ammonium carbonate,
2 kilos, (5); boric acid, 3; pure borax, 2; starch 2 (for
which may be substituted 0.400 kilo. dextrine, or the same
weight of gelatine), and water 100 kilos. A silver medal
has been awarded to M. Idrac for his process of drying
timber.

A NEw ELEcTRIC PROPERTY OF SELENIUM, AND THE Ex-
ISTENCE OF TRIBE-ELECTRIC CURRENTS PROPERLY So-
CALLED.—R. Blondlot has observed a new electric property
of selenium which may be shown by the following experi-
ment: To one of the poles of a capillary electrometer
there is attached, by means of a platinum wire, a fragment
of selenium which has been recently heated, and to the
other pole a platinum foil. If the selenium is brought in
contact with the platinum, holding it by means of an isolat-
ing handle, the electrometer remains at zero, as might be
expected from the symmetry of the circuit ; but if the selen-
ium isrubbed against the surface of the metal the elec-
trometer deviates strongly, the deviation obtained being
equal to that produced by a sulphate of copper element.

ANALYSIS OF SUPERPHOSPHATES.—In acting upon a
superphosphate made of Lone-black or from the phosphate
of Caceres with a solution of ammonium citrate of sp. gr.
I'og, there is no occasion to take into account the time of
action or the fluctuations in the temperature of the labora-
tory. In the analyses of a bone-black superphosphate, an
excess of citrate must be avoided—2o c.c. are sufficient
‘or 2 grms. of the sample. An excess of the reagent dis-
solves part of the phosphoric acid of such tricalcic phos-
phate as has escaped tiie action of sulphuric acid in the
manufacture of the superphosphate. The phosphate of Ca-
ceres is much less sensitive to the action of the citrate than
the phosphate of bone-black, and here from 20 to 100 c.c.
may be taken to 2 grms. of the sample.—L. CHEVRON.

DETERMINATION OF CHICORY IN GROUND CoFFEE.—M.
Prunier suggests the following method: Two grms, are
weighed out and separated from the finer powder by sifting
through fine silk. This powder which, as microscopic ex-
amination proves, is composed entirely of pure coffee, is
set aside. That which remains on the sieve is macerated
with a few grms. of water in a test glass. After some
hours it is thrown upon a piece of cloth stretched out and
crushed with the fingers. The grains of coffee resist the
pressure, whilst those of chicory, reduced to a paste by
soaking in water, penetrate into the cloth and adhere to it.
On diying the cloth it is easy to detach the coffee, which,
after dessication at 100° and addition of the fine powder
separated at first, gives the weight of pure coffee. The chi-
cory is calculated as loss. -

SCIENCE.

25

SCIENCE:

A WEEKLy REcorRD OF SCIENTIFIC

PROGRESS.

JOHN MICHELS, Editor.

een

PUBLISHED AT
229 BROADWAY, NEW YORK.

P, O. Box 3888,

SATURDAY, JANUARY 22, 188r.

Lieutenant Schwatka still remains a prisoner in his
quarters on Governor’s Island in New York harbor,
in consequence of his recent accident. Surrounded
by many of the trophies of his arctic experiences, he
relieves the monotony of his situation by preparing for
the press his forthcoming history of the expedition,
with which his name must be forever associated.

Any reference to arctic expeditions at this moment
- naturally recalls to mind the fact, that a brave Ameri-
can officer and his crew are now locked in the firm
embraces of the frozen solitudes of that desolate
region, heroically struggling to accomplish a service
to humanity.

The gallant De Long may be safe in winter quart-
ers with the Jeannette, waiting for the moment when
a channel may be opened for his ship’s return ; but
all past experiences in the polar regions suggest that
none but the over-sanguine should rely on such
a fortunate conclusion of the voyage, and ‘the
common instincts of humanity demand that a relief
expedition be immediately organized, to sail at the
earliest possible moment to carry succor to De Long
and his party, and to report on his condition.

There are other reasons for immediately sending
aid to the Jeannette ; the attempt to reach the North
Pole entails a colossal task, and it is perhaps vain to
expect any expedition to reach it by a sudden and un-
expected stroke of success; probably nearly four
hundred miles of sleigh travelling over rugged and
almost impassable hummocks of ice will have to be
accomplished at an average speed of six to eight miles
a day; this would occupy fifty consecutive days, and
then, if all went well, would come the return journey
with equal dangers and difficulties. Captain Nares
pronounced such travelling impossible.

Lieutenant Schwatka has, however, shown that with
better organization and different methods, the dangers

of a sleigh expedition can be much reduced.
Unfortunately, De Long has not the benefit of
“‘Schwatka’s” experiences, and has probably, like
“‘Nares,” harnessed his men to the sleigh and not de-
pended upon dogs to drag it over so many tedious miles
of dreary wastes. It would, therefore, appear obvious
that even-should the Jeannette expedition be actually
safe and intact, the arrival of new supplies and general
aid at the side of DeLong would be most opportune,
and may even lead to accomplishing the great object
in view.

Possibly some of our readers may consider that the
time for sending a relief expedition to the Jeannette
has not arrived, and that it may be prudent to await
tidings of disaster before help is sent. We have some-
what anticipated such reasoning, but would add that
the consequences of such a course in the case of the
lost Franklin Expedition led to a final outlay of
$10,000,000 by the English nation withnegative results.

We now know that had a relief expedition been
sent immediately to the rescue of Franklin, the brave
officers and crew might have been easily saved.

Lieutenant Schwatka strongly urges the necessity
of sending immediate relief to the Jeannette expe-
dition, and at our request will state in our next issue
some of the reasons which lead him to that con-
clusion. No names have been so far mentioned to
take a part in this undertaking, but we trust the
services of Lieutenant Schwatka may be secured, as
his past experience and great success would give us
hope of the best results being accomplished.

The excellent work accomplished by Lieutenant
Schwatka, an officer of the United States Army, in
arctic explorations, would appear to teach us one
lesson, that too great reliance on Naval men reaching
the North Pole unaided should not be entertained.
Sailors proverbially stick to their ships, are out of
their element on shore, and appear unable to cope
with difficulties when away from the base of their
supplies. Compare the sleigh expeditions of Nares
and Schwatka, and note how differently they were
managed, the former starting without necessary ma-
terial, making his men beasts of burden, and failing
miserably from the collapse of all his resources.

Schwatka, on the contrary, so contrived that the
necessaries of life were always available. Forty dogs
merrily drew his sleigh, and with the instincts of
a military man he carefully husbanded his re-
sources, and accomplished sufficient to make his expe-
dition a memorable success.

It seems on this account possible that the two
arms of the service may profitably combine in the
next effort to solve the great Polar problem, for the
best results may be anticipated by such united
action.

26

SCIENCE.

Mr. H. H. Warner, of Rochester, N. Y., offers a
prize of $200 in gold for the discovery of any comet
during this year. The conditions are that the comet
must be unexpected and telescopic, excepting the
comet of 1812, and the first discovery must be made
in the United States or Canada, and immediate noti-
fication telegraphed to Professor Lewis Swift, of

Rochester.
PIT eee

THE PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHING-
TON. i

At the worst meeting of the Philosophical Society of
Washington, January 8th, the following papers were
read: (1). Ona Simple Method of deriving some Equa-
tions used in the Theory of the Moon and of the Planets,
by Mr. W. F. Mc K. Ritter, of the Nautical Almanac
office. (2). On the Orbit of Swift’s Comet, by Professor
Edgar Frisby, U. S. Naval Observatory.

The elements of Swift’s Comet were computed by Pro-
fessor Frisby from three places observed by Professor East-
man with Washington Transit Circle, on the nights of
October 25th, November 7th,and November 2oth. They
werer ecorded in “SCIENCE,” January 8, 1881.

From these elements it is readily inferred that it was
moving very nearly towards the earth at the time of its
discovery (October 1oth) by Professor Swift. On No-
vember 8th it came very near the earth’s orbit, its dis-
tance from it being then about 0.069, the mean distance
of the earth from thesun. Its perihelion lies a little out-
side of the earth’s orbit, and its aphelion a little outside
of Jupiter’s orbit. Its perturbations therefore must at
some time become immense, but for a long period it
will reach its aphelion at times when Jupiter is in a remote
part of his orbit. The periodic time from the above ele-
ments is about 21784, or a little less than six years. Dif-
ferent periodic times have heretofore been deduced for
this comet. Some were deduced at II years, others at
5% years, and still others 11 + 3 = 324 years. The period
of 5% years is undoubtedly correct, the slight discrepancy
being due to insufficient data. At each alternate return
to its perihelion it cannot be seen, since the earth is then
in the opposite part of its orbit, and the sun is between
the earth and the comet. It passed nearest to the earth
about the 18th of November.

The logarithms of radii vectores and distances from
the earth on the given dates are—

log. r. log. A.
October 25tH.-....-....-- esr ate, Sete eee 0.035328 9.221510
RAOVEMIDET) FEM s i erate aes cee aalss sates 0.029018 9.141693
IVGVEMDED ZO cect craic lane oan tateene 0.034557 9.119295

No theory about any periodic time was assumed in
these calculations.
OO

THE ROCHESTER MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY.

At the annual meeting of the Rochester Microscopical
Society, held on the 1oth instant, the following officers
were elected: President, the Rev. Myron Adams; Vice-
President, H. F. Atwood; Secretary, H. C. Maine;
Treasurer, Dr. C. E. Rider.

This Society now numbers one hundred and nineteen
active members, and is stated to be ina flourishing con-
dition. We trust we may occasionally hear from the

Society, and that the record presented in our columns’

may show that a real advance in microscopical studies
has been accomplished,

ELECTRIC FISH.*
By THE MARCHIONESS CLARA LANZA.

The science of electricity and magnetism is clearly ac-
knowledged to be an acquisition belonging to modern
times, we might say to the last century. To the ancients
this great world of ideas was completely unknown, with
the exception of a few individual facts which must have
appeared to them in a very puzzling light, as philosophy
and physics were in a wholly powerless and perplexed
condition.

If we pass over the electric phenomena of our own
atmosphere, thunder and lightning, the only facts con-
cerning electricity known to the ancients were the capacity
of the magnet to attract iron, the attractive power arising
between two pieces of amber when rubbed together, and
the peculiar effects exhibited by electric fish,

One of the most numerous and common fish found in
the Mediterranean Sea is the torpedo, which is able to
eject electric shocks of such force that a man’s arm has
often been lamed by them. The knowledge of this fact
can be traced back to the farthest antiquity. These fish
are so often seen on the coasts of Italy and Greece that
the effects produced by them must have led to the first
experiments, made, in all probability, by fishermen and
people directly inhabiting the coasts of these countries ;
at all events, the knowledge of this fact is much older
than that relating to the magnet and amber, which cer-
tainly extends to a remote pre-historic period.

The Greek designation of these words, magnet and am-
ber, contains no etymological relations to the qualities
peculiar to these bodies, which must have appeared
so mysterious to the ancients. The Greek term for mag-
net, Heraklea and Magnetzs, denotes simply a stone
found in the City of Heraklea or Magnesia—while the
Greek word for amber, E/ectron, relates merely to the
color of the substance. In this way it is evident that
both the magnet and amber were long known to the
Greeks and named by them before their peculiar physical
properties were ascertained.

With the torpedo it is different. The ancient Greeks
called it Warhe, and the verb derived from this substan-
tive signifies to stun. In the same way the Latin name,
Torpedo, denotes something which produces numbness
and lameness. In the fish markets of Marseilles and Tou-
lon, the torpedo is called ¢orpz/le, and thus the word tor-
peur, (derived from the Latin Zorfor), is used in French
to denote numbness and stupefaction. The Italian
fishermen call it Zremola on account of the characteristic
trembling sensation which its touch produces. In the
Arabic patozs of the Maltese, Haddazla is the name
applied to an electric fish.’ Thus we find that every-
where the name of the torpedo is etymologically allied to
its electric capacity, which makes it evident that the
knowledge of its peculiarities extends to the most distant
period in the construction of language. ;

Perhaps of no more recent date is the practical and
most interesting use which the inhabitants of the Medi-
terranean countries made of the torpedo’s electric capa-
city, thus undoubtedly representing the beginning of
electro-therapeutics. Asa certain cure for headache one
or more living torpedos placed upon the affected part was
strongly recommended—just as at the present time a con-
stant galvanic current is used as the most reliable manner
of curing the same complaint.

Aside from this, the numerous passages in the Greek
and Roman authors which relate to the torpedo and its
effects are mostly of a subordinate interest. Their lan-
guage, like ours, struggles to express that numb and
trembling sensation occasioned by the electricity proceed-
ing from the fish, and which we ourselves are unable to
describe and simply designate by the name of “electric

* Translated for ‘‘ Science ’’ from the German of Prof, Franz Boll.

1 John Davey, Anatomical and Physiological Researches. London,
1839. Vol. I.

SCIENCE. | 27

shock.” We are informed that the fish makes use of this
power to defend itself against its enemies, and also as an
offensive weapon towards its victims. This means of de-
fense, however, does not only take effect in consequence
of immediate contact, but likewise when the fish is quite
removed from all association with any object. It is well
known that the shock has been clearly felt, as if by close
contact, (harpoons, etc.), by fishermen who drew towards
land a net in which was found a torpedo. When a
stream of water was poured from a vessel upon the fish,
the men’s hands were powerfully affected, just as the
frightful, stunning sensation is conveyed to the unsus-
pecting angler through the medium of his fishing line.

It is greatly to be regretted that the most celebrated
natural investigator of antiquity did not turn his attention
to torpedoes. Among the writings which are attributed to
Aristotle only very brief mention is made of this extra-
ordinary creature. This is the more to be wondered at
inasmuch as Aristotle speaks of the torpedo in reference
to something else, and appears to have a complete knowl-
edge of its anatomy. He, therefore, knew that it belongs
to a viviparous species, a fact which, in our own time,
has been disputed by Cuvier. :

Aristotle having failed to give any explanation of the
torpedo, it is, perhaps, not astonishing that the rest of an-
tiquity did not enter upon the subject. Indeed, among all
the writings of the ancients which treat of the torpedo,
there cannot be discovered the slightest attempt to throw
any light upon this wonderful phenomenon and reduce it to
purely natural causes. The best and most intellectual
article found among ancient writings in regard to this
point is from the pen of the Greek physician, Galenus,
who lived in Rome about 200 years after Christ. He
compares the effects of the torpedo to the working of the
magnet.?

Besides the torpedo there is another electric fish be-
longing to the realm of antiquity, and in exact opposition
to the former, a fresh water fish. In reality, in all the
rivers of Africa, especially the Nile and its neighboring
streams, from mouth to source, one of the most common
fish to be met with is the Malopternus electricus, the
electric Silurus. In size and electric power this fish
is almost equal to the torpedo, but in other respects
it is totally unlike the wonderful salt water creature. It
is exceedingly interesting to observe that in this fish the
same etymological relations and the same remedial repre-
sentations in regard to nervous maladies, are found as in
the torpedo. Unfortunately we are not acquainted with
the name applied to it by the old Egyptians, neverthe-
less, we know that from the invasion of 638, which laid
the foundation of the Arabian language and culture to
the present day, the fish has been called raédah or elec-
tric fish. The Jesuit Godigno, who in the sixteenth cen-
tury undertook a journey to Abyssinia, tells us that the
Ethiopians made use of this fish for the purpose of “cast-
ing out devils,” or in other words to cure nervous dis-
eases.

A passage in Athenzus where the AZarfe is represented
among the Nile fish proves that the Greeks were aware
that electric fish were found there. Yet, the electric Nile
fish appears to have been unintentionally identified by
them with the Mediterranean torpedo, as mistakes and
misconceptions concerning them extend far into the past
century.

Abd-Allatif, a physician of Bagdad who lived in the
twelfth century, writes as follows in his history of Egypt:
“Among the animals peculiar to Egypt, we should not
forget the fish called raddah for the simple reason that
while it lives no one can touch it without experiencing an
irresistible trembling sensation. This impression is ac-
companied by cold, numbness, a crawling feeling and
lameness in the limbs, so that it is impossible for one to
remain in an upright position or hold anything. This ex-
oe SE ee es eee
' 2 Galeni opera ed. Kuehn.—Vol. VII1., p. 421.

traordinary stupefaction extends through the arm, the
shoulder and entire side, however superficial and light the
contact with the fish may have been. A fisherman as-
sured me that when such a fish is caught in a net, the
effect produced is distinctly felt by the man, although his
hand does not touch the fish, and even remains some dis-
tance from it. When dead the raddah loses this power.
People accustomed to bathe in water where this fish is
found say that the mere breath (?) of the raddah is suffi-
cient to produce such numbness of the body that the per-
son affected can scarcely keep from sinking.” ®

We see that the knowledge of Arabian physicians con-
cerning the Malopternus amounts to about the same
thing as that obtained by the Greek and Roman authors
in regard to the torpedo, and in both cases we are unable
to discover the slightest trace of any inclination to analyse
the mysterious effects of the fish.

Four hundred years later than the celebrated Arabian
physician, the Jesuit Godigno, journeyed on the Nile. He
speaks of the electric silurus in exactly the same terms as
his predecessors, and it would be useless to mention it
here in any special way, if his travels did not refer for the
first time to a fact, which as an unconscious example in
the study of animal electricity, deserves a place in the
history of science. Godigno says:

“The Ethiopians assert (I myself have never witnessed
the fact) that if a living electric fish is placed upon a heap
of dead fish and allowed to move among them, the fish
thus brought in contact with it are seized with an inward
and inexplicable trembling to such an extent that they
actually appear to be alive. The cause,” he continues,
“may be authenticated by those who investigate the
nature of things in general, and I leave it to them to de-
cide as to what this force of motion communicated by
the electric fish to the dead ones may be.”

The next author upon this theme, Francesco Redi, dis-
tinguished alike as physician, natural investigator and
poet, gloriously opens the path for earnest and systematic
research.

The beginning of this new era in the history of electric
fish can be ascertained even to the day and hour. On the
14th of March, 1666, a freshly caught torpedo was
brought to Redi, and to the examination and dissection of
this one specimen we owe his masterly physiological
and anatomical description of the torpedo, which no anat-
omist can read without the utmost admiration, and which
casts the collected wisdom of antiquity into complete
shade.

The most important advancement attributed to Redi, is
the discovery of peculiar symmetrical organs situated on
each side of the torpedo’s head. To-day they go by the
name of “electric organs,” although the discoverer called
them falciform muscles or bodies, and they were known
to anatomists as such for more than a century. “It
seemed to me,” said Redi, in relating his experiments,
“‘as if the painful sensations caused by the torpedo had
their origin in these two falciform muscles more than in
any other place.” Thus the first hints were given to-
wards the correct understanding of the fish, and the inex-
plicable strength of its electric power pointed out together
with its peculiar organs.

Redi’s suppositions were soon proved to a certainty by
Lorenzini, one of his pupils, who in the year 1678 pub-
lished an anatomy of the torpedo, From that period
until the present day, the study of electric fish has always
taken the anatomy, physiology and physics of the falci-
form organs for its subject, and by this means has been
able to obtain deeper and more extensive knowledge.
Now the torpedo is no very mysterious object, but at the
same time the following question remains more or less
open to discussion : How is this wonderful electric organ
made, and how is the creature able to produce such ex-
traordinary effects by means of it?

3 Relation d’Egypte, par Abd-Allatif, médecin Arabe de Bagdad. Tra-
duction de M., Silvestre de Sacy, Paris, 1810,

25." SCIENCE.

The first attempts at solution given in regard to this in-
quiry were of a singularly mistaken character, It has’ al-
ready been said that Redi designated the electric organs
as falciform muscles or bodies. This unintentional com-
parison of the electric organs with muscles has played an
important, though by no means wholesome, part in the his-
tory of electric fish.

With that broad comprehension, that massive reproduc-
tion which subordinate intellects often accord to the mas-
ter’s ideas, Redi’s direct successor and pupil, Lorenzini,
plainly indicated the electric organs as “ falciform mus-
cles,” thus entirely overlooking his teacher’s apt precaution
on this point. And from Lorenzini every anatomist of the
following century calls these organs distinctly, and unal-
terably muscles, although this appellation is completely
voluntary, and notwithstanding the fact that the electric
organs, outwardly as well as inwardly, are totally unlike
muscles of any kind.

If these organs, however, weve muscles, it was but
natural that effects analogous with those produced by
muscles should be ascribed tothem. Theré followed, con-
sequently, a purely mechanical theory respecting the action
of the organs, which was best set forth by Borelli, in 1685.
His opinion was that they contracted several times in quick
succession, thus giving a number of violent repulsions to
the object brought in contact. This, he thought, was fol-
lowed by a cramp or spasm of the same nature as that
experienced by a person who strikes his elbow sharply.
This theory met with universal applause. The most prom-
inent natural investigators, Linné, Réaumur and Hallere
agreed perfectly with Borelli, and we may say that until
the year 1750 the idea was recognized everywhere as the
only possible and complete explanation ever given.

From the time of Redi to Réaumur the investigators
limited their experiments to the electric fish most accessi-
ble to them—the torpedo. The electric silurus of Africa
is scarcely mentioned, and if spoken of at all, it is merely
to mistake it for, or identify it with, the torpedo. How-
ever, during this period the third and last known electric
fish was discovered—the electric eel (gymenotus electricus)
—found in South American rivers, and possessing the
greatest bodily dimensions and the most powerful electric
properties of any.

The first news of the gymnotus reached Europe about
the year 1672. Later, Alexander von Humboldt made the
fish famous, by describing in his book of travels, its fierce
struggles with horses. Humboldt tells us that the name
“ Arimua,” given to the eel by the South American In-
dians, denotes a creature that deprives of motion. Healso
states that in former times the gymnotus was used as a
cure for paralysis. We may judge of the tremendous vio-
lence of the eel’s electric discharges by quoting a fact re-
lated by Humboldt.

“On one occasion the inhabitants of a certain town were
obliged to turn a street in an opposite direction because
the electric eels had increased to such an extent in the
rivers that every year they killed quantities of mules which
were accustomed to wade through the water heavily
laden.”

However, before more complete information concerning
the gymnotus could reach Europe, the youthful study of
electricity had undergone an important modification which
was destined to bear direct influence upon the theory re-
garding electric fish. The discovery of the Leyden jar
(1745), spread through the world, and attracted universal
attention. Experiments were made in all parts of the
country, and everyone was anxious to learn the effects of
this new natural force by his own experience and _sensa-
tions.

Under these circumstances, it is not surprising that
Adamson, who had studied the effects of the Leyden jar
in Paris, on becoming acquainted with the electric eel in
Senegal (1751), compared the latter with the former, and
remarked that the shocks could be communicated like
electricity through an irgn wire. Dutch investigators state

the same thing in regard to the gymnotus. Its electric
shocks can be conducted through a chain composed of
several persons, but it is maintained that only the electric
conductors transmit the shock, while insulators can touch
the fish without any effect being perceived.

Nevertheless, serious doubts arose concerning the cor-
rectness of this new theory, until the year 1772, when John
Walsh, an Englishman, irrefragably demonstrated the
electric nature of the torpedo in a series of experiments
given at La Rochelle, the old Huguenot town, in the
house of Marie Seignette, the discoverer of Seignette salt.
He showed simultaneously that the moment the shock
occurs the back and stomach of the torpedo are differently
situated in regard to the electricity. Walsh considers the
“ falciform muscles” as mere electric machines that are
put in motion at the will of the animal. Soon afterward this
old term disappeared from science altogether, and the more
appropriate appellation of electric organs was bestowed
initsstead. A few years later, this same Walsh undertook
to make a series of experiments upon the gymnotus, sev-
eral living specimens having been brought to London at
his request. The conformity of the shocks was perfectly
demonstrated by an electric discharge; indeed, Walsh even
succeeded in causing the gymnotus to emit distinct electric
sparks. Cotemporary with these experiments by Walsh,
the correctness of his theory was demonstrated in another
interesting manner. The eminent natural philosopher,
Cavendish, sunk under water a wooden board covered on
each side with tin foil, and succeeded in imitating the elec-
tric phenomena of the torpedo as demonstrated by Walsh,
by simply connecting the two sides of the board with a
Leyden battery. He thus showed the curved current of the
water, which completely agreed with that produced by the
electricity of the torpedo. Finally he demonstrated the
fact that a hand thrust into the water, although not com
ing in contact with the fish, must yet be affected by the
electric shock proceeding from it in proportion to the dis-
tance.

Investigators received a fresh impulse through the dis-
covery of galvanic electricity and electro-magnetism. It
remained to be shown, however, that the electricity pro-
duced by the fish really possessed all the distinguishing
features of galvanic electricity. Alexander Bolta planned
numerous experiments, which, unfortunately, were never
put into execution. At the instigation of the celebrated
chemist, Sir Humphrey Davy, however, one of his brothers,
John Davy, performed extensive experiments in Malta
upon the torpedo. He observed the diversion of the mul-
tiplicator, the magnetizing of a steel rod, visible sparks,
decomposition of water and nitric acid, the reduction of
iodine from iodide of potassium, and, in short, the complete
register from a galvanic current to the production of physi
cal effects. He also maintained, in regard to the direction
of the galvanic current, as observed in the torpedo, that at
the time of the shock the creature’s back is positively sit-
uated the same as the stomach. It is to the efforts made
by the first natural philosophers, Faraday, Schoenbein,
Colladon, E. du Bois-Reymond, and others, that science
owes the explanations given in regard to the two other
electric fish, the gymnotus and the silurus. It has been
ascertained that the current in the former flows from head to
tail, while in the latter it takes an exactly opposite direction. ~~

Anatomists were no less prompt by exploring the con-
struction of the electric organs than natural philosophers
were the physics. The most distinguished names in ana-
tomical science consecrated themselves, so to speak, to
this particular theme. An account of these investigations
can be read in the works of John Hunter, Etienne Geof-
froy, St. Hilaire, Pacini, and Max Schultze. The descrip-
tions of the torpedo and silurus written by Paolo Savi and
Th. Bilhary are masterpieces of anatomical research. Un-
fortunately, we are still without a like description of the
gymnotus.

In order to obtain a thorough comprehension of the elec-
tric organs and their action, it is necessary to have re~

SCIENCE.

course to a third science, experimental physiology, to
unite anatomy with natural philosophy, and thus make
the result of one answer for the other. Whoever wishes
to acquire a clear idea of the three electric fish and their
organs must moreover keep the following points always
uppermost in his mind :

The electric fish already mentioned as_ representing
three different species are by no means individual fish
as may, perhaps, be supposed. On the contrary, they
are in form very similar to those belonging to the same
families. For instance, the electric eel resembles, to an
extreme degree, the common eel, the electric silurus
those of its species inhabiting our rivers and lakes, and
the torpedo all others of the ray family. Ancient
zoology associated the electric fish with others of its kind
which possessed no electric capacity whatever.

In each of these fish the electric organ is constructed
in a unique and highly interesting manner. The most
simple of all is that of the torpedo. This creature pos-
sesses two electric organs, symmetrically placed, one on
each side. Like all fish of the ray species it is distin-
guished by a flat, broad body. However, while the ray
usually has a somewhat pointed head, the torpedo has a
remarkably wide one. ‘This arises from the fact that in
addition to the gills on each side of the head, the falci-
form electric organs discovered by Redi are also situated
there. They extend along the body, one directly under
the skin of the back, the other beneath the skin of the sto-
mach. The dimensions of these organs is especially
worthy of attention. In a torpedo of ordinary size (35
centimetres in length) the electric organ is about 11 cen-
timetres long, the greatest width 5 centimetres, and the
height, (the skin being removed from the back and sto-
mach), 2 centimetres. When prepared, the organ is of
the consistency and not unlike a gray, semi-transparent
gelatinous substance.

In the electric silurus, as in the torpedo, a symmetri-
cally placed organ is found on each side. It lies on the
skin which assumes the thickness of a tough rind. With
the exception of the extremities, (the tip of the head and
tail), the substance of these organs is embedded in the
entire skin of the fish. In the middle line of the back and
stomach the two organs come in direct contact, so that
we may say the body of the silurus is placed in a tube
composed of the two electric organs which unite like two
gutter tiles. From the ends of this tube the head and
tail of the fish alone project, as the skin covering them
contains no electric substance. When in a fresh condi-
tion the material composing the organs presents very
much the same appearance as that of the torpedo. The
size is considerable, the weight being more than one-
fourth that of the entire body.

The electric organs of the gymnotus are by far the
most extensive. This creature, the largest specimen of
whose species measures the length of a man and the
thickness of a good-sized thigh, does not possess the
same strongly-developed, muscular constitution which
distinguishes our common eel. Almost the whale body
from the back of the head to the end of the tail is com-
posed of electric organs which are situated along the ver-
tebral column in two pairs, a large one above and a small
one beneath. Above these organs, and aside from the
vertebral column, are the muscles (reduced to very in-
significant dimensions) which move the powerful body.

This, then, is the way in which the electric organs are
distributed among the three fish, without causing them
to differ in any other respect from the remainder of their
species. Yet we must make one limited addition to this
assertion.

The electric organs are all distinguished by an extra-
ordinary abundance of nerves. To each individual organ
is attached an immense number of nerve-fibres, which
complete it in some remarkable way yet to be spoken of,
and which must be regarded as a constituent part of the
organ itself, :

29

It is, of course, understood that these nerve-fibres
(called electric nerves) are entirely wanting in the organi-
zation of the non-electric fish, and nothing analagous with
them can be found in the latter’s entire construction.

But we must go a step further. It is a fixed law, gov-
erning the entire vertebrate world, that every nerve shall
spring from a particular point, or rather from a certain
group of cells belonging to the organs of the nerve
centres (brain_and spinal cord). This group is called the
centre of origin of these nerves. In many cases the in-
dividual nerve-fibres have been successfully traced to the
separate ganglion groups (nerve cell groups) of a like
number of cells. In these cells single apophyses have
been well authenticated and make it evident that the lat-
ter become nerve-fibres in course of time; or rather the
nerve fibres have been carefully observed as to their po-
sition in regard to the centre of origin, and thus warrant
the conclusion that they unite with the apophyses of the
ganglion cells.

In the torpedo the powerful electric nerves (five on
each side) unite with the centre organ between the brain
and spinal column, and form their centre of origin on
each side in a massive lobe first described by Alexander
von Humboldt, and called the lemon lobe on account of
its peculiar color. Now the name has been changed to
electric lobe.

A close microscopic examination has shown that this
consists entirely of ganglion cells and nerve fibres. These
excited special interest for some time among anatomists,
as it was discovered that their dimensions much sur-
passed those of all other nerve fibres and ganglion cells.

Then Bilhary disclosed the fact that in the electric sil-
urus, the numberless nerves which support the electric
organ originate from the subdivision of a single collossal
nerve; also that this enormous fibre springs from an
equally large ganglion cell visible to the naked eye, which
lies imbedded in a substance of its own not far from the
upper end of the spinal column, and forms the electric
centre of origin of the fish.

The nerves which constitute the electric organ of the
gymnotus are unusually great in number (200—230 on
each side). They are situated along the entire length of
the spinal column and at each interval between two dorsal
vertebra a nerve projects. Their origin has not yet been
explained in a satisfactory manner, but the most probable
supposition is that they spring from certain large ganglion
cells which are found along the spinal column.

The above details show us that the three electric -fish
possess specific electric organs and electric nerves, and
that the construction and situation of the central organs
differs exceedingly from that of the nerves. If a closer
examination is made, it will be seen that the three electric
organs harmonize perfectly with the essential parts of
their structure, and that an anatomical principle binds
them together.

This anatomical principle is nothing more than the con-
struction of the electric organs out of many thousands of
perfect, symmetrically arranged layers, the so-called elec-
tric strata in which the nerves terminate. Apart from
these layers there is no other demonstrable formula of the
electric organs except blood vessels and tissues.

In the electric organ of the torpedo which lies between
the paralleled flat portions of the back and stomach, the
electric layers are arranged in a corresponding manner.
They are distinguished by having a rough and a smooth
side. The latter is turned towards the back, the former
towards the stomach. The rough side is so called from
the countless nerve ramifications which spread themselves
on all sides, and at last become so diminutive that they
appear to melt into the electric layers composed of a
pithy, albumen-like substance. It is very much to the
point that these thousands of layers should be identified
as a summary of electro-motory units, and that the con-
struction of each individual layer should be investigated
in order to discover, if possible, the reason for the phen-

30

SCIENCE.

omenon. The fact that the nerves of the layers turn to-
wards the negative flat portions of the fish when the shock
takes place, appeared to give a by no means unimportant
hint, and to indicate a relation existing between the dispo-
sition of the nerves and that of the shock.

With the gymnotus all the different proportions har-
monize completely with each other. The electric layers
are situated vertically along the body. A rough and a
smooth side are quite distinct. In the latter numberless
nerves are embedded. The rough side corresponds to the
tail and the smooth side to the head. The same relations
exist here as in the torpedo. With the gymnotus, how-
ever, the current goes from head to tail, and when the
electric shock takes place, the nerves of the strata turn
towards the negative pole of the fish.

This harmony between the nerves and the electric
shock leads us to suppose that an effectual and universally
recognized law is in question. Yet, while the whole
world was expecting a like agreement in regard to the
malopternus, anatomical and physical investigations of its
organs showed a considerable difference existing between
them and the two first described. It is true that electric
layers are there, and also situated vertically along the
creature’s body. The nerves too, unite in the same man-
ner and on the same side with the layers. But a rough
and a smooth side cannot be distinguished here as in the
torpedo and gymnotus, for the layers are not furnished
with so great a number of nerve fibres. On the contrary,
one single nerve fibre is implanted in the centre and cor-
responds with the tail of the fish, as is the case of the
gymnotus. When the shock takes place, however, this is
the positive and or the negative pole.

So far, no one has succeeded in removing this contra-
diction, and it is more than questionable whether the re-
semblance agreed upon by Pacini between the anatomical
and physical relations of the electric layers, has really the
value of a natural law or not. In laying down this prin-
ciple an important anatomical fact is first to be considered
which later years have succeeded in ascertaining. — It has
been said that the electric layers in the gymnotus possess
an identical microscopical structure, which formerly
was only known in the torpedo and silurus. Un-
fortunately, the gymnotus has not been successfully exam-
ined in regard to this, therefore the question concerning
the physical explanation of the electric shock has not
much significance.

These are the facts which Anatomy is capable of pro-
ducing in regard to the structure of the electric organs,
especially in all that concerns their relations with the ner-
vous system. No less great is the number of facts ascer-
tained by the means of experimental physiology, which
first facilitated a thorough understanding of the electric
organs and their import.

Before these facts are individualized, however, it is nec-
essary to make a few general remarks concerning the
physiology of the nervous system.

All the organs contained in the body with which those
springing from the centre of origin of the nervous sys-
tem unite, can be divided into two classes, according to
the relation they bear to the nervous system.

First class: Organs with centripetal nerves (commonly
called organs of sense). These are characterized by the
fact that any influence directed upon them through the
nerves is conducted to the organs of the nervous system,
and there produces a sensation. This perception arises
from the peculiar nature of the nerve in question. If the
retina of the eye is attracted by anything, a sensation of
light is produced, which influences the nerves of the skin.
Any excitation of the organs of hearing causes a resound-
ing sensation upon the nerves. Indeed, it is not even
necessary that the corresponding organ should be directly
attached at all. The same effect is produced when the
nerve of the organ is cut and any excitation made upon the
end which does not unite with the central organ. If the
influence is directed upon the periphery end of the divided

nerve which is attached to the organ of sense, no natural
effect will be perceived, :

Second class: Terminal organs with centrifugal nerves.
These do not include the organs of sense, according to any
general signification. The muscles, the organs of sight,
and probably the glands, all belong here. These organs,
differing so completely one from the other, bear the same
general relations towards the nervous system. Every in-
fluence which effects the centre of origin, particularly one
made at will by the animal in question, is conducted
through the nerves of the final organ, and, according to
the nature of the latter, produces muscular contraction.
Here also it is unnecessary that the excitation should pro-
ceed directly from the centre of origin. The same effects
appear when the nerve of the terminal organ is cut and
any influence directed uponit. If the excitation be directed
upon the end of the nerve in connection with the centre of
origin, there is no result. _

It is to the second class that the electric organs belong.
They are under the direct influence of the nervous system
just as other organs are. They are distinguished merely
by their peculiar properties, and they develop under the
controlling power of the nervous system just as the mus-
cles contract and expand by the same means.

The proof of this analogy has been given in a most
complete manner by Physiology, and we will repeat it
here, or, rather, give the principal details.

If the centre of origin of a muscle or any group of mus-
cles is excited in an animal, contraction takes place. A
needle thrust into the electric strata of a living torpedo
occasions an immediate electric discharge.

The same results are observed when the excitation is
made upon the end of the nerve connected with a muscle
instead of the centre of origin.

If an electric excitation is selected for this experiment it
will be seen that every irritation, however superficial, made
upon the nerve proceeding from the muscle is followed by
an electric shock.

If the irritations follow each other in quick succession
the convulsions will be reduced to an apparently invaria-
ble state of contraction which Physiology designates as
tetanus. The same excitations directed upon the electric
organ produce the same effects. This is called electric
tetanus.

It has been observed that a short space of time G}y")
elapses between the nerve excitation and the beginning of
the convulsion during which the muscle remains perfectly
motionless. When the nerve of the electric organ is irri-
tated the same result occurs.

The muscles and electric organs of animals which have
been poisoned by strychnine produce very interesting ef-
fects. The nature of this poison consists (as physiology
expresses it), in a condition of complete reflex irnitability,
that is, a state in which every excitation experienced by
the nerves of sense is answered by some modification of
the centrifugal nerves. If, for instance, we take a rabbit
or frog which is poisoned by strychnine and shake it vio-
lenily or scream loudly, you will see that spasmodic mus-
cular contraction follows each successive irritation. If an
electric fish is poisoned by strychnine the same contrac-
tions are produced, followed by an electric discharge.

We must not forget to mention that the electric organs
as well as the muscles are liable to fatigue, and that just
as the latter lose their capacity for contraction after con-
tinuous labor, so are the former incapable of producing
any effect after repeated discharges have taken place.

The immense number of concordant facts which can be
proved in regard to the electric organs and muscles, has
induced physiologists to assume that an especial anatom-
ical and physiological relation exists between them, and
many consider the electric organs to be muscles re-
modelled in some peculiar way in which the development
of electricity instead of force, and the electric shock
instead of contraction, had taken place by some inexpli-
cable means. Such suppositions as these stand in direct

SCIENCE, Y rrr err" 31

opposition to physiological, chemical and anatomical
facts, which recognize a vast difference between these two
organs. i :

The preference certainly is due to that mode of investi-
gation which casts away all artificial proofs of closer re-
lationship between the muscles and the electric organs
and regards them as independent and well-authorized
members. Indeed, the reasons given by those who ac-
cept an especial connection between the two are formed
merely upon the identity of this relationship with the ner-
vous system, and not upon any similarity to the actual
qualities peculiar to these organs. Such grounds, how-
ever, can have no importance as regards this question and
can bring the electric organs no nearer to the muscles than
to the organs of sight or any other organ.

But are the electric organs really so independent and
isolated in the animal organization? And to what freak
of nature are we indebted for the remarkable fact that
out of all the fish that’ exist, only three are distinguished
by such powerful weapons? The theory of evolution
which now rules organic natural sciences, always has a
well-tried domestic remedy on hand for such questions.
This theory discovers in formations like the electric or-
gans which stand out as prominent exceptions to the con-
formity of animal construction, the distinct remains of a
powerfully developed species belonging to an early epoch
of geology, or, in other words, the solitary descendants of
a once mighty family. According to this, the appearance
of the electric organs in the three fish may seem much
less mysterious, and the great anatomical diversities
which exhibit themselves throughout these organs are,
perhaps, best explained by the idea that in these fish we
have before us the final issue of a powerful species, the
last remains of an extinct family. That such a family
did exist is proved by the discovery of a petrified torpedo
in the tertiary strata of Monte Bolca in Verona.

But also in the cotemporary creation the electric organs
are not so badly devoloped as a superficial observer
might suppose. In the non-electric torpedo of the Kaja
species, and also those which are found in the African
rivers, peculiarly constructed organs have been discovered
from which an electric effect cannot be produced, but
which, nevertheless, are composed of strata similar to the
real electric organs. These may, perhaps, be correctly
termed electric organs, which are either newly constructed
or else in a state of incomplete development.

The materials so far collected by anatomists and phy-
siologists concerning this question do not admit of a
marked decision. The organs present many things in
commen with the electric strata it is true, but beyond
this turther investigation seems useless,

In one other respect physiology is likewise unable to
give a definite explanation. E. du Bois-Reymond was
the first to ask how it happened that the electric fish was
not the victim of its own power, and how it was possible
that the forcible electric discharges which killed other
fish completely escaped the electric fish itself.

Now we all know that the nerves and muscles of the
electric fish are excited by means of an electric current,
anda much stronger one is perhaps required here than
would be the case with other animals, yet the electric
discharges, although of such force, produce no effect
whatever upon the fish. There are influences at work
here, which so far we are unable to understand. We
naturally suppose, however, that the great dimensions of
the nerve fibres and ganglion cells, together with a vig-
orous nervous system, have a great deal to do with it.

In conclusion, it still remains for us to put the great-
est question of all concerning the electric fish, namely :
what is the origin of that powerful force which at the
creature’s will so suddenly appears and departs with
equal rapidity, and also what is the precise mechanism
of the electric organs?

It has been shown that as science advanced, the elec-

tric fish became better known and more carefully studied. |

The ancients were only aware that such a thing’ existed ;
a conviction, however, that they were incapable of
analysing further. Redi taught us to consider the elec-
tric organs as the apparatus which produced the effect.
E. du Bois-Reymond put.the electric strata in place of
the electric organs, by proving that the mechanism of
the latter was reduced to the combined action of count-
less analogous electro-motory monads, which was ex-
plained by the supposition that when the electric dis-
charge occurred one part of the strata was positive and
the other negative. By this means our question con-
cerning the mechanism of the electric organs is partially
answered. It now remains to ask what takes place

-when the electric discharge occurs ?

Now, in order to imitate the effects produced by the
malopternus, it requires the strongest electro-motor ap-
paratus .hat can be found. The natural philusopher
must use the most powerful batteries contained in his
labratory, if he wishes to approach the force which
causes 2% pounds of water, salt and albumen to come
under its influence.

The muscles are no less powerful. The dorsal mus-
cle of a frog consists of a few grammes of water, salt
and albumen, and yet it is capable of lifting a kilometre.
In both cases an extraordinary development is apparent,
mechanical in one and electric in the other.

Hitherto, no one has succeeded in correctly establish-
ing the facts relating to this mechanism. Nevertheless,
concerning the electric eel there is an accepted theory,
which explains all the phenomena in a most satisfactory
manner.

This theory originated with Colladon and E. du Bois-
Reymond, and states that in the electric substance, dis-
polary electro-moter molecules are to be found.

In a state of repose they turn towards their pole in
every direction, or else in two ways opposed to each
other, so that the electricity arises on all sides and dis-
appears without. When the shock takes place, the pos-
sitive pole is turned quickly towards the electric organ
whence the positive current proceeds.

OBSERVATIONS ON ICE AND ICEBERGS IN THE
POLAR REGIONS.*

By Lieutenant F. SCHWATKA, U. S. N.

The formation of icebergs, from the terminal fronts of
glaciers, has long been a disputed point among savants,
some contending that they derive their origin from the
corroding action of the water,undermining their_projecting
faces until the weight of the superincumbent mass, act-
ing as a lever, overcame the cohesive power of the glacier
along some line of least resistance, when the berg fell in-
to the sea, and was wafted away by the tide-winds and
currents. Others can only account for such huge moun-
tains of ice by supposing that the glacier, slowly crawling
into the sea, and plunging beneath a denser fluid, has a
bouyant effort or tendency to rise, which, at last, becomes
so great that it overcomes the line of least resistance,
near the shore, and the berg rises into the sea, to be at
the further mercy of its uncertain elements. Both theor-
ies have proved to be correct. The former generally oc-
curs where currents, heated in more temperate climes, pour
their tepid waters northward, and expend their thermal
forces in contending with the vast packs, floes, and
glaciers of ice, that obstruct their polar march, and whose
fast corroding action has the slow glacier only a com-
paratively short time in its embraces before it has
undermined it. The latter results where the chilled
waters from the Pole have but little effect upon the
glacial front ; and slow as it is, it has time to crawl into
the sea to give forth its mighty masses. Sometimes both

* Read before the Nationel Academy of Sciences, New Ycrk, 1880,

<

32 SCIENCE.

kinds of forces are acting simultaneously upon the same
glacier, and while huge icy mountains are at intervals of
centuries rising from their dense, watery bed, other and
smaller ones are more frequently dropping from its sea—
ward face, for those formed by dropping are far smaller
than those which rise into the sea, as the following
diagram will serve to show. Although about seven-
eighths of an iceberg is submerged, it must not be
inferred that, when its height has been determined, seven
times that height is its depth below the sea level. If of
a tabular shape, this proportion becomes more nearly
correct ; but if of a pyramidal or conoidal cross section,
which is far oftener the case, the lineal proportions of
height to depth approach each other more closely, while
the volumes, necessary to hydrostatic equilibrium, remain
invariable. Their great height, as compared with their
breadth shows that these lineal proportions do not obtain
beneath the sea level,or the mass, if homogeneous could not
be in a state of stable equilibrium, and would topple over,

% Seer

MRT IR,

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iia

which sometimes happens when the conditions of equili-
brium are disturbed by the unsymetrical decrease of its
different faces.

The height of bergs, estimated or measured by various
Arctic voyagers, varies greatly. During the warm
months of summer, when they are most frequently en-
countered by navigators, they are often surrounded by a
hazy mist, due to the condensation of the surrounding
moisture by their chilly faces, and the effect is to make
them appear much higher than they really are, and to
render estimates of their height particularly unreliable.

As about seven-eighths of an iceberg is under water,
the curious spectacle, which has often been seen in Polar
latitudes, of these monsters ploughing their way against
a rapid current, loaded with heavy pack-ice, and in the
very teeth of a strong gale of wind, can be readily under-
stood on the theory that the surface current is shallow,
and the drifting colossus is only obeying the mandates of
a deeper and more powerful agent.

cy

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IS

Vi

ON HEAT CONDUCTION IN HIGHLY RAREFIED
ADR
By WILLIAM CROOKES, F.R.S.

The transfer of heat across air of different densities
has been examined by various experimentalists, the gen-
eral result being that heat conduction is almost inde-
pendent of pressure. Winkelmann (Pogg. Ann., 1875,
76) measured the velocity of cooling of a thermometer
in a vessel filled with the gas to be examined. The diffi-
culty of these experiments lies in the circumstance that
the cooling is caused not only by the conduction of the
gas which surrounds the cooling body, but that also the
currents of the gas and, above all, radiation play an im-
portant part. Winkelmann eliminated the action of cur-
rents by altering the pressure of the gas between 760
and 1 millim. (with decreasing pressure the action of gas
currents becomes less); and he obtained data for elimi-
nating the action of radiation by varying the dimensions
of the outer vessel. He found that, whereas a lowering
of the pressure from 760 to 91.4 millims. there was a
change of only 1.4 per cent. in the value for the velocity
of cooling, on further diminution of the pressure to 4.7
millims. there was a further decrease of 11 percent., and
this decrease continued when the pressure was further
lowered to 1.92 millim.

About the same time Kundt and Warburg (Pogg. Ann.,
1874, 5) carried out similar experiments, increasing the
exhaustion to much higher points, but without giving
measurements of the pressure below 1 millim. They en-
closed a thermometer in a glass bulb connected with a
mercury pump, and heated it to a higher temperature
than the highest point at which observations were to be
taken ; then left it to itself, and noted the time it took to
fall through a certain number of degrees. They found
that between 10 millims. and 1 millim. the time of cool-
ing from 60° to 20° was independent of the pressure : on

* Abstract of a Paper read before the Royal Society, Dec, 16, 1880,

| plunged into a large vessel of water at 65°.

the contrary, at 150 millims. pressure the rate was one
and a half times as great as at 750 millims. Many pre-
cautions were taken to secure accuracy, but no measure
ments of higher exhaustions being given the results lack
quantitative value.

It appears, therefore, that a thermometer cools slower
in a so-called vacuum than in air of atmospheric pres-
sure. In dense air convection currents have a consider-
able share in the action, but the law of cooling in vacua
so high that we may neglect convection has not to my
knowledge been determined. Some years ago Professor
Stokes suggested to me to examine this point, but find-
ing that Kundt and Warburg were working in the same
direction it was not thought worth going over the same
ground, and the experiments were only tried up to a cer-
tain point, and then set aside. The data which these
experiments would have given are now required for the
discussion of some results on the viscosity of gases,
which I hope to lay before the Society in the course of a
few weeks; I have therefore completed them so as to
embody the results in the form of a short paper.

An accurate thermometer with pretty open scale was
enclosed in a 1% inch glass globe, the bulb of the ther-
mometer being in the centre, and the stem being enclosed
in the tube leading from the glass globe to the pump.

Experiments were tried in two ways :— :

I. The glass globe (at the various exhaustions) was
immersed in nearly boiling water, and when the tempe-
rature was stationary it was taken out, wiped dry, and
allowed to cool in the air, the number of seconds occu-
pied for each sink of 5° being noted.

II. The globe was first brought to a uniform tempera-
ture in a vessel of water at 25°, and was then suddenly
The bulk
of hot water was such that the temperature remained
sensibly the same during the continuance of each experi-
ment. The number.of seconds required for the thermo-
meter to rise from 25° to 50° was registered as in the
first case, ;

SCIENCE. , 33

It was found that the second form of experiment gave
the most uniform results; the method by cooling being
less accurate, owing to currents of air in the room, etc.

The results are embodied in the following Table :—

(Rate of Heating from 25° to 50 .)
TABLE I.

Seconds occu- Total number

Pressure. Temperature. pied in rising of seconds
each 5°. cccupied,
760 millims. Gales oO (0)
25 to 30 15 15
30 to 35 18 33
35 to 40 22 55
40 to 45 27 82
45 to 50 39 I2I
I millim. 25% fo) fo)
25 to 30 20 20
30 to 35 23 43
35 to 40 25 68
40 tO 45 34 102
45 to 50 48 150
620 M.* 25° fo) fo)
25 to 30 20 20
30 to 35 23 43
35 to 40 29 72
40 to 45 37 109
45 to 50 5s 162
117 M. 25° fe) fo)
25 to 30 23 23
30 to 35 23 46
35 to 40 32 78
40 tO 45 44 122
45 to 50 61 183
59 M. 25° fo) fo)
25 to 30 25 25
30 to 35 30 55
35 to 40 36 gi
40 to 45 45 136
45 to 50 67 203
23 M. 250 fo) fe)
25 to 30 28 28
30 to 35 33 61
35 to 40 41 102
40 to 45 55 157
45 to 50 70 227
12M. 25° ‘ fo) oO
25 to 30 30 30
30 to 35 37. 67
35 to 4o 41 108
40 to 45 58 166
45 to 50 86 252
5M. 25° fo) to)
25 to 30 38 38
30 to 35 43 ‘SI
35 to 4o 54 135
40 to 45 qI 206
45 to 50 116 322
2M ots o fe)
25 to 30 41 41
30 to 35 51 92
35 to 40 65 157
40 to 45 go 247
45 to 50 165 412

There are two ways in which heat can get from the
glass globe to the thermometer—(1) By radiation across
the intervening space; (2) by communicating an increase
of motion to the molecules of the gas, which carry it to
the thermometer. It is quite conceivable that a consider-
able part, especially in the case of heat of low refrangi-

*M=millionth of an atmosphere,

,

bility, may be transferred by “carriage,” as I will call it
to distinguish it from convection, which is different, and
yet that we should not perceive much diminution of
transference, and consequently much diminution of rate
of rise with increased exhaustion, so long as we work
with ordinary exhaustions up to 1 millim. or so. For if,
on the one hand, there are fewer molecules impinging on
the warm body. (which is adverse to the carriage of heat),
yet on the other the mean length of path between colli-

| sions is increased, so that the augmented motion is car-

ried further. The number of steps by which the tempe-
rature passes from the warmer to the cooler body is di-

| minished, and accordingly the value of each step is in-

creased. Hence the increase in the difference of velocity
before and after impact may make up for the diminution
in the number of molecules impinging. It is therefore
conceivable that it may not be till such high exhaustions
are reached that the mean length of path between colli-
sions becomes comparable with the diameter of the case,
that further exhaustion produces a notable fall in the
rate at which heat is conveyed from the case to the ther—
mometer.

The above experiments show that there zs a notable
fall, a reduction of pressure from 5 M. to 2 M. producing
twice as much fall in the rate as is obtained by the
whole exhaustion from 760 millims. to 1 millim. We may
legitimately infer that each additional diminution of a
millionth would produce a still greater retardation of
cooling, so that in such vacua as exist in planetary space
the loss of heat—which in that case would only take
place by radiation—-would be exceedingly slow.

or

PROFESSOR HUXLEY ON EVOLUTION.

At a recent meeting of the Zoological Society, among
the papers read was one by Professor Huxley on
the application of the laws of evolution to the arrange-
ment of the vertebrata, and more particularly mammalia.
The illustrations adduced were those of the history of the
horse, principally, so far as is known, from the work of
Professor Marsh on the Eocenes of North America. The
announcement of the paper had drawn together an un-
usually large attendance, as it was expected that the mar-
shalling of the facts in Professor Huxley’s hands would
have great interest in practically substantiating the the-
ory of evolution, which, though foreshadowed by others,
took practical shape in the work of Darwin twenty-one
years ago.

Professor Huxley began by saying:—There is evidence,
the value of which has not been disputed, and which, in
my judgment, amounts to proof, that between the com-
mencement of the tertiary epoch and the present time the
group of the equidz has been represented by a series of
forms, of which the oldest is that which departs least
from the general type of structure of the higher mam-
malia, while the latest is that which most widely differs
from that type. In fact, the earliest known equine ani-
mal possesses four complete sub-equal digits on the fore
foot, three on the hind foot ; the ulnais complete and dis-
tinct from the radius; the fibula is complete and dis-
tinct from the tibia; there are 44 teeth, the full number
of canines being present, and the cheek-teeth having
short crowns with simple patterns and early-formed roots.
The latest, on the other hand, has only one complete
digit on each foot, the rest being represented by rudi-
ments ; the ulna is reduced and partially anchylosed with
the radius; the fibula is still more reduced and partially
anchylosed with the tibia; the canine teeth are partially
or completely suppressed in the females; the first
cheek-teeth_ usually remain undeveloped, and when
they appear are very small; the other cheek-teeth
have long crowns, with highly complicated patterns
and late-formed roots. The equide of the interme-
diate ages exhibit intermediate characters. With re-
spect to the interpretation of these facts two hypotheses

.

34

SCIENCE.

and only two, appear to be imaginable. The one assumes
that these successive forms of equine animals have come
into existence independently of one another. The other
assumes that they are the result of the gradual modifica-
tion undergone by the successive members of a contin-
uous line of ancestry. As 1 am not aware that any
zoologist maintains the first hypothesis, I do not feel
called upon to discuss it. The adoption of the second,
however, is equivalent to the acceptance of the doctrine
of evolution so far as horses are concerned, and in the
absence of evidence to the contrary, I shall suppose that
it is accepted. Since the commencement of the eocene
epoch, the animals which constitute the family of the
equide have undergone processes of modification of
three kinds:—1, there has been an excess of develop-
ment of one part of the oldest form over another ; 2, cer-
tain parts have undergone complete or partial suppression;
3, parts originally distinct have coalesced. Employing the
term “law ’”’ simply in the sense of a general statement
of facts ascertained by observation, I shall speak of these
three processes by which the eohippus form has passed
into equus as the expression of a three-fold law of evo-
lution. It is of profound interest to remark that this law
or generalized statement of the nature of the ancestral
evolution of the horse, is precisely the same as that
which formulates the process of individual development
in animals generally, from the period at which the broad
characters of the group to which an animal belongs are
discernible onwards. After a mammalian embryo, for ex-
ample, has taken on its general mammalian characters,
its further progress towards its special form is affected
by the excessive growth of one part or relation to an-
other, by the arrest or suppression of parts already
formed, and by the coalescence of parts primarily dis-
tinct. This coincidence of the laws of ancestral and in-
dividual dcvelopment creates a strong confidence in the
general validity of the former, and a belief that we may
safely employ it in reasoning deductively from the known
to the unknown. The astronomer who has determined
three places of a new planet calculates its place at any
epoch, however remote; and, if the law of evolution is to
be depended upon, the zoologist who knows a certain
length of the course of that evolution in any given case
may with equal justice reason backwards to the earlier
but unknown stages. Applying this method to the
case of the horse, I do not see that there is any
reason to doubt that the eocene equidz were preceded
by mesozoic forms, which differed trom eohippus in the
same way as eohippus differs from equus. And thus we
are ultimately led to conceive of a first form of the equine
series, which, if the law is of general validity, must need
have been provided with five sub-equal digits on each
plantigrade foot, with complete sub-equal antebrachial
and crural bones, with clavicles, and with, as at present,
44 teeth, the cheek-teeth having short crowns and simple
ridged or tuberculated patterns. Moreover, since Marsh’s
investigations have shown that the older forms of any
given mammalian group have less developed cerebral
hemispheres than the later, there is a prémé facie
probability that this primordial hippoid had a low form
of brain. Further, since the existing horse has a diffuse
allantoic placentation, the primary form could not have
presented a higher, and may have possessed a lower con-
dition of the various modes by which the foetus derives
nourishment from the parent. Such an animal as this,
however, would find no place in any of our systems of
classification of the mammalia. It would come nearest to
the lemuroidea and the insectivora, though the non-pre-
hensile pes would separate it from the former, and the
placentation from the latter group. A natural classifica-
tion is one which associates together all those forms
which are closely allied and separatesthem from the rest.
But, whether in the ordinary sense of the word “alli-
ance,” or in its purely morphological sense, it is impossi-
ble to imagine a group of animals more closely allied

than our primordial hippoids are with their descendants’
Yet, according to existing arrangements, the ancestors
would have to be placed in one order of the class of
mammalia, and their descendants in another. It may be
suggested that it might be as well to wait until the pri-
mordial hippoid is discovered before discussing the diffi-
culties which will be created by its appearance. But the
truth is that that problem is already pressing in another
shape. Numerous “lemurs,” with marked ungulate
characters are being discovered in the older tertiaries of
the United States and elsewhere; and no one can study
the more ancient mammals with which we are already
acquainted without being constantly struck with the in-
sectivorous characters which they present. In fact, there
is nothing in the dentition of either primates, carnivores,
or ungulates, which is any means of deciding whether
a given fossil skeleton, with skull, teeth, and limbs almost
complete, ought to be ranged with the lemurs, the
insectivores, the carnivores, or the ungulates. Jn
whatever order of mammals a_ sufficiently long
series of forms has come to light, they illustrate the
three-fold law of evolution as clearly, though, perhaps,
not so strikingly, as the equine series does. Carnivores,
artiodactyles, and perissedactyles all tend, as we trace
them back through the tertiary epoch, towards less modi-.
fied forms which will fit into none of the recognized or-
ders, but come closer to the insectivora than to any
other. It would, however, be most inconvenient and
misleading to term these primordial forms insectivora,
the mammals so-called being themselves more or less
specialized modifications of the same common type, and
only, in a partial and limited sense, representatives of
that type. The root of the matter appears to me to be
that the paleontological facts which have come to light
in the course of the last ten or fifteen years have com-
pletely broken down existing taxonomical conceptions,
and that the attempts to construct fresh classification
upon the old model are necessarily futile. The Cuvieran
method, which all modern classifiers have followed, has”
been of immense value in leading to the close investiga-
tion and the clear statement of the anatomical characters
of animals. But its principle, the association into sharp
logical categories defined by such characters, was sapped
when Von Baer showed that, in estimating the likenesses
and unlikeness of the animals, development must be fully
taken into account ; and if the importance of individual
development is admitted, that of ancestral development
necessarily follows. If the end of all zoological classifi-
cation isa clear and concise expression of the morpho-
logical resemblances and differences of animals, then all
such resemblances must have a taxonomic value. But they
fall under three heads :—(r1) those of adult individuals :
(2) those of successive stages of embryological develop-
ment or individual evolution; (3) those of successive stages
of the evolution of the species, or ancestral evolution.
An arrangement is “ natural,” that is, logically justifiable,
exactly in so far as it expresses the relations of likenesses
and unlikenesses enumerated under these heads. Hence,
in attempting to classify the mammalia, we must take into
account not only their adult and embryogenetic charac-
ters, but their morphclogical relations, in so far as the
several forms represent different stages of evolution. And
thus, just as the persistent antagonism of Cuvier and his
school to the essence of Lamarck’s teachings (imperfect
and objectionable as these often were in their accidents)
turns out to have been a reactionary mistake, so Cuvier’s
no less definite repudiation of Bonnet’s ‘‘éhedle” at the
present day, the existence of a “scala animantium,” is a
necessary Consequence of the doctrine of evolution, and
its establishment constitutes, I believe, the foundation of
scientific taxonomy. Many years ago, in my lectures at
the Royal College of Surgeon, Is particularly insisted on
the central position of the insectivora among the higher
mammalia ; and further study of this order and of the
rodentia has only strengened my conviction that any one

SCIENCE.

35

who is acquainted with the range of variation of structure
in these groups possesses the key to every peculiarity
which is met with in the primates, the carnivora, and the
ungulata. Given the common plan of the insectivora
and of the rodentia, and granting that the modifications
of the structure of the limbs, of the brain, and of the ali-
mentary and reproductive viscera which occur among
them may exist and accumulate elsewhere, and the de-
rivation of all eutheria from animals which, except for
their diffuse placentation, would be insectivores, is a sim-
ple deduction from the law of evolution. I venture to ex-
press a confident expectation that investigation into the
mammalia fauna of the mesozoic epoch will, sooner or
later, fill up these blanks.

tr

RECENT DISCOVERIES RELATING TO THE
DOUBLE -STARS OF THE DORPAT CATA-

LOGUE.
By S. W. BURNHAM.

The distinguished Russian astronomer, Struve, pub-
lished in 1837 the results of a thorough examination of
the heavens for the discovery of double stars between the
north pole and 15° south declination. This great cata-
logue, Mensure Micrometrice, included all the double
stars within these limits known prior to the observations
of Struve, mainly due to the researches of Sir William
Herschel, and at the time of its publication presented all
that was known on this subject of astronomy. The
whole number of double stars catalogued and measured
by Struve was about 3000. The superiority of the tele-
scope used at Dorpat for this class of work, over the
much larger reflectors employed by the Herschels, is re-
peatedly shown by the observations. Many of the Her-
schel pairs, observed with apertures from eighteen inches
to four feet, were found by Struve with the 9.6-inch re-
fractor to be really triple, one of the components being a
close pair. When Sturve’s great work was published, it
seemed as though there was little left for subsequent ob-
servers to do except in the way of re-observing the Struve
stars. So complete and systematic had been his scrutiny
of the northern heavens, it was considered that new dis-
coveries among the stars found by Struve to be single
would necessarily be of rare occurrence, and particularly
after the publication, in 1850, of the Pulkowa Catalogue of
500 stars, which comprised omitted stars and later discov-
eries, principally by Otto Struve, the successor of his father
as Director of the new Imperial Observatory. This last
mentioned catalogue was much more interesting, with re-
spect to the class of stars it contained, than the other.
The Pulkowa 15-inch refractor was in every respect
superior to the Dorpat glass, as well aslarger. Substan-
tially all the wide and comparatively easy pairs had been
collected in Mensure Micrometrice, so that later dis-
coveries were necessarily either very close pairs, or the
components were very unequal, and, therefore, this cata-
logue furnishes a much larger proportion of binary and
other interesting systems. In the twenty-five years fol-
lowing this epoch, the whole number of double star dis-
coveries by all observers would not exceed fifty; but
Many important series of measures of the Struve stars
were made by English, German and Italian astronomers,
and this work was steadily continued at Pulkowa, result-
ing in showing the periods and motions of many of the
more rapid binary systems, and the relations of other
double stars.

That these catalogues were really very incomplete,
with reference to the number of double stars actually ex-
isting, is apparent from the fact that the writer in the
last ten years has discovered at least 900 new pairs, and
More than halt of them with a telescope greatly inferior
in size to the smallest of the instruments used by the
Russian astronomers. That there was left much that
was new to discover in the Struve stars will appear from

the number which have been again divided by later ob-
servers. In some instances, doubtless, the close pair was
missed by Struve because it was single or much closer at
that time, but certainly in the great majority of instances
this is improbable, and the true explanation will probably
be found in the improved defining power of the later re-
fracting telescopes. For doublestar work more than any
other, perfect definition is of the first importance. Some-
thing may be done in observing the moon, plane's,
nebule, etc., with a large instrument of poor definition,
but for the discovery or measurement of close and difficult
double stars it is practically useless. It should be men-
tioned as a fact that every star in the following table was
discovered with a refracting telescope.

The follow ng list comprises all the stars of the Dorpat
Catalogue where a closer component has been discovered
since the observations of Struve. Morethan half of these

| |
: 's| New |
No. | >> | Star. | een | Com- Discoverer.
panier:
ai TPL AAS oh cee eae 27".06 | 2".04 okies’
DEAE ZOD) cect nooks ait sco 13 .29 | 0.60 0. Struve
vc) bag) NESE re ee Ig .g0 | 0 .40 |Dembowski
EIN LOG | sites asc eek 12.40 | 0.85 |Burnham
REE | Wats FNS RG Wot 29 .69 3.69 |Burnham ?
6..| 205 | y Andromedz. | 10 .33 | 0.50 |O. Struve
The 3 estel leer teciree es eae gene 70 .30 | I .20 |Burnham
8's) - g8S- |-204 Perserc.... 14 .04 | 0.34 |Burnham
9 BOON, cost asterere sa ate eys Mahe 48 .97 | I.99 Burnham
Io AZM \eehae ae 3: ot cake aye 23 .70 | 0.40 |Burnham
IT 610 , 7 Camelopardi | 25 .64 | 1 .24 |Dembowski
12 668 | 8 Orionis..... 9 -14 | 0.2? |Burnham
13 692 | Orionis $2.... ; 34 .86 | 0.48 |Burnham
14 OS Wit eraiseteiets, 5 Seis 27.77 | I .1I |Burnham
15 Pf 2ibad| rs, actos, eycuvine Sts 24 .32 | 0.46 |Burnham
16 ROSEN eee ae 16 .06 | 2.60 |Dembowski
17 ros) 1 | Pareee ae Oee 2.83 | 0.27 |Burnham
18 ro1g | Canis Maj. 136 | 37 .84 | 6.12 |Dembowski
19 1026 | Canis Maj. 139 | 17 .85 | 0.48 |Burnham
ZORA OST) leas ska ce. - 15 .87 | 0.69 [Burnham
2I Teo V7 fa RR cnet eee 29 .34 | 5 -93 |Dembowski
22 RAG A a cise eta. Sagas Ig .75 | 3.76 |Burnham
23 ASI || cot Pacet nae eres 20 .20 | 0 .80 }Burnham
24 Lge Ola evens emuetn aah Morea: 7-90 | 7 .61 |O. Struve
25 1780 | 86 Virginis (AC)| 26 .94 | I .61 |(4B) Burnham
1.72 \(cD) Burnham
26 1812 ses dp eelnaseeeie Iq .02 | 0.47 |O. Struve
27 2005 | Libre 213 28 .54 | I .47 |(AB) Burnham
28 DOKAM|| cided Noe Oey. eee 1g .49 | I .43 |Dembowski
29..| 2220 | # Herculis.... | 31.09 | 0.96 |Alvan Clark
30 DOS bls stein eiataeeer ete. Tess 22 .33 | 1.71 |Burnham
31 2800) aco tee ot wae 12.81 | 0.95 |Dembowski
32 VOI | ae ae eee, ae ae 28 .80 | 8 .86 |Burnham
33 2435 (AC) | 10.73 | 1.43 |(AB) Burnham
: ; 2.90 (cD) Howe
3454-2479 | Cypeni “4 25... 6.72 | 0.57 |Dembowski
Shes | S22 1s ls A ce rege 4 .03 | 0.40 |Secchi
Saye OATES 9| Se 3 ee oe 26 .31 | I .22 |Dembowski
By CERN ciate uty Se see 52.81 | 4.37 |Burnham
38 ZERO! | saat ds sas tet 5 5 .60 | 4.78 |Burnham
BOE e54OM triste Melee arc 22 .86 | I .93 /Burnham
AOMNE25 7 ON AAcro Nee wy oor & 4 .16.| 0.29 |A. G. Clark
41 2589 | ¢ Sagitte..... 8.77 | 0.25 |A. G. Clark
42..| 2607 | Cygni 116.... | 3.23] 0.3 \O. Struve
43 2630 (AD) | 11.30 | 6.47 (a8) Burnham
7.75 (Ac) Burnham
Ae ORT ie Rings tazeh ou cist yi II .7I | 0.60 O. Struve
A sel) £00) Sea eee opener 14 .88 | 0.50 Dawes
46..| 2704 | B Delphini.... | 35 .06 | 0.20 /Burnham
47..| 2777 | 6 Equulei.... | 37 .98 | 0.35 |O. Struve
Bore 827 OSes © cia. <6 es 26.51 | 0.56 Burnham
AGHRIE SUES A Wee cates aes 7-50 | 0.go |Dembowski
50 28240 eK Pegasi... <6 Ir .76 | 0.27 |Burnham
51..| 2959 ae are areal 13.77 | 8.31 |Burnham
52 BOEBI Fonte Sota s cme oie 30 .72 | 0.41 |O. Struve
53..| 3130 ahetn oe ole whe salem 2.86 | 0.3? 'O. Struve

te

SCIENCE.

stars have been discovered within the last eight yedrs, and
it is very pfobable that many new additions will be made
as the large refractors now in use engage in this work.
This list would be much extended by including stars to
which more distant companions have been detected, but
most, if not all of them, are too distant to make any phy-
sical relation probable, and are of very littleinterest. The
first column gives a number for reference; the second
column, Struve’s number; the third, the name of the
principal star, when found in Flamsteed or Bode; the
fourth, the distance of the stars recorded by Struve; the
fifth, the distance of the new star; and sixth, thename of
the discoverer.

Many of the close pairs are known to be binaries, and
in some cases it is probable the three stars form one
system. When any change has occurred, the most re-
cent measures of distance are given.

—$$—$_<—___—_———_

ASS pINRIO} NIORNIAY?

SWIFT’S COMET.

A new determination of the orbit of Swift’s periodic
comet has just been made by Mr. Winslow Upton of the
U. S. Naval Observatory, based upon observations made
at Washington, October 25, November 23, and Decem-
ber 22, 1880. No assumption was made with regard to
the period of resolution or the eccentricity. The follow-
ing are the elements obtained, and communicated to the
Astronomische Nachrichten:

Epoch, 1880, Oct. 25. 5 Washington mean time.

M 357° 48' 49-3"
SL 296 41 55.4 )
® 106 18 13.8 + 1880.0

z 5 31 .3.5 j

42 31 39.7
log a 0.518438
# 592.0373"

The period obtained from these elements is 2189 days,
which confirms the fact already announced by Mr.
Chandler and others that the comet has made two revo-
lutions since its appearance in 1869. The period obtained
is also nearly identical with that given by Prof. Frisby in
“SCIENCE,” which he derived from observations sepa-
rated by intervals of only 13 days. The comet could not
have been seen at its return in 1875, as the sun was be-
tween it and the earth, and it is probable that its next
return in 1886 will be unobserved for the same reason,
though a careful computation which shall take into ac-
count the perturbations of the comet due to the action of
the planets will be necessary to determine the question.

Professor E. S. Holden, of the Naval Observatory at
Washington, has accepted the managership of the Wash-
burn Observatory in Madison, Wis., the position made
vacant by the recent death of Professor Watson. Pro-
fessor Holden will enter upon his duties in a few weeks.

ASTRONOMICAL MEMORANDA: (Approximately com-
puted for Washington, D, C., Monday, January 24, 1881.)

Sidereal time of Mean Noon. 20h. 16m. 37s.
Equation of itime:-e-5i-- 12 29
mean noon preceding apparent noon.

The Suz, having passed the winter solstice, has reached
a declination of 19° 3’ south.

The Moon reached its Last Quarter on Jan. 22d 16h.,
or 4 A.M. of Jan. 23. -

New Moon comes on Jan. 29d. 8h., and the First
Quarter on Feb. 5d. 8h. On the morning of the 24th
the Moon crosses the meridian at about a quarter of
seven.

Mercury, still invisible, comes into superior conjunc-
tion with the sun on the 26th, passes to his eastern side,
and becomes evening star. Mercury is in conjunction
with the Moon on the morning of Jan, 30,

Venus is evening star, and throughout the month in-
creases her distance from the sun as she approaches the
earth. She follows the sun by nearly three hours and is
3° south of the equator.

Mars is morning star, rising about six o'clock, and
slowly traveling away from the sun.

Jupiler, evening star, crosses the meridian about half
past four:—R. A. oh. 53m., Dec. 4° 21’ north.

Saturn also is evening star, having reached quadra-
ture, or halfway from opposition to conjunction, on the
12th, when he was on the meridian at six. Saturn and
Jupiter, it will be noticed, are still steadily approaching
each other,

Uranus crosses the meridian at about 3 o’clock in the
morning, at a declination of 7° 21’ north, and cannot
claim any especial attention at present.

Neptune is in R. A. 2h. 39m; Dec. 13° 36’ north. It
reaches quadrature on the 30th, and will be found in con-
junction with the Moon on—Feb. 4th.

IN the Popular Sctence Monthly for January, 1881,
Dr. Leonard Waldo gives an interesting description of
the method employed atthe Yale Observatory, for com-
paring with the standards of that institution, thermom-
eters which have been sent there for verification by
physicians, instrument makers and others. He calls at-
tention to the fact that thermometers, even if from makers
of established reputation, are liable to errors much
greater than is commonly supposed, and he points out
the necessity of having such errors carefully determined.

WE learn from the Comptes Rendus that Janssen has
made preparations at Meudon to repeat Dr. Draper’s
experiments on the photography of the Nebula in Orion,
and that for this purpose he proposes to construct upon
a large scale a telescope of short focus quite similar to
the one with which he obtained a very luminous spec-
trum of the Corona, in 1871. Janssen has also made
some experiments in photographing the chromosphere.
The exposure is continued so long that the solar image
becomes positive to the very circumference, without
going beyond it. The chromosphere is then shown in
the torm of a dark ring with a thickness of 8" or 10".
He has compared positive and negative solar photographs
taken on the same day and with the same instrument,
and the measurement of the diameter shows that the
dark ring in question is wholly outside of the solar disk.

— .

DR. WARREN DE LA RUE has been elected a cor-
responding member of the Paris Academy of Sciences in
the section of Astronomy, and M. Sella a corresponding
member in the section of Mineralogy.

THE Rumford medal of the Royal Society has been
awarded to Dr. William Huggins for his work on celes-
tial spectroscopy, and the Copley medal to Prof. J.J.
Sylvester of Johns Hopkins University for researches in
pure mathematics, W.C. W.

ECLIPSE OF. THE,SUN:
To the Editor of “SCIENCE :”

I would like to add a sentence to the fourth paragraph
of my letter in last week’s “SCIENCE” giving my obser-
vations of the recent partial eclipse of the sun. After the
words ‘solar limb’ I would add, “ on the eastern side
of the sun the phenomenon was considerably less promi-
nent and only visible at the time of greatest obscuration,
and when the slit was quite close to the sun’s limb,”

L, TROUVELOT,

CAMBRIDGE, January 12, 188r,

SCIENCE.

37

Se me NGE:

A WEEKLY RECORD OF SCIENTIFIC

PRoGRESS.

JOHN MICHELS, Editor.

PUBLISHED AT
229 BROADWAY, NEW YORK.

P, O. Box 3888.

SATURDAY, JANUARY 29, 188r.

Tue advantages of having a good public library ina
large city are so obvious that it appears incompre-
hensible that the most important city in the United
States is practically without such an institution.

The city of New York appears to have been fortu-
nate in being made the recipient of munificent testi-
mentary gifts for the purpose of founding a great pub-
lic library suited to the needs of such a community,
but also unexceptionally unfortunate in the disposi-
tion of the funds so bequeathed.

The Astor Library contains a collection of books
which have been most judiciously selected to form the
nucleus of a good public library, and one peculiarly
suited to the needs of those residing in such a city as
New York. Unfortunately, the trustees of the library
permit its use only between the hours of ro A.M. and
4 P. M., thus practically shutting out the majority of
those who desire to consult the literary treasures it
contains.

Of the Lennox Library, recently bequeathed to the
citizens of New York, it may be premature to speak ;
possibly in time its doors may be open to the public ;
but under what conditions and restrictions can
only be conjectured from the eccentric formalities of
the past.

Thus with the Astor Library open for a few fash-
ionable hours during the day, and the Lennox Library
closed altogether, the public of New York finds itself
after four o’clock, P. M., daily, and during the whole
of Sunday, without a free public library. Suchastate
of things is not creditable to the largest and most im-
portant city in this Republic, and should not continue
a day longer.

The good policy of establishing a public library for
New York city, which shall be under the full control
of the city authorities, is daily becoming more appar-

ent, and we trust the time is not distant when the
wishes of the people in this respect may be fully
realized.

A letter will be found in another page of this issue
relating to our notice of Dr. Beard’s lecture on
* Mesmeric Trance.” The writer is not correct in
stating that we threw a doubt on the genuineness of
the ‘‘phenomena, as a whole,” as on the contrary our
remarks questioned the integrity of the “subjects”
produced by Dr. Beard. These men and boys, since
the lecture in question, have been nightly perform-
ing the same tricks in a room on Sixth avenue, the
advertisement for which is headed “ Marvels and
Fun of Mesmerism.” The propriety of bringing such
“subjects” before the New York Academy of
Sciences, may well be questioned, and so far from
accepting their performances as genuine exhibitions
of the phenomena of Hypnotism, we apprehend the
closest scrutiny should be made to test the genuine-
ness of their acts.

Professor Hitchcock admits that he and others
observed what appeared to us as evidence of collu-
sion between Dr. Beard and his subjects, but ob-
jects to our having pointed out these facts, without
having first permitted Dr. Beard to give his explana-
tion of them. ‘This amounts to a request to sup-
press all criticism, except that controlled by the
person criticised, which appears to us one of the
least inviting methods of arriving at the truth.

The subject is one of undoubted interest, and as
we do not wish to prejudice the question, we defer
any detailed reply to Professor Hitchcock’s letter
until others have had an opportunity of expressing
their views. Our columns will be open to any cor-
respondent who can add to our knowledge of this
subject, or who can give a rational explanation of the
phenomenon of Hypnotism.

SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES IN WASHINGTON.
THE ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY,

NEW OFFICERS ELECTED AND A CHANGE OF LOCATION
AGREED UPON.

The Anthropological Society met at the Smithsonian
Institution on the evening of January 18th, Major J. W.
Powell, the president, in the chair. The following new
members were elected: Dr. A. F. A. King, Dr. William
Lee, and Mr. Ivan Petroff for active membership, and
Mr. J. C. Tache and B.B. Redding for corresponding
membership. It being the evening of the annual elec-
tion, no papers were read. A motion to remove from
the’ present location to the lecture-hall of the National
Medical College of the Columbian University was in-
troduced by a committee of the council, and adopted by
the society.

The election of officers to serve during the ensuing
year resulted as follows : President, Major J. W. Powell ;
vice-presidents, Colonel Garrick Mallery, Dr. George A,
Otis, Professor O, T. Mason, Dr. H. C. Yarrow ; corres-

38

ponding secretary, C. C. Royce; recording secretary,
Lester F. Ward; treasurer, J. Howard Gore; curator,
Dr. W. J. Hoffman; council, President J. C. Welling,
Professor E. A. Fay, Dr. J. Meredith Toner, Mr. F. A,
Seely, Mr. Miles Rock, Mr. H. L. Thomas.

THE BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON.

On the first of December last, another society was or-
ganized for the study of the Biological sciences which,
after completing its organization, elected the following
officers for the ensuing year: President, Theodore
Gill; vice-presidents, C. V. Riley, J. W. Chickering,
Henry Ulke, Lester F. Ward; secretaries, G. Browne
Goode, Richard Rathburn ; treasurer, Robert Ridgway ;
council, George Vasey, O. T, Mason, J. H. Comstock,
and Drs. Schafer and A. F. A. King. Professor S.
F, Baird was elected an honorary member. Dr. Frank
H. Baker, Mr. H. H. Birney and Mr. C. W. Scudder
were elected to active membership. Professor L. F.
Ward read a paper entitled ‘‘The Flora Columbiana of
1830 and 1880,” in which a comparison was made be-
tween the lists of plants recorded as growing in the
District of Columbia in 1830 in Brereton’s “ Flora,” and
the lists as now known to the botanists of the District.
Mr. Ulke spoke of the occurrence in the District of many
species of beetles, before known only in Alaska and

' other remote localities. Professor Jordan read a paper
on ‘The Salmon of the California Coast,” which con-
tained many new and important facts regarding their
habits and economic value. The annual address will be
delivered at the next meeting by Professor Theodore

Gill. A paper was also read by Professor Tarleton H.
Bean on “An Excursion to the Northern Coast of
Alaska.”

a te

CHEMICAL SOCIETIES:

The January Conversazzone of the American Chemical
Society was held at the rooms of the Society on Monday
evening, January 17. The Vice-President, Dr. Albert R.
Leeds, of the Stevens Institute, exhibited a new modifi-
cation of Dinitro-orcine and certain of its salts. These
salts were originally prepared by Professor Leeds at his
own laboratory in the course of his investigations of Hypo-
nitric Anhydride in organic substances.

Specimens of Dibenzole and Diphenyle were also ex-
hibited by the same gentleman. Several of the members
took advantage of the occasion to visit the laboratory
and see the recently patented electrical inventions of Dr.
O, Lugo.

The next and regular meeting will take place on the
first Monday of February, the 7th prox.

The Chemical Society of Paris announces that among
the vice-presidents, according to the constitution, the
president shall be chosen from the following gentlemen ;
M. M. Grimaux, Salet and Berthelot, and that the Council
nominates M. M. Grimaux and Salet ; therefore M. Berthe-
lot will remain as vice-president during 1881, and in con-
sequence of the regretted decease of M. Personne, M.
Berthelot will be the only occupant of that office.

The German Chemical Society at their annual re-union
increased the dues of the non-resident members from 15
to 20 marks. This action has been in contemplation for
several years, and has now been definitely settled.

Vines

—~o—__—_—___

THE French Association for the Advancement of
Sc’ence is to hold its next meeting in the city of Algiers,
on the 14th of April. The p2ople and authorities of
the city are making preparations to give the Association
a fitting welcome, and liberal appropriations have been
made by the Council for organizing the meeting, to
entertain the members and their friends,

SCIENCE.

THE UNITY OF NATURE.
By THE DUKE OF ARGYLL.

Vis

ON THE TRUTHFULNESS OF HUMAN KNOWLEDGE CON-
SIDERED IN THE LIGHT OF THE UNITY OF NATURE.

But another nightmare meets us here—another sug-
gestion of hopeless doubt respecting the very possibility
of knowledge touching questions such as these. Nay, it
is the suggestion of a doubt even more discouraging—
for it is a suggestion that these questions may probably
be in themselves absurd—assuming the existence of rela-
tions among things which do not exist at all—relations
indeed of which we have some experience in ourselves,
but which have no counterpart in the system of Nature.
The suggestion, in short, is not merely that the answer
to these questions is inaccessible, but that there is no
answer at all. The objection is a fundamental one, and
is summed up in the epithet applied to all such inquiries
—that they are anthropomorphic. They assume author-
ship in a personal sense, which is a purely human idea—
they assume causation, which is another human idea—
and they assume the use of means for the attainment of
ends, which also is purely human. It is assumed by
some persons as a thing in itself absurd that we should
thus shape our conceptions of the ruling power in Na-
ture, or of a Divine Being, upon the conscious knowledge
we have of our own nature and attributes. Anthropo-
morphism is the phrase employed to condemn this
method of conception—an opprobrious epithet, as it
were, which is attached to every endeavor to bring the
higher attributes of the human mind into any recogniza-
ble relation with the supreme agencies in Nature. The
central idea of those who use it seems to be that there
isnothing human there ; and that when we think we see
it there, we are like some foolish beast wondering at its
own shadow. The proposition which is really involved
when stated nakedly is this: that there is no Mind in
Nature having any relation with, or similitude to, our
own, and that all our fancied recognitions of intellectual
operations like our own in the order of the Universe are
delusive imaginations.

The denial of what is called ‘“‘The Supernatural” is
the same doctrine in another form. The connection may
not be evident at first sight, but it arises from the fact
that the human mind is really the type of the Supernat-
ural. It would be well if this word were altogether ban-
ished from our vocabulary. It assumes that we know all
that ‘‘ Nature” contains, and that we can pronounce with
certainty on what can and what cannot be found there.
Or else it assumes that Nature is limited to purely physical
agencies, and that our own mind is a power and agency
wholly separate and distinct from these. There might
indeed be no harm in this limitation of the word if it could
be consistently adhered to in all the terms of any argu-
ment involving its use. We are all quite accustomed to
think of Man as not belonging to Nature at all—as the one
thing or Being which is contradistinguished from Nature.
This is implied in the commonest use of language, as
when we contrast the works of Man with the works of
Nature. The same idea is almost unconsciously involved
in language which is intended to be strictly philosophical,
and in the most careful utterances of our most distin-
guished scientific men. Thus Professor Tyndall, in his
Belfast address to the British Association, uses these
words: “Our earliest historic ancestors fell back also upon
experience, but with this difference, that the particular
experiences which furnished the weft and woof of their
theories were drawn, not from the study of Nature, but
from what lay much closer to them—the observation of
men.” Here Man is especially contradistinguished from
Nature; and accordingly we find in the next sentence
that this idea is connected with the error of seeing our-

SCIENCE.

39

selves—that is, the Supernatural in Nature. ‘“ Their
theories,” the Professor goes on to say, “accordingly took
an anthropomorphic form.” Further on, in the same
address, the same antithesis is still more distinctly ex-
pressed thus: “If Mr. Darwin rejects the notion of crea-
tive power acting after human fashion, it certainly is not
because he is unacquainted with the numberless exquisite
adaptations on which the notions of a supernatural ar-
tificer is founded.”” Here we see that the idea of “ act-
ing after human fashion,” is treated as synonymous with
the idea of a supernatural artificer ; and the same identi-
fication may be observed running throughout the lan-
guage which iscommonly employed to condemn Anthro-
pomorphism and the Supernatural.

The two propositions, therefore, which are really in-
volved in the thorough-going denial of Anthropomorphism
and the Supernatural are the following: Ist, that there is
nothing above or outside of Nature as we see and know
it; 2nd, that in the system of Nature, as thus seen and
known, there is no mind having analogies with our own.

Surely these propositions have been refuted the mo-
ment the definition of them has been attained. We
have only to observe, in the first place, the strange and
anomalous position in which it places Man. As regards
at least the higher faculties of his mind, he is allowed no
place in Nature, and no fellowship with any other thing
or any other Being outside of Nature. He is absolutely
alone——out of all relation with the Universe around him,
and under a complete delusion when he sees in any part
of it any mental homologies with his own intelligence, or
with his own will, or with his own affections. Does this
absolute solitariness of position as regards the higher at-
tributes of Man—does it sound reasonable, or possible,
or consistent with some of the most fundamental concep-
tions of science? How, for example, does it accord with
that great conception whose truth and sweep become
every day more apparent—the Unity of Nature?

How can it be true that Man is so outside of that
unity that the very notion of seeing anything like himself
in it is the greatest of all philosophical heresies? Does
not the very possibility of science consist in the possibil-
ity of reducing all natural phenomena to purely mental
conceptions, which must be related to the intellect of
Man when they are worked out and apprehended by it ?
And if, according to the latest theories, Man is himself a
Product of Evolution; and is therefore, in every atom of
his body and in every function of his mind, a part anda
child of Nature, is it not in the highest degree illogical so
to separate him from it as to condemn him for seeing in
it some image of himself? If he is its product and its
child, is it not certain that he is right when he sees and
feels the indissoluble bonds of unity which unite him to
the great system of things in which he lives?

This fundamental inconsistency in the Agnostic phil-
osophy becomes all the more remarkable when we find
that the very men who tell us we are not one with any-
thing above us, are the same who insist that we are one
with everything beneath us. Whatever there is in us or
about us which 1s purely animal we may see everywhere ;
but whatever there is in us purely intellectual and moral,
we delude ourselves if we think we see it anywhere.
There are abundant homologies between our bodies and
the bodies of the beasts, but there are no homologies
between our minds and any Mind which lives or mani-
fests itself in Nature. Our livers and our lungs, our
vertebra and our nervous systems, are identical in origin
and in function with those of the living creatures round
us ; but there is nothing in Nature or above it which cor-
responds to our forethought, or design, or purpose—to
our love of the good or our admiration of the beautiful
—to our indignatton with the wicked, or to our pity for
the suffering and the fallen. I venture to think that no
system of philosophy that has ever been taught on earth
hes under such a weight of antecedent improbability ;
and this improbability increases in direct proportion to

the success of science in tracing the Unity of Nature,
and in’showing step by step howits laws and their results
can be brought more and more into direct relation with
the Mind and intellect of Man.

Let us test this philosophy from another point of view,
and see how far it is consistent with our advancing knowl-
edge of those.combinations of natural force by which
the system of the physical Universe appears to be sus-
tained.

We may often see in the writings of our great physical
teachers of the present day reference made toa cele-
brated phrase of the old and abandoned school of Aris-
totelian physics—a phrase invented by that old school to
express a familiar fact--that it is extremely difficult, if
not absolutely impossible, to produce a perfect vacuum——
that is to say, a space which shall be absolutely empty.
The phase was this: ‘‘ Nature abhors a vacuum.” It is
now continually held up as a perfect example and type of
the habit of thought which vitiates all true physical rea-
soning. Now Jet us observe what this erroris. As a
forcible and picturesque way of expressing a physical
truth—that the difficulty of producing a vacuum is ex-
treme, that Nature sets, as it were, her face against her
doing it--the phrase is a good one, and conveys an ex-
cellent idea of the general fact. Sir W. Grove says of it,
that itis an “aphorism, which, though caviled at and
ridiculed by the self-sufficiency of some modern philoso-
phers, contains in a terse though somewhat metaphorical
form the expression of a comprehensive truth.” But
there is this error in the phrase (if indeed it was or ever
could be literally understood)—that it gives for the gene-
ral fact a wrong cause, inasmuch as it ascribes to the
material and inanimate forces of Nature, whose simple
pressures are concerned in the result, certain dispositions
that are known to us as affections of Mind alone. In
short, it ascribes to the mere elementary forces of Matter
—not toa living agency using these as tools, but to mere
material force—the attributes of Mind.

Now it is well worthy of remark, that, so far as this
error is concerned, the language of physical science is
full of it—steeped init; and that in this sense it is
chargeable with a kind of anthropomorphism which is
really open to the gravest objection. To see Mind in
Nature, or, according as Nature may be defined, to see
Mind outside of Nature, acknowledging it to be Mind,
and treating it as such—this is one thing—and this is
the true and legitimate anthropomorphism which some
physicists denounce. But to see Mind in material forces
alone, and to ascribe its attributes to them—this is equally
anthropomorphism, but a form of it which is indeed open
to all the objections they express. This, nevertheless, is
the anthropomorphism which gives habitually its color-
ing to their thoughts and its spirit to their language.

Let me explain what I mean by some examples. I
will take, first, the theory of development, or the deriva-
tive hypothesis, which, as applied to the history of ani-
mal life, is now accepted by a large number of scientific
men, if not as certainly true, at least as an hypoth-
esis which comes nearer than any other to the
truth. Whether that theory be true or not, it is a
theory saturated throughout with the ideas of
utility and fitness, and of adaptation, as the governing
principles and causes of the harmony of Nature. Its
central conception is, that in the history of organic life
changes have somehow always come about exactly in
proportion as the need of them arose. But howis it that
the laws of growth are so correlated with utility that
they should in this manner work together? Why stiould
varied and increasing utility operate in the requisite di-
rection of varied and increasing developments? The

. connection is not one of logical necessity. Not only can we

conceive it otherwise, but we know it is otherwise beyond
certain bounds and limits. It is not an universal law
that organic growths arise in proportion to all needs, or
are strengthened by all exertion. It is a law prevailing

40

SCIENCE.

only within certain limits; and it is not possible to de-
scribe the. facts concerning it without employing the
language which is expressive of mental purpose.

Accordingly, Mr. Darwin himself does use this lan-
guage perpetually, and to an extent far exceeding that in
which it is used by almost any other natural philosopher.
He does not use it with any theological purpose nor in
connection with any metaphysical speculation. He uses
it simply and naturally for no other reason than that he
cannot help it. The correlation of natural forces, so ad-
justed as to work together for the production of use in
the functions—for the enjoyments and for the beauty—
of life, this is the central idea of his system ; and it is an

“idea which cannot be worked out in detail without hab-
itual use of the language which is molded on our own
consciousness of the mental powers by which all our own
adjustments are achieved. This is what, verhaps, the
greatest observer that has ever lived cannot help observ-
ing in Nature; and so his language is thoroughly an-
thropomorphic. Seeing in the methods pursued in Na-
ture a constant embodiment of his own intellectual con-
ceptions, and a close analogy with the methods which
his own mind recognizes as “contrivance,” he rightly
uses the forms of expression which convey the work of
Mind. “Rightly,” I say, provided the full scope and
meaning of this language be not repudiated. I do not
mean that naturalists should be always following up their
language to theological conclusions, or that any fault
should be found with them when they stop where the
sphere of mere physical observation terminates. But
those who seek to remodel philosovhy upon the results
of that observation cannot consistently borrow all the
advantage of anthropomorphic language, and then de-
nounce it when it carries them beyond the point at which
they desire to stop. If in the words which we recognize
as best describing the facts of Nature there be elements
of meaning to which their whole force and descriptive
power is due, then these elements of meaning must be
admitted as essential to a just conception and to a true
interpretation of what we see. The analogies which
help us to understand the works of Nature are not, as it
were, foreign material imported into the facts, but are
part of these facts, and constitute the light which shines
from them upon the intellect of Man. In exact propor-
tion as we believe that intellect to be a product of Nature,
and to be united to it by indissoluble ties of birth, of
structure, and of function, in the same proportion may
we be sure that its organs of vision are adjusted to the
realities of the world, and that its innate perceptions of
analogy and resemblance have a close relation to the
truth, The theory of Development is not only consistent
with teleological explanation, but it is founded on teleol-
ogy, and on nothing else. It sees in everything the re-
sults of a system which is ever acting for the best, always
producing something more perfect or more beautiful than
before, and incessantly eliminating whatever is faulty or
less perfectly adapted to every new condition. Professor
Tyndall himself cannot describe this system without
using the most intensely anthropomorphic language,
“ The continued effort of animated nature is to improve
its conditions and raise itself to a loftier level.”’

Again I say, it is quite right to use this language, pro-
vided its ultimate reference to Mind be admitted and not
repudiated. But if this language be persistently applied
and philosophically defended as applicable to material
force, otherwise than as the instrument and tool of Mind,
then it is language involving far more than the absurdity
of the old medizval phrase that “ Nature abhors a
vacuum.” It ceases to be a mere picturesque expres-
sion, and becomes a definite ascription to Matter of the
highest attributes of Mind. If Nature cannot feel ab-
horrence, neither can it cherish aspirations. If it cannot
hate, neither can it love, nor contrive, nor adjust, nor
book to the future, nor think about “loftier levels,”
there,

Professor Tyndall in the same address has given us an
interesting anecdote of a very celebrated man whom the
world has lately lost. He tells us that he heard the great
Swiss naturalist, Agassiz, express an almost sad surprise
that the Darwinian theory should have been so exten-
sively accepted by the best intellects of our time. And
this surprise seems again in some measure to have sur-
prised Professor Tyndall. Now it so happens that I have
perhaps the means of explaining the real difficulty felt by
Agassiz in accepting the modern theory of evolution. I
had not seen that distinguished man for nearly five-and-
thirty years. But he was one of those gifted beings who
stamp an indelible impression on the memory ; and in
1842 he had left an enthusiastic letter on my father’s table
at Inverary on finding it largely occupied by scientific
works. Across that long interval of time I ventured lately
to seek a renewal of acquaintance, and during the year
which proved to be the last of his life, I asked him some
questions on his own views on the history and origin of
organic forms. In his reply Agassiz sums up in the fol-
lowing words his objection to the theory of Natural Selec-
tion as affording any satisfying explanation of the facts
for which it professes to account :—“ The truth is that
Life has all the wealth of endowment of the most com-
prehensive mental manifestations, and none of the sim-
plicity of physical phenomena.”

Here we have the testimony of another among the very
greatest of modern observers that wealth—immense and
immeasureable wealth—of Mind is the one fact above all
others observable in Nature, and especially in the adapta-
tions of organic life. It was because he could see no ade-
quate place or room reserved for this fact in the theory of
development that Agassiz rejected it as not satisfying the
conditions of the problem to be solved. Possibly this
may be the fault of the forms in which it has been pro-
pounded, and of the strenuous endeavors of many of its
supporters to shut out all interpretations of a higher kind.
But of this we may be sure, that if men should indeed ul-
timately become convinced that species have been all born
just as individuals are now all born, and that such has
been the universal method of creation, this conviction will
not only be found to be soluble, so to speak, in the old
beliefs respecting a creative Mind, but it will be unintellig-
ible and inconceivable without them, so that men in de-
scribing the history and aim and direction of evolution,
will be compelled to use substantially the same language
in which they have hitherto spoken of the history of crea-
tion.

Mr. Mivart has indeed remarked in a very able work,'
that the teleological language used so freely by Mr.
Darwin and others is purely metaphorical. But for what
purpose are metaphors used? Is it not as a means of
making plain to our own understandings the princi-
ples of things, and of tracing amid the varieties of phe-
nomena the essential unities of Nature? In this sense
all language is full of metaphor, being indeed composed
of little else. That is to say, the whole structure and
architecture of language consists of words which trans-
fer and apply to one sphere of investigation ideas which
have been derived from another, because there also the
same ideas are seen to be expressed, only under somé~
difference of form. Accordingly when naturalists, de-
scribing plants or animals, use metaphorically the lan-
guage of contrivance to describe the adaptations of func-
tion, they must use it because thev feel it to be a help in
the understanding of the facts. When, for example, we
are told that flowers are constructed in a peculiar man-
ner “in order that” they may catch the probosces.of
moths or the beaks of bees, and that this adap‘ation again
is necessary “in order that’ these insects should carry
the fertilizing pollen from flower to flower, nothing more
may be immediately intended by the writer than that all
this elaborate mechanism does as a matter of fact attain

1_“* Genesis of Species.”

SCIENCE.

4I

this end, and that it may fitly be described “as if” it had science, the very possibility of which depends upon and

been arranged “in order that”’ these things might hap-
pen. But this use of language is none the less an
acknowledgment of the truth that the facts of Nature
are best brought home and explained to the understand-
ing by stating them in terms of the relation which they
obviously bear to the familiar operations of our own
mind and spirit.

And this is the invariable result of all physical inquiry.
In this sense Nature is essentialy anthropomorphic. Man
sees his own mind reflected in it—his own, not in quan-
tity but in quality—his own fundamental attributes of
intellect, and, to a wonderful and mysterious degree,
even his own methods of operation.

It is really curious and instructive to observe how even
those who struggle hardest to avoid the language of an-
thropomorphism in the interpretations of Nature are com-
pelled to make use of the analogies of our own mental
operations as the only possible exponents of what we see.
Let us look, for example, at the definition of Life given
by Mr. Herbert Spencer. It is a very old endeavor to
construct such definitions, and not a very profitable one:
inasmuch as Life is only known to us as itself, and all at-
tempts to reduce it to other conceptions are generally
mere playing with empty words. But it is not without
instruction to observe that Mr. Spencer’s laborious anal-

“ysis comes to this: “‘ Life is the continuous adjustment of
internal relations to external relations.’”’ Bare, abstract,
and evasive of characteristic facts as this formula is, it
does contain at least one definite idea as to how Life
comes to be. Life is an “adjustment.” This is a
purely anthropomorphic conception, conveying the idea
of that kind of co-ordination between different powers or
elements which is the result of constructive purpose. I
have already pointed out in a former chapter that all
combinations are not adjustments. The whole force and
meaning of the word consists in its reference to;inten-
tional arrangement. No combination can properly be
called an adjustment if it be purely accidental. When,
therefore, Life is represented as an adjustment, this is the
mental image which is reproduced; and in so far as it
does reproduce this idea, and does consciously express it,
the formula has at least some intelligible meaning. If,
indeed, it has any.plausibility or approach to truth at all,
this is the element in it from which this plausibillty is
derived.

We may take another case. Mr. Matthew Arnold has
invented a new phrase for that conception of a Divine Be-
ing which alone, he thinks, can be justified by such evi-
dence as we possess. And what is that phrase? “The
Eternal, not ourselves, which makes for righteousness.”’
Surely whatever meaning there may in this artificial and
cumbrous phrase is entirely derived from its anthropo-
morphism. An agency which “makes for ” something
—that something, too, being in the future, and being also
in itself an abstract, moral, and intellectual conception—
what can such an agency be conceived to be? ~ “‘ Making
for” an object of any kind is a purely human image—an
image, too, derived primarily not from the highest efforts
of human Will, but from those which are represented in
the exercises of the body, and the skill with which, in
athletic contentions, some distant goal may be reached
and won. Such is the attempt of a very eminent man to
instruct us how we are to think of God without seeing in
Him or in His word anything analogous to our own
thought and work.

Nor is it wonderful that this attempt should fail, when
we consider what it is an attempt to do—to establish an
absolute separation between Man and Nature; to set up
Man as something above Nature, and outside of it; and
yet to affirm that there is no other Being, and no other
Intelligence’ in a like position. And if anything can
render this attempt more unreasonable, it must be the
urther attempt to reach this result through science—

consists in the possibility of reducing all natural phe-
nomena within the terms of human thought, so that its
highest generalizations are always the most abstract in-
tellectual conceptions: Science is the systematic knowl-
edge of relations. But that which perceives relations
must be itself related. All explanations consist in noth-
ing else than in establishing the relation which some
order of external facts bears to some corresponding or-
der of thought; and it follows from this truth, that the
highest explanations of phenomena must always be those
which establish such relations with the highest faculties
of our nature. Professor Tyndall, in another part of
his Belfast address, like many other writers of the present
day, goes the length of saying that the great test of
physical truth is what may be called its ‘“representa-
bility,’—that is to say, the degree in which a given
physical conception can, from the analogies of experi-
ence, be represented in thought. But if our power of
picturing a physical fact distinctly be indeed an indica-
tion of a true physical analogy, how much more dis-
tinctly than any physical fact can we picture the charac-
teristic workings of our own mental constitution. Yet
these are the conceptions which, we are told, we are not
to cherish, because they are anthropomorphic—or, in
other words, because of the very fact that they are so
familiar to us, and their mental representability is so
complete.

Some, indeed, of our physical teachers, conscious of
this necessary and involuntary anthropomorphism of
human thought and speech, struggle hard to expel it by
inventing phrases which shall as far as possible avoid it.
But it is well worthy of observation that, in exact pro-
portion as these phrases do avoid it, they become in-
competent to describe fully the facts of science. For ex-
ample, take those incipient changes in the substance of
an egg by which the organs of the future animal are
successively laid down—changes which have all refer—
ence to a purely purposive adaptation of that substance
to the future discharge of separate and special functions.
I have already referred* to the fact that these changes
are now commonly described as “ differentiations,”’ an
abstract expression which simply means the establish-
ment of differences, without any reference to the peculiar
nature of those differences, or their relations to each other
and to the whole. But the inadequacy of this word to
express the facts is surely obvious. The process of dis-
solution and decay are processes of differentiation us
much as the process of growth and adaptation to living
functions. Blood is differentiated just as much when,
upon being spilt upon the ground, it separates into its in-
organic elements, as when, circulating in the vessels, it
bathes and feeds the various tissues of the living body.
But these two operations are not only different, but ab-
solutely opposite in kind, and there does not seem to be
much light in that philosophy which insists on using the
same formula of expression to describe them both, It is
a phrase which empties the facts, as we can see and know
them, of all that is special in our knowledge of them. It
is possible, no doubt, by this and other similar artifices of
language, so to deprive them—or at least to appear to
deprive them—of their highest mental characters. More
foolish than the fabled ostrich, we may try to shut our eyes
against our own perceptions, or refuse to register them in
our language—resorting, for the sake of evasion, to some
juggleries of speech. “Potential existence” is another of
those vague abstract conceptions which may be, and is,
employed for a like purpose. It may be applied indis-
criminately to a mere slumbering force, or to an unful-
filled intention, or to an undeveloped mental faculty, or to
an elaborate preparation of foresight and design. If we
desire to take refuge from the necessity of forming any

3‘* Science,” Vol, I,, p. 181.

42

SCIENCE.

distinct conceptions, such phrases are eminently conve-
nient for the purpose, whilst under cover of them we may
cheat ourselves into the belief that we have got hold of
some definite idea, and perhaps even of an important
truth.

All who are puzzled and perplexed by the prevalent
teaching on these high matters should subject the lan-

guage in which it is conveyed to a careful, systematic, |

and close analysis. It will be found to fall within one or
another of these three classes:—First, there is the
phraseology of those who, without any thought either of
theological dogma or of philosophical speculation, are,
above all things, observers, and who describe the facts
they see in whatever language appears most fully and
most naturally to convey what they see to others. The
language of such men is what Mr. Darwin’s language
almost always is—eminently teleological and anthro-
pomorphic. Next, there is the language of those who
purposely shut out this element of thought, and con-
demn it as unscientific. The language of this class is
full of the vague abstract phrases to which I have re-
ferred—“ differentiation ’—‘‘ molecular change '’—‘ har-
mony with environment,” and others of a like kind—
phrases which, in exact proportion to their abstract
character, are evasive, and fall short of describing what
is really seen. Lastly we have the language of those
who habitually ascribe to Matter the properties of Mind ;
using this language not metaphorically, like the old
Aristotelians whom they despise, but literally— declaring
that Mind, as we know it, must be considered as having
been contained “ potentially ” in Matter; and was once
nothing but a cosmic vapor or a fiery cloud.

”»

this view it becomes equivalent to “Nature” in that

largest and widest interpretation to which | referred at |

the close of the last chapter—viz., that in which Nature
is understood as the “Sum of all Existence.” But if
this philosophy be true, let us at least cease to condemn,
as the type of all absurdity. the old medieval explana-
tions of material phenomena, which ascribe to them
affections of the mind. If Matter be so widened in
meaning as to be the mother and source of Mind, it
must surely be right and safe enough to see in it those
dispositions and phenomena which are nothing but its
product in ourselves,

The truth is, that this conception of Matter and of
Nature, which is associated with vehement denunciations
of anthropomorphism, is itself founded cn nothing else
but anthropomorphism pushed to its very farthest limit.
It is entirely derived from and founded on the fact that
mind, as we see it in ourselves, is in this world insepar-
ably connected with a material organism, and on the
further assumption that Mind is inconceivable or cannot
be inferred except in the same connection. This would
be a very unsafe conclusion, even if the connection be-
tween our bodies and our minds were of such a nature
that we could not conceive the separation of the two.
But so far is this from being the case, that, as Professor
Tyndall most truly says, “it is a connection which we
know only as an inexplicable fact, and we try to soar in a
vacuum when we seek to comprehend it.” The universal
testimony of human speech—that sure record of the
deepest metaphysical truths—prove that we cannot but
think of the body and the mind as separate—of the mind
as our proper selves, and of the body as indeed external
toit. Let us never forget that Life, as we know it here
below, is the antecedent or the cause of organization, and
not its product; that the peculiar combinations of matter
which are the homes and abodes of Life are prepared and
shaped under the control and guidance of that mysterious
power which we know as vitality; and that no discovery
of science has ever been able to reduce it to a lower level,
or to identify it with any purely material force. And,

Well may |
Professor Tyndall call upon us “radically to change our |
notions of Matter,” if this be a true view of it; for in |

lastly, we must remember, that even if it be true that Life
and Mind have some inseparable connection with the
forces which are known to us as material, this would not
make the supreme agencies in Nature, cr Nature asa
whole, less anthropomorphic, Lut greatly more; so that it
would, if possible, be even more unreascnable than it is
now to condemn man when he sees in Nature a Mind
having real analogies with his own.

And now what is the result of this argument—what is
its scope and bearing? Truly it is a very wide scope in-
deed——nothing less than this: that nothing in philosophy,
in theology, in belief, can be reascnably rejected or con—
demned on the sole ground that it is anthropomorphic.
That is to say, no adverse presumption can arise against
any conception, or any idea, or any doctrine on the mere
ground that it rests on the analogies of human thought.
This is a position—purely negative and defensive though it
be—from which we cannot be dislodged, and which holds
under its destructive fire a thousand different avenues of
attack.

But this is not all. Another result of the same argu-
ment is to establish a presumption the other way. All
the analogies of human thought are in themselves anal-
ogies of Nature, and in proportion as they are built up or

| are perceived by Mind in its higher attributes and work,

they are past and parcel of natural truth. Man—he
whom the Greeks called Anthropos, because, as it has
been supposed, he is the only Being whose look is up-
wards—Man is a part of Nature, and no artificial defini-
tions can separate him from it. And yet in another sense
it is true that Man is above Nature—outside of it; and
in this aspect he is the very type and image of the
‘“‘Supernatural.’” Theinstinct which sees this image in
him is a true instinct, and the consequent desire of
atheistic philosophy to banish anthropomorphism from
our conceptions is dictated by an obvious logical necessi-
ty. But in this necessity the system is self-condemned.
Every advance of science is a new testimony to the
supremacy of Mind, and tothe correspendence between the
mind of Man and the mind which is supreme in Nature.
Nor yet will it be possible, in the face of science, to re-
vive that Nature-worship which breathes in so many of
the old religions of mankind. For in exalting Mind,
science is ever making plainer and plainer the inferior
position of the purely physical aspects of Nature—the
vague character of what we know as Matter and material
force. Has not science, for example, even in these last
few years, rendered forever impossible one of the oldest
and most natural of the idolatries of the world? It has
disclosed to us the physical constitution of the Sun—that
great heavenly body which is one of the chief proximate
causes of all that we see and enjoy on earth, and which
has seemed most naturally the very image of the God-
head to millions of the human race. We now know the
sun to be simply a very large globe of solid and of gas-
eous matter, inastate of fierce and flaming incandesc-
ence. No man can worship a ball of fire, however big;
nor can he feel grateful to it, nor love it, nor
adore it, even though its beams be to him the very light

of life. Neither in it nor in the mere physical forces of -

which it is the centre, can we see anything approaching to
the rank and dignity of even the humblest human heart.
“What know we greater than the soul ?” It is only when
we come to think of the co-ordination and adjustment of
these physical forces as part of the mechanism of the
heavens—it is only, in short, when we recognize the
mental—that is, the anthropomorphic—element, that the
Universe becomes glorious and intelligible, as indeed a
Cosmos; a system of order and beauty adapted to the
various ends which we see actually attained, and to a
thousand others which we can only guess.. No phil-
osophy can be true which allows that we see in Nature
the most intimate relations with our intellectual concep-
tions of Space and Time and Force, but denies that we

_—

SCIENCE.

ey

43

can ever see any similar relation with our conceptions of
purpose and design, or with those still higher concep-
tions which are embodied in our sense of justice and in
our love of righteousness, and in our admiration of the
“quality cf mercy.’ These elements in the mind of
Man are not less certain than others to have some cor-
relative in the Mind which rules in Nature. Assuredly,
in the supreme government of the Universe these are
not less likely than other parts of our mental constitu-
tion to have some part of the natural system related to
them—so related that the knowledge of it shall be at
once their interpretation and fulfillment. Neither brute
matter nor inanimate force can supply either the one or
the other. If there be one truth more certain than an-
other, one conclusion more securely founded than an-
other, not on reason only, but on every cther faculty of
our nature, it is this—that there is nothing but mind that
we can respect; nothing but heart that we can love ;
nothing but a perfect combination of the two that we
can adore.

And yet it cannot be denied that among the many
difficulties and the many mysteries by which we are sur-
rounded, perhaps the greatest of all difficulties and the
deepest of all mysteries concerns the limits within which
we can, and beyond which we cannot, suppose that we
bear the image of Him who is the source of life. It
seems as if on either side our thoughts are in danger of
doing some affront to the Majesty of heaven—on the one
hand, if we suppose the Creator to have made us with
an intense desire to know Him, but yet destitute of any
faculties capable of forming even the faintest conception
of His nature; on the other hand,it we suppose that
creatures such as (only too well) we know ourselves to
be, can image the High and the Holy One who inhabi-
teth Eternity. Both these aspects of the truth are viv-
idly represented in the language of those who “at sun-
dry times and in divers manners” have spoken most pow-
erfully to the world upon Divine things. On the one
hand we have such strong but simple images as those
which represent the Almighty as ‘‘ walking in the gar-
den in the cool of the day,” or as speaking to the Jewish
lawgiver “face to face, as a man speaketh to his friend ;”
on the other hand we have the solemn and emphatic
declaration of St. John that “no man hath seen
God at any time.”’ In the sublime poetry of Job we
have at once the most touching and almost despairing
complaints of the inaccessibility and inscrutability of
God, and also the most absolute confidence in such a
knowlege of His character as to support and justify
unbounded trust. In the Psalms we have these words
addressed to the wicked as conveying the most severe
rebuke, “Thou thoughtest that I was altogether such
an one as thyself.”

And perhaps this word “altogether” indicates better
than any other the true reconciliation of apparent con-
tradictions. In the far higher light which Chfistianity
claims to have thrown on the relations of Man to God,
the same solution is in clearer terms presented to us.
“ Knowing in part and prophesying in part,” “Seeing
through a glass darkly,” and many other forms of expres-
sion, imply at once the reality and yet partial character
of the truths which on these high matters our faculties
enable us to attain. And this idea is not only consistent,
but is inseparably connected with that sense of limitation
which we have already seen to be one of the most re-
markable and significant facts connected with our mental
constitution. There is not one of the higher powers of
our mind in respect of which we do not feel that “we are
tied and bound by the weight of our infirmities.” There-
fore we can have no difficulty in conceiving all our own
powers exalted to an indefinite degree. And thus it is
that although all goodness, and power, and knowledge,

must, in respect to quality, be conceived of as we know.

them in ourselves, it does not follow that they can only

be conceived of according to the measures which we our-
selves supply.

These considerations show,—first, that the human
mind is the highest created thing of which we have any
knowledge, its conceptions of what is greatest in the
highest degree must be founded on what it knows to be
the greatest and highest in himself; and, secondly, that
we have no difficulty in understanding how this image
of the Highest, may, and must be, faint—without being
at all unreal or untrue.

There are, moreover, as we have seen, some remarka-
ble features connected with our consciousness of limita-
tion pointing to the conclusion that we have faculties
enabling us to recognize certain truths when they are
presented to us, which we could never have discovered for
ourselves. The sense of mystery which is sometimes so
oppressive to us, and which is never more oppressive than
when we try to fathom and understand some of the com-
monest questions affecting our own life and nature, sug-
gests and confirms this representation of the facts. For
this sense of oppression can only arise from some organs
of mental vision watching for a light which they have
been formed to see, but from which our own investiga-
tions cannot lift the veil. If that veil is to be lifted at all,
the evidence is that it must be lifted for us. Physical
science does not even tend to solve any one of the ulti-
mate questions which it concerns us most to know, and
which it interests us most to ask. It is according to the
analogy and course of Nature that to these questions
there should be some answering voice, and that 1t should
tell us things such as we are able in some measure to
understand. Nor ought it to be a thing incredible to us
—or even difficult to believe—that the system disclosed
should be in a sense anthropomorphic—that is to say,
that it should bear some very near relation to our own
forms of thought—to our own faculties of mind, and soul,
and spirit. For all we do know, and all the processes
of thought by which knowledge is acquired, involve and
imply the truth that our mind is indeed made in some
real sense in the image of the Creator, although intellec-
tually its powers are very limited, and morally its condi-
tion is very low.

In this last element of consciousness, however—not the
limitation of our intellectual powers, but the unworthiness
of our moral character—we come upon a fact differing
from any other which we have hitherto considered. It is
not so easy to assign to it any consistent place in the
unities of Nature. What it is and what it appears to in-
dicate, must form the subject of another chapter.

i __.

PROGRESS OF BOTANICAL SCIENCE IN THE
UNITED STATES.

By J. C. ARTHUR,

The sketch by Professor Bessey in the December
Naturalist of the work in Botany done in this country
during 1879 is very interesting, and offers an opportunity
of comparing the present status of the Science in Amer-
ica with its progress elsewhere. The article shows
which departments have been most cultivated, and indi-
cates to some extent the thoroughness and value of the
observations and researches. The principal activity was
manifested in Descriptive and Systematic Botany, and
that largely among Phanerogams and Ferns. Such ex-
amples as Mr. Watson’s “ Revision of North American

Liliacez ’’ and Dr. Gray’s ‘Botanical Contributions ”
are of the highest scientific value. These are accom-
panied by others which are little, if at all, inferior.
Large and elegant works like Eaton’s “Ferns of North
America,’’ Meehan’s “ Native Flowers and Ferns of the
United States,’ Goodale’s “‘ Wild Flowers of America,”

44 SCIENCE.

and Williamson’s “Fern Etchings,” are signs of the
healthy growth of popular interest in the objects of the
Science.

Among the lower orders of plants, systematic work
has not been so vigorous. The literature is widely scat-
tered, and of many of the groups is in a most disheart-
eningly chaotic state. The disentangling and critical
arrangement of this matter is at present one of the most
important services that could be rendered the student.
The labor of consulting all the descriptions belonging to
any one group is often very great, and is always accom-
panied with a doubt if complete success has been at-
tained. Further perplexities are the unequal value of
the material when found, and the difficulty of determin-
ing synonymy. Monographs of the groups are exceed-
ingly desirable ; but such exhaustive studies are not often
made, and in lieu of them careful compilations, aided by
as much investigation and verification as possible, are
very useful. Professor Bessey’s “ Erysiphei,’’ Mr. Peck’s
“United States Species of Lycoperdon,” and Dr, Hal-
sted’s ‘“ American Species of Characez”’ are admirable
examples of such contributions to the advancement of
knowledge.

It is a law in the growth of a biological science that
the objects with which it deals must be carefully identi-
fied and systematically described before much progress
will be made in the recondite investigations of structure
and development, and the relations to physical forces, or
in the higher problems regarding the vazzonale of forms
and processes. Every advancement in morphology and
physiology, however, reacts upon classification and helps
to establish it upon a more satisfactory basis. While
systematic work is thus the very foundation of the sci-
ence, it is only by following it up in the same zealous
manner with anatomical and physiological researches
that the science makes most substantial advancement.

It is manifestly the natural and wise thing for Ameri-
can botanists to collect herbaria and study floras till the
species and their distribution are fairly known. For
Phanerogams and Ferns this has been well accomplish-
ed, and approximately so for Mosses and Liverworts, but
the Thalloyhytes (Alga and Fungi) remain comparative-
ly unknown. Not but what there is still room for excell-
ent systematic work among Phanerogams, but that the
stumps and stones and other obstacles in the field have
been pretty fully cleared away and it is now a matter of
plain cultivation, while the other departments of the
science need earnest workers who are not afraid of diffi-
culties, and are willing to clear up and cultivate single
handed as large areas as possible.

In the article cited, the Professor feels called upon to
apologize for the neglect of Anatomy and Physiology
during 1879. He says:—‘‘ While we may regret that so
much of the field has been so sadly neglected in our
country, we should remember that, asa rule, our botanists
are overloaded with other duties which render it often
impossible for them to command the time for making the
necessary investigation.’ Admitting that the plea partly
accounts for the inactivity, it still does not seem to touch
the chief cause of the difficulty. It is rather to be as-
cribed to a lack of enthusiasm for these subjects. They
have not yet come into vogue with lovers of the science:
the tidal wave of laboratory and experimental Botany is
yet but slightly felt ; the problems seem new and strange,
and just where and how to attack them appears obscure
and uncertain. The work already done in these fields
has mainly related to the means and accompanying pheno-
mena of the fertilization of flowers. Some excellent pa-
pers have been published, although not lengthy. Histo-
logy, Embryology, and Physiology proper, however, ap-
pear almost without followers, judging from the results
communicated, At the present time, Germany is the
centre of the most active researches relating to the latter
subjects, and France js not far behind,

In order to keep informed of the latest discoveries and
results in the botanical world, an acquaintance with the
journals in which they are announced is imperative. It
is a trite saying in matters of daily life, that if one wishes
to be “ posted ’’ he must read the papers. This applies
even more forcibly to botanists, because their usual isola-
tion deprives them of most other means of obtaining
botanical news.

Among the most important exclusively botanical
journals are the following: Botanzsches Centralblatt,
abstracts of the latest writings, and a full index, for all
departments of the science ; Botanzsche Zettung, anat-
omy and physiology chiefly; //ora, general botany ;
Pringsheim’s Fahrbicker., physiological botany ; Hed-
wigta, cryptogams; Annales des Sctences Naturelles
Botanigue, general botany, but with a large share of
anatomy and physiology ; Bulletin de la Soczété Botan-
zque de France, general botany; Fournal of Botany,
largely systematic ; Grevzllea, cryptogams ; and the two
home journals—Bulletzn of the Torrey Club, largely
systematic ; and Botanzcal Gazette, general botany, but
inclined towards physiology. The first two of the list
are weeklies ; //orva is issued in thirty-seven numbers,
and the others are monthlies. Beside these there are a
iarge number of periodicals which devote considerable
space to botanical matters, such as the Quarterly
Fournal of Microscopical Science, Hardwecke’s Science
Gossip, American Naturalist, American Monthly Mic-
roscopical Fournal, etc. If one were confined to two,
probably the Botanische Zettung and the Bulletin de la
Soctété Botanigue, would prove the most satisfactory,
presuming that the home journals are also taken, as a
matter of course. Mr. Douglas, of Richland, N. Y.,
proposes to issue a translation of the Zeztung, for less
than the subscription price of the original (but without
the plates, we suppose). This laudable undertaking
should receive substantial encouragement from English
speaking botanists.

Probably there is no better indication of the beginning
of a new era for American botany, than the changes
made in the recent text-books. Dr. Gray’s “ Botanical
Text-book”’ is. expanded into four volumes, treating of
the Morphological Structure of Phanerogams, Histology
and Physiology, Cryptogams, and the natural orders of
Phanerogams, respectively. The second volume is to be
written by Dr. Goodale, and the third by Dr. Farlow.
The first volume of the series has already appeared,

THE DETECTION OF STARCH AND
DEXTRIN.
By SPENCER UMFREVILLE PICKERING, B. A.,OXON.

In conducting some experiments in which it was nec-
essary to ascertain the presence or absence of starchin a
liquid containing various amounts of dextrin, the few
facts here described were brought to light, and may, per-
haps, be of sufficient interest to warrant their publica-
tion.

When a solution of starch which has been colored
blue by the addition of iodine is heated, it is found that
the temperature at which the color disappears varies
with the intensity which it possessed before heating.
Thus, for instance, 1ooc. c. of a rather dark iodine-starch
solution on being heated gradually ina flask became per-
fectly colorless at 58° C., and, on being cooled, showed
a slight reappearance of color at 49° C., whereas an
opaque blue solution did not lose its color till heated to
99° C., and became visibly colored again when cooled to
63° C. Similarly variable results were obtained by ex-
perimenting on iodine-starch solutions in sealed tubes,
the temperatures of reappearance being much more con-
stant (generally about 50° C) than those of disappear-
ance; this no doubt is due tothe fact that, the stronger
solutions having been heated to a higher temperature than

—

SCEENCE.

45

the weaker ones in order to effect the disappearance, a
greater quantity of the iodine present in them would have
been converted into hydriodic acid, and this would tend to
an equalization of the amounts of iodine present on cooling
in the various cases. Owing to this conversion of iodine
into hydriodic acid, the solutions on cooling, as might be
expected, are considerably lighter than they were before
heating, and their intensity naturally depends to a great
extent on the rapidity with which they have been cooled ;
even a very weak iodine-starch solution which has been
heated may be made to re-assume its color if cooled
very quickly.

The amount of starch which may be recognized by
means of the iodine reaction varies, of course, with the
bulk of liquid operated upon. Using about 200 c.c. the
weakest solution which gives an easily discernable blue
tint in a beaker contains about 0.ooo1 per cent. of starch,
while if small quantities are examined in a test-tube this
percentage must be doubled in order that the color may
be rendered visib!e. The green color which is noticed
when a large quantity of iodine is added to a weak solu-
tion of starch, appears to be due simply to the combina-
tion of the proper yellow color of the free iodine with the
blue color of the iodine-starch.

When two weak solutions of iodine, to one of which
some starch has been added, are exposed to the air in an
uncovered beaker, the iodine in both cases disappears en-
tirely in the course of a few days, but more slowly from
the solution which contains the starch; hence the iodine
which disappears (owing partially to its volatilization into
the air and partially to its hydrogenation) seems to be
retained to a certain extent by the presence of starch.
The presence of iodine has a reciprocal action in the pre-
servation of starch. A solution of starch, which, in a few
days, is converted into dextrin, may be preserved unal-
tered for a long time—possibly for an indefinite time, if
an excess of iodine is present in it.

When a sufficient quantity of iodine is added to a solu-
tion of dextrin, a deep brown color is produced ; the col-
ored compound which is hefe present is in a state of true
solution, whereas in the case of starch it will, as is well
known, settle entirely to the bottom of the liquid in deep
blue flocks, leaving the supernatant solution quite color-
less, and these flocks on agitation are disseminated again
so as to form an apparent solution. The dextrin reac-
tion with iodine is not nearly so delicate as that of
starch ; the weakest solution which gave any discernable
color on being tested contained 0.005 per cent. of dextrin,
and in this case the color could only be detected by
using about 200 c.c. of the solution, and comparing the
color with that of some iodine solution of the same
strength as that to which the dextrin had been added.

With starch, the first drop of iodine which is added
produces a permanent coloration. With dextrin, how-
ever, this is not the case; the color produced by the first
drops disappears instantly and entirely. A considerable
quantity must be added before a moderately permanent
color is produced, and the reaction, owing to which the
iodine disappears in this way, will continue for six or
seven days. Whether the dextrin disappears or not at
the same time has not been ascertained, although it
seems most probable that it should do so.

When a solution of iodine-dextrin is heated, the color
becomes lighter and gradually disappears, as in the case
of iodine-starch, but the temperature at which this disap-
pearance takes place is considerably lower. An opaque
brown solution on being heated in a flask became color-
less at about 81° C., and, on cooling, regained its color
with considerable diminution in intensity) at 64°C. A
solution of one-quarter the strength of the preceding one
lost its color at 52°, and regained it on cooling at 34° C.;
here also, as in the case of iodine-starch, we find that
the colored principle does not become colorless at any
_ Particular temperature, but its disappearance is dependent
On its original intensity,

The dextrin usually met with in commerce contains a
considerable amount of starch, which, however, may be
entirely converted into dextrin by prolonged heating at
140° to 160° C for several hours, after which it gives the
pure brown reaction with iodine above mentioned.

When iodine is added in excess to a mixture of starch
and dextrin, the colors produced are blue, violet, purple,
claret, red-brown, or brown, according to the various
proportions in which the two substances are present.
When the iodine is added gradually to the mixed solu-
tions the colors produced, both temporary and perma-
nent, follow the same order as those above mentioned,
the blue colors appearing first, and the red ones only on the
addition of larger amounts of iodine. Conversely, when
the colored solution is allowed to stand, the red tints
disappear first, and the blue ones last. Obviously,
therefore, the gradual addition of iodine affords an easy
and delicate means of detecting starch in the presence of
even a large amount of dextrin. Another way in which
starch may be detected in similar cases, is to add an
ample sufficiency of iodine to produce a permanent color,
and then to heat the liquid; the brown iodine-dextrin is
decomposed at a comparatively low temperature, while
the blue iodine-starch remains till the heat is raised con-
siderably higher, and again, on cooling, the blue tint re-
appears long before the brown or red tint does; even
when there is not sufficient starch to yield satisfactory
results by this method, it may often be detected by the
liquid being of a more bluish tint after the heating than
it was before it.

O. Knab (Chem. Centr. Blatt, 1872, 492) found that
some dextrin which he had prepared by repeated (ten
times) precipitation with alcohol gave the reaction of a
mixture of dextrin and starch, and hence concluded that
it still contained some of this latter substance. . It ap-
pears superfluous, however, to raise an impure prepara-
tion to the dignity of a chemical compound by giving it a
distinct name—dextrin-starch—as Knab does. On leav-
ing a mixture of solutions of starch and dextrin for some
days, Knab found that, whereas the addition of iodine had
at first caused a deep blue coloration, after a time noth-
ing but the red or brown color of iodine-dextrin was pro-
duced, and hence draws the somewhat startling conclu-
sion that starch under the influence of dextrin is converted
into dextrin. A simpler and more probable conclusion
from these experiments would surely have been, that at
the end of the few days during which his experiments
lasted, the starch had suffered that spontaneous decom-
position to which it is, as is well known, so prone, leav-
ing in solution nothing which would give a coloration
with iodine but the unaltered dextrin.

Dextrin and starch, it appears, give entirely different re-
actions with iodine; the former combines with the halo-
gen to form a brown soluble substance, whereas the lat-
ter forms with it a deep blue insoluble body; and these
two reactions are so distinct that presence of either of the
reagents may be easily detected in a solution containing
both of them.

The fact that the addition of iodine to dextrin produces
only a transitory color at first, and that an excess of it is
necessary to give a permanent tint, will, no doubt, ex-
plain the various discordant statements which exist as to
whether any color is produced by the mixture of these
two substances or not, and will probably render unneces-
sary the theory of there being two or three different dex-
trins, as proposed by Mulder and Griessmayer.

i

DETERMINATION OF THE FATAL DosE OF CARBONIC OXIDE
FOR VARIOUS ANIMALS.—Air containing 1-300th of its vol-
ume of carbonic oxide proved fatal to a dog when inhaled
for fifty minutes. In another dog of the same size the
fatal dose was 1-250th. A rabbit resisted various propor-
tions up to 1-6oth. A sparrow perished with 1-500th,—
M. GREHANT,

46

MICROSCOPY,

The annual reception of the New York Microscopical
Society will be held on Monday evening, February 14th,
1881, at the rooms of the New York Academy of
Sciences, No. 12 West 31st street.

Microsccpical preparations of great interest will be ex-
hibited, and the Board of Managers extend a cordial in-
vitation to all possessing microscopes to attend the meet-
ing. We trust that those microscopists residing in the
city, who are not members, will avail themselves of this
opportunity to observe the many facilties this society
offers for extending a knowledge of this branch of science.
Microscopical Societies do not profess to teach, but
students will find ample opportunities of having the best
methods of preparation practically explained to them,
and by associating with the members at the ordinary
meetings, infermation on any point relating to microscopy
can be readily ob ained. The annual dues of this society
amount to $5 a year. Cards of admission to the sozrée
can be obtained of Professor Hitchcock, 53 Maiden Lane,
New York City.

oO

ASTRONOMY.

Dr. B. A. Gould, Director of the Cordoba Observatory,
Argentine Republic, has been unanimously elected a
correspondivg member of the Paris Academy of Sciences
inthe section of Astronomy, to fill the place of the late
Dr. Peters.

The Observatory of Dunecht, near Aberdeen, Sc°t-
land, has undertaken the important matter of informi®g
the astronomical observers in the United Kingdom, by
means of circulars through the mails, of such facts as
must be immediately made known to be of use. It has
already issued thirteen circulars, and promises to be of
the greatest advantage to British Astronomers.

; Wien Con Wie

REMARKABLE METEOR,

Whilst returning home on the evening of December
29, 1880, | observed a very brilliant and somewhat re-
markable meteor. Having seen no observation of this
meteor published, and as it may be of interest, I will give
a description.

The night was just beginning to be dark enough for
the principal stars to shine brightly, the sky being in-
tensely clear, with a cold, cutting wind from the west,
the thermometer being below zero. My attention was
suddenly attracted bya brilliant light ; looking hastily up,
I observed the meteor. It was very white and brilliant,
with a short train ; there was nosensible disk. It started
from near 6 Aguarzz and moved at a moderate speed,
passing some four or five degrees south of Venus, and
appearing fully twice as largeas that planet. After passing
Venus a short distance, it suddenly flared up as if an ex-
plosion had occurred. It immediately slackened its speed,
and assuming the brilliancy of a dullish first magnitude
star, it floated slowly down in a slanting direction toward
the southwest horizon. I watched closely, expecting to
see it sink behind the horizon. It sunk slower and
slower until, at an elevation of not more than 2°, it dis-
appeared suddenly.

From the moment of explosion until its disappearance
it was the size of a dull yellowish first to second magni-
tude star. No explosion was heard. It was first seen
at about R.A. 22h. 54m. south declination, about 15°, dis-
appearing at about R.A. 19h, 44m. and 19° or 20° south
declination. Its visible path was about 42°.

It remained visible for fully half a minute, the greater
portion of the time being after the explosion. Time, 6
hours Nashville m.t. Did any other observer note this
object ? E, E, BARNARD.

NASHVILLE, TENN., Zanuary 19, 1881,

SCIENCE.

JUPITER.
THE RAPIDLY MOVING WHITE SPOT.

The white spot, described by mein“ SCIENCE’’(No. 24),
having continued permanent up to the last observation of.
Jupiter, led me to investigate its history. Tracing back-
ward through my note-book, I find observations at inter-
vals of the same spot, the first observation being on
June 26, 1880,

On account of its rapid motion and frequent variation
of form I had at each observation failed to recognize the
identity of the objects seen.

The spot has invariably borne the same relative posi-
tion to a long sinuous rift in the northern part of the
equatorial band. In 1879 a similar spot was observed,
bearing then the same relative position to a similar rift.
It is probable that the object seen in 1879 is identical -
with the present white spot.

My observations this year show a decided variation in
the rotation period of this object. Its varying velocity
is doubtless due to changes in its form. My sketches
show it to be at times scarcely noticeable as a pale, tol-
erably well defined spot. At other times it is shown as
a long curved brilliant spot with its head “tucked ” un-
der towards the south, apparently plowing the dusky
material cf the equatorial belt before it, and a well-de-
fined luminous train following in its wake. A sufficient
number of obseivations have not yet been obtained to
decide under what form it attains its greatest velocity.
It is likely some sort of violent action takes place in the
spot, under the influence of which it becomes very white,
increases its motion throwing off a luminous train and
cleaving the matter composing the great equatorial
“river ”’ like a vessel scudding before the gale. The ac-
tion in the spot then gradually becomes quiescent, its mo-
tion slackens and it drifts along shorn of its train and
scarcely recognizable ; remaining thus until the forces in
it are again at work, when it will once more pursue its’
rapid course in all the glory of a streaming train. Buta
lack of observations leaves its times of greatest motion
io doubt, and it may be that the motion is greater when
its appearance is less conspicuous.

On December 31 this object was seen as a pale, well-
defined spot without anytrain. It was slightly following
—hby about two or three minutes—the meridian of the
following end of the great red spot, having, since the
middle of November, made a complete circuit of the
planet, and was once more passing the red spot.

At the next observation, January 7, it had left the red
spot a considerable distance behind, coming to the mid-
dle of the disk one hour before the red spot was central,
having passed that object at about the time predicted
in “ SCIENCE ” (No. 24.)

From the observations of June 26, 1880, and January
7, 1881, I get a rotation period of gh. 50m. 47s.; in this
case the transit on June 26 was estimated from a sketch
The observations of Nov. 22 and December 2 give a
period of gh. 50m. 19s. Transits of November 22 and
December 29, give a period of 9h. 50m. 14s. Transits of
November 22 and January 7 give 9h. 50m. 5s. An esti-
mated transit on August 17 and observed transit of Jan-—
uary 7 give for its rotation gh. 50m. 9s. It makes a
complete circuit of Jupiter, compared with the red spot,
once in 45.08 days. If at any time it is seen passing the
red spot it will in forty-five days go completely around
the planet and back to the red object again, which would
indicate a daily velocity of 6170 miles, or 257 miles an
hour. E, E, BARNARD.

NASHVILLE, “enn., Zan. 18.

Es

DETECTION OF ALCOHOL IN ETHEREAL OrLs.—A. Drech-
sler employs, as reagent, a solution of 1 part potassium
bichromaie in 10 parts nitric acid of sp. gr. 1.30, Alcohol,
if present, is at once betrayed by the pungent odor of ethyl
nitrite,

SCIENCE.

A7

CORRESPONDENCE, '

| The Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed
by his correspondents. No notice is taken of anonymous communt—
cations.)
RELIEF To THE JEANNETTE.

To the Edztor of ‘SCIENCE :”

In compliance with your request concerning my views
of the present probable status of the Feanmette, and es-
pecially the subject of a relief party to be sent to her, I
would state that not desiring to renew at length the
reasons set forth in the New York Heradd, of January
12th, I will confine myself mainly to the few but import-
ant motives which point to the necessity of such a step
in so far as they concern the interest of science. The
urgency of immediate succor has been so thoroughly
dwelt upon by yourself and others interested, that it can
receive but little addition at my hands; suffice to say
that the greater majority of Arctic accidents to naval expe-
ditions, which would demand assistance, are of a violent
character, such as wreck, ice-pressure, besettal and aban-
donment, etc., and which show plainly that rescue
here, like that in all other zones, must be immediate to
be effective in such emergencies. Also the necessity of
replenishing the weakened portion of DeLong’s crew,
should they have been unfortunate in securing a suffi-
cient supply of fresh meat can not be too strongly pre-
sented, for such a circumstance might fatally compro-
mise an otherwise successful termination of the voyage,
and just at the critical period of the undertaking. Ina
scientific point of view the field entered by the
Feannette, and which would be entered by her relief
ship (which should carry a full and complete scientific
corps) is one of the most interesting character. Nearly
all of the Arctic estuaries of the Atlantic, have been more
orless covered by the scientist and their fields of zeo-
graphy, physical and otherwise, their geology and
minerology, their fauna and flora and many other kin-
dred and interesting sciences, form huge volumes in the
many libraries accessible to the student of these various
topics, but on the Pacific side the many branches of
science there presented form a vast field of investigation
and research almost yet untrodden. That Lieutenant
De Long’s expedition could cireumscribe, even in outline,
this great theatre of undeveloped scientific resources is
clearly impossible, and there have been but few prede-
cessors along his route to show anything of value to
those most deeply interested.

Every civilized nation has taken a public pride in bring-
ing to light all the scientific knowledge attainable, per-
taining to its own domain and its adjacent waters, ac-
knowledging defeat and chagrin where it has been left
to those differing in blood and allegiance to accomplish.
It is only the savage, the barbarian, and semi-civilized
community, that can allow these peaceful invasions with-
out patriotic mortification or national chagrin. The
Pacific Polar Seas are adjacent to the colonies of our
own country and those of Russia. The latter has no
great seaports or readily available fitting points in
hei Pacific coast whence an expedition may sail.

' With us, on the contrary, our Occidental shores are
studded with goodly sized cities, one of which for such
a purpose is as perfect as any in the world. It is there-
fore the plain duty of America to harvest this field, at
least, even if the grain must be sent abroad to be
ground,

It has also been proposed to establish permanent sta-
tions in the Arctic for scientific purposes, all nations
uniting, forming a grand international chain, whose
united observations will settle many disputed, and proba-
bly bring forth and illustrate many new, theories in the
science of these zones, especially in the domain of me-
teorology, where continuous observations are so essential.
To cover the Alaskan coast would be the least that

could be expected of us, and it is not at all doubtful
but that the British American shores belonging more
peculiarly to us, by reason of contiguity, than to Great
Britain, by reason of colonial possession, would be par-
tially assigned to us, at least in this scheme. The relief
party sent to the Yeanette could found this little colony,
herself make extended investigations, and subserve the
purpose of humanity by rescuing or relieving an expedi-
tion of our own countrymen under our own flag.

In all cases of abandonment of vessels in Arctic
waters, the scientific collections have necessarily been
left, as nothing should burden the retreating crews, ex-
cept absolute necessaries, ina race for life where every
ounce of weight is of vital importance, and these collec-
tions are almost as good as lost when only feebly repre-
sented by their descriptions and imperfect sketches. Such
has been the fate of so many collections, rendering the
voyage, in a scientific sense, almost 727, so that the rescue
of an expedition, with such facilities of research, should
meet the hearty encouragement of» every scientist of
America. F. SCHWATKA.

GOVERNOR'S ISLAND, NEW YORK HARBOR,
Fanuary 29, 1881.

————EES

HYPNOTISM.

To the Edztor of ‘‘ SCIENCE:”

I doubt not that many of the readers of ‘“SCIENCE”’
who attended the recent lecture of Dr. Beard, before the
New York Academy of Sciences, will be surprised to read
the article which you have published on page 13, Vol. II.
It is not my purpose in this letter to defend the position of
Dr. Beard in this matter, for if he deems it necessary I
have no doubt he will give a satisfactory explanation of
the few minor points which have given rise to your sus-
picions as to the genuineness of the phenomena. The
circumstance of the person who was rendered deaf,
and who was roused from his trance in the surprising
manner which you describe, likewise aroused some ques-
tions in my own mind, as did also one or two other ex-
periments ; but instead of selecting these as a basis for ad-
verse criticism, it has seemed to me more in accord with
scientific methods to first inquire what explanation of
them Dr. Beard himself can give.

The question before the general scientific world is not
whether we can pick out single points for criticism, but
whether the phenomena, as a whole, are genuine. The
study of trance is not one with which most of us can
claim familiarity, and although it is one which, more than
almost any other, demands very special training to
enable a person to profitably investigate the phenomena,
we seldom find a person, even among scientific men, who
has not his own ideas or theories or explanations about
it. For this reason, Dr. Beard’s careful study of the sub-
ject probably will not be fully appreciated during this, in
some respects, conservative generation. Physical phe-
nomena may be tested and abstruse hypotheses framed to
explain them, and the world will accept the explanation ;
but in matters of trance, the clearest demonstrations can-
not shake deep-seated beliefs, or convince unreasoning
skeptics.

What has been the attitude of scientific men in the
past toward this subject ? It has been one of disbelief and
nothing more. It is true that many of the phenomena (not
all of them) have been known formany years. Your state-
ment, however, that “nearly all our present knowledge
of the subject dates from Braid’s book”’ was directly
contradicted by Dr. Beard inhislecture. Your assertion
is only true of the phenomena. Dr. Beard’s object was
not to give an amusing exhibition of the phenomena of
trance before a scientific body, but to explain them; the
experiments being merely illustrative of the subject: “I
have still another criticism to make. You have as-
sumed that ‘two of the subjects were evidently trained
performers, if not professional actors.’” Admitting this

48 SCIENCE.

mere supposition, to be true, what possible bearing can
it have upOn the result? Why should not professional
actors be as good subjects as any other persons? This
objection seems to me about on an equality with some
others which]I have heard, e. g., that all the subjects
were trained to perform to suit the occasion. Your asser-
tion that “the subjects of Dr. Beard are selected from the
nervous classes of our population,” is in direct contra-
diction tofthe doctor’s declaration. In no sense can I
regard your criticism as quite fair. Moreover, you have
neglected to mention two of the most convincing demon-
strations of the reality of the phenomena,—I refer to the
extraction of two teeth from one subject, and the appli-
cation of actual cautery to another. The opinion seems
to be very common that the phenomena of mesmeric
trance cannot be genuine unless all persons can be
brought under its influence. A very little reflection will
show that this is an erroneous opinion. There is much
more that might be said upon the subject, but my pur-
pose is only to correct the erroneous impressions which I
am sure your article will give to many readers. I hope
the columns of ‘‘SCIENCE”’ will be held open for a free
discussion of these phenomena, R. HITCHCOCK.

To the Editor of “SCIENCE :”

In Dr. Spitzka’s suggestive “ Notes on the Anatomy of
the Encephalon, etc.,” in “‘ SCIENCE,” No. 29, occurs the
following passage:

“Now, the third ventricle, as shown by Hadlich and
Wilder, extends over the entire thalami.”’

I regret to be obliged to makeacorrection. The pas—
sage contains two distinct statements: the one, that the
third ventrical extends over the entire thalami, and the
other that such was shown to be the case by Hadlich and
myself.

Since upon this point—as upon all others presented in
the article—no exact references are given, I will not speak
now of Hadlich’s views; but no such statement has ever
been made by me, and I am at a loss to understand how
Dr. Spitzka can have gained that impression. On the
contrary, my paper ‘‘On the Foramina of Monro in the
Domestic Cat,” read at the Boston meeting of the A. A.
A.S., but not yet published, included an expression of
my belief that, in the cat, the dorsal limit of the third ven-
tricle on each side corresponds with the Hadena, (the so-
called “ peduncle of the pineal body,”) along which the
Endyma (the lining membrane of the ventricles), is re-
flected from the mesial surface of the thalamus toward the
opposite side. Hence, only the mesial aspect of each
thalamus is ‘‘in the third ventricle,” the remaining and
much larger part of the surface being wholly extra-ventri-
cular. BURT G, WILDER.

ITHACA, N. Y., January 26, 1881.

Eo
BOOKS RECEIVED.

BULLETIN No. 3 of the Illinois State Laboratory of
Natural History at Nermal, Ill., is a pamphlet of 160
pages, containing papers by the Director of the Labora-
tory, Prof. S. A. Forbes, on the following subjects: On
some Interactions of Organisms; The Food of Fishes’;
Acanthopteri ; On the Food of Young Fishes ; The Food
of Birds ; Notes on Insectivorous Coleoptera. Likewise
a brief but significant paper—Notes upon the Food of
Predaceous Beetles, by Mr. F. M. Webster, who has in-
dependently come to the same conclusion as Prof. Forbes
that the Carabide, in place of being exclusively insect-
ivorous as is generally supposed, can, and in fact do, de-
rive considerable sustenance from grains, grasses, and
other vegetable substances, :

The instructiveness and practical as well as scientific
value of the researches which form the basis of these
papers may be inferred from their titles, and from Prof.

Forbes’ well known accuracy and enthusiasm. But they
are also very interesting and entertaining reading, and
will thus be more apt to reach the minds of many who
would otherwise fail to profit by the stores of informa-
tion they contain. It would be well for other states to
make the slight provision required for carrying on sim-
ilar investigations into the tood habits of the Birds,
Fishes and Insects found within their limits.

B. G. W.

i

CHEMICAL NOTES.

DETECTION OF IODINE IN BORMINE AND METALLIC Bro-
MIDES.—A few drops of the bromine in question are
placed in a small porcelain capsule, 30 c.c. of a solution
of potassium chlorate, saturated in the cold, are added, and
the liquid is boiled till colorless. The solution is then
poured into a test-tube, allowed to cool, mixed with a few
drops of a solution of morphine sulphate and a little chloro-
form. If the chloroform takes a violet color, iodine is
present in the sample. The morphine solution is prepared
by dissolving 0.5 grm. morphine in an excess of dilute sul-
phuric acid, and diluting to 50c.c. In examining potas-
sium bromide the solution is mixed with 2 or 3 drops of
pure bromine water, and a few c.c, of a cold saturated so-
lution of potassium chlorate, and further treated as above.
—A. JORISSEN.

DETERMINATION OF SULPHUR IN [RON PyrITEs.—On ox-
idizing pyrites with nitric acid and precipitating the sul-
phuric acid from the ferriferous solution, slightly acidified
with hydrochloric acid, there is always obtained a barium
sulphate, contaminated with iron, and still the results were
too low. The following process is, therefore, adopted: 1
grm. pyrites was mixed ina large covered crucible with 8
grms, of a mixture of equal parts potassium chlorate,
sodium carbonate, and sodium chloride. The crucible is
heated at first gently so as to dry the contents, which are
afterwards melted at a high temperature. The mass when
cold is treated with boiling water, and the solution together
with the deposit is introduced into a measuring-flask of
200 c.c. filled up, filtered, and the sulphuric acid is deter-
mined in aliquot parts, say 50c.c. The insoluble residue
does not retain any sulphuric acid. In this manner the
use of nitric acid is evaded. The decomposition of the
potassium chlorate is complete. —BERNHARD DENTECON.

CONTRIBUTION TO ELECTROLYSIS.—L, Schucht describes
the electrolytic determination of uranium, thallium, indium,
vanadium, palladium, molybdenum, selenium, and tellu-
rium. For qualitative analysis he uses a strong test-glass,
10 to 12 c.m. high, and 1.5 c.m. wide, fitted with a cork
coated with paraffin, Two platinum wires, 1% m.m. in
thickness, pass through the cork down to the bottom, and
are connected above the cork with the polar wires of the
battery by means of small binding screws. This decompo-
sition tube may be held in a wooden clamp. After the
current has passed through the solution to be analyzed for
ten to fifteen minutes, the stopper with the wires is drawn
out, without interrupting the current, and the deposited
metal is determined by its color, lustre, solubility in acids,
&c. The manner of decomposition and the slight or strong
evolution of gas is noticed. The solution is completely
precipitated, rendered alkaline, and again electrolysed,
after the wires have been cleansed. Copper is recognised
by its color, mercury by the precipitated globules, nickel
and cobalt by their lustre and sparing solubility in acids,
zinc and cadmium by their color and solubility in potassa.
The formation of peroxides is characteristic for lead, silver,
bismuth, thallium, manganese. Bismuthic acid is gradually
formed, whilst the peroxides of lead, silver, and thallium
are deposited at the beginning of the precipitation. Silver
peroxide dissolves in ammonia with liberation of nitrogen.
The decomposition of the alkalies and alkaline earths is
best effected in a U-tube. The hydroxides of the latter are
separated in a voluminous form; those of calcium and
Magnesium in white crusts. The hydroxides of barium,
strontium, and the alkalies dissolved on the negative wire,
Berg-und Hiitten Zeitung, 39, 121.

SCIENCE.

49

Screen L :

A WEEKLY RECORD OF SCIENTIFIC

PROGRESS.

JOHN MICHELS, Editor.

=e

PuBLISHED AT
229 BROADWAY, NEW YORK.

P, O, Box 3888.

SATURDAY, FEBRUARY 5, 1881.

ON MATTER AS A FORM OF ENERGY.

In the vortex-ring theory of matter as propounded
by Sir William Thomson, the characteristic differences
between the elements is supposed to be due to com-

plications in the rings themselves, as they may be

knotted in innumerable ways. Several such forms
are drawn in the memoir, and one such is stamped
upon the cover of “The Unseen Universe,” by
Tait and Stewart. :

This vortex-ring theory assumes that matter is a
JSorm of energy, not interchangable with the other vari-
able forms, such as heat, electricity, etc., for the sim-
ple reason that its form renders it impossible, but if
the elements be forms of energy, the law of energy
may possibly be traced in them. Now, the energy of
a given mass of matter varies as the square of its veloc-
ity, but the properties of the mass vary with the form
of the energy, that is to say, the physical properties of
a heated body are not identical with those of the same
body when it is cool, but possesses the same amount
of energy in free path motion. The physical proper-
ties of atoms and molecules vary with atomic and
molecular velocities ; for example, whether a piece of
iron or steel is magnetic or not depends upon its tem-
perature, that is, its rate of molecular vibration. It is
not, therefore, @ rior improbable that such differences
as exist between the ultimate atoms constituting what
we call mass, may be due to relative velocities of rota-
tion of the vortex-ring. Atomic weights represent
numerically these constant differences, and one might
expect to find in any one of these atomic weights the
two factors that constitute energy, namely a mass (or
its equivalent) and a velocity; so we might write
mv"

—=atomic weight.

: Applying this to a specific

2

case, suppose v'=75 = atomic weight of Arsenic ;

by inspection it is seen that # =6andyv=5. If
6 X 22
2
bon. Leta table now be constructed m = 6 and v
with values 2, 3, 4, and so on, and there results a
series of numbers JV either exactly the same as the
‘atomic weights of some of the elements or a very close
approximation to such numbers.

m = 6 and v= 2, then =12 = At. Wt. Car-

The elements have

their symbols under E with their atomic weights as

given under At. Wt. for comparison.

mv?
= ENERGY=ATOMIC WEIGHT,
2
|
N. | E. | At.Wt. || N. | E. | At. We.
| | Zz
Po ae eee W=G), sa==-5- 18 ?
a | 40.5 | Ca.? 40
oi a Sect Fray ll CP 12 | 72 ? m
= | | 112.5 | Cd 111.6
42 162 ? ce
S39 =. 27 | Al. 27 220 ?
2 os ————
| 48 | Ti. 48 emer) ea a 22 ? 2
75 As. 75 | 49.5 ? ES
108 | Ag. 108 | 88 Sr. 87.2
P47) | 147 | | 137.5] Ce. 137
192 ? | Ba 136.8
== = 183 WwW 184
7 aah see RAVAN te 14 oe
31.5) Pe 3r a Ce 24 | Mg. 24
56 Fe. 56 54 Mn. 54
87.5 | Sr. 87.2 96 Mo. 95-8
| 126 | ie 127 125 | ? ----
171-5) Ex.? | x70.6) |}_—— | TS
224 ? == i aah ee 26 ? ao
ssesc) ll 58.5 | Ni. 58.6
M8 -22n-=- 16 16 | Co. 58.6
36 Cl.? 35-5 tog | Ru. | 103.5
64 Cu. 63,3 Rh. 104.2
100 ? m 162.5 ? ae
144 ? m | 2 Th: |) 233,
196 Au. | 196 aes sie
Pes 196.7 | |
In. | 196.7 | |
Os. | 198.6 |
|

By changing the value of m to 7, 8, 9, etc., a new
series of numbers is obtained and the process is car-
ried until the resulting number is higher than any
known atomic weight, namely, that of Thallium
233.9. Where the number obtained is not that of any
known atomic weight an interrogation point is placed.
In several cases the resulting number is the same as
the ones given by Mendelejeff as those of probable
elements yet to be discovered ; for example, in table
m = 9g. 721s such a number and is marked m in the
line of atomic weights.

Now, here is a series of forty numbers calculated
serially, and thirty-three of them are either the exact
atomic weights of elements or vary less than one unit
from them, and it does not seem probable that so large
a proportion could be the result of chance, for the
numbers range from 12 to 234. Moreover, by carry-
ing the process still further many more of the atomic
weights are obtained. Thus, with 7 = 13 we have
Co. Ni. Ru. Rh. and Th.

50

m = 14, Si. Cu. Cd. and one of Mendelejeff’s
hypothetical ones.

m = 15 only Antimony, 120.
m=165S. Te. Hg.
m = 17 Se. Ce.

G20 Ca sZr.

It must be remembered that with this large value for
m, only three or four calculations are possible without
obtaining numbers quite beyond any known atomic
weights ; for instance, when 7 = 20, only three calcu-
lations can be made, two of which are atomic weights.

With 66 serial computations, 49 elements are de-
termined ; 74 per cent. and more than that if Men-
delejeff’s hypothetical elements may be counted.

If there be any underlying truth in this theory of
calculation, then the conception of the elements will
be much simplified, for it will dispense at once with
complexity in the atom, and substitute a common
form for all, differing arithmetically from each other in
size and velocity. The only conception I have of the
term m corresponding to mass, is a relative volume of
ether in rotation with certain velocity.
A. E. DOLBEAR.

TUFTS COLLEGE, MAss.
a

RECENT ADDITIONS TO THE E. M.
AT PRINCETON COLLEGE.

HENRY F. OSBORN, S.D.

The E. M. Museum of Geology at Princeton has re-
cently purchased Messrs. Ward & Howell’s well-known
collection of fossil animals and plants. Under the partial
supervision of these gentlemen the collection has been un-
packed and hastily arranged in the cases, and as it has
never been fully displayed before, it now appears to very
great advantage and possesses peculiar interest. The
east wing of the museum already contains the collections
made by the Princeton western parties during the
Summers of 1877 and ’78. These include several hundred
specimens of fossil insects preserved in the delicate Mio-
cene shales of Florissant, Colorado, and leaves from the
same neighborhood. The former have already passed into
the hands of Dr. Scudder for identification. Still more
valuable is a large collection of fossil leaves from Strata
closely overlying the Lower Eocene Lignitic Beds, near
Black Butte, Wy. Terr. These have been studied by Dr.
Lesquereux; he pronounces them of great novelty as
contributing largely to our knowledge of the extent of
the Eocene Flora, and they will form the subject of a
special memoir to be published by the museum.

Among the western Vertebrate collections are nearly
complete skeletons of various members of the Dino-
cerata family, parts of which have been figured and
described in bulletins from the museum. These, together
with numerous specimens of Palwosyops and allied
genera, from the now classical beds of the Henry’s Fork
and Bitter Creek country, Wy. Terr., together with a
great variety of carnivorous, rodent, lemurine and perhaps
insectivorous forms, many of which are undescribed, give
an admirable idea of the fauna inhabiting the Lower
Eocene. In addition to these are many complete turtles
and remains of lizards, snakes and birds. Representing
the Miocene is acollection from Colorado including widely
different forms. Prof. Cope, who has kindly glanced
over the whole collection, pencil in hand, pronounces
several of these forms new to science.

The Ward collection is, however, of much greater value

MUSEUM

SCIENCE.

to the general student, as it includes representative speci-
mens from almost every age and country—from the dis-
puted Zozoon canadense of the Laurentian to the Post Plio-
cene cave bearand Irish elk. It is the result of seventeen
years of intelligent travel, purchase and selections,
Mr. Ward’s theory being to perfect the collec-
tion by constantly substituting the best obtainable ex-
amples of each type, not aiming at a complete series for
each age, but giving a synoptic view from the dawn of
life upwards. In this he has succeeded, we have little
doubt, far beyond his own expectations at the outset, and
although his catalogues have made this collection familiar
to many paleontologists in this country, it well deserves a
brief description here.

The Silurian corals, crinoids and trilobites fill the first
cases. The latter are very fine. Among them is the out-
line of an Asaphus gigas indicating an animal over 12
inches long. On large stone slabs are other Crustacea,
Eurypterus and Pterygotus. These are the earliest of a
series represented in the Jurassic by a fine collection from
the Solenhofen Beds and throughout by numerous Trilo-
bites. The Solenhofen crustacea include, among others,
Peneus, Glyphea, Eryon, Limulus, Ager, and a very
perfect Megachzrus, while from the English chalk are
some fine fossil crabs, Exoploclytea, Hoploparza, etc.

The remains of Devonian Ganoids are very numerous ;
Osteolepis, Chetrolepis, Ptericthys, Cephalaspzs and other
genera characteristic of the middle and lower Devonian.
Most interesting, however, is a fine block containing a
number of Holoptychzz from the old red sandstone,
which specimen comes direct from Hugh Millers’s col-
lection. From the Lias beds of Lyme Regis are well pre-
served specimens of Dapedius, Lepidotus, Eugnathus and
others varying in length from one to three feet. There
are fish remains from each epoch. The Solenhofen beds
have furnished a very beautiful group, including Cakuras,
Lepidotus, Leptolepis, Aspidorhynchus and others, im-
bedded in a clear yellow shale.

There are fine examples of Lefzdodendron and Szgzl-
larva from the English, Prussian and American coal
measures; also, many ferns. Among these are perfect
remains of Sphenopteris and Pecopterzs from the Scottish |
coal measures, with a full series from Mazon Creek, IIli-
nois. The fossil flora throughout is numerous, with
good collections from the German, Italian and French
Tertiary deposits.

From the Jurassic are eleven entire Saurians marked
for their exceptional beauty, rather than great size. An
Icthyosaur, over 11 feet in length, is the largest of a
number of skeletons of this genus, and is finely preserved.
One complete skeleton and several parts give a very cor-
rect idea of Pleszosaurus. A head of Méstrzosaurus
complete, rare in this country. From the Wurtemburg
Lias is a large Ze/eosaur with the ventral scales in posi-
tion. There is also a humerus of P/zosaurus. Besides
these are many fragments; the ossified Sclerotic of Icthy-
osaurus and parts of the neck, pelvic and shoulder girdles
affording a complete study. Probably belonging to the
saurians, too, are the so-called bird tracks from theTriassic
sandstone of the Connecticut River Valley, including
tracks assigned to Brontozoum, Anisopus and other
genera. Also of the five-toed Chezrotherzum, supposed
to mark the steps of Labyrznthodon.

The Echinoderms can be studied almost without inter-
ruption. In the earlier crinoid series are Peréechocrinus
and Pentacrinus from the older strata. The latter are
represented beautifully and in profusion from the Lyme
Regis locality, England. Among later forms are Afzo-
crénus and Eucrinus Lilliiformis, a rare specimen from the
Brunswick Muschelkalk. In the Echinoid series are per-
fect specimens of Perdaster, Holaster and Hemzaster, in
addition to many others. Beautiful specimens of As¢erzas
and Astropecten and Ophiorderma from the English Lias
represent in part the Star Fishes. ;

The Cephalopods are a great feature of the collection,

SCIENCE. 51

beginning with Zxdoceras, Gyroceras, Phragmoceras and
others characteristic of the Silurian merging into the
more elaborate and coiled Gonzatztes, Nautilus and Ortho-
ceratztes of the Carboniferous, and into these forms and
the Ammonztes in the Cretaceous. The latter appear
in great elegance and profusion from the Lias. In this
and the two succeeding ages in which this family reached
its maximum the Ammonite and Nautilus group are rep-
resented by a number of genera. The series closes in the
multiplicity of Cretaceous forms Avcyloceras, Crioceras,
Scaphites, Hamites, Toxoceras and many others. A
heavy slab covered with Trigonia is noticeable among
the Lamellibranchs. Buta mere enumeration of these
series and other Invertebrates that have not been
mentioned gives but an inadequate impression of their
value as a typical collection, which rests so largely, not
upon their number but upon their exceptional perfection
and completeness,

From New Zealand are the recent struthious birds, the
collection containing many incomplete skeletons of
Metnornzs,Dinornzs and Palapteryx, and completing the
series are three fine Moas, one of them standing 8 feet
high. There are important remains of Hadlztherzum,
Titanothertum and Rhznoceros, the latter from the Black
Hills. From the Pleistocene shell marl underlying the
peat beds near Limerick is a tall Irish elk, Megaceros
Hibernicus, quite rare inthis country. A cave bear from
the south of France is one of the most perfect specimens
that has been found. It is mounted complete, the ribs
and a few vertebree alone having been restored. These,
with a large mastodon from Hudson, N. Y., a skull of
Bos Primigenius, and many scattered Mammalian re-
mains give an admirable idea of the Post Pliocene fauna
of Europe and America. z

The east wing of the museum is almost entirely filled
by the collection. It contains no plaster, but the originals
of over 130 of Ward’s series of casts. It reflects the
greatest credit upon the intelligence and energy of its
collector. It will come into immediate service in con-
nection with a lately instituted course of lectures upon
Paleontology, and give new impetus to the general in-
terest in Biology at Princeton.

>

THE CLASSIFICATION OF SCIENCE,

REV. SAMUEL FLEMING, LL, D., Pu. D.
ini
PRINCIPLES OF CLASSIFICATION,

Science may be properly classified with respect to
either the order and facts of nature, or the laws of thought
and methods of obtaining the knowledge of facts. In
respect to the first basis, the classification may proceed
upon the twofold method of arranging the order and laws
of phenomena, separately considered, or of considering
these in their immediate connection. And while either
special method involves the complex process of nature,
which is the province of philosophy in the discovery of
laws,—the object of classification is to set forth the order
of facts and laws which have already been discovered.
It is a statement of their connections as brought within
the scope of observation, as they stand in their complete-
ness of order, while many facts may still remain unknown.
Processes are continually going on in the physical realm,
as exhibited in the heavens and in the earth. Itis hence
not a statement of historical development of each par-
ticular science, nor of the body of sciences. It is not an
arrangement according to the chronological order of dis-
covery of the facts. It is not a curriculum or course of
study for discipline and acquisition. Such a course is
arranged with reference to a harmonious development of
mind, and requires the prosecution of diverse studies
pursued simultaneously. Yet a proper classification
proceeds upon the method of arranging or grouping the
subordinate sciences according to both the order of phil-

osophic inquiry, and of the subordination of facts and
principles to the divisions and uses of science from the
lower to the higher, and from phenomena to laws and
applications.

Further, any scheme of clasification, founded upon
material existences and relations irrespective of the imma-~
terial entities which give qualities and motion to the
material, must be radically defective. The fact of an
order of succession in respect to the modification of the
primary Force which inheres in matter, is too obvious to
need more than a statement of the fact. Thus, in organic
existence, the all-related force of Gravity is gezerad, be-
ing applied to all bodies, whatever their constituents
or mode of combination, while modified forms of this
principle are limited to specializations. As at every step
in the gradation of material existences, the order of
nature is from the inorganic to the organic, so these
terms involve the general and the special, and the addi-
tion proceeds from the lower and more general forms of
force to the higher, more limited and special. Thus,
also, in organic being we find Life as a common or gen-
eral substance or entity, forming the basis of the general
division of science denominated Biology. The lowest
specialized form of life pertains to Botany,—the science
of organic unconscious vegetal life, including many
classes; the next higher pertains to Zoology, which is
the science of that form of organic life, which has con-
sciousness and animation, including many classes, and
subordinate orders, kinds and species. The highest in
gradation of being pertains to Anthropology, the science
of the form of organic life which is conscious and
rational, limited to mankind. In every higher order a
new capacity has been added. It has been a “ life unto
life.”

This natural order of classification from generals to
specials, and from the lower to the higher, may be illus-
trated by the following diagrams, commencing with the
lower, or gravitation, as in reading the scheme of classifi-
cation accompanying this paper:

Animal=organization + consciousness and sensation,

Man=organization + sensation + rational mind.
Life, aniza
Plant=organization.

Special : Chemical affinity.
Force, ~ Special : Cohesion,
General : Gravitation,

The fundamental distinctions of this classification are
those which pertain to the body of sciences included in
the scheme given. They are first, Ontology, the science
of being, or the material or immaterial substances, quali-
ties and attributes of universal being. This properly in-
cludes not only the general divisions given, but those
which relate to the superior orders of being not given,
viz.: Angeology, Christology and Theology. A classi-
fication of all Science, therefore, embraces these subjects.
Ontology includes three general divisions: Cosmology,
Biology and Anthropology. These are arranged in their
natural order, as based upon the succession of imma-
terial or spiritual entities united with their respective
material forms. Such order is essentially serzaZ: in other
words, there is a gradation of existences, as just noticed,
and as indicated by the branch and group-descriptive
terms given in the body of the scheme, as Physzco-
dynamic, etc.

Each general division includes its subordinate divisions
or departments. Cosmology, the science of inorganic
nature, includes three departments: Physical, Mechani-
cal and Chemical Philosophy. The general term, Dyna-
mology, formed upon the Greek etymon duzam, is used
to designate the science of the immaterial principle,
Force, as Biology designates the science of the vital
principle, or Life. Biology and Anthropology include the
several branches or departments as given. Individuals
of a group are allied by some mode, principle or law
distinguishing them from others in special respects.

52 SCIENCE.

The progress of science within the past few decades,
and the very wide applications rendering divisions Of sci-
entific research and use indispensable, has made it neces-
sary more and more to distinguish the several subordi-
nate branches of a general division with reference to
special relations and purposes of science. What has
been denominated physical science in the reeent past is
found to include too extensive a field of culture and use,
and to require too vast an amount of scientific labor in
research, analysis and application, both for individual
gratification and for the demands of science. Then
“Natural Philosophy’? monopolized the whole field.
Now Chemical Philosophy has taken the rank of a dis-
tinct department, and has extended its domain in every
direction wherever it could find a field of research. It has
even been obliged to review its own analyses, and to criti-
cise its own results, by further experiment upon its own
elements, to determine whether they are themselves
compounds. And the analyses have yielded important
fruits. Recently four new elements—cesium, rubidium,
thallium and iridium-—-have been detected by the new
and wonderful method of the Spectrum Analysis, a no-
tice of which will be given farther onward.

But Mechanical philosophy has an equal claim to dis-
tinction as a special department. Its aims and uses are
practical—the relations and applications of matter and
motion to mechanical effects ; and in this age of invent-
ive genius and of vastly extended applications of mechan-
ical force to the demands of utility, give increasing im-
portance to this department of science. The distin-
guishing triumphs of the past few years have resulted
from the conservation of those forces and agencies which
appear phenomenally in their general relations in physi-
cal nature, but are now specialized in this department
for the higher uses of human society. Thus the form of
force which has operated naturally as heat in all the
previous history of matter, has become a science in me-
chanical philosophy, manipulated and controlled by sci-
entific art, and takes the name of Thermotics, a science
of vast extent and application. Hydrology has become
specialized in Hydro-dynamics, Aerology in Pneumatics,
Electricity in Electro-magnetism, etc. The subdivision
of Physico-dynamic science into three departments—
Physics, Mechanics and Chemics—-seems to be demanded
by the vastly extended range and special applications of
these, as well as by the legitimate distinction recognized
between phenomena and laws.

Cosmogony is treated as a branch of Astronomy. It is
obvious this is its place, from the fact that Stellar As-
tronomy grows out of it, and includes its forming masses
and nebular states. This contemplates a prior state, and
the processes of the formation of special masses from the
original mass of nebulous matter. The advancement
from nebulous masses to globes in the various stages of
condensation gives Stellar Astronomy. The sun is one of
the stars, and is specialized as the center of the system to
which our planet belongs, and hence Solar Astronomy is
a consequent, and its place above Stellar Astronomy is
appropriate. Again; our earth, far back in the periods
of world-formations, was in its cosmogenic stage, forming
part of the great nebulous cosmos; hence the term
geogony, the science of the genesis of the earth, is grouped
with cosmogony. But while the greater part of the
earth’s interior is still in its gaseous state, the facts per-
taining to its crust create a new sub-group, as Geology,
Mineralogy and Seismology.

Biology is divided into two general departments, while
it includes three sub-sciences, viz.: Botany or Phytology,
Zoology and Anthroposophy,—the latter being the sci-
ence of the human physiological constitution. The radi-
cal distinction between animals and man pertains chiefly
to the immaterial nature—the latter possessing rational
and moral capacities, and also an order of physical nature
not possessed by animals; yet a real distinction obtains
physiologically, and indeed a vastly greater difference

than between any of the different orders of animals.
This distinction is stated in the classification. Physio-
logy, which pertains to man’s physical nature, is the sub-
science of Biology, termed Anthroposophy, while com-
parative physiology, and morphology, belong respectively
to Zoology and Phytology—the former relating to beings
having sentient but irrational life, and the latter to
insentient or unconscious life.

lf this method of division, in which Biology and An-
thropology share in the inclusion of a special subject
appears to be anomalous, it is legitimate ; for while both
include those sciences which are grouped as belonging to
physiological nature, Anthropology includes also the
higher order of psychical nature, in essential connection
with our mental, rational and moral rature,— entities and
attributes of an imperishable subsistence, but whuse func-
tions and development for temporal existence depend upon
the physiological connection. Biology is the general science
of organic being having Zzfe ; Botany isthespecial science
of organic being having vegetal life ; Zoology is the
special science ot organic being having seztzent life; An-
throposophy is the special science of organic being having
rational \ife—the latter term having been chosen to ex-
press the distinction maintained above. If it is held by
any readers of this paper that animals possess a psychical
nature, as well as man, be it so. At least a nervo-ether-
eal nature may be predicated of beings having sensation
and the power of voluntary motion ; and such a substra-
tum or basis of the physical as well as the sentient nature
of animals, as corresponds with man’s psychical nature,
may exist, perhaps must. If so, it is reasonable to pre-
sume it must be of an order as much lower than man’s
psychical nature, as the mental or sentient constitution of
animals is lowerthan man’s. But if such psychical nature
does exist, the fact can be known only by rational induc-
tion, for the beast has no capacity for language to verify
the assumption.

INCOMPLETE, SUBORDINATE AND CONDITIONING
SCIENCES,

Few of the physical sciences, especially, can be com-
pletly developed by themselves. Physics, Mechanics and
Chemics are more or less mutually related, either as con-
ditioned or conditioning. Astronomy has necessarily re-
quired for observation of its facts some of the principles
and laws of physical optics, while scientific art has been
called to construct appropriate instruments for observa-
tion, as the telescope and spectroscope. And the laws
of planetary and stellar motion must necessarily be known
before the science of astronomy can be fully acquired.
But classification cannot await the discovery of all the
facts of science, but must proceed with the materials at
hand, when radical distinctions have been determined.

Geogony treats of general phenomena, the unformed,
but forming and mingling elements, and conditions of me-
teorology by furnishing the materials involved in the lat-
ter science, in its special sphere.

Meteorology cannot be completed as a science by the
study of the atmosphere alone, but in connection with
the facts which reveal themselves by the action of atmos-
pheric electricity. Thermotics, the science of heat, is
but partially developed by the study of the ethereal rad-
iations giving the physical phenomena of heat, but finds
its completion in the experiments and application of me-
chanics, of hydrology and pneumatics.

Paleontology, being allied with mineralogy in respect
to the general process of stratification, by furnishing
materials which enter into it, properly belongs where it
is assigned; yet these materials, constituted in part of
fossils, cannot be completed without employing the facts
which are brought forward in vital organisms. Hence
paleontology is given as a conditioning science, contri-
buting to botany and zoology, inasmuch as the ancient
organisms, while many of them ‘contain extinct types,
are made a study in connection with living organisms;

SCIENCE. . 53

and thus the apparent anomaly of the same branch of
science being grouped both with physics and biology, is
explained by the fact that paleontology, in its mere phy-
sical relations, deals with substances irrespective of re-
lations to organisms, while fossilogy belongs to both.
So, as already noticed, anthroposophy belongs both to
biology and anthropology.

Light and sound are grouped together because pro-
duced by vibratory motion, yet not affiliated, because the
media of vibration differ, the former being ether and the
latter air. The analogy between light and sound is il-
lustrated by firing a cannon at a distance from the ob-
server; first the flash ot light is seen at the moment of
the explosion of the powder, transmitted at the rate of
about 184,000 miles per second, the sound being heard
some moments after the flash is seen, transmitted at the
rate of about 1100 feet persecond. Neither the luminous
bedy nor the sonorous body throws off any substance, but
only gives an impulse in wave-form causing vibrations of
different kinds of substance,—ethereal vibrations exciting
the optic nerve causing the sensation of seeing, and aerial
vibrations exciting the auditory nerves causing the sen-
sation of hearing. But while acoustics (or photology) is
grouped with physical optics, in respect to the cause of
their production, both musical sounds and colors are
grouped as belonging to esthetics high in the series of
science. In these respects both phonology and photo-
logy are subordinate sciences.

Actinism, produced by vibration of ether, like light, but
exceeding in rate those which produce the highest color,
z. é., exceeding 800 billions of miles per second, is affiliated
with electricity, light and heat, and bears relations to two
diverse and widely separated sciences—photography and
phytology. Its action is both chemical and vital, operat-
ing on the sensitive silver in photography (which more
properly may be termed actinography), and also consti-
tutes the vital agency necessary to excite germination in
plants. This latter result has been attributed to the
violet ray revealed by the spectrum, but this may be
owing to the fact that the higher, inconceivably rapid
vibrations of ether producing the actinic rays are not
appreciated, and the effects in germination have been
associated with the highest rays of light brought within
the scope of vision. Actinism is hence grouped gener-
ally with sound, and specially with heat, light and elec-
tricity, but is subordinate to botany. There are reasons
for the theory that electricity is concerned in normal vital
action—not only vegetal, but animal. :

Nature has anticipated both the mechanic and the fine
arts. Far down in the depths of mineralogy are found
gems of rarest beauty—the esthetics of Architecture.
Up. in the field of meteorology the clouds are tinted by
the sunbeams with a perfection of beauty surpassing the
possibilities of the esthetic art of Painting. “The music
of the spheres” have for centuries enchanted the votaries
of astronomical science, and still challenges the admira-
~ tion of all observers contemplating the perfection of that
grand choral movement which excels the harmony of a
Handel or Beethoven—anticipating the rhythm both of
Poetry and Music. Mineralogy, meteorology and astron-
omy belong to physical science, but they have furnished
elements of the esthetic forms which reason appropriates
_ in the sphere and achievements of the Fine Arts.

ee eee
THE ROTATORY POWER OF COMMERCIAL
GLUCOSE.*

A METHOD OF DETERMINING THE PERCENTAGE OF
REDUCING MATTER BY THE POLARISCOPE,

By H. W. WILEy, Lafayette, Ind.

In the “trade” the name “ grape sugar’
only to the solid product obtained from starch.

’

is applied

a eee eee
* Read before the A, A. A. S., Boston, 1880.

The name “glucose” is given to the thick syrup ob-
tained from the starch, and which is used in immense
quantities in this country for table use and other pur-
poses.

Before being sent into the market it is usually mixed
with a little cane sugar syrup to give it color rather
than flavor, since the glucose itself is quite or nearly
colorless. My polariscope is the holb-schotten variety,
and is used with the sodium monochromatic light. The
sugar scale is graduated to give 100 divisions, with a
tube 200 m.m. long filled with sugar solution of 26.048
grammes in 100 C.c.

The angular rotation produced is 34°.7, which shows a
specific rotatory power of 66°.6 for pure cane sugar.

In all my examinations I took 1o grammes of glucose
in 100 c.c., and used tubes of observation 2co m.m. in
length.

The average specific gravity of the various glucoses I
examined was 1.412, and the number may be taken as a
standard.

In order to conform to the followfng formule the spe-
cific gravity should not vary greatly from this number.

I have found from a large number of observations
that the average reading on the sugar scale for 10
grammes of glucose in 100 c.c. is about 50 divisions.
When the reading approached 53 divisions I found that
the glucose contained nearly 53 per cent. of reducing
matter, as determined by Fehling’s solution. When the
reading fell below 53 the percentage of reducing matter
was above 53 and wzce versa. I therefore made a large
number of observations to determine, if possible, any re-
lation between the polariscopic reading and the percent-
age of reducing matter.

I found as a result that the difference between the
polariscopic reading and 53 multiplied by 1.25 gave a
product which, added to or subtracted from 53, would
give the percentage of reducing matter required. When
we consider the difficulty of hitting the exact point in
using the copper solution, the differences exhibited in the
following table will not seem so important. See follow-
ing page.

From a study of the following table we may write the
following formule :

Let g = percentage of reducing substance, and a =
reading of polariscope.

We may have three cases :

Ist. a= 53.
2d. a> 53.
acd. al <a5a.

For case Ist, g = 53 per cent.
Case 2d, g = 53 -- (a — 53) 1.25 per cent.
Case 3d, g = 53 + (53 — a) 1.25 per cent.

ILLUSTRATIONS.

No. 14, following table.

a = 40.
g = 53 + (53 — 40) 1.25 = 69.25 per cent.
No. 16, following table.

Al OS150.

g = 53 — (63.80 — 53) 1.25 = 39.50 per cent,

In seven of the seventeen cases given the percentage
of reducing matter calculated from the polariscope ex-
ceeds that given by the copper solution and by a mean
amount of .539 per cent. In ten of them it falls short,
and by an average of .938.

In many examinations made subsequent to the above
the mean deviation has been even less.

Hence I can say that the method indicated will give
results which in the mean differ by less than the half of
one per cent. from the reduction tests, I regard my cal-
culations from the polariscope equally as reliable as those
made with the copper solution,

54 SCIENCE.
TABLE.
| Percentage of |
; : Percent f
No. ieee | a ee Reducing Matter +Differences. | -Diffe-ences,
| Solngont by Polariscope.
TN ee Pe er = WA Oe One 52.65 53.20 53.44 23 onus
2B ol BRO Hpi RE RAIS 35, ATO 46.07 61.73 61.66 nee .07
SPOS UeGort Doe acute tee RIE 52.65 52.30 53-43 eae 1.07
‘FoR OG hos: AON O COO Fic 43.05 62.50 64.90 2.40 ae
Dee tere (are oiatahe uo hte Coniston yp 48.04 59.35 58.75 ae 60
Oe RH Mins SOAR «mcrae SMe Pah 47.70 61.40 59.63 ide 1.77
TOS SOGOU COTE an SO ee eB ee 49.80 | 58.89 57.00 Sate 1.80
SS SHOSIG Dee CL icten Setter? Asm Grice 48.45 58.55 58.56 .O1 ee
OSGS COO CIC CEnI Te Iitiggk cece 50.26 55.60 56.45 85 :
TOPW ed Goris ees ts sete ae 51.50 53-50 | 54.88 1.30 ae
MUD aree MERGE aster ie c Seven ree ole Sea tues 50.57 56.49 56.04 sae 45
Te Moe een ete A ene me 51.74 56.18 54.58 1.60
TiQaayeabcks Acta te is Bicters che siete sae ore te 40.83 69.93 68.25 1.72
Ameen Faeyay ie aioe, 0 ates Splatt tea eanhs oe 40.00 69.30 69.25 .05
SSD. CO.chbiod AEE ae bbe BRC rICoe 50.53 56.34 56.09 Pete 227,
lO io5 ont REISE RODE Done 63.80 39.22 39.50 .28 5 pre
M79 9605- So SOG D OO AG Os aT ee 51.73 54.05 54.37 32 3

it O>—____

NEW PORTABLE MICROSCOPE.

We present with this number two illustrations show-
ing a new form of portable microscope stand, designed
by Mr. E. H. Griffith, and called by him the “ Grzfith
Club Mzcroscope,” the chief merit of which appears to be

its portability, and adaptability to certain positions, which

clear understanding of what Mr. Griffith has produced.
It will be seen that much originality has been displayed,

and that novelty of construction is a leading feature.
The greatest innovation is the use of an ordinary self-
centering turn-table for mounting, as a stand for the in-
strument ; if, however, the turn-table is required for use,

ALT Shr, uy | |

GrirFitH’s PorTraBLe Microscope. (Fig. 1.)

are impossible with the ordinary instruments.

To those familiar with the use of the microscope an
examination of the illustrations will suffice to arrive at a

turn-table.

The fine adj

the microscope can be closed and used as a stand for the

ustment is also an original de-

vice of Mr. Griffith, and will be noticed as a large milled-
edged screw in the cut.

On the inner surface of this cir-.

£

SCIENCE.

55

cular plate is a spiral grocve into which works a pin
controlling the stage. Mr. Griffith states that with this
appliance, a very perfect focal adjustment can be ob-
tained.

Illustration No. 1 shows the instrument attached to a
table by a screw support, the mirror placed in position
above the stage. As an adjunct to a dissecting table the
Griffith microscope, thus used, would be found most

useful, occupying no surface space. In excursions it
could by the same means be attached to the side of a
tree or to a ferce. No arrangements have been as yet
completed for the manufacture of this instrument, but it
is believed they will shortly be made by a firm who will
undertake to produce them at a reasonable cost, as
Mr. Griffith has aimed to construct a serviceable portable
instrument at a moderate price.

GriFFITH’s PorTABLE Microscope. (Fig. 2.)

——_—_~9

ON CHICKEN CHOLERA: STUDY OF THE CON-
DITIONS OF NON-RECIDIVATION AND OF
SOME OTHER CHARACTERISTICS OF THIS
DISEASE.*

By M. L. PAsTEur.
I,

In the communication which I had the honor of pre-
senting to the Academy in the month of February last, I
announced, among other results, that chicken cholera
originates in a microscopical parasite ; that there is an at-
tenuated virus of this disease, and that one or more inocu-
lations of this attenuated virus may preserve chickens from
death when inoculated with the virus of maximum viru-
lence. On account of the striking similarity that these two
forms of virus present with the effects of variola and vac-

* Translated from the Comptes Rendus de? Academie de Sciences, of
April 26th, 1880, page 952, by P. Casamajor. The translation of the first

paper of this series appeared in the Chem, i
= ky ppeared in the Chemical News, vol. xli., page 4 (July

cine in man, it becomes interesting to ascertain not only
if the immunity from the more aggravated form of virus
is absolute, for the regions of the body which have under-
gone the preventative inoculation, but also if this immu-
nity exists in the system, no matter what portion of the
animal may have been inoculated, and what may have
been the manner of introducing the virus.t+

To explain with brevity the results which I have to com-
municate, I may be allowed to use the word vaccznate, to
express the act of inoculating a chicken with the attenuated
virus. This being admitted, I may state, as the result of
many experiments, that the effects of vaccination are very
variable. Some chickens are little affected by the most
virulent virus after one inoculation of the attenuated virus ;
others require two such inoculations, and even three. In
every case, the preventive inoculation does some good, be-

+ From all I have seen and read of vaccine in man, and from my experi-
ments on chicken cholera, I infer that vaccine rarely acts as a complete
preventative. There are cases cited of vaccinated persons who have had
the variola, and there are even cases of persons who have had it, after-
wards, asmuch as three times,

56 SCIENCE.

cause it acts in a certain measure. Vaccination, ‘then,
may be of several degrees; but we may always succeed
in completely vaccinating a chicken, which means that we
can bring it to such a condition that it becomes incapable
of being affected by the most virulent virus.

To make this matter clear, I will now give the results
of experiments :—I take eighty new chickens (I call zew
those which never suffered before with chicken cholera),
‘Twenty of these I inoculate with the most virulent virus,
and they alldie. Of the sixty that remain, I take another
lot of twenty, and I inoculate them with that quantity of
the most attenuated virus which the pojnt of the needle
will take up*—and not one dies. Are they then vacci-
nated for the aggravated form of virus? Some are and
some are not, for if I afterwards inoculate these twenty
chickens with the mest virulent virus, six or eight of them
will not die, although they may be ill, while in the first
case every inoculated chicken died. I take again from the
remaining chickens another lot of twenty, and these are
vaccinated with the attenuated virus exactly as the pre-
ceding lot, and, a week afterwards, they are again vac-
cinated in the same manner. Are they now safe from the
virulent virus? We now inoculate these twenty chickens
with this virulent virus, and, instead of there being six or
eight which do not die, there are twelve or fifteen. Finally,
I take the twenty remaining chickens, and vaccinate
them successively three or four times. If now I come to
inoculate them with the most virulent virus, not one will
die. In this case, chickens are brought to the condition
of animals which are incapable of suffering from chicken
cholera.

As to the cause of non-recidivation, I find it impossi-
ble to resist the idea that the microscopic germ, which
causes the disease, finds in the body of the animal condi-
tions suitable to its development, and that to satisfy the
necessities of its life, the germ alters certain substances,
or destroys them, which comes to the same thing,
whether it assimilates them, or whether it consumes
them with oxygen borrowed from the blood.

When complete immunity has been reached, the most
virulent germ may be inoculated into any of the mus-
cles without producing any effect. This means that
the cultivation of the germ has become impossible
in these muscles. They no longer -contain food for the
germ.

It is impossible to convey the impression that cne re-
ceives from observing such phenomena. Here are twenty
chickens which never had this disease. 1 inoculate them
in their pectoral muscles or, still better, in the muscle of
the thigh, so as to observe with greater ease the effect of
the innoculation. The next day all the chickens are
lying down ; they are very lame and seem overcome by
sleep. Theinoculated muscle becomes of enormous size,
and is profusely filled with the parasites. From time to
time, a chicken dies, and, at the end of forty-eight hours
they are alldead. We may take also twenty chickens,
previously vaccinated several times, and inoculate them
at the same time as the others, with the same virus, in
equal quantities. The next day and the next, they are
all alive and in good health; they eat and cackle as
usual; the cocks crow; the inoculated muscles present
nothing abnormal. There is not even a sign to show
where the skin was punctured, This healthy condition
remains permanent.

We may now inquire whether the impossibility of cul-
tivating the parasite is not limited to the muscles which
have been inoculated. This may be answered by intro-
ducing the deadly virus in the blood vessels and in the
digestive organs. Ihave taken ten chickens, never before
inoculated, and ten others inoculated several times with
the mild virus. I have then injected the worst form of
virus in the jugular vein of all these chickens. The

* There are degrees of attenuation as well as of virulence, I will give
explanations in a future communication,

first ten have died rapidly ; many of them within twenty-
four hours. The ten vaccinated chickens, on the con-
trary, have only been slightly ill from the incision of the
skin and of the jugular vein, and were soon in good
health. This shows that the blocd of these ten chickens
was itself vaccznated, which means that previous cultiva-
tion had deprived it of the materials fit for further devel-
opments of the germ,

As to the introduction of the parasite in the digestive
organs, I have imitated the epidemics which depcopulate
poultry yards, by introducing the parasite in the food of
the chickens. On the 11th of March I brought together
twelve chickens, bought at the market that very morn-
ing, and twelve others, previously vaccinated several
times. Every day I gave to these twenty-four chickens
a meal of the diseased muscles of chickens, who had died
from chicken cholera. Through the combs of the twelve
chickens which had not been vaccinated I passed a plati-
num wire, so as to distinguish them from the other
twelve. On the next day the unvaccinated chickens
began to sicken and die. On the 26th of march the ex-
periment terminated. Seven of the chickens that had
not been vaccinated have died, and a fost mortem exam-
ination reveals the fact that the disease was introduced
in the system, either through the first portion of the ali-
mentary canal, or, more frequently, through the bowels,
which were highly inflamed, and sometimes ulcerated, in
a manner which recalls the lesions of typhoid fever.*
The five other unvaccinated chickens are more or less
ill, one seriously so. As to the twelve vaccinated
chickens, not one has died, and to-day + they are all alive,
and in good health. We may now sum up the results as
follows:

It is the life of a parasite, in the interior of the body,
which causes the disease known as chicken cholera and
which causes death by this disease. When the cultiva-
tion of this parasite cannot take place in the body of a
chicken, the disease does not show itself. The chicken
is then in the constitutional condition of animals which
chicken cholera cannot attack. Animals in this condi-
tion may be said to be born vaccinnated for this disease,
because the foetal evolution has not placed in their bodies
the proper food of the parasite, or because substances,
which could serve as such food, have disappeared while
they were yet young. We must not wonder that there
are constitutions more or less apt to receive inoculations
of certain kinds of virus, for, as was announced in my
first note, the broth of beer-yeast is entirely incapable of
supporting the life of the parasite of chicken cholera,
while it is well adapted to the cultivation of a multitude
of microscopical germs, notably of the bacteridia of
carbuncular disease.

The explanation to which we are led by the facts al-
ready mentioned, of the different degrees of constitutional
resistance of some animals, as well as of the immunity
which chickens acquire by preventive inoculations, must
seem a natural one,if we take into consideration that
every cultivation modifies the medium in which it takes
place. In the case of ordinary plants, the soil is modi-

fied, in the case of parasites, the animals and plants on |

which they live are also modified. The same thing hap-
pens with the liquids in which they live, in the case of
ferments and other microscopical germs. The modifica-
tions which take place have this character in common,
that new cultivations of the same species in these media
soon became difficult or impossible. If chicken-broth is
used for cultivating the germ of chzcken cholera, and if,
after three or four days, the liquid is filtered, to separate
all the germs, and furthermore, if after this fresh quanti-
ties of the germs are placed in the filtered liquid, it will

* The blood is full of parasites, and the interior organs are frequently
covered with pus and false membranes, particularly next to the intestina]
pockets, through which the germ seems to have penetrated, ;

+ April 26th,

:

SCIENCE. $7

be found incapable of prcducing the feeblest develop- |
ment, Perfectly limpid at first, the liquid remains in-
definitely limpid.

We are led to believe that the cultivation of the attenu-
ated virus in a chicken places its body in the same state
as that of the liquid which can no longer sustain the life
of the germ of disease. We may extend the comparison
still further, for, if we filter the broth on the second day
of the cultivation, instead of on the fourth, the filtered
liquid will still permit the cultivation of the germ, but
less readily than at first. This may enable us to under-
stand that the cultivation of the attenuated germ in the
body of a chicken may not have removed all the food for
the germ. The remainder may allow a fresh cultivation
of a feebler kind. This is the same as a first vacczna-
tzon. Subsequent inoculations will remove progressively
all the materials for the cultivation of the parasite.
Through the action of the circulation, a time will come
when any new cultivation on the animal will remain un-
productive. Then the disease cannot recidivate, and the
subject becomes perfectly vaccinated.

It may seem astonishing that the first cultivation could
have stopped before all the food of the germ has been
destroyed; but we must not forget that the germ is
aerobian,t and that, in the body of an animal, it does not
find the same conditigns as in an artificial medium of
cultivation, in which there are no obstacles to its propa-
gation. In the body, on the contrary, it finds opposition
from the cells of the organs, which are also aerobian, and
are continually absorbing oxygen.

We might also account for the fact of non-recidivation
by admitting that the life of the germ, instead of destroy-
ing certain substances in the body of an animal, on the
contrary, adds other substances which act as an obstacle
to its further development. The history of the life of
these inferior beings, of all beings in fact, authorizes this
supposition. The excretions due to vital functions often
prevent vital functions of the same nature. In some fer-
mentations, antiseptic products are formed while fermen-
tation is going on, and even by the action of ferments, and
these products put an end to further action, even if there
are still substances left capable of undergoing fermentation.
In the cultivation of our germ, there might, in the same
way, be substances formed whose presence might explain
non-recidivation and vaccination.

Our artificial cultivation of the parasite will enable us to
examine this hypothesis. If we prepare an artificial cul-
tivation of the germ of chicken cholera, we may evaporate
the liquid 2% vacuo while cold, then bring it back to its
original volume by the addition of chicken broth. If the
extract contains a poison which destroys the germ, and if
the presence of this poison is the cause of its non-develop-
ment, the cultivation of the germ cannot take place in this
liquid. On the contrary, the development does take
place without difficulty. Wecannot then believe that,
during the life of the parasite, there are substances pro-
duced which prevent its further development. This is a
corroboration of the opinion which we have expressed on
the cause of non-recidivation in certain virulent diseases.

a
¥

Density or Liquip Oxycren.—J. Offret has revised Pic-
tet’s calculation of the density of liquified oxygen and con-
siders the method inadmissable. His own calculation gives
0.840.

ExpLosivE ANTIMONY.—A solution of crystalline anti-
mony chloride and hydrochloric acid at 1.12 sp. gr. was
prepared so as to stand at 38° B. On electrolysis with the
Lechlanché element there was obtainéd in twenty to twenty-
four hours a most explosive deposit—E. MASCARENAS Y
HERNANDEZ,

+ Pasteur divides germs and other microscopic organisms into aerobians
erie air to live) and azaerobie (which do not require air), T7rans- |
‘ator,

ASTRONOMY,

THE Roman Academy of Sciences has awarded half of.
the King Hubert Prize to Dr. Wilhelm Temple, Director
of the Acetri Observatory at Florence, for his obserya-
tions on Nebula.

THE second Part of Vol. II. of papers relating to the
Transit of Venus has recently been published by the
Paris Academy of Sciences. It contains, amcng other
things, the last of the Memoirs relating to the expedition
to the island of St. Paul, the Metecrology by Dr. Roche-
fort, and the Geological Researches made at Aden, Re-
union, St. Paul, Amsterdam and Seychelles, by M.
Vélain. The first Part of Vol. III., which is to contain
a report of the work done at Campbell Island, is in pre-
paration.

THE “Reports of the Total Solar Eclipses of July 29,
1878, and January 11, 1880,” forming Appendix III, to
the ‘“‘ Washington Observations for 1876,’ has just been
distributed from the Naval Observatory.

OWING to an error in the telegraphic dispatch, the dis-
coverer of Comet /, 1880, was called Pennule. It should
have been Dr. C. F. Pechiile, of Copenhagen. The
comet seems to have two tails, one pointed towards the
sun, and the other pcinted about N. 15° /.

ASTRONOMICAL MEMORANDA: — (Approximately
computed for Washington, D. C., Monday, February 7,
1881.)

Sidereal time of Mean Noon, 21" 1i™ 49°.

Equation of time, Y4m™ 258.
Mean noon preceding apparent noon.

The Moon crosses the meridian at about 8.30 P. M.
Full moon occurs on the 13th, and the last quarter on
the 21st of the month :—New moon on the 29th.

Mercury is still evening star, following the sun by
nearly an hour. He reaches his closest position to the
sun on the 2ist, and ‘‘greatest elongation”’ on the 22nd.

Venus is still the most conspicuous object in the even—
ingsky. Sheincreases her apparent distance from the
sun until Feb. 204 7, when she reaches “ greatest elong-
ation ”’ East, an angular distance of 46° 34’.

Mars crosses the meridian at about 10 o’clock in the
morning. He is nearly 23° south of the equator,

Jupiter and Saturn form with Venus an unusually
good opportunity for the amateur astronomer to make
use of his telescope in the early part of the evening, Jup-
iter and Venus will be in conjunction on the 21st.

Uranus is on the meridian about two hours after
mid-night, and Veftune about half-past five in the after-
noon. Uranus is in conjunction with the moon on Feb.
15th,

The Comptes Rendus for Jan. 3, 1881, contains a
paper by M. Rouget upon a method for use at sea, and
for travelers, explorers and others, for determining lati-
tude and sidereal time, dispensing with the measure-
ment of angles.

Two stars are observed having at a given moment, the
same altitude : such observations are combined in pairs,
and by merely noting the time which has elapsed be-
tween the two observations, a simple interpolation in
tables prepared for the purpose will give the sidereal
time and the latitude of the place of observation. For-
mulze are given for the case mentioned above, and also
for deducing the latitude and sidereal time from stars
having the same azimuths, or azimuths differing by 180°.
A succeeding paper by the same author extends the for-
mule to the determination of longitudes, by employing
observations of the moon,

iW. © Ws

58

ON THE FIRST COMET OF 1861 AND THE
METEORS OF APRIL 20.

By PROFESSOR DANIEL KIRKWOOD.

M. Arago was the first to call attention to the frequent
appearance of shooting stars in unusual numbers about
the 2oth of April, and to suggest the theory! that they
are derived from a ring which intersects the earth’s
orbit. We are indebted, however, to the late Edward C.
Herrick, of New Haven, for the collection of the princi-
pal facts by which the suggestion of Arago was fully
sustained.

Ue

THE GREAT METEORIC SHOWER OF APRIL 20, 1803.

More than thirty-six years after the event the old
newspaper accounts of this wonderful display were
sought out by Mr. Herrick and rescued from oblivion.?
The following description of the phenomena as seen at
Richmond, Va., is taken from the Virginia Gazefze, of
April 23, 1803.

« Shooteng Stars.—This electrical phenomencn was ob-
served on Wednesday morning last, at Richmond and
its vicinity, in a manner that alarmed many, and aston-
ished every person that beheld it. From one until three
in the morning, those starry meteors seemed to fall from
every point in the heavens, in such numbers as to re-
semble a shower of sky rockets. The inhabitants hap-
pened at the same hour to be called from their houses by
the fire-bell, which was rung on account of a fire that
broke out in one of the rooms of the Armory, but which
was speedily ‘extinguished. Every one, therefore, had
an opportunity of witnessing a scene of nature, which
never before was displayed in this part of the globe, and
which probably will never appear again. Several of these
shooting meteors were accompanied with a train of fire,
that illuminated the sky for a considerable distance.
One, in particular, appeared to fall from the zenith, of
the apparent size of a ball of eighteen inches diameter,
that lighted for several seconds the whole hemisphere.
During the continuance of this remarkable phenomenon,
a hissing noise in the air was plainly heard, and several
reports, resembling the discharge of a pistol. Had not
the city bell been ringing, these reports would prob-
ably have seemed louder. The sky was remarkably clear
and serene, and the visible fixed stars numerous the
whole night. We are anxious to know at what distance
from Richmond this phenomenon has extended. It is
hoped that persons who have remarked it in other places
will not neglect to inform the public of the particulars ;
as such information may add in a great degree to the
knowledge of meteorology.

Since writing the above, we have been informed that
several of the largest of these shooting meteors were ob-
served to descend almost to the ground before they ex-
ploded. Indeed, many of those which we saw, appeared
to approach within a few yards of the house tops, and
then suddenly to vanish. Some persons, we are told,
were so alarmed that they imagined the fire in the
Armory was occasioned by one of these meteors, and in
place of repairing to extinguish the earthly flames, they
busied themselves in contriving to protect the roofs of
their houses from the fire of heaven.”

The display was also witnessed at Raleigh, N. C.;
Wilmington, Del.; Schoharie County, N. Y.; Ports-
mouth, N. H.; and at several points in Massachusetts.
The descriptions of the shower as seen at these respec-
tive localities declare that, ‘‘ the heavens seemed to be all
on fire from the abundance of lucid meteors ;” that they
were “ too numerous to be counted;”’ and that “ part of
the time the light was so great that a pin might be pick-
ed upon the ground.” The shower, in short, would seem

1 In 1836.
2 See Herrick’s article in the Am, Journ. of Sci. fer July, 1839, p. 358.

SCIENCE.

to have been one of the most extensive and brilliant on
record, and hence to have been derived from a meteoric
cluster of extraordinary density.

According to the catalogues of Biot and Quetelet*® a
great meteoric shower was seen in China on the 16th of
March, B. C. 687, This date corresponds with the 2oth
of April in the nineteenth century. The display was
therefore a shower of Lyraids. The interval between
this extraordinary apparition and that of 1803 was 2490
years which may be regarded as a multiple of the true
period, :

The year 558 of our era,4 midway between those brill-
iant displays, was the date of another great meteoric
shower. The month and day are not given, but we may
assume with reasonable probability that it was the great
April display. Mr. Herrick found several other showers
derived from the same stream. They seem, however, to
have been of inferior brilliancy. They will be consider-
ed hereafter.

UNE.

THE FIRST COMET OF 1861.

The first comet of 1861 was discovered by Mr.
Thatcher on the 4thof April. It wasvisible to the naked
eye, and had a tail three degreeslong. Its elements, cal-
culated by Dr. Oppolzer, of Vienna, are as follows:

ELEMENTS OF THE FIRST COMET OF 1861.

Perihelion ‘Passage 7-0. -s.010 cee ae le

Longitude of Perihelion 3. < .20.<enic0e f

Longitude of Ascending Node 29° 55’.
Inclination 2%. in c.-.clot e-anate nie aeictertelee odes here eres 79° 45’.
Eccentricity... s...cm nore cates ak eels eel Elaine teeter tain eaete 0.98345.
Semi-axis” Majors 2's <cmiec.c - clever e tee a eee ee ene Nee 55.67
ROTO sae ietete oom enclose, steieve o\elede(oliateyaxeteloters ial nt ogi ete teeta 415.4 years.
PeriheliontOistamCe orto sate at oh ole eteicinte lo isielo ele eiieet ee treeena 0.9207.
Aphelion WDistan cer. wes sis, -bick ats) sisi edaceeeal esta ieteran eae 110.425.
DWOtiOM siecle onn.clotsin'eie, ofan ele-sisiaiele metals) osstetele staieteerte tore terete Direct.

Professor George Forbes has shown’ that the comets of
1444, 1032 and 616 were former apparitions of this
comet ; the mean of the three periods being 415 years.
The dates of ancient perihelion passages would
therefore have been about A.D. 201, B.C. 214, and
B.C. 629. In 1867, soon after the discovery, by
Schiaparelli and others, of the connection between the
comets of 1862 and 1866 with the August and No-
vember meteors, the probability of a similar relation
between the first comet of 1861 and the meteors of
April 20th was pointed out by Drs. Weiss and Galle.®
The orbit of the comet nearly intersects that of the earth
in longitude 210°, the point passed by the earth at the
epoch of the April meteoric shower. An approximate
equality of the periods of the comet and the meteoric
stream was thus rendered highly probable.

The facts here collated constitute several very strik-
ing coincidences.

1. Dr. Oppolzer’s period of the comet, derived solely
from observations, is 415 years.

2. The mean period from 616 to 1€61 was 415 years.

3. The interval between the gieat meteoric showers of.
B. C. 687 and A. D. 1803 is equal to 6 periods of 415

ears.
: 4. The shower of A. D. 558 was midway between B. C.
687 and A. D. 1803.

5. The comet and the meteoric swarm seem to have
equal periods.

It is by no means surprising that all returns of the
meteoric group have not been recorded. The observa-
tions were restricted to the eastern continent; or, as

8 Quetelet’s Physique du Globe, p. 290.

4 Quetelet’s Catalogue.

5In a paper read before the Royal Society of Edinburgh, Feb. 16, 1880.
®Astr. Nach., Nos. 1632, 1635, and 1710.

SCIENCE. 59

Herrick has remarked, ‘“‘some of them have doubtless
been concealed by clouds, and others witnessed only by
barbarians.”

But between the great display of B. C. 687 and A. D.
1803, Professor Newton gives the following list of show-
ers at or near the epoch of April 20," viz.: B.C, 15, A.
TD. 582, 1093, 1094,8 1095, 1096, 1122 and 1123. The
appearance of 582 ought probably to be rejected. It was
two days from the epoch, and the record as quoted by
Quetelet may have no reference to shooting stars. The
three remaining returns, B. C. 15, A, D. 1093-1096, and
1122-3, indicate a period of about 27 years. Now it is
obvious that, at every close approach of meteors to the
earth, many must be thrown into new orbits, all of which
will pass through the point at which the perturbation oc-
curred. It seems probable, therefore, that at some re-
mote epoch a considerable cluster of this meteoric stream
was thrown by perturbation into a new orbit correspond-
ing to a period of 27 years. The change may have been
produced by the earth during the passage of the meteoric
swarm. t

The facts which we have considered apparently indi-
cate that the first comet of 1861, andthe April meteors,
formed a system in space before entering the solar do-
main ; the latter moving in advance of the former at a
distance comparable to the diameter of Neptune’s orbit.
By planetary perturbation the orbits were transformed
into ellipses. If, as supposed by Professor Forbes, the
disturbing body was an ultra-Neptunian planet in the
vicinity of the present aphelion of the comet’s orbit, said
planet would probably describe less than 20° of its cir-
cuit during the interval between the nearest approach of
the two bodies. But in aphelion the comet 1861 I, is
too remote from the plane of the ecliptic to be sensibly
disturbed by a planet moving in that plane. It seems
more probable that the comet, as well as the meteoric
group, owes the transformation of its orbit to one of the
known major planets. Its radius vector when at its as-
cending node is about 10. In other words, its orbit ap-
proaches very near that of Saturnin longitude 30°. Now,
it is remarkable that the interval between the perihelion
passages of the meteors and the comet is almost exactly
equal to two periods of Saturn. The meteors and Sat-
urn were in the same longitude and in close proximity
about B. C. 683, and the comet approached very near
the planet at the same point about B.C. 625. The or-
bits may have been transformed into ellipses by Saturn’s
influence at these respective epochs. It may be worthy
of remark that 11 times the period of the comet are
equal to 155 times that of Saturn.

CHEMICAL NOTES.

On Ba.io’s Supposep Apipic AcID OBTAINED FROM
CAMPHOR.—On oxidation with chromic acid camphor does
not yield adipic acid, but the same oxidation-products as
with nitric acid. Chromicacid, however, converts the cam-
phoric acid first formed completely into members poorer
in carbon.—J. KACHLER. /

ON THE REMARKABLE REDUCING PROPERTIES OF POoTAs-
SIUM FERROUS OXALATE, AND ON SQME OF THE REACTIONS
THUs PropucEeD.—Ferrous oxalate is very permanent on
exposure to the air, both in a wet anda dry state, and pos-
sesses very feeble reducing properties. The solution of
ferrous oxalate in potassium oxalate, as well as the solid
double salt, takes up oxygen greedily, and passes into po-
tassium ferric oxalate. Its affinity for oxygen is equal to
that of an alkaline ferrous hydrate, or of ammoniacal cu-
prous chloride, or of pyrogallic acid in an alkaline solution.

7 Am. Jour. of Science, July, 1863.

8 “* At this period, so many stars fell from heaven that they could not
be counted. In France the inhabitants were amazed to see one o thenmsfi

reat size fall to the earth, and they poured water on the spot, we hish
their capone f astonishment smoke issued from the ground with aoot f-~
ing noise.” —Herrick’s Catalogue, This record is of great interest as indr
cating the fall of an aerolite during the shower of meteors.
ae Soissons, on voit le ciel en feu. Une pluie de sang tombe sur

‘aris.

The double oxalate exerts its reducing powers, not merely
in alkaline, but in neutral, and even acid solutions. The
solution quickly reduces platinum chloride and silver ni-
trate to metal. Silver chloride, bromide, and iodide are
reduced completely, but more slowly. Copper acetate is
reduced very slowly to cuprous oxide, and even to metal
With the aid of heat mercuric chloride is reduced to metal.
Recently precipitated Prussian blue is reduced to white
ferro-cyanide of potassium. Indigo blue is reduced to white
indigo, and solutions of sulphindigotic acid are rapidly
decolorised.—J. M. Epvrr.

ON THE Acips CgHi,0, ForMED FROM BuTyric ACID.
Besides a volatile oily acid, probably identical with isocro-
tonic acid, there are formed by the reaction of suberic and
bromobutyric acid, two acids agreeing in composition with
suberic acid, but distinctly different from each other, and
from the two isomeric acids produced by a corresponding
reaction with brom-isobutyric acid. ‘There exist, therefore,
five isomeric suberic acids——CArL HELL AND O. MUL-
HAUSER.

A NEw SYNTHESIS OF PHOSPHENYL SULPHO-CHLORIDE.—
Twenty parts phosphenyl-chloride are placed in a small
flask with a reflux condenser, and five parts sulphur-chlo-
ride are slowly added by means of a dropping-funnel.
After the reaction is over, the flask is set in a freezing mix-
ture of Glauber’s salt and hydrochloric acid. Pale yellow
crystals of phosphenyl-tetra-chloride are formed, from
which the liquid is separated by decantation, then shaken
with water, dried and rectified. The yield is almost quanti-
tative.—H. KorHLeEr.

More PARTICULAR OBSERVATIONS ON THE ACTION OF Por-
ASSIUM CARBONATE UPON ISOBUTYL-ALDEHYDE.—F,. Urech
places about 3 grms. pure isobutyl-aldehyde in a narrow test
tube graduated in half millimetres. With a lens it is pos
sible to read accurately quarter millimetres. After 3 deci-
grms. of finely-powdered recently-ignited potassium car-
bonate have been added, the tube is closed, set in a hori-
zontal position, and the level is read off every five minutes
for forty-eight hours. The liquid will be found to have
sunk from 21.50 to 14.50 degrees.

AT a meeting of the Société Industrielle of Mulhouse, it
was stated that tin sulphocyanide, formed by the double
decomposition of calcium sulphocyanide and tin oxalate, is
found very useful in calico printing.

For printing cotton with the azo-colors, Dr. Allrich
proposes to dissolve 100 grms. of the color in five times
its weight of water; then to make up a solution of sodium
stannate or aluminate at 15° B., to every litre of which are
added 20 grms. alizarin oil. Of this mixture I50 grms. are
incorporated with the color, which is then thickened with
starch and printed. After printing the pieces are steeped
for an hour in lead or barium acetate or barium chloride at
5° to 10° B., and washed in cold water.

“toe -

CORRESPONDENCE.

| The Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed
by his correspondents. No notice is taken of anonymous communi-
cations. |

To the Editor of *‘ SCIENCE :”

. In reference to the correction of one of my statements
made in your issue of the 29th inst. by Dr. Burt G. Wil-
der, I would say that I accept the criticism in all its bear-
ings. The view which Dr. Wilder expresses regarding
the upper wall of the third ventricle being constituted by
the efendyma stretched across between the hadbenule of
the pineal gland, was once entertained by myself (in ac-
cordance with the orthodox view of embryologists since the
time of Rathke), and was the one which Dr. Wilder may
perhaps recollect I expressed to him in conversation last
year. I return to that view again. My abandonment of
it was due to the confounding of two distinct questions,
z. é., the question of the true inner boundary of the floor at
the lateral ventricle and the true upper and outer boun-
dary of the third. The view I should have credited to
Wilder and Hadlich, is that the Zateral ventricle does not
extend over the thalamus. My misapprehension of Wil-
der’s statement is based on the fact that it rested on a
verbal communication. That I mentioned it at all was

60

due to my unwillingness to adopt even unpublished views
of others without at least giving formal credit. Ifmy good
intentions have in this instance had rather the effect of
doing an injustice, that was not a matter of intent, but of
error, and one I may claim an excuse for under the
circumstances above explained.

Dr. Wilder refers to the absence of literary references in
my short paper. This is in accordance with the fact that
the paper was a provisional communication of results
purely my own, and that quotations of the views of others
were limited to such relating to collateral details or of
works like those of Luys and Meynert, which are so much
household words among cerebral anatomists that I thought
amention of their exact titles a useless affectation.

On reviewing the matter, I find that the relations are in
every respect as Dr. Wilder gives them, viz.: 1st. That the
lateral and third ventricles only communicate through the
Foramen of Monro. 2d. That the medial aspect of the
Thalamus only is in the third ventricle. 3d. That no part
of the Thalamusis in the lateral ventricles. 4th. That the
dorsal aspect of the Thalamus is neither in the third nor in
the lateral, nor in any other ventricle.

My description of the third ventricle as a T shaped slit,
requires this modification, that the vertical branch alone is
ventricular, the horizontal being neither a part of the lateral
nor of the third ventricle, but a fissure extending between
the thalamus and the cerebral hemispheres.

While thus embryologically and morphologically the
thalamus must be looked on as a distinct cerebral seg-
ment, yet in the higher mammalia (as I claimed some
years ago) it has become practically a subsidiary ganglionic
depot of the cerebral hemispheres, and thus assumes a
position not without its analogies to that of the Corpus
striatum, a view in full accord with that of Meynert.

In conclusion I would offer a formal apology for the
erroneous interpretation I made of Dr. Wilder's views, and
state that the communication I made was merely provis-
ional, and intended to be followed up by more full essays
on the different subjects mentioned therein, in which the
necessary literary references will not be wanting.

I also trust that Dr. Wilder will, in his publication, en-
lighten us on the anterior termination of the “ extraventri-
cular” slit which extends over the thalamus and under the
Fornix. I am unable to determine this question from my
sections, which are chiefly made in the transverse direc-
tion, and in which the ependymal roof of the third ventri-
cle was either absent or removed by the knife. This
feature was in part responsible for my misapprehension of
the shape of the third ventricle. Respectfully,

NEw YORK, February 3d, 1881. 19 (Ce SHEVA a

SCIENCE.

RECURRING PERIODS IN THE WEATHER.
To the Editor of “ SCIENCE :”’

Last year I published in the New York 7yzbune a table
for the month of February showing the dates of rain and
snow in that month for twenty years. I also pointed out
that there seemed to be two well marked storm periods,
about the 3rd and 2oth of that month, when a. storm
might be expected. Since then I have made some cor-
rections in the dates as then published and have extended
my investigation to all the rest of the months. The re-
sult will be found in the table below; the table gives the
dates of rain or snow as observed at Newburgh, N. Y.
In all cases the blanks indicate that I had no observations
for those dates. I would be very much obliged to any of
the readers of ‘“‘SCIENCE”’ who may have observations
for these missing dates if they would publish them in
“SCIENCE.” For example, did it rain about 3rd of
August 1862, May 1877, August 1873, August 1874,
August 1876 and 1877, or about September 3, 1869?
The missing dates from the 20th I would also be very
much pleased to have supplied. An examination of the
table will show that there seems to be two well marked
storm periods in each month, and that a storm may be
expected about the 3rd and 20th of every month. The
crucial test for any theory concerning the weather is to
see how accurately it predicts for any one place. It will
readily be comprehended that the larger the area we pre-
‘dict for, greater is the probability of our predictions com- -
ing true, for if it does not storm at one place it may at
another. Had I felt justified in using observations made
in the vicinity of Newburgh, the table would have agreed
much closer with theory, but I have only used the dates
on which storms occurred at Newburgh. Besides, when
the storm was very light near the 3rd or 2oth, I have in
some cases omitted it and recorded the date of the next
storm. Thus, for example, it snowed at Newburgh De-
cember 21, 1880, but it did not last long, and I have re-
corded the heavier storm of December 25th; and in
September, 1864, it rained before the 30th,but as it was very
light, 1 omitted it and recorded the first rain of any
amount after the zoth. However, my object will be ac-
complished if this article should direct the attention of
observers to the importance of paying more attention to
the recurring periods in the weather, on which Vennor
has founded his predictions which have proved so true in
many instances. :

JAMES H. GARDINER.

NEWBURGH, N. Y.

YEAR. Jan. Feb. March. | April. May June July August. | Sept. Oct. | Nov | Dec.
| FL aeal |

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SCIENCE. ' 61

ne Sy ae NIC ES

A WEEKLY RECORD OF SCIENTIFIC

PROGRESS.

JOHN MICHELS, Editor.

——

PUBLISHED AT
229 BROADWAY, NEW YORK.

P, O, Box 388388.

SATURDAY, FEBRUARY iz, 1881.

It appears to be a fact not generally known in the
United States that a prize is annually offered by His
Majesty, the King of the Belgians, amounting to the
sum of twenty-five thousand francs, for the encourage-
ment of intellectual effort.

The intentions of the King were made known by g
decree dated the 14th of December, 1874, inviting the
authors of all nations to compete, and placing the
settlement of the award in the hands of a jury ap-
pointed by His Majesty, composed of seven members,
three of whom must be Belgians, and four foreigners
of different nationalities.

The prize for the year 1881 will be awarded “to the
best work on the means of improving ports established
on low and sandy coasts like those of Belgium.”

The original time for sending in these essays, which
may be either printed orin manuscript, was the 1st of
January, now last past, but we are authorized in stat-
ing that the time has been extended to the 31st day
of March, 1881.

Foreigners desiring to compete for this prize are re-
quired to send their works to the Minister of the In-
terior at Brussels ; but Mr. John Eaton, U. S$. Com-
missioner of Education, advises competitors in the
United States to forward their articles through the De-
partment of State at Washington:

We are informed that the manuscript work obtain-
ing the prize must be published in the course of the
year following that in which the prize shall have been
awarded, but in what manner the publication shall be
made is not stated in the document placed in our
hands.

Engineers and scientific men who would ayail

themselves of this opportunity must act promptly, and |

we would advise such to apply directly to Mr. John
Eaton, of the Bureau of Education, in regard to any
further information required for facilitating their work.

CHIMPANZEES IN NEW YORK.

THE last of the Chimpanzees at the New York Aqua-
rium died on the 2d of February, of a throat affection.
It was a remarkably well developed specimen. Its princi-
ple dimensions were, height (when standing) from heel
to vertex 33 inches, distance from coccyx to vertex 20%
inches. Length of foot 6% inches. Length of hand ex-
actly the same. Its weight was twenty-four pounds.
The brain was obtained by Dr. Edward C. Spitzka, mak-
ing the third brain of this species in his possession. New
York has been comparatively rich in anthropoids during
the past three years. At one time there were five Chim-
panzees and one Orang-Outang on exhibition together.
The former lived about nine months. Altogether there
have been at different times nine Chimpanzees at the
Aquarium. Of the first pair, ‘“ Nip’’ and “Tuck,” the
former died of a tubercular meningitis, the latter passed
successfully through an attack of Enteritis and later of
Diphtheria, to die at Coney Island. A comparatively
large animal standing over 3% feet high, died of neo-
plasm in the lung. A female of depraved propensities
such as have not yet been noted in anthropoids (devour-
ing her own excrement), and a little two year old, one of
the finest and most active anthropoids yet kept in cap-
tivity, died of catarrhal affections contracted at the sea-
side Aquarium, whither supposed business intercst had
directed they should go. Two well-developed animals,
aged over two years, were sold to the Philadelphia Zoo-
logical Gardens.

A single survivor remained at the Aquarium. This
animal had been in excellent health for a year and grown
considerably during that period. About two years agoa
new specimen arrived which had been brought from
Africa, after a very stormy voyage, in a sailing vessel; it
looked shrivelled and shrunken, weighed nine pounds,
and was not expected to live. Those who saw it
remarked that it bore the same relation to the

| other that a starved inmate of a baby farm does to a

healthy, well-nourished child. But after a year it had
outstripped its comrade in growth, and altogether gained
fifteen pounds weight in the two years of its life of cap-
tivity. There must be considerable disparity between in-
dividual anthropoid apes ina state of nature, and this
observation seems to confirm it,

TRICHINA IN PORK.

Dr. Ed. W. Germer, Health officer, of Erie, Pa., sends to
us a portion of trichinous pork, as a sample of meat which
infected a family of seven persons with trichinosis. The
pig in question was raised with another, both being fed
with the same food and reared under the same conditions,
The pigs were killed at the same time, and an exam-
ination by Dr. Germer showed that one of these pigs was
infected with trichinzee while the other was free from the
parasite.

The owner of the diseased pig, his wife and two chil-
dren were all taken sick simultaneously, and were treated
for typhoid fever. Later three persons visited the house
and were all seizéd with the same symptoms. The at-
tending physician attributed the trouble to a well which
supplied the family water. The mystery was solved by
Dr. Germer who made the discovery of trichinous pork,
and under his treatment the patients recovered. Dr.
Germer suggests the possibility that many cases of trich-
inosis occur which are treated for other diseases, and
trusts the time is not distant when young physicians will
purchase a microscope before buying a gold watch ora
gold-headed cane. We have examined the sample of
trichinous pork, and confirm Dr. Germer’s report;
stripping a portion of the sarcolemma from the muscle
we found seven trichinz in the field of the microscope,
using a (th objective. The trichine were in a free condi-
tion without cysts, and very transparent ; for this reason
they could be seen only by making very thin sections,

62 SCIENCE.

and would probably have been passed over by cne’ mak-
ing a careless examination. The Medical Presse of
Vienna reports 80 cases at one town and 4o at another
city, and the mcre recent fatal cases on board the British
School ship Cornwadizs would appear to suggest the im-
portance of an official examination of all pork to be used

for food.
erate seat © ee See

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON.

At the one hundred and ninety-second meeting of the
Philosophical Society, cf Washington, a very interesting
communication was read by Prof. J. W. Chickering, en-
titled, ‘‘ Notes on Roan Mountain, North Carolina.”

The Appalachian chain with its undulating line of 1300
miles from the promontory of Gaspé on the Gulf ot St.
Lawrence to Georgia and Alabama, beginning as a series
of folds of moderate height, increases in complexity and
altitude from north to south, attaining its greatest eleva-
tion in the Black Range of North Carolina. Following
it from Gaspé to the Hudson we find the single chain of
the Green Mountains reaching its extreme height in Mt.
Mansfield, 4430 feet ; the outlying cluster of the White
Mountains with Mt. Washington, 6288 feet, and others
exceeding 5000 feet; Mt. Katahdin, in Maine, about 52co
feet; the Adirondacks, with Mt. Marcy, 5379 and the
Catskills considerably lower. From the Hudson to New
River, Va., a distarce of 450 miles, it gradually gains
both in width and altitude. It consists of many parallel
ranges with fertile valleys between, of which the great
Valley of Virginia is the largest and best known, and all
in reality apart of that Piedmont region. In Pennsylvania
the summits vary from 800 to 2500 feet. Towards the
south the chains become more 1 umerous and indented,
and in Virginia the Peaks of Otter reach 4000 feet. The
extreme eastern range is called the Blue Ridge, the ex-
treme western the Cumberland Mountains, or more
properly plateaus, while the high range or ranges between
is in general called the Alleghenies.

From the New River southward, the system becomes
more complex. The main chain hitherto called the Blue
Ridge is deflected to the west, and for 250-300 miles in a
circuitous chain under the names of Iron, Stone, Bald,
Great Smoky and Unaska Mountains joins the boundary
between North Carolina and Tennessee, rising frequently
to a height exceeding 6000 feet. The more easterly
range retaining the name of Blue Ridge, having its south-
ern terminus in Caesar’s Head in South Carolina, turns

abruptly to the northwest and reaches even loftier al i- |
tudes, Mitchells Peak being accredited with 6717 feet. |

In North Carolina these two ranges are more than 50
miles apart, are partially connected by transverse ranges,

and for more than 100 miles constitute a great central |

plateau like that of Colorado ona small scale.

The eastern chain or Blue Ridge is still the watershed,
and on the Atlantic slope gives rise to the Roanoke, Ca-
tawba, Broad, Saluda and Savannah rivers. On the other
side, this area of mountains and plateaus is separated by
transverse chains into many deep basins. At the bottom
of each runs one of those mountain streams, the New
Watanga, Nolechucky, French, Broad and others. These
are compelled to cut their way to join the Tennessee
through gaps, gorges and defilesin the heart of this great
chain, giving us some of the most picturesque scenery to
be found on the continent.

In the midst of this region with all three ranges in sight
stands Roan Mountain (a Laurentian mass), the State
line crossing it at an altitude of 6391 feet. I desire to
call attention to some of the peculiarities of the region as
contrasted with the northern Appalachians.

Standing upon the summit of Roan we look into seven
different States, and command a horizon of 30 to 80 miles.

On the north and west the eye catches the Cumberland |

Range on the horizon, and in the interval the great Cum-
berland plateau, and and many other ranges, but all as
level as if designed for railroad embankments—sometimes

not a peak to be’ seen in 4o miles of crest. On the south
is a wilderness of mountains. Guyot gives fifty to sixty
with altitudes exceeding 6000 feet, and yet the highest is
only 6717, and perhaps forty cf them between 6000 and
6500, and hundreds of others 5000 +. The valleys rarely
go below 3000 feet. The railroad after leaving Lynch-
burgh in a tew miles reaches 1000 feet, and from that
point for nearly 300 miles rarely goes below 1500 feet, and
at cne point reaches 2550. The true Piedmont region,
extending through to Virginia, North and South Carolina,
Georgia, Alabama and Tennessee, at an elevation of
1500 to 2500 feet, offers as attractive a region for health
and comfort as can be found on the globe.

Uniformity of temperature. During nine weeks the
mercury indicated once 75°, seven times 70°+, once 45 ,
three times 50°—, the general daily variation being be-
tween 55° and 65°. The spring a few rods from the
hotel, has a temperature of 45°. Equally remarkable
was the unifo:mity of atmospheric pressure, the highest
barometer being 24.19, and the lowest 23.87. No wind
had a velocity greater than 20 miles an hour, and sel-
dom reached ten miles. The last time I was at Mt.
Washington, in August, the mercury was 36° and the
wind 40 miles.

Fertility of summizt, Instead of the upper 1000 feet
being, as in most of the higher northern peaks, a pile of
barren rocks with lichens their only vegetation, the sum-
mit of Roan and many other peaks is a smooth grassy
slope of the most vivid green, dotted with clumps of
Alnus viridis, Rhododendron Catawbzense, the soil one
or two feet deep and black. How this amount of humus
was accumulated, and what cause destroyed the forests
which its existence seems to indicate as formerly existing
are questions not easily answered. The valleys are very
fertile and adapted to almost any crop.

At an elevation of 3000 to 4000 feet occurs a belt of
the most magnificent forest trees J have ever seen.
Hundreds of chestnuts, sugar maples, lindens, tulip trees,
yellow beeches, and buck-eyes were seen from four to
seven feet in diameter, and rising 70 to 80 feet without a
limb. One chestnut measured 24 feet in circumference,
and one black cherry 19 feet. Thorn bushes were as
large as apple trees, and with dwarf buck-eyes and yel-
low beeches looked like old orchards of vast extent in
the higher levels.

Flora. Ascending the mountain, the vegetation takes
ona northern aspect. Hemlocks abound till near the
summit, where they are replaced by Abies Fraseri, the
characteristic spruce of these summits. Anemone nemor-
osa, Oxalis acetosella, Rubrus‘ordoratus, Asteracuminatus,
Habenaria orbiculata, Ribes lacustris and prostratum, Ver-
atrum viride, Lycopodium lucidulum and similar species,
remind one of the woods of Maine and New Hampshire.
The peculiar flora of the upper 1000 feet greatly resembles
in habit those of the White Mountains, but very few are
of the same species. Paronychia argyrocoma, Alnus viridis,
| and a species of Lycopodium are almost the only plants
| occurring to me as common to the two localities. Ane-
mone Grcenlandensis is replaced by A. glabra; Solidago
thyrsoidea by S. glomerata.
these mountains in general are hardly sub-alpine, and
thus continuous with similar species further north but
rather apparent instances of local variation, many species
being confined to very narrow localities. The same is
true of the molluscs. On Mt. Washington, a few rods
will sometimes give the same plant in bud, flower and
fruit, as a north or south exposure, a precipice, or a snow-
drift, may retard or accelerate growth. But on these
southern mountains no such difference obtains any more
than in the valleys below.
| On this communication Professor J. W. Powell re-
marked that the uniformity of altitude of the peaks is a
_a feature resulting from the fact that the mass out ot
which they have been carved by erosion possesses a
plateau structure. The elevation of that region was dis-

The species peculiar to--

vd

U

SCIENCE. | 63

tributed in its effects with an approach to uniformity over
a wide extent of country, and was unaccompanied by
those sharp flexings or the protrusions of abrupt granitic
cores.which are encountered in some portions of the Ap-
palachians and other mountain regions. The individual
masses and ranges in the Cumberland region are the
work of erosion acting upon a broad platform, excavating
wide valleys and narrow gorges, leaving the peaks and
ridges as cameos and mere remnants of the general
degradation of the entire region. Professor Powell ex-
emplified the process by citing the Uinta Mountains as a
broad platform similarly carved by an enormous erosion.

Mr. Lester F. Ward then read a communication enti-
tled, ‘“‘ Field and Closet Notes on the Flora of the Dis-
trict of Columbia.”’ Mr. Ward’s paper was more com-
prehensive than its title indicated. He read extracts from
a local monograph which he has been preparing on the
Flora of the District of Columbia. The work has been
done by Mr. Ward in his usual energetic, thorough, and
philosophical manner, and presents many points of inter-
est. It will be published in full by the Society.

i

THE ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF WASH-
INGTON.

The Society met in the lecture room of the National
Medical College on Tuesday evening, February 1, Major
J. W. Powell in the chair. © By the provisions of the Con-
stitution the retiring President is required to deliver his
annual address at the meeting succeeding that held for the
election of officers, and to review therein the work of the
Society during the past year. As before mentioned, the
reasons for the publication of elaborate proceedings, ex-
isting in the case of other societies, do not obtain here.
The President, therefore, in connection with his address,
had prepared a.pamphlet of 100 pages, in which were em-
bodied abstracts of every paper read during the two years
of the Society’s existence, together with a brief history of
its formation, the two annual addresses, the constitution,
and the list of officers and members. The whole consti-
tutes a very important contribution to knowledge.

Major Powell thus presented a classification of the
papers and discussed the several subjects treated in their
order, namely: Archeology, ethnography, linguistics, bio-
logy, philosophy, technology, sociology, and mythology.
As the address will appear in full as a part of the pam-
phlet, it is not necessary to present an abstract.

+o

DETERMINATION OF GOLD AND SILVER IN ALLOYS, AFI'ER
QUARTATION WITH CADMIUM.—Two portions of the alloy,
each of 0.25 grms., are weighed off and placed with the
cadmium in small porcelain vessels. A piece of potassium
cyanide is melted in a porcelain capsule over the flame, and
the metal thrown in. The melting together takes place
readily, and is complete in a few minutes. By changing
with two or three porcelain capsules, and having a vessel
with warm water at hand, in which the melted portion is dis-
solved when sufficiently cool, twenty to thirty meltings can
be executedin an hour. Thetwo metallic granules are now
thrown together into a small long-necked flask, in which is
nitric acid of sp. gr. 1.30; a piece of wood charcoal is in-
troduced to prevent bumping—which would rupture the
globules—and heat is gently applied. The first solutioa
lasts rather long, according to the proportion of gold ; e.g.,
an hour in case of fine gold. The solution is poured off,
the boiling repeated with nitric acid of sp. gr. 1.3 for ten
minutes, the liquid again poured off, the globules rinsed
with hot water, boiled for five minutes with water, which is
poured off, and.the flask filled with water is inverted into a
porous earthern crucible, dried, ignited strongly, proceed-
ing as in cupellation. In most cases the globules can be
weighed separately. Silver is determined in the solution of
titration with ammonium sulphocyanide according to Vol-
hard’s method.—F Rr. Kraus.

A SKETCH OF THE GEOLOGY OF HUDSON
COUNTY, N. J.*
By ISRAEL C. RUSSELL.

An outline of the geology of Hudson County, N. J., is
delineated in the accompanying generalized section.

Fic. 1—GENERALIZED SECTION OF THE Rocks or Hupsow County, N. J.
Shell Heaps.

Sand Dunes.
Peat and Mud,

Human PeErtop --

QUARTERNARY --- Drift.
Red Shale
re and
Sandstone.
PURYAGSIG 2-2emceas Trap Rock.
Slates with Trap
Red Shale
and
Sandstcne.
= Jasperoid Ser-
—- . mS ie pentine.
f IN is ANN
pal ZAI,
a7 WV,
ARCHAAN .------- YB G@Z), Gneiss.

At the base of the series is crystalline gness of
Archean age, which is exposed in a few reefs along the
shore of the Hudson in Jersey City. These rocks are
composed mainly of quartz, feldspar and mica, and form
highly crystalline gneiss, mica schist, hornblende schist,
etc., and are not to be distinguished from the rocks ot

* Taken from a paper published in the Annals of the N. J. Academy of
Sciences, Vol. II., No, 2, pp. 27-80.

64

SCIENCE.

the same formation exposed so abundantly on Manhattan
Island.

Associated with the crystalline Archzean rocks that to
a limited extent border Hudson County on the east, are
beds of quartzite and serpentine, exposed in the bluff
known as Castle Point at Hoboken. This premontory
is about thirty acres in area, and is limited on the east
by bold bluffs of serpentine. The rock here exhibits
considerable variety, being sometimes yellowish and dull
in appearance, and so earthy as to crumble between the
fingers; again it is compact, dark green in color, and
furnishes an ornamental, although interior, building stone.
This rock is a silicate of magnesia containing chrome-
iron in scattered grains, and turnishes also the minerals
marmoitite, brucite, nemalite and magnesite.

The quartzite or jasperoid reck, occurring on the
southern slope of the serpentine, in the neighborhood of
the Stevens Institute, has, together with the serpentine,
been reterred to the Archzan series, but as the exposures
are now obliterated little can be said concerning it.

TRIASSIC ROCKS.

In Hudson county we have a portion of the eastern
border of the Triassic formation which forms a band
thirty miles broad across the State. In general with the
Tniassic formation in New Jersey and the Connecticut
Valley, the rocks are here lelspathic sandstones, slates
and shales traversed by sheets and dikes of trap. The
sedimentary rocks occupy nearly the whole area of the
county and dip uniformly to the northwest at an angle
of about 15°. The sandstone is largely composed of
granules or fragments ot felspar, cemented by oxide ot
iron to Which the reddish or brownish color ot the rock
is due; this is the stone so largely used for architectual
purposes in New York and ine neighboring cities.
‘Traversing these inclined beds of sedimentary rocks, and

‘in a general way conformable with them, are sheets of
intrusive trap, which now owing to unequal erosion,
form the most prominent features in the topography of
the county. ‘This statement holds gocd, aiso, for the
entire Triassic area in New Jersey, anu with more or less
accuracy for this formation in general along the Atlantic
slope. The main trap ridge in Hudson County, com-
posing the highland known in different portions of its
course as Bergen Hill, jersey City Heights, and the
Heights ot Weehawken, is continued northward with
increasing height, and torms the bold picturesque shore
of the Hudson as far northward as Haverstraw. The
outcropping edge of the trap,especially in Hudson County,
has been abraded by glacial action so as to form an
irregular, badly drained, plane surface. Although ina
general way tollowing the bedding of the associated
slates and sandstone, the trap.sheet 1s really uncontoim-
able to them and breaks across their bedding in various
places. From both the upper and lower suriaces of the
main trap sheet smaller sheets and dikes ot molten rock
have been intruded among the stratified beds. Examples
of these branches trom the principal mass may be seen
at the base ot the cliffs along the west bank of the Hud-
son, from Hoboken northward. Secondary sheets origi-
nating from the upper surface also appear on the west-
ern border of Bergen Hill, where they have been
accented by erosion. The intrusive nature of the trap
sheets and dikes is shown by their crystalline structure,
their unconformity to the inclosing stratified beds, and
by the metamorphism produced in the strata with which
they have come in contact. A section exposed in the
cliffs bordering the Hudson a few miles north of
Hoboken, is given in the following figure, and illustrates
especially the abrupt manner in which the New Jersey
Triassic area is cut off along its eastern border.

In the diagram D represents the sheet of drift that
covers the eroded surface of the hill, and S the slates that
unconfermably underlie the trap into which a small

|

Dit

Fic. 2—SectTion aT Doa’s Point, WEEHAWKEN.

seconcary sheet of the crystalline rock has been in-
truded. Beneath the slates are beds of light colored
telspathic sandstone ending in a cliff at the water’s edge ;
the whole series has the usual dip of 15° N. W.

The irregular line formed by the eastern boundary of
the trap 1s caused, at least in two instances, by sheets ot
trap that leave the main mass at an angle and stand out
in ridges tangent to the principal line of cliffs; examples
of this feature, which is difficult of description withou
illustrations, may be seen at Kings Point, Wehawken
and Fairmont Hill, Jersey City.

POST-TRIASSIC HISTORY.

No records are found in Hudson County, of the Jur-
assic cretaceous or Tertiary periods during all these geo-
logical ages ; the area under discussion must have been a
land surlace exposed to subaerial denudation. The same
destructive agencies were at work, too, with accelerated
energy during the Quaternary period. The result is that
we have but a decimal poruon of the original Triassic
formation remaining.

During the Quaternary, northern New Jersey, in com-
mon with a great area in the northeastern: part of the
continent, was buried beneath glaciers of great thickness.
In Hudson County the ice-sheet moved from north-west
to south-east, ploughing out in its journey the soft Trias-
sic shales and sandsiones, and grinding off the projecting
ridges ot trap with a force so irresistable that a mountain-
ridge like the Palisade range could not deflect it from its
course. When the climate ameliorated and the glaciers
retreated northward, the haid crystalline trap was left
with a polisted surtace that glitters in the sun light, ard
is crossed by deeply engraved lines that faithfully record
the direction from which the glaciers came. In places
tne rock rises into smoothly rounded hillocks, forming
typical voches moutonnées. The load that the glaciers
carried was spread over valleys and uplands, forming a
continuous sheet ot glacial drift, which now composes
the immediate surface ot a large portion of the county.
This glacial drift is generally a tenacious clayey deposit,
at times fifteen or twenty teet thick, ot a reddish color,
derived from the debris ct Triassic shalas and sandstones
that enter largly into its composition. Scattered
through it are boulders of trap, sandstone, slate, etc.,
that have been transported but a short distance, and
others of gneiss and conglomerate, the parent ledges of
which are thirty or forty miles to the northwestward.
Hudson county also furnishes examples ot modified
dritt, consisting of irregular layers ot sand, gravel and
small boulders, all well rounded and plainly assorted and
deposited througn the agency of running water.

More recent than the glacial deposits are the sand
dunes that skirt the base of the upland on all sides.
Again more recent than the hills of aeolian sand are
the many deposits ot peat and mud still in process of
formation along nearly the whole water-front of the
county.

‘he bed-rock in Hudson county is, in most places, ex-
cepting on the uplands, deeply covered by Quarternary
and recent deposits. The topography of the rocky floor
of the county and of the neighboring portions of New

“=

SCIENCE. 65

Yory, would not only be of great interest to the geo-
logist but of direct economic importance to all interested
in shipping, harbor improvements, reclamation of land,
etc. The records of deep wells and soundings in the
salt marshes that have a bearing on this subject are
tabulated in the paper published by the Academy. On
the Newark Meadows and in Newark Bay the rock bot-
tom is from two to three hundred feet below the present
surface. East of Bergen Hill soundings show a depth to
rock nearly as great. The following list taken from the
tables mentioned above, give some of the soundings on
the borders of the deeply eroded channels of the Hudson,
East and Harlem rivers :

Hudson River, foot of 23d st., 250
feet from the east building line of

BLE ELVGG, SELEGCr tale) sieiclojeieisisis'e: = « 175 ft. to rock,
Hudson River, foot of Bethune st.,

20 ft. W. of bulkhead Jine...... 176 ft. rock not reached
Hudson River, pier 60 (old No.), 20

eet W. of bulkhead line........ 175 ft. to rock

East River, N. Y. Tower of Brook-

lyn’ Bridge... 3... eee e eee ee eee 107.4 ft. to bed rock
East River, Brooklyn Tower of

LOO Miyme Bde.) clcteleale se 6° 88y yas ge

East River, pier 41, N. Y , 200 ft.
from the building lineof South st. 91 ‘‘ “s
East River, pier 18, 200 ft. from the

building line of South st........ (soy Hy
Harlem River at High Bridge, centre

(GURIGLVE Regares sataieiaiete cokers) Soop: w/ Se wie oe 70 ft. rock not reached
Harlem River, Madison av. Bridge,

GEMies OL LIVER ss witle «os cle sisi =e 77 ie Tn & ag

As shown on the Coast Survey
Charts of New York harbor, the
water in the Hudson off Castle

IPorinit Woe sede os DObeorn SRE Jake 50-65 ft. deep
In East River, W. of Blackwell’s

RSVATIG atterencterests yem\-eierm e accel els « 1i( Oly Aaa
In East River, at Hell Gate....... 110 bs te

< (er mearwWara:s Istand... |’. 170. “*.+'**
TneNiews York "Harbor “0 csi «+ os 60-80 ‘* ‘*
itn Narrows ..c,chic em syeler cs ee « Go=rr6 rs
In the skill Von Kull... ra6.2. Meee oA oa
Ga Za dele Sul OUI GS op pp oI rOD Oot ZO Berger

These measurements, none of which give the m- x mum
depth of the old channels, clearly prove that the drain-
age system about New York was at no very distant time
several hundred feet below the present water surface.
It might be shown with equal certainty that we are liv-
ing many thousands of feet below what would have been
the surface of the county had there been no erosion.

—<>—___—_——

THE SOULS OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS.
By THE REV. DR. THOMAS HILL.

The only things concerning which we can arrive at
absolute certainty are space, time and spirit. “Their ex-
istence and some of their attributes are announced in
every act of self-consciousness. »*Their existence and
attributes are not matters of inference, but of direct
sight. Matter, on the other hand, can substantiate its
existence only by inference from these primal truths of
space, time and spirit. All natural sciences are matters
of mere deduction from the data furnished by mathe-
matics and mental philosophy. All the business of life,
(our manufactures, commerce, history), relating primarily
to material things, rests in the same way, ultimately on
truths of space, time and spirit; that is on mathematics
and philosophy. The conclusions at which we arrive in
the historical and natural sciences are therefore more or
less probable; and the probability may reach a degree
that is practically indistinguishable from certainty. 1 am
practically as sure that this sheet of paper would burn
if I held it in the gas jet, as 1 am that two straight lines
cannot enclose a space. Nevertheless the first truth is a

matter of contingency and probability, the second of ab-
solute knowledge. These truths of absolute certainty,
of direct intuition, concerning space, time and _ self-con-
scious mind, are not contingent; they remain true,
though heaven and earth pass away, and the perception
of them is that which puts the stamp of immortality on
the human mind.

But in addition to these fields of direct sight, the
three fields of truth outside the conscious mind, are of
the highest value. In the first place the certainty of the
existence of other minds, is as near absolute certainty as
it is possible for a truth of inference to be. That there
are other men about me, and there is an Infinite Mind
above us all, are truths which are practically as certain
as the axioms of geometry. In the second place my
fellow men are acting and have been acting, thinking,
writing, painting, composing, legislating, warring and
making peace, manufacturing and inventing for thou-
sand of years; and the study of their history is the
r.chest and most fruiful method of developing my own
powers, and learning to know myself. In the third place
the field of space and time in which their history is cast
is full of this wondrous matter, which gives them their
opportunities, their means, their tools; without it mental
or moral life is inconceivable; consciousness itself is
awakened to activity only through contact with matter ;
space and time are visible only through motion as a
phenomenon of matter.

Here then is a great object of study, worthy of man’s
thought. Socrates was fearful lest Plato should spend
too much time on questions relating to the measurement
of matter ; Dr. Johnson in the Rambler carried Socrates’s
implied censure much farther than the old philosopher
himself would have done. Swift in his voyage to Laputa
satirizes the students of physical science ; the newspapers
of our own day indulge occasionally in laughing at the
technicalities of the scientific man; even men as wise
asthe Autocrat of the Breakfast Table utter occasional
words of disparagement in speaking of scientific pur-
suits. But Plato’s geometry has done as much for the
intellectual and purely spiritual development of our race
as Socrates’s morality ; and the physical philosophers ot
Europe, during the past three centuries, have, despite
their own frequeut ignorance of spiritual things, been of
immense advantage to spiritual pmlosophy.

The relations of space are the earliest object of our
scientific research, ‘The first really intellectual ideas in
a child’s mind are those of geometric form. Hence all
sciences that flow directly from geometrical relations are
likely to be earliest developed. Mechanics preceded
chemistry, and the classification of plants and animals
by their outward forms preceded the knowledge of phy-
siology, animal or vegetable.

Let us look then a moment at the geometrical study of
material things, and see what it involves. Material forms
suggest to the child the consideration of shape. He
early learns to abstract form from the outward things and
compare likeness in form only, He is but a few months
old when the smallest drawing of a man, a dog, or cat,
is recognized at sight. In a few years he takes the fur-
ther step of looking by reason beyond the picture of
imagination, and seeing the unimaginable realities in
space itself. He conceives, for example, a sphere. But
that portion of space which lies in a given sphere, sur-
rounding a given point, has no properties by which it is
distinguished from other parts of space. This is the
Leibnitzian argument by which some modern writers
would disprove the existence of space ; that its parts are
indistinguishable and therefore coincident. But the
geometer answers: No! by an act of mind I seize upon
any point of space and hold it as the centre of any sphere
I wish to consider. When he has thus seized upon and
considered a portion of space, bounded and separated
from the surrounding space, by an act of his pure intel-

66

SCIENCE:

lection, he can communicate his thoughts to hs fellow-
men in either of two ways; first, scientifically by the

medium of conventional symbols or language ; and sec- |

ond, artistically, by a model or a drawing. This second
method reaches a larger audience. What I write con-
cerning a sphere, for example, can be understood only
by those who have learned the language in which I write.
But if I illustrate my propositions by good drawings or
good models, the thought will be grasped by persons
unlearned in mathematics—and persons of all nations,
whether they understand English or not.

A form or model is therefore the clearest and most
complete statement of a mathematical truth. Nor cana
person give a more convincing proof of his understand-
ing a truth than his ready and accurate drawing of an
original diagram illustrating it. When we see material
particles, the fine particles ot crayon, for example, on the
blackboard, obeying geometrical law, we recognize at
once the expression of geometric thought. Law is a
mental reduction of particulars to mental order. A
geometric locus is a space in which each point is men-
tally referable to a single proposition ; that is, a space in
which the position of every point can be mentally
grasped and defined by giving properly the position of
one of them. When therefore we see numerous parti-
cles of matter conforming to a geometric locus, we are
forced to believe that that mass of matter was moulded,
directly or indirectly, by a mind which comprehended the
law of the locus; and in the moulding of it, enounced
the condition which defines the position of its points.
The enunciation of a thought can come only from a
mind comprehending that thought; and the formation
of a geometric figure is the clearest enunciation of a
geometric thought.

In the physical forces, therefore, which govern inor-
ganic matter, is revealed the existence of a guiding in-
tellect, since the forces are constantly producing perfect
geometrical forms or leading to harmonious arithmetical
relations. If we are forced to believe that gravity and
chemical differences and chemical affinities inhere in
matter, we must still, from the geometrical and algebrai-
cal powers exhibited by these forces, believe that they
were bestowed upon matter by an intelligent power, who
oresaw aid comprehended their effects. The study of
the natural sciences might otherwise well be given over
to the reproach of Dr. Johnson in the Rambler, and
Swift in the voyage to Laputa. Without a faith that law
lies hidden in the material world, all the efforts of scien-
tific explorers would be paralyzed; and without faith
that that law is the choice of infinite wisdom, and
adapted perfectly to fulfil the purposes of infinite love,
the success of the scientific explorer in discovering it
would be robbed of its highest and peculiar value.

In fact, the physical forces governing inorganic matter,
acting under definite laws, and tending towards a state
of stable equilibrium, nevertheless show in the intellec-
tual, the geometrical and algebraical nature of those
laws, a spiritual origin; they show that, however inde-
pendent of will we may now conceive them to be, they
nevertheless are the embodiment of thought; and we
know of no way of embodying thought without a
volition.

But if the Creator has thus stored ia crystallizable
matter, in a manner transcending all our thoughts, forces
which carry out His geometrical and algebraical concep-
tions, much more marvellous and beautiful are the modes
in which he has imparted to the souls of plants and ani-
mals (if I may thus extend the use of the word soul) the
power of carrying into execution more complicated geo-
metrical and algebraic plans.

For in every organized being, plant or animal, there is
a guiding principle which we may call, if we please, a
soul, which causes the forces of matter no longer to act
under laws tending towards stable equilibrium, but under

a variety of laws, different ia each species, tending not
towards stable but towards unstable equilibrium. This
guiding principle has in itself no forces. The most
careful investigators of the phenomena of organic growth
fail'to find any evidence of vital force, although there is
abundant evidence which must convince the most care-
less observer that there is in organized growth a vital
guidance of force peculiar to each species of plant or
animal, which I cannot conceive as inherent like the phy-
sical forces in matter and which | therefore, must attrib-
ute either directly to the Deity, or to an animal or vege-
table psyche, empowered by him to carry out these
higher geometric forms, just as in each species of matter
he has implanted the ability to carry out the simpler
geometrical forms of crystals.

There are those whose philosophy differs from mine,
and who hold to the opinion that the vital guiding prin-
ciple in organic growth, and even the rational soul of
men and animals are inherent in matter, in the same
manner as the forces waich they guide are inherent in
matter. According to this philosophy the vital principle
and the rational principle, inherent in matter, are usually
latent and are brought into operation only under pecu-
liar combinations of circumstances.

Now even should we grant the soundness of this view,
I should still find it necessary, for the explanation of the
logical series of vegetable and animal forms, to suppose
that this universally diffused vital principle originally
sprang from an intelligent self-conscious being who com-
prehends the laws of geometry perfectly ; and who has
expressed certain of his geometric thoughts through the
psyche or soul of plants and animals, whether we sup-
pose that psyche diffused but latent through all matter,
or confined to the organisms in which it is patent.

The nature of this psyche, of course, transcends our
knowledge. We recognize it only through its operations ;
and consciousness aids us in our attenpts to understand
it only so far as to show that its effects are intellectually
identical in geometric form with the product of our geo-
metric imagination. But we cannot suppose the psyche
of the plant or animal conscious of all the thoughts which
it develops, since we, whose psychical development is
evidently vastly higher than that of any other terrestrial
beings, are not conscious of the geometric law of our
own bodies, which our souls unconsciously fulfill; not
only during the period of our growth, but daily as we
supply by nutrition the daily waste of the frame.

The fact that the plant or animal may, without the ex-
ertion of any mechanical force, guide the forces of elec-
tricity, and light and heat and chemical affinity, to the
building of peculiar forms imprinted on its own soul,
may receive a coarse illustration from the operations of
the steam-engine in which, by delicacy and accuracy of
workmanship, the direction given to the power can be
changed by a force infinitesimal in comparison to the
force exerted by the engine. ‘Che chemical forces which
govern the organogens in their compoun Is are always
the same, but the results vary for each individual plant
or animal, and the law which those results indicate is
different for each species. The forces, building out of
these few simple elements so great a variety of forms, are
tremendous in their energies, and their existence is forced
upon the attention of the naturalist ; but the vital force,
if such a thing exist, which guides these tremendous
powers and determines what result they shall bring to
pass, has eluded the sight of the most careful and accur-
ate observers. The micer the investigation into the phe-
nomena of organic form, the more wonderful do the re-
sults appear. The persistence of type, for example,
through successive generations for many thousands of
years, and the very evident transmission of all physical
and psychical characteristics from the male parent to the
offspring, how utterly inexplicable upon any gross mate-
rial theory, when we reflect that from the male parent no

” ~ i=

¥ CENTRAL PARK “¢ \4

arg | \e

Oo, NEWYoe je
NOT ane ee wee oo
SCIENCE. > .2/URAL NIO'Y 67

VV Vy

matter passes into the offspring, excepting the fluid con-
tents of a microscopic cell strained through its walls and
through the walls of the ovule or ovum! Through this
infinitesimal quantity of fluid, filtered through this infin-
itely close doubl: filter, there passes, in some way, a law
of form, and a law of mental and physical idiosyncrasy
which is stamped upon the whole terrestrial being ot the
offspring. bending all the untold energies of gravity and
of chemical and electrical attraction, to its own particu-
lar whim. Through the whole terrestrial life of the off-
spring do I say ?—yes, and I may include in that word
offspring sometimes the whole progeny for a thousand
generations, The conscious part of the soul is still less
known. Its presence is one of the characteristics of ani-
mal as distinguished from vegetable life, and the investi-
gation of its comparative development in different tribes
of animals is the most valuable part of the field of natu-
ral history.

The soul of the plant is presumed to be unconscious.
The phenomena of motion in the sensitive plants, and in
the efforts of all plants to throw their leaves to the light
and their roots to the richest spots in the soil, are sup-
posed to be as unconscious as the contraction and dilata-
tion of the pupil of the human eye. In that dilatation
and contraction there is action adapted instantly to cir-
cumstances, and so long as the eye is healthy, with uner-
ring promnptitude and accuracy. An observer of the hu-
man animal might quote this as evidence of the wisdom
of man. But on further thought he might see in the
very fact that the action is unerring, evidence that it did
not depend oa the conscious volition of a finite being.
And we, men, know that it is a movement of which we
are absolutely unconscious.

In like manner it is presumed by the majority of inves-
tigators, that all the movements of plants are made with
absolute unconsciousness on the part of the plant, and
that plants have in short no consciousness whatever,
either of their own existence, or of the existence of a
world about them. Now it does not follow that on this
account the plant is to be studied in its physical relations
alone. It has psychical relations also, of the greatest
interest to a true enthusiast in botany. The gardener
and the botanist constantly speak of the feelings and
tastes of plants, and of their moral qualities—indeed
some plants have been named from moral nature, as, for
example, Rumex patientia, and Carduus benedictus, the
patient dock and the blessed thistle —while others have
moral epithets that have become as tamiliar as their
names, as, for example, the modest violet and the flaunt-
ing poppy.

The geographical distribution of plants will, I think, be
found to depend upon something which eludes our study
of the external conditions; something besides that physical
struggle for life which the English naturalists see in every
part of the animal and vegeiaole kingdom, as though the
poor in those kingdoms were oppressed by unjust. and
impolitic laws impeding the distridution of land, as
they are in the kingdom of Great Britain, There is also
what may be called a choice in the plants, not implying
by that language any consciousness in the plant, but
simply affirming that its flourishing here or perishing there,
depends in a great measure upon an idiosyncrasy of con-
stitution, making it sensitive to physical changes that
can be measured neither by the thermometer, barometer,
hygrometer, electrometer nor chemist’s balance. The
mayflower of New England, called elsewhere trailing
arbutus, will adapt itself, when it chooses, to clay or
sand, to deep shaded woods or to sunniest hillsides ; and
I never saw it so flourishing as once in a peat meadow
over which it was slily creeping from a sand bank on its
edge. But take the plant up with never so much care,
and with never so large a sod of unbroken earth about
its root, and transplant it where you will, and it is a
hundred to one that it dies in a twelvemonth of a broken

heart, pining for its old home. Some of these freaks
have been explained by the discovery that some plants
are semi-parasitic, stealing from the roots of others a
part of their food, and therefore incapable of living ex-
cept in the presence of their patrons,—but many remain
yet unexplained.

It sesms to me,-however, very plain that the souls of
plants, that which makes the difference between a plant
living in the forest, and the specimen in the herbarium,
that which guides the forces of nature to the building of
the plant, and which turns its leaves to the light, is
worthy of study in ali its relations. It is a depository of
divine thought, deposited there ultimately for our instruc-
tion as one of its final causes and therefore worthy of
the most careful attention.

The intellectual and moral development of animals is
also doubtless governed by a plan. The difference be-
tween the dull oyster and intelligent, affectionate dog, is
as much the result of a plan, or thought, of the Creator,
as is the difference of their forms. The horse and the
ox areas admirably adapted to domestication by their
meatal as by their bodily gifts. All the instincts of all
animals are adapted to their organization and to the na-
ture of the world and of other animals among which
they are placed.

Even should we suppose that the mental power of
animals is the result of their organization, that 1s to say,
even if we should suppose that mental power js latent in
matter, and simply rendered active by organization, we
should be compelled, upon a thorough study of the
mental development of animals, to admit that their souls
can be classified upon a logical plan, just as their forms
can be; and we should be forced to admit, that this
latent soul in matter is capable not only of organizing
matter according to a logically developed series of forms,
but of eliminating out of its own totality separate minds
in a progressive series logically connecied.

The very great importance of this study of comparative
psychology, of becoming acquainted with the mental
and moral characters of animals, is obvious. Many at-
tempts to found a science of comparative psychology
have been undertaken. But the field is vast, and the
progress of the survey slow. At the Baltimore meeting
of the American Association for the advancement of Sci-
ence, Dr. Weinland proposed a method for this new sci-
ence, ingenious and sound, but by no means exhaustive.
He lays down nine fundamental principles ; first, that the
distinguishing mark of an animal is its consciousness of
an outer world ; secondly, that this consciousness of an
outer world is the fundamental principle of the soul of
animals; thirdly, that the consciousness of self results
from and is proportioned to the consciousness of the
outer world ; fourthly, the degree of psychical develop-
ment can be judged from the degree of development of
the consciousness of an outer world ; fifthly, this may be
judged from the development of the organs of that con-
sciousness; sixthly, these organs are of three kinds,
those receptive of sensations, reflective organs and the
organs of voluntary motion; seventhly, we may depend
in comparative psychology mainly upon a study of the
organs of voluntary motion; eighthly, these motions may
be divided into two classes, those which refer only to the
animal himself, and those by which he would hold com-
munication with other animals; ninthly, man stands at
the head of all animals, since his voluntary motions are
not oniy more numerous and perfect than those of other
animals, but because through machinery he increases
vastly the number of his organs, runs upon the locomo-
tive, talks through the printing press and telegram, and
shows us what 1s most distant through the telescope and
stereoscope.

But it is impossible for us to understand any of the
phenomena of consciousness save througa an appeal to
our own consciousness, The mere investigation of the

68

SCIENCE.

organs of an animal and its movements can give no true
knowledge of the soul of an animal to one who is inca-
pable of analyzing carefully the phases of his own con-
sciousness; nor would the student who is the most
thorough master of the analysis of his own thought and
feeling, be able to understand the souls ot animals, did
not the human spirit contain in itself the germ of every
power of every terrestial creature. The disposition to
attribute to others and to animals the feelings which we
should have, were we in their circumstances, although it
may mislead the student both of human and of animal
life, is nevertheless an essential to successful study. It
is impossible for us to understand beings either higher or
lower in the scale than ourselves, except as they in some
degree resemble us. Our knowledge of ourselves must
keep equal pace with our knowledge of other beings ;
else we have no knowledge of either.

To recapitulate: In the study of organized beings we
find three principal departments, their anatomy, their
physiology, and their psychology. Their anatomy deals
with their forms, and with the forms of their parts; and
these torms furnish in general complete data for their
classification. Physiology treats of the peculiarly modi-
fied chemical action by which food is assimilated and
made part of the living structure, and by which the vari-
ous secretions are formed, And were not this a much
higher and more difficult inquiry than the study of the
forms, we might doubtless classify all plants and animals
by the chemical likenesses and differences of their tissues
and secretions. At present these characteristics are used
in classification only as confirmations of the accuracy of
the results obtained by form. Psychology deals with the
souls of organized beings, with those principles that guide
the chemical and mechanical forces in matter to the for-
mation of the organism. ‘The classification of organized
beings by their forms is, in fact, in one sense, a classifica-
tion by their souls by the psychical principles which are
empowered to create the forms. But these unconscious
souls have other functions than the creation of forms ;
they have besides this intellectual work, a sort of moral
quality by which they select peculiar food and form
peculiar products, and by which also they are aquatic or
terrestrial, tropical, tender, hardy, arctic or alpine, &c.
Then in animals we have, either in the same soul or in a
second one, consciousness added to life, the powers of
thought and feeling, desire and volition, and of knowing
that they think, feel, desire and will, and these powers
culminate on earth in the human race.

Matter is a storehouse of forces; in each atom slum-
ber or rage the forces of attraction and repuision, and also
the moral qualities of chemical difference and identity.
These forces, whether chemical or mechanical, act
according to fixed laws, and tend towards a state of rest
and of stable equilibrium. And they are all so correlated
that each of them can be referred as forces, to one com-
mon unit, and shown to be capable of lifting such a weight
so many feet a second.

But organized beings push always into motion, and
their tissues and secretions are usually such that, in air of
the same temperature and moisture as that in which they
grew, they will rapidly decay the moment that life is
gone. They are perhaps in chemical equilibrium ; but it
can hardly be called stable,—at least it is not stable
enough to resist the very heat and atmospheric influences
under which it was built. Yet there is no trace of any
force in the organism thus compelling the forces of inor-
ganic matter to act in this peculiar way, so diffcrent from
their behavior when the organizing life is wanting.

The intellectual power of the unconscious soul is not
a force that can be compared with gravity, it cannot be
measured by that unit; it does not act by attraction and
repulsion, but simply guides (we know not how) the
forces which do thus act—it rules them by moral or
intellectual, not by corporeal power. ‘The souls of plants

and animals have a certain lordship over the earth, and
the earth obeys their rule to a certain extent. This lord-
ship is exercised in part involuntarily and unconsciously,
that is in the phenomena of nutrition and growth; and
in part consciously, in the phenomena of voluntary
thought and motion and action. And had we sufficient
knowledge of the habits of animals, we could doubtless
classify them according to their voluntary life.

But in classifying organized beings, we do not find our-
selves imposing law upon the series of species, but dis-
cover it already impressed upon them. Not only does
the soul of the single organism develop thought, but in
the whole gradations of the universe, from the chemical
atoms up to the highest orders of mammalia, we find the
development of more extensive thoughts ; as though the
whole universe had a soul; developing it as the soul ot
the violet develops its forms and color and odor. Now
does this soul of the universe act consciously or uncon-
sciously ? Shall we take the vegetative power, or the
conscious mind, as the type of the Deity? In endeavor-
ing to find a symbol for the Highest in the universe, shall
we look for the light of analogy into what is highest in
ourselves, the conscious soul? or into what we have in
common with the seaweed, the organizing power of life ?

To me the answer is evident, that the highest of which
we are conscious is the best symbol by which to speak of
the Highest who is above our consciousness. Looking
thus at the Divine Being as the Lord, who has
consciously expressed His thoughts in the material
world, that world becomes glorified and glows with heav-
enly splendor. Natural science becomes the study of the
autograph works of an Infinite Author; and na‘ural his-
tory—which is the highest of the series of physical
sciences, and links them to the sciences that deal with
the human mind and the works of man—becomes the
means of communion with the highest geometrical, alge-
braical and chemical thought, which the Father of men
has as yet revealed to us; and also becomes through the
study of the instincts and reason of animals the fittest of
all natural preparations for a study of ourselves, and of
our own relations to the All wise and All good.

—__—__————————

SIR W. THOMSON’S NEW DEPTH GAUGE.

Sir William Thomson has very recently patented
another depth gauge which, though it depends upon
capillary action, does not require the co-operation of
chemical change. In fact, it operates by capillary action
alone. The accompanying figure will illustrate the
principle of this new device. Here A and B are two

glass tubes of different diameters united by a capillary
tube C. The narrower tube, B, is closed at the end by
a plug E, which can be removed at will: and the wider
tube A is covered by a sheet of cotton cloth. This
cloth acts as a porcus septum which, when wetted, is
permeable by water but impervious to air. For accord-
ing to a law of hydrostatics, a film of water in a hole
resists a difference of air pressure on its two sides, equal
to the hydrostatic pressure due to a column of water
in a capillary tube of the same diameter as the narrowest
part of the hole. Thus it is that damp linen is impervi-
ous to air, and wet sails resist the wind much better
than dry ones, as every sailor knows. _

When this arrangement is lowered into the sea, water
forces its way into the tube E, and the quantity forced
into it during the descent becomes an indication of the
depth when the relative capacities of the tubes are
properly adjusted. In raising tne apparatus the water

SCIENCE. 69

_

in the wide tube is gradually expelled by the air, and the
wet cloth secures that all of it will be driven out before
any air getsin. The water contained in the narrower
tube remains to indicate the depth by a_ suitable
scale engraved on the glass, and then is let out by with-
drawing the terminal plug.

For actual use the wide inlet tube is made of brass
and the narrower tube of glass. Three sets of these
tubes are combined into one instrument, and in each set
there is a special ratio between the capacities of the inlet

- and retaining tubes, in order that the set in question may

answer for certain depths. Flying soundings are usually
taken in depths ranging up to 130 fathoms, and the three
sets are designed to indicate depths, say, from 12 to 28
fathoms, from 28 to 60 fathoms, from 60 to 130 fathoms.
They are fitted into a brass protecting cylinder, open at
one end to the water, and slotted out in the sides to allow
the engraved scales on the gauge tubes to be seen from
the outside. The whole is then enclosed in a galvanized
iron guard-case drilled with small holes to allow the sea-
water to enter, and being attached to the sinker is low-
ered into the sea. The apparatus is manufactured by
Mr. Whight, of Glasgow, for Sir William Thomson, and
it has already been adopted on H. M.S Va/orous, and
the Russian imperial yacht Lzvadza.

While upon this subject we may also draw attention to
the “nipper” lead of Mr. Lucas, engineer to the Tele-
graph Construction and Maintenance Company. The
old plan of ascertaining the nature of the sea bottom, by
bringing up a specimen ot it in a tube, let into the bottom
of tne sinker and armed with tallow, is open to several
objections. For instance, the specimen is apt to get
washed out in rising to the surface, and when tt is safely
brought on board it is usually so smeared with tallow as
to be objectionable. The nipper lead of Mr. Lucas, on
the other hand, retains what it catches and renders it up
in a pure state well fitted tor preservation. The bottom
of the lead or sinker in question 1s provided with two
hollow claws or spoons, not unlike the mandibles of a
crab. These are hinged to the sinker, and open out
against the resistance of a stout spiral. spring which is
contained in the body of the sinker. When fully opened
out they are kept apart by a locking device, consisting of
two crossbars which meet end to end and fit into each
other. The points of the open claws, however, in s.rik-
ing upon the bottom, spring this lock, and the claws
snap together with great force, nipping up a specimen of
the bottom at the same time, and irom their hollow
shape this specimen is retained. So effective 1s the nip-
per lead that the claws will nip a sheet of paper off a
table, and they have bcen found to rais2 a specimen of
the bottom from 2,000 tathoms.—Lng7neering.

BOTANICAL NOTES.

Every young naturalist needs to be on his guard
against deception which is a frequent cause of serious
mistakes.

Many strange species and unheard of peculiarities are
sometimes discovered by the over zealous and credulous.
Most imitations of natural objects are so bungling as to
be readily detected, but occasionally something turns up
which is such a surprise, that the fact is noted betore its
improbability is made evident.

The large springs of the limestone districts of Perin-
sylvania are exceedingly clear, cool and transparent.
The principal plants living in them are species of Chara-
cee, and Veronica Americana, whose large, lettuce-like
leaves have a very striking appearance when seen through
the sparkling water. While visiting a spring one day in
mid-summer, | was surprised to see some strange look-
ing plants which appeared to be Marata cotula. Men-
tally noting this peculiar position for such a common and
well-known weed of dry ground, I caught sight of some-

thing still stranger—a garden aster; another step anda
zinnia and dahlia came to view. Indeed there was
quite a garden “4 immersion.”

The small boys of the neighborhood had acquired the
art of deftly binding flowering branches to small stones
which held the plants to the bottom, while the strong
ee flow of the water kept them neatly upright and
ife-like.

The search for plants upon vacant city lots, rubbish
piles, and the like, always reveals a greater number and
variety of species than one would suppose.

As several of these “local” floras have been pub-
lished lately, I give one which interested me a good
deal at the time of noting it. In Kingsford’s Oswego
Starch factory, large quantities of lime are used in the
manufacture of corn-starch, The refuse lime is a pasty
mass still having to a considerable degree the caustic
properties of fresh lime. Large quantities of it accumu-
late about the factory, and are hauled off to get it out of
the way. Several hundred loads were once deposited in
the middle of a pasture, in a loose pile varying from
three to six feet in thickness. Cattie tramped over it
carrying more or less mud upon their hoofs, and their
droppings collected to a considerable extent upon it. In
time plants began to get a foothold there, and one mild
day in winter, about three or tour years alterward, I vis-
ited it, and was surprised to find the following well estab-
lished: Cirsium, 2 sp., Rumex, Poa, Phlean, Plantago,
Graphalium, Verbena, Trifolium, 2 sp., Solidago, Marata,
Chenopodium, Polygonum.

The white clover was especially luxuriant, and covered
patches of several square teet with a perfect turf.

Wise bs:

A popular work on Alge, by Rev. A. B. Hervey, to be
illustrated with colored plates, is announced.

Professor Alphonso Wood, widely known as the author
of a Class-book of Botany and other botanical text-books,
died at his residence at West Farms, New York, on the
4th inst.

Trimen’s Fournal of Botany, despite its long standing
and being without a rival in its chosen field, is obliged to
make a call for a more liberal support in both subscrip-
tions and contributions. This does not speak well for the
enthusiasm of English systematists.

The second volume of Zhe Botany of Californza has
made its appearance. It includes the remainder of the
Phanerogams not treated in Vol. I., the Pteridophytes,
and the Mosses, and brings this eminent work to a suc-
cessful close.

A new manual of the mosses of the United States will
be published during the present year. The authors, Leo
Lesquereux and Thomas P. James, are the most able and
distinguished bryologists of America. The edition will
not be large, and for the present the price is fixed by the
publishers at $3.00. Such a manual has been needed for
a long time.

In Zhe American Naturalist for January, Professor
Bessey calls attention to the Fly Fungi belonging to the
genus Lntomophthora. They have been but little
studied. The most common species (Z. musc@, Fres.)
infests the house fly. Dead flies are common in autumn
covered with a white powder which fastens them to the
walls and other objects of the room. Upon examination
the bodies are found to be filled with the mycelium of the
asexual stage of the fungus, the white powder being the
conidial spores. This asexual form is described in many
books under the name Empusa. The sexual stage de-
velopes entirely within the host, filling it with a mass of
oospores and hyphe. The genus Zarzchzum is founded
on this sexual condition of the plant. The two genera
Empusa and Tarichium not being antonomous are re-

70

SCIENCE.

placed by the genus Entomophthora; but it is proposed
by Giard, who has investigated the subject recently, to
retain these names to designaje the asexual and sexual
stages respectively. These plants belong to the interest-
ing order Saprolegniacee. Other species of the same
order are abundant on dead and living fish, cray-fish, etc.
They have sometimes proved very destructive to the young
fish in hatcheries. The species of the order are not well
known, although examples are easily obtained.
JaiGesAt

tr

MICROSCOPY.

Mr. Julien Derby recently read before the Quekett
Microscopical Club a paper describing various special
‘dodges,’ which may be employed by microscopists to
facllitate their researches.

I. When allowing all but adepts in the use of micro-
scope to peep through my high power glasses, I have
often felt a certain degree of uneasiness, not to say of
alarm, regarding the fate of valuable test-slides, or still
more valuable objectives. Many others here present
have no doubt experienced the same discomfort which I
find an easy matter to attenuate to a considerable extent,
by focussing fiom the eyepiece instead of from the coarse
or the slow motion. All that is needed for this is a rack
and pinion to the eyepiece of considerable length. An
inch or two up or down corresponds here to a fraction of
a turn of the fine adjustment of the microscope, so that
very little danger exists of any sudden contact with the
covering glass. As soon as an indistinct view of the
object is obtained through the ordinary coarse adjust-
ment of the microscope body, the focus is brought to
exactness by means of the coarse motion of the eyepiece
without much difficulty. For demonstrations or exhibi-
tions in public, microscopes could thus be made without
the ordinary fine motion.

II]. When mapping with micro-spectroscope, the diffi-
culty of measuring exactly the position of fine lines or
absorption bands 1s often great, even when using the ad-
mirable micrometers invented by Mr. Browning and Mr.
Sorby. I find that in most practical cases the micro-
spectrum can be thrown upon a sheet of white paper by
means of an ordinary camera lucida placed over the
eyepiece of the spectroscope. Strong light by means of
a condenser has to be thrown through the liquid under
examination. By means of an ivory rule, finely divided,
and brought back to a known line, say D, all other lines
or bands may be directly measured off on the rule, and,
if desired, the exact results in millionths of a millimetre
may then be computed by any of the known interpola-
tion formule, such as are given in Suffolk’s useful little
book.

II]. The arrangement of small microscopic objects,
such as diatomis, foraminifere, etc., on slides in regular
lines, circles or patterns, can be much facilitated in the
following way: “‘ Draw with a pen and ink cross lines, or
circles, or any other figure required on the surface of the
plain mirror of the microscope; then focus down until
the image of these lines is seen on the upper surface of
the top lens of the condenser. By means of a mechanical
finger, or of a steady hand with a rest, no difficulty will
now be experienced in placing the objects in perfectly
regular order.

1V. I now obtain excellent condensed monochromatic
light by means of a bull’s eye of unusual external shape,
the internal portion of which, however, is filled with gly-
cerine or oil of cloves colored to suit. This bull’s eye
has a plane back and a concavo-convex front, and the
liquid is introduced through a hole in the flat side, closed
by a small ground stopper. This apparatus is furnished
with universal motions, and has a rack and pinion foot.
It was made for me by Mr. J. Browning. When using
blue light, produced by ammonia sulphate solutions, |
have resolved, by means of this monochromatic bull’s-

]

eye amphipleura, with objectives in my possession, which
will hardly show PZ urosigmaangulatum under ordinary
condenser illumir ation.

|

GPG SQQU >F TK. WWF

S SSS

V. Some time ago, Mr. J. E. Ingpen, on my behalf,
made a communication to the Club in regard to a grow-
ing regard to a growing slide I had devised for some
special researches I was following at the time. Some
difficulty seems to have been found in the making of
these slides, so that itis with pleasure I now offer a still
more simple contrivance for obtaining the same results.
Here is the receipt: Take an ordinary glass slip with a
circular hole, say, half an inch or more in diameter in
the middle; lay this slip on an ordinary glass slide, not
perforated. Then grease the top of the upper or perfor-
ated slide just a little way around the circular hole, and
join the two slips of glass by means of two rubber rings
(see Fig.). The object is then placed on a thin cover-
glass, somewhat larger than the hole in the slide: it is
covered by athin glass cover, 4%in. in diameter; the

‘whole is then turned down and fastened to the slide by

the adherence with the grease, while the small cover pre-
vents the running of the liquid. The plant or animal
under examination finds itself confined in a sort of mina-
ture Ward’s case. When not under observation, the
growing slide is laid flat in a shallow plate with water
just above the line of junction of the two slips of glass,
where, by capillarity, it creeps up to the central cell,
where evaporation keeps the contained atmosphere in a
state of constant and healthy saturation.

VI. Copal Varnish. 1 find this varnish dries very
rapidly if slightly heated, or even if placed on a
previously warmed slide. I have many hundred slides
of diatoms prepared in copal varnish, and my friend,
Mr. Van Heurck, of Antwerp, who was the first to
use this material, has many thousands. The varnish
to be used is what is called the “pale copal,” and
its consistency ought to be that of oil. It is much
pleasanter to use than Canada balsam, does not make
bubbles, and its refractive index is not very different from
that of balsam, and does not interfere with the solution
of diatom markings. I have of late made many prepa-
rations in copal, dispensing with the cover-glass alto-
gether. The drop of copal is placed on the diatoms and
heated lightly over the spirit-lamp. It soon takes the con-
sistency of amber, and is hard enough to sustain wiping
and brushing with a soft brush with impunity. The op-
tical aberrations produced by the cover-glass are thus
done away with.

ASTRONOMICAL MEMORANDA.

Professor C. A. Young has examined the 70 lines given
on Angstrém’s chart as common to two or more sub-
stances. Of these 7o lines, 56 were seen distinctly double, or
triple; 7 single; and in regard to the remaining 7 there is
still an uncertainty. The instrument used wasa diffraction
spectroscope with collimator and observing telescope, each
of 3-inch aperture and about 42 inches focal length, and a
Rutherford grating of 17,300 lines to the inch. The ap-
paratus was strapped to a 12-foot equatorial provided with
a driving clock, and powers magnifying from 50 to 200
diameters were used. A large prism with a refracting
angle of 20° was placed between the object glass of the

SCIENCE.

equatorial and the sun to throw out the parts of the spec-
trum not under examination, and a concave cylindrical
lens was used next the eye to reduce the apparent width
of the spectrum, and thus increase its brightness.

From Professor Young’s observations it thus appears
that the coincidences are only near approximations, but a
careful investigation by bringing together the bright-line
spectra of the metals and the solar spectrum must be made
in order to settle the question conclusively.

Mr. E. J. Stone has presented to the Royal Astronomi-
cal Society the complete sheets of his great Catalogue of
Southern Stars, observed during his superintendence of the
Royal Observatory, Cape of Good Hope. This very im-
portant work contains the places of between twelve and
thirteen thousand stars, including, in addition to the stars
observed by Lacaille, a considerable number of stars fall-
ing within similar limits of magnitude. ‘“ A stereographic
projection showing the distribution of the stars contained
in the Cape Catalogue, 1880, between 110° and 180° N. P.
D.,” has been lithographed by Mr. Stone.—/Vature.

WwW. C. W.

a 4

As noted in the issue of last week, the volume of re-
ports on the total eclipse of 1878, has been recently is-

-sued from the Naval Observatory at Washington. A few

separate copies of the report of Mr. D. P. Todd, assist-
ant in the office of the American Ephemeris and Nauti-
tical Almanac, have been reprinted, mainly for distribu-
tion among the gentlemen who co-operated in observing
the duration of totality along the limits of total eclipse.
Besides the usual observations of contacts, Mr. Todd had
planned a search for supposed intra-mercurial pianets,
having provided himself with the four-inch comet seeker
belonging to the Naval Observatory. At his station, how-
ever (Dallas, Texas), clouds intervened to such’ an extent
that J Cancri, a fourth magnitude star near the sun, could
not be seen. This station was almost the only one of any
importance at which clouds interfered on the day of the
eclipse. Mr. Todd describes in his report a new method

of procedure in the observation of total eclipses, whereby
it would seem that the question of the existence of intra-
mercurial planets might be speedily settled. An ar-
rangement was concluded between Professor Newcon.b
(observing in Wyoming), and himself, whereby, if the
former should observe any such object, its approximate
position shouldjbe telegraphed immediately to the south-
ern station for verification—there being about twenty
minutes of absolute time intervening the arrival of
of the moon’s shadow at Wyoming and _ its
reaching Texas. As Professor Newcomb observed no
unknown object, there was, of course, no occasion for
carrying out this scheme; but it will readily appear that,
had the weather been clear at the southern station, and
had the position of the objects seen by Professor Watson,
been telegraphed for verificaticn, the question of small
planets near the sun might have been in a much less un-
certain condition than it now is. It is to be hoped that
astronomers may utilize this scheme on the occasion of
the next total eclipse on the 16th of May, of next year.
Eleven sketches and one lithograph plate of the corona
accompany this report, but they do not exhibit any detaiis
of structure worthy of note. But by far the most impor-
tantant portion of Mr. Todd’s report rela‘es to the obser-
vations of duration of totality, which were made at his
solicitation at numerous points along the northeast and
southwest limits of total phase. This series of observa-
tions will afford a very accurate correction of the longitud
of the node of the lunar orbit, whenever the geographical
positions of the several stations have been determined
i: h_ sufficient accuracy to be used in the computation.

71

NOTE ON SUN SPOTS IN JANUARY, 1881.
To the Edztor of “SCIENCE :”

Ist, at noon: 5 groups, II spots. One spot quite large
and close to east edge. Air very tremulous, making
observation bad.

Aly Sebel 1 SrOuUp. ss) SEOs:
north of centre. Air bad.
glass, power 36.

8th, 1 P. M.: 1 group, 4 spots.

1oth, Noon: 1 group, 6 spots.
50.

11th, 24% P.M.: 2 groups, 9 spots. One group of 7
spots 3 from west edge. Two little spots and
facule at east edge. Aur pretty good.

17th, Noon: 1 group, 2 spots. A large spot near half-
way from centre to N. W. margin. Observation
with spyglass, power 36.

24th, 10% .4. M.: 3 groups, 23 spots.
laige, south of centre. Air poor.

18th, Nocr ; 5 groups, 66 spets. One quite large and 5
good size, near west edge. Only good observation
this month. The sun was hid most of the time.

Telescope 4.6 inches aperture ; Power 100, except other-
wise roted.

The number of solar spots has been slowly increasing
since March, 1879. But it looks likely that the next
maximum will be considerably more than eleven years
from the last one, which occurred about August, 1870.
The following minimum was nearly nine years afterward.
It is generally about seven years from maximum to min-
imum, then four years to the next maximum. So I thirk
it probable that the period, this time, will be abcut
thirteen years, making the next maximum in 1883.

Wm. DAWSON.

Two are large ; nearly
Observation with spy-

Air very bad.
Air very bad, Power

12 spots, 2 quite

SPICELAND, IND., February 2, 1881.

or

CHEMICAL NOTES.

FORMATION OF BASES FROM SUBSTITUTED ACID AMIDES.
—QO. Wallach and Iwan Kamenski conclude, from their
experiments, that if a base is formed by the action of phos-
phorous penta-chloride from a substituted amide of mono-
basic acids with a short carbon chain, two molecules of the
amide enter into reaction in such a manner that hydrogen is
derived from the hydrocarbon radicle pertaining to the acid
in order to form hydrochloric acid.

ZINC CHLORIDE AS A REAGENT FOR ALKALOIDS, GLYCO-
sIDES, Erc,—A. Jorissen has found that the following bo-
dies produce characteristic reactions with pure zinc chlor-

| ide: Strychnine, bright rose; thebaine, yellow narceine,

olive-green, delphinine, brownish red, berberine, yellow ;
veratrine, red; quinine, pale green; digitaline, chesnut-
brown, salicine, violet-red ; santonine, violet-blue ; cube-
bine, carmine red. Incase of strychnine the reaction can
be produced with 1 decimilligrm. of the hydrochlorate.
Brucine and aconitine, if present, interfere. To obtain the
blue coloration characteristic of santonine, the mixture °
during evaporation must be continually stirred with a glass
rod drawn out to a point. Digitaline gives first a green
solution, similar to that produced by heating with hydro-
chloric acid. After evaporation there remains upon the
porcelain a chestnut-brown spot which quickly blackens.
The salicine reaction can be used for detecting the fraudu-
lent addition of this body to quinine sulphate. Albume-
noid substances, if heated for a time with the zinc chloride
solution, leave a violet stain upon the porcelain, which
may be distinguished by its instability from the colorations
mentioned above. As a rule it quickly blackens. The
author’s method of operating is as follows: A solution of
the alkaloid or its hydrochlorate is evaporated to dryness
upon the water-bath, say in the inside of the lid of a porce-
lain crucible ; two or three drops of the test-solution—r
grm. fused zine chloride in 30 c.c. concentrated hydro-
chloric acid and 30 c.c. water—are placed upon the residue,
and dried up afresh on the water-bath. The coloration
begins at the outer edge and spreads inwards as the water
is expelled.

72 SCIENCE.

BOOKS RECEIVED.

ON CERTAIN CONDITIONS OF NERVOUS DERANGE-
MENT, By William A. Hammond, M.D. Published
by G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 182 Fifth Avenue, New
York, 1881.

The recent lecture of Dr. Beard before the New York
Academy of Sciences, on ‘“‘Mesmeric Trance,” appears
to have revived an interest in this subject, and new
works bearing on Hypnotism are promised by those who
have of late given attention to the phenomena in ques-
tion.

The work before us by Dr. Hammond, therefore, comes
at an opportune moment, for it not only explains very
fully the author’s views on “ Hypnotism,” but all the
other conditions of nervous derangement which are evi-
dently allied to the same class of mental disturbances.
Thus we have chapters on Somnambulism, natural and
artificial, including Hypnotism, various phases of Hys-
teria, the Hysteroid Affections, Stigmatization, Supernat-
ural cures. Some of the causes. which lead to sensorial
deception and delusional beliefs.

Although the present work is a reprint of a previous
book published by the author in 1876, Dr. Hammond
states that he has thoroughly revised, and added largely
to the subjects now considered, and also “omitted every
thing specially relating to spiritualism.”

Turning to the subject of Hypnotism, we are some-
what surprised to find it classed under the heading of
Artificial Somnambulism, especially as we understood
Dr. Hammond to state in a recent lecture before the
University of the city of New York, that he attributed
the phenomena to quite another cause, and for this rea-
son he proposed to dispense with the term Hypnotism,
which implies ‘“‘ sleep,” and suggested the introduction of
the word “ Syggnosticism,”’ meaning union of thought, or
sympathy of thinking between two persons. The sub-
ject is also complicated by finding two such authorities
as Dr. Hammond and Dr. Beard giving conflicting ex-
planations of the phenomena.

Studying the one case of Hypnotism given by Dr.
Hammond as the result of his experience, it appears to
come to any other conclusion than that the phenomena
presented in Hypnotism are merely manifestations of
disease.

The instance we refer to was that of a young lady of
great personal attractions, who up toa certain tme was
in a normal condition.

We first find that her nervous organization became
depressed and demoralized by a great domestic bereave-
ment, and further prostrated by fatigue, excitement and
grief. The trouble commences by the young lady show-
ing symptoms of chorea, the muscles of the face being in
almost constant motion. The next step was that she
talked in her sleep, and later she walked in her sleep and
became a confirmed somnambulist. In the latter condi-
tion she walked about the house, struck a match and
lighted the gas, seated herself in a chair and looked fix-
‘edly at the portrait of her lost mother.

While gazing at the picture she was subjected to vari-
ous experiments by Dr. Hammond, her olfactory nerves
received no impression from the fumes of sulphurous acid
gas; she failed to perceive the sour taste of lemons or the
bitter taste of quinine ; scratching the back of her hand
with a pin, pulling her hair and pinching her face appeared
to excite no sensation, thus exhibicing all the phenomena
of Hypnotism.

The next stage of this case develops a power in the
patient of inducing the hypnotic state at will. Her pro-
cess was to fix her attentions by reading a book and fix-
ing her eyes steadily to reflect as if ina reverie, when she
would presently pass to a perfect hypnotic condition.

Without professing to give a final opinion on the phe-

nomena of Hypnotism, we direct attention to this authen-
tic case presented by Dr. Hammond as showing what ap-

' pears to be the evolution of Hyprotism.

First we find the subject in health, with all the functions
and conditions of life normal. Secondly, the body and
nervous organization is subjected to a great mental strain,
developing a modified Hypnotic condiition. Thirdly,
the disease becomes chronic and all the phenomena of
Hypnotism are established and the patient is subject to
hysteria, catalepsy and ecstasy, three conditions Dr. Ham-
mond considers present in confirmed Hypnotism. There
must be a final stage, the form of which may depend on
circumstances. Under judicious treatment perhaps a
normal condition of the nervous system may be restored,
while, on the contrary, a further development of the dis-
ease may result in a total breaking up of the nervous
system, followed by mania.

These reflections are suggested by the work before us,
but in the present condition of the question it is impos-
sible to arrive at any satisfactory conclusion. Drs. Ham-
mond and Beard are not agreed even on the fundamental
principles involved, and the former employs two terms
for the phenomena, which are antagonistical to each other.
It is therefore evident that ample opportunity is presented
for a more thorough examination ot the question, the re-
sult of which would doubtless improve our knowledge of
near diseases, many of which are at present inexpli-
cable.

PAPILIO.—Devoted to Lepidoptera exclusively.—Vol. 1,
No.1, January, 1881.—Mr. Henry Edwards, No. 185
East 116th street, New York City.

This Journal is the authorized organ of the New York
Entomological Club, and will be issued about the fifteenth
of each month (excepting the two mid-summer months)
the subscription being $2 per annum.

The first number contains many articles of interest to
entomologists, and a full-page colored illustration of the
beautiful insect Edwardsia brillians, from a specimen
captured in N. W. Texas by the late Jacob Boll.

Entomologists will welcome this Journal, which in the
hands of Mr. Henry Edwards will, doubtless, be main-
tained at a high standard, aod command success.

Use or GLAss-WOOL IN FILTRATION.—F. Stolba and R,
Bottger. Both these authors point out that glass-wool is
attacked by various liquids, including hot water.

DETECTION OF PRE-FORMED UROBILINE IN URINE.—One
hundred c.c. of urine are gently shaken up with 50 c.c. of
perfectly pure ether ; the ether decanted off and evaporated.

The 1esidue is taken up in absolute alcohol, and is rose-

colored with a green fluorescence. The experiment does

not always succeed.—E. SALKOWSKI.

A CoLortinc MaAtrer From Carson DIsuLPHIDE.—If
carbon disulphide is agitated with semi-fluid sedium amal-
gam, and if the paste-like mass is mixed with water, there is
produced a hyacinth red liquid, whilst mercury and mer-
cury sulphide are deposited. Thé solution contains the
sodium salt of a yet unknown acid, somewhat soluble in
hot water, and more readily in alcohol. It dyes yellow,
orange, and brown shades on wool and silk.—C. REICHL.—
Polyt. Notizblatt, 35, 151. :

HoMOFLUORESCEINE: A NEW COLORING MATTER FROM
ORCINE AND Irs DeERtivatives.—On heating solutions of
orcine with caustic alkalies and chloroform, the liquid be-
comes purple and then fiery red, and on dilution shows a
strong greenish yellow fluorescence. ‘This reaction is ex-
ceedingly sensitive. On neutralizing and adding bromine
water a compound is formed from the fluorescent coloring
matter resembling eosine; its alkaline alcoholic solutions
appear cherry-red by transmitted light with yellow fluor-
escence. Though many of these compounds have splendid
colors, only the nitro-derivatives are suitable for dyeing.
Hexa-nitro-mono-oxy-homo-fluoresceine dyes silk a, bril-
ilant orange, the penta-nitro-diazo-amido-monoxy-homo-
fluoresceine compounds a gold yellow and cyamic acid a
light reddish yellow.—H. ScHwarz,

SCIENCE. 73

/

| SCI ENCE

A WEEKLY REcoRD OF SCIENTIFIC

PROGRESS.

JOHN MICHELS, Editor.

PUBLISHED AT
229 BROADWAY, NEW YORK.

P, O. Box 8888.

SATURDAY, FEBRUARY 1o, 1881.

PROFESSOR WATSON’S SUCCESSOR.

Prof. E. S. Holden, U. S. N., has been detached
from the Naval Observatory, and granted a year’s
leave of absence, in order to take charge of the Wash-
burn Observatory, of the University of Wisconsin.

The sudden death of Prof. Watson left his plans in
a very unfinished state. He had partially completed,
at his own expense, a “solar observatory” which
bears his name. His plan was new, and he intended
to re-discover “the intramercurial planet, Vulcan,
which he reported during the total eclipse of 1878.
At the bottom of a hill, sloping at an angle of about
forty-five degrees, a small building with a deep cellar
was built. A tunnel about eighteen inches in dia-
meter and fifty-five feet long, parallel to the earth’s
axis, connects this cellar with a pier at the top of the
hill which is to support a heliostat. As the tube
is pointed directly towards the north pole, it is neces-
sary to give the heliostat but one motion in order to
keep the sun in the field of view of the observing tel-
escope placed in the cellar at the bottom of the hill.
The object of the long tube was to cut off as much of
the stray light as possible, and to enable the observer
to examine objects close to the sun’s limb.

The Washburn Observatory is provided with an ex-
cellent 16-inch Clark equatorial, which is ready for
work. Fauth & Co., of Washington, are making
a good 3-inch transit instrument, similar to that of the
Princeton College Observatory, and it is probable that
later a 6-inch meridian circle will be ordered from
Repsolds, of Hamburg.

The work to be carried on for the coming year con-
sists, mainly, of a systematic review of the heavens,
following up Herschel’s work. It is probable that this
work will be done by Professor Holden and Mr. S. W.
Burnham, in concert. The transit instrument will
be used by Mr. G. C. Comstock in maintaing a time-

service, and incidentally in obtaining a set of Right
Ascensions of the sun, and an extended series of ob-
servations of Polaris.

The State of Wisconsin has provided for the print-
ing of the publitations of the Observatory. The vol-
umes will be issued at irregular intervals. No. I. will
be a History of the Observatory under Prof. Watson’s
administration, together with the reduction tables pre-
pared by his directions, and No. II. will probably
contain Burnham’s General Catalogue of Double
Stars for 1880.

oe

It is said that during the memorable battle of Water-
loo, competent judges pronounced Wellington more
than once a defeated general, and that, according to
the rules of war, he should have retreated on Brus-
sels. But Napoleon looked in vain from La Belle
Alliance to see his foes fleeing before him, for
Wellington had given the order “stand fast, we
must not be beaten,’ and in a few hours he was march-
ing victoriously on the road to Paris.

During the last twelve months we have heard much
of another man, who was supposed to be defeated in
every point, and was reported by the English scientific
press to have abandoned the battle field at Menlo
Park, and to be slowly retiring on California. — Pro-
fessional men and others, who accepted such views on
the subject, have from time to time, with a persis-
tence worthy of a better cause, proclaimed aloud that
Edison was beaten, and that, in their opinion, his
whole system of electrical lighting must end in failure.

But Edison, like Wellington, in the midst of many
difficulties, merely closed up his ranks and gave the
order “ we must not be beaten!” ‘The historical par-
allel may be carried further; Edison may be said to
have marched on Paris, and entered the enemy’s Capi-
tol, for having accomplished his task at Menlo Park,
and perfected his system of electric lighting in all its
details with the most perfect success, we now find him
installed in sumptuous offices in Fifth avenue, New
York city, putting into practical operation the full re-
sults of his previous experiments.

A company has been formed which will control and
place Edison’s system of electrical lighting on the
market, but “the Master” will himself superintend all
the details of the construction department, until a
district has been finally laid out and found to be work-
ing satisfactorily. Progress has been made in this
direction, and the Edison lamps are being placed in
position as fast as they can be produced at Menlo
Park, under the direction of Mr. Upton.

Taking a retrospective view of the last eighteen
months, one may well pause to ponder over the im-
mense amount of work accomplished by Edison during

74

SCIENCE.

that period. Scientific investigations of the most compli-
cated nature have been successfully carried on,the ordi-
nary beaten paths of research of the Chemist, the Engi-
neer and the Electrician have been cast aside, and origi-
nal methods of exploring the whole domain of science
employed with indefatigable perseverance. The very
text books and scientific literature on which others

have relied, proving unreliable, were rejected, and |

Nature, at its fountain head, consulted in solving the
these problems.

With such methods and indomitable will, and with
the constant and valued co-operation of Mr. Charles
Batchelor and Mr. Francis R. Upton, the great work
has been successfully accomplished.

The arrival of Edison in New York with his corps
of skilled electricians and engineers, occurs at an op—
Deaths from suffocation caused
by the escape of the ordinary illuminating gas have
multiplied of late, and as we now write the bodies of
two women who have died fromthis cause, await burial.
During the last few days a building on Broadway
suffered from a violent explosion of illuminating gas,
making the second within a few weeks. In the first
instance many persons were injured, and in the more

portune moment.

recent case one hundred persons escaped death only |

by the force of the explosion taking a fortunate direc-
tion. With the acceptance of Edison’s system of
electric illumination, these dangers to health and life,
to which we have been so long exposed, become as
things of the past, except where voluntarily encoun-
tered, and to this extent Edison may claim to have
conferred a benefit to which the whole world will be
heir.

We are under obligations to the Marchioness Lanza
for a fine translation of a paper by the renowned Pro-
fessor Rudolph Virchow, of Berlin, entitled “ Organic
flealing Power.” ‘This paper, involving many points
of general scientific interest, will be produced in our
next issue.

Virchow is now in his 61st year, and it is 36 years
since he was challenged by Count Von Bismarck to
fight a duel, on account of Virchow (who was an ad-
vanced liberal) having defeated Bismarck’s project to
obtain money from the Parliament to create a German

navy.
_—_————>__—___....

AMERICAN CHEMICAL SOCIETY.

The February meeting of the American Chemical So-
ciety was held on Friday evening, February 11, 1881.
The meeting was called to order by Vice-President Leeds,
after which the following gentlemen were duly elected
members of the society, viz.: Messrs. N. Gerber, James
F. Slade, Theodore M. Hopkey, Professor F. N. Venable,
and E. K. Dunham. Dr. E. R. Squibb then took the
chair and Professor A, R. Leeds read the following pa-
pers:

I. Upon the invariable production, not only of ozone
and hydrogen peroxide, but also of ammonium nitrate in
the ozonation of purified air by moist phosphorous.

II. Upon the action of ozone, oxygen and nascent
oxygen upon benzine.

III. On a new class of aromatic sulphurous acids.

Mr. J. H. Stebbins, Jr.,.followed with some remarks on
tetra-azo-compounds, substances to which he has paid
particular attention, for it will be recollected that a whole
seg of the di-azo-colors were originally produced by

im.

Professor W. G. Levison then gave the Society the re-

sults of some recent experiments by him on polarized

light. On the conclusion of this paper, the society was
adjourned. M. B.
New York, February 17, 1881.

= to

NEW YORK MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY.

The third annual reception of the New York Micros-
copical Society was held on February 14th, 1881, at the
rooms of the Academy of Sciences. The annual address
of the President was delivered by Professor R. Hitchcock,
who selected as his subject: ‘‘ The Relations of Science to
Modern Thought,” on the conclusion of which the meet-
ing resolved into a conversazzone, when a variety of inter-
esting but familiar objects were exhibited.

See

THE annual meeting of the German Chemical Society
took place December 22, 1880, on which occasion the
following officers were elected for the present year:
President, A. Baeyer; Vice-Presidents, A. W. Hofmann,
L. v. Barth, F. Hoppe-Seyler, H. Landolt ; Secretaries,
F. Tieman, A. Pinner; Vice-Secretaries, E. Bauman,
Eug. Sell; Treasurer, J. F. Holtze; Librarian, 8. Gabriel.

M. B.
pee oa
THE SOCIETY OF TELEGRAPH ENGINEERS,
(England).

On Wednesday, last week, Prof. G. C. Foster, F. R.S.,
president, read his inaugural address before the Society
of Telegraph Engineers and Electricians, the principal
thing dwelt upon being the practical importance of a
trustworthy system of electrical measurements. The So-
ciety, he said, was not merely a professional one, but was
concerned with the scientific principles which underlie
the practical operations of electricity. The present prac-
tical applications of electricity owed their existence to
scientific discoveries made just over 60 years ago. Re-
ference was made to the investigations of Oersted in 1820,
and Davy in 1821. Induced electrical currents enabled
the electric light to cease to be a scientific marvel and
become of practical interest to municipal corporations
and limited liability companies. Davy first produced an
electric light by the passage of currents from a battery
of 2000 cells between carbon points. Oersted, Ampére,
and Faraday traced out the fundamental laws of the
phenomena of induction. In the ordinary course of
scientific discovery, the qualitative aspects of phenomena
first attracted attention. Quantitative knowledge follow-
ed later by degrees. ‘‘ Absolute values of constants”’
could only be given when a phenomenon was sufficiently
well known for its laws to be expressed in definite mathe-
matical formule, or when methods for the determination
of such values could be devised. But when definite re-
sults had to be produced as part of a commercial under-
taking, that point became of the utmost importance from
the very first. Examples were given. During the past
100 years an unknown large number of electrical ma-
chines had been made for more or less scientific pur-
poses ; but after all that experience it was a question as
to who could draw up a specification for an electrical
machine which should, with a given number of revolu-

SCIENCE. 75

tions, produce a known quantity of electricity, or which
would charge a condenser of one microfarad capacity to
a given potential. Knowledge as to the power of a gal-
vanic battery was much more definite. Everything in
that respect could be stated with exactitude. If knowl-
edge of the practical uses of electrical machines were
comparable with that in respect to the galvanic battery,
knowledge as to the efficiency of the former would soon
be equally definite. The necessity of proper standards
based on numerical data was understood in more than
one branch of physics; but the present remarks were di-
rected only to electricity, which had in recent years un-
dergone almost a complete transformation. After de-
scribing the principles upon which a system of electrical
measurement should be founded, the steps taken by Ohm,
Weber, Oersted, and others, in arriving at detinite laws,
were related and tabulated for comparison. Weber’s
system had been extended by Sir W. Thomson, and the
practical applications of electricity in its early days pro-
duced the necessity of being able to express results upon
a coherent system of standard units. For that purpose
the committee of the British Association on electrical
standards was appointed, and the B.A. unit resulted.
The data upon which that unit was founded had subse-
quently been verified, and at the present time a redeter-
mination of its accuracy was about to take place. The

-absence of any standard resistance coils was pointed

out, and the suggestion made that it would reflect credit
on the Society if it at once set to work with the view of
establishing a definite standard resistance, with which in-
struments used for every-day practical purposes could be
occasionally verified and adjusted. A paper on ‘‘ Some
Experiments on Induction with the Telephone,” by Mr.
A. W. Heaviside, was then read. In the discussion
which followed, Prof. Hughes, Mr. Stroh, Prof. Ayrton,
and others took part.
ee
FURTHER NOTES ON-THE BRAIN OF THE
IGUANA AND OTHER SAUROPSID.

By EDWARD C. SPITZKA, M. D.

I would add to the observations published in No. 7,
Vol. 1. of Science, relating to the brain of the Iguana,
the following:

Ist. The ganglionic intumescence upon the inner edge
of the cerebral hemisphere, which I supposed to repre-
sent the homologue of the molecular basis of the
Fascia dentata of Tariniin the mammalia, is more volum-
inous in the middle of the hemispheric length, than in
the posterior third. The homologization of the entire
inner wall of the hemisphere with the Cormu Ammonzs
of mammals gains strength from the fact that in the
Opossum the Cornu Ammonis extends almost along the
whole inner hemispheric wall, and is but slightly folded
as compared with that of the Rodentia. That the eleva-
tion which I supposed to correspond to the fascza dentata
and ¢enzola cinerea, might be interpreted as one of the
thalamic tubercles, which I considered an open question
at the time of my writing the first commmunication, and
which I now hold to be disposed of definitely as well as
the other supposition.

2nd. There is a molecular accumulation at the base of

_the cerebral hemisphere, in the common basilar gray,

and beneath the elevation of the corpus stréatum, which
may correspond to the lenticular nucleus.

3rd. At and above the level of the emerging third pair
of nerves, there is a beautiful nucleus of large multipolar
cells, resembling the cells of the auditory nucleus (that is
of the large celled division of that nucleus) in contour and
in dimensions, This cell group in its situation corre-
sponds to the szzcleus tegmentz of mammals. I would

here note that throughout the animal range, the cells of |

the zucleus tegmentz and the special division of the audi-
tory nucleus referred to seem to keep step in development.

attempted by Meynert, who surmised that an auditory
tract passed through the cerebellum to the drachzum
conjunctzvum, (and therefore through this cell group) on
its way to higher projecting fields.

4th. The so-called zucleus dentatus of the cerebellum,
which should be termed simply mzcleus cerebellz, since it
is not dentated even in all the mammalia, is clearly pres-
ent in the cerebellum of the Iguana. It can be found at
the junction of the cerebellar peduncles with the main
cerebellar mass, and consists of well marked cells of
moderate dimensions.

5th. The “fasciculus from the habenule to the teg-
mentum ”’ so-called by Meynert, but which Gudden and
his pupils correctly state to run from the habenule to
the ganglzon enterpedunculare, his not been yet identi-
fied in animals lower in rank than the mammalia. _I find
it well-developed occupying exactly the same relations
and presenting the same histo!ogical peculiarities as with
mammals in the Iguana.

6th. The fourth pair does not reach the valve of Vieus-
sens in levels lower than those in which the root has its
crigin, as in the turtle (Vanemys guttatus, Chelydra)
and the mammalia, but distinctly arises in the same level
in which it reaches the valvule where it decussates.
The nerve itself, however, emerges in levels superior to
the latter.

7th. While the cells of the oculomotoriotrochlearis nu-
cleus, and those of part of the auditory origin are of large
dimensions, those of the abducens, facial, and motor-
trigeminal origin are remarkably small. The reduction
in size of the cells is as might be inferred accompanied by
a reduction in size of their nuclei. This fact suffices to
dispose of the recently advanced claims, that motor cells
have larger nuclei than sensory ones. The reduction in
size of these motor groups and their presenting such a con-
trast to the great development of the cells in other motor
groups in the Iguana, has to my mind much of the enig-
matical. The largest cells in the nervous system of the
Iguana, are the multipolar cells of the reticular field,
(my ganglion reticulare in mammals) those of the aud-
itory origin and wucleus tegmentz are of the same or
nearly the same dimensions.

8th. The mesencephalic nucleus of the fifth pair is
represented as in other reptiles by round cells, sunk in
the niche between the two optic lobes; they are not spread
out on the contour of the central tubular grey, es in
mammals, but concentrated more at the median line.
Some of the cells can be identified beneath the inter-op-
tic lobes.

gth. The cells of the substantia ferruginea of man are
represented by a group of numerous small ganglionic
bodies, whose connection with the fifth nerve is clearer
than in the mammalia.

roth. The auditory nerve fibres send a powerful strand
which decussates with its fellow in the raphe. In its
course each strand traverses or circumscribes the poste-
rior longitudinal fasciculus. ‘This same strand is found in
the mammalia, but in the latter it is deeply seated ; in the
Iguana it is more superficial, and the erroneous inference
might be drawn that this strand in the reptile is equiva-
lent to the s¢rzaz acustzc¢of mammals. ‘The latter are
however, absent in reptiles, and although in some species
visible eminences are formed at the floor of the fourth
ventricle, crossing at right angles the longitudinal emi-
nences of the posterior longitudinal fasciculi; these are
the homologues of the more anterior and concealed part
of the auditory decussation of mammals.

t1th. In no reptile have the nuclei of the columns of
Goll and Burdach been identified. In the Iguana I can
readily identify them, although much smaller than the
corresponding nuclei of the mammalia. Their demarca-
tionis, however, distinct.

12th. In the Iguana as in the turtle there is an accu-

This fact would add another link to the chain of evidence | mulation of numerous multipolar cells at the raphe in the

76 :

SCIENCE.

level of the junction of the cord and oblongata. Jn addi-
tion a group of remarkably attenuated cells is found at
the origin of the spinal accessory. These cells are so

much elongated and their protoplasm has been so much |

narrowed that but for the discovery of a nucleus in one
or the o/her cell, one might consider them a bundle of
axis cylinders. These are better developed in turtles

than in the Iguana, and better in fresh water species |
In no turtle have I |

than in the 7hadlassochelys mydas.
found the cells of the raphe very large, but in the Iguana
I have discovered a few very large cells in the same level
and location as those first described by Dr. J. J. Mason
for the Alligator.

13th. In my first paper I indicated the existence in the
Iguana of a hitherto undiscovered pair of lobes or
tubercles between the optic and post optic lobes. I
have also indicated their homology with a concealed pair
in the turtle and alligator.
scribe the topographical relations minutely. Normally—
if I may use the expression—as in the turtle and alligator,

the newly discovered ganglia lie at the margin of the |
central tubular gray of the mesencephalon, in the ante- |

rior part of the corfora guadrzgemina. As we go more
posteriorly they are found to extend more dorsally, un-
til in the turtle, for example, they nearly touch in the
median line just at the posterior fifth of the optic lobes,
where they cease. In the Iguana the relations are the
same, but instead of terminating before the posterior
margin of the optic lobes, they extend further back-
wards and prominate at the surface of the brain, as two
sharply marked buttons. Their structure is the same in
all reptiles so far examined, a molecular basis and small
roundish cellular elements. In anterior levels nerve
fibres can be seen entering them in str2nds, from the
arched fibre mass which is found beneath the deep gray
layer of the optic lobes. Although all surmises as to the
function of the inter-optic lobes are as yet strict'y hypo-
thetical; yet from the fact that they are directly con-
nected with the central tubular gray, and are under the
fascicular subjection of the optic lobes, and that they are
well developed in reptiles, and poorly, if at all, developed
in mammals, one might suspect them to have some rela-
tion to the innovation of the Harderian gland, just as the
mesencaphalic nucleus of the fifth pair may be looked
upon as the probable centre for the innervation of the
Jachrymal gland proper.

+o

RECENT PROGRESS OF SCIENCE.
REV. SAMUEL FLEMING, LL.D., Ph. D.

The progress of science within our own times has been
wonderful. Prof. Helmholtz uses the following language :
“The contemplation of the astounding activity in all
branches of science may well make us stand aghast at
the audacity of man, and exclaim with the chorus in the
Antigone: Who can survey the whole field of knowlege ?
Who can grasp the clues, and then thread the
labyrinth?’’ Every department of science has been
vastly extended, and every votary of science stimulated to
untiring efforts to survey this field, not only, but to enter
the secret chambers of knowledge to find the treasures
concealed from the human mind, until modern discover-
ies, modern analysis, and modern invention have com-
bined to make those hitherto hidden facts of science
known, and available for practical benefits to human
society.

The exact science, Mathematics, has found ample
room for the application of its principles and methods of
determining the content of all material existences and re-
lations. The sublime science, Astronomy, has reveled in
its excursions into illimitable space, adding new triumphs,
discovering new facts pertaining to the constitution of the
stellar universe, and the relations of the celestial masses,
measuring, by the agency of light, the immense dis-
tances, magnitudes and motions of the tiny objects which

At the time I did not de- |

the natural eyes behold in the expanse above, and in
former times regarded as “fixed stars.” The profound
science, Geology, has carried us back into the illimitable
depths of past duration, to contemplate the usually slow
process by which the earth has been changing from its
primordeal, nebulous condition, to that in which it has
become fitted for living and rational beings, adding new
testimonies of the rocks to the truth of Scripture, ex-
pressed by the significant language: ‘Of old hast thou
laid the foundations of the earth.” The widely related,
efficient science, included in the scope of terrestrial
Mechanics, has found abundant use for its forces, and the
practical application of its dynamics, in the constantly
increasing demands of human society. The splendid and
delicate science, Chemistry, has exulted in its new and
valuable discoveries in the realm of atoms and molecules,
verifying the atomic theory, and adding new evidences
that many of the supposed elements of matter are really

/ compounds, and must yield to the searching analysis

which finds them to be but molecules composed of two
or more atoms. The vast and richly diversified science,
Biology, has yielded its living evidences of the progressing
series of organic natures, and of the vast scope of its his-
tory, extending its relations to ancestries, the periods of
whose origin belong to the immeasurable epochs of
paleontological history, The crowning, all-conserving
science, Anthropology, has added new evidences of its
superiority in importance, as it stands highest in the scale
of associated sciences; and while it has maintained this
highest rank by maintaining the honor of its subject-
matter, its votaries have found its latest and greatest
achievement in the evidences of a formal psychical con-
stitution as the basis of mental action.

It is not the aim of the writer to pursue the history of
the development of the sciences, exhaustively, but to in-
dicate some of the lines of progress.

The brilliant discoveries in Astronomy,within the past
few years, have added largely to the wealth of this noble
science, fascinating the student, and inspiring to new
achievements. Previous tothe present century, the solar
system included seven primary planets as having at that
time been discovered. In.the year 1800 a new planet was
discovered, and designated an asteroid, or small star,—
but it is more properly called a planetoid, or small planet.
The name by which this is known 1s Ceres, after the
reputed originator, or god, of corn. It was an event of
sO great interest to astronomers that it was announced
with much eclat that “‘ The long-expected planet between
Mars and Jupiter had been discovered.” Soon after,
three more were observed. Since that time, by means ot
the greatly increased power of telescopes, more than two
hundred have been added by discovery, all being very
small. Many others will be found. The problem still
to be determined has been, whether these planetcids are
“fragments of a broken world,” as formerly supposed,
or separate condensations from cosmic matter, instead of
forming one large body, as in the case of other primary
planets. It is not probable, however, that a cosmic mass
exploded at any one period, producing such fragments
in such positicns in their orbits as they maintain, nor that
such original mass was so dissipated by the action of a
propulsive or radiate force at one time, as to resume its
original nebulous state. The second hypothesis is the
more probable, viz.: of separate condensations from orig-
inal nebulosity. f

Neptune, one of the largest planets, and nearly twice
the distance of Herschel from the sun, was discovered in
1846 by M. Challis, of Paris, and its elements and orbit
determined by Le Verrier. The discovery of this planet
furnished a satisfactory explanation of the aberrations of
the planet Herschel, caused by the approximations of
Neptune, though distant, at its nearest point, more than
a billion and a half miles. This increase of the number
of the solar family furnished an additional illustration,
on a grand scale, of the laws of universal gravitation and

SCIENCE. 77

of celestial mechanics. Added to this have been dis-
coveries abundantly confirming the theory of stellar
motion in groups, clusters and nebulae, “the places of
more than 200,000 stars having already been deter-
mined,” and we have some conception of the vastness of
human achievements, and of the possibilities still await-

ing discoveries in this illimitable “ field of ether.”
The universality and laws of primary force, denomin-

ated gravitation, have been subjects of exceeding inter-

est, as they pertain to this primary mode of motion. The
fact of an attractive Force acting either upon or within

bodies by which they tend to approach each other, ar-

rested the attention, about the year 1600, of the elder
Galileo, who extended the principle to all terrestrial
bodies, Newton, eighty years afterward, studying this
principle, and at the suggestion, it is said, of the fall of
an apple, found that there was a definite increase of
velocity of bodies approaching the earth, and also that
the same kind of attractive force must apply to the moon,
while a centrifugal force, either generated from the at-
tractive force, or originated from an extraneous force,
continued this secondary planet around the earth. This
was the first grand step toward the discovery of the laws
of gravitation, applicable to the motion of the earth
around the sun, and, generally, to all planets. More
recently the principle has been applied to comets, stellar
and other masses.

Geology, while below chemistry in the order of nature
and classification, had made far less progress in develop-
ment at the commencement of the present century, a fact
which might have been presumed, inasmuch as the latter
science has ministered especially to the wants of man-
kind. According to Buckland, it was at that time “ with-
outa name.” ‘The general features of geology had been
sketched by Leibnitz and Hooke more than a century
previous. Near the beginning of the present century
the outlines of the subject were classified into three
general divisions of formations—the primitive, the second-
ary and the tertiary. These became the subjects of investi-
gation, historically, in the order named. The first,
especially, by Werner, of Germany, who examined chiefly
the primitive and transition rocks. The second by Wm.
Smith (English), whose observations were first pub-
lished in 1799. The third by Cuvier and Brougniart
whose works upon “Organic Remains” and “ Mineral
Geography ” were published in 1808. During the past
half century this science has advanced with other
sciences, with vastly increased interest and success,
rendering this one of the most fascinating, especially in
more recent times, in yielding its stores of facts pertain-
ing to the glacial period, the deposition of metallic sub-
stances, experiments showing the order and conditions of
the cooling processes, resulting in the different mineral
States, and the wonderful revelations of paleontological
history, together with many other facts of great interest,
but which cannot, in this paper, be especially given.
These give abundant confirmation to the theory that
immense periods of time, measured by millions of years,
have passed during this history, dissipating the doctrine
formerly held by many as taught in the Scriptures, that
the heavens and earth were created, out of nothing,
about six thousand years ago.

Among the departments of science which minister to
the wants of human society, none has awakened the
spirit of invention and improvement at all to compire
with that of Mechanics. With the increase of knowl-
edge, there has been a correspondingly increasing de-
mand for instruments of discovery and analysis, not
only, but for the application of scientific skill in the in-
vention of motive powers and the means of the trans-
mission of intelligence, as well as implements of handi-
craft, of agriculture, etc, The steam power, first utilized
by the invention of a machine in 1655, and improved by
Watt in 1774, inaugurated its grand work for human
society in 1806, when Robert Fulton, after repeated ex-

periments, applied this power to the propulsion of vessels,
first on the Hudson river, amazing the thousands who
witnessed the successful experiment, and introducing a
new propelling power to vessels upon the sea, now bear-
ing their burdens, estimated by millions of tons, on
every river and over every lake and sea of earth. This
power has added incalculable millions to the material
wealth and strength of every civilized nation. The last
world-wide application of this power, besides its innu-
merous minor applications to all kinds of mechanical
work, was inaugurated in 1821, when it was successfully
applied to the propulsion of railroad trains.

In 1819 Electro-magnetism was first applied to me-
chanical purposes ; and in 1831 the Magnetic Telegraph,
for the transmission of intelligence, was invented and
successfully applied. And now, even the comparatively
coarse medium, air, has aided in business and social
communications, at trifling expense, by means of the re-
cently invented Telephone and the Phonograph.

Chemistry has shared richly in the results of recent
scientific progress, and has ministered richly to the wants
of human society. Three centuries ago, Paracelsus
boasted of possessing the “philosopher’s stone’, by
which the baser metals were said to be transmuted into
gold ; but he gave a new direction to the efforts and ob-
jects of Alchemy, insisting that its chief aim should be
the preparation of medicines of different kinds for differ-
ent diseases. But Chemistry, as a science, must date its
commencement two centuries later, when the analyses of
distinguished scholars, as Scheele, of Sweden, and Dr.
Black, of Glasgow University, and the Academies of
Science at Berlin and Paris, determined important prin-
ciples of this science.

The discoveries of Sir Humphrey Davy, in the early
part of the present century, gave a new impetus to this
branch, leading to chemical analyses and the establish-
ment of chemistry asa science. These have bzen follow-
ed by eras of progress which have brought the subject
toa high degree of perfection. Now, the four elements
of the ancients, and of the alchemists of comparatively
recent times—earth, air, fire, and water—have been found
by successive analyses to contain sixty-five elements, the
last four having been detected by the new and wonderful
method called the Spectrum Analysis. It may be here
stated what this method is, for the gratification of any
whose attention may not have been called especially to it.

It is well known that a spectrum is an image tormed
by the light of the sun, or any other luminous body,
either as direct or reflected rays, passing through a trian-
gular piece of glass called a prism. The colored lines
thus formed by differently refracted and dispersed rays,
reveal the nature and qualities of the elements contained
in the luminous body by the different colors, combina-
tions, and the phenomena presented, compared with pre-
vious results of experiment in the laboratory, upon light
reflected from different mineral substances. It has been
found that every kind of mineral substance, whether in
the form of a sclid, gas, or nebulous matter, when in a
state of intense luminosity, possesses the capacity to emit
a specific color, with its accompanying mixed lines. This
being known, when a new body is analysed by its light,
its constituents are determined by the lines of light. Thus
the solar envelopes, protuberances, etc., of the sun are
examined by the analysis of the solar spectrum. By this
method, the character of comets, meteors, or other celes-
tial masses are determined. By this the problem of the
sudden appearance or disappearance of stellar masses is
explained, by determining the state of the mass thus
emitting light, and the conditions of luminosity. What
the telescope has failed to determine in respect to the
elements and qualities of bodies, or the nature of nebu-
lous masses, whether such masses are Clusters of stars in
the infinite distance, or of original, unformed nebulous
matter, the spectroscope has accomplished ; and what has
been held by most astronomers as a theory, has become

78

confirmed as a fact, that, as Prof. Schellen says, “ lumi-
nous nebule actually exist as isolated bodies in space,
and these bodies are masses of gas.’ Thus, clusters,
groups, stars and planets, are in process of genesis from
primeval cosmic matter, and Cosmology may be regarded
as a science, established by the aid of art in the construc-
tion of larger telescopes, and their new associate in the
field of stellar research, the spectroscope; these bring
within the scope of observation new facts, and confirm the
generally received theory of the nebular constitution and
the genesis of the stellar and planetary systems from such
original cosmic matter.

The conservation of all the lower departments of science
to the wants of man, in his individual and social relations,
gives a vast superiority of rank to Anthropology. In re-
cent times, the chief points of practical importance in the
progress or development of this science have pertained to
Sociology. Researches in special lines of investigation
have furnished many facts of great interest pertaining to
antiquities, archives of ancient cities, inscriptions upon
rocks, hieroglyphics and monuments, which have yielded
abundant fruits to explorers, and vastly increased the
knowledge of particular races and languages; while in-
creasing evidences are furnished that the antiquity of the
human race is much greater than that indicated by the
generally accepted chronology.

In the department of Philology, great progress has been
made during the period of our own times. Comparative
Philology is no longer confined to the Latin and Greek of
the ancient languages, and two or three of the modern
languages, but every language of the globe is yielding rich
fruits bearing upon history as well as philology ; espe-
cially has the Sanscrit, the mother of all the Indo-Euro-
pean languages, received special attention, resulting in
the establishment of professorships of the Sanscrit in sev-
eral colleges.

But questions of the highest interest pertain to Psychol-
ogy, especially relating to our psychical nature and its
connection wiih our physiological constitution, to the
phenomena of ‘Urconscious cerebration,’ and other
facts which have elicited research in the modes of re-
ceiving and retaining sensations and the memory of facts,
and into the medium of transmitting such impressions.
Such inquiries have led to the adoption of the following
theory of accounting for these phenomena, viz.: that
the psychical constitution is not simply mental or spirit-
ual, but is dual or two-fold, consisting of two
substances we may conveniently term _ respectively
etheral and spzrztual. ‘The following rational deduc-
tions are given as the only satisfactory hypotheses
pertaining to our interior being, viz.: That the
great rapidity of the transmission of impressions, being
at least 1oo feet per second from the extreme parts of
our physical system to the brain, or requiring but one-
fifteenth of a second to produce a sensation, involves the
necessity of the existence of an ethereal substance per-
meating the nerves, and hence called ‘“‘ nervous ether,”
which forms the elementary substance of the formal
psychical nature. That, as the physical germ is the
initial organism of the future physical body, “ potentially
alive,’ in the germinal state, so this nervous ether con-
tains the psychical germ or initial organism of the future
psychical body, potentially perfected, and which emerges,
in its real or developed form, upon the death of the
physical body, or properly its separation from the soul,
or interior being. That the psychical nature, while con-
nected with the physical, forms the basis of vital action,
continuity and identity; and that the mechanism of
thought and feeling involves the necessity of two psychi-
cal centres of activity, corresponding with the brain and
heart, viz.: the psychical sexsorzum, which is the seat of
intellectual action, the basis of sensation, memory, etc.,
and the psychical cardzwm, the seat of the emotional and
sympathetic affections.

Scientific progress has both increased the number of

SCIENCE.

special sciences and extended the limits of those pre-
viously known. This has created the necessity of the
division of scientific research, inducing students to pur-
sue single lines of inquiry, the result being more
thorough and extensive knowledge of the respective de-
partments, which have become the common heritage.
Examples of this devotion to special sciences are now
numerous in every department, as in the case of the late
Prof. L. Agassiz, who devoted many years to the study
of animalculez. In the history of planis and animals,
species, genera, and even classes have been multiplied,
as individuals have devoted their lives to these subjects,
with all the helps at command, leaving no depths unex-
plored. The anatomist and physiologist no longer con-
fine attention to the human structure, but find in com-
parative anatomy and physiology many types and char-
acteristics brought forward and perfected in the higher
orders, or old forms substituted by new, till finally, in the
human constitution the completed form best adapted, not
to the lower purposes of physical strength and endur-
ance, by which the animal subserves human ends, but
the best form for the higher ends of intellectual, moral
and social natures by which man is evidently distin-
guished above the brute.

This division of labor has been found essential in ap-
plication to the numerous sciences now demanding vastly
increased forces of professional teachers in colleges and
universities. Now, a college can scarcely claim the name
of a liberal institution of learning in which one professor
is required to associate sciences so unnaturally connected
as Mathematics and Moral Philosophy, or Chemistry,
Botany and Pharmacy, as in some European colleges a
century ago. A comparison of the courses of study and
the professorships in colleges in our country during the
past thirty or forty years will exhibit the marked advance-
ment of the sciences, and the increased requirements of
the present time. In 1837, Geneva College, now Hobart
College, Geneva, N. Y., of which the writer was a student,
contained a professorship of ‘‘ Mathematics and Natural
Philosophy ;” of the “ Latin and Greek languagess ;” of
“Modern languages, History and Belles-Lettres,’”’ to
which was added Rhetoric and two other mixed pro-
fessorships. For the year 1849—1850, the catalogue of
Western Reserve College, Hudson, O., of which the writer
had been a theological student, exhibits the following :
The institution embraced three departments: General
Science, Medicine, and Theology, besides a preparatory
department. Five professors gave instruction in General
Science, or the Literary department; one of which was
the professor of the “‘ Latin and Greek ;” one of “ Chem-
istry, History, Medical Jurisprudence (in the Medical
department), and Natural History,’—the latter embracing
several branches, including Geology! and one professor
of “ Modern Languages.’ Great advancement upon this
order is now exhibited in the principle colleges of our
land. I here name only three: In 1875, Lafayette Col-
lege, Easton, Pa., had twenty professors and adjunct pro-
fessors, besides tutors, assistants and lecturers—twenty-
seven in ail. The University of Wooster, O., in 1876, had
thirteen instructors in the Literary department, and the
same number in the Medical department. The Michigan
University, Ann Arbor, Mich., in 1877, had, in all de-
partments, fifty-five instructors.

i

CAUSE OF THE BLUE COLOR OF CERTAIN
WATERS.
By Pror. JOHN LE CONTE.

The consideration of certain facts clearly indicates that
the real cause of the blue tints of the waters of certain
lakes and seas, is to be traced to the presence of finely -
divided matter in a state of suspension in the liquid.
We have seen that Sir I. Newton, and most of his suc-
cessors as late as 1869, ascribed the blue color of certain

SCIENCE. 79

deep waters to an inherent selective reflecting property
of its molecules, by which they reflected the blue rays of
light more copiously than the other rays of the solar
spectrum. Since the researches of Soret, Tyndall and
others, this selective reflection has been transferred to
the finely-divided particles which are known to be held
in suspension in greater or less abundance, not only in
all natural waters, but even in the most carefully dis-
tilled water. When the depth of water is sufficiently
great to preclude any solar rays reaching the bottom,
then the various shades of blue which are perceived under
similar conditions of sunshine, will depend upon the at-
tenuation and abundance of materials held in suspension ;
the purity and delicacy of the tint increasing with the
smallness and the degree of diffusion of the suspended
particles. Moreover, it is evident that Tyndall is quite
correct in assigning to “true molecular absorption ”
some agency in augmenting “ the intense and exceptional
blueness”’ of certain waters; for it is obvious that the
“ blue of scattering by small particles ’’ must be purified
by the abstraction of the less refrangible rays, which al-
ways accompany the blue during the transmission of the
scattered light to the observer. It seems to be very cer-
tain that were water perfectly free from suspended matter
and coloring substances in solution, and of uniform den-
sity, it would scatter no light at all. “But,” as Tyndall
remarks, “an amount of impurity so infinitesimal as to be
scarcely expressible in numbers, and the individual parti-
cles of which are so small as wholly to elude the micro-
scope,” may be revealed in an obvious and striking man-
ner when examined by a powerfully concentrated beam
of light in a darkened chamber. If the waters of the
lakes and seas were chemically pure and optically homo-
geneous, absolute extinction of the traversing solar rays
would be the consequence if they were deep enough. So
that to an observer floating on the surface, such waters
would appear as “black as ink,” and apart from a slight
glimmer of ordinary light reflected from the surface, no
light, and hence no color would reach the eye from the
body of the liquid. According to Tyndall, “in very clear
and very deep sea water, this condition is approximately
fulfilled, and hence the extraordinary darkness of such
water.” In some places, when looked down upon, the
water “ was of almost inky blackness—black qualified by
a trace of indigo.” But even this trace of indigo he
ascribes to the small amount of suspended matter, which

is never absent even in the purest natural water, throw- |

ing back tothe eye a modicum of light before the travers-
ing rays attain a depth necessary for absolute extinction.
He adds: ‘An effect precisely similar occurs under
the moraines of the Swiss glaciers. The ice is here ex-
ceptionally compact, and owing to the absence of the
internal scattering common in bubbled ice the light
plunges into the mass, is extinguished, and the perfectly
clear ice presents an appearance of pitchy blackness”
(‘‘ Hours of Exercise in the Alps;”’ ‘‘ Voyage to Algeria
to Observe the Eclipse,” Am. Ed., N. Y., 1871, pp. 463-
470). In like manner the waters of certain Welsh tarns,
which are reputed to be bottomless, are said to present
an inky hue. And it is more than probable that the
waters of the Silver spring, whose exceptional trans-
parency has been previously indicated, would, ifthey were
sufficiently deep, present a similar blackness, or absence
of all color by diffuse reflection.

It remains for us to explain the cause of the green
tints which the waters of certain lakes and seas assume
under peculiar circumstances. These green colors mani-
fest themselves under the following conditions, viz: ‘(a.)
In the finest blue water, when the depth is so small as
to allow the transmitted light to be reflected from a bot-
tom’which is more or less white.
bottom or white rocks beneath the surface of the Lake
of Geneva, or the Bay of Naples, or of Lake Tahoe, will,
if the depth is not too great or too small, impart a beau-
tiful emerald green to the waters above them. (0.) In

Thus, a white sandy |

the finest blue water, when a white object is looked a
through the intervening stratum of water. In the blue
waters of the sea this is frequently seen in looking at the
white bellies of the porpoises, as they gambol about a
ship or steamer. In a rough sea, the light which has
traversed the crest of a wave and is reflected back to
the eye of the observer from the white foam on the re-
mote side, sometimes crowns it with a beautiful green
cap. In March, 1869, I observed this phenomenon in
the magnificent ultramarine waters of the Carribbean
sea. A stout white dinner plate secured to a sounding
line, presents various tints of green as it is let down into
the blue water. Such experiments were made by Count
Xavier de Maistre, in the Bay of Naples, in 1832; by
Prof. Tyndall, in the Atlantic ocean, in December, 1870,
and by the writer in Lake Tahoe, in August and Septem-
ber, 1873. (¢.) In waters of all degrees of depth when
a greater amount of solid matter is held in suspension
than is required to produce the blue color of the purer
deep waters of lakes and seas. Thus, Tyndall, in his
“Voyage to Algeria to observe the Ec!ipse,” in Decem-
ber, 1870, collected 19 bottles of water from various
places in the Atlantic ocean between Gibraltar and
Spithead. These specimens were taken from the sea at
positions where its waters presented tints varying from
deep indigo blue, through bright green to yellow green.
After his return to England, he directed the concentrated
beam from an electric lamp through the several speci-
mens of water and found that the blue waters indicated
the presence of a small amount of suspended matter ; the
bright green a decidedly greater amount of suspended
particles, and the yellow green was exceeding thick with
suspended corpuscles. He remarks: ‘“‘My home _ ob-
servations, I think, clearly establish the association of the
green color of sea water with fine suspended matter, and
the association of the ultramarine color, and more
especially of the black indigo hue of sea water, with the
comparative absence of such matter.” (‘Hours of
Exercise in the Alps;’ “ Voyage to Algeria to observe
the Eclipse,’ Ed. cit. ante, pp. 464 et 467.)

There is one feature which is common to all of the
three above indicated conditions, under which the green
color manifests itself in the waters of the lakes and seas,
viz: Whena white or more or less light-colored reflecting
surface is seen through a stratum of intervening water of
sufficient purity and thickness. Condition (¢,) is obvi-
ously included ; for it is evident that a background of
suspended particles may, under proper conditions, form
such a reflecting surface.

Inasmuch as under these several conditions, more or
less of transmitted light is reflected back to the eye of the
observer, it is evident that the rays which reach him carry
with them the chromatic modifications due to the com-
bined influence of the selective absorption of the water
itself, and the selective reflection from the smaller
suspended particles. Hence, the chromatic phenomena
presented, being produced by the mingling of these rays
In various proportions, must manifest complex combina-
tions of tints, under varying circumstances relating to
color of bottom, depth of water, and the amount and
character of the suspended matter present. In the ex-
planations of the green color of certain waters by the
older physicists, we recognize the full appreciation of the
influence of selective reflections in the preductions of the
phenomena; but they seem to have overlooked the im-
portant effects of the molecular absorption. We have
seen that Sir I. Newton regarded the green tints of sea-
water as due to the more copious reflection of the violet,
blue and green rays, while those constituting the red end
of the spectrum are allowed to penetrate to greater
depths. (Optics, loc. cit. ante.’’) Sir H. Davy ascribes
it, in part, to the presence of iodine and bromine in the
waters, imparting a yellow tint, which, mingled with the
blue color from pure water, produced the sea-green.
(“Salmonia, Collected Works,” Vol. 9, p. 201.) In like

80

manner, Count Xavier De Maistre ascribed the green
tints to the yellow light, which, penetrating. the water
and reaching the white bottom or other light-colored
submerged objects, and being reflected and mixed with
the blue which reaches the eye from all quarters, pro-
duces the green. (‘ Bibl. Univ.,” Vol. 51, pp. 259-278,
Nov:, 1832; also Am. J. Sci., first series, Vol. 26. pp. 65-
75, 1834.*). On the other hand, after Bunsen, in 1847,
had established that chemically pure water extinguished
the rays of light constituting the red end of the solar
spectrum more copiously than those of the blue extremity,
so that the transmitted tints were more or less tinged
with blue, some chemists were inclined to attribute the
green color of certain waters to the presence of foreign
coloring substances. Thus Bunsen himself explained the
brown colors of many waters, especially of the north-
German inland lakes, as produced by an admixture of
humus; but he considered the green tints of the Swiss
lakes and silicious springs of Iceland as rising from the
color of the yellowish bottom. (Vide. loc. cit. ante., p.
44,et seq.) Similarly we find that Wittstein, in 1860,
from chemical considerations, concluded that the green
color derives its origin from organic admixtures, because
the less organic substance a water contains the less does

the color differ from blue; and with increase of organic |

substances the blue gradually passes into green, and ul-
timately into brown. This is likewise the view taken in

1862, by Beets, for he insists that in all waters the ob- |

served color of the liquid is that of the transmitted light,
and not, in any case, of the reflected light. Moreover, he
maintains that Newton, De Maistre, Arago and others
were mistaken in classifying water among those bodies
which have a different color by transmitted light to that
which they have by reffected light. (Loc. cit, ante.)

We have already shown that if the waters were chemi-
cally pure and perfectly free from suspended particles, the
red rays of the traversing solar light would be first ab-
sorbed and disappear, while the other colored rays pass to
greater depths, one after the other being extinguished in
their proper order, viz., red, orange, yellow green, blue
and violet, until at last there is a complete extinction of
the light in the deeper mass of the liquid. But the pres-
ence of suspended particles causes a part of the traversing
solar light to be reflected, and according as this reflected
light has come from various depths, so will the color
vary. If, for example, the particles are large, or are
abundant and freely reflect from a moderate depth, and
prevent reflection from a greater depth, the color will be
some shade of green.

When the water is shallow and a more or less lght-
colored bottom, or a submerged object reflects the trans-
mitted light tothe observer through the intervening stra-
tum of liquid, it is evident that the chromatic tints pre-
sented must be due to the combined influence of the se-
lective absorption of the water itself, and the selective re-
flection from the smaller suspended particles.

In other terms, under these conditions, the tints are
produced by the mingling of the blue rays with the yel-
low, orange orred; so that the resulting hues must gen-
erally be some shade of green. In short, all the facts es~-

tablished by modern iuvestigations seem to converge and |

point to the admixture of the blue rays reflected from the
smaller suspended particles with the yellow orange and
red rays reflected from the grosser matters below, as the
true physical cause of the green tints of such waters.

The establishments of the very important function of sol-
id particles held in suspension in water, in producing chro-
matic modifications both in the scattered light and in the
transmitted light, serves to reconcile and to harmonize the

* Similarly, Arago has very ingeniously applied the same principles to
the explanation of the varying colors of the waters of the ocean under
different circumstances, showing that when calm it must be blue by the
reflective light, but when ruffled the waves acting the part of prisms,
refract to the eye some of the transmitted light from the interior, and it
then appears green. (‘* Comptes Rendus,’’ tome vii.,p. 219, July 23d,
1838.)

SCIENCE:

apparent discrepancies and contradictions in the views of
physicists who have investigated the color of water.

We have already seen that Sir I. Newton and most of
his successors, as late as 1847, regarded water as belong-
ing to the opalescent class of liquids, in which the diffuse
reflected light and the transmitted light present more or
less complementary tints; the former partaking more of
the colors constituting the blue end of the solar spectrum,
while the latter presented more of the hues belonging to
the red extremity. On the contrary, the more recent and
more accurate experiments render it quite certain that in
distilled water the rays of the red end of the spectrum are
more copiously absorbed than those of the blue extrem-
ity; so that the emergent transmitted tint is yellowish
green or greenish blue. At first view, these results ap-
pear to be discordant and irreconcilable; but, it will be
recollected, that while even the most carefully distilled
water contains a sufficient amount of suspended matter,
to scatter enough light, to render the track of the tray-
ersing concentrated solar beam visible, yet, in this case,
the selective reflection of the blue rays, due to the suspend-
ed particles, is not adequate to neutralize the selective
molecular absorption of the rays toward the red end of the
spectrum. Nevertheless, as has been previously shown,
| the addition of very minute quantities of diffused suspended
matter confers on distilled water the dichroitic properties
of an opalescent liquid.

The presence of an extremely small amount of suspend-
ed solid corpuscles, by selectively reflecting the shorter
waves of light, is sufficient to neutralize and overcome the
selectively absorbent action of the molecules of water on
the longer waves; and thus, to impart yellow, orange or
red tints to the transmitted beam. Moreover, it is very
| questionable whether any natural waters are sufficiently
| free from suspended matter to deprive them of these di-
chroitic characteristics.

Under this aspect of the subject, the views of Newton,
derived from the observations of Halley, those of Hassen-
fratz deduced from his own experiments, as well as the
explanations of the green tints of certain waters given by
De Maistre, Arago and others, completely harmonize with
the conclusions deducible from modern researches, provi-
ded the property of selective reflection is transferred from
the aqueous molecules to the finely-divided particles held
in suspension.

As a striking illustration of the slight causes which
sometimes transform the purest water into an opales-
cent or dichromatic liquid, it may be interesting to detail
one of my own experiences. On the 2Ist of Dec., 1878,
the series of glass tubes employed in my experiments (as
previously indicated), being filled with distilled water,
the transmitted solar beam presented when received
upon a white screen in a darkened room, the usual yel-
lowish-green tint of my winter observations. On the
24th of December, or after an interval of three days, dur-
which all parts of the apparatus had remained 27 sz¢z, I
was much surprised to find that the transmitted solar
beam was enfeebled, and presented an orange red color
with no tinge of green. Puzzled to discover what could
have produced so marked achange in the optical prop-
erties of the liquid, the “scientific use of the imagina- -~
| tion”’ pictured the possible development of ultra-micro-
scopic germ, infusoria, dacterza, conferve, etc. The
next day (December 25th), the same phenomenon pre-
sented itself, when I called the attention of my assistant,
Mr. August Harding, who had kindly prepared the ar-
rangement of the tubes, to the anomalous change that
had taken place in the color of the transmitted beam.
He suggested that as he had used alcohol in cleaning
the glass plates, closing the ends of the tubes, and as the
plates were secured to corks by means of Canada bal-
sam, the alcohol absorbed by the corks, being gradually
diffused, dissolved some of the balsam, which solution,
mingling with the water, might produce a fine resinous
| precipitate, which might stifle the transmitted beam and

SCIENCE. 81

scatter the rays of shorter wave length, thus leaving the
orange-red rays predominant in the emergent light. This
view was speedily verified by a ciitical examination of
the track of the traversing beam. A sensible turbidity
was visible, in the darkened room, at the extremities of
the column of water adjacent to the corks securing the
glass plates ; and the light diffused latterly at these por-
tions, when examined by Nicol’s prism, was found to be
distinctly polarized. The emergent beam examined by
the spectroscope, exhibited orange and red in full inten-
sity ; but the yellow and green were greatly diminished.
Ten days later (January 2, 1879) the solar beam travers-
ing the same column of water emerged much brighter
than on Christmas day, and the tint was orange tinged
with yellow and red. This long repose caused, doubt-
less, some of the resinous precipitate to become more
generally diffused, or to subside, and thus diminished the
turpidity of the liquid. Therecognition of the dichroism
imparted to water by the presence of finely-divided par-
ticles in suspension, serves, likewise, to harmonize the
conflicting views promulgated by physicists who have
studied the chromatic phenomena presented by this
liquid, Some claim that the rays of higher refrangibility
are more copiously withdrawn by absorption; while others
maintain that the rays of longer wave lengths are more
absorbed. In many cases the chromatic tints ascribed to
selective molecular absorption are unquestionably due to
selective diffuse reflection from the ultra-microscopical
corpuscles which are held in suspension. (Vide Jamin’s
“ Cours de Physique,” 3d ed., tome 3, p. 447, ef seg.)

ON THE IMPORTANCE OF ENTOMOLOGICAL
STUDIES.*

“ Occasionally, at the present day, we may hear insects
and entomologists spoken of as ‘bugs’ and ‘bug-hunters’
—epithets apptied in derision to what are regarded as
petty objects and trivial pursuits. Such views only be-
tray an ignorance which is equally pi iable and inexcus-
able. The study of insects has assumed an importance
in its direct application to agriculture, horticulture and
sylviculture, second to no other department of natural
history. It has called to its aid some of the best intellect
of the country. Its literature has become extensive and
assumed a high rank. Our State governments, in re-
sponse to demands made upon them, are appointing
State Entomologists. Our General Government is mak-
ing liberal appropriations for entomological work in the
Department of Agriculture at Washington, and also for
sustaining a special United States Entomological Com-
mission, now in the third year of its operations, charged
with the investigation of a few of our more injurious in-
sects.

“ The study-of insects assumes an importance in this
country far greater than in any other part of the world.
No where else does mother earth yield in such variety
and in such abundance her agricultural products; after
supplying to repletion our own people, the excess is dis-
tributed to every quarter of the globe. Few, surpris-
ingly few, of these varied products are native to our soil.
Nearly all of our fruits, grasses, cereals and vegetables,
and perhaps three-fourths of our weeds are of foreign
importation—mainly from Europe. With their intro-
duction, very many of the insects that preyed upon them
were also introduced, or have been subsequently brought
hither. But unfortunately for us, the parasites which
preyed upon them and kept them under control, have
for the most part, been left behind. As the result, the
imported pests, in their new home, find their favorite
food-plants spread out in luxuriant growth over broad
acres, where they may ply their destructive work without

* From an address before The Farmers’ Club, Onondaga Co. N. Y.

hindrance or molestation, until some native parasites
acquire the habit of preying upon them.

’ «The grand scale upon which our crops are grown as
no where else in the world —demanding for their gather-
ing the invention of special mechanical contrivances, and
that horse power should be replaced by steam—has also
as its attendant. inevitable evil, an enormous increase of
insect depredations. This may be illustrated by a refer-
ence ton Guiyapple-treemiasectss an ac Seinen Solin
like manner, any and every crop cultivated on a large
scale offers strong invitation to insect attack, and won-
derfully stimulates insect multiplication.”

PROFESSOR J. A. LINTNER.
oe ie Ne

CLOUD COLORS.

This P. M., from about 3.30 to sunset, I was witness to
a remarkably vivid display of cloud-colors; and_ thinking
that a full description of the phenomena may perhaps help
to the understanding of the conditions of the higher at-
mosphere, I have written out what Isaw. The day had been
the warmest of the season. The night before was cloudy,
and the temperature hardly fell below the freezing point.
Light clouds prevailed through the day; at 3.30 the stand-
ard and maximum thermometers stood together at 62°,
while the maximum sun thermometer registered 119°.
The day had been quite still, the direction of the very light
wind being from the S. E. The clouds in the neighborhood
of the sun were of two varieties, the lower a fleecy and tufted
cloud of the cumulus order, moving pretty rapidly from a
little north of west, and frequently exhibiting a rapid spiral
movementin the filaments, the other would be called cirro-
stratus, though not precisely the typical cloud of that
name, as portions were quite free from any appearance of
structure. In the less dense portions an arrangement in
parallel fibres was, however, quite apparent,—one set nearly
horizontal, the other inclined at about 45°, the south end
upward. The horizontal arrangement predominated,
while the other was visible here and there in a detached
streamer and occasionally in striae upon the longer belts,
which, hence, were not, as is usual with this cloud, striated
perpendicularly to the direction of the bands. These
cirro-stratus clouds, which also moved from the west,
though with a much less velocity than the lower ones,
were the only clouds which showed the rainbow colors.
These were exceedingly intense, and changing every mo-
ment with such rapidity as to make it very difficult to de-
cide upon the order of the colors, the more so as every
filament had its own rainbow, and all were shifting. The
red was, however, generally nearest the sun, though some-
times bordered inwardly with intense yellow. The most
perfect succession of colors which I caught was in a cloud
extending horizontally northward from the sun, in which
for a brief interval all the seven colors could be traced fol-
lowing one another, not in the direction of the sun, but
vertically, the red uppermost. The violet was, however,
so very brilliant as to suggest the beginning of a new
rainbow at its bottom, and in a moment this cloud had
adopted the form which was most common throughout,—
bands of red above and below, with a broader band _ be-
tween of yellow or green orblue. This blue tint was often
exceedingly brilliant, tipping both ends of filaments, which
were of dull hue in the centre, and bordered above and
below with parallel stripes of red. A purple shade was
occasionally distinct, surrounded by other colors. This
undescribably beautiful display continued over the whole
S. W. quarter of the sky, until the sun had been out of
sight behind the mountains for more than half an hour,

Though the clouds upon which the colors were observed
were of the order in which halos are formed, yet the ap-
pearance had very little in common with the halo,—of
which we have had a good example within a week. The
colors were not only not concentric, but were exhibited
successively by different clouds in every direction from the
sun, and a¢ all distances, from 30°, or, perhaps, 40°, to

82 SCIENCE.

not more than 3° or 4°. In fact, about four o’cloek the

transmitted light was of a splendid green color, tinting the:

white walls of my room as though through the stained
glass of a church. About the time I first noted the
colors a strong north wind sprung up, continuing in gusts
through the afternoon. F. H. LOND.
COLORADO SPRINGS, Fanuary 29, 1881.

—<——_—__<_<—<_—

NOTE ON DR. HENRY DRAPER’S PHOTO-
GRAPH OF THE NEBULA IN ORION
By Mr. RANYARD.
*Read before the Royal Astronomical Society, Jan. 14, 1881.

Dr. Draper has sent me an enlarged copy of a photo-
graph of the nebula in Orion, which he succeeded in tak-
ing onthe night of the 30th of September last. Dr.
Draper remarks that September is not the best time of
the year, so that he hopes to obtain still better results
next summer. The photograph was taken with an ex-
posure of 51 minutes. He does not mention the instru-
ment with which it was taken, but I conclude that it was
with his great 27-inch reflector. On the photograph are
nine white spots of various sizes; these represent 13 stars
in and about the nebula, for the four stars of the trape-
zium are merged together by reason of over-exposure.
In the corner is another small photograph taken with a
shorter exposure, and showing three of the four stars of
the trapezium. This is not the first occasion on which
the stars of the trapezium have been photographed. I,
and no doubt many others, have succeeded in obtaining
photographs of them. But it is, I believe, the first pho-
tograph in which any trace of the nebuia is shown. And
Dr. Draper may, I think, be very much congratulated on
the great success he has attained. The photograph
shows the whole of the brighter nucleus of the nebula—
sometimes referred to as the “ Fish’s head.”’ I have com-
pared it with the different drawings of the nebula by
Bond, Herschel, Liaponnoy, Lassell, Secchi, the Earl of
Rosse, and Tempel, and find that it does not correspond
exactly with any of them. The drawings differ very
greatly amongst themselves, and they differ in type as
well as in minor details. They do not appear to differ
continuously in order of time, so that the drawings do
not afford any proof that the form of the nebula is chang-
ing. Photographs will of course afford much more valu-
able evidence with respect to any such change in the fu-
ture. The photograph does not show any stars of less
than the 94% magnitude, showing that the brighter
masses of the nebula registered themselves on the plate
when stars of the 1oth magnitude left no trace. If in
the future some much more sensitive method of photo-
graphing is devised, it will be necessary to contrive some
plan by which the brighter parts of the nebula and the
light of the brighter stars may be cut off from the sen-
sitive plate during the greater part of the exposure,
so as to prevent the irradiation from the brighter parts
encroaching over the area occupied by the fainter parts.
At present, however, we are very far from being able to
photograph, with the sensitive silver compounds* made
use of, all that can be seen with the human eye. But
even if photography does not make any further advances,
photographs such as these will be of very great value in
showing the relative brightness of the brighter parts of
the nebula.

Mr. Common: I do not agree with Mr. Ranyard, that
we must look to photography to explain or prove any

*(Note by Mr. Ranyard.] It seems probable that the small pencil of
light, which passes through the pupil of the eye from the faintest object
perceived, produces an actual change in the matter of the rods and cones,
which is rapidly obliterated by the circulation and vital processes going
on about the retina. This is now, | believe, pretty generally agreed to
by physiologists. If in the future the matter acted upon in the rods and
cones can be isolated, and the change produced by light can be rendered
permanent, it seems probable that, by means of large lenses and reflectors,
we may some day obtain photographs of objects too faint to be visible with
the naked eye.

change in the form of the nebulz, because various kinds
of plates give different results, and you would not have
the same effects produced by the same colored light. I
should rely much more on accurate drawings than upon
any photographs. If we compare these drawings, here
you have [pointing to Father Secchi’s drawing] a dark
mass ‘with a slope of light running from the left-hand
corner down to the right hand. In the other [Lord
Rosse’s drawing] there is no division, except a large
space divided into channels. The latter is wrong and
the former clearly right. Before you give details you
ought to represent the chief features of the nebula, be-
cause it is the features that most readily indicate change.
With regard to Mr. Ranyard’s remark that no star
smaller than the roth magnitude is shown, there are, I
think, two—these fainter stars under the trapezium,
which are certainly less than the roth magnitude.

Mr. Ranyard: I have here the magnitudes given by
Liaponnov, and he gives one asthe 9th magnitude and
the other as the oth to the roth magnitude.

Mr. Common: Before we can discuss this photograph
we want to know the instrument it is taken with, the focal
length, in order to know the size of the image, and the
kind of plates used, and the mode of development. If
you want to detect any change in the form of the nebula
you must entirely rely on the hand drawings. =~

Mr. Ranyard: I think that some considerable scientific
use may be made of these photographs ; they will at least
enable us tocompare the relative brightness of the differ-
ent masses of the nebula as shown on any one photo-
graph, for as far as we know, there is no great difference
in the spectrum of different parts of the nebula, and
so we have no reason to suppose that the photographic
effects of different parts of the nebula in any one photo-
graph would not be proportional to the light.

Mr. Stone: With regard to discrepancies in drawings,
I never knew two persons asked to make a drawing
of the same faint object make them exactly alike. It
isevident that observers draw that which happens to
arrest their attention, and one feature will strike one
observer, while the attention of another is attracted by
something else. A very good instance of this occurred
during the eclipse of 1874. Two observers were sitting
side by side drawing the corona. ‘The one drew a small
nearly quadrilateral corona, while the other drew a large
corona with great rays in the equatorial regions. Before
a totality was over the observer who had drawn the small
corona looked at his neighbor’s drawing, and, on looking
up again at the corona, recognized the outline which his
neighbor had drawn, and commenced to put it on paper
when the eclipse ended. There is therefore a great ele-
ment of uncertainty about drawings, one observer over-
looks one part, or is struck by one part, and another by
something else.

Mr. Rand Capron: I think that Mr. Commom is right,
that photographs of objects taken with different instru-
ments and plates will probably never usefully bear com-

parison; but agree with Mr. Ranyard that photographs ~

of the same object taken from time to time with the same

instrument and the same plates can most usefully be -

compared. ;

Mr. Burton said : I should like to suggest that the diff-
culty which Mr. Ranyard has referred to, with regard to
the irradiation from stars interfering with the fainter
parts of the nebula, might be got over by placing a prism
of small angle, made of quartz or Iceland spar, between
the object-glass and the photographic plate. Theimages
of the stars would be drawn out into limes, while there
would be three or four images of the nebula which would
not interfere. The principal plane of the prism might
then be turned round into a different position-angle, and
another photograph taken, so that the spectra of the stars
would fall in another direction.

Mr. De La Rue said: I recollect very well the time
when the Earl of Rosse’s drawing was made. I compared

arcs

it with the nebula with very great interest at the time, and
I cannot agree with Mr. Common in preferring Father
Secchi’s drawing. It seemsto me that the Earl of Rosse’s
drawitig is much the more accurate in respect of details.
As regards contour and outline, that depends very much
upon the amount of light, which impresses one man’s
eye rather than another’s so that the general outline may
be extended much more in one case than in another.
Lord Rosse’s drawing does not give the whole sweep of
the nebula, and does not take in so extensive a field as
Father Secchi’s drawing. Lord Rosse’s drawing is bet-
ter seen in the black upon white print than in the white
upon the black ground.

Mr. Common said that there was a great black channel
in the nebula, which is well shown in Father Secchi’s
drawing, but is lost in the Earl of Rosse’s drawing. The
latter drawing seemed to him too full of detail.*

Mr. Ranyard said although the actual brightness of
various parts of an object like a nebula or corona cannot
be judged of from the opacity of corresponding parts of
photographs, yet a photograph will enable one to tell
with great certainty which is the brightest region of
the object photographed, and it affords a very valuable
permanent photometric scale, by which various degrees
of brightness of one region relatively to another may be
judged of. For example, Dr. Draper’s photograph shows
that a nebulous mass on the preceding side ot the trapez-
ium is the brightest region ot the nebula. This does not
correspond with any of the draw.ngs. It is of course
possible that the actinic light of the nebula does not cor-
respond with its luminosity as observed by the eye, but
this supposition is not very probable, as the spectros-
cope does not show any striking differencés in the com-
position of the light of the nebula. The photograph en-
ables us to judge very well of the relative magnitudes of
the stars involved in the nebula. I have compared the
magnitudes of the images of the stars in the photograph
as enlarged by irradiation, with the magnitudes of the
same stars as given by Liaponnoy, and | find that they
correspond very accurately. No doubt it may also be
assumed that the brightness of various regions of the
nebula may be compared with equal satety by noting the
opacity of corresponding parts of the photographic film.
With regard to Father Secchi’s drawing and the drawing
ot the Earl of Rosse, I agree with Mr. De La Rue that
I rather prefer the Earl ot Rosse’s. It shows a much
smaller region of the nebula, and I must remark that I
have not much faith in the existence of these outlying
nebulous structures shown in Secchi’s and Tempel’s
drawings. If such structures exist the nebula would
occupy an area of more than a degree, and it ought to be
seen with the naked eye better than with any telescope.
Every one is familiar with the way in which a faint struc-
ture like the tail of a comet—which can be easily seen
with the naked eye—is lost when viewed with the best of
telescopes. A telescope of whatever aperture will not
increase the brightness of an object occupying a sensible
area,

Mr. De La Rue: Lord Rosse’s drawing does not em-
brace such a large area as Secchi’s, and you do not see
the contour definitely marked as you do in Secchi’s. If
you cover those parts of Secchi’s drawing down to the ex-
tent of Lord Rosse’s drawing then the difference of out-
line that strikes Mr. Common would to a great extent
disappear.

Mr. Mitchell: If you get a definite chemical com-
pound with which you make your photographic plate,

* [Note by Mr.Common.] Reference to the drawings here mentioned
was only made incidentally, and with regard to one point, As to which
of the two is the better one, | have no doubt in my mind, nor need any one
have who looks at them with a recollection of the real object. What I
wanted to point out was, that owing to a proper contrast not having been
made 1n Lord Rosse’s drawing, the general appearance, or what we would
tails the leading features, was lost, and a drawing excellent in all the de-
call fails in these leading features.

SCIENCE. 83

and can obtain a definite exposure, and know the other
conditions of temperature, and so on, I think that it can
not be doubted that you would have a more reliable
record than if the varying conditions of the brain, at one
time and another, have to be taken into account. If the
condition of one man’s brain has to be compared with
the condition of the brain of another man, physiological
difficulties come in which may be avoided by means of
photography. In comparing photographs you have only
mechanical differences and physical conditions to con-
sider, which certainly involve much less complication
than physiological differences.

—— » ——__—

ASTRONOMY.
MAGNITUDE OF JUPITER’S THIRD SATELLITE.

On the evening of February 2, Jupiter was passing
near the star B. A. C. 303 (73 Piscium, and the opportu-
nity was taken at the Observatory of Harvard College to
compare photometrically the third satellite of the planet,
with the star. Three observers took part in the work,
and four sets of measurements, each consisting of eight
single comparisons, were made. The result obtained was
that the star was fainter than the satellite by 0.38 magni-
tudes of Pogson’s logarithmic scale. For the magnitude
of the star we have 6.16 by the mean of the available es-
timates on record, and 6.17 by the observations made at
this observatory with the meridian photometer. The re-
sulting magnitude of the satellite is 5.28 or 5.29, in close
agreement with the value, 5.24, found by a very different
method, in the Annals of the Observatory, Vol. XL., p.
276.

SWIFT’S COMET.—We are indebted to Prof. Pickering
for the following list of dates on which observations of
Swift’s Comet (1880 e), were obtained at Harvard College
Observatory, by Mr. Wendell :

1880, Nov. 3, 1880, Nov. 27, 1880, Dec. 28,
ae 8, ae 29, ae 30,
Oy 9, Dec. 2, NT
: Ly, io aas 1881, Jan. 1,
oe 18, re 4, “es Gy
1095 a gh 5) ae
oT US bee fo <8
Un py, UGE sao), £58)
CN ey ee 22: hee
20s ek 23%

URANIA.—The first number of the new Zzternatzonal
Sournal of Astronomy contains in a very convenient
form of 24 demy 4to pages, a number of interesting arti-
cles. Among others are the following papers: “ Obser-
vations of the Spectrum of Comet 1880 d, (Hartwig) at
Dunecht,” by Copeland and Lohse. “ A New Planetary
Nebula,” by Dr. Copeland. ‘‘ Observations of Comets
1880 b,c, and d, at Dunecht. ‘“ Uber die Auflésung der
Lambert’schen Gleichung fiir Parabolische Bahnen, by
Professor Klinkerfues.

PROF. WILLIAM A. ROGERS, of Cambridge, has re-
cently made a visit to Washington to compare the copies
of the English and French standards of length, with the
standards of our Government deposited at the Coast Sur-
vey Office. Prof. Rogers obtained very accurate copies of
the yard and metre during January and February, 1880
having made a trip to Paris and London for that pur-
pose.

WE learn of the recent death of Baron Dembowski,
the well-known double-star observer, at the age of 69.
For upward of twenty-five years he had devoted himself
to the re-measurement of the starsof the Dorpat Cata-
logue, and foi this work was awarded in 1878 the gold
medal of the Royal Astronomical Society.

Wis Ge Wis

84 SCIENCE.

BOOKS RECEIVED.

ASTRONOMY FOR STUDENTS AND GENERAL READERS.
By SIMON NEwcoms, L. L. D., and EDWARD §&.
HOLDEN, M. A. Second Edition, Revised. Henry
Holt and Company. New York, 1880, $2.50.

It may be supposed that the joint efforts of Dr. Simon
Newcomb and Professor Edward §. Holden to write a
work on Astronomy has resulted in the production of a
work which may be accepted by the public as a reliable
and able exposition of the subject.

The attempt, however, to compose a text book in
Astronomy which should be equally applicable to the
class of a college, and to the general reader, was a task
which presented few elements of success; we are not
therefore surprised to find that the authors candidly
state in their preface that in spite of the title selected for |
the book that the work was principally designed for the
use of those who desire to pursue the study of Astronomy
as a branch of liberal education.

Regarded in this light the work is a great success, for
the general reader will find by a careful perusal of this
manual that he has mastered all the leading points in the
study of Astronomy in sufficient detail, to enable him in
the future to fully comprehend whatever he may read on
this subject. The work in question may well serve as a
model for those desirous of writing scientific manuals ;
in simple, but forcible language, the most complicated
explanations are presented in a form that may be com-
prehended by a reader of ordinary intelligence with-
out mental effort, while the interest of the student is
maintained throughout.

The description of astronomical instruments and their
uses forms a valuable portion of the work, and all the
details of observatory work are explained by the aid of
good illustrations ; thus all the methods by which astron-
omical research is carried on at the present day are de-
scribed by one who was himself at that time a member
of the corps having in charge one of the most completely
equipped observatories that has yet been organized.

The three branches, into which Astronomy is now di-
vided, are all ably treated by the authors, and it is not
difficult to detect the plan adopted by the authors in di-
viding their work.

We regret this manual was not considered worthy of
a good index, for on this account the book is valueless as
a work of reference. In future editions it would be well
to remedy this unnecessary defect.

——$ $$ <—____—_——.

CIRCULARS OF INFORMATION OF THE BUREAU OF
EDUCATION. No, 4, 1880. Rural School Architec-
ture, with illustrations.

No. 5. English Rural Schools. Washington, Government
Printing Office, 1880,

The first paper (No. 4) presents a concise yet complete
treatise on the proper construction, heating and ventila-
tion of school buildings, prepared by Mr. S. M. Clark, a
weil-known architect of Boston. The aim of the paper
is not so much to lay down rules to be inconsiderately
followed, as to give principles and directions suggestive
of the plans best to be followed under a variety of circum-
stances.

This is a thoroughly practical paper, and the whole
subject has been well handled by Mr. Clark, and the
pamphlet cannot tail to be most useful to School Boards
and Committees. The Commissioner of the Bureau of
Education deserves the thanks of all heads of families
for ordering the production. of this timely publication,
which, however, merely applies to rural districts, and we
trust the manual treating on buildings for high schools,

academies and colleges will be published without delay,
i

as itis a matter of common notoriety that the health of
children in many of the large cities, is sacrificed in con-
sequence of the school-rooms being constructed without
regard to hygienic principles.

Vo. 5—Is a description of the condition of rural schools
and the progress of elementary education in the rural
districts of England, written by Mr. Henry W. Hulbert,
late of Middleberry College, based on his personal infor-
mation. Hedoes not attempt to enforce lessons from his
facts, but leaves these to the reflection of the reader.

The facts presented by Mr. Hulbert are most interest-
ing, and would appear to indicate that the effort to edu-
cate the masses of the people is making slow but steady
progress against the opposition raised against it by certain
classes.

We have the authority of Mr. Heller, of the Ma¢zonal
Unzon, that there was a great cry at first, but advanced
education would increase the crime of the land.’ Of
course the contrary has been the real result, and it is
stated that there is manifestly less coarseness of manners
among the lower classes.

It is admitted, however, that a certain restlessness has
been created by advanced education, and ‘‘that it has
driven children into towns to seek what they consider
higher situations, and in some cases it has led to emigra-

tion.”
—————— $9

LETTERS TO THE EDILOR:

[The Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed
by his correspondents. No notice is taken of anonymous communi
cations.]

DR. FLEMING’S CLASSIFICATION OF SCIENCE.

To the Editor of SCIENCE:

There are numberless ways in which knowledge may
be classified, as the numerous systems of classification
put forward show, and it appears to be a very common
notion that all knowledge may be put in a serial order
showing the elements in logical dependence. However
this may be in metaphysical matters, it is certainly not
possible to do so in physical philosophy, for the various
manifestations of energy are mutually co-related, and
starting with any one of them it is possible to develop
almost any of the other forms. In the scheme of Dr.
Fleming this does not appear, but in the plan of it he
places the doctrine of the correlation of forces high up in
Physico Dynamic Science instead of making it almost the
first division of Physics. The latteras now understood isthe
science of energy, and energy always involves two factors,
one a mass and the other a velocity. When motions are
considered in their geometrical relations, apart from mass,
the science is known as Kinnematics and as a branch of
pure mathematics, it has nothing more to do with phy-
sics proper than has geometry, though all problems in
physics are more or less mathematical problems, but
they become Dynamzc when mass is involved. Inas-
much as masses of all dimensions, from an atom to the

sun, follow the same laws, it surely is nota scientific pro- |

ceeding to make a grand division here of Astronomy as
distinct from the more general division of Mechanics.
Astronomy so far as pertains to the genesis of the Stel-

| lar Universe is only a development or application of me-

chanics to large masses of matter. Again the author is
mistaken when he says, ‘‘Then Natural Philosophy mon-
opolizes the whole field. Now Chemical Philosophy has
taken the rank of a distinct department.’’ ‘The fact is
that since the discovery that chemism is dependent upon
mass, the science has been swallowed up entirely in phy-
sics, and every so-called chemical problem is a pure. phy-
sical problem. Chemism is one of the correlated forms
of energy and the logical importance is the same as that
of heat and electricity.
B.D;

SCIENCE. 85

“SCIENCE:

A WEEKLY REcORD OF SCIENTIFIC

PROGRESS.

JOHN MICHELS, Editor.

PUBLISHED AT
229 BROADWAY, NEW YORK.

P, O. Box 38888.

SATURDAY, FEBRUARY 26, 1881.

INDEX FOR SCIENCE.

In accordance with the promise made in our first number, we
have prepared an elaborate Index for Volume One.

Genera and species are printed in italics ; also the names of re-
cently discovered stars. There is a separate Subject and Authors’
Index, the whole having 4576 distinct references. ‘‘ SCIENCE”
thus becomes a valuable standard work of reference, which should
be found in every library. The Index has been sent to regular
subscribers ; others can obtain iton payment of twenty cents.

THE NEW YORK AQUARIUM.

With the closing of the New York Aquarium the
city will-lose an institution that might have been
made a source of instruction to the people, combined
with an agreeable place of recreation, and the causes
of its failure to be remunerative may be studied with
advantage by those who desire to have a permanent
public aquarium in this city, thriving on a paying
basis.

We observe that the present proprietor, Mr. Charles
Reiche, makes the assertion “that such a place is not
appreciated by the people.” We consider that such a
statement has been amply refuted by the very fair
amount of patronage received, even at a price for
admission which was practically prohibitory to the
majority of those who would have visited the place in
thousands.

Neither do we believe that the faults of the man-
agement can be charged with the failure, and we
have as little faith in the other reasons which have been
suggested. In our opinion the whole enterprise was
killed by being loaded down with heavy expenses, and
too profuse expenditure by those who controlled the
finances.

Unfortunately, there was too much money at com-

"mand from the start, and by the time experience of the

proper course to pursue had been gained, the capita
had been squandered, and the demoralization which
finally led to the ruin, had set in.

To saddle the enterprise with a rental of $10,000 a
year for the bare ground on which the building stood
was to court ruin, but all the outlays were made on
the same extravagant basis. Then came the fatal
mistake of appealing for support to the few affluent,
and making each admission fifty cents, instead of

| trusting to the multitude who could and would have

paid twenty-five cents.

Even under these circumstances we are now told by
Mr. Reiche that for a time it did pay. We think this
very convincing proof that under more economical
management and with a less pretentious establish-
ment, success would have been secured.

On behalf of many scientific men, we extend our
thanks to Mr. Reiche for the liberal facilities he has
throughout extended to those who desired to visit and
make use of the aquarium for scientific purposes ; to
such the place has always been open and a cordial
welcome given. Under instructions, the officers in
charge have been courteous in offering the fullest
facilities for study and freely gave such specimens as
could be spared. How little such opportunities have
been appreciated and used by naturalists within reach
of the institution reflects little credit on those who
should have seized the occasion with avidity.

Unfortunately the facilities were too great, and too
conveniently at hand to be appreciated, and because
they were offered as a gift they were neglected. The
New York Aquarium had the benefit of the services
of the best professional collectors in this country, and
the coast from Maine to Florida was constantly
searched for living species of rare and _ interesting
forms of animal life, and yet many naturalists preferred
to waste their time and money, travelling hundreds of
miles, to obtain objects which could be had at their
very doors.

The same results have happened in Europe under
similar ‘circumstances. When Mr. Lloyd, of London,
was asked if he thought the aquarium at the Chan-
nel Islands would answer, he replied, that he feared
it was too near home, too convenient of access ; for
said he, “I have known persons prefer to travel from
to the Bay of Naples to collect specimens, which I
had in my aquarium at the Crystal Palace.”

We trust that steps may be taken to preserve the
fittings of the New York Aquarium, and that they may
be replaced in some part of the city where a site will be
inexpensive, and that a plan may be arranged for main-
taining it on a remunerative basis, which in our opin-
ion should not be a difficult matter; but to secure
success we should advise the institution to be placed
in the charge of some well-known professional nat-
uralist, who could be well named by Professor Spencer
F. Baird.

86

SCIENCE.

SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION.

In its annual report for 1880 the Smithsonian Institu-
tion purposes publishing a bibliography of American
Anthropology for that year. ‘lhe list will include not
only the titles of works in that special branch, where-
ever issued, but also the publications of American
scholars in all departments of this science, and you will
confer a favor on the establishment by sending it a copy
of each of your works upon the subject published during
the year 1880, Should this be impracticable, however,
please send alist of your own memoirs and of those of
the scientific associations with which you are connected,
bearing upon Anthropology, in each case giving the full
title, author’s name, edition, imprint, size, number of
pages, maps, engravings, etc. If the publication forms
a part of a periodical or of the proceedings of a scientific
association, the fact should be distinctly stated. In the
case of separate works, references to periodicals in which
reviews have appeared should also be given.

In order to give permanent value to this list and to
obviate delay in the appearance of the volume, you will
oblige the Institution by complying with its request as
soon as possible.

SPENCER F. BAIRD,

Secretary Smithsonian Institution.
WASHINGTON, D. C., February 1, 188r1.

SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES OF WASHINGTON.

THE BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY.-—At the Biological Society,
Friday evening, February 11, the entire evening was
spent in discussing the annual address of President
Theodore Gill, delivered at the previous meeting. Dr.
White and Professor Ward, in company-with the Presi-
dent, reviewed the arguments which have been offered
by various naturalists, including Professor Burt G.
Wilder and Dr. Coues, for the existence of antero-poste-
rior symmetry in the vertebrates. The conclusion reached
was, that, while there are many and very plausible reasons
in favor of this view, on the whole, the weight of testi-
mony is on the opposite side. Dr. King gave a descrip-
tion of one or two cases of hermaphroditism which had
come under his notice. This was the occasion of an
interesting discussion as to the meaning of the term and
the possibilities of the phenomenon in the human subject.
Professor Ward brought forward the arguments of
Haeckel for the establishment of a kingdom of nature in-
termediate between the Vegetable and the Animal
Kingdoms.

THE ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY,—The Anthropo-
logical Society met on Tuesday evening, February 15,
Vice-President Mason in the chair. The following
papers were announced: ‘‘Some peculiarities in the use
of moods in the principal Neo. Latin Languages. ’”—By
H. L. Thomas. “ Aboriginal burial cave in the Valley
of the South Shenandoah.”—By Elmer R. Reynolds.
“ Amphibious aborigines ot Alaska.”—By Ivan Petroff.
Mr. Thomas, the translator of the State Department,
announced that the object of his paper was to follow the
history of the Latin rules respecting the sequence of
moods in complex sentences in the languages of Southern
Europe, commonly called Romance or Neo-Latin. The
author directed attention to the fact that numerous
editors of the last few centuries had made changes in the
moods of Latin verbs in order to bring them under certain
fixed rules from which the Latins had never varied. By
numerous citations from very old editions these changes
were exposed.

The next point elaborated was the national peculiar-
ties which had manifested themselves in the adoption of

Latin rules. The Portuguese, Spanish, French, Italian
and Romance proper, had all affected the Latin usages
in the use of the subordinate subjunctive, but had done
this, so to speak, in their own way: which gives to the
subject a special ethnologic value.

The author justly paid a high tribute to the opinion
set forth by Professor Fay, in a communication made
to the Society last year, that we are not to look inclass-
ical Latin but in the old Roman folk-speech for the
ancestor of these borrowed forms. During the discuss-
ion which followed by Professor Antisell, Dr. Welling
and the chair, the interesting question was mooted
whether in the advance of scientific certitude the use of
subjunctive or doubtful forms were not sloughed off.

Dr. Reynolds gave a brief but highly interesting de-
scription of a visit toa cave in Page valley, Virginia,
near the celebrated Luray cavern, containing numerous
human remains. The Smithsonian Institution had sent
out many hundreds of circulars, to every post-office in
the United States, but had failed to receive information
of a single mound or permanent remain in the valley of
Virginia. Dr. Reynolds, in the short space of a month
traced twenty-five mounds, ossuaries, forts, ateliers, and
bone caves. The paper was illustrated with a large
collection of human bones, stone implements, and
pottery.

—————

AMERICAN CHEMICAL SOCIETY.

THE February Conversaztone of the American
Chemical Society took place Monday evening, the 21st
inst. No papers were read, but a number of interesting
specimens were exhibited. Among these was a quantity
of that poisonous alkaloid, nicotine, which Mr. William

Rupp, one of the curators of the society, had himself
prepared. Mr. P. Casamajor, by means of a microscope
with an 8-10 objective, showed a simple way to distin-
guish between pure sugar and that adulterated with glu-
cose. The former crystalizes in large and characteristic
forms while the glucuse appears much finer, and as poor-
ly defined cystals. So that when the two are mixed no dif-
ficulty would be had in distinguishing the adulterated
from the pure, provided a microscope was used.

A large piece of glass painted with Balmain’s Lumi-
nous Paint was exhibited by Mr. M. Benjamin. This paint
was discovered in 1877 by Mr. Balmain, an English chem-
ist, and has recently been brought to this country. It pos-
sesses the peculiar power of phosphorescence, or the prop-
erty of absorbing light during the daytime, and then emit-
ting it in the darkness. Itis prepared by calcining oyster
shells with sulphur, and treating the resulting calcium
sulphide with the proper articles necessary to form a
paint.

Its uses are numerous; miners lamps are painted with
it, and used instead of the ordinary safety lamp; it has
been suggested that screens coated with this paint be
used for illuminating purposes along the galleries of
mines. Its marine applications are very important. the
painting of life buoys, and also stationary buoys, so that
they can be seen at night-time, the hulls and ngging of
ships treated in this manner might prevent collisions.
Divers costumes painted with it are found to yield light
after the diver has descended, in fact, sufficiently so to
enable him to distinguish quite minute objects.

Tunnels may be illuminated by this paint. It has been
successfully eaployes to light railway cars at night time.
The time of night is readily told from clocks and watches
whose faces are coated with this substance. Signs and
advertisements are among the many uses to which it may
be put. More appplications will suggest themselves to
every one. Ma5;

N. Y., Feb. 22, 1681,

.

SCIENCE. 87

ORGANIC HEALING POWERS.
A LECTURE BY RUDOLF VIRCHOW.
[Translated from the German by the Marchioness Clara Lanza.]

Andrew Jackson Davis, who is called the “Great
Prophet ” by his German adherents, thus begins a chap-
ter in his “ Harmony”! entitled “The Philosophy of
Disease :”

“The improvements and progress which have been
made in pathological science, are not by any means in
keeping with its actual value and antiquity.” And then
he adds the following :

“ The age of a science or doctrine has but little to do
with its reliability, importance or progress. Indeed, the
great maturity of any doctrine is almost a positive proof
that it originated in ignorance, superstition and error.”

The “Great Prophet,’ who conceives all his ideas
without the aid of study, and who, moreover, by a pecu-
liar direction of his will, turns from the confining influ-
ences of the material world in order that he may enter
the “highest state,’ has entirely overlooked the fact that
the ancient science which he disdains, proceeded from
precisely similar revelations as those which he produces
with so much pride.

Welcker, in his magnificent work upon the “ Art of
Healing Among the Ancient Greeks,’? has given very
impressive descriptions of the Epiphania which occurred
more than 2000 years ago in the Temple of A:sculapius,
and they now possess a double interest in regard to
American Spiritualism or spiritualism of any kind, (if we
consider fora moment how philologists a quarter of a

. century ago investigated the question) as to whether the

so-called incubation of the A‘sculapians was identical
with modern clairvoyance. Those seeking to be cured
from disease obtained revelations while sleeping or
dreaming in the sanctuary of God. Hence medical liter-
ature arose, for the afflicted wrote a description of their
cures upon the pillars of the Temple or else upon certain
consecrated tablets, and from them the foretather of
medicine, Hippocrates, collected in the Temple of Kos
those memorable “ Predictions” which can be considered
one of the principle sources of our scientific knowl-
edge.®

Did all this spring from “ignorance, superstition and
error?” The point perhaps cannot be contested, but it
contains, nevertheless, a large portion of veritable exper-
ience, and Hippocrates, not withstanding his direct de-
scent from heathens was a too critical and (remarkable
as it may seem) a too worldly person not to expose
everything which partook merely of a sacerdotal or sup-
erstitious character.

In his writings and in those of his followers, there is
nothing supernatural to be found. The gods no longer
heal the sick. Nature does it, and nature, moreover, does
not act in accordance with instantaneous inspiration. On
the contrary it is subject to “divine necessity,” or rather
we should say to eternal and also divine laws.

Since the remote period before referred to, opposition
has been openly declared between science and supersti-
tious therapeutics. The latter even now has certainly
not died out. The countrymen of the “ Great Prophet,”
that is to say, the medicine men among the North Amer-
ican Indians still boast of their immediate intercourse
with the Great Spirit, and perhaps it is the proximity
of these people which promotes the increase of spiritual-
ism throughout the United States. One of the nations
of North Asia‘ beats a magic drum, while a certain peo-

1 Andrew Jackson Davis, M. D. Harmonious Philosophy Concerning
the Origin and Destiny of Man—His health, disease and recovery.
Leipzig, 1873, p. 93.

2 F. G. Welcker, The Art of Healing Among the Ancient Greeks.
Bonn, 1850, p. 95, 112, 151.

3 Magni Hippocratis Opera Omnia, Edit. Kuhn, Leipzig, 1825, Vol. 1,
P. 234.

* 0. Peschel. Knowledge of Nations.’ tLeipzig, 1874, p. 274.

ple in South Africa blow an enchanted trumpet in order
that the evil spirits of disease may be dispelled. How-
ever, we do not need to go so far for examples of this
kind. In our immediate neighborhood the traditions of
heathenism rise up secretly and flourish, while supersti-
tion concerning mystical healing powers is capable of
continually bringing forth fresh fruit.

Conjuring, however, during the past century has rapidly
declined. I, myself, remember that during my childhood
many people of the middle classes where I lived believed
in fire conjuring. Even at the present day you will
scarcely find one German city where the worth of a fire
brigade is not undervalued on account of the possible
termination of a conflagration may have in consequence
of conjurations.

In one of those old Greek writings, which, on account
of its age, has been attributed to Hippocrates, and has
for its subject Epilepsy, or the divine disease®, which, at
that time was treated by magic, the author says that
those who conferred divine names upon diseases were
merely magicians, purifiers, pious beggars, and cox-
combs, who gave themselves the airs of God-fearing in-
dividuals, but who, in reality, knew no better how to con-
ceal their perplexity than by taking refuge behind the
deities.

How many years have passed since then! The
Olympian Gods have been shattered for ages ; even Chris-
tianity has by degrees become an old religion, and yet
with it all, epilepsy has not ceased to be: the subject of
conjuration and magic.

Superstition, no matter how degraded, will always out-
live faith. The fathers of the church belonging to the
first Christian century, fought and struggled in vain
against the traditions of heathenism. Chrysostom said
that a Christian had better far endure sickness and death
than have his health restored and his life lengthened by
means of amulets and exorcisms. But the Christians
would not listen to this voice, and in the end the Church
was forced to make amends. When it erected its places
of worship upon the very ground where formerly were
temples and sacrifices, and changed the heathen festivals
into Christian ones, new methods of supernatural cure
were instantly put into practice. Even the kings by
God’s favor did not hesitate to adopt this sort of accom-
plishment—not only the most Christian kings of France,
but also those of England, until the first representative of
the House of Hanover mounted the throne, Catholic and
Protestant alike cured scrofula by discourses and sundry
calming influences. At that time the disease was called
“ Kings’ Evil,” just as epilepsy was termed the “divine
disease.”

Such obtuseness in regard to traditional superstition may
seem astonishing, not to say alarming. It lies, however,
deeply imbedded within the human mind. How long has
the fear of ghosts at night been kept up, while scarcely
anyone dreads spirits in broad daylight? According to
the testimony of Signoria Coronedi, people in Bologna
burn daily the combings of their hair, to the end that no
witchcraft can be perpetrated upon them, and I remem-
ber distinctly that when, as a boy, my hair was cut, the
clippings were carefully thrown into the stove.

The inhabitants of some of the Malay Islands fear that
a magician will have their lives in his power should he
take the remnants of their meals and burn them in a
peculiar sort of ashes called Mahak. Everywhere we
find the same childish tricks performed by men in the
lower orders of life that they may create fictitious per-
sonalities, endow living or inanimate bodies with im-
aginary powers and trace out the superior force of spirits
in purely natural incidents. This is nowhere to be
seen so plainly as in the origin and cure of disease, and
if the source of various maladies is referred to enchant-
ment, possession or dispensation, it arises mainly in re-
gard to the cure to be effected.

De Morbo Sacro,

® Hippocrates. Welcker, p. 587,

88 ; SCIENCE.

The reason can easily be comprehended. While we
are familiar with the natural causes of maladies we <-re
still in want of a well organized acquaintance with their
natural preceding incidents. By taking an unprejudiced
view of the case, we can easily see that even Hippocrates
had recourse to nature in curing diseases. Physics, he
designated the basis upon which the healing incidents
rested, and there can be no doubt that this term was the
same to him as is to us the tautological ep thet of the
‘‘physical nature of man.’”’ If you read attentively the
part in which he mentions this, you can no longer doubt
that he had the whole question of man’s bod:ly forma-
tion foremost in his mind. Taken in this sense, the
healing powers belonging to the body itself must conse-
quently be natural or physical organic forces.

The idea, however, was in a certain measure a pro-
phetic one. Knowledge at that time was not sufficiently
extensive to admit of, or to supply any explanation of it.
Even the most favorable and clear sighted observations
relating to natural incidents in healing, led to nothing
more than a superficial, and to a certain extent, brief
conception of the events. This sufficed certainly to es-
tablish their situation, and also furnished abundant
cause for application of remedies at certain times
and on particular parts of the body, remedies which
seemed adapted to facilitate the natural course of events,
to favor it, or in case it remained concealed, to bring it
forward. :

There have been numerous attempts to explain all this.
One school after the other produced its dectrines, but
each one of them was based upon imperfect or voluntary
suppositions. Each new step of progress in the knowl-
edge of various occurrences which take place in the
human organization overthrew the opinion under con-
sideration and produced another. Of course this did
not conduce to strengthen faith in regard to scientific
medicine.

It was only during the period of spiritual inactivity
when nature’s perceptions remained for a long time un-
changed as in the early portion of the middle ages, and
the Church as well as Medicine adopted natural science
in its system of teaching, that medical doctrines gained
for themselves the recognized character of stability. It
was then that the physician attained aristocratic honors.
However secondary schools then arose and dilettanteism
pushed forward into existence. So it was at the time of
the German revolution, the French revolution and the
formation of a new German kingdom.

At no period whatever has mysticism been wanting.
A peculiar form of it deserves to be especially mentioned.
It is called mystical calculation ; its origin lies buried in
the most remote practical teachings. Hippocrates himself,
observing a country which up to this day is shunned on ac-
count of its malarial influence, has established with minute
exactness the duration of the feverish maladies which
arose from the marshy distric's with peculiar regularity.
He not only ascertained the precise duration of the fever,
but also the days when a decided crisis would appear.
The numbers acquired served to denote when the treat-
ment should be discontinued as the critical days, the 7th,
the 11th, e'c., designated. the proper time for the admin-
istration of remedies. In this way the calculating sys-
tem became celebrated, and as it was made a subject of
universal contemplation before the days of Hippocrates
by the various philosophical schools, we cannot be sur-
prised that those who succeeded them thought to reccg-
nize in the theory more than mere expressions concern-
ing the legitimate relation of things to each other.

During the Middle Ages astrology formed a close alli-
ance with medicine, and the constellations occupied the
places of the ancient oracles. But even subsequent ages

have repeatedly had recourse to conceptions which nearly ©

approach those of the Pythagoreans. Particularly towards
the close of the preceding century, discoveries in the de_
partments of electricity and magnetism caused the bio

logical sciences to adopt the theory of polar attraction,
a doctrine in which the heterodoxy of animal magnetism,
and its companion spiritualism is firmly rooted. In the
Pythagorean philosophy, a two-fold existence was sup-
posed to be at the root of everything, and the circulation
of this doctrine has resolved itself, so to speak, into the
“Great Prophet” of America, according to whose con-
ception Providence isa moving substance formed of posi-
tive and negative proportions, and which acts upon mat-
ter in different ways through the agency of the number 7.

Among all these attempts to grasp the phenomena in
a determined manner, an effort comes to light which is
in every way worthy of recognition. It has been shown
that the human intellect has no more a universal and
spiritual form which can establish the relation and con-
ception of things, than it has a material one. Calculation
produces the definite value by which we are enabled to
assign things to their proper places. It is for this reason
that intricate natural sciences, physics and chemistry par-
take every day of a more mathematical character. The
descriptive natural sciences follow timidly in their foot-
steps, and even physiology and psychology have already
been made to travel over the same road. How then,
could medicine escape ?

However, the numbers 2, 3, 4, 7 and 10, do not suffice
to explain the infinite multiplicity of things, even if the
combination of ten numbers serves to account for each
calculation. Every reckoning about actual things rests
upon observation and not upon inspiration. The more
difficult the calculation, the more complex must have
been the preceding observation which went to supply the
elements of the reckoning. This is true, earnest work,
such as no one individual is capable of producing. One
workman assists the other, and one generation helps an-
other, not only in transmitting results, but also their aim
and object.

It will be a difficult task, nevertheless, for any genera-
tion to recognize self-acting forces in numbers. If two
objects attract each other it is not owing to the things
themselves. And there isno number in existence which
possesses healing powers, and no talisman compounded
of numbers which possesses active force. The numbers
supposed to play animportant part in disease only serve
to give those versed in art the means by which they may
discover the time and duration of the malady and arrange
their mode of action accordingly.

But just as Astronomy is incapable of moving the -

moon or planets by means of numbers, so is the physician
unable to produce any effect upon the course of disease
or recovery by the same process. Numbersare not rem-
edies, for remedies are actual things, which stand at the
disposal of medical art ; are actually applicable, and which
possess in a certain sense real powers of healing. When
we consider them, however, we come to a lengthy and
apparently increasing contention which is embodied in
medical history in the names of physiologists and technol-
ogists. Physiologists are those who seek healing powers
within the physical organization itself, while technologists
think to recognize them in such means or influences
which exist independently of the patient and are directed
toward him.

It is true that the physiologist does not altogether des-
pise remedies, but they only serve, in his opinion, to set
the organic powers at large. The technologist, on the
contrary, intrenches upon the organism. He forces life
into artifical conditions. He “ orders” and “ prescribes”
where the physiologist is satisfied with existing circum-
stances and comes forward as Nature’s servant.

Of course a long time has elapsed since the contro-
versy between these two schools was at its height, but
in some recent accounts it appears again, not only in
specified cases of treatment, but also in a general sense.

Not many years ago blood-letting was a daily occur-
rence in every hospital, and indeed in almost every private
practice. Now it has become so rare that young physi

4

SCIENCE. 89

cians are scarcely acquainted with it. When I wasa

young hospital assistant I was frequently forced to per-
form cupping four or five times in one morning. Singu-
larly enough the change came at a time when we were
the least prepared for it. In cases-of inflammation of the
lungs, where the most audacious blood letting was con-
sidered an almost irrefragable means of restoring the
patient, they began in the Universal Hospital at Prague
to observe the natural course of the disease without the
application of any remedies. They contented themselves
with giving the patients plenty of fresh air, good attend-
ance, greater cleanliness than they were in the habit of
getting and strict dietetic surveillance. In the way of
medicine, they got nothing, and yet very favorable stat-
istics were obtained. In this way physiology gained a
victory over technology, and at the first step reached the
highest form —nihilism.®

Since then a certain reconciliation has taken place. A
firm conviction arose that hospital practice could not
merely be influential to private practice—that the hospi-
tal, with its manifold contrivances, its order and regimen,
possessed provisos and remedies which in a private fam-
ily, even a wealthy one, could only be imperfectly estab-
lished, or else not at all—and finally that the nihilism of
the hospital physician could not be transmitted to fam-
ilies.

Of course, both physiology and technology will con-
tinually enlarge in the future, the more so as experience
gains new perceptions and increased power. This, we
all know, is inevitable, and the public, which might justly
reprove medicine for its scientific changeability, should
bear in mind constantly that it is the fate of humanity to
be fickle, not only in regard to science, but also every
other matter, from the State to the Church. Wecan only
hope that changes everywhere will be made with as much
honest intention as they generally are in regard to
science.

It would, perhaps, be possible to check trivial fluctua-
tions if people could only agree better as to proper heal-
ing objects. This is precisely the point over which scien-
tific men find it so difficult to attain to a uniformi y of
opinion. When a physician is called upon to cure he has
the case before him, represented by the patient— a unity
so to speak. And yet the maladyitself gives the im-
pression of another unity. It has the appearance of some
strange being which has implanted itself in the individ-
ual. It has been not improperly termed a parasitic or-
ganism, which lives'in or upon the system of the patient.
Numbers of times it has been asserted that a strange ex-
istence has penetrated into the sick man and “possessed ”’
him, All these ideas unite in the practical task of ex-
pelling the disease by driving it forcibly from the body.
Is it not perfectly evident that a double existence takes the
place of the former unity ? Can any conclusion be drawn
from such premises, except that the “‘case’’ must be re-
garded as dualistic? If the physician has the patient ad
the disease before him ; if he is to separate the one from
the other ; if the practical endeavor is to act agazust the
disease and for the individual, can it be a question of a
unitarian conception ?

Truthfully speaking, such an idea has never properly
existed. Even in cases of sickness which were termed
rather figuratively universal, it was always understood that
a more or less large portion of health should remain un-
disturbed. It was this remainder that caused “ reaction”
according to some schools, and led the battle against
strange intruders. Paracelsus, in the Middle Ages, ex-
pressed these thoughts in the most worthy manner. Let
us take up the point and imagine a defensive battle whose
seat of action is the human frame. Who are the combat-
ants? On one side we have the disease, in the other the
healthy portion, The latter, of course, can go forth with
no other weapons of defense and attack than those pre-

“Archives of pathological anatomy, 1849, Vol, 11., p. 14.

viously possessed. Where can new ones be found ? The
means of resistance must necessarily spring from the
physical system itself. Thus far the ideas are simple
enough. But if we see that the struggle is carried on
according to a military principal, that it has a tendency
to cure, and that the means of reaching this end are ap-
parently, purposely and systematically chosen and put
into action, what power shall we consider the decisive
one? What is the leading principle, and where are we
to look for it? The generality of physicians say with
Hippocrates, itis Nature. But do we not, so to speak,
run around ina circle when we first of all call the legiti-
mate formation of the body nature, and then again have
recourse to the same term when we wish to explain how
this arrangement resolves itself into a systematic unitar-
ian course of action? Have we nota substance to deal
with in the first case, and a force in the second—and an
organized force too, a force with designs and purposes—
a species of spirit in fact? Paracelsus was firmly con-
vinced on this latter point. He designated the decisive
power the Archeus maximus, which corresponded to
spirttus rector, or \eading spirit.

Georg Ernst Stahl, the celebrated clinical lecturer, in
the beginning of the past century, went a step further.
He set up the soul itself, the aza, as the decisive prin-
ciple. But at that time the philosophy of the unknown
was not yet invented, and it was difficult to demonstrate
that the hitherto thinking and conscious soul could here
work in an entirely unconscious manner, and yet be sys-
tematic withal. It was also extremely hard to trace the
diseases of cattle, the #zorbz brutorum, or the maladies
of plants to a soul, if we did not wish to run the risk of
losing the conception of the term by this extensive gener-
alization.

Toward the close of the past century we became
more and more inclined to admit the existence of an or-
ganic force secondary to the soul—some called it vitality,
others natural healing power. Those inclined to the for-
mer opinion endeavored to unite a given relation of the
healthy organism with an effort directed upon itself.
Those who adhered to the latter idea were firmly con-
vinced that a peculiar regulating force existed.

At all events, the much sought for zw#ztfy was driven

furcher and further into the background by the sudden
appearance of these new forces. There was no longer
merely a dyas, but a ¢rvzas. The disease, the remaining
healthy portion of the body, and the particular force
which ruled it. And no matter what special term was
employed to designate the latter, it always partook of a
distinctly spiritual character. Many attempts were made
to reduce it to a scientific quality ; to construct it accord-
ing to a physical dynamic system; to interpret itas a
particular form of electricity or magnetism.
_ However, as soon as the matter was entered upon se-
riously, and all the systematic plans and workings investi-
gated, natural science became instantly transformed into
a spirit.

Nevertheless, assistance was frequently deemed neces-
sary. The course of the struggle was observed more
minutely, and if it was found to be too weakly conducted
either by vitality or natural healing force, endeavors were
made to strengthen both, or at least to incite them
to greater activity. But if the battle was found to be
sustained with more force than necessity required, pains
were taken to moderate and reduce the action. Thus
arose a classification of conditions pertaining to disease—
asthen c, sthenic and hypersthenic, names derived from
sthenos, signifying strength.

It would lead us entirely too far from our course, should
we attempt to expound the history of the various healing
systems. It may suffice to say that every one of them,
to use a common expression, has left its traces behind,
and that an acute eye can easily detect them. Accord-
ng to our present ideas all these systems rest upon an

rroneous conception of life and disease, inasmuch as

90 SCIENCE.

they endeavor to attribute a more or less personal signifi-
cance to each of these terms. The perception thus be-
comes figurative and typical.

Modern medical science has utterly renounced this ten- |

dency to personification, where the pre-supposed force
does not correspond with an actual demonstrable body.
It further separates simple forms from compound ones,
although, according to the mode of observation they may
possibly produce the impression of unity. For instance,
the human organism appears to be a compound form, al-
though we may correctly apply to ita persunal expression.
Each particular cell can be interpreted as a personality,
for they are all self-existing and self-acting, and their
power emanates from their own construction — their
physics. In this sense the human body is not a unity in
the strict #aterzal meaning of the word, but on the
contrary a plurality, a collective form, and in a certain
degree, a state. There likewise exists no one force which

rules it and establishes its action, but on the contrary, a |

coopera'ion of many forces which are inseparable from the
living element. Even the greatest phenomenon in human
life, the spiritual I, is therefore no steady, immovable ca-
pacity, but a very changeable one.

If the human organic structure appears to usa unity it
is chiefly due to three circumstances: First, in the con-
struction of the vascular system and in the blood circu-
lating through it, there is another perfectly accorded
system which pervades the entire body, effects the
material intercourse of the various substances, and con-
stitutes a certain dependence of the parts upon the blood.
For along time, therefore, people looked for the source of
life merely in the blood, and endeavored to explain all
the incidents pertaining to disease and cure by means of
the blood alone. When it appeared to be impure it was
refined with inappropriate substances. When there was
apparently too much or too little, it was drawn off, or at-
tempts were made to produce it. In the second place, in
the formation of the nervous system to which man’s
highest powers are attached, namely, the intellectual, we
find an organization extending throughout the entire
body, converging to the brain and spinal marrow, and
which on one side is qualified to adopt outward impres-
sions and conduct them to the great centre, while on the
other side it possesses the capacity to eject any impulse
directed upon other portions of the body by causing them
to make particular assertions of activity or else to limit
them.

Diseases such as fever, for instance, can only become
intelligible by referring the great number of collected
phenomena which come under this category, to the ner-
vous system.? What wonder then that there is contin-
ually a fresh attempt to explain disease and cure by means
of the nervous system ?

But there is still athird point. This is the enormous
mass of tissues of which the body is built up. The com-
pound construction of countless numbers of cellular ele-
ments which are organized in the most varied manner,
and are capable of producing the greatest diversity of re-
sults. Many of them, such as the muscles, appear in a
high degree to be simple bearers of strength. The blood
would be an immovable mass if the muscles of the heart
and vessels did not circulate it mechanically. Other tis-
sue formations, as the glands, superintend various things,
the act of secretion, for instance, which represents a no
less declaration of force. But each of these regulations,
every one of these so-called organs is again a pluralivy
compounded from endless elementary organisms, the
cells, And when we see that the nervous system is just
as complex, that the vessels, the heart and the blood
are likewise compound combinations, it is well proved
that every observation which does not apply to a com-
pound element must be external and superficial.

If such a conception upon first sight results in a de-

TVirchow. Fever. Four Discourses upon Life and Disease, Berlin,
1862, p. 129.

tachment of the body, a total breaking up of the percep-
tion, a further contemplation will show that these innu-
merable elements do not exist in juxtaposition. Acci-
dentally or indifferently, they belong to each other on ac-
count of their common descent from a simple element
which insures a certain original resemblance and relation
among themselves just as there is among the descendents
of one family.

This is the “divine necessity’ of Hippocrates in its
modern form. It does not merely assume the material of
all elements to be one organism, but it also concludes
that it must form certain combinations by means of which
the effect of the different elements through each other pro-
duces a legitimate arrangement of the general principles.

Such organizations undoubtedly occur in the vascular
and nervous systems, and they exist also in the great
masses of superfluous tissues. For even as the vessels
and nerves influence these latter, so on their side they
influence them. Thus arises a reciprocity of effect which
can be beneficial or otherwise, according to circum-
stances.

As long as the effect is beneficial, so long will the or-
ganization appear to be in harmony. And we can exper-
ience it in our consciousness asa sensation of well-being.
If the effect should be injurious on the contrary, we say
disease has entered the system, and we experience a feel-
ing of discomfort. These sensations do not relate solely
to bodily conditions, but to those of the mind, also. There
is moral as well as physical indisposition.

In a figurative sense, we might say eguz/zbrzum instead
of harmony, and /oss of balance instead of discord. In
many cases such designations would have an actual signi-
ficance. The distribution of the blood is arranged to a
certain extent, according to simple hydro-dynamic princi-
ples. An increase in one part necessitates a decrease in
another. ‘The electricity existing in the nerves can be in-
terpreted in a purely physical sense. Here are tensions
and accumulations, there evacuations and discharges of
electricity. Even the usual incidents pertaining to the
growth of the tissues provide us with numerous examples.
Ifone partincreases in strength, another diminishes. A
suitable instance of these antagonistic phenomena is given
in the difference of, incidents pertaining to growth between
the male and female sexes.

From these remarks we alresdy see that any disturb-
ance of the harmony or equilibrium does not merely affect
the common sensations, and therefore the nervous system,
but also other parts of the body, and it can be readily un-
derstood that one disturbance will act upon this portion,
and another upon that, etc.

Allthe parts do not stand in equal relation to each
other, and those whose mutual dependence is the closest
will,of course, be the soonest affected, while the others will
be influenced in a lesser degree or else not at all. We
designate the closer relationship as symfathy.

All these connections exist uniformly in sound, healthy
bodies, and in order to explain them, we have no need to
refer to the soul, vitality, or any other special spiritual
force. When a diseased disturbance of the equilibrium
occurs, they represent what we call organzc healing power.

In order to obtain a full comprehension of this it is not
actually necessary to say much concerning the healing it-
self. The theoretical discussions which have taken place
in regard to this point, and the practical inferences de
rived from them, have often become very much confused
inasmuch as entirely opposite relations have been drawn
together by means of them.

The old word medicine, which is almost synonymous
with our modern term therapeutics, led to the misunder-
standing that the entire practical energy of the physician
should be directed to one particular point of the bodily
condition inasmuch as his chief taskis to cure. A closer
reflection will show, nevertheless, that this is by no means
the case.

Only a certain portion of medical power, although it

"e

SCIENCE,

9g!

may be the greater part, has reference to the curing of
disease. Important branches of medicine allude to cir-
cumstances of sound health supervised by the physician
in order to prevent disease. Every year our activity in
this respect increases.

Besides the removal of the various causes of disease
there is another cure which we designate as the curatzo
causalzs. A foreign body such asa bullet, a glass splinter,
etc., penetrates into the organism and remains there.
Frequently, if not always, the removal of this body is the
provisoofacure. This of itself, however, is not sufficient,
for the cohesion through which the foreign body passed
must first be united, and the natural connection re-estab-
lished, before the actual restoration can be acknowledged.

Very often restoration is spoken of when the case in
question consists merely of a disturbance or a simple de-
ficiency. If a person breaks his leg he is not ill. He
cannot walk, of course, and an actual malady can proceed
from the fracture if the surrounding parts become in-
flamed and the nerves excited. But the fracture itself
is no illness, although it may become the cause of one.
In spite of this, however, the sufferer always hopes to be
“cured” by the physician.

Now it is unquestionably’true that the same principle of
observation cannot be applied to all such cases, other-
wise we should become hopelessly embarassed. A broken
knee will never set itself; therefore the physician is not
to rely at ail upon nature but simply upon his own skill;
but he does not occupy himself with the phenomena by
means of which the fracture will be re-united. That
happens by itself. The medical influence in question is
certainly technological. It is by means of force that the
physician brings the pieces together in a position which
as nearly as possible corresponds to the natural one. It
is by means of force that he holds them thus. But all
that is not a cure, but merely the stipulation for one.
The broken part finally grows together in a very bad
shape, and the re-establishment of the connecting por-
tions occurs only with a very unfavorable position of the
fracture. Nature in this case works most powerfully.

Every restoration of a broken bone is also physiologi-
cal, and the physician only endeavors to let it occur un-
disturbed and under the most propitious circumstances.
This “only” is of very great importance to the patient,
for a fractured bone which heals crosswise or crookedly
can infringe upon the use ofa limb for life. But when we
come to investigate all the theories of healing we must re-
main firm in stating that recovery from fracture is not
caused by the physician. The cause ofthe cure zs due to
the surrounding tzssues. They produce a new tissue,
which forms over the scar.

We now come to actual déseases. They are not mere
disturbances or yet definite conditions. Anactual disease
is an incident, also a succession of conditions, one pre-
ceding from the other and affecting vital parts. No life-
less object, no dead body ever becomes subject to dis-
ease. An animal or a plant can become diseased, but
only while they are alive and only in such parts as are
endowed with life. Therefore, every disease is a demoli-
tion to sound health, for the same part cannot at once
be sick and well. Disease is also an incident pertaining
to life. We call those incidents disease which deviate
from the typical form of life and which are at the same
time affected by the danger to which they are exposed,
for disease strives towards death, be it local or general,
and, consequently, it struggles against health.

If disease is incidental to life, it must be allied to cer-
tain living portions. Therefore we say the disease is
“seated,” and it is frequently one of the physician’s most
difficult tasks to discover precisely where this seat may

be. But I must correct myself. In many cases the dis-
ease is located in several places. Ifa person has inflam-
mation of the lungs, he usually has a violent fever in
addition. In this case the inflammation is situated in the
lungs and the fever in the centre of the nervous system

—two entirely different places. Is all this one disease ?
Even at the beginning of the present century inflamma-
tion of the lungs was put under the category of fevers,
Now it is considered as local inflammation. Still, it is
the fever principally that is treated, while the inflamma-
tion is left to Nature. I will not enter into the fact that
among many people who suffer from inflammation of the
lungs, the stomach and kidneys also become diseased.
What I have already said will suffice to show that the
mere investigation made to discover the location of the
disease leads us from the idea that it can be a unity.
Unity only exists in so-called imaginary maladies. It is
entirely figurative, a simple fancy, an abstract. In real-
ity, most diseases are distinct pluralities, some existing
in which the number of locations is countless.

It remains further to be sail that in reference to dis-
eases the word “cure” has many significations. If the
term in p'ain language means wholeness without injury,
it should designate the entire and complete re-establish-
ment of the condition. Such an interpretation as this
speaks badly for technology. If one has a tumor on the
knee and the leg is amputated, curing denotes none the
less a complete reestablishment. But it does not always
agree with physiology either.

There is scarcely a single form of inflammation of the
kidneys which admits of complete restoration ; hardly
one example of inflammation of the brain which does
not always leave certain defects. These diseases there-
fore, are cured but imperfectly, and yet we may say the
patients are quite restored because in spite of the defi-
ciencies, new relations and connections take place in the
body which cause the equilibrium of the actions per-
formed.

As an example of the most perfect cure that we know
of, I might mention inflammation of the lungs. Al-
though it happens that in the course of a few days five,
eight or even ten pounds of matter are deposited in the
lungs through which the air inhaled should penetrate, we
see, nevertheless, that again within a short time the entire
mass is loosened and gradually disappears. This is the
consequence of mere natural circumstances. But it re-
quires only trivial aggravations, insignificant want of fore-
sight, slight renewal of deteriorating causes, to interrupt
this natural incident; then no relief can occur. On the
contrary, the masses of matter remain firm like dead ma-
terial; they break in pieces; the tissue surrounding them
becomes impaired and thus the first step is taken toward
that insidious occurrence called consumption. Therefore,
the timely advice of a careful physican is very important
even if he does not cure, and consequently no one should
confidently imagine that all can be satisfactorily arranged
independently of him.

Every incident of disease arises either from a defective
nutrition or formation, or else from some disturbance of
the local acticns. A compound disease frequently in-
cludes all of these reasons at once. Defects of nutrition
and formation are generally classed under the category
of organzc cmperfectzons, because in both cases local al-
terations take place in the organism, For this reason the
equalization of the disturbances occurs generally very
slowly. The defects can only be removed gradually, and
the normal condition established by degrees. Functional
imperfections on the other hand can often be removed in
a moment, because the inward construction does not
change and the Jocal action is altered merely by unusual
excitation or oppression. ‘The more the disease is con-
fined to functional blemishes, the quicker it can be re-
moved.

In any case whatsoever, the cure is obtained by complete
restoration of the bodily harmony. It consists of a bal-
ancing and regulation of the disturbed relations, and in-
deed, an equalization through inward bodily resources.
The healing powers are situated in the vital portions of
the organism. ‘These parts nourish themselves, and pro-
duce adequate conditions. They bring forth actions

92

SCIENCE.

which serve to direct, relieve, and repair certain defects of
the equilibrium. _ Even when the physician’s utmost
power is exerted, when the part in question is cut off or
destroyed, then also, restoration of the bodily equilibri-
umis necessary before any tolerable result can be pro-
duced. Also, when the healing powers remove certain
imperfections, when an acid is neutralized by an alkali, or
when a dormant faculty is roused into fresh activity by
any excitation, the cure can only be perfect if the natural
relations return again, or else if new ones are formed.
Every outward effect is only a means by which to lead the
inward formation of the body to free and regular ac-
tion.

No physician can trust wholly to nature, but neither
can he produce by art that which takes place naturally in
the body. That is the work of the organic healing pow-
ers. Every medical man must rely upon their efficiency,
but at the same time he has no right to sit idle with his
hands in his lap in consequence. On the contrary it is
frequently necessary to employ the most forcible interfer-
ence in order to regulate the action properly. In particu-
lar diseases, how much nature is able to perform, and how
much the physician is compelled to do, can only be ascer-
tained by personal experience, and can be determined @
prtor¢ by no theory. On the other hand, how far, in cer-
tain cases, medical treatment must extend, and how far
the natural course is to be influenced by the physician, is
not merely a question of experience, but frequently one of
scientific value, which only an educated and cultured
physician is capable of undertaking. Experience alone, in
the medical world, produces only adventurers who per-
haps may succeed now and then, but for whom self-reli-
ance is always a risk. Such experience as is led and reg-
ulated by Science alone is capable of removing all bar-
riers, and able to designate the realm in which nature
and the physical organic forces have the supreme com-
mand.

———

SEPARATION OF CADMIUM AND ZINc.—In a memoir in-
serted in the Annales de Chimie et de Physique (Series 4, vol.
30, p. 351), M. Riche described a process for the determina-
tion of zinc, either by the decomposition of the acetate or
by the electrolysis of the solution containing sulphuric acid.
Several researches on the same subject have since been pub-
lished by different authors. MM. Beilsteia and Jawein,
whilst confirming the results of Riche, employ the following
process :—The nitric or sulphuric solution of zinc is mixed
with caustic soda until precipitation ensues, and then with
potassium cyanide till the precipitate is re-dissolved ; the
electrolysis is then effected with four Bunsen elements.
The determination of cadmium has been effected by the
same chemist under the same circumstances by means of
the current from three elements. M. Millot has recently
given a process for the determination of zinc by electrolysis
of a solution of this metal in potassa. M. Edgar Smith ob-
tains a precipitate of metallic cadmium by passing a strong
current through a solution of the acetate. These procedures
have the defect of not serving for the separation of cadmium
and zinc, as the two metals are precipitated Simultaneously.
They may be separated as follows :—The solution contain-
ing the two metals in the state of acetates is mixed with 2
or 3 grms, sodium acetate, and a few drops of acetic acid.
The current from two Daniell elements is then passed
through the solution as described by M. Riche in his
memoir. The cadmium alone is deposited ina crystalline
layer at the negative pole, the zinc remaining in solution.
The process requires the aid of heat, and requires three to
four hours for quantities of 0°180 grm. to o'210 grm. cad-
mium, and as much zinc. The deposit is effected in the
crucible, and the liquid is then drawn off and serves for the
determination of the zinc, according to M. Riche’s process
The deposit is washed first with water, then with alcohol,
dried, and weighed. Ifthe zinc and cadmium are present
as sulphates the author recommends precisely the same
method. Or the sulphuric solution may be mixed with
ammonia and ammonium sulphate,—A. YVER.

MANUFACTURE OF YEAST WITHOUT: ALCO-
HOLIC FERMENTATION.

A method of manufacturing yeast without alcoholic
fermentation, and without the formation of subsidiary
products has been patented in England by Dr. J.
Rainer, of Vienna. The process is carried out in the fol-
lowing manner :—The vegetable albuminous substances
in the corn cereals or other vegetables, or such refuse of
industrial establishments as bran cornings, malt residuum,
gluten, and the like, are extracted with the aid of from 15
to 20 parts by measure of water, made slightly alkaline.
They are then either peptonized by adding an excess of
lactic acid (about 4 per cent.) or mineral acids (about .25
per cent. of phosphoric acid, or about .4 per cent. of
either sulphuric acid or hydrochloric acid) at a tempera-
ture of from 55 to 1oo degrees Fahrenheit, or they are at
once macerated in dilute solutions of the above acids and
simultaneously converted into peptone. A portion of the
albuminous substances (from 5 to Io per cent. of the total
weight) in the dried cornings will be already transformed
into peptone by the process of vegetation. The albu-
minous substances in cereals, maize, or other vegetables,
and in bran and malt residuum are transformed into
peptone by the addition of diastase. In order to effect
the conversion it is sufficient to add to one part by weight
of the albuminous matter when dry, one part by weight
of dry malt, or five parts by weight of cornings. As
stated the liquid in which the albuminous matter is to be
transformed into peptone must contain lactic acid (4 per
cent.), phosphoric acid (as much as .25 per cent.), sul-
phuric acid or_hydrochloric acid (about .4 per cent.),
because the presence of an acid is absolutely necessary
in the process of converting these substances into pep-
tone.

A temperature of about 100 degrees Fahrenheit is the
most suitable for the conversion of the substances into
peptone, and a period of from 18 to 20 hours will be
sufficient to effect it. It may, however, be also carried
out at lower temperatures during a correspondingly
longer time. In working cornings it is superfluous to
add malt, because the diastase contained in the cornings
is more than sufficient for the process of conversion into
peptone. Therefore it is only necessary in this case to
use one of the above-named acids in the proportions
given. The slimy pectates contained in the cornings as
well as in other materials are dissolved by the combina-
tion of diastase and acids. When the preparation of
pure peptone is required the pectates may be sepa-
rated by an endosmotic apparatus or dialysator, in
such a manner that the peptone is dialysed through
proper membranes in water,while the gelatinous pectates
remain as a residuum. The acids are neu'ralized by
means of soda, or by saturating the liquid with basic
phosphate of lime. The prepared peptone liquid, with or
without a percentage of sugar, may be shipped asa sale-
able article, or it may be delivered ina dry state, orasa
syrup or extract obtained by boiling the liquid down in a
water bath, by steam, or preferably in a vacuum. The
liquid containing peptone may be separated from solid
matter (hydrocarbons, vegetable fibre, or the like) by
simple extraction, maceration, or pressure, or by centri-
fugal action, or it may be carefully cleaned by filtration
or settling. It is advisable, however, before cleaning by
filtration or settling to naturalize any acid present by
means of soda, or to saturate the liquid with basic phos-
phate of lime, the latter being preferable because the
phosphoric acid required by the yeast is thus abundantly
furnished to it. In order to start the growth of yeast,
gelatinized starch is added after being transformed in the
usual way into dextrose by boiling with an addition of
mineral acids. In the place of starch thus prepared an
addition may be made of maltose, molasses, or sugar
mixed with beer-yeast or compressed yeast. The amount
thus added should correspond to the percentage of pep-

SCIENCE.

93

tone in the liquid, being one-half of the dry weight of the
peptone. The hydrocarbons should, however, always be
only from .5 to 1 per cent. of the weight of the entire
liquid, and should even then serve exclusively for the for-
mation of the walls of the cells of the yeast.

The vegetation of the yeast will take place most satis-
factorily at temparatures varying from 57 to 64 degrees
Fahrenheit. At a higher temperature losses may easily
occur by reason of the partial conversion of the sugar
used into coagulated acid or into alcoholic fermentation,
instead of furnishing the yeast with substance for cells.
The yeast is either propagated, as is the custom in Hol-
land, in shallow vessels in which the depth of liquid is
about five inches, so that a sufficient quantity of atmos-
pheric air has access thereto ; or it may be better and more
safely effected in vats made of wood, glass, masonry,
cement, or other suitable material, into which atmospheric
air is conducted by suitable dis‘ributors through tubes or
pipes by means of blowers or compressers.

Instead of atmospheric air alone it is more advantageous
to use air containing an-increased amount of ozone or of
oxygen partially converted into ozone. The latter is pre-
pared by successively adding hydrogen dioxide to the
propagated liquid. The percentage of ozone in the air is
increased by means of phosphorus, or by causing it to
pass through a closed vessel in which permanganate of
potassa is mixed with the necessary quantity of mineral
acid. The air thus enriched with ozone is then allowed
to pass into the propagating liquid.

The growth of the yeast will be completed within
from 6 to 8 hours after every sufficient addition of dex-
trose, maltose, or other material, according to the density of
the propagating liquid used, the temperature of the latter,
and the amount of the ozone in the air. The percentage
of peptone of the mass may amount to from I to 2 per
cent. or more of its weight, while only from one-half to
one per cent.-of dextrose or other hydrocarbons is added
at each time, in order to be sure to prevent the formation
or coagulated lactic acid or alcoholic fermentation.

When the entire amount or bulk of the dextrose or
other sugar added to promote the growth of the yeast
has been consumed after from six to eight hours, a further
quantity thereof, say, from .05 to .10 per cent. is added.
The peptone may also, after having been consumed, be
added in portions, or may be allowed to flow in gradu-
ally and continuously. The same propagating liquid
made by successive replacement of the matter consumed
remains in use for weeks or months, unless it is rendered
impure by other substances, or by subsiding fermentation
is made unfit for further use. In the same manner as
the materials necessary for the propogation of the yeast
are added the yeast produced may be successively with-
drawn, and only the yeast suspended in the liquid re-
mains behind as the germ for the ferments of alcohol to
be afterwards formed. The yeast is obtained either by
skimming it from the surface of the liquid or by separat-
ing it from the propagating liquid by filtration, or finally
by gathering it after tapping the vats from the botiom
upon which it is deposited in a compact layer. In work-
ing on a large scale it is advisable to place the vats in
terraced batteries in order to effect the transfer of the
propagating liquid from one vessel to the other with
facility. In order to produce yeast as free as possible
from subsidiary ferments the propagating liquid may be
prepared in a more dilute state, that is to say, with a
percentage of peptone of only from .75 to 1 per cent.
The hydrocarbons (dextrose, maltose, or the like) may
also be added in smaller quantities, for example, as a
first dose about .33 per cent. and then every 3 hours
about .05 per cent.

The greater part of the peptone present wil! then be
transformed into yeast in from 12 to 15 hours, a sufficient
supply of pure air, if necessary, conducted through
sulphuric acid or oxygen containing ozone, being pro-
vided, and the entire process being carried on at a tem-

perature varying from 54 to 63 degrees Fahrenheit. The
whole liquid is then cooled by a suitable apparatus, or
by adding cold water or ice; the best temperature being
from 45 to 50 degrees Fahrenheit. Within from 36 to
48 hours the yeast obtained will settle on the bottom of
the vat. The propagating liquid may be allowed to flow
away. The yeast obtained by this improved process is
purified and condensed in the usual manner, but in order
to increase its durability phosphate of lime amounting
to from 4 to 5 per cent. of the total weight of the yeast
to be made may be added before compressing it.

Experience has shown that from 250 to 300 parts of
pure and active compressed yeast may be obtained from
100 parts of pure peptone. For the growth of that
quantity of yeast only about 200 parts of dextrose or
sugar are required.

——————EE————EEESsSsSs

MICROSCOPY.

We have received the February issue of the Journal of
the Royal Microscopical Society, now edited by Mr. Frank
Crisp, one of the secretaries of the society. It containsa
valuable and interesting original paper, with two full-
page illustrations, and the proceedings of the R. M. C.
A summary is also presented of current research in those
departments of science, depending upon the use of the
microscope for their advancement. The amount of infor-
mation thus, gathered may be estimated from the fact
that the present number is a volume of one hundred
and seventy-two pages. The Journal appears bi-monthly,
and costs one dollar (4s.) for each part.

The President of the Royal Microscopical Society an-
nounced that a fund had been provided for the presentation
of two gold medals annually, without regard to nation-
ality—one for the person who should originate any im-
portant improvement in the microscope, or any of its ac-
cessory apparatus, or in any other way eminently contribute
to the advancement of the microscope as an instrument of
research. The second gold medal was to be awarded “in
respect to any researches in any subject of natural
science carried on wholly, or in a great part, by
means of the microscope, or of the recipient having in
other ways eminently contributed to the advancement of
research in natural science in connection with the micro-
scope.

The two medals were to be known respectively as the
“‘ Microscopical’ and “ Research ” medals of the Society.
For reasons which are not stated, the offer of this fund
was declined by the Council of the Society.

The war of Apertures of Microscope Objectives has
again broken out inthe R. M. S._ In this instance Mr.
Shadbolt was the aggressor, who claimed that his paper
demonstrated beyond dispute the following facts, viz::

“That a dry lens can have as large an ‘angular aper-
ture’ as an immersion one, and that the assumed differ-
ence of aperture between dry and immersion lens does
exist.”

“That no lens can have an ‘aperture’ of any kind
which exceeds that of 180° angular in air.”

“That, consequently, the table of ‘numerical apertures’
published on the cover of the Fournal of the Society is
erroneous and misleading, and should at once be dis-
continued.”

In reply, Mr. Crisp asserted that Mr. Shadbolt was in
error, and the victim to a misplaced confidence in a fun-
damental fallacy, viz., “the supposition that equal angles
in different media, as air and oil, are optically equivalent.”

A correspondent, who is an authority on this subject,
will offer an opinion on this matter. We believe, how-
ever, that Mr. Crisp is correct in his views, and that the
society has exercised a wise discretion in putting a stop
to a discussion, which had become wearisome and un-
profitable.

Mr. Crisp showed how a few moss-grown English
microscopists had persistently refused to countenance

94

SCIENCE.

the use of immersion objectives, which are now in
universal use, and accepted as a valuable improvement.

The use of oil was suggested by Amici, as far back as
1844, by Oberhauser in 1845, and Wenham in 1855 and
again in 1870, and only admitted in practice in 1878, so
that it appears to have required 34 years to convince
microscopists of a fact, that might have been settled in a
week and this due to “ persistence in a fallacy.” Such
being the case it is surely time for these fallacies to be
shelved, and we are glad to find the R. M. S., has taken
such a view of the case.

or

FLUORESCENT BODIES.

If we put some common paraffin oil, or a solution of
sulphate of quinine, into a glass tube or other suitable
vessel, and then look through it, the liquid will appear
quite colorless; but if we allow the light to fall upon it,
and then view it at a little distance and at a certain
angle, some parts of the liquid will present a delicate sky-
blue tinge. The effect in the case of quinine is height-
ened if the source of light is burning magnesium wire.

The large number of substances belonging to this class
are termed fluorescent bodies, because they exhibit pheno-
mena similar to the examples above given. The term
itself, however, was suggested to Prof. Stokes by a par-
ticular kind of fluor-spar which shows this property.

Again, if we cause a room to be darkened, and allow
only blue light (¢. ¢., by covering a hole in a window-
shutter with cobalt-blue glass) to fall upon a glass vessel
filled with water which has been standing some minutes,
on floating a strip of horse-chestnut bark uponits surface,
in a few moments a stream of bluish grey fluid (zsculin)
will be seen slowly descending from the bark, hanging, in
fact, like a bunch of barnacles from an old ocean waif.
Of if, under the same arrangement of light, or by using
even more powerful absorbents of the ordinary rays (such
as a solution of ammonio-sulphate of copper or one of
chromate of potash), we look at a piece of what is com-
monly termed canary glass—z. ¢., glass colored with an
oxide of the metal uranium—it will be seen to glow as it
were with rich greenish yellow rays, just as though it were
itself a source of light; or if we take a solution of a
uranium salt (the normal acetate) the phenomena are very
striking when examined under the same conditions, and
still more so by the electric light. But the salts of ani-
line—a substance which isthe parent, so to speak of
mauve, magenta, and other brilliant colors—are singu-
larly rich in exhibiting these effects.

A very beautiful experiment may be performed with
the aniline red ink now so commonly in use. It affords,
at one and the same time, an admirable illustration of
Prof. Tomlinson’s submersion figures and of the phe-
nomena under consideration. If we take a long cylin-
drical glass vessel, or one with parallel sides, fill it with
water, which is allowed to settle, and then gently deliver
a drop of the red fluid to the surface, the drop begins to
contract, and slowly from its centre descends in the form
of a tube; the denser parts of the coloring-matter pres-
ently form a thick circular rim at the end of the tube,—
but this is only for a moment, for a wavy edge appears
upon this rim, then expands into a triangular parachute
with a thickened edge, and from the extremity of each
corner two or three smaller tubes descend ; these in like
manner pass through the same phases as the parent
stem or tube.-£. R. Hodges ( Journal of Science, London.)

INTRA-MERCURIAL PLANETS,

A collection of the observations published in the report
of the Total Solar Eclipse of 1878, will give, perhaps, the
best idea of the present state of the question of the dis-
covery of Vulcan and other planets revolving within the

orbit of Mercury; and it may be of some interest to pre-
sent the matter in the form of a chart showing the
ground covered by different observers, who, during the
time of totality, devoted themselves to the search for
such bodies. For this purpose, the space swept by the
six observers, Newcomb, Hall, Wheeler, Bowman, Todd
and Pritchett, has been indicated by different shading on
the accompanying chart, which is merely a copy of that
prepared by Prof. Hall for the use of observers of the
eclipse, and published with the instructions issued from
the United States Naval Observatory.

The two objects, “a” and ‘é,” discovered by Prof.
Watson, and thought by him to be planets, have been
indicated upon the map thus: @). The two discovered

by Swift, also announced as intra-mercurial planets, have
been marked thus :

Swift’s two stars are described as equal in brightness,
of about the fifth magnitude, and 8’ apart; on a line
With the sun’s centre. Each had a round red disk, and
each was free from twinkling. The object farther from
the sun was at one time thought by Swift to be # Cancri,
and the other a new planet. The diameter of the field
of view was 1.°5.

Watson’s star, “a,’”’ is described 2s being “between
the sun and # Cancri, and a little to the south;” of a
ruddy color and about 4th magnitude, or fully a magni-
tude brighter than & Cancri, which was seen at the same
time. The star, “4,” was also of a ruddy hue, and is
given as the 3rd magnitude.

Watson used an aperture of 4 inches; magnifying
power of 45 diameters ; Swift, an aperture of 4.5 inches;
power of 25 diameters. We see by inspecting the chart,
that the place of one of Watson’s stars (that of which he
was the more certain) was covered by Wheeler with a 5-
inch aperture ; power 100 ; by Pritchett, 3.5 inch aperture,
power 90; and by Bowman with a 3.5 inch aperture and
power of 30 diameters. The place of Swift’s two stars
was examined by Bowman and Wheeler, and one of the
stars appears just in the corner of Pritchett’s sweep.
Finally, the whole ground was covered by Todd with a
4-inch aperture and power of 20.

Of these observers, Wheeler and Pritchett possessed tel-
escopes with optical power at least equal to that of Swift,
or Watson, and Bowman’s glass was of sufficient power
to show any object as large as the 5th magnitude,—but
nothing, not already upen the chart, was found.

This should be borne in mind, however, that several ot
the observers were enabled to make but very hasty
sweeps,—not devoting so much of their attention to the
subject as Watson did, and, indeed, at Mr. Todd’s
station clouds interfered seriously with the work. And,
on the other hand, it appears that Prof. Watson devoted
a large part of his time to sweeping on the east side of the
sun.

A glance at the chart will show that Watson’s stars
have about the same relative positions and magnitudes
as ¥ and ¢ Cancri, and that Swift’s stars as far as relative
position is concerned, resemble closely d® Cancri and
B. A. C. 2810, or the pair of stars similarly placed on the
other side of the sun. The probability of an error in
pointing the telescope, which would account for such a
misidentification as has been suggested, has been thor-
oughly discussed by Dr. C. H. F. Petersin the Astron.
Nach., No. 2253, p. 323, and Dr, Peters’ paper has been
answered by Prof. Watson in the next volume, Astron.
Nach., No. 2263, p. tor.

It is not the intention of this article to consider again the
question of the identity of the stars seen by Watson and
Swift, but merely to point out the evidence upon which
the discovery of ‘ Vulcan”’ rests, and to call attention to
the fact that the existence of an intra-mercurial planet
is not yet admitted by the majority of astronomers of the
present day. WG. Ws

WASHINGTON, D. C., February 24, 1881,

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SCIENCE.

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95

96

SCIENCE.

BOOKS RECEIVED.

A MANUAL OF ZOOLOGY for the use of students, with
a general introduction on the principles of Zoology—by
HENRY ALLEYNE NICHOLSON, M. D., D. Sc., Ph. D.,
etc., Professor of Natural History in the University of St.
Andrews. Sixth edition, revised and enlarged,. William
Blackwood and Sons—Edinburgh and London, 1880.

This Manual of Zoology has become so fully recognized
as one of the most complete and reliable guides to a
knowledge of this subject, that but few words are neces-
sary in giving notice of the issue of a new edition.

The study of Zoology is constantly bringing new and
interesting facts to the surface, hence the necessity for fre-
quent editions of manuals treating on the subject, to keep
pace with discoveries. Professor Nicholson has availed
himself of the present opportunity to thoroughly revise his
work, and bring forward arrears of facts which have ac-
cumulated during the past two years, and in accordance
with the views of many distinguished naturalists he has
raised the order of Echznodermata to the rank of a sub-
kingdom. This alteration necessitates the abandonment
of the Amnulotda asa sub-kingdom, and the reference of
tne Scolecida to the Annulosa.

Professor Nicholson forestalls criticism for such action
by candidly admitting that this arrangement is far from
being wholly satisfactory, but asks that it may be provis-
ionally adopted as the best under the circumstances, tak-
ing into account our present knowledge.

A number of excellent illustrations have been intro-
duced in the present edition, and the student will now
have the benefit of over 450 wood-cuts.

The general plan of this book is admirable, and follow-
ing each chapter is a list of the best works and memoirs
relating to the animals belonging to each sub-kingdom.

There is one feature of this work which in our opinion
gives it a special value to students, and that is an excel-
Ient glossary of about 1000 words. The index is also
ample and carefully arranged.

The present work of Professor Nicholson is the latest
and best Manual of Zoology, and we recomend it strongly
to those interested in such studies.

LIFE ON THE SEASHORE, OR ANIMALS OF OUR COASTS
AND BAys, with illustrations and descriptions. By
JAMES H. EMERTON, author of Structure and
Habits of Spiders. Naturalists’ Handy Series No. 1.
George A. Bates, Salem, Mass., 1880.

This charming little work is the first of a series of
handy books suitable for amateur naturalists, a class
now happily on the increase.

The author has provided a pleasant companion which
should be in the hands of all visitors to our coasts, en-
suring a never failing fund of amusement, leading insensi-
bly to one of the most delightful of scientific stud es,

Mr. Emerton states “I have tried to give such ex-
planations of some of our common animals of the New
England coast as have been often asked for by persons
little acquainted with zoology, and to give such directions
about collecting and observing them as have been found
useful to students who come to the shore for a short
time in the summer to study animals that they before
knew only from pictures.”

The book is divided into four parts, treating separately
animals which are found ‘‘ between the tides,” ‘‘ near low
water mark,” “surface animals,” “ bottom animals.” The
reader will find this an excellent arrangement. We
find above one hundred and fifty excellent wood cuts,
which faithfully represent the objects described in the
body of the book; the sensational and misleading illus-
trations to be found in a somewhat similar work find no
place in this volume. We can therefore recommend Mr.
Emerton’s work as not only a reliable guide, but one
which will create a healthful desire for knowledge in
those who are so fortunate as to possess it.

CHEMICAL NOTES.

CONTRIBUTION TO A KNOWLEDGE OF SAPONIFICATION OF
Fats.—The name fat is generally applied to a mixture of
the tri-glycerides of palmitic, stearic, and oleic acids. As
regards the animal fats this assumption has been in al?
cases verified, but the vegetable fats display certain not un
important deviations. J. Kénig, J. Kiesow, and B. Aron-
heim, in saponifying vegetable fats, obtained invariably

less glycerine than is required for forming the glycerine-
ethers of the fatty acids—a fact pointing to the conclusion
that free fatty acids must be present, since the quantity of
cholesterine occurring in the plants is too small to com-
bine with the fatty acids. For saponification, potassium
and sodium hydrate were used along with the other basic
oxides, the latter substances being considered equal in
vatue to the former, the only difference being that the pro-
ducts in the one case are termed ‘“‘ soaps,” and in the other
“plasters.” It was assumed hitherto that the tri-glycerides,
like other ethers, were completely decomposed by the
above named ethers into salts of the fatty acids and glyce-
rine, and that equal quantities of glycerine were obtained
in all cases. For the saporification of fats and the separa-
tion of the products, J. Kénig had proposed a process
which consists essentially in treating the fat operated upon
with an excess of lead oxide in presence of water at go” to
100°. Dr. von der Becke, when attempting at his request
to saponify cacao-butter in this manner—in order to dis-
cover a process for detecting the sophistications of this pro-
duct—found that it could not be saponified with lead oxide,
at least not in this manner. It was found on further expe-
rimentation that the quantity of glycerine obtained on sa

ponification with potassium hydrate was in all cases con-
siderably the highest. In the easily saponifiable fats, but-
ter, lard, and olive oil, the difference was found less
manifest, but it was much more distinct in those which are
hard to saponify. Cacao-butter and tallow, if saponified
with lead oxide, yield scarcely traces of glycerine. A mix-
ture of an easily saponifiable fat like butter with cacao-
butter gave the same quantity of glycerine as if butter alone
were employed. It is possible that the reaction when once
set up may extend itself. Hence it appears that in the
case of some fats the method of saponification with oxide
is not trustworthy, and that when the accurate determina-
tion of the proportion of glycerine in a fat is required, the
saponification must be effected with potassium hydrate.

CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE ALKA-
LINE EARTHS AND OF ZINC OxIDE.—The alkaline earths and
zinc oxide if their hydrates, carbonates, and nitrates are
heated to complete decomposition, are obtained in the fol-
lowing specific gravities. Lime is obtained amorphous
from the hydrate and carbonate, but in regular cubic crys-
tals from the nitrate; in either case of the sp. gr. 3.25.
Strontia is obtained from the hydrate and carbonate amor-
phous, and of sp. gr. 4.5, but from the nitrate in regular
crystals and of sp. gr. 4.75. Baryta is obtained from the
Lydrate in optically one- or two-axial crystals, of sp. gr.
5.32: but from the nitrate in regularly cubic crystals of sp.
gr. 5.72. Magnesia is always obtained in the amorphous
form of sp. gr. 3.42. Zinc oxide is obtained amorphous
from the hydrate and carbonate of sp. gr. 3.47, but from
the nitrate in hexagonal pyramids of sp. gr. 5.78.

Prof. Pritchett, of the Morrison Observatory, Glasgow,
Mo., has made arrangements to drop a Time-Ball at
Kansas City.

DETERMINATION OF SILICON IN IRON AND STEEL.—One
grm. iron or steel is placed in a porcelain crucible with
25 c.c, nitric acid of 1.2 sp. gr. When the reaction is over
25 to 30 c.c. dilute sulphuric acid—z part acid and 3 water
are added, and the solution is heated till the nitric acid is
entirely or nearly expelled. When the residue is suffi-
ciently cool water is cautiously added, and the contents of ©
the capsule are heated till the crystals are perfectly dis-
solved. The solution is then filtered as hot as possible,
and the residue washed first with hot water, then with 25 to
30 c.c. hydrochloric acid of sp. gr. 1.20, and finally again
with hot water. After drying and ignition the silica is ob-
tained snow-white and granular.—T, M. Brown,

SCIENCE.

97

SCIENCE:

A WEEKLY REcorRD OF SCIENTIFIC

PROGRESS.

JOHN MICHELS, Editor.

PUBLISHED AT
229 BROADWAY, NEW YORK.

P, O. Box 8888.

SATURDAY, MARCH 5, 1881.

MICROSCOPES AND THEIR OBJECTIVES.

WE are told by one maker of microscopes that he
has orders in advance which will prevent his under-
taking new work for at least four months from the
present time. Supposing his statement to be true,
and we heartily trust it is, it would appear to show that
the number of those undertaking microscopical inves-
tigations is largely on the increase, and as the prob-
abilities are that many of those now investing their
money in microscopes and objectives, are doing so with
little experience to guide them in their selection, it
may be useful at this moment to take a review of the
microscope market.

The purchase of the microscope stand and the ob-
jectives to use with it will be considered separately.
They are usually purchased together, but there is no
reason for doing so, and we would like to see each
handled by a distinct branch of trade. To make a
good microscope stand needs only the skill of a good
worker in brass, under suitable direction. On the
other hand, the manufacture of objectives, and the
other optical parts of a microscope, requires the
skilled labor of an optician.

In regard to the microscope stand, we would state
that many improvements have been recently made, so
that to avoid being saddled with one which may be
considered obsolete, it would be as well to go directly to
one who manufacturers his own stands, and direct him
to make one to order; by so doing, the additional ad-
vantage will be secured of obtaining an instrument
specially suited for particular work—a very important
point.

The temptation is great to name one or two
microscope stands which, in our opinion, are perfect in

workmanship, designed on the best model and, withal,
quite moderate in price; but to do so would court
misinterpretation of our motives ; so we may state that
such firms as Bausch & Lomb, Beck, Bullock, Gru-
now, Schrauer, Slidel, Zentmayer, are all reliable Am-
erican manufacturers, and that most of these firms
now produce such an instrument as we would advise,
at a cost of about 40 to 50 dollars for a Monocular
stand, not including accessory apparatus or objec-
tives. We have just seen an instrument, for the latter
price, having perfection of workmanship and the latest
improvements.

In regard to microscope objectives, the greatest
caution should be employed by the inexperienced
at this moment, for after twenty-five years experience
in purchasing objectives, the present price-lists of
opticians appear to us a perfect chaos of quotations.

In the first place, the objection has been raised by
purchasers that object glasses of a certain focal length
and stated aperture, vary in their linear magnifying
power, among different makers, so that a quarter-inch
which, for instance, should give 200 diameters with an
A eye-piece, is found to be a 4—10, allowing only 120
diameters if purchased of another maker, or perhaps it
will give 225 diameters similar to a 1~5th, when ob-
tained from a third manufacturer—even when the con-
ditions are alike. This, no doubt, originated in one of
the tricks of the trade. A makes a 1—4th which, in
resolving power, equals the 1-6th of B; in conse-
quence, A claims at once a superiority of workman-
ship, and perhaps secures a reputation for objectives,
when, if the truth was known, the 1-4th was in fact
a 1-6th.

It must be remembered also that all objectives
vary in quality even from the same maker, and that
one may be given to an inexperienced person which is
very far from the supposed standard of excellence ;
with some makers not more than one in twelve would
be accepted by an expert.

Lastly, there appears to be a feeling that consider-
able improvements are imminent in the manufac-
ture of objectives, rendering those of yesterday
commercially valueless. If we may judge by a price
list just forwarded, a panic appears to have commenced
among those holding objectives made as recently as
four years ago. By a circular, we are informed that
the objectives of one of the most esteemed makers
are now offered at prices 50 per cent. lower than those
charged by the maker. ‘These lenses are of the dest
quality and perfectly new,” “simply to close out our
stock of these objectives.” This offer is made by an
optician in the same city with the original maker. Ob-
jectives which cost $150 can be had for $75, and
others as follows: $rro for $55, $50 for $30. $40 for

98

$20, and one very noted objective for which. the
maker asks $60 is offered for $27.20.

We also notice the production of a 1—1o0th object-
ive of 180° aperture, by a maker of reputation, which
is sold at $25. A subscriber recently called at our
office and stated that a 1-6th by the same maker,
also sold at $25, divided the 19th band of Nobert’s
plate.

We mention these facts to show the variations in
the present cost of microscope objectives, which must
be perplexing to inexperienced purchasers. ‘The reg-
ular price of a first-class 1-1oth, of 180°, is about $85,
and it would be interesting to compare the $25 arti-
cle and note results; and it would also be useful to
note how the cheaper glasses perform their work, as
compared one with another.

As any expression of opinion on the merits of these
objectives would be useless, without they were person-
ally tested by us, we refrain from offering any advice
on the subject. Microscope objectives are not struck
in a die like medals, but are the result of manual
operation, in which the individuality of the artist may
be recognized and developed. In art the relative
merits of the master are appreciated by the connois-
~seur, and a standard of value established; the same
rule applies to optical instruments when perfection of
work is aimed at. When Professor Asaph Hall dis-
covered the satellites of Mars, it was necessary to have
a telescope which would show an object six miles in
diameter at a distance of 35,000,000 miles; when
called upon to perform this feat, Clark’s 32-inch ob-
jective responded in a manner which enabled Pro-
fessor Hall to make one of the most important of
recent astronomical discoveries. To appreciate this
performance of the Washington telescope, we may
state that it was equivalent to a person stationed at
New York seeing an object at Boston which was two
inches in diameter.

Such is the class of work we desire to find in mi-
croscopic objectives; probably there are only one
or two men in this country able to produce it ; but it
is difficult to speculate as to what the future may
bring forth.

WALKER PRIZES IN NATURAL HISTORY.

The Boston Society of Natural History offers a first
firize of $60 to $100, and a second of $50, for the best
memoirs, in English, on the following subjects: For
1881, The Evidences of the Extension of Tertiary De-
posits seaward along the cost of Massachusetts ; for 1882,
The Occurrence, Microscopic Structure, and use of North
American Fibre-plants (treating especially of the fibres
employed by the native races); for 1883, Original Un-
published Investigations respecting the Life-History of
any Animal. Prizes will not be awarded unless the
papers are deemed of adequate merit.

SCIENCE.

THE ODONTORNITHES.
EXTINCT TOOTHED BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA.

We merely desire in this place to acknowledge the re-
ceipt of the monograph, on the Odontornzthes, an extinct
order of toothed birds of North America, prepared by Pro-
fessor O.C. Marsh, and published by order of the United
States Government.

A review of this work is now in course of preparation
by one well able to present Professor Marsh’s discoveries
in all their integrity, and we propose to publish the same
with illustrations, which will convey to the readers of
“SCIENCE” a fair estimate of the value of this work,
which is considered by many to be one of the most im-
portant contributions to science, issued by the National
Government at Washington.

Reserving our review of Professor Marsh’s mono-
graph for a future occasion, we now offer his own expla-
nation regarding the work, as conveyed in a few intro-
ductory remarks:

“ The remains of birds are among the rarest of fossils,
and very few have been discovered except in the more
recent formation. According to present evidence, the
oldest known birds were imbedded in the Jurassic de-
posits of Europe, which have yielded three individuals
belonging to the genus Archeopteryx, so well preserved
that the more important characters can be determined.
The only other remains of birds found in the Mesozoic of
the Old World are a few specimens from the Cretaceous
of England, which are too fragmentary to throw much
light on the extinct forms they represent.

“The earliest traces of birds hitherto found in the
strata of this country are from the Cretaceous, although
we may confidently predict their discovery in the Jurassic
beds, if not at a still lower horizon. There is at present
no evidence whatever that any of the three-toed impres-
sions in the Triassic, described as the foot prints of birds,
were made by birds; and the proof now seems conclu-
sive that nearly all of them are the tracks of Dinosaurian
reptiles, bones of which occur in the same deposits.

“In the Cretaceous beds of the Atlantic coast, and
especially in the green-sand region of New Jersey, vari-
ous remains of birds have been found and described by
the writer. These fossils, although often in excellent
preservation, occur mainly as isolated bones, and hence
their near affinities have not as yet been determined with
certainty.

“ Along the western slope of the Rocky Mountains,
and especially on the adjoining plains in Kansas and
Colorado, there is a series of Cretaceous strata remark-
ably rich in vertebrate fossils. The deposits are all
marine, and, away from the mountains, they lie nearly
horizontal. They have suffered much from erosion, and
are still wasting away, especially along the river valleys.
These beds consist mainly of a fine yellow chalk and
calcareous shale, both admirably adapted to preserve
delicate specimens, and here have been found the extinct
birds which form the subject of the present memoir.

“ The geological horizon of the known Odontornzthes is
in the Middle Cretaceous and corresponds to the strata
named by the writer the “ Pteranodon beds.’ The lat--~
ter are included in sub-division number three, in Meek
and Hayden’s section. The accompanying fossils are
Mosasauroid reptiles, which are very abundant; Plesi-
osaurs allied to Pliosaurus; Pterodactyles of the genus
Pteranodon ; and many fishes. With these occur
Rudistes, and occasionally Ammonites, Belemnites, and
various other Cretaceous invertebrates.

“ The first bird fossil discovered in this region was the
lower end of the tibia of 7esperornzs, found by the writer
in December, 1870, near the Smo 'y Hill River in Western
Kansas. Specimens belonging to another genus of the
Odontornithes were discovered on the same expedition.
The extreme cold, and danger from hostile Indians, ren-
dered a careful exploration at that time impossible,

SCIENCE. 99

“Tn June of the following year, the writer again visited
the same region, with a larger party, and a stronger es-
cort of United States troops, and was rewarded by the
discovery of the skeleton which forms the type of Hes-
perornis regalts, Marsh. Various other remains of
Odontornithes were secured, and have since been de-
scribed by the writer. Although the fossils obtained
during two months of explorations were important, the
results of this trip did not equal our expectations, owing
in part to the extreme heat (110° to 120° Fahrenheit, in
the shade) which, causing sun stroke and fever, weak-
ened and discouraged guides and explorers alike.

“ A considerable part of these Cretaceous deposits still
remain unexplored, and in the Autumn of 1872, a third
expedition through this territory was undertaken by the
writer with a small party. Additional specimens of
much interest were secured, including the type of the
genus Afafornzs, and one nearly complete skeleton of
Flesperornis—an ample reward for the hardship and dan-
ger we incurred.

“The specimens thus secured by these various expe-
ditions have since been supplemented by important ad-
ditions, collected in the same general region by different
parties equipped and sent out by the writer, who no lon-
ger could give his personal supervision to work in that
field. The fossil birds procured in this region, since
1870, by these different expeditions, include remains
of more than one hundred different individuals of the
Odontornithes. These are all in the Museum of Yale
College, and form the material on which the present vol-
ume is based.

“A study of this extensive series of bird remains
brings to light the existence, in this class, of two widely-

_ separated types, which lived together during the Cre-

taceous period, in the same region, and yet differed more
from each other than do any two recent birds. Both of
these types possessed teeth, a character hitherto unknown
in the class ofbirds, and hence they have been placed by
the writer in a separate sub-class, the Odontornzthes.
One of these groups includes very large swimming birds,
without wings and with the teeth in grooves (Odontolce),
and is represented by the genus Hesferornzs. The other
contains small birds, endowed with great powers of
flight, and having teeth in sockets (Odontotorme), and
biconcave vertebre ; a type best illustrated by the genus
Ichthyornzs. Other characters, scarcely less important,
appear in each group, and we have thus a vivid picture
of two primitive forms of bird structure, as unexpected
as they are suggestive. A comparison of these two
forms with each other, and with some recent birds,
promises to clear away many difficulties in the genealogy
of this class, now a closed type; and hence they are weil
worthy of the detailed description and full illustration
here devoted to them.

“ The fossil birds now known from the Cretaceous de-
posits of this country are included in nine genera- and
twenty species. These have all been described by the
writer, and are represented, at present, by the remains
of about one hundred and fifty different individuals. This
is evidence of a rich and varied avian fauna in America
during Mesozoic time, and likewise indicates what we
may expect from future discoveries.

“The present volume is the first of a series of Mono-
graphs designed to make known to science the extinct
vertebrate life of North America. In the investigation of
this subject, the writer has spent the past ten years,
much of it in the field, collecting, with no little hardship
and danger, the material for study, and the rest in work-
ing out the characters and affinities of the ancient forms
of life thus discovered.

“ During this decade, the field work extending from the
Missouri River to the Pacific Coast has so predominated
as the subject unfolded, that a plan of gradual publica-
tion became a necessity. The more important discover-
ies were briefly announced soon after they were made, but

only where the specimens on which they were based ad-
mitted of accurate determination. The principal charac-
ters of the new groups were next worked out systematic-
ally, and published with figures of the more important
parts. When thejnvestigation of a group is completed,
the results, with full descriptions and illustrations, will
be brought together ina monograph. This system has
been carried out with the Odontornzthes, and will be
continued with the other groups. The investigation of
several of these is now nearly completed, and the result
will soon be ready for publication.

‘The material is abundant for a series of monographs
on the marvelous extinct vertebrates of this country, and
the results already attained are full of promise for the
future. A somewhat careful estimate makes the number
of new species of extinct vertebrates, collected since 1868,
and now inthe Yale College Museum, about 1000, Nearly
300 of these have already been described by the writer,
and some have been noticed or described by other authors,
but at least one-half remain to be investigated.

« Among the new groups brought to light by these re-
searches, and already made known by descriptions of their
principal characters, are the following, which will be fully
described in subsequent volumes of the present series,

“The first Pterodactyles or flying reptiles discovered
in this country, were found by the writer in the same
geological horizon with the Odontornzthes described in the
present memoir. These were of enormous size, some
having a spread of wings of nearly twenty-five feet ; but
they were especially remarkable on account of having no
teeth, and hence resembling recent birds. They forma
new order, Pferanodontza, from the type genus Pterano-
don. Of this group, remains of more than six hundred
individuals are now in the Yale College Museum—ample
material to illustrate every important point in their os-
teology.

““With these fossils were found also great numbers of
Mosasauroid reptiles, a group which, although rare in
Europe, attained an enormous development in this
country, both in numbers and variety of forms. Remains
of more than fourteen hundred individuals belonging to
this order were secured during the explorations of the
last ten years, and are now in the Museum of Yale Col-
lege.

ee The most interesting discoveries made in the Jurassic

_formation were the gigantic reptiles belonging to the new

sub-order Sauropoda, including by far the largest land ani-
mals yet discovered. Another remarkable group of large
reptiles found in the same formation were the Stego-
saurza. Other Dinosaurs from the same horizon, the
* Atlantosaurus beds,’ show that this was the dominant
form of vertebrate life in that age, and many hundred
specimens of these reptiles are now in the Yale Museum.
In a lower horizon of the same formation, the ‘ Saurano-
don beds,’ were found the remains ofa peculiar new
group of reptiles, the Sawranodontza, allied to /chthyo-
Saurus, but without teeth.

“In the Eocene deposits of the Rocky Mountains, the
writer discovered a new order of huge mammals, the
Dinocerata. Remains of several hundred individuals
were secured, and a monograph on the group will follow
the present memoir. In the same formation were found
the remains of another new order of mammals, the 77zZ/o-
dontza, in many respects the most remarkable of any yet
discovered. In the same Eocene deposits were secured
the first remains of the fossil Przmates known from North
America as well as the first Chezroftera and Marsu-
piatia. Abundant material also was found in the same
region to illustrate the genealogy of the Horse, and a
memoir on this subject is in course of preparation.

i

CHOLESTEN.—This compound, CasH42, is a white amor-
phous powder, almost insoluble in alcohol, but soluble in
ether. It resembles c. cholesterin in its physical and chem-
ical properties.—W. E, Walitzky.

- » é =
+ * 7”
%

SCIENCE,

THE UNITY OF NATURE.
By THE DUKE OF ARGYLL.
VI.
ON THE MORAL CHARACTER OF MAN, CONSIDERED IN
THE LIGHT OF THE UNITY OF NATURE.

The consciousness of unworthiness in respect to moral
character is a fact as fundamental, and as universal in
the human mind as the consciousness of limitation in re-
spect tointellectual power. Both of them may exist in a
form so rudimentary as to be hardly recognizable. The
limits of our intelligence may be felt only in a dim sense
of unsatisfied curiosity. The faultiness of our character
may be recognized only in the vaguest emotions of occa-
sional self-reproach. But as the knowledge of mankind
extends, and as the cultivation of their moral faculties
improves, both these great elements of consciousness be-
come more and more prominent, and occupy a larger
and larger place in the horizon of their thoughts. It is
always the men who know most who feel most how
limited their knowledge is. And so likewise it is always
the loftiest spirits who are most conscious of the infirm-
ities which beset them.

But although these two great facts in human conscious-
ness are parallel facts, there is a profound difference
between them; and to the nature and bearing of this
difference very careful attention must be paid.

We have seen in regard to all living things what the
relation is between the physical powers which they pos-
sess and the ability which they have touse them. It is
a relation of close and perfect correspondence. Every-
thing requisite to be done for the unfolding and uphold-
ing of their life they have impulses universally disposing
them to do, and faculties fully enabling them to accom-
plish. We have seen that in the case of some animals
this correspondence is already perfect from the infancy
of the creature, and that even in the case of those which
are born comparatively helpless, there is always given to
them just so much of impulse and of power as is requisite
for the attainment of their own maturity. It may be
nothing more than the mere impulse and power of open-
ing the mouth for food, as in the case of the chicks of
many birds; or it may be the much more active impulse
and the much more complicated power by which the
young mammalia seek and secure their nourishment; or
it may be such wonderful special instincts as that by
which the newly hatched Cuckoo, although blind and
otherwise helpless, is yet enabled to expel its rivals from
the nest, and thus secure that undivided supply of food
without which it could not survive. But whatever the
impulse or the power may be, it is always just enough
for the work which is to be done. We have seen, too,
that the amount of prevision which is involved in those
instinctive dispositions and actions of animals is often
greatest in those which are low in the scale of life, so
that the results for which they work, and which they do
actually attain, must be completely out of sight to them.
In the wonderful metamorphoses of insect life, the im-
perfect creature is guided with certainty to the choice
and enjoyment of the conditions which are necessary to
its own development ; and when the time comes it selects
the position, and constructs the cell, in which its mysteri-
ous transformations are accomplished.

All this is in conformity with an absolute and uni-
versal law in virtue of which there is established a per-
fect unity between these three things :—first, the physical
powers and structure of all living creatures; secondly,
those dispositions and instinctive appetites which are
seated in that structure to impel and guide its powers ;
and thirdly, the external conditions in which the crea-
ture’s life is passed, and in which its faculties find an
appropriate field of exercise.

If Man has any place in the unity of Nature, this law
must prevail with him. There must be the same corres-

pondence between his powers and the instincts which in-
cite and direct him in theiruse. Accordingly, it isin this
law that we find the explanation and the meaning of his
sense of ignorance. For without a sense of ignorance
there could be no desire of knowledge, and without his
desire of knowledge Man would not be Man. His whole
place in Nature depends upon it. His curiosity, and his
wonder, and his admiration, and his awe—these are all
but the adjuncts and subsidiary allies of that supreme
affection which incites him to inquire and know. Nor is
this desire capable of being resolved into his tendency to
seek for an increased command over the comforts and
conveniences of life. It is wholly independent of that
kind of value which consists in the physical utility of
things. The application of knowledge comes after the
acquisition of it, and is not the only, or even the most
powerful, inducement to its pursuit. The real incitement
is an innate appetite of the mind—conscious in various
degrees of the mystery, and of the beauty, and of the
majesty of the system in which it lives and moves; con-
scious, too, that its own relations to that system are but
dimly seen and very imperfectly understood. Ina former
chapter we have seen that this appetite of knowledge is
never satisfied, even by the highest and most successful
exertion of those faculties which are, nevertheless, our
only instruments of research. We have seen, too, what
is the meaning and significance of that great Reserve of
Power which must exist within us, seeing that it remains
unexhausted and inexhaustible by the proudest successes
of discovery. In this sense it is literally true that the eye
is not satisfied with seeing, nor the ear filled with hear-
ing. Every new advance has its new horizon. Every
answered question brings into view another question un-
answered, and perhaps unanswerable, lying close behind

it. And so we come to see that this sense of ignorance ~

is not only part of our nature, but one of its highest parts
—necessary to its development, and indicative of those
unknown and indefinite prospects of attainment which
are at once the glory and the burden of humanity.

It is impossible to mistake, then, the place which is
occupied among the unities of Nature by that sense of
ignorance which is universal among men. It belongs to
the number of those primary mental conditions which
impel all living things to do that which it is their special
work to do and in the doing of which the highest law of
their being is fuifilled. In the case of the lower animals,
this law, as to the part they have to play and the ends
they have to serve in the economy of the world, is sim-
ple, definite, and always perfectly attained. Noadvance
is with them possible, no capacity of improvement, no
dormant or undeveloped powers leading up to wider and
wider spheres of action.
law of his being is a law which demands progress, which
endows him with faculties enabling him to make it, and
fills him with aspirations which cause him to desire it.
Among the lowest savages there is some curiosity and
some sense of wonder, else even the rude inventions they
have achieved would never have been made, and their
degraded superstitions would not have kept their hold.
Man’s sense of ignorance is the greatest of his gifts, for

it is the secret of his wish toknow. The whole structure —

and the whole furniture of his mind is adapted to this
condition. The highest law of his being is to advance in
wisdom and knowledge: and his sense of the presence
and of the power of things which he can only partially
understand is an abiding witness of this law, and an abid-
ing incentive to its fulfillment.

In all these aspects there is an absolute contrast be-
tween our sense of limitation in respect to intellectual
power (or knowledge) and our sense of unworthiness in
respect to moral character. It is not of ignorance, but of
knowledge, that we are conscious here,—even the knowl-
edge of the distinction between good and evil, and of that
special sense which in our nature is associated with it,
namely, the sense of moral obligation, Now it is a uni-

With Man, on thecontrary, the ~

na

SCIENCE.

versal fact of consciousness as regards ourselves, and of
observation in regard to others, that, knowing evil to be
evil, men are nevertheless prone to do it, and that hav-
ing this sense of moral obligation, they are never-
theless prone to disobey it. This fact is entirely
independent of the particular standard by which
men in different stages of society have judged certain
things to be good and other things to be evil. It is en-
tirely independent of the infinite variety of rules accord-
ing to which they recognize the doing of particular acts,
and the abstention from other acts, to be obligatory
upon them. Under every variety of circumstance in re-
gard to these rules, under every diversity of custom, of
law, or of religion by which they are established, the gen-
eral fact remains the same—that what men themselves
recognize as duty they continually disobey, and what ac-
cording to their own standard they acknowledge to be
wrong they continually do.

There is unquestionably much difficulty in finding any
place for this fact among the unities of Nature. It falls,
therefore, in the way of this inquiry to investigate how
this difficulty arises, and wherein it consists.

And here we at once encounter those old fundamental
questions on the nature, the origin, and the authority of
the Moral Sense which have exercised the human mind
for more than two thousand years; and on which an
eminent writer of our own time has said that no sensible
progress has been made. This result may well suggest
that the direction which inquiry has taken is a direction
in which progress is impossible. If men will try to
analyze something which is incapable of analysis, a per-
petual consciousness of abortive effort will be their only
and their inevitable reward.

For just as in the physical world there are bodies or
substances which are (to us) elementary, so in the spirit-
ual world there are perceptions, feelings, or emotions,
which are equally elementary—that is to say, which re-
sist all attempts to resolve them into a combination of
other and similar affections of the mind. And of this
kind is the idea, or the conception, or the sentiment of
obligation. That which we mean when we say, “I
ought,” isa meaning which is incapable of reduction.
It is a meaning which enters as an element into many
other conceptions, and into the import of many other forms
ofexpression, but it isitself uncompounded. Allattempts
to explain it do one or other of these two things—either
they assume and include the idea of obligation in the very
circumlocutions by which they profess to explain its
origin; or else they build up a structure which, when
completed, remains as destitute of the idea of obligation
as the separate materials of which it is composed. In
the one case, they first put in the gold, and then they
think that by some alchemy they have made it; in the
other case, they do not indeed first put in the gold, but
neither in the end do they ever get it. No combinations
of other things will give the idea of obligation, unless
with and among these things there is some concealed™ or
unconscious admission of itself. But in this, as in other
cases with which we have already dealt, the ambiguities
of language afford an easy means or an abundant source
of self-deception. One common phrase is enough to serve
the purpose—the “association of ideas.” Under this
vague and indefinite form of words all mental operations
and all mental affections may be classed. Consequently
those which are elementary may be included, without
being expressly named. This is one way of putting in
the gold and then of pretending to find it as a result.
Take one of the simplest cases in which the idea of obli-
gation arises, even in the rudest minds—namely, the case
of gratitude to those who have done us good. Beyond
all question, this simple form of the sense of obligation
is one which involves the association of many ideas. It

involves the idea of Self as a moral agent and the recipi-
ent of good. It involves the idea of other human beings
as likewise moral agents, and as related to us|

IOI

more special ties, It idea of things
good for them, and of our having power to confer
these things upon them, All these ideas are ‘ associ-
ated ” in the sense of gratitude towards those who have
conferred upon us any kind of favor. But the mere
word ‘‘association’”’ throws no light whatever upon the
nature of the connection. ‘“ Association’’ means noth-
ing but grouping or contiguity of any kind. It may be
the grouping of mere accident—the associations of
things which happen to lie together, but which have no
other likeness, relation, or connection. But this, obvi-
ously, is not the kind of association which connects to-
gether the different ideas which are involved in the con-
ception of gratitude to those who have done us good.
What then is the associating tie ? What is the link which
binds them together, and constitutes the particular kind
or principle of association? Itis the sense of obliga-
tion. The associating or grouping power lies in this
sense. It is the centre round which the other perceptions
aggregate. It is the seat of that force which holds them
together, which keeps them in a definite and fixed rela-
tion, and gives its mental character to the combination as
a whole.

If we examine closely the language of those who have
attempted to analyze the Moral*Sense, or, in other words,
the sense of obligation, we shall always detect the same
fallacy—namely, the use of words so vague that under
cover of them the idea of obligation is assumed as the
explanation of itself. Sometimes this fallacy is so trans-
parent in the very forms of expression which are used,
that we wonder how men of even ordinary intelligence,
far more men of the highest intellectual power, can have
failed to see and feel the confusion of their thoughts.
Thus, for example, we find Mr. Grote expressing himself
as follows: “This idea of the judgment of others upon
our conduct and feeling as agents, or the idea of our own
judgment as spectators in concurrence with others upon
our own conduct as agents, is the main basis of what is
properly called Ethical sentiment.’’! In this passage the
word “judgment” can only mean moral judgment, which
is an exercise of the Moral Sense; and this exercise is
gravely represented as the “ basis ” of itself.

Two things, however, ought to be carefully considered
and remembered in respect to this elementary character of
the Moral Sense. The first is, that we must clearly define
to ourselves what the idea is of which, and of which
alone, we can affirm that it is elementary; and secondly,
that we must define ourselves as clearly, if it be pos-
sible to do so, in what sense it is that any faculty what-
ever of the mind can really be contemplated as separable
from, or as uncombined with, others.

As regards the first of these two things to be defined,
namely, the idea which we affirm to be simple or ele-
mentary, it must be clearly understood that this elemen-
tary character, this incapability of being reduced by anal-
ysis, belongs to the bare sense or feeling of obligation,
and not at all, or not generally, to the processes of
thought by which that feeling may be guided in its ex-
ercise. The distinction is immense and obvious. The
sense of rightness and of wrongness is one thing ; the way
in which we come to attach the idea of right or wrong to
the doing of certain acts, or to the abstention from cer-
tain other acts, is another and a very different thing. This
is a distinction which applies equally to many other simple
or elementary affections of the mind. The liking or dis-
liking of certain tastes or affections of the palate is uni-
versal and elementary. But the particular tastes which
are the objects of liking or of aversion are for the most
part determined by habits and education. There may
be tastes which all men are so coustituted as necessarily
to feel disgusting ; andin like manner there may be cer-
tain acts which all men everywhere must feel to be con-

1 ‘‘ Fragments on Ethical Subjects,’ pp. 9, ro.

102

SCIENCE.

trary to their sense of obligation. Indeed we shall see
good reason to believe that this not only may bé so, but
must beso. But thisisa separate subject of inquiry.
The distinction in principle is manifest between the sense
itself and the laws by which its particular applications
are determined.

The second of the two things to be defined—namely,
the sense in which any faculty whatever of the mind can
really be regarded singly, or as uncombined with others
—is a matter so important that we must stop to con-
sider it with greater care.

The analogy is not complete, but only partial, between
the analysis of Mind and the analysis of Matter. In
the analysis of Matter we reach elements which can be
wholly separated from each other, so that each of them
can exist and can be handled by itself. In the analysis of
Mind we are dealing with one organic whole; and the
operation by which we break it up into separate faculties
or powers is an operation purely ideal, since there is not
one of these faculties which. can exist alone, or which can
exert its special functions without the help of others.
When we speak, therefore, of a Moral Sense or of Con-
science, we do not speak of it as a separate entity any
more than when we speak of Reason or of Imagination.
Strictly speaking, no faculty of the mind is elementary in
the same sense in which the elements of Matter are (sup-
posed to be) absolutely simple or uncombined, Perhaps
there is no faculty of the mind which presents itself so dis-
tinctly and is so easily separable from others as the facul-
ty of Memory. And yet Memory cannot always repro-
duce its treasures without an effort of the Will, nor, some-
times , without many artificicial expedients of Reason to
help it in retracing the old familiar lines. Neither is there
any faculty more absolutely necessary than Memory to the
to the working of every other. Without Memory there could
not be any Reason, nor any Reflection nor any Conscience.
In this respect all the higher faculties of the human mind are
much more inseparably blended and united in their opera-
tion'than those lower faculties which are connected with
bodily sensation. These lower faculties are indeed also
parts of one whole, are connected with a common centre,
and can all be paralyzed when that centre is affected.
But in their ordinary activities their spheres of action
seem widely different, and each of them can be, and often
is, seen in apparently solitary and independent action.
Sight and taste and touch and hearing are very different
from each other—so separate indeed that the language
of the one can hardly be translated into the language of
the other. But when from these lower faculties, which
are connected with separate and visible organs of the
body, and which we possess in common with the brutes,
we ascend to the great central group of higher and more
spiritual faculties which are peculiar to Man, we soon find
that their unity is more absolute, and their interdepend-
ence more visibly complete. Ideally we can distinguish
them, and we can range them in an ascending order. We
can separate between different elements and different pro-
cesses of thought and in accordance with these distinc-
tions we can assign to each of them a separate faculty of
themind. We think of these separate faculties as being
each specially apprehensive of one kind of idea, or specially
conducting one kind of operation. Thus the reasoning
faculty works out the process of logical sequence, and ap-
prehends one truth as the necessary consequence of an-
other. Thus the faculty of Reflection passes in review
the previous apprehensions of the Intellect, or the fleeting
suggestions of Memory and of Desire, looks at them in
different aspects, and submits them now to the tests of
reasoning, and now to the appreciations of the Moral
Sense. Thus, again, the supreme faculty of Will deter-
mines the subject of investigation, or the direction of
thought, or the course of conduct. But although all these
faculties may be, and indeed must sometimes be, conceived
and regarded as separate, they all more or less involve
each other; and in the great hierarchy of powers, the

highest and noblest seem always to be built upon the
foundations of those which stand below. Memory is
the indispensable servant of them all. Reflection is ever
turning the mind inward on itself. The logical faculty is
ever rushing to its own conclusions as necessary conse-
quences of the elementary axioms from which it starts,and
which are to it the objects of direct and intuitive apprehen-
sion. The Moral Sense is ever passing its judgments upon
the conduct of others and of ourselves; whilst the Will is
ever present to set each and all to their proper work. And
the proper work of every faculty is to see some special
kind of relation or some special quality in things
which other faculties have not been formed to
see. But although these qualities in things are
in themselves separate and distinct, it does not at all
follow that the separate organs of the mind, by which
they are severaliy apprehended, can ever work without
each other’s help. The sense of logical necessity is clearly
different from the sense of moral obligation. But yet as
Reason cannot work without the help of Memory, so nei-
thercan the Moral Sense work without the help of Rea-
son. And the elements which Reason has to work on in
presenting different actions to the judgment of the Moral
Sense may be, and often are, of very great variety. It is
these elements, many and various in their character, and
contributed through the help and concurrence of many
different faculties of the mind that men are really distin-
guishing and dissecting when they think they are analy-
zing the Moral Sense itself. What they do analyze with
more or less success is not the Moral Sense, but the
conditions under which that Sense comes to attach its
special judgments of approval or of condemnation to par-
ticular acts or to particular motives.

And this analysis of the conditions under which the
Moral Sense performs its work, although it is not the kind of
analysis which it often pretends to be, is nevertheless in the
highest degree important, for although the sense of obli-
gation, or, as it is usually called, the Moral Sense, may be
in itself simple, elementary, and incapable of reduction, it
is quite possible to reach conclusions of the most vital
interest concerning its nature and its functions by exam-
ining the circumstances which do actually determine its
exercise, especially those circumstances which are nec-
essary and universal facts in the experience of mankind.

There 1s, in the first place, one question respecting the
Moral Sense which meets us at the threshold of every in-
quiry respecting it, and to which a clear and definite an-
swer can be given. This question is—What is the sub-
ject-matter of the Moral Sense? or, in other worda, what
is the kind of thing of which alone it takes any cogni-
zance,and in which alone it recognizes the qualities of
right and wrong?

Tothis fundamental question one answer, and one an-
swer only can be given. The things, and the only things
of which the Moral Sense takes cognizance are the actions
of men. It can take no cognizance of the actions of ma-
chines, nor of the actions of the inanimate forces of Na-
ture, nor of the actions of beasts, except in so far as a
few of these may be supposed to possess in a low and ele~
mentary degree some of the characteristic powers of Man.
Human conduct is the only subject-matter in respect of
which the perceptions of the Moral Sense arise. They
are perceptions of the mind which have no relation to any-
thing whatever except to the activities of another mind
constituted like itself. For, asno moral judgment can be
formed, and no moral perception can be felt, except by a
moral agent, so neither can it be formed in respect to the
conduct of any other agent which has not, or is assumed
not to have a nature like our own—moral, rational and
free.

And this last condition of freedom, which is an essential
one to the very idea of an agency having any moral char-
acter, will carry us a long way on toward a farther defini-
tion of the subject-matter on which the Moral Sense is ex-
ercised, It is as we have seen, human conduct, But it

v

SCIENCE.

103

is not human conduct in its mere outward manifestations,
for the only moral element in human conduct is its actuat-
ing motive. If any human action is determined not by
any motive whatever, but simply by external or physical
compulsion, then no moral element is present at all, and
no perception of the Moral Sense can arise respecting it.

Freedom, therefore, in the sense of exemption from |

such compulsion, must be assumed as a condition of hu-
man action absolutely essential to its possessing any moral
character whatever. There can be no moral character in
any action, so far as the individual actor is concerned,
apart from the meaning and intention of the actor. The
very same deed may be good, or, on the contrary devilishly
bad, according to the inspiring motive of him who does it.
The giving of a cup of cold water to assuage suffering, and
the giving it to prolong life in order that greater suffering
may be endured, are the same outward deeds, but
are exactly opposite in moral character. In like man-
ner, the killing of a man in battle and the killing of a man
for robbery or revenge, are the same actions; but the one
may be often right, whilst the other must be always
wrong, because of the different motives which incite the
deed. Illustrations of the same general truth might be
given asinfinite in variety as the varying circumstances
and conditions of human conduct. It is a truth perfectly
consistent with the doctrine of an Independent Morality,
Every action of avoluntary agent has, and must have, its
own moral character, and yet this character may be sepa-
rate and apart from its relation to the responsibility of the
individual man who does it. That is to say, every act
must be either permitted, or forbidden, or enjoined, by le-
gitimate authority, although the man who does it may be
ignorant of the authority or of its commands. And the
same proposition holds good if we look upon the ultimate
standard of morality from the Utilitarian point of view.
Every act must have its own relation to the future. Every
act must be either innocent, or beneficent, or hurtful
in its ultimate. tendencies and results. Or, if we like to
put it in another form, every act must be according to the
harmony of Nature or at variance with that harmony, and
therefore an element of disorder and disturbance. In all
these senses, therefore, we speak, and we are right in
speaking of actions as in themselves good or bad, because
we so speak of them according to our own knowledge of
the relation in which they stand to those great stand-
ards of morality, which are fact and not mere assump-
tions or even mere beliefs. But we are quite able to
separate this judgment of the act from the judgment
which can justly be applied to the individual agent. As
regards him, the act is right or wrong, not according
to our knowledge, but according to his own. And
this great distinction is universally recognized in the
language and (however unconsciously) in the thoughts of
men. It is sanctioned, moreover, by Supreme Authority.
The most solemn prayer ever uttered upon earth was a
prayer for the forgiveness of an act of the most enormous
wickedness, and the ground of the petition was specially
declared to be that those who committed it “knew not
what they did.””. The same principle which avails to di-
minish blame, avails also to diminish or extinguish merit.
We may justly say of many actions that they are good in
themselves, assuming, as we naturally do, that those
who do such actions do them under the influence of
the appropriate motive. But if this assump-
tion fails in any particular case, we cannot and we do
not, credit the actor with the goodness of his deed. If
he has done a thing which in itself is good in order to
compass. an evil end, then, so far as he is concerned, the
deed is not good, but bad, It may indeed be worse in
moral character than many other kinds of evil deeds,
and this just because of the goodness usually attaching
to it. For this goodness may very probably involve the
double guilt of some special treachery, or some special
hypocrisy; and both treachery and hypocrisy are in the
highest degree immoral. It is clear that no action, how-

éver apparently benevolent, if done from some selfish or
cruel motive, can be a good or a moral action.

It may seem, however, as if the converse of this pro-
position cannot be laid down as broadly and as de-
cidedly. There are deeds of cruelty in abundance which
have been done, ostensibly at least, and sometimes,
perhaps, really from motives comparatively good, and
yet from which an enlightened Moral Sense can never
detach the character of wickedness and wrong. These
may seem to be cases in which the motive does not de-
termine the moral character of the action, and in which
our Moral Sense persists in condemning the thing done in
spite of the motive. But if we examine closely the
grounds on which we pass judgment in such cases, we
hall not, I think, find them exceptions to the rule or
law that the purpose or intention of a free and volun-
tary agent is the only thing in which any moral good-
ness can exist, or to which any moral judgment can be
applied. In the first place, we may justly think that the
actors in such deeds are to a large extent themsélves
responsible for the failure in knowledge, and for the de-
tective Moral Sense which blinds them to the evil of their
conduct, and which leads them toa wrong application of
some motive which may in itself be good. And in the
second place, we may havea just misgiving as to the sin-
glenéss and purity of the alleged purpose which is

good. We know that the motives of men are so
various and so mixed, that they are not al-
ways themselves conscious of that motive which

really prevails, and we may have often good reasons for
our convictions that bad motives unavowed have really
determined conduct for which good motives only have
been alleged. Thus, in the case of religious persecution,
we may be sure that the lust of power and the passion of
resentment against those who resist its ungovernable de-
sires, have very often been the impelling motive, where
nothing but the love of truth has been acknowledged.
And this at least may be said, that in the universal judg-
ment of mankind, actions which they regard as wrong
have not the whole of that wrongfulness charged against
the doers of them, in proportion as we really believe the
agents to have been guided purely and honestly by their
own sense of moral obligation.

On the whole, then, we can determine or de-

fine with great clearness and precision the field
within which the Moral Sense can alone find
the possibilities of exercise—and that field is

the conduct of men ;—by which is meant not their actions
only, but the purpose, motive, or intention by which the
doing of these actions is determined. This conclu-
sion, resting on the firm ground of observation and ex-
perience, is truthfully expressed in the well-known lines

of Burns :—

‘* The heart’s aye the part aye
Which makes us right or wrang.”
And now it is possible to approach more closely to
the great central question of all ethical inquiry :—
Are there any motives which all men under all
circumstances recognize as good? Are there any other
motives which, on the contrary, all men under all
circumstances recognize as evil? Are there any fun-
damental perceptions of the Moral Sense upon which
the standard of right and wrong is planted at the first,
and round which it gathers to itself, by the help of every
faculty through which the mind can work, higher and
higher conceptions of the course of duty?
(To be continued.)
.—$<$§ooe—__$§£__——=

PHYSIOLOGICAL ErFrEcTs OF GLYCERIN.—Chemically pure
glycerine if injected under the skin of dogs proves fatal
within twenty-four hours if the dose reaches 8 to Io grms.
per kilo. of the weight of the animal. The symptoms are
comparable to those of acute alcoholism.—M M, Beaumetz
and Audigé.

104

ATMOSPHERIC OZONE FOR JANUARY, 1881.

By L. P. GRATACAP.

The memorable discovery of Ozone by Schénbein, in
1840, bequeathed to the scientific world one of its ques-
tiones vexatz, about which opinions and experiments
seem to have been equally at variance. As regards its
constitution and essential nature there seems little reason
to doubt it is a condensed form of oxygen, according to
the views of Andrews and Tait, and that it displays the
characteristic properties of that gas in an intensified de-
gree. Its existence in the air can be hardly less ques-
tioned, but the extent and origin of its presence are in-
volved in obscurity, and partly from the modifying influ-
ence of local circumstances and the identity of its
reactions with other atmospheric bodies the conclusions
of various experimenters are either equivocal or contra-
dictory. The fact that chlorine, sulphurous fumes, the
nitrogen oxides, affect the test papers in the same man-
ner as ozone, and that humidity of the atmosphere,
strong winds, bright sunshine, or local nuisances exag-
gerate or diminish the normal reaction, renders it difficult
to eliminate the error introduced by their adventitious
influence. The results here given were obtained with
test papers of starch and iodide of calcium, prepared,
presumably, like those of Dr. Moffat, from starch and
iodide of potassium, and compared, after the test, witha
scale of colors similar to Negretti and Zambra’s.

After E. Schone’s recent condemnation of ozone tests
made in this way, they may appear valueless, but it
would hardly seem, admitting the justice of Schéne’s
strictures, that their comparative showing would be seri-
ously impaired. The coloration obtained was in a great
measure due to ozone, and its increase or decrease was
due in the same proportion to an increase or decrease of
this re-agent ; the contemporaneous influence of nitrogen
oxides may have deepened the tints, it certainly could
not have neutralized them, and inasmuch as the papers
were kept moist the effects of the varying humidity of
the air were, in a measure, cancelled. Precautions
against the disturbing influence of winds and that of
strong sunshine were also taken. Duplicate observa-
tions were taken at 10 feet and at 4o feet from the
ground, and their average (though in nearly all cases
they proved identical one with the others) recorded, as
the color-mark of the hours they were exposed.

Observations were taken every 12 hours, dividing
the 24 between day and night, and notes kept of the
weather. Asa rule, the papers exposed at an elevation
were more deeply colored than those near the ground,
though this was probably due to a freer circulation of
air. The papers at the periods of strongest ozonization
were changed throughout ; at other times they were
marked in spots and near the edges, showing an unequal
sensitiveness to the re-agents. In supplementary trials
on the effect of the wind, it was found that those papers
exposed to the wind were sometimes one-third deeper in
tint than the protected ones, and reached their maximum
much quicker. These contrasts were, of course, les-
sened with a diminished velocity of wind.

The manifestations of ozone followed, as a rule, low-
ered barometric pressure and rising temperature, in other
words, they were coincident with change of weather.
This is an interesting confirmation of Houzeau’s experi-
ments, and in the attempt I make below to give this a
graphic demonstration this generalization appears, z. é.,
that a wave of ozonization follows the storm wave, lag-
ging somewhat behind it, and appreciably corresponding
in duration and intensity to the force and continuance of
the air wave which preceded it.* In this connection it
will be noticed that threatening weather on the 16th and
18th was followed by a sudden projection of the ozone

* As regards the sensible effects of the ozone following by many hours
the opening of the storm on the oth and 13th, the reactions appeared con-
currently with a change in the weather from snow to rain. On the other
hand, the storm of the 21st opened with rain.

SCIENCE.

curve which as rapidly subsides, indicating either atmos-
pheric disturbances responsive to an incipient but unfin-
ished change of weather, or else undulations of ozoniza-
tion coming from some neighboring storm centre or both.
Further on the curve of ozonization rises somewhat
before that of the weather, and I apprehend this may
often or always happen when storms of unusual severity
and violence are about to traverse a district. The thrill
of ozonization recorded on the papers taken in on the
morning of the 20th were prophetic of the fierce and
extraordinary tempest which devastated New York and
its vicinity upon the 21st,

The high readings from the 25th to 29th accompanied
the advent of a cold wave in the Hudson River Valley
on the night of the 24th, which sent the mercury down
to 15° below o° at Poughkeepsie and brought colder :
weather to New York and its vicinity, lasting four days,
with strong N.-W. and W. winds. This appears anal-
ogous to the strong ozonization concurrent with storms.
etc.; the atmospheric disturbance originating the cold
wave propagated an ozone wave which appears simul-
taneously with the former. It is not probably due simply
to an apparent increase of normal ozone from the rapid
passage of air currents past the tester. This latter effect
is doubtless efficient in heightening the entire result, but
the wind appears to act as an ozone carrier, bringing into
one area supplies of this gas formed in a different and
removed one. Indeed it does not appear unwise to spec-
ulate upon the possibility of the wind acting as an ozone
generator since the irruption of a volume of air at a high
velocity of different temperature and density from that of
the points over which its path sweeps, must comprise
electrical changes, discharges and perturbations. Such
effects would correspond in their intensity wita the viol-
ence and character of the air blast, and we might find
the neighboring areas to the track of a cyclone strongly
ozonized. Asa matter of observation the strong ozoni-
zation on the 29th succeeded the strong winds which
ushered in the cold of the 27th and 28th. And in any
case the deeper tints during wind indicate justly enough
the increased prevalence of ozone in the areas swept
over by the gale. That wind is not always efficient in
changing the ozone papers was shown in Daremberg’s
experience at Mentone, where, although variations were
caused by the wind, in some instances along the sea
board the coloration did not at all respond to the strength
of the former, and Houzeau is of the opinion that dry
winds have slight influence upon the papers.

The cold wave was followed on the 30th by a still
snow storm, the shower of pellets falling through an
atmosphere unmoved by even a current of air. Threat-
ening weather succeeded the cessation of the snowfall
only to usher in the fierce storm of February Ist, when
snow, wind, and a low temperature united to arrest life
and motion upon the thoroughfares of land and water.
The ozone curve responds but feebly to these meterologi-
cal perturbations until February Ist, when it slowly rises,
recalling Houzeau’s conjectures as to storms which gen-
erated ozone and storms which did not.

It may seem superfluous, if not trivial, to record any
observations upon atmospheric ozone when the whole sub- - -

_ ject is involved in a fog of scientific confusion, contempt

and obloquy. It may be said that these observations
presented no inconsistent, aberrant or contradictory re-
sults, and that to the general student of our local mete-
reology they may in this graphic form exhibit some
features of interest. The chart is simply suggestive and
absolutely artificial ; the numbers on the left of the lines
indicate degrees of coloration and the weather line is de-
termined by three points: clear, threatening and stormy.
The readings were made at West Brighton, Staten
Island, in New York Harbor, the maxima of colorations,
and hence ozone, considered as coincident with the time
at which the reading was taken, 7.30, night and morning,
which must be at times barely approximative.

105

SCIENCE.

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106 SCIENCE.

NOTE ON THE “POSTERIOR -BRAING (OF
“STEGOSAURUS.

In a paper before the National Academy of Sciences in
November last, and more recently in an illustrated article
in the Amerzcan Fournal of Sctence, February, 1881,
Professor O. C. Marsh has described certain remarkable
peculiarities of Stegosaurus ungulatus, one of the Dino-
saurian Reptiles of the American Jurassic formation.

Judging from the figures, which are said to be reduced
to one-sixteenth of the natural size, the arm of this species
must have been about one meter in length, while the leg
was about twice as long. ‘The great disproportion in
size between the fore and hind limbs, as well as the
structure of the principal joints in each, show plainly that
Stegosaurus walked mainly asa biped. The massive
posterior limbs, and the huge tail doubtless formed a
tripod on which the animal rested at times, while the fore
limbs were used for prehension or defense. The heavy
dermal plates and powerful spines probably rendered the
latter an easy task.”

After recalling the statement which had been made by
him ina previous article, that, proportionately, “ this
reptile had the smallest brain of any known land verte-
brate,’’ Professor Marsh describes with some detail ‘a
very large chamber in the sacrum, formed by an enlarge-
ment of the spinal canal. This chamber was ovate in
form, and strongly resembled the brain case in the skull,
although very much larger, being at least ten times its
size. . . . A perceptible swelling in the spinal cord of
various recent animals has been observed in the pectoral
and pelvic regions, where the nerves are given off for the
anterior and posterior limbs; and in extinct forms some
very noticeable cases are recorded, especially in Dino-
saurs. In some allied forms, CawPtonotus for
example, where the disproportion between the fore and
hind limbs is nearly as marked, the sacral enlargement of
the spinal cord is not one-fourth as great as in Stego-
saurus. It is an interesting fact that in young individuals
of Stegosaurus the sacral cavity is proportionately larger
than in adults, which corresponds toa well-known law of
brain growth. The physiological effects of a posterior
nervous centre, so many times larger than the brain it-
self is a suggestive subject, which need not be here dis-
cussed. It is evident, however, that in an animal so
endowed, the posterior part was dominant.”

In the hope that Professor Marsh may continue his im-
portant observations and reflections upon this subject,
attention is called to the following points :

1. It seems to be taken for granted that “ the pos-
terior nervous centre” was as large as the sacral cavity.
This is hardly warranted, although it is certainly favored
by the size of the sacral foramina. The cranial part of
the elephant’s skull is far larger than is required for the
lodgment of its brain, on account of the surface needed
for the attachment of the immense cervical muscles.
With many fishes, especially some skates and the Zo-
phius, the brain occupies but a small part of the capa-
cious cranial cavity. May it not be. then, that the sacral
cavity of Stegosaurus was enlarged, in part at least, in
correlation with a general enlargement of the whole
pelvis, in reference to the functions of the legs ?

2. Unless such examinations have been made already,
it would be well to ascertain the condition of the myelon
in the kangaroos, and that of the sacral cavity in
Diprotodon and Megeathertum, all of which may be
compared with Stegosaurus in respect to the size of the
legs, or their employment in connection with a large
tail.

It would be interesting to know the form and size
of the entire myelonal canal of Stegosaurus. The paper
leaves us in doubt as to whether the writer considers
the “posterior nervous centre’”’ as the homologue of the
ordinary “lumbar enlargement” of the myelon in man
and other vertebrates, If not, may it be the not yet

wholly abbreviated representative of what the late Prot.
Jeffries Wyman referred to in his paper “ On Symmetry
and Homology in Limbs’’? Jn some adult fishes the
spinal marrow ends in a ganglionic enlargement forming
a kind of caudal brain. We have found such a ganglion
quite conspicuous in the American Lophzus.” In either
case, it is probable that the remarkable condition of
things in Stegosaurus, as described by Prof. Marsh,
would have appeared to Prof. Wyman as an example of
the law of organic polarity in the form of “ fore-and
hind symmetry,’ which has been advocated by him, by
Dr. Coues, and by the writer of the present notice.
B. G. W.

—————— ed

THE ROMANCE OF ASTRONOMY. — Those _inter-
ested in astronomy will
Professor R. Kalley Miller’s delightful work ‘The
Romance of Astronomy,” has been published by
the “ Humbolt Library.” Professor Miller is a professor
at Cambridge, England, and has received aid from his dis-
tinguished colleagues, Sir William '!homson and Pro-
fessor Tait. An appendix by Mr. R. A. Proctor is added.
We remind our readers that the above work can be pur-
chased for 15 cents, and that under the advantages now
offered by club rates (to subscribers only), the 24 numbers
issued annually can be secured for $2.25—an average of
about 9 cen!s each.

eee ———

ATMOSPHERIC DUST.

At the period of the great debate on spontaneous genera-
tion between M. Pasteur and Pouchet, the latter was the
first to draw attention to the fact, that some of the minute
spherical granulations, discovered by the microscope in
dust deposited from the air in various regions of the globe,
were essentially composed of silica. That they had often
been mistaken for eggs of infusoria or for micrococci was
very evident ; but when the dust was submitted to complete
calcination ina platinum crucible the same grains were
still visible, with the same forms and dimensions as be-
fore.

I have more than once repeated this experiment of
Pouchet’s, but I have also made the opposite one and
examined the action of heat upon micrococci, diatoms and
oscillariz, which are supposed to contain large quantities
of silica.

There is no doubt that the dust of the atmosphere reveals
to the microscope, besides the larger mineral frag nents
mostly of an angular shape, exceedingly minute circular or
spherical bodies, being often not more than 0.001 of a milli-
metre in diameter, and very similar in size and shape, which
resist the action of a white heat in contact with the air,
and that of strong hydrochloric acid. In some of my ob-
servations they were remarkably numerous. Both before
and after the action of heat they are more or less transpar-
ent. What can be the origin of these singular objects?

The same experiments repeated with siliceous algz, such
as those belonging to the large family of the datomacee, and
with the mzcrococct of impure waters or vegetable infusions,
showed me that they do not retain their forms after being
subjected to the above treatment, and that in many in-
stances they can be totally destroyed by heat on the object
glass itself. On the other hand, the fossil diatoms resisted
the action of heat and acids and retained their forms. J
can draw only one conclusion from these observations:
namely, that the minute siliceous bodies found in the at-
mosphere are also fossil—they are micrococci of another
age.—Dr. T. L. Puirson, F.C.S.

+o

SILVER BromipE.—The action of light upon this sub-
stance varies according as the bromide is in the state of
emulsion in an indifferent medium, like collodian, or in an
organic substance readily oxidisable, like gelatine. Tem-
perature, moisture, and mechanical pressure do not appear
to have any influence,

be pleased to know that:

SE es

SCIENCE.

ASTRONOMICAL MEMORANDA.
THE CORDOBA OBSERVATORY.

In the fall of 1870, Dr. B. A. Gould, formerly director
of the Dudley Observatory, Albany, arrived in Cordoba,
for the purpose of establishing a National Argentine Ob-
servatory, and making the requisite observations for
forming a complete catalogue of the principal fixed stars
of the southern hemisphere. A long delay of about two
years, in the receipt of the instrument necessary to make
these observations, has been the cause of giving to the
world the Uranometria Argentzna, a work analagous to
the Uranometry of Argelander, which rendered such sig-
nal service to astronomy more than forty years ago.

Cordoba is situated about five hundred miles north-
west of Buenos Ayres, the Observatory occupying a
height upon the outskirts of the town, in latitude 31°
25' 15.4 south ; longtitude oh., 51m., 27s., east from
Washington. The equipment of the Observatory con-
sists of a 12.5 inch equatorial (object glass by Fitz) used
mainly for observing comets, etc.; a smaller equatorial
of about 8 inches aperture, devoted to observations of vari-
able stars ; a Zollner photometer ; and various accessory
instruments. But the most important instrument is
a Repsolds’ Meridian Circle of about 8 inches aperture,
which was mounted and ready for use in September,
1872. With this instrument observations of zones from
23° south, to 80° south declination—760 zones embrac-
ing 106,000 observations—have been completed, and the
reductions have been well advanced. To determine ab-
solute positions of all stars included in this catalogue,
the instrumental constants were determined before and

~ after each zone by a series of observations “consisting
of transits of two standard time stars, as well as of one
circumpolar star above, and one below the pole, together
with measurements of nadir, collimation and level.”

Dr. Gould has established, though necessarily on
a limited scale, a Signal Service which will doubtless de-
velop rapidly, when meteorology receives more attention
in South America than it does at present. Meanwhile
data of inestimable value are being collected at very
slight expense, by interesting many of the intelligent
land owners, in making sucn observations of the bar-
ometer, thermometer, etc.,as may be made with little
outlay of time and trouble. A Time Signal is sent at
noon once a week, over the available telegraph lines of
the country.

A force of four observers and several copyists, mostly
Americans, is engaged upon the work in the various de-
partments, and Dr. Gould has taken with him, within the
past few months, a photographer, in order to obtain exact
representations of several very interesting star clusters,
which can be compared directly with the appearance of
the cluster at any tuture time, and thus afford a means of
detecting any changes which may occur in the relative
positions of the component stars.

It is to be hoped that the political party now in power,
—under whose auspices these institutions have originated
and have been maintained——will retain its influence in
the government, and thus be enabled to promote the in-
lerests of science in the country.

o>

DISCOVERY OF A NEW ASTEROID.

The Smithsonian Institution has received from Pro-
fessor Foerster, of Berlin, the announcement of the dis-
covery, by Palisa, of a planet of the tenth magnitude, in
eleven hours thirty-nine minutes Right Ascension, eight
degrees twenty-five minutes north declination, with a
daily motion of one minute, north. This discovery brings
the total number of asteroids up to two hundred and
twenty, making the eighth discovered since February 6,
1880, The date of discovery is omitted.

107

IN a paper recently read before the Royal Astronomi-
cal Society, Mr. Stone has called attention to “some dif-
ficulties connected with the determination of the diameter
of Mars.” Upon examining the Greenwich observations
of the diameter, since 1851, very marked personal equa-
tions have been noticed in the different observers, dis-
crepancies which seem somewhat difficult to account for.
Mr. Stone says, “it looks as if there were two different
diameters of Mars observed,—one when Mars is compar-
atively near to us, and the other when it is at its greatest
distance from us. The result is that as far as one can
trace it, there is a distinct break of continuity between
the smaller and the larger measures ; as if the observers
had included the planet’s atmosphere when Mars is dis-
tant.”

——<—

SWEDEN has decided to take part in the international
meteorological and magnetic observations in the Polar
regions, and will establish two observatories, one at
Masselbay in Spitzbergen, and one at Haparanda at the
head of the Gulf of Boothia. Haparanda is to be well
supplied with self-registering and printing meteorological
apparatus, and with astronomical instruments to carry on
a series of regular observations.

er

PROFESSOR PICKERING has called attention to the pe-
culiar resemblance between the spectrum of the star
Oeltzen 17681 and that of the three stars discovered by
Wolf and Rayet in 1867, (Comptes Rendus, vol. Ixv.,
p. 292). The relative brightness is found to be different
in these spectra, and the subject promises to repay further
investigation. W.C.W.

Washington, D. C , March 3, 188r.

THE DAVIDSON ASTRONOMICAL OBSERVA-
TORY AT SAN FRANCISCO, CALIFORNIA.

Prof. George Davidson, of the United States Coast and
Geodetic Survey, has established a private observatory in
San Francisco, and mounted the six-and-a-half inch
Equatorial which was exhibited at the Centennial, but
which has now a Villarcean governor, spectrescope, and
other improvements.

The geographical position of this observatory is :

Latitude = 37° 47’ 22".3 north.

Longitude — 122° 24’ 39’.0 west of Greenwich.

In time = 8! o9™ 33.60 west of Greenwich.

This fixes it as the most western observatory in America.

To observe the total solar eclipse of January 11, 1880,
Prof. Davidson transported the instrument and the obser-
vatory to the summit of Santa Lucia Mountain, about
thirty-five miles southward of Monterey, and six thousand
feet elevation above the Pacific ocean. In this undertaking
everything had to be carried up four thousand feet over a
very steep and rugged trail by pack mules; and the party
encountered one ot the fiercest snow stor msof that coast,
but successfully accomplished the object of the under-
taking which was made under the directions of the Sup-
erintendent of the Coast Survey. Whenever opportuni-
ties offer for observing at not less than ten thousand feet
elevation, he will transport it to these high stations, [It
was intended to use it in 1879 at two of the coast survey
stations occupied in the Sierra Nevada having elevations
of 9800 to 10,600 feet, but unfortunately it.was not re-
ceived in, season. |

Mr, Davidson has been engaged in regular coast survey
duties upon the Pacific almost continuously since the
Spring of 1850, and has had large experience in observing
at great elevations.

pas et Diego! Tp hd

AN international exhibition connected with electricity
will open in Paris, August 1, 1881, and will close on the
15th of November following.

108

SCIENCE IN FRANCE. |

PARIS, February 12, 1881.

There is so much at present which is both novel and |
important in the scientific world, that I fear, in my en- |
deavors to do full justice to everything, I shall, by at-
tempting too much, find myself in a position analogous
with that of a certain unfortunate person mentioned in
history, who, while striving to seat himself upon two
chairs simultaneously, fell ignominiously to the ground.

But let us not waste time in odious comparisons! The
news has probably long since reached you of a wonder-
ful fossil forest which has recently been discovered in
Hindoostan, and of a prehistoric grotto somewhere on
the border line of France, containing various kinds of
warlike weapons of an exceedingly primitive design, to-
gether with a single human tooth. It is not of these,
however, that I intend to speak, as beyond the facts
themselves nothing of particular interest remains to be
told.

In the medical world a little instrument newly invented,
is attracting considerable attention. It is called the
crayon feu and is worthy of something more than a pass-
ing description.

That all intelligent physicians recommend instant caut-
erization when a person has been bitten by a mad dog,
or indeed a dog of any sort, is a well-known fact. It is
not, however, generally speaking, an easy matter to find
an appropriate piece of iron and a lighted fire all ready
for the operation, and consequently it usually happens
that some time elapses before the remedy can be applied.
Of course we all know that delay in such matters fre-
quently proves fatal, and it was of this undoubtedly that
Dr. Moser was thinking when he invented the tiny, port-
able apparatus which he calls the crayon feu, and which
is so simply constructed that it can be used alike by phy-
sicians, travellers, hunters, or indeed any one who has
either been bitten himself or who is required to treat an-
o‘her person.

This little instrument consists of a pencil made of
some peculiar composition which ignites instantly when
a match is applied to it and becomes red-hot while the
patient’s wound is being washed. The point of the pen-
cil is then introduced directly into the wound, and the
cauterization is performed in an instant. The patient
merely experiences a slight sensation of being burned,
as the operation is over before he is able to feel any defi-
nite pain. A little wooden or metal cover is placed over
the pencil when it is not in use, and at the other end is a |
small receptacle for the particular kind of wax matches
which are required to light it.

The crayon feu is indeed multum zn parvo and can be
carried in the vest pocket. Medical men, scientific socie-
ties, and all public administrations in Paris have given it
a warm welcome—-no pun is here intended—and their
example has been followed bya host of others, while Dr.
Moser himself, is looked upon as a veritable benefactor
to humanity.

No less interesting are the curious experiments recently
made by a Hungarian, M. Kerdig, by means of a combus-
tible substance which is undoubtedly destined to be used
at some future time for illuminating purposes.

M. Kerdig begins by placing upon a table a number of
lamps filled with this fluid, which, indeed, gives forth a
most brilliant light. He then announces to the inter-
ested spectators that it is in no danger whatever of catch-
ing fire or exploding, and in order to illustrate this fact
so that even the veriest skeptic shall believe, he pours a
quantity of the liquid upon his hat and calmly sets fire to
it. A mass of lurid flame rises instantly almost to the
ceiling, but M. Kerdig, in no wise disconcerted, places his
hat coolly upon his head, and waits until the flame grad-
ualty dies out. He then exhibits the hat triumphantly to
the audience—it is uninjured. He next sets fire to the
floor, then to his handkerchief, saturated with the sub-

| SURE IN TOURMALINE.—The authors announce the following

SCIENCE.

stance, and finally goes so far as to pour some of it into
the palm of his hand and light it ; but the floor, the hand-
kerchief and the hand are all alike unharmed.

Of course all this appears most extraordinary at first
sight, but a little careful investigation is in this case, as
in many others, capable of reducing mountains to mole
hills. The vapor of M. Kerdig’s mineral substance pos-
sesses considerable expansive force, so that in reality it is
the vapor which burns and not the liquid. The latter
being at a very low temperature, produces no sensation of
heat upon the hand, notwithstanding the flame above.

Now, I suppose you would like to know of what this
interesting product consists. M. Kerdig says thatit is a
very volatile essence of naptha, to which is added a com-
pound of various evaporating substances. Other people,
however, affirm that it is a product derived from natural
oils recently discovered in Hungary, which, when properly
distilled, results in a peculiar substance, very volatile,
and, what is of still more importance, very cheap. A
faint odor of petroleum pervades it, accompanied by a
slight aromatic fragrance, and when spread upon the hand
a sensation of cold is felt.

We have just received intelligence from the south of
France of the terrible ravages made upon the olive crops
this season by an insect designated by the entomologists
as the Dacusolee. It is a little gray fly, with several legs,
and long yellow antenne. There are two generations of
them every year, one appearing in July, the other in Sep-
tember. The eggs are deposited in the fruit, and the
larva, which resembles a little yellowish-white maggot,
consumes the pulp, intersecting it with tiny passages.

The adult leaves the olive and makes its way to the .
ground, where it is transformed into a chrysalis and re-
mains buried during the winter months.

Speaking upon agricultural topics reminds me of an
unprecedented phenomenon which has just occurred in
one of the districts of Jonzac. Upon the estate of a
certain M. Delaume, who lives at Séville, there is a
grape vine which for five years has been infested with
phylloxera, and the greater part of whose branches have
borne nothing whatever—-neither leaves nor fruit during
that period. But a most unforeseen and extraordinary
thing suddenly happened. From one branch, which has
hitherto been looked upon as quite dead, has sprung a
magnificent grape vine, well formed, and of a beautitul,
dark green color. No one, as yet, has been able to ex-
plain this singular occurrence.

Still less can we account for another most remarkable -
event, a description of which I lately read in a Hungarian ‘
paper. A criminal, it seems, had been hanged, and the 4
physician in attendance declared that life was quite ex- :
tinct. An autopsy was subsequently made upon the §
body, and the latter subjected to the action of a strong
galvanic current. Within the space of two hours, signs
of life were distinctly observed. The dead man recoy-
ered his senses completely, but succumbed, on the second
day following, to cerebral congestion.

If this account be true, we cannot too greatly encour-
age the use of electricity as a resuscitative and vital
agent, nor can we fail to admit that the present age is
one of unparalleled phenomena. COSMOS.

ed
LAWS OF THE DISENGAGEMENT OF ELECTRICITY BY PRES-

laws as resulting from their experiments :—The two ends
of a tourmaline evolve quantities of electricity respectively
equal, but of opposite signs. The quantity liberated by a
certain increase of pressure is opposite inits sign, but equal
to that produced by an equal decrease of pressure. This
quantity is proportional to the variation of the pressure, in-
dependent of the length of the tourmaline, and for one and
the same variation of pressure per unit of surface it is
proportional to the surface.—M M. Jacques and Pierre
Curie.

EE —

SCIENCE.

SORANGE :

A WEEKLy ReEcorpD OF SCIENTIFIC

PROGRESS.

JOHN MICHELS, Editor.

PUBLISHED AT

229 BROADWAY, NEW YORK.

P, O. Box 3888.

SATURDAY, MARCH 12, 1881.

INSANITY VERSUS CIVILIZATION.

It is interesting to note the steady progress made
by Alienists in solving the many difficult problems
which appear to underlie the practice of their profes-
sion, and we would give full credit to those who, in a
purely scientific spirit, are building a foundation on
which a system of treatment for mental diseases may
be erected, which shall accord with modern anatomi-
cal discovery and the latest theories which have been
developed by a careful study of insanity in all its forms.

The last number of the “ Journal of Nervous and
Mental Diseases” may be studied with advantage by
those who would gather a few opinions expressed by
those who “ minister toa mind diseased.” In the first
place, we have the authority of Dr. J. S. Jewell for
stating that insanity is on the increase, and must still
increase with the advance of civilization. In this
opinion he is confirmed by Professor W. Erb,
of Leipzig, and others. Among the reasons
advanced for alleging that the advance of civilization
is favorable to an increase in nervous and mental dis-
eases, it is stated, that the nervous systems of highly
cultivated and refined individuals among civilized
people are more complex and refined in structure and
more delicate in susceptibility and action, at least in
their higher parts, than the nervous systems of sav-
ages. As civilization advances, the occupations in-
crease which imply a cultivation of the sensibilities,
more especially those comprehended under the sense
of beauty. A relatively large number of persons give
themselves to the study and practice of art in its
various forms, to polite literature, and to sedentary
occupations. The more a part of the nervous system

. isused the more extended its development. In highly

civilized communities there is a constant tendency to
a loss of balance in nerve development, in which the

109

sensitive side of the nervous system preponderates
over the motor part of the same. Now, all disturb-
ances of symmetry or balance in development tend
toward disease; they do not constitute disease, but
verge in that direction. This state of things is the
result of advancing civilization, and involve a world
of minor consequences, both for the weal and woe
of the people.

Such is the substance of Dr. Jewell’s views, who
also charges the system of education in public schools
with being the cause of increasing the number of cases
of insanity, by breaking up the “nerve health” of
youths. This remark applies equally to the course of
study in Colleges and Universities, and the overworked
student in hundreds of cases obtains his degree at the
expense of loss of health, and retires with general
nervous and brain exhaustion, and afflicted with
melancholia, hysteria, vascular irregularities, cerebral
congestion, neuralgias and other disorders of the same
character.

Space will not permit us to describe the many
forms in which the adult, in civilized life, courts the
approach of the various forms of insanity; but they
can be easily surmised, and are often referred to in
articles treating on this subject.

We admit, with Dr. Jewell, that the higher develop-
ments of civilized life may produce a higher strain on
the nervous system which may lead to more frequent
cases of its derangement; but we think he draws too
wide a parallel when he makes a distinction between
our present modes of existence and actual savage life.
When speaking of the increase of insanity, it is pre-
sumed reference is made to a period covering, per-
haps, the last fifty years. Such being the case, we
think Dr. Jewell has hardly done justice to the subject,
by omitting the many mitigating circumstances attend-
ing an advanced civilization, which certainly alieviate
many of the mental strains spoken of by him.

Within the last fifty years, the hours of labor have
been curtailed both in manufactories and among the
industrial classes in cities. Stores which at one time
were open until midnight are now closed at 7 P. M.
Means of recreation and amusements which until
recently were monopolized by a few, are now en-
joyed by the millions. Improved methods of transit
now enable citizens to enjoy their evenings after the
hours of labor, strolling upon grassy meadows or upon
the shores of the ocean. Literature of an entertaining
character is also now produced so cheaply as to make
its use universal. The laws of hygiene are also at this
present day better understood, and, by perfecting
man’s physical condition, instill fresh energy into his
mental powers.

We thus find that, so far from all the conditions
attending an advanced civilization being favorable to

110

SCIENCE.

insanity, many have a tendency to promote the most
perfect mental and physical development.

If the Alienist would solve the problem attending
the increase of cases of insanity, we would direct him
to other sources of the evil than that of civilization ;
let him probe the open and hidden vices of great
cities ; let him calculate the effect of the indiscriminate
use of alcoholic liquors and the pernicious abuse of
potent drugs. We regard opium, tobacco, chloral and
sewer gas as some of the offending agents which
weaken and debilitate the mental powers, rather than
the mild educational cause of our public schools or
the attending circumstances of student-life.

Dr. Jewell himself admits the destructive effects of
these agents upon the nervous system, but they are
classed as due to the influence of civilization. This
we think an error, as they are connected with vices of
a debased life ; and although insanity may be on the in-
crease, we consider it is far from conclusive that to
civilization we should attribute the primary cause.

SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES IN WASHINGTON, D. C.

THE BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY.—Three papers were read
at the last meeting, Friday, Feb. 25, as follows: A De-
scription of Pronuba yuccasella, by Prof. C. V. Riley;
The Hall Collection of Fossils from New York, by Prof.
C. A. White; and Suctorial Prehension in the Animal
Kingdom, by Mr. Smiley. Professor Riley’s paper was
a revision of his communications before the American
Association at St. Louis and in other places, concerning
a moth, the Pronuba yuccasella, which not only depos-
its its eggs in the capsules of the Yucca, but which is
also indispensable to the fertilization of the ovaries of
that plant. It was remarked by Mr. Lester F. Ward, in
commenting upon the paper, that we have here the most
wonderful example of commensualism. Professor White
is in charge of the duplicate set from the Hall Collection
of Fossils sent to the National Museum. His remarks
were a brief description of them as they now appear.
There are about 1500 entries, and they represent nearly
all the types in the Collection of the American Museum.
Mr. Smiley’s paper was a description of suctorial organs
in the various divisions of the animal kingdom. These
organs have in different circumstances, three functions, lo-
comotion, anchoring and the seizure of prey. The author
has bestowed a great deal of care on his communica-
tion and brought together a valuable mass of material.

THE ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY.—The Society met
in the main hall of the National Medical College, Major
J. W. Powell in the chair. The following papers were
read: Amphibious Aborigines of Alaska, by Ivan Petroff;
The Evolution of Marriage Ceremonies and Their Im-
port,by Dr. A. F.A. King. Mr. Petroff cescribed his ex-
perience among the shore Innuit population of Alaska,
from the lower peninsula north to the Yukon mouth.
There is water and marsh, mud and swamp everywhere,
and the heavens swell the mass by their contribution of
fog, rain, snow and sleet. The natives are enveloped in
this watery environment the year round and thrive upon
it. They even drink enormous quantities of it, not ex-
cepting the salt water of the bays and fiords, in their long
fishing journeys, Doctor King’s paper was an argument
to prove that the progress of civilization had the tendency
to set aside the laws of sexual relations which exist in a
state of nature, such as the survival of the fittest, the ob-
servance of natural periods, and sexual selection. The
paper was discusssed by Major Powell and Mr. Ward.

ACTION OF AN INTERMITTENT BEAM OF
RADIANT HEAT UPON GASEOUS
MATTER.*

By JOHN TYNDALL, F. R.S.

The Royal Society has already done me the honcr of
publishing a long series of memoirs on the interaction of
radiant heat and gaseous matter. These memoirs did
not escape criticism. Distinguished men, among whom
the late Professor Magnus and the late Professor Buff
may be more specially mentioned, examined my experi-
ments, and arrived at results different from mine. Living
workers of merit have also taken up the question; the
latest of whom,t while justly recognizing the extreme
difficulty of the subject, and while verifying, so far as their
experiments reach, what I had published regarding dry
gases, find me to have fallen into what they consider
grave errors in my treatment of vapors.

None of these investigators appear to me to have
realized the true strength of my position in its relation to
the objects I had in view. Occupied for the most part
with details, they have failed to recognize the stringency
of my work as a whole, and have not taken into account
the independent support rendered by the various parts of
the investigation to each other. They thus ignore verifi-
cations, both general and special, which are to me of
conclusive force. Nevertheless, thinking it due to them
and me to submit the questions at issue to a fresh ex-
amination, I resumed, some time ago the threads of the
inquiry. The results shall, in due time, be communicated
to the Royal Society ; but meanwhile, I would ask per-
mission to bring to the notice of the Fellows a novel
mode of testing the relations of radiant heat to gaseous
matter, whereby singularly instructive effects have been
obtained.

After working for some time with the thermopile and
galvanometer, it occurred to me several weeks ago that
the results thus obtained might be checked by a more
direct and simple form of experiment. Placing the gases
and vapors in diathermanous bulbs, and exposing the
bulbs to the action of radiant heat, the heat absorbed by
different gases and vapors ought, I considered, to be
rendered evident by ordinary expansion. I devised an
apparatus with a view of testing this idea. But, at this
point, and before my proposed gas thermometer was
constructed, I became acquainted with the ingenious
and original experiments ot Mr. Graham Bell, wherein
musical sounds are obtained through the action of an
intermittent beam of light upon solid bodies.

From the first, I entertained the opinion that these
singular sounds were caused by rapid changes of tem-
perature, producing corresponding changes of shape and
volume in the bodies impinged upon by the beam. But
if this be the case, and if gases and vapors really absorb
radiant heat, they ought to produce sounds more intense
than those obtainable from solids. I pictured every stroke
of the beam responded to by a sudden expansion of the
absorbent gas, and concluded that when the pulses thus
excited followed each other with sufficient rapidity, a
musical note must be the result. It seemed plain, more~
over, that by this new method many of my previous re-
sults might be brought to an independent test. Highly
diathermanous bodies, I reasoned, would produce faint
sounds ; while highly athermanous bodies would produce
loud sounds; the strength of the sound being, in a sense,
a measure of the absorption. The first experiment made,
with a view of testing this idea, was executed in the
presence of Mr. Graham Bell ;{ and the result was in
exact accordance with what I had foreseen.

The inquiry has been recently extended so as to em-

*Proceedings of the Royal Society. .

+ MM. Lecherand Pernter, ** Philosophical Magazine,” January, 1881.
““Sitzb, der K, Akad. der Wissensch. in Wien,” July, 1880.

tOn the 2oth of November: see ‘* Journal of the Society of Telegraph
Engineers,’’ December 8, 1880.

SCIENCE. Ill

brace most of the gases and vapors employed in my
former researches. My first source of rays was a Siem-
ens’ lamp connected with a dynamo-machine, worked by
agas engine. A glass lens was used to concentrate the
rays, and afterwards two lenses. By the first the rays
were rendered parallel, while the second caused them to
converge to a point about seven inches distant from the
lens. A circle of sheet zinc provided first with radial
slits and afterwards with teeth and interspaces, cut
through it, was mounted vertically on a whirling table,
and caused to rotate rapidly across the beam near the
focus. The passage of the slits produced the desired in-
termittence,* while a flask containing the gas or vapor to
be examined received the shocks of the beam immedi-
ately behind the rotating disc. From the flask a tube of
india-rubber, ending ina tapering one of ivory or box
wood, led to the ear, which was thus rendered keenly
sensitive to any sound generated within the flask. Com-
pared with the beautiful apparatus of Mr. Graham Bell,
the arrangement here described is rude; it is, however,
effective.

With this arrangement the number of sounding gases
and vapors was rapidly increased. But I was soon made
aware that the glass lenses withdrew from the beam its
effectual rays. The silvered mirrors employed in my pre-
vious researches were therefore invoked ; and with them,
acting sometimes singly and sometimes as_ conjugate
mirrors, the curious and striking results which I have
now the honor to submit to society were obtained.

Sulphuric ether, formic ether, and acetic ether
being placed in bulbous flasks,t their vapors were
soon diffused in the air above the liquid. On _ plac-
ing these flasks, whose bottoms only were covered
by the liquid, behind the rotating disc, so that the
intermittent beam passed through the vapor, loud
musical tones were in each case obtained. These
are known to be the most highly absorbent vapors which
my experiments revealed. Chloroform and bisulphide of
carbon, on the other hand, are known to be the least ab-
sorbent, the latter standing near the head of diatherman-
ous vapors. The sounds extracted from these two sub-
stances were usually weak and sometimes barely audible,
being more feeble with the bisulphide than with the chlo-
roform. With regard to the vapors of amylene, iodide
of ethyl, iodide of methyl and benzol, other things being
equal, theit power to produce musical tones appeared to
be accurately expressed by their ability to absorb radiant
heat.

It is the vapor, and not the liquid, that is effective in
producing the sounds. Taking, for example, the bottles
in which my volatile substances are habitually kept, I
permitted the intermittent beam to impinge upon the
liquid in each of them. No sound was in any case pro-
duced, while the moment the vapor-laden space above an
active liquid was traversed by the beam, musical tones
made themselves audible.

A rock-salt cell filled entirely with a volatile liquid, and
subjected to the intermittent beam, produced no sound.
This cell was circular and closedat the top. Once, while
operating with a highly athermanous substance, a distinct
musical note was heard. On examining the cell, however,
a small bubble was found at its top. The bubble was
less than a quarter of an inch in diameter, but still suffi-

* When the disc rotates the individual slits disappear, forming a hazy
zone throvgh which objects are visible. Throwing by the clean hand, or
better still by white paper, the beam back upon the disc, it appears to
stand still, the slips forming so many dark rectangles. The reason is ob-
vious, but the experiment is a very beautiful one.

I may add that when I stand with open eyes in the flashing beam, at a
definite velocity of recurrence, subjective colors of extraordinary gor-
geousness are produced. With slower or quicker rates of rotation the
colors disappear. The flashes also produce a giddiness, sometimes intense
enough to cause me to grasp the table to keep myself erect.

+ I have employed flasks measuring from 8 inches to 3{ths of aninch in
diameter. The smallest flask, which had a stem with a boie of about Yth
of an inch in diameter, yielded better effects than the largest. Flasks
from 2 to 3inches in diameter yield good results, Ordinary test-tubes also
answer well,

cient to produce audible sounds. When the cell was com-
pletely filled, the sounds disappeared.

It is hardly necessary to state that the pitch of the note
obtained in each case is determined by the velocity of ro-
tation. It is the same as that produced by blowing
against the rotating disc and allowing its slits to act like
the perforations of a syren.

Thus, as regards vapors, prevision has been justified
by experiment. I now turn to gases. A small flask, after
having been heated in the spirit lamp so as to detach all
moisture from its sides, was carefully filled with dried air.
Placed in the intermittent beam it yielded a musical note,
but so feeble as to be heard only with attention. Dry
oxygen and hydrogen behaved like dry air. This agrees
with my former experiments, which assigned a hardly
sensible absorption to these gases. When the dry air
was displaced by carbonic acid, the sound was far louder
than that obtained from any of the elementary gases.
When the carbonic acid was displaced by nitrous oxide,
the sound was much more forcible still, and when the
nitrous oxide was displaced by olefiant gas, it gave birth
to a musical note which, when the beam was in good con-
dition, and the bulb well chosen, seemed as loud as that
of an ordinary organ pipe.* We have here the exact
order in which my former experiments proved these gases
to stand as absorbers of radiant heat. The amount of
the absorpti n and the intensity of the sound go hand in
hand.

A soap bubble blown with nitrous oxide, or olefiant
gas, and exposed to the intermittent beam produced no
sound, no matter how its size might be varied. The
pulses obviously expended themselves upon the flexible
envelope, which transferred them to the air outside.

But a film thus impressionable to impulses on its in-
terior surface, must prove at least equally sensible to
sonorous waves impinging on it from without. Hence,
I inferred, the eminent suitability of soap bubbles for
sound lenses. Placing a “sensitive flame’ some feet
distant from a small sounding reed, the pressure was so
arranged that the flame burnt tranquilly. A bubble of
nitrous oxide (sp. gr. 1°527) was then blown, and placed
in front of the reed. The flame immediately fell and
roared, and continued agitated as long as the lens re-
mained in position. A pendulous motion could be im-
parted to the bubble, so as to cause it to pass to and fro
in front of the reed. The flame respondeu, by alternately
roaring and becoming tranquil, to every swing of the
bubble. Nitrous oxide is far better for this experi-
ment than carbonic acid, which speedily ruins its en-
velope.

The pressure was altered so as to throw the flame,
when the reed sounded, into violent agitation. A bubble
blown with hydrogen (sp. gr. 0'069) being placed in front
of the reed, the flame was immediately stiiled. The ear
answers instead of the flame.

In 1839, 1 proved gaseous ammonia to be extremely
impervious to radiant heat. My interest in its deport-
ment when subjected to this novel test was therefore
great. Placing a small quantity of liquid ammonia in
one of the flasks, and warming the liquid slightly, the
intermittent beam was sent through the space above
the liquid. A loud musical note was immediately pro-
duced. By the proper application of heat to a liquid
the sounds may be always intensified. The ordinary
temperature, however, suffices in all the cases thus far
referred to.

In this relation the vapor of water was that which in-
terested me most, and as I could not hope that at or-
dinary temperatures it existed in sufficient amount to
produce audible tones, I heated a small quantity of
water in a flask almost up to its boiling-point. Placed
in the intermitten beam, I heard—I avow with delight

* With conjugate mirrors the sounds with olefiant gas are readily ob-
tained at a distance of twenty yards from the lamp, I hope to be able to
make a candle flame effective in these experiments,

112

SCIENCE.

—a powerful musical sound produced by the aqueous
vapor.

Small wreaths of haze, produced by the partial con-
densation of the vapor in the upper and cooler air of
the flask, were, however, visible in this experiment;
and it was necessary to prove that this haze was not
the cause of the sound. The flask was, therefore,
heated by a spirit-flame beyond the temperature of
boiling’ water. The closest scrutiny by a condensed
beam of light then revealed no trace of cloudiness
above the liquid. From the perfectly invisible vapor,
however, the musical sound issued, if anything, more
forcible than before. I placed the flask in cold water
until its temperature was reduced from about go° to
10° C., fully expecting that the sound would vanish at
this temperature; but not withstanding the tenuity of
the vapor, the sound extracted from it was not only dis-
tinct but loud.

Three empty flasks, filled with ordinary air, were
placed in a freezing mixture for a quarter of an hour.
On being rapidly transferred to the intermittent beam,
sounds much louder than those obtainable from dry air
were produced.

Warming these flasks in the flame of a spirit-lamp
until all visible humidity has been removed, and after-
wards urging dried air through them, on being placed
in the intermittent beam thesotum in each case was
found to have fallen almost to silence.

Sending, by means of a glass tube, a puff of breath
from the lungs into a dried flask, the power of emitting
sound was immediately restored.

When, instead of breathing into a dry flask, the
common air of the laboratory was urged through it, the
sounds became immediately intensified. I was by no
means prepared for the extraordinary delicacy of this new
method of testing the athermancy and diathermancy of
gases and vapors, and it cannot be otherwise than satis-
factory to me to find that particular vapor, whose al-
leged deportment towards radiant heat has been most
strenuously denied, affirming thus audibly its true char-
acter.

After what has been stated regarding aqueous vapor,
we are prepared for the fact that an exceedingly small
percentage of any highly athermanous gas diffused in air
suffices to exalt the sounds. An accidental oisservation
will illustrate this point. A flask was filled with coal-gas
and held bottom upwards in the intermittent beam.
The sounds produced were of a force corresponding to
the known -absorptive energy of coal-gas. The flask
was then placed upright, with its mouth open upon a
table, and permitted to remain there for nearly an hour.
On being restored to the beam, the sounds produced
were far louder than those which could be obtained from
common air.

Transferring a small flask or a test-tube from a cold
place to the intermittent beam, it is sometimes found to
be practically silent for a moment, after which the sounds
become distinctly audible. This I take to be due to the
vaporisation by the calorific beam of the thin film of
moisture adherent to the glass.

My previous experiments having satisfied me of the
generality of the rule that volatile liquids andtheir vapors
absorb the same rays, I thought it probable that the in-
troduction of a thin layer of its liquid, even in the case
of a most energetic vapor, would detach the effective
rays, and thus quench the sounds. The experiment was
made, and the conclusion verified. A layer of water,
formic ether, sulphuric ether, or acetic ether, %th of an
inch in thickness, rendered the transmitted beam power-
less to produce any musical sound. ‘These liquids being
transparent to light, the efficient rays which they inter-
cepted must have been those of obscure heat.

A layer of bisulphide of carbon about ten times the
thickness of the transparent layers just referred to, and
rendered opaque to light by dissolved iodine, was inter-

posed in the path of the intermittent beam. It produced
hardly any diminution of the sounds of the more active
vapors —a further proof that it is the invisible heat rays,
to which the solution of iodine is so eminently transpar-
ent, that are here effectual.

Converting one of the small flasks used in the fore~
going experiments into a thermometer bulb, and filling
it with various gases in succession, it was found that
with those gases which yielded a feeble sound, the dis-
placement of a thermometric column associated with the
bulb was slow and feeble, while with those gases which
yielded loud sounds, the displacement was prompt and
forcible.

Received Fanuary 10, 1881.

FURTHER EXPERIMENTS.

Since the handing in of the foregoing note, on the 3rd
of January, the experiments have been pushed forward ;
augmented acquaintance with the subject serving only to
confirm my estimate of its interest and importance.

All the results described in my first note have been ob-
tained in a very energetic form with a battery of sixty
Grove’s cells.

On the 4th of January J chose for my source of rays a
powerful lime-light, which, when sufficient care is taken
to prevent the pitting of the cylinder, works with admir-
able steadiness and without any noise. I also changed
my mirror for one of shorter focus, which permitted a
nearer approach to the source of rays. Tested with this
new reflector the stronger vapors rose remarkably in
sounding power.

Improved manipulation was, I considered, sure to ex-
tract sounds from rays of much more moderate intensity
than those of the lime-light. For this light, therefore, a
common candle flame was substituted. Received and
thrown back by the mirror, the radiant heat of the candle
produced audible tones in all the stronger vapors.

Abandoning the mirror and bringing the candle close
to the rotating disc, its direct rays produced audible
sounds.

A red-hot coal, taken from the fire and held close to
the rotating disc produced forcible sounds in a flask at
the other side.

A red-hot poker, placed in the position previously oc-
cupied by the coal, produced strong sounds. Maintain-
ing the flask in position behind the rotating disc, amusing
alternations of sound and silence accompanied the alter-
nate introduction and removal of the poker.

The temperature of the iron was then lowered till its
heat just ceased to be visible. The intermittent invisible
rays produced audible sounds.

‘he temperature was gradually lowered, being accom-
panied by a gradual and continuous diminution of the
sound. When it ceased to be audible the temperature
of the poker was found to be below that of boiling
water.

As might be expected from the foregoing experiments,
an incandescent platinum spiral, with or without the
mirror, produced musical sounds. When the battery
power was reduced from ten cells to three, the sounds,
though enfeebled, were still distinct.

My neglect of aqueous vapor had led me for a time
astray in 1859, but before publishing my results I had
discovered my error. On the present occasion this om-
nipresent substance had also to be reckoned with. Four-
teen flasks of various sizes, with their bottoms covered
with a little sulphuric acid, were closed with ordinary
corks and permitted to remain in the laboratory from the
23d of December to the 4th of January. Tested on the
latter day with the intermittent beam, half of them emit-
ted feeble sounds, but half were silent. The sounds
were undoubtedly due, not to dry air, but to traces of
aqueous vapor.

An ordinary bottle, containing sulphuric acid for
laboratory purposes, being connected with the ear and

SCIENCE.

113

placed in the intermittent beam, emitted a faint, but dis-
tinct, musical sound. This bottle had been opened two
or three times during the day, its dryness being thus
vitiated by the mixture of a small quantity of common
air. A second similar bottle, in which sulphuric acid
had stood undisturbed for some days, was placed in the
beam: the dry air above the liquid proved absolutely
silent.

On the evening of January the 7th, professor Dewar
handed me four flasks treated in the following manner.
Into one was poured a small quantity of strong sulphu-
ric acid; into another a small quantity of Nordhausen
sulphuric acid; in a third were placed some fragments
of fused chloride of calcium ; while the fourth contained
a small quantity of phosphoric anhydride. They were
closed with well fitting india-rubber stoppers, and per-
mitted to remain undisturbed throughout the night.
Tested after twelve hours, each of them emitted a feeble
sound, the flask last mentioned being the strongest.
Tested again six hours later, the sound had disappeared
from three of the flasks, that containing the phosphoric
anhydride alone remaining musical.

Breathing into a flask partially filled with sulphuric
acid instantly restores the sounding power, which con-
tinues for a considerable time. The wetting of the in-
terior surface of the flask with sulphuric acid always en-
feebles, and sometimes destroys the sound.

A bulb, less than a cubic inch in volume, and contain-
ing a little water, lowered to the temperature of melting
ice, produces very distinct sounds. Warming the water
in the flame of a spirit-lamp, the sound becomes greatly
augmented in strength. At the boiling temperature the
sound emitted*by this small bulb* is of extraordinary in-
tensity.

These results are in accord with those obtained by me
nearly nineteen years ago, both in reference to air and to
aqueous vapor. They are in utter disaccord with those
obtained by other experimenters, who have ascribed a
high absorption to air and none to aqueous vapor.

The action of aqueous vapor being thus revealed, the
necessity of thoroughly drying the flasks, when testing
other substances, becomes obvious. The following plan
has been found effective. Each flask is first heated in
the flame of a spirit-lamp till every visible trace of in-
ternal moisture has disappeared, and it is afterwards
raised toa temperature of about 400° C. While the flask
is still hot, a glass tube is introduced into it and air freed
from carbonic acid by caustic potash, and from aqueous
vapor by sulphuric acid, is urged through the flask un-
til itis cool. Connected with the ear-tube, and exposed
immediately to the intermittent beam, the attention of
the ear, if I may use the term, is converged upon the
flask. When the experiment is carefully made, dry air
proves as incompetent to produce sound as to absorb
radiant heat. >

In 1868 I determined the absorptions of a great num-
ber of liquids whose vapors I did not examine. My ex-
periments having amply proved the parallelism of liquid
and vaporous absorption, I held undoubtingly twelve
years ago that the vapor of cyanide of ethyl and of
acetic acid would prove powerfully absorbent. This con-
clusion is now easily tested. A small quantity of either
of these substances, placed in a bulb a cubic inch in vol-
ume, warmed, and exposed to the intermittent beam,
emits a sound of extraordinary power.

I also tried to extract sounds from perfumes, which I
had proved in 1861 to be absorbers of radiant heat. I
limit myself here to the vapors of patchouli and cassia,
the former exercising a measured absorption of 30, and
the latter an absorption of 109. Placed in dried flasks,
and slightly warmed, sounds were obtained from both
these substances, but the sound of cassia was much
louder than patchouli.

* In such bulbs even bisulphide of carbon vapor may be so nursed as
to produce sounds of considerable strength,

Many years ago I had proved tetrachloride of carbon
to be highly diathermanous. Its sounding power is as
feeble as its absorbent power.

In relation to colliery explosions, the deportment of
marsh-gas was of special interest. Professor Dewar
was good enough to furnish me with a pure sample of
this gas. The sounds produced by it, when exposed to
the intermittent beam, were very powerful.

Chloride of methyl, a liquid which boils at the ordin-
ary temperature of the air, was poured into a sinall flask,
and permitted to displace the air within it. Exposed to
the intermittent beam, its sound was similar in power to
that of marsh-gas.

The specific gravity of marsh gas being about half that
of air, it might be expected that the flask containing it,
when left open and erect, would soon get rid of its con-
tents. This, however, is not the case. After a consider-
able interval, the film of this gas clinging to the interior
surface of the flask was able to produce sounds of great
power.

A small quantity of liquid bromine being poured into
a well-dried flask, the brown vapor rapidly diffused itself
in the air above the liquid. Placed in the intermittent
beam, a somewhat forcible sound was produced. This
might seem to militate against my former experiments,
which assigned a very low absorptive power to bromine
vapor. But my former experiments on this vapor were
conducted with obscure heat; whereas, in the present
instance, I had to deal with the radiation from incandes-
cent lime, whose heat is, in part, luminous. Now, the
color of the bromine vapor proves it to be an energetic
absorber of the luminous rays ; and to them, when sud-
denly converted into thermometric heat in the body of
the vapor, I thought the sounds might be due.

Between the flash containing the bromine and the ro-
tating disc I therefore placed an empty glass cell: the
sounds continued. I then filled the cell with transparent
bisulphide.of carbon: the sounds still continued. For
the transparent bisulphide I then substituted the same
liquid saturated with dissolved iodine. This solution
cut off the light, while allowing the rays of heat free
transmission: the sounds were immediately stilled.

Iodine vaporised by heat in a small flask yielded a
forcible sound, which was not sensibly affected by the
interposition of transparent bisulphide of carbon, but
which was completely quelled by the iodine solution.
It might indeed have been foreseen that the rays trans-
mitted by the iodine as a liquid would also be trans-
mitted by its vapor, and thus fail to be converted into
sound,*

To complete the argument :—While the flask contain-
ing the bromine vapor was sounding in the intermittent
beam, a strong solution of alum was interposed between
it and the rotating disc. There was no sensible abate-
ment of the sounds with either bromine or iodine
vapor.

In these experiments the rays from the lime-light were
converged to a point a little beyond the rotating disc. In
the next experiment they were rendered parallel by the
mirror, and afterwards rendered convergent by a lens of
ice. At the focus of the ice lens the sounds were ex-
tracted from ‘both bromine and iodine vapor. Sounds
were also produced after the beam had been sent through
the alum solution and the ice lens conjointly.

With a very rude arrangement I have been able to
hear the sounds of the more active vapors at a distance
of 100 feet from the source of rays.

Several vapors other than those mentioned in this
abstract have been examined, and sounds obtained from
all of them. The vapors of all compound liquids will,
I doubt not, be found sonorous in the intermittent beam.
And, as I question whether there is an absolutely dia-
thermanous substance in nature, I think it probable that

* | intentionally use this phraseology.

114

even the vapors of elementary bodies, including the ‘ele-
mentary gases, when more stric’ly examined, will be
found capable of producing sounds.

——————————$§_eoe—_—$___<—_

THE UNITY OF. NATURE.
By THE DUKE OF ARGYLL.
VI.

(Continued from page 103.)

ON THE MORAL CHARACTER OF MAN, CONSIDERED IN
THE LIGHT OF THE UNITY OF NATURE.

In dealing with this ques'ion, it is a comfort to remem-
ber that we are in possession of analogies deeply seated
in the constitution and in the course of Nature. It is
quite possible to ass‘'gn to Intuition or to Instinct the
place and rank which really belongs to it, and to assign
also to what is called Experience the functions which are
unquestionably its own. There is no sense or faculty of
the mind which does not gain by educztion—not one
which is independent of those processes of development
which result from its contact with the external world.
But neither is there any sense or faculty of the mind
which starts unfurnished with some one or more of those
intuitive perceptions with which all education and all
development must begin. Just as every exercise of rea-
son must be founded on certain axioms which are self-
evident to the logical faculty, so ail other exercises of the
mind must start from the direct perception of some rudi-
mentary truths. It would be strange indeed if the moral
faculty were any exception to this fundamental law.
This faculty in its higher conditions, such as we see it in
the best men in the most highly civilized communities,
may stand at an incalulable distance from its earliest and
simplest condition, and still more from its lowest cendi-
tion, such as we see it in the most degraded races of
mankind. But this distance has been reached from some
starting-point, and at that starting-point there must have
been some simple acts or dispositions to which the sense
of obligation wasins'inctively attached. And beyond all
question this is the fact. All men do instinctively know
what gives pleasure to themselves, and therefore also
what gives pleasure to other men. Moreover, to a very
large extent, the things which give them pleasure are the
real needs of life, and the acquisition or enjoyment of
these is not only useful but essential to the well-being
or even to the very existence of the race. And as Man
is a social animal by nature, with social instincts at least
as innate as those of the Ant or the Beaver or the Bee,
we may be sure that there were and are born with him
all those intuitive perceptions and desires which are nec-
essary to the growth and unfolding of his powers. And
this we know to be the fact, not only as a doctrine
founded on the unities of Nature, but as a matter of uni-
versal observation and experience. We know that with-
out the Moral Sense Man could not fulfill the part which
belongs to him in the world. It is as necessary in the
earliest stages of the Family and of the Tribe, as it is in
the latest developments of the State and of the Church,
It is an element without which nothing can be done—
without which no man could trust another, and, indeed,
no man could trust himself. There is no bond of union
among men—even the lowest and the worst—which does
not involve and depend upon the sense of obligation.
There is no kind of brotherhood or association for any
purpose which could stand without it. As a matter of
fact, therefore, and not at all as a matter of speculation,
we know that the Moral Sense holds a high place as one
of the necessary conditions in the development of Man’s
nature, in the improvement of his condition, and in the
attainment of that place which may yet lie before him in
the future of the world. There are other sentiments
and desires, which, being as needful, are equally instinct-
ive, Thus, the desire of communicating pleasure to

SCIENCE,

others is one of the instincts which is as universal in
Man asthe desire of communicating knowledge. Both
are indeed branches of the same stem—off-shoots from
the same root.. The acquisition of knowledge, to which
we are stimulated by the instinctive affections of curi-
osity and of wonder, is one of the greatest of human
pleasures, and the desire we have to communicate our
knowledge to others is the great motive-force on which
its progress and accumulation depend. The pleasure
which all men take, when their dispositions are good,
in sharing with others their own enjoyments, is another
feature quite as marked and quite as innate in the char-
acter of Man. And if there is any course of action to
which we do instinctively attach the sentiment of moral
approbation, it is that course of action which assumes
that our own desires, and our own estimates of good,
and the standard by which we ought to judge of what is
due to and is desired by others. The social instincts of
our nature must, therefore, naturally and intuitively in-
dicate benevolence as a virtuous, and malevolence as
a vicious disposition; and, again, our knowledge of
what is benevolent and what is malevolent is involved
in our own instinctive sense of what to us is good, and
of what to us is evil. It is quite true that this sense

| may be comparatively low or high, and consequently that

the standard of obligation which is founded upon it may
be elementary and nothing more. Those whose own
desires are few and rude, and whose own estimates of
good are very limited, must of course form an estimate
correspondingly poor and scant of what is good for, and
of what is desired by, others. But this exactly cor-
responds with the facts of human nature. This is pre-
cisely the variety of unity which its phenomena present.
There are no men of sane mind in whom the Moral
Sense does not exist; that is to say, there are no men
who do not attach to some actions or other the senti-
ment of approval, and to some other actions the oppo-
site sentiment of condemnation. On the other hand, the
selection of the particular actions to which these differ-
ent sentiments are severally attached is a selection im-
mensely various ; there being, however, this one common
element in all—that the course of action to which men
do by instinct attach the feeling of moral obligation, is
that course of action which is animated by the feeling
that their own desires and their own estimate of good is
the standard by which they must judge of what is due
by them to others, and by others to themselves.

And here we stand at the common point of departure
from which diverge the two great antagonistic schools
of ethical philosophy. On the other hand in the intuitive
and elementary character which we have assigned to the
sentiment of obligation, considered in itself, we have the
fundamental position of that school which asserts an in-
dependent basis of morality; whilst, on the other hand,
in the elementary truths which we have assigned to the
Moral Sense as its self-evident apprehensions, we have a
rule which corresponds, in one aspect at least, to the fun-
damental conception of the Utilitarian school. For the
rule which connects the idea of obligation with conduct

tending to the good of others, as tested by our own esti-

mate of what is good for ourselves, is a rule which clearly
brings the basis of morality into very close connection
with the practical results of conduct. Accordingly, one
of the ablest modern advocates of the Utilitarian system
has declared that “in the golden rule of Jesus of Naza-
reth we read the complete spirit of the ethics of Utility.
To do as you would be done by, and to love your
neighbor as yourself, constitute the ideal perfection of
Utilttarian morals.”

This may well seem a strange and almost a parodoxi-
cal result to those who have been accustomed to consider
the Utilitarian theory not so mucha low standard of
morals, as an idea whichis devoid altogether of that ele-

2 J.S, Mill; ‘ Utilitarianism,” pp. 24, 25.

et

SCIENCE,

ment in which the very essence of morality consists.
But it is a result due to these two causes—first, that under
the fire of controversy Utilitarians have been obliged to
import into the meaning of their words much that does
not really belong to them; and secondly, tothe fact, that
when this essential alteration has been made, then the
theory, or rather the portion of it which remains, does
represent one very important aspect of a very complex
truth.

It will be well to examine a little more closely the dif-
ferent wavs in which these two causes operate.

In the first place, as regards the ambiguities of lan-
guage, a moment’s consideration will convince us that
the word “ utility’ has, in its proper and primary signi-
fication, nothing whatever of the ethical meaning which
is attached toit in the Utilitarian theory of morals. In its
elementary signification the useful is simply the service-
able. It is curious to observe that this last word has no
ethical savor about it. On the contrary, it is associated
rather with the lower uses than with the higher of con-
duct. If this be objected to as preventing the two words
from being really the equivalent of each other, then at
least let it be recognized that utility must be divested of
its ethical associations before it can be set up as an ethi-
cal test. If utility is first assumed to be the equivalent
of goodness, it becomes of course a mere play on words
to represent usefulness as the criterion of virtue. If we
are to conduct our analysis correctly, we must expel from
utility every adventitious element of meaning. The use-
fulness of a thing means nothing more than its condu-
civeness to some purpose. But it may be any purpose,—
morally good, or morally bad, or morally indifferent.
The boot-jack, the thumb-screw, and the rack are all
useful machines for the purpose of producing torture on
the victim, and for the purpose, too, of giving to the tor-
turers that pleasure or satisfaction which wicked men
find in tyranny or revenge. The words “good” and
“bad” are themselves often used in a_ secondary
and derivative sense,which, like “‘ useful,’ may be destitute
of any ethical meaning. A good thumb-screw would mean
animplement well adapted to produce the most exquisite
pain. A good torture may mean a torture well calculated
to gratify the savage sentiment of revenge. In like man-
ner, although not to the same extent, the words “right”
and “‘wrong’”’ are often used with no ethical element of
meaning. The right way for a man who wishes to com-
mit suicide would be the way to a precipice over which
he desires to throw himself. But the same way is the
wrong way for him, if he wishes to avoid the danger of
falling. In this way we may speak of the right way of
doing the most wicked things. One most eminent ex-
pounder of the Utilitarian theory has taken advantage of
this common use of the words “good” and “bad,” and
of “right” and wrong,” to represent utility and inutility
to be the essential idea of all goodness and ofall badness
respectively.2 Thus the unavoidable ambiguities ~of
speech are employed to give a scientific aspect to the con-
founding and obliteration of the profoundest distinctions
which exist in knowledge. By the double process of ex-
pelling from goodness the idea of virtue, and of inserting
into wility the idea of beneficence, the fallacies of lan-
guage become complete. Because subserviency to pur-
pose of any kind is the meaning of “good,” when applied
equally to an instrument of torture and to an instrument
for the relief of suffering, therefore, it is argued, the same
meaning must be the essential one when we speak of a
good man. And so indeed it may be, if we know or as-
sume beforehand what the highest purpose is to which
Man can be made subservient. There is a well-known
Catechism of one of the Reformed churches which opens
with the qnestion, “ What is the chief end of Man?”
The answer is perhaps one of the noblest in the whole
compass of theology. ‘‘Man’s chief end isto glorify God

$ Herbert Spencer; ‘‘Data of Ethics,”’ chap. iii,

115

and to enjoy Him forever.’* Given certain further beliefs
as to the character of the Divine Being, and the methods
of his Government, then indeed it would be true that this
is a conception of the purpose of Man’s existence which
would erect mere serviceableness or utility into a perfect
rule of conduct. Perhaps even a lower or less perfect
conception of the great aim of Man’s life would be almost
enough. If virtue and beneficence are first assumed to
be the highest purpose of his being, then subserviency to
that purpose may beall that is meant by goodness. But,
without this assumption as to the “chief end of Man,”’
there would be no ethical meaning whatever in the phrase
of “a good man.’’ It might mean a good thief, ora good
torturer, ora good murderer. Utility, thatis tosav, mere
subserviency to any purpose,is undoubtedly a good thing in
itself, and of this kind is the goodness of a machine which
is invented for a bad or evil purpose. But this utility in
the machine is, so far as the machine is concerned, desti-
tute of any moral character whatever, and, so faras those
who employ it are concerned, the utility is not virtuous,
but, on the contrary, it is vicious. It is clear, therefore,
that when the word “utility? is used as meaning moral
or even physical good, and still more when it is identified
with virtue, or when it is declared to be the standard of
that which is right or virtuous in conduct, the word is
used not in its own proper sense, but in a special or ad-
ventitious sense, in which it is confined to one special
kind of usefulness, namely, that which conduces to good °
ends, and good aims, and good purposes. That is to say,
the sense in which utility is spoken of as the test or
standard of virtue is a sense which assumes that good-
ness and virtue are independently known, or, in other
words, that they are determined and recognized by some
other test and some other standard.

It is, however, clear that when by this other test and
standard, whatever it may be, we have already felt or
apprehended that it is right and virtuous to do
good to others, then the usefulness of any action or
of any course of conduct, in the production of such
good, does become a real test and indication of that
which we ought to do. Itis atest or indication of the
particular things which it is right to do, but not at all a
test of the moral obligation which lies upon us to do
them. This obligation must be assumed, andisassumed,
in every argument on the moral utility of things. It is
by confounding these two very distinct ideas that the
Utilitarian theory of the ultimate basis of moral
obligation has so long maintained a_ precarious
existence, borrowing from the misuse of words a
strength which is not its own. But the moment
this distinction is clearly apprehended, then, although we
set aside the bare idea of usefulness, apart from the good
or bad purpose towards which that usefulness conduces,
as affording any explanation whatever of the ultimate
nature and source of duty, we may well, nevertheless, be
ready to adopt all that the Utilitarian theory can show
us of that inseparable unity which is established in the
constitution of the world between the moral character
and the ultimate results of conduct. As far as these re-
sults can be traced beforehand, and in proportion as they
can be traced farther and farther in the light of expand-
ing knowledge, they do indicate the path of duty. They
do indicate the line of action which is obligatory on vol-
untary agents, to whom a very large amount of power is
given in directing the course of things. Beyond all doubt
there are a thousand actsand a thousand courses of con-
duct which are in accordance with the Moral Sense, be-
cause and only because of the known happiness of their
effects. This is the fact, or rather the class of facts,
which has in all ages recommended the Utilitarian
theory of morals to so many powerful minds. For, in-
deed, if we understand by utility not the iow or limited
idea of mere usefulness for any purpose—not even the

4‘* The Shorter Catechism, presented by the Westminster Assembly of
Divines to both Houses of Parliament, and by them approved.”

116 SCIENCE.

mere idea of pleasure as an unquestionable good of its
own kind, nor the mere idea of immediate profit or ad-
vantage—--but the very different conception of the benefi-
cence of ultimate results on the welfare of all men and of
all creatures, then there may be, and probably there is,
an universal and absolute coincidence between the things
which it is wise and the things which it is right to do.
Men may imagine, and they have imagined, that under
this conception of utility they can devise a system of
morality which is of such transcendental excellence that
it is far too good for earth. Thus it has been laid down
that evolution, in its most perfect conception, would be
such that the development of every creature would be
compatible with the equal development of every other.
In such a system there would be no “struggle for
existence—no harmful competition, no mutual devouring
—no death.’”® The inspired imaginings of the Jewish
prophets of some future time when the lion shall lie down
with the lamb, and the ideas which have clustered round
the Christian Heaven, are more probably the real origin
of this conception than any theory of evolution founded
on the facts and laws of Nature. But, for all practical
purposes, such a system of ethics is as useless as the
dreams of Plato’s Republic or of More’s Utopia. If,
however, we have got from some independent source a
right idea of that which will be most beneficent in its
ultimate results, we may well be guided by this light in
so far as wecan seeit. But tnasmuch as these far-off
results and tendencies of conduct cannot always be within
sight, and are indeed very often wholly beyond the hori-
zon visible to us, this admission, or rather this high doc-
trine that the right and the useful are always coinci-
dent, is a widely different doctrine from that which iden-
tifies the sense of obligation with the perception of utility.
The mere perception that any act or course of conduct
will certainly be beneficent in its results, would be of no
avail without the separate feeling that it is right to strive
for results which are beneficent.

And here it is well worthy of observation, that in direct
proportion to the height and sublimity of the meaning
artificially attached to the word “ utility,” it becomes less
and less available as a test or asa rule of conduct. So
long as the simple and natural meaning was put upon
utility, and the good was identified with the pleasurable,
the Utilitarian theory of morals did indicate at least some
rule of life, however low that rule might be. But now that
the apostles of that theory have been driven to put upon
utility a transcendental meaning, and the pleasurable is
interpreted to refer not merely to the immediate and visi-
ble effects of conduct on ourselves or others, but to its
remotest effects upon ail living beings, both now and for
all future time, the Utilitarian theory in this very process
of sublimation becomes lifted out of the sphere of human
judgment. Ifit be true “that there can be no correct idea
of a part without a correct idea of the correlative whole,”
and if human conduct in its tendencies and effects is only
“a part of universal conduct,’’—that is to say, of the
whole system of the universe in its past, its present, and
its future—-then, as this whole is beyond all our means of
knowledge and comprehension, it follows that utility, in
this sense, can be no guide to us. If indeed this system
of the universe has over it or in it one Supreme Authority,
and if we knew on that authority the things which do make,
not only for our own everlasting peace, but forthe perfect
accomplishment of the highest purposes of creation to
all living things, then indeed the rule of utility is resolved
into the simple rule of obedience to legitimate Authority.
And this is consistent with all we know of the Unity of
Nature, and with all that we can conceive of the central
and ultimate Authority on which its order rests. All in-
tuitive perceptions come to us from that Authority, All
the data of reason come to us from that Authority. All

Herbert Spencer : ‘‘ Data of Ethics,” chap. ii. pp. 18, 19.
Herbert Spencer: ** Dara of Ethics,” chap. i. pp, 1-6.

‘these in their own several spheres of operation may well
guide us to what is right, and may give us also the con-
viction that what is right is also what is best, “at last, far
off, at last to all.”

Thus fara clear and consistent answer can be given to one
of the greatest questions of ethical inquiry, namely, the na-
ture of the relation between those elements in conduct
which make it useful, and those elements in conduct which
makeit virtuous. The usefulness of conduct in promoting
ends and purposes which are good is, in proportion tothe
nature and extent of that good, a test and an index of its
virtue. But the usefulness of conduct in promoting ends
and purposes which are not good is a mark and index, not of
virtue, but of vice. It follows from this that utility in itself
has no moral character whatever apart from the particular
aim whichit tends toaccomplish, and that the moral good-
ness of that aim is presupposed when we speak or think
of the utility of conduct as indicative of its virtue. But
this character of goodness must be a matter of independent
and instinctive recognition, because it is the one distinc-
tion between the kind of usefulness which is virtuous and
the many kinds of usefulness which are vicious. Accord-
ingly we find in the last resort that our recognition of
goodness in the conduct of other men towards ourselves
is inseparable from our own consciousness of the needs
and wants of our own life, and of the tendency of that
conduct to supply them. This estimate of goodness
seated in the very nature of our bodies and of our minds,
becomes necessarily, also, a standard of obligation as re-
gards our conduct to others; for the unity of our nature
with that of our kind and fellows is a fact seen and felt
intuitively in the sound of every voice and in the glance
of every eye around us.

But this great elementary truth of morals, that we
ought to do to others as we know we should wish them
to do to us, is not the only truth which is intuitively per-
ceived by the Moral Sense. There is, at least, one other
among the rudiments of duty which is quite as self-evi-
dent, quite as important, quite as far-reaching in its conse-
quences, and quite as early recognized. Obedience to the
will of legitimate Authority is necessarily the first of all mo-
tives with which the sense of obligation is inseparably as-
sociated ; whilst its opposite, or rebellion against the
commands of legitimate Authority, is the spirit and the
motive upon which the Moral Sense pronounces its earliest
sentence of disapproval and of condemnation. At first
sight it may seem as if the legitimacy of any Authority
is aprevious question requiring itself to be determined
by the Moral Sense, seeing that it is not until this
character of legitimacy or rightfulness has been recog-
nized as belonging to some particular Authority, that
obedience to its commands comes in consequence to be
recognized as wrong. A moment’s’consideration, how-
ever, will remind us that there is at least one Authority
the rightfulness of which is not a question but a fact.
All men are born of parents. All men, moreover, are
born in a condition of utter helplessness and of absolute
dependence. Asa mattor of fact, therefore, and not at
all as a matter of question or of doubt, our first conception
of duty, or of moral obligation, is necessarily and uni-
versally attached to such acts as are in conformity with
the injunctions of this last and most indisputable of all
Authorities.

Standing, then, on this firm ground of universal and
necessary experience, we are able to affirm with absolute
conviction that our earliest conceptions of duty—our ear-
liest exercises of the Moral Sense—are not determined
by any considerations of utility, or by any conclusions of
the judgment on the results or on the tendencies of con-
duct.

But the same reasoning, founded on the same princi-
ple of simply investigating and ascertaining facts, will
carry us a great way farther on. As we grow up from
infancy, we find that our parents are themselves also sub-
ject to Authority, owing and owning the duty of obedi-

i.

SCIENCE.

117

ence to other persons or to other powers. This
higher Authority may be nothing but the rules and
customs of arude tribe; or it may be the will of an ab-
solute’sovereign ; or it may be the accumulated and ac-
cepted traditions of a race; or it may be the laws of a
great civilized community; or it may be the Authority,
still higher, of that Power which is known or believed to
be supreme in Nature. But in all and in each of these
cases, the sense of obligation is inseparably attached to
obedience to some Authority, the legitimacy or rightful-
ness of which is not itself a question but a fact.

It is true, indeed, that these rightful Authorities, which
are enthroned in Nature, are fortified by power to en-
force their commands, and to punish violations of the
“duty of obedienee. It is true, therefore, that from the
first moments of our existence the sense of obligation is
re-inforced by the fear of punishment. And yet we
know, both as a matter of internal consciousness, and
as a matter of familiar observation in others, that this
sense of obligation is not only separable from the fear of
punishment, but is even sharply contra-distinguished
from it. Not only is the sense of obligation powerful in
cases where the fear of punishment is impossible, but in
direct proportion as the fear of punishment mixes or
prevails, the moral character of an act otherwise good is
diminished or destroyed. The fear of punishment and
the hope of reward are, indeed, auxiliary forces which
cannot be dispensed with in society. But we feel that
complete goodness and perfect virtue would dispense
with them altogether, or rather, perhaps, it would be
more correct to say, that the hope of reward would be
merged and lost as a separate motive in that highest
condition of mind in which the performance of duty be-
comes its own reward, because of the satisfaction it
gives to the Moral Sense, and because of the love
borne to that Authority whom we feel it our duty to
obey. .
~ ‘The place occupied by this instinctive sentiment in the
equipment of our nature is as obvious as it is important.
The helplessness of infancy and of childhood is not
greater than would be the helplessness of the race if the
disposition to accept and to obey Authority were want-
ing inus. It isimplanted in our nature only because it
is one of the first necessities of our life, and a fundamen-
tal condition of the development of our powers. All Na-
ture breathes the spirit of authority, and is full of the ex-
ercise of command. “Thou shalt,” or ‘Thou shalt
not,” are words continually on her lips, and all her in-
junctions and all her prohibitions are backed by the most
tremendous sanctions. Moreover, the most tremendous
of these sanctions are often those which are not audibly
proclaimed, but those which come upon us most gradu-
ally, most imperceptibly, and after the longest lapse
of time. Some of the most terrible diseases which
afflict humanity are known to be the results of vice, and
what has long been known of some of those diseases is
more and more reasonably suspected of many others.
The truth is, that we are born into a system of things in
which every act carries with it, by indissoluble ties, a
long train of consequences reaching to the most distant
future, and which for the whole course of time affect our
own condition, the condition of other men, and even the
conditions of external nature. And yet we cannot see
those consequences beyond the shortest way, and very
often those which lie nearest are in the highest degree
deceptive as an index to ultimate results. Neither pain
nor pleasure can be accepted as a guide. With the
lower animals, indeed, these, for the mest part, tell the
truth, the whole truth, and nothing but the truth. Ap-
petite is all that the creature has, and in the gratification
of it the highest law of the animal being is fulfilled. In
Man, too, appetite has its own imdispensable function to
discharge. But it is a lower function, and amounts
to nothing more than that of furnishing to Reason a few
of the primary data on which it has to work—a few and

a few only. Physical pain is indeed one of the threaten-
ings of natural authority ; and physical pleasures is one
of its rewards. But neither the one nor the other forms
more than a mere fraction of that awful and imperial
code under which we live. It isthe code of an everlast-
ing Kingdom, and of a jurisprudence which endures
throughout all generations. It is a code which continu-
ally imposes on Man the abandonment of pleasure, and
the endurance of pain, whenever and wherever the higher
purposes of its law demand of him the sacrifice. Nor
has this spirit of Authority ever been without its witness
in the human Spirit, or its response in the human Will.
On the contrary, in all ages of the world, dark and dis-
torted as have been his understandings of Authority,
Man has been prone to acknowledge it, and to admit it
as the basis of obligation and the rule of duty. This, at
all events, is one side of his ‘character, and it is univer-
sally recognized as the best.

There is no difficulty, then, in seeing the place which
this instinct holdsin the unity of Nature. It belongs to
that class of gifts, universal in the world, which enable all
living things to fulfill their part in the order of Nature, and
to discharge the functions which belong to it. It is when
we pass from a review of those instincts and powers with
which Man has been endowed, toa review of their actual
working and results, that we for the first time encounter
facts which are wholly exceptional, and which it is, ac-
cordingly, most difficult to reconcile with the unities of
Nature. This difficulty does not lie in the mere existence
of a Being with powers which require for their perfection
a long process of development. There is no singularity
in this. On the contrary, it is according to the usual
course and the universal analogy of Nature. Develop-
ment in different forms, througha great variety of stages
and at different rates of progress, is the most familiar of
all facts in creation. In the case of some of the lower ani-
mals, and especially in the case of many among the lowest,
the process of development is carried to an extent which
may almost be said to make the work-of creation visi-
ble. There are numberless creatures which pass through
separate stages of existence having no likeness whatever
to each other. In passing through these stages, the same
organism differs from itself in form, in structure, in the
food on which it subsists, and even in the very elementin
which it breathes and lives. Physiolugists tell us that
changes having a mysterious and obscure analogy with
these pass over the embryo of all higher animals be-
fore their birth. But after birth the development of
every individual among the higher orders of creation is
limited to those changes which belong to growth, to ma-
turity, and decay. Man shares in these changes, but in
addition to those he undergoes a development which
effects him not merely as an individual, but as a species
andarace. This is purely a development of mind, of
character, and of knowledge, giving by accumulation
from generation to generation increased command over
the resources of Nature, and a higher understanding of
the enjoyments and of the aims of life.

It is true, indeed, that this is a kind of development
which is itself exceptional—that is to say, it is a kind of
development of which none of the lower animals are sus-
ceptible, and which therefore separates widely between
them and Man. But although it is exceptional with re-

ference to the lower orders of creation it is
very important to observe that it constitutes no
anomaly when it is regarded in connection with

creation as a whole. On the contrary, it is the natural
and necessary result of the gift of reason and of all
those mental powers which are its servants or allies.
But all Nature is full of these—so full, that every little
bit and fragment of its vast domain overflows with mat-
ter of inexhaustible interest to that one only Being who
has the impulse of inquiry and the desire to know, This
power or capacity in every department of Nature of fix-
ing the attention and of engrossing the interest of Man,

118

SCIENCE. '

depends on the close correspondence between his own
faculties and those which are reflected in creation, and
on his power of recognizing that correspondence as the
highest result of investigation. The lower animals do
reasonable things without the gift of reason, and things,
as we have seen, often involving a very distant foresight,
without having themselves .any knowledge of the future.
They work for that which is to be, without seeing or
feeling anything beyond that which is. They enjoy, but
they cannot understand. Reason is, as it were, brooding
over them and working through them, whilst at the same
time it is wanting in them. Between the faculties they
possess, therefore, and the governing principles of the
system in which they live and under which they serve,
there is, as it were, a vacant space. It is no anomaly
that this space should be occupied by a Being with high-
er powers. On the contrary, it would be the greatest of
all anomalies if it were really vacant. It would be
strange indeed if there were no link connecting, more
closely than any of the lower animals can connect, the
Mind that is in creation with the mind that ‘is in the
creature. This is the place occupied by Man’s Reason—
Reason not outside of, but in the creature—working not
only through him, but also in him— Reason conscious of
itself, and conscious of the relation in which it stands to
that measureless Intelligence of which the Universe is
full. In occupying this place, Man fills up, in some
measure at least, what would otherwise be wanting to
the continuity of things ; and in proportion as he is cap-
able of development—in proportion as his facul'ies are
expanded—-he does fill up this place more and more.
There is nothing, then, really anomalous or at variance
with the unity of Nature, either in the special elevation
of the powers which belong to Man, or in the fact that
they start from small beginnings and are capable of being
developed to an extent which, though certainly not in-
finite is at least indefinite. That which is rarely excep-
tional, and indeed absolutely singular in Man, is the per-
sistent tendency of his development to take a wrong direc-
tion. In all other creatures it is a process which follows
a certain and determined law, going straight to a definite,
consistent, and intelligible end. In Man alone it isa
process which is prone to take a perverted course, tend-
ing not merely to arrest his progress, but to lead him
back along descending paths to results of utter degrada-
tion and decay. Iam not now affirming that this has
been the actual course of Man as a species or as a race
when that course is considered as a whole. But that it
is often the course of individual men, and that it has been
the course of particular races and generations of men in
the history of the world, is a fact which cannot be de-
nied. The general law may bea law of progress; but
it is certain that this law is liable not only to arrest but
to reversal. In truth it is never allowed to operate unop-
posed, or without heavy deductions from its work. For
there is another law ever present, and ever working in
the reverse direction. Running alongside, as it were, of
the tendency to progress, there is the other tendency to
retrogression. Between these two there is a war which
never ceases,—sometimes the one, sometimes the other,
seeming to prevail. And even when the better and
higher tendency is in the ascendant, its victory is quali-
fied and abated by its great opponent. For just as in
physics the joint operation of two forces upon any mov-
ing body results in a departure from the course it would
have taken if it had been subject to one alone, so in the
moral world almost every step in the progress of man-
kind deviates more or less from the right direction. And
every such deviation must and does increase, until much
that had been gained is again lost, in new developments
of corruption and of vice. The recognition of this fact
does net depend on any particular theory as to the nature
or origin of moral distinctions. It is equally clear, whether
we judge according to the crudest standard of the Utili-
tarian scheme, or according to the higher estimates of an

Independent Morality. Viewed under either system, the
course of development in Man cannot be reconciled with
the ordinary course of Nature, or with the general law
under which all other creatures fulfill the conditions of
their being.

It is no mere failure to realize aspirations which are
vague and imaginary that constitutes this exceptional
element in the history and in the actual condition of
mankind. That which constitutes the terrible anomaly
of his case admits of perfectly clear and specific defini-
tion. Man has been and still is a constant prey to ap-
petites which are morbid—to opinions which are irra-
tional, to imaginations which are horrible, and to prac-
tices which are destructive. The prevalence and the
power of these in a great variety of forms and of degrees’
is a fact with which we are familiar—so familiar, indeed,
that we fail to be duly impressed with the strangeness
and the mystery which really belong to it. All savage
races are bowed and bent under the yoke of their own
perverted instincts—instincts which generally in their
root and origin have an obvious utility, but which in
their actual development are the source of miseries with-
out number and without end. Some of the most horrible
perversions which are prevalent among savages have no
counterpart among any other created beings, and when
judged by the barest standard of utility, place Man im-
measurably below the level of the beasts. We are
accustomed to say of many of the habits of savage life
that they are “brutal.’’ But this is entirely to misrepre-
sent the place which they really occupy in the system of
Nature. None of the brutes have any such perverted
dispositions; none of them are ever subject to the de-
structive operation of such habits as are common among
men. And this contrast is all the more remarkable when
we consider that the very worst of these habits affect
conditions of life which the lower animals share with us,
and in which any departure from those natural laws
which they universally obey, must necessarily produce,
and do actually produce, consequences so destructive as
to endanger the very existence of the race. Such are all
those conditions of life affecting the relation of the sexes
which are common to all creatures, and in which Man
alone exhibits the widest and most hopeless divergence
from the order of Nature.

It fell in the way of Malthus in his celebrated
work on Population to search in the accounts
of travelers for those causes which operate, in
different countries of the world, to check the
progress, and to limit the numbers of Mankind.
Foremost among these is vice, and foremost among the
vices is that most unnatural one, of the cruel treatment
of women. “In every part of the world,” says Malthus,
“one of the most general characteristics of the savage
is to despise and degrade the female sex. Among most
of the tribes in America, their condition is so peculiarly
grievous, that servitude is a name too mild to describe
their wretched state. A wife is no better than a beast
of burden. While the man passes his days in idleness
or amusement, the woman is condemned to incessant _
toil. Tasks are imposed upon her without mercy, and ~
services are received without complacence or gratitude,
There are some districts in America where this state
of degradation has been so severely felt that mothers
have destroyed their female infants, to deliver them at
once from a life in which they were doomed to such a
miserable slavery.’”? It is impossible to find for this
most vicious tendency any place among the unities of
Nature. There is nothing like it among the beasts.
With them the equality of the sexes, as regards all the
enjoyments as well as all the work of life, is the universal
rule. And among those of them in which social instincts
have been specially implanted, and whose system of
polity are like the most civilized polities of men, the fe-
males of the race are treated with a strange mixture of
love, of loyalty, and of devotion, If, indeed, we consider

SCIENCE. t19

the necessary and inevitable results of the habit preva-
lent among savage mento maltreat and dagrade their
women,—its effects upon the constitution, and_char-
acter, and endurance of children, we cannot fail to
see how grossly unnatural it is, how it must tend to the
greater and greater degradation of the race, and how re-
covery from this downward path must become more
and more difficult or impossible. But vicious, destruc-
tive, unnatural as this habit is, it is not the only one or
the worst of similar character which prevail among sav-
age men. A horrid catalogue comes to our remem-
brance when we think of them—polyandry, infanticide,
cannibalism, deliberate cruelty, systematic slaughter
connected with warlike passions or with religious cus-
toms. Nor are these vices, or the evils resulting from
them, peculiar to the savage state. Some of them,
indeed, more or less changed and modified in form, at-
tain a rank luxuriance in civilized communities, corrupt
the very bones and marrow of society, and have brought
powertul nations to decay and death.

It is, indeed, impossible to look abroad either upon the
past history or the existing condition of mankind, whether
savage or civilized, without seeing that it presents phen-
omena which are strange and monstrous—incapable of
being reduced within the harmony of things or recon-
ciled with the unity of Nature. The contrasts which it
presents to the general laws and course of Nature can-
not be stated too broadly. There is nothing like itin the
world. It is an element of confusion amidst universal
order. Powers exceptionally high spending themselves
in activities exceptionally base; the desire and the fa-
culty of acquiring knowledge coupled with the desire and
the faculty of turning it to the worst account; instincts
immeasurabl, superior to those of other creatures, along
side of conduct and of habits very much below the level
of the beasts—such are the combinations with which we
have to deal as, unquestionable facts when we contem-
plate the actual condition of Mankind. And they are
combinations in the highest degree unnatural; there is
nothing to account for, or to explain them in any appar-
ent natural necessity,

The question then arises, as one of the greatest of all
mysteries—how it is and whyit is that the higher gifts of
Man’s nature should not have been associated with cor-
responding dispositions to lead as straight and as unerr-
ingly to the crown and consummation of his course, as
the dispositions of other creatures do lead them to the
perfect development of their powers and the perfect dis-
charge of their functions in the economy of Nature?

It is as if weapons had been placed in the hands of
Man which he has not the strength, nor the knowledge,
nor the rectitude of will to wield aright. It is in this
contrast that he stands alone. In the light of this con-
trast we see that the corruption of human nature is not a
mere dogma of theology, but a fact of science. The na-
ture of man is seen to be corrupt not merely as compared
with some imaginary standard which is supposed to have
existed at some former time, but as compared with
a standard which prevails in every other department of
Nature at the present day. We see, too, that the anal-
ogies of creation are adverse to the supposition that this
condition of things was original. It looks as if some-
thing exceptional must have happened. The rule
throughout all the rest of Nature is, that every creature
does handle the gifts which have been given to it with
a skill as wonderful as it is complete, for the highest
purposes of its being, and for the fulfillment of its part
in the unity of creation. In Man alone we have a being
in whom his adjustment is imperfect—in whom this
faculty is so detective as often to miss its aim. Instead
of unity of law with certainty and harmony of result,
we have antagonism of laws, with results, at the best, of
much shortcoming and often of hopeless failure. And

7 Malthus, 6th Edition, vol. i., p. 39.

the anomaly is all the greater when we consider that this
failure affects chiefly that portion of Man’s nature
which has the direction of the rest—on which the whole
result depends, as regards his conduct, his happiness,
and his destiny. The general fact is this:—First, that
Man is prone to set up and to invent standards of obli-
gations which are low, false, mischievous, and even ruin-
ous; and secondly, that when he has become possessed
of standards of obligation which are high, and true,
beneficient, he is prone first, to fall short in the observ-
ance of the , and next, to suffer them, through various
processes of decay, to be obscured and lost.

ASTRONOMY.
THE LICK OBSERVATORY.

Work upon Mount Hamilton, the site of the new Lick
Observatory, has been pushed forward as rapidly as could
be expected, and it is probable that the building will be
sufficiently finished to receive a portion of the instru-
ments in the fall of this year. For instrumental equip-
ment, a 12-inch Clark glass and tube, made for Dr.
Draper, has been bought, and will be fitted to an equato-
rial mounting. A 4-inch transit, made on the same
patterns as the 4-inch meridian circle of Princeton College,
with a few changes introduced by Professors Newcomb
and Holden, has been ordered from Fauth & Co., of
Washington. It will be sent to California in October,
and will probably be mounted by Prof. Holden, and used
by him in connection with the 12-inch equatorial, to ob-
serve the transit of Mercury on November 7, 1881. A
Repsolds meridian circle of six inches aperture will soon
be ordered, as well as a small vertical circle. Alvan Clark
& Sons, of Cambridge, have received the contract to
make a glass three feet in diameter, at a cost of $50,000.
The equatorial mountmmg for this immense objective (44 per
cent. more powerful than that ordered for the Russian
Government, with aperture of 30 inches, and 100 per cent.
more powerful than the great Washington refractor) is
not yet provided for. Proposals will be obtained from the
principal instrument makers of Europe and this country,
and the mechanical part will probably cost as much as the
optical.

General plans for the buildings were prepared by Pro-
fessors Newcomb and Holden, in August, 1880, and will
govern the more detailed plans which are to be prepared
by the architects. A dome for the 12-inch equatorial is
already in process of construction.

The work done upon Mt. Hamilton by Mr. Burnham
in the summer of 1879 shows how well suited the high
situation is for astronomical observations, and much will
be expected from an observatory so well provided with
powerful instruments,

“THE ‘ASTRONOMISCHE NACHRICHTEN.’—Contrary
to what has been lately stated, it appears that this peri-
odical will still be edited by Dr.C. F. W. Peters, who has
for some time conducted it, and we are informed there is
a probability that Prof. Kruger may set afloat a new as-
tronomical journal under his own management.’—
Nature,

SITE FOR THE NEw NAVAL OBSERVATORY.—The
Commission appointed by Congress to select a site for
the proposed new Naval Observatory has purchased the
Barbour estate, in Georgetown, at a cost ot $63,0c0, A
detailed description of the location will shortly appear.

W.C. W.
WASHINGTON, March to, 1881.

oo
We notice, in the last number of the Chemzcal News,
that Mr. M. Benjamin, to whom we are indebted for

notices of the American Chemical Society, was elected a
Fellow of the Chemical Society, London,

120

SCIENCE.

CORRESPONDENCE.

| The Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed
by his correspondents. No notice ts taken of anonymous communi-

cations.
MICROSCOPY.
To the Editor of *‘ SCIENCE :”

Dear Sty :—I am authorized by the President of the
American Society of Microscopists to announce to its
members, and to all others who may be interested, that
the Executive Committee have decided, by an almost
unanimous vote, to accept the invitation received from the
Tyndall Association of Natural Science, of Columbus,
Ohio, and to call the next meeting of the Society at that
place on Tuesday, August 9, 1881, (the week previous
to the meeting of the American Association for the Ad-
vancement of Science, at Cincinnati).

Permit me to add a word upon another matter. The
proceedings of the American Society, which should have
appeared two months ago, have been unavoidably de-
layed by circumstances which I shall explain to members
at the time of issuing the volume. The latter is now in
the press, and will be sent out before the end of the
month. ALBERT H. TUTTLE, Sec’y.

CoLumMBus, Ohio, March 1, 1881.

BOOKS RECEIVED.

BACTERIA. By DR. ANTOINE MAGNIN, General Sec-
retary of the Botanical Society of Lyons, &c., &c.
Translated by George M. Sternberg, M.D., U.S. A.
Boston—Little, Brown, & Company. 1880. Price
$2.50.

The present translation of Dr. Magnin’s work by Dr.
Sternberg will be welcome in all English speaking coun-
tries, and we trust its circulation may remove much of
the ignorance which exists on this subject, among a
large class of professional men, who would perhaps be
ashamed to confess their want of knowledge.

Among physicians Dr. Magnin’s work on the Bacteria
should find a wide range of readers; to many it will
read like a revelation, and may be the means of develop-
ing original ideas, which may give them a fresh impulse
in their profession.

It has been a hard struggle with Nature, accompanied
by the greatest difficulties, to solve the many problems
involved in the phenomena attributed to Bacteria. One
hundred and fifty years have passed since Leeuwenhoek,
the Father of Microscopy, wrote the first paper on the
subject, and Dr. Magnin occupies thirty-one pages of his
work in recording a Bibliography of the works of those
who have since contributed papers.

By the aid of this large amount of literature treating
on Bacteria, supported by his own experience, Dr. Mag-
nin has produced a work, a careful perusal of which will
greatly reduce the difficulties of further investigations in
solving the many problems still waiting for solution.

A full classification of the genera and species of Bac-
teria is given, with sufficient descriptions of their forms
and characteristics to make their identification an easy
task, and although this classification is merely provision-
al, its practical utility for student’s work is not impaired.

We observe ten full-sized plates of engravings, each
having from four to twenty-two illustrations of Bacterian
forms.

No person possessing a Microscope should be without
this book, and it should be closely studied by every phy-
sician.

The temptation is great to enter into a description of
the varied contents of the work, but the subject is too in-
tricate to be disposed of in a short paragraph and must be
reserved for future treatment,

Bacteria are of all beings the most widely diffused ;
we meet with them everywhere, in the air, in the water,
upon the surface of solid bodies, in the interior of plants

and animals. They are the cause of disease, and the
great agent in putrefaction, and yet the continuance of
life on this globe would not be possible without them ;
they are so minute that some defy measurement with the
highest powers of the microscope, but they become a
mighty factor in the economy of creation by reason of their
wonderful powers of reproduction, for in twenty-four hours
the product of a single bacterium by division amounts to
sixteen millions of individuals, and at this rate the ocean
itself—calculating it equal to two-thirds of the ter-
restial surface, with a mean depth of one mile, equalling
920,000,000 cubic miles---would be filled with Bacteria in
five days from a ‘single germ, supposing the multiplica-
tion to be continued with the same conditions.

Fortunately researches of microscopists have brought
to light facts regarding these organisms which enable
man to control their prodigious reproductive powers, and
our knowledge relating to Bacteria will probably at
length be acknowledged as one of the greatest victories
of modern science.

ny

NOTES.

A PROcES6 FOR THE TOTAL DESTRUCTION OF THE OR-
GANIC MATTERS IN THE DETECTION OF PoIsoNouS MINERAL
SuUBSTANCES.—From 100 to 500 grms. of the suspected mat-
ter are mixed ina large porcelain capsule with one-fourth
its weight of the acid sulphate of potassa, and then with its
own weight of fuming nitric acid. The action is very vio-
lent at first, and requires afterwards the aid of a slight heat.
Here it is proper to stop if it is merely needful to search
for arsenic or antimony. A large excess of pure concen-
trated sulphuric acid (1.845 sp. gr.) is then added, and the
mixture is heated to near the boiling point of the acid.
More acid is added from time to time till the mixture be-
comes pale and limpid. To complete the destruction of the
last traces of organic matter it is well to let the liquid cool,
add a few crystals of pure potassium nitrate, and heat again
till abundant white vapors of sulphuric acid are evolved.
The saline mass when cold is dissolved in boiling water,
made up to I litre, and without previous filtration it is sub-
mitted to electrolysis by means of 4 Bunsen elements or a
Clamond gas-battery. The negative platinum electrode be-
comes covered with a grey, blackish, or metallic coating.
The action should be prolonged for twenty-four hours. If
mercury is suspected a plate of gold should be used at the
negative pole instead of platinum. If arsenic or antimony
is sought for before the addition of the sulphuric acid, the
carbonacious mass is cooled, powdered, and treated with
boiling water. The solution thus obtained is examined
as proposed by Dr. A. Gautier. (Comptes Rendus, August,
1875).—A. G. POUCHET.

DETERMINATION OF CARBONIC ACID IN THE AIR.—The
authors, after referring to the discordant results obtained in
the determination of atmospheric carbonic acid, describe
their method. The carbonic acid is fixed by an absorbent
body, from which it is afterwards set at liberty and meas-
ured by volume. As an absorbent they use pumice stone
saturated with solution of potassa, and contained in a tube
drawn out at both ends. The tubes are washed with sul-
phuric acid, filled with small fragments of pumice, calcined
with sulphuric acid, and introduced while hot. The pum-
ice is saturated with a given volume of potassa lye, operat-
ing in air deprived of carbonic acid. ‘he lye is prepared ~
by dissolving 1 kilo. potassa in 1.400 litres of water, and
adding 200 grms. hydrated baryta to remove sulphates and
carbonates. The tubes, prepared beforehand and sealed,
are opened at the place of operation, and sealed again after
200 litres of air have been passed through.—A. MuntTz
and E. AUBIN.

RESIDUES FROM THE MANUFACTURE OF OILS FROM SCHISTS.
The solid residues serve for the manufacture of alum, and
may become an important source of lithia. The acid tarry
matters contain sulphates of the bases of the pyridic series,
especially of corindine, rubidine, and viridine. Aniline is
not sensibly present. The insoluble portions and the alka-
line tars contain peculiar phenols, thymols 8 and y. There
is no ordinary phenic acid, and very little thymol ¢,—Gas«
TON Bona.

SCIENCE. -

121]

Se C EH: :

A WEEKLy ReEcorpD oF SCIENTIFIC

PRoGRESS.

JOHN MICHELS, Editor.

PUBLISHED AT
229 BROADWAY, NEW YORK.

P, O, Box 3888.

SATURDAY, MARCH io, 1881.

SWINE PLAGUE.

The present discussion on the infectious disease ex-
isting among hogs in the United States, known as the
“Swine Plague” will, we trust, be productive of some
good in giving publicity to certain facts relating to
this subject, which should be known and understood
by all interested in the sale or consumption of pork.

It appears that a report was sent from the British
Consulate at Philadelphia, to England, stating that
700,000 hogs had died of Swine Plague during the
year 1880, in one of the Western States.

Those interested in the export trade have contested
this statement, and with the very laudable motive of
protecting an important American home interest,
have endeavored to show that the action of the Con-
sul was founded on erroneous information, and one
journal in New York even accuses the British officials
of “ plotting a senseless scare.”

It appears to be now officially admitted that 300,000
hogs died of this disease in one State alone in 1880;
and, therefore, the real question now at issue, is not
whether the disease exists, but merely how many
hundred thousand hogs die in consequence of it annu-
ally in each State.

Without going outside of United States official doc-
uments the real facts of the case may be stated as
follows :

The Swine Plague came into notice about 25 years
ago, and on account of its excessive infectious nature,
it steadily increased annually until the year 1878,
when the Commissioner of Agriculture announced an
annual death-rate of hogs for the United States,
amounting to amoney value of $20,000,000; as the
victims are said to be chiefly among the smaller and
leaner animals, probably $2 per head would be a fair
average of value ; in that case the number of deaths
among hogs by the Swine Plague, actually taken by
census, would be 10,000,000 for that year.

_ As this disease is no sudden epidemic, but has been
progressing for a quarter of a century, it is not likely
that, in the two years and a half which have. passed
since this report was made to the United States Gov-
ernment, the disease has much abated. The disease
is at this date officially admitted to be raging, and the

mere question of its destructive effects, is only one
of degree.

Under these circumstances it would appear unjust
to accuse foreign consuls of partial conduct in report-
ing these facts, and it is equally futile to attempt to
suppress them.

The behavior*of the New York Produce Exchange
in this matter reminds us of the action of the ostrich
when it buries its head in the sand at the approach
of danger. We have one word of advice to those who
would preserve the United States export trade in
pork, and that is to admit the existence of Swine
Plague, and the increasing contamination of pork by
trichine. This done, it is not difficult to organize such
a system of inspection as will satisfy foreign govern-
ments that the shipments of pork from this country
are such as can be received with safety. At the date
of our writing, a cable dispatch announces that
the Austrian Government has interdicted the impor-
tation of American pork in any form, and unless our
suggestion is accepted without delay, other foreign
States will probably follow the example of Austria on
this question.

Major J. W. Powell succeeds Clarence King as
Director of the United States Geological Survey.
This appointment appears to have given general sat-
isfaction, and we consider it a fortunate circumstance
that a gentleman of such high professional attain-
ments has accepted this important position.

——
ACADEMY OF NATURAL SCIENCES OF
PHILADELPHIA.

A course of practical instruction in Invertebrate Paleon-
tology, to be given under the auspices of the Academy of
Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, was inaugurated by
Professor Angelo Heilprin, on Tuesday, March 8th, 1881,
at 8 P. M., in the Hall of the Academy.

The lectures, twenty-five in number, will be continued
on the successive Fridays and Tuesdays of each week,
from 4 to 5 o'clock, P. M.

The plan of instruction will embrace the examination
of the life-histories of the various geological formations,
the discussion of the biological relations of past organic
forms, and the practical determination of these forms for
the purposes of paleontological inquiry. The demon-
strations will be of an essentially practical nature, and
will be based upon a careful study of the resources of
the Academy’s collections.

A course of practical instruction in Mineralogy was
also inaugurated by Professor Henry Carvill Lewis, at the
Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, on Tues-
day, March 15th, at8 P.M. The lectures will be con-
tinued on successive Mondays and Thursdays at 4 P. M.,
beginning March 2tIst.

The course will consist of ten lectures, and will be in
great part practical, and confined to Determinative Min-
eralogy. Blowpipe analysis, and the application of simple
chemical tests to the determination of minerals, will be
especially dwelt upon. Students will be expected to de-
vote at least half the time to the performance of practical
work in this department.

The course will also embrace a reference to Physical
and Crystallographic Mineralogy, and to Mineralogical
classification.

Application for admission to the above courses may be
made to Henry McCook, Chairman of the Committee on
Instruction and Lectures,

122

; SCIENCE.

A PARTIAL REVISION OF ANATOMICAL NO-
MENCLATURE, WITH ESPECIAL REFER-
ENCE TO THAT OF THE BRAIN=

By BurT G. WILDER, M. D., Professor of Comparative Anat-
omy, etc., in Cornell University, and of Physiology in the Medi-
cal School of Maine.

I =

INTRODUCTORY.

During the preparation of a paper “On the Gross
Anatomy of the Brain of the Domestic Cat (Felzs domes-
téca),”’ I have been led to believe that some advantage
may be gained by certain modifications of the current
anatomical nomenclature. The present article contains
suggestions, chiefly of a practical nature, which I wish to
submit te other anatomists in the hope that, even if the
changes here indicated do not meet their approval, they
will be induced to take the general subject into consider-
ation.

That the nomenclature of a science is worthy of atten-
tion is indicated by the care bestowed upon the language
of modern chemistry and mathematics, and by the fol-
lowing expressions of opinion :

« Everything in science ought to be real, ingenuous and
open; every expression that indicates duplicity, or equiv-
ocation, reservation, wavering or inconsistency, is a re-
proach to it.”—Barclay, A., 89 t

“Questions of definition are of the very highest im-
portance in philosophy, and they need to be watched ac-
cordingly.” Duke of Argyll, 1.

“In all sciences, nomenclature is an object of import-
ance; and each term should convey to the student a
definite meaning.” Dunglison, A, Preface.

“There is a necessity for perfect definiteness of lan-
guage in all truly scientific work.” P.G. Tait, 1. -

“Technical terms are the tools of thought.” {

“Only an inferior hand persists in toiling with a clumsy
instrument, when a better one lies within his reach.

Se ae A single substantive term is a better in-
strument of thought than a paraphrase.” Owen, A, 1,
Preface, pp. Xii, xiv.

“ As morphology deals with forms and relations of posi-
tion, it demands a careful selection of terms and a me-
thodical nomenclature.’’ Goodsir, A, 11, 83.

These remarks apply to the general subject of anatomi-
cal nomenclature. But the terms employed by anatomists
form two divisions: those which indicate the fosztéon or
direction of organs, and those by which the organs them-
selves are designated. Since, also, writers have usually
treated of them separately, it will be convenient here to
consider anatomical Zofonomy and organonomy under dis-
tinct headings.

TERMS OF POSITION AND DIRECTION—TOPONOMY.
Dr. Barclay’s volume had especial reference to this divi-

sion of the subject, and its key-note is struck in the follow-
ing paragraph (A, 5):

* This article is based upon two communications: the one, ‘* A Partial
Revision of the Nomenclature of the Brain,’’ was read at the Boston
meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science,
August 28, 1880, and was reported, in part, in the Boston Daily Adver-
tiser, of August 30, and in the New York Medical Record for September
18th, 1880; the other, ‘‘On some Points of Anatomical Nomenclature,”
was read at a meeting of the Cornell Philosophical Society, Ithaca, N. Y.,
January 15, 1881.

} Inthe List of Works and Papers at the end of this article, the names of
the authors are placed in alphabetical order. The titles of separate
works are designated by detters, and their order has no significance. The
titles of Japers are numbered. inthe case of papers published between
1800 and 1873 the numbers correspond to those in the chronological
bc Catalogue of Scientific Papers published by the Royal Society of
London.” In other cases the numbers are only provisional, and are
printed in italics.

The references are made as follows: the name of the author is given
first, unless the author has been indicated already ; then follows the letter
or the number by which the title of the work or paper is des gnated upon
the list ; 1f a Roman numeral is given it denotes the number of the volume;
and the last number is that of the page. This system of references was
followed by me first in 1872, in the paper entitled Intermembral Homolo-
gies (10), and has been since adopted oy others,

$1 have mislaid the reference to the source of this aphorism. Perhaps
some of my readers can supply it.

“The vague ambiguity of such terms as superior, infe-
rior, anterior, posterior, &c., must have been felt and ac-
knowledged by every person the least versant with ana-
tomical description.”

Dunglison admits (A, 61) that “Great confusion has
prevailed with anatomists in the use of the terms before,
behind, &c.” Dr. Spitzka has forcibly stated (1, 75, note
1) the objections to the use of anterior, &c., and their un-
suitability is tacitly conceded in the employment of other
terms by several writers who do not explicitly condemn
the current toponomy: Gegenbaur (A, 491), Mivart (A,
69), Cleland (1, 170), Rolleston (B, 33, note), &c.

Finally, the need of a radical change of base has been
proclaimed in one of the very strongholds of anthro-
potomy :

“Now that the more extended study of comparative
anatomy and embryonic development is largely applied to
the elucidation of the human structure, it is very desirable
that descriptive terms should be sought which may, with-
out ambiguity, indicate position and relation in the organ-
ism at once in man and animals. Such terms as cephalic
and caudal, dorsal and ventral, &c., are of this kind, and
ought, whenever this may be done consistently with suffi-
cient clearness of descnption, to take the place of those
which are only applicable to the peculiar attitude of the
human body.’—Quain, A, I, 6.

This is certainly explicit as to the principle involved, and
it is to be hoped that later editions of this standard
Human Anatomy may display its practical application to
the body of the work.

How slender is the justification for retaining a toponom-
ical vocabulary based upon the relations of organisms to
the surface of the earth, appears more fully when we reflect
that the assumed standard, for the higher vertebrates at
least, is man in his natural erect attitude; yet that both
man and animals are more often examined and compared
when lying upon the éack, this being an attitude truly
characteristic of only that infrequent “ subject,” the sloth.

As a single illustration of the logical inconsistencies into
which we are led by the use of the current toponomy, let
us take the series of possible designations of the direction
of some vertebral spinous process which projects toward
the skin of the back at, or approximately at, a right angle
with the myelon. With man the direction in which it
points is fosterzor, but with a cat it is superzor, while
with an ape or a bird it is somewhere between the two ;
with all four, when on the dissecting table, it would be
usually zzferzor. Finally, with a flounder the correspond-
ing direction would be horzzontal or stdewese.

In short, to designate the locations of organs by the
relation of animals to the surface of the earth, which rela-
tion differs in nearly allied forms, and varies with the same
individual according to circumstances, is as far from phil-
osophical as it would be to define. the place of a house or
a tree by reference to the planet Jupiter, or to assume that
mankind naturally face the rising sun, and hence to desig-
nate our right and left as the south and north sides of the
body.

Sone practical points respecting this division of the sub-
ject will be presented farther on.

DESIGNATION OF ORGANS,-—-ORGANONOMY.

There are probably few investigators or teachers of
comparative anatomy who have not been impressed, in
some degree, with the desirability of some modification of
the prevailing nomenclature of organs,—the “ bizarre
nomenclature of anthropotomy,” (Owen, A, II, 143)—
based as it is upon the peculiar features of the human
body, which has been fitly characterized, from a morpho-
logical point of view, as “not a model, but a mon-
strosity.” ;

This impression may give rise to special papers, like
those of Owen, (166), Maclise (1), and Pye-Smith (1, 16),
or simply to more or less extended remarks upon the sub-
ject, with or without the use or presentation of new
terms,

SCIENCE.

123

In the Preface to his ‘‘ Anatomie du Chat” (A, pp.

ations upon which it is based, and the methods which

xiv—xvii), Straus-Durckheim devotes several pages to a | have been pursued :—

discussion of anatomical nomenclature, and the body of
the work contains many original names. Professor H.S.
Williams calls attention (A, Preface), to the “crying
need of a standard and uniform nomenclature of compar-
ative anatomy.”

In the preface to their recent account of the morpho-
logy of the skull (A), Parker and Bettany say: “It has
been attempted to narrate the facts by means ofa con-
sistent terminology, amplifying what Prof. Huxley has so
admirably developed.”” Several of Huxley’s papers (as
70), contain new terms, most of which have been gen-
erally accepted, and ina greater or less degree the same
is true of the elder Agassiz (A), Gegenbaur (59),
Heckel (A), Marsh (1), and others.

That my own consideration of the subject is not wholly
of recent date may be seen from the papers numbered 10
and 2.

SCOPE AND METHODS OF THIS REVISION,

Most of the toponomical terms here discussed have a
general application. But a revision of the organonomy
of the entire body would extend this article beyond desir-
able limits.

As stated by Pye-Smith (1, 162), ‘the nomenclature of
the brain stands more in need of revision than that of any
other part,” and on the present occasion I will simply
endeavor to remove, in some degree, the deficiency im-
plied in the following words ot the French editors of
- Huguenin ”’ (A, Preface):

“That which is demanded of anatomy is an exact
nomenclature and determination of the parts of the
brain in their relative positions and contiguity, and if pos-
sible in their continuity.”

Doubtless, forthe entire comprehension of its func-
tions, and even for the final determination of some of its
homologies, the vertebrate brain should be fully under-
stood in respect to the disposition of its cellular and
fibrous elements,—that which the writers just mentioned
term its condzmuzty. But whoever is at all familiar with
the literature of encephalic histology, or who has under-
taken for himself the exhaustive study of even a very
limited part of the brain will, if of sincere mind, admit
the present impossibility of fairly discussing the micro-
scopical terminology ot the organ within the limits of a
single article.

With the gross anatomy of the brain, the case is some-
what different. In the first place, some knowledge of it
is requisite as a foundation for the histological enquiry,
as well as for general work in human or comparative
anatomy, physiology, and pathology. Secondly, the
parts which are distinguishable by the naked eye are
comparatively few, and while the numerous errors which
may be found in even standard works sufficiently attest
the difficulties of encephalotomy, its methods are com-
paratively simple. It is to be hoped, however, that the
microscopical terminology and synonymy of the brain
may shortly find due treatment.

A recent paper is entitled by its authors: “ A Reformed
System of Terminology, etc.” Now the word reform is
generally associated with questions of ethical improve-
ment ; whereas terminological reforms involve no other
principle than that of expediency, taking into the account,
however, the future as well as the present and the past.
Such moral truisms as “do right because it is right”
have no counterparts in considerations of scientific no-
menclature, and he who, affected by the cacoethes re-
Jormandé, insists upon reform for the sake of an ideal
perfection, is apt to appear as nothing better than a
troublesome and useless pedant.

In the place, then, of what otherwise might be styled
the principles of terminological reform, I wiil enumerate
briefly the objeets of the present revision, the consider-

To facilitate the acquisition and communication of
accurate anatomical knowledge, by rendering the voca-
bulary equally applicable to all vertebrates, and equally
intelligible to all nations.

That the test of the accuracy and completeness of a
description is, not that it may assist, but that it cannot
mislead.

To include in this vocabulary, so far as practicable,
only such terms as are brief, simple, significant, of clas-
sical origin, and capable of inflection.

To propose as few changes as possible, and to intro-
duce new names only for parts apparently unknown or
unnamed before (e. g., cvzsta fornzczs), or in the place
of semi-descriptive appellations undesirably long or in-
capable of inflection, as ¢g., czmbza for tractus trans-
versus peduncult, porta for foramen Monroz.

To consider drevzty as an especially desirable char-
acteristic of such names as are most frequently employed.

When a part is known by a descriptive phrase, to
select therefrom some characteristic word as the tech-
nical designation; @. g., zter (a ltertio ad ventriculum
guartum),

When two or more parts are similar, or have similar
relations, to distinguish them by joining to some com-
mon title already in use, prefixes indicative of their re-
lative positions; ¢.¢., ostgeniculatum, pregentculatum.,

To shorten the names of several parts by omitting the
word corfus, and using the neuter adjective as a sub-
stantive.

To keep modern usage, and the rules of classical ety-
mology constantly in mind, but not to be hindered there-
by from the employment or even the formation of terms
which are eminently desirable from the practical stand-

oint.
‘ To discard terms which indicate szze, those which re-
fer to the matural attztude of man or animals, most
vernacular names, and all names of the reproductive
organs which have been applied needlessly to other parts
ot the body.

With regard to the point last-named, while it may
perhaps be urged in extenuation that the Aatres anato-
micz entertained a notion as to the representation of
the entire organism in the brain, some of their words
certainly indicate an entire freedom from apprehension
that the mysteries of encephalic anatomy ever would
be discussed by ordinary mortals, much less by women,

~or under circumstances requiring propriety of speech.

As has been stated, and as will be exemplified in the
vocabulary, I have placed great stress upon 6revzty as a
desirable characteristic of anatomical terms. So long as
the study of anatomy was nearly confined to members of
the medical profession, they being comparatively few in
number, and, by ancient tradition at least, not wholly
averse to clothing their discourse in a sesquipedalian
garb impenetrable to the vulgar eye, it mattered little
whether the statement of a given fact or idea required
one minute or five. But now, thanks to the popular
writings of Agassiz, Dana, Gray, Darwin, Heckel, Huxley,
Owen and others, in so far especially as they have
aroused a personal interest in the problems of evolution,
natural history instruction is given systematically in ail
schools and colleges, and the time seems to have come
when, in the words of the naturalist first-named, ‘“ Scien-
tific truth must cease to be the property of the few ; it
must be woven into the common life of the world.” It
is probable, indeed, that those who employ anatomical
language to a greater or less extent at the present day
are at least one hundred times as numerous as when Dr.
Barclay’s praiseworthy effort at reform was received with
indifference or opposition.

It may be asked ;: In the face of this rapid populariza-
tion of anatomical knowledge is it worth while to intro-
duce, or even to retain, any purely technical terms ?

124 SCIENCE.

Apparently some German scientists have determined
upon a negative reply to this inquiry, and their papers,
even those of strictly scientific nature, teem with verna-
cular words, and with compounds thereof fearfully and
wonderfully made.

If this kind of verbifaction be tolerable under any cir-
cumstances, it certainly would be justified by the extent
and importance of the contributions to knowledge which
appear first in the German scientific periodicals.

Upon this point, however, | can do no better than to
quote the very recent judgment of one who is at the
same time an investigator, a promoter of “the diffusion
of knowledge,’ and an admirer of the methods and re-
sults of German science:

“Every art is full of conceptions which are peculiar to
itself; and, as the use of language is to convey our con-
ceptions to one another, language must supply signs for
those conceptions. Either existing signs may be combined
in loose and cumbrous paraphrases, or new signs, having a
well-understood and definite signification, may be invented.
Science is cosmopolitan, and the difficulties of the study
of zoology would be prodigiously increased if zoolegists of
different nationalities used different technical terms for the
same thing. They need a universal language; and it has
been found convenient that the language shall be Latin in
form, and Latin or Greek in derivation.’—Huxley, C, 14.

Unless it can be shown that there is an essential dis-
tinction between the methods of designating entire organ-
isms, and the parts thereof, the foregoing passages should
silence the objections of those who would have us retain a
vocabulary as vague as was that of chemistry in the days
of lime, vitriol and copperas—a vocabulary which com-
bines the ponderous stiffness of the cloister with the puer-
ile vagueness of the nursery.

Tuberculum bigeminum antertus must give way to
lobi oftzcz, or some even shorter term; while ¢vachea
must take the place of wzdpzpe, weasand, luft-rohre and
conduit erien. Life is too short to spend in digging for
truth with a long-handled shovel when a trowel will serve
the purpose; nor is it becoming that any nation, however
wise and great, should ask all the rest to take their intel-
lectual food with chop-sticks of its peculiar pattern.

That there is no inherent obstacle to the employment of
technical terms of classical derivation is shown by the
readiness with which such words as fetroleum and phyl-
loxera have become domesticated along with the objects
which they represent. There are scores of animals, like
the Rhznoceros, Hippopotamus, and IJchneumon, for
which there are no English vernacular names; while the
youngest student of botany accepts Hepattca, Anemone,
and even Rhododendron without difficulty or hesitation.
Homely as it sounds, stomach is a strictly classical word,
and the use of caw/ for omentum, or sweetbread for pan-
creas, would surprise a class in elementary physiology.

Even the late Jeffries Wyman, who saw no objection to
forearm, and used wear rather than froxzmad for the
first row of carpalzéa, accepted zxtermembral as “ good,”
and freely employed, if indeed he did not originate, the
adjective Arezbza/, which probably would have come into
general use had not the bone in question proved to be
the homologue of the ztermedzum.—(Morse, 18, 13).

THE LIMITS OF TERMINOLOGICAL CHANGE.

As has been stated already, the modifications here pro-
posed are intended to provide for what seem to be actual
necessities, irrespective of purely theoretical considera-
tions, and of any desire for a perfectly uniform and con-
sistent terminology. It may be well, however, to specify
certain general limitations to changes of anatomical nomen-
clature,

Priority is practically of little moment in respect to the
naines of organs, since it is usually difficult to ascertain
when and by whom they were first applied. An example
of this is afforded by the phrase foramen of Monro,
(Wilder, 3). Nor, indeed, has priority always been held

sacred.in systematic zoology. Owen’s “ Deinosaurians ”
was proposed nine years later than von Meyer’s “ Pachy-
poda;” yet, as stated by Huxley. (108, 33), it has been
retained, notwithstanding the small size of some members
of the group.

Etymological appropriateness is sometimes disre-
regarded, as in the case just mentioned, and in the more
familiar names Reftzles, Vertebrates, Edentatcs, &c.
Prof. Huxley has recently expressed the common sense view
of the matter as follows : :

“If well understood terms which have acquired a definite
scientific connotation are to be changed whenever ad-
vancing knowledge renders them etymologically inappro-
priate, the nomenclature of taxonomy will before long be-
come hopelessly burdened.” (B, 751.)

So, too, the names of organs have sometimes been given
in reference to some variable or unessential character, or
have even represented an erroneous idea; yet no one now
thinks of discarding either rectum, arterza, or carotid.

Sometimes even brevity and etymological accuracy
yield to established usage. The word cudztum, proposed
by me in 1872 (10, 21) as the technical equivalent of fore-
arm, is both shorter than antebrachtium, and more in
accordance with its classical employment; but the latter
word seems to be more generally preferred, and I am ready
to accept it.

In another case, even though a new term has not yet
come into general use, a special vitality may be imparted
to it by the authority of those who may have adopted it.
No marked or persistent disfavor is likely to be shown to
terms which, like szyeZon, can claim Prof. Owen as father,
and find a god-father in Prof. Huxley.

MESON, ITS DERIVATIVES AND CORRELATIVES.

The present tendency of accurate anatomical description
is to refer the position or direction of all parts and organs
to an imaginary plane dividing the body into approximately
equal right and left halves ; hence it is desirable to desig-
nate this middle plane, or any line contained therein,
by a word which is at once significant, short, and capable
of inflection. Dr. Barclay proposed meszon, and meszal
has been generally used; but would it not be better to
adopt the very term employed by the Greeks to signify the
middle, meson, 76 wécov, equivalent to the more ponderous
Latin medztullium? The corresponding adjective is
mesal, and the adverb mesad, while in combination it be-
comes 77e50.

The following general terms were also proposed by Bar-
clay, and have been more or less systematically employed
by Owen, Huxley and others: Dorsal, ventral, dextral
sinistral, lateral, with the corresponding adverbial forms
dorsad, etc. Should the alleged correspondence of the
ventral region of the vertebrate with the tergal region of
the arthropod prove to be one of true homology, it may be
desirable in time to discard dorsal and ventral for more
suitable terms, but for the present, if on practical grounds
alone, it seems well to retain them.

CEPHALIC AND CAUDAL.

Barclay proposed at/anta/ and sacral for the designa-
tion of the position of parts lying toward the head or the
tail in reference to an imaginary plane dividing the trunk
at the middle of its length. But these terms were not ap-
plicable to parts beyond the atlas and the sacrum, so that
new words were applied to the regions of the head. Per-
haps this needless complication has hindered the general
adoption of Barclay’s nomenclature notwithstanding its
many admirable features. At any rate, cephalec and cau-
dai are much more acceptable terms, and are practically
unobjectionable, although certain theoretical difficulties
readily suggest themselves.

Proximal and distal, central and pertpheral are in
common use, and the general employment of their inflec-
tions and derivatives is only a question of time.

SCIENCE.

125

Ental, and ectal are here first proposed as substi-
tutes for the more or less ambiguous words z#mer and
outer, ¢ntertor and extertor, deep and superfictal, pro-
found and sublime. Derived respectively from évré¢ and
éxréc¢ their significance is obvious, while their brevity and
capacity for inflection will probably commend them to ac-
curate working anatomists.

DESIGNATION OF THE REGIONS OF THE LIMBS,

Barclay’s terms «nar, radzal, tebcal and fibular refer to
only two of the four aspects of each limb. Prof. Huxley
has made the very important suggestion that, for compari-
son, all vertebrate limbs be regarded as placed in a umz-
form normal position ; they are then extended laterad at
right angles with the meson, with. the convexities of the
knee and elbow directed dorsad. Each limb then presents
not only a proximal and a distal portion, but four general
aspects, dorsal, ventral, cephalic, and caudal. Hence
there appears to be no need for the introduction of the
new terms employed to some extent by Huxley and other
English anatomists, epaxzal, hypaxzal, preaxzal, and
postaxial. These words are also liable to misconception
because axza/ has been used already in reference to not
only the axis vertebra, but also the entire skeleton of the
trunk as contradistinguished from that of the limbs.

DESIGNATION OF CURVATURES.

Ordinary descriptions of the directions of curvatures are
apt to be ambiguous, and Huxley resorts to the phrase
“arcuated outwards” to indicate the form of the mandi-
bular rami of the Baleenoidea. Since the Latins designated
the two malformations of the legs, “knock-knee” and
“bow-legs,” by the words varus and valgus respectively,
we may find it convenient to speak of parts whose con-
vexities look mesiad as varazte, and of those whose con-
vexities look laterad as valgate? In other cases, how-
ever, and perhaps even in these, so long as there is any
opportunity for misapprehension, it will be wellto describe
curvatures as presenting a convexity in one or another
direction. For instance, the mandibular rami of the Bal-
znoidea present a /aterad convexity, while those of the
Physeteride are convex toward the meson.

HYPOCAMPA,

This is employed by Vicq D’Azyr in the descriptions of
the plates of his Traité D’Anatomie, published in 1786.
The more common form Azpfocampus occurs in the list
of anatomical terms in the same volume, but this may
have been compiled partly by others, while the descrip-
tions are obviously the work of the anatomist himself.
Vicq D’Azyr does not discuss the etymology of the term,
but says the “ grande hypocampe ”’ was first mentioned by
Arantius and Varolius, whose works are not now accessi-
ble tome. Even Hyrtl does not seem aware of the use
of the word by Vicq D’Azyr, and all other writers, so far
as I know, make it Azppocampus.

If the original orthography cannot be ascertained, Zy-
pocampa is to be preferred on etymological grounds ;
the ridges known as Azppocampus major and h. mznor
bear no obvious resemblance to the fish known to the
ancients as immoxauroc and Azppocampus, but the larger
of the two, which probably first received the name, does
certainly present a most notable downward curvature,
such as the Greeks might have designated by troxay7y.

DESIGNATION OF THE ENCEPHALIC CAVITIES.

As based upon the condition of things in man the cur-
rent nomenclature of the ventricles had some slight
foundation. But, in the light of better methods and more
accurate knowledge, it appears incongruous and need-
lessly perplexing.

Let the learned anatomist lay aside his familiar ac-
quaintance with the parts and their names, and put him-
self in the place of the beginner who, after gaining a gen-
eral idea of the arrangement of the vertebrate brain from a

frog or menobranchus, is trying to master the complexi-
ties of the mammalian organ from the brain of the cat,
dog or sheep.

Leaving the myelon, he finds the canalzs centralzs ex-
panding into a cavity which, although the first of the se-
ries, is called the fourth ventricle. The more or less
distinct cavities corresponding to the cerebellum and the
lobe optzc¢ are not called ventricles at all, and the ¢hzrd
is between the thalami. The two “lateral” ventricles
are rarely mentioned as the first and second, but since the
numbers must be understood in order to account for tie
third and fourth, the student desires, in vain, to know
which is the first and which the second. In _ point of
fact, if the enumeration is begun at the cephalic end of
the series, the lateral ventricles are the third and fourth,
since there are well-developed ventricles in the /odz ol-
factorzz, Finally, a “7th ventricle” is mentioned, which
is not only at the greatest distance from the fourth, but
has no normal connection with the other ventricles, and
is, in fact, no part of the series.

In view of all this, the task of describing to students
the highways and by-ways of the brain,—which should
be most attractive because therein is most clearly mani-
fested the ideal arrangement of the organ,—is one from
which I shrink as from any other kind of solemn non-
sense. To my mind, indeed, rather than go on as we
have been going, it would be at once more philosophical
and more intelligible to adopt the simple vocal device
employed by Straus-Durckheim for the designation of
the metatarsalia—“ padion, pedion, pidion, podion, pu-
dion ’’—and to re-christen the ventricles by, for instance,
the names fran, pren, prin, pron, and prun.

Fortunately, however, another alternative is presented.
Whatever objections may be urged against them on
theoretical grounds, a real practical advantage is gained
by the use of the terms rAznencephalon, prosencephalon,
diencephalon, mesencephalon, epencephaton, and meten-
cephalon, and their German or English equivalents are
likewise often employed for the designation of the gen-
eral regions of the brain. Assuming that these terms
are to be retained, and that they are to be learned by
successive generations of students, why should we not
transfer the distinctive prefixes to the Greek word for
ventricle, c@/za, kota? = This would give us rAznocelza,
procelia, dicelia, mesocelza, epicelza, and metacelia,

These terms are capable of inflection, and the longest
of them is no longer than the Latin vetrzculus, which
requires a prefix or qualifying word. Lastly, but by no
means of least importance, they correspond with the
names of the encephalic segments. As will be seen in
the list of names of the parts of the brain, these pre-
fixes are employed for the designation of the mem-
braneous roofs of the ‘“third’”’ and ‘‘fourth”’ ventricles,
and the plexuses of these and the lateral ventricles.
After a somewhat prolonged consideration of the mat-
ter, it seems to me that the practical usefulness and
logical consistency of these new terms outweigh any
objections that may be urged, and that these latter are
less numerous and serious than could be brought against
any other substitutes for the present heterogeneous and
ill-applied nomenclature.

Two or more ventricles may be spoken of as ce/ze,
while the “fifth ’’ may be called pseudo celza. I hope,
before long, to justify more fully the proposition already
made* to consider the cephalic portion of the “third”
between the Jor/@ (foramina Monroi), as a morphologi-
cally independent cavity under the name of ada.

RHINEN, ETC.

May not rhznen., prosen., dien., mesen. and epen, be
written, for the sake of brevity, for the full titles of the
general divisions of the brain, rAzmencephailon, prosen-
cephatlon, etc?

* Proceedings of the Am, Assoc. for Ady, of Science, Aug. 25, 1880
reported in ‘* New York Medical Record.’’

126

_ SCIENCE.

The following abbreviations are printed in Webster’s
Dictionary without the period: etymz(on), demirep(uta-
tzon), grog(ram), hyp,, and hypo(chondria), noncon-
(tent), hyper(critzc), navuy for navigator ; but the ab-
breviations above suggested should probably be followed
by the period.

PRHCOMMISSURA, ETC.

The single words precommissura, medicommzsura,
and postcommissura are proposed as substitutes for the
compound terms commzssura anterior, medzus, and
postertor, and for their English equivalents. A similar
change is desirable in the case of the three cerebellar
peduncles, which may be more conveniently termed fr@-
meso- and postpedunculus. So, too, the corpora genz-
culata (external and internal) may be called pregentcu-
latum and postgeniculatum ,; the brachza of the mesen-
cephalon become prebrachtum and postbrachzum, and
the two “perforated spaces,” preperforatus and fost-
perforatus. The “anterior pyramids” have been called
by Owen “ prepyramids,’’ but more exact designations of
these and of the “posterior pyramids”’ would be ven¢rz-
pyramtdes and dorsipyramides.

The prefixes are usually employed when the object re-
ferred to lies before, between, or behind other objects of a
different kind; e. g. precordia, mediterraneus, and
posterganeus. The use here proposed is as if three dogs
in line were designated by precanzs, medicanzs and
postcanzs. If the terms are objectionable, what can be
substituted for them? They are certainly as legitimate as
are the well-established terms prosencephalon, mesenceph-
alon and metencephalon. Do not the English words
prefosition and postposition offer some analogy ?

The following points are mainly etymological and or-
thographical rather than anatomical.

THE CONNECTING VOWEL.

With derivative words the connecting vowel is com-
monly z,; e.g. alipes, claviger, fatifer, fidicen, fluctigena,
decimanus, neurzlemma, and xzphisternum. But classi-
cal exceptions are mulomedicus, guadrupedus, noctuve-
gtlus, and decumanus. In common English and scientific
terms of Latin or Greek origin the 9 is common; e. g.
ambodexter, burgomaster, gastrotomy, termonology, ven-
troinguinal, lateroflexton, mucopurolent, vasomotor,
curvograph, neuroglia, oculospinal, pleuroperztoneal,
aiphosura, septopyra, hemoglobin, cephalotribe, etc.
Rarely is it e as in vemesecizon.

Should the z or the o be used in the following terms:
Dorsimeson, ventrimeson, dorstcumbent, laterzcumbent,
dextriflexion, sinistriversion, cephaloduction, caudiduc-
zion, etc.? Both analogy and euphony lead one to use the
z when the first part of the word is of Latin origin, and
the o with the Greek.

Should any of these terms be written as compound
words ?

COMPOUND WORDS.

The two Latin compounds known to me are venerd-
vagus and vestz-contubernium. The following common
or technical English compound words are selected from
Webster's English Dictionary, or the Medical Dictionaries
of Dunglison, or Littré et Robin, or from the writings of
Barclay, Humphrey, and Straus-Durckheim: <Azglo-
Saxon, concavo-convex, dextro-gyrate, ventro-appendicu-
lar, costo-vertebral, costo-alaris, caudo-pedal, osseo-
cutaneous, occtpito-scapularés, dorso-lateral, sterno-clavi-
cular, clavo-cucullazre, clavi-sternal, clavio-humeralzs.
By analogy with the foregoing, compound terms of direc-
tion should read dorso-ventral, caudo-cephalic, meso-
lateral, sintstro-cephaltc, etc.

HYBRID WORDS.

Some of the terms already mentioned are formed by the
union of Latin with Greek words; e. g., dorstimeson,

meso-lateral, and caudo-cephalic ; several others are
likely to be employed; ¢. g. clavo-mastotideus, and
Selitomy. eshte.

Beyond the occasional intimation, in the dictionaries,
that a term is hybrid, the subject seems to be ignored,
and it might fairly be inferred that literary authorities en-
tertain one or the other of two opposite convictions :
either mongrel words are verbal monstrosities which will
be shunned instinctively by all well-regulated minds, or
there is no more serious objection to their use, or even
their creation, than to the employment, or even the pro-
duction, of mules, or the mixed varieties of grapes and
roses.

However this may be, the fact is that the Latin and
the Greek tongues have united to form the following nine
hybrids which may be found in Latin writings: azd¢zcazo,
biclintum, cryploporticus, dentarpaga, epitogium, mono-
Solis, monoloris, pseudo-flavus, and pseudo-urbanus.
Of these, the third only occurs with any degree of fre-
quency.

Whoever will spend the time to look through an un-
abridged dictionary of the English language—and the inter-
est as well as the instructiveness of such a search can hardly
be realizea by those who use the volume only for occa-
sional reference—will find that, after excluding the
twenty-five or more words ending with meter, which may
perhaps be derived directly from the Latin form metrum,
there are more than ove hundred hybrid words, many of
them in good standing. Many more are to be gleaned
from the dictionaries of medicine and the other arts and
sciences.

Nevertheless, it is probable that a due regard for the
feelings of the classical purists in whose eyes language was
not made for man, but rather man for language, will lead
scientists to refrain from the introduction of mongrel
terms when others will serve the purpose, and the present
writer will be pleased to receive suggestions leading to the
substitution of wholly unobjectionable words for any of the
hybrids which have been mentioned.

(To be continued in our next.)

a

ON CHICKEN CHOLERA: STUDY OF THE CON-
DITIONS OF NON-RECIDIVATION AND OF
SOME OTHER CHARACTERISTICS OF THIS

DISEASE.*
By M. L. PASTEUR.

Il.

Concerning the properties of the extracts of the arti-
ficial cultivation of the germ of chicken cholera, an in-
quiry presentsitself. We have shown that these extracts
contain no substances capable of preventing the cultiva-
tion of the germs of this disease. They might, how-
ever, contain elements adapted to the vaccination of
chickens. ‘To investigate this point I have prepared cul-
tivations where volume was not less than 120 c.c. After
filtration and evaporation at a low temperature, while
infinite care has been taken tkat its purity should not be
affected, this liquid has given a dry extract, which was

re-dissolved in 2 c.c. of water, and the totality of this. .

was injected under the skin of a chicken which had never
had chicken cholera. <A few days afterwards the chicken,
after being inoculated with a virus of the greatest viru-
lence, died with the usual symptoms of wzvaccinated
chickens.

This class of experiments led to the following obser-
tion, which is of the greatest importance in physiology.
When the extract from the cultivation of the germ of this
disease, corresponding to an abundant development of
the parasite, is injected under the skin of a fresh chicken
in perfect health, the following phenomena take place:
At first the chicken seems to suffer from a nervous dis-

*Translated from the Comptes Rendus de l Academie de Sciences, of
May 3d, 1880, by P. Casamajor. The translation of the second paper of

this series appeared in the Chemical News, vol. xlii., page 321 (December
31, 1880),

SCIENCE. o<

order, which is indicated by panting breath and. alter-
nately opening and closing its beak; afterwards it be-
comes motionless, assumes the shape of a ball, refuses
food, and seems overcome with drowsiness, as is the case
with chickens affected with the disease. There is this
difference, however, that the chicken wakes up at the
least noise. This sleep lasts about four hours, after
which the chicken wakes up, looks as well as usual, eats
and cackles as if nothing had happened to it.

I have repeated this experiment several times and have
always observed the same facts. Before injecting the
extract above mentioned, I took, in every case, the precau-
tion of injecting an extract of the pure chicken broth,
which does not cause analogous phenomena. I have, by
this means, acquired the conviction that, during the life
of the parasite, a narcotic is formed, and that it is this
narcotic which causes the morbid symptom of sleep so
characteristic of the disease which we are studying.

By the acts of its nutrition the germ of the disease
causes grave disorders and brings on death. The germ,
being aerobian, absorbs during its life large quantities of
oxygen, and burns up many of the elements of its me-
dium of cultivation. This may be seen by comparing the
extract of the broth, before the development of the
germ, with the extract of the liquid in which the develop-
ment has taken place. Everything seems to show that it
is from the globules of the blood that the oxygen neces-
sary to its existence is derived by absorption through the
tissues. While the chickens are still alive, even when
death is still far off, their combs assume a violet tinge at
a time when the germ of disease is so little diffused
through the blood that it escapes microscopical examina-
tion. This species of asphyxia is one of the most curious
traits of the disease we are studying. Death is caused
by the grave disorders brought about by the develop-
ment of the parasite in its body, by pericarditis, by serous
extravasations, hy alteratiéns of its internal organs, by
asphyxia, but the sleep characteristic of the disease is
caused by a product formed during the life of the germ,
which acts on the nervous centres. The independence
of these two effects in the symptoms of this disease is
further established by the fact that the extract froma
filtered cultivation of the germ acts as a narcotic on
chickens which have been submitted to the maxzmum de-
gree of vaccination.*

These facts will, doubtless, be found worthy of the
meditations of pathologists.

Although I have taken already much of its time with
this subject, the Academy will allow me to call its atten-
tion to some other characteristics of the disease called
chicken cholera. We know that this disease is rapidly
fatal, particularly if caused by a direct inoculation of its
germ. It must then appear extraordinary that it some-
umes presents itself in the chronic state, as in the case
of inoculated chickens ; which, after being severely ill, do
not die, but seem to get relatively better. They eat, how-
ever, very little ; they become anzmic, as shown in the
discoloration of their combs ; they continue to lose flesh,
and finally die, after lingering for weeks or months. This
fact would not be of primary importance if, at the death
of the chicken, the germ of the disease was not, in most
cases, found in its body, which conclusively proves that
the parasite has been present since the last inoculation,
always active, although in a mild form, for it brings on
death slowly. Doubtless, the germ was placed in some
vaccinated portion unfavorable to its cultivation. Vac-
cinnated chickens are most apt to present this form of
disease, which is of very rare occurrence. We might be
led to believe that, in this case, the virulent virus is
changed into the attenuated, but this would be an error.
In cases of this kind the virulence of the germ of the dis-

. *Ishould, however, try to isolate the narcotic, and see whether a suffic-
lent quantity could cause death, and whether, in this case, the internal dis-
orders would be the same as those of the disease itself,

'

vere

127

ease seems, on thecontrary, tobe aggravated. This may
be easily seen by cultivating it artificially, so as to sepa-
rate it from the blood, and inoculating it on fresh
chickens,

Facts of this kind help us to understand the possibility
of those long incubations of virus, such as that of rabies,
for instance, which, after existing a long time in the body
in a’state which may be called latent, suddenly manifest
their presence by the most marked virulence and by
death. Do not these facts also throw light on human
pathology P

Alas! how often we see virulent diseases, such as scar-
latina, measles, typhoid fever, followed by serious dis-
orders of long duration, which are frequently incurable ?
The facts to which I have cailed attention are of the
same nature, only here we can put our finger on their
true cause.

I will conclude by pointing out another peculiarity,
which is not less worthy of the attention of the medical
profession.

In chickens in perfect health which have been thor-
oughly vaccinated there often occurs an abscess full of
pus on some portion of the body, which does not seem to
have any injurious effect on the health of the animal. It
is a remarkable circumstance that this abscess is due to
the germ of chicken cholera, which remains in it as ina
closed vessel, and it cannot propagate, doubtless, because
the chicken has been vaccinated. This germ may be
withdrawn by artificial cultivation, or it may be directly
inoculated on fresh chickens, which it kills in the usual
manner after an abundant development. These facts re-
call the abcesses on guinea-pigs, which I have mentioned
in the first communication on this subject, and they fur-
nish a rational explation of what happens in these ab-
cesses. In all likelihood the muscles of the guinea-pig
cultivate the germ more slowly and with greater difficulty
than those of chickens; the disease is limited to an ab-
scess, and recovery becomes possible.

I will now conclude this statement, as I have no wish
to wear out the patience of this Academy. This subject
is, however, so vast and so fruitful that I will ask its per-
mission to bring the subject before it again. I have other
observations to present than these. I will-add those
which will present themselves in the investigations I am
now making.

“We would give nothing to the public,” said Lavoisier,
“if we waited until we reach the end of our researches,
as these become broader and more extended the farther we

advance,”
—_—@_<—____—_..

THE NEW CHEMISTRY.

Lieut.-Col. W. A. Ross, who has done so much to ad-
vance our knowledge of blowpipe analysis, and whose
original chemical investigations are of the greatest inter-
est, in speaking of Prof. Cooke’s ‘‘ New Chemistry,” indi-
cates as follows, that much more radical changes, at all
events as regards anhydrates, will shortly demand the
attention of philosophical chemists, in consequence of the
following facts :

FACT I. 5mgrs. of pure caustic lime are carefully fused
into a vead of pure boric acid before the blowpipe, the
bead boiled in distilled water, and the transparent cal-
cium borate ball thus extracted, weighed. The weight
will invariably be exactly 2omgrs.

FACT 2.—The above-mentioned ball is now fused into
a second bead of boric acid, the transparency of which it
does not in the least degree affect, and when again boiled
out it has the same weight—viz., 2omers.

FACT 3. —5megrs. of calcium hydrate are now fused into
a boric acid bead similarly to (1), whenit is observed that
the borate ball formed is at first opaque white; then, as
it becomes transparent B B, that an enormous amount of
opalescent matter is emitted from the ball into the bead ;
and finally, that the extracted ball weighs only 15mgrs,

128

SCIENCE.

FACT 4.—The calcium borate ball (2) is now held as
a bead fer se on platinum wire, and 2.5mgrs. of pure
silica, or of rock crystal, dried at red heat, dissolved in it
BB: after which the silicious ball is weighed, and added
B B toa boric acid bead, which it NOW renders opaque
wzth opalescent matter; finally, the extracted ball, when
weighed, showed, in an average of three assays, an in-
crease in weight of 42 percent.

FACT 5.—smgrs. of pure “ anhydrous ”’ silica (SiO2)
are carefully taken up on a bead of pure boric acid, and
observed to be absolutely unalterable there, B B. A
weighed ball of anhydrous calcium-borate 1s now added
B B tothis bead, when the silica is gradually decomposed
—the weight of the ball being unaltered—not into silicon
and oxygen, but into really anhydrous silica (whzch pos-
sesses extraordinary electrical properties), and some
compound of hydrogen, which makes the bead opales-
cent. After boiling, only 2mgrs. of residue are obtained.

Now these five facts, and more especially the immense
increase in weight of the silicious calcium-borate ball (4),
notwithstanding the great loss of matter causing opales-
cence, show that there isan enormous percentage, nearly
half,of SOME COMPOUND OF HYDROGEN, not eilminable as
gas, existing in what has been hitherto supposed to be an
anhydrous substance, which has escaped even the close-
ness of modern chemical analysis, for the simple reason
that the water solutions of acids and alkalies used to
analyse, themselves contain this very compound of
hydrogen.

Many confirmatory proofs of this startling truth have
been afforded, but cannot be detailed here, because the
details form part of the subject of a competitory essay,
and cannot yet be published.

Hydrogen, however, in this solid form, can now be
proved to be an almost omnipresent component—of all
so-called ‘anhydrous ”’ minerals, of most artificial as well
as natural inorganic productions,. of many so-called
“elements,” and, to my mind, of the galvanic ‘‘currents”’
themselves.

Thus it is seen that the beautiful and immaculate the-
ory of combining proportions, first enunciated in 1777 by
the illustrious Wenzel in his “ Lehre Von der Verwand-
schatt der Korper,” relates entirely to hydrates, and that
a new chemistry, the chemistry of anhydrates, now re-
quires to be studied.

Let us hope that some future Wenzel and Dalton will
apply proportional and atomic theories to this anhydrate
chemistry, and now that the first dawning of the truth
has at last been published in Germany and America as
wellas here, we cannot doubt that this will soon be done.

It remains, now, an unpleasant part of my duty to
point out that, although I sepposed, by the discovery of
the above mentioned tacts, I had laid the first foundation
of what must, sooner or later, be adopted as a new and
essential study by everyone who aspires to the title of a
philosophical chemist, I found I had been anticipated in
my most important deductions by no less a man than
Joseph Priestly.

That unfortunate genius—in repeating one of whose
experiments with 4 more powerful electric battery, Sir
Humphry Davy discovered potassium—has been so ut-
terly misrepresented by the modern school of chemists,
which has elevated Lavoisier in his place as the founder
of the chemistry of hydrates, that it would take more
time than you andI can afford, to adduce in proof, a
quarter of their misrepresentations.

I will give just one instance. Prof, Cooke, in the book
called “ The New Chemisiry,” says (p. 98): ‘Iron, in
rusting, gains in weight, ‘Hence,’ said Lavoisier, ‘it has
combined with some material.’ ‘No,’ said such men as
Cavendish, Priestley, and Scheele, ‘it has only lost phlo-
giston, which differs from your gross forms of matter in
that it is specifically light, and, when taken from a body,
increases its weight.’ We smile at this idea,” etc.

Now what does Priestley himself say ?—See p. 249,

Vol. I., “ Experiments and Observations,” sect. IV., “In
flammable Air.”—‘ It was even asserted by some that
phlogiston was so far from adding to the weight of bodies,
that the addition of it made them really lighter than they
were before, on which account they chose to call it the
principle of levity!’ Priestley says here, that he “dis-
covered phlogiston to be hydrogen by direct experi-
ments,”

Then follow those celebrated experiments—so much
neglected and concealed by modern chemists—in which
Priestley converted a certain quantity of lead oxide into a
certain quantity of lead “by throwing the focus of a
burning-lens upon it through a glass receiver filled with
a certain quantity of “inflammable air ’’—or hydrogen.

It may be fashionable now to “smile at the ideas of
such men as Cavendish, Priestley and Scheele’; but it
seems to me much more reasonable to smile at the ideas
of Lavoisier and his disciples, who did not seem able to
understand the possibility of a compound losing (by
means of heat or other factor in the operation) an
extremely light constituent, and taking up, instead of it,
another surrounding constituent sixteen times as heavy,
whereby the aggregate weight of the compound would,
of course, be increased by the coefficient fifteen.

In precisely the same way I have proved, by my hum-
ble experiments, that a ball of calcium-borate, having
silica (for instance) dissolved in it, increases enormously
in weight by treatment in boric acid B B, although it ob-
viously loses a large quantity of hydrogenous matter,
which renders the whole bead opaque white; simply be-
cause the compound acquires, instead, a much heavier
constituent—viz., boric acid.

We invite those who are interested in the blow-pipe

analysis who desire any information on the subject to

address a letter to “SCIENCE,” as Col. Rossis one of our
subscribers, and appears always ready to aid those who
require instruction. A letter to ‘‘ SCIENCE”’ will doubt-
less receive prompt attention.

i ——__
THE AMERICAN CHEMICAL SOCIETY.

The March meeting of the American Chemical
Society was held on Monday evening, the 7th inst., Vice-
president Squibb in the chair. The resignations of the
following gentlemen were read and accepted. Messrs.
Elihu Root, H. G. Smith, F. Alexander, J. T. O’Connor,
and also, in consequence of its interference with his busi-
ness, the Recording Secretary Dr. A. H. Gallatin, ten-
dered his resignation from office. Mr. Theodore Tonnelé
and Mr. J. G. Mattison were nominated for membership.
The reading of papers followed, the first of which “A
New Specific Gravity Bottle” by William H. Gregg,
was read by Dr. A. Behr. The essential difference be-
tween the ordinary bottle and the one devised by Mr.
Gregg consists in that the latter has an expansion or bulb
just above where the stopper is, in the regular form. A
thermometer serves as a stopper passing through the
bulb sealing it at both extremities. The advantage ot
this improvement is that the liquid cannot run over or
volatilize (in the case of essential oils, etc.,) for it will be
retained in the bulb which is stoppered at each end by
the thermometer.

The second paper was by Dr. J. H. Tucker, “ On the
solvent action of carbonic anhydride in solution upon
various bodies under different conditions as to tempera-
ture and pressure.” The methods of manipulation were
first detailed, after which the effect upon the “ various
bodies,” these being chiefly mineral, was described. Mr,
Casamajor followed with some observations upon the
difficulty that he had experienced in obtaining hydrogen
sulphide from impure iron sulphide. After some experi-
menting he found that upon adding a little zinc amalgan,
alopians evolution of the gas ensued. By this method he
was successful in obtaining excellent results with galena,
orilcopyrite and pyrite,

SCIENCE.

129

Mr. J. H. Stebbins, Jr., called the attention of the
society to several new coloring materials that he had
discovered among the di-amido compounds. They were
vellow in color and suitable for silk, woolen and cotton
dyeing, but especially desirable for the latter.

Dr. A. R. Leeds gave a short description of some new
experiments on the action of hydrogen peroxide with
ammonium hydrate.

A committee consisting of Mr. Casamajor and Dr.
Alsberg were appointed to make arrangements for the
annual dinner, M. B.

NEw YORK, March 9, 1881.

2) ses se

IMPROVED PORTABLE EQUATORIAL STANDS.
By JAMES H. GARDINER.

The stand I use, and those which I have seen, have no
levels and no means by which the telescope can be moved
in azimuth without moving the whole stand. It seems
to me that, with a very little trouble, these stands
could be made not only a great deal more accurate, but
also much more useful for amateur work by the following
additions: Instead of having the equatorial mounting
screwed firmly to the lower plate to which the legs are
attached so the telescope cannot be moved in azimuth
without moving the whole stand, a plate could be ground
to touch, say, only 4% of an inch, and revolved on the
lower plate. This would give a steadier and easier motion,
with less friction than if the two plates were ground to
touch all over. A thread is to be cut in the side of this
upper plate, so that with a tangent screw it can be
moved in azimuth. On this upper plate that revolves on
the lower plate, and to which the tangent screw is attached,
should be placed two levels at right angles to each other,
and then on this upper plate that revolves the usual equa-
torial mounting is to be firmly fastened. It will be seen
that the above stand only differs from the usual stands on
tripods, in having levels and means to move the telescope
in azimuth without moving the whole stand. Such
a stand would be of great use to amateurs, who have a
poor horizon, and are obliged to move their stands about
to command all parts of the heavens; or for those who
may have a good horizon, but cannot afford the luxury of
a fixed pillar and dome. The use of such a stand will
appear from the following illustration ; Suppose the ob-
server has such a stand, and that he is at Washington,
and on the ist of March, 8 Pp. M., he desires to put his
telescope in the meridian. He carefully levels the stand,
and turns his telescope on @ Pofarzs to come into the
centre of the field. If it does not happen to come exactly
in the centre of the field, he can raise or lower his polar
axis, or move the telescope in azimuth by aid of the tan-
gent screw. Here it is to be noted that with the old
stands he would have to twist the whole stand around and
throw it out of level, and by repeated trials get a Polarzs in
the centre of the field, and when he again levelled the
stand a Polarzs might not be in the centre of the field.
Thus every movement of the old stand would throw it out
of level. All these tedious trials are obviated by the new
stand with azimuth motion. When once levelled it would
stay so, and the telescope could be moved to the east or
west without having to be continually bothered with
levelling it. Thus in a few moments he would have a
Polarzs in the centre of the field, and the telescope
approximately in the meridian. He now reads his R. A.
circle, and turns his telescope on some well known star,
as a Leones or Regulus, for example, and then reads his
R. A. circle again. Supposing the difference of these two
readings of the R. A. circle to be 3h. 25m. 13s., this is the
observed hour-angle of Regudus. The true hour-angle of
Regulus is equal to the difference of the Sidereal time and
the R. A. of Regulus, or 3h. 22m. 13s. This shows that
the object-end of the telescope must be moved 3m. to the
west to make the observed hour-angle agree with the true

hour-angle. This can be done nicely by the targent screw
that moves the telescope in. azimuth without throwing it
out of level, but with the old kind of stand it would be
thrown out of level, and it would be a very tedious job,
requiring time and patience to accomplish. Having got
the telescope very nearly in the meridian, the declination
circle can now be set to the 6 of the star. With such a
sand the careful amateur can put it near enough in the.
meridian to pick up a comet or any other object by its R. A
and 0, The accuracy of the adjustments depends upon
the levelling, the collimation, and an exact value of the
local time. The levelling would generally be accurate
enough, and most stands have screws in the saddle
that carries the telescope for correcting the collimation.
But the amateur should try to get the exact value of his
local time, as this would probably introduce the greatest
error, This can be done by equal altitudes of the sun or
star. Or where the latitude of the place is well known the
local time may be found by an altitude of the sun. With
such a stand as has been described, if it should be necessary
to move it to another place, it could easily be put in the
meridian again, as described. Besides, many have stands
with good circles which they seldom use, because they
cannot afford a fixed pillar and dome, and do not care to
put it in the meridian, as they are obliged each night to
bring the telescope into the house. But if it could be put
in the meridian easily, 1am sure many would be pleased
to use their circles.

$$$» —__—>

ASTRONOMICAL MEMORANDA.

[Approximately computed for Washington, D. C., Monday,
March 21, 188r.]

Sidereal time of mean noon, 23", 57™, 248. Equation
of time, 7™, 8°. Mean noon grecedzmg apparent noon.

On the morning of March 2oth, the sun crosses the
equator and enters the constellation Aries, thus indicat-
ing the commencement of Spring. The violent actions
upon the sun’s surface have continued throughout the
past month,

The soon reaches its last quarter on March 22, and is
new again on the 29th. On March 2ist, she crosses the
meridian at 4 A. M. The moon will be in conjunction
with Mercury on the 27th, and with Jupiter and Saturn
on the morning of the 31st.

Mercury is morning star, crossing the meridian about
an hour before the sun, nearly 6 degrees farther south.
Mercury was in inferior conjunction with the sun on the
11th and is travelling towards the west.

Venus has been moving westward since her greatest
eastern elongation on the 20th of February, and will con-
tinue to increase in brilliancy till March 27th. She
crosses the meridian at about 2.40 P. M., about 20 degrees
farther north than the sun.

Mars, crossing the meridian nearly 3 hours in advance
of the sun, is coming towards us, and gradually increasing
in brilliancy.

Fupzter crosses the meridian at about 1.15 P. M., and
Saturn 15 minutes later. They are both becoming very
unfavorably situated for observation, and must be looked
for immediately after sun-set.

Uranus is in right ascension 10%, 50", 478; declination
8° 14’ north, and was in opposition on March Ist.

Neptune, right ascension 2}, 47", 17°; declination 13°
56’north. Neptune and Venus are in conjunction on the
23rd.

THE following is a list of the officers and council of the
Royal Astronomical Society, elected February 11, 1881 :—
President: J. R. Hind; Vice-Presidents: Prof. Cayley, E,
Dunkin, W. Huggins, E. J. Stone; Treasurer: F. Barrow;
Secretaries: W. H. M. Christie, J. W. Glaisher; Foreign
Secretary ; the Earl of Crawiord ; Council: Prof. Adams,

i360

SCIENCE.

Sir G. B. Airy, J, Campbell, A. A. Common, G. H. Dar-
win, Major J. Herschel, E. B. Knobel, G. Knott, A.
Marth, E. Neison, A. C. Ranyard, Prof. H. J. S. Smith.

THE gold medal of the Royal Astronomical Society has
been presented to Prof. Axel Moller, Director of the Ob-
servatory at Lund, in Sweden, for his investigations on
the motion of Faye’s comet. Wi Cae

WASHINGTON, March 18, 1881.

MICROSCOPY.

On looking over the Transactions of the New Zealand
Institute for 1878, we notice that a Mr. A. Hamilton
speaks of having discovered Melicerta ringens. It was
found in great profusion,on the finely-divided leaves of the
Myriophyilum. This adds another locality to the wide
geographical distribution of this interesting Rotifer.

Mr. Hamilton states that after examining a number of
specimens he found the description given by Gosse cor-
rect, except that the formation of the pellets was at a
much slower ratethan that stated by him.

In the same locality were also found organisms which
Mr. Hamilton thought to be Plumatella repens ; they
were growing on dead thistles in a swamp in only a few
inches of water.

The American Monthly Mzicroscopical Fournal for
March editorially announces the immediate publication
of Mr. F. Habirshaw’s Catalogue of the Diatomacez, also
by the editor, a small book based on Professor J. Leidy’s
“ Freshwater Rhizopods of North America.” The edi-
tor’s handbook on Adulteration is withdrawn.

In the same number Dr, F. 5S. Billings gives a long
resumé of what is known about “‘ 77zchen@,” but seems
to offer no new facts ; the illustration he offers of “Fresh
trichinous tnvaszon” (after Heller) isa wretched misrep-
resentation of free trichine.

Any reader desirous of examining living specimens of
trichine in this condition can obtain them on calling at
our office.

LETTERS TO THE EDITOR.

[The Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed
by his correspondents. No notice ts taken of anonymous communi-
cations.|

To the Edztor of “SCIENCE?”

The development of a peculiar non-nervous tissue in
connection with the rhomboid sinus of the lumbo-sacral
intumescence in birds, and which is especially well
marked at the embryonic period, is I think of some bear-
ing on the recently agitated question of a so-called
lumbar brain in the extinct sauranodon. In all amniote
embryos tuat I have studied myself, and of which I can
find illustrations in accessible works, it is remarkable
that there is a distinct posterior enlargement before the
cephalic enlargement is well marked, or the brachial in-
tumescence is even indicated in the medullary tube.
This fact may point to the potent influence of some, at
one time, deeply engrafted ancestral trait. It is not, I
think, necessary or warrantable to go beyond this fact,
and the established one of the existence of a non-nervous
enlargement at the same region in allied sauropside in
endeavoring to account for the peculiarity found in the
spinal canal of an extinct saurian genus. The supposi-
tion of the existence of anything meriting the designa-
tion of a brain elsewhere than in the cranial cavity in
any amniote animal would be so fundamentally out of
harmony with what we have learned to consider as the
normal type of structure, that much stronger evidence
than the size of a bony receptacle must be adduced be-

fore it can even be taken into consideration. That the
size of a cavity and that of the contained organ are not
neecssarily in close correspondence, has been alluded to
by another correspondent under the initials of B. G. W,
I have been struck, in this connection, with the discre-
pancy between the size of the brain cavity and the brain
itself in a two year old hippopotamus, though they corre-
spondedin a young elephant.

Respectfully,

E. C. SPITZKA, M. D.
N. Y.'130 E. soth Street.

To the Editor of SCIENCE:
; PARIS, March 5th, 1881.

In bringing before your notice various points which
are both novel and interesting, it seems to be my fate
constantly to struggle with an embarras de richesse rep-
resented by a vast combination of phenomena which is
forever appearing upon the scientific horizon.

Condensing therefore as much as possible the matter
at my command, I will begin with a very trite and com-
monplace observation; petroleum is a most excellent
thing in its way. It is inexpensive and it gives forth
a beautiful light. But these advantages, as many know
to their sorrow, are more than counterbalanced by the
disagreeable habit it sometimes has of exploding. Acci-
dents thus occasioned, frequently prove fatal, as the vio-
lence and intensity of the explosion prevent, in most
cases, speedy relief being administered to the victims.
Besides this, the methods employed are inefficient and
usually unsatisfactory.

M. Ichlumberger, whose mind for some time has been
occupied with this subject, finally proposes a mode of ex-
tinction which is exceedingly simple, and at the same
time instantaneous. So confident is he of the efficacy of
his plan, that he would like to make a law compelling
every one to adopt it who has petroleum in any quantity.

This is his method; Upon every keg or barrel of
petroleum, place a moderately large bottle filled with
aqua ammoniez. Should an explosion occur, the shock
will shatter the bottle, spread the fumes of the ammonia
in the atmosphere, and produce an automatic and _ infal-
lible extinction of the flames.

This plan can well be recommended to those who
make use of petroleum, or who are obliged to superintend
the distillation of the liquid. It is only necessary to have
within easy access one or several bottles of aqua am-
moniz, whose contents should instantly be scattered
upon the petroleum in case it catches fire.

M. Ichlumberger also thinks that this mode of extinc-
tion could be effectively utilized in mines where fire-damp
is imminent. The ammonia should be put in reservoirs,
and so placed that it will be overturned immediately when
the explosion occurs. This agent would undoubtedly be
more powerful than water, and M. Ichlumberger’s idea
is worthy of serious attention.

A very peculiar case of poisoning occurred a short
time ago at Puy 2 Evégue, an account of which was sent
to the Académze de Médicine by Dr. Demeaux. It seems
that a family composed of five persons was taken vio-
lently ill after having eaten some mushrooms. One of
the mushrooms left from dinner was sent by Dr. Demeaux
to the Académze as a specimen, and upon being exam-
ined by M. Chatin, was found to belong to one of the
numerous varieties of the orvonge-czgué species called the
Amanita bulbosa. Nine-tenths of the mushroom pois-
oning we hear about is-due to this Amanzta which, on
account of its white color is frequently mistaken by the
inexperienced and unsuspecting tor the harmless mush-
room, It is certainly the height of folly tor people to run
about the woods and fields mushroom hunting, unless
they are perfectly familiar with the different species,

SCIENCE.

131

Science, it seems, is able to reap some benefit from
everything, however trivial! Fancy the ignoble art of
Tattooing being elevated to a philanthropic institution!
And yet, this is indeed the case. Up to the present day,
the artists whose business it was thus to decorate the hu-
man skin, confined themselves to tracing merely a warlike
emblem in indigo or vermillion upon the arms of our
troopers, with the number of the regiment added some-
times. However, their ambition led .them to execute a
more intricate and ornamental design, such as a flaming
heart pierced by an arrow, accompanied by the inscription,
“To Mary,” or something equally effective. Henceforth,
be it understood, these dermographic artists will be
looked upon as valuable auxiliaries to surgery.

“Why is it,” asks Dr. le Comte, who is physician to a
regiment of dragoons, “ why is it that such quantities of
soldiers die upon the battle field?’ And then he
replies confidently : “‘ Simply because of the difficulty
which arises in regard to arresting hemorrhages,”

The compression of an artery being the best mode of
stopping profuse bleeding, Dr. le Comte proposes to
teach each soldier first where these vessels are situated, so
that he may assist himself while waiting for the surgeon.
Therefore, he tattoos an image of some kind upon every
portion of the soldier’s body where there is an artery.
Think of it! Has ever a more ridiculous and absurd
idea been putinto practice? How infinitely preferable it
would be to furnish each soldier with a tourniquet, or at
least compel him to attend six lectures upon anatomy,
even though such a course might spoil a good soldier to
make a bad doctor.

I believe some news has already reached you of Bal-
main’s luminous painting, which attracted public atten-
tion some months ago and was first practically applied
at the establishment of Messrs. Thlee and Horm. The
ceilings of their different offices were covered with a layer
of the composition, dissolved in water, and the effect
produced is that of a diffused light which is sufficient to
enable one to distinguish the various objects in the
room. :

M. Balmain’s idea is excellent, and it would be most
advantageous to paint the ceilings of rooms, passages,
halls, etc., with his composition, should the use of lamps
be dangerous or not absolutely necessary. A simple
border of the painting is sufficient in narrow passage
ways and stair-cases, and costs a mere nothing.

When dissolved in water, the composition can be ap-
plied like whitewash or kalsomine and is usefal in more
ways than one. Large slabs of glass have been covered
with it and employed on board of English marine vessels,
also in the Waltham powder factory and in Mr. Young’s
refinery to illumine places where it is impossible to carry
alight. This painting has likewise taken the place of
lamps upon several railroads in England, particularly
those lines where tunnels are so frequent as to necessi-
tate constant light in the carriages. .

Now, a word about meteorology. Nearly every book
that has been written on the subject, tells us unhesitat-
ingly that the Aurora Borealzs is a very rare occurrence
except in the polar regions. It appears, however, that
this is by no means the case, and that it can be observed
with equal frequency in countries occupying a much
lower latitude,

M. Sophus Tromholt, of Bergen, Norway, has just
published an interesting account of some observations
made at his request during the winter of 1878-1879, at
one hundred and thirty-two stations extending through-
out Sweden, Norway and Denmark. Many extraordi-
nary facts concerning the Aurora Borealzs can be gath-
ered from this work. To give you an example, it was
found that scarcely an evening passed that the phenom-
enon was not witnessed in one of these countries. M.
Tromholt thinks the Aurora is often a local phenomenon,
situated but a short distance above the surface of the

cases in which the Aurcra was seen at one or more of
the stations without being visible at Bergen, the head-
quarters, so to speak, where observations were carefully
made both day and night. The phenomenon was only
seen three times simultaneously by all the stations com-
prised in 71 and 55 degrees. And even then, who knows
but that it was the same Aurora that each saw?

I cannot close my letter without mentioning why the
inauguration of the Berlin electric railroad has been so
long delayed. As was feared, electricity escaped from
the middle rail, and a copper conductor supported by
means of stakes has been substituted. Although this is
a great improvement, it is doubtful whether the railway
can be used in rainy weather, and this fact justifiesan
article recently published in Z’Evectrzczté, which affirms
that electric railroads can only be properly employed in
tunnels such as, for instance, those of the future Metro-
politan in Paris. COSMOS,

—<$_o—______.

VANILLIN.—Meissner’s new process for the manufacture
of the aromatic principle of vanilla consists in producing it
from eugenol C,oHi2O2 by first forming aceteugenol ; then
oxidizing the said product with a certain proportion of per-
manganate of potash in a neutral solution ; and, finally,
further oxidizing the product with bichromate of potash in
a neutralsolution. The aceteugenol is obtained by digest-
ing the dry eugenol with an excess of acetychloride C,H;
OCl. The excess of acetychloride is distilled off, and the
remainder used for the production of vanillin. (1). The
crude aceteugenol is oxidized in a neutral solution, 47 to
50 parts of permanganate being used to 20 parts of acet-
eugenol. The product obtained is separated by a filter
press from the binoxide of manganese formed during the
oxidization, and after the decomposition of the small quan-
tity of the carbonate of potash by sulphuric acid, the clear
liquid is evaporated in a vacuum at 50 deg. C., to about
1-15th of the original volume. The acetvanillin is ex-
tracted from the lye thus obtained by repeated agitation
with ether. (2). The lye freed from the acetvanillin is
heated to roodeg. C. to remove all the ether, and after
being neutralized is mixed with neutral chromate of pot-
ash. The mixture is heated until the chromate is decom-
posed, and the product filtered off from the oxide of chrom-
ium, and shaken up withether to remove the acetvanillin
formed during the oxidizing process. This operation is re-
peated on the lye several times. After the evaporation of
the ether, the acetvanillin is boiled with soda, by which
operation crude vanillin is obtained, which is purified by
being dissolved in ether, and shaken up in a warm satu-
rated solution of bisulphite of soda, and set aside to crys-
tallize. The crystals are washed in bisulphite of soda solu-
tion and strong alcohol, and finally decomposed by sul-
phuric acid when the vanillin separates as a colorless oil,
and can be finally recrystallized in water.

—_—_——__> —_____——.

In speaking recently of the Washington telescope we in-
advertently referred to it as a 32-inch equatorial. This in-
strument is well-known to have an object glass of 26 inches
diameter. The objectives forthe Russian Government or-
dered by Struve is 30 inches, and the Lick equatorial will
have a 36-inch objective.

THE CAUSE OF SPONTANEOUS DECOMPOSITION OF Raw
CANE SUGAR.—Organisms contained in these sugars multi-
ply and produce an inversive ferment.—U. Gayon,

PERSISTENT VITALITY OF CARBUNCULAR GERMS, AND
THEIR PRESERVATION IN CULTIVATED SoILs.—At a farm
near Senlis, cattle which have died of carbuncular fever
twelve years ago have been buried at a certain spot ina
walled garden. Samples of the soil were lixiviated and
concentrated, and guinea-pigs inoculated with the matter
died quickly with well-marked symptoms of carbuncle. Of
seven sheep allowed experimentally to pass a few hours
daily on this spot, two died of the same disease in the
course of six weeks, whilst the rest of the flock from which

earth, To strengthen his opinion he quotes many | the seven had been taken remained healthy.—M. Pasteur,

132

SCIENCE.

BOOKS RECEIVED.

SIR WILLIAM HERSCHEL: His LIFE AND WORKS.
By EDWARD S. HOLDEN, of the United States Naval
Observatory, Washington. Charles Scribner’s Sons,
743 Broadway, New York. 1881.

There is a charm which attends the memory of some
representative men, and which endears even their his-
tory to posterity.

Foremost among such men we recall the name of
Herschel, and we could hardly select a more pleasing
task than to touch lightly on a few salient points in his
eventful career.

In our opinion the great feature in Herchel’s history
was, that he succeeded in reaching eminence as a scien-
tific man, notwithstanding the apparently insurmountable
difficulties that stood in his path to success.

Consider for a moment the position of Herschel when
he made his first effort to became an Astronomer. He
was 34 years of age, residing in a foreign country where
he was unknown, and earning a bare existence asa
musician, with a younger brother on his hands, and a
sister who was not even acquainted with the language
of the country (England) in which they then resided.

They were too poor to hire a servant, and what with
out-door performances and giving instruction at home,
there was little time for recreation, for even leisure mo-
ments were occupied by copying music. So that it was
only at night, when he would retire wearily to bed, with a
basin of milk, and Smith’s Ofzzcs and Ferguson’s Astron-
omy, that he could devote the first thoughts to a science
which hereafter must ever be associated with his name.

He would then rise in the morning with thoughts in-
tent on seeing for himself the celestial objects of which
he had been reading over night.

To purchase an instrument was out of the question,
but with the indomitable energy of will which stamped
his career thereafter, he at once determined to makea
telescope with his own hands, and not content with striv-
ing to see what other observers had observed, he began
to contrive a telescope eighteen or twenty feet long.

But to earn an existence by music now occupied
every moment, day and night and it was many months
before a telescope could be commenced ; but finally in
1744, when he was 36 years of age, he completed a Gre-
gorian telescope, and began to view the heavens under
circumstances that must have been depressing to a less
ardent mind; for he had to contrive a few spare moments
as best he could, even running home between the acts at
the theatre to make a short observation, and then rush-
ing back to take his position in the band.

And so, with mind divided between the oratorios of the
Messiah, Fudas Maccabeus, &c,, and the variable star
Mira Cetz, along with the music went the Astronomy,
until on the 13th of March, 1781, Herchel, this amateur
astronomical observer of Bath, made one of the most
striking discoveries since the invention of the telescope,
for in examining the small stars in the neighborhood
of H Gemznorum perceived one which appeared visibly
larger than the rest, and this object proved to be the ma-
jor planet, now calledUranus.

Naturally, this was the turning point of Herschel’s
life, and his a ter career was a rapid rise to the highest
eminence as a scientific man and one of the most accom-

lished astronomers.

The story of Herchel’s life is now presented by Profes-
sor Edward S. Holden, in a charming little book which
may be read at a single sitting, and yet complete and
ample in all the details necessary to convey to the reader
a vivid picture of the great Astronomer.

We admire Professor Holden’s book for its simplicity
of diction ; not a superfluous word is given, and most of
the more interesting events are given in the very words
of his sister,as recorded by her,

We desire to see this interesting work in the hands
of the youth of this country, for if a noble example
of a successful career will stimulate a young man to
exalted aspirations for a useful and honorable life, the
perusal of the present memoir should have such an in-
spiring effect.

We acknowledge the receipt of the following important
works from the Government of New Zealand, being part
of a series prepared by the Colonial Museum and Geo-
logical Survey Department, of which James Hector,
M. D., C. M.G., F. R. S., is Director in Chief:

A MANUAL OF THE NEW ZEALAND MOLLUSCA.—A
systematic and descriptive catalogue of the marine and
land shells, and of the soft Mollusks and Polyzoa of
New Zealand and the adjacent islands, by Frederick
W. Hutton, F. G. S.,C. M. Z. C., Professor of Biology,
Canterbury College, New Zealand University, Wel-
lington, 1880.

A MANUAL OF THE NEW ZEALAND COLEOPTERA, by

Captain Thomas Brown, Wellington, 1880.

This Catalogue occupies 650 pages and contains 1050
species. It is a complete description of all the New Zea-
land Coleoptera known to Science, classified according to
the views of Lacordaire. This valuable work is spoken
of as a monument to the zeal and industry of an ardent
naturalist.

PALEZONTOLOGY OF NEW ZEALAND.—Part IV.—
Corals and Bryozoa of the Neozoic period in New Zea-
land ; by the Rev. J. E. Tenison-woods, F. G. S., F. L.
S. _Wellington, 1880.

The author has a high reputation for his minute ac-
quaintance with the Marine Invertebrata of the tropical
and temperate parts of Australia, and during the Jast
twenty years has published many works on the subject,
so that the inferences drawn in this work may be receiy-
ed with much confidence.

MANUAL OF THE INDIGENOUS GRASSES OF NEW
ZEALAND, by John Buchanan, F. L. S., Land-Botanist
and Draughtsman of the Geological Survey. Welling-
ton, 1880.

The general system of classification employed by the
author is that adopted from Sir Joseph Hooker’s standard
works on the New Zealand Flora, but the methods upon
which the general and specific characters have been
arranged is from a more recent work on the British Flora
by the same distinguished botanist. Sixty full-page illus-
trations are given of specimens, nature-printed, each
having, in addition, from 10 to 25 drawings showing the
anatomical character of the inflorescence in each species,
from original microscopic dissections made by the author,
whose excellent botanical knowledge, combined with his
skill as a draughtsman, peculiarly fitted him for the work.

TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE NEW
ZEALAND INSTITUTE, 1879.,Vol.VII., edited by James
Hector, C.M. G., M. D., F. R. S.; issued May, 1880.
Wellington.
In this volume is a valuable series of papers,

many of them well illustrated, and we congratulate the
colony on the valuable scientific work accomplished and
in progress. We find many of the papers in this volume
of the highest interest, and we shall shortly present our
readers with selections.

Any of our readers residing in New York who desire
to examine these works can do so by calling at our office,
and it may be convenient to know that the Colonial Goy-
ernment has arranged a scale of moderate charges, at
which any of these publications can be purchased.

a
:

SCIENCE.

SCIENCE:

A WEEKLy REcORD OF SCIENTIFIC

PROGRESS.

JOHN MICHELS, Editor.

PUBLISHED AT
229 BROADWAY, NEW YORK.

P, O. Box 3838

SATURDAY, MARCH 26, 1881.

ANATOMICAL NOMENCLATURE.

In this and in the preceding number considerable
space is devoted to a somewhat elaborate discussion
of the general subject of Anatomical Nomenclature,
accompanied by practical suggestions with regard to

- the brain.

When we consider that, as stated by Professor
Wilder, the brain presents about 150 parts or regions
which are visible to the unaided eye, that these parts
are more and more frequently mentioned in connec-
tion with the progressive sciences of Anatomy,
Zoology, Physiology and Psychology, and yet that
many of them have received from two to a dozen,
more or less, ponderous names, there would seem to
be no question as to the desirability of some improve-
ment upon the existing terminology.

The author of this article has undertaken to amend
the matter by selecting the shortest or otherwise most
appropriate one of the several names by which some
parts are known, or by abbreviating descriptive
phrases either by discarding all but the most signifi-
cant word, or converting qualifying adjectives into
prefixes, or, in a few cases, mostly of parts observed
by himself, by proposing new terms altogether.

The fact is, as every original investigator is aware,
all scientific nomenclature is more or less provisional,
and must be constantly modified to suit the additions
to knowledge and the clearing-up of ideas. The
author has given a few instances of the employment
of new terms by modern writers, and many more might
have been adduced. Marsh uses “ postpubis,” Huxley
“epipubes, pylangium, synangium, intraovular re
Foster employs—if he did not originate—“ hemisec-
tion and aspychical ;” “orad” is used by Thacher in
place of cephalad, while “ dorsad” occurs in recent
writings of Mivart, and in Huxley’s latest utterance,

133
the paper on “Evolution,” parts of which were re-
printed in this journal.

Among all the arguments in favor of some modifi-
cation of the existing nomenclature, the strongest—
to the mind of the unprejudiced layman—is, perhaps,
the very one which will least commend itself to the
professional anatomist: namely, that the ease and
comfort of those now living should be held of little
moment as compared with any advantage which the
change may confer upon the “ vastly more numerous
anatomical workers of the future.”

Those who object to the strictly technical construc-
tion of the proposed vocabulary should try to realize
what would be the outcome of a total disuse of all
technical terms, and the substitution therefor of the
vernacular words which are current among the people
of the various countries in which anatomy is culti-
vated. Ancient Babylon would have a parallel in
modern Science, and there would result confusion,
misunderstanding, contention, and finally apathy and
ignorance. Professor Wilder has evidently prepared
his article in the hope of eliciting criticism from the
working-anatomists of all parts of the world, and not
with a view to the hasty praise or dissent of English-
speakers alone.

The pages of “‘ScrENCE” are open to the fullest and
freest discussion of the whole subject.

A PARTIAL REVISION OF ANATOMICAL NO-
MENCLATURE, WITH ESPECIAL REFER-
ENCE TO THAT OF THE BRAIN.*

By BurT G. WILDER, M.D.,

Professor of Comparative Anatomy, etc., in Cornell University, and of
Physiology in the Medical School of Maine.

Il.
GENERAL NAMES OF ORGANS,
VIATIONS.

For ease of reference these words are arranged in the
alphabetical order of their abbreviations.

AND THEIR ABBRE-

A.—Area. Ar,—Arteria. Ath.—Arthron, joint, ar-
ticulation. B.—Bulbus. C.—Ccelia; ventricle of the
brain. Cd.—-Condylus. Co.—-Columna. Cn,—-Ca-
nalis. Cp.—Corpus. Crn.—Corona. Cr.—Crus. Cs.

—Commissura. Ctl.—Cartilago. Dg.—Digitus, finger or
thumb. Dm.—Dimidium; half. Dt.—Dactylus; toe,
digitus pedis. Dv.—Divisio. F.—Fissura. Fm.—Fo-
ramen. Fs.—Fossa. Fsc.—Fascia. Gl.—Glandula.
G.—-Gyrus; convolution. L.—Lobus. Lce.—Locus.
Lg.—Ligamentum. Ll.—Lobulus. Ln.—Linea. M.—
Musculus. Mb.—Membrana. Math.—Mesarthron ; seg-

ment. N.—Nervus. O.—Os. P.—Portio. Pl.—
Plexus. R.—Recessus. Rg.—Regio. Rm.—Ramus.
Rx.—Radix; root. S.—Sinus. Sb.—Substantia. S].—
Sulcus. Sp.—Spina. Spt.—Septum. T.—Tuber.
Tu.—Tuberositas. Tbl.—Tuberculum. Tr.—Tractus.
V.—Vena.

LIST OF NAMES OF PARTS OR FEATURES OF THE

BRAIN,
This list includes between 150 and 160 names. Un-
less otherwise stated they apply to the brains of Man
and the Domestic Cat. Most of the names refer to more

* Continued from No. 38, page 126, March 19, 188r.

134

SCIENCE.

or less distinct parts, but a few indicate general regions,
or areas which are distinguishable by color or elevation.
No purely histological features are referred to. Some
parts of the cerebellum and medulla are omitted alto-
gether. The names of the fissures of the cat’s cere-
brum have been discussed in a previous paper, 8.

In each case, the name first given is regarded as pref-
erable; but occasionally I have indicated the desirability
of a better one. So much of each name as is printed in
small capitals is regarded as a sufficient designation of
the part under ordinary circumstances ; sometimes it may
be desirable to add the words in parenthesis. Most of
the names are those in common use, with the omission
of superfluous elements like corpus, and the genitives of
the names of more comprehensive parts. Most of the
apparently new names will be found to be old acquaint-
ances under such thin disguises’as ¢ranslation, trans-
position, abridgement, and the substztution of prefixes
for qualifying words. In a few cases the old names are
wholly discarded for briefer new ones. Most of the new
names, however, refer to parts apparently unobserved
hitherto (e. g., crzsta, carina, delta,) or to parts which—
although probably observed—seem not to have been re-
garded as needing a special designation, (¢. ¢., aula,
guadrans, corpus prepontile.)

Let me express here my desire to be favored with the
fullest and freest criticism, both as to the general ques-
tions involved in this revision, and as to the special
terms here proposed.

ALBICANS, (Corpus).—aéz.—C. candicans, c.mammiil-
Zare, etc. Unable to ascertain which of its many titles
has priority, I select that which indicates its most ob-
vious feature on the fresh brain.

AMYGDALA, (cerebelli).—ag. cé/.

ARACHNOIDEA, (Membrana).—Ach.—The arachnoid
ayer.

AREA CRURALIS.—4r. cr.—The general region of the
base of the brain between the pons and the chiasma.
The middle region, or region of the isthmus.

AREA ELLIPTICA.—A, e/.—An area, in the cat, just
laterad of the ventripyramis. Perhaps it represents the
“inferior olive.”

AREA INTERCRURALIS.—A?r. zcr.—The interpedun-
cular space. The mesal part of the Avea cruralzs.

AREA POSTPONTILIS.—A?”. fpn.—The ventral aspect
of the metencephalon, (medulla). The caudal one of
the three general regions into which the base of the
brain may be conveniently divided for description. It is
more extensive, relatively, in the cat than in man.

It will be noted that the adjective Aozzz/7s follows the
analogy of gewézlzs rather than montanus or fontznalis.
ei pontal, however, has been used by Owen.

’ 3

AREA PRECHIASMATICA.—A?, frch.—The cephalic
one of the three areas of the base of the brain. The
space cephalad of the chiasma.

ARBOR VIT# (cerebelli).—Aré.

AULA.—a.—The cephalic portion of the third ven-
tricle ; the prethalamic part of the “third ventricle,” be-
tween the two porte, or foramina Monroz; ‘aula,’
Wilder, 3 and 5.” “The here common ventricular cav-
ity,” in Menobranchus, Spitzka, 6, 31. This represents
the cavity of the ‘unpaired hemisphere vesicle,” formed
by a protrusion from, or constriction of, the “ anterior
primary encephalic vesicle,” the aula is relatively larger
in some of the lower vertebrates.

AULIPLEXUS.—apx.— The plexus of the aula. The
free border of the fold of fza, known as the velum,
forms a vascular plexus in the axa, in each porta, and
in the medzcornu of the procela. In place of com-
pound terms, like Alexus aula, etc., I suggest that single
terms be formed, aulzplexus, portiplexus, and proplexus.
For the plexuses of the diccelia and metaccelia—the
“third” and “fourth ventricles ’’"—we may use dz-
plexus and metaplexus,

BASICOMMISSURA.—écs. “The basilar commissure
of the thalami,” Spitzka, 2,14. The ventral continuity of
the two thalami.

BIVENTER (cerebelli)—év.—The biventral lobe of
the cerebellum.

BULBUS OLFACTORIUS.—B. of. The olfactory bulb.
The more or less expanded cephalic part of each lateral
half of the rhinencephalon, consisting of the fes and
pero. Often called o/factory lobe.

CALAMUS (scriptorius).—c/m.

CALCAR (avis).—cle.
menor.

CALLOSUM, (corpus).—cl.—Commissura cerebri max-
zma, trabs medullarzs, etc.

CANALIS CENTRALIS (myelonis).—Cv.ce——The cen-
tral canal of the spinal cord.

CARINA (fornicis)—ca.—The ‘mesal ridge of the
caudo-ventral surface of the foruzx, dorso-caudad of the
cr¢sta. 1am not sure of its existence in man.

CAUDA STRIATI.—cd. s.—‘‘Surcingle,” Dalton (1, 13) ;
the slender continuation of the s¢-zatwm caudo-ventrad.

If a new name is required for this longer “tail,” which —

was described by Cuvier (B. 111, 51), as forming, with the
striatum proper, a ‘“‘horse-shoe,’’ Prof. Dalton’s “ surcin-
gle’ may be technically rendered “cingulum.” I have
not yet looked for the cada in the cat.

CEREBELLUM.—cé/,—Several of the external features ©

of the cerebellum are omitted from this paper.

CEREBRUM.—cb,—The frosencephaion,less the strzata.
The hemisphere.

CHIASMA (opticum, or nervorum opticorum).—ch,—
The optic chiasma or commissure.

CIMBIA.—cmb.—“ Tractus transversus pedunculz,”
Gudden, as quoted by Meynert (A, 737). Aslender white
band across the ventral surface of the crus cerebrz. Itisa
distinct ridge in the cat. The word is used in architec-
ture to denote a dard or fillet about a pillar, and is here
proposed as a fitting substitute for Gudden’s descriptive
name.

CINEREA, (substantia)—¢.—The gray matter of the
nervous organs.

CLAUSTRUM.—cls.—The “ claustrum,” (Burdach) ;
“nucleus tenteformis,’ (Arnold), as stated by Quain, A.
II, 564.

CoLuMNna (fornicis).—Co. f.--The anterior pillar of
the fornix, assuming that there is one upon each side.
It would be convenient to have a single short name. i

Ca@Lia.—C.—A ventricle of the excephalon. Fora brief

statement of the reasons for substituting this for the word ~

ventriculus, see elsewhere in this article.

COMMISSURA FORNICIS.—Cs. f.—In the cat, a distinct
band across the caudal aspect of the formzx just ventrad
of the crzsta, and apparently uniting the two columnz
more closely.

COMMISSURA HABENARUM.—cs. 4.—A white band
connecting the caudal ends of the habene, and forming
the dorsal border of the /7. conarzz.

CoNaRIUM.—ca.—The glandula pinealis. Epiphysts
cerebri. Penzés cerebrz.

CORONA RADIATA.—C%. 7.—C. radzans.

CORPUS PREPONTILE.—Cf. frf—aA slight white
longitudinal ridge of the postferforatus, near the meson,
It is distinct in the cat. When more fully known, per-
haps a better name may be found.

CoRTEX (cerebri, or cerebelli).—c¢x.—The ectal layer
of gray and white substance at the surface of the cere-
brum and cerebellum.

CRENA (calami).—cv#.—The caudal end or notch of
the metaccelia.

CRISTA (fornicis)—c7s.—A small but, in the cat, very
distinct ovoid mesal elevation of the caudal surface of the
fornix, ventrad of the carzva, and dorsad of the commas-
sura fornicts, and the recessus aule, Itisalso present in
the human brain. Wilder, 7.

CRUS CEREBRI.—C7. cb,—Pedunculus cerebri.

Hypocampa, or hippocampus -

ee ee

=

SCIENCE.

135

CRUS OLFACTORIUM.—CY, o/—The isthmus by which
the dudbus olf. is connected with the Prosen,

CRUSTA (cruris cerebri). cst.

DECUSSATIO . PINIFORMIS.—dc.
decussation,”’ Spitzka.

DECUSSATIO VENTRIPYRAMIDUM.—dc. vpy.—The
“ decussation of the anterior pyramids.”

DELTA (fornicis)—d@.—A subtriangular area of the
ventro-caudal surface of the fornix of the cat. The lat-
eral angles are at the forte, and the apex points dorso-
caudad. It is bounded by the lines of reflection of the
endyma, and represents the entoccelian surface of the
fornix. Wilder, 5. It probably exists in man.

DENTATUM, (corpus cerebelli).—duz.

DIsTELA.—d¢/.—The ¢ela vasculosa forming the mem-
braneous roof of the @zce/za or “ third ventricle.”

DIENCEPHALON. — den. — The ¢halamencephalon,
deutencephalon, itnter-brain, enclosing the azc@lza.
Whether it should include also the az/a and its walls is
to be determined by reference to the condition of the
parts in some of the lower vertebrates.

DORSIPYRAMIS.—dafy.—The fosterzor pyramid of the
metencephalon.

DIcceLIA.—dc.—The “third ventricle,” or “ ventrz-
culus tertius,” less the aula, The interthalamic space,
reduced in mammals by the medzcommizssura.

DiIPLEXxuS.—df/.—T he plexus of the “third ventricle.”

ENCEPHALON,—e7.—The brain, including the medulla
or metencephalon.

ENDYMA.—end.— Ependyma.
the ventricles.

EPENCEPHALON.—efex.—The hind-brain, or ceredel-
lum with the fons andits peduncles, and the correspond-
ing part of the medulla. It is difficult, perhaps impos-
sible, to define exactly the limits of the epen. and the
metencephalon, and of their respective cavities.

EPIC@LIA.—epc.—The division of the ventricular
cavity corresponding with thecerebellum. - Perfectly dis-
inct in the cat, and even in man, but relatively more ex-
tensive in many of the lower vertebrates.

FASCIOLA.—/sc/.—May not this single word take the
place of fasczola cinerea and fascia dentata? The parts
are continuous, and the latter is not dezfate in the cat.

FILUM TERMINALE (myelonis).—7. ¢.

FIMBRIA.—/mb.— Corpus fimbriatum.
camp, “ Fimbria,’ Meyn. A, 667.

FLOCCULUS.—/fic.—Lobulus pneumogastricus. The
flocks. This seems to be a different part from the /odzlus
appendicularzs of the carnivora, with which it has been
sometimes confounded.

FORAMEN C&CUM.—/m., c.— Fossa ceca,” Spitzka,
3,6. Foramen cecum is used by Dunglison and Vicq
D’Azyr (A, pl. xviii., “48’’), and should be retained, not-
withstanding the somewhat unusual application of the
word foramen. e

FORAMEN INFUNDIBULI.—/m. znf.—The orifice in
the Zuber cinereum left after the removal of the hypoph-
ysts and infundzbulum.

FORAMEN MAGENDIE.—/fm, mg.—The communica-
tion of the metace/za with the ‘subarachnoid space.”
Not having satisfied myself as to the nature of this com-
munication, I prefer to quote from Quain, A, ii., 513.

FORNIX.—/.—-Camara. Testudo cerebrz, &c.

GENU.—¢.—Genu callosz.

HABENA. —: 4. — Habenula. Pedunculus pinealis,
There seems to be no need of using the longer word.
According to my observations, the abene have a dis-
tinct morphical significance as nearly corresponding with
the lines along which the exdyma is reflected toward the
Opposite side; 5 and 7.

HyPoPHysis.—Ay.— Pituitary body.

HyYPOCAMPA.—/ym.—Hyppocampus major. The rea-
sons for preferring the form employed by Vicq D’Azyr are
presented elsewhere in this article,

pnf —* Finiform

Lining membrane of

Tenia hippo-

ITER.—z.—J/ter a tertio ad ventriculum quartum.
Agueductus Sylviz. A convenient name for the contracted
mesoccelia of man and most mammals.

INSULA.—zvs.—Island of Reil. Lodus centralzs,
sula cerebrt. Gyrd opertz.

INFUNDIBULUM.-21/.—Infundibulum cerebrt, &c.

INTEROPTICUS,—(/obus).—zop.—The interoptic lobe ;
Spitzka, 4,98; 5. In some reptiles.

LEMNISCUS INFERIOR.—/mn, z,—Spitzka, 4, 95 and
100.

LEMNISCUS SUPERIOR.-—/mm. s.—I have not been able
to identify these parts in the cat.

LIGULA.—/g.—“ Ponticulus.”’
506,

LIMES ALBA.—/m. a—Limes alba radicts lateralis
rhinencephalz, The white stripe of the lateral root of
the rhinencephalon. Perfectly distinct in the fresh brain
of the cat.

LIMES CINEREA.—/m,
radix lateralis.

LIQUOR VENTRICULI.—“%. vz.—This term is used by
Mihalk. A, 163. Is a better one to be found ?

LOBULUS APPENDICULARIS (cerebelli), Z4 ap.
The appendicular lobule of the cerebe//um of many carni-
vora, and perhaps other mammals. It seems to have been
confounded in some cases with the human /locculus, but
more probably represents the lateral lobes of the cerebel-
lum. Its relations should be studied in a series of related
forms. See my paper, II, 217.

LOBULUS OLFACTORIUS.--L. o/. — The olfactory
lobe of the hemisphere. A part of the hemisphere said
to be in more direct connection with the rhinencephalon.

LOBUS OLFACTORIUS.—Z. o/—A _ general name for
either half of the rhinencephalon, including the crus and
the bulbus.

Locus NIGER.—/c. 2.--The Jocus niger of the crus
cerebrz, between the teymentum and the crusta.

MEDICOMMISSURA.—mcs.—Commissura mollts.
dle commissure. ‘Thalamic fusion,’”’ Spitzka.

MEDICORNU (procceliae)—smcu.—Cornu temporale.
The middle or descending horn of the “ lateral ventricle.”

MEDIPEDUNCULUS (cerebelli)—mpa.—Crus ad pon-
tem. Middle peduncle of the cerebellum.

MESENCEPHALON.—men.—The mid-brain. The odz
optict, postopticz and tnteroptecz, with the corresponding
crura cerebre,

MESOCGLIA.—msc. The ventricular division cor-
responding with the mesencephalon. In man and most
mammals it is usually reduced and known as Z¢er, or
agueductus Sylvzz. ;

METATELA.—m¢/—The membraneous roof of the me-
tacelza, or “fourth ventricle.”

METACGELIA.—mtc.—The “fourth ventricle,” ventrzc-
ulus guartus, Ventricle of the metencephalon,

METAPLEXUS.—mtpi.—The plexus chorocdeus of the
metacelia.

MONTICULUS (cerebri).—n¢z—The
nence ofthe /obus temporalzs.
Avveus. Subiculum.

MYELENCEPHALON.—myen.—The cerebro-spinal axis,
The term was proposed by Owen.

MYELON.—my.—The spinal cord. Owen. Huxley.

NERVUS OLFACTORIUS.—-/V, 0/.— Olfactory nerve.
NUCLEUS LENTICULARIS.—-1c./n,—-Nucleus lentz=
forms. Meynert.

OBeEx.—I have not identified this part.

In-

Ligula, Quain, A, II,

c.—The gray stripe of the

Mid-

ventral promi-
Natiform protuberance.

OLIVA.—_0.— corpus olévarzum, Olivary body, Olive.
The “inferior olive.” Spitzka.
OPTICUS, (lobus). Vazzscerebrz. An optic lobe, ex-

cluding the fostopizcus and tnteropiticus.

PERO (olfactorius)—Zo.—The softer cap, or shoe-like
covering of the rhinencephalic lobe, from which the zervz
olfactorz directly spring. In thecat this may be accurate-

136

SCIENCE.

ly removed from the Zes of. The Latin Zero denoted a sort
of boot made of raw hide.

PES OLFACTORIUS.—#s. o/.—The firmer ental por-
tion of each rhinencephalic lobe. As it is the termination
of the crus, and has, in the cat, a somewhat foot-like
shape, I suggest the above name for it.

PIA (mater).—/z— In the cat’s brain there are indica-
tions of at least two layers of the gza.

PONS (Varolii)—fu.— Tuber annulare, etc.
seems to beno need of the qualifying genitive.

PONTIBRACHIUM.—fpubr.—“brachium pontzs,” Spitz-
ka, 4, 100.

PORTIO DEPRESSA (preperforati)—/Pz#. d.—In the
cat the (locus) preperforatus is distinctly divided into
two portions, the caudal of which is depressed, while the
cephalic is elevated, and sometimes furrowed. Briefer
names are desirable.

PORTIO PROMINENS (preperforati).— Pv. .

POSTBRACHIUM (mesen.).—pér.—Brachium postzr2us.

PREBRACHIUM (mesen.).—frér.—-Lrachium ante-
vtus. \have not identified these parts.

PORTIPLEXUS,—#f/—The small portion of the free
border of the ve/wm which hangs in the Zorta.

POSTCOMMISSURA.—fcs.—Commissura posterior cere-
érz. The posterior commissure.

PRECOMMISSURA.—prcs.—Commissura anterior.

POSTGENICULATUM, (corpus).—fe7.—Corfus genicu-
latum internum. !

PREGENICULATUM, (corpus) —frgn.—corpus geni-
culatum externum.

POSTOPTICUS, (lobus).—fop.— Testés cerebrz. The
caudal eminence of the “corpus guadrigeminum.”
“ Postoptic lobe,” Spitzka, 4, 100, and 103.

POSTPEDUNCULUS (cerebelli)—_ppad.—Crus cerebelli
ad medullam. Inferior peduncle.

PREPEDUNCULUS.—_prpd.—Crus seu processus ad cor-
pus quadrigeminum. Superior peduncle of cerebellum.

POSTPERFORATUS, (locus)—fpf.—Locus perforatus
posticus. Posterior perforated space. Pons Tarinz.

PREPERFORATUS.—frff. Locus perf. anticus.

PROC@LIA.—#rvc.—Ventricle of the prosencephalon,
“ Lateral ventricle.”

PROPLEXUS.—f7f.—The plexus of the medicornu of
the Zrocelza. It is the long free border of the velum,
and, still covered by the exdyma, enters by the rima. It
is continuous with the for/zplexus, and extends to near
the tip of the medzcornu.

PROSENCEPHALON.—frex.—-The cerebral hemi-
spheres ; cerebrum less the strzatum ; the fore-brain.

PROTERMA.—#rtr.—The primitive /amzna terminalis
or /, cinerea. Terma embryonzs. My reason for suggest-
ing different terms for the adult and embryonic terminal
plate, is that, as now understood, the latter includes not
only the damzna cinerea of anthropotomy, but also the
parts afterward differentiated to form the columne for-
miczs, and the precommissura, with perhaps some other
parts of the fornzx.

PSEUDOC@LIA.—fsce.— Ventriculus septi pellucid?.
“Duncan's hohle,” Loewe, A, 13. Fifth ventricle. This
is not a.true member of the coelian series. If it ever pre-
sented an opening into the az/a, it is because of some in-
jury which has torn the brain. This point was urged by
me in the unpublished paper No. 4.

PULVINAR.—plv.—Pulvinar thalamiz.
tubercle of the human ¢halamus.

QUADRANS, (cruris cerebri).—g.—In the cat, a depress-
ed area approximately equal to the fourth of a circle, upon
the ventral surface of the crus, in its meso-cephalic angle.

RADIX INTERMEDIA (rhinencephali).—Ax. 1.—The
middle root of the rAznencephalon. \n anthropotomy,
the mzddle root of the olfactory nerve. In the cat it is
little more than a sub-triangular interval between the
RR. dateralzs and mesalzs,

RADIX MESALIS.—Rx, m.—The mesal root of the
rhinencephalon. The “ internal root of the olf, nerve.”

There

The posterior

In the cat, it turns pretty sharply from the ventral to the
mesal aspect of the brain.

RADIX LATERALIS.—Rx. /.—The lateral root of the
rhinen. The “external root of the olf. nerve.” In the
cat it presents a gray and a white stripe—/zmes ctnerea
and Z. alba.

RECESSUS AULA.—RR. a.—A small depression be-
tween the two columne fornzczs, and ventrad of the
crista. The aulic recess.

RECESSUS CONARII.—R. cu— Recessus pinealzs,”
Reich. A, Taf. ix, 7.

RECESSUS OPTICUS.—R. 0f.—This is a pyramidal re-
cess, just dorsad of the chzasma, the apex pointing lat-
erad. The term is used by M:halkovics, /A, 79.

IKECESSUS PREPONTILIS.—R&. prpn.—The mesal de-
pression which is overhung by the cephalic border of the
pons. Its floor is formed by the caudal part of the
postperforatus.

REGIO AULICA.—&g. a.—It may be convenient some-
times to employ this term as a designation for the gen-
eral region, of which the ada is the center. Within a
short distance of the aw/a are many parts of great mor-
phical importance; the whole brain seems to converge
thereto. Whoever understands the aulic region will find
no serious difficulty with the gross anatomy of other parts.

RESTIFORME, (corpus).—Af.—The restiform body of
the metencephaton.

RHINENCEPHALON.—rhen.—The_ division of the
brain, which is united with the cephalic end of the base
of the prosencephalon, and connected by the nerv7z olfac-
torzz with the zaves. Each lateral /obus includes a crus
with its vadzces, and the dbulbus olfactorzus, consisting of
the Jes and Zero.

RHINOCELIA.—rhc.—The cavity or ventricle of each
lateral part of the rAznencephaton, and connected with
the procoelia. ~

RIMA (cerebri). 7. The interruption of nervous
tissue between the fmébrza and the Zenza, by which the
fold of fza—still covered by the exdyma—enters the
procelia to form the proplexus.

It extends from the dorsal border of the corresponding
porta to near the tip of the medzcornu. In a general
way it coincides with a lateral half of the “fissure of
Bichat,’”’ or ‘‘ great transverse fissure.” That, in the
cat, the borders of this ~z#a are closely united by the
intruded fza, and that the thalamus is wholly excluded
Jrom the procelia, was demonstrated by me on the 25th
of November, 187-, in the presence of my assistant,
Prof. S. H. Gage, who recorded it at the time. It was
affirmed in my lectures on Physiology at the Medical
School of Maine in the Spring of 1877, and in subsequent
courses there and at Cornell University ; and was one of
the points made ina paper (4) read at the meeting of the
Am. Assoc. Adv. of Sci. in 1879. While affirming this
of the cat, I stated that the material at my disposal had
not enabled me to demonstrate it upon the human brain,
but there was no doubt that the same condition would
be ascertained when a human brain could be prepared
and examined with sufficient care with reference to that
feature. In the Spring of 1880, Dr. Spitzka intormed me
that Hadlich had denied lately the appearance of the
thalamus in the lateral ventricle, presumably of man.
The fact is, whoever begins his studies of encephalic
anatomy with the brains of the lower vertebrates will
soon perceive that—excepting for some rupture of the
parts—the ¢ha/amus can no more form a part of the
floor of the “lateral ventricle” than can the cerebellum
or any other part of thie brain.

Ripa (delta).—Z.—The border of the delta formed
by the reflection of the evdyma upon the intruded au/z-
plexus. Probably also in man,

ROSTRUM (callosi).—77.—The rostrum of the cal-
Zosum ,; much shorter in the cat than in man,

SEPTUM LUCIDUM,—sf/. 7—This term is not only
compound, but based upon two misconceptions; that it

4u~

le le ee ee

A

.

SCIENCE.

137

is always or even usually ¢vans/ucent in mammals, and
that it forms a partition between the two frocelze@ in the
ordinary sense. A new term is desirable, which may
refer to either of the two lateral halves of the septum, in
connection with the froce/za, or the rest of the wall of
the hemisphere.

SPLENIUM (callosi).—sf —The splenium.

STRIATUM, (corpus).—s.—The intraventricular, or en-
toccelian, portion of what is sometimes called the corpus
strzatum. The nucleus caudatus. 'The caudate lobe.

SULCUS HABENA.—S/. 4.—The slight furrow along
the dorsal border of the Zadena.

SULCUS INTERCRURALIS LATERALIS,—SV. zc. Z—In
the cat, a distinct lateral furrow in the avea zntercru-
ralts.

. SULCUS INTERCRURALIS MESALIS.—S/. zc. m.—A
mesal furrow in the avea zntercruralzs of the. cat.

SULCUS LIMITANS,—S/. /7.—The furrow between the
thalamus and strzatum, in which lies the free border of
the fmoérza in contact with the ¢exza. The qualifying
word is given in reference to the fact that this furrow is
the line of separation between the entoccelian surface of
the s¢rzatum and the ectoccelian surface of the thalamus.
A shorter and more significant term is desirable.

SULCUS MONROI.—<S/, M/n.—The term is employed by
Reichert, (A, 65, Taf. 11), to designate a part of the
diceliza of man ventrad of the medzcommissura.

TANIA (semicircularis)—7¢z.—There seems to be no
reason why this single word may not replace the num-
erous compounds by which the part is known.

_ TEGMENTUM.—/g.—The more dorsal layer of fibers
of the crus cerebrz, separated from the crusta by the
locus niger.

TELA.—7/7.—A general name for the membraneous
roofs of the dzcelza and metacelia. ‘“ Tela vasculosa”’
is employed by Huxley, J.

TERMA.—ir.—Lamina cinerea,
terminalis. .

THALAMUS.—?th.— Thalamus opticus seu nervorum
opticorum. As has been well remarked by Spitzka (2), this
single word is to be preferred upon all grounds to the
compounds which have been applied to this part.

TRACTUS OPTICUS,—/¢r. 0f.—The optic tract.

TRAPEZIUM.—?z,—The ¢trapeztum ot the metencepha-
fon, Exposed in the carnivora, but in man concealed by
the caudal margin of the ons.

TUBER CINEREUM.—J, cuz.—The elevation just
caudad of the chzasma, to which is attached the Ayfo-
physts by the zxfundibulum,

TUBERCULUM ROLANDO.—#0/. R. The tubercle or
tuber of Rolando, Huguenin, A, 83.

VALVULA (cerebelli).—vv.—The valve of Vieussens.

VELUM (interpositum).—v/.— The ectoccelian portion
of the fold of Zza, the entoccelian free border of which
forms the plexuses of the aula, porte, and procceliz.

VENA CHOROIDEA.—2, ch.— Vena Galenz.

VENTRIPYRAMIS.—vfy.—T he anterior pyramid. The
“prepyramid,” Owen, A.

VERMIS (cerebelli).—7vm.—The median lobe of the
cerebellum. This and the other external features of the
cerebellum are not here presented with any fullness.

The adult /amzna

If I venture to hope that a few of the changes pro-
posed in this paper may escape disapprobation, and that
all my readers may not be hostile critics, it is because
the times have changed, and such an undertaking is now
more likely to be viewed in its true light. I have en-
deavored simply to define more clearly the necessity for
terminological improvement which has been admitted, in
some cases unconsciously perhaps, by all who have, for
example, substituted ventral for anterior, ectoglutaus
for gluteus maximus, hypophysts for pituitary gland,
corpus callosum for comméssura cerebri maxima, adren-
als for suprarenal capsules, and basioccipital for basilar
portion of the occepital bone.

‘schrift, VII, 204-217.

In evidence that the suggestions here made are not
impracticable, it may be proper to state that most of the
terms enumerated, particularly those of toponomy, have
been used in the anatomical laboratory of Cornell Univer-
sity for from one to three years; that the freest criti-
cism has been asked from the score or two of students
working at practical anatomy and making their own
descriptions under the immediate direction of Professor
Gage ; and that, so far from there having been any incon-
venience, the wish has been expressed that a similar
terminology might be adopted elsewhere.

On what may be called experimental grounds, there-
fore, it seems to me that, whatever may befall the par-
ticular terms here presented, as biological knowledge is
more widely diffused, and the demand for it correspond-
ingly increased, considerable changes in nomenclature
must be effected unless anatomical teachers are willing
to be styled professors of the art of needless mystifi-
cation.

There is, however, little danger of the too rapid pro-
gress of terminological reform; for, whatever may be
the general pressure of students and the public, definite
innovations are rarely made without the sanction, or at
least the toleration, of those who are most inconven-
ienced by any departures from custom.

The beginner can learn the new terms even more
easily than the old, and at any rate he has nothing to
forget. But the trained anatomist shrinks from an un-
familiar word as from aa unworn boot; the trials of his
own pupilage are but vaguely remembered; each day
there seems more to be done, and less time in which to
do it; nor is it to be expected that he will be attracted
spontaneously toward the consideration that his own
personal convenience and preferences, and even those of
all his distinguished contemporaries, should be held of
little moment as compared with the advantages which
reform may insure to the vastly more numerous anatom-
ical workers of the future.

List of Works and Papers Referred to,*

AGASSIZ, L.—A.—Contributions to the natural history
of the United States. ‘‘On Morphology and Nomen-
clature:” III. Ch. 2, Sect. 4.

ARGYLL, Duke of.—I.—A fourth state of matter.
“Nature,” June 24, 1880; 168. Repr. in ‘ Science,”
July 17, 1880; 33.

BARCLAY, John.--A.—A new anatomical nomencla-
ture, relating to the terms which are expressive of posi-
tion and aspect in the animal system. O., pp. 182, 5
plates. Edinburgh, 1803.

CLELAND, J.—I.—A remarkable double monstrosity
of the head. Journ. Anat. and Phys., XIII, 164-172; 2
plates. 1872.

CUVIER, GEORGES.—B.-—-Legons d’anatomie com-
parée, recueillies et publiées par Duméril, seconde édition,
corrigée et augmentée, 8volumes, D. Paris. [Tome
troisiéme, contenant le systeme nerveux et les organes
des sens, revu par MM. F. G, Cuvier et Laurillard.]

DALTON, J. C.—/.—Cerebral anatomy, with special
reference to the corpus striatum. Annalsof the anatom-
ical and surgical society, II, 1-18, 6 figures. Jan., 1880,
Reprinted in ‘‘ Brain.”

DUNGLISON, R.—A.—Medical Lexicon. A dictionary
of medical science, etc. Edited by R. J. Dunglison.
Royal O., pp. 1131. Phil., 1874.

GEGENBAUR, C,—A.—-Grundriss der vergleichenden
anatomie. Leipzig, 1874. O., pp. 660, 320 figures,

—59.—Ueber das archipterygium. Jenaisches Zeit-
1873.

GOODSIR, J.—A.—The anatomical memoirs of, edited
by Wm. Turner. 2 vols., O. pp. 993, 14 plates, 26 figures.
Edinburgh, 1868.

* In author’s MS. numbers for the titles of papers published since

1873, are in Italics. The dates of publication will, however, obviate the
risk of confusion, [Ep.]

138

SCIENCE,

HUGUENIN, G.—A.—Anatomie des centres nerveux.
O., pp. 368, 149 figures. Paris, 1879. (This is the
translation by Duval and Keller.)

HuxLey, T. H.—A.—Manual of the comparative
anatomy of vertebrated animals. D., 431 pages, 110
figures. N. Y., 1873. (The paging differs slightly from
that of the English edition.)

B.—Article ‘‘ Amphibia.” The Encyclopedia Britan-
nica, 9th edition. 1, 750-777, 26 figures. 1875.

C.—The Crayfish, an introduction to the study of
Zoology. The international scientific series, vol. XXVIII.
D. pp. 371, 82 illustrations. New York, 1880.

—44.—On the theory of the skull. Roy. Soc. Prec., pes

(1857-1859) ; 381-457; 10 figures. [Repr. in Ann. Nat.
Hist., 111, 414-439].

—70,—On the brain of Ateles panzscus. Zool.Soc.Proc.,
1861. 247-260, 1 plate, 2 figures.

—108.—On the Classification of the Dinosauria, with
observations on the Dinosauria of the Trias. Geol. Scc.
Jour. XXVI, 32-50; 1870.

—_/,——Contributions to Morphology. Icythyopsida, No.
1. On Ceratodus Forsterz, with observations on the
classification of fishes. Zool. Soc. Proc., January 4, 1876,
24-59, 11 figures.

HyrtTL.—A.—Onomatologia.
1880,
MACLISE, J.--/.—On the nomenclature of anatomy.
The Lancet, London. March 7, 1846, 298-300.

MARSH, O. C.—/.—The limbs+ of Sauranodon, with
notice of anew species. Am. Journ. of Science, February,
1880, pp. 169-171; 1 figure.

MEYNERT, T.—A.—The brain of mammals. Stricker’s
Manual of Histology, 650-766; figs. 253-284. N. Y.,
1872.

MIHALKOVICS, V. Von.—A.—Entwickelungsgeschicte
des gehirns, nach untersuchungen an hoheren wirbelthi-
eren und dem menschen. O., 105 pages, 7 plates; Leip-
zig, 1877.

MIVART, St. George.—A.—-The common frog. Nature
series, London, 1874. D., pp., 158, 88 figures.

MorsgE, E. S.—18.—On the tarsus and carpus of birds.
N. Y. Annals, Lyceum. x, pp. 22, 2 plates, 8 figures.

OWEN, R.—A.—Comparative anatomy and physiology
of vertebrates. 3 volumes, O., 2155 pages, 1471 fig-
ures ; London, 1861, 1868.

—16g.—Report on the archetype and homologies of
the vertebrate skeleton. Brit. Assoc. Report, 1846. Pp.
169-340; 28 figures.

PARKER AND BETTANY.—A.—The morphology of the
skull. O., pp. 368, 85 figures. London, 1877.

PYE-SMITH, H.—/.—Suggestions on some points of
anatomical nomenclature. Jour. Anat. and Phys., XII,
154-175; Oct. 1877.

QUAIN.—-A.—--Elements of anatomy. Eighth edition.
Edited by W. Sharpey, Allen Thompson, and E. A.

O., pp. 626. Wien,

Schefer. 2 vols. O., 1530 pages, 1000 figures. London
and New York, 1877.

Reichert, C. B.—A.—Der bau des menschlichen
Gehirns. Zweite Abtheilung. O., pages 192, 9 plates,

and tofigs. Leipzig, 1861.

ROLLESTON, G.—B.—-The Harveian oration for 1873.
D., pp. 90, 4 figures. London, 1878.

SpITzKA, E. C.—-/.--The central tubular grey. Jour.
of nervous and mental diseases, April, 1880. [One of a
series of papers on the architecture and mechanism of the
brain].

2.—Notes on the anatomy of the encephalon,
especially on the largerganglia. ‘Science,’ II.,14. Jan.
15, 1881.

3.--The peduncular tracts of the anthropoid

apes. Jour. of mental and nerv. diseases, July, 1879.
4.—The higher ganglia of the mid. and hind-
brain. Jour. of nerv. and mental disease, July, 1880.

5.—The brain of the Iguana. Ibidem.
———. 6,—The architecture and mechanism of the brain.

Preliminary considerations. Journal of nerv. and mental
diseases, 1878.

STRAUS-DURCKHEIM, HERCULE.—A.—Anatomie de-
scriptive et comparative du chat, type des mammiféres en
general, et des carnivores en particulier. 2 volumes, O.,
1020 pages, with folio atlas of 25 plates. Paris, 1845.

Tait, P. G—/.—On the formula of evolution. Nature,
Nov. 25, 1880. [Repr. in “‘ Science,” Dec. 31, No. 26].

Vicq D’Azyr.—A.—Traité d’Anatomie et de Physio-
logie, avec des Planches colori¢es représentant au Naturel
les divers Organes de lHomme et des Animaux. Folio.
Paris, 1786. 5

WILLIAMS, H. S.—A.—The bones, ligaments and
muscles of the domestic cat. 8vo, pp., 86; with atlas of
12 folio plates. Copies, reduced one-third, of the outline
plates in Straus-Durckheim’s A. The text is an explan-
atory index. New York, 1875.

WILDER, B, G.—-10. —-Intermembral homologies, the
correspondence of the anterior and posterior limbs of
vertebrates. Boston Proc. Nat. Hist. Soc., xiv., pp., 154.
5 figures.
11.—The outer cerebral fissures of mammalia,
especially the carnivora, and the limits of their homolo-
gies. Amer. Assoc. Proc., 1873. 214-233. 4 plates.
1.--Should comparative anatomy be studied in a
medical course? New York Medical Journal, Oct., 1877,

337-309.

2,—The anatomical uses ot the cat. N. Y.M. J.,
Oct., 1879, pp., 16.

3.—The foramina of Monro : some questions of
anatomical history. Boston Med. Surg. Journal. CIII.,
Aug. 12, 1880. 2 pages.

4.—Notes onthe anatomy of the cat’s brain.
Read at the meeting of the Amer. Assoc. Ady. Science,

1879.

5.—On the foramina of Monro in man and the
domestic cat. Read at the meeting of the Amer, Assoc.
Ady. Science, 1880, Partly reported in the Boston Daily
Advertiser, Aug. 30, 1880. The N. Y. Medical Record,
Sept. 18, 1880.

—6.—A partial revision of the nomenclature of the

[Same as No. 6].

7.—On the crista fornicis, a part of the mamma-
lian brain, apparently unobserved hitherto, [Same as
No. 6].

brain.

8.—The cerebral fissures of the domestic cat,
“Science,” I., No. 5, 49-51; 2 figures.

felis domestica.
July 31, 1880.

—————————_ ————

THE BASIN OF THE GULF OF MEXICO.
By J. E. HitGArpD, M.N.A.S.

A ComMuNICATION TO THE NaTIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES MADE
Nov. 18, 1880, By AUTHORITY oF C. P. Patrerson, Supt, U. S
Coast AND GEODETIC SURVEY.

At the meeting of the National Academy of Sciences
in New York, Nov. 18th, 1880, Mr. J. E. Hilgard pre-
sented, on the part of Hon. C. P. Patterson, Superintend-
ent of the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, a model of
the Gulf of Mexico constructed from numerous soundings ©
taken in the progress of that work. The accompanying
plate is a reduced plan of the model, the full size of
which is 24X32 inches, being on a horizontal scale of
I : 2,400,000, and on avertical scale of 1 inch: 1000 fath-
oms; making the proportion of horizontal to vertical
scales 1:33. The plan shows the horizontal curves of
every 500 fathoms of depth, as well as the curves of 100
and 10 fathoms. The same curves are delineated on the
model, the forms of which, however, are shaped in con-
formity with all the detail obtained from the soundings,
those inside of 100 fathoms being quite numerous, vary-
ing according to the configuration and importance of the
locality, while beyond the 100 fathom line, where the .
work pertains rather to physical geography than to navi-

———

Rigo pathomes= 5: Aas nee

SCIENCE,

>
0
agus er svew ere”

2000 fathoms

« Alacran Reef

f

i |
|

U.S.COAST AND GEODETIC SURVEY

Carlile P Patterson, Supt

GULF OF MEXICO

900 G00

Nautical Miles

Scale 10

Statute Miles

True Section from Alacran Reef to the Mississipp: Dea

Alacran Reef

ES:

140

SCIENCE.

gation, 1055 soundings were obtained, of which 355 are |
in depths greater than 1000 fathoms.

The object of the communication being merely to give
a general description of the structural features of the
basin of this great inland sea—the American Mediter-
ranean—it is only necessary to mention here, that in
connection with the soundings, temperatures were taken
at various depths, and the organic life was explored by
means of dredges. Everywhere below the depth of
about 800 fathoms, the temperature was found to be
between 39° and 4o° F. The method of sounding was
by the use of fine steel wire, indicated by Sir Wm.
Thomson, with the mechanical appliances perfected by
Commanders Belknap and Sigsbee of the U. S. Navy.

The exploration of the Gult of Mexico was begun by
the U. S. Coast Survey as long ago as 1846, when sur-
veys of the shores were made, and soundings of the ap-
proacnes were obtained under the Superintendency of
Prot. A. D. Bache. These investigations continued until
the outbreak of the civil war, Prof. Bache having in
view from the earliest date of his work, the exploration of
the Gulf Stream and its attendant phenomena, in addition
to the surveys requisite for navigation. When after the
close of the war the Coast Survey resumed its former
activity, under the administration of Prof. Benjamin
Peirce, the physical and biological investigations were
continued ; but it was not until the present Superintend-
ent of the U.S. Coast Survey, (C. P. Patterson, LL.D.) or-
ganized a systematic Exploration of the whole Gulf, that
its character became rightly understood. These explor-
ations, begun in 1872 by Commander Howell, U.S.N.,
on the west coast of Florida in comparatively shallow
water, were continued and brought to a successful con-
clusion by Commander Sigsbee, U.S. N., (1875-78) in
the steamer ‘‘ Blake,” accompanied by Prof. A. Agassiz in
charge of biological investigations. The methods of ob-
taining temperatures at great depths as well as of dredg-
ing have been described in the Coast Survey Reports for
several years past, and more especially in a treatise by
Commander Sigsbee recently published by the Coast Sur-
vey.

Tomiie now to our model or map, we perceive that
the basin of the Gulf of Mexico is an oval connected
with the general ocean-circulation by two outlets, the
Yucatan Channel and the Florida Straits. The area of
the entire Gulf, cutting it off by a line from Cape Flor-
ida to Havana, is 595,000 square miles. Supposing the
depth of the Gulf to be reduced by 100 fathoms, a sur-
face would be laid bare amounting to 208,000 square
miles, or rather more than one third of the whole area,
The distance of the 100 fathom line from the coast is
about 6 miles, near Cape Florida; 120 miles along the
west coast of Florida; at the South Pass of the Mississ-
ippi, it is only 10 miles; opposite the Louisiana and
Texas boundary, it increases to 130 miles; at Vera Cruz
itis 15 miles, and the Yucatan banks have about the
same width as the Florida banks.

The following table shows the area covered by the
trough of the Gulf of Mexico to the depths stated :

Depth. Area. Differences.

2,000 fathoms......... 55,000) square miles: .<---n.0506-n5

1,500 A BREE onc 187,000 he gh tre Seatatatete itera G 132,000

1,000 ocr aot oIke 260,000 eR sip Saini Go 0 73,000
500 cae i evatereta, ctaystere 326,000 Me, Woe lecsieccisioe atctoetare 66,000
100 aL watacaustnloLias 387,000 pee or Ronee COr 6 61,000

Coast liner. terest 595,000 Ue fos A ce aye 208,000

This table shows that the greatest slopes occur be-
tween the depths of 100 and 1500 fathoms. The max-
imum depth reached is at the foot of the Yucatan banks
2119 fathoms, From the 1500 fathom line on the north-
ern side of the Gulf to the deepest water close to the
Yucatan banks, say to the depth of 2000 fathoms, is a
distance of 200 miles, which gives a slope of five-ninths
to 200, and may be considered practically as a plane sur-

face. The 2000 fathom area has received the name of
“Sigsbee Deep,” after its explorer. The Yucatan Chan-
nel with a depth of 1164 fathoms has a cross-section of
110 square miles while the Straits of Florida, in its shal-
lowest part opposite Jubiter Inlet, with a depth of 344
fathoms has a cross-section of only 10 square miles.

A view of the model reveals at once some important
facts which a study of the plan conveys but imperfectly
to the mind, and which were unsuspected before the
great exploration of the Gulf was completed.

Among the more striking features displayed by the
model to which Mr. Hilgard called attention, were :

1. The great distance to which the general slope of the
continent extends below the present sea level before
steeper slopes are reached. The too fathom line repre-
sents very closely the general continental line. The
massifs of the Peninsulas of Florida and Yucatan have
more than twice their present apparent width.

2. Very steep slopes lead from this submerged conti-
nental plateau to an area as great as that of the State of
Georgia at the enormous depth of over 12,000 feet. There
are three ranges on the Florida and Yucatan slopes ex-
tending in the aggregate from five to six hundred miles,
along which the descent from 500 to 15co fathoms (or
6000 feet), is within a breadth of from six to fifteen miles.
No such slopes and correspondingly elevated plateaus
appear to occur on the un-submerged surface of the earth
—the suggestion presents itself, that while the latter have
sufiered atmospheric erosion, those which we are consid-
ering have not sensibly changed from the positions
assumed in the mechanical shaping of the earth’s crust.

3. The far protrusion of the Mississipi Delta towards
the deep water of the Gulf, seems to give evidence to the
Engineer, of the probably permanent success of the
Mississippi Jetties, as delivering the silt of the river into
water of $0 great depth that but few extensions will
ever become necessary. In connection with the same
feature, the strong indentation to the westward of the
present mouths ot the Mississippi, indicating the prob-
able site of the original fracture between the two slopes
of the Mississipi Valley deserves attention.

4. In regard to the problem of general ocean circula~
tion in connection with the Gulf Stream, the most im-
portant feature is the shallowness and small cross-section
of the Straits of Florida between the Peninsular and
Bahama banks, having at the shallowest part a cross-
section of It square miles, with a greatest depth of 344
fathoms only. From observations published in the Coast
Survey Reports the average northwardly current of the
warm water through this Strait is probably not greater
than 2 miles per hour—certainly not more than 2% miles.
It is evident, at once, that the warm water which so
greatly modifies the climate of Western Europe, cannot
all be supplied by the flow through this small channel.
The concentration of the warm surface current from the
Gulf of Mexico gives to this vein of the general circulation
a marked velocity, which is not found in other portions
of the Atlantic, and which, being perceptible to the navi-
gator, has given its name of “ Gulf Stream ” to the whole
system of the northeasterly surface-flow in the Atlantic -
Ocean. It is now necessary to assume that the so-called
Gulf Stream is largely reinforced by a general northerly
current from the outside of the West India Islands.

SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES OF WASHINGTON.

THE BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY.—The Society met in
the Smithsonian Institution, Friday evening, March
11th, President Gill in the Chair, The discussion
was renewed upon Mr. True’s paper respecting suc-
torial organs. Mr. Seaman spoke of certain plants,
such as the American Woodbine, which seem to mimic
the suctorial organs of animals. Professor Riley drew
attention to the suctorial anal pseudopod of caterpillars,
and Mr. Goode to the peculiar provision for prehension in

SCIENCE.

141

the marsupials. Dr. A. F. A. King read a paper on Sep-
tennial Periodicity, drawing attention to the phenomena
of menstruation, cestration in animals, gestation, con-
tagions, epidemics and climax of fevers. He was par-
tially supported by Mr, Goode, who said that since the
lunar month of four weeks had such an important bear-
ing upon tides, etc., there is no absurdity in supposing
that the same cause may have been at work through
myriads of years to bring about periodicity as indicated
in the paper. Professor Riley, Mr. Ward, the President,
Dr. Prentiss, and others, took the opposite side of the
question.

THE ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY.—Major J. W:
Powell, the President, being in the Chair, the following
papers were read : “ Politico-Social Functions,” Lester
F. Ward ; “ The Savage Mind in the presence of Civiliza-
tion,” by Otis T. Mason. Mr. Ward first drew attention
to the schism which ever manifests itself between theory
and practice. Political philosophy taught in the schools
is one thing, political rules and maxims of society are quite
another. The speaker criticised the interpretation of the
old legal school of politics as well as the modern natural-
istic school. The latter, in holding that nature’s fixed
laws cannot be violated, forgot to include in nature the
struggles of human reason. This is well exemplified in
the anecdote concerning Plato. When about to flog a
slave for stealing, the latter thought to get off by crying,
‘It is my fate to steal.” The philosopher quickly re-
minded the slave that it was also his fate to get thrashed
for his theft. The paper took the ground that Society
was tending more and more to protection, and, from a
large collection of statistics showed that gradually new
interests were passing under control of the State. Major
Powell warmly endorsed Mr.Ward’s remarks, and affirmed
that the conviction had been growing upon him in favor
of the following view: Society begins with the kinship
tie, passes on to the property basis of organization, and
culminates in the evolution and protection: of industries.
Mr. Mason’s paper was partly theoretical and partly prac-
tical. Under the first head it was maintained that the
conflicts of the human family in all time had brought the
different races of men face to face with higher and better
methods, and from these much aid had been received in
their own advancement. The practical portion of the
paper related to the education of our Indians. The
speaker had gone over the history of the subject, had cor-
responded with every respectable school and college in
the country, and had collected the statistics of govern-
ment operations from the Indian Bureau. The conclu-
sion arrived at was that much had been wasted through
ignorance of anthropological methods, and that the
organization of a Bureau of Ethnology had been the
wisest scheme the government had undertaken in this
regard,

~

MICROSCOPY.

We have received from Dr. William Hailes, of the
Pathological Laboratory, Albany Medical College, speci-
mens of injected preparations cut with his improved
microtome, which was figured and described on page
187, vol. 1, of “SCIENCE.” The sections are from the
kidney of the cat, and are very perfect, showing the ex-
cellence of his microtome and his ‘own methods of
manipulation. Dr. Hailes also sends us three photo-
graphs of magnified specimens of the Embryo. of the
Chick, taken, respectively 24, 36, and 72 hours after
commencement of incubation. These photographs are
highly interesting, and may be seen at our office by those
pursuing such studies,

Messrs. Lennis and Duncker, both of Berlin, have pub-
lished an interesting paper in the Zeitschrift fiir Mikros-
kopische Fleischschau on a new parasite with which
they have met while performing their official duty. In

examining pork for trichinz they discovered a vermicular
diatomea imbedded between the muscular fibres which
they describe in the following terms: It is exceedingly
thin and transparent, of a greyish color, and of about
the size of the cyst-wall of a trichina.

Professor Leuckardt is inclined to consider its pres-
ence in the pork as accidental, and believes that it is of
little importance to government inspectors of meat in
their official work.

A WRITER in Vature makes the following observa-
tions on the minute structure of metals hammered into
thin leaves which are quite instructive. Notwithstanding
the great opacity of metals it is quite possible to procure,
by chemical means, metaliic leaves sufficiently thin to
examine beneath the microscope by transmitted light.
Such an examination will show two principal types of
structure, one essentially granular and the other fibrous.
The granular metals, of which tin may be taken as an
example, present the appearance of exceedingly minute
grains, cach one being perfectly isolated from its neigh-
bors by still smaller interspaces, The cohesion of such
leaves is very small.

The fibrous metals, on the other hand, such as silver
and gold, have a very marked structure. Silver, especi-
ally, has the appearance of a mass of fine, elongated
fibres, which are matted and interlaced in a manner
which very much resembles hair. In gold this fibrous
structure, although present, is far less marked. The in-
fluence of extreme pressure upon gold or silver seems to
be, therefore, to develop a definite internal structure.
Gold and silver, in fact appear to behave in some re-
spects like plastic bodies. When forced to spread out
in the direction of least resistance their molecules do not
move uniformly, but neighboring molecules, having dif-
ferent velocities, glide over one another, causing a pro-
nounced arrangement of particles in straight lines.

A new edition of Messrs. Beck’s catalogue corrected
to the first of this month has been received. It isa
work of 176 pages, well illustrated and appears to cover
all the wants of a microscopist. Mr. W. H. Walmsley,
the manager of the American branch of this house, in-
forms us that there is a large demand for microscopes at
this time, and that orders are in advance of their means
of producing instruments. We notice some change in
the prices and that the “ Economic” has been raised to
$40 including objectives. Messrs. Beck & Co. have
been very successful in producing good models for their
microscopes, and their workmanship is: excellent. Both
Mr. Beck and Mr. Walmsley are accomplished micro-
scopists, and can thus anticipate the requirements of their
customers.

ASTRONOMY.
VARIABLE STARS OF SHORT PERIOD.*

Under the above title, Professor Pickering has read
before the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, the
second of two papers, both of which are to be regarded
as preliminary, rather than final discussions, upon the
causes of variability in the light of fixed stars. In the
preceding paper (Proc. Amer. Acad. XVI., 1.) the fol-
lowing classification of variables was made:

I. Temporary stars. Examples, Tycho Brahe’s star
of 1572, new star in Corona 1866.

II, Stars undergoing slight changes according to laws
as yetunknown. Examples o Ceti and y Cygni.

III. Stars whose light is continually varying, but the
changes are repeated with great regularity in a period
not exceeding a few days. Examples, 8 Lyrae and
3 Cephei,

IV. Stars which every few days undergo for a few
hours a remarkable diminution in light, this phenomenon

* Proceedings of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, Vol.

.

142

SCIENCE.

recurring with great regularity. Examples, @ Persei, and
6 Cephei.

In order to avoid all prejudice, the present discussions
are made to depend entirely on the work of previous
observers, while awaiting the completion of more pre-
cise observations now in progress at Harvard College
Observatory.

An investigation was given in the article referred to
above, of stars of the fourthclass. It was shown thatin
the case of 8 Persei at least, the observed variations
could be very satisfactorily explained by the theory that
the reduction in light was caused by a dark eclipsing
satellite.

Variables of the third class are considered in the
present paper. Perhaps the most natural supposition of
the variability of a star of short period, is that it is due
to rotauon around its axis. The difference in brightness
of the two sides of a star, which such an explanation de-
mands, may be due to spots like those of our sun, to
large dark patches, or to a difference in temperature.
The theory that variation is due to the absorption of a
rotating mass of gas, does not appear probable fer stars
of the third class, since no evidence of absorption is in
general shown in their spectra, beyond the appearance
of lines such as are seen in our sun. For the stars of
the second class, however, this view seems more reason-
able, since many of them exhibit spectra which are
strongly banded. ;

“One great advantage of the study of the stars by
physical instruments, as the spectroscope and photometer,
is that some clew is given to certain laws, for our knowl-
edge of which we must otherwise depend on theoretical
considerations alone. While the conclusions to be
drawn from micrometric measurements are, in general,
much more precise, and the effects of the errors can be
more certainly computed, they fail entirely to aid us in
studying such laws as are here considered. For exam-
ple, the present investigation serves to study the follow-
ing important problem in cosmogony, to which micro-
metric measures contribute nothing, and which can
otherwise only be examined from the standpoint of
theory.

If we admit a common origin to the stars of the Milky
Way, a general coincidence in their axes of rotation seems
not improbable, especially as such an approximate coin-
cidence occurs in the members of the solar system. If
the coincidence was exact, the direction must be that of
the poles of the Sun, or, approximately, that of the pole
of the ecliptic. On the other hand, since the stars of the
Milky Way are supposed to be arranged in the general
form of a flattened disc, we should more naturally expect
that the axes of rotation would be symmetrically situated
with regard to it, or would coincide with its shortest di-
mension. According to this theory, then, the axes of ro-
tation would be directed towards the poles of the Milky
Way. If now we suppose that a great number of vari-
able stars were distributed over the heavens, it is evident
that those seen in the direction of their axes would not
appear to vary, since, as they turned, they would always
present the same portions of their surfaces to the observer.
Those at right angles to this direction would show the
greatest variation, and, other things being equal, would
appear to be more numerous, since they would be more
likely to be detected. If then the axes are coincident,
we should expect that most of these variable stars would
lie along the are of a great circle whose pole would
coincide with their axes of rotation.”

“Thirty-one stars are known whose period is less than
72 days. Of those, six belong to the fourth class, or that
of BPersez, in which the variation is probably due to the
interposition of an opaque eclipsing satellite. Of the re-
mainder, seven may be excluded, since they are red, and
may belong to the second class, or that of 0 Cefz.
Eighteen remain, whose periods vary from less than’a
day to 54 days, and which may be placed in the third

class. All lie within 16° of acircle whose pole is in R.
A. 13h, Dec. + 20°. The distances of eleven are from
o° to 5°, of five at distances of 8° and 9°, oneat 14° and
one at 16°. The average distance is 5.°%5, while, if the
stars were distributed at random it should be 30°.”

THE dome erected by Sir Henry Bessemer for the re-
ception of his new and powerful telescope is now nearly
finished. The telescope itself has arrived from the mak-
ers, and is now ready to be set up. It has been construct-
ed on a plan devised by Sir Henry Bessemer, which it is
believed will permit of telescopes being made on a much
larger and more powerful scale than even the present one,
which is the largest inthe world. The present instrument
is capable of being directed to any part of the heavens at
the option of the observer. The upper portion of the
dome is made of glass, with windows facing in every di-
rection, and within there will be placed mirrors of silvered
glass, which is part of the new invention, silvered glass
being used in place of metal. The room and dome with
its windows will revolve and keep pace automatically with
every motion of the telescope, and the upper end of the
instrument will reach a height of about forty-five feet.

WASHINGTON, .Warch 24. Ww. C. W.

DISCREPANCY IN RECENT SCIENCE.

There are two classes of statements in current scientific
literature that do not harmonize. Their teachings are op-
posite ; yet, the sayings are daily used by men who believe
both to be true. One series of doctrines is known as the
“ Conservation of Energy;” the other, the “ Nebular Hy-
pothesis.” The structure of nature rests on one, while the
history of cosmic evolution is based on the other. Then
they should agree. Men are fascinated with cosmogony,
and for ages have sought the laws by which the Universe de-
veloped. This research culminated in the existing Nebular
Hypothesis. Other fields of study were opened, man scru-
tinized his environment, analyzed matter, searched for its
ruling laws and summed up results in the doctrine of the
Conservation of Force, Now the laws by which nature
was in the past evolved, and is in the present governed,
must be, and are the same. Such does not seem to be the
teaching of some late popular books on science.

By a generalization of late research it is annnounced
that the Universe is a unit. All suns visible in the tele-
scope are composed of similar material, since they emit
light, having like properties, and are dominated by the same
laws of gravity and motion as rule the solar system.

Like matter, like laws, is the postulate of nature for all
time. .Some scientists ignore this apparent truth, as will
be seen in comparing ideas advanced in recent works.

The fundamental axiom in the law of the interaction of
force is, that when one mode of energy appears, another
vanishes, and vice versa.

No form of force can become sensible without the re-
tirement of another of equal intensity. This mutual dis-
placement never ceases for an instant, and the system of
nature is kept up by the flow, interchange and conversion
of force. Conservation is the law of energy, and no one
force can long act without waning and giving rise to an-~
other. Gravity, motion, electricity, magnetism, chemism,
heat and light, are forms in which energy exists; yet one
never can work eternally by itself, but must suffer conversion
into another mode of power. Motion in molecules evolves
heat, and heat acting upon still molecules appears as mo-
tion. Chemism acts, gives rise to heat and in doing so
expires ; or it may exhaust its energy in conserving elec-
tricity, which in turn may develop into heat. Numberless
like instances might be given to prove the conservation of
energy, were they necessary, but they are not; this great
law is universally accepted by students of nature through-
out the world, and the closest reasoner cannot find objec-
tion to this deduction of science. Among many facts re-
vealed by the discovery of the laws of force, one only is

SCIENCE.

here sought to be made prominent, that relating to the
evolution of heat. Heat cannot come of itself; some
other mode of energy must precede it. Suppose all matter
in existence to be dissociated, resolved to gas so attenuated
that.no two atoms touch. It would have ‘potency ”
for future development of every form of force, but at that
time only one would be in existence—gravity. It could
reign supreme only for an instant; obeying the law, it
would suffer “ conservation,” and give rise to motion.

Hence, motion is the second mode of energy, and all
the heat that ever existed came later. The only sources
of heat known are motion and chemical action, itself a
most rapid motion. Gravity caused the movement of
original atoms, bringing them near enough to be within
the influence of affinity, which acting, conserved heat,
the fourth form of force awakened in the evolution of
atoms: hitherto separated. Or a little heat might have
been derived from collision of atoms not having affinity;
in either case heat had antecedent forces. Heat is nota
primal affection of matter, but secondary; being always
preceded by gravity and motion. And molecules must
be separated by space in order that gravity can cause
motion to appear and vanishin heat. It is not conceivable
that primordial dissociated matter should have obeyed any
impulse at first, save gravity, then motion, then Chemism,
then heat and subsequently all other states of force.

The Nebular Hypothesis seeks to account for the evolu-
tion of all solar systems from primordial dissociated mat-
ter, requiring as Helmholtz says: ‘‘ Several cubic miles to
weigh a single grain.”’ Nearly all physicists accept this
theory, and admit that all existing matter was once in
this condition of gas. It seems, by reason of known
laws of matter, to be true. Thus, no two atoms coalesced ;
they were as far apart in proportion to their diameters, as
the Sun and Polaris. No ascertained law of nature dis-
putes this theory ; and within limits of human knowledge,
it must be so. Matter dissociated is in its most primitive
condition; and nature begins in simplicity and develops
complexity. Matter in fluid states is complex, and shows
itself tohave been wrought by force. All analogy points
to the fact that at one time in the history of matter, its
atoms were entirely separated; in which condition no
force whatever save gravity was in existence to act
thereon.

Yet, strange to say, some advocates of the nebular
theory teach that this rare gas wasintensely hot! They
call it “fire mist,!’’ and aver that it was hotter than the
sun isnow! We read®; “There was atime when the
materials composing it (the Universe), were masses of
glowing vapor,” and “we find that the further we go
back into time the hotter the sun must have been. Since
we know that heat expands all bodies, it follows that the
sun must have been larger in past ages than it is now,
and we can trace back this increase in size without limit.
Thus we are led to the conclusion that there must have
been a time when the sun filled up the space now oc¢upied
by the planets, and must have been a very rare mass of
glowing vapor.” True, the materials of the sun extended
into a ball of gas thousands of millions of miles in diam-
eter, far lighter than hydrogen ; but the gas was intensely
cold. No law of matter or force known to man; nor any
analogy in nature leads to the conclusion that the primi-
tive cosmical sphere of atoms was hot. It was cold and
dark, neither chemism, heat, or light appeared until gravity
made conservation in motion, making chemical action
possible. Affinity must have been slow at first, so that
heat could not have appeared until after ages of chemical
and molecular activity had expired, and heated fluid nu-
clei begun to condense and shine. The original cosmical
mass was as dark, cold and silent as interstellar space is
now, and “fire mist’ never hada place in nature. If the

1 Winchell’s Geology of the Stars.
2 Newcomb and Holden’s Astronomy, p. 494.

143

primeval “glowing vapor’’ ever existed, then the great-
est monument ever reared by man, the “ Law of Inter-
action of Force” falls crumbling to final ruin.
EDGAR L. LARKIN,
NEW WINDSOR OBSERVATORY, IIl., March 21, 1881.

+o

NOTES.

SoLUTION oF STARcH.—Zulkowsky proposes to make
starch perfectly soluble in water by heating it to 1g0° C,
along with glycerine. This process is most successful
with potato-starch, less so with wheat-starch, and very
difficult with rice-starch.

SALICYLIC ACID IN TEXTILE MANUFACTURES.—Dr. F. von
Heydon recommends salicylic acid to be applied in dilute
solution to woollen yarns, and to be mixed with sizes to
prevent mildew, unpleasant smells, &c. Five grms. acid
are sufficient for a litre of size.

ACTION oF HypDROCHLORIC ACID UPON METALLIC CHLO-
RIDES.—The chlorides which are rendered more solubie by
hydrochloric acid are divided into two groups; the one
(e.g., mercuric chloride) exceedingly soluble in the concen-
trated acid form with it crystalline compounds ; the other
(e.g., silver chloride) very sparingly soluble, even when
heated, yield on cooling the chloride considered as anhy-
drous.——A. DITTE.

ACTION OF CAusTIC LIME UPON PURE SOLUTIONS OF
SuGAR AND RAw BEET-JuIcE.—If free alkalies or alkaline
earths are added toa solution of sugar the rotation which
sugar occasions in polarized light decreases, and is restored
on neutralizing the alkaline liquid with acetic acid.—F.
DEsorR.

New STUDIES ON THE PART PLAYED BY BONE-BLACK IN
THE SUGAR MANUFACTURE.—Free lime is almost entirely
absorbed by bone-black. Salts of lime and potash are also
absorbed to a certain extent. Potash and lime, the latter
in saline form, promote each other’s absorption.—H, PE.-
LET,

CHEMICAL CHANGE OF STARCH ON EXPOSURE TO STEAM
AT A HiGH PrEssuRE.—A heat of 140° to 150°, and conse-
quent pressure of 344 to 4% atmospheres convert 71 per
cent. of starch into glucose. Dr. M. Stumpf considers that
with the aid of 1 to 2 parts of acid per thousand saccharifi-
cation may be carried so far as to render the use of malt
unnecessary.

DECOMPOSITION OF SALTS BY LiIQuIDS,—The laws of
dissociation by heat, applicable to the decomposition of
salts by pure water and saline acid solutions, apply also to
decomposition by alcohols.—A. DITTe.

INFLUENCE OF THE SOIL UPON THE TANNIN OF OAK
BARK.—A comparison was made between the bark of
young oaks grown respectively upon sandy loams, upon
peaty soil which had been once burnt, and upona similar
soil thrice burnt. The proportion of tannin was found
higher in case of the peaty soils.—M. FLEISCHER.

INFLUENCE OF MANURES ON THE APPEARANCE OF DiIs-
EASE AND ThE PROPORTION OF STARCH IN POTATOES.—
Three plots dressed with stable manure showed 6, 6, and 5
per cent. of diseased tubers. Plots where superphosphate
and small quantities of ammoniacal superphosphate were
used did not increase the percentage, but with larger pro-
portions of the latter it rose to 8 per cent. Chili saltpetre
was attended bya proportion of It percent., and when
used as a top-dressing 12 per cent—M. MARCKER.

INFLUENCE OF BORAX ON THE DECOMPOSITION OF AL-
BUMEN IN THE ANIMAL ORGANISM.—The ingestion of borax
is found to increase the decomposition of albumen.—M.
GRUBER.

TITRATION OF BISMUTH SUBNITRATE.—This process is
based upon the facts that as to 9'9074 grm. of monohydrated
sulphuric acid correspond to I grm. anhydrous nitric acid
these two weights of acids will require the same quantity of
alkali for exact saturation, and that bismuth subnitrate is
capable of yielding all its nitric acid to an excess of alkali
on boiling —E, BAUDRIMONT,

144

BOOKS RECEIVED.

THE POWER OF MOVEMENTIN PLANTS. BY CHARLES
DARWIN, LLD., F. R. S., assisted by FRANCIS DAR-
WIN. D. Appleton & Co., Bond street, New York.
1881.

The announcement of a new work from Dr. Darwin
brings joy to the heart of every naturalist, and the pres-
ent volume will be much cherished by botanists, because
it introduces a line of research which is comparatively
unworked and one which promises interesting results to
those who have time and patience to continue it.

The object of Dr. Darwin in writing this book was to
describe and connect together several large classes
of movements common to almost all plants, which is
chiefly noticed in climbing plants, the tips of which
revolve, bending successively to all points of the
compass. This movement is called by Darwin czrcum-
nutatzon, and a plant is said to czrcumnutate.

In the course of the present volume it is shown that all |
growing parts of every plant are continually circumnu- |

tating, though often ona small scale. Even the stems
of seedlings before they have broken through the ground,
as well as their buried radicles, circumnutate, as far as
the surrounding earth will permit.
present movement we have the groundwork or basis for
all the varied movements which are essential to the re-
quirements of plant life.

Thus the great sweeps made by the stems of twining
plants, and by the tendrils of other climbers, result from
a mere increase in the amplitude of the ordinary move-
ment of circumnutation. The position which young
leaves and other organs ultimately assume is acquired by
the circumnutation movement being increased in one di-
rection. The leaves of various plants are said to sleep at
night, and it is shown that their blades then assume a
vertical position through modified circumnutation in
order to protect their upper surfaces from being chilled
through radiation. The movements of various organs to
or from the light are all modified forms of circumnuta-
tion, as are the equally prevalent movements of stems,
&c., toward the zenith, and of roots toward the centre
of the earth. The method of observation employed by
Darwin is thus explained :

“ Plants growing in pots were protected wholly from the
light, or had light admitted from above, or on one side as
the case might require, and were covered above by a large
horizontal sheet of glass, and with another vertical sheet on
one side. A glass filament, not thicker than a horsehair, and
from a quarter to three-quarters of an inch in length, was
affixed to the part to be opserved by means of shellac dis-
solved inalcohol. The solution was allowed to evaporate
until it became sufficiently thick to set in two or three
seconds, and it never injured the tissues, or even the tips
of tender radicles. To the end of the glass filament an ex-
ceedingly minute bead of black sealing wax was cemented,
below or behind which a bit of card with a black dot was
fixed to a stick driven into the ground. The weight of the
filament was so slight that even small leaves were not per-
ceptibly pressed down. The bead and dot on the card
were viewed through the horizontal or vertical glass plate
(according to the position of the object), and when one ex-
actly covered the other, a dot was made on the glass plate

with a sharply-pointed stick dipped in thick Indian ink. |

Other dots were made at short intervals of time, and these
were afterward joined by straight lines. The figures thus
traced were therefore angular, but if dots had been made
every one or two minutes, the lines would have been more
curvilinear, as occurred when radicles were allowed to
trace their own courses on smoked glass plates. To make
the dots accurately was the sole difficulty, and required
some practice. Nor could this be done perfectly when the

movement was much magnified, say 30 times and up-
ward, yet even in this case the general course may be
trusted.”

To make this clearewe give a diagram of one of the

In this universally |

SCIENCE.

most simple of Darwin’s experiments, and the following
further explanation :

“ Brassica oleracea” (crucifere.)—Radicle. A seed with
the radicle projecting .o5 inch was fastened with shellac to
a little plate of zinc, so that the radicle stood up vertically ;
and a fine glass filament was then fixed near its base, that
is, close to the seed coats. The seed was surrounded with
little bits of wet sponge, and the movement of the bead at
the end of the filament was traced (see figure) during sixty
hours. In this time the radicle increased in length from
.0§ to .tr inch.

Brassica oleracea, circumnutation of radicle traced on horizontal
glass from 9 A. M., January 31, tog P. M., February 2. Movement
of bead at end of filament magnificd about forty times.

We trust that those who would take up this subject
will consult this work, as the amount of detail there
given is most essential to a thorough comprehension of
this study, butin case any of our readers are unable to
do so, the explanation we have given may suffice.

The chapters on the sleep of plants are most interesting
and instructive, and many discoveries relating to this
phenomenon are presented.

There are also certain movements in plants which are
not due to circumnutation, such as when a leaf of the
Mimosa is touched it suddenly assumes the position as
when asleep, but this movement occurs from a different
cause to that which produces the sleep of plants. The
sleep movement of plants is due to modified circumnuta-
tion; this would not happen from a touch.

Space will not permit us to further describe this im-
portant branch of the subject, but we hope on a future
occasion to again refer to it, and offer some illustrations
of the most striking instances. But as Mr. Darwin ob-
serves, it is impossible not to be struck with the resem-
blance between the sleep movements of plants and many
of the actions performed unconsciously by the lower an-
imals. With plants an extraordinarily small stimulus
suffices ; and even with allied plants one may be highly
sensitive to the slightest continued pressure, and another
highly sensitive to a slight momentary touch. But the
most striking resemblance is the localization of their sen-
sitiveness and the transmission of an influence from the
excited part to another which consequently moves. . Yet
plants do not of course possess nerves or a central ner-
vous system ; and we may infer that with animals such
structures serve only for the more perfect transmission of
impressions, and for the more complete intercommunica-
tion of the several parts.

INFLUENCE OF THE VENTILATION OF Must upon ALCo-
HOLIC FERMENTATION.—E. Rotondi considers that ventila-
tion mechanically promotes the decomposition of the sugar,
and acts also chemically, because the albumenoid bodies
are transformed into more diffusible matters, and because
oxygen by increasing the quantity of ferment indirectly
intensifies the fermentation.

SCIENCE. 145

eee NCE :

A WEEKLY REcORD OF SCIENTIFIC

PROGRESS.

JOHN MICHELS, Editor.

PUBLISHED AT
229 BROADWAY, NEW YORK.

P, O, Box 8888.

SATURDAY, APRII 2, 1881.

It has been well said, that the poorest day that
passes over us is the conflux of two eternities: it is
made up of currents that issue from the remotest past,

_ and flow onward into the remotest future.

On the 27th of June, 1829, an event took place
which was to have a marked influence on the intel-
lectual development of the United States, for on that
day James Smithson died at Genoa, Italy, bequeath-
ing his whole fortune to the citizens of the United
States, in trust, “for the increase and diffusion of
knowledge among men.”

On the 6th of December, 1838, President Van
Buren had the satisfaction of announcing to Congress
that the claim of the United States. to this legacy had
been fully established, and that the money had been
received by the Government.

The question then arose, what plan could be de-
vised to carry out the intentions of the testator. In
other words, how could “the increase and diffusion of
knowledge among men” be best accomplished.

One of the first proposals for utilizing the Smith-
sonian fund was a scheme of founding a university
of high grade, to “teach Latin, Greek, Hebrew,
Oriental languages, and other branches of learning,
including rhetoric, poetry, laws of nations, &c.” For-
tunately, such counsel did not prevail, and after nearly
eight years of debate, and even a proposal to return
the money to England being voted on, a bill was
passed by Congress organizing the Smithsonian Insti-
tution on its present basis.

Such, briefly stated, was the origin of the Smithson-
ian Institution, and in memory of its founder the pres-
ent Secretary, Professcr Spencer F. Baird, directed
Mr. William J. Rhees to compile a biography* of
James Smithson, this work being one of the most
recent publications of the Institution.

The general scope of this work is good, and it must
be admitted that some account of the establishment
of this Institution was called for. We must, however,
express our regret that such an elaborate description

* James Smithson and his bequest, by William J. Rhees, published b
the reais Institution, Washington, 1880, : x ;

of Smithson’s aristocratic connections was presented,
especially as the history would have been equally
complete without this superfluous addition. The
connection of the “proud” Dukes of Northum-
berland and Somerset with Smithson was hardly of a
nature to be recorded in a form which should con-
stantly bring the facts before the present generation
and posterity.

The circumstances of Smithson’s birth cannot be
ignored, but there is no reason why they should be
paraded before the public; we therefore would have
dispensed with the portrait of the first Duke of
Northumberland in this volume, and relegated the his-
tory of his life and death to the highest shelf in the
Smithsonian Library.

Stript of such surroundings, the memory of Smith-
son must ever be dear to the people of this country.
He was a man thoroughly imbued with the spirit of
true science, and an active and industrious laborer in
one of the most interesting and important branches
of research— mineral chemistry.” His happiest hours
were spent in the laboratory, where he carried on a
series of experiments, which were recorded in the
transactions of the Royal Society of London and
other scientific journals of the day. Such being the
direction of Smithson’s scientific pursuits, we trust
that the advancement of the physical sciences may
claim the attention of the officers of this institution,
and that they may be more duly represented in future
reports.

Since the death of Smithson, Chemistry has attained
a higher rank among the exact sciences. New meth-
ods and instruments of analysis have been introduced,
while other branches of science have advanced at an
equal ratio. New means “ for the increase and diffu-
sion of knowledge among men,” have come to light,
and among these the production of improved scien-
tific manuals, and the increased number and excel-
lence of scientific periodicals and journals, may be
mentioned as having largely contributed to such re-
sults. Science at the present day is no longer mon-
opolized by a select few, but is claimed as the common
heritage of the thousands who have the intelligence
to appreciate its value in developing the highest facul-
ties of man.

Thomas Carlyle considered that ‘‘to know the
divine laws and harmonies of this Universe must al-
ways be the highest glory of a man, and not to know
them the highest disgrace for a man.” ‘This Journal
represents one of the latest attempts to place at the
disposal of all interested in scientific pursuits and
human progress, a weekly journal worthy of the sub-
ject discussed. We are glad to find that our efforts
have been appreciated, and the constant receipt of
letters of welcome, co-operation and aid, increases our
hopes for the future. Among our latest subscribers,
we find three residing in Japan, one in Lucknow,
India, another in New Zealand, and the directors of
the Royal observatories of Brussels, Lisbon, and
Rome have added their names. If “ ScteENCE” is
thus in demand in foreign countries, we trust to find
our home subscription list rapidly increase, which
will enable us to enlarge and improve the journal
in various ways, thus adding to its usefulness.

Lord Brougham observed, that to instruct the peo-
ple in the rudiments of philosophy, and to obtain

146

SCIENCE.

for the great body of our fellow creatures that high
infprovement, which both their understanding and
their morals fit them to receive, is an object suffi-
ciently brilliant to allure the noblest ambition. With-
out claiming such lofty aspirations, the promoters of
“ SCIENCE” yet look forward to the time when their
efforts to establish this journal may be recognized as
at least a step in that direction.

+o —

ON THE AMPLITUDE OF VIBRATION OF
ATOMS.
Pror. A. E. DOLBEAR, TUFTS COLLEGE, MAss.

There is now sufficient evidence for the belief that
the kinetic energy of atoms and molecules consists of
two parts, one of which is the energy of translation or
free path, the other of a change of form due to vibra-
tions of the parts of the atom or molecule toward or
away from its centre of mass. The pressure of a gas
is immediately due to the former while the tempera-
ture of the gas depends solely upon the latter. These
two forms of energy must indeed be equal to each
other in a gas under uniform conditions; for if one
exceeded the other in energy when there is as free a
chance for exchange as among the atoms of a gas,
there would result an increase of pressure on the one
hand, or an increase of temperature on the other.
Now the kinetic energy of a mass m and velocity v

: Mm Vv? :
is expressed by are and applies as well to an atom

as to a musket bullet, and if we take the mass of the
hydrogen atom as unity and employ the calculated
velocity of hydrogen atoms at 0’ Cent. and 760 mm.
pressure, namely 1860 metres per second, the energy
will be 7860)”.
5 ;

We know also how many times the hydrogen
atom vibrates per second, by dividing the velocity of
light per second by some chosen wave length 2; so

If attention be now directed to the vi-

that 7 = 2

brating atom possessing the same energy as in the
free path movement, it will be seen that its velocity of
vibration must also be equal to 1860 metres per
second. But vibratory velocity is the product of a
number # into an amplitude @,so that v = za =
1860.

e F cata?
- >
er \
rs Ege DS ee
Ne eae
S fe

Adopting the vortex-ring theory of matter, the dark
ring represents the atom which, when executing its
simplest vibration assumes consecutively the conju-

gate ellipses and any point @ in the circumference
will move over the line 4 d, the latter distance consti-

tuting the amplitude of the vibration. The limits to
this movement must clearly be between 6 d = o when
there is no vibration, the absolute zero of the atom
and ¢ e which can never exceed 4 xr and indeed
must always be less than that value; for when half
the major axis of the ellipse is equal to that it has
become a straight line. As atomic vibrations result in
undulations in ether it is evident that amplitude 6 d
will give an undulation a f shown in continuous line,
while maximum amplitude ¢ e would give same wave
length shown in broken line. ‘The greater the actual
thickness of the ring the less must be the possible maxi-
mum amplitude.

The amplitude then becomes comparable with the
diameter of the atom, and in this discussion the as-
sumed diameter is the one given by Maxwell, namely
.0000005 mm.

The numerical value of $ rr for such a diameter
is .0co00004 mm. which represents the theoretical
maximum amplitude for a hydrogen atom.

If any hydrogen wave length be taken, say C =
.0006562 mm. the ratio of wave length to maximum
.0006562

.0000004
1640 times such amplitude. But hydrogen C is not
the fundamental vibration, but according to Stoney
is the 2oth harmonic of a fundamental having a wave
.013127714
Y .0000004

That is, it is 32819 times greater than the amplitude.

Now, Sir William Thomson, in his calculations on
the amount of energy in the ether, assumed that the
amplitude should not exceed one-hundredth of the
wave length, but that value is evidently very many
times too large. An undulation with the wave length
of this fundamental for hydrogen is nearly twenty
times longer than the longest one that can be seen;
and as the sensation of light depends upon wave
length and not upon amplitude, or what the energy
of the ray, it follows that Dr. Drapers’ deductions
concerning the temperature of bodies beginning to be
luminous will not necessarily apply to gases, for when
extra energy is imparted to the atoms of a gas it is the
amplitude of their vibrations that is affected, and if
the impacts are sufficiently frequent some of the har-
monic vibrations may appear continously, but they
will not thereby necessarily indicate a higher tempera-
ture, but show that the energy is distributed in two or
more periods, some of which have resulting undula-
tions which may be seen; but this will depend upon
the density of the gas. Suppose a body capable of
vibrating @ times per second for its fundamental, be
struck 4 times per second; then will the rate of vi-

If & be less

amplitude is = 1640, that is wave length is

length of .013127714 mm. and = 328109.

bration be interfered with ; times.

than a, then will the fundamental vibration have more
than its required interval between impacts, and a cer-
tain number of these fundamental vibrations will be
made per second. If 4 be equal to a, then, after the
first impact, @ will vibrate in its own period with in-
creasing amplitude, without interference. If 4 be
greater than @ then will the impacts interfere in all
phases of the vibrations, the fundamental will be
destroyed, and only some harmonics and irregular

vibrations will be possible ; but the number of impacts é

ic

SCIENCE.

per second depends upon the density, and in solids
and liquids this secures the destruction of the funda-
mental vibrations as the energy of vibration is in-
creased, at the same time developing the multitude of
irregular ones shown in the spectrum ; while in a gas
the number of impacts per second is many times less
than the regular rate of vibration, and this secures the
time for either fundamental or harmonics, and the
consequent spectra. The number of vibrations x
the hydrogen atom makes when the wave length is

.0131277 mm. will be n ee ene
-1312 iyi

Let zv' represent the velocity in free path motion of
the atom at o° Cent. and 760 mm. pressure = 1860-
v} 1860000

ooomm. Their amplitude a will equal =

— 228610".

2286 1010
= 8134x107"! m. Comparing this with the diameter
of the atom 2434X1°° __ 162, That is the ampli-

x10"

tude is equal to .162, the diameter of the atom ato.
Assuming a temperature higher than this, say 273°
Cent., then the energy of the atom in its free path mo-
tion compared with that it has at o° will be as 2: 1
and 1: /?:: 1860: 2630 m. per second, and as be

fore amplitude a will equal 7 — 20S OA

n 228610" :

115X107. This compared with the diameter of

the atom gives _T15XTOT — 123. That is, the
5xXI0%

amplitude is equal to .23 the diameter at 273° Cent.,
a difference of .068 for 273°.

With same data the maximum temperature of the
hydrogen atom may be calculated aoe as

(.162)? : (.7854)? +: 273° : 64r9°

which would be the highest temperature the atom
could have if it could have such an amplitude, and
this will be reduced as the thickness of the ring in-
creases. Any additional energy the atom would re-
ceive could not possibly heat it but would be expended
either in rotating it or in giving to it a free path
motion. In lke manner the amplitude for a single
degree is found to be .oog8 diameter, or very nearly
one-hundredth the diameter.

For other atoms than hydrogen when they have the
same energy their amplitude must vary inversely as
their mass, so that for oxygen the amplitude at 273
.162

I

mum temperature will be 641916 == 102704° Cent.,
a number altogether too high for the same reason
as was given for hydrogen, namely it assumes that the
ring has no thickness.

If these computations have any value they may
be applied to the solution of the temperature of the
sun.

The elements having the greatest density must have
the highest maximum temperature. In the sun
twenty-five elements have been determined spectro-
scopically and the average density of these twenty-
five is 63. Now on the hypothesis that these elements
exist in equal quantities in the sun, which is not very
probable, the maximum temperature of that body woulp
be about 400000° Cent.

_ As at absolute zero each atom is quite independent

would be = .o1 its diameter, and its maxi-

147

of every other atom, that is, matter has not a mole-
cular structure, so, at certain high temperatures that
differ for different substances, all molecular groupings
must be broken up and the atoms are quite dissociated
from each other, and this dissociation must occur
before the maximum temperature is reached; it would
appear that whenever at the sun the temperature
approached its maximum, then the elements would be
elementary, uncombined, and if compounds are ob-
served or appear probable from phenomena witnessed,
that will be the best evidence that the temperature is
decidedly lower than the above figure. For hydrogen
the dissociation temperature is only about 700° Cent.
which is only about one-ninth its maximum.

MARSH’S ODONTORNITHES.*

Were there no other proofs of his zeal and success
in extending the bounds of knowledge, the writer of
this magnificent monograph would be famous as—for
ten years at least,—the sole discoverer, describer and
possessor of the remains of Extinct Toothed Birds of
North America.

It may befall almost any diligent explorer to find
the remains of some species previously unknown, but
few have had— or so well-deserved—the privilege of
presenting to the world a new series of facts embody-
ing a new idea, at once easily appreciated by the
iaany, and serving the few as material for profound
consideration. That a bird with teeth is, most liter-
ally, a vara avis, may be conceded without extensive
acquaintance with either Latin or Ornitholog gy; on
the other hand, it is probable that naturalists have
not yet wholly tealized the import of this fulfillment
of a prediction which might have been made legit-
imately—though we are not certain that it ever was
—at any time during the last twenty years.

Aside from the Appendix, the present volume em-
braces detailed descriptions of the bones and teeth of
Flesperornis and Lchthyornis ; a general description of
the “Restoration” of each genus ; anda “Conclusion”
embracing the author's views upon the taxonomic re-
lations, and probable evolution of these two forms, to-
gether with Archaeopteryx.

The following are the principal characteristics of
the two American genera, chiefly as recapitulated
upon p. 187. In Zesferornis, the articular .ends of -
the vertebral centra are saddle-shaped, as in recent
birds; in /ch¢hyornis they are biconcave, as in many
fishes: Jchthyornis has a prominent sternal keel for
the attachment of the muscles of the well-developed
wings ; in Hesperornis, the sternum is without a keel,
and each wing is represented by only a rudimentary
humerus: the wing-bones of /¢A¢/yornis have tuber-
cles evidently for the attachment of feathers; no signs
of feathers have been observed with esperornis, but
they doubtless were present in life: in both genera, the
caudal vertebrz are few, so that the bony tail is short
as in recent birds: in both, the mandibular rami seem
to have remained permanently ununited by bone: in
both, as indicated by casts of the cranial cavity, the
prosencephalon was narrower than in recent birds of

* Odontornithes: A Monograph on the Extinct Toothed Birds of North
America ; with thirty- four plates, and forty woodcuts. With an Appendix
giving a Synops is of American Cretaceous Birds. By Othniel Charles
Marsh, Professor of Palzontology in Yale College, Memoirs of the Pea-
body Museum of Yale College, vol.1; pp. 201. This memoir will also
form vol, vii, Survey of the goth parallel.

148

similar size, a point of much interest, in view of what
has been noted by Prof. Marsh with regard to the brains
of extinct Mammals: finally, both forms had qweé/-
developed teeth in both jaws, but those of Hesperornis
were implanted in a continuous groove, while those of
Ichthyornis had separate sockets.

Prof. Marsh calls attention to the peculiar combin-
ation, in /chthyornis, of a low feature—the biconcay-
ity of the vertebrae—with a comparatively high method
of implantation of the teeth, and adds: “Better ex-
amples than these could hardly be found to illustrate
one fact brought out by modern science, that an ani-
mal may attain great development in one set of char-
acters, and at the same time retain other low features
of the ancestral type. This is a fundamental principle
of Evolution.”

Naturally, the teeth are described and figured with
especial fullness and accuracy. ‘Their general feat-
ures are distinctly reptilian, as would have been in-
ferred. Curiously enough, in neither genus does the
dental series reach the tip of either jaw, and, in /es-
perornis, “the extremity of the premaxillary bone,
back to the nasal openings, has its surface pitted with

irregular vascular foramina, indicating. apparently, |

that it was once covered with a horny bill, as in mod-
erm birds.” «oP. 8.

With the exception of Archaopteryx, all the known
odontornithic remains are in the Museum of Yale
College, but their discoverer is clearly of opinion that
more are to be found:

“These three ancient birds, so widely different
from each other, and from all modern birds, prove
beyond question the marvellous. diversity of the avian
type in mesozoic time, and also give promise of a rich
reward to the explorer who successfully works out the
life-history of allied forms, recorded in ages more re-

“mote.” P. 1809.

He even ventures to define the leading features of
the, at present, hypothetical progenitor of the entire
group of birds: “In the generalized form to whica
we must look back for the ancestral type of the class
of birds, we should therefore expect to find the follow-
ing characters: ‘Teeth in grooves; vertebrz bicon-
cave; metacarpal and carpal bones free; sternum

without a keel; sacrum composed of two vertebre ‘ |

bones of the pelvis separate; tail longer than the
body ; metatarsal and tarsal bones free ; four or more

toes, directed forward; feathers rudimentary or im- |

perfect; quadrate bone free.” P. 188.

As compared with this generalized form, our mod-
ern birds, while endowed with intense functional ac-
tivity, and in some structural features—especially as
to their true dermal appendages—a most highly spec-
ialized group, are nevertheless, odontologically con-
sidered, degenerated and retrograded creatures.

The general bearing of the facts given in this
memoir upon the question of evolution has been well
stated by Prof. Marsh upon a previous occasion.

“ Compsognathus and Archeopteryx of the Old
World, and /chthyornis and Lesperornis of the New,
are the stepping-stones by which the evolutionist of
to-day leads the doubting brother across the shallow
remnant of the gulf, once thought to be impassable.”

So far we have had to deal either with facts, or with |

hypotheses based upon those facts and warranted by
the prevailing opinions respecting evolution in gen-

SCIENCE.

eral. There remains to be considered the bearing of
these same facts upon the zoological relations of the
toothed birds to the rest of the class. Here there is
room for very wide disagreement, and the only point,
perhaps, upon which all seem to be in accord, is that
the Birds, as a whole, form a c/ass of vertebrates,
whether or not they should be combined with the rep-
tiles as a super-class or sub-branch—Sauropsida.

The advantages of employing a single technical
term like odontornithes in place of aves dentate or
toothed birds will be generally conceded, and the use
of the term as a convenient designation of certain
forms need not imply more than is implied by the
words swimmer, flier, apoda, etc. The real question
is, dé the toothed birds constitute a natural subdivis-
ion of the class Aves, comparable for instance with
the Marsupials among the mammalia? If not do they
constitute an order or a family, or, finally, are they—
or some of them—simply representatives of two or
more natural groups, differing from the other members
of those groups, and associated together, by the pos-
session of teeth ?

In a natural classification, we expect to find ani-
mals collocated either because they agree in many
particulars, or because they have in common one or,
more features of primary importance For example
notwithstanding their immense variety in size, form,
habit, existing birds present a remarkable uniformity
of structure, even in some apparently insignificant
details. On the other hand, although Amphioxus
differs from all other Vertebrates in so many respects
that nearly all generalizations as to the branch must
be accompanied by a qualification, yet it shares with
the rest a developmental feature and a general
arrangement of organs which keep it within the branch
and separate it from all other animals, excepting
perhaps the Ascidians.

Prof. Marsh regards Archaeopteryx, Hesperornis,
and Jchthyornis, as the representatives of as many
orders of the subclass Odontornithes, to which he
applies the names Saurure, Odontolcz, and Odonto-
tormz. The first of these names had been employed
already by Heckel and Huxley, who, however, had
made the Saurure, Ratitae(ostrich, etc.) and Carinate,
(all other birds) subclasses of the class Aves. Marsh
(loes not say what he thinks should be done with the
Ratitze, but if he is correct in his opinion (p. 3.) that
“Hesperornis and Jchthyornis differed more from each
other than do any two recent birds,” it would seem
to follow that the Ratite can no longer constitute a
subclass of the recent and toothless birds.

In the condensed statement of the characters of the
orders (p. 187) it is shown that we are unacquainted
with the mode of implantation of the teeth of
Archeopteryx, with the form of its vertebra and
sternum, and with the extent of union of the mandibu-
lar rami. The characters enumerated are the fres-
ence of teeth, small wings, separate metacarpalia and |
a bony tail longer than the body.

It will be seen that, excepting the teeth, any gen-
eralization respecting the Odontornithes as a whole,
must be accompanied by a qualification respecting
one or two of the orders. Prof. Marsh points out
that the three groups present unequal degrees of affin-
ity. But even if we exclude Archeopteryx, the only
characters which are at the same time common to the

SCIENCE. ; 149

Odontolcz, and Odontotorme and absent from recent
birds, are the zarrowness of the prosencephalon, the
persistent separation of the mandibular rami and the
presence of teeth.

That the presence of teeth has been regarded by
Prof. Marsh as the principal—if not the only essential
—characteristic of the Odontornithes, is indicated by
the following passages from the present work, or from
previous papers.

TooTH OF Hesferornis Regalis, SHOWING GERM OF YOUNG TOOTH,

“Both of these types possessed teeth, a character
hitherto unknown in the class of birds, and hence
they have been placed by the writer in a separate sub-
class, the Odontornithes.” P. 3.

“That Archaeopteryx belongs to the Odontornithes,
the writer fully satisfied himself by a personal exam-
ination of the well-known specimen in the British
Museum. ‘The teeth seen on the same slab with this
specimen agree so closely with the teeth of Hesfer-
ornis, that the writer identified them at once as those
of birds and not fishes.” P. 186.

In speaking (p. 191) of the “bird remains found in
the Green-Sand: deposits of New Jersey,” our autho
says; “as neither jaws nor teeth have yet been de-
tected, it is at present impossible to say whether the
Eastern species belong to the Odontornithes.”

Before the discovery of the teeth, he had character-
ized the Hesferornis regalis as a “gigantic diver re-
lated to the Colymbide.” His preliminary description
of the same bird had been to the same effect, with the
addition “that it differs from the Colymbide so
widely in the structure of the pelvis and posterior
limbs as to demand a place in at least a separate
family.”

In the present publication, however, our author is
of opinion that “the struthious characters seen in
flesperornis should probably be regarded as evidence
of real affinity, and in this case Hesferornis would be
essentially a gigantic swimming ostrich.” P. 1r4.>

That Prof. Marsh’s opinion as to the taxonomic
value of the teeth is shared by zoologists generally,
is shown—at least negatively-——by the absence of dis-
sent from his own views and from those of such re-
viewers as Newton and Woodward. The former
speaks of the “teeth, whence the ZA¢hyornis has been
made the type of a distinct sub-class.” The latter,
writing of the same genus, says: “The possession of
teeth and biconcave vertebrz, although the rest of the
skeleton is entirely avian in type, obviously implies
that these remains cannot be placed in the present
group of birds, and hence a new sub-class, Odontorn-
ithes is proposed for them.” In the added note, re-
specting Hesperornis, Woodward does not state
whether he was then aware that the vertebre of that

—

genus lacked the biconcave character. Hence it is
not certain whether he would regard it as an odon-
tornith by reason of the teeth alone.

Prof. Huxley does not distinctly mention the degree
of separation of the toothed birds from the rest, but
he says that the Hesperornis regalis “in a great many
respects is astonishingly like an existing diver or
grebe, so like itaindeed, that had this skeleton been
found in a museum, I suppose—if the head had not
been known—it would have been placed in the same
general group as the divers and grebes of the present
day.”

So far as I am aware, no objection to the erection
of a sub-class upon a purely dental basis, has been
offered, even upon the part of some who have not
usually been slow in critcising our author’s conclu-
sions.

Yet Prof. Marsh himself appears to be by no means
settled in his conviction as to the taxonomic relations
of the forms in question, since his ‘‘ Conclusion” con-
tains the following qualified expression of opinion:
“For the present, at least, it seems advisable to regard
the Odontornithes as.a sub-class, and to separate them
into three orders.”

The above intimation of a willingness to review
this part of the subject removes the hesitation which
one naturally feels in differing from the highest—and,
in one sense, the only—odontornithological authority,
and I therefore venture to offer certain considerations
which seem to have been overlooked hitherto.

1. Are the other characters of the toothed birds
such as to warrant their separation as a sub-class? In
other words, can we conceive of edentulous Odon-
tornithes as we have Vertebrates without vertebra,
and Edentates provided with teeth ?

2. Why should the presence of teeth in certain
birds be accounted of more taxonomic significance
than the absence of the same organs in the members
of other classes? The truly edentulous edentates are
held to form merely families or sub-orders ; the (tooth-
less) turtles are commonly regarded as an order of
reptiles ; and Prof. Marsh himself has established the
sub-order Pteranodontia, the “distinctive feature of
which as compared with the other Pterosauria, is the
absence of teeth.”

3. If birds with teeth had been known to us at all
times, or in the recent state, or in great number and
diversity, is it probable that, the entire group having
the rank of a class, we should have been led to form
two primary groups, the Odontornithes and the An-
odontornithes.

4. How would the question appear in case unmis-
takable evidences of teeth are found in the embryos
of recent birds? ‘That such signs will be sometime
discovered can hardly be doubted, especially when
the embryology of the ostrich is as well known as that
of the common fowl. Some are even now of opinion
that such structures have been seen. So cautious a
compendium as Rolleston’s Forms of Animal Life,
says : “dental papilla, with caps of dentine, have
been observed in the embryos of Psittacidee.” Since,
however, Prof. Marsh holds (p. 13) that the ‘‘ vascu-
lar papillae seen by St. Hilaire and others were appar-
ently portions of the horny beak,” we may consider the
point unsettled.

5. May it not be that, in our natural surprise at the

SCIENCE.

I50

MARSH

HESPERORNIS REGALIS,

SCIENCE. 151

unexpected presence of teeth in connection with an
otherwise bird-like structure, we have overestimated
the true taxonomic significance of the facts, and lost
sight, for the moment, of our customs in other groups ?
May it not be, indeed, that we have been uncon-
sciously affected by the phenomenal nature of most of
Prof. Marsh’s paleontological discoveries, and that we
have not only been unduly impressed by the facts, but
also influenced in some degree by the general admira-
tion for the discoverer’s achievements, so as to refrain
from questioning his conclusions? Yet, as has been
shown already, our author has kept his own mind open
upon this yery point, and it is to be hoped that he
may have the pleasure and the honor of discovering
other forms of Aves dentatee, affiliated in other respects
to the several groups of existing birds, and held
together only by their teeth.

Hereafter such problems as are involved in this
memoir will be discussed more advantageously in the
light of the considerations respecting the Evolution
and Classification of Vertebrates which have been
presented recently by Prof. Huxley.

So admirable is the present work as a whole that
one shrinks from any criticism of details. Upon the
following points, however, some improvement could,
perhaps, have been made :

While insisting upon the lack of bony union of the
ends of the mandibular rami in the American Odon-
tornithes, our author makes contradictory statements
in regard to the tissue by which they were joined
during life. On pages 11 and 179 it is said to have
been “gament, on page 123, and in the explanation
of plate 1, cartilage is specified, while on page 112
the union is said to have been “as in serpents.”
Judging from the appearance of the surface shown in
plate 1, fig. 4, the union was ligamentous rather than
cartilaginous, but there may have been a mingling of
the two kinds of tissue.

The date of the discovery of Hesperornis is given
as November, 1870, on page 2, but as December on
page 195- ;

It would have greatly facilitated references if there
had been given in this volume a complete Bibliog-
raphy of Odontornithology, together with a state-
ment of the dates of discovery of the various forms,
and the dates of their assignment to more comprehen-
sive groups than species and genera. The synonymy
as given under the species named in the Appendix
does not quite meet this want.

In view of the aid which evolution has received
from embryology, it would seem that even a special
paleontological memoir like the present might have
contained some expression of the author’s expectation
that light may sometime be thrown upon the problems
involved by the careful scrutiny of the development of
certain recent birds, notably the Struthionide,

B. G. W.

—————_@_>—————~—

REeporT SUBMITTED TO THE ACADEMY OF MEDICINE ON
THE SUBSTITUTION OF MARGARINE FoR BUTTER AND LARD
IN THE PusLic ASYLUMS OF THE DEPARTMENT OF THE
Se1nE.—M. Riche finds that pure butter yields a quantity
of fatty acids insoluble in water ranging from 86.5 to 88 per
cent of the weight of the pure fatty matter, whilst in all
the other fats and animal oils, and in almost all vegetable

oils, there is from 95.20 to 95,80 per cent of insoluble fatty
matter,

ON THE SOUTHERN STARS AND OTHER
CELESTIAL OBJECTS.

By J. H. Pope, NEw ZEALAND.

This paper embodies the results of observations made
during the last eight years. While most of the work is
original, yet, when the object described is important, and
an account of my observations could not be satisfactorily
given without reference to the work done by previous
observers, their facts and opinions have been quoted.
An apology is scarcely needed for giving a short résume
of the facts known about the great star A/pha Centaurz ;
accordingly, a very brief history of this remarkable ob-
ject, from Lacaille’s time (1750) to the present has been

iven.

: The instruments used were an 8% inch reflector, by
Browning, and a 4 inch equatorial of superior quality.
The measures of angles and distances have been ob-
tained by the methods described in my paper in last
year’s ““Transactions.’* ‘lhe angles of position will, I
have little doubt, be found to be good, but the atmos-
phere has not been steady enough of late to admit ot
the best use being made of oblique transits. I have,
however, little doubt that such measures of distances as
are given will be found to be very satisfactory approxima-
tions to the truth. For the spectroscopic work recorded
in this paper I have used an admirable little star-spec-
troscope, by Browning. This instrument has enabled
me to determine, quite satisfactorily, the class to which
the stars examined belong, and, in many instances, to
say that the spectrum lines of certain elements are prob-
ably present. As, however, the means at my disposal
did not permit me to make accurate measures of the
positions of lines, my work in this department should be
looked upon as the results, so to speak, of a “ flying sur-
vey,” useful perhaps, in its way, but to be superseded
when more thorough and accurate determinations can
be obtained.

It should be stated, however, that, while depending on
eye estimation alone, it would be very unsafe for an ob-
server to say, that a conspicuous line, for instance, in the
greenish blue of the spectrum of a certain star was cer-
tainly the F hydrogen line ; yet it is unlikely that a prac-
ticed eye, one trained to recognize the position of certain
lines in spectra that have been already measured, could
be mistaken, in any large proportion of cases, in picking
out, say, the principal Fraunhofer lines in a stellar spec-
trum. On the whole, it seems to me that such deter-
minations as are given in this paper are not without a
real value, if carefully made. Many years must elapse
before the lines in the spectra of the southern stars can
be accurately measured by methods like those employed
by Dr. Huggins. In the meantime such results as those
here given are all that are available. These serve to
give us a certain amount of information that can be
thoroughly relied on; they enable us to state, further,
that the existence of certain physical conditions, and the
presence of certain elementary substances in certain
stars, are highly probable ; and, possibly, they are calcu-
lated to create or stimulate in us a desire to learn more
certainly and fully the constitution and physical habi-
tudes of the stars.

The objects are treated of in the order of their Right
Ascension, and the places of the stars when given, are
taken from the “First Melbourne Catalogue,’ epoch,
1870.

The first star on the list is Achernar or « Erzdantz,
This fine first magnitude star is very nearly pure white,
without any discernable tint, except possibly a slight
shade of blue. This star belongs to Padre Secchi’s first
class of stars, the type of which is the giant sun Szrzus.
In the case of typical stars of this class, the spectrum is

* Trans, N. Z, Inst., Vol. XI., Art, X.

152

remarkable for the great breadth and distinctness of the
hydrogen lines. Indeed these stars are for convenience
often called ‘‘the hydrogen stars.” All of them are
white or bluish-white. In Achernar the hydrogen lines
are not nearly so strongly marked as they are in some
others of the class. Indeed the star by no means nearly
approaches the type, and is probably to be considered as
holding a position between such stars as Szyzus and
stars of the second class, like Procyon, though much
nearer to the former than to the latter.

x Er¢danz.— This beautiful little double-star is just
visible with the naked eye in fine weather. It is about
one degree from <Achernar, north following. The two
components are of the same orange color, and of very
nearly equal magnitudes 7 and 7. When Sir John Her-
schel measured this star (anno 1835.0), he found the
angle of position with the meridian to be 122.3°. Powell,
in 1863, found the angle to be 73.9°. Last week (say
anno 1879.75) the angle was 58.8°. The distances for
the same dates are 3.65", 4.88", and 5.3". This interest-
ing double is, therefore, very probably a binary star of
comparatively short period.

0 Erzdanz.—R. A. 2hrs. 53min. 19.9 secs. Decl. 40°
49’—35' 17" S. Inthe Melbourne Catalogue, the magni-
tudes 5.2 and 6.2 are assigned to the components of this
fine double-star. There is. most certainly serious error
here. The star is plainly, taken as a whole, a large
fourth, or a small third-magnitude star. Probably mag-
nitude 3.9 for the larger star, and 5.9 for the smaller
one, would not be far from the truth. The color of the
larger star is yellowish-white, with a faint green tinge;
the smaller is a light shade of indigo blue. Sir John
Herschel’s angle of position and distance, in the year
1835.75, were 81.5° and 8.68". The angle at the epoch
1879.75 is 85.4°. Ihave not been able to get. a thor-
oughly satisfactory distance, but it is now somewhat
over 10’. Time and accumulated observations will,
of course, show either that the change in the angle and
the distance of the two stars of this double is owing to
the proper motion of one, or both, of the componeats,
or that 6 Eyzdanz is a binary system. The latter alter-
native appears to me to be by far the more probable.

232 Retzcul¢ of the Melbourne Catalogue is a fine star
of a magnificent scarlet color. It is of magnitude 6%.
There is a distant companion white star of the eleventh
magnitude. The R. A. of 232 Reteculz, is 4hrs. 35min.
15.15 sec., and the declination 62° 20'0.63'S. The spec-
trum of this star is very remarkable. It belongs to
Secchi’s fourth class. The typical star of this division
is small—invisible, in fact, to the naked eye; it is varia-
ble both in light and color; it is a very distinct red, ruby,
crimson, or scarlet ; and its spectrum consists of bands
of light, sometimes containing faint bright lines withdark
spaces between the bright bands. 232 Refzcu/z, though
so small, gives a fine spectrum when the spectroscope is
used with the reflector, because the light is not spread out
over the whole length of the spectrum, but is concentrated
in certain parts of it. Thus the red part of the spectrum
is very bright, but the place of the orange is occupied by
a very thick black “bar.” The yellow, again, is pretty
bright, and so is part of the green, but towards the vio-
let end of the spectrum the light is very faint, and the
colors are quite cut out for large spaces by intervals of
almost complete darkness. I failed to notice here what
is said to be characteristic of this class of stars—a grad-
ual diminishing blackness of the bars in the direction of
the violet end of the spectrum; nor could I distinguish
any bright lines in any part of the spectrum. The study
and observation of stars of this class is none the less in-
teresting to us, because in the present state of our knowl-
edge their spectra are unintelligible, for it is generally felt
by those who have been in the habit of observing them,
that there is a great secret of nature waiting to be discov-
ered in connection with them. Their being for the most
part so very variable both in light and color, the strongly-

a Bes
| =

SCIENCE.

pronounced red color of all of them, and their strange and
beautiful spectra, all point to the conclusion, that the man
who succeeds in “‘ reading the riddle” of the nature and
constitution of the red variable stars, will have made a
very important contribution to our knowledge of the pro-
cess by which suns and systems are evolved out of the
primordial nebula, or whatever the substance may be,
from which such systems are formed, and to which, per-
chance, when their mission is fulfilled, they again return.
In the meantime these red stars seem to set anything,
even like rational conjecture, at defiance.

a Argus (Canopus.)—This great star, the only rival of
Szrzus, isa hydrogen, or first-class star. Inits spectrum,
the F and C hydrogen lines, and that near G, are broad
and distinct,though less sothan in the spectrum of Szrzus.
There area great many very fine lines in the spectrum of
Canopus, but these are not generally visible. It is only
when the atmosphere is very steady and clear that they
can be plainly seen. A fine line, however, or rather a
smail group of lines, in all probability that called 4, and
due to the presence of magnesium in the photosphere of
the star, can generally be made out in moderately fine
weather.

x Argus.—This is a wide telescopic double-star, form-
ing, with a very distant companion of about the fifth
magnitude, another double, easily visible as such with the
naked eye. The color of the large third-magnitude star
is a strongly-marked orange; the other two are indigo-
blue. It is a well-known fact, that a large yellow or
orange-colored star has frequently a distant companion of
a blue or green color. It is generally supposed that this
is a sort of Jrzmd@ facze evidence that the two stars are
in some way physieally connected. It seems to me that
the existence of these complementary colors in appar-
ently neighboring stars in no way indicates Jer se that
they are physically connected. I am inclined to think
that, given a large bright orange star, with a smaller star
naturally very white and nearly in the line of sight, this
latter must appear greenish or bluish. The light of the
bright orange star fatigues the eye as far as its power of
receiving the impressions which we call red, orange, and
yellow is concerned. Now, when the eye is directed to
the smaller star, the less refrangible portion of the light
coming from this fainter object is unable to act with its
normal effect, while the green, the blue, and the violet
rays, by which the eye has not been fatigued at all, pro-
duce their ordinary impression.

It is commonly said that this explanation may be true
enough in a few cases; but that, if the bright star is hid-
den behind a thick bar placed across the field of the teles-
cope, and the smaller star still appears blue or green, it
is a proof that the light of the smaller star 1s really blue
or green, and that its color cannot be the effect of mere
contrast. This is, I feel sure, fallacious. I have often
tried the experiment and at first it was very disappointing,
for one would naturally expect that astar, which appeared
colored in the presence ofa very bright companion, would
show its color still more distinctly when that companion
was hidden from view. But this never happened, the
more completely the jight of the larger star was removed,
the less was color in the companion observable. I feel
persuaded that, if the light of the larger star could be--
entirely cut off, which, by-the-by, is impossible, the blue
color would entirely disappear. It is worth noting, too,
that the longer one looks at a blue star, its companion
being hidden, the more completely does the blue color
disappear; that is, I take it, as the eye recovers its
normal condition, after being exposed to a severe strain
from the light of the large star, so does its sensitiveness
to the feeble red, orange, and yellow rays of the small
star return, and it sees the small star to be white or nearly
so. On the other hand, I have often noticed that the
longer one looks at a double star of this kind, both stars
being 1n the field, the more pronounced does the blue be-
come. There is only one instance, that I am aware of,

SCIENCE. 153

in which this theory will not hold good. Thesmall com-
panion of a Scorfzz is undoubtedly really greenish. I saw
it on the 23rd of March, 1878, emerge from behind the
moon after an occultation whileits bright companion was
still hidden, its color then was a pale pea-green. There
could have been no contrast here, except with the moon’s
light ; admitting this exception, however, it seems to me
highly probable that while, in such wide double stars as 7
Argus and y Cruces the orange or yellow star is really what
it seems, the star that appears green or blue is, as a rule,
really white. If this view is the correct one, it follows
that those observers who spend a great deal of time in
observing the tints of the companions to large stars, are,
to a great extent, wasting their time.

y Argus.—This fine second-magnitude multiple-star
has a very curious spectrum. It belongs to a very small
class of stars, the only other one that I have heard of is
in the Northern constellation Casszopeza. In the spect-
rum of y Avgus there are certainly three very érzgh7Z lines,
one rather faint, and, I believe, many finer ones. I am
almost certain, too, that there are several fine dark lines
in the spectrum. The brightest line is, not improbably,
the F hydrogen line; and the somewhat fainter one, the
C hydrogen line. Of the other two very distinct bright
lines, one is certainly not very far from the position of
the D sodium line; but I cannot place the other. The
presence of bright lines in the spectrum renders it far
more difficult than usual to estimate the positions, but
the other line seems to be about one-third of the distance
trom D towards the iron line E. Not improbably then,
outside the photosphere of y Avgus, there are ever-pres-
ent enormous masses of hydrogen and sodium, as well
as other substances in the gaseous condition, which have
been ejected from the more central parts of this sun;
and, the temperature of these incandescent gases being
much higher than that of the solar photosphere below,
their spectrum is super-imposed on the ordinary spectrum
of the star proper.

e Argus.—This yellow star belongs to Secchi’s second
class. In these stars the lines are very fine, and not
easily seen uniess the weather is very favorable. To this
class our sun belongs. In the spectrum of « Argus the
F line can be seen pretty easily, but the D sodium line
seems to be the most distinct of this spectrum.

B Argus.—Magnitude, one and a-half. Color, white.
A first-class star. The hydrogen lines are pretty broad
and distinct. -

The blue Planetary Nebula near the Southern Cross.—
This object, No. 3365 in Sir John Herschel’s Catalogue,
isin R. A. rrhrs. 44m., and decl. 56° 31S. The color
of this strange object is a bright unmistakable blue. This
nebula, like other planetary nebule that have been ex-
amined in the Northern Hemisphere, gives a spectrum of
one bright line. Possibly, in a larger instrument, more
linessmight be seen. It is, of course, impossible with my
apparatus to determine the position of this line, as there
are no landmarks, so to speak, to guide one to a decision.
It is most probable, however, that it is one of the~hy-
drogen or of the nitrogen lines, and that this planetary
nebula is a spherical mass of one or both these gases in
an incandescent state. ’

a Cruczs.—This superb fazr of stars, by far the finest
in the sky, consists of two stars, bluish white in tint, and
very nearly equal in size, each being of the second mag-
nitude. There is a distant six-magnitude companion, of
a sea-green color, as well as three smaller comites of

_Magnitudes, 12%, 14, and 13 respectively, .These latter

are well seen in the 8%-inch reflector, but a small teles-
cope of course does not show them. I have made a very
great number of measures of the angle of position of this
star, and having weighted the observations wtth reference

to the state of the atmosphere, etc., at the time when the

measures were taken, I find the angle of position for the
year 1878.7 to be 118.5°. This by a very singular coin-
cidence, is exactly the same angle as that obtained by

Powell in the year 1863. Herschel gives the angle for

1835.33 as 120.6°. I may say that, if I had rejected two
of my observations, which were made in rather bad
weather, and which exceeded the average of the rest by
1%° and 3%° respectively, the angle obtained, taken in
connection with Powell’s and Sir John Herschel’s, would
have indicated, I believe, a very slow but really regular
angular motion, in a retrograde direction, since Herschel’s
time, and would; with the measures of distance given be-
low, have convinced me, at all events, that a Cruczs is a
binary star of very long period. The temptation in such
cases to “cook one’s accounts”’ alittle to omit taking into
account facts or numbers which do not square with one’s
own views or wishes, is very strong, but the man who
cannot resist it hed better give up science altogether and
take to something else in which itis not of vital import-
ance that he should tell the truth, the whole truth, and
nothing but the truth, with regard to his observations. The
distance between the two stars at the epoch, 1836.36, was
5.65"; in 1863, Powell made it 4.98"; and at the end of last
month, 1879.75, the distance, a mean of several measures,
was 4.79". a Cruczs isa hydrogen star, but its spectrum is
very difficult to observe, except in the finest weather.
Even then the only lines that I can make out are the hydro-
gen lines, and they are by no means very easy to see.

y Cruc¢s.—-It has been customary for astronomers to
catalogue this star—-the “Head of the Cross’”’—as a
double star; but the proper motion of the large orange-
colored star is rapidly carrying it away from its five-and-
half-magnitude blue companion. The spectrum of y
Cruczs is perhaps the finest of all stellar spectra. The
groups of lines are so numerous and so well marked that
this spectrum may be observed under almost any atmos-
pheric conditions, if the star can be seen at all. y Cruczs
is a typical star of Secchi’s third class, which are all
orange color verging towards red. In their spectra there
are numerous, easily-seen, close groups of lines; but the
hydrogen lines are either very indistinct or altogether ab-
sent. @ Orzonzs and a Herculés are good specimens of
the two principal subdivisions of this class. In the
spectrum of y Cruczs there are at least eight broad groups
of lines, and some of these occupy the parts of the spect-
rum at which sodium, iron, magnesium, and calcium
lines are found in the solar spectrum. But, because they
are groups, it is much more difficult to say whether they
contain the lines belonging to those elements or not, than
it is in the case of a first or second-class spectrum. Still,
I anticipate that careful measurements will confirm my
opinion that iron and magnesium lines, especially the
latter, are present in the specirum of this star; the sodi-
um line is probably there too, There is, also, a fine line
just at the part where the green merges into the blue of
the spectrum. This is possibly the F hydrogen line.

There is one very significant feature in this spectrum,
so at least it seems to me. It is well known that when
the Sun is near the horizon, especially in damp weather,
his spectrum contains certain groups of lines which are
due to the aqueous vapor in our own atmosphere, and
that, as he reaches a greater altitude, tlrese lines become
faint or disappear. Now, two at least of the groups in
the spectrum of y Cruczs appear to occupy the same po-
sition as two of the principal groups of atmospheric lines.
Now this being verified, important conclusions might
follow. Secchi, on grounds of this sort, infers the exist-
ence of aqueous vapors in the neighborhood of sun-
spots. The Spectroscope knows nothing, so to speak,
about distance, except indeed where motion of approach
or recession is concerned. If these aqueous vapor-lines
are produced in spots on the sun, may they not be pro-
duced in much the same way in y Crvzczs, the principal
difference being that on the distant star the cause is more
general and the effect greater than it is on our own Sun.
If I am not mistaken, the existence of these spectrum
lines should enable us to read a certain portion of the
“life history ”’ of a star.

154

This history might be something like this: Let us
suppose that, countless ages ago, y Cruczs was a white
star, like Szrzws. It was then far more intensely heated
than it is now. All the elements of which it is composed
were there uncombined. Hydrogen, the gas of the smal-
lest density, ordinarily extended turthest from the centre
of the globe, and this hydrogen, its outer envelope, was
nearly always near the confines of the normally cold re-
gions of space. Thus it would have a somewhat lower
temperature than the rest of the sphere, and hence well-
marked hydrogen lines would appear in its spectrum at
this period. Comparatively small quantities of other
elements, however, would frequently be erupted from the
interior portions of the sphere, and would reach what
may be called the surface. The presence of these would
cause the appearance of numerous fine lines in the spect-
rum. As eternity went on, if I may use the expression, the
star radiated a large portion of its heat into space, the
elements began to combine chemically to a certain extent,
large volumes of hydrogen ceased to exist as such,
through combining with oxygen and forming water-vapor,
ot which the outer star envelope would now consist. In
place of the hydrogen lines of the white star therefore,
we now find the aqueous vapor spectrum—‘ the atmos-
pheric lines” as they are called. The result of the com-
bination of the oxygen and the hydrogen would, of course,
be a great decrease in the volume of the outer envelope.
This would probably bring the lines of sodium, magne-
sium, iron, and calcium into greater prominence, and we
should have the spectrum which y Cyuczs now presents.
Between the two conditions described there would be an
intermediate one. Through sucha stage our Sun may
possibly be passing now. It may be, in short, that our
Sun was once a Szrzus, is now a Procyon, and will by-
and-by be a y Cruczs. This is a mere hypothesis, of
course, though it appears to account pretty fairly for some
of the phenomena of the stars. In fact, I give it merely
as a suggestion, feeling that it is as little entitled to carry
weight with it as an hypothesis, founded on observed
phenomena and not at variance with known facts, can be.

y Centaurz.—R. A. I12hrs. 34min. 21.46secs. Decl.
58° 14' 43.24".—This is a very fine close pair of stars,
each component being of the fourth magnitude, and
purely white. In his ‘‘ Results of Observations at the
Cape of Good Hope,” Sir John Herschel gives the po-
sition-angle as 354.3°, the epoch being 1835.89, while the
distance is stated to be 3%". To this estimate of distance
Herschel attaches no value. For the year 1878.93 the
angle of position is 6.6°, or 186.6°, and the distance 2.2”.

B Cruczs.—This fine white star has a distinct deep
blood-red companion, the position angle being 260%°
and the distance (1879)—208". It seems to me that the
small star varies in size from about the eleventh to nearly
the eighth magnitude. It would be well if the small star
could be watched, so that its period and the amount of
its variation in brightness might be accurately ascertained.

a Centaurz.—R. A. 14hrs. 30min. 47.07secs. Decl.
60° 17’ 53.93". Magnitudes, 1-2, The following table
will give the position-angles, and the distances of the
components of this star, for selected epochs during the
forty-five years which have elapsed since 1834, when it
was first accurately measured by the greatest of all
astronomers, Sir J. Herschel:

OBSERVER. Date Position, | Distance:
Sir J. Herschel-------.- ; pil 17.43"
Sir J. Herschel---.---.- | 218° 30! pee
Sir J. Herschel 219° 30/ ce
Sir J. Herschel 420° 42! xt
Sit) J) blerschlelsa22--n=- === | a! 6.58"
Pewell (from Webb) = 1 | ° of 7.85"
Computed from mean placesin F.M.G.C. 1870.0 | 17° 10/ 10.73"
My recent measures..-.------.---------- 1878.7 | 156° 19/ gin
My recent measures. -..-.-..2--.------.- | 1879.75 | 183° 4.55"

SCIENCE.

With this table as a basis, it will be found that the
major axis of the apparent orbit lies nearly in the direc-
tion 26%° to 20634°, and that the greatest elongation
northis about 11", while the greatest elongation south is
27". Mr. Powell makes the period between 76 and 77
years. Ifthe-places of the two stars given by Lacaille
(1750) were correct, however, the period would be just
about 85 years, for the angle of position computed from
his places of the stars is 218° 44’, which a reference to ~
the above table will show, was very nearly Sir John Her-
schell’s micrometrically-determined position 84.79 years
afterward. As, however, the dzstazce obtained by Sir
John Herschel disagrees very materially with that de-
duced from Lacaille’s places of the stars, but little weight
is attached to the observation of 1750.

This magnificent double star is the finest object of the
kind in the heavens. Besides being a binary star of very
short period, every one knows that a Ceztaurz is our next
neighbor among the stars, and that it was the first to give
up the secret of its parallax under direct Transit Circle
observations. The color of this star is straw-yellow, or
sometimes golden-yellow, according to the state of the
atmosphere. When there is haze, of course the smaller
star is somewhat more affected by it than the larger.
This tends to give it a slight brownish tint when the sky
is not clear. «@ Centaur is a star of the second class. Its
spectrum is very like that of the sun, Even the principal
dark lines are fine, and they apparently occupy the same
relative positions as do the well-known lettered lines in
the solar spectrum. ;

The resemblance between the two spectra is so striking
that any one seeing the two spectra for the first time could
hardly fail to notice the similarity. More dispersive
power, however, and the means of accurately determining
the position of the lines of a Centaurz might show that
they are not the same as the solar lines. Such a result
would surprise me much. The D sodium line, the E
iron line, the 6 magnesium line, and the F hydrogen line
of the Sun have, almost certainly, their counterparts in
the spectrum of a Centaurz. There can be little doubt
that the physical constitution of this great star is, in most
respects, the same as that of the Sun. It is probable,
however, that a Cenfaurz is less developed than the Sun ;
for, as Mr. Proctor has pointed out, its light is brighter
than its mass would lead us to expect it to be, judging
from the light of our Sun, as compared with his mass.
While the mass of the star is to the mass of the Sun as
2:1, the light of the star is to the light of the Sunas 3:1.
Now, if it is true, as physicists have good grounds for
believing, that the Sun is, and has been, very slowly but
surely losing his heat, just as our earth has most certainly
lost an enormous amount of hers, there must have been
a time when the Sun and his system were less developed,
but far hotter and brighter than they are now—when they
formed, probably, as I said when speaking of y Cruc#s, a
white star—that is to say, there was, quite possibly, a time
when the light from our Sun bore the same relation to his
mass as the light from a Ceztaurd bears to its mass. We
may also believe that matters are less advanced in the
planets (if there are any) of this neighboring system than
they are with us,

a Trzangulz.—The spectrum of this star is not very
striking, but it is rather curious, as showing, apparently
that the star isin a condition intermediate between that
of a Centaurz and that of y Cruczs. The lines of the
second class, and also the groups, are very faint, but
they are there. It will be seen that this fact has some
bearing on the suggestion I made respecting the gradual
development of stars while speaking of y Cruczs, Here
it looks as if we had, so to speak, caught a star in the
act of changing from the second to the third class, What
I have seen of the spectra of the stars, so far, leads me
to think it probable that if every star, down to the sixth
magnitude, could be examined even with my instrument,
and mapped roughly, it would be found that the spectra

SCIENCE. | 155

obtained could be so classified that a series might
be made, each member of which would differ from the
next almost insensibly. This, of course, would take
a long time to do, as small stars can be examined only
in very fine weather. When it was done, however, the
results would be very valuable and interesting.

a Gruzs.—This is a second-magnitude white star,
with the usual spectrum crossed by distinct hydrogen
lines.

B Gruzs is a second-magnitude star, and nearly as
bright as the /wczda of this constellation. Its color is
reddish-orange, and its spectrum is much like that of
y Cruczs, but the groups of lines are not so distinct, and,
generally,there isa sort of approach to the appearance pre-
sented by the spectrum of (/zra Ceztz, which I find thus
described in my note-book, under the date October 8th,
1878: “Saw to-night the spectrum of WZzra. it is really
wonderful—something like that of a Herculzs, as given by
Chambers. It seems to consist of bright broad bands,
with narrow ones in between. These bands are dark,
but hardly black. The effect produced is, as it were, that
of an irregular set of columus. The brightest part of the
spectrum is at the yellow and the green.”

a Pisczs Australis (Fomathaut).—This star is visible
at home sometimes, but its altitude there is so small that
it can scarcely be properly observed with the spectro-
scope. Fomalhaut is a first-class star of the most pro-
nounced type ; itis very remarkable for the great breadth
of the F hydrogen line. In Foma/lhaut it is far broader
than it iseven in Szyzws. As an increase in the breadth
of the hydrogen lines has been shown to be due to in-
creased pressure, and as the increase in breadth is also
proportional to the pressure brought to bear upon the
gas which gives the lines in the spectrum, we may, I
would venture to suggest, conclude that the pressure at
the surface of this star is extremely great. That is to
say, Homalhaut is either extremely dense and compact,
so that its radius is very small compared with its mass
(which is not very likely), or it is one of the very largest
stars in the sky.

In conclusion, I would ask you to overlook any faults
of style that may be observable in this paper. It claims
to be nothing more than its title announces it to be—
“Notes on Southern Stars.”

a

SCIENTIFIC BOOKS.

Mr. W. H. Farrington recently gave an interesting
Lectures on scientific books before the American Insti-
tute, a full report of which may be found in Exgzneering
News of March the t9th. He said that in spite of the
large number of scientific works published, there still
are constant enquiries for books on certain subjects,
which have yet to be written. This he explained was
due to various causes, one being that the demand for
certain books do not warrant their publication, and
secondly, that many works treating on manufactures are
withheld, it being the policy of those who could write
them, to keep from the public such information. He
stated that the English publishers seldom stereotype
their better class of books, but print from the type,
whereas in America it is the custom to print from such
plates, permitting a much smaller edition to be issued.
Those interested in the literature of Mechanics, and
“ Engineering Sczence,” should read Mr. Farrington’s
Lecture from which they may gather many practical
hints respecting the purchase of such books.

ASTRONOMY.

THE March number of the American Fournal of
Sczcnce contains a paper by T. C. Mendenhall, of Tokio,
Japan, ‘On the Determination of the Coefficient of Ex-
pansion of a Deffraction Grating by Means of the Spec-

trum.” The object of the research was to find the
coefficient of expansion of the peculiar alloy of tin and
copper, now generally used for ruling gratings. The
value of the coefficient of expansion is independent of the
wave-length ofthe line upon which the measurements are
made and of the number of lines to the inch. The tem-
perature of the grating was altered by placing the plate in
one end of a small wooden box which could be filled with
water and brought to any given temperature. The re-
sultant value for the coefficient of expansion from the mean
of twenty measurements 1s
E = .0000202

Dr. MEYER, Assistant Astronomer at the Geneva Ob-
servatory, has employed the microphone in transmitting
the beats of the standard clock of the Observatory to dif-
ferent parts of the building, and also to the Regulating
Clock of the city Time Service. The microphone is fixed
upon the outside of the clock-case and placed in circuit
with a small battery anda telephone. The beats of the
clock can then be readily heard throughout the room.

AT the request of the Treasury of the Royal Astronom-
ical Society, a committee has been appointed to advise the
Government upon the steps which it is desirable to take in
order to secure observations of the Transit of Vesus across
the sun’s disk, 1882, December 6. The committee—which
consists of the Astronomer Royal, the President of the
Royal Astronomical Society, the President of the Royal
Society, Professor J. C. Adams, the Earl of Crawford and
Balcarres, Dr. De La Rue, Dr. Huggins, Professor H. J.
S. Smith, Professor Stokes and Mr. Stone—has already
commenced its labors.

ABOUT a year ago Admiral Moucher asked for a credit
of 4,000 francs per year in order to publish a monthly as-
tronomical review. M. Jules Ferry refused the grant, but
a similar review is now being published at Brussels under
the name Cze/ e¢ Terre. It appears twice a month and is
devoted to meteorology and astronomy.

THE second number of Vranza contains quite an elab-
orate article by H. C. F. C. Schjellerup, entitled, “Re-
cherches sur L’Astronomie des Anciens;” also a short
communication upon Observations of the Spectrum of
Comet 1880 f. (Pechiile) at Dun Echt, anda “ Circular
from the Smithsonian Institution.”

A NEW VARIABLE STAR—M. N. C. Dunér, of the
Lund Observatory, reports upon the 24th of February,
1881, the discovery of a new, small variable. The star is
given in the Bonn Durchmusterung (1855.0)

9.4mag. R.A. = 5h 17m, 328.7,
DEC — season

THE asteroid, No. 217, discovered by Coggia at Mar-
seilles on the 30th of August, 1880, has recently been
named “ Eudora.”

WASHINGTON, MARCH, 1881. W.C. W.

We are informed by Professor Davidson that the fol-
lowing is the correct geographical position of the David-
son Astronomical Opservatory, San Francisco, Cal.:

Latitude = 370 47’ — 22".3 North.

Longitude = 122° 24 —— 39.0 West of Greenwich,

ineeImMer—=s) S09" 385.6
This differs from the figures we recently gave at page
107, in the number of seconds in time.

156

SCIENCE.

BOOKS RECEIVED.

THE TELESCOPE. By THOMAS NOLAN, B. S. OD.
Van Nostrand, 23 Murray Street. New York, 1881.
Price 50 cents.

This little handbook presents very briefly the princi-
ples involved in the construction of refracting and re-
flecting telescopes, illustrated with about thirty diagrams,
For an amateur desirous of following Herschel’s example
of making his own telescope, this work will be found a
practical guide. We notice the author gives the form of
object glass suggestod by Messrs. Alvan Clark & Sons,
the noted makers of astronomical object glasses. They
say ‘“‘many forms may be used, but from our experience,
we have found that to sake the crown glass lens of equal
curvature, and the flint glass lens nearly flat on the side
next the eye, is the most convenient, and gzves as good
results as any other form.

MICROSCOPES.

The American Fournal of Microscopy tor March is an
excellent number full of interesting matter and two full
pages of illustrations.

We notice Professor Phinn corrects a statement men-
tioned in Journal of R. M.S. that-80,000 to 100,000 di-
ameter were within the power of his appliances. He now
gives as the limit of amplification of a high angle objec-
tion, say, an object of one tenth, anda one eight eye-
piece, 8,000 to 10,000 diameters. We notice in another
part of the Journal that Professor J. Edwards Smith
obtains 8,000 with the same-eye piece and a ¥% object.

Dr. E. Cutler describes a flagellate infusorium called
Asthmatos C2rléar¢s, which occurs in connection with one
form of contageous cold coryza or influenza. These par-
asites may be easily detected in the early sneezing stage,
the nose runs and the eyes water ; they are located in the
anterior nasal passages, on the mucus membrane of
the conjunctiva of the eyes, and of the pharynx and
larynx. Simply transfer a drop of the thin mucus to a
slide, cover, then examine with a good 1-5th and 1 inch

occular.

There appears to be confusion as to the classification
of this parasite, and as the opportunity for studying it
will probably be oftener than agreeable, we shall be glad
to hear from any of our readers who throw light on the
subject.

Dr. F. L. Bardeen considers that wax cells have been
too hastily abandoned by their originator, Professor H.
L. Smith, who fully described them in “SCIENCE.” Dr.
Bardeen says that if prepared as he suggests, they are
the best cells for opaque mounting.

Dr. A. C. Stokes has an excellent paper on “ Growing
Slides,” and treats the subject in a most exhaustive man-
ner; as most of the contrivances can be made by the mi-
croscopist, this article will be of the greatest benefit to
this class,

Dr. Smith Baker, in a paper on,the “Microscopal uses
of the Cat,” offers a plea for the more; universal use of
this domestic animal in microscopical study.

In view of the advice offered by Professor Burt G.

Wilder, in regard to the use of the cat by anatomists, and |

the increasing disposition of students to use the cat for
such purposes, we fear that this genus will soon be at a
premium.

MANURIAL EXPERIMENT WITH SUGAR Berets. — Phos-

phoric acid, applied preferably in the spring, increased the
yield of sugar most decidedly. —M. MARCKER.

OCCURRENCE OF VANILLA IN RAw SuGARs.—The authors
have succeeded in isolating small quantities of vanilline
from crude-sugar.—E. v. Lirpeman and Prof. C. SCHEIBLER.

THE GLYCERINE BAROMETER.

Mr. James B. Gordon has published the following de-
scription of his glycerine barometer—which appears to
have at least one advantage in being easily read off, as the
usual tenth of an inch on the mercurial barometer is rep-
resented in the glycerine barometer by something more
than an inch; thus the changes which take place are ren-
dered obvious even to an unpracticed eye.

Our readers may have heard of Daniell’s water barom-
eter, which was destoyed in the fire at the Crystal Palace in
1866. Mr. Jordan constructed another, which has since
continued in operation. In the course of his experiments
on various fiuids, he was led to try glycerine, which appears
well adapted for the purpose. Its vapor has a very low
tension at ordinary temperatures, and as its freezing-point
is much below zero, it is, so far, excellently adapted for use
in barometers. The mean coefficient of expansion by heat
is, according to Professor Reinold, .000303 for a degree of
Fahrenheit’s scale, and a table has been computed on this
basis for reducing the observations to 32° Fahr. Glycerine
possessing the capability of absorbing moisture from the
atmosphere, its surface in the cistern is covered by a layer
of mineral oil, which has no effect whatever on the glycerine,
and which does not evaporate at ordinary temperatures. At
sea-level the pressure of the atmosphere supports a column
of glycerine of a mean height of 27 ft., and accordingly
the tube of the barometer is made some 29 ft. in length. It
is formed of composition gas-pipe, *4ths of an inch in di-
ameter, but the upper part, 4ft. or so in length, is of glass
tube, having an internal diameter of lin. The top end, in-
stead of being sealed, is spread out into a cup-shape, having
a small orifice plugged with a stopper of rubber. The cis-
tern is of tinned copper 4in. deep and toin. in diameter,
and the air is allowed to press on the surface through a
small hole leading into a chamber containing a filter of
cotton wool. At the bottom of the cistern is a closed
channel opening into the centre, and to this is attached a
projecting vertical tube, to which the main tube is soldered.
The object of this channel is apparently to provide a means
of closing the tube by a screw-plug when refilling is neces-
sary. The quantity of glycerine required for such an in-
strument is about a gallon, and this being warmed ina
water-bath and tinted with rosaniline, sufficient is poured
into the cistern to cover the orifice of the channel. The
plug at the top end is then removed, and the tube com-
pletely filled by pouring the glycerine gently down one
side. After allowing it to rest for some time, the air bub-
bles will be found collected at the top, when the tube is
again filled up to the cup, and the stopper replaced. The
screw-plug in the cistern being removed, the column will
fall until balanced by the pressure of the atmosphere, and
the vacuum is as perfect as it is possible to get it, the small
quantity of glycerine remaining in the cup above the
stopper hermetically sealing it. The glycerine barometer
is therefore a simple and easily managed instrument ; but
it is not pretended that it can take the place of the stan-
dard mercurial instrument for precision. It is compara-
tively a new instrument, and its value asa piece of scien-
tific apparatus has yet to be shown.

——<_—_<@—_—_____—-

HypROBROMIC ACID AS A REAGENT FOR CopPpER.—A drop
of the solution in question is placed in a watch-glass, a:~
drop of hydrobromic acid is added and the mixture evap-
orated at a gentle heat. When it is reduced to the bulk of
one drop a rose-red coloration appears, three or four times
more intense than that produced by potassium ferrocyanide.
In this manner 1-tooth milligrm. copper may be detected.

DETECTION OF METHYLIC ALCOHOL IN VINIC ALCOHOL.—
MM. Cazeneuve and Cotton propose as reagent a solution
of potassium permanganate containing 1-1oth per cent of
the dry salt. The permanganate at ordinary temperatures
is reduced slowly by vinic alcohol, but instantaneously
by methylic alcohol. If to 10 c.c. of alcohol at 20° there
is added 1 c.c. of the permanganate solution, twenty
minutes are required before the liquid takes the
yellow tint indicating complete reduction. If Io c.c. of al-
cohol are used containing 1 c.c. of methylic alcohol the
yellow tint is instantly obtained with potassium perman-
ganate,

SCIENCE.

157

fSOPEING E :

A WEEKLY ReEcorpD OF SCIENTIFIC
PROGRESS.

JOHN MICHELS, Editor.
PUBLISHED AT

229 BROADWAY, NEW YORK.
P, O. Box 3888,

SATURDAY, APRIL 9, 188r.

UNIFORM TIME.

The question of the introduction of uniform stan-
dard time into daily use, for both popular and scien-
tific purposes, having been examined by the American
Metrological Society, the president, Prof. F. A. P.
Barnard directs attention to the following considera-
tions, and invites exchange of views upon this sub-
ject:

He says “local time,” in the astronomical sense of
this term, varies with every change of meridian ; it can
therefore not be conveniently retained by travellers,
and transportation and telegraph companies, which
adopt whatever meridian may be the most convenient
Over seventy such standard meridians are now in use
by railroad and other companies throughout the United
States and Canada; the larger towns and cities fre-
quently adopt their own special local times, and the
smaller ones adopt the railroad times most convenient
to them; there are thus now in ordinary use at least
roo local times or meridians, many of them differing
but a few minutes from each other.

Professor Barnard believes that a more thorough uni-
formity of accurate time would be to the daily advan-
tage of all members of the community and all busi-
ness transactions, and would immensely facilitate the
study of certain natural phenomena, such as torna-
does, auroras, earthquakes, meteors, &c., for the ob-
servation of which we must depend largely upon those
who chance to be favorably located.

It is accordingly proposed that the community
unite upon a division of this continent into a few
sections, throughout each of which the times adopted
by railroad, canal, steamboat and telegraph compan-
ies, the city or town clocks and the clock makers,
shall all be kept as nearly as possible in agreement
with one standard meridian.

The system that especially commends itself for
adoption, is that which also has the best prospect of
being ultimately adopted by all nations throughout
the world. It requires that, for the United States,
we should adopt a central meridian in the Mississippi
Valley, exactly 90° or six hours west of Greenwich,
and proceed to the east or west by steps of exactly
one hour each, so that the sectional times would be

about as in the following schedule.

We have already given attention to this subject, and
in ‘“ScrtENcE,” Vol. I. p. 13, will be found some excel-
lent suggestions in regard to “ Uniform time,” by
Professor Ormond Stone.

In this article we merely present the views of Pro-
fessor Barnard, the President of the American Metro-
logical Society, and reserve a fuller consideration of
the same for a future occasion. We may state, how-
ever, that we are heartily in accord with the object
Professor Barnard has in view, andare pleased to find
the matter in such able hands.

Standard Standard
GEOGRAPHICAL SECTION. Meridian Time
west of jslower thah
Greenwich. | Greenwich.
ING GT Gee) RSS ee ee H. M.S.
News FU OS WiGhe an se temo eee ene n ee t 60° 4. 0. 0.
WNovasscotimests sacs seta 2 cee ee
(CHa PES os ee See See ee ees eee {
Maine |
Fl to Seo OE Sa ean eee |
orida 5° Ch ty,
Ohio igi gl ear ata
BO 0 A i eS ee ee a |
Alabama. |
ROMO IES: he FS feria ae mes ee a= ean |
RMSE ANC Vi taan san oor nas one ete ) [
ROBESON UG yet Je occ b enero ctlwess cote { 4 }
Winriens Ab esets cei ane donk ae eens Seek [ 90 6. 0. o. 4
Sette Oa nen hm Oe Sho ls J |
Reciewe NUE RC PIO yas a ome Sap ce one 105° 7. 0. 0. {
PUGH G. SEUSS ee eee ee ee eee a [
mene Columiblaes: -benaes-ctols-5= Cac. 2255 720; Bayon oz (

29
24

Designation of
Proposed
Standard Time.

Standard Time Slower or Faster than
True ‘‘ Local Times.”

.
slower than St. Johns, N. F.---------------- :
faster than St. John, N. B Eastern Time,
fasten than blalifax, Nie. ----2-2-<—-—n<=-———
slowenthatll© We beG ses === ne neee ane n = }
fastenthanw) OLOUtOme a= = =n == ae eee een
SIOW EY UNAM OStOM 2 oe aaa see ee ore
slower ree es Slt eS ae Se ee }
faster than Washington a ree
faster than Charleston } Atlantic Time.
faster than Montgomery
faster tuan bUtalos= = eas aoe eee |
faster than Detroit-. #..=2----------.--.------
faster than Cincinnati
faster than New Orleans
FastemthaniotwnoOulse= aaaeanaann. <9 enone
faster than St. Paul
faster than Kansas City -_-..--....---..-.-. |
USniactemehatn Gal vestonh menu ccoe asec eee ecw |
‘sslower ae: Se Ss eee ae ote J
faster than Wenverieu...ted=ss-skucesseeenas | . ;
faster than Salt Lake City | ¢ Mountain Time.
slower than San Diego
faster than San Francisco----...--....-.....-
faster than Olympia
faster than Victoria

minutes
CoS OT ctan than Ste One Ni bic mcecoeccocaneu ao

73
ub
ue
uc
ue
“a

ve
uc

a
uc

ue

“
ub
19

Valley Time,

be

us

| pt Time.

158

HOW TO OBTAIN THE BRAIN OF THE CAT,
Felts domestica.
BY PROFESSOR B. G. WILDER, M.D.

In the first number of “ SCIENCE,” under the title “A
Bit of Summer Work,” the writer suggested that teachers
and students of the several sciences in which an acquaint-
ance with the brain is required should try to gain some
definite and personal knowledge of the organ by the pre-
paration and dissection of the brain of the domestic cat.

The publication of the article was followed by numerous
expressions of a desire to adopt the suggestion, but ac-
companied often by requests for reference to some work
containing explicit directions as to the best methods of
manipulation.

No such work is known to the writer. The “ Dissect-
or’s Guides” and some general treatises on Human
Anatomy give more or less complete instructions for the
removal of the human brain: but the conditions are
usually such that the most expert manipulator can hardly
avoid some injury to the organ.!

For the removal of the brains of the lower mammals, no
adequate directions have been published, so far as the
writer is aware, although Chauveau enters (A, 716)? into
some detail with regard to the horse’s brain. Straus-
Durckheim expressly states (B,1, 321) that the method for
animals is the same as that for the human subject, and
the “Practical Physiology’’ (Foster & Langley, A, 215)
contains merely the caution that “the brain of the dog or
sheep should be removed from the skull as carefully as
possible, especial pains being taken to cut the internal
carotid arteries and the cranial nerves close to the skull,”

As guides to practical work for beginners in anatomy,
the works just mentioned may, in respect to the brain, be
likened to some “‘ Manuals for Young Housekeepers,” whose
accomplished authors seem to realize neither the inex-
perience of their readers nor the possibility of conditions
very different from their own, and whose teachings, there-
fore, prove ill-suited to the comprehension and the circum-
stances of those whom they desire to assist.

Now it is probable that few readers of “‘ SCIENCE” have
had the benefit of a full medical education, and it is cer-
tain that the anthropotomical method for the extraction of
the brain does not answer for the removal of the brains
of most other mammals. The skulls are usually so ir-
regular in outline that the use of the saw is difficult and
apt to do injury to the brain ; moreover, at least for the
purposes of preliminary study, the integrity of the brain
should be ensured even when it involves the complete
destruction of the skull.

The writer is therefore led to hope that the number of
those who desire to obtain and dissect the brain of the cat
is large enough to warrant the publication in ‘‘ SCIENCE ”’
of the directions which are followed by the students in
the Anatomical Laboratory of Cornell University. Any
criticisms or suggestions will be thankfully received.
The method here described in detail is to be preferred
when the brain is wanted entire, and especially when the
length of the nerve roots is an object. The more expedi-
tious methods which may be adopted under other con-
ditions will be described hereafter.

INSTRUMENTS AND MATERIALS.—Medium scalpel ;?
sharp scalpel; arthrotome; tracer; curved scissors;

.

1 The writer has employed a modification of the ordinary method, and
will take an early opportunity of submitting it to other anatomists.

2 The system of references adopted in the present paper is the same as
that described by the writer in No. 38 of this journal, p. 122, excepting
that the numbers of papers published since 1873 are in smaller type than
those of the papers which appeared prior to that date, and which are in-
cluded in the ‘* Royal Society Catalogue.”

® Cases of dissecting instruments containing the arthrotome, tracer,
scalpels of three sizes, curved scissors, forceps, fine-pointed forceps and
curved scissors, and blow-pipe, are sold by Messrs. Codman & Shurtleff,
of Boston, for $9.00. The nippers and bone-scissors must be obtained
separately, as will be explained presently.

De eee eee

SCIENCE.

bone-scissors; forceps ; nippers; a cat’s skull; large
tray for the cat; small tray, or a folded cloth, for the
head; block; small towel, or piece of muslin, for aiding
the grasp of the head; paper for scraps ; basin and towel;
dish of 7 p.c. brine, about 6 cm. deep, and 20 wide, con-
taining some well-soaked cotton ; bowl of normal saline
solution (15 grains of salt to 2000 cc. of water) sufficient
to cover the head after its separation from the body;
bowl for catching the blood ; wide-mouthed jar or covered
dish, of 60-70 p.c. alcohol, with some well-soaked cotton
at the bottom.

Some of theseitems need explanation. The arthrotome
—sometimes called “disarticulator’”—is a short and
strong double-edged scalpel, with a steel handle like that
of the common “cartilage knife.” The same use can be
made of any short strong scapel ground down so as to
have two edges of only moderate sharpness. Such an in-
strument saves the keener and thinner edges of the or-
dinary scalpels. The ¢vacer looks something like the or-
dinary dental excavator, but its end tapers to a blunt
point, which is so curved as to form about the quarter of
a circle, and moderately sharpened on the concavity.
This is used for tracing and isolating nerves and vessels,
and is not only safer than the scalpel, but less liable to
injury. Its cost is only 25 cents. The dome-sczssors are
simply a strong pair of curved scissors, employed for com-
paratively rough work. The zzffers here referred to are
the “ diagonal side-cutting pliers ’’ of the dealers in hard-
ware. Instead of being parallel with the handles, as with
most “ bone-nippers,” or at a right-angle therewith, as
with the ordinary “cutting-pliers,’’ the blades of these
form with the handles a very open angle, confering upon
the user an advantage similar to that which is gained by
the employment of curved scissors. The nippers are to
be had of seven sizes, from Io to20cm., (4 to 8 inches) in
length, and cost from 70 cents to $2.25, according to the
size and the maker, those of Stubbs being the more ex-
pensive and highly finished. For use upon cats, those
which are 5 inches long are to be preferred, and their
points, if too wide, may be ground off.

The writer has been accustomed to use the nippers since
1872 for the removal of the brains of cats,dogs and young
human subjects. It was not until after the year men-
tioned that he noted, in Flower’s paper (3, 194), a remark
as to “clipping away the skull from the brain of a
monkey,’ the instrument, however, not being specified.

The nippers are equally applicable to living animals;
with the rabbit, cat, and all but the larger dogs, the skull
may be penetrated with them, and the opening easily en-
larged to any extent desired. Perhaps the surgical
‘‘bone-forceps ’’ have been employed for this purpose,
but the “ Hand-book for the Physiological Laboratory ”
(Sanderson, A, 305 and 418), directs that even so thin a
skull as the rabbit’s should be removed with the trephine
and the scissors, and Dalton’s recent paper (2) mentions
only the trephine for exposing the brain of dogs.

Alcohol of the proper strength is readily prepared by
adding 1 part of water to 2 parts of 95 p. c.alcohol. Ac-
cording to the size of the bowl or jar, the amounts ma:
be 1oo and 200, or i50 and 300 cc.

For the hardening and temporary preservation of the
brain, the common deep finger-bowl is convenient. It
may be covered with a piece of window-glass. Flat-
bottomed dishes, with wide edges ground for the recep-
tion of covers, are made by Messrs. Whitall, Tatum &
Co., of New York and Philadelphia, and the same firm
have on hand wide-mouthed vials and specimen-jars of
many sizes.

KILLING AND BLEEDING THE CAT.—When the brain
is to be studied the animal should not be “pithed,” on
account of the injury to the medulla, and the settling of
blood at the base of the organ. The cat may be
drowned, but the following method is to be preferred as
less distressing, more convenient, and permitting the evac-
uation of most of the blood. The d/eeding may how-

SCIENCE. 159

ever, be dispensed with. Put the cat in a close box, little
larger than itself, and pour in 5 cc. of chloroform, or
20 cc. of ether. It usually becomes quiet in from 5 to 15
minutes. When touching the conjunctiva causes no
winking, remove the cat to the large tray, Bring the
head and neck nearly into line with the trunk. Part the
hair upon the neck along a line between the angle of the
mouth and the convexity of the shoulder. Along this
line, divide the skin for 6—8 cm., opposite the larynx.
This will either expose the Vena jugularzs at once, or
permit it to be seen when the borders of the skin are
raised.

With the tracer, separate the vein from the adjoining
parts for about 1 cm., and pass a bit of string entad * of
it. Then turn the cat on the side, with the exposed vein
over a bowl; the string makes it easier to pass the scal-
pel or blade of the scissors entad of the vein, which may
then be cut. Let the blood flow into the bowl, occa-
sionally lifting the body so that the blood may come
more readily from the abdomen.

When the flow ceases, replace the cat in the box, with
an additional 5 cc. of chloroform, or leave it upon the
tray, and apply the chloroform upon a towel held very
closely at the nostrils so as to prevent access of air.
Death usually ensues in a few moments. If it be desired
to ascertain the weight of the entire animal, the blood
should be weighed.

If the more delicate internal parts or the microscopic
structure are to be studied, the remaining operations for
the procurement of the brain should be performed within
24 hours. But if the specimen is desired only for the
fissures or the coarser anatomy, removal may be deferred
for a week, provided the head be kept in a cool place. It
should not, however, be allowed to freeze.

Separation of the skull—Connect the angle of the
mouth with the incision already made. If the sk.n is to
be mounted, this should be the only incision, and the
skin must be dissected from the mandible as well as from
the rest of the -head. But if, as is more often the case,
the skin is not to be preserved, while the muscles etc., of
the neck are to be examined, make a corresponding in-
cision from the angle of the mouth upon the opposite
side. .

In all subsequent operations, unless otherwise stated,
both sides are to be treated alike.

Dissect the skin from the maxilla as far as the ventral
margin of the orbit and cut the nasalcartilages. Dissect
the skin from the nasal and frontal regions, including the
upper and lower lids, but leaving the third lid, Wembrana
nictztans, attached to the ball. Remove the skin from
the rest of the head, dividing the meatus audztorzus
close to the head. The parotzd gland will be removed
with the ear, but the swdmaxzllary, of a darker
color, will remain with the head. Reflect the skin from
the cervical muscles for about 2 cm. caudad of the crzsta
lambdozdalzs.

Dissect the origin of theAZ.masseterécus from the zygoma,
noting that its cephalic and caudal borders are strength-
ened by tendinous bands which must be cut. Push a
nipper-blade between the eyeball and the cephalic root
of the zygoma, and nip the latter as close as possible to
the maxilla. Then nip the caudal root at the angle be-
tween the transverse and longitudinal parts of the zygoma,
just laterad of the Fossa g/enoidalis ; remove the zygoma
with the bone-scissors.

Grasp the lateral aspect of the eyeball with the forceps,
and rotate it mesad so as to expose its attachments, by
the muscles and JV. ofdzcws, to the bottom of the orbit;
cut the attachments with scissors, leaving the 176. nzctz-
zans connected with the ball. If the eyes are to be stud-

* The meaning of this and some other unfamiliar terms may be learned
from a paper (9) in “SciENcE”’ for March 19 and 26, Most of the words
employed are to be found in a Human Anatomy, or a dictionary, general
or medical,

ied or preserved, mark them right and left by numbers or
tags ; the proper position is always indicated by the Zé.
nictitans.

Slightly ventriduct the mandible and move it from side
to side so as to indicate the position of the Azh. temporo-
mandtbulare. Often the capsule has been opened already
in nipping the caudal root of the zygoma, If not, it is
to be cut while on the stretch by inserting the arthrotome,
and cutting until separation is complete on that side.

Dissect the M7, temporadzs from its cranial origin, and
then from its insertion upon the processus coronalis of the
mandible. Then bring the mandible to a right angle with
the rest of the head; feel for the caudal border of the
hard palate, and for the tips of the processus plerygoddez,;
at a point midway between them push a scissor-blade en-
tad of the soft palate, and divide it; then divide the mu-
cosa forming the dorsal wall of the Jostuares, and dissect
it from the basis cranii to the atlas.

The mandibles are now attached to the rest of the head
by some muscles, by the mucosa at the angles of the
mouth which may now be divided, and by the slender
piers of the Zyozd arch. These last join the skull at the
lateral side of the bulla, where they are to be divided
with the arthrotome ; if it be desired to examine the mode
of their attachment, they may be cut with the bone-scis-
sors at a little distance from the attachment.

Turn the tip of the mandible still farther ventrad and
caudad, and dissect off the muscular masses that are in-
serted between the bulla; near the caudal ends of the
mesal borders of the bulla: emerge several nerves, which
should be divided with the scissors or a sharp scalpel at
about 1 cm. from the skull. By continuing the re-
moval of the muscles across the Ath. atlo-occipitale this
is exposed. Put the membranes upon the stretch, and
divide them with a sharp scalpel along the cephalic border
of the atlas. This exposes the myelon, which is to be
divided in the same way. The remaining ligaments and
the cervical muscles may be cut with the arthrotome and
the skull proper is then separated from the rest of the
body. Place the skull in the z. s. s, and wash the hands
and the instruments which have been used.

EXPOSURE OF THE BRAIN.—-The method here de-
scribed is by successly removing bits of the skull with the
nippers.

Cautzon.—In the later stages of the operation there is
considerable risk of injuring the brain by the unintentional
pressure of the nippers. In whatever way the bone is
grasped, when force is applied, the tendency is to approxi-
mate the cutting edges as nearly as possible, and thus to
bring their planes into right angles with the surface of the
bone. This of course crowds the convexity of the ental
blade against the brain, and may crush it seriously. It
may occur either from the turning of the nippers in the
hand, or more frequently from the escape of the skull from
the grasp of the other hand. The accidents may usually
be avoided by keeping the matter in mind, by having the
right hand dry, and aiding the grasp of the more or less
slippery skull by a small towel or bit of coarse muslin ;
this last is also desirable during some stages of the opera-
tion as a protection of the hand itself from abrasion.

In using the nippers another precaution is to be ob-
served. If the bit of bone to be removed is attached only
to bone it may be either cut or broken, or twisted off ; but
if it adheres to the dura or other soft parts, only cuttzng
should be employed, and that done with care,

During the exposure of the brain the head should be
frequently dipped into the z.s.s. If obliged to suspend
the operation for more than an hour, wrap the head in a
cloth wet with the z.s. s., and set in a cool place.

Nip off the caudal root of the zygoma, including the /s.
glenotdalzs, Insert a nipper-blade into the meatus audz-
vorzus, and remove the bulla in fragments. With the
scissors cut away the membranes attached to the margin
of the fm. magnum. Nip off the occipital condyles,
with the intervening area of the daszocczpztal for 2-3 mm,

160

SCIENCE.

from the foramen. Insert a nipper-blade between the
dura and the bone 5-6 mm. from the meson and in
line with the mesal border of the cephalic part of the
bulla, and nip out the basioccipital as far as the middle of
the length of the bulla. At or near the angle left after
the removal of the condyle and the basioccipital, the
LV. hypoglossalzs enters the /m. condylare, and passes
cephalad to emerge on the ventral aspect of the skull by
the Fm. jugulare. If the series of roots do not appear,
carefully remove a little more bone until they do. If the
nerve-roots are to be especially studied, endeavor to nip
off the bone surrounding the /7. condylare, so as to save
the trunk. On emerging upon the ventral aspect of the
skull, the V. Ayfaglossalzs will be found to lie practically
in the /m. jugulare, and to be more or less intimately
attached to the VJ. glossopharyngealis, vagus and acces-
sorzus, which penetrate the bone by that toramen. In
attempting to separate the /V. Ayp. great care must be
used to avoid any traction upon the roots, which readily
pull out of the meduila. Of the other three nerves, the
accessortus is the most caudal, and the most readily dis-
tinguished, but at this stage it is as well to leave them
together, simply endeavoring to remove the bone sur-
rounding the foramen, and to save the trunks pretty long,
at least upon one side. Upon the other, it will save
time to cut the roots just entad of the skull, and the
same may be done on one side with the remaining nerves,
or with all upon both sides in case the brain is not to be
employed for the study of the apparent nerve-origins.

The dorsal wall of the bulla is hard, but readily crum-
bles between the nippers. It may be removed in small
pieces, so as 10 save the JV. faczalzs and audztorzus
which enter the /m. audztortum znternum, and the
little Lobulus appendzculards ot the cerebellum which is
lodged in a slight fossa just dorsad of the foramen.

Since no nerves are transmitted by the mesal region of
the basis cranil, it may be removed with comparative
freedom, as far cephalad as the pz/uztary fossa where
some care is needed to avoid injuring the Aypophyszs.

The skull may now be held more securely by the facial
region, especially if a towel is employed. In removing
the bone at each side of the meson, and just cephalad
of the bulla, great care is required to disengage the
nerves which emerge by the /’/. ovale, rotundum, and
Sphenotdale, These nerves, the VV. oculomotorius,
trochlearts, and abducens, with the ophthalmic, superzor
maxillary, and znfertor maxzllary divisions of the JV.
trigeminus, penetrate the bone more or less obliquely,
and are closely surrounded by dense connective tissue.

Just cephalad of this series of foramina is the /. of-
ticum, and the JV. oftzcus is particularly hard to disen-
gage without tearing some of the delicate parts (¢erma,
or lamina terminalis, etc.,) which are connected with
the chzasma. Since the optic nerves are always easily
recognized, it is usually better to cut them pretty short
with the scissors, than to run the risk of rupturing the
terma.

The entire maxilla is now to be removed by first nip-
ping the interorbital region just cephalad of the fronto-
maxillary suture, and then, with the bone-scissors, cut-
ting toward this point from just caudad of the cephalic
root of the zygoma. ‘The scissors should be kept as far
cephalad as possible, so that the Bu/bz olfactorz¢ may not
be injured. This plan serves equally well for some dogs,
but with the larger breeds, which have prominent dz/dz
olf. the interorbital region should be nipped at about the
middle of the length of the nasal bones.

Remove the mesal walls of the orbit, and the turbin-
ated bones, using care not to crush the very soft Bu/bz
olf. The Wervd olf. should be divided, a few at a time,
with the scissors or the tip of the scalpel, and all pulling
and twisting of the parts must be avoided.

During the remaining steps of the operation, the head
must be held by the parietal regions, and with great care,
so as to avoid pressure of the tips of the fingers upon

the brain. The bone, also, must now be cut by the
nippers rather than twisted or broken. Nip off the
supraoccépitale, including the dura, as far as the Crzsta
lambdotdalzs. To remove the ventral part of the bony
tentorium, introduce a nipper-blade between it and the
hemisphere on either side, in such a way that the greater
convexity is toward the hemisphere rather than the cere-
bellum; the cut is to be made at the level of the Su¢ura
Ssguamosa ; the width of the tentorium at this point is
about 8 mm., and the nipper-blade should not be intro-
duced to a greater depth than that, for fear of
injuring the Lodz optzcz. In closing the blades the head
should be held very firmly so that no rotation may occur,
The detached ventral piece of the tentorium may be ex-
tracted by the forceps, or by the nippers used as forceps,
any adhesions being carefully separated with the tracer
or scissors.

Hold the head with the ventral side down, support the
caudal divisions of the brain with a disengaged finger,
and with tracer and scissors separate the cephalic sur-
face of the cerebellum from the tentorium. Then hold
the head with its caudal end down, and complete the
disengagement of the 4z/éz off. Hold the head over the
7 p. c. brine, with the ventral side down, and nip out,
piecemeal, a triangular piece of the calvaria, nearly to
the tentorium. The mesal adhesions of the dura may be
divided with the scissors, but elsewhere the dura is to be
left upon the hemispheres. As the hemispheres begin
to fall, hold the head so that they are supported by the
brine, and then snip all remaining adhesions until the
entire brain is free and floats in the liquid.

REMOVAL OF THE DURA.—Saturate some cotton
with the brine, and place it under the brain, so that about
one-third of the organ projects above the surface. Avoid
handling and lifting the brain; move it by shifting the
cotton, or by grasping the dorsal portions of the dura.
Remove the dorsal and lateral parts of the dura by grasp-
ing the free borders left by cutting along the dorsimeson,
and cutting out piece by piece with the scissors. Then
grasp the fa/x just dorso-caudad of the Sz/bz olf., at the
straight transverse fissure—/. cruciata ; introduce the
scissors about 5 mm., and cut the fa/x. Gently draw the
cephalic portion cephalo-ventrad between the Azbz o/f.,
and remove it. Draw the caudal portion caudad, and
carefully cut all its attachments.

Turn the brain upon its dorsal surface, and remove the
ventral portions of the dura with great care and in small
pieces. Especial pains are needed in connection with the
hypophysis and the nerves, and ali pulling must be
avoided. On one side, at least, it is well to leave the dura
still attached to the nerves and the great Gasserian gan-
glion upon the WV. ¢régemznus, to be more completely re-
moved at the time of the removal of the pia.

TRANSFER TO THE ALCOHOL.—Place a large spoon
or watch-glass at the side of the brain, and pull the cot-
ton which supports it, so as to roll it into the glass, rest-
ing upon its dorsum. Let the brain slide off into the al-
cohol so as to rest on the cotton therein, still with the
ventral side up. :

Set the bowl with the alcohol in a cool place, and:
change the position of the brain at intervals of five to.
ten hours during the first three days, by pulling the
cotton in various directions. At the end of about three
days, transfer the brain to 95 p. c. alcohol, where it may
remain indefinitely, For a few days, however, it should
rest upon cotton, and its position be occasionally
changed.

WEIGHING THE BRAIN.—If this is to be done, hand-
ling the brain may be avoided as follows; Place the
bowl of alcohol into which the brain is to be put, upon
the scales, and pour in alcoholof the same strength until
it balances an even number of grams, e. g., 400, 410,
or 420, While the brainis in the spcon or watch-glass,
pour over it some of the same alcohol, and then let the
latter drain off as much as possible, by tilting the glass,

. — es eee Lae | Pe
r Rie 4 7;
.

SCIENCE. 161

and supporting the brain with the fingers or a bit of cot-
ton. Then transfer to the bowl of alcohol as above di-
rected, and the increase in weight will represent, pith
approximate accuracy, the weight of the brain.

REMOVAL OF THE PIA.—This is most easily ac-
complished at the time of the removal of the brain to the
stronger alcohol. At any subsequent period the pia is
apt to be more firmly adherent. If the brain has been
allowed to dry at all during its removal from the skull,
the pia comes off with great difficulty.

Instruments and materzals.—Forceps; fine Rees
medium scissors; wetting-bottle of 15 p. c. glycerine;
cotton thoroughly wet with water, and so moulded as to
form a sort of shallow cup in which the brain may rest
without danger of rolling off.

Place the brain upon the cotton, and wet it with the
glycerine. Then let it rest upon its ventral side, and
grasp it in the cotton, firmly yet gently. Grasp with the
forceps the fold of fza which occupies any one of the
fissures, especially at the point of forking or junction with
another fissure, and pull along the line of the fissure.
Usually the fold of pia will come out easily, and with it
will be removed some of the pia covering the free surface
of the gyri between it and the adjoining fissures. Pro-
ceed thus until the pia has been removed from the dorsal
and lateral aspects of the hemispheres. Avoid pulling
across the line of the fissures. ‘The larger forceps are
easier to work with, and less apt to puncture the brain;
but the fine forceps are sometimes required for the re-
moval of the pia from the bottom of a deep fissure. The
caudal surface of the hemispheres may be reached by
slightly ventriducting the cerebellum. The mesal pia
can only be removed close to the margins of the hemis-
pheres.

On one side, preferably that on which the JV. opézcus
was cut shorter, raise the mass of nerves formed by the
divisions of the WV. ¢rzgemznus and WV. abducens, by its
lateral border, and cut with the scissors the JV. oculomo-
zorzus which holds the mesial border close to the brain.
This will permit the mass to be turned caudad so as to
expose the course of the slender 4V. ¢rochlearzs which
emerges from between the hemispheres and the cerebel-
lum. It also permits the removal of the pia fiom the
region just laterad of the hypophysis. Grasp the pia on
the ventrimeson just caudad of the Buz o/f., and pull
caudad so as to remove it as far as the chiasma, taking
care not to tear the delicate ¢eyma just dorsad of the
chiasma. Then remove the pia from the olfactory tracts.

In removing the pia from the medulla the position of
the nerve roots should be constantly kept in mind, and
the traction should be laterad and cephalad. One of the
most difficult things is to preserve uninjured the series
of roots of the WV. Zyfoglossalzs, for their connection with
the pia seems to be closer than with the medulla.
Sometimes it may be necessary to let the brain be wholly
below the surface of water or alcohol so as to float the
roots out, and render them more apparent.

As suggested on a previous page, it is often as well to
leave the roots longer on one side than the other, but the
choice may be determined mainly by the degree of suc-
cess in the various operations which have been described.

If desired, later numbers of “SCIENCE”’ will contain di-
rections for the general dissection of the brain. Mean-
time, it would be well for the student to make outline
drawings of the brain he has prepared, especially of its
base. Most of the principal features of this surface can
be identified from the figure of the corresponding surface
of the human brain to be found in any good Human
Anatomy. The drawing should be enlarged two diam-
eters, and the brain should be kept wet with the glycer-
ine mixture, while it is out of the alcohol.

LIST OF WORKS AND PAPERS REFERRED TO.

Chauveau, A.—A, Traité d Anatomie Comparée des
Animaux Domestiques, 2d edition, O., Paris, 1871.

Daiton, F C.—. Centres of Vision in the Cerebral
Rleniepyeree: Med, Record, March 26, 1881. 337-339,

2 figures.

Flower, W,. H.—. Observations on the posterior

lobes of the cerebrum of the Quadrumana, with a de-
scription of the brain of a Galago. Phil. Trans., 1862,
185-201 ; 2 plates.

Foster & Langley—A. A Course of Elementary In-
struction in Practical Physiology. 3 edition, D., pp. 276,
London, 1878,

Sanderson, F. B. (Editor).—A.
Physiological Laboratory. $8vo., text, pp. 585; Atlas, 123
plates. Phil. 1873. Reprint of the English edition with
slightly different paging.

Straus-Durckheim, H.—B. Traité Pratique et Theor-
etique d’Anatomie Comparative, Comprenant l’Art de
Dissequer les Animaux de toutes les Classes et les Moy-
ens de Conserver les Piéces Anatomiques. 2 vols., D
870 pages, 4 plates, Paris, 1842.

Wilder, B. G.—*. A Partial Revision of Anatomical
Nomenclature, with Especial Reference to that of the
Brain. ‘ SCIENCE,” II, 122-126 and 133-138, March 19
and 26, 1881.

Hand-Book for the

a

ATOMS AND MONADS, THEIR METAPHYSICAL
DEVELOPMENT.
By Dr. DIoDATO BORRELLI.
(Translated from the Italian by the Marchioness Clara Lanza.)

In previous chapters of this work! it has been shown
that the whole product of our psychological activity
typifies a purely metaphysical world. It has likewise
been seen, that the vast compound of forms by means
of which exterior nature is represented to us, 1s not an
extrinsic reality, but merely our own impressions, the
result of slow and unconscious practice. A minute
physio-psychological analysis leads us to this necessary
conclusion. Colors are mere modifications, induced in
certain groups of ganglion and cephalic cells by a stimu-
lus which acts upon the organs of sight. Sounds are
another form of cellular modification determined by
a different kind of stimulus. Weight and resistance are
phenomena of muscular sense. Form and size, synthetic
relations, and therefore purely subjective phenomena.
All the complex qualities by means of which physics are
able to recognize different bodies, are nothing more than
our own determinations. From this we may properly
conclude that body and matter are not extrinsic realities,
but a complication of modifications produced within us
by exterior impulses.

Our world is therefore purely phenomenal, and not a
reality. Herbart reasonably maintains that the first
moment of research must necessarily be one of doubt,
or scepticism, which is degraded or elevated in propor-
tion as the uncertainty concerns things as they seem to
us, or whether it relates to existence itself. Does the
reality exist? This is the first question which presents
itself to the philosopher. And if it does exist, what con-
stitutes it and the consecutive research? ‘‘ We cannot
deny the reality,” says Herbart, ‘‘ because, to do so, is to
remove all possibillity of the phenomenal world before
mentioned. Sensations, representations and thoughts
would be completely annulled.”

This phenomenal world, resulting from the data of ex-
perience, is that which induces us to admit the existence
of positivism. But these data do not constitute real
existence, because they are not self-subsisting, but de-
pend upon something else. That is to say, they exist in
something else and by means of something else. Actual
exestence does not admit of either relation or dependence,
it is based upon itself, and is, therefore, an absolute con-

1 Borrelli. Vita E Natura. Studit sui temt pitt importanti del
Moderno Naturalismo. Naples, 1880,

162

SCIENCE,

dition to the full comprehension of which we cannot at-
tain, although we cannot fail to recognize it. ,The
positive is, therefore, something to which this absolute
existence attaches itself—it is in fact, a quality. -

According to Spencer,’ positiveness is nothing more
than persistence zn the consctousness; “ unconditional
persistence, such as the mental perception of space, or
conditional, such as the intuition of a body we hold in
the hand. That which establishes the persistence is
really what we call positiveness, of which, (although we
have demonstrated that the positive within our own con-
sciousnsss is not objective) we, nevertheless, form an
indefinite idea as being something which persists abso-
lutely, in spite of all change of mode, form or appear-
ance.”

Spencer’s definition, however, is in some respects open
to criticism. First of all, if by consciousness, individual
consciousness is to be understood, can anything persist
which is merely an illusion without any definite existence ?
This can only happen under certain pathological con-
ditionns of themind. But there is still another point.
Persistence in the consciousness is certainly a relation,
because no thought can be produced without a relation,
and even Spencer affirms this when he says ; “ We think
relatively, every thought is based upon a relation.”

However, according to Herbart, one of the principal
conditions of absolute reality, is to be free from every-
thing pertaining to dependence or relation. To avoid
confusion, we must give more than one signification to
the word positiveness. To begin with, we cannot ignore
a relative posttiveness which comprises all the conscious
conditions of our being, and the famous sentence “‘ cogzzo,
ergo sum,” is in itself a peremptory demonstration of it.
Sensations, representations, sentiments and all other
familiar modifications are embodied in such positiveness.
Whether they correspond to an objective effect or not:
whether they are illusions of a diseased mind, or nor-
mal representations, is of little consequence. We know
that they exist in our consciousness, and that is sufficient,
inasmuch as they typify a real function.

Wecannot say as much for objective or absolute posi-
tiveness. In regard to this, the experience of our senses
teaches us nothing. We only know that it does not
correspond to our individual sensations and that it differs
from them essentially. ‘In all our relations with the
exterior world there is nevertheless a common and con-
stant condition—an inexplicable something which acts
upon our organs of sense and determnes the inward
modifications. If, however, we rob Nature of our com-
plex determinations, we leave nothing remaining but
stimulus or actzon, which works upon us incessantly.
The idea of objective or cosmic positiveness, originating
from the da‘a of experience, presents to us a conception
of force or energy, combined with continual action. Ab-
solute positiveness we can only understand as something
corresponding to permanent acttvity.

The most ancient philosophers of Greece and India
made extensive speculations as to what this natural force
or activity might be, which operates in such manifold
ways upon our senses and creates in us the most stupen-
dous and varied phenomena. Indeed, human reason in
Ionian, Pythagorean and Eleatic schools, seems to have
been directed solely upon Nature under its various
aspects,

According to Thales, water is the first general princi-
ple from which all other things are derived. In
Anaximander of Miletus, a more condensed cosmological
conception appears concerning the universe as being con-
structed out of przmztzve matter, which he called funda-
mental principle—an eternal, infinite, indefinite basis,
from which everything originates and to which everything
in the course of time, returns. This principle is not, as
Aristotle appears to think, a compound which upon sepa-

2Herbert Spencer. First Principles. 1871.

ration resolves itself later into particular forms. It seems
easier to believe that the specification could only occur
under some peculiar influence.?

‘We may well be astonished when we consider that six
centuries ago a conception concerning the universe arose,
which intimately resembles our modern cosmology. And
our wonder is increased ten-fold when we see Anaximan-
der produce from his fundamental principle the original
antithesis of heat and cold by means of an inherent and
eternal movement of the substance.*

According to Anaximanes, Azr is the first general
principle from which everything is produced by means of
the double process of condensation and rarefaction. This
theory should not appear strange to our modern mechan-
ical school, according to which, particular forms of ethereal
atoms are diffused throughout sidereal space, from which
chemical atoms, and, consequently, all ulterior bodies are
produced,

While the Ionian school deals principally with the sen-
sible qualities of bodies, it aims more directly towards
their inward substance. But we see in that of Pythagoras
a new tendency, an increased abstraction. Paying but
little attention to Nature, which is unknown to existence,
he turns to consider order and quality, which are, indeed,
realities. Numbers are the principle of all things; the
Universe is only measure and harmony. Our quantita-
tive relations, dimension, extension, form, distance, etc.,
are impossible without the aid of numbers, and therefore
numbers are the first principle in all things, as they deter-
mine the order in which everything presents itself. With-
out stopping to discuss with Zeller as to whether the
Pythagorean numbers are the substance or model of sen-
sible things, we must particularly note that the idea of
order and numbers is chiefly important in our modern
conception of the Universe. If Nature really consists of
but a single substance of various formations from whose
elementary parts the specification of individual bodies is
produced, it is natural to suppose that the true essence
of all things by which they are determined, cannot be the
indefinite cosmic prirciple, but a special disposition,
whichassumes its elements and the numberin which they
unite. Vumbers and disposition form, as we shall see,
the basis upon which modern chemistry rests.

With the Eleatic school which arose from a concep-
tion of wazty and zmmovadbzlty, exaggerated to such an
extent as to lead Zeno to a paradoxical denial of all mo-
tion, we come to Heraclitus, who, in direct opposition to
the Eleatic school, speaks of perpetual flux and move-
ment. The permanence of existence is merely an illu-
sion. Positiveness may be compared to a river which
disappears as it rises, and into whose waters, conse-
queatly, we can plunge but once. Heraclitus affirms
that nothing remains equal to itself, that everything in-
creases, diminishes, and finally dissolving, passes into
other forms. Hence, from life to death, and from death
to life again. The appearance and disappearance of
these forms is, therefore, the perpetual vicissitude of the
universe. In this stupendous doctrine we have the con-
ception of future existence, which is nothing more than
the harmonious blending of adverse tendencies. And
in it we think to perceive the germs of the future theory
of evolution. But it contains something else also. Ac-
cording to Heraclitus five symbolizes the law of vicissi-
tude. This isa profound doctrine which demonstrates
to modern theories that no new formation or division of
elementary bodies is possible without a corresponding
modification in the inward action from which thermal
phenomena are derived.

In the four roots of all things—fire, air, water and
earth—there is first of all connection with the sphere and
later a division. Upon this blending and separation de-
pends the source and dissolution of all particular forms.

Manuale di Storia della Filosofia,

8 Zeller, quoted by Fiorentino.
Naples, 1879.

4Schwegler. Geschichte der philosophie,

SCIENCE.

163

In Empedocles we find for the first time a confused per-
ception of attractzon and reszstance in the sympathy and

“conflict which are the determining causes of the union
and disunion of the elements.

Up to this time we have an irreconcilable antithesis
between the Eleatic conception and that of Heraclitus.
On one side, by exceeding the data of experience and
elevating to the highest degree abstracts of material
things, we find existence robbed of all determination and
unchangeable. On the other, we have existence and
non-existence bound together by means of the Future,
from which springs the change and perpetual vicissitude
of all things. But there is no fixed law for the Future of
Heraclitus ; it is merely the result of experience, nothing
more. Why, therefore, does existence change? Why
are forms produced only to be again dissolved into some-
thing else? An attempted explanation was given, as we
have seen by Empedocles; sympathy and resistance at-
tract and repulse the four radicals of all things, and all
forms are produced by the attraction which the repul-
sion afterward disunites and destroys. This is a_pro-
found conception, but yet somewhat obscure and unde-
cided.

It was the Azomzcal school which took gigantic strides
along this path, finally reaching those massive theories
which even to-day we must look upon with admiration.
Its founders were Lucippus and Democritus,but the latter
is undoubtedly the most celebrated. We will go over
the most important points in his doctrine, as they are re-
lated by Fiorentino.

“Existence is not a unity, but a combination and an
infinite one, composed of many minute and_ invisible
bodies which move about in space, unite and produce

. life, then separate, and cause death. They are capable of
union and disunion, but never of change, and just as they
are in the beginning, so they will always remain.

“We can distinguish in atoms form, order and position
which are the primitive qualities which serve to produce
others. All atoms are not equal; all have a downward
tendency, but the lighter rise above the heavier pro-
ducing a rotatory motion which extends and forms bodies.”’

Atoms, moreover, are impenetrable,,and as units can-
not be divided. They are consequently distinct one
from the other, well defined and unconfused. This ne-
cessitates the interposition of something which tends to
keep them separate. It can be nothing more than the
opposite of the mass, vacuum, which causes interceding
intervals between the atoms and holds them apart. With-
out vacuum, no motion could be possible, as the mass can
receive nothing more in itself, or be augmented in any
way, because this can only be obtained by the introduc-
tion of new atoms in the vacuum. We have, therefore,
two contending agencies—existence (atoms) and non-
existence (space), which go to represent objective posi-
tiveness. The final and most important of atomic
theories bears the stamp of unconscious and_ unintelli=
gible z2tural necessity. Motion can be determined by no
cause, It is as eternal as the atom itself and is a part of
its nature. It is easy to understand therefore, however
far it may depart from the truth, the opinion of those fol-
lowers of Democritus who attribute the origin of the
world to chance.

By the atomical theory we have reconciled therefore,
the unchangeableness of existence with the perpetual
transformation of things; transformations which have
nothing to do with the substance, but which spring from
special arrangements of the atoms determined by motion.
We shall shortly see how the fundamental doctrines of
the atomical school have been reproduced in our modern
mechanical one after a lapse of four centuries.

The Grecian mind was not satisfied with the mechani-
cal explanation of future existence. We consequently
see brought to light for the first time by Anaxagoras, an
immaterial principle Wows—an intelligence apart from all

matter, maker of the world. Inshort, an agent with a definite |

purpose. This intelligence, aithough motionless itself, is
the cause of movement, and the formation of the pan-
sperma or omeomerza, as Aristotle calls it, is the result of
its action. This is the systematic and beautiful origin of
the world.®

This intelligence, however, is not a personal god, be-
cause it possesses no action in itself and its operation de-
velops solely in the motion and order of matter. Plato
and Aristotle are quite right when they blame Anax-
agoras for holding to the mechanical doctrine while hav-
ing an instinctive perception of the final cause.

The (Vous of Anaxagoras, as Schwegler has observed,
closes the period of anti-Socratic realism, that is to say
the conception of natural positiveness as represented by
ancient Grecian philosophy. Anaxagoras embraced the
principles belonging to the preceding schools which he
attempted to reconcile, but he made apparent for the
first time an zdea/ principle, which being accepted by
Socrates, afterwards expressed the new and adverse cur-
rent of Grecian thought.

Atomism reappeared with Epicurus, not presenting,
however, any novel determination, except that the atoms
did not all descend in a direct line giving rise to a whirl-
ing motion, as Democritus affirms, but proceeded each
separately in its own way guided by a kind of free will.

Throughout the long period of ideal speculation which
succeeded ancient Grecian philosophy, investigation in
regard to cosmic positiveness being looked upon asa
matter of secondary importance or else neglected alto-
gether, naturally made no progress whatever Thus we
come tothe Sixteenth century, during which a single
voice in England was raised to deplore the false road
upon which human thought had traveled for so long,
agitated and confused by empty and useless discussions.
Logic seemed to aim towards the “strengthening of
error rather than the search for truth.” “ And this,”
said Bacon, ‘‘can proceed from nothing but the fact that
scientific research is alienated from its true source—na-
ture and experience—to which it must return if any-
thing is to be achieved.’’ Although many errors crept
into the facts accumulated by Bacon among his percep-
tions of great truths, he, nevertheless, rendered an im-
mense service to science by recalling it to experiment
and to the inductive method. About the same time,
a great Italian, Galileo, not only proclaimed the system,
but applied it, gathering much more fruit from his enter-
prise than did the English philosopher.

This was one of the grandest moments known to the
human mind. In this period, which we call the Renais-
sance, while man, no longer satisfied with the narrow
boundaries of the old world, discovered new paths while
in search of other lands, human conscience oppressed by
centuries of overbearing slavery advanced towards re-
formation. Then speculation, shattering its scholastic
fe!ters, opened a new field for research, and resolved to
cultivate it by fresh methods. Later we shall see the
abundant fruit which grew, not so much from the field
of abstract speculation as from that of natural investiga-
tion.

René des Cartes here broke in with past traditions, en-
deavored to make the research over again from the be-
ginning, and commenced to exclude all supposition and
to entertain doubts about everything. But the new struc-
ture of facts which he built upon Thought was precisely
the contrary of his method. Positiveness according to
des Cartes is represented by three substances—God,
Mindand Matter. Thought is the attribute and essence
of mind; extension is the attribute of matter. Here,
then, is cosmic positiveness reduced to nothing more
than expanse, while in our opinion it is the very opposite.
Expanse is merely a relation, and it annuls the absolute
condition of existence reducing it to a simple rapfort.

5The panspermic theory affirms that the germs or elements of all
things exist in the earth, and only require a particular combination of
circumstances to bring them forth.—TRANSLATOR,

164

SCIENCE.

In the monadology of Leibnitz, we find a reversion to
atomism under an ideal form. He considers the sub-
stance of the universe as an active force, represented by
monads. These, after the manner of atoms, are a dis-
tinct unity, unchangeable and indestructible. Contrary,
however, to atoms, which do not present any qualifying
diversity in themselves, monads are distinguishable one
from the other, each one personating, as it were, a dis-
tinct form. Moreover, atoms being capable of expansion,
can be regarded as separable, but monads cannot, be-
cause they are metaphysical conditions. And inasmuch
asmetaphysical conditions, no matter how they unite,
can never go beyond a certain limit, Leibnitz denies the
objective reality of space, and looks upon it asa kind of
co-existence.

But the most important part of his doctrine is the con-
ception he places upon the action of monads. Each one
has its peculidr representation apart from the other
monads and consequently, the universe. All the ulterior
developments of the latter are therein portrayed, so that
in monads we may read the future. Such representative
power is not the same in all of them, however. Some,
monads of the lowest degree, have a confused representa-
tion which may be compared to vertigo or dreamless sleep ;
a condition in which representations are not wanting,
but being neutralized cannot attainconsciousness. These
lower orders of monads represent the first link belonging
to the chain of existence, which is called inorganic nature,
and the bodies resulting from them may be likened to a
fish pond whose elements are alive while it is not.

Occupying a higher grade, in the vegetable kingdom,
are monads in which representation acts as a formative
vital force, but always totally unconscious. Higher still,
in the animal world, monad life rises to sensations and
memory, and finally to reason and reflex action. How-
ever, let us repeat, in order that it may be well understood,
that the representative contents of the various orders of
monads do not differ, because each one, like God, re-
flects the entire universe (Parvo zu suo genere deus). The
difference lies solely in the clearness and perfection of the
representations.

We will not linger here, however, that we may slowly
follow the ideas of Leibnitz in regard to the relations
existing between God and monads, or between them and
the soul by means of pre-established harmony. We will
merely observe that if we remove from monadology all
the purely imaginary elements with which it overtlows,
there still remains something both novel and important
which is not to be met with in old atomical theories.
This novel determination consists in a peculiar active force
which each monad possesses zzternally. It is a prior
intuition of pampszchzsm which being enriched moreover
by positive facts, can lead the way perhaps, to the greatest
reconciliation of which the human mind is capable.

We find another reversion to atomism in the meta-
physics of John Frederick Herbart. We have already
seen his conception of absolute positiveness. However,
experience receives many suggestions from the pheno-
menal world, which is composed of manifold appearances.
And as every appearance insinuates a determined Reality,
the latter must be considered as a compound of several
single entities or monads, each one posessing different
qualities. The individual groups of these monads
are those which, working upon our senses, there produce
the representation of definite objects. We find a vast
difference between Herbart’s conception and that of
Hegel; while the former considers Nature asa plurality,
the latter conceives it to be a unity. To one, absolute
positiveness is the Ideal, while for the other, on the con-
trary, it is Reality.

But how can we reconcile the absolute condition of the
Real, the peculiar conservation of monads with the pheno-
menon of mutation. Herbart has recourse to acczdental
perceptions and intelligzble space. By accidental per-
ceptions, we mean the manifold relations which can pro-

ceed from a single conception, according as it may be
compared with others, but, nevertheless, remaining always _
unchanged. Thus, for example, a straight line can be
considered as a radius or as a tangent without changing
its position, just as asound can be harmonious or dis-
cordant, according to the relation it bears towards other
tones. in the same way, in the grouping of various quali-
ties of monads, while on one side there is no change, on
the other there is a very perceptible one. By means of
zntelligzble space we may consider existence either as a
complex form or as an individuality.

This theory, which in some ways closely resembles the
old atomic dogma, is far removed from it, inasmuch as
the monad or atom, according to Herbart, does not pos-
sess an impenetrable character.

Looked at from a mathematical point of view, several
monads may coincide perfectly one with the other. Be-
tween the monad of Leibnitz and that of Herbart, there
is also a noteworthy difference, because the former con-
siders the zz¢ernal condition as original and individual;
while with the latter it is wanting, if we considera single
monad, but develops with the reciprocal relations between
the monads.

We will finish with Herbart, our brief explanation of
atomism revealed upon a field of pure metaphysical spec-
ulation. On the other hand, a new doctrine arises, an
experimental one, from which we shall see produced an
atomic theory, which is not the work of more or less arbi-
trary deductions, but the slow result and synthesis of a
multitude of positive facts.

i

ASTRONOMY.

SPECTRUM OF “LALANDE 13412.”

We are indebted to Prof. Pickering for the following
note upon some observations recently made at Harvard
College Observatory :

“ The star Lalande 13412 has a very curious spect-
rum. It belongs to the same class as Oed¢zen 17681 and
the three stars in Cyguus having bright lines. Besides
the yellow and blue bands, it has a marked line in the
green, which is faint, if not wanting, in the other stars.
Itis also about a magnitude brighter than either of
them, so that it is the only object of the kind within
reach of small telescopes. Professor Young found Oéé-
zen 17681 difficult with 9-inches aperture, while I dis-
covered this object with 4-inches aperture. The position
for 1880 is: :

Re PACeOS: AOS".
Dec. —23° 47.

or about 15 north of o Camzs Majorzs. In winter this
star is conveniently observed when all the other stars of
this class are below the horizon.

The same evening I found that the spectrum of «@&
Puppis is banded. As the declination of this’ star 1s
—44%°, this is probably the most southern object ever
usefully observed here. Its altitude at the time of ob-
servation was only about 2°!”

The Transit of Venus Commission established by the
French Academy of Sciences, has resumed its labors
under the presidency of M. Dumas. A credit has been
given by the Government for constructing new refractors.
Not less than twelve are now building, to be used on the
several stations which have been already selected, and
will be ready by the end of the year. The heads of the
scientific missions will soon be appointed, as well as their
staff, The greater number of instruments built for the
1874 transit has been disposed of to several public insti-
tutions.—/Vature. W. C. W.

WASHINGTON, D. C., April 6, 1881.

SCIENCE.

LETTERS TO THE EDITOR.

[The Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed
by his correspondents. No notice is taken of anonymous communi
cations.]

To the Editor of ‘SCIENCE :”

It is with mingled pleasure and profit that I have read
the very suggestive paper on cerebral nomenclature con-
tributed to your latest issues by Professor Wilder’. Some
of the suggestions which he has made have been latent
in my own mind for years, but I have lacked the courage
to bring them before my colleagues. Now that he has
broken ground, those who prefer a rational nomenclature
to one which like the present reigning one, is based upon
erroneous principles, or rather on no principles at all, will
be rejoiced at the precedent thus set for innovations. As
Professor Wilder has invited criticism, I take the oppor-
tunity of offering the following remarks upon the leading
points of his papers, 1n so far as they refer to the brain
alone.

1. The principles announced are such as zootomists
and anatomists generally will agree with, to the fullest
extent. He who has himself been compelled to labor
under the curse of the old system, the “beneath,”
“below,” “under,” “in front of,” ‘“ inside,” ‘ external,”
“between,” etc., of anatomy, as taught at our graduating
mills, will look upon the simple ‘‘ventral”’ “ dorsal,”
“Jateral,” ‘mesal,” ‘cephalic,’ (or “nasal” or “ prox-
imal’’) and “caudal ” (‘distal’) as so many boons. I
have no hesitation in saying that the labor of the anatomi-
cal student will be diminished fully one-half when this
nomenclature shall have been definitely adopted. I sup-
pose, however, that the present generation of teachers—
I am speaking of our medical schools, not of our univer-
sities—will have to become extinct before even the
attempt can be made. In Germany the older system has
gone out of use almost entirely, and not the least charm
about the works of Henle, Schwalbe, Forel, and Gudden,
is the fact that these authors have more or less done away
with the ambiguous terms once rampant.

2. At present two terms are used convertibly; these are
crus and pedunculus. The chief parts to which these
terms are given are the crus cerebri (pedunculus cerebr?)
and the pedunculz cerebelld (crura cerebellZ). If anatom-
ists would agree to use the term cvws only for the cere-
bral tract, and Jedunculus for the cerebellar, it would
save us the necessity of adding another word. Cyrus
would mean what crus or fedunculus cerebrz now desig-
nates, Pedunculus a cerebellar tract. The modifications
suggested by Professor Wilder of Arepedunculus, etc.,
are excellent. The word pedunculus has been applied to
a number of other structures, but, I think, inappropri-
ately ; thus, prdunculus conari2, pedunculus hypophyseos
pedunculus floccul, pedunculus nuclez lenticularés,
pedunculus substanize nigre, from all of which it should
be removed, as there are other terms in use for these
structures, or they are non-descriptive, as the latter two
given.

3. In proceeding to comment on some of the terms
proposed by Professor Wilder, I wish it to be distinctly
understood that I do so merely tentatively and to pro-
mote discussion ; in so doing I feel certain that I am
carrying out that writer’s wish. It is but just to state
that the majority of the terms cannot be discussed, they
are perfection and simplicity combined.

AMYGDALA (Cerebellz), W.—Since there is a nucleus
amygdale in the temporal lobe of the cerebrum of man,
simians and carnivores, which should be called amygdala
briefly, just as the zucleus lenticulards and 2. caudatus
are termed dentzcularzs and caudatus and as the synonym
tonszlla cerebellz* is at our disposal for the similarly named
lobule of the cerebellum, I suggest replacing this term as
applied to the cerebellum by Zonszé/a.

AREA INTERCRURALIS, W.—I have this term in
a manuscript of mine, and am glad to find such a coinci-

165

dence in baptism, according the priority, of course, to the

first publication. I bound this area cephalad by the cau-
dal border of the chiasm, caudad by the cephalic border
of the Pons, laterad by the crura, and distinguish the
deeper part asa fossa cntercruralzs (substantia perforata
post.) The gray mass here located is the ventral face of
Gudden’s *, 4 interpeduncular ganglion, which I propose,
in order to secure nomenclatural uniformity, to term
(Ganglion) tntercrurale.

AREA POSTPONTILIS, W.--The objection can be
made that this area is not homologous in different ani-
mals. A large part of the true Pons in man includes the
portion homologous with a part of the Area postpontzlis
of the cat. The roots of the abducens nerve (6th
pair) seem to me to constitute a more fixed boundary.

CAUDA STRIATI, W.—-I have identified this structure
in the cat; it does not make as fine a sweep as in man,
but is distinct at the roof of the inferior horn and loses
itself as has long been known?® in the case of the human
brain near the Vucleus amygdale. Professor Wilder’s
term is the only admissable one, both as being descrip-
tive and on grounds of priority. Czweulum is otherwise
appropriated,

CONARIUM, W.—Would not the retaining of this
name deprive us of that convenient antithesis which can
be established between efzphyszs dzencephalz and hypo-
physis dtencephald ?

DENTATUM, W.—Some term should be devised which
will at the same time express the fact that this gray mass
is a nucleus of the cerebellum and differentiate it from
the wucleus fastig¢t (fastigzalzs). Dentatum is not
appropriate, in my judgment, because in those animals in
which it is dentated, there are other dentated nuclei, and
also because it isnot dentated at all in the rodentia, the
carnivora, and ungulata.

EPENCEPHALON.—Are there any reasons why a sep-
erate segment of this name should be made? Some auth-
ors limit the term to the cerebellum, which latter is only
a dorsal hypertrophy, not an entire segment. The diffi-
culties which Prof. Wilder mentions could be obviated
by abandoning the term altogether.

LEMNISCI. W.—Can be identified in cat on trans—
verse section; they are not distinct on the surface, nor
indeed there well marked in any animal.

Locus NIGER.—This ganglion is not black in any
animal except man ; for this reason I have employed the
non-committal designation of Ganglzon Soemmeringiz.®
It is interposed between es and tegmentum like a déa-
phragma.

MONTICULUS.—Modern authors’, to my knowledge,
employ this term only for the highest point of the dorsal
cerebellar vermis.

NUCLEUS LENTICULARIS,
lenticular?zs.

PONTIBRACHIUM, W.—Is identical with the medz-
pedunculus of the same author. I have thought that
analogous names might be adopted for the other pedun-
culz, thus Restzbrachzum, etc.

STRIATUM, W.—Why not caudatus? Both dentecu-
dards and caudatus are parts of the old corpus strzatum.

VENTRIPYRAMIS, W.—Since the “ posterior pyra-
mids” of descriptive anatomy are no longer known as
pyramids, and the more generally used term of Clave has
been employed to designate their intumescence, the
prefix ventrz may not be necessary.

4. Independently of the question of nomenclature, I
should like to ask upon what grounds it is stated that
cerebrum consists of the prosencephaion less the strzata,
The tissue of the cortex cerebri and of the two divisions
of the corfus strzatum are even in man continuous, and
it would be impossible to peel out the lenticular nucleus
from the white substance of the hemispheres. Indeed,
embryologically the cortical gray and that of the cere-
bral ganglia are originally subendymal, and in tracing the
development of the brain, as we proceed from reptiles to

Might be briefly termed

166

SCIENCE.

man, we find that successively the caudatus, the ¢entz-
cularis and the claustrum become differentiated from a
common ‘gray mass continuous with the cortex at the
base of the cerebrum.

I would add in regard to the term CORTEX that the
Optic lobes* ® and the Rhinencephalon? exhibit the corti-
cal structure as the cerebrum and the cerebellum.

The following terms not included in Professor Wilder’s
series, are submitted, and for them I invite the severest
criticism. Some of them are established by others.

CAPPA (czmerea’)—The gray cap covering the Ofzzcz,
well developed in most mammalia, rudimentary in man.

ECTOTHALAMUS*.—The outer gray thalamic zone.

ENTOTHALAMUS*.—The ioner gray thalamic zone.

INTERCRURALE*, (Ganglion) —Ganglion Interpedun-
culare®» *,

SIGMA*.— The S shaped involution of the nerve-
cell layer of the cortex which constitutes the basis of the
fypocampa.

NUCLEUS TRAPEZII*.— The superior olive. The
development of this body seems to bear an inverse re-
lation to that of the true olive. In man the olive proper
is highly developed, in the cat poorly—in the latter the
nucleus of the trapezium is well marked and folded; in
man it is ill-marked.

OBLONGATA*.—The post-pontinal area of man; the
medulla oblongata.

STRIZ*.—The stré@ medullares alte of the fourth
ventricle.

VELUM CEREBELLI*.—The valve of Vieussens; thisis
the true embryonic starting point of the Cerebellum.
The velum mcedullare antertus.

VELUM OBLONGAT#*.—The velum medullare pos-
terzus. It arises from the internal division of the Jost
pedunculus in its oblongata portion, and covers the pos—
terior part of the fourth ventricle.

VELUM FLOCCULI*.—The velum medullare infercus.

GRACILIS* (Funzculus)—Funiculus gracelzs, contin-
uation of corresponding column in cord; part of the
posterior pyramids.

CUNEATUS* (Funzculus).

TUBERIS* (Funzculus)—Funiculus of Rolando; the
columnar ficld containing the Tuberculum of Rolando.
There is a /obulus tuberzs, which 1s otherwise provided
for.

Nop1i*.— Two symmetrical eminences, situated each
in the shallow depression bounded by the of¢zcus, thal-
amus and habena, probably corresponding to the gang-
lion habene (Gangl. habenul@*®). There is a notable
large opening cephalad of these eminences, which re-
sembles the opening under the ¢@nza containing the
vein which gives the latter its bluish color. I can find
no notice of this opening anywhere. The eminences are
represented obscurely in Fig. 70 of Ienle?.

DECUSSATIO FONTINALIS.* *—Fontanen artige Hau-
benkrenzung.°

In conclusion, I would urge the adoption of some briet
arbitrary affix or prefix in place of the words commis-
sure and ganglion. He who limits himself to a study of
surface contours will not appreciate the absence of
such abbreviations as much as_he who is compelled to
wade through the labyrinth of the internal cerebral struc-
ture.

Gris for ganglion would perhaps do; thus Grzshadena,
Gristegmentum, Grisfastigium for Ganglion habene,
Ganglion and Nucleus tegment?, Nucleus fastigzz. The
term zucleus is a very unfortunate one as it has another
and very different meaning, which in my experience as
a teacher of cerebral anatomy, has led to confusion in
the mind of every beginner. Professor Wilder, who ap-
pears to be as much at home in etymology as in cerebral

* Terms proposed by myself, not to be found in previous publications.

** A single affix or prefix might be devised in place of decussatio, or
fontidecussatio, pinidecussatio, pyridecussatio?

anatomy, will solve these problems no doubt better than
I could pretend to.

REFERENCES.

1. Wilder, B.G. A partial revision of anatomical
nomenclature with especial reference to that of the
Brain. “SCIENCE” Nos. 38, 39.

2. Henle. Nervenlehre, p. 118.

3. Forel. Untersuchungen uber die Hauben Region,
Arch. fur Psychiatrie, VII.

4. Gudden. Ibidem, X.

5. Meynert. Vom Gehirn der Saugethiere.
Handbuch II. p. 724, line 11 from bottom.

6. Spztzka. The higher ganglia of the mid and hind
brain. Journal of Nervous and Mental Diseases. July,
1880. (Designation of figure Io.)

7. Schwalbe. (Hoffmann-Schwalbe), quoting Tartu-
feri. Gazetta medica Italzanz. Serie VIII*. Tom. III.
and Rzvesta sperzmentale, 1878.

NEW YORK, 130 East soth street.

Stricker’s

EE. GSPrrzKaAs

+o

HOW DOES GRAVITY CAUSE MOTION ?

To the Editor of ‘‘ SCYENCE :”

The interesting article by Mr. E. L. Larkin in
“SCIENCE” for March 26, on the Interrelations of Gravity,
Heat, Motion, etc., induces me to offer you some thoughts
on the subject, with the hope that I may throw light
upon it from another point of view. There is one widely
accepted doctrine of modern physics which I confess I
could never understand, that of Potential Energy. It may
serve aS a convenient explanation of the mysteries of fal-
ling force to say that energy may be at one time motion,
and at another time the possibility of becoming motion.
The rule explains the problem, but what explains the
rule ? Can motion become anything else than motion ?
Can it now convert itself into Rest, into Gravity, into
Potentiality, or into anything else than simply motion ?
Is it not, like force and matter, an unvarying infinitude
of the universe ?

Motion means simply the translation of substance
through space, and it possesses a fixed energy dependent
upon the weight of the substance and the speed of the
translation. If the portion of substance moved be a min-
ute portion of matter, either forming an elementary con-
stituent of a solid mass, or a separate molecule of a gas,
we call its motion heat; and the result of its impact
with exterior particles, temperature. If it be a mass of
such particles its translation should be particularized as
mass motion. In addition to these modes of motion,
Electricity and Magnetism must also be considered as
more special modes of motion, unless we admit the pos-
sibility of motion becoming something else, and this
something else again becoming motion.

Can we admit this? What does terrestrial gravity
teach us? If gravity is convertible into motion, thea we
have reason to conclude that the gravity should disappear
as the motion increases. The law of gravitation asserts
that the action of the earth and of a falling body are ne-
cessarily reciprocal. Tne earth must fall towards the
body with the same energy that the body displays in
falling towards the earth. The body, then, can not de-
rive its energy of fall from the earth, unless we claim
that the earth derives its energy of fall from the body.
Such a cross-lending of force is inadmissable. The
energy displayed by the body must come from itself, not
from the earth. It is nota transformation of the earth’s
gravity into motion. Is it a transformation of its own?
This we cannot admit, since the body loses no gravity.
It cannot well give and keep at the same time. The
body falls 16 feet in the first second, and ends with a
velocity of 32 feet per second. This 32 feet per second
is a positive momentum, and must continue until over-

SCIENCE.

come by counter force. But if a portion of the gravity
of the body has become transformed into this motion
there will certainly be less to tr nsform during the next
second. Yet in the next second the body adds to its 32
feet per second 16 feet more derived from gravity, and
thus falls 48 feet, ending with a velocity of 64 ieet per
second. In the third second it adds 16 feet to this 64,
and falls 80 feet. And so on continuously, so far as ob-
servation has gone.

This certainly does not look like a transformation of
gravity into motion, since the gravity appears to continue
undiminished. And as to potential force, or possibility
of motion, being converted into motion, I shall not at-
tempt to combat it, for it is a sorry task to wrestle with
an antagonist who changes intoa mist when you attempt
to grasp him. Gravity is something definite, whatever
that something is, but this will-of-the-wisp of potentiality
certainly lacks the bones of a solid body.

But if not gravity or potentiality what is it that be-
comes motion in the ball that falls towards the earth,
and in the earth that falls towards the ball? This may
seem a difficult question, and yet it admits of but one
answer. Nothing becomes motion. Nothing can be-
come motion. Motion is motion and cannot possibly be
or become anything else. The motion which appears in
the falling body was not created for the purpose. It
existed in the falling body in some other form, and has
been simply transformed, not created. Every mass of
matter has its internal motions; its electrical, magnetic
and chemical energies, which are more or less engaged
in preserving the integrity of its molecules or of its mass ;
and its heat energy, which is engaged in a constant effort
to overcome the integrity of its mass. The particles of
the mass dart backward and forward continually. They
would dart in one direction only were they not restrained
by each other’s resisting energies, and by external re-
sistance. Consequently, any external energy which aids
their vigor of movement in one direction and resists it in
the opposite must give them a combined excess of vigor
in that direction. They must all move more vigorously
in that direction than in the opposite; that is, the mass
must move as a whole in that direction. And this move-
ment once gained is positive until overcome by exterior
resistance. It is a definite energy which cannot be lost
unless it be given to some other substance.

Such is the true principle at work in falling motion.
Terrestrial gravity is the external energy which aids the
vigor of the heat motion of particles in one direction and
resists it in the other. This force is increasing. Al-
though a mass be not falling to the earth its particles are
incessantly falling. The supporting body resists their
fall and their excess energy in this direction expends it-
self upon this body. But if the support be removed there is
no longer any resistance to their fall. The particles strike
further downward than they return, since gravity aids
their down stroke and retards their upstroke. Thus at each
vibrarion of the particles the mass slightly descends.
These slight descents continue. They are the energy
derived from the pull of gravitative attraction. But each
slight descent produces a fixed vigor of downward mo-
tion of the mass as a whole, and this vigor of motion is
increased by constant new increments, so that the
falling speed of the body rapidly increases.

Thisis the true meaning of potential energy—a change
in the direction of motions already existing. No motion
is created, or borrowed from any other condition of
nature. The body gains force in one direction under the
pull of gravity, but it is the force of a motive vigor which
it already possessed, and which, instead of exerting itself
equally in all directions, now exerts part of its energy
specially in one direction. And this change in the direc-
tion of its energies is balanced by an equal opposite change
in the direction of the earth’s energies. The body does
not possess the possibility of always failing, but it pos-
sesses the reality of always falling. Its particles con-

stantly fall. But when it is supported their falls cannot
accumulate. Each single fall is too slight to be observed,
and the effect of each fall is overcome by resistance be-
fore another can be added to it. But these persistant
fails produce a constant pressure upon the resisting sub-
stance, and constitute the weight of the body. It is
on removal of the support that these rapidly repeated
effects can be continuously added to each other, and be-
come a visible descent. But the distance of the fall of
the particles during each vibration is the same whether
the body be supported or rapidly descending. -It is
only the preservation and accumulation of the positive
mass motion given to the body by each slight fall, which
causes the rapid increase in falling speed. These accu-
mulating motions form an energy of motion separate from
that of the fall, and which would keep the mass in motion
at a fixed rate of speed were the force of gravity to sud-
denly vanish.

I would like to say a word here in reference to the pre-
sumed heated condition of the nebular mass from which
it is claimed that the solar system originated. There is
another reason than that advanced by Mr. Larkin, which
renders it very improbable that the nebula was greatly
heated. It is one thing to contain heat, another thing to
be in what we call a heated state, that is, in a state of high
temperature. For temperature and absolute heat are very
different things. A mass of water at 32° contains far
more heat than a mass of ice at the same temperature.
And so a mass of water gas at 212° contains far more
heat than an equal mass of water at that temperature.
This rule probably holds good in all cases ; namely, that
as density diminishes the heat capacity increases, so that
a very rare gas may contain a vastly greater quantity of
heat than a solid at the same temperature. We see this
exemplified in the matter of space. Heat has been pour-
ing into it from the contracting spheres for an enormous
period, yet its capacity for heat is so excessive that this
outflowing heat has probably had very little effect in rais-
ing its temperature.

Such a consideration applies directly to the original
nebula of the solar system. It was a very rare gas, and
therefore had great capacity for heat. Its latent heat
may have been great, and its effective temperature low.
It was only after it began to rapidly lose heat that its
temperature rose. For the contraction of the nebular
mass must have, by condensing its substance, lessened
its capacity for heat. If this change in condition took
place more rapidly than radiation could balance it there
must have been a steady increase in temperature, instead
of a decrease as usually assumed. For all that we know
to the contrary this phase of the process may not yet be
completed. Contraction of the solar mass may yet be
increasing its sensible heat, by loweringits capacity for
heat, or its power of containing latent heat, more rapidly
than this is balanced by radiation. In such a not impos-
sible condition of affairs the sun would be yet rising in-
stead of lowering in temperature, losing heat while in-
creasing its apparent or sensible heat, and its process of
actual cooling be not yet begun.

2223 Spring Garden St. Philadelphia. CHARLES MORRIs.

ee

A CAUSE OF DETERIORATION IN CLoTH.—Goods dyed
rust, buff, or chamois shades with salts of iron occasionally
undergo aslowcombustion. The ferric oxide is alternately
reduced by the organic matter of the tissue and re-oxidized
by the oxygen of the air.

Avr a Berlin feather-dyeing establishment an ostrich
feather dyed in shades with methyl-violet was layed upon
a paper upon which some ammonia had been poured but
had dried up again. After a time the feather became par-
tially green, the green passing gradually into violet, and
producing an extraordinary effect. This reaction is being
utilized in feather-dyeing, and will probably be applied in
the manufacture of artificial flowers—M, BALLAND.

168

SCIENCE.

NOTES.

PERIODIC MOVEMENTS OF THE GROUND.—P, Plantamour
gives an account of his observations on the movements of
the ground from October 1, 1879, to September 30, 1880,
The most remarkable feature is the sinking manifested on
the eastern side from the end of November, 1879, to the
end of January, 1880, which is much greater than might be
expected from the absolute cold of the month of December,
only —15°. A rise of temperature is always accompanied:
with an elevation of the ground level, and a fall of the
thermometer is marked by a subsidence.

On M’Bounpbon, THE ORDEAL POISON OF THE NATIVES
OF THE GABOON; NEW PHYSIOLOGICAL, CHEMICAL, HisTo-
CHEMICAL AND TOXICOLOGICAL RESEARCHES.—The poison
employed contains exclusively one base, strychnine. E.
Heckel and F. Schlagdenhauffen propose to examine
whether the distinction between the tetanising and the
paralysing species of the strychnos family may not depend
simply on the proportion of the base which they contain.

ELECTRIC PHENOMENA OF TOURMALINE AND OF HeEmI-
HEDRAL CRYSTALS WITH INCLINED SURFACES.—The hypo-
thesis which J. and P. Curie put forward is that there ex-
ists a constant difference of tension between the opposite
surfaces of two successive layers. Tourmaline being a
compound body the different parts of a crystalline molecule
may be formed of different substances, which would ex-
plain the difference of tension of the opposite extremities
of two molecules.

VIOLET ILLUMINATION OF THE RETINA UNDER THE IN-
FLUENCE OF LUMINOUS OsCILLATIONS,—A. Charpentier, fix-
ing his eyes immovably on a sky illuminated by a uniform
white light, and moving two fingers of his right hand rap-
idly and alternately backwards and forwards before them,
saw, after a minute, a remarkable change in the uniform
aspect of the heavens. There appeared on a white ground
a mosaic composed of rather deep violet-purple hexagons,
separated from each other by white lines, and forming a
very regular design. The oscillations of the fingers should
be from 300 to 400 per minute. He thinks that these
hexagons are due to the cones in the fovea and in the
yellow spot, and that the white lines are due to their in-
tervals.

A GLYCOSIDE EXTRACTED FROM Common Ivy.—The
glycoside in question, Co1H54O22, is resolvable into a non-
fermentible sugar, which reduces Fehling’s liquid, and a
neutral body, tasteless, inodorous, dextro-rotary, and
agreeing with the formula Cs52H4,O,2.—L.. VERNET.

RapIopHONY.—Radiophonic effects are thermic, not
luminous, and are produced by gases alternately heated
and cooled, and not by solids or liquids.— E. MERCADIER.

PERMANENCE OF HyprocyANiIc ACID FOR A MONTH IN
THE BopDIESOF ANIMALS POISONED WITH THE PURE ACID,
—Hydrocyanic acid, if administered ina sufficient quantity
to animals, preserves them perfectly fora month. It re-
mains in the tissues, and especially in those of the stomach
for the same time. It appears to combine intimately with
the animal tissues. In the Carnivora it is more difficult to
extract it by distillation than in the Herbivora. C, BRAME,

INFERIOR ORGANISMS PRESENT IN THE AIR.—The mi-
croscopic beings in the air are very unequally distributed.
The germs of beer-yeast are not everywhere present.
Bacteria are much less common than the moulds, such as
Penicillium glaucum, Mucor stolonifer, etc.—E. C. HANSEN.

CHEMICAL CONSTITUTION OF ALBUMEN.—The transfor-
mation of albumen into peptones is produced by a hydra-
tation, which in each phase takes place ata fixed part of the
molecule. The regressive formation of albumen from its
peptones is produced by a similar de-hydration. When
the molecule loses calcium and phosphoric acid the car-
boxylic groups appear, and give an acid reaction to the
groups thus obtained. In certain phases the molecule may
lose a portion of sulphur without being destroyed or chang-
ing its properties,—Dr, A, DANILEWsky,

NEw RESEARCHES ON THE ALBUMENS OF MILK.—The
albumen of milk is a mixture of stroma-albumen, with
small quantities of orro-proteine and the synto-protalbes.
The lacto-proteine of Millon and Commaille is a mixture
of soluble synto-protalbes, of snytogenes, and of peptones,
which alone are precipitated by mercuric chloride. The
same mixture with small quantities of peptones represents
the galactine of Morin.—Dr. DANILEWSKY AND P. RADEN-
HAUSEN.

DEVELOPMENT OF THE CADAVERIC ALKALIES (PTOMAINES).
—MM. Brouardel and Boutmy have verified the presence
of these poisons in the viscera of persons who had died
either from the action of poisons or otherwise. The organs
of an individual asphyxiated by carbonic oxide were ana-
lysed some hours after death, and found free from poison.
On being re-examined eight days afterwards they contained
a solid organic base, presenting the general characters of
the alkaloids and proving fatal in small doses to frogs and
guinea-pigs. The ptomaines are produced in the dead
bodies of men and animals, and vary in their nature under
circumstances not yet ascertained. They are poisonous in
the majority of cases.

REPORT PRESENTED BY M. Troost ON BEHALF OF THE
COMMITTEE OF THE CHEMICAL “ARTS ON THE MALLEABLE
NickEL oF MM. GAsparD AND BELLE.—The metal is first
brought to a state of complete fusion, its surface is
freed from all traces of scoriz, asmall quantity of metallic
zinc or magnesium is introduced, the whole is stirred up
and run. The metal thus added seems to lay hold of all
traces of foreign matter derived from the sides of the cruci-
ble. Such nickel is ductile and malleable at all tempera-
tures below its point of fusion, and can be welded either
with itself or with iron or steel. Plates and wires of iron
or steel can thus be coated with nickel.

SpeciFIc MAGNETISM OF OzONE.—Ozone being more mag-
netic than oxygen it is easy to see that the relation of the
specific magnetism of ozone to that of oxygen is notably
greater than the supposed relation of their densities. The
specific magnetism of ozone is then greater than what
would correspond to the quantity of oxygen which it con-
tains.—H. BECQUEREL.

DETECTION OF ErGoT IN FLour.—The suspected sample
is treated with cold ether or boiling alcohol to dissolve the
greater part of the coloring-matters of the flour. The re-
sidue is then extracted with ether, mixed with a small
quantity of sulphuric acid, and the extract is examined
with the spectroscope. The ethereal extract of ergot, if
concentrated, absorbs all the refrangible portion of the
spectrum beyond D ; if the solution is diluted, the spectrum
is enlarged, and there appear three absorption bands: the
first between D and E, wave-length 538; the second be-
tween E and F, wave-length 467. Hoffman agitates the
acid ethereal extract with a little solution of sodium bicar-
bonate, which seizes the coloring-matter of the ergot and
takes a fine violet color, whilst the coloring-matters of the
flour remain in the ether.

+.

ADDENDA.

In “Scrence,” March 2, in paper on Amplitude of Vi-
bration of Atoms, for paragraph beginning: ‘‘ For other
atoms than hydrogen,” etc., read, “ For other atoms than
hydrogen, where they have the same energy, their amplitude
will vary inversely as the square root of their mass, so that

for oxygen the amplitude at 0° will be =e = .04 its diameter

V16
and its maximum temperature will be 6419 x 4=25676°
Cent. Also the maximum temperature of the sun would be
about 500000° Cent.” AE. Dy

Tue OponrornitHfs.—In our last week's notice of the
Odontornithes, in the middle of the second paragraph, on
page 148, the dental series are said not to ‘‘ reach the tip of
either jaw.”.. In place of “‘ either” substitute ‘‘ the upper.

a

SCIENCE.

169

SeeNCE:

A WEEKLY RECORD OF SCIENTIFIC
PROGRESS.

JOHN MICHELS, Editor.

PUBLISHED AT
229 BROADWAY, NEW YORK.
P, O. Box 8888.

SATURDAY, APRII. 16, 1881.

We present in another column a communication
from Professor Alexander Winchell, of the University
of Michigan, who, in response to a request from
ourselves, has presented a very clear statement of his
views relating to some conditions of primitive matter.
This subject was introduced in “ScreNcE” by Mr.
Larkin (March 26), and followed by Mr. Morris in
our last issue.

Much difference of opinion exists on this subject,
which is one of the highest interest, and we trust that
' the open discussion we have permitted may elicit
some truth, and lead to a removal of many of the
difficulties which underlie this question. Without
anticipating our-opinion on the merits of the respec-
tive arguments which have been adduced or the con-
clusions to which they lead, we may state that both
Mr. Larkin and Mr. Morris, in speaking of
gravity, magnetism, heat, light, electricity, motion,
etc., etc., appear to make statements which do not
accord with the standard authorities on these subjects.

That such difference of opinion should exist on
what may be considered fundamental points, should
cause no surprise, when even the nomenclature of the
physical sciences is in a state of confusion. On this
subject we refer our readers to an able article by Pro-
fessor A. E. Dolbear, published in “ Screncr” last No-
vember (Vol. 1, page 238) ; this paper demands the
careful study of all who would take part in this dis-
cussion, and affords a basis on which it may be con-
ducted with profitable results.

We make no apology for introducing this subject
to our readers, especially as it has been recently
mentioned in popular and scientific books, in connec.
tion with philosophical, ethical and theological ques-
tions. The objective point of Mr. Larkin’s arguments
appears to be directed against the Nebular hypothesis
of Laplace.

Professor H. Helmholtz, whose lecture on this sub-
ject has been recently published by Messrs. Appleton &
Co., makes a stout defence of this hypothesis. He
asserts that “science is not only entitled, but is be-

holden, to make such an investigation. For her it is a
definite and important question, as it involves the
existence of limits to the validity of the laws of na-
ture, which rule all that now surrounds us ; the ques-
tion whether they have always held in the past, and
whether they will always hold in the future; or
whether, on the supposition of an everlasting uniform-
ity of natural laws, our conclusions from present cir-
cumstances as to the past, and as to the future imper-
atively lead us to an impossible state of things ; that is,
to the necessity of an infraction of natural laws, of a
beginning that could not have been due to processes
known to us.”

As Mr. Helmholtz observes, to commence such an
investigation as to the possible or probable primeval
history of our present world considered as a question
of science, is no idle speculation, for it is a question
as to the limits of its methods, and as to the extent
to which existing laws are valid.

We have received several interesting letters on this
subject which will be found in our next issue.

ato ne a ss eee

THE SEA-SIDE LABORATORY.

The liberality and co-operation of the Woman’s
Education Association enables the Boston Society of
Natural History to announce that a Sea-side Labora-
tory, under the direction of the Curator, and capable
of accommodating a limited number of students, will
be open at Annisquam, Mass., from June 5th to Sep-

tember 15th.

Annisquam is situated on an inlet of Ipswich Bay,
on the north side of Cape Ann, and is about three
and a half miles by coach from the Eastern Railroad
Company’s station in Gloucester.

The purpose of this Laboratory is to afford oppor-
tunities for the study and observation of the develop-
ment, anatomy and habits of common types of marine
animals under suitable direction and advice. There
will therefore be no attempt, during the coming sum-
mer, to give any stated course of instruction or lec-
tures.

It is believed that such a Laboratory will meet the
wants of a number of students, teachers and others
who have already made a beginning in the study of
Natural History. Those who have had some limited
experience in a laboratory, or who have attended the
practical lessons given by the Teachers’ School of
Science of the Boston Society of Natural History, are
sufficiently qualified to make use of this opportunity.

The work in the Laboratory will be under the im-
mediate care of Mr. B. H. Van Vleck, Assistant in
the Museum and Laboratory of the Boston Society of
Natural History, a thoroughly competent instructor,
and one who has also had long experience in collect-
ing and observing at the sea-side.

Those who would avail themselves of this excellent
opportunity to study living objects at the sea-shore
should make application to Mr. Alpheus Hyatt,
Curator of the Boston Society of Natural History,

170

SCIENCE.

THE AMERICAN CHEMICAL SOCIETY.

The April meeting of the American Chemical Society
was held on the evening of the 1st inst. There not be-
ing a quorum present at eight o’clock, the business of the
Society was postponed, and the reading of Dr. A. R.
Leed’s paper on “ Anilo-metallic Compounds” took
place. The aniline compounds of Aluminum, Antimony,
Barium, Calcium, Cadmium, Chromium, Copper, Cobalt,
Bismuth, Mercury, Tin and Zinc were described; how
they were prepared and their important characteristics
noted. Aniline will not combine with any monivalent
element. This paper was a preliminary report of work
which Professor Leeds proposes to extend and ultimately
publish when he shall have obtained sufficient data. The
second paper on the “ Action of Concentrated Sulphuric
Acid on Lead Alloys’’ was read by Lucius Pitkin, one

Mines, N. Y.
before the Glasgow Philosophical Society, it was held
that impure lead was preferable to the pure article for use
when in contact with sulphuric acid (see Chemzcal News,
Dec. 23, 1880). Mr. Pitkin tried the action of both hot
and cold concentrated acids on some forty samples of lead
and its alloys. The alloys treated were of lead with
antimony, tin, bismuth, cadmium, silver and zinc. In the
case of cold acid, 2 sq. in. of each alloy and a sample of
pure lead were exposed for 24 hours to the action of 10
c.c. of sulphuric acid at 20° C.; on hot acid the length of
exposure was one hour, and his results are best given in
the following table, with which his paper terminated.

Average solubility or liability to formation of sulphate
of the alloys in terms of lead.

Cold Acid. Hot Acid.
Lead Te I

‘« alloyed with Antimony............... 81 2575
Kk a Wines see on! omer eee ae 1.42 75
J Hv Bismuth. ...s.es cece I.I0 7.69
ae “ Cadmium ees cee ets .86 1.10

J SILVED/ = isch eae = bee .87 -93
a as ZING «5, Ssinic os oy ite ones 1.53 I.10

Considerable discussion followed Mr. Pitkin’s paper, in
which Dr. Gallatin, Dr. Geyer, Dr, Alsberg, Mr. Herres-
hoff and Dr. Squibb participated.

Mr. A. E. Hoppick was then elected a regular member
of the Society, and Messrs. C. P. Sawyer, A: H. Van
Sinderen, and Otto Grote, were proposed for election.
Mr. J. H. Stebbins was elected to fill the vacancy caused
by the resignation of Dr. Gallatin, as Recording Secre-
tary, and Mr. Herreshoff elected to the positien on the
Committee on Nominations which Mr. Stebbins had held.

Mr. Casamajor and Dr. Alsberg reported on behalf of
the Committee for the Annual Dinner, and announced
that the fifth anniversary dinner of the American Chem-
ical Society would take place at SieghGrtner’s restaurant,
on Monday, April 18, at 6 P. M. Ms B:

ON SOME PHENOMENA PRESENTED BY VOR. |

TEX-RINGS.

PROFESSOR A. E, DOLBEAR, TUFTS COLLEGE, MASS.

1. If one vortex-ring strikes another vortex-ring upon
the edge the two rings will bound away from each other
as though they were solid elastic bodies, each one vibrat-
ing as it recedes.

2. If one vortex-ring overtakes another ring, both

moving in the same straight line, and both are of the |

same size, then the forward one will expand in diameter,
and the latter will contract in diameter, and will go
through the forward one when each will return to its
original dimension. At the same time the forward one
will have its velocity retarded while the other will have
its velocity increased, and it may overtake the forward
one and go through it,

j | too great a distance apart, they will not only approach
of the most talented young chemists of the School ot | = : ( y “PP

Ina paper presented by Mr. James Nap‘er |

| box will at once be filled with the white fumes, and a tap

_ that one about three inches in diameter; the rings can

to be essential that the two rings that combine, should

3. Ifa vortex-ring passes near any light object as, for in-
stance, a silk thread suspended, or better still a small
cloud of smoke or ammonium chloride dust, the latter
will be seen to be apparently repelled from the front of
it but attracted and drawn into the ring from the rear.

4. If a vortex-ring be projected parallel with any sur-
face, and at not tco great a distance from the surface,
the ring will move in a curved path towards it and
strike it. © 4

5. If two vortex-rings are projected so as to start in
paraliel lines near to each other they will approach each
other until they touch, when they may be either broken
or else bound away from each other as in the first case
above. ;

6. If two vortex-rings having the same rate of rota-
tion be started in lines parallel to each other and at not

each other but ¢hey wzll combine to form one ring
which continues to move in the same direction.
7. The combination is effected by the breaking of
each at the point of contact, and the welding of the
opposite parts of each ring to form one ring with twice
the diameter.
8. Three rings may in like manner be combined into
one.
g. The structure of the vortex-ring is concentric, that
is, a cross section of a ring generally shows a series of
several concentric circles, with a hollow centre. The
middle of the ring appears to be acylindrical unoccupied
space.
As experimental work with such rings is very enter-
taining as well as suggestive of the behavior of the real
atoms of matter, it may be well to give the simple
instructions necessary to perfect success.

Zo
lin

Provide a cubical box with dimensions about a foot
each way, having a swinging back frame, over which is
stre'ched a piece of stout cotton cloth. On the opposite
side two or more inch-holes may be bored two inches
apart. Pour some strong hydrochloric acid into one
saucer, and some strong ammonia water into another.
Set the two into the box, and shut down the door. The

with the finger upon the cloth back, will send out well-
formed rings. a
The phenomena I to 5, can best be seen by employing
only one of the holes, so as to form but a single ring. By
striking the cloth a little harder the second time than the
first, the second ring may be made to overtake the first,
and if it is desirable to exhibit the rings to a room full of
people, there should be but a single hole in front, and

then be projected with force enough to make them go te
or fifteen feet from the box.

The other phenomena can best be studied by using
only small holes, and tapping gently. The rings wil
come together within a few inches of the box. It seems

have the same rate of rotation, a matter easily secured
by forming the two at once in the above described way,
but well nigh impossible, if one is formed after the other
It is sufficient now to remark that the new phenomena
described above simulate in a very striking way, what w
call gravitation and chemism, by

SCIENCE.

171

THE CO-EFFICIENT OF SAFETY IN NAVIGA-
TION.*

By Pror. W. A. ROGERS, of Harvard University.

It is customary among engineers and architects, in
making allowance for the strain to be borne by any part
of a structure, to assign to the materials used, a strength
sufficient to withstand a strain somewhat greater than
the structure is ever likely to be subjected to, By experi-
ment it can be found, for example, what is the “breaking
load” of a wooden or iron beam of given dimensions,
and an empirical law is established which will give us
approximately the breaking load of any beam, when we
know the dimensions, material, etc.; but in order to
cover all possible differences which may exist in various
beans, a Coefficzent of Safety is either introduced into
the formula itself, or is applied to the result obtained
from the formula. This co-efficient should be large
enough to cover, not only the largest possible deviation
between experiment and theory, but also to meet all un-
foreseen emergencies, such as time and age inevitably
bring.

Passing now to the consideration of the term “ Co-
effictent of Safety,” as applied to navigation, it is our
object to find the limits within which, under ordinary
circumstances, a vessel can be located at sea, and then
adduce some considerations which will enable us to form
an intelligent judgment in regard to the range of error to
which observations are liable. The quantity wanted is
the average number of miles error in latitude and longi-
tude, which we may fairly charge upon a single observa-
tion at sea, under ordinary circumstances. We have
then to find the co-efficient by which this number must
be multiplied in order to secure absolute safety, as far as
safety depends upon human means and exertions.

By an examination of the “ British Wreck Register”
and the official inquiries made into the causes of disasters
at sea, it will be seen that the ratio of loss compared
with the increase of tonnage afloat, has for many years
been steadily increasing. This inquiry is, therefore not
an idle one. It is our purpose to examine only those
causes of wrecks which, in a measure, seem to have es-
caped attention in official investigations. They are :—

I.—Wrecks produced by causes clearly beyond human
control.

11.—Wrecks resulting directly or indirectly from over-
insurance.

I1I—Wrecks caused by the deviation of the compass.

1V.—Wrecks caused by errors of observation at sea.

The first inquiry is an important one, since, if we can
find how many wrecks are beyond human control, we
ascertain, at the same time, how many are wzt/izm human
control. The method of investigation is by the examina-
tion of records of Courts of Inquiry for twenty years. Be-
tween 1785 and 1813 no less than eight British ships were
either wholly or partially disabled by lightning. Of course,
vessels lost and never heard from should be added to this
list. Between 1864 and 1869 we find from the insurance
records that 9999 sailing vessels and 589 steamers, or a
total of 10,588, were wrecked. Of this number, the end
of 846 is entirely unknown, or one-eighteenth of the
whole number. It is probable, therefore, that seven out
of ten wrecks occur from preventable causes.

In regard to the second head, it is certain that more
insured than uninsured vessels are lost, and in not a few
cases it has been possible to convict shipowners of pur-
posely destroying their vessels.

The compass problem is an intricate one, and has never
been fully solved, though the researches of Flinders,
Barlow, Scoresby, Airy and Harkness have done much to
convert great uncertainty into tolerable certainty. The
first observations on the variation were by Bond, in 1668.

* Abstract of a paper read before the Naval Institute of Annapolis.
Prepared under authos’s direction,

7

It is well known that the variation of the needle is very
irregular. There are yearly, monthly and diurnal inequal-
ities, the diurnal variation being discovered by Graham, in
1722. But the complexity of the problem does not stop
here. The tendency of the present time is to build iron
ships, and all ships now have more or less iron in their
construction. These ships become, to a greater or less de-
gree, themselves great magnets. In wholly iron ships the
uncorrected deviation of the needle often amounts to 50°,
thus rendering it utterly useless. The Admiralty Law in
regard to “swinging” for the variation of the compass is
a very clear statement of the case. It reads as follows:

“As the deviation or error of the compass caused by
local attraction of the ships becomes changed in amount
by any change in the ship’s geographical position, and
may be entirely reversed in its direction by the ship’s pro-
ceeding from the Northern to the Southern Hemisphere
itis to be invariably tested by azimuth and amplitude
observations at sea, and the ship is to be swung for ascer-
taining the change of error on arrival at a foreign station,
and also once a year, and the same is to be inserted in
the log book and sent to the Admiralty with the quartery
return for December.”

The next important discovery in this connection was
by Barlow, who found that all the influence of iron bodies
exerted on the compass resides on the surface. This dis-
covery paved the way for Airy’s method of correcting
compasses, which is by swinging the ship in the usual
way, and then correcting the local attraction of the ship
by means of permanent magnets of soft iron conveniently
placed with respect to the compass. But the most im-
portant discovery was made by Dr. Scoresby. He found
that every iron ship is itself a magnet, and that it gets
its magnetism while building by the inductive magnet-
ism of the earth, the poles of the ship’s magnetism de-
pending on the position of the building yard and the
direction of the keel in construction. Dr. Scoresby made
the voyage of the world in the Royal Charter, to test his
theory, and found it fully confirmed. Before starting, his
compasses were corrected by Airy’s plan. On arriving
at Melbourne, it was found that a complete inversion
of the ship’s magnetic polarity had taken place. Every
stanchion, every standard, every davit, every mass of iron
about the deck had in its upper surface acquired a North-
ern, instead of a Southern polarity, and the starboard
compass had lost nearly one-half of its original errors.
On returning to the place of starting in the Northern
Hemisphere, and swinging the ship, it was found that a re-
inversion had taken place, but the compasses did not
quite return to their original deviations, but retained a
fraction of their errors. It has since been found that
these changes are much greater in steam than in sailing
vessels, as shown by observations on board the Vulcan
(steam), and the Pazdora (sailing).

In 1852-53, Dr. Scoresby, in a paper before the British
Association, showed that there is a sensible difference in
the deviation before and after steam is up. It has been
said that the compasses of a steam vessel, when light and
running before the wind, with a high sea, are practically
useless,

More recent experience has shown that the magnetism
of an iron ship does not attain its normal condition till
some twelve months after launching, and that for some
time the variation is very irregular. Inthe Great Eastern
a fixed compass changed its deviation nearly 3 points in
the first 9 months of service. The observations of Prof.
Harkness on board a monitor seem to be conclusive on
this point.

We come now to the consideration of the fourth point.
As eatly as 1598, Spain offered a reward of 100,000
crowns for the discovery of a correct method of finding
the Longitude at sea. The States of Holland, at an
early date, offered a reward of 100,000 florins, and France
a reward of 100,000 livres. In 1714 the British Govern-
ment offered a reward of £10,000 to any one who should

172 SCIENCE.

discover a method of finding the longitude at sea ‘within
60 miles, £15,000 if with 45 miles, and £20,000 if within
30 miles. This offer did much to awaken interest in the
subject. Though we have long since passed the lowest
limit then mentioned, 30 miles, it is doubtful if any two
navigators will agree as to what limit we have actually
reached. The general testimony of sea-captains, in
answer to my inquiries on this point, is that one mile is
the ordinary limit within which the co-ordinates of a
ship’s place can be determined. A few placed the limit
at half a mile. Only one navigator, with an experience
of 30 years, placed the limit at 5 miles. :

Two methods were proposed for the solution of the
problem. Morin proposed what is now substantially
the Lunar Method, and Maskelyne undertook the solution
of the problem by observing the astronomical phenomena,
such as eclipses of Jupiter’s satellites. On the other
hand, mechanicians devoted every energy to the me-
chanical problem. As the result of these labors, we have
two essentially different methods for the determination of
Longitude at sea.

I. By Lunar Distances, Occultations and Eclipses of
Jupiter’s Satellites, &c.

II, By Chronometers, assuming a rate at the beginning
of the voyage.

The latter has for a long time been regarded as the
more accurate method, but the difficulties to be over-
come can be readily imagined,-when we consider that
even in the determination of the position of fixed obser-
vations, in which appliances of the uimost refinement are
at hand, the places vary widely from the truth. For ex-
ample, we find variations in the measured difference of
longitude between Greenwich and Paris, as great as 5.5°,
or 1% miles, existing previous to the introduction of the
telegraphic method of determining, longitudes. The
range between the earlier determinations of the difference
of longitude between Greenwich and Brussels is 10 miles.
Moon Culminations are more accurate than Lunars, but
the same in principle. ‘They are the more accurate when
the longitude depends upon observations at each station,
since the errors of Tables are thus eliminated. From a
careful discussion of a long series of observations made
at fixed observatories, with the most perfect instruments,
it is found that we must expect from the Lunar Method
an absolute error of six miles as the result of any number
of observations. This corresponds in a general way with
Prof. Peirce’s investigation. He found that the ultimate
limit, when one limb of the moon was observed, to be
0.55°. ‘‘ Beyond this,” he says, “it is impossible to go with
the utmost refinement. By heaping error upon error, it
may crush the influence of each separate determination ;
but it does not diminish the relative height of the whole
mass of discrepancy.” But the discrepancy between the
results for different limbs of the moon often amounts to
10° in the mean determination of a year. The assumption
that the ultimate limit of accuracy is as great as I* seems
to be a very moderate widening of the limits. I find it to
be 2.4°.

For fixed observatories, using the moon’s tabular place,
we must expect an error of 3.1 miles, with a range of
12.9 miles. For Lunar Distances with sextant, on land,
we must expect an error of 10.2 miles, with a range of
24.2 miles. For Lunar observations at sea these quanti-
ties should at least be doubled.

We now come to the subject of chronometers. The
sources of errors are:

(a) Variations of rate arising from the action of mag-
netism. Airy’s experiments show an extreme variation
of 5.8° in the daily rate of a chronometer, due to terres-
trial magnetism.

(6) When chronometers are swung on the same sup-
port, it is probable that there is a sympathetic action be-
tween them, similar to the results recently found by Mr.
Christie with the Transit of Venus Clocks.

(c) Variation on account of change of barometric

pressure. This varies between 0.3° and 0.8° per day for
every inch of change in the barometer.

(dz) Variation between land and sea rates. Almost
every chronometer will change its rate, when its circum-
stances, either of rest or motion, are changed. The Bos-
ton standard clock of Messrs. Bond & Son, almost in-
variably has a different rate on Sunday from any other
day of the week. So, also, ithas a change of rate when
the streets are covered to any considerable depth with
snow.

(e) Variation of rate at sea, on account of change of
temperature. Mr. Hartnup, of Liverpool, was the first
to give, not only the general rate of a chronometer, but
also the rate for different temperatures.

An elaborate discussion of the errors of chronometers,
from data collected at the Greenwich Observatory, from
chronometric expeditions and from chronometers used
in the Merchant and Naval services, the following result
has been reached.

At the end of 20 days the navigator must expect an
average error of 36 miles. He must look out for an error
of 36 x 32 or 11.5 miles, and the amount of his error may
prove to be twice this quantity, or 21 miles, all on the sup-
position that he has an average chronometer, and this is
independent of the errors of observation, which must
still be added.

We come finally to the consideration of the problem,
—How near is it possible to find the place of a ship at
sea by astronomical observations, taking into account all
the errors to which observations are liable ?

For the sake of simplicity we shall consider but one
method, the method usually followed, viz.: by measure-
ment of the altitude of the sun with a sextant, at a given
time before it comes to the meridian for longitude, and
the measurement of its culmination, for latitude.

We must first of all ascertain the magnitude of the
errors to which observations with the sextant are liable.
The following are some of the errors which we must
ordinarily expect in observations with this instrument :

(a). Instrumental errors, such as eccentricity, errors of
graduation, index error, &c. Errors of this.class often
exceed one minute of arc, even in a first-class instrument.

(4). Errors in noting time. No observer at sea pretends
to note the time closer than one second. If we assume
this low limit and multiply the co-efficient 3.5 already
found, we have an error of nearly one mile.

(¢). Errors arising from impertect sea horizon.

(d). Errors arising from the use of approximate data.

(e). Errors depending on the latitude of the ship and
the time of observation. By combination in the same
direction, errors of this class may be very large, and, for
the most part, they escape the attention of the navigator.
The most favorable time for an observation of the sun
for longitude is when-it is exactly east or west. Here an
error of one minute of arc in the observed altitude pro-
duces an error of the same amount in the resulting time,
but if the observation 1s made 40 minutes from the
meridian, an error of one minute in altitude may produce
an error of 6 miles in the resulting position.

(f). Errors arising from the error in the estimated run.
of the ship between the morning and the noon observa-
tions.

The data for assigning a limit to the errors of observa-
tion with the sextant are as follows :

I. Observations on Shore. Froma discussion of the
observations by Williams in 1793, by Paine in 1831, by
various observers at Willets Point in 1869, 1871 and 1872,
by Hall and Tupman at Malta and Syracuse, and by
Newcomb and Harkness at Des Moines, we find that for
latitude the average error of observation with the sextant
is 8", that the average range between the greatest and the
least results of a given series is 36’, the latter value having
a range between 14" and 59’. The coefficient comes
out 4.4. For ¢¢me the average error is 1.1%, the range is
4.7°, and the coefficient is 4.4.

SCIENCE.

173

—- -———

II. Observations at Sea.

Under this head three: distinct investigations have been
made, as follows;

(@.) From an examination of the results obtained by
chronometric longitude expeditions, we find that for a
voyage of 15 days the average error is 5.3°; the range
between the greatest and the least results in each series is
18.0%; the latter value has a range between 1.5° and
55.0°, and the coefficient is 3.4.

(4.) The longitudes of 36 stations have been determined
by various British naval expeditions. The chronometers
were rated at the Greenwich Observatory before starting,
and the observations for time at the terminal stations
were made inthe usual way with thesextant. Evidently
more than usual care was taken both with the observations
and reductions, We find that the average difference be-
tween the results obtained by different chronometers is
4.4 miles with a range of 15.1 miles. The average range
between the different results for longitude is 5.0 miles
with a range of 31.6 miles. The average number of
chronometers was 11, and the average duration of voyage
was II days.

(¢.) During the spring and summer of 1880 Officer W.
H. Bacon, of the Cunard steamer “ Scythia,” kindly under-
took for me a series of systematic observations from
which the relative errors could be determined with con-
siderable certainty. A complete series for a single day
consisted of five sights at intervals of fifteen minutes,
about 8 o'clock in the morning, five sights in the neigh-

_borhood of 11 o'clock, and five sights at the corresponding

hours in the afternoon. Observations were also made
ere the ship was in known positions as often as pos-
sible.

This series of observations has an exceptional value
on account of the conscientious fidelity with which the
programme was adhered to and of the skill with which
they were made. The'relative errors were determined by
comparing each position with the mean of the series, the
rate being determined both from the morning and after-
noon observations and from the log.

The results obtained are found in the following table :

a = 7) Bey =<» mits
eS | om [58] &% | 84 | 83.
Rem] sy | Ren | =v | Bee EUs
AEs Suga ees Ea | 845 | $eu

Limits IN os} gz e988) g- aeAeal| Sane
Muss, | S88) He | B22) HE | 288 | 28:
EO rile ere FOR oe GQ] 58H
pis Seo | -ex Singealt 2 ea | oe
ao oo |aqo® co | &Y Soa
eS | a & an Ag Re
| No. No. No. No. No.
Cases. | Cases. | Cases. | Cases. | Cases.

Gh rss ° r) 6

Gees. 2 3 I 2
Ltn S| Mame) 5 3 =

te a | Aas) 3 3 2

4 6 ¥ 2 s

I 3 4 I °

2) 8 5 7 2

I 4 5 I 2

3 6 5 4 4

° | 2 I r 5

° | 2 I 2 2

I °o I I I

° I I ° 2

I ° ° I 2

° ° ° I I

° ° ° 2 I

I ° ° ° °

QUERY.

A SUBSCRIRER would like to know the best method
of mounting Triple phosphate crystals (dry) so as to
tack them to the slide without interfering with definition,
—Replies invited.

ON THE ACTION OF BACTERIA ON VARIOUS
GASES.* :
By F. HATTON.

The experiments were made to ascertain the nature of
the action exerted by various gases on the life and in-
crease of bacteria, and to observe what influence the
bacteria had on the percentage composition of the gases.
The bacteria were obtained by shaking fresh meat with
distilled water. The aqueous extract was filtered and
exposed to the air for twenty-four to thirty-six hours; it
was always found to be full of bacteria. A small flask
was half filled with mercury, filled up with the bacteria
solution, and inverted in a mercury trough. The gas
under examination was then passed up, a small glass
vessel was introduced under the mouth ot the flask, and
the whole removed from the trough. The liquid was ex-
amined daily as to the condition of the bacteria, the sam-
ple being removed by a piece of bent glass tubing hav-
ing an india rubber joint. After about a week the gas
was pumped out by means of a Sprengle and analyzed,
Atmospheric air was first tried. The bacteria lived well
during the fifteen days of the experiment (T. 15° to 22°).
A large absorption of oxygen took place, but it was not
replaced by carbonic anhydride ; in a second experiment
(T. 25° to 2650) 20 per cent. of the oxygen disappeared,
and only 17 per cent. of CO. was formed. Pure hydro-
gen after fourteen days had no action on the bacteria ;
the gas contained 0.34 per cent. COz, 98.94 per cent. H.
Pure oxygen after ten days was converted into COs 29.98
per cent., O 70.02 per cent. A mixture of CO 46.94 per
cent., CO, 1.27, O 1.27, N 50.51, was next tried after four-
teen days ; the gas contained CO2 17.77, CO 0.55, H 7.58,
CH, 2.50, N 71.57. Inali of the above cases the bacteria
flourished well. Cyanogen was next tried. The solution
of meat turned gradually to a thick black fluid. On the
fifth day very few bacteria could be seen. From this
time, however, they increased, and on the twelfth day
were comparatively numerous. On the fifteenth day the
gas was analyzed; it contained CN 5.35, COs 57.59, O
2.24, N 34.79; a second experiment gave similar results.
It appears, therefore, that cyanogen is fatal to bacteria as
long as it exists as such, but that it soon decomposes in-
to ammonic oxalate, &c., and that the bacteria then re-
vive, especially in sunlight. Sulphurous anhydride was
next tried ; the bacteria lived during the fifteen days : the
gas contained CO: 7.87, O 0.00, N 2.13, SO2 go.10. Sim-
ilar results were obtained with nitrogen, nitrous oxide,
nitric oxide, carbonic anhydride, a mixture of H and O
obtained by the electrolysis of water and coal gas.
In all cases the bacteria lived well during the exper-
ment. The author next experimented with a solution of
urea (0.98 per cent.) and phosphate of potash (0.4 per
cent.), sowing it with bacteria. The bacteria lived well
during the fourteen days of the experiment; small quan-
tities of gas were evolved containing 0.53 per cent. COs,
2.64 per cent. O, and 96.82 per cent. N. An experiment
was made with spongy iron, air, and bacteria. On the
fourth day, all the bacteria had vanished; the air was
analysed on the fifth day, and consisted of CO, 0.26,
O 0.00, and N 99.74 per cent. Experiments were also
made with acetylene, salicylic acid, strychnine (10 per
cent.), morphine, narcotine, and brucine; none of these
substances had any effect on the bacteria. On the other
hand, phenol, spongy iron, alcohol, and potassium per-
manganate were very destructive to these microscopic
growths.

Mr. W. M. HAMLET said that these experiments con-
firmed some observations of his own. He had found
that bacteria could exist in almost anything—in carbonic
oxide, hydrogen, 1 per cent. creosote, phenol, methylamin,
methylic alcohol, chloroform. Moreover, Crace-Calvert
had shown that they could live in strong carbolic acid. In

* Read before Chemical Society, March 3, 81. This paper obtained for
the author the Frankland Prize of £50 at the Institute of Chemistry.

174

SCIENCE.

reply to Mr. WARINGTON the speaker said that the acetic
acid fermentation went on in the presence of chloroform,

Mr. KINGZETT called attention to the fact that the
oxygen was completely used up when the meat infusion
was placed in contact with air. He did not think the ex-
periments represented the action of bacteria on gases or
of gases on bacteria, but rather the effects of various
gases on the mode and extent of ordinary putrefaction.

Dr. FRANKLAND expressed his satisfaction with the
results obtained by the author in his laborious research.
He must confess that these results had surprised him not
alittle. The fact that bacteria, which were real organ-
isms and could not be shielded under the term putrefac-
tion, lived and flourished in SO2, CO, CN, &c., seemed to
him very extraordinary, and the question arose whether
the germs to which infectious diseases were probably
due were not similarly endowed with a power of great re-
sistance to ordinary influences.

Mr. F. J. M. PAGE said that Dr. Baxter had proved |

that with some fever-producing liquids, their virulence
was destroyed by chlorine and sulphuric acid, and that
he had seen some experiments at the Brown Institution
which led to the same conclusion ; so it seemed that, at
all events in some cases, the virulence of infective liquids
was due to organic matter, essentially different from the
bacteria observed by Mr. Hatton.

or

NOTES ON CHICKEN CHOLERA.

We observe in a recent number of the Chemzcal News
that C. T. Kingzett, F. C. S., points out, that, in explain-
ing the protective influence of repeated inoculations with
the attenuated virus of chicken cholera, against the more
virulent forms of this disease, Pasteur finds it ‘impossible
to resist the idea that the microscopic germ which causes
the disease, finds in the body of the animal conditions
suitable to its development, and that to satisfy the neces-
sities of its life the germ alters certain substances, or de-
stroys them, which comes to the same thing, whether it
assimilates them or whether it consumes them with oxy-
gen borrowed from the blood.”

So, again, in cases where complete immunity has been
attained, the birds ‘“ no longer contain food for the germ.”

More striking still is the following passage in reference
to chickens which are born proof against cholera :—
« Animals in this condition may be said to be born vac-
cinated for this disease, because the foetal evolution has
not placed in their bodies the proper food of the parasite,
or because substances which would serve as such food
have disappeared while they were yet young.

Now whether or not we may be prepared to regard the
said parasite as the direct cause of the disease, it is re-
markable that the reasoning of Pasteur should have cul-
minated in the conclusion upon which Liebig insisted
with considerable power.

If we turn to Gregory’s (3rd) edition of Liebig’s
« Animal Chemistry ” (p. 205) we find the following pas-
sage :—‘ The condition which determines, in a second in-
dividual, his liability to the contagion, is the presence in
his body of a substance which by itself, or by means of the
vital force acting in the organism, offers no resistance to
the cause of change in form and composition operating
onit. If this substance be a necessary constituent of the

body, then the disease must be communicable to all per- |

sons; if it be an accidental constituent, then only those
persons will be attacked by the disease in whom it is pre-
sent in the proper quantity and of the proper composition.
The course of the disease is the destructioa and removal
of this substance: it is the establishment of an equilibrium
between the cause acting in the organism which deter-
mines the normal performance of its functions anda
foreign power by whose influence these functions are
altered.”

I repeat that to me it seems somewhat remarkable that
the investigations and reasoning of two such eminené (and

in many matters diametrically opposed) thinkers should
have culminated in the same conclusion as regards the
conditions of the living body which subject it to, or protect
it from, infection.

While, however, it can be readily understood how a pro-
fuse growth of parasites could quickly alter or destroy a
comparatively large amount of substance—as, for in-
stance, happens in ordinary putrefaction—it does not ap-
pear to me so easy to accept Pasteur’s reasoning as to
his so-called vaccination.

In this inflicted process an attenuated virus is introduced
into the body of a chicken which becomes ill but does not
die. It does not die because, if Pasteur be correct, the
parasites do not sufficiently multiply. Why do they not
multiply ? It cannot be on account of the insufficiency of
the pabulum, for in the large majority of cases where
death results this seems to arise from the very profusion
of the growth of the parasite when more freely introduced.

Can it be expected, therefore, that even, say, in three suc-
cessive inoculations the substance which I have here spoken
of as pabulum can be entirely removed or destroyed by the
very limited number of parasites which are introduced by
the inoculations, and which so soon perish in the body ?
I think this cannot be expected ; but if it may be, then the
particular substance or substances upon which the para-
sites prey must be extremely limited in quantity. After all,
we are faced with the enormous difficulty of ascertaining
the nature of such substance, and the further equally great
difficulty of understanding why an undiscovered and unde-
termined substance should be entirely absent from the
bodies in some animals and present in varying proportions
in others.

Here we come in contact with the weakest point in the
parasitic theory. The immunity from a second attack of
an infectious disease of the class in question is simply in-
explicable under the parasitic theory. Weare forced back
to an alternative theory, and that is one of which we at
present only recognize the:beginnings.

A NEW CORTICAL CENTRE.*
By GRAEME M. HAMMOND, M.D., NEw YORK.

Physician to the Department for Diseases of the Nervous System in the
Metropolitan Throat Hospital.

Some six years ago there appeared in the Centralblatt,
Nos. 37 and 38, a short communication by Betz, embody-
ing an account of certain nerve-cells found by him in the
cortex of a region of the brain which he newly named the
paracentral lobule. This paper has probauly aroused
more general attention among neurologists than any other
paper of recent times dealing with the structure of the
cerebral hemispheres, and this, on account of the ana-
tomical confirmation which the discovery seemed to
furnish, of the localization doctrine based on the electrical
stimulation of the cortex carried out by Hitzig and
Fritsche.

After localizing these cells chiefly in the paracentral
lobule and the upper ends of the pre- and post-central
gyri of man, stating them to be very few in number in
the lower halves of these gyri, Betz proceeds to say,
“the constancy of the occurrence of these cells, not only
as regards the cortical layer, but also the special convo-
lutions in which they are found, led me to direct my at-
tention to that portion of the brain of animals, and par-
ticularly of the dog, on which latter Hitzig and Fritsche
obtained such brilliant physiological results. I refer to
that lobule which bounds the sulcus cruciatus. Now I
found in this very lobule in the dog, cells in similar nests
and of a similar shape. With the dog asin man they
are distributed in the fourth layer.”

Engaged ina study of the ganglionic masses of the
forebrain of the cat, an animal on which the experiments |

of Hitzig and Fritsche have been repeated, and in which ——

* Read before the New York Neurological Society, February 1, 1881.

SCIENCE. 178

the centres have been localized in regions homologous to
those of the dog, and in which, furthermore, the archi-
tecture of the cortical surface is fundamentally the same,
I proceeded to review the question of the localization of
the giant-cells.

On the one hand, Betz seemed to argue that the giant-
cells, which he claims to have discovered, were motor,
because they were found at those points in the dog’s
brain where Hitzig and Fritsche, by supposed localized
electrization, had produced contractions of special groups
of muscles. Again, on the other hand, it is apparent
that those interested in defending that narrow localiza-
tion theory, which is such a prominent feature in the
teachings of Charcot and Ferrier, have found one of their
strongest supports in the anatomical discoveries of Betz.

Let us suppose then, for the sake of argument, that it
be granted that larger cells mean motor centres for larger
muscles; taking up the localizationists on their own
ground we will examine the location of these giant-cells
in a cat’s brain, which only differs in a single exception
from the dog’s, and is therefore a fit subject for study.
In fact, the cat’s brain has the advantage of being some-
what simpler.

The results I have obtained are based upon the study
of the cortical area of the two hemispheres of one cat.
One hemisphere was cut as a whole into some seventy-
five sections, from different altitudes transversely to the
cerebral axis. The other was separated into eleven seg-
ments, and each segment cut into a number of thin sec-
tions. The series of sections derived from the first
hemisphere served as a sort of topographical guide for
eon of anything that might be found in the sec-
ond,

I found that the giant-cells are not confined to localized
areas as Betz claims. I find that they are not as numer-
ous near the sulcus cruciatus as they are much posterior
to that region. I have even found giant~cells not very
far from the base of the brain, but I found the largest
group of the largest cells in a place not yet indicated on
any of the charts of the localizationists as an unquestion-
able motor point. In the accompanying woodcut the posi-
tion of the nest of cells that I have discovered is accur-
ately demonstrated. These cells are ovoid, circular, and

sub-pyramidal in shape, and possess a round nucleolated
nucleus situated about the centre of the cell. Each cell
has from two to six visible processes. The ovoid cells are
much the larger, their long diameter measuring from
0.08 mm. to 0.12 mm.; and their short diameter from
0.05 mm. to0o.06mm. The circular and subpyramidal
cells measure from 0.c7 mm. to 0.08 mm. in diameter.
The nuclei of all the varieties are of the same size, and
measure 0.03 mm. in diameter. 1 cnly succeeded in finding
themin one locality, but found them very numerous in that
area. They are situated in the first primary arched
gyrus, between the Sylvian and anterior Sylvian fissures.
Ferrier, in his “ Functions of the Brain ” indicates a
“centre” on the frontal division of the fourth external
convolution, where, he says, he has observed, on irritat-
ing this centre, “a divergence of the lips so as to par-
tially open the mouth.” This centre approaches nearer
in position to the one I have discovered than any other.
With this study I was enabled to locate the chief foci for
condensation of the giant-cells, of the shape known to
Betz and Mierzejewski. These are pyramidal in shape,
with a central round nucleus, and measure from 0,09
mm. to 0.12 mm. in length, and from 0.03 mm. to 0,04 mm.
in width at the base. Their nuclei measure 0.02 mm. in
diameter. The following woodcut shows how
two of Betz’s largest cells can be placed so that their
conjoined areas are only equal to the areas of one of the
ovoid cells such as I have described.

I regard the term “area of large cells’ as inaccurate.
The large cells are scattered more or less widely over the
brain-surface, and it would be better to speak of “ foci”’
when they are concentrated in larger numbers than else-
where.

The giant-cell of Betz is not a new discovery. It is not
a thing by itself distinct from the other pyramidal cells
of the cortex. On the contrary, both in the-human cor-

tex and in the cat, every transition from the average-
sized cell of the third frontal layer to the giant-cell can
be traced. I would also call attention to the fact that
Betz states ‘these cells to be in nests”’ and not uni-
formly distributed in one layer, but I have seen, in one
section from the paracentral lobule of the human brain,
giant-cells arranged in regular order like soldiers on
parade, for a distance of one-third of an inch.

Taking the deductions, which have been based upon
the existence of these cells, on their merits, we find that
those who have relied on this demonstration for the sup-
port of the theory of motor centres, are reduced to a
number of predicaments. 1. That the largest giant-cells
have been found in the brain of carnivora where no
motor centre has been clearly demonstrated, and near
which only small muscles are supposedto receive their cor-
tical innervation. 2. That if, after all, this is a motor
centre, that the method of localization was incompetent
to detect it. I have limited myself this evening to this
single fact. I need not say that the giant-cell was known
to Meynert, although its locality was not accurately de-
scribed by him. He claimed that the larger gyri of the
frontal lobe contained the largest cells. On the other
hand, cells as large as the giant-cells can be seen through
the entire occipital lobe, according to this observer, in

176

SCIENCE.

the two white strata, and were described by him by’the
name of ‘‘ solitary cells.”” I trust at no distant date to
review the entire question of the distribution of large
cortical cells with measurements and to submit them to
the society.

For the present I think the existence of the large cor-
tical cell group which I have described, shows conclus-
ively that before the existence of large cells can be con-
sidered a demonstration of the correctness of functional
localization, a more extended study must be made.

te

THE UNITY OF NATURE.
By THE DUKE OF ARGYLL.
VII.

ON THE MORAL CHARACTER OF MAN CONSIDERED
IN THE LIGHT OF THE UNITY OF NATURE,
(Continued).

It may be well, before proceeding farther in this branch
of our inquiry, to retrace for a little the path we have
been following, and to identify the conclusions to which
we have been led.

In the first place, we have seen that the sense of obli-
gation considered in itself—that is to say, considered
apart from the particular actions to which it is attached
—is a simple and elementary conception of the mind, in-
somuch that in every attempt to analyze it, or to explain
its origin and growth, this absurdity can always be
detected,—that the analysis or explanation universally
assumes the previous existence of that very conception
for which it professes to account.

In the second place, we have seen that, just as Reason,
or the logical faculty, begins its work with the direct per-
ception of some simple and elementary truths, of which
no other account can be given than that they are intuit-
ively perceived, or, in other words, that they are what is
called ‘self-evident,’ so in like manner the Moral Sense
begins its work with certain elementary perceptions and
feelings in respect to conduct, which arise out of the very
nature of things, and come instinctively to all men. The
earliest of these feelings is the obligation of obedience to
that first Authority the rightfulness of which over us is
not a question but a fact. The next of these feelings is
the obligation of acting towards other men as we know
we should like them to act towards ourselves. The first of
these feelings of obligation is inseparably associated with
the fact that all men are born helpless, absolutely de-
pendent and subject to Parents. The second of these
feelings of obligation is similarly founded on our con-
scious community of nature with other men, and on the
consequent universal applicability to them of our own
estimates of good and evil.

In the third place, we have seen that this association
of the higher powers of Man with rudimentary data
which are supplied by the facts of Nature, is in perfect
harmony with that condition of things which prevails
throughout Creation,—the condition, namely, that every
creature is provided from the first with just so much of
instinct and of impulse as is requisite to propel and guide
it in the kind and to the measure of development of which
its organism is susceptible, leading it with unfailing reg-
ularity to the fulfillment of the law of its own being, and
to the successful discharge of the functions assigned to it
in the world.

In the fourth place, we have seen that the only really
exceptional fact connected with Man is—not that he has
faculties of a much higher kind than other creatures, nor
that these faculties are susceptible of a corresponding
kind and measure of development—but that in Man alone
this development has a persistent tendency to take a
wrong direction, leading not towards, but away from, the
perfecting of his powers.

In the last place, we have seen that as a matter of fact,

and as a result of this tendency, a very large portion of
Mankind, embracing almost all the savage races, and
large numbers of men among the most civilized com-
munities, are a prey to habits, practices, and dispositions
which are monstrous and unnatural—one test of this
unnatural character being that nothing analogous is to
be found among the lower animals in those spheres of
impulse and of action in which they have a common
nature with our own; and another test being that these
practices, habits, and dispositions are always directly
injurious and often even fatal to the race. Forbidden
thus and denounced by the highest of all authorities,
which is the authority of Natural Law, these habits and
practices stand before us as unquestionable exceptions
to the unity of Nature, and as conspicuous violations of
the general harmony of Creation.

When, however, we have come to see that such is really
the character of these results, we cannot be satisfied with
the mere recognition of their existence as a fact. We
seek an explanation and a cause. We seek for this,
moreover, in a very different sense from that in which
we seek for an explanation and a cause of those facts
which have the opposite character of being according to
law and in harmony with the analogies of Nature.

With facts of this last kind, when we have found the
place into which they fit in the order of things, we can
and we do rest satisfied as facts which are really ultimate
—that is to say, as facts for which no other explanation
is required than that they are part of the Order of Na-
ture, and are due to that one great cause, or to that com-,
bination of causes, from which the whole harmony and
unity of Nature is derived. But when we are dealing
with facts which cannot be brought within this category,
—which cannot be referred to this Order, but which are,
on the contrary, an evident departure from it,—then we
must feel that these facts require an explanation and a
cause as special and exceptional as the results them-
selves.

There is, indeed, one theory in respect to those mys-
terious aberrations of the human character, which, al-
though widely prevalent, can only be accepted as an ex-
planation by those who fail to see in what the real diffi-
culty consists. That theory is, that the vicious and
destructive habits and tendencies prevailing among men,
are not aberrant phenomena at all, but are original con-
ditions of our nature, —that the very worst of them have
been primitive and universal, so that the lowest forms of
savage life are the nearest representatives of the primor-
dial condition of the race.

Now, assuming for the present that this were true, it
would follow that the anomaly and exception which Man
presents among the unities of Nature is much more vio-
lent and more profound than on any other supposition.
For it would represent the contrast between his instincts
and those of the lower animals as greatest and widest at
the very moment when he first appeared among the
creatures which, in respect to these instincts, are so
superior to himself. And it is to be observed that this
argument applies equally to every conceivable theory or
belief as to the origin of Man. Itis equally true whether. .
he was a special creation, or an unusual birth, or the
result of a long series of unusual births each marked
by some new accession to the aggregate of faculties
which distinguish him from the lower animals. As re-
gards the anomaly he presents, it matters not which of
these theories of his origin be held. If his birth, or his
creation, or his development, whatever its methods may
have been, took place after the analogy of the lower ani-
mals, then, along with his higher powers of mind, there
would have been corresponding instincts associated with
them to guide and direct those powers in their proper
use, It is inthis essential condition of all created things
that Man, especially in his savage state, presents an abso-
lute contrast with the brutes. It is no explanation, but,
on the contrary, an insuperable increase of the difficulty,

SCIENCE. | 177

to suppose that this contrast was widest and most abso-
lute when Man made his first appearance in the world.
It would be to assume that, for a most special and most
exceptional result, there was no special or exceptional
cause. It Man was, indeed, born with an innate pro-
pensity to maltreat his women, to murder his children,
to kill and eat his fellow, to turn the physical functions
of his nature into uses which are destructive to his race,
then, indeed, it would be literally true that

‘« Dragons of the prime,
That tare each other in their slime,
Were mellow music matched with him.”

It would be true, because there were no Dragons of
the prime, even as there are no reptiles of the present age
—there is no creature, however terrible or loathsome its
aspect may be to us, among all the myriads of created
things—which does not pass through all the stages of its
development with perfect accuracy to the end, or which,

having reached that end, fails to exhibit a corresponding

harmony between its propensities and its powers, or be-
tween both of these and the functions it has to perform
in the economy of Creation. So absolute and so perfect
is this harmony, that men have dreamed that somehow it
is self-caused, the need and the requirement of a given
function producing its appropriate organ, and the organ
again reacting on the requirement and the need. . What-
ever may be the confusion of thought involved in this
idea, ic is at least an emphatic testimony to the fact of an
order and an adjustment of the most perfect kind pre-
vailing in the work of what is called Evolution, and sug-

gesting some cause which is of necessary and universal

operation. ‘The nearer, theretore, we may suppose the
origin of Man may have been to the origin of the brutes,
the nearer also would his condition have been to the ful-
fillment of a law which is of universal application among
them. Under the fulfillment of that law the higher gifts
and powers with which Man is endowed would have run
smoothly their appointed course, would have unfolded as
a bud unfolds to flower,—as a flower ripens into fruit,—
and would have presented results: absolutely different
from those which are actually presented either by the
savage or by what is called the civilized condition of
Mankind.

_And here it may be well to define, as clearly as we can,
what we mean by civilization, because the word is very
loosely used, and because the conceptions it involves are
necessarily complex. Usually it is associated in our
minds with all that is highest in the social, moral, and
political condition of the Christian nations as repre-
sented in our own country and in our own time. Thus,
for example, respect for human life, and tenderness to-
wards every form of human suffering, is one of the most
marked features of the best modern culture. But
we know that this sentiment, and many others which are
related to it, were comparatively feeble in the case of
other societies which, nevertheless, we acknowledge to
have been very highly civilized. We must, therefore,
attach some more definite and restricted meaning to the
word, and we must agree to understand by civilization
only those characteristic conditions which have been
common to all peoples whom we have been accustomed
to recognize as among the governing nations of the
world. And when we come to consider what these char-
acteristics are, we find that though complex, they are
yet capable of being brought within a toleraily clear and
simple definition. The Latin word czvzs, from which our
word civilization comes, still represents the fundamental
conception which is involved. The citizen of an imperial
City,—the subject of an imperial Ruler,—the mem-
ber of a great State,—this was the condition which con-
stituted the Roman idea of the rank and status of civili-
zation. No doubt many things are involved in this con-
dition, and many other things have come to be associated

condition, as thus defined or understood, can readily be
separated from others which are not essential. An ex-
tended knowledge of the useful arts, and the possession
of such a settled system of law and governmentas enables
men to live in great political communities, these are the
essential features of what we understand by civilization.
Other characteristics may co-exist with these, but noth-
ing more is necessarily involved in a proper understand-
ing, or even in the usual application of the word. In
particular, we cannnot affirm that a civilized: condition
involves necessarily any of the higher moral elements of
character. It is true, indeed, that no great State, nor
even any great City, can have been founded and built up
without courage and patriotism. Accordingly these were
perhaps the most esteemed virtues of antiquity. But
these are by no means confined to civilized men, and are,
indeed, often conspicuous in the savage and in the bar-
barian. Courage, in at least its lower forms, is one of
the commonest of all qualities; and patriotism, under
the like limitation, may almost be said to be an universal
passion, It is in itself simply a natural consequence of
the social instinct; common to Man and to many of the
lower animals—that instinct which leads us to identify
our own passions and our own sympathies with any
brotherhood to which we may belong,—whatever the as-
sociating tie of that brotherhood may be,—whether it be
morally good, bad, or indifferent. Like every other in-
stinct, it rises on its moral character in proportion as it is
guided by reason and by conscience, and in proportion
as, through these, it becomes identified with duty and
with self-devotion. But the idea of civilization is in it-
self separate from the idea of virtue. Men of great re-
finement of manners may be, and often are, exceedingly
corrupt. And what is true of individuals is true of com-
munities. The highest civilizations of the heathen world
were marked by a very low code of morals. and by a
practice even lower than their code. But the intellect
was thoroughly cultivated. Knowledge of the useful
arts, taste in the fine arts, and elaborate systems both of
civil polity and of military organization, combined to
make, first Greek, and then Roman, civilization, in such
matters the basis of our own.

It is, therefore, only necessary to consider for a mo-
ment these essential characteristics of what we mean by
civilization, to see that it is a conception altogether in-
congruous with any possible idea we can form of the
condition of our first parents, or, indeed, of their offspring
for many generations. An extended knowledge of the
useful arts is of necessity the result of accumulation.
Highly organized systems of polity were both needless
and impossible before settled and populous communities
had arisen, Government was a simple matter when the
“world’s gray fathers’? exercised over their own children
the first and the most indisputable of all authorities.

It is unfortunate that the two words which are habit-
ually used to indicate the condition opposite to that of
civilization are words both of which have come to mean
a great deal more than mere ignorance of the useful arts,
or a merely rudimentary state of law and government.
Those two words are barbarism and savagery. Each of
these has come to be associated with the idea of special
vices of character and of habit, such as cruelty and feroc-
ity. But “barbarian,” in the classical language from
which it came to us, had no such meaning. It was ap-
plied indiscriminately by the Greeks to all nations, and
to all conditions of society other than their own, and did
not necessarily imply any fault or failure other than that
of not belonging to the race, and not partaking of the
culture which was then, in many respects at least, the
highest in the world. St. Paul refers to all men who
spoke in any tongue unknown to the Christian commu-
nities as men who were “to them barbarians.’’ But he
did not associate this term with any moral faults, such
as violence or ferocity ; on the contrary, in his narrative

with it. But the essential elements of the civilized | of his shipwreck on the coast of Malta, he calls the

178

SCIENCE.

natives of that island “barbarous people” in the same
sentence in which he tells us of their kindness and hos-

pitality. This simple and purely negative meaning of
the word barbarian has been lost to us, and
it has become inseparably associated with char- |

acteristics which are indeed common among uncivilized
nations, but are by no means confined to them. The
epithet .“‘savage,”’ of course, still more distinctly
means something quite different from rude, _ or
primitive or uncultivated. The element of cruelty
or of ferocity is invariably present to the mind where we
speak of savagery, although there are some races—as
for example, the Eskimo—who are totally uncivilized,
but who, in this sense, are by no means savage.

And this may well renind us that, as we have found
it necessary to define to ourselves the condition which we
are to understand by the word civilization, so it is not
less essential to define and limit the times to which we
are to apply the word primeval. For this word also is
habitually used with even greater laxity of meaning. It
is often employed as synonymous with primitive, and
this again is applied not only to all times which are pre-
historic, but all conditions even in our own age which are
rude or savage. There is an assumption that,the farther
we go back in time, there was not only less and less
extensive knowledge of the useful a:ts,—not only simpler
and simpler systems of life and polity—-but also that
there were de-per and deeper depths of the special char-
acteristics of the modern savage. We have, however,
only to consider what some of these characteristics are,
to be convinced that altuough they may have arisen in
early times, they cannot possibly have exis’ed in the
times which were the earliest of all. Things may have
been done, and habits may have prevailed, when the
multiplication and dispersion of Mankind had proceeded
to a considerable extent, which cannot possibly have been
done, and which cannot possibly have prevailed when as
yet there was only a single pair of beings “ worthy to be
called’? man and woman, nor even when as yet all the
children of that pair knew themselves to be of one fam-
ily and blood. ‘The word primeval ought, if it is to have
any definite meaning at all, to be confined to this earliest
time alone. It has already been pointed out, that on the
- supposition that the condition of primeval man approxi-
mated to the condition of the lower animals, that con-
di:ion could not have been nearer to, but must, on the
contrary, have been very much farther removed from the
condition of the modern savage. If, for example, there
ever was a time when there ex'sted on one spot of earth,
or even on more spots than one, a single pair of human
beings, it is impossible that they should have murdered
their offspring, or that they should have killed and eaten
each other. Accordingly it is admitted that cannibalism
and infanticide, two of the commonest practices of sav-
age and of barbarous life, cannot have been primeval.
But this is a conclusion of immense significance. It hints
to us, if it does no more, that what is true of one savage

practice may possibly be true of others.
(To be Continued.)

ASTRONOMY.

COMPARISON STARS :— Under this heading Mr. Dreyer,
in the last number of Uvanza, makes a most excellent
“Suggestion to Astronomers’ upon a matter which, of
late, attracted some little attention. It is to be hoped
that other observers will follow the example set at the
Dunsink Observatory. Mr. Dreyer’s “suggestion” is
as follows :

“In spite of the numerous s‘ar-catalogues in the hands
of observers of minor plants and comets, it frequently
happens that a well-determined place for a comparison
star cannot be found in any catalogue. Many s ars have
therefore to be re-observed, and much time is no doubt
lost by a number of observers, each having to determine

{

the places of a few stars, which, if put together in one
working list could be observed by one person with but
little trouble.

It would evidently be an advantage if an astronomer,
having at his disposal a good transit circle, would, for a
time, endeavor to determine the places of all the compari-
son stars recently used and requiring re-observation.

In accordance with this scheme, [ shall, until further
notice (with the concurrence of Dr. Ball) be glad to de-
termine with the Dunsink Transit Circle the places of any
comparison stars north of —2o0° Declination not found
in modern catalogues, and recently used in observations
of minor planets or comets. The mean places, based on
the Fundamental Catalogue of the ‘Astronomische
Gesellschaft,’ will be worked out and published as scon
as practicable,”

THE SOLAR PARALLAX.

M. Faye has recently communicated to the Paris Aca-
demy of Sciences (Comptes Rendus Tome XCII., No. 8),
an interesting paper upon the actual state of our knowl-
edge of the sun’s parallax. Remarkiog thet there is no
other constant in science whose determination depends
upon such a large number of entirely independent results,
he subdivides the various values assigned for the sun’s
mean parallax, as follows:

) 8.85" by Mars (Cassini’s method). ..-....--.-.--} vewcomb
Geometrical | 8.78 by Venus, 1769 (Halley’s method) .________ Powalky
Methods + 8.81 by Venus, 1874 BS Me Peete SS upman
8.82" | 8.87 by..Hlora, (Galte's method))---- stone ee Galle
8.79 by Juno Ma ee Lindsay
Mechanical } 8.81 by the lunar inequality (Laplace’s method)-- oa
Methods’ ~8.85 by the monthly equation of the earth._______ Leverrier
8.83" ) 8.83 by the perturberations of Mars and Venus_-.Leverrier
Physical} 8.799 velocity of Ilght (Fizeau’s method)_..-..------ Cornu
Methods + a -
8.81" | 8.813 is (Foucault’s method)----.- Michelson

In regard to the value 8.85” obtained by Cassini’s method,
M. Faye says that Mars has always given values for the
solar parallax somewhat too large. The first value 8."81
obtained by mechanical methods was calculated by
adopting for the coefficient of the inequality 125.2”, the
mean between the result of Airy from the Greenwich ob-
servations, and that of Newcomb from the Washington
observations, taking for the moon’s parallax 57’ 2.7", and
for her mass s}-s. By the second of the ‘‘ mechanical
methods.” Leverrier found 8."95, which was afterwards
reduced to 8.85" by Stone upon correcting two slight
errors inthe computation. The vaiue from the pertur-
bations of Venus and Mars, assigned by Leverrier was
8.86", but one of the numbers requiring a small correc-
tion, it is reduced to 8.83". Michelson having overcome
all the difficulties in Foucault's method, found for the
velocity of light 2,999.40 kilom. + 100 kilom. Using
Struve’s constant of aberration the corresponding values
of the parallax are 8.799’ and 8.813", as above. The
general mean is 8.82", to which M. Faye attributes a prob-
able error of + 0.016". Although each of the values
may be effected by systematic error, nevertheless, since
the causes of error are varied, and without the least pos-
sible connection, these errors must be to a great degree
eliminated, as well as the accidental errors.

The following conclusions are reached :

I. That the physical methods are superior to all
others, and should be adopted.

2. That the value of the solar parallax, 8.813" (by phy-
sical methods), is now determined to about 74; of a
second.

3. That the seven astronomical methods converge
more and more towards that value, and tend to confirm
it, without equalling it in precision.

This fact does not diminish, however, the great impor-
tance of observations upon the coming transit of Venus,
to which we can now bring to our aid the most effective
of photographic apparatus. Wore

WASHINGTON, D.C, A5r id 14, 1881.

SCIENCE.

LETTERS TO THE EDITOR.

[The Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed
by his correspondents. No notice is taken of anonymous communi-
*cations.|

To the Editor of ‘‘SC1ENCE :”

PRIMITIVE STAGES OF COSMICAL EVOLU=
TION.

Some correspondence which has recen'ly appeared in
your columns seems to render it proper to offer a brief
synopsis of my conception of the primitive modes of ex-
istence of cosmical matter. Supposing luminous cosmi-
cal matter to be intensely heated, there isno good reason
for assuming this to be absolutely a first condition. It is
undoubtedly a remote and primitive condition, which
may be assumed as a stage from which cosmical develop-
ment proceeds. But, in the light of recent science, we
may reasonably seek for earlier stages at which cosmical
matter existed in a cold and non-luminous state. In these
stiges we may conceive it either as atomically sub-
divided and dissociated, or as partly in a condition of
molar aggregation, and perhaps of chemical combination.
I am inclined to think, with Laplace and Kant, that space
is abundantly stocked with cosmical matter in a crude
and unformed state. I see no grourd for assigning any
limit to the state of subdivision in which some of it
may exist. I see no satisfactory ground for assuming as
Macvicar and others have done, that it emerges from an
ethereal condition, nor for denying it. I do not imagine
it to possess a temperature different from that of the
space in which it floats—if, indeed space, which is nct
conditioned by matter, can be said to possess a property,
which we only know as an affecton of matter.

But there is a principle of gravitation in the universe,
however we may explain it, which is ever beginning the
aggregation of the ultimate elements of cosmical matter,
and ever uniting these aggregations into masses larger
and larger. We have made the acquaintance of some of
these masses, large and small, in meteoric stones and
millions of meteoroids, which become kindled only by
friction with our atmosphere. It has been shown that
several metecroidal trains identify themselves with weil-
known cometary existences. It has been suggested that
a rain of cosmical matter has pelted the minute satellites
of Mars until the angular orbital motion of the inner one
exceeds the axial motion of the planet. The collisions
of molecules and masses must result in the evolution of
heat. This, within certain limits of temperature, would
promote the chemical union of atoms previously dissc-
ciated. But the impact of larger masses and groups of
masses and molecules would undoubtedly develop suffi-
cient heat to vaporize matter, and even to reproduce a
state of dissociation. Such events would characterize
the history of any vast region of space in which cosmical
atoms should have become relatively approximated. They
are in process of falling together. This is the condensa-
tion of the cosmical swarm. It may proceed, as Sir
William Herschel conceived, until the successive stages
of nebular condensation have been passed, when the
swarm arrives at the condition of asun. But it is well-
nigh impossible for two cosmical masses to come to-
gether without producing rotation. The constituent por-
uons of a nebula must probably rotate, and the nebula
as a whole must, in most cases, exist in a state of rota-
tion. Such a nebula was the starting point of Laplace,
and was recognized as an actual contingency by Sir
William Herschel.

But I do not conceive a fully formed and characteristic
nebula as necessarily in a state of complete gaseity. The
perpetual collision of hard parts might vaporize sufficient
matter to occupy the intervening spaces and afford the
characteristic spectral results.

179

As longas the nebula remains in process of condensation
through central gravitation, the evolution of heat must
continue. But there is a juncture at which rise of tem-
perature must cease. That is reached when the elastic
torces equilibrate the attractive. From this point, con-
densation developes heat, but some more is lost than is
acquired, and the mass continually subsides in tempera-
ture. It is only the loss of an excess of heat which now
permits the progressing condensation. Cooling is the
limiting condition of condensation ; and to assert a rising
or a constant temperature is to assume that a condition
may be surpassed by the effect of that which it condi-
tions and measures. It is a virtual denial of the con-
servation of energy and of the equation of cause and
effect.

In this view of cosmical beginnings, nebular heat is
preceded by motion, and the cause of motion is what
we call gravity. If, es Le Sage maintained, gravity is
only the effect of the impact of a storm of ultramundane
corpuscles, then our explanation ends at last in motion
for which we cannot invoke gravity as an ultimate phy-
sical cause. Metaphysically speaking, such must be the
issue of all explanations. There is a necessary wd/zma
thule in the realm of thought. We are no nearer an
absolute explanation at one stage of cosmical develop-
ment than at any other ‘The remotest term reached
must always stand scien/ifically unexplained.

I began by suppcsing luminous nebular matter in-
tensely heated. There are many indications that such is
its condition. The bright spectrel lines and the analogy
of the envelopes of the solar and stellar bodies are
strongly suggestive. The raticnal continuity of cosmical
development, leading our thoughts backward from an in-
crusted world through all conceivable stages, toan in-
candescent vapor or possibly gas, enforces the conviction
of high nebular temperature. But, on the contrary, the
very limited number of nebular bright lines spectroscopi-
cally revealed proclaims a fundamental condition widely
different from that in the sunand fixed stars. It might be
suggested that this indicates not only elemental dissocia-
tion, but an ulterior resolution, as Lockyer maintains, into
one or two sole sorts of world-stuff; but it may also be
suggested that the phenomenon is so divergent from the
results of any terrestrial verifications that we are left
without any substantial ground for inference. The
nuclei of comets give also a few bright spectral lines.
When the comet is near its perihelion it is not difficult to
admit, in some cases, that the spectrum reveals a volati-
lized condition ; but when a body so tenuous as to trans-
mit star-light has retired from pemhe ion, it is difficult to
believe that a gaseous condition is still the effect of high
incandescence. The ident fication of cometary and cold
meteoroidal trains, if it has truly been done, throws
doubt on the assumed heat of even the nuclear portions
of a comet remote from the sun; and yet even here it is
supposable that perpetual collisicn of cold hard parts dis-
engages sufficient heat to create a common gaseous med-
ium. Finally, the meteoric streak of light left sometimes
fifteen to thirty minutes after the fall and dissipation
of the meteor, cannot be a case cf heated luminosity.
Heat vaporizes the meteoroid; but it is then a train of
minutely divided particles exposed to almost instantan-
eous refrigeration. A few grains of matter strewn along
a path twenty miles in extent, in the cold atmosphere,
cannot retain luminosity as a consequence of h‘gh tem-
perature. We might cite the streamers of the aurora
borealis, and the Geisslerian discharges, and Crooke’s
radiant matter, and the general phenomena of phosphor-
escence as further reminders that intense heat is not the
only cause of luminosity, and suggestions that nebular
light #zay not be exclusively the light of thermal incan-
descence,

ALEXANDER WINCHELL,

UNIVERSITY OF MICHICAN, Arid 8, 1881,

180

BOOKS RECEIVED.

SIGHT : An Exposition of the Principles of Monocular and
Binocular Vision, by JOSEPH LE CONTE, LL.D., Pro-
fessor of Geology and Natural History in the Univers-
ity of California——D. Appleton & Co. New York,
1881.

This is another of those books specially prepared to
bring wiihin the reach of the general reader, some of the
most interesting but complicated problems of science.

In the present case Professor le Conte has attempted
the double task of writing a work for the general public,
which should also be found profitable reading for even
the most advanced specialist. This would appear to be
an embarrassing operation even with a popular subject, but
with one so purely technical as optics the difficulties of the
author must have been greatly increased.

To accomplish this programme with success, Professor
Le Conte has divided his subject into two parts; the first
treating, in an elementary manner, the anatomy and con-
struction of the human eye, and the various theories in-
volved in vision ; and also a second part addressed to the
specialist, in which some of the disputed points in Binoc-
ular vision are treated in detail.

Professor Le Conte, in speaking of the wonderful
mechanism of the human eye, describes it as a master-
piece of Nature, whereas it is well known that many au-
thors have been far less enthusiastic in its praise.

To show how differently two authors may treat the same
subject even from the same point of view, let us com-
pare what Professor Le Conte and Dr. H. Newell Mar-
tin says, as to the comparison of the human eye with a
microscope objective, for curiously enough they both se-
lect the same object for this purpose, the former in the
work now under review, and the latter in “The Human
Body,” a book recently received in our office, a notice
of which is in preparation.

Professor Le Conte remarks, * ‘“ We see, then, that the
mode of adjustment of the eye is somewhat like that of
the Microscope.” ‘‘ Like the Microscope, but how in-
finitely superior.”

Whereas, Dr. Martin observes: “The eye, though it
answers admirably as a physiological instrument, is by
no means as perfect optically; not nearly so good, for ex-
ample, as a good Microscope objective.’’+ Again Pro-
fessor Le Conte, while indeed speaking of ‘“ defects of the
eye as an instrument,” refers such imperfections to a
condition of disease or malformation, or at least to eyes
which are not ‘normal or perfect,’’ and specially men-
tions Myopy or Brachymetropy, Presbyopy, Hypermetropy
and Astigmatism. Whereas, Dr. Martin points out de-
fects of the human eye, which appear to be the normal
condition of human vision, and exist “even in the best of
eyes’ —such as the ‘reflecting surfaces of our eyes not
even being truly spherical, especially in the case of the
cornea,” and that ‘few persons are able to see equally
clearly, at once, two lines crossing one another at right
angles,” this defect, when existing in a marked degree,
causing serious trouble, amounting to disease, and known
as “astigmatism.”

In regard to the first part of the work, we may state
that rarely has the subject been before treated in a man-
ner so likely to realize in the mind of the student all that
it is necessary to know in regard to the vision of man.
The author’s descriptions are so clear that to miscon-
strue them is impossible. Excellent illustrations are
given, the majority being diagrams prepared by Professor
Le Conte.

In regard to the more technical parts of the work relat-
ing to Binocular Vision, we find a difficulty in giving a
resumé without diagrams, which it is not possible to
present with this notice, but we trust we have aroused suf-

* Sight, &c., page 45.
+ The Human Body, page 502,

SCIENCE.

ficient interest in this book to induce those studying
the question to make direct use of Professor Le Conte’s
work, where the whole subject is explained.

Professor Le Conte’s own views, however, on Binocular
vision may be given, which are expressed in the following
words:

“« All objects or points of objects, either beyond or nearer
than the point of sight, are doubled but differently.
The former homonymously, the latter heteronymously.
The double images in the former case are united by Zess
convergence, in the latter case by greater convergence of
the optic axes. Now the observer knows zustznctzvely
and without trzal, in any case of double images, whether
they will be united by greater or less optic convergence,
and therefore never makes a mistake, or attempts to unite
by making a wrong movement of the optic axes. In
other words, ¢he eye (or the mind) znstincttvely distin-
guishes homonymous from heteronymous tmages, refer-
ring the former to objects, successive combination of
the different parts of the object or scene, or pictures, as
maintained by Briicke.”’ +

Professor Le Conte claims that this work ‘meets a
real want, and fills a real gap in scientific literature ;’’ in
this assertion we heartily concur.

oe

CORRESPONDENCE.

| The Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed
by his correspondents. No notice is taken of anonymous communi

ations.)
ee" &\ PROBLEM IN OPTICS.
To the Edwtor of “ SCYENCE:”

Will some of your correspondents answer the follow-
ing questions, not from any tables given in books, but by
original computation or observation. Given a plate of
crown glass, index of refraction 1.525, with parallel sur-
faces, a ray of light incident on the under-surface 38° from
the normal.

What will be the direction of the ray zz the glass ?
What will be its direction of emergence from the upper
surface into air? What its direction into water? What
percentage of the light will be lost by reflection from the
under surface of the plate? What will be lost from the
upper surface ? ,

If the light is incident 45° from the normal, what is the
answer to each of the above questions ?

As each color of the spectrum has a different degree
of refraction the medium ray should’ as usual be taken
for computation. ~

The thickness of the plate cannot affect the refrac-
tion zz the glass, only the point where the ray reaches
the upper surface. CARL REDDOTS,

————_—$_<q—______—.

Ozone is absorbed in a solution of arsenious acid to
which a little neutral potassium iodide has been added.
The excess of arsenious acid is estimated with standard
iodine solution. 1. Ozoneisa constituent of the higher atmos-
phere to a much larger extent than near the earth’s surface.
2. Ozone is destroyed by contact with the gases and organic
matter ina moist atmosphere, as near the earth’s surface,
and that the collection of ozone from the air is attended by
the destruction of itto alarge extent. 3. The absorptive
power of the ozone in the air is quite sufficient to account
for the limitation of the solar spectrum. 4. The blue tint
of the atmosphere is largely due to ozone.—W. N. Harr-

LEY.
ee a

ERRATA.

How to obtain the Brain of the Cat, (Wilder).—Correction :
Page 158, second column, line 7, ‘‘grains,” should be
““orams;”’ page 159, near middle of 2nd column, ‘“‘suc-
cessily,” should be ‘‘ successively ;”” page 161, the number
of Flower’s paper is 3.

¢ Page 151.

VES 4

SCIENCE.

pOmeee ING TF:

A WEEKLY REcORD OF SCIENTIFIC

PrRoGRESS.

JOHN MICHELS, Editor.

PUBLISHED AT

229 BROADWAY, NEW YORK.

P, O. Box 8838.

SATURDAY, APRIL -23, 1881.

The growth of abstract science in this country is
perhaps no better illustrated than by the advance
which has been made of late years in the various de-
partments of mathematics. It is only a few years
since Prof. Peirce was about the only person in the
United States who held a position among the original
mathematicians of the world, while to-day there are
in this country a number of persons whose writings
are destined to rank among the classics, and a journal
of mathematics of the highest rank is published under
the auspices of the Johns Hopkins University and sus-
tained almost entirely by American contributors.
Among the best of the abstract writers referred to is
Mr. William Ferrel, who has been hitherto best known
by his tidal researches, but is now engaged in investi-
gations on the mathematical principles of meteoro-
logy. His latest work, just published by the Coast
Survey, is now before us, and although nominally con-
sisting only of researches on Cyclones, Waterspouts
and Tornadoes, is in reality a valuable contribution
to the theory of storms in general.

s

The Board of Directors of the Ohio Mechanics’
Institute have organized a ‘“‘ Department of Science
and Arts” for the purpose of increasing the usefulness
of the Institution. A Section of Mechanics and
Engineering under the chairmanship of Professor H.
T. Eddy, and one of Chemistry under Professor F.
W. Clark, have been arranged. Meetings for the
public discussion of scientific subjects will be held
once a month, and various other arrangements are in
progress which will contribute to the success of the
present attempt to provide increased facilities for
technical and scientific education for the youths of
Cincinnati,

181

SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES OF WASHINGTON.

THE BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY, WASHINGTON.—Since
our last report the following papers have been read:
“Roan Mountain, North Carolina, and its Flora,” by Prof.
J. W. Chickering, Jr.; ‘“‘ Notes on the Flowering of So/a-
num rostratum and Cassia chamaecrista, with illustra-
tions,” by Prof. J. E. Todd; “ A Critical Review of Giin-
ther’s Ichthyology,” by Prof. Theodore Gill; “On the
Mortality of Marine Animals in the Gulf of Mexico,” by
Mr. Ernst Ingersoll: ‘A Statistical View of the Flora of
the District of Columbia,” by Prof. Lester F. Ward. Itis
to be regretted that the absence of our Washington cor-
respondent from the meetings deprives us of abstracts
of these valuable papers.

THE ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY.-—- The Constitu-
tion of this society, now in its third year, makes it ob-
ligatory upon the President to prepare at the commence-
ment of each year, a summary of the transactions of the
organization during the past year. At the close of the
first year, the President overlooked this fact, but made
ample amends at the commencement of the third year by
preparing a pamphlet containing both annual addresses,
and copious abstracts of all the papers that had ever been
read.

Since our last report, the following papers have been
read: “The Savage Mind in the Presence of Civiliza-
tion,” by Prof. Otis T. Mason ; “ Prehistoric Trephining,”
by Dr. Robert Fletcher ; ‘Some Superstitions of the
Sioux Indians,” by Dr. H. Yaddow ; “ The Chief’s Son and
the Thunders: An Omaha Myth,” by Rev. J. Owen Dorsey.

The design of the first named paper was two-fold:
first, to show that the presence of other peoples better
furnished and skilled in some respect had always oper-
ated as a stimulus in the onward march of civilization ;
and second to draw attention to the fact that in the
treatment of the Indians, Chinese, and Negroes, the phe-
nomena of the past history of civilization were being
re-presented. The two latter papers were recitals of
exceedingly interesting Indian myths, Dr. Fletcher,
who is associated with Dr. Billings in publishing “ Index
Medicus,” having collected all that could be gathered on
the subject of prehistoric-trephining, from two years read-
ing, gave an elaborate summary of his investigations,

THE PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON.—
THE SPECTROPHONE.—At the 198th meeting of the Phil-
osophical Society of Washington, Prof. Alexander Graham
Beil communicated the announcement of his discovery of
the Spectrophone, the latest outgrowth of the Photophone.

In a paper read before the American Association for
the Advancement of Science, in which he announced the
discovery of the photophone, Mr. Bell ventured the pre-
diction that probably all matter would be found to pos-
ses sonorous properties of the same nature as those
manifested by the discs used in that instrument. More
recent investigations in Europe with gases and liquids
have fully verified this prediction. Any liquid or gas
placed in a test tube and exposed to the action of a beam
of light condensed upon it by a lens can be made, by
means of an interrupter, to emit musical tones. This has
been shown by Prof. Tyndall in his memoir, to the Royal
Society, on Radiant Heat. Some substances thus emit
‘feeble sounds, others stronger ones. Iodine vapor, Ni-
trogen Oxide and Bromine give very loud sounds, It is
found that those substances which emit loud sounds are
those which absorb heat in a high degree, and among
these lamp-black is especially remarkable. It has been
questioned whether such sounds are provoked by the
luminous rays or by the dark ones. M. Mercadier ex-
pressed the belief that the inciting rays are the red and
dark ones. This led Mr, Bell, with the assistance of Mr.
Sumner Taintor, to experiment with the sonorous proper-
ties of Carbon Disulphide, actuated by the light of the
| Spectrum.

182

SCIENCE.

When lamp-black is exposed to the-action of’ the light
of the spectrum it is found to give a sonorous response
to all of its rays as far as the middle of the violet, and
perhaps beyond. The intensity of the sound, however,
varies remarkably in different parts of the spectrum.
Taking the rays successively from different parts, from
the violet towards the red, the sounds begin very feebly
and increase in intensity, reaching a maximum in the ul-
tra red. Beyond that point they suddenly cease. The
increase of intensity is very gradual, the decrease very
sudden.

Other substances have been experimented with, and
while exhibiting similar properties, each has a range of its
own. Porous and fibrous substances give loud sounds.
Thus, common wool or worsted are found to be very
sonorous, but the sounds are obtained wholly from the
visible parts of the spectrum and have the maximum in-
tensity in the green. In all substances tried success has
resulted, but nearly all have a very short range.

In experimenting with more homogeneous substances
of simpler constitution, stili more defnite results are
obtained. The rays of the spectrum are passed through
sulphuric ether. Outside of the ultra red is a very nar-
row band which cause sounds while the other parts
fail to produce them. Hydrogen peroxide gives sounds
at several places wholly witht the visible parts of the
spectrum, and these places are found to coincide with
the positions of the known absorption bands of that
substance. The same is found to be true of Nitrogen
Oxide and a solutionof Ammonia, Sulphate of Copper,
and many other substances. The general law deduced is
that sounds are produced tn any substance by the rays
which tt absorbs.

Thus a kind of spectrum analysis can be obtained
through the intermediation of sound. The principal
value of the spectrophone, Mr. Bell believes, will be
found in the investigation of absorption bands in the
ultra red part of the spectrum.

Mr. William B. Taylor inquired whether the sounds
observed from the two absorption bands of ammonia,
sulphate of copper, were octaves. Mr. Bell replied that
this question had not as yet been investigated.

Mr. G. Brown Goode read portions of a paper on the
sword-fish and its allies, which paper will be published
in full in the next annual report of the U. 8. Fish Com-

mission.
——<—<____«¢ ______.

ON THE MODERN DEVELOPMENT OF FARA-
DAY’S CONCEPTION OF ELECTRICITY.*
By PROFESSOR HELMHOLTZ.

The majority of Faraday’s own researches were con-
nected, directly or indirectly, with questions regatding
the nature of electricity, and his most important and most
renowned discoveries lay in this field. The facts which
he has found are universally known. Nevertheless, the
fundamental conceptions by which Faraday has been led
to these much-admired discoveries have not been re-
ceived with much consideration. His principal aim was
to express in his new conceptions only facts, with the
least possible use of hypothetical substances and forces.
This was really a progress in general scientific method,
destined to purify science from the last remnants of meta-
physics. Now that the mathematical interpretations of
Faraday’s conceptions regarding the nature of electric
and magnetic force has been given by Clerk Maxwell, we
see how great a degree of exactness and precision was
really hidden behind his words, which to his contempor-
aries appeared so vague or obscure; and it is astonishing
in the highest to see what a large number of general

* Tne Faraday Lecture, deliverel before th: Fellows of the Chemical
Society in the Theatre of the Royal [nstitution, on Tuesday, April sth,
183, by Professor Helmoltz, Abstract revised by th: au*io-.

theories the methodical deduction of which requires the
highest powers of mathematical analysis, he has found by
a kind of intuition, with the security of instinct, without
the help of a single mathematical formula.

The electrical researches of Faraday, although embrac-
ing a great number of apparently minute and discon-
nected questions, all of which he has treated with the
same careful attention and conscientiousness, are really
always aiming at two fundamental problems of natural
philosophy, the one more regarding the nature of physi-
cal forces, or of forces working at a distance; the other,
in the same way, regarding chemical forces, or those
which act from molecule to molecule, and the relation
between these and the first.

The great fundamental problem which Faraday called
up anew for discussion was the existence of forces work-
ing directly at a distance without any intervening medium.
During the last and the beginning of the present century
the model after the likeness of which nearly all physical
theories had been formed was the force of gravitation
acting between the sun, the planets, and their satellites.
It is known how, with much caution and even reluctance,
Sir Isaac Newton himself proposed his grand hypothesis, *
which was destined to become the first great and im-
posing example, illustrating the power of true scientific
method.

But then came Oerstedt’s discovery of the motions of
magnets under the influence of electric currents. The
force acting in these phenemena had a new and very
singular character. It seemed as if it would drive a
single isolated pole of a magnet in a circle around the
wire conducting the current, on and on without end, never
coming to rest. Faraday saw that a motion of this kind
could not be produeed by any force of attraction or re-
pulsion, working from point to point. If the current is
able to increase the velocity of the magnet, the magnet
must react 6n the current. So he made the experiment,
and discovered induced currents; he traced them out
through all the various conditions under which they
ought to appear. He concluded that somewhere in a
part of the space traversed by magnetic force there exists
a peculiar state of tension, and that every change of this
tension produces electromotive force. This unknown
hypothetical state he called provisionally the electrotonic
state, and he was occupied for years and years in find-
ing out what was this electrotonic state. He discovered
at first, in 1838, the dielectric polarisation of electric in-
sulators, subject to electric forces. _ Such bodies show,
under the influence of electric forces, phenomena per-
fectly analogous to those exhibited by soft iron under the
influence of the magnetic force. Eleven years later, in
1849, he was able to demonstrate that all ponderable mat-
ter is magnetized under the influence of sufficiently in-
tense magnetic force, and at the same time he discovered
the phenomena of diamagnetism, which indicated that
even space, devoid of all ponderable matter, 1s magnet-
izable ; and now with quite a wonderful sagacity and in-
tellectual precision Faraday performed in his brain the
work of a great mathematician without using a single
mathematical formula. He saw with his mind’s eye that
by these systems of tensions and pressures produced by
the dielectric and magnetic polarisation of space which
surrounds electrified bodies, magnets or wires conducting
electric currents, all the phenomena of electro-static,
magnetic, eléctro-magnetic attraction, repulsion, and _in-
duction could be explained, without referring at all to
forces acting directly at a distance. This was the part of
his path where so few could follow him; perhapsa Clerk
Maxwell, a second man of the same power and independ-
ence of intellect, was necessary to reconstruct in the nor-
mal methods of science the great building, the plan of
which Faraday had conceived in his mind and attempted |
to make visible to his contemporaries. y

Nevertheless the adherents of direct action at a dis-
tance have not yet ceased to search for solutions of the

5

aq

_ some of his contemporaries.

SCIENCE.

183

electro-magnetic problem. The present development of
science, however, shows, as I think, a state of things very
favorable to the hope that Faraday’s fundamental con-
ceptions may in the immediate future receive general as-
sent. His theory, indeed, is the only existing one which
is at the same time in perfect harmony with the facts ob-
served, and which at least does not lead into any contra-
diction against the general axioms of dynamics.

It is not at all necessary to accept any definite opinion
about the ultimate nature of the agent .which we call
electricity.

Faraday himself avoided as much as he could giving
any affirmative assertion regarding this problem, although
he did not conceal his disinclination to believe in the ex-
istence of two opposite electric fluids.

For our own discussion of the electro-chemical phe-
nomena, to which we shall turn now, I beg permission
to use the language of the old dualistic theory, because
we shall have to speak principally on relations of
quantity.

I now turn to the second fundamental problem aimed
at by Faraday, the connection between electric and
chemical force. Already, before Faraday went to work,
an elaborate electro-chemical theory had been established
by the renowned Swedish chemist, Berzelius, which
formed the connecting-link of the great work of his life,
the systematisation of the chemical knowledge of his
time. His starting point was the series into which Volta
had arranged the metals according to the electric tension
which they exhibit after contact with each other, a
fundamental point which Faraday’s experiment contra-
dicted with the supposition that the quantity of elec-
tricity collected in each atom was dependent on their
mutual electro-chemical differences, which he considered
as the cause of their apparently greater chemical affinity.
But although the fundamental conceptions of Berzelius’s
theory have been forsaken, chemists have not ceased to
speak of positive and negative constituents of a com-
pound body. Nvobody can overlook that such a contrast
of qualities, as was expressed in Berzelius’s theory, really
exists, well developed at the extremities, less evident in
the middle terms of the series, playing an important part
in all chemical actions, although often subordinated to
other influences.

_ When Faraday began to study the phenomena of de-
composition by the galvanic current, which of course
were considered by Berzelius as one of the firmest sup-
ports of his theory, he put a very simple question; the
first question, indeed, which every chemist speculating
about electrolysis ought to have answered. He asked,
What is the quantity of electrolytic decomposition if the
same quantity of electricity is sent through several elec-
trolytic cells? By this investigation he discovered

that most important law, generally known under his.

name, but called by him the law of definite electrolytic
action. S
Faraday concluded from his experiments that a defi-
nite quantity of electricity cannot pass a voltametric cell
containing acidulated water between electrodes of plati-
num without setting free at the negative electrode a

corresponding definite amount of hydrogen, and at the

positive electrode the equivalent quantity of oxygen, one
atom of oxygen for every pair of atoms of hydrogen. If
instead of hydrogen any other element capable of sub-
stituting hydrogen is separated from the electrolyte, this
is done also in a quantity exactly equivalent to the quan-
tity of hydrogen which would have been evolved by the
same electric current.

’ Since that time our experimental methods and our
knowledge of the laws of electrical phenomena have
made enormous progress, and a great many obstacles
have now been removed which entangled every one of
Faraday’s steps, and obliged him to fight with the con-
fused ideas and ijll-applied theoretical conceptions of
We need not hesitate to

say that the more experimental methods were refined,
the more the exactness and generality of Faraday’s law
was confirmed.

In the beginning Berzelius and the adherents of Volta’s
original theory of galvanism, based on the effects of
metallic contact, raised many objections against Faraday’s
law. By the combination of Nobili’s astatic pairs of
magnetic needles-with Schweigger’s multiplicator, a coil
of copper wire with numerous circumvolutions, galvano-
meters became so delicate that the electro-chemical
equivalent of the smaller currents they indicated was
imperceptible for all chemical methods. With the
newest galvanometers you can very well observe currents
which would want to last a century before decomposing
one milligram of ‘water, the smallest quantity which ‘is
usually weighed on chemical balances. You see that if
such a current lasts only some seconds or some minutes,
there is not the slightest hope to discover its products of
decomposition by chemical analysis. And even if it
should last a long time the feeble quantities of hydrogen
collected at the negative electrode can vanish, because
they combine with the traces of atmospheric oxygen
absorbed by the liquid. Under such conditions a feeble
current may continue as long as you like without pro-
ducing any visible trace of electrolysis, even not of
galvanic polarisation, the appearance of which can be
used as an indication of previous electrolysis. Galvanic
polarisation, as you know, is an altered state of the
metallic plates which have been used as electrodes during
the decomposition of an electrolyte. Polarised electrodes,
when connected by a galvanometer, give a current which
they did not give before being polarised. By this current
the plates are discharged again and returned to their
original state of equality.

This depolarising current is indeed a most delicate
means of discovering previous decomposition. I have
really ascertained that under favorable conditions one
can observe the polarisation produced during some sec-
onds by a current which decomposes one milligram of
water in a century.

Products of decomposition cannot appear at the elec-
trodes without motions of the constituent molecules of
the electrolyte throughout the whole length of the liquid.
This subject has been studied very carefully, and for a
great number of liquids, by Prof. Hittorff, of Miinster,
and Prof. G. Wiedemann, of Leipsic.

Prof. F. Kohlrausch, of Wiirzburg, has brought to Jight
the very important fact that in diluted solutions of salts,
including hydrates of acids and hydrates of caustic alka-
lies, every atom under the influence of currents of the
same density moves on with its own peculiar velocity, in-
dependently of other atoms moving at the same time in
the same or in opposite directions. The total amount of
chemical motion in every section of the fluid is repre-
sented by the sum of the equivalents of the cation gone
forwards and of the anion gone backwards, in the same
way as in the dualistic theory of electricity, and the total
amount of electricity flowing through a section of the
conductor corresponds to the sum of positive electricity
going forwards and negative electricity going backwards.

This established, Faraday’s law tells us that through
each section of an electrolytic conductor we have always
equivalent electrical and chemical motion. The same
definite quantity of either positive or negative electricity
moves always with each univalent ion, or with every unit
of affinity of a multivalent ion, and accompanies it during
all its motions through the interior of the electrolytic
fluid. This we may call the electric charge of the atom.

Now the most startling result, perhaps, of Faraday’s
law is this: If we accept the hypothesis that the elemen-
tary substances are composed of atoms we cannot avoid
concluding that electricity also, positive as well as nega-
tive, is divided into definite elementary portions, which
behave like atoms of electricity. As long as it moves
about on the electrolytic liquid each atom remains united

184

SCIENCE,

with its electric equivalent or equivalents. At the sur-
face of the electrodes decomposition can take-place if
there is sufficient electromotive power, and then the
atoms give off their electric charges and become electri-
cally neutral.

Now arises the question, Are all these relations be-
tween electricity and chemical combination limited to
that class of bodies which we know as electrolytes? In
order to produce a current of sufficient strength to collect
enough of the products of decomposition without produc-
ing too much heat in the electrolyte, the substance which
we try to decompose ought not to have too much resist-
ance against the current. But this resistance may be
very great, and the motion of the ions may be very slow,
so slow indeed that we should need to allowit to go on
for hundreds of years before we should be able to collect
even traces of the products of decomposition; neverthe-
less all the essential attributes of the process of elec-
trolysis could subsist. If you connect an electrified con-
ductor with one of the electrodes of a cell filled with oil
of turpentine, the other with the earth, you will find that
the electricity of the conductor is discharged unmistak-
ably more rapidly through the oil of turpentine than if
you take it away and fill the cell only with air.

Also in this case we may observe polarisation of the
electrodes as a symptom of previous electrolysis. An-
other sign of electrolytic conduction is that liquids
brought between two different metals produce an elec-
tromotive force. This is never-done by metals of equal
temperature, or other conductors which, like metals, let
electricity pass without being decomposed.

The same effect is also observed even witha great
many rigid bodies, although we have very few solid
bodies which allow us to observe this electrolytic con-
duction with the galvanometer, and even these only to
temperatures near to their melting-point. It is nearly
impossible to shelter the quadrants of a delicate elec-
trometer against being charged by the insulating bodies
by which they are supported.

In all the cases which I have quoted one might suspect
that traces of humidity absorbed by the substance or ad-
hering to their surface were the electrolytes. I show
you therefore this little Daniell’s cell, in which the
porous septum has been substituted by a thin stratum of
glass. Externally allis symmetrical at both poles ; there
is nothing in contact with the air but a closed surface
of glass, through which two wires of platinum penetrate.
The whole charges the electrometer exactly like a
-Daniell’s cell of very great resistance, and this it would
not do if the septum of glass did not behave like an elec-
trolyte. All these facts show that electrolytic conduction
is not at all limited to solutions of acids or salts.

Hitherto we have studied the motions of ponderable
matter as well as of electricity, going on in an electrolyte.
Let us study now the forces which are able to produce
these motions. It has always appeared somewhat start-
ling to everybody who knows the mighty power of chem-
ical forces, the enormous quantity of heat and of
mechanical work which they are able to produce. and
who compares with it the exceedingly small electric at-
traction which the poles of a battery of two Daniell’s cells
show. Nevertheless this little apparatus is able to de-
compose water.

The quantity of electricity which can be conveyed by a
very small quantity of hydrogen, when measured by its
electrostatic forces, is exceedingly great. Faraday saw
this, and has endeavored in various ways to give at
least an approximate determination. The most powerful
batteries of Leyden jars, discharged through a volta-
meter, give scarcely any visible traces of gases. At
present we can give definite numbers. The resultis that
the electricity of 1 m.grm. of water, separated and com-
municated to two balls, 1 kilometre distant, would pro-
duce an attraction between them, equal to the weight of
25,000 kilos,

The total force exerted by the attraction of an electri-
fied body upon another charged with opposite electricity
is always proportional to the quantity of electricity con-
tained in the attracting as on the attracted body, and
therefore even the feeble electric tension of two Daniell’s
elements, acting through an electrolytic cell upon the
enormous quantities of electricity with which the consti-
tuent ions of water are charged, is mighty enough to sep-
arate these elements and to keep them separated.

We now turn to investigate what motions of the pon-
derable molecules require the action of these forces. Let
us begin with the case where the conducting liquid is
surrounded everywhere by insulated bodies. Then no
electricity can enter, none can go out through its surface,
but positive electricity can be driven to one side, negative
to the other, by the attracting and repelling forces of ex-
ternal electrified bodies. This process going on as well
in every metallic conductor is called “electrostatic induc-
tion.” Liquid conductors behave quite like metals under
these conditions. Prof. Wiillner has proved that even our
best insulators, exposed to electric forces for a long time,
are charged at last quite in the same way as metals would
be charged in an instant. There can be no doubt that
even electromotive forces going down to less than 1-100
Daniell produce perfect electrical equilibrium in the in-
terior of an electrolytic liquid.

Another somewhat modified instance of the same
effects is afforded by a voltametric cell containing two
electrodes of platinum, which are connected with a Dan-
iell’s cell, the electromotive force of which is insufficient
to decompose the electrolyte. Under this condition the
ions carried to the electrodes cannot give off their elec-
tric charges. The whole apparatus behaves, as was first
accentuated by Sir W. Thomson, like a condenser of
enormous capacity.

Observing the polarizing and depolarizing currents in
a cell containing two electrodes of platinum, hermetically
sealed and freed of all air, we can observe these pheno-
mena with the most feeble electromotive forces of
t-1000 Daniell, andI found that down to this limit the
capacity of the platinum surfaces proved to be constant.
By taking greater surfaces of platinum I suppose it will
be possible to reach a limit much lower than that. If any
chemical force existed besides that of the electrical
charges which could bind all the pairs of opposite ions
together, and require any amount of work to be van-
quished, an inferior limit to the electromotive forces
ought to exist, which forces are able to attract the atoms _
to the electrodes and to charge these as condensers. No
phenomenon indicating such a limit has as yet been dis-
covered, and we must conclude, therefore, thet no other
force resists the motions of the ions through the interior
of the liquid than the mutual attractions of their electric
charges.

On the contrary, as soon as an ‘ion is to be separated
from its electrical charge we find that the electrical forces
of the battery meet with a powerful resistance, the over-
powering of which requires a -good deal of work to be
done. Usually the ions, losing their electric charges, are
separated at the same time from theliquid ; some of them
are evolved as gases, others are deposited as rigid strata.
on the surface of the electrodes, like galvanoplastic cop-
per. But the union of two constituents having powerful
affinity to form a chemical compound, as you know very
well, produces always a great amount of heat, and heat is
equivalent to work. On the contrary, decomposition of
the compound substances requires work, because it
restores the energy of the chemical forces, which has
been spent by the act of combination.

Metals uniting with oxygen or halogens produce heat
in the same way, some of them, like potassium, sodium,
zinc, even more heat than an equivalent quantity of hy-
drogen; less oxidisible metals, like copper, silver, pla-
tinum, less. We find, therefore, that heat is generated
when zinc drives"copper out of its combination with the

SCIENCE.

compound halogen of sulphuric acid, as is the case in a
Daniell’s cell.

If a galvanic current passes through any conductor, a
metallic wire, or an electrolytic fluid, it evolves heat. Mr.
Prescott Joule was the first who proved experimentally
that if no other work is done by the current the total
amount of heat evolved in a galvanic circuit during a cer-
tain time is exactly equal to that which ought to have been
generated by the chemical actions which have been per-
formed during that time. But this heat is not evolved at
the surface of the electrodes, where these chemical actions
take place, but it is evolved in all the parts of the circuit,
proportionally to the galvanic resistance of every part.
From this it is evident that the heat evolved is an imme-
diate effect, not of the chemical action, but of the gal-
vanic current, and that the chemical work of the battery
has been spent in producing only the electric action.

If we apply Faraday’s law, a definite amount of elec-
tricity passing through the circuit corresponds to a defi-
nite amount of chemical decomposition going on in every
electrolytic cell of the same circuit. According to the
theory of electricity the work done by such a definite
quantity of electricity which passes, producing a current,
is proportionate to the electromotive force acting between
both ends of the conductor. You see, therefore, that the
electromotive force of a galvanic circuit must be, and is,
indeed, proportionate to the heat generated by the sum of
all the chemical actions going on in all the electrolytic
cells during the passage of the same quantity of elec-
tricity. In cells of the galvanic battery chemical forces
are brought into action able to produce work; in cells
in which decomposition is occurring work must be done
against opposing chemical forces; the rest of the work
done appears as heat evolved by the current, as far as it
is not used up to produce motions of magnets or other
equivalents of work.

Hitherto we have supposed that the ion with its electric
charge is separated from the fluid. But the ponderable
atoms can give off their electricity to the electrode, and
remain in the liquid, being now electrically neutral. This
makes almost no difference in the value of the electro-
motive force. For instance, if chlorine 1s separated at
the anode, it will remain at first absorbed by the liquid ;
if the solution becomes saturated, or if we make a
vacuum over the liquid, the gas willrise in bubbles. The
electromotive power remains unaltered. The same may
be observed with all the other gases. You see in this
case that the change of electrically negative chlorine into
neutral chlorine is the process which requires so great an
amount of work, even if the ponderable matter of the
atoms remains where it was.

The more the surface of the positive electrode is cov-
ered with negative atoms of the anion, and the negative
with the positive ones of the cation, the more the attract-
ing force of the electrodes exerted upon the ions of the
liquid is diminished by this second stratum of opposite
electricity covering them. On the contrary, the force with
which the positive electricity of an atom of hydrogen is
attracted towards the negatively charged metal increases
in proportion as more negative electricity collects before
it on the metal, and the more negative electricity collects
behind it in the fluid.

Such is the mechanism by which electric force is concen-
trated and increased in its intensity to such a degree that
it becomes able to overpower the mightiest chemical
affinities we know of. If this can be done by a polarized
surface, acting like a condenser, charged by a very moder-
ate electromotive force, can the attractions between the
enormous electric charges of anions and cations play an
unimportant and indifferent part in chemical affinity ?

_ You see, therefore, if we use the language of the dual-
istic theory and treat positive and negative electricities as
two substances, the phenomena are the same as if equiva-
lents of positive and negative electricity were attracted by
different atoms, and perhaps also by the different values

185

of affinity |belonging to the same atom with different
force. Potassium, sodium, zinc, must have strong at-
traction to a positive charge; oxygen, chlorine, bromine
to anegative charge. ;

Faraday very often recurs to this to express his con-
viction that the forces termed chemical affinity and elec-
tricity are one and the same. I have endeavored to give
you a survey of the facts in their mutual connection,
avoiding, as far as possible, introducing other hypotheses,
except the atomic theory of modern chemistry. I think
the facts leave no doubt that the very mightiest among
the chemical forces are of electric origin. The atoms
cling to their electric charges and the opposite electric
charges cling to the atoms. But I don't suppose that
other molecular forces are excluded, working directly from
atom to atom. Several of our leading chemists have be-
gun lately to distinguish two classes of compounds,
molecular aggregates and typical compounds. The latter
are united by atomic affinities, the former not. Electro-
lytes belong to the latter class.

If we conclude from the facts that every unit of affinity
of every atom is charged always with one equivalent
either of positive or of negative electricity, they can form
compounds, being*electrically neutral, only if every unit
charged positively unites under the influence of a mighty
electric attraction with another unit charged negatively.
You see that this ought to produce compounds in which
every unit of affinity of every atom is connected with one
and only with one other unit of another atom. This is,
as you will see immediately, indeed, the modern chemical
theory of quantivalence, comprising all the saturated
compounds. The fact that even elementary substances,
with few exceptions, have molecules composed of two
atoms, makes it probable that even in these cases electric
neutralization is produced by the combination of two
atoms, each charged with its electric equivalent, not by
neutralization of every single unit of affinity.

But I abstain from entering into mere specialties, as
for instance, the question of unsaturated compounds;
perhaps I have gone already too far. I would not have
dared to do it if I did not feel myself sheltered by the
authority of that great man who was guided by a never-
erring instinct of truth. I thought that the best I could
do for his memory was to recall to the minds of the men,
by the energy and intelligence of whom chemistry has
undergone its modern astonishing development, what im-
portant treasures of knowledge lie still hidden in the
works of that wonderful genius. I am not sufficiently ac-
quainted with chemistry to be confident that I have given
the right interpretation, that interpretation which Fara-
day himself would have given perhaps, if he had known
the law of chemical quantivalence, if he had had the ex-
perimental means of ascertaining how large the extent,
how unexceptional the accuracy of his law really is ; and
if he had known the precise formulation of the law of
energy applied to chemical work, and of the laws which
determine the distribution of electric forces in space as
well as in ponderable bodies transmitting electric current
or forming condensers. 1! shall consider my work of to-
day well rewarded if I have succeeded in kindling anew
the interest of chemists for the electro-chemical part of
their science.

Se gee eee

MANUFACTURE OF SODA FROM SULPHATE.—Salt-cake is
produced in quantity in California in the manufacture of
nitric acid. As coal and lime-stone are dear in California,
Le Blanc’s process is not economical. The author there-
fore proposes to mix a solution of salt cake with calcium
sulphite and pass in sulphurous acid. Soluble calcium
bisulphite is formed, and by decomposition calcium sul-
phate and sodium bisulphite. The two salts are separated
by filtration, and the sodium bisulphite is treated with milk
oflime. The result is a solution of caustic soda, retaining
acertain quanttty of sodium sulphite and sulphate, which
is evaporated down in the usual manner, and calcium sul-
phite, which is used again in the process.—J. PurzKow,

186 SCIENCE,

THE YELLOWSTONE NATIONAL PARK. this description and the illustrations we have given on
= ' page 187, some idea may be formed of the wild unearthly

ANNUAL REPORT OF THE SUPERINTENDENT OF THE | 2Ppearance of these eroded Hoodoos of the Goblin Land.

YELLOWSTONE NATIONAL PARK—to the Secretary of | These monuments are from 50 to 300 feet in height, with
the Interior, for the year 1880.—Washington, 1881. narrow tortuous passages between them, with sometimes

7 : d 4 y tunnels, where the Big Horn sheep hide in safety ; while
The chief feature of interest found in this report isa | the ceaseless but ever changing moans of the wild winds

description of what is termed the Hoodoo Region, which | seem to chant fitting requiems to these gnome-like mon-
is a terribly broken and eroded portion of the head | yments of the legendary Indian Gods.

branches of the East Fork of the Yellowstone and the We have not sufficient space to allow us even to briefly
Passamaria or Stinking Water Fork of the Big Horn, and | follow Superintendent Norris in his very interesting des-
which until this occasion had never been visited by tour- | cription of the many wonders of this extraordinary re-
ists or government explorers ; all previous information | gion—the Yellowstone Lake, Geysers, cold, hot and
having been derived from a small party of prospecting | medicinal springs, pulsating Geysers, terrace building
miners, two of whom were killed by the Indians. | springs, fossil forests, natural bridges, gold and silver

Mr. P. W. Norris, the Superintendent of the Park, hav- | mines, and many objects of scientific interest. Among
ing arrived on the ground with his party, some made | the animals still to be found in the Yellowstone Park,
sketches of the many weird wonders of erosion, copies of | mention is made of the bison, or mountain buffalo, which
which may be found on another page of this issue, and | differs considerably from the bison of the plains; also the
Mr. Norris with an attendant took the elevations of the | moose, elk, white tailed deer, black tailed deer, antelope,
adjacent peaks, including Hoodoo Mountain. The latter | big horn sheep, bears, mountain lion or cougar, wolves,
was found to be 10,700 feet high (anneroid-barometer | foxes, skunks, badgers, rock dog, porcupine, rabbits, rats,
measurement). mice, moles, squirrels, chipmunks, beavers, otters, etc., etc.

This mountain is about a mile in length, and must pre- | We note the presence in trout, found in the cold water
sent a most extraordinary appearance, and while prob- | tributaries, of a “worm” named by Dr. Leidy “ Dz-
ably itself not a crater, it is evidently of volcanic origin, | dothrzum cordiceps.”’ They are described “ as long,
and was eroded in its present form. Its southern face | slender, white worms, found in the intestines and flesh of
is still changing, here extending from 500 to 1500 feet | the countless large and beautiful trout of the Yellowstone
below the summit ; the frosts and storms of untold ages , Lake, named by Professor Cope, Salmo pleurtticus.”
in an Alpine climate have worn about a dozen labyrinths | They are said to be entirely different to the worms found
of countless deep, narrow, tortuous channels amid the | in European trout. The Superintendent does not appear
long, slender, tottering pillars, shafts and spires of con- | to have succeeded in tracing the cause of this parasite,
glomerate breccia and other remaining volcanic rocks. In | but states that they are only met with in fish found in
shape they are described as being unlike any elsewhere the Yellowstone Lake. Here the trout exist in great
known, being a cross between the usual spire and steeple numbers in water bubbling with hot gases; and the
form, and the slender-based, and flat, tottering, table- | angler, without changing his position, or removing the
topped sandstone monuments, near the Garden of the | fish from the hook, can rapidly boil them in seething pools.
Gods, in Colorado, And while lacking the symmetry This National Park of the United States was visited by
and beauty of these, surpass both in wild weird fascina- | over 2000 tourists during the season previous to this re-
tion. Here the sharp-cornered fragments of rocks of | port, all of whom returned in safety, although much
nearly every size, form and formation, and shade of col- inconvenience was experienced from the condition of the
oring, by a peculiar volcanic cement attached sideways, roads. An appropriation is now annually made for the
endwise, and upon the tops, sides, and apparently un- | improvement of the Park; and no one reading this re-
supported upon each other, represent every form, garb _ port can fail to come to the conclusion that Mr. P. W.
and posture of gigantic human beings, as wellas of birds, | Norris is a gentleman highly qualified for the position of
beasts and reptiles. In fact nearly every form, animate | Superintendent, and brings an enthusiastic devotion to
or inanimate, real or chimerical ever actually seen or con- | bear on his arduous duties in developing this “ peerless
jured by the imagination may here be observed. With wonder-land of earth.”

Statement showing the mean temperature at BOSTON, MASS., for each month and year from Fanuary, 1871, to
December, 1880, inclusive, as recorded at the station of observation of the Signal Service, U. S. Army, at
that place.

[Compiled from the records on file at the office of the Chief Signal Officer, U. S. A., Washington, D. C.]

MEAN TEMPERATURE.

Y ori SS | a a ry |
BAR. Bret shan | Feb ae fs ta et fi
1 ABA ene sp ool ee Se oe ee :
iri are B z ay 2 2 a 2 S > 8 &
S v ee) s, iS Shee) 3 5 eit wo o ye
= | & a <x a Ss 5 <= n co) A a >
es | Z are ss | za ae
27.2 | “20:4 42.8 46.7 57-4 66.2 71.0 71.8 59.7 54.2 39.8 38.4 49-5
27.5 28.5 26.4 46.3 57.2 67.6 74.4 71.8 63.8 52.1 40.7 24.1 48.4
26.3 | 27.6 34-4 44.6 56.9 | 67.2 72.9 68.8 61.7 53.0 33-4 32.9 48.3
31.2 27.9 35.1 39: | 56.2 65.8 72.2 67.7 63.8 53-4 40.5 31-9 48.3
20.9 22.8 30.7 42.2 57:3. | 66.5 71.7 69.7 58.8 49.3 34-4 29.8 46.3
30:5 | 27-5 32.9 43-2 53.9 67.6 73-5 69.5 58.9 48.0 40.8 22.3 | 47.3
24.2 33-6 35-1 | 44.3 54.9 66.5 69.9 70.7 63.9 51.3 43.8 36.1 49-5
28.3 | 31.0 39-5 | 47-2 55-3 64.2 72.7 68.1 62.9 55-3 39-9 29.6 49-5
24.5 24.5 33-8 42.4 59-4 64.2 69.9 67.7 60.8 56.6 39.2 32.6 48.0
35.0 32.2 33-1 45-9 62.7 | 67.7 71.1 68.9 64.1 50.8 37-5 26.2 49.6
WAR DEPARTMENT,
OFFICE OF CHIEF SIGNAL OFFICER,

WASHINGTON, D. C., April 12, 1881.

SCIENCE. | 187

“4
Dee

i PUP
1 rad ashen be heres
Sp ei tN
d TN
HE ACS

\ ‘ .
2 # y
lb

Hoopoos oR REMNANTS OF EROSION IN THE GOBLIN LABYRINTHS.

YELLOW STONE NATIONAL PARK.

188

SCIENCE.

NOTE ON THE SENSORY TRACT OF THE BRAIN.
By EDWARD C. SpiTzKA, M. D., NEw York City.

It is well known that Meynert (') and those who fol-
lowed that distinguished anatomist, believed that the
tract through which the conscious sensory impressions
reach the cortex, extends from the columns of Goll and
Burdach, of the cord and lower oblongata, through the
so-called superior or sensory decussation, to the anterior
pyramids ; that thence the tract runs with the anterior
pyramids in their outermost third through the pons and
pes pedunculi, courses between the thalamus and lenticu-
lar nucleus in the posterior third of the internal capsule,
and arching back, terminates in the cortex of the oc-
cipital lobe. Flechsig showed that what Meynert in-
terpreted as the sensory pyramidal decussation, has no
connection with the anterior pyramids, but, on the con-
trary, enters the lemniscus layer, or interolivary strand,
whose relations to the corpora quadrigemina had been
explained by Meynert, although he was befogged as to
its lower relations, owing to the aforesaid confounding
with the anterior pyramids proper.

Now, Flechsig (°) distinctly states in his work that the
explanation he has been able to furnish of the real nature
of the superior decussation, demonstrates the non-exist
ence ofa direct tract from that decussation to the cortex.

The true tract has, however, been known to exist, al-
though the relations have not been properly interpreted.
The lemniscus layer is not only a detachment from the
corpora quadrigemina, but also distinctly incorporates a
peculiar bundle, described by Henle as a fasciculus, from
the pes to the tegmentum(*). This tract continues, in
at least a part of the fibres, from the columns of Goll
and Burdach to the pes pedunculi and thence, no doubt,
to the cortex of the brain. The circuit for the conscious
sensory impressions transmitted by the cord, and pro-
posed by Meynert, therefore becomes re-established,
with a modification, namely, that the sensory tract does
not run through the pyramids and pons, but immediately
above them, and after entering the pes peduncul: prob-
ably takes the course claimed by Meynert.

That there is a close relation between the pyramidal
tracts and the by-track from the superior decussation to
the pes pedunculz, is proven by an interesting observa-
tion which I have been able to make on the elephant’s
brain. In this animal(*) the entire pyramidal tract takes
the course of the by-track, that is, there are no vertical
fibresinthe pons. The crus is continued bodily above the
latter (which is composed exclusively of transverse
fibres) to take the usual course on the ventral and me-
dial aspect of the olivary nucleus.

This fact strengthens the proposition of Meynert, that
there intervenes a third projection series between that of
the tegmentum and that of the pes pedunculi, for which
he proposes the name of the stratum zntermedium (°).
In man, I believe this stratum intermedium to be the
mhain tract for the conveyance of conscious sensory im-
pressions from the general sensory periphery, while in
other animals, at least in the elephant, it is at the same
time the voluntary motor tract.

That the sensory fibres occupy the most posterior por-
tion of the internal capsule, while they compose the
most dorsal in the pes pedunculi, shows that the fibres
of the latter must pursue a_ spirally twisted course
betore entering the brain. Such an arrangement seems
to be indicated, indeed, in the outer contours of the
crus. In an early human embryo, of about the third
month, I find a well marked columnar elevation running
from the outer part of the crus through the pons, where
it touches its fellow of the opposite side, and then passes
between the olives(®). This I regard as the embryon-
ically distinct stratum intermedium.

(1), Das Gehirn der Saiigethiere, in Stricker’s Histology.
(2), Die Leitungsbahnen des Gehirnes und Riickenmarks.
(2), Lehrbuch der Anatomie des Menschen. 1872.
(4), “*Science,’’ February 7, 1881. _(°). Archiv fuer Psychiatrie, 1874.
(®), Demonstrated before the N.Y. Neurological Society, March 1, 1881.

1875.

ASTRONOMIAL MEMORANDA.

A small pamphlet containing notes, corrections, etc.,
to the “ Handbook of Double Stars,”’ has been recently
prepared by Messrs. Crossly, Gledhill and Wilson. In
the introduction, the editors say: “ The corrections have
been thrown into two classes: the first contains those
which from their importance demand immediate atten-
tion in order to save waste of time. These the reader is
requested to insert at once. In the second list will be
found a large number of corrections which may be en-
tered as the stars are observed or read.

A very copious set of additional notes has also been
drawn up, embodying, so far as we know them, the most
recent and improved orbits, measures and discoveries.

It seems probable that the asteroid, No. 220, discovered
by Palisa on the 23d of March, is identical with No. 139,
Juewa. Juewa was discovered by the late Prof. Watson
while engaged upon one of the transit of Venus parties
in 1874 at Pekin. The asteroid was observed by Rtim-
ker at Hamburg, on November 8th of the same year, but
since that date it has not been seen.

Nature for March 17, contains the following note upon
the largest refractor in the world. “A very interesting
scientific work, the most important of its kiad yet at-
tempted in the kingdom, has just been completed. It is
the great refracting telescope, constructed by Mr.
Grubb, of Rathmines, Dublin, for the Austro-Hungarian
Government, and it is to be placed in the Observatory at
Vienna. A commission appointed by the Government
to examine the work, transmitted yesterday to the Austro-
Hungarian Embassy, in London, a report expressing
their full approval of the manner in which the task has
been completed. It is a matter of no little pride to Ire-
land that she has produced the largest refracting as well
as the largest reflecting telescope in the world.” The
object glass of this instrument is 27 inches in diameter
or I inch larger than that of the Washington Refractor
made by Clark.

W.C. W.

WASHINGTON, D. C., April at, 1881.

(a et

INTRA-MERCURIAL PLANETS.

In “ SCIENCE” of February 26, appeared an article on
the above subject by ““W. C. W.,” which I have read with
considerable personal interest, wherein we are led to in-
fer, from purely negative testimony alone, that no such
objects were seen during the total eclipse of Aug. 29,
1878, either by the late Prof. Watson or myself. Unfor-
tunately, Prof. Watson’s tongue and pen are now silent,
and no one exists to defend his observations. What he
has written on the subject the astronomical world is
familiar with. It is about my own I wish to speak, and
in defending them against the negative testimony which
your correspondent brings, I hope to be able to convince
the reader that because the observers whom he cites saw
no planets, it is very far from proving their non-exis- |
tence.

If the reader will refer to the article itself, he will find _
delineated on a chart the ground swept over by six ob-
servers, but he fails to tell us how short a time was de-
voted to a search west of the sun, and especially in the
immediate region of the two objects seen by me, and
near which one of Watson’s objects was, viz., near @
Cancri. As not one ina thousand of your readers will
have the privilege of reading the reports of those six
observers, just published by the Naval Observatory, and,
are therefore incapable of forming a correct conclusion
on the subject, 1 have thought it advisable to quote
what they really say, and, to remark, that when negative
testimony is arrayed against positive, it is very impor-
tant that its weight, if it has any, be carefully con-
sidered,

SCIENCE.

189

First, let the fact be stated, that during the total phase |

of the eclipse which lasted but 162 seconds, two exper-
ienced observers, with telescopes in every way well adapted
for the work, state with positiveness that each saw two
objects not down on any star chart, and, that they were
not there when the sun had sufficiently withdrawn to
allow the locality to be re-observed. On the other hand,
three observers who searched west of the sun, one in a
cloudy sky, and two of the others poorly equipped, and,
devoting but a few seconds to the search, saw nothing,
not even @ Cancri,a star of the fifth magnitude, near
where one of Watson’s and both of my objects were
seen. The weakness of this negative testimony will be
apparent from a few extracts from their reports.

Mr. Wheeler (telescope 5 inch, power 100) says, he
observed the second and third contacts (beginning and
end of totality), also the Corona on both sides of the sun,
saw with the naked eye Venus, Mercury and Regulus;
observed carefully the several prominences, etc., and then
says, “An unsatisfactory attempt was made to sweep
for Vulcan. The time given to it was limited, as I was
expected to observe all the contacts, and time was con-
sumed in recording the second, and again in bringing the
telescope into position for observing the third contact.”
Now when it is considered that he undoubtedly occupied
several seconds in looking at the grand sight with the
naked eye, and, that the power used was altogether
too high, and of course, the field very small, the
time devoted to the search for Vulcan could have
been but a few seconds. Is it therefore surprising that
Mr. Wheeler saw nothing of the objects seen by me?
Only those familiar with the use of telescopes know how
perplexingly difficult it is to bring a well-known object in
the field of a telescope, using a power of 100.

Mr. Bowman (telescope 3 inch, power 30) says he
searched worth and west of the sun (my objects, also
Watson’s, were southwest), and that some time was lost
(during totality) in exchanging the diagonal tube for the
straight one, swept to the westward 5° or 6° in the
declination of the sun, and then returning, shifted the
declination just far enough orth to clear the Corona and
swept to the westward again, then returned to the R. A.
of the sun and shifted to the proper declination just in
time to observe the third contact. When it is consid-
ered how much precious time was lost in observing and
recording in his note-book the time of second contact,
changing tubes, and probably observing the eclipse for
several seconds with his naked eye, which he could
hardly refrain from doing, is it at all wonderful that Mr.
Bowman saw nothing of my objects or Watson’s either?

Prof. Todd (telescope 4 inch, power 20) says, “I
searched 15° each side of the sun, but the sky was cloudy, so
much so that I was unable to see Delta Cancri,” (a 4th
mag. star).
searching west of the sun. It certainly could have been but
a moment, and, in the region where my objects were, buta
few seconds. He, too, observed the second contact, also
the Corona, saw Mercury, Venus, Mars, and Procyon.
Again I ask is it at all surprising that Prof. Todd saw
nothing of the objects seen by me?

Prof. Pritchett (telescope 3% inch, power 90) says he
first observed the grand scene with a naked eye, then
swept along the ecliptic several degrees each side of the
sun, observed all the phenomena of the eclipse, the sec-
ond contact, Corona, the prominences, and the question
arises how many seconds he searched with a very small
field west of the sun for the “Ghost of Vulcan,” as he
facetiously calls it. Still again I ask is it at all wonder-
ful that Prof. Pritchett saw nothing of the objects seen
by me? Wouldit not, in fact, have been very surprising
had he seen them at all ?

_ Your correspondent has given in his diagram the out-
lines of the regions swept over by the above observers,
saying: “The place of one of Watson’s stars was cov-
ered by Wheeler, Bowman and Pritchett, and the place of

He does not say how much time he spent.

Swift’s two stars was examined by Bowman and Wheeler,
and that one of the stars appears in the corner of
Pritchett’s sweep.’’ Now all this is calculated to convey
a wrong impression, for it is not likely that either of
them knew within from 1° to 3° the exact boundaries
of their hastily-made sweeps; neither do I pretend to be
exact about the location of the stars I saw, although I
made three estimates of their deviation and distance from
the sun, by sighting along the outside of the telescope
tube.

They are wrongly placed in the diagram. They were
nearer where Theta is, and probably somewhat west of it,
which would place it outside of the sweeps of all the ob-
servers. I should strongly suspect that one of them
was 6, were it not that Watson, who says he saw that
star, says nothing about another equally bright some 7’
from it, both ranging with the sun’s centre.

Neither in his published statements, or letters to me,
does he allude to this vital point. It was as impossible for
him to have seen one and not the other, as for one to see
Epsilon 4 Lyree, without, at the same time, seeing Ep-
silon 5.

Again, he says, as far as relative position is concerned,
my objects resemble closely d? Cancri, and B. A. C. 2810,
on the eas¢ side of the sun. I hope he does not mean to
be understood as inferring that it was on the east, instead
of the west, of the sun I was searching.

Finally, he says, the existence of an intra-mercurial
planet is not yet admitted by the majority of astronomers.
This may be true, but I hope their opinion is based on
stronger evidence than that adduced by “ W. C. W.”

LEWIS SWIFT.

ROCHESTER, N. Y., April 11, 1881,

——_——_$_$_<o—______.

CORRESPONDENCE.

[ The Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed
by his correspondents, No notice is taken of anonymous communt-
cations. |

DISCREPANCIES IN RECENT SCIENCE.

To the Editor of SCIENCE :—

The article on ‘‘ Discrepancies in Recent Science” in
a late number of this journal demands some attention, not
because the Nebula Theory is seriously threatened by it,
but because it properly calls attentions to some physical
inferences that have been drawn from other phenomena
and applied to the Nebula Theory, especially in the domain
of heat. It is assumed by the writers quoted in that
article, that Zumznousness zmplies high temperature and
also that the rarity of the gaseous material of the nebula
is the immediate result of the high temperature of the
constituent atoms. Neither of these assumptions is
correct. The trouble comes chiefly from the writer’s fail-
ure to make the proper distinction between exergy and
heat, and I apprehend, also, in the failure to see clearly
what the nature of heat is. Most of the books treat of
this ina very loose way, and most of the statements on the
subject by Mr. Charles Morris are wrong. How far wron
may be seen by comparing his statements with the follow-
ing quotation from “The Mechanical Theory of Heat,” by
Clausius, Chap. Ist, Sec. X, p. 24: “ All heat existing in
a body ts appreciable by the touch and by the thermome-
ter » the heat which disappears under the above changes
of condition ( fuston and vaporization) exist no longer
as heat, but has been converted into work, and the heat
which makes tts appearance under the opposzte changes
(solédification and condensation) does not come from any
concealed source, but ts newly produced by work done on
the body.” We have all along been familiar with the
conception of heat as a mode of motzon, but not with the
character of the motion except as “a brisk agitation ot
the molecules” or ‘a rapid vibration of the atoms;’’ but
there are two kinds of vibratory motions possible to
atoms, one of the character of pendulous motion or a

190

SCIENCE.

change of position in space of the centre of gravity of the
atom, and the other the change of form of the atom itself ;
the first of these is known as free path motion, and the
second as heat.” The evidence for this may be briefly
given.

First—It is certain that a heated body loses its heat by
radiation, that is, it imparts its motion to the ether which
transmits it in every direction as undulations having cer-
tain wave lengths and amplitudes. Second—It is cer-
tain that the energy of such undulations depends upon
the amplitude. of such undulations, and if the am-
plitude of the undulation was measured by the free path
of the atom, then the radiant energy of the atom would
vary as its free path, or in other words the rarer a gas is
the greater its radiant energy. Now when the spectrum
of a gas, say hydrogen, is examined, it is seen to be com-
posed of lines having definite wave lengths, and wave
length is dependent solely upon the rate of vibration. If
this rate depended upon the number of impacts per second
ofthe atoms or molecules of a gas, then these atoms wouid
need to be always at exactly the same distance apart and
the velocity of free path motion invariable, which condi-
tions are physically impossible among free atoms, other-
wise the spectrum we should obtain would be a continu-
ous spectrum such as solid incandescent bodies give.
But the spectrum of hydrogen for a given temperature is
the same whether the gas be at ordinary pressure or very
rare. This necessitates the conclusion that the heated
atom which is thus radiating energy is vibrating quite in-
dependent of its position in space or of its free path
motion, and the energy embodied in such vibratory motion
is often spoken of as zuternal energy. When a swiftly
moving bullet strikes a target, both bullet and target are
heated and oftentimes a flash of light may be seen at the
instant of impact. The free path motion has been
changed into atomic vibrations, which at the first instant
had a period capable of giving the sensation of light, but
if the bullet be picked up at once it may not be uncom-
fortably hot. Now imagine two atoms in space urged by
gravitation towards each other until they strike each
other; each will be set vibrating, that is they will both
be heated by impact, and until they were thus made to
vibrate they would haye no temperature at all; their
energy would be represented by their free path motion ;
the greater their distance apart, when they began to ap-
proach, the greater would be their velocity at impact, and
the period of vibration of each after impact would de-
pend upon the character of the atoms themselves. One
might have such a period as to give out undulations that
might affect the eyes and we would say it was luminous
while the other one might not, luminosity being dependent
upon the rate of vibration, not upon the energy ot vibra-
tion or the amplitude.

There are many phenomena, that are familiar enough,
which show that luminosity does not depend upon high
temperature. The decaying stump that shines at night,
has a temperature not appreciably higher than surround-
ing objects ; the swift moving molecules in a Crookes tube,
that spend their energy upon the walls of the tube, cause
the latter to glow, and the molecules themselves shine as
they move in their long, free paths, but the tube is not un-
comfortably hot, much less very of. It is true that by
increasing the energy of the moving atoms, the tube may
be made red hot, but the point here is, that this is not es-
sential for luminosity.

If then, in the process of universe building, we start
with dissociated atoms, without any temperature,—at ab-
solute zero, and let gravitation alone act among them, the
first motions will be free path motions, and there will be
no such thing as heat until atomic impact has begun; the
energy that was at first represented solely by gravitation
will now be partly changed into heat and radiation proper
will begin, and the actual loss of energy to the involved
atom will be greater than what would be due solely to
gravitative approach ; there might be luminousness with

very little temperature, and one might speak of it as “fire
mist,’ and as “ glowing vapor,” and yet not threaten the
“ Law of Interaction of Forces.’”’ Neither does the Neb-
ula Theory fall, if originally matter was not hot, but cold.
TUFTS COLLEGE, MAss.
A. E. DOLBEAR.

—_$_{_o—_______

DISCREPANCIES IN RECENT SCIENCE.
Te the Editor of “ SCYENCE:”

In his communication to your excellent journal (Vol.
Il., p. 142), Mr. Larkin has very correctly stated the dis-
crepancy which is contained in the designation “fire-mist,”
as applied to the initiatory stage of nebular cosmogeny,
the “Chaos” of Laplace—sz¢t venza verbo! If the Nebular
Hypothesis is a true representation of the history of our
solar system (or all solar and other systems, for that
matter) then, certainly, 4ea¢ could have been present only
after motion, and very lively motion at that, had been
going on for quite a number of—well, Jet us say,
billions of years, or pretty nearly that.

As soon as motion, z. é., aggregation (and rotation)
had begun, then, by the impact of the more distant por-
tions of matter on those nearer the centre of the solar
nucleus, heat was produced equivalent to the motion
thus arrested. The primordial ‘ Chaos,” therefore, was
cold and dark, if it ever did exist at all. :

Mr. Larkin, consequently, is correct: There zs a dis-
crepancy !

Not so, Mr. Morris, whose objection is stated, zz xuce,
by himself (Vol. If., No. 41) in these words:

“Temperature and heat are very different things.”

“It is one thing to contain heat and another thing to
be in what we call a heated state.” ;

To prove this he mentions the generally accepted facts
“that amass of water at 32° contains far more heat than an
equal mass of ice at the same temperature ; anda mass of
water gas, (steam ?) at 212° contains far more heat than |
an equal mass of water at that temperature.”

The foregoing facts illustrate the phenomenon of
“latent heat’ or heat not appreciable by the thermome-
ter. But latent heatzs not heat/ It is amisnomer that
should have been eradicated from scientific nomenclature
long ago. The heat which melts a pound of ice is em-
ployed in per formzng a certain amount of work by over-
coming the coheszon of the solid ice. Its subsequent
liquid state is the result of this work of heat. This heat
has disappearea, is no more heat ; exactly as the muscu-
lar force of the locksmith’s arm disappears (is latent) at
night, because by eight hours of filing he has overcome the
cohesion of a quantity of iron. We can not look for the
work and the force spent on it at the same time. :

The greater mobility of the liquid and the diminished
cohesion are the equivalent of the heat that has “ become
latent,” z. ¢., disappeared, absolutely, utterly and entirely,
as heat. In changing water back again into ice, from
the liquid into the solid state, the same amount of heat ~
must be liberated, withdrawn, or allowed to escape, as-
was necessary to melt it. >

Water, therefore, does not contain more Aeaz than ice
at 32° F.; it contains more mobility, energy, potentiality
—in short, more moz¢zon, but not motion of the heat kind.

The same relations exist between water and steam at
212° F. Here the peculiar property of the gaseous con-
dition allows us to appreciate the nature of the difference
between water and steam much more precisely than that
between water and ice. ‘Latent heat” is here simply
expansion, and as expansion is the work of heat it isnot
heat. This we can prove by confining steam or any gas
in a vessel with a movabte wall. If the gas just fills the |
receptacle and we now apply heat, a thermometer will
show a rise of temperature in the interior of the vessel.

As soon as the heat reaches a certain point, so that the —

SCIENCE. ae

expansive force of the gas equals the resistance by the
weight or friction of the movable wall, the latter will
move and our thermometer, indicating the temperature in
the interior of the vessel, will record a fall of temper-
ature. ° Heat has “become latent,” has disappeared, be-
cause it has done work, has moved the wall.

It is, therefore, not in accordance with the facts, if Mr.
Morris states that a thing may be in a heated state and
yet not contain heat. Nor is it true that ‘as density
diminishes the heat capacity increases.’ The true state
of things is evident from the examples given. Since
diminution of density is effected by heat, is the work of
heat, the gas thus expanded does not contain more, but
less heat. The attenuation, the change of its state of
cohesion, is the action of a certain amount of heat, and
this heat has ‘‘ become latent,” has disappeared as heat,
but it nevertheless exists in the expanded gas as a greater
range of mobility, as diminished density. On condensa-
tion this heat again reappears, z. e. the range of mobility
of the gas is diminished, and the motion, potentiality, en-
ergy or whatever name Mr. Morris should prefer to apply
to this causa efficzens, is transformed into heat. This is,
by the way, the very process that is supposed to have
been going on in the Laplace ‘‘Chaos,”’ and, therefore,
proves again the discrepancy between the principle of
the conservation of energy and the assumption that the
primordial nebula was a “fire-mist,’’ as Mr. Larkin has
correctly explained.

As to Mr. Moiris’ conception of the action of gravita-
tion, it seems still more erroneous. This gentleman says:
“The earth must fall towards the body with the same
energy that the body displays in falling towards the
earth.” Now, the two fundamental laws of gravitation,
as first discovered by Newton are: Attraction acts in
direct proportion to mass and in indirect proportion to
the square of the distance.

The statement of Mr. Morris, therefore, is absolutely
false. =

Nor is this all. The possibility that gravity can act
lies in the space given for the fall of a body acted upon.
If, therefore, a body should fall, it must be raised first to
allow it space in which to fall. If by some force 100
pounds are raised to the height of one foot, this body, if
unsupported, will by its fall develop the very same force
as was employed to raise it previously, viz.: 100 foot-
pounds. In striking on some resistance, say the surface
of the earth, it will develop an amount of heat, equiva-
lent to its mechanical force 1co foot-pounds — Ico ca-
lorics or (small) heat units. Mr. Morris ignores the ele-
ment of space, in so far as it must always have been
previously furnished. He says:

“ The motion that exists in a falling body was not cre-
ated for the purpose. It existed in the falling body in
some other form and has simply been transformed, not
created.”’

But nobody ever contended that it was created. The
possibility of its fall was given to the body by some ele-
vating force, and it is the very same force which, having
existed as pofentiality to fall, as long as the body was
supported, is transtormed into motion, into falling, as
soon as the support is withdrawn. And this fall is
therefore not due to “internal forces” but to gravity
and the space furnished by previous raising,

But is the discrepancy laid bare by Mr. Larkin the
only one existing in regard to the -Nebular Hypothesis ?
Nay, is this hypothesis really the true history of the
world, and of our planetary system in particular? Isitas
free from uncertainties and as little at variance with ob-
served facts, as an hypothesis, which has found such
ready credence and such universal approval, should be?

I believe it has no claim to such confidence as has
been bestowed upon it, and since I have gone so far, I
might just as well state a few reasons for my conviction,
which I am glad to say is shared, or rather also held,
by one of our first astronomers, This1 shall do further

TOI

on, but at present would beg to call the attention of
your readers to two other discrepancies which exist be-
tween the principle of the conservation of energy and the
Nebular Hypothesis—assuming, for argument’s sake, the
truth of the latter.

They may be best stated by two questions, to wit :

I. What existed before “Chaos,” and how was
“ Chaos ”’ brought about ?

2. How long and by what influence did “ Chaos” re-
main at rest, and what cause acted on it to force it into
formative action ?

I have never been able to get a satisfactory answer to
these questions, nor have I been successful in answering
them myself. They seem to convey the impression that
a most glaring discrepancy with ‘conservation of
energy ”’ exists in this matter, of which every reader may
become convinced on mature reflection.

For, in the light of the principle of the conservation of
energy, motionless matter is an impossibility, as it is to-
tally inconceivable to our understanding in every aspect.
Again: Why should attraction—if we suppose that it was
dormant while the primordial nebula was forming—sud-
denly begin to act? What force, what cause, instigated
this action at a particular moment ?

It has been said, and truly, J think, that it is a very
cheap and easy matter to write upon the Nebular Hypoth-
esis. But is it also an easy thing to write agazzs¢ this
hypothesis? From the fact that it is rarely done, it
would appear that it is not ; and yet there are dozens of
facts and arguments to be brought against it. Of these
I will only name the more prominent ones, without going
into detail :

The eccentricity of all planetary and lunar orbits.

The various deviations of the planes of all the planetary
and lunar orbits from each other.

The retrograde motion of the moons of Uranus and of
that of Neptune.

The composition of the rings of Saturn.

The greater velocity of revolution of the innermost
portions of the rings than that of Saturn’s surface.

The greater velocity of revolution of the inner moon
of Mars than that of the latter’s surface,

The immense number of comets and meteorites; their
great eccentricities ; the considerable number that have
retrograde motion ; the absence of any planetary nebula,
so-called, which would allow of being interpreted as an
initiatory stage of the formation of a solar system.

The multiple stars, etc.

The elaboration of the vatious facts above stated and
several others* would far exceed the proper limits of this
communication—which have, indeed, been rather over-
stepped already. I may be allowed, however, to add
what Prof. Asaph Hall, to whom the paper described in
the foot-note was submitted, wrote in reply:

“To methe Nebular Hypothesis is a very doubtful thing.
The facts you mention are against it. Possibly its sup-
porters may fudge it so that it will last a little longer, but
it is always unsafe to rest on a theory based largely on
our ignorance.

As may be imagined, I was very agreeably surprised by
this card and asked Prof. Hail’s permission to make use
of it in case occasion should offer. This permission the
excellent gentleman first declined to give ; his reasons tor
so doing were stated in the following language :

“Such questions as the Nebular Hypothesis will only
be decided by the slow growth of observation and knowl-
edge and not by the opinion of this man or that. I have
but little faith in it. bwin

After some further expostulation on my part, this per-
mission was kindly given in a letter, written December 9,
1879. Not, however, until now have I mace any use of

* This I have done in a paper published in the November and December
issues of the Gaea of the 1878, edited by Dr. Hermann Klein, at Cologne,
Germany,

192

SCIENCE.

it, except to refer to it in ageneral way.* Iam glad that
the discussion arising from Mr. Larkin’s letter has fur-
nished such opportunity, and avail myself of it to give it
to “SCIENCE ”’ for publication. GEO. W. RACHEL.
NEw York, 4fri/ 11, 1881.
(or

MICROSCOPICAL NOTES.

Recent investigations respecting the pathological rela-
tions of diphtheria, and the discovery of a micrococcal or-
ganism in the false membrane, have made it almost certain
that the morbid poison which gives rise to the disease isa
parasitic organism. M.Talamon now states that he has
succeeded in finding this organism in eight cases. Inthe
condition of complete development they presented a char-
acteristic mycelium and spores. The former are tubes with
partitions from two to five thousandths of a millimetre in
length. These under favorable circumstances, elongate
and bifurcate, the bifurcations being characteristic in con-
sequence of their incurved branches, like the sides of a lyre.
In other conditions the mycelia do not become elongated,
although they multiply so rapidly as to cover the surface
of the cultivated liquid ; they remain short and assume
irregular forms, and give rise to numerous straight rods.
The spores are of two kinds, round or oval, which may
be termed the spores of germination, and rectangular
spores or conidia. The latter characterize the species.
They form small rectangles of various sizes, their length
being sometimes fifteen thousandths of a millimetre.
They may be isolated or united in festoons or zigzag
chains. At first homogeneous they soon become filled
with small round granules, highly refracting, and of the
size of ordinary micrococci. The round or oval spores
are those which by their elongation constitute the mycel-
ium. They appear as clear points, from three to five
thousandths of a millimetre in diameter, in the middle of
a mass of granular material.

Animals and birds inoculated with these organisms all
died developing the characteristic false membrane.

These facts are very important, and open up an en-
tirely new field of investigation, and M. Talamon already
hints that he has a clue as to the source from which
the organism is derived in the case of human infection.
We trust that those of our subscribers who possess mic-
roscopes will follow up the researches of M. Talamon,
which promise results of the highest value to science
and to humanity.

ee
NOTES.

Tue bicarbonate of soda prepared by the Solvay process
contains from two to three per cent. ammonia, and is there-
fore not suitable for pharmaceutical use, and for certain
technological purposes.

A Nover Ferric Hypratr.—C. Graebe has received
from the Baden Aniline and Soda works a reddish crystal-
line substance deposited in cast-iron vessels in which pot-
ash has been melted. It has the same composition as hema-
tite and gcethite, but its specific gravity is only 2.93.

CHLORINATED DERIVATIVES OF CARBAZOL.—On treating
carbazol suspended in acetic acid with chlorine, the
liquid turns blue, yellowish, greenish, and, lastly, red. If
the reaction is then interrupted the product is trichloro-
carbazol in white needles, melting at 185°. If the process
is continued for ten or twelve hours, hexachloro-carbazol is
produced, fusible at 225°——W. KNeEcur.

PRESENCE OF ALCOHOL IN THE SOIL, THE WATER AND
THE ATMOSPHERE.—A. Muntz has previously shown that it
is possible to detect exceedingly slight traces of alcohol by
converting it into iodoform. On concentrating the alcohol
in a small volume of water by means of fractionated distil-
lation, and using the microscope to verify the presence of
iodoform, he was able to recognize with ease 1-300,000th of
alcohol mixed with water. He has since improved the

# Science,” Vol. 1, p. 246, foot-note to the paper on Friedrich Mohr’s
Life and Works; Scientific American Supplement No. 266, p. 4,241, ina
paper on “* The Actual l'igure of the Earth,”

process so as to detect quantities even -smaller than
I-1,000,000. During the last four years he has applied this
method to river, spring, and sea-water, as well as to rain
and snow. The results obtained leave no doubt of the
presence of a neutral body, more volatile than water, and
yielding iodoform. He thinks alcohol is the hydro-car-
buretted body present in the atmosphere, indicated by the
researches of Boussingault and De Saussure. Soils rich
in organic matter yield alcohol in such proportions that
its essential properties may easily be verified.

NeW SYNTHESIS OF DESOXY-BENZOIN AND CRYSENE.—
MM. Graebe and Bungener have obtained desoxy-benzoin
by causing the chloride of phenyl-acetic acid to react upon
benzol in presence of aluminium chloride. By the same
reaction, naphthalin being substituted for benzol, they pro-
duce benzyl-naphthyl-keton. They then reduce with hy-
driodic acid and phosphorus at 150° to 160°, and pass the
vapors of the carbide thus obtained through a red-hot tube,
when 4 atoms H are removed and chrysene remains.

CERTAIN PHENOMENA OF OPTICS AND OF ViIs{on.—M.
Tréve mentions the fact that the flame of a lamp appears
brighter, and that a vertical shaft, a post, or mast is seen
more distinctly through a vertical than through a horizontal
slit, whilst a house, a landscape, or the disk of the sun or
moon is perceived more clearly through a horizontal slit.
He finds similar differences in photographs according as
the light passes from the object to the plate through a ver-
tical or a horizontal slit, and ascribes the results to the ac-
tion of diffused light.

CopAL varnish for mounting objects for the microscope
has been suggested by Mr. Julien Derby of the Quekett
Club, who states that Mr. Van Heurck, of Antwerp, who
first used it, has met with much success in mounting dia-
toms with that medium. This varnish is used about the
consistency of oil and should be of that brand known as
“palecopal.” It has about the same refractive index as bal-
sam, and is free from bubbles. Drop the copal over the ob-
ject and slightly heat over a spiritlamp. In some cases a
cover can be dispensed with, as it soon takes the consis-
tency of amber, and is hard enough to sustain wiping and
brushing with a soft brush with impunity,

WIDENING OF THE RAys OF HypRoGEN.—The nebulous
expansion of the spectral rays of hydrogen, noticed on in-
creasing the pressure of this gas in a Geissler tube, is still
ascribed to the influence of the pressure, though Dr. Shus-
ter, Secchi, and others have shown that it is not possible to
alter the pressure of a gas without at the same time affect-
ing the resistance of the medium, and in consequence the
temperature of the spark which traverses it. C. Fievez has
undertaken to examine separately the influence of the dif-
ferent agents, temperature, pressure, direction of the cur-
rent, etc., which have been suggested as contributing to
produce this phenomenon. He finds that the widening of
the hydrogen rays is correlative to the rise of temperature.
We may affirm that the temperature of a celestial body is
higher than that of another if its hydrogen rays are broader,

RECIPROCAL DISPLACEMENTS oF THE HypRrAcips.—The
action of the hydracids upon the salts formed by the halo-
gens is in general the inverse of that of the elements them-
selves. Thus hydriodic acid expels hydrochloric acid from
the metalic chlorides and hydrobromic acid from the brom-.
ides, whilst hydrobromic acid also liberates hydrochloric
acid from the chlorides. The chlorides in general are de-
composed by hydrobromic acid, and this decomposition
preponderates according to the thermic value of the princi-
pal action. But the bromides may also be decomposed,
though less readily, by hydrochloric acid. This inverse
action previously pointed out by M. Hautefeuille in the salts
of silver at a red heat, and by the author in the moist way,
has lately been observed anew by M. Potilizine, but it is in
no way contrary to thermo-chemical principles, It results
from the existence of secondary compounds, partially dis-
sociated, which intervene with their peculiar heat of forma-
tion. The theory of these reciprocal actions and equilibria
is always the same. In every case we have to do with a
principal re-action, foreseen by the thermic theory, and a —

perturbation equally foreseen by the same theory, of which _

it is a necessary confirmation.—M. BrerRTHELOT,

SCIENCE.

‘SCIENCE:

A WEEKLY RECORD OF SCIENTIFIC

PROGRESS.

JOHN MICHELS, Editor.

PuBLISHED AT
229 BROADWAY, NEW YORK.

P, O, Box 8888.

SATURDAY, APRII, 30, 1881.

Since we last referred to Mr. Edison and his incan-
descent lamp, the subject has been advanced another
step and the final stage of complete and unqualified
success achieved; permission has been granted to
the Edison Light Company, to place surface con-
ducting wires under the streets of New York City,

_ and in the course of the next two or three months,

one large district of that city will be enjoying
the full benefits of Mr. Edison’s system of electrical
illumination.

Taking a retrospective review of public utterances
on this question during the last eighteen months, we
now extend our condolence to a certain class of pro-
fessed scientific experts who have maintained, from
first to last, the impracticability of Edison’s well-de-
vised plans.

Never in the annals of scientific discovery has a
grosser attempt been made to pervert the truth, and
mislead public opinion.

As one instance among many, let us take up what
is offered as a standard work of reference on this
subject: ‘The Electric Light, its Production and
Use, embodying plain directions for the working of
galvanic batteries, electric lamps, dynamo-electri¢
machines, etc.,” by J. W. Urquhart, C. E., edited
ny ene Wenn. 2M Ce BM... S)"'T.. Ei, ' Lon-
don, 1880. Under the heading of “ Edison’s
Lamps” we find “much interest has been taken in
the sensational and often absurd announcements, con-
cerning apparatus in course of perfection by Mr. T.
A. Edison, of Menlo Park, New York (?), and it was
in some quarters thought, that when he had set him-
self about the task of inventing an efficient subdi-
vision of the electric light circuit, something would in
all probability be done.”

“There is little probability, however, that this lamp
(the horse-shoe carbon) will prove constant. Burnt
paper in various forms has been repeatedly tried be-

193

fore, and it is assuredly not constant, in the best pos-
sible vacuum obtainable.” ‘We may indeed rest
assured, that upon further reflection, Mr. Edison
will abandon this imperfect burner” The same au-
thors in speaking of the “Sawyer lamp,” describe it
as ‘the best incandescent lamp of this kind that has
been invented.”

Such being the teachings of an educational work,
written by professed teachers on this subject, let them
be compared with the actual results achieved, and the
relative positions of the two men at this moment.
Seldom has the irony of events demonstrated more
forcibly that the honest work of a man is proof
against the assaults of fraudulent or ignorant critics,
and that the leveling influence of time always reveals
the truth.

On the various attempts to imitate Edison’s lamp
we shall offer but a few words, for most practical in-
ventors are usually plagued by men who endeavor to
duplicate their successful inventions. If “ imitation is
the sincerest of flattery” we supposé Mr. Maxim is
merely desirous of paying Edison a high compliment.
Concerning Mr. Swan, of Newcastle, England, who
professes to have perfected a horse-shoe carbon lamp,
apparently identical to that of Mr. Edison’s, we would
draw attention to the significant fact, that in Messrs.
Urquhart and Webb’s work on the “ Electric Light,”
dated as recently as April, 1880, and published in Mr.
Swan’s own country, not a single reference is made to
the Swan electric lamp—in fact, his name does not
occur in the book. This would appear to be conclu-
sive evidence that neither Mr. Swan, nor his lamp, were
known in England up to that date—unless he is in-
cluded among the nameless crowd, spoken of by the
authors, who had “repeatedly used burnt paper in va-
rious forms,” and who fatled to secure constant results,
even “in the best possible vacuum obtainable.”

CONGRESO INTERNACIONAL DE AMERICAN-
LSikAS;

Weare in receipt of a pamphlet printed at Madrid, con-
taining the official announcement of the above Congress,
and instructions for those desirous of attendingit. This
is the fourth meeting of an International Congress for the
discussion of American Archeology, and will take place
on the 25th, 26th, 27th, and 28th of September next.

The object to be attained by this body is to contribute to
the progress of Ethnographical, Linguistic and Historical
researches relative to the two Americas, especially for the
period prior to Christopher Columbus, and to bring
together such persons as are interested in such studies.

Among the delegates from the United States we notice
the names of Professor Spencer F. Baird, of Washington ,
Professor R. B. Anderson, of the University of Wisconsin ;
Professor J. Putnam Duncan, of the Academy of National
Sciences, Davenport, Iowa, and Albert S. Gatschet,
Esq., of 304 E street, N. W. Washington, D. C., to
whose courtesy we are indebted for a copy of these official
instructions.

194

SCIENCE.

Those desirous of attending this Congress, or of for-
warding papers, should put themselves in communication
with one of the above named gentlemen. Residents of
New York City are welcome to read the prospectus at
the office of “ Science.”

The Spanish railway authorities have consented to re-
duce the fares of those attending this Congress, and other
concessions have been arranged. We direct the atten-
tion of those who have read early notices of this Con-
gress to the fact that the first day of meeting has been
changed from the 18th to the 22nd of September. This
change has been made for the convenience of those who
would attend two other International Congresses which
meet at about the same time, one at Berlin and another at
Venice.

eS eee
THE UNITY OF NATURE.
By THE DUKE OF ARGYLL,
VRE

THE MORAL CHARACTER OF MAN CONSIDERED
IN THE LIGHT OF THE UNITY OF NATURE.
(Continued).

It breaks down the presumption that whatever is most
savage is therefore probably the most ancient. And then,
when we come to think of it, this idea, from being vague
and general, rises into suggestions which are definite and
specific. On the great fundamental subject of the rela-
tion of the sexes, conclusions not less important than
those respecting cannibalism and infanticide are forced
upon our conviction. We have seen that the cruel treat-
ment of the female sex is almost universal among say-
ages, and that it is entirely unknown among the lower
animals. It is in the highest degree improbable and un-
natural to suppose that this habit can have been prime-
val. But the same considerations carry us a great deal
farther. They raise a presumption in favor of the latter
origin of other habits and customs which are not con-
fined to the savage state, but have prevailed, and do now
prevail, among nations comparatively civilized. There
can have been no polygamy when as yet there was only
a single pair, or when there were several single pairs
widely separated from each other. The presumption, if
not the certainty, therefore is, that primeval Man must
have been monogamous. It is a presumption supported
by the general equality of the sexes in respect to the
numbers born, with only just such an excess of the male
sex as tends to maintain that equality against the greater
risks to life arising out of manly pursuits and duties.
Thus the facts of Nature point to polygamy as in all
probability a departure from the habits of primeval times,
Like considerations set aside, as in a still higher degree
unnatural and improbable, the primeval rank of other
customs of which the historians of human culture tell
us, and probably tell us truly, that there are many sur-
viving traces among the existing customs of men.
Thus “marriage by capture’’ cannot have been prime-
val. It may be very ancient; but it cannot possibly have
arisen until the family of Man had so multiplied and scat-
tered, that it had become divided into tribes accustom-
ed to act with violence towards each other. And then as
regards a custom still more barbarous and savage, namely,
that of polyandry, and that which is now euphemistic-
ally called ‘communal marriage,” apart from the strong
presumption in favor of primeval monogamy, they are
stamped by many separate considerations as corruptions
and as departures from primeval habits. In the first
place, ail such customs are fatally injurious to the prop-
agation of the race. In the second place, they are un-
known in the animal world, In the third place, their
origin can be assigned, in many cases, if not with cer-
tainty at least with the highest probability, to one cause,
and that is the previously-acquired habit of female infan—
ticide. But as regards this last habit, besides the cer-

ON

tainty that it cannot have been primeval, we know that
it has often arisen from customs such as the exorbitant
cost of marriage portions, which can only have grown up
under long developed and highly artificial conditions of
society. ;

But powerful as all these separate considerations are
to raise at least adverse presumptions against the prim-
eval rank of the worst and commonest characteristics of
savage life, the force of these considerations is much in-
creased when we find that they are closely connected
together, and that they all lead up to the recognition of a
principle and a law. That principle is no other than the
principle .of Development; that law is no other than the
law of Evolution. It is a curious misunderstanding of
what that law really is, to suppose that it leads only in
one direction. It leads in every direction in which there
is at work any one of the “ potential energies ’ of Na-
ture. Development is the growth of germs, and accord-
ing to the nature of the germ so is the nature of the
growth. The flowers and fruits which minister to the
use of Man have each their own seed, and so have the
briars and thorns which choke them. Evil has its
germs as well as good, and the evolution of them is ac-
companied by effects to which it is impossible to assign
a limit. Movement is the condition of all being, in moral
as well as in material things. Just as one thing leads to
another in knowledge and in virtue, so does one thing
lead to another in ignorance and vice. Those gradual
processes of change which arise out of action and re-
action between the external condition and the internal
nature of Man have an energy in them of infinite com-
plexity and power. We stand here on the firm ground
of observation and experience. In the shortest space of
time, far within the limits even of a single life, we are
accustomed to see such processes effectual both to ele-
vate and degrade. The weak become weaker and the
bad become worse. ‘To himthat hath more is given,
and from him that hath not is taken even that which he
seemeth to have.” And this law, in the region of char-
acter and of morals, is but the counterpart of the law
which prevails in the physical regions of Nature, where
also Development has its double aspect. It cannot
bring one organism to the top without sinking another
organism to the bottom, That vast variety of natural
causes which have been grouped and almost personified
under the phrase “ Natural Selection,” are causes which
necessarily include both favorable and unfavorable con-
ditions. Natural Rejection, therefore, is the inseparable
correlative of Natural Selection. In the battle of life the
the triumph of one individual, or of one species, is the re-
sult of causes which bring about the failure of another.
But there is this great distinction between the lower ani-
mals and man,—that in their case failure involves death
and complete extinction, whilst in his case it is compat-
ible with prolonged survival. So far as mere existence
is concerned, the almost infinite plasticity and adapta-
bility of his nature enable him to accommodate himself
to the hardest lot, and to the most unfavorable condi-
tions. Man is the only animal whose possible distribu-
tion is not limited to narrow, or comparatively narrow,
areas, in consequence of exclusive dependence upon pat-
ticular conditions of climate and of productions. Some
such conditions of a highly favorable kind may, _and
indeed must, have governed the selection of his birth-
place and of his infancy. But when once born and fairly
launched upon his course, it was in his nature to be able
to prevail over all or over most of the limitations which
are imposed upon the lower animals. But it 1s this very —
power of adaptation to unfavorable circumstances which
involves of necessity the possibility of his development
taking an equally unfavorable direction. If he can rise
to any level, so also can he descend to any depth. It is
not merely that faculties, for the exercise of which there
is no call and no opportunity, remain dormant, but it 1s _
also, that if such faculties have already been exercised, —

SCIENCE.

195

they may and often do become so stunted that nothing
but the rudiments remain.

With such immense possibilities of change inherent in
the nature of man, we have to consider the great ele-
ment of Time. Strangely enough, it seems to be very
commonly assumed that the establishment of a great an-
tiquity for the human race has some natural, if not some
necessary, connection with the theory that primeval Man
stcod on scme level far lower even than any existing
savage. And no doubt this connection would be a real
one if it were true that during some long series of ages
Development had not only been always working, but had
always been working upwaids. But if it be capable of
working, and if it has been actually working, also in the
opposite direction, then the element of time in its bearing
upon conditions of modern savagery must have had a
very different operation. For here it is to be remembered
that the savage of the present day is as far removed in
time from the common origin of our race as the man
who now exhibits the highest type of moral and intellec-
tual culture. Whether that time is represented by six
thousand, or ten thousand, ora hundred thousand years,
it isthe same for both. If therefore the number of years
since the origin of Man be taken as a multiplier in the
processes of elevation, it must be taken equally as a mul-
tiplier in the processes of degradation. Not even on the
theory which some hold, that the human species has
spread from more than one centre of birth or of crea-
tion, can this conclusion be affected. For even on this
hypothesis of separate origins, there is no reason what-
ever to suppose that the races which are now generally
civilized are of more recent origin than those which are
generally savage. Presumably, therefore, all the ages
which have been at work in the development of civiliza-
tion have been at work equally in the development of
savagery. It is not possible in the case of savagery, any
more than in the case of civilization, that all those ages
have been without effect. Nor is it possible that the
changes they have wrought have been all in one direc-
tion. The conclusion is, that neither savagery nor civil-
ization, as we now see them, can represent the primeval
condition of Man. Both of them are the work of time.
Both of them are the product of Evolution.

When, however, this conclusion has been reached, we
naturally seek for some understanding--some definite
conception—of the circumstances and conditions under
which development in Man has taken a wrong direction.
No similar explanation is required of the origin of civili-
zation. This is the development of Man’s powers in the
natural direction. Great interest, indeed, attaches to the
steps by which knowledge has been increased, and by
which invention has been added to invention. But there
is no mystery to be encountered here—no dark or dis-
tressing problem to be solved. ‘This kind and direction
of development is all according to the constitution and
course of things. It is in harmony with all the anal-
ogies of Creation. Very different is the sense of painful
wonder with which we seek an explanation of the
wretched condition of Man in many regions of the globe,
and, still more, with which we seek the origin of the
cause of all the hideous customs which are everywhere
prevalent among savage men, and which often, in their
ingenuity of evil, and in the sweep of their destructive
force, leave it a wonder that the race survives at all.

There are, however, some considerations, and some
facts, on which we may very safely advance at least a
few steps towards the explanation we desire. Two
great causes of change, two great elements of Develop-
ment or Evolution, have been specified above—namely,
the external conditions and the internal nature of Man.
Let us look at them for a little separately, in so far as
they can be separated at all.

1 The argument which follows was urged in a former work on “* Prim-
eval Man.” It has been here re-written and re-considered with reference
to various objections and replies.

It is certain that external or physical conditions havea
very powerful, and sometimes a very rapid, effect both
on the bedy and on the mind of Man. ‘The oferation of
this law has been seen and noted even in the midst of
the most highly civilized com munities. There are kinds
of labor which have been found to exert a rapid influence
in degrading the human frame, and in deteriorating the
human character. So marked has been this effect, that
it has commanded the attention of Parliaments, and the
course of legislation has been turned aside to meet the
dangers it involved. Moreover, our experience in this
matter has been very various. Different kinds of em-
ployment, involving different kinds of unfavorable influ-
ence, have each tended to develop its own kind of mis-
chief, and to establish its own type of degradation,
The particular conditions which are unfavorable may be
infinitely various. The evils which arise out of the
abuses of civilized life can never be identical with the
evils to which the earlier races of Mankind may have
beenexposed, But the power of external conditions in
modifying the form, and in molding the character of men,
is stamped as a general law of universal application.

In connection with this law, the first great fact which
calls for our attention is the actual distribution of Man-
kind in relation to the physical geography of the globe.
That distribution is nearly universal. From the earliest
times when civilized men began to explore distant re-
gions, they found everywhere other races of men already
established. And this has held true down to the latest
acquisitions of discovery. When the New World was
discovered by Columbus, he found that it must have
been a very old world- indeed to the human species,
Not only every great continent, but, with rare exceptions,
even every habitable island has been found peopled by
the genus Homo, The explorers might find, and in
many cases did actually find, everything else in Nature
different from the country of their birth. Nota beast,
or bird, or plant,—not an insect, or a reptile, or a fish,
might be the same as those of which they had any pre-
vious knowledge. The whole face of Nature might be
new and strange—but always with this one solitary ex-
ception, that everywhere Man was compelled to recog-
nize himself—represented, indeed, often by people of
strange aspect and of strange speech, but by people nev-
ertheless exhibiting all the unmistakable characters of
the human race.

In ancient times, before the birth of physical science,
this fact might not appear so singular and exceptional as
it really is. Before Man had begun to form any definite
conceptions as to his own origin, or as to his place in
Nature, it was easy to suppose in some vague way that
the inhabitants of distant regions were “ Aborigines,”
or as the Greeks called them “ Autocthonoi ’—that they
were somehow native to the soil, and had sprung from it.
But this conception belongs essentially to that stage and
time when tradition has been lost, and before reasoning
has begun. Those who refuse to accept the Jewish
Scriptures as in any sense authoritative, must at least
recognize them as the records of a very ancient anda
very sublime Cosmogony. That Cosmogony rests upon
these four leading ideas—first, that the globe has been
brought to its present condition through days of change ;
secondly, that from a state which can only be described
as chaos, it came to be divided into sea, and land, and
atmosphere ; thirdly, that the lower animals were born
first,—Man being the last as he is the highest product of
Creation ; fourthly, that he appeared first at one place
only in the world, and that from one pair has all the earth
been overspread.

It is remarkable that in this general outline of events,
and especially in the unity of Man’s origin, the progress
of discovery, and those later speculations which have
outrun discovery, are in strict accordance with the tra-
dition recorded by the Jewish Prophets. There are, in-
deed, some, scientific men who think that different races

196

SCIENCE.

of men represent different species—or, at least, that if
Man be defined as one species, it is a species which has
spread from more than one place of origin. But those
who hold to this idea are men who stand outside the
general current of scientific thought. The tendency of
that thought is more and more to demand unity and
simplicity in our conception of the methods of creation,
and of the order of events through which the birth of
species has been brought about. So strong is the ten-
dency, and so intimately connected is it with the intellec-
tual conceptions on which the modern theory of Devel-
opment has been founded, that Mr. Darwin himself, and
Mr. Wallace, who may be said to be joint-author with
him of that theory, both Jay it down as a fundamental
postulate, that each new organic Form has originated,
and could only originate, at one place. This doctrine is
by no means a necessity of thought, nor is it a necessary
consequence of the theory of Development. It rests
mainly on the doctrine of chances, and that doc-
trine may be wholly inapplicable to events which
are governed not by accident but by law. It is,
however, a postulate of the particular form of that
theory which Mr. Darwin has adopted. It is not always
easy to reconcile this postulate with the existing distribu-
tion over the globe of animal forms. But it is not abso-
lutely inconsistent with the facts so far as we know them;
and it is interesting to observe how universally and tacitly
it is assumed in all the current explanations of the his-
tory of Creation. On this point, therefore, of the unity
of Man’s origin, those who bow to the authority of the
most ancient and the most venerable of traditions, and
those who accept the most imposing and the most popu-
lar of modern scientific theories, are found standing on
common ground, and accepting the same result.

And when we come to consider a very curious subject,
namely, the configuration of the habitable continents of
the globe, we find that this configuration stands in a very
intelligible relation to the dispersion of Mankind from a
single center. If, indeed, we could suppose that the
earliest condition of our race was a condition of advanced
knowledge in the useful arts, there would be no difficulty
to solve. The great oceans of the world are now the
easiest highways of travel, and, consequently, of disper-
sion. The art and the science of navigation has made
them so. But we cannot imagine that this art or this
science was known to our forefathers of a very early age.
Various means of crossing narrow waters, from the use
of solid logs of wood to the use of the same logs when
hollowed out, and so to the use of canoes and boats, were
in all probability among the very earliest of human in-
ventions. But not the less would it have been impossi-
ble with these inventions to cross the Atlantic, or the
Indian Ocean, or even many of the more limited tracts of
sea which now separate so many habitable regions. Some
other solution must be found for the problem presented
by the fact that the earliest navigators who traversed
those seas and oceans have always found the lands on
the other side already colonized, and in some cases thickly
inhabited by races and nations which had made consid-
erable advances in civilization. Yet, this problem pre-
sents no serious difficulty in accepting the unity of the
human race, when it is regarded in the light of physical
geography. The distribution of the larger tracts ot land
and sea upon our planet is very singular indeed. At-
tached to the southern Pole there is no mass of land
which stretches so far north as to enter the latitudes
which are even moderately temperate. In the centre
of the Antarctic Circle there is probably a great conti-
nent. But it is a continent where volcanic fires burst
here and there through surfaces which are bound in per-
petual ice. Round that vast Circle roll the continuous
waves of an Ocean vexed by furious storms, and laden
with the gigantic wrecks of immeasurable fields and
cliffs of ice. In the northern hemisphere, round the Arc-
tic Circle, on the contrary, everything is different. There

land-masses begin, which stretch southward without a
break through all the temperate and through all the tor-
rid zones on both sides of the Equator. Then, again, all
these great continents of the globe, as they extend towards
the south, become narrower and narrower, and so tend
to become more and more widely separated from each
other by vast oceanic spaces. Towards the north, on
the contrary, all these. continents converge, and at one
point, Behring’s Straits, they approach so near each other
that only a space of some forty miles of sea intervenes
between them. The result is, that in the northern hemis-
phere there is either a continued connection by land, ora
connection severed only by comparatively narrow chan-
nels, between all the great inhabited continents of the
world. The consequences of this as bearing on the dis-
persion of Mankind are obvious at a glance. If, for ex-
ample, Man may be supposed to have been born in any
part of Western or Central Asia, itis easy to see how his
earliest migrations might lead him without serious diffi-
culty into every one of the lands in which his children
have been actually found. The Indian peninsula was at
his feet. A natural bridge, as it were, would enable him
to penetrate the Arabian deserts, and would conduct him
by the glorious valley of the Nile into the heart of the
continent of Africa. Eastwards he had before him the
fertile tracts of China, and beyond the narrow passage of
Behring’s Straits lay that vast continent which, when re-
discovered from the West, was called the New World.
Again, beyond the southern spurs of the great Asiatic
Continent there lay an archipelago of magnificent islands,
with comparatively narrow seas between them, and con-
nected by a continuous chain with the continental islands
of Australasia. The sea-faring habits which would spring
up among an insular population,—especially in an archi-
pelago where every volcanic cone and every coral reef
rising above the waves was rich in the products of a
bounteous vegetation,— would soon lead to a rapid devel-
opment of the arts of navigation. When these were once
acquired, there is no difficulty in accounting for the
gradual dispersion of the human race among the beau-
tiful islands of the Pacific. Across its comparatively
peaceful waters it is not improbable that even rude navi-
gators may have made their way at various times to people
the western shores of the continent of America.

It is true indeed that the science of geology teaches us
that the distribution of sea and land has been immensely
various in different epochs of the unmeasured ages which
have been occupied in the formation of our existing world.
And it may be urged from this that no argument on the
methods of dispersion can be based with safety upon that
distribution as it now is. There is not much force, how-
ever, in this plea. For it is equally true that the evidence
afforded by geology is in favor of the very great antiquity of
the principal land-masses, and of the great oceanic hol-
lows which now divide them. The antiquity of these is
almost certainly much greater than the antiquity of Man.
The fauna and the flora of the principal continents indi-
cate them to have been separated since a period in the de-
velopment, or in the creation of species, long anterior to any
probable estimate of the time of Man’s appearance. Even
if that appearance dates from the Miocene epoch in geol-
ogy,—which is an extreme supposition,—no great differ-
ence in the problem of the dispersion of our species would
arise. Since that time indeed it is certain that great sub-
sidences and elevation of land have taken place. But al-
though these changes have greatly altered the outlines of
sea and land along the shores of Europe and America,
there is no reason to believe that they could have materi-
ally affected, either injuriously or otherwise, the earlier
migrations of Mankind.

But although the peculiar physical geography of the
globe makes it easy to understand how, from a single cen-
tre, it must have been quite possible for a creature with
the peculiar powers and faculties of Man to distribute
himself, as he has actually been found distributed over

SCIENCE.

197

every habitable region of the world, it is most important
to observe the very adverse conditions to which, in the
course of this distribution, particular portions of the hu-
man family must have been, and to which we do now find
them actually exposed.

The ‘* New World ’”’—the American continent—is that
which presents the most uninterrupted stretch of habit-
able land from the highest northern to the lowest southern
latitude. No part of it was without human inhabitants
when the civilized children of the Old World first came
upon it, and when, from its mountain tops, they first
“stared on the Pacific.” On its extreme north there was
the Eskimo or Inuit race, maintaining human life under
conditions of extremest hardship, even amid the perpetual
ice of the Polar regions. On the extreme south—at the
opposite extremity of the great American continent—there
were the inhabitants of Cape Horn and of the island off it,
both of which project their desolate rocks into another of
the most inhospitable climates of the world. Let us take
this case first—because it is a typical one, and because it
happens that we have from a master-hand a description
of these people, and a suggestion of the questions which
they raise. The natives of Tierra del Fuego are one of
the most degraded among the races of mankind. How
could they be otherwise? ‘Their country,” says Mr.
Darwin, “is a broken mass of wild rocks, lofty hills, and
useless forests; and these are viewed through mists and
endless storms. The habitable land is reduced to the
stones of the beach. In search of food they are compell-
ed to wander unceasingly from spot to spot ; and so steep
is the coast that they can only move about in their wretch-
ed canoes.” They are habitual cannibals, killing and eat-
ing their old women before they kill their dogs, for the
sufficient reason, as explained by themselves, ‘ Doggies
catch others: old women, no.” Of some of these people
who came round the Beagle in their canoes the same
author says: “ These were the most wretched and miser-
able creatures I anywhere beheld. They were quite naked,
and even one full-grown woman was absolutely so. It
was raining heavily and the fresh water, together with the
spray, trickled down her body. In another harbor not far
distant, a woman who was suckling a new-born child,
came one day alongside the vessel and there remained out
of mere curiosity, whilst the sleet fell and thawed on her
naked bosom, and on the skin of her naked baby. These
poor wretches were stunted in their growth, their hideous
faces bedaubed with white paint, their skins filthy and
greasy, their hair entangled, their voices discordant, and
their gestures violent. Viewing such men, one can hardly
make one’s self believe that they are fellow-creatures and
inhabitants of the same world.” Such are the facts, or
one aspect of the facts, connected with this people. But
there are other facts, or another aspect of the same facts,
not less important which we have on the same evidence.
Beneath this crust of savagery lay all the perfect attri-
butes of humanity—ready to be developed the moment the
unfavorable conditions of Fuegian life were exchanged for
conditions which were different. Captain Fitzroy had, in
1830, carried off some of these poor people to England,
where they were taught the arts and the habits of civiliza-
tion. Of one of those who was taken back to his own
country in the Beag/e, Mr. Darwin tells us that “his intel-
lect was good,” and of another that he had a “nice dispo-
sition.”

Let us look now at the questions which the low condi-
tion of the Fuegians suggests to Mr. Darwin. “ Whilst
beholding these savages, one asks whence have they come?
What could have tempted, or what change compelled, a
tribe of men to leave the fine region of the North, to travel
down the Cordillera or backbone of America, to invent
and build canoes which are not used by the tribes of Chili,
Peru, and Brazil, and then to enter one of the most inhos-
pitable countries within the limits of the globe ?”

These questions of Mr. Darwin, it will be observed, as-
sume that Man is not indigenous in Tierra del Fuego.

They assume that he has come from elsewhere into that
savage country. ‘They assume farther that his access to it
has been by land. They assume that the progenitors of
the Fuegians who first came there were not skilled navi-
gators like the crew of the Beag/e, able to traverse the
Atlantic or the Pacific in their widest and stormiest ex-
panse. These assumptions are surely safe. But these
being accepted, it follows that the ancestors of the Fue-
gians must have eome from the North, and have passed
down the whole length, or a great part of the length, of
the American continent. In other words, they must have
come from regions which are highly favored into regions
of extremest rigor. If external circumstances have any in-
fluence upon the condition of Man, this great change
cannot have been without effect. Accordingly, Mr. Dar-
win at once, instinctively as it were, connects the utter
savagery of the Fuegians with the wretched conditions of
their present home. ‘“ How little,’ he says, “can the
higher powers of the mind be brought into play! What
is there for imagination to picture, for reason to compare,
for judgment to decide upon.” It is in perfect accordance
with this view that on every side of them, and in propor-
tion as we pass northwards from their wretched country,
we find that the tribes of South America are less wretched,
and better acquainted with the simpler arts. None of the
depressing and stupefying conditions which attach to the
present home of the Fuegians can be alleged of the re-
gions in which some distant ancestors of the Fuegians
must have lived. In Chili, in Peru, in Brazil, in Mexico,
there are boundless tracts in which every condition of na-
ture, soil, climate, and productions, are comparatively as
favorable to men as they are unfavorable on the desolate
shores of Cape Horn and Tierra del Fuego. Yet one or
other of these many well-favored regions must have been
on the line of march by which the Fuegian shores were
reached. One and all of them present attractions which
must have induced a long encampment, and must have
made them the home of many generations. Why was
that march ever resumed in a direction so uninviting and
pursued in a destination so desolate and so miserable ?
But the moment we come to ask this question in respect
to the Fuegians, we find that it is a question which arises
equally out of the position and life of many other portions
of the human family. The northern extremity of the Am-
erican continent presents exactly the same problem as the
southern. If it is impossible to suppose that Man was
first created, or born, or developed in Tierra del Fuego, it
is not less impossible to suppose that he had made his first
appearance on the frozen shores of Baffin’s Bay. Watch-
ing at the blow-hole of a seal for many hours in a temper-
ature 75° below the freezing point, is the constant work of
the Inuit hunter. And when at last his prey is struck, it
is his greatest luxury to feast upon the raw blood and
blubber. To civilized man it is hardly possible to conceive
a life so wretched, and in some aspects at least so brutal,
as the life led by this race during the continual night of the
Arctic winter. Not even the most extravagant theorist
as regards the possible plurality of human origins can be-
lieve that there was a separate Eskimo Adam. Man,
therefore, is as certainly an immigrant into the dreary re-
gions round the Pole as he is an immigrant to the desola-
tions of Cape Horn. But the whole conditions of his life
there are necessarily determined by the rigors of the
climate. They are conditions in which civilization, as it
has been here defined, is impossible. And theimportance
of that definition is singularly apparent in the case of
the Eskimo. Although essentially uncivilized, he is not,
in the ordinary sense of the word, a savage. Many
of the characteristics usually associated with that
word are altogether wanting in the Eskimo. They
are a gentle, inoffensive, hospitable, and _ truthful
race. They are therefore a conspicuous example
of the fallacy of supposing that there is any necess-
ary connection between a backward condition of knowl-
edge in the useful arts, and violent dispositions, or

198

SCIENCE.

ferocious and cruel habits. Men are not necessarily
savage because they may use flint hatchets, or because
they may point their arrows and their spears with bone.
Nevertheless, the cordition of the Eskimo, although not
savage, is almost the type of the merely uncivilized ccn-
dition of Mankind. It is a condition in which not more
than a few families can ever live together, and in which,
therefore, large communities cannot be formed. A few
s'mple and some yery curious rules cf ownership are all
that can represent among them the great law-givirg in-
stinct which lives in Man. Agriculture cannot be prac-
ticed, nor even the pasturing of flocksand herds. With-
out fuel, beyond the oil which feeds their feeble lamps,
or a few stray logs of drift timber, the Eskimo can have
no access to the metals, which in such a country could
not be reduced from their ores, even if these ores were
themselves obtainable. The useful arts are, therefore,
strictly limited to the devising and making of canoes and
weapons of the chase. There is no domestic animal
except the dog, and dogs too, like their masters, must
have been brought from elsewhere. These are all con-
ditions which excluce the first elements of what we un-
derstand by civilization. But every one of these condi-
tions must have been different with the progenitors of the
Eskimo. Ifthey were immigrants into the regions within
the Arctic Circle, they must have come from the more
temperate regions of the South. They must have been
surrounded there by all the natural advantages of which
their descendants are now deprived. To what extent
these ancestors of the Eskimo may have profited by their
very different and more favored position, we cannot
know. They may have practiced such simple agriculture
as was practiced by the most ancient races which have
left their traces in the Swiss Lake dwellings. They may
have been nomads, living on their flocks and herds, as
the Laplanders and Siberians actually are who in the
Old World live in latitudes only a little farther south.
They may have been people who, like the ancient but
unknown Mound-builders in the Southern and Western
States of America, had developed a comparatively high
civilization. But one thing is certain, that they must
have lived a life wholly different from the life of the
Eskimo, and that they must have had completely different
habits. “Whatever arts the father knew, suited to more
genial climates, could not fail to be forgotten by the
children, in a country where the practice of them was
impossible.

The same question, therefore, which Darwin asks in
respect to the inhabitants of the extreme south of the
American continent,arises in respect to the inhabitants of
its extreme north—What can have induced any people to
travel along that continent in a direction more and more
inhospitable, and at last to settle in a country where
nearly one-half the year is night, and where, even during
the short summer, both sea and land are mainly occu-
pied by ice and snow ?

But, again, we are reminded that there are other cases
of a similar kind. The African continent does not extend
so far south as to reach a severe southern latitude. In that
continent,accordingly, beyond the frequent occurrence of
deserts, there is nothing seriously to impede the migra-
tions of Man from its northern towards its southern ex-
tremity; nor is there anything there to subject them
when they had reached it to the worst conditions. Ac-
cordingly we do not find that the predominant native
races of Southern Africa rank low in the scale of human-
ity. Those among them, however, which are or were the
lowest in that scale, were precisely those who occupied
the most favorable portion of the country and are known
as Bushmen. Of these it is well ascertained that they are
not a distinct race, but of kindred origin with the Hot-
tentots, who were by no means so degraded. On the
whole, therefore, the question how men could ever have
been induced to live where we actually find them, does
not press for an answer so much in respect to any part

ot the continent of Africa, with the exception of a few
tribes whose present habitat is exce ptionally unfavorable.
There is, however, another case of difficulty in respect
to the distribution of Mankind, which in some respects is
even more remarkable than the case of the Fuegians, or
the case of the Eskimo. We have seen that the great
Asiatic continent, though it does not itself extend
beyond latitudes which are favorable to human settle-
ment, is practically prolonged through a continuous
chain of islands into the regions of Australasia.
Every part of those regions was found to be in-
habited when they were discovered by civilized man ;
and it is universally admitted that the natives of Aus-
tralia, and the natives of Tasmania, are or were (for the
Tasmanians are now extinct) among the very lowest of
all the families of Man. Now the physical conditions
of the great islands of Australasia are in many re-
spects the most remarkable on the surface of the
globe. Their peculiar fauna and flora prove them to be
of great antiquity as islands in the geolcgical history of
the earth. That isto say—their beasts, and their birds,
and their vegetation are so widely separate trom those
of all other regions, that during long ages of the total
time which has elapsed since they first appeared above
the ocean, they must have been as separate as they are
now from all other habitable lands. Their beasts are,
indeed, related—closely related—to forms which have
existed during certain epochs in many other portions of
the earth’s surface. But those epochs are so distant,
that we are carried back in our search for creatures like
them to the times of the Secondary Rocks—to the hor-
izon of the Oolite. Speaking of the poverty and of the
extremely isolated character of the Australian Mammalia,
Mr. Wallace says: ‘“ This class affords us the most cer-
tain proofs that no part of the country has been united
to the Asiatic continent since the latter part of the Mez-
ozoic period of geology.”® Of the vast series of crea-
tures which elsewhere have been created, or born, or de-
veloped, since that epoch, including all the higher mem-
bers of the Mammalian Class, not one existed in Austral-
asia until they were introduced by Europeans. Among
the grasses there were none which by cultivation could
be developed into cereals. Among the beasts there was
not one which was capable of domestication. There were
no apes or monkeys; no oxen, antelopes, or deer; no
elephants, rhinoceroses, or pigs; no cats, wolves or
bears; none even of the smaller civits or weasels: no
hedgehogs or shrews; no hares, squirrels, or porcupines,
or dormice.’’? There was not evena native dog; and
the only approach to, or representative of, that wonder-
ful animal, was a low, marsupial beast, which is a mere
biting machine, incapable of affection for a master, and
incapable even of recognizing the hand that feeds it.
In the whole of Australia, with the exception cf a few
mice, there was not one single mammal which did not
belong to this low Marsupial Class, whilst some others
belonged toa class still lower in the scale of organization,
the class called Monotremata. Strange forms astonished
our first explorers, such as the Ornithorynchus and the
Echidna—forms which combined features elsewhere
widely separated in the animal kingdom—the bills of
Birds, the spines of Porcupines, the fur of Otters, and the
feet of Moles. Nothing analogous to these relics of an
extinct fauna had been known to survive in any other
part of the world. Yet in the midst of this strange as-
semblage of creatures, without any representative of the
animals which elsewhere surround him, the familiar form
of Man appeared, low, indeed in his condition, but with
all the inalienable characteristics of his race. It is true,
that everywhere the gap which separates Man from the
lower animals is enormous. Nothing bridges, or comes
near to bridging it. It isa gap which has been well

2“*Australasia,’’ by Alfred R. Wallace, p. 51.
3 ‘* Australasia,’ by Alfred R. Wallace, p. 51.

.

SCIENCE.

199

called a gulf. But in Australasia the breadth and depth
of this gulf is rendered more conspicuous by the assccia-
tion of Man with a series of animals absolutely wanting
in those higher members of the Mammalian Class which
elsewhere minister to his wants, and the use of which is
among the first elements of a civilized condition. Alone
everywhere, and separate from other beings, Man is most
conspicuously alone in those strange and distant lands
where his high organization is in contact with nothing
nearer to itself than the low marsupial brain.

To those who connect the origin of Man with the the-
ory of Development or Evoluticn, in any shape or in any
form, these peculiar circumstances respecting the fauna
of Australasia indicate beyond all doubt that Man is not
there indigenous. They stamp him as an immigrant in
those regions—a wanderer from other Jands. Nor will
this conclusion be less assuredly held by those who be-
lieve that in some special sense Man has been created.
There is something more than an incongruity in suppos-
ing that there was a separate Tasmanian Adam. The
belief that the creation of Man has been a special work
is not inconsistent with the belief that inthe time,
and in the circumstances, and in the method of this
work, it had a definite relation to the previous
course and history of Cteation—so that Man did
net appear until all these lower animals had
been born, which were destined to minister to his necessi-
ties, and to afford him the means and opportunities for
that kind of development which is peculiarly his own.
On the contrary, this doctrine of the previous creation of
the lower animals, which is, perhaps, more firmly estab-
lished on the facts of science than any other resp::cting
the origin of Man, is a doctrine fitting closely into the
fundamental conceptions which inspire the belief that

~ Man has been produced by operations as exceptional as

their result. And so it is, that when we-see men inhabit-
ing lands destitute of all the higher Mammalia, which are
elsewhere his servants or companions—destitute even of
those productions of the vegetable kingdom, which alone
repay the cultivation of the soil, we conclude with certainty
that he is there a wanderer from some distant lands,
where the work of creation had been carried farther, and
where the conditions of surrounding Nature were such as
to afford him the conditions of a home. .

We see, then, that the question asked by Mr. Darwin,
in respect to the Fuegians, is a question arising equally in
respect to all the races who inhabit regions of the globe,
which from any cause present conditions highly unfavor-
able to Man. Just as Mr. Darwin asked, what could have
induced tribes to travel down the American continent to
a climate so rigorous as Cape Horn ?—just as we have
asked, on the same principle, what could have induced
men to travel along the same continent in an opposite di-
rection till they reached and settled within the Arctic
Circle >—so now we have to ask, what could have induced
men to travel from Asia, or from the rich and splendid
islands of the Eastern Archipelago, and to take up their
abode in Australasia ?

In every one of these cases the change has been greatly
for the worse. It has been a change not only involving
comparative disadvantages, but positive disabilities—
affecting the fundamental elements of civilization, and
subjecting those who underwent that change to deteriorat-
ing influences of the most powerful kind.

It follows from these considerations as a necessary con-
sequence that the present condition of the Australian, or
the recent condition of the Tasmanian, cannot possibly be
any trustworthy indication of the condition of their an-
cestors, when they lived in more favored regions. The
same argument applies to them which, as we have seen,
applies to the Fuegians and the Eskimo. If all these
families of Mankind are the descendants of men, who at
some former time inhabited countries wholly different in
climate, and in productions, and in all the facilities which
these afford for the development of the special faculties of

the race, it is in the highest degree improbable that a
change of habitat so great should have been without a
corresponding effect upon those over whom it passed.
Nor is it a matter of doubt or mere speculation that this
effect must have been in the highest degree unfavorable.
The conclusion, therefore, to which we are led is, that
such races as those which inhabit Australasia, are indeed
the results of development, or of evolution—-but of the de-
velopment of unfavorable conditions, and of the evolution
of the natural effects of these. Instead of assuming them
to be the nearest living representative of primeval Man we
should be more safe in assuming them to represent the
widest departure from that earliest condition of our race
which, on the theory of Development, must of necessity
have been associated at first with the most highly favor-
able conditions or external Nature.

DOLBEAR ON THE NATURE AND CONSTITU-
TION OF MATTER.

A CRITIQUE.

There appeared in “ SCIFNCE”’ a series of three papers!
by Professor A. E. Dolbear which contain such new and
somewhat startling ideas on the nature and constitution
of matter that an interesting controversy was to be ex-
pected. Nearly six months have, however, passed
without any objections having been raised to any of the
Professor’s statements, some of which seem to me quite
strange and of rather peculiar mathematics withal. I
now, with no little hesitation entera protest against some
of these statements. The subject of the constitution of
matter is so intricate, so complicated, beset with so many
difficulties on the one hand, while on the other our means
of dealing with it are so inadequate, our methods of in-
vestigation so imperfect that, as Maxwell says, all we can
do is to make hypotheses and see how far our facts and
phenomena bear them out. This being so, I believe that
whenever a particularly bold hypothesis is made and con-
clusions are drawn therefrcm by anyone without having
made a most careful comparison with all the principal
phenomena of matter, the humblest student of this fas-
cinating department of physical science has a right to com-
mand a most vigorous halt, and to examine whether he
who assumes to guide is himself sufficiently acquainted
with the intricacies and windings ofthe road not to lead
his followers into the dismal swamps of metaphysical vag-
aries. I therefore claim for myself that right, lest what I
have to say might be construed as too presumptuous.

In my review I shall, in the main, touch upon and dis-
cuss the points I desire to examine, in the order in which
they occur in the Professor’s papers. To begin, then,
with the first paper, Section II, I shall devote a little at-
tention to the equation E’ — e #0" which the Professor
z 2
says expresses the total energy of an atom. It seems an
altogether gratuitous assumption to give to the expres-
sion for the total energy of an atom the same form that
Clausius gives for the total energy of a molecule. Inthe
molecule we have the motion of translation and also the
motion. or motions of its parts relative to its centre of
mass ; but of the atom we cannot make the same asser-
tion. Clausius was justified, by mathematical deductions
from experimental data, to assume that the total energy
of the molecule is proportional to the energy of agita-
tion ; but that does by no means justify the assumption
that the same form of function also expresses the total
energy of the atom, for here all experimental data are want-
ing. We may, however, reasonably conclude that the
form of this function for the atom must differ somewhat
from that for the molecule, as the motions of the atom
must, of necessity, be much more intricate and complex

1*On Some Needed Changes and Additions to Physical Nomencla-
ture,” Vol. I., p. 238; ‘‘On Matterasa Form of Energy,” Vol. II., p.
49, and ‘*On the Amplitude of Vibration of Atoms,”’ Vol. II., p. 146,

200

SCIENCE. ©

than those of the molecule. Granting the correctness of
the expression for argument’s, sake I must confess that I
do not understand how the Professor gets the expression
E’ — E =.« given under 3,in his ‘Table of Forms of

5 : m v2
If © in the expression E’ = « Vals

Energy.” is anything

: ae é MU.
it certainly must be the rat OF where E ———_isthe energy
2

of agitation of an atom. By subtraction we obtain E’ —
eee 02 eH mV
2 Bs
fessor would lead us to believe. While I regard it simply
a gratuitous assumption to give the expression for the
total energy of an atom, and that for the total energy of
a molecule the same form——because we have no experi-
mental evidence whatever to justify us to believe that the
conditions of the atom resemble those of the molecule——I

. . , 2 . . . .
believe that the equation EF’ = ¢7”” in which « is zzéer-
q 2

nal energy is utterly incorrect. « in this expression is
not at ali analogousto fin % £ mv the expression
for the total energy of a molecule as given by
Maxwell. Here # is the numerical ratio of the total
energy to the energy of agitation, an abs‘ract,
while ¢ is internal energy, a concrete. Here let me ask
what is energy times energy. The form E’ — E = «is
undoubtedly correct. From this by substitution we get
eee me MV? _

e — 1) and not « as the Pro-

+ eandncte

2

The statement “ Latent heat, specific heat, and_ specific
inductive capacity, are all involved in (that factor?) ¢,” is
certainly not correct. Latent heat is work performed
upon some body, and is, according to Clausius, partly in-
ternal and partly external. The external work is per-
formed upon surrounding material systems. The internal
work is, in general, composed of two parts—one ex-
pended upon the molecules in expanding the body from
one state of aggregation to another, the other part is ex-
pended upon the parts of the molecule. It is only this
last portion which can affect the atom as such, and which
can in any way be involved ine. Similarly we find that
specific heat is also work performed, and that, too, of a
complex nature. Specific inductive capacity seems to me
to belong to an altogether different class of phenomena.

In regard to the ether the Professor makes some very
curious statements. He says that he knows nothing of
the specific properties of the ether, yet in the same sen-
tence is the statement “ether is not matter,” as if this
were a generally accepted view. If the ether is not mat-
ter, what is it? There are two ways of looking at mat-
ter—the subjective or metaphysical, and the objective or
physical. Metaphysically defined matter is anything
which has extension or occupies space. For the physical
definition I quote Maxwell’: “Hence, as we have said,
we are acquainted with matter only as that which may
have energy communicated to it from other matter, and
which may, in its turn, communicate energy to other mat-
ter.’ Again, he says: “ Energy cannot exist except in
connection with matter.” Whether, then, we accept the
metaphysician’s definition or the physicist’s, we must regard
ether as matter; for it certainly has extension and occu-
.pies space, and it certainly receives from other matter,
transmits and imparts to other matter energy. That
Maxwell regarded ether as matter, appears from the fol-
lowing quotation, taken from the same work and page as
the preceding: ‘Hence, we conclude that the
matter which transmits light is disseminated through the
whole of the visible universe.” Theitalics are mine. Pro-
fessor Dolbear, furthermore, tacitly assumes ether to have
mass, as will appear hereafter.

Again, the Professor says: “ Furthermore, as atoms
differ in mass so will their rates of vibration differ when

2 ‘* Matter and Motion,” p. 93.

they possess the same absolute amount of energy. Ve-
locity, in this case, will be equal to amplitude a 4, the
space point ¢ passes over during one vibration. If #z and
m' be two atoms of different masses having equal energy
2 ‘a2 /
OT POT eel otto
2 2 TL, igi
the square of their velocities is inversely as their masses,
so that wave-length in the ether will vary as the mass of
the atom.” This is certainly very curious logic and math-
ematics. The statement may be true, and the investiga-
tions of Lecoq de Boisbaudran even furnish some evi-
dence inits favor, but the mathematical proof offered by
the Professor does not justify any such conclusion. wv
and v’ are, according to his own statement, amplitudes of
vibration ; when, then, the atoms of different masses have
equal energy, the proportion me simply proves

of vibration, then E =

that the squares of the amplitudes of vibration are in-
versely as the masses. In what manner the rate of vibra-
tion and wave-length in ether follows from this relation
of mass to amplitude the Professor does not make clear.
In order to make the above conclusion of Professor Dol-

"2 ,
bear correct, we must have the further condition, Z a= is

v n
where # and # are the relative number of vibrations of
m and m' in equal times. One of the most funda-

mental equations of motion is unquestionably v= >-
z.

Hence, as the amplitude @ 4 is a space passed over ina
given time, we can make it equal to v only by making ¢
unity. Similarly we can make the amplitude of mz’ equal
to v' only by making ¢ unity. If now we wish to com-
pare the velocities and masses of the two atoms we can
certainly not use different units of time to determine those
velocities; and we get, according to the Professor’s
statement, the self-contradictory result that two atoms,
which make each one vibration in equal times yet have
different rates of vibration. To make the problem more
general let us take two atoms of masses m and m’.
Let them make respectively 7 and z’ vibrations of ampli-
tudes, a and a’ in unit of time. The time of one vibra-

: ,- Substituting
n

tion of m will be 1 and of m',
n

these values successively for 7, and @ and a’ successively
for s in the equation of motion, we have
i

a ae 5
v=* =anandv' =% =a'n' combining 2 =,
see a8 UT an
n!

4
or the velocities are proportional to the products of the
amplitudes by the number of vibrations in unit time.
Combining this with the Professor’s proportion we have
LO. 2 Be
m' aw
m

To obtain from this the relation —_= ah A and 4’ be-
m 74

n

CL ae
en n

ing wave-lengths, we must fulfil the condition

n a?
or—-= —,- If, then, two atoms of the masses m and
n a
; 5 and at Ge
m’ have equal energy, and the relation — = —, holds #
WL a

and 2’, being the respective number of vibrations in unit

time, and a and @’ corresponding amplitudes, the relation

= in which 4 and 4’ are wave-lengths will follow.
m

: We Shs

For we will then have, as above shown, —-=— . Wealso
m en

1

have A= ~ and ”’ = ey From these we obtain 4 =7
n n Vv 6

and, hence,

D
m x

SCIENCE.

201

a”?
a
particular case can, it would seem, be determined only by
experiment. So, too, the fact of the equal absolute
energy. of vibration of two atoms. Our experimental
methods are, however, as yet far from competent to deal
with either question, and until they are it is certainly pre-
mature.to build up speculative hypotheses.

Every student cf molecular science knows how great is
the temptation to build hypotheses which are to account
for all the physical and chemical relations of mat-
ter. We canread between the lines of nearly all
our recent writers in this department of science their
secret belief that chemical phenomena are probably but a
complex phase of mechanical phenomena, and that all
matter is probably one. Nor are facts justifying such
views altogether wanting. Probably no chemist would
be bold enough to say in how far such phenomenaas, for
instance, the solution of ammonia, carben dioxide, and
many other gases in water are of purely chemical and
how far of purely physical nature. There are many
other phenomena in which similar difficulty would be
felt. The phenomena of adhesion and cohesion are such
that it does not require a very great stretch of the imag-
ination to suppose that they may be but different phases
of what we call chemical union. But to pass from such
general and indefinite speculations to suppositions in re-
gard to the mechanical conditions which will account for
all these phenomena and all the properties of matter upon
purely mechanical principles is a long and, indeed, a bold
stride. As the temptation to make this attempt is great,
so ought our caution to be great in making the attempt.
Professor Dolbear’s immediate predecessor in this at-
tempt is Professor Norton. His hypothesis of two atmos-
pheres, one attractive, the other repellant, surrounding
each atom, is too artificial, and in being in opposition to
the “‘ Kinetic Theory of Gases,” is probably too much out
of sympathy with the tendency of modern thought to
make many converts. Not so, however, with Professor
Dolbear’s speculations. Their great fundamental sim-
plicity, as well as their thoroughly Kinetic nature, make
them dangerous to healthy progress in molecular science
unless they can maintain their right of being by account-
ing for at least the chief and fundamental phenomena of
matter. I shall now attempt to apply the touch-stone to
them. In Section IV. of his first paper Professor Dolbear
advances an hypothesis of chemical union founded on the
analogy to a vibrating body which, as is well known by
reducing the average density of the atmosphere,
causes light bodies to cling to it by atmospheric
pressure. We are told that precisely the same con-
ditions exist in the ether near a vibrating atom;
that the average density of the surrounding ether is less-
ened, and that by extraneous pressure another atom vi-
brating synchronously with the first would attach itself
thereto, and the molecule would be formed, etc., etc.
I would like to ask how Prof. Dolbear can consistently
speak of the density of ether, which, he says, is not mat-
ter. Now, in this idea of density there is implicitly the
idea of mass, for density, as every one knows, is the mass
or amount of matter in unit volume. But, disregarding
this inconsistency, it is certainly very bold induction, if
induction it can be called, to attribute chemical union to
a lessening of density of ether due to atomic vibrations
because a vibrating tuning-fork attracts light bodies
when brought sufficiently near. In the professor’s hy-
pothesis the atoms (vortex-rings) vibrate about a circle
as figure of equilibrium, and consequently have four
points of maximum displacement or minimum density of
the ether. As aconsequence of this, each atom must
attract other atoms capable of attaching themselves to it
at four points. To judge from his diagrams, the Profes-
sor believes that atoms unite only in two-dimensional
space, z.¢., that the centres of all the atoms lie in the same
plane. Such a distribution of the atoms would render

Whether or not the relation” — holds in any
n

any closed structure such as a saturated molecule an
impossibility, for the peripheral atoms would ccnstantly
attract further atoms as long as they vibrate, and other
atoms vibrating synchron‘cally with them are present. If,
on the other hand, the atoms are arranged in tri-dimer-
sional space, having their centres in planes, say, at right
angles to one ancther, the simplest molecule and the only
really stable oné would have to contain six atoms whose
planes of rotation form the faces of acube. A further
possible supposition is that the atoms would arrange
themselves in parallel planes with their centres in a line
at right angles to these planes. The first of these sup-
positions, as already indicated, would not allow the
formation of saturated molecules, and it would seem that
all chemical union, as we know it, could not exist, for it
would evidently be altogether a matter of chance how
atoms grouped themselves in regard to numbers, so
that we could not always obtain like results of
union under precisely like conditions. The second sup-
position is also inconsistent with chemical facts, for we
have molecules of two, three, four and five atoms,
as well as others containing hundreds. The third
supposition is also untenable, for from Helmholtz’s math-
ematical investigations and Tait’s experiments we know
that two vortex-rings, when they move axially in the same
direction alternately, pass through each other one expand-
ing, the other contracting, while when moving axially in
opposite directions they both expand moying slower and
slower, but never meet. This is, according to Tait, about
all we know experimentally or mathematically in regard
to the action of one vortex ring upon another. It is cer-
tainly a little strange that Prof. Dolbear, in framing his
hypothesis, completely ignores these known facts, and re-
lies on a far-fetched analogy. Serious as are these diffi-
culties, they are by no means the most serious. If experi-
mental evidence is worth anything, we must believe that
elementary molecules, with a few exceptions, consist of two
atoms, which are, as far as we can judge, exactly alike. Fur-
thermore, we find that in all chemical reactions we can
deal with nothing less than the molecule; we know and
can deal with the atom only as a part of a molecule, and
not as an independent existence. When chemical union
takes place between two elements, there is simply an in-
terchangeof atoms between the molecules. The differ-
ence between the molecules of an element, and those of
a compound, is simply this, that the atoms of elementary
molecules are all alike, while those of a _ com-
pound molecule are unlike. I repeat all these funda-
mental and well-known chemical facts and deductions, to
show how singularly inadequate Prof. Dolbear’s hypothe-
sis is to account for even the most simple chemical facts.
According to his hypothesis, the atoms whose rates of vi-
bration are most exactly alike, must form the most stable
molecules. Consequently, the atoms of an element must
cling more firmly together than can those of two different
elements, and chemical union between the elements be-
comes impossible. Did the atoms of elements exist as indi-
viduals, and not as parts of molecules simply, synchronism
of vibrations might be a possible supposition to account
for chemical union ; but as the case stands, we must re-
ject any such hypothesis as precluding all combination
between atoms of different elements. Setting aside even
this difficulty, how are we to account by synchronous
vibrations for the liberation of energy in the form
of heat and light, which accompanies most chemi-
cal unions. These forms of energy are, according
to the Professor himself, altogether due to vibra-
tions of the atoms and these same _ vibrations
cause the union. Now, how can they both cause the union
and be produced by it? Does this not look a little like
perpetuum mobvbzle? Had the Professor tried to explain
adhesion and cohesion by molecular vibration his posi-
tion would undoubtedly be much stronger. We know
that molecules are complex end that there must be
motion of their parts relative to the centre of mass of

202

the molecule. As there is no good reason for supposing
the motions of these parts or atcms to bé rather in. one
plane than another, we must admit the possibility of
motion in all planes. The vibrations would, however,
probably be in three planes at right angles to one
another in all molecules cf more than three atoms; and
would, consequently, have six points of maximum dis-
placement and minimum density of the surrounding
ether. Molecules of two and three atoms might possibly
vibrate in two cr only one plane. As molecules are not
vortex-rings, though possibly groups of vortex-rings, the
analogy toa vibrating tuning fork becomes much closer
than in the case of a vibrating vortex-ring, and we are
much more justified in trying to make applicaticn of the
hypothesis. Prof. Dolbear’s analegy thus modified can,
I think, be made a very fair working hypothesis to ex-
plain adhesion, cohesion end even crystallization. The
phenomena cf surface tension of liquids and capillary
action find a reasonably fair explanation upon this hy-
pothesis, and pcssibly also those of osmosis, dialysis and
occlusion. But even here such an hypothesis meets with
many difficulties and we must exercise extreme caution,
and must gather further experimental evidence before
committing ourselves to its acceptarce.

In his second paper the Professor tells us that the vor-
tex-ring theory assumes that matter is a form of energy,
etc. Never having been so fortunate as to have had
access to Sir William Thomson’s orginal memoir, I
know his celebrated hypothesis only through interpreta-
tions of cthers. From these interpretations i have al-
ways supposed that this hypothesis assumes that all
matter is essentially one; and that the elements, as we
know them, are portions of this common matter imbued
with vortex-motion, thus forming vortex-rings variously
knotted, whose energy is non-interchangeable with other
forms of energy provided the vortex-tings are formed and
exist in a perfect or frictionless fluid. If the fluid is not
quite perfect, not quite frictionless, the vortex-rings
must gradually be destroyed and their energy must be
transformed. The uniform material substratum, if I
understand the hypothesis correctly, consists of smaller
and simpler vortex-rings which are a!so the particles or
atoms of the ether. If, then, ] comprehend the positions,
the non-transformability of the energy of the vortex
atoms and also their permanence, z. ¢. the persistence of
our elements depend upon the perfect fluidity of the
ether. Whether the ether is perfectly frictionless or not
science is, I think, hardly ready to answer. To call
“matter a form of energy not interchangeable with other
variable forms” is, under the circumstances and from the
meaning of the terms employed, to take extraordinary
liberties with language. Physically regarded, energy is, to
strip the term of all technicalities, mattcr in motion. Then
Professor Dolbear’s statement becomes matter, is a form
of matter in motion, which is hardly intelligible. Again
we are told *‘ The energy of a mass of matter varies as
the square of the velocities, but the propertzes of the
mass vary with the form of the energy, that is to say the
physical: properties of a heated body are not identical
with those of the same body when it is cool, but pos-
sesses the same amount of energy in free path motion.”
Exactly what this sentence means is, I must confess, be-
yond my comprehension. One thing, however, seems
certain, that it expresses an idea directly opposed to the
“Mechanical Theory of Heat” and the “ Kinetic Theory
of Gases” in the statement that a cool body ‘“ possesses
the same amount of energy in free path motion”’ as the
same body when heated. If this be so, what becomes of

By = ee. for gases, and what of the “ Thermo-dynamic

Scale of Temperature.”
mv

In regard to the assumption = atomic weight and

the calculations based thereon, I will merely remark that if

SCIENCE.

the groups having the same # or those. having the same
v showed any family likeness or any gredual variation cf
properties as do Mendelejcff’s periocs and grcups, then
they would be worthy of ccnsideraticn. As it is, how-
ever, they seem mere jugglery with figures. That
the atoms of the elements have a “ common form differing
arithmetically from each other in size and velocity”’ is
utterly inconsistent with the well-known facts and phe-
nomena of quantivalence or valency of atoms. There
would have to be two forms at least one for artiad, and
one for perissad atoms. I think for the present, at least,
we must reject this idea of simplicity and still foliow Sir
William Thomson.

In the third paper we read, ‘‘ There is now sufficient
evidence for the belief that the Kinetic energy of atoms
and molecules consists of two parts, one of which is the
energy of translation or free path, the other of a change
of form due to vibrations of the parts of the atom or mole-
cule toward or away frem its centre of mass. The pres-
sure of agas is immediately due to the former while the
temperature depends solely upon the latter.”’ To the first
sentence of this quotation J object. because atoms and
molecules are treated as if similar, for which assumption
we haveno evidence. The second sentence contains the
very strange idea that the temperature of a gas is duecnly
to the internal energy of the molecule. Maxwell in his
“ Theory of Heat’’ Chap. XXII, under “ Specific Heat at
Constant Volume ”’ says : “ Since the product fv is propor-
tional tothe absolute temperature, the energy is propor-
tional to the temperature.’ By energy Maxwell here
means, as appears from the context, what Prof. Dolbear
would calltotal energy. From this it appears that Prof.
Dolbear’s statement can hardly be correct. If we 1e-
member that Maxwell speaks of molecules and Prof. Dol-
bear of atoms the latter’s statement becomes still more
doubtful. The assumption that “ these two forms of energy
must indeed be equal to each other in a gas under uniform
conditions,’ upon which allthe Professor’s calculations in
his third paper are based, can easily be disproved. The
Kinetic energy of agitation of a molecule is % mv® and
the (total) energy is “ % 8 mv? where {isa factor always
greater than unity and probably equal to 1.634 for air
and several of the more perfect gases.” Hence the in-
ternal energy is % (.634 mv*.) This, of course, inval-
idates all the Professor’s calculations.

Having extended my remarks far beyond what I origi-
nally intended, I shall touch upon only one more point,
though I find various other difficulties in the Professor’s
speculations. The last paragraph of the third paper be-
gins: ‘Asat absolute zero each atom is quite indepen-
dent of every other atom, that is, matter has not a
molecular structure, etc.” Now, I would like to ask the
Professor how he knows this. Such a state of affairs
would indeed make the absolute zero a More than singu-
lar point in the curve of the properties of matter.

BuFFALO, N. Y., April 20, 188r. Wm. H. DOPP.

LETTERS TO THE EDITOR.

[The Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed
by his correspondents.
cations.

No notice ts taken of anonymous communt-

INTRA-MERCURIAL PLANETS.
To the Editor of ‘“SCYENCE :”

I wish to say that in the ske‘ch given to “SCIENCE,”
No. 35, p- 95, the position of Professor Swift’s Vulcans
is very nearly as they were put down by Professor
Swift himself on a map that now hangs in my room at
the Naval Observatory.

As to negative evidence there is something to be said
on both sides of the question. When extraordinary dis-
coveries are reported they are to be severely examined
and carefully criticised. If the observations on which

SCIENCE.

—

the discoveries rest are conflicting among themselves, and
if the probability of such discoveries is rendered small
by long and careful series of independent observations,
we are justified in waiting for further evidence before we
accept the alleged discoveries as true. The ways in
which an observer may be deceived are numerous. In
1878 an astronomer wrote me that he had discovered a
satellite of Venus that revolved around the planet in
thirty seconds. I expressed some doubt and advised
him to examine his telescope and the eye pieces. He did
so and was candid enough to inform me that the satellite
he had discovered was nothing but a “ ghost.”

If any astronomer who is familar with astronomical
observations: and their discussion, will examine the re-
ports on the Vulcans supposed to have been discovered
during the eclipse of 1878, and will notice how the re-
ports were changed from time to time, he will find good
reasons for doubt. Certainly this matter is not to be
settled by assertion. If there are Vulcans of the fourth
and fifth magnitudes which attain an angular distance of
from three to seven degrees from the sun, they ought to
be found easily. A. HALL.

Washington, April 25, 1881.

te

THE SOLAR PARALLAX.

Te the Editor of ““SCYENCE”’;

From the Americaniphotographs of the Transit of
Venus, as presented in part the first of “ Observations of
the Transit of Venus, December 8, 9, 1874, Made and
Reduced Under the Direction of the Commission Created
by Congress,” I have obtained, for the value of the solar
parallax, 8.883" + 0,034” corresponding to a distance be-
tween the centres of the sun and the earth equal to
92,028,000 miles. Dp; PB. Topp,

WASHINGTON, Afril 26, 1881.

ASTRONOMY.

MounNtrv ETNA OBSESVATORY.—The Memozrs of the
Italian Spectroscope Society contains an illustration of
the ODdservatory of Mount Etna, showing that work upon
the building has progressed as rapidly as could have
been expected, when we consider the difficulties to be
Overcome in the transportation of materials, etc. Every
effort is being made to finish the Observatory by 1882,
and provide it with a director and staff both of astrono-
mers and meteorologists. We ES We

——__—$__<o_______

Messrs. Houzezu and Lancaster, the Director and Li-
brarian of the Bruxelles Observatory, are performing an
extremely valuable service to astronomers by the prepara-
ration of a general bibliography of Astronomy. Two
volumes have thus far appeared, the second of which is
just published, and is devoted to memoirs which have ap-
peared in scientific periodicals, and in the publications of
the various academies. Four topics are included in this
volume, Spherical Astronomy, Theoretical Astronomy,
Celestial Mechanics, and Physical Astronomy. The only
thing which even approximates the completeness of the
present work, is the catalogue of the library of the Poulk-
ova Observatory, a new edition of which has been in
course of preparation for several years past. The Brux-
elles work, however, has the advantage of being a general
bibliography, and not limited to the contents of any one
library, however extensive. Ons:

—$——<—<__q_______..

MICROSCOPICAL NOTES,

At our suggestion, Mr. Lockwood, of New York City,
who has already devoted considerable attention to the
application of Photography to the various branches of
Science, now proposes to make arrangements for photo-
graphing Microscopical Preparations,

203

The objects will be enlarged by very perfect and pow-
erful objectives, and photographed while thus enlarged.

Those possessing microscopes will at once notice the
great advantage to be secured by such an arrangement.
Few possess the skill to produce a drawing from a
microscopic object, while the amount of detail involved
in sketching anatomical preparations, can be mastered by
few who are not professed artists.

When Mr. Lockwood’s arrangements are complete a
microscopist, for a moderate amount, will be enabled to
have a perfect copy of any microscopic preparation, and
as many duplicate as he requires to circulate among spec-
ialists, or his friends. Should he desire to publish the
result of his researches, Mr. Lockwood can then photo-
graph the object directly on the wood block, ready for
the hand of the engraver.

The chief value of the use of Photography in such a
case lies in the fact that such drawings, being prepared
by the hand of nature, their integrity cannot be im-
peached, and that any charge of exaggeration or error
cannot be maintained.

When Mr. Lockwood’s arrangements are complete we
will announce the fact in our microscopical column, but
in the interval would be glad to hear from those who are
likely to avail themselves of these facilities for promot-
ing microscopical research.

$$$ —_—_9> —___—___.

NOTES.

Les Mondes proposes to apply the*photophone to the
study of the aurora borealis,

ON THE GALVANIC POLARIZATION PRODUCED BY METALLIC
Deposits.—The polarization of copper, employed as nega-
tive electrode in a solution of sulphate of zinc, is never
null, as Lipmann believes, in cases where the solution con-
tains traces of a salt of copper, and that the deposit of
zinc is exceedingly slight and invisible. On the contrary,
it has a value which may differ much, and whichis so much
the greater the smaller the quantity of a copper-salt con-
tained in the solution, and the less the time which has
passed from the moment when the polarizing current was
interrupted.—D. MAca.uso.

ON THE ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE OF VOLTAIC ARC.—When
an electric flux is established between two conductors of
the same nature by means of a gaseous medium, which is
commonly the vapor thrown off by their substance, the in-
equality of temperature of those portions of the conductors
which are contiguous to such a medium appears to bea
general fact. It seems not less probable that the extremity
by which the positive electricity arrives, possesses the
higher temperature. This is observed in a remarkable de-
gree in the production of the voltaic arc between two car-
bons, by means of a current of constant direction. Theidea
of ascribing to this phenomenon a thermo-electric origin
is not novel. According to the application of the principle
of the equivalence of heat to electric phenomena, an elec-
tromotive force acting in the inverse direction of the cur-
rent, corresponds to adisengagement of heat at the point of
junction.of two heterogeneous substances.—M, F. P. Lr
Roux.

MAGNETIC ACTION UPON THE FLUORESCENT LIGHT PRo-
DUCED BY THE NEGATIVE DISCHARGE IN AN EXHAUSTED
Space.—If we take a well-exhausted cylindrical tube, with
rectilinear electrodes placed in its axis, the fluorescent light
formed by the cathodic rays consists, as is well known, of
a green cylinder bounded bya circle. This circle undergoes
transpositions if a magnet is allowed to act upon the dis-
charge. It can be shown that these, whether simple orcom-
plicated cases, may be explained by the following hypothe-
sis:—The cathodic rays, emanating from the negative
electrode, pass on in a straight direction, and the current
moves from the anode to the sides of the cathodic space,
and from thence to the negative electrode. The magnet
acts upon these currents according to Ampére’s rule.—K.
DoMALIP,

204.

SCIENCE. ;

BOOKS RECEIVED.

COMPENDIUM OF MICROSCOPICAL TECHNOLOGY ; A
guide to Physicians and Students in the use of the Mi-
croscope, and in the preparation of Histological and
Pathological specimens. By CARL SEILER, M. D.
Published by D. G. Brinton, Philadelphia, 1881.

The author of this work has a high reputation for pre-
paring mounted specimens for Microscopical study, and
therein gives short and clear descriptions of his own
methods, which have given such satisfactory results. The
reader is, therefore, not perplexed by being instructed in
the various methods suggested by many authorities, but
a clear line of conduct is indicated for him by Dr. Seiler,
which may be relied on as being satisfactory.

The work is written for medical students, and for that
reason the usual subject matter found in Manuals of
Microscopy is altogether omitted, neither are descriptions
given of tissues, and the student is referred for histological
details to works devoted to histology.

Without intending to cast any reflection on the body
of the work, we are inclined to consider the appendix the
most valuable part of Dr. Seiler’s book. In it the author
presents a short, concise, and, at the same time, compre-
hensive classification of the more common tumors and
other neoplasms in tabular form ; these, indeed, will be wel-
come to the student of pathological histology. The author
claims to have exercised great care in its compilation, and
to have introduced all the accepted modern views on the
subject, so as to bring it up to the standard of the present
time. ;

POPULAR LECTURES ON SCIENTIFIC SUBJECTS. By
H. HELMHOLTZ, Professor of Physics in the Univer-
sity of Berlin. Translated by E. ATKINSON, Ph. D.,
F.C.S. Second Series. D. Appleton & Co. New
York, 1881.

The present volume presents a series of addresses and
lectures delivered by Professor Helmholtz during a per-
iod of six years, from 1871 to 1877. The contents show
that the following subjects are treated:

1. An address delivered before the Leibnitz meeting of
the Academy of Sciences, 1870. In memory of Gustav
Magnus.

2. A lecture on the Origin and Significance of Geo-
metrical Axioms, delivered at Heidelberg, 1870.

3. The substance of a series of lectures on the relation
of optics to painting, delivered at Cologne, Berlin and
Bonn.

4. Lecture on the Origin of the Planetary System, de-
livered in 1871.

5. An address delivered in 1877, on the Anniversary of
the foundation of the Institute for the Education of Army
Surgeons: or, Thought in Medicine.

Perhaps the only popular paper in the series is that
“On the Origin of the Planetary System,” in which the
various hypotheses connected with the subject are ex-
plained in simple and familiar language. Professor
Helmholtz appears to have handled this subject in a
manner which must have been a source of delight to a
mixed audience. Touching on extinct suns he ex-
piained that a time would arrive when our own sun
would cease to develop the heat which is a source of vi-
tality to this earth, But he explained that 17,000,000
of years would lapse before this ‘intensity of sunshine,
would be diminished, and that circumstances may even
prolong this period.” ;

Looking forward to such a period when our sua shall
be extinguished, Professor Holmholtz observes that con-
sidering the wonderful adaptability to the conditions of
life which all organisms possess, who knows to what
degree of perfection our posterity will have developed in
17,000,000 of years, and whether our fossilized bones
will not seem to them as monstrous as those of Jchthyo-
saurus now do; and whether they, adjusted for a more
sensitive state of equilibrium, will not consider the ex-

| tremes of temperature, within which we now exist, to be
just as violent and destructive as those of the older
geological times appear to us? Yea, even if sun and
earth should solidify and become motionless, who could
say what new worlds would not be ready to develop life ?
Meteoric stones sometimes contain hydro-carbons ; the
light of the heads of comets exhibits a spectrum
which is most like that of the electrical light in gases
containing hydrogen and carbon. But carbon is the
element, which is characteristic of organic compounds,
from which living bodies are built up. Who knows
| whether these bodies, which everywhere swarm
through space, do not scatter germs of life, wherever
there is a new world, which has become capable of giv-
ing place to organic bodies? And this life we might
perhaps consider as allied to ours in its primitive germ,
however different might be the form which it would
assume in adapting itself to its new dwelling place.

Probably the lectures “On the Relation of Optics to
Painting” and the address “ On Thought in Medicine” are
the most valuable productions of Professor Helmholtz to
be found in this volume, and as space for their proper
examination cannot be used in this notice, references
will be again made to them on another occasion.

This work should find a place in every library of
standard works of Literature.

a

A MOST successful experiment in theatre illumination
was tried on March 30 and 31, at the Athenzeum of the Rue
des Martyrs, Paris, with the Werdermann incandescent
light. The peculiarity of it is that it can be graduated at
will for scenic effects, either by introducing resistance coils
or varying the velocity of the Gramme machine.

EFFECT oF TEMPERATURE UPON THE ELECTRICAL RE-
SISTANCE OF SELENIUM.—Mr. Shelford Bidwell, in the
Philosophical Magazine for April, gives an account of some
experiments made on the above subject. He says: ‘‘ The
room being 14° Centigrade, a selenium cell was immersed
in turpentine at 8° C. There was a great and sudden fall
in the resistance. The temperature was then gradually
raised. In passing from 8° to 24° the resistance steadily
increased ; from 24° upwards it rapidly diminished. For
this cell, therefore, the resistance is greatest at 24° C. Five
other cells were afterwards submitted to the same operation,
and their resistance was found to be greatest at tempera-
tures of 23°, 14°, 30°, 25°, and 22° respectively.”

ELECTRIC TRANSMISSION OF FORCE FOR WORKING
Cranes.—According to E. Hospitalier, the use of hy-
draulic pressure for the transmission of the power required
in working cranes in docks, involves a loss which, in some
cases, may reach 88 per cent. This evil is entirely obviated,
in addition to a great simplification of the entire plant, by
means of electric transmission of power, which enables the
original steam power to be fully utilised even when the
crane is raising much less than its maximum load. If we
reduce the loading of a crane the electro-magnetic machine
which drives it will have less work to do, and will revolve
more rapidly, and the stronger counter-currents thus pro-
duced will react upon the dynamo-electric machine in such

a manner that there is a less current produced, and a less. ~

demand is made upon the steam-power. The only question
is, how the current is to be divided into several unequal
branches capable of being varied in strength at any mo-
ment.—La Lumitre Electrigue.

ON THE STATIONARY ELECTRIC CURRENT IN CONDUCTIVE
SURFACES, AND ON THE GALVANIC RESISTANCE OF PSILOME-
LAN.—Hugo Meyer, in the first portion of this memoir, dis-
cusses the ramification of the current, and the calculation
of the resistance of flat plates. The experimental results
agree with calculation. In the second part the author’s ex-
perimental results agree with calculation. In the second
part the author examines the resistance of thin plates of
psilomelan, and obtains results antagonistic to those of
Braun, who found the resistance decrease under the in-
fluence of an induction current.

SCIENCE.

205

Sere INGE :

A WeEEKk Ly ReEcorpD OF SCIENTIFIC

PROGRESS.

JOHN MICHELS, Editor.

PUBLISHED AT
TRIBUNE BUILDING, NEW YORK.

P, O. Box 8888.

SATURDAY, MAY 7, 1881.

Dr. H. J. Detmers, of Chicago, has forwarded to us
a communication of considerable importance, which
will doubtless be read with interest both on this con-
tinent and in Europe.

In 1877 the Commissioner of Agriculture reported
that during the previous year, the loss due to farm
animals dying from infectious and contagious diseases
amounted to $16,6 53,428, of which amount two-
thirds, or over $11,000,000, were due to loss of swine.
But as this report included returns from only half of
the United States, the above sum was, of course, far
below the actual losses of the year.

Congress having appropriated $10,000 for defray-
ing the expenses of a commission to investigate the
causes which produced these contagious and destruc-
tive diseases, and, if possible, to discover remedies,
the matter was placed in various hands to conduct the
inquiry. ,

Among those who have received instructions from
the Department of Agriculture, Dr. H. J. Detmers
has shown considerable skill in attacking the problem,
and the results of his work have developed several dis-
coveries of great biological significance.

Although working with inferior microscopical appli-
ances, he soon found that a particular kind of Bac-
terium was always present in cases of swine plague,
and he has been able, apparently, to prove by actual
experiment that these Bacteria were the active prin-
ciple of contagion.

The early investigations of Dr. Detmers were given
in the Report of the Agricultural Department for
1878. Since this time Dr. Detmers has, with consid-
erable industry, continued his investigations under
more favorable circumstances ; for armed with new
objectives made by Mr. Tolles, of Boston, with
powers of definition equal to anything yet manufac-
tured to aid human vision, a new revelation has
resulted from their use.

The latest discoveries of Dr. Detmers we are able
to place before our readers in another column of this
issue. Possibly the conclusions drawn in this paper
may be criticised, and our columns will be open to
any exceptions taken on scientific grounds, but our
readers must unite in giving credit to Dr. Detmers
for the very thorough and exhaustive treatment which
this subject has received at his hands.

The researches of Pasteur in a somewhat similar
direction, which have been reported in this journal,
suggest to us that Dr. Detmers should, like Pasteur,
endeavor to arrest the spread of Hog Cholera by a
system of vaccination. Dr. Detmers shows in his
present paper that by cultivating the Bacterian infect-
ing element, a contagious principle is secured which
by inoculation produces a very mild form of the dis-
ease. Could not advantage be taken of this fact in
the direction we have indicated ?

We are glad to announce that Hog Cholera is rapidly
becoming a thing of the past, and has decreased since
1878 so rapidly that at the present time 7¢ 7s dificult
to obtain badly infected specimens for scientific ex-
perimental purposes. This fact, which is communi-
cated to us by Dr. Detmers in a private letter, will be
welcome news to those interested in this extensive in-
dustry and to the public generally. In Dr. Detmer’s
report, which we publish this day, it should be noticed
that he states that in 1878 the malignant or fatal form
(with ulcerous tumors) was found in about 75 fer cent.
of all fatal cases (in Illinois), whereas now their occur-
rence is probably limited to about 5 fer cent. of all
cases.

Thus the Swine-plague is now under control and
is rapidly disappearing. These results are clearly due
to the wise policy of publicly making known the evil
and the danger, and promptly taking precautionary
measures. Let the credit then be given where it is
due, even if extended to that much abused Depart-
ment of Agriculture at Washington, which first raised a
voice of warning and secured funds from Congress to
“investigate and determine the causes, and if possible
to discover remedies” of one of the most destructive
diseases that ever assailed domestic animals.

Of the Trichine trouble we have but a few words to
offer, as it can be more profitably described without
reference to other subjects. We may, however, ob-
serve that it is one of the least formidable of diseases
found in hogs, and can probably be eradicated, if
proper measures are taken. It is useless to assert that
it does not exist, and the only common sense view of
the case to be taken, is to acknowledge the evil and
root it out. Action should be taken by Boards of
Trade to at once gather statistics by proper examina-
tions. If, as they assert, there are no Trichinz in Ameri-

206

SCIENCE. :

can hogs, the fact will be demonstrated; if, on the con-
trary, Trichinz are found, the extent of the trouble will
be known and steps can be taken to protect the in-
dustry by systematic examination. We believe that
the presence of Trichinz in pigs is confined to certain
districts ; if so, it can be localized, and the work of
investigation gradually reduced within certain limits,
and eventually, by proper precautions, the evil would be

entirely removed.
saat aE ns

MOUNTAIN ELEVATION, AND CHANGES OF
TEMPERATURE, IN GEOLOGY.

By SAMUEL J. WALLACE.

It seems a very little thing for heat and cold to play
over the face of a continent. But light and unnoticed
as the creeping of fate it goes on forever; and the foun-
dations of the everlasting hills are in its iron grasp.
Cold and heat. What should a rock-ribbed continent
care for them? What do they do?

In latitude 40° to 50° a yearly change of ten degrees
of heat penetrates the upper strata to considerable
depths ; and the expansion of various kinds of stone for
102 varies from one to three feet in twelve thousand ;
making, say, one foot to the mile, which across North
America is half a mile.

This is an always recurring and resistless force of out-
ward thrust. It is probably mostly compensated for in
its habitual recurrence by elasticity, slippages of strata
on others, and by fissures; as well as by the fact that
the expansion of solid strata is sometimes less from the
deep drift or soil protecting them. But, still, as the su-
perior force is outward, without anything to compel a
full return in winter, and as the expansion is less below
and greater above, the continued tendency is to push the
upper strata forward over others toward the margins of
extended plains, with a creeping motion, tending to force
up bendings, folds and faults, and to raise mountains and
plateaus slowly ; and even to accumulate such strain or
tension,as to cause earthquakes and volcanos.

Though, as Dana and others think, there has been a
singular persistence in the general features of deep
oceans and of continental tables, yet, great portions of
the tabular areas have had their depressions and up-
heavals from the sea. What must have occurred in
such cases?

If a tract of sea-bed is covered by an arctic current at
32°, the cold must finally penetrate to very great depths.
Then, should the polar current by any means be shut off,
and a warm current flow over it, the temperature would
certainly be raised several degrees, and produce an ex-
pansion which would find relief in raising mountain
ridges, or in arching up its own or other regions. This
might go on slowly till great areas were elevated from
the ocean.

Rising from the sea, also, would increase the tempera-
ture very much, to heave up mountains and plateaus, or
still other lands fromthe sea. This result it seems would
have to occur, because of the great depths to which the
expansion would reach, and because there would exist no
provision for relief of the tension, such as the repeated
yearly expansion would work out for itself.

It seems these results must flow from what we already
know, whether there is or not, any other cause of eleya—
tion. There are some further considerations that may be
noticed here.

Where a deep ocean trough bearing an arctic current
lies along beside a continent it would form a fixed barrier
to such expansions, and probably a chain of mountains
would be forced up along it, together with volcanos and

earthquakes. The region of least yearly change and great-
est cold is said to be in the northern edges of America and
Siberia, and the bar connecting them across the pole.
From the ends of this region the annual change increases
southward and laterally. Singularly, the principal moun-
tain systems of the northern hemisphere seem asif raised
by forces or thrusts radiating from this bar and its ends. *
In America, as Dana shows, the original core of the conti-
nent was V-shaped, with its two ridges facing the end of
that cold bar between them. And the later elevations
preserve parallelism to these original lines, as if showing
thrusts from that bar and from eachother. In Europasia
occur continuations of the same parallelism of elevations
as facing thrusts radiating from the sides and the other
and broader end of the same cold bar, to the areas of
greatest annual changes southward, with still increased
force and complexity.

In the southern hemisphere the bases of thrust seem as
if, on the contrary, they were the three great ocean beds.
And the great mountain systems of the world seem as if
raised by thrusts of force radiating from these great
northern and southern centers of land and ocean, oppos-
ing each other, together with some cross thrusts over
broad areas of land. This feature of opposition between
the northern land thrusts and the southern ocean beds,
brings some of the principal lines of elevation in the
northern hemisphere into diagonal courses, except where
sweeping around the northern projections of the oceans,
especially that of the Indian ocean, and its former con-
nection west to the Atlantic south of Europe.

The present Alleghany system seems to have been
raised by the elevation of the Mississippi Valley from the
sea during and after the Carboniferous period ; the Rocky
Mountains by that of the plains, later; and the Alps by
that of Northern Africa and Northern Europe, although
previous elevations existed.

The familiar example of ice creeping up the shores of
ponds and lakes, from repeated changes of temperature
in winter, illustrates the principle of such elevations, the
walled lakes of Iowa being special illustrations; and in-
teresting observations have been published, showing from
fixed levels that oscillations of level do occur from changes
of temperature.

REMARKS ON A PATHOGENIC SCHIZOPHYTE*
ProF, H. J. DETMERS.

When about two and a half years ago it became my
duty to investigate the prevailing Swine-plague, the so-
called Hog-cholera, I first endeavored to ascertain the na-
ture and the cause of that disease, and to accomplish my
object, made numerous post-mortem examinations, and
paid special attention to the microscopic examinations of
the blood and of the morbid products and morbid tissues.
Although the microscope at my disposal at the beginning
of my investigation is only a small No. VIII Hartnack
stand with three Hartnack and Prazmowski objectives—a I
inch, a ¥ inch, and a 1-gth inch imm, and correctives—
and consequently not a strictly first-class instrument, and
in its performance by no means equal to the work of a_
Tolles or a Zeiss, I soon became convinced that the blood,
the morbid products, and the morbid tissues of the dis-~~
eased and dead animal invariably contained, while fresh,
and not tainted by putrefaction, a certain kind of Schizo-
phytes or bacteria. The same presented themselves in
three different shapes, namely as small globular bacteria
or Micrococci, as Zodglcea-masses or clusters, imbedded in,
or kept together by, a viscous mass, and as little rods or
filaments. I soon found that all three forms belong to the
same organism, and represent only different stages of de-
velopment. The first or globular form predominated in
the blood, the second in the morbid tissues— for instance,
in the diseased portions of the lungs and in the lymphatic

* Read before the State Microscopical Society, of Illinois, April 8th,
188x.

SCIENCE.

207

glands—and the rods occurred in greatest numbers in
such morbidly changed parts and morbid products—for
instance, in the ulcerous tumors of the intestines—as are
accessible to atmospheric air and other external influences.

The constant occurrence of these Schizophytes soon made
it appear probable that their presence is not merely acciden-
tal, but that the same, very likely, are connected with, and
characteristic of, the morbid process of the disease. To
get at the facts was one of my principal endeavors. How
far I have succeeded I leave to others to judge.

Careful and repeated macroscopic and microscopic ex-
aminations of the tissues, but especially of the lungs,
which, by the way, are always more or less affected by
the morbid process of Swine-plague, soon revealed the
fact that the principal morbid changes are brought
about in the following way: The finer capillary blood ves-
sels become obstructed or plugged, the more fluid por-
tions of the blood exude into the tissues—in the lungs
ptincipally and at first into the lobules, and then into the
interlobular connective tissue—some, and particularly in
young animals not seldom but a great many, of the finest
capillaries rupture, and innumerable small extravasations
of blood, visible to the naked eye as tiny red spots, are
deposited into the tissue. In the skin, subcutaneous tis-
sue, and intestinal membranes the process is essentially
the same, but to follé6w it further would lead too far for
the present. Let me, therefore, mention another fact.
While the blood taken from a vein of a diseased or dead
pig invariably contains a large number of spherical bac-
teria or Micrococci, and very few, and usually small Zoo-
gloea-masses, the diseased parts of the lungs, and especi-
ally the stagnant blood, which oozes out of the
capillaries, if the diseased parts of the lungs are cut into
small pieces, invariably contains, besides Micrococci,
numerous and large Zodgloea-masses, which are, most of
them, much larger than the blood corpuscles, and abund-
antly large enough to clog the finer capillaries. All this, of
course, does not..prove that the Schizophytes constitute
the cause of the morbid process. I therefore resorted to
experiments. Having found that any inoculation of a
healthy pig with the fresh pulmonary exudations of a
diseased or dead animal invariably produces the disease
in three to fifteen days, or on an average in six
days, I concluded it might be ascertained in two
different ways—in a negative and
way—whether or not the Schizophytes constitute the
cause of the morbid process. If it were possible to
free the Schizophytes from everything, and to transfer
the same without any vehicle whatever from one animal
to artother, for instance, like a louse or an itch-mite, the
question would be very soon answered. But as that
cannot be done, I had to get at the facts in a more indi-
rectway. I repeatedly charged two ounces of an innocent
fluid, at first pure and fresh milk, then boiled milk, mut-
ton broth, afterwards water, and finally albumen,with one
drop of the infectious pulmonary exudation, containing
an abundance of Schizophytes. .In about three days
the fluids thus charged, which, by the way, were kept at
a suitable temperature, were found to be swarming with
Schizophytes, identical in appearance to those found in
the pulmonary exudation; and every inoculation made
with these fluids proved to be effective, but in most cases
the attack produced was of a comparatively mild type.
To go further into particulars would take too much time;
I therefore have to refer for particulars to my reports to
the Commissioners of Agriculture. One thing, however,
I must state. The fluid transferred by each inoculation
was less than half a drop, but this half drop contained
innumerable Schizophytes, while as far as could be ascer-
tained by careful microscopic examinations, nothing else
contained in the original exudation had multiplied. Con-
sequently, nobody, unless he believes in the power of
Hahnemannian dilutions, will contradict, and say, the

effect of the inoculations is brought about, not by the
Schizophytes, but by an unseen and unknown virus, or

in a_ positive:

chemical something, the existence of which cannot be
proved. I was, however, not satisfied with these positive
results, and concluded to try also the negative way.
Knowing that it is impossible to separate the Schizophytes
from their vehicle, I tried to free the latter from the Schiz-
ophytes, and resorted to filtration. I filtrated the pul-
monary exudations through half a dozen of the. finest
filtering papers obtainable, but found my effort to be in
vain, for the filtrate, although freed from the Zoodgloea-
masses and rod-shaped bacteria, yet contained numerous
Micrococcus-forms. The filtrate was put in a vial witha
tight fitting glass-stopper, and when examined three days
later, it contained a great many rod-shaped bacteria, and
comparatively few Micrococci. I therefore filtered it again
with the same result, except that the Micrococcus-forms
were not asnumerous after the second filtration as after the
first. Sol filtered the exudation three or four times,
each time through four to six filtering papers, and at in-
tervals of about three days till I was finally not able to
detect any Micrococci in the now limpid filtrate. Inocula-
tions with this filtrate proved to be ineffective. At
another time—in the following winter—I tried again to
free pulmonary exudation from the Schizophytes by
means of filtration, but did not succeed. The filtrate
always —after each- filtration—contained numerous
Micrococci. Whether, in this second attempt, I did not
hit the right time for my second and third filtrations,
thatis, a time at which most or all of the micrococci had
developed to rod-shaped Schizophytes or filaments;
whether the temperature was too low—the first, success-
ful attempt was made in the summer—and therefore the
development of the Schizophytes was irregular or retarded ;
whether my filtering papers were not fine enough ; or
whether all these circumstances combined made the fil-
tration a failure, I do not know. An inoculation made
with this filtrate proved to be effective, but the disease pro-
duced was of a very mild character ; at any rate, the ani-
mal recovered.

If more proof is yet required that the Swine-plague-
Schizophytes and nothing else constitute the infectious
principle of that disease, and it seems that the above
facts which have been published more fully in my reports
to the Commissioner of Agriculture, are not deemed
sufficient, the following facts, if not making it absolutely
certain, will at any rate, especially if considered z7 Zofo,
to a great extent, corroborate the assertion that the Schizo-
phytes have, and must have, a causal connection with
the morbid process.

1. It has been, and can be, everywhere observed,
where Swine-plague is prevailing, that the infectious
principle floating in the air, is attracted and taken up by
sores, wounds and even scratches, but does not enter the
animal organism through the whole skin and through
perfectly healthy respiratory mucous membranes.

2. Antiseptics, or medicines, which are either directly
poisonous to the lower forms of organic life, or destruc-
tive to those conditions, under which low forms of or-
ganic life thrive and develop, and among those antisep-
tics, especially carbolic acid, iodine, hyposulphite of soda,
benzoate of soda, thymol, etc., have proved to constitute
almost sure prophylactics. As one of the conditions
necessary to the development of Swine-plague bacteria,
it seems, has to be considered a certain degree of animal
heat. At any rate, after, and while the animal heat of a
pig is reduced by a continued treatment with carbolic
acid, from the normal (102° to 104° F) to an abnormally
low temperature (say 96° to 97° F), every innoculation
with fresh infectious material has so far proved to remain
ineffective. Further, the various antiseptics, which have
proved to be good prophylactics, are very dissimilar in
their chemical affinities and actions, and their prophy-
lactic effect cannot very well be explained, if the infec-
tious principle were a chemical agency, a virus, or a poi-
son, but is explained, if the same consist in something
endowed with life and power of propagation.

208

3. If the morbid process, the morbid changes effected,
particularly the exudations and extravasations of blood
on the lungs and in the skin, and the qualitatively un-
changed condition of the blood—that is excepting such
changes in its composition as are evidently the product,
or necessary consequence, of the morbid changes—are
taken into consideration, it becomes obvious that some-
thing which causes obstructions in the capillary system
—embolism—must constitute the cause, and nothing
whatever, able to accomplish that result, can be found,
except the colonies or clusters of Schizophytes, the Zodg-
loea-masses, imbedded in a viscous substance, while on
the other hand, these Zodgloea-masses are never absent
in a case of Swine-plague.

If I am allowed to digress a little, it may be here men-
tioned that I am well aware of the fact that German and
French investigators claim for certain, and it may be, for
all, kinds of pathogenic Schizophytes chemical actions or
fermenting properties, and undoubtedly many of them,
especially among those belonging to the genus Bacillus
—I mention 4. anthraczs—and probably some others, do
possess and exercise such properties, and cause fermenta-~
tion, As to the Swine-plague Schizophytes, I have not
been able to observe any fermenting effect or chemical
action, except such as necessarily results from depriving
the animal organism of certain elements and material,
appropriated by the Schizophytes, and necessary to their
subsistence and propagation. All other morbid changes
appear to be the consequence of the obstruction of the
capillary system by the Zoégloea-masses, and therefore,
are the product of a mechanical, and not of a chemical
agency.

4. The adversaries of the so-called ‘“‘Germ-theory ”’ of
diseases, well knowing that a perfect separation of the
Schizophytes (Micrococci, Bacteria, or Bacilli, as the case
may be) from their vehicles, the animal tissues and fluids,
is impossible, demand absolute proof. If conclusions
may be drawn from analogy between diseases of animals
and plants, Prof. T. J. Burrill,* of the Illinois Industrial
University, more favored by the nature of the objects of
his investigation (apple-trees, pear-trees and peach-trees)
has furnished evidence, amounting to almost absolute
proof, that the so-called blight of apple-trees and pear-
trees, and the so-called “‘yellows” of peaches are caused
by Schizophytes similar in size, but otherwise not identi-
cal to those which I consider as constituting the cause
and infectious principle of Swine-plague, as will be seen
by consulting the transactions of the meeting of the
American Association for the Advancement of Science
in Boston, 1880.

If the infectious principle were a chemical poison or
virus, its action, one should suppose, would under all cir-
cumstances be exactly the same, and the malignancy of
the morbid process, and the time required for its devel-
opment—the so-called period of incubation, or, more cor-
rectly, stage of colonization—would not be subject to
changes dependent upon the season of the year, upon the
individuality and temperature of the animal, and upon
other yet unknown external influences, as is undoubtedly
the case. An organic poiscn or virus, one should sup-
pose, would act somewhat like the virus of a poisonous
snake. In the same localities, in the same places, or the
same yards and pens, and among the same breeds of
hogs, in which the disease was exceedingly malignant in
1878 ; it was, as a rule, much milder in 1879, and still
milder in 1880. As such are unmistakable facts, re-
peatedly and everywhere observed, it must be concluded
that nothing but what is able to undergo changes is sub-
ject to growth and development, and acquires vigor and
propagates rapidly under favorable, but is weakened and
multiplies slowly under unfavorable circumstances—in
other words, nothing but what is corporeal and endowed
with life—can constitute the cause.

*‘* Scrence,”’ Vol. 1., pp, 162, 191.

SCIENCE,

6. If the cause and infectious principle of Swine-plague
were a chemical ‘poison or virus, one should suppose a
cessation of the morbid process would be impossible, and
an animal would never recover, while its organism con-
tains an abundance of the infectious principle in an effec-
tive condition, as is undoubtedly the case, because con-
valescents, and animals nearly recovered, frequently com-
municate the disease, even in a fatal form, to other, healthy
pigs. Further, the fact that an animal, once recovered,
possesses but little predisposition for future infection, or
is seldom attacked a second time, even if ever so much ex-
posed, and then only contracts the disease in a compara-
tively mild form, could never be explained ; but the whole
presents an entirely different aspect, and admits explana-
tion, if low and minute forms of organic life, such as the
Schizophytes of Swine-plague, which, by developing and
multiplying, finally destroy or exhaust in an animal organ-
ism the conditions necessary to future development and
propagation, constitute the cause and the infectious prin-
ciple. (cf. an article entitled: ‘“ The Destruction of
Germs,” in“ Popular Science Monthly,” communicated in
extract in Rk. Hetchcock’s Microscopical Fournal, Nov.,
1880.)

7. If some part or organ of a pig infected with Swine-
plague happens to be in a state of congestion, such a part
invariably attracts the infectious principle, and becomes
a prominent, if not the principal, seat of the morbid pro-
cess; a fact difficult of explanation, unless the infectious
principal is something solid or corporeal.

8. The adversaries of the so-called ‘“ Germ Theory,”
as they are pleased to call it, demand absolute proof of
those who claim that certain infectious diseases owe their
origin, or existence and spreading, to very minute forms of
organic life. They cannot deny that these forms exist,
can be found, and have been shown, but forget to show
their virus, poison, fluidum, or chemical something. Does
the latter exist only in their imagination? If the adver-
saries of the so-called “Germ Theory’’ demand absolute
proof on our side of the question, let them set a good
example and furnish it on their side, or only produce their
virus, fluidum, or whatever it may be, and we will grace-
fully acknowledge that we are mistaken, and have labored
in vain.

g. With the very best objectives ever made, and a fair
ability to handle the microscope, I have never been able
to find anything identical to the Swine-plague Schizophytes
in the blood and tissues of other healthy animals. When
I commenced my investigation, the best objective at my
disposal was a very fair 1-9 four system immersion lens
of Hartnack & Prazmowski, but I soon found it to be
insufficient, and procured a 1-16 immersion of the same
makers. This, too, after a while, did not give satisfac-
tion, and I received a 1-12 (nominally 1-10) glycerine
immersion of R. B. Tolles, which that renowned maker
afterwards exchanged for a duplex 1-10 homogeneous
immersion. This latter objective proved to be a very su-
perior lens, and gave me glimpses of things of which I
desired to see a little more—it showed flagella on Baczi-
lus subtzles, which I had never seen with any of the other
objectives—and so I thought with a higher power, and a
still more perfectly corrected lens, if a more perfect cor-
rection could be made, I might be able to see move plainly
the distinguishing forms and characteristics of the Swine-
plague Schizophytes, and also learn a little more about
their mode and manner of propagation. I therefore
asked Mr. Tolles to make me a higher power objective
especially adapted to my work, and he has furnished me a
duplex 1-15 homogeneous immersion objective (in reality
a little more than a 1-16), which is, beyond comparison,
the best objective I have ever seen. It is even superior,
in definition and flatness of field, to a magnificent 1-18
homogeneous immersion objective (in reality a 1-20) of
Carl Zeiss, made to order a month or two ago. ;

As to a proper generic place and name of these Swine-

plague Schizophytes, lamataloss, The best authorities—

7
3

SCIENCE.

209

Cohn, Klebs, and others—who have attempted a classi-
fication are somewhat undecided themselves, and do not
agree where generic lines ought to be drawn. At any
rate, the Swine-plague Schizophytes do not fit into any of
the genera proposed. They are not bacteria, because
the single cells are spherical and not oblong; they can
hardly be considered as Micrococci, because the same are
bi-spherical in their advanced stage of development; and
they cannot be classed among the Bacilli on account of
their forming Zoégloea-masses. J have, therefore, pre-
ferred to use, for the present, that name, which, without
any serious contradiction, is given by modern investigators
to the whole family : Schizophytz or Schizophytes, or the
older name, introduced by Naegeli, Schizomycetes.

The Swine-plague Schizophytes present themselves, ac-
cording to their stage of development, in three different
forms and shapes. Their simplest form, it seems, is that
of a Micrococcus, or of a small globule of about o. 7 or
o. 8 microm. (33400 inch) in diameter. It occurs invari-
ably in the blood, the morbid products, and exudations,
etc. of the diseased animals, and is never absent, but can
always be found, though in some cases in much greater
numbers than in others. The second form is bi-spher-
ical — the spherical cell having duplicated itself by a gradual
contraction in the middle, while growing endwise. These
bi-spherical Schizophytes are always more or less numer-
ous, and are motile, or move about, provided the temper-
ature of their vehicle—lung-exudation or blood-serum,
for instance—is not too low. Some of them, but prob-
ably only those, which, separated from a larger chain, as
will presently be explained, are provided, at any rate at
one end, with a flagellum—a post-fiagellum—which, how-
ever, is so exceedingly fine that it can be seen only with
the very best high-power objectives, like a Tolles 1-15,
and the most favorable light obtainable, and even then
only while the Schizophyte is slowly moving. I have never
yet been able to see it while the Schizophyte is at rest.

These double Micrococci, or bi-spherical Schizophytes,
soon undergo further development. Each single cell
soon again contracts in the middle while growing end-
wise, and, at the same time, separates more and more,
and becomes partially independent from its sister cell,
with which, however, it remains connected for some
time, even after it has completed its duplication. Mean-
while the sister-cell, too, has become bi-spherical, and
what a short while ago was a simple bi-spherical cell, has
become a double bi-spherical body, resembling a small
chain of four round joints. But the duplication does not
stop ; each of the four single cells, within a short time,
doubles again, and soon quite a little rod or filament will
be formed, which, on close inspection, presents a string
or chain of bi-spherical cells endways, loosely connected
with each other. Under moderately high powers—say
of 800 or goo diameters—such a string presents a
slender, rod-shaped moniliform bacterium. While the
single cells, or each half of each bi-spherical body, soon
develop into double or bi-spherical cells, the connection
between the latter gradually loosens, so that finally, if
the temperature is not too low, and the development a
rapid one—I have frequently observed that the number
of bi-spherical cells in such a chain becomes doubled in
less than five minutes—the chain breaks up into smaller
ones (joints), each consisting of one or two bi-spherical
Schizophytes, which, in separating from their neighbors,
after some swinging to and fro, spin or draw out a very
slender thread, a flagellum or cilium. But before ail
these changes, this rapid duplication, take place, the
spherical Micrococci, when about to change to bi-spherical
bodies, form those clusters (Zodgloea or Coccoglia mas-
ses), which, being imbedded in, or kept together by, an
apparently viscous substance, obstruct the capillaries,
and, according to my observations, constitute the prin-
cipal and direct cause of the morbid process. In these
Zodgloea-masses the single Micrococci, it seems, under-
go their first metamorphosis, or change to double bi-spher-

ical cells, and this change continues, till portions of the
Zoégloea-mass separate, or till finally the glia breaks and
opens, when the bi-spherical bodies, and also some yet
unchanged spherical Micrococci,become free. The former,
very soon, commence their duplication, but as each new
cell or globule soon produces another one and becomes
bi-spherical, the same cannot be the source of the spher-
iral bodies or Microcecci. The latter, it appears, have
another origin, as will be presently explained.

In Swine-plague material, such as blood, blood-serum,
lung-exudation, etc., if a day or two old, and sometimes
while yet fresh, bacteria of a peculiar shape and form
make their appearance. Thesame are rod-shaped, and
a trifle longer than a bi-spherical Schizophyte, or two
united spherical bodies, but are not moniliform, and have
at one end, or in comparatively rare cases toward the
middle, a bright and light-refracting globule of much
more density than the rest of the bacterium. This glob-
ule is surrounded by a substance or an envelope of con-
siderably less density and is therefore less light-refract-
ing. If that globule is situated at one end of the bacter-
ium as is usually the case, the whole bacterium présents
the shape of a club, because the globule and its envelope
have much more diameter than the rod. Billroth calls
this form a Helobacterium, and the globule a lasting
spore (Dauerspore). Such a lasting spore, according to
Billroth and Cohn, at any rate, if developed by a Bacil-
lus, is able to resist very high degrees of heat and cold,
and is very prolific, as it disseminates a large number of
germs, which, probably, constitute the source of the
globular bacteria or Micrococci. As such Helobacteria
are often found in perfectly fresh blood, and exudations,
etc. (in the exudations most frequently) of hogs, which
are affected with, or have died of Swine-plague, and are
nearly always seen if the blood and exudations, etc., are
a few days old, it appears probable that the same not only
constitute the source of the spherical bacteria or Micro-
cocci, but also that their great tenacity of life, or resisti-
bility against adverse external influences, explains the
ability of the infectious principle of Swine-plague to re-
main effective for a whole year, if protected, by clinging
to, or being imbedded, in a moist and porous substance,
such as an old straw stack, etc.

Whether or not Swine-plague-Schizophytes are able to
multiply in any other form and manner than stated, I
have not been able to observe. One observation, made
already at the beginning, has found new and repeated
confirmation, viz: wherever, or as soon as Bacterzum
termo makes its appearance in large numbers, the Swine-
plague Schizophytes commence to disappear and disap-
pear in about the same ratio, in which the former are
increasing in numbers. In blood kept in a vial, Swine-
plague Schizophytes cannot be found when the blood
commences to exhibit a purplish color, or when the blood
corpuscles commence to decay, or become destroyed.
Further, the Swine-plague Schizophytes, although pre-
senting the same general characteristics when cultivated
in fluids foreign to the animal organism of a hog, show
differences in so far as the same present less uniformity
in size, and as this development and multiplication pro-
ceed slower, and with much less regularity. It seems
the cultivated Schizophytes change and develop slower,
and probably on that account are less vigorous in pro-
ducing mischief—at any rate, an inoculation with culti-
vated Swine-plague Schizophytes, although effective in
producing the disease, is always followed by a compara-
tively milder form of Swine-plague than an inoculation
with material directly from the bedy of a diseased hog,
This, however, does ‘not involve that every inoculation
with cultivated Schizophytes produces under all circum-
stances a milder form of Swine-plague, than any natural
infection, for such is not the case. The difference may
be stated thus: A natural infection, or an inoculation
with material directly from the body of a diseased hog,
as a rule, produces a malignant and dangerous attack

210

and as an exception a mild form of the disease—the fre-
quency of the exception depending, it seems, to a great
extent upon the prevailing character of the plague,
while an inoculation with the cultivated Schizophytes is,
as a rule, followed by a mild attack, and as an exception,
or in rare cases only, by Swine-plague in its severest
form.

Wherever Swine-plague is prevailing in its most malig-
nant or fatal form, or, what is essentially the same, where-
ever formation of ulcerous tumors in the caecum and colon
is a frequent occurrence, where consequently an abundance
of Swine-plague Schizophytes is discharged with the
excrements of the diseased animals, there the spreading
from animal to animal, and from herd to herd, is a rapid
one; and wzce versa, wherever the spreading is rapid,
there ulcerous tumors in the intestines are a frequent
occurrence. In 1878 the same (the ulcerous tumors)
could be found in about 75 percent. of all cases that had
a fatal termination, while at present (in Illinois) their oc-
currence is probably limited to about 5 per cent. of all
cases. :

THE KANSAS CITY ELECTRIC TIME BALL.

By Prof. H. S. PRircHETT, Astronomer at Morrison Observa-
tory, Glasgow, Missouri.

The first time ball established in the United States
was dropped from the dome of the Naval Observatory
at Washington in 1855, It is still dropped at Washington
mean noon, and has for a long time furnished the
standard time for the city and the Departments of the
Government.

The New York time ball, established in 1877, is
dropped at New York noon, by an electric signal, sent
from the Naval Observatory at Washington. It was
erected and is maintained by the Western Union Tele-
graph Company, and is dropped from their building on
Broadway. At 11h. 55m. the ball is hoisted half-way
up the staff on the tower of the building. At 11h. 58m.
it is hoisted to its highest point, when it is about 250 feet
above the street and can be well seen by the shipping at
the New York and Brooklyn docks, and vessels in the
bay, and from suitable positions is visible to a large part
of the citizens of New York, Brooklyn, Hoboken and
Jersey City.

If on account of wind the ball fails to drop at 12h. om.
os., itis held till 12h. 5m. and then dropped. In such
cases a small red flag is hoisted at 12h, Im. and kept
flying till 12h. 10m. This ball was for some time dropped
by hand, but for thelast year the dropping has been auto-
matically effected by the clock at the Observatory. The
working of the apparatus has been in the main satis-
factory, and the ball has been dropped quite regularly,
the failures being caused almost entirely by temporary
breaks in the wire or other causes which could not be
foreseen.

In the evening papers of the day and in the papers of
the next morning a notice is regularly insertec, stating
whether the ball dropped at correct time, and if not, its
error, fast orslow. Many are at a loss to know how this
correction is obtained. It is arrived at in the following
manner: The time of the falling of the ball records
itself automatically by electricity, near the standard
clock of the Western Union Company in the building, the
clock itself being regulated by the daily clock-signals
from Washington. The difference between the time of
falling of the ball and noon, as indicated by the clock, is
thus obtained by a direct comparison. This assumes of
course the accuracy of the clock, and during a long con-
tinued season of cloudy weather, or in case of accident to
the clock itself, the time might be somewhat in error,
although the published correction might show but a few
hundreths of asecond. At present however, the Western
Union has the benefit also of the Alleghany and Cam-

SCIENCE.

bridge signals, for the regulation of this clock, so that
even during the longest season of cloudy weather it is
not probable that the clock could be much in error.

The Boston time ball, which is dropped at noon of
Boston time, by means of the noon-time signal from the
standard clock of the Harvard College Observatory, is
placed upon the large building of the Equitable Life As-
surance Company and was paid for and is now main-
tained by this company. The ball is of copper and
weighs about 250 pounds. ‘The machinery used in
raising and controlling it is hence much more complicated
and costly than in either of the cases before mentioned.
The cost of ball and machinery was about $1200. The
electric signal which drops it, is given by the clock itself,
the ball having a drop of fifteen feet. The nearness of
the Observatory, and the fact that the wire used is wholly
under its control, give additional convenience and cer-
tainty in the dropping of the ball, and reduces the prob-
ability of accidents to a minimum, so that it is effected
with great regularity and precision. Prof. Pickering,
Director of the Observatory, reports for the year ending
Noy. Ist, 1880, the ball was dropped exactly at noon on
355 days; on four other days at five minutes past noon,
in accordance with the rule adopted ; on four other days
it was not dropped, leaving only three cases of inac-
curacy of dropping.

Quite recently a time ball has been established at
Hartford, Conn., and dropped by the Winchester Obser-
vatory of Yale College.

The time ball recently erected at Kansas City, and
which is dropped as a part of the time service of the
Morrison Observatory, is the first attempt in this direc-
tion in the West. It was paid for chiefly by an approp-
riation of the City Council of that city. The site selected
was the large building just erected by the Messrs. Bul-
lene, Moores & Emery, on Delaware street. The ball
when raised to the top of the staff is about 140 feet above
the street, and is generally visible to the business portion
of the city. The ball which passes over the staff, is
simply a wire skeleton covered with canvas and painted
black, and is about three feetin diameter. It was loaded
on the inside with lead until it was found to drop in-
stantly and without loss of time. It has a drop of about
twenty-five feet and is slowed up as it reachcs the bottom,
and is received upon a set of tall springs surmounted by
a stout cushion.

The apparatus by means of which the ball is dropped
at precisely the right instant, was constructed under the
direction of Mr. W. F. Gardner, the instrument maker
of the Naval Observatory at Washington, It is of a very
simple form, and is found to answer all requirements.

This has been found to work easily and without loss
of time and can scarcely get out of order. The entire
cost of mounting the ball and machinery was only about
$120, and with this small amount it was necessary to use
the utmost economy in the purchase of materials and
apparatus. Kansas City is about one hundred miles
from the Observatory, and except in cases of breaking of
the wire, when the ball cannot be dropped at all, it is
dropped within one oz two-tenths of a second of correct
time.

The discrepancy in the local time kept by different:
jewelers in the city before the erection of the ball was
astonishing, and led to endless confusion in business
and travel.

On the first day the ball dropped, this difference, in ex-
treme cases, amounted to fifteen or twenty minutes,
some being eight or ten minutes fast, others as slow.
The establishment of the time ball has brought about a
uniformity never before known, and must soon make it-
self felt, not only as a convenience, but a promoter of
punctuality in business engagements. .

From the daily clock-signals sent over the wires from
the Observatory it will be easy to establish a similar
time signal in any city in the West, which will take the

SCIENCE.

211

necessary steps to procure these signals. An arrange-
ment has been made also by which they may be distrib-
uted to jewelers and clockmakers, and manufacturing
establishments in the larger cities.

THE UNITY OF NATURE.
By THE DUKE OF ARGYLL.
WAL H fe

THE MORAL CHARACTER OF MAN CONSIDERED

IN THE LIGHT OF THE UNITY OF NATURE,
(Continued).

Of one thing, at least, we may be tolerably certain re-
specting the causes which have led to this extreme dis-
persion of Mankind to inhospitable regions, at a vast
distance from any possible center of their birth, The first
Fuegian was not impelled to Cape Horn by the same
motives which impelled Mr. Darwin to visit that country
in the Beagle. The first Eskimo, who wintered on the
shores of Baffin’s Bay, was not induced to do so for
the same reasons which led to the expeditions of Back, of
Franklin, or of Rae... The first inhabitants of Australasia
did not voyage there under conditions similar to those
which attended the voyages of Tasman or of Cook. We
cannot suppose that those distant shores were first colon-
ized by men possessed with the genius, and far advanced
in the triumphs, of modern civilization. Still less can we
suppose that they went there under the influence of that
last development of Man’s intellectual nature, which leads
him to endure almost any suffering in the cause of purely
scientific investigation.

Nor is this the only solution of the difficulty which
seems to be absolutely excluded by the circumstances of
the case. Within the historical period, and in the dim
centuries which lie immediately beyond it, we know that
many lands have been occupied by conquering races com-
ing from a distance. Sometimes they came to subdue
tribes which had, long preceded them in occupation, but
which were rudeér, as well as weaker, than themselves.
Sometimes, as in the case of the northern nations burst-
ing in upon the Roman empire, they came to overthrow a
civilization which had once been, and in many ways still
was, much higher than their own, but which the progress
of development in a wrong direction had sunk in degrada-
tion and decay. Sometimes they came simply to colonize
new lands, at least as favored, and generally much more
favored, than their own—bringing with them all the re-
sources of which they were possessed—their flocks and
herds, their women and children, as well as their warriors
with chariots and horses. Such was the case with some
of those nations which at various times have held their
sway from Central Asia into Eastern and Central Europe.
They were nations on the march. But no movement of a
like kind has taken place for many centuries. Lastly, we
have the emigrations of our own day, when civilized men,
carrying with them all the knowledge, all the require-
ments, and all the materials of an advanced civilization,
have landed in countries which by means of these could
be made fit for settlement, and could be converted into the
seats of agriculture and of commerce.

Not one of these cases can reasonably be supposed to
have been the case of the first arrival of Man in Austral-
asia. The natural disadvantages of the country, as com-
pared with the richness and abundance of the regions
from which he must have come, or which were on his
southward line of march, preclude the supposition that
men were attracted to it by natural objects of desire. We
know by experience that if the first settlers had been in a
condition to bring with them the higher animals which
abound in Asia, these animals would have flourished in
Australia as they now do. And so, also, with reference
to the cereals—if these had ever been introduced, the
modern Australians would not have been wholly without
them, and would not have been compelled to live so much

ON

on the lowest kinds of animal and vegetable food—on
fish, lizards, grubs, snakes, and the roots of ferns.

There is, however, one answer to Mr. Darwin's ques-
tion, which satisfies all the conditions of the case. There
is one explanation, and only one, of the dispersion of the
human race to the uttermost extremities of the habitable
globe. The secret lies in that great law which Malthus
was the first to observe and to establish—the law,
namely, that population is always pressing on the limits
of subsistence. There is a constant tendency to multipli-
cation beyond those limits. And, among the many con-
sequences of this tendency, the necessity of dispersion
stands first and foremost. It is true, indeed, that under
some conditions, such as those which have been already
indicated, the most energetic races, or the most energetic
individuals, have been those who moved. But under
many other conditions the advantage has been in favor
of those who staid. Quarrels and wars between tribe
and tribe, induced by the mere increase of numbers, and
by consequent pressure upon the means of living, have
been always, ever since Man existed, driving the weaker
individuals and the weaker families farther and farther
from the original settlements of Mankind.

Then one great argument remains. In the nature of
things the original settlements of Man must of necessity
have been the most highly favored in the conditions he re-
quires. If, on the commonly received theory of Develop-
ment, those conditions produced him, they must have
reached at the time when, and in the place where, he arose,
the very highest degree of perfect adaptation. He must have
been happy in the circumstances.in which he found him-
self placed, and presumably he must have been contented
to remain there. Equally on the theory of Man being a
special creation, we must suppose that when weakest and
most ignorant he must have been placed in what was to
him a garden—that is to say, in some region where the
fruits of the earth were abundant and easily accessible.
Whether this region were wide or narrow, he would not
naturally leave it except from necessity. On every possible
supposition, therefore, as to the origin of Man, those who
in the dispersion of the race were first subjected to hard
and unfavorable conditions would naturally be those who
had least strength to meet them, and upon whom they
would have accordingly the most depressing effect. This is
a process of Natural Rejection which is the inseparable
correlative of the process of Natural Selection. It tends
to development in a wrong direction by the combined
action of two different circumstances which are inherent in
the nature of the case. First, it must be always the
weaker men who are driven cut from comfortable homes ;
and, secondly, it must be always to comparativly unfa-
vorable regions that they are compelled to fly.. Under
the operation of causes so combined as these, it would
be strange, indeed, if the physical and mental condition
of the tribes which have been exposed to them should
remain unchanged. It is true, indeed, that adverse con-
ditions, if they be not too severe, may develop energy,
and result in the establishment of races of special hardi-
hood. And in many cases this has been the actual re-
sult. But, on the other hand, if physical conditions be
as insuperable as those which prevail in Tierra del Fuego
or in Baffin’s Bay; or if, though less severe than these,
they are nevertheless too hard to be overcome by the re-
sources at the disposal of the men who are driven to en-
counter them, then the battle of life becomes a losing
one. Under such circumstances, degration is unavoida-
ble. As surely as the progress of Man is the result of
opportunity, that is to say, as surely as it is due to the
working of his faculties under stimulating and favoring
conditions, so surely must he descend in the scale of in-
telligence and culture, when that opportunity is taken
from him, and when these faculties are placed under con-
ditions where they have no call to work.

It is, then, easy to see some at least of the external cir-
cumstances, which, first, in the natural course of things,

212

would bring an adverse influence to bear upon Mankind.
Here we are on firm ground, because we know the law
from which comes the necessity of migrations, and the
force which has propelled successive generations of men
farther and farther in ever widening circles round the
original centre or centres of their birth. Then, as it would
be always the feebler tribes which would be driven from
the ground which has become overstocked, and as the
lands to which they went forth were less and less hospit-
able in climate and productions, the struggle for life
would be alwaye harder. And so it would generally hap-
pen, in the natural course of .hings, that the races which
were driven farthest would become the rudest and the
most engrossed in the pursuits of mere animal exist-
ence.

Accordingly, we find that this key of principle fits into
and explains many of those‘facts in the distribution and
condition of Mankind, which, in the case of the Fue-
gians, excited the wonder and curiosity of Darwin. In
the light of this explanation, these facts seem to take
form and order. It is a fact that the lowest and
rudest tribes in the population of the globe have been
found, as we have seen, at the farthest extremities of
its larger continents—or in the distant islands of its
great oceans, or among the hills and forests which in
every land have been the last refuge of the victims of
violence and misfortune. These extreme points of land
which in both hemispheres extend into severe latitudes
are not the only portions of the globe which are high-
ly unfavorable to man. There are other regions quite
as bad, if not, in some respects, even worse. In the
dense, uniform and gloomy forests of the Amazon and
Orinoco there are tribes which seem to be among the
lowest in the world. It cannot be unconnected with
the savagery of the condition to which they have been
reduced that we find the remarkable fact that all those
regions of Tropical America are wholly wanting in
the animals which are capable of domestication; and
which are inseparable from the earliest traces of human
culture. The Ox, the Horse, and the Sheep are all ab-
sent—even as regards the genera to which they belong.
There are indeed the Tapir, the Paca, and the Curassow
Turkey, and all these are animals which can be tamed.
But none of them will breed in confinement, and the
races cannot be established as useful servants of Man-
kind. In contrast with these and with other insupera-
ble disadvantages of men driven into the forests of Trop-
ical America, it is instructive to observe that the same
races, where free from these disadvantages, were never
reduced to the same condition. In Peru the Indian
races had the Llama, and had also an advanced civiliza-
tion. In India, too, it is always the Hill Tribes who
furnish the least favorable specimens of our race. But

‘in every one of these cases we have the presence of ex-
ternal circumstances and physical conditions which are
comparatively uafavorable. It is quite certain that these
conditions must have had their own effect. It is equally
eertain that the races which have been subject to them
for a long and indefinite time must have been once under
the influence of conditions much more favorable; and
the inevitable conclusion follows, that the savagery and
degradation of their existing state is toa great extent the
result of development in a wrong direction.

There are other arguments all pointing the same way,
the force of which cannot be fully estimated, except by
those who are familiar with some of the fundamental con-
ceptions which seem to rise unbidden in the mind from the
facts which geology has revealed touching the history of
Creation. One of these facts is that each new organic
Form, or each new variety of birth, seems to have been
introduced with a wonderful energy of life. It is need-
less to repeat that this fact stands in close connection
with every possible theory of Evolution. If these new

4‘* Naturalist on the Amazons,” Bates, vol. i, p. 191-3.

SCIENCE:

Forms were the product of favoring conditions, the pre-
valence of these conditions would start them with force
upon their way. The initial energy would be great.
Where every condition was favorable—so favorable in-
deed that the new birth is assumed to have been nothing
but their natural result—then the newly-born would be
strong and lusty. And such, accordingly, is the fact in
that record of creation which Paleontology affords. The
vigor which prevails in the youth of an individual is but
the type of the vigor which has always prevailed in new
and rising species. All the complex influences which
led to their being born, led also to their being fat and
flourishing. That which caused them to arise at all
must have had the effect of causing them to prevail. The
condition of all the lowest races of men is in absolute
contrast with everything which this law demands.
Everywhere, and in everything, they exhibit all
the characteristics of an energy which is spent
—of a force which has declined—ot a _ vitality
which has been arrested. In numbers they are station-
ary, or dwindling; in mind they are feeble and un-
inventive ; in habits they are stupid or positively suicidal.

It is another symptom of a wrong development being
the real secret of their condition that the lowest of them
seem to have lost even the power to rise. Though indi-
vidually capable of learning what civilized men have
taught them, yet as races they have been invariably
scorched by the light of civilization, and have withered
before it like a plant whose roots have failed. The power
of assimilation seems to have departed, as it always does
depart, from an organism which is worn out. This has
not been the result with races which, though very bar-
barous, have never sunk below the pastoral or the agri-
cultural stage. It is remarkable that the Indian races
of North America are perhaps the highest which have
exhibited this fatal and irredeemable incapacity to rise;
and it is precisely in their case that we have the most di-
rect evidence of degradation by development in a wrong
direction. There are abundant remains of a very ancient
American civilization, which was marked by the con-
struction of great public works and by the development of
an indigenous agriculture founded on the maize, which
is a cereal indigenous to the continent of America. This
civilization was subsequently destroyed or lost, and then
succeeded a period in which Man relapsed into partial
barbarism. The spots which had been first forest, then,
perhaps, sacred monuments, and thirdly, cultivated
ground, relapsed into forest once more.’ So strong is
this evidence of degradation having affected the popula-
tion of a great part of the American continent, that the
distinguished author from whom these words are quoted,
and who generally represents the savage as the nearest
living representative of primeval man, is obliged to ask,
“What fatal cause destroyed this earlier civilization ?
Why were these fortifications forsaken—these cities in
ruins? How were the populous nations which once in-
habited the rich American valleys reduced to the poor
tribes ot savages whom the European found there? Did
the North and South once before rise up in arms against
one another? Did the terrible appellation, the ‘Dark
and Bloody Land,’ applied to Kentucky, commemorate
these ancient wars?”’® Whatever may have been the
original cause, the process of degradation has been go-
ing on within the historic period. When Europeans first
came in contact with the Indian tribes, there was more
agriculture among them then than there is now. They
have long descended to the condition of pure hunters.
The most fundamental of all the elements of a civilized
and settled Jife—the love and practice of agriculture—
has been lost. Development in the wrong direction had
done its work. There is no insoluble mystery in this re-
sult. It is, in ali probability, if indeed it be not certainly,

5 Lubbock, ‘‘ Prehistoric Times,” p. 234.
Ibid., p. 236.

SCIENCE.

213

attributable to one cause, that of internecine and devas-
tating wars. And these again are the result of a natural
and universal instinct which has its own legitimate fields
of operation, but which like all other human instincts
is liable to degenerate into a destructive passion. The
love of dominion is strong in all men, and it has ever
been strongest in the strongest races. But the love of
fighting and of conquest very often does sink into a mere
lust of blood. The natural rivalry of different communi-
ties may become such implacable hatred as to be satisfied
with nothing short of the extermination of an enemy.
Inspired by this passion, particular races or tribes have
sometimes acquired a power and a ferccity in fighting,
against which other tribes of a much higher character
and of a much more advanced civilization have been un-
able to contend.

This is no fancy picture. It is amistake to suppose
that the decline of civilization in the American continent
has been due to the invasion of it by Europeans since the
discovery of Columbus. Just as the older civilization of
that continent was an indigenous civilization founded on
the cultivation of a cereal peculiar to the American con-
tinent, so also does the decay and loss of this civilization
seem to have been a purely indigenous decay. Mr. Wil-
son, in his very interesting work on “Prehistoric Man,”’
gives an account of the process by which barbarism has
been actually seen extending among the Red Indian
tribes. When the valley of the St. Lawrence first came
under the observa'ion of Europeans, some of those tribes
were found to be leading a settled life, practicing agri-
culture, and constituting communities in possession of
all the elements of a civilization fairly begun, or probably
-long inherited. The destruction of these communities
was affected by the savage hostility of one or two partic-
ular tribes, such as the Iroquois and the Mohawks, In
these tribes the lust of blood had been developed into an
absorbing passion, so that their very name became a ter-
ror and a scourge, Wholly given up to war as a pursuit,
their path was red with blcod, and the more peaceful
and civilized branches of the same stock were driven, a
scanty remnant, into forests and marshes, where their
condition was necessarily reduced to that of savages, liv-
ing wholly by the chase. It is acurious and instructive
fact that this sequence of events was so vividly and pain-
fully remembered among some of the Red Indian tribes
that it had become embodied in a religious myth. It
was said that in old times the Indians were increasing so
fast that they were threatened with want, and that the
Great Spirit then taught them to make war, and thus to
thin one another's numbers.” Although this myth stands
in very close connection with the universal tradition of a
Golden Age, or of a Past in some measure better than
the Present, it is remarkable on account of the specific
cause which it assigns for deterioration and decay, a
cause in respect to which we have historical evidence of
its actual effect. When the great French navigator,Car-
tier, first explored the St. Lawrence in 1534-5, he as-
cended to that point of its course whence the city of
Montreal now looks down upon its vast and splendid
prospect of fertile lands and of rushing waters. He found
it occupied by the Invian town of Hochelaga—inhabited
by a comparatively civilized people, busy not only in
fishing or in hunting, but also in a successful husbandry.
The town was strongly fortified, and it was surrounded
by cultivated ground. Within one hundred and seven
years—some time between 1535 and 1642—Hochelaga
had utterly disappeared, with all its population, and all
its culture. It had been destroyed by wars, and its site
had returned to forest or to bush. To this day when
men dig the foundations of new houses in Montreal they
dig up the flint implements of the Hochelagans, which,
although about 350 years old, may now be reckoned by
the scientific anthropologist as relics of the “Stone

7 ‘* Fossil Men,” Principal Dawson. p. 47. Montreal, 1880,

H

Age,’® and of an ancient universal savagery. The same
course of things prevailed over the greater part of Can-
ada. During the first half of the seventeenth century a
large part of the valley of the St. Lawrence, and vast
tracts of country on both shores of the great Lakes, are
known to have been devastated by exterminating wars.
In 1626 a Jesuit missionary penetrated into the settle-
ment of a tribe called the Attiwenderonks. He found
them inhabiting towns and villages, and largely cultiva-
ting tobacco, maize and beans. The country inhabited
by the tribe which has left its name in Lake Erie, is stated
to have been greatly more extensive, and is everywhere
covered with the marks of a similar stage of civilization.
Within less than thirty years another missionary found
the whole of these regions a silent desert. In like mar-
ner the country round Lake Huron was, at the same
period of time, seen to be full of populous villages de-
fended by walls, and surrounded by cultivated fields.
But the same fate befell them.® They were extirpated
by the Mohawks.

Here then we see in actual operation, within very re-
cent times, a true cause—which is quite capable of pro-
ducing the effects which, by some means or another, have
certainly been produced—and that, too, on the largest
scale—upon the American continent. It is a cause aris-
ing out of one of the universal instincts of Mankind, de-
veloped in such excess as to become a destructive mania.
Many nations most highly civilized have been extremely
warlike—and the ambition they have cherished of sub-
duing other nations has been the means of extending
over the world their own knowledge of the arts of goy-
ernment, and their own high attainments in the science
of jurisprudence. But when the same passion takes
possession of ruder men, and is directed by irrational an-
tipathies between rival families and rival tribes, it may
be, and has often been one of the most desolating scour-
ges of humanity. In itself an abuse and a degradation
which none of the lower animals exhibit, it tends always
to the evolution of further evils, to the complete destruc-
tion of civilized communities or to the reduction of their
scanty remnants to the condition and the habits of sav-
age life.

It results from these facts and considerations, gathered
over a wide field of observation and experierce, that the
processes of Evolution and Development as they work in
Man, lead to consequences wholly different from those
to which they lead in other departments of Creation,
There, they tend always in one of two directions, both of
which are directions predetermined and in perfect har-
mony with the unity of Nature. One of these directions
is that of perfect success, the other of these directions is
that of speedy extinction. Among the lower animals,
when a new Form appears, it suits exactly its surround-
ing conditions ; and when i! ceases to do so it ceases to
survive. Or if it does survive it lives by change, by giving
birth to something new, and by ceasing to be identical
with its former self. So far as we can actually see the
past work of development among the beasts, it is a work
which has always led either to rapid multiplication or to
rapid ext'nction, ‘There is no alternative. But in man
the processes of Evolution lead in a great variety of di-
rections—some of them tending more or less directly to
the elevation of the creature, but others of them tending
very speedily and very powerfully to its degradation. In
some men they have led to an intellectual and moral
standing, of which we can conceive it to be true that it is
only a “little lower than the angels.’’ In others they
have ended in a condition of which it is too evidently true
that it isa great deal lower than the condition of beasts.

We can get, however, a great deal nearer towards the
understanding of this anomaly than the mere recognition
of it as a fact. Hitherto we have been dealing only with

8 ** Fossil Men,” Principal Dawson, pp. 29-42. Montreal, 1880.

9 ** Prehistoric Man,” Dan. Wilson, pp.. 359, 60.

214

SCIENCE,

one of the two great causes of change,—namely, that of
unfavorable external or physical conditions. Let us now
look at the other—namely, the internal nature and char-
acter of Man. We can see how it is that, when working
under certain conditions, the peculiar powers of Man must
lead to endless developments ina wrong direction, Fore-
most among these powers is the gift of Reason. I speak
here of Reason not as the word is often used, to express
a great variety of powers, but as applied to the logical
faculty alone. In this restricted sense, the gift of Rea-
son is nothing more than the gift of seeing the necessity
or the natural consequences of things—whether these
be things said or things done. It is the faculty by which,
consciously or unconsciously, we go through the mental
process expressed in the word “therefore.” It is the
faculty which confers on us a true gift of prophecy—the
power of foreseeing that which “ must shortly come to
pass.” In its practical application to conduct, and to
the affairs of life, it is the gift by which we see the means
which will secure for us certain ends, whether these ends
be the getting of that which we desire, or the avoiding of
that which we dread. But in its root, and in its essence,
‘as well as in its application to the abstract reasoning of
mathematics, it is simply the faculty by which we see one
proposition as involving, or as following from another.
The power of such a faculty obviously must be, as it
actually is, immeasurable and inexhaustible, because
there is no limit to this kind of fcilowing. That is to
say, there is no end to the number of things which are
the consequence of each other. Whatever happens in
the world is the result of causes, moral or material,
which have gone before, and this result again becomes the
cause of other consequences, moral or material, which
must follow in their turn. It is a necessary result of the
unity of nature, and of the continuity of things, that the
links of consequence are the links of an endless chain.
It is the business of Reason to see these links as they
come one by one gradually into view; and it is in the
nature of a reasoning creature to be drawn along by them
in the line, whatever it may be, which is the line of their
direction. The distance which may be traversed in fol-
lowing that direction even for a short time, and by a
single mind, is often very great—so great that a man
may be, and often is, a different Being from himself, both
in opinions and in conduct, at two different epochs of his
life. There are, indeed, individuals, and there are times
and conditions of society, in which thought is compara-
tively stagnant, when it travels nowhere, or when its
movements are so slow and gradual as to be impercep-
tible. But, on the other hand, there are times when
mind is on the march. And then it travels fast and far.
The journey is immense indeed, which may be accom-
plished by a few successive generations of men following,
one after another, the links of consequence. At the end
of such a journey, the children may be separated from
their fathers by more than the breadth of oceans. They
may have passed into new regions of thought and of
opinion, of habit and of worship. If the movement has
been slow, and if the time occupied has been long, it will
be all the more difficult to retrace the steps by which the
change has been brought about. It will appear more
absolute and complete than it really is—the new regions
of thought being in truth connected with the old by a
well-beaten and continuous track.

But these endless processes of development arising out
of the operation of the reasoning faculty, are consistent
with any result—good or bad. Whether the great
. changes they produce have been for the better or for the

worse, must depend, not on the length of the journey, but
on the original direction in which it was begun. It de-
pends on whether that direction has been right or wrong
—on whether the road taken has been the logical devel-
opment of a lie. The one has a train of consequences as
long and as endless as the other. It is the nature of the
reasoning faculty that it works from data. But these

data are supplied to it from many different sources. In
the processes of reasoning on which the abstract sciences
depend, the fundamental data are axioms or self-evident
propositions. These may, in a sense, be said to be sup-
plied by the reasoning faculty itself, because the recog-
nition of a truth as self-evident is in itself an exercise of
the reasoning faculty. But in all branches of knowledge,
other than the abstract sciences, that is to say, in every
department of thought which most nearly concerns our
conduct and our beliefs, the data on which Reason has
to work are supplied to it from sources external to itself.
In matters of Belief, they come, for the most part, from
Authority, in some one or other of its many forms, or
from imagination working according to its own laws up-
on impressions received from the external world. In
matters of conduct, the data supplied to Reason come
from all the innumerable motives which are founded on
the desires. But in all these different provinces of
thought it is the tendency and the work of Reason to fol-
low the proposition, or the belief, or the motive, to all its
consequences. Unless, therefore, the proposition is
really as true as it seems to be; unless the belief is really
according to the fact ; unless the motive is really legiti-
mate and good, it is the necessary effect- of the logical
faculty to carry men farther and farther into the paths of
error, until it lands them in depths of degradation and
corruption of which unreasoning creatures are incapable.
It is astonishing how reasonable—that is to say, how
logical—are even the most revolting practices connected,
for example, with religious worship or religious customs,
provided we accept as true some fundamental conception
of which they are the natural result. If it be true that
the God we worship is a Being who delights in suffer-
ing, and takes pleasure, as it were, in the very smell of
blood, then it is not irrational to appease Him with hec-
atombs of human victims. This is an extreme case.
There are, however, such cases, as we know, actually
existing in the world. But, short of this, the same prin-
ciple is illustrated in innumerable cases, where cruel and
apparently irrational customs are in reality nothing but
the logical consequences of some fundamental belief re-
specting the nature, the character, and the commands of
God. In like manner, in the region of morals
and of conduct not directly connected with religious
beliefs, Reason may be nothing but the servant of
Desire, and in this service may have no other work
to do than that of devising means to the most
wicked ends. If the doctrine given to Reason be the
doctrine that pleasure and self-indulgence, at whatever
sacrifice to others, are the great aims and ends of life,
then Reason will be busy in seeking out ‘‘many inven-
tions” for the attainment of them, each invention being
more advanced than another in its defiance of all oblig-
ation and in its abandonment of all sense of duty. Thus
the development of selfishness under the guidance of
faculties which place at its command the great powers
of foresight and contrivance, is a kind of development
quite as natural and quite as common as that which con-
stitutes the growth of knowledge and of virtue. It is
indeed a development which, under the condition sup-
posed—that is to say, the condition of false or erroneous
data supplied to the reasoning faculty—is not an accident
or a contingency, but a necessary and inevitable result.
And here there is one very curious circumstance to be
observed, which brings us still closer to the real seat of
the anomaly which makes Man in so many ways the one
great exception to the order of Nature. That circum-
stance is the helplessness of mere Reason to correct the
kind of error which is most powerful in vitiating conduct.
In those processes of abstract Reason which are the
great instruments of work in the exact sciences, the
reasoning faculty has the power of very soon detecting
any element of errorin the data from which it starts.
That any given proposition leads to an absurd result is
one of the familiar methods of disproof in mathematics.

A a

SCIENCE.

215

That one of only two alternatives is proved to be absurd
is conclusive demonstration that the other must be true.
In this way Reason corrects her own operations, for the
faculty which recognizes one proposition as evidently ab-
surd, is the same faculty which recognizes another pro-
position as evidently true. It is, indeed, because of its
contradicting something evidently true, or something
which has been already proved to be true, that the ab-
surd result is seen to be absurd. It is in this way that,
in the exact sciences, erroneous data are being perpetu-
ally detected, and the sources of error are being perpetu-
ally eliminated. But reason seems to have no similar
power of detecting errors in the data which are supplied
toit from other departments of thought. In the develop-
ments, for example, of social habits, and of the moral
sentiments on which these principally depend, no results,
however extravagant or revolting, are at all certain of
being rejected because of their absurdity. No practice
however cruel, no custom however destructive, is sure on
account of its cruelty or of of its destructiveness to be at
once detected and rejected as self-evidently wrong.
Reason works upon the data supplied to it by supersti-
tion, or by selfish passions and desires, apparently with-
out any power of questioning the validity of those data,
or, at all events, without any power of immediately re-
cognizing even their most extreme results as evidently
false. In Religion, at least, it would almost seem as if
there were no axiomatic truths which are universally,
constantly, and instinctively present to the mind—none
at least, which are incapable of being obscured—and
which, therefore, inevitably compel it to revolt against
every course or every belief inconsistent with them. It
is through this agency of erroneous belief that the very

- highest of our faculties, the sense of obligation, may and

does become itself the most powerful of all agents in the
development of evil. It consecrates what is worst in our
own nature, or whatever of bad has come to be shown
in the multitudinous elements which that nature contains.
The consequence~is, that the gift of Reason is the very
gift by means of which error in belief, and vice in char-
acter, are carried from one stage of development to
another, until at last they may, and they often do, result
in conditions of life and conduct removed’ by an immeas-
urable distance from those which are in accordance with
the order and with the analogies of Nature.

These are the conditions of life, very much lower, as
we have seen, than those which prevail among the brutes,
which it is now the fashion to assume to be the nearest
type of the conditions from which the human race began
its course. They are, in reality and on the contrary,
conditions which could not possibly have been
reached except after a very long journey. They are the
goal at which men have arrived after running for many
‘generations in a wrong direction. They are the result
of Evolution—they are the product of Development. But
it is the evolution of germs whose growth is noxious. It.
is the development of passions and desires, some of
which are peculiar to himself, but all of which are in him
freed from the guiding limitations which in every other
department of Nature prevail among the motive forces of
the world, and by means of which alone they work to
order.

It is in the absence of these limitations that what is
called the Free Will of Man consists. It is not a free-
dom which is absolute and unconditional. It is not a
freedom which is without limitations of its own. It is
not a freedom which confers on Man the power ot act-
ing except on some one or other of the motives which it
is in his nature to entertain. But that nature is so infi-
nitely complex, so many-sided, is open to so many influ-
ences, and is capable of so many movements, that prac-
tically their combinations are almost infinite. His free-
dom is a freedom to choose among these motives, and
to choose what he knows to be the worse instead of the
better part. This is the freedom without which there

could be no action attaining to the rank of virtue, and
this also is the freedom in the wrong exercise of which
all vice consists. There is no theoretical necessity that
along with this freedom there should be a propensity to
use it wrongly. It is perfectly conceivable that such free-
dom should exist, and that all the desires and disposi-
tions of men should be to use it rightly. Not only is
this conceivable, but it is a wonder that it should be
otherwise. That a Being with powers of mind and
capacities of enjoyment rising high above those which
belong to any other creatures, should, alone of all these
creatures, have an innate tendency to use his powers, not
only to his own detriment, but even to his own self-tor-
ture and destruction, is such an exception to all rule,
such a departure from all order, and such a violation of
all the reasonableness of Nature, that we cannot think
too much of the mystery it involves. It is possible that
some light may be thrown upon this mystery by follow-
ing the facts connected with it into one of the principal
fields of their display—namely, the History of Religion.
But this must form the subject of another chapter.

<r

ASTRONOMY.

DISCOVERY OF A NEW COMET,

Mr, Lewis Swift, of Rochester, N. Y., has announced
to the Smithsonian Institution the discovery by himself,
on Sunday morning, May Ist, 1881, of a bright comet in
Right Ascension o® o™, Declination 37° North. The
comet rises a little before the sun and is moving slowly
south.

Professor A. Hall makes the following enquiry in
“The Analyst: ‘Observations on the motions of the
sun-spots have also established the fact that the sun is
not strictly a fixed body, around which the earth revolves,
but thatit has a motion of its own thro’ space.” — Physzo-
graphy, by T. H. Huxley, F. R. S., 2nd Ed., p. 365.
How can the above fact be determined by observations
of the sun-spots ?

ge

NOTES.

A BILL has been introduced into Parliament for the pur-
pose of authorising the erection of a system of pneumatic
clocks in the streets of London.

AUSTRALIAN TELEGRAPHY.—At the close of 1879 some
31,556 miles of telegraph wire were at work on the Austra-
lian Continent, and 40,634 miles with Tasmania and New
Zealand added.

Ir is said that the Telephone Company in Belgium has
inaugurated a system by which subscribers leaving word the
previous evening may be awakened at any hour in the morn-
ing by means of a powerful alarm.

CoLoneEL Paris, the head of the Paris fire brigade, has
concluded his report on the destruction of the Printemps
Establishment by proposing that large warehouses be com-
pelled to light by electricity—WVatzwre.

A Frat IN NICKEL-PLATING.—The plating company of
the Berlopton Lane Works, Stockton-on-Tees, have suc-
cessfully plated with nickel three large cylinder covers for
marine engines, on account of Messrs. Maudslay, Son, and
Field, the eminent engineers. The largest cover weighs
nearly 13¢ tons, and is 6 ft.6 in.in diameter. It was plated
in the large nickel bath, and polished all over successfully
by one of Fenwick’s patent portable polishing machines.
The same company have also just nickel-plated the whole
of the bright parts of Sir James Ramsden’s yacht engines,
built by the well-known firm, the Barrow Shipbuilding
Company (Limited), also, some locomotive domes and
safety-valve covers,

216

BOOKS RECEIVED. ;

ANIMAL LIFE AS AFFECTED BY THE NATURAL CON-
DITIONS OF EXISTENCE, by KARL SEMPER, Professor
of the University of Wiirzburg. With two maps and
one hundred and six wood cuts. D. Appleton & Co.,
New York, 1881.

Naturalists have been more than once taunted with too
much philosophizing over the Darwinian theory, that they
were content to form fanciful ideas as to how this or that
difficulty could be hypothetically explained, and that fun-
damental causes—equally fanciful—were imagined to
account for results which were actually observed.

We apprehend that if the Darwinian theory is to be-
come a scientific dogma, the future course of naturalists
must lie in the direction of applying the test of exact in-
vestigation to the hypotheses already laid down. The
task is doubtless a laborious one, and Professor Semper
himself says that to prove by experiment the truth of
many of these hypotheses long and deep researches are
indispensable, or the student will find himself wrecked
upon insurmountable difficulties.

There are anumber of eminent naturalists whose works
tend in this direction, and Professor Semper now leads
the van of those wiio would systematically apply them-
selves to this task.

Considering that Variability is one of the properties of
the animal kingdom which might be most easily traced by
exact investigation to its efficient causes, Professor Semper
has made it the subject matter of his book, and to facili-
tate the task of himself and others, has presented a gen-
eral view of those facts and hypotheses which bear upon
the subject, and which are either of universal significance
or appear to offer favorable subjects for experimental
treatment.

It is not claimed that this work is a complete review of
even this branch of the enquiry, but it lays out a plan for-
tified by a long array of facts, showing how the enquiry
may be systematically conducted. It is thus a protest
against casual and disconnected observation, and as such
may be read with profit by every student.

The introductory chapters are of much interest, deal-
ing with some of the salient points of the Darwinian theory.
The plan of the work is also explained and the reader in-
troduced to the subject.

The main body of the book is divided into two sec-
tions. The first treats of theinfluence of zzanzmate sur-
roundings, and in this division Professor Semper directs
attention to the influence of food, light, and temperature
upon organisms. The results attributable to water, both
still, and in motion, are explained, and finally other influ-
ences are considered.

In the concluding portion of this work, the influence
of vzng surroundings is discussed in such a masterly
manner, as to be of the highest service to those studying
this subject.

We notice that the subject of the geographical distribu-
tion of animals is discussed by Professor Semper, who
points out the chief difficulties in bringing into accord
the various hypotheses, suggested to explain the un-
doubted fact that certain species overstep the limits
apparently assigned to them by Nature.

Whenever any extensive resemblance between the
faunas of two distinct countries is discovered or imagined,
a hypothetical history of upheavals and subsidences is
suggested, to form a bridge of mainland, as a mode of
accounting for this resemblance. This appears to bea
favorite theory of Mr. Wallace, and Protessor Semper
himself admits that such must have been the case
in some instances, as he himself found an Indian
elephant on Mindanao, the most southerly of the Philip-
pines, for such an animal could scarcely have made the
passage by sea. Nevertheless, Professor Semper con-
siders these hypothetical connections of the islands and

~~ ~~ #

SCIENCE.

mainland as not sufficient by themselves to explain even
those facts which are already known, as to the distribu-
tion of Indian and Australian forms on the islands lying
between the two continents.

He further states that “ until the question is finally set-
tled whether two parallel series of animal development
might not have proceded independently in two countries
remote from each other, we can never venture to regard
the resemblance of two faunas as conclusive evidence of
their primeval actual connection ; nay, it even seems to
me that the two historical series of species of the horse,
recently discovered both in Europe and America, may,
on the contrary, be regarded almost as a proof that each
series was developed independently on the twocontinents,
and yet led to the same result : namely, the production of
the horse.”

Leaving this, however, as an open question, Professor
Semper advances a theory for accounting generally for
irregularities in the geographical distribution of animals,
by suggesting that the action of currents and winds co-
operated in a large degree in producing the results which
are found to exist.

As a means of distributing animal life it is evident that
winds and currents conveyed certain animals from place
to place, but Professor Semper points out that these influ-
ences frequently acted as a hindrance to the distribution
of species. Every navigator is familiar with the fact that
currents havea dividing power, shown by the tendency of
objects to drift tothe edge of the stream, although they may
have fallen into the middle of it. This tendency of the
current to clear itself—or clean itself—is stronger in pro-
portion to its rapidity and strength. Hence, objects torn
by a stream flowing between two islands from the one
lying to the left of it, could be borne to that on the right
side only under specially favoring circumstances; and
vice versa, those brought from the right could never, or
very rarely, be carried to the opposite side. Thus a mix-
ture of the faunas of the two islands might be hindered,
simply by the action of the current flowing between
them, except in the case of free swimming animals having
the power to overcome the mechanical resistance of the
current. In considering the striking circumstance that
the islands lying close to Africa have quite a different
fauna from that of the neighboring continent, this influ-
ence is mentioned as a factor.

Between these theories, offered respectively by Mr.
Wallace and Professor Semper, no positive conclusions
can be drawn, for want of sufficient evidence based on
general conclusions, and while neither can be rejected as
erroneous, both must remain open for future discussion,
Professor Semper, however, claims one advantage that his
hypothesis appeals for proof only to such elements as can
be brought under direct observation, while that of Mr.
Wallace is intrinsically incapable of demonstration by ob-
servation. :

The work concludes with sixty pages of closely-printed
notes, containing much useful information, anda long _
array of facts bearing on the subject matter of the work.

We have probably shown by this review that Professor
Semper has presented a work of the highest value to _
every naturalist, and we can assure the general reader
that he will find in it material that will engross his atten-
tion, and cause him to regret the moment when he ar-
rives at the last pages.

ee ea

ERRATUM. bi

Mr. Dopp desires to make the following correction in his :
paper in the last issue: “
i

‘‘In my article on page 200 of ‘‘ScrENCE,” the expres-

sion A =~ and a’ = as should have been A = — and A’ =
nt 122 nw

F 1 being the velocity of light.
4

SCIENCE.

eee :

A WEEKLY ReEcorpD OF SCIENTIFIC
PrRoGRESs.

JOHN MICHELS, Editor.

PUBLISHED AT

TRIBUNE BUILDING, NEW YORK.
P, O. Box 8838.

SATURDAY, MAY 14, 1881.

Tue alleged discovery of a new motive force for
driving engines, patented by Professor Gamgee, of
Washington, is already condemned on_ theoretical
grounds, both in this country and in Europe.

The principle involved is not a new one, and, so
far, all previous attempts in the same direction have
ended in failure. In this case, Chief Engineer
Isherwood, of the United States Navy, gives an en-
dorsement to Professor Gamgee’s scheme, which has

-caused some eminent physicists to give an attention
to it which perhaps it hardly deserved.

From what we can gather, we understand that Pro-
fessor Gamgee proposes to work his engine with am-
monia, taking advantage of the fact that in a liquified
state it boils at—37.3° Fahr., and that at 60° Fahr. it
exerts a pressure of seven atmospheres—or, say, 100
Ibs. to the square inch.

Authorities differ on this subject, but so far as
liquid ammonia is concerned, it is stated as follows:
‘That at atmospheric pressure, and a temperature of
62° Fahr., 1 lb. of the gas occupies about 23 cubic
feet, while x lb. of liquid ammonia would occupy
only 36 cubic inches.”

According to Mr. Isherwood, the ‘‘zero-motor” is an
apparatus in which liquid ammonia can be vaporized
under considerable pressure by means of the heat in
water, or in the external atmosphere, and the gas so
obtained is used to propel a piston through a cylin-
der—the gas being employed with the greatest
measure of expansion found possible.

At this point the difficulty is presented of return-
ing the ammonia to the boiler. Professor Gamgee
offers no explanation, but claims to be able to accom-
plish it by some method he has invented. He asserts
that in its expansion the liberated gas is refrigerated
and diminished in bulk, and becomes partially liqui-
fied at the end of the stroke of the piston, when it is
exhausted and returned from whence it came.

Against this, Professor Simon Newcomb and
some English writers assert, that in the absence of

demonstration to the contrary, it will absorb as much
power to convert the ammonia gas into the liquid
form as the latter will give out when vaporized.

In the ‘‘zero-motor” Professor Gamgee professes to
have an engine capable of exerting great power, and
without the necessity of using any fuel, and indirectly
the claim is made of solving successfully the problem
of perpetual motion.

Apart from some fundamental errors which under-
lie the scheme, many theoretical difficulties could be
suggested, but as a practical test of “the discovery ”
will probably be made, further discussion may profit-
ably be postponed until the result of the trial is
known.

It will no doubt be a genuine surprise to all stu-
dents of nature to learn that a German scientist has
found fossil plants and animal forms in most of the
meteorites (chondrites) which he has examined for the
purpose.

Dr. Orro Haun, who has taken a prominent part
in the discussion on.the ‘“‘ Hozodn canadense” has, in
the usual way, prepared sections of many of these
bodies. These he has had photographed and thereby
attained a result which is independent of the micros-
copist’s vision, Dr. Hahn claims that they show
many forms of plants and animals in a fossil state
contained in their mass, of which the highest forms
are crinoids, corals and allied species. He has placed
this collection of sections in the hands of Dr. Wein-
land of Tiibingen, (formerly of Philadelphia) for
thorough classification.

We regret that we are unable to endorse this inter-
esting discovery. Professor Whitfield, superintendent
of the fossils and minerals in the American Museum
of Natural History, has seen Dr. Hahn’s drawings and
was unable to verify the presence of the organic forms
referred to. He attributed Dr. Hahn’s error to a too
sanguine temperament, and an “imagination which
bodies forth the form of things unknown.”

WE are indebted to our Washington correspondent
for a brief mention of an interesting paper by Dr.
George M. Sternberg, on ‘‘A Fatal Form of Septi-
ceemia in the Rabbit, produced by Subcutaneous In-
jection of Human Saliva.”

Dr. Sternberg recently published a translation of
Dr. Antoine Magnin’s work on Bacteria, and has had
considerable experience in making investigations on
septic organisms. He now asserts that the human
saliva carries with it a deadly poison, which will kill
a rabbit in forty-eight hours ; other animals also ap-
pear to be influenced more or less by the same cause,
while still others—the dog, for instance—resist the

218

SCIENCE.

poison. Some salivas are more fatal than others—that
of Dr. Sternberg being especially virulent. It will be
noticed in our report that Dr. Sternberg attributes the
poisonous element to the presence of Micrococci—
having found this form of Bacteria both in the saliva
employed and in the poisoned blood of the victims.
These facts may be considered in conjunction with
experiments by M. Pasteur in the same direction.

——_o———_——

SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES IN WASHINGTON.

THE BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY.—At the last two meetings
the Society has listened to four papers: A Fatal Form
of Sepizcemzain the Rabbit produced by Subcutaneous
Injection of Human Saliva, by Dr. George M. Sternberg ;
On the Mortality of Marine Animals in the Gulf of Mex-
ico, by Mr. Ernest Ingersoll; A Statistical View of the
Flora of the District of Columbia, by Professor Lester F.
Ward; and Notes on Scale Insects, by Piofessor J. H.
Comstock. All of these papers were of the highest
scientific value, prepared by specialists in connection with
their own immediate investigations. Dr. Sternberg has
been making experiments for the past two years under
the patronage of the National Board of Health, concern-
ing the causes and development of epidemic diseases. In
the course of his labors he has made careful observations
with reference to inoculation, and in the paper referred
to above gave the Society the benefit of his experiments
on saliva injected under the skin of the rabbit. As an
elaborate report will appear in the proceedings of the
Board of Health, it will be necessary to state only the
conclusions arrived at, which are as follows: The rabbits
impregnated died invariably inless than 48 hours. Other
animals which did not succumb were afflicted with sores.
Dogs resist the poison, guinea pigs yield less readily than
rabbits, fowls escape entirely. Some salivas are more fatal
than others; that of Dr. Sternberg is especially virulent.
The presence of Micrococci in the saliva, in the blood of
the poisoned animals, and in that of animals infected with
this poisoned blood led the author to the conviction that
the evil effect was owing to these minute bacteria.

Mr. Ernest Ingersoll, who has been studying the waters
of the Gulf of Mexico in the interest of the U.S. Fish
Commission, reported that in certain years there occurred
a great mortality among the marine animals. Inthe years
1844, 1854 and 1878 such disasters had been noticed, but
the one most injurious in its consequences was in the year
1880. Oysters, clams, fish, and even sponges, were in-
volved in the universal ruin. The beaches were so
thickly covered with the dead bodies that the inhabitants
were driven from their homes. Various attempts. were
made to account for the phenomenon, but with indifferent
success.

Professor Ward is preparing a work to be entitled “ A
Catalogue of the Flora of the District of Columbia.” It
will include all the phenogamous plants and the vascular
cryptogams. The number of species enumerated is 1233,
distributed among 526 genera, as follows:

Polypetalous genera, 173 Species, 354.
Gamopetalous uy 169 i 388
Monochlamydeous ‘*‘ 47 ae 122
Monocotyledonous ‘' 120 MN 321
Coniferze os 4 s 7
Vascular Cryptogams ‘ 13 ne 41

526 1233

Professor Ward then proceeded to give the census of
these species with reference to the orders, to the position
of the district north and south, and east and west, as well
as in comparison with local floras which have been de-
scribed with sufficient accuracy.

Professor Comstock’s paper on the Cocczd@, or scale
insects, wasa very entertaining treatment of a very, dry

subject. The group under discussion is usually re-
garded as the most uninteresting of all the animal king-
dom as well as the most anomalous. It is true that the
lac of commerce and that of Arizona is the product of
these insects, but the most of them are worthless or per-
nicious. They infest greenhouse plants and most of our
useful fruit and timber trees. A specimen was exhibited
which had been taken from Europe to Los Angeles, Cal ,
and back to Washington, upon a lemon, and at the end
of its nine-thousand-mile trip was as livelyas ever. The
method of hatching, of the deposit of the meal, or lac, and
of moulting in the male and female, were described and
illustrated with drawings and cabinet specimens. The
method of classifying these animals into species has been
a very uncertain one. Even the later used characteristic,
namely, the series of pores or openings on the penulti-
mate ring not being always invariable. Professor Com-
stock has found the fringe on the last segment of the
abdomen to be the most constant specific characteristic.
An interesting point in the paper was a discovery made
by Mrs. Comstock, that the poisers behind the wings are
furnished with a hooklike process which fits into a groove
on the back of the wing and helps to sustain it in flight.

THE ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY.—The entire ses-
sion of the Society at its last meeting was occupied with
tbe reading and discussion of a paper read by the Rev.
Clay McAuley upon the Seminole Indians still remaining
in Florida. Of this once formidable but now humbled
tribe there remain in the vicinity of Lake Okeechobee
208 individuals, 37 families, 22 camps, and 5 settlements.
There are no half-breeds among them, the occurrence of
such a birth would probably subject the author to torture
or death. They are healthy, have an abundance of food,
and are probably increasing. The men are tall, well pro-
portioned, erec’, lithe, and graceful. The women are
shapely, agreeable, vigorous, and many of them hand-
some. Dr. McAuley singled out three, whom he charac-
terized as the stately, the beautiful, and the handsome
among all the Indians whom he had visited. A very
minute description was given of the dress, ornament,
customs, and language of these people. A full report will
appear in the publication of Major J. W. Powell’s Bureau
of Ethnology. y

THE ULTRA-GASEOUS OR RADIANT STATE
OF MATTER. -
By Pror. H. S. CARHART.

The announcement by Mr. William Crookes, F. R. S.,
some six years ago, that he had produced mechanical
motion by the direct impact of waves of light created a
profound impression in the scientific world. But when
it was found that the Radiometer, which was sup-
posed to exhibit this new action of light, carried a system
of blackened vanes, delicately balanced in a very high
vacuum, it impressed most physicists as being an interest-
ing form of heat engine receiving its supply of heat by
absorption of radiant energy.

Mr. Crookes subsequently adopted the same view,
which was the only tenable one, and investigated the sub-
ject in a long series of exceedingly skiliful and ingenious
experiments. His researches on the Radiometer formed
the introduction to a more extended series of investiga-
tions into the movement of the residual gas of very high
vacua, under the influence of heat and the negative dis-
charge of electricity. These investigations carry us to
the very farthest boundary of matter thus far attained,
and furnish an ocular demonstration of some of those
molecular movements that have heretofore been merely
imagined. In fact the phenomena observed are such that
Mr. Crookes has felt himself justified in announcing a
fourth, or ultra-gaseous state of matter. Such an an-

*Lecture delivered before the New York Electrical Society on May 5
188r, @

SCIENCE.

219

nouncement startles us by its boldness, and encounters
the opposition of our conservatism. I shall have the
pleasure of reproducing a part of Mr. Crooke’s experi-
ments before you with tubes made after his models, and
recently imported; and at the close of the exhibition I
hope you will be able to draw your own conclusions.

Let us first prepare the way from our study of the sub-
ject by a clear presentation to our minds of the exact
differences between the solid, the liquid, and the gaseous.
states. We shall then be able the better to judge whether
this new claimant is sufficiently differentiated from ordin-
ary gases to warrant its being set aside by itself.

I. A solid is composed of distinct molecules separated
from one another by spaces which are large compared
with the diameter of molecules themselves. These mole-
cules, which are the indivisible units so far as all Ahyszcal
changes are concerned, are held rigidly in a fixed relation
to one another by cohesion, a force which acts only across
these invisible inter-molecular spaces, and the intensity of
which depends upon the chemical constitution of the
body. The force of cohesion is counterbalanced by the
motion of the individual molecules, the energy of this
motion constituting the heat of the body. As the tem-
perature rises, the amplitude of vibration increases, and
the force of cohesion is diminished by an increase of dis-
tance between the molecules. When the temperature falls
the reverse process takes place.

Molecules of matter, in the solid state, retain fixity of
position about their centres of oscillation; and any at-
tempt to change the relation of these centres, by distort-
ing the body, calls into action resistances opposing the
change of form.

Il. When the temperature rises so high that the mole-
cules lose their fixity of position, and are released from
the rigid thraldom of cohesion, so that they can appar-
ently roll round one another without changing the dis-
tances of their centres, then the solid becomes liquid. As
the force of cohesion differs with each kind of matter,
so the temperatures of liquefaction also differ. In liq-
uids the cohesion is much diminished but not entirely
overcome by the energy of molecular oscillations, which
we call heat. A liquid is characterized by taking the
form of the containing vessel, by its surface becoming
horizontal, and by its equal transmission of applied pres-
sure in all directions. The state of liquidity is due to in-
termolecular motions of much greater amplitude than
those peculiar to the solid state.

Iii. The temperature still rising, the molecules are
finally released entirely from the force of cohesion, and
move about in every conceivable direction with enormous
and constantly varying velocities. The mean distance
between them is sufficiently great to render cohesion in-
operative ; but they come into constant collisions with
one another, now colliding, and now rebounding, chang-
ing their direction of motion and perhaps their velocity
with every impact. On account of this rapid molecular
motion and the absence of cohesion in gases, they tend
to expand indefinitely ; and they transmit pressure by
multitudinous collisions among the molecules, and exert
pressure on the walls of the containing vessel by innum-
erable impacts against its interior. Place a small, closed
balloon, partly filled with air, under the receiver of an
airpump and exhaust. The balloon distends more and
more as the exhaustion proceeds, because of this mole-
cular bombardment against its inner surface, the ex-
ternal coun eracting pressure being withdrawn. In much
the same way an impenetrable sheet of metal might be kept

suspended horizontally in the air by bullets fired vertically
against its under surface. The dynamical principles con-
cerned in the two cases are identical. When a gas is
heated, the velocity of the individual molecules increases,
and they exert greater pressure on the walls of the con-
taining vessel by their impact, or by expansion secure a
longer free path for themselves between successive col-
lisions with one another, This mean free path, or mean

length of path, is known to be about ge¢euo of an inch
at the average or normal pressure of the air, while the
mean distance between the molecules is about one
seven-millionth of an inch, according to the late Prof.
Clerk Maxwell. Accordingly a cubic inch of air at nor-
mal density must contain the cube of 7,000,000 or 343
quintillions of molecules. Each of these molecules, more-
over has, perhaps,-millions of encounters every second,
the number varying with the kind of gas considered. The
state of gaseity is therefore pre-eminently characterized by
innumerable molecular collis:ons, from which proceed all
the properties constituting the ordinary gaseous state of
matter; and this state continues so long as the motions
of the molecules are in every possible direction, and the
collisions almost infinite in number. Under such con-
ditions the mean length of path of the molecules, or the
distance traversed between two successive collisions, is
extremely small compared with the dimensions of the
containing vessel, only zg¢g00 of an inch.

Such are the distinctions existing between the solid,
the liquid, and the gaseous states, distinctions depend-
ing entirely upon molecular aggregation. In the snow
or frost crystal, for instance, the molecules of water are
grouped together in a definite structural relation ; the ap-
plication of heat destroys the structure, the molecules be-
coming more nearly individualized by a certain increase
of independence or freedom of motion, and the solid be-
comes a liquid; a still further rise of temperature in-
creases this molecular independence to such an extent
that their only physical relationship depends upon innum-
erable collisions with one another. If now, by any means,
molecular independence can be rendered so nearly com-
plete that the hits may- be disregarded in comparison
with the misses, then the free path of the molecule be-
tween the hits may become comparable with the dimen-
sions of the containing vessel, the properties which con-
stitute gaseity are reduced to a minimum, and matter is
exalted to an ultra-gaseous state. The residual gas is
then in that peculiar state when it has ceased to
have the power of adjusting its own pressure; and con-
sequently the phenomenon of diverting the molecules by
suitable means into any paths at desire will be possible.
Such is the ultimate result of gaseous expansion. As
the rarefaction proceeds the number of molecules in a
given space becomes smaller and smaller, and the mean
length of path greater and greater, the molecular collis-
ions diminishing as the free path increases.

At an exhaustion of a millionth of an atmosphere the
number of molecules in any given space is reduced to
one millionth of the number at the ordinary pressure ;
each molecule has a million times more room to move
about in, and its mean length of path becomes about four
inches (1,000,000 times zseou0 in.) If now the rarefac-
tion be carried to another millionth, the space appro-
priated to each molecule is then increased a million mil-
lion times, but the distance between the molecules be-
comes only one seven-hundredth of an inch, and a cubic
inch contain seven then not less than 340 millions of mole-
cules, according to Prof. Clerk Maxwell. This rarefac-
tion is about 50,000 times further than the best mercurial
air-pump can attain. A gas transmits pressure instan-
taneously in all directions by innumerable molecular
collisions ; an #/¢va gas, or ‘‘radiant matter,” has lost the
power of adjusting its pressure because of the infre-
quency of collisions among the molecules.

If then a bulb about four inches in diameter is ex-
hausted to a millionth of an atmosphere, the residual gas
in it will have lost the power of rapid adjustment of
pressure to equality at every point. Hence any extran-
eous force, like heat or electricity, may “infuse order into
the apparently disorderly jostling of the molecules in
every direction by coercing them into a methodical recti-
linear movement. * * * * * And according to the extent
to which this onward movement has replaced the irreg-
ular motions, which constitute the very essence of the

220

SCIENCE.

gaseous condition, to that extent have the molecules as-
sumed the condition of radiant matter.” :

Let us now see to what extent Mr. Crookes has reached
these conditions in his Radiometer and radiant matter
tubes.

In the Radiometer the blackened vanes become
heated by absorbing radiant energy (both heat and light),
and they project the contiguous gaseous molecules from
their surfaces by communicating to them their molecular
motion, much as a vibrating drum-head would project
into air grains of sand strewn on it. An increase of
pressure is thus produced between the heated lamp-
black and the gaseous residue; but this pressure is not
transmitted throughout the whole bulb because of the
relative infrequency of collisions among the molecules at
this degree of exhaustion. Hence the molecules are
projected forward against the cooler bulb in right lines,
and the blackened vanes retreat because the repulsion
between them and the gaseous residue is mutual. [A
Radiometer projected on the screen by an oxyhydrogen
lantern ; also, a diagram showing the paths of the pro-
jected molecules].

Mr. Crookes investigated the Radiometer with an in-
genuity and a variety of detail that left nothing to be de-
sired. Moreover, his visualization of the molecular mo-
tions taking place in this little instrument prepared him
for a further research into the motion of the residual gas
in Geissler tubes. The dark space around the negative
pole, which broadens as the exhaustion proceeds, and the
brilliant stratification displayed by many Geissler tubes,
were hints in the line of his special studies. I cannot
forbear, at this point, to call your attention to the vibra-
tion of the air in a sounding pipe, made visible by very
light, precipitated silica powder. The resemblance be-
tween the beautiful segmentation of the pipe by the thin,
vertical planes of silica powder, and the stratification of
a Geissler tube, is most marked and suggestive. [A
finely stratified Geissler tube shown; anda glass pipe, con-
taining silica powder, and vibrated by a whistle pro-
jected onthe screen]. As the silica planes limit the free
swing of the air particles in the pipe, so the bright por-
tions of the vacuum tube show when the residual gases
of contiguous segments encounter each other —the vibra-
tion being set up by the passage of electricity. And it
may be observed here that as the transmission of sound
is the onward transference of energy by motion, so the
passage of electricity is the transference of energy trom
one point to another by means of another form of mo-
tion.

The exhaustion which answers best for a Geissler tube
is comparatively low. I have frequently obtained beauti-
ful stratification in a tube six feet long, exhausted by a
good air-pump. Mr. Crookes carried the exhaustion much
further and obtained entirely new results. The first no-
ticeable feature was the gradual broadening of the dark
space surrounding the negative pole as the exhaustion ad-
vanced [dark space tube, exhibited a transverse sheet of
aluminum in the middle constituting the negative pole].
This dark space is regarded as the free path of the mole-
cules at this degree of exhaustion. It increases as the
exhaustion proceeds, and contracts when the exhaustion
diminishes. The molecules of air are projected normally
from the negative pole, and the illumination at the bound-
ary of the dark space is due to the collision between the
gas projected from the negative pole and the more slowly
moving molecules advancing toward it. Here, then the
lines of molecular pressure, caused by the excitement of
the negative pole, are illuminated by the induction spark.

With still higher vacua the free path becomes equal to
the dimensions of the containing vessel, and the projected
molecules impinge directly against its walls. The mole-
cules stream from the negative pole with enormous veloci-
ties and dart across the tube with comparatively few col-
lisions. Their motion is then arrested by the solid matter
of the tube. A noteworthy property of this radiant

matter then appears. Luminosity is produced by the im-
pact of the projected molecules against solid matter.
Phosphorescence, as this luminosity is called, is thus excited,
its color depending upon the kind of matter receiving the
impact. [Three phosphorescent tubes shown; alsoabulb
partly filled with phosphorescing material.] English glass
phosphoresces a light blue, uranium glass. rather dark
green, and soft German glass, light apple green. Rubies
always shine with a deep red hue whatever the color of
the gem itself. The artificial rubies made in Paris show
no variation from the real stones in the color of their
phosphorescent light. This phosphorescence takes place
better at an exhaustion of about a millionth of an atmos-
phere than at any other. A tube designed to show the
dependence of the phosphorescence upon exhaustion, is
made by connecting to the main tube a small supplemen-
tary tube containing caustic potash, which holds captive
a certain amount of aqueous vapor [the tube exhibited].
Turning on the coil, the tube now shows green phosphor-
escence, but upon heating the potash tube with a small
lamp, aqueous vapor is released, the phosphorescence gradu-
ally disappears, and is replaced by the stratified discharge
of a Geissler tube. Withdrawing the lamp, the vapor is
re-absorbed by the caustic potash, the fine stratification
widens out slowly and finally retreats towards the potash
bulb, while a wave of green light sweeps from the negative
pole, driving the last pale stratification into the potash tube.
Radiant matter moves in straight lines and absolutely re-
fuses to turn acorner. This peculiarity is shown by a
V-shaped tube. [The tube exhibited.] The flood of
green light proceeds from the negative pole at the top
only as far as the bottom, refusing to turn the angle to-
ward the positive in the other branch. Reversing the
current, the illuminated branch follows the negative
pole. A striking contrast is thus presented between a
Geissler and a Crookes tube ; but this contrast is brought
out more clearly still by two bulbs exactly alike, except
in the degree of their exhaustion. Both are fitted with
one negative terminal and three positive ones. With the
low vacuum tube the stratification follows the direc-
tion of the positive pole, changing its path as that pole is
changed. Changing now to the high vacuum or Crookes
tube, containing only about a millionth of an atmosphere,
and turning on the coil the only light to be seen is the
green phosphorescence of the glass. The negative pole
is a very shallow cup, and the projected radiant matter
crosses its focus and then strikes on the opposite side
of the bulb where the impact excites strong phosphor-
escence. Changing the positive pole produces no
change whatever in the path of the projected molecules
or the luminosity of the glass. The positive pole exer-
cises no influence whatever upon the direction of dis-
charge of radiant matter from the negative pole. The
residual gas is here exalted to the fourth or radiant State,
and its free path, under the impulsion of the negative
discharge, is entirely across the bulb. Moreover, not
only is luminosity induced, but the glass bulb rapidly
heats where it receives the cannonade of these invisible
balls.

Another peculiarity of radiant matter, depending upon
its projection in right lines, is that when intercepted by
solid matter it casts a shadow. This large pear-shaped
bulb has the negative pole at the small end. A cross
cut out of sheet aluminum is placed across the bulb so
as to intercept a part of the gaseous molecules streaming
from the negative pole. Connecting with the induction
coil, the dark shadow of the cross is seen plainly pro-
jected on the large end of the bulb. Here the projected
molecules pass by the aluminum cross and bombard the
walls of the bulb, producing the usual phosphorescence
Nothing could show more distinctly than the projection
of matter from the negative pole in straight lines.

This bombarding causes the surface of the glass to
lose its sensitiveness to intense phosphorescence. The
cross is hinged so as to turn down with a slight shake.

SCIENCE.

221

Again turning on the coil the rays from the negative
pole fall uninterruptedly on the large end of the bulb ;
the dark cross is now replaced by one more intensely
green than the adjacent portions of the glass. The fresh
parts of the glass are more susceptible to luminous ex-
citation than the areas previously bombarded. This
stenciled image of the black cross, Mr. Crookes tells us,
is so persistent that it remained in one case after the
glass had been heated hot, so that the end of the bulb
was bent in and then blown out again. After re-exhaus-
tion the bright green cross came out plainly in the more
intense phosphorescence produced by the electrically
projected residual gas. Thus the molecules hammer
away upon the glass with sufficient energy to produce a
permanent impression.

Since the molecules of the residual gas are driven vio-
lently from the negative pole, there should be a recoil
of the pole from the molecules. That such is the case
is shown by this electrical radiometer. The connections
are such that the aluminum vanes constitute the nega-
tive pole. The vanes are not blackened but are covered
on one side with mica, a non-conductor. The uncoy-
ered sides constitute the radiating or projecting surfaces.
Turning on the induction current the vanes are repelled
and the system rotates rapidiy. The phosphorescent
spots on the glass, produced by the impact of the mole-
cules projected from the vanes, rotate as the vanes do,
giving us a visible image of the process going on in the heat
radiometer. In this second form the negative pole consists
of a ring of platinum wire. Above this is a fly, composed
of mica vanes irfclined like the fans of awind-mill. Turn-
ing on the current the matter projected fromthe wire strikes
against the sloping vanes and sets them in motion. But
this is not all. I now connect a battery directly with the
terminals of the platinum ring, and the passage of the
current heats the ring red hot. Directly the fly begins to
turn more rapidly than before. Radiant matter is thus
projected by heat as well as electricity, and the ordinary
heat radiometer is propelled by the recoil of projected
radiant matter like the electrical radiometer.

The action of magnetism on this stream of electrified
particles is, indeed, curious. When a straight Geissler
tube of low vacuum is employed it gives a narrow line of
violet light joining the two poles. [This tube placed over
the poles of an electro-magnet.] On passing the battery
current through the magnet underneath, the violet line is
repelled or attracted according to the direction of the cur-
rents; but it recovers itself after passing the magnet
and proceeds to the other pole. Not so with a tube of high
vacuum. This tubecontains a mica screen, covered with
material which phosphoresces under molecular impact.
The radiant matter from the negative pole passes through a
narrow opening and impinges upon the screen along its
entire length. You observe how the phosphorescence
marks the path of the projected molecules. Bringing a
strong magnet down over the stream or actuating the
electro-magnet, and the luminous path curves toward the
side of the tube like the path of a projectile ; but in this
case the stream does not recover its original direction
after deflection, as in the case of the Geisslertube. This
same tube is fitted to determine another question of much
interest connected with these wonderful phenomena. It
is provided with two negative projecting surfaces, and
the stream of molecules from each of these may be made
to trace its path on the mica screen in a luminous line.
Observe the position of this line first from one pole and
then the other. ~ What now will be the result if streams
issue from both poles at once? If they constitute two
currents of electricity in the same direction then we know
that they will attract each other; but if they consist of a
train of similarly electrified molecules, then they must
repel each other Put to the test of experiment we see
plainly that the stream lines diverge by mutual repul-
sion.

We have seen that mechanical action is produced by

the recoil from the radiant matter. It is equally true that
strong mechanical effects may be produced by the impact
of these swiftly moving molecules. This tube is ingen-
iously constructed with a pair of glass rails running from
end toend. Along them rolls freely the axle of a small
wheel with broad vanes as paddles. The poles are so
situated that the radiating molecules may strike against
the vanes, Turning on the induced current, the stream
of swiftly moving molecules strikes against the vanes on
one side of the wheel and sets it running along the rails.
Reversing the current, the wheel stops and returns on its
track. [Tube projected on a screen by oxy-hydrogen
light.] Another tube has been devised to show both
magnetic deflection and mechanical action on the screen.
The negative pole is a large, shallow cup. A micascreen
intercepts the converging streams of radiant matter.

Behind the screen is placed an easily-revolving mica
wheel provided with vanes and making a sort of paddle
wheel. So arranged the molecular rays from the pole
are cut off from the wheel, and no movement is produced.
Placing a magnet over the tube the rays are deflected so
as to pass above the screen and the wheel begins to re-
volve. Reversing the magnetic poles, the deflection is in
the other direction, and the wheel now rotates like an
undershot water-wheel. Even at this high vacuum of
about a millionth of an atmosphere, enough matter re-
mains in the tube to produce a sort of molecular wind
under the impulsion of the negative discharge. Radiant
matter produces heat as well as mechanical motion when
its motion is arrested. The negative pole in this tube is
a cup or concave projector. The radiant matter comes
to a focus near the cup and then passes on toward the
other end of thetube. Buton bringing a magnet near it
the stream of radiant matter is deflected so as to strike
the side of the tube, producing a green, phosphorescent
spot. The nearer the magnet approaches the greater the
deflection of the stream and the smaller the spot. Coy-
ering the side of the tube with wax and placing it in front
of the lantern, a dark image of the tube is projected be-
cause of the opaque wax. But with the coil in action
the approach of the magnet deflects the radiant stream,
the tube is heated by the impact of the molecules, the
wax melts and becomes transparent, and the light trom
the lantern passes through.

The heat generated by the arrest of radiant matter is
further shown by a bulb of special device. It has a negative
pole of aluminum in the form of a concave projector.
In its focus is fixed a piece of platinum foil. Turning
on the coil, the projected molecules impinging against
the platinum at last raise it to a red heat.. Indeed Mr.
Crookes has actually melted iridio-platinum in such a
focus. We are accustomed to see powerful heating
effects produced by currents of electricity traversing
rather poor conductors ; but here red hot platinum glows
with the invisible cannonade of innumerable molecules
of the air we breathe.

These effects take place indifferently with hydrogen,
carbonic acid gas, and air at this high vacuum. ‘The
only difference appears to be that the phosphorescence
begins at different pressures with the different gases.
The results obtained depend, therefore, not on chemical
properties, but on the physical, molecular condition of
the gaseous residues. These phenomena are so entirely
different from those obtained at ordinary degrees of ex-
haustion, that Mr. Crookes appears to me to be justified
in considering that he has at last verified Faraday’s early
hypothesis of matter in a radiant state. Mr. Crookes has
well said that, “‘ In studying this fourth state of matter we
seem at length to have within our grasp and obedient to
our control the little indivisible particles which, with
good warrant, are supposed to constitute the physical
basis of the universe. We have seen that in some of its
properties radiant matter is as material as this table,
while in other properties it almost assumes the character
of radiant energy. We have actually touched the

222

borderland where matter and force seem to merge into
one another, the shadowy realm between the known and
the unknown, which for me has always had peculiar
temptations. I venture to think that the greatest scien-
tific problems of the future will find their solution ‘in this
borderland, and even beyond; here, it seems to me, lie
ultimate realities, subtle, far-reaching, wonderful.”’

a eee eg eee
GREAT ASTRONOMICAL TELESCOPE.

The greatest refracting telescope in the world—Lord
Rosse’s is a reflecting telescope—has been constructed
for the Vienna Observatory by Mr. Howard Grubb, at
his celebrated manufactory of astronomical instruments,
at Rathmines, near Dublin. We give an illustration,
from a sepia drawing of it by Mr. G. Browning, and
abridge the following account of it from a description re-
ceived at this office.

The idea of crowning the observatory at Vienna with a
refracting telescope of surpassing power was conceived
by the Austro-Hungarian Government about five years
ago. Such a building was worthy of the best instrument
that could be constructed. Every visitor to the Austrian
capital must be struck by it, standing upon a site of be-
tween fourteen and fifteen acres at a height of 200 feet
above the city, and extending 330 feet in length and 240
feet in width. Desiring to possess the finest telescope
which could be procured, the Government commissioned
Dr. Edward Weiss, now Director-General of the Observ-
atory at Vienna, to visit all the principal observatories
and workshops in the world. He recommended that the
task should be confided to Mr. Grubb, of Dublin,
who was ordered to construct a refracting telescope of at
least 26 inches aperture. A commission was appointed
by the Austro-Hungarian Government to superintend
the work. It was composed of the following gentlemen :
The Earl of Crawford and Balcarres, Dr. Higgins, the
Earl of Rosse, Professor Stokes, of Cambridge, Pro-
fessor Ball, Astronomer Royal for Ireland, Dr. Stoney,
Secretary of the Queen’s University in Ireland, many
years connected with Lord Rosse’s observatory, Dr. E.

eynolds, professor of chemistry, Trinity College,
Dublin, and Mr. Walsh, Austro-Hungarian Consul in
Dublin. On the 16th ult. the Commissioners reported
their unanimous approval of the finished instrument.

The general form of the telescope is that known as
Grubb’s modified Gramme, and is similar to the well-
known standard equatorial which he constructed for the
Earl of Crawford and Balcarres, Dr. Huggins, Oxford
University, Berlin, Cork, and other places. It possesses
all the modern improvements and special arrangements
of an ingenious character, which are rendered desirable
by its great size. The length of the tube is 33 feet 6
inches, and the aperture is 27 inches. The tube is en-
tirely of steel, 3% feet in diameter in the centre, and
tapering to each end. The entire moving parts, includ-
ing the tube, polar, and declination axis, counterpoise
and various adjustments weigh between six and seven
tons; yet the whole apparatus is under such control that
one person can move it about and manipulate it with the
utmost ease. The mechanism is remarkable for its
solidity and strength, as well as for its exquisite delicacy.

In order to render the motion of such ponderous instru-
ments sufficiently easy, the makers are generally obliged
to reduce the diameter of the axes, particularly that
known as the declination axis, to an extent that makes one
almost alarmed for their safety, to say nothing of their
stability. Mr. Grubb, however, has mastered the difficul-
ties of the position by a peculiar and most interesting sys-
tem of equipoise, by which he is enabled to make his axes
so large and solid as to ensure stability and give perfect
confidence without sacrificing the ease of motion. The
application of antifriction apparatus to the polar axis has
been already successfully effected, and was a simple prob-

SCIENCE,

lem, but Mr. Grubb has the exclusive merit of applying it

‘to the declination axis, which is a task of great and com-

plicated difficulty, demanding the highest scientific skill.

Another remarkable feature in the work is the ingenious
arrangement by which the circle can be read with the ut-
most ease and certainty. Itis usually a very troublesome
operation with large telescopes to read the circle, and
when the circles are about 20 feet or more from the
ground the labor and delay which it involves are very for-
midable. In Mr. Grubb’s instrument, the circles are care-
fully and accurately divided on a band of gold, and by a
system of reflectors, at once beautifully simple and inge-
nious, the observer can without stirring from his chair
read all the circles of the instruments through one little
reader telescope attached to the side of the main tele-
scope tube.

The setting of the telescope is massive and graceful.
The frame on which it rests down to the ground level is
of cast iron, and there are chambers of considerable size
at the base. In the lower one, which is entered by a door
at the end, is a clock for driving the instrument in order
to follow the paths of the heavenly bodies. The castings
of which the frame is formed are of about ten tons weight,
and are of simple but not inelegant design. The clock-
work is controlled by Mr. Grubb’s novel frictional governor,
andis also furnished with his new electric control apparatus.
There are two right ascension circles, each 2 feet in diam-
eter, one read from the eye end of the telescope and the
other from the ground floor. The declination circle is 5
feet in diameter, and is read from the eye end of the tele-
scope. All the circles are divided on an alloy of half
pure gold and half pure silver, which is found to be very
white and not liable to corrode or tarnish.

The material for the object glasses was procured from
M. Feil, of Paris. The protracted delay in procuring this
material for the work was a subject of great anxiety to
Mr. Grubb, and occasioned heavy additional outlay on his
part. In October, 1879, however, discs were obtained,
which in working gave good promise, and in December
last he was able to report the work finished—his part of it
being, in fact, accomplished in less than half the time
stipulated by the agreement with the Austro-Hungarian
Government. His task was practically trebled by the
difficulty experienced in obtaining pure discs. The suc-
cess of his undertaking is regarded with great satisfaction
and with national pride. He has supplied equipments to
most of the modern observatories, but this telescope is, his
greatest achievement.

——______——__——

TuE Atheneum prints an interesting extract from a letter
from Prof. Draper, giving a description of the progress he
has made in photographing the nebula in Orion :—“‘I have
succeeded,” he says, ‘‘in taking stars in it of the 14.1, 14.2,
and 14.7 magnitudes of Pogson’s scale. Prof. Pickering
has made aseries of measures on these magnitudes espec-
ially for me at the Harvard College Observatory. You will
perceive that we have photographed stars which approach
the minimum visible of my 11 in. telescope, and we may,
therefore hope shortly to photograph stars actually too faint
to be seen with the eye in the same instrument. The neb-
ula, which was exposed 104 minutes, extends over an area
of about 15’ in diameter, though, as it becomes fainter to-
ward the exterior parts, it is difficult to determine its pre-
cise limits.” This is a great advance; no star of less than
the ninth and a half magnitude has hitherto been photo-
graphed. .

A cuRIoUS magnetic property of the meteoric iron of
Santa Cattarina (Brazil), has been lately observed by Pro-
fessor Lawrence Smith, Small detached fragments, not
weighing mote than 0.1 to0.2 gr., were very weakly affected
by a magnet; but on being flattened ona piece of steel,
with a steel hammer, they become very sensitive toit. By
heating red-hot, the particles were made to be still more
easily attracted than by flattening. _ The meteoric iron in
question contains 66 iron, 34 nickel.

SCIENCE. 223

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H.)

THE NEW TELESCOPE, VIENNA OBSERVATORY.

224

SCIENCE.

THE POLARIZATION OF SOUND.

AN EXAMINATION INTO THE NATURE OF VIBRA-
TIONS IN EXTENDED MEDIA,*

By S. W. ROBINSON,
Professor of Physics and Mechanics, Ohio State University.

The phenomena of polarization of light have hereto-
fore presupposed transversal vibrations of particles of
the luminiferous ether. Such vibrations have not only
been supposed transversal when polarized, but primarily,
or when in their primitive condition. It is proposed now
to show that no necessity exists for considering the vi-
brations in light as transversal in front of a polarizer;
and furthermore to show that in all probability luminous
vibrations are primarily longitudinal.

It is well known that light can be radiated, reflected,
refracted, diffracted, diffused, can be made to interfere
and can be polarized. All these effects are known to be
common to sound, except the last, and it is for the sole
purpose of explaining this in light that the convenient
theory of transversal vibration has been set up by physi-
cists, for the single case of luminous vibration. It is to
be noticed that transversal vibrations are not to be
assumed impossible when sufficient cause exists. It is
simply assumed that the cause is insufficient when a ma-
terial particle is made to vibrate from the action of a dis-
turbance at aremote single centre transmitted to the
particle considered ; the centre, the transmission, and the
particle considered, being supposed as belonging to a
homogeneous medium of indefinite extent. As regards
the nature of the vibratory movements of particles of
luminiferous ether may we not justly ask that, if we can
go through such arange of density as from platinum to
hydrogen without a change in the nature of the vibra-
tions where, as we rise in the scale of etheral tenuity,
shall longitudinal end and transversal begin? Why
should the luminiferous ether, now considered as a sub-
stance, have a peculiar form of vibration ? If ether un-
dulations can be polarized, why not undulations generally?
These questions are not answered by the highest author-
ities. The short of it all seems to be that if polarized
light had never been discovered probably the dev.ce of
transversal vibrations never would have been set up.
Indeed, the eminent author M. J. Jamin, says in his
three volume work on Physics at the outset, in his lesson
on polarization, and subsequent to the treatment of in-
terference, diffraction and other phenomena: ‘‘ What has
been said previously of the movement of luminous waves
is absolutely independent of the directions of the vibra-
tion.” This is good authority for limiting the ¢ransver-
sai theory to polarization, authority with which doubtless
all physicists will agree on this point. It is, therefore,
only necessary to polarize sound to place all the known
effects of luminous waves in common with sound waves,
or to make the theory of longitudinal vibrations univer-
sal.

Assent to the above notions will be the more readily
given after noticing the consideration that, in polarized
light it is not necessary to suppose the vibrations trans-
versal till after passing the polarizer, and that the lat-
ter probably imparts an effect equivalent to a lateral
impulse, as due to its one-sided action upon the ray trans-
mitted, thus giving cause for vibration which are more or
less transversal ; the same being true for undulations in
air, water, iron, platinum, hydrogen, luminiferous ether,
etc., without exception.

But independent of all questions of polarization we find
powerful evidence of the unity of system, for vibrations
in all possible media; evidence which, in one case at
least, is employed as the basis of a rigorous mathemati-
cal demonstration of the impossibility of existence of per-
petual motion. ‘This latter named evidence is the famous

*Copyright 1881, by S. W. Robinson.

principle of Helmholtz regarding the action of natural
forces among mutually interacting material points, viz.:
that the forces must be central forces and functions of the
distance, and hence motions of remote particles can only
be longitudinal with reference to the centre of force.
This principle, considered aside from luminiferous ether,
will be universally accepted as truth. But what is the
criterion for making an exception of any homogenous
substantial medium ; even luminiferous ether? Indeed,
if any criterion exists for such an exception, it consists
simply in a desired convenient means for explaining
polarization: a theory of transverse vibrations, which,
though convenient and probable beyond the polarizer, has
thoughtlessly and without need, been extended to the
front of the polarizer, and to undulations in the primitive
conditions, where, as shown above, no necessity exists for
transversal vibrations, That the necessity for transversal
vibrations in primitive rays of light is entirely wanting,
let it be granted for the sake of an argument that the
source of light, such as the sun or a gas burner, is capa-
ble of exciting vibrations in the adjacent medium, which
are in all possible directions immediately at the radiant.
At a considerable distance from the radiant, the effect
upon a single particle will be the resultant of action ofall
the particles immediately surrounding the radiant, and
transmitted by and through the intervening medium;
such a resultant impulse can hardly be admitted to be
otherwise than longitudinal. Or again, a particle near
the radiant imparts an impulse to the adjacent particle.
If the passive particle is in direct line with the active one,
the impulse received will be in direct line also, and the
direction of motion of the two particles coincides. The
similar direct action of a second particle upon a third
will also be in the same line, and so on indefinitely. At
a distance of several hundred or thousand times the
diameter of the radiant the line of vibration indicated will
be almost perfectly longitudinal irrespective of where the
first particle considered is situated about the radiant.
That is to say, a particle at the surface of a radiant
vibrating in a line of direction tangential to it or transver-
sal, may be considered as transmitting its vibration from
particle to particle in a direct line, and hence to the best
advantage ; and still, at a distance this direct line be-
comes nearly a line of longitudinal vibration for a remote
particle.

Thus all lines of direction of vibration will pass through
the radiant or be tangent to it, so that in sunlight tne
rays, and the directions of vibration, will all lie within
the visual angle of the sun, or within about half a degree
of arc, and hence almost perfectly longitudinal.

These considerations all confirm the principle of Helm-
holtz. And that remarkable principle, together with
all considerations presented above, and all which can
possibly result froma careful study of the subject of
transmitted impulses, go to confirm a universal law of
longitudinal vibrations for primitive rays in all possible
substantial media, and to antagonize the notion of trans-
versal vibration.

Hence, if light can be polarized, why not undulations
generally. The writer, after much study of the subject,
became convinced of the possibility of this about eight
years ago, and six years ago apparatus was made for put-
ting the matter to an experimental test. Want of time pre-
vented, and further study determined a modification of
the apparatus which was made over two years ago. This
apparatus was successful in verifying all my preconceived
notions in the matter, but owing to extended study and
matured views of the principles involved, the experiments
simply confirmed, without developing new theories or
unanticipated facts. 1 propose now to describe the ap-
paratus and give the results.

The means adopted for polarizing the undulations is
the same as that for polarizing light by reflection. It is
well known that when sound passes trom one medium
into another whose velocity of sound differs, the sound is

SCIENCE.

225

refracted. Recent investigations of Henry, Tyndall and
others have indicated that when sound encounters a
change of density of medium, as when passing from clear
atmosphere into a wall of fog, there is a reflection of
sound. Altogether there seems no doubt but sound acts
like light in these respects, that is, on meeting a change
of refractive power, it is both reflected and refracted, as
light is at the surface of water or of glass. The reflected
light is found to be always more or less polarized, per-
fectly so for the so-called polarizing angle. This polar-
izing angle of incidence is such that, as discovered by
Brewster for light, the reflected and refracted compo-
nents of a single ray, as they strike away from the point
of incidence are at right angles. As reflected light is
polarized, reflected sound was supposed to be also.

Applying the laws of Fresnel and Brewster—tst, that
the index of refraction is equal to the ratio of the veloc-
ities of the waves in the media; and 2d, that complete
polarization is obtained for the particular case of right
angled reflected and refracted component rays, we are
guided to the proper conditions. We conclude that any
two substances having different velocities of propagation
of waves may be selected For instance, two gases, like
hydrogen and air, any two liquids, any two solids, a solid
and a gas, or, generally, any two media whatever. Con-
siderations of convenience would indicate air and illum-
inating gas, and these were chosen for the present pur-
pose. Thevelocities of propagation in air and coal gas
being as 1125 and 1420, the index of refraction, accord-
ing to the first law above, is # = 1:26. The second law
gives for the polarizing angle of incidence, tangent 7 —
m =1'26, or z = 513°, the rays or waves being in the
gas. To realize this incidence upon a surface of separa-
tion between the gas and air, the cool gas was placed in
L-shaped tubes, AB, Fig. 1, having a portion cut away
at the angle, as shown at CD. The branches of the L
make equal angles of 513¢° with the normal to CD. A
delicate membrane was gummed to the tube covering
the opening at CD, also shown at /, the object of which
was to retain the gas and maintain a polarizing surface,
CD. The arrow at 4 indicates a ray which is incident
at £, and is then in part refracted outward at £Z in a di-
rection perpendicular to the reflected component £2.
Each tube was about one inch in diameter and three
inches long. A number of these were made of tin, each
with one end slightly larger than the other, so that they
could be joined up, stove-pipe fashion, to any desired
extent. Being cylindrical, the plane of one L-piece could
be placed at any angle with the plane of the preceding
one, according to the desired polarizing test.

FIG, 2.
Fig. 2 shows the manner of joining the tubes, giving

the effect of nine polarizing surfaces, like nine plates of
glass in light arranged at the polarizing angle. The nine
plates of glass can be used in two parts—one part, 4 for
instance, serving as a polarizer and the remaining 5 as
analyzer. The ends at A and & were capped with mem-
branes and the whole filled with illuminating gas. Thus
AC may serve as a polarizer and CZ, or CH, or CD as
analyzer. When arranged as in ACB or ACE all con-
spire to the same effect of polarization; but when ar-
ranged as in=4CD, the plane of all the L-pieces in CD
being at right angles to that of thosein AC, the effect of
one part antagonizes that due to the other, and toa
maximum degree as regards the angle. Partial effects
may be obtained with intermediate angles between o° and
go°. Again, we observe that the L-pieces of Fig. 2 may
be alternately crossed, so that no two contiguous ones
will be parallel. It is believed that this arrangement
will give the greatest possible antagonistic effect ; also
while all Ls are in one plane it is not necessary that they
be arranged in a zig-zag line, like dC and CZ, but may
be indiscriminately connected in that plane. The few
experiments made with the above-named arrangements
gave very marked results. Of course it need not be con-
fined to nine or any particular number of the L-pieces.

EG. 3.

It was found, however, wanting in convenience. The
apparatus finally adopted is that shown in Fig. 3. A dif-
ferent number of L-pieces were used at different times.
The portion AB is the polarizer and GC the analyzer.
The joint at B was kept tight with beeswax ; the ends at
A and C were capped square with the same membrane
material as were the angles ot the Ls, giving, when
charged with illuminating gas, a continuous zig-zag
column from A to C. The L-pieces of the polarizer
enter half Ls at 4 and 4, the latter having a common
axis and resting in bearings at A and Z in the standards,
as shown. The object of this is to enable the experimen-
ter to turn the polarizer readily from cross to parallel,
etc. This convenient arrangement of the polarizer is
due to my assistant, Mr. Wright. Although applied to
the polarizer, it is evidently equally applicable to the
analyzer instead. The half L angles were not covered
with membranes, but left solid, with gradual inside cur-
vature. Membranes might have been applied here with
partial polarizing effect. The half L solid angles are
supposed to have detracted in a measure from the per-
centages of polarization obtained ; but this sacrifice is
more than compensated for by the greater convenience
and constancy of conditions obtained. If this arrange-
ment gives decisive results, of course, more perfect ap-

| paratus would. The illuminating gas was admitted by

a nipple and rubber hose at C, the same flowing the
length of tubes and issuing in a small jet at 7; my as-
sistant kept this ignited, and used the flame length asa
pressure indicator, and it served admirably.

The first trials were made by blowing an organ pipe
in front of the membrane J, to agitate the gas column,

226

SCIENCE.

A small mirror was attached to the membrane C, reflect-
ing a pencil of light upon a screen. The deportment of
the image indicated complex and inadmissible vibratory
movements of gas column,’ and besides quantitative in-
dication was found preferable to qualitative; thereupon
the quantitative impulse and indicator pendulums were
adopted, as shown at Hand / respectively, Fig. 3. An
ivory ball, 4% inch in diameter, suspended by a thread of
8 inches length, was used at £, and so placed that when
at rest the ball would just touch the membrane at A.
The impulse was imparted by bringing the ball back
against the stop, shown by means ofa spatula held in
the hand, and then allowing it to swing free against the
membrane, each time with a definite, predetermined arc.
So much of the impulse as reaches C knocks the pendulum
fF through a certain arc, the same being measured on the
scale D. This pendulum wasasmall, hollow glass bead,
suspended by a silk fibre and trained delicately against
the membrane. The bob carried a pointer for the scale
1b),

In the experiments the ball would be dropped against
A some five or ten times, at intervals of about ten sec-
onds, the corresponding deflections at D being noted
and recorded; then the polarizer would be turned go°
and like observations noted. Again, go° would be
turned off, etc., etc.; occasionally the length of impulse
arc would be changed, or more or less L-pieces applied,
and in each case a large number of observations made.

In the experiments the initial pulse seemed to be fol-
lowed by a series of vibrations in rapidly decreasing
amplitudes; but it is believed that the initial pulse is
equivalent to a genuine sound wave, or an undulation.
Evidence of soundness of this view is found in the fact
that the velocity of sound can be satisfactorily deter-
mined by similar pulses sent through tubes of 25 or 5c
feet length. It was evident that the initial pulse only,
was concerned in the first swing of pointer at D.

Observations were made with as few as one L in the
polarizer, and two in the analyzer. But the results were
small, averaging about 4 per cent. But during the noting
of 455 individual results of observation the number.ot
Ls in the polarizer ranged from 1 to 3 and in the analyzer
2to 3. The average of all of these 455 observations
gave a percentage of 8.87 hundredths of quenching of
the polarized beam. That is to say, where the analyzer,
in light, entirely quenches the polarized beam in turning
through go°, in the above 455 experiments only 8.87
hundreths of the polarized ray was quenched.

But as a higher percentage was looked for, the instru-
ment itself was now examined for possible faults. The
membranes were all found under considerable tension.
whereas, of course, they should be perfectly free from it.
After completely slackening, then, as was supposed, the
experiments were continued with the following results :

POLARIZATION CONTINUED.
Coal Gas in L-tubes and Air outside.

Individual results.

Polarizer having 4 Ls and Analyzer 5 Ls.

= + = + = + = + =
6,0. Gio! (810.8510) i635 95.8 012 IG OM OLO
610) 6:0) “FAS 5-5 eehe UR SueO1om as ore
62 Glo 1710) 95.9) (Gis) sib Ome nO Sans 2a
6:5 IRIS) 2 7.5;- 5256.5) she) nO awa eer Owe
Gor S770 = 50" (6:25 66g. bene: n:
6:0 15:5 G2 “526 (6:6 l6!0) Og ise Onn
(oy ee IHS — Bie a Ge ee BA a
6.0 FO (ANG) 1012 are 0.5 an 4 ON
g.0' 4:0'¢ 6:3) “85g "6.3" 528 4678
(eye ye foyyk

Means 6.07 583 7.19 5.01 6.43 5.50 6.30 5.37 6.34

In this series each value given in any column is the
number of divisions on the scale D, Fig. 3, of the deflec-
tion of the indicator pendulum bob. After obtaining one
column of results the polarizer, AB, was turned 90°, and

the next column obtained. Thus the several columns
were obtained. The = and + signify that the polarizer
and analyzer are in parallel or perpendicular planes re-
spectively.

On completing this series of observations air was
passed into the L tubes, completely displacing the coal
gas, so that the membranes were now suspended in mid
air. Other conditions remained thesame. The indicator
pendulum now responded to the same impulses so
slightly as to be barely observable, but not measurable,
and they were apparently the same for the polarizer in
all positions; that is to say, when air was upon both
sides of the reflecting surfaces there was almost no ap-
preciable reflection. This evidently should be the case, as
the light membrane itself is now the chief cause of reflec-
tion. This, compared with the results obtained with
gas in the tubes, shows that a considerable reflection is
due to surfaces of separation of gases differing in den-
sity.

As regards the polarization, we observe that every
mean under “=” is larger than any mean under “+,” a
fact which cannot be assumed accidental, nor explained
on any other ground than polarization. ‘To find the per-
centage of this in a single result, we have

Means of the above series.

= +
6.07 5.83
7.19 5.01
6.43 5.50
6.30 5-37
6.34
Means, 6.47 5-43
47 — 5.43

Whole number of observations, 80.

At this point the membranes were again examined and
found to have appreciable tension, though supposed to
have been entirely slackened at the beginning of the ser-
ies of observations just cited. It seemed that the damp-
ness in the gum used, expanded the membranes so that
they became tight after thoroughly drying as the experi-
ments went on. It was thereupon determined to slacken
them with the utmost possible care, and continue the ob-
servations The following table of individual results was
then obtained in the manner explained above, the mem-
branes being constantly watched for entire slackness.

POLARIZATION CONTINUED.
Coal Gas in tubes and Air outside of tubes.
Polarizer haying 4 Ls and Analyzer 5 Ls.

Individual results,
— + = + — + = + = + — + = +
1.2 09 2.0 LO 1.5 1.0 1.6 1.0 1.8 1.4 1.5 0.9 2.0 1.0
T.5) 1.0) Ber 2 5 IO) 1.4 FY 25) 2 Cee Oe eee
U5) DOM E85 wee 128) sr.o. a.8 aint ese OMe s airrae
Z.5 2.0) 2.0) Tio 12.3) 9X50) 169) Teale .70 eno eres peo me OmatO,
L.§'. i2-% 2105-0). e3) 220) X20) 7xX.0) (reg) oe en ee eer
1.0 2.0 0.9 1.2 1.0 1.8 1.0 1.7 1.2 1.5 1.0 2.0 .0.9
BI 0.9 +2.3 Sor 2,6. tiolea8 Tao 2.5 «.9
155+ “1:0 Tet x7 +0
r.2 2.7
iy Baers)

Means I.44 I.00 2,00 I.0I 1.45 I.00 1.71 1.07 1.67 I.19 1.50 1.00 2.00 1,01

Polarizer turned go" immediately following each col-
umn of results.

For gas displaced by air, other conditions the same;
deflection, 0.00.

The smallness of these results, compared with those of
the previous series, may be explained on the ground of
extreme and entire slackness of the membranes; also the
slackness is still further evinced by the fact that, when air
displaced the gas no deflection of the indicator pendulum
was observable in response to the impulses. Tense mem-
branes would have turned the sound waves somewhat,
and in the manner of the rebound of a drumstick from its
drumhead.

‘ To obtain the percentage of polarization effect, we
ate ¢

heal

SCIENCE, 227

Mean of the above series.

= +
I.44 I.00
2.00 I-01
1.45 I.00
Ege 1.07
1.67 I.19
1.50 I.00
2.00 I.0I

Means, 1.68 1.04
1.68 — 1.04

Per cent. — = 38.1.

1.68

Thus with the apparatus working most perfectly, the
analyzer succeeded in extinguishing or quenching 38 per
cent. of the polarized wave, a percentage too great to be
mistaken. Considering the analyzer and polarizer as
equally efficient, the real percentage of polarization by
polarizer would be 62 per cent., and of the analyzer 62
per cent., as is evident frcm the fact that 62 per cent. of
62 percent, is 38 per cent. Thus, either part of the
apparatus obliterates over half of the wave attempting
transmission, a fraction which would be unmistakably
visible in polarized light.

These results establish the following facts for sound
waves or for undulations, viz.:

ist. A decided reflection occurs at a surface separating
two gases of different density, confirming the views of
Henry and Tyndall in this regard.

2d. In repeated reflection from such surfaces the inten-
sity of the final component varies with the relative posi-
tions of those surfaces, the same following the laws of
polarization in light, from which We conclude that longi-
tudinal undulations can be polarized.

With sound polarized, we complete the list of effects
for longitudinal undulations which are known to light,
viz.: radiation, shadows, reflection, refraction, diffusion,
diffraction, interference and polarization; for the laws are
common for like conditions, viz.: for intensity of radiation

; bi eo, Let y (aie eee
in ambient space, Gz > in paral.el space, —-; in prismati

I :
; for shadows, reflection, refrac-

B)

space, like a tube,

tion and interference as well known; for diffusion, as
when a steam whistle is sounded, filling the air with its
resounding ring; for diffraction, as sound waves diverg-
ing rapidly after passing a narrow space between build-
ings, like light in passing a narrow slit and diverging ;
and, finally, for polarization, as above. In studying these
comparisons we should recollect the vast difference be-
tween the properties of undulations in heavy, and
ethereal media. Thus the wave length is very great and
the velocity of propaga ion very small in sound as com-
pared with light. This se-ms sufficient to account for
the greater definition of shadows in light; but when a
slit or an obstacle is made as narrow for light as for
sound, in comparison to wave length, the diffraction
divergence is probably about al'ke; that is, the diverg-
ence at a linear slit in light, or between two buildings in
sound ; or again the shadow of a silk fibre in light and
a sound shadow of Bunker Hill monument, for instance,
are about alike considering wave length. With these
considerations it may be reasonable to expect incomplete
or only partial polarization with such apparatus as em-
ployed above.

The conclusions to which we are conducted by the
foregoing may be summed up as follows:

Ist. That vibrations in extended media, produced
from the action of a remote single centre of disturbance,
can only be longitudinal, even in light.

2d. That vibrations will be to some extent transver-
sal when due to two or more centres of disturbance not
in the same line, as when two or more independent co-
existent systems of undulations combine into one, or
when a simple system is modified by such lateral dis-
turbance as a reflection or a refraction.

3d. That undulations, to be in a condition called
polarized, probably consist of vibrations which are trans-
versal, and that no necessity exists for assuming vibra-
tions transversal in front of a polarizer.

Notr.—As regards longitudinal, oblique, transversal,
etc., in the foregoing, the estimate is to be taken by com-
paring the direction of the line of vibration of a particle
with that of propagation of the wave.

My acknowledgements are due to Mr. Clarence H.
Wright, who, while a student in my physical laboratory
last Spring, rendered valuable aid in the experimental
work.

to

ASTRONOMY.
COMET (a) 1831—SWIFT.

The question of the best method of transmitting tele-
graphic announcements of astronomical discoveries has
just been discussed by the leading European societies,
and a system has been devised by which this information
may be comprised in a message of sixteen words.
Thinking that perhaps a better way existed of doing the
same work, the Boston Scientific Society has adapted a
telegraphic code to the needs of the occasion, and this
system has just received a practical test. The announce-
ments lie within the province cf the Smithsonian Institu-
tion, and it was accordingly decided to transmit by cable
the elements and ephemeris. These here given were
computed at Dun Echt Observatory, in Scotland, by Drs.
Copeland and Lohse, and have been distributed in this
country to astronomers by special circulars of the Bos-
ton Scientific Society. That set which was computed
at Boston, for the Society, by Mr. S. C. Chandler, Jr., has
already been cabled to Europe, and distributed by mail,
from the Observatory of Lord Crawford, to astronomers
io England and the Continent.

The cablegram received at Boston consisted of sixteen
words, and the translation is here appended. According
to the same code, the announcement of discovery could
be comprised in a message of seven words, which would
itself contain check words against possible error in
transmission.

The elements and ephemeris computed at Dun Echt,
on Monday, May 9, were transmitted by cable to Boston
in the following message: ‘‘ Decimosexto erective con-
textual bewitchery anticly demonstrative courageously
sputter arithmancy stomachical auriferous suety bayou
synecdochically bissextile eminently.” The translation
of this message is as follows, viz:

ELEMENTS OF SWIFT’S-COMET, 1881 (a).
Per. Passage, 1881, May 20.67, Greenwich Mean Time.
° /

Long. Perihelion, so) A
Long. Node, 124 54
eer 175 Sf Eq. 1881.0,
Inclination, 78 48
Log. 7 = 9.7674. 7 = 5854.
Motion direct.
EPHEMERIS.
Greenwich, midnight. ——A.R.—, -—DECL.— Brightness.
Bvin «'Sz o u
May 10, Cass ee +26 46 1.69
14, 56 48 235
18, pia ty ee Is 54
22, 40 48 9 55 2.32

Computed by Dr. R. Copeland and J. G. Lohse, from
observations made at Dun Echt Observatory. The light
at discovery is taken as unity.

By means of control-words in the message, it is ab-
solutely known that the elements are those computed
yesterday in Scotland, and it is proposed to cable in the
same way the first elements and ephemerides of future
comets, obtainable at either terminus, until the ccde has
been most thoroughly tested. J. RITCHIE, JR.

228

ON A METHOD OF ISOLATING THE MAMMA-
LIAN HEART.
By H. NEWELL MARTIN (Johns Hopkins University.)

To obtain a mammalian heart isolated from the ‘rest of
the body and keep it alive for a time sufficient to allow
the examination of the effect of various conditions upon
its activity has long been a physiological desideratum.
The frog’s heart has for years been the subject of minute
study but hitherto the mammalian heart has been a
baffling object. It seems to have been forgotten that
while the frog’s heart is a spongy structure having no
arteries of its own, the mammalian heart is a dense organ
dependent for its life on a continuous blood flow in its
capillaries ; and all attempts hitherto made, so far as I
know, have been efforts to apply to the mammal the
methods found successful with the frog, with merely the
_ addition of arrangements adapted to keep up the compara-
tively high temperature at which the mammalian heart
normally beats. By working in another way I have re-
cently succeeded in keeping the mammalian heart alive
for more than an hour, and beating with perfect rhythm
and normal force; the organ is thus made almost as
available for study as the heart of the frog. The method
adopted is as follows: The animal having been narco-
tised and the chest opened, the aorta is tied just beyond
its arch; then the trunk which, in the cat, gives origin to
the right subclavian and the two common carotids, is lig-
atured close to its origin, and a cannula put in the left
subclavian ; finally, the inferior and superior venz cave
and the azygos vein, and the root of one lung are tied.

Artificial respiration is of course started so soon as the
thorax is opened, and kept up henceforth. The course
of the circulation is thus :—left auricle, left ventricle,
commencement of aorta (and along the left subclavian to
the cannula which is connected with a manometer),
coronary system, right auricle, right ventricle, pulmonary
vessels of one lung, and then back to the left auricle; in
other words, the only section of the systemic circulation
left is that through the vessels of the heart itself. Since
the physiological actions taking place in the lung are
among the best known of all occurring in the body, they
may be eliminated, and we have practically an isolated
and well-working living mammalian heart for study.
The nerves going to the heart may be divided if desired,
but that is hardly necessary as the want of blood-flow in
the nerve centres of the body incapacitates them after a
very short time, and they no longer are capable of exert-
ing any influence on the heart. It is possible, however,
that changes in the lung vessels may affect the results of
experiments made on the heart’s work under different
conditions (e.g. when defibrinated blood is sent into it
from a vein under various pressures, or when drugs are
administered to it), and an investigation of the nerves,
if any, governing the lung vessels must be undertaken as
a preliminary to a further study of the direct action of
various conditions on the heart’s work.

eal

EDINBURGH ROYAL SOCIETY.

There was a very large attendance at the meeting of the
Edinburgh Royal Society held recently, to hear Pro-
fessor Helmholtz, who was announced to make a com-
munication ‘‘On Electrolytic Convection.” Professor
Helmholtz stated to the Society the results of certain later
experiments which he had made in working out his theory
of electrolytic convection—experiments which, he said, had
succeeded better than his former ones had done. He had
entered upon his experiments on account of certain ob-
jections
law, in connection with experiments which showed that

a very feeble galvanic current could be kept up by mode- |

rate electro-motive force between platinum plates dipped
in a slightly acidulated solution, even if the electro-motive
force of the battery was not sufficient to decompose the
water. He had found, in his earlier experiments, that the

SCIENCE.

that had been made to Farraday’s electrolytic |

only effect of the current was to absorb oxygen given off
from the atmosphere and to form a new portion of water,
and that the whole electrolytic effect was, not to decompose
water and to produce a new quantity of elements—hydro-
gen and oxygen—but only that on the surface of one plate
of platinum oxygen was collected and taken away from the
surface of the other. He had, therefore, called these currents
electrolytic convection. It was not really a decomposition,
but only a transport of one of the products of electrolytic
decomposition from one place to another. In his later ex-
periments he had got rid of the atmospheric oxygen, by
inclosing the whole electrolytic fluid in a sealed glass ves-
sel. Asaresult, he had found that the smallest electro-
motive force, down to the thousandth of a Daniell’s cell,
produced a strong deflection which went immediately back
to zero, that there was no continuous current, and that, if
they broke the current, they got a deflection of the same
character in the opposite direction to the first and direct
one. Sir William Thomson, in speaking on the paper,
stated that Professor Hemholtz’s theory of electrolytic con-
vection formed quite an era in electrolytic chemistry. Sir
William himself made a communication ‘On the average
pressure due to impulse of vortex-rings on a solid,” follow-
ing up inquiries suggested by Helmholtz’s vortex theory.
Professor Tait stated the result of certain calculations which
he had made “ On the crushing of glass by pressure,” and
which had been suggested by his recent inquiry as to error-
corrections in the use of the Challenger thermometers. The
result was that with cylindrical tubes made from ordinary
Leith plate-glass, he found the glass gave way under a
shear of about I-250th, and that the strength of the tube
was greater as the walls were thicker and the internal di-
ameter decreased, But, however thick the walls might be,
or however small the internal diameter, a pressure of 22 or
23 tons on the square inch would inevitably crush the

strongest glass.
ee ge ae

NOTES.

M. Daupicny, electrical engineer in Paris, has sent to the
Municipal Council a petition asking for authority to estab-
lish on the top of the Colonne de Juillet a large electric
lamp fed by a magneto-electric machine of fifty horse-power.
This enormous light is to be diffused by a large reflector of
special construction —WVatwre.

S1GNoR MANET, we learn from an Italian journal, whitens
the albumen of blood by means of the electric light ; which
is projected by a system of mirrors and lenses, giving a
strongly luminous effect. The time required varies accord-
ing as the albumen is more or less separated from the fibrine.
In general, 24 hours suffices to give complete decoloration.

PRoFEssoR Loomis appears still to be experimenting in
aerial telegraphy—telegraphing without wires—and it is
now said that he proposes to establish communication,
through the current which he claims is always found at a
great altitude, between one of the highest peaks of the Alps,
in Switzerland, and a similarly situated station on the
Rocky Mountains, on this continent.

Ir has been found by M. Laurent that any ordinary good
silvered glass mirror, plane, concave, or convex, and of any
thickness, may be rendered a magical one by means of heat.
A simple way of doing this is to heat a brass tube, and ap-
ply the end of it to the silvered face. If the mirror surface
is opposite a screen, the section of the tube is reproduced
in white ; if the former is turned away from the screen, the
image (which is seen only after removing the tube) is dark,
A cold tube may be used with a hot mirror, and the experi-
ment may be otherwise varied.

M. DucHeEmIN, the inventor of the compass with a circu-
lar magnet, now adopted in the French navy, has recently
devised, for correcting compasses, a system of magnetic
compensators. In place of the straight magnetic bars gen-
erally employed he uses magnets of an annular form. If
we magnetise a steel ring, it may have two poles at opposite
extremities of a given diameter and two neutral lines. Such
rings—round, oval, or of any other form, and with or with-
out interruption of continuity—may be utilised for the
correction of a compass, by being placed either on the
bridge of the vessel or in the binnacle—evue /ndustrielle.

SCIENCE.

Sere NCE:

A WEEKLY RECORDOF SCIENTIFIC

PROGRESS.

JOHN MICHELS, Editor.

PUBLISHED AY
TRIBUNE BUILDING, NEW YORK.

P. O, BOX 3838,

SATURDAY MAY a1, 1881.

THE Spring Reception of the American Museum of
Natural History, Central Park, New York, and the
publication of the Twelfth Annual Report, remind us
of the existence of this Institution, and recall its
many claims for support from those interested in
science, and in the intellectual progress of the people.

The additions and improvements made during the
past year make only a short list on the programme,
but reflect the excellent management and zeal of the
officers in charge of the collections. A large portion
of the collections of birds and mammals has been
remounted on newly designed stands, the results
obtained being most creditable to those who have
carried out this improvement.

One of the new features of usefulness recently es-
tablished is an Economic Department, which will
contain specimens illustrating the Economic Botany
of all the woods of our country, that are to be used
for architectural or building purposes, or in the manu-
factures, each species being fully represented by
specimens of the leaf, flower and fruit.

We fully appreciate the exertions made by the
Trustees of this Institution to extend the usefulness
of the Museum and to make it a means of teaching
the laboring classes the value of scientific knowledge,
and its practical bearing on many of the industrial
pursuits of life. Ifsuch is, at least, one of the ob-
jects of establishing this Museum, it is difficult to un-
derstand the action of the Trustees in closing its doors
on Sundays, that being the only day on which the
artisan and mechanic can make a visit, without en-
tailing a direct loss on himself and family. A peti-
tion, signed by 16,000 citizens of New York, was
recently offered as a direct appeal to the Trustees to
accord this privilege to the working classes, and we

1

229
“trust that the board of management, which has always
shown a most liberal and enlightened spirit of enter-
prise in the conduct of this Institution, may recon-
sider its late decision on this subject.

The city of New York has provided a costly build-
ing for the Museum and recently appropriated
$35,000 to improve the approaches. In the Report
of the Trustees now before us, a direct appeal is made
to the people for financial aid and support. We,
therefore, believe the Trustees would confer a direct
benefit on the Institution by opening its doors to the
people on Sundays; the Museum would doubtless
become one of the most popular Institutions in the
city, and the Legislature would probably respond with
no grudging hand, to provide means for the comple-
tion of the building and for its maintenance on a lib-
eral scale.

+r —

THE announcement is made of an improved
method of storing electricity, by M. Camille Faure,
of Paris, the London TZimes asserting that “a
box of electric energy nearly equivalent to a million
feet, contained within less than a cubic foot of space,
intact and potential, has been transported from France
to Great Britan.”

Sir Wiliam Thomson is said to have given some
endorsement to the discovery, and tests and measure-
ments are in progress at the laboratory of the Glas-
gow University.

The principle involved in M. Faure’s discovery is
understood in this country, and the possibility of its
general correctness is conceded. The language em-
ployed in the announcement is rather equivocal, and
the misuse of scientific terms render the exact extent
of M. Faure’s discovery a matter of some doubt.

We gladly welcome any progress in electical science ;
but as the necessity for storing electrical energy is of
value only in very rare cases, the practical usefulness
of M. Faure’s discovery must be limited in extent.

Mr. Epison has courteously responded to a request
on our part, to offer his opinion on M. Faure’s dis-
covery, and we take pleasure in placing before the
readers of “‘SciENCE” his reply, received since our
own notes were in type.

To the Editor of ‘* Science.”

DEAR SIR: The Faure battery is an improvement on
the Planté battery.

Planté was, I think, the original inventor of the battery
which bears his name, invented some years ago for the
purpose of storing up electricity.

Faure has simply made a Planté battery, by some
means reducing its resistance, and thus reducing the per-
centage of loss. This is all there is in it.

Some two years ago I patented and applied a method
for using the Planté battery in connection with electric
lighting. Yours truly,

THOS, A. EDISON.

230

SCIENCE,

SENSIBILITY AND ITS DIVERSE FORMS.
By M. OLTRAMARE.
[Translated From the French, by the Marchioness Clara Lanza.]

From the feeble cry by which the infant affirms simul-
taneously its birth and its sensibility, to the last long
drawn sigh which bids adieu to existence, human life
oscillates constantly between two opposite conditions
created by the nervous system—pleasure and pain, joy
and sorrow.

Being creatures developed to a great extent under the
influence of the senses, we experience to an extreme de-
gree, the action of all exterior agents, and atone for such
pleasures as are granted to us by our exquisite sensibility,
with moral and physical suffering. Not satisfied with
momentary impressions, we foresee the influences which
are toreach us, and by means of our refined intelligence
we create those two great incentives to our actions—
apprehension and desire.

Being mortal and also conscious of the fact, we natu-
rally have a presentiment of the final destruction of our
bodies, and most of us fear this and look upon it with
dread. Nothing of this kind, however, is to be met with
in animals. The last hour of life, brutal and violent
though it may be and totally unexpected, does not affect
them. The dog licks his master’s hand affectionately
whether it be extended to caress or to kill. He is no
more conscious of the possibility of death, than is the ox
which is led to the slaughter house.

These higher animals have nevertheless, a sensiblity
and individuality upon which their reason depends. They
possess what we call instinct. But, as we descend fur-
ther in the animal world, we see that this function gradu-
ally diminishes in proportion as the organisms become
simplified, until finally we reach a point, where to cut a
living creature in two, not only produces no perception of
pain, but actually becomes a means of reproduction, each
half being capable of forming a distinct organism pre-
cisely like the original.

Lower still, we come to plants, which are living organ-
isms, although Linnzus, a naturalist of the highest rank,
refused to admit their sensibility. He says: ‘ Plants live
and grow ; animals live, grow and feel.”

This theory recalls that of Aristotle, when the Grecian
philosopher affirmed that all organized beings had a soul
more or less developed.

To the vegetable soul he attributed two faculties—
growth and reproduction. To the animal soul he as-
signed four faculties—growth, reproduction, sensibility
and motion. To the human soul, five faculties. The
four above mentioned, to which was added intelligence,
or mind.

Neither Linnzus nor Aristotle admit of any sensibility in
vegetable life, and yet this is as great an error as to deny
the existence of this same faculty in animals. An error,
which is almost universal even in the thinking world, and
which certainly should no longer be allowed to exist.
From the most minute plant, to the most perfect animal,
we find sensibility under various forms, but always corre-
sponding to Claude Bernard’s definition: “Sensibility is
the exsemble of all kinds of modifications, determined in
living things by different stimuli, or rather, the apti-
tude to reply to the provocation of these stimuli by
means of modifications.”

Bichat distinguishes three forms of sensibility :

1. Conscious sensibility, which presides over relations to
exterior movements. :

2. Unconscicus sensibility, representing internal move-
ments.

3. Insensible, or imperceptible sensibility, so called be-
cause it is manifested in other ways than by move-
ment.

Putting aside these fine distinctions, let us admit two
forms of sensibility—conscious and unconscious—and we
shall be able to demonstrate the possibility of a passage

from one state to the other, which proves that they are but
modifications of a single attribute.

When we learn to read, it is with considerable diffi-
culty, and we doubt if any one ever mastered the art un-
consciously. But later, can we not peruse page after
page mechanically, without having an idea of their con-
tents? A transformation has therefore taken place in
two kinds of sensibility. It is precisely the same with
walking and many other acts in which the brain—that is
to say, the conscious agent—plays but a secondary
part.

If I prick the foot of a frog with a needle the animal
draws it away, and, forewarned by the pain, endeavors to
escape. Sensibility here evidently assumes a conscious
form. If, however, I decapitate the frog, that is, if I de-
stroy the organ which is the ego,so to speak, and once
more perform my experiment, the mutilated body draws
the leg away, but makes no attempt to escape. The act
is purely reflex, unconscious, and in this case, by a simple
experimental artifice, I am able at once to substitute the
second form of sensibility for the first.

We breathe without knowing it, without the interven-
tion of our will; but if our attention is directed upon this
mechanical act, we become immediately conscious of
it. -
In eating, when once our food is swallowed we know
nothing more about it, and yet our sensibility is con-
stantly played upon by these substances, which, physic-
ally and chemically modified, are introduced into the
circulation of the blood, and thence carried to the ana-
tomical elements, whose sensibility they incite to action.
All vital properties, and, consequently, sensibility, reside
in those little numberless organic unities which go to
form living beings.

There exists a fundamental matter, protoplasm, an amor-
phous substance endowed with peculiar properties and
which Huxley has justly:-termed the physical basis of life.
This protoplasm, which sometimes alone constitutes an
inferior living creature, not only moves but attaches to it-
self minute particles which it meets with in the water,
digests them and assimilates them with itself. Ether,
the great reagent of sensibility, causes it to lose its trans-
parency, and its movements to disappear. Then, when
it is evaporated, the fluid reappears with all the attributes
of this inferior life. This is undoubtedly sensibility, but
in an unconscious form. ©

lf we begin to mount the organic ladder, we see
gradually appear certain cells which specify sensibility,
and which, created solely to perform this function, elevate
and perfect it. These are the so-called nerve cells.
They are scatiered throughout living organisms ; in the
higher animals they are very numerous, and serve to
centralize impressions and produce individuality. When
they are united to others called cephalic cells, they ad-
mit not only of sensation, but also the interpretation of
sensation which then becomes conscious.

Thus, beginning with this infinite attribute of living
matter which Haller and Glisson, being too timid to call
sensibility, termed irritability, we gradually come to the
highest forms, whence originate the greater portion of
intellectual and physiological phenomena.

In man, all the sensible nerve cells are united in one mass
called the cerebro-spinal axis, or the encephalo-medullary
mass. It is composed of the spinal cord, the medulla
oblongata, and the brain, each of its departments repre-
senting one form of sensibility. The spinal cord, prop-
erly speaking, corresponds to unconscious _ sensibility.
This is illustrated by that involuntary and spontaneous
movement which we call reflex action. The medulla ob-
longata controls sensations which, like respiration for in-
stance, are frequently unconscious, but which, however,
by an effort of the will, can be interpreted as precisely the
opposite. The brain possesses the highest form of sensi-
bility, and it is here that the greater part of our physical
and intellectual acts are performed. By means of the mi~

al

SCIENCE,

231

croscope we are able to-day, to separate in each nervous
centre, the sensitive cells from others of a like kind
performing different functions which can be recognized
by their shape, dimension and situation,

It is useless here to go into minute details concerning
this point. I will call attention, however, to the fact that
each sensitive nerve cell is connected with exterior agents
by a long fibre called the cylinder axis, which resembles
a telegraph wire carefully concealed by a layer of fat,
and which, surrounded py numerous proteciing mem-
branes, extends throughout portions of the boay, and
produces sensibility. Ail these nerve fibres, whose recep-
live apparatus is in the encephalo-medullary mass, are
grouped together and form those little white filments
whicn we designate as nerves. If the end of a nerve is
touched, or the root, a modification can instantly be de-
termined, which carried to the nervous cen.res, becomes a
sensation. This sensation is, of course, not always the
same, but is in accordance with the determining agent,
optic, acoustic, gustative, e.c.

If for instance, we cut the nerve which conducts light
from the eye to the brain, this sensation will immediately
be felt; but if, on the contrary, one of the skin nerves be
cut, intense pain will be experienced. It is not, therefore,
as M. Delboeuf very justly remarks, the nature of the ex-
citation which determines that of the impression, but the
manner in which the brain centre is brought into activity ;
so that if the optic and acoustic nerves be cut, united
and inverted, a noise would be interpreted by a sensa-
tion of light, and wzce versa. ‘The sight ot a picture
would determine sounds in relation to the brulancy
of the paint employed, while an orchestra would produce
colors varying, according to the sounds. Sensations ex-
perienced in consequence of exterior impressions do not
therefore depend upon the character ot the latter, but
upon the nature of our nervous cells. We do not feel
that which occurs upon our body, but only that which
takes place in our brain. If, therefore, all our nerve
cells were identical, the exterior world would doubtless
produce sensations, but they would be precisely alike,
merely differing in intensity. There are certain animals
which exist in this condition.

M. Helmholtz and other physiologists have calculated

the amount of time required for the transmission of the
excitation to the sensitive nerves, and have decided upon
thirty metres a second—that is tg say, a rapidity equal to
an express train advancing at fullsteam power. Imagine
a man whose brain is in Yaris while the extremity ot one
of his limbs is in Geneva, and we will see that it must re-
quire precisely four hours and forty-four minutes tor a
sensation to pass from the latter city to the former.
_ Given the small distance which separates our extrem-
ities from the nerve centres, and the ume of transmission
is short. It is remarkable, however, that those organs
which play the greatest 7d/e in the preservation and con-
servation of the individual, sight and hearing should be
placed in close proximity to tne brain. ‘his produces a
rapid transmission, and enables a speedy evasion of
destructive objects—a disposition evidently acquired by
natural selection. It seems, moreover, that the intensity
of the impression is in accordance with the distance inter-
yening between the excitation and the nerve centre. We
may thus explain the extreme violence of neuralgia of the
face and head, as compared with that affecting other por-
tions of the body.

All the various forms of sensibility have an analogous
basis. The connection and fundamental identity can be
demonstrated by the action of narcotics. We snall see
that this is the most general and characteristic property
of life, and tms axiom can be fully estavlished—that
everything which lives, whether animal or vegetable,
feels and can be rendered insensible.

{tis a well known tact that certain plants rebound
when they are touched. The sensitive one closes its

up like traps as soon as a fly alights upon them, impris-
oning and crushing the poor insect which is to serve
them as nourishment. The action of day and night has
been equally verified in regard to plants. Some flowers
only open when thesun shines, while others bloom solely
in the dark. It has also been seen that the leaves some-
times turn towards the sun, but these phenomena have
been called exceptional, many persons even placing them
in the category of problematic occurrences, not wishing
evidently to open their eyes to facts which they consider
humiliating to the animal species.

Now, however, doubt is no longer possible. Ignor-
ance upon this point can no longer be permitted, and
every one must know that animals and plants alike pos-
sess sensibility. A great philosopher and physiologist,
Claude Bernard, first demonstrated this important truth,
not by means of tortuous reasoning, but by the brilliant
light of experiment.

Provided with an anesthetic agent, ether or chloroform,
he was able to prove that the highest forms of conscious
sensibility and the lowest forms of unconscious sensibility
can be successfully affected. When the action of the
narcotic begins to take place the ego sleeps and with
it, conscious sensibility. That is sufficient for the sur-
geon who can then begin to cut and burn without the
shadow of an arrzéere pensée. _

Upon continuing the introduction of the fumes of ether
into the organism, we see all the forms of unconscious
sensibility gradually become annulled subsequent to con-
scious sensibility. After having acted upon the nerve cell,
the anesthetic destroys the sensibility ot all the tissues,
that is to say their vital characteristic, causing them to
react upon exterior agents—in one word, it kills the
individual.

If we pass on from the animal to the plant, we find
that ether and chloroform act in identically the same
manner. Subject the leaves of a sensitive plant to the
fumes of either of these agents, and you will be able to
handle them without eliciting the slightest movement on
their part. They no longer feel the contact of the hand,
for knowing as we do that anesthetics respect the func-
tions of movement, we can only attribute this inertia to
the impotency of the excitation.

Let us now take a rapidly germinating seed, such as
that of the water-cress and place it upon a sponge soaked
in water. In twenty-four hours it will have blossomed
into a tiny stem and root. Repeat the experiment under
the same conditions of oxygen, water, light and heat, but
place the sponge beneath a glass which has been dipped
in ether. The seed will remain intact. It is not dead
however, it merely sleeps, for if we remove the glass it
will recover from its stupor and by the following day will
have sprouted. This unseen life possessed by the seed,
life which asks nothing more than to make itself ap-
parent, is, however, subject to external and internal con-
ditions. The first are the necessity of water, oxygen,
heat and all physio-chemical conditions; but there is
still something else, internal, inherent to the seed itself
and constituting the essence of its life. _It is sensibility.
Destroy this function and notwithstanding the most fay-
orable surroundings, the development will be effectually
stopped.

Do not think that this is owing to any peculiarity of
the plant and its embryonic condition, tor a hen’s egg,
that latent condition of lite of an organism belonging toa
comparatively high order, cannot be hatched with any
desirable result in an etherized atmosphere.

Germination, the first vital act of the individual, be it
plant or animal, is therefore subject to sensibility and in
this function we see it appear for the first time. After-
wards it is not difficult to follow it in its course through
all the vital acts of the organism. The plant breathes
and grows by assimilation, absorbing either the sub-
stances contained in the earth, or the carbonic acid in

leayes while a great number of carnivorous plants shut | the air. For a long time this gaseous assimilation was

232

SCIENCE.

confounded with respiration, and the mistaken concep-
tion was spread abroad that plants breathe in direct oppo-
sition to animals by absorbing carbonic acid and exhaling
oxygen. By means of anesthetics we can separate these
two phenomena. An aquatic plant placed in etherized
water ceases to absorb carbonic acid and emit oxygen.
It however, remains green, and breathes as animals do, a
phenomenon which existed before, but was hidden by the
assimilation of the carbon; still, further back, we can
encounter one of those phenomena long considered
chemical and which nearly escape vital acts inasmuch as
in the laboratory some of them can be reproduced with-
out the aid of life. I speak of fermentations. These
are produced bya microscopic fungus, which decom-
poses fermentable matter, nourishing itself with a portion,
while the remainder forms a new product which stays in
the liquid. These fermentations, in spite of their ex-
treme tenuity and their inferiority in the organic scale,
are susceptible of being stupefied by ether and losing
their active power. We may place them with impunity
in close contact with the liquid, but the latter remains
undisturbed.

Thus, from the very bottom of the ladder, from the
simplest protoplasm, and the most insignificant fermen-
tation to the most elevated creature to be found on the
earth, we find always the same characteristic and funda-
mental property of life, modified, it is true, to a degree
which forces us to follow the thread of its diverse forms
step by step, but always identical in substance, and in-
variably demonstrable by those infallible reactive agents,
anesthetics. Without this property there can be no life,
or rather no active life, no exterior manifestations, With
it, any plant or animal, no matter how simple in construc-
tion, develops, grows, prospers and reproduces itself. Jt
is easy to see, therefore, that sensibility is the principal
attribute of all organic beings, and in some way the
cause of everything that takes place within us. If, as
Condillac says, we should take an immovable and in-
sensible image and endow it gradually with all our
senses, it would soonrise from nonentity and begin to
augment the sphere of its knowledge. By giving it the
sense of hearing, we open that vast field of observation
and reasoning which procures sound, but it could form
no idea of the existence of matter, or of sunshine, or of
taste. It could only conceive one thing, until put in
complete possession of the other senses.

Intelligence, that precious gift which alone renders us
superior to other creatures, is, therefore, nothing more

than the result of our accumulated impressions, con- |
trolled one by the other, and we may even affirm that the |

man who has felt is alone capable of thought. The de-
velopment of our minds should be adequate to the devel-
opment of our sensibility, and in fact, it can be observed
everywhere, that those persons whose senses are the mest
refined, possess the highest form of intelligence. I may
even go so far as to parody the famous proverb and say
to my neighbor ; ‘‘ Tell me what you feel, and I will tell
you what you think.”

Not so very long ago, as we have seen, Linnzus refused
to admit of sensibility in regard to plants, saying that it was
an attribute of the animal world only, An attentive in-
vestigation, however, causes us to reject such distinctions
to-day. Let us even go further back, leaving behind us
the lowest forms of organic matter, and see if any phe-
nomenon approaching sensibility is to be met with.
a word, let us ask the following question:
sensible ?

Referring once more to Claude Bernard’s definition of
the term, “sensibility is the exsemb/e of all kinds of
modifications determined in living beings by different
stimuli,’ we find no possibility of its application to the

Is matter

In |

properties of matter, for it distinctly states that the con- |

dition is an attribute of living beings only. But a mere |

definition should not arrest our investigation, for it is

nothing more than theresult of knowledge hitherto ac- |

quired, and as such admits of change. The substance of
it all amounts to this; given a living being placed in im-
mediate contact with matter, and the matter will act upon
the being, producing sensation. But how do we know that
the living being does not in its turn act upon the matter
and modify its condition? I will even affirm that life
does act upon certain substances, for fermentation is a
positive proof that this is the case. If I place a sweet-
ened solution of wine in contact with the air, a short
time will suffice to develop therein millions of tiny living
creatures proceeding from atmospheric germs. This fer-
mentation increases with great rapidity, producing a
chemical effect, so that after a certain time the sugar
will be transformed into carbonic acid and alcohol. The
presence, therefore, of life in the liquid served to modify
the properties, and in this we see one of those strange
occurrences where the so-called vital forces are so closely
allied to chemical processes, that we hardly know
whether the phenomenon is the result of the biologists’
skill or the chemist’s. Each of these savants have
claimed it as their own, and with reason too, for chem-
istry and biology are twin sisters who can never
quarrel.

When the sugar is once transformed into alcohol an-
other organism appears, which, in its turn, determines the
transformation of this substance into another, acetic acid,
by means of an analogous fermentation. It isa remark-
able fact, however, that while the chemist has, as yet,
been unable to produce alcoholic fermentation by means
of the action of matter upon matter, he can, on the con-
trary, easily determine the second without the aid of life
at all. It is, therefore, the presence of these bodies which
acts, and not the construction of the fermentation. It
is not that life decomposes the liquid, but that the liquid
decomposes itself when assimilated with certain agents.
It is therefore sensible of their action.

Once ez route, itis not difficult to multiply examples
and to demonstrate that light, heat, electricity and all
other forces which operate upon our sensibility, are uni-
form modifiers of matter. What is a photographer’s
negative but a glass plate sensitive to the action of light ?
Is not a piece of wire about which we pass an electric
current sensible of electricity, inasmuch as it acquires
thereby a new property, that of attracting a like piece of
wire? It becomes, in fact, magnetic.

Heat, as we can observe every day, modifies bodies to
such an extent, that beneath its influence they liquify and
evaporate. All these facts demonstrate clearly that mat-
ter is sensible of exterior agents. According to the sec-
ond part of Claude Bernard’s definition, it possesses the
“aptitude to reply to the provocation of these stimuli by
means of modifications.”

Consequently, universal attraction, that law which af-
firms that all bodies attract each other in direct ratio to
their mass, and in inverse ratio to the square of their
distance, is merely a simple and general way of express-
ing the sensibility of matter.

CONTRIBUTION TOWARD A NEW COSMIC
HYPOTHESIS.

By SAMUEL J. WALLACE.

Our familiar knowledge and ideas in astronomy relate
generally to matter in large bodies, and in great num-

| bers of small bodies, which now and then fall into the

larger as meteorites. This seems to show a condition of
slow centralization, as if to finally collect all matter,
however far distributed, into a few large bodies. And
a consistent conception requires in its plan, somewhere,
a means of decentralization, or distribution of matter
through space again, to form a closed system of
action.

Gravic force as one of the interchangeable forms of kin-

SCIENCE.

233

etic energy also requires a starting place; some way by
which the energy continually changed into mass motion
and heat of bodies gravitating into each other shall be
changed back again into gravic force.

I think the luminously hot gaseous nebula shows the
earlier stages of these two required dispersions taking
place together.

The*fall of matter from space into central masses
takes up just so much gravic energy. This is changed
into mass motion and heat, so that on mechanical
principles, each particle .bears just enough force still to
carry it back into space again.

This leads us up to the idea of the life of a particle in
the universe, as being through an endless series of cycles
of change from space into masses and from masses into
space, each being, as it were, almost an eternity in dura-
tion, making a grand orbit, something like this :

Meteoric matter falls from space into planets and suns ;
planets fall into suns; suns grow continuously larger,
accumulating the momentum’ of particles acquired in
falling from space, as motion and heat; the heat of
overgrown suns at last becomes so intense, from accre-
tions and collisions, that it flies into a still higher form
of repulsive energy, as gravic force, causing disruptive
explosions ; the particles, by thischange into gravic force
outward, receive a projectile force carrying them out into
space again; and particles from space fall again into
planets and suns.

This forms a closed cycle of action. The projectile
and outward gravic forces may carry part of the parti-
cles forward into space till they become parts of other
systems to run like courses; and part may be driven
back at last to rebuild another system instead of that
destroyed. Some might be driven back by the extra-
force given others, and form nuclei of one or more suns.
And the disrupted parts going in different directions
might form a number of nuclei, having such dispersive
motion as to carry them continuously apart, as in some
reported cases.

The history of a nucleus having such an initial projec-
tion might be something like this :

I. It might pursue an interminable course ; should this
lead laterally near any region having matter in great
quantity, it would be deflected to pursue a great curve,
attracting to itself distributed matter within its reach,
from gravitation.

II. The growth of a body pursuing a curved course
would produce in it a rotary motion, which would be the
resultant of the course and force of its own prior parts
and those of its continued accretions, and of the com-
bined attractions on its several parts of all matter passed,
which of course would predominate on the inner side of
its curved path.

Ill. Matter drawn into a moving body would come in
curved lines and spiral courses, tending to form great
rings and to produce planets, whose courses and veloc-
ities would be the resultants of the total averages of
those of the various particles uniting to form each of
them. ,

IV. Secondary bodies of large size would approximate
primaries in the nature of their actions, falling in by
slow degrees; those of long life as secondaries tending
to eventual motion in one general direction, from having
similar producing forces and from their actions on each
other neutralizing conflicting equivalents ; giving to each
such position as its resultant velocity leads to, by union
or separate course, together with revolution, and possi-
bly secondaries to them.

V. Differences of inclination of orbits of secondaries
may occur from the course of primaries having been at
some time near regions having predominant quantities
of matter to be drawn in on special sides, which unites
to form bodies having their special courses ; and, from
analogous causes some smaller bodies might chance to
have courses contrary to others,

VI. The four terms of orbital and rotary velocity, heat,

‘and loss from radiance and from a resisting medium,

would form a sum equal nearly to the energy of fall from
infinity to the mean position of each body, qualified by
whatever initial velocity and direction each particle may
have had from its prior projections.

VII. The distance of each body from its primary
would depend on its velocity in proportion to that which
fall from infinity would produce; and all causes chang~
ing orbital into rotary motion, into heat and radiance,
and into friction’ on a resisting medium would shorten
the mean distance ; but add to the velocity.

These I think are about the things which would occur,
stamping the history of the system upon its internal
peculiarities.

Now, does this sort of hypothesis come nearér ac-
counting for the solar system than the original or present
day forms of the “ nebular hypothesis?”

I think that requires far too extravagant a conception
of a common initial force taking possession of the mat-
ter thinly distributed through so immense a region as a
globular space extending far out beyond the orbit of
Neptune ; and that it does not account for the variations
of detail, nor for a final closed system of action, as does
this.

I have no faith in this stuff about burnt out worlds,
thinking that planets and suns grow warmer instead of
colder as they slowly grow larger from fall of meteorites,
as now going on.

Gravic force, which causes gravitation of bodies to-
ward each other, probably has some resistance and loss
in passing through large bodies ; which would heat them
and give ample source for all extra heat in the sun and
large planets, and the interior of the earth ; and would
give ample time to geology for all its work. In fact, it
may thus greatly increase the stores of heat beyond that
given off by radiance, and that gained by falling from
space; and so assist in forming the store for final dis-
persal.

The analogies of the other forces in passing through
massive media seem to force us to expect such loss caus-
ing heat ; and there is reason to suppose there is a slight
resisting medium to matterin space : the dynamic equiva-
lent of this loss of gravic force, in the life of the particle.

Without a resisting medium to matter in space it is
hard to understand how matter can congregate into
masses instead of always flying off again with equivalent
velocity.

And it is equally hard without a resistance to gravic
force in bodies to understand how gravic force can act
to cause gravitation, or how the particles in a fixed body,
radiating its force, can ever again get energy for dispersal
into space.

But the arrangements may be so wonderfully balanced
that the one propuisive gravic force may bring particles
together from far space to form solid bodies and suns,
and then when their course is run, store up energy in them
to carry them back into space again, to go onward and
build up new systems of glory. :

The mountains of the moon, which have been called
dead volcanoes, are simply the drop marks of great
meteoric masses falling into the light meteoric
dust forming in the outer part of the moon. They
are similar in their peculiar forms to the rain drop
marks familiar to geologists in sand-stones ; and have the
same peculiar raised rims and concavities, with the bodies
which produced them still standing in their centres.

Some seem to have exploded like shells, sending
masses in various directions tearing great furrows, some
radiating across the whole face of the moon.

They may represent an enormous period, as the absence
of wind and moisture would permit marks once made to
remain until obliterated in a like way; water, if there,
being a frozen dust, and if ever melted sinking into the
deep porous mass,

234

SCIENCE.

AMERICAN CHEMICAL SOCIETY.

The regular meeting of the American Chemical So-
ciety was held Friday evening, May 6, Vice-President
Leeds in the chair. Messrs. J. G. Mattison, Theo.
Tonnelé, and Dr. Otto Grote were duly elected members,
and Messrs. A. H. Van Sinderin and C. P. Sawyer as
associate members. Mr. A. P. Hallock was proposed for
election. The first paper on the programme was “Ona
Slight Modification of the Wilkinson Gas Eudiometer,”
by Mr. James H. Stebbins, Jr., S. B. Having found con-
siderable difficulty in the manipulation of the instrument
as described by Dr. Wilkinson, Mr. Stebbins succeeded
in overcoming his objections by bringing the stopcock
nearer to the Eudiometer itself. It is very difficult, in
fact impossible, to properly explain the improvement
without illustrations. At the conclusion of Mr. Steb-
bins’ paper, Dr. C. A. Doremus very thoroughly ex-
plained the method of procedure used by Dr. Wilkinson
in his working of the Eudiometer. This made the mat-
ter clearer, still the improvement by Mr. Stebbins was
thought desirable.

The next paper* was by Dr. T. O’C. Sloane, “ Note
on the Purification of Baric Sulphate.” The authon
finds in order to obtain a precipitate of barium sulphate
that will not run through the filter, a few rules must be
observed. These he gave as follows: 1st. The solutiou
must be barely acid. This end he secures by using
cochineal, finding by its use that the neutralization can
be more expeditiously and exactly performed than with
litmus. 2d. The precipitant is added when the solution
is almost up to a boil and kept at that temperature for
some minutes. By following these two suggestions a
heavy precipitate with a perfectly clear supernatent
liquid will be obtained. In case any iron salts have been
carried down with the barium sulphate, the precipitate is
to be treated first with hydrochloric acid and secondly
with sulphuric acid, but this process is open to some ob-
jections. It is therefore best to fuse the precipitate with
sodium carbonate and a very little sodium nitrate and
redetermine the sulphur. As an improvement, Dr.
Sloane finds the following method quick and reliable:
The sulphur is precipitated in the conventional manner
with the previous mentioned precautions carefully ob-
served. The solution is then decanted to the last pos-
sible drop through a filter paper; 5 or 10 c.c. of conc. hy-
drochloric acid are then added and the beaker held in the
hand over a hot plate until the acid is brought to a full
boil. It is allowed to continue so for a few minutes, then
cooled and diluted. The liquid neutralized with cochi-
neal solution, re-acidified and poured into the filter. By
this manner a white and clean precipitate was obtained.
Dr. Sloane immediately followed with a descripticn of a
new ‘‘ Qualitative Test for Carbon Disulphide and Carbon
Dioxide in Coal Gas.” A piece of caustic potash, a few
m. m. long, is added to ten or twenty c. c. of alcohol, into
which a piece of potassium carbonate has been added.
The alcoholic solution of potash is placed in a suitable
absorption tube and a cubic foot or more of gas passed
through it. It is then removed from the absorption ap-
paratus and poured into a test tube. If the gas con-
tains any carbon dioxide, an o:ly looking layer, nearly
colorless, of a solution of potassium carbonate will under-
lay the alcohol, which latter will have acquired a reddish
color. ‘The alcoholic solution, which, if any carbon bi-
sulphide be present, will contain potassium xanthate, is
boiled and tested for hydrogen sulphide. Another
method, is to add an excess of a copper salt, filter out the
precipitated copper compounds and pour ammonia
through the filter paper, when a highly characteristic
yellow precipitate of copper xanthate will remain be-
hind.

The fourth paper was by A. R. Leeds, Ph. D. Its

* J would acknowledge my indebtedness to Dr, Sloane for his kindness
in lending me his original MSS.—M. B.

title was ‘‘ Upon the Direct Conversion of the Aromatic
Amides into their corresponding Azo-compounds.”

This paper was a sketch of the recent work which Dr.
Leeds has been prosecuting in his laboratory at the Ste-
ven’s Institute. It consisted, as described in the title, of
the details incidental to the conversion of the different
aromatic amides into the corresponding azo-com-
pounds with the peculiarities of each commented on.
Many of the hydroxylated compounds were also operated
on by Dr. Leeds. :

Mr. A. A. Julien followed with a very interesting paper
‘‘On the Chemical Contents of the Fluid Cavities of
Minerals.’’ Mr. Julien is the well known lithologist of
the School of Mines in this city, and has a higher repu-
tation in this specialty than almost any other scientist in
this country.

He first gave a general outline of the history of the
subject. It is only comparatively recent that any atten-
tion has been paid to these cavities, which are very mi-
nute in size and generally of a rounded shape, though
sometimes following the outlines of a crystal, that is to
say, the cavity is of the same shape as a crystal of the
substance in which the cavity occurs.. New York is, for
many reasons, the best place to study this subject ; for in-
stance, a greater number of specimens find their way to
this city. Among the substances found in these cavities
are: water, carbon dioxide, nitrogen, sulphur dioxide,
ammonia, fluorine, chlorine, oxygen, hydrogen disulphide,
and rarely bituminous and light hydro-carbons.

Herkimer, N. Y., is a locality where the latter are fre-
quently found. j

Carbon dioxide is, however, the most interesting of
these substances to the chemist, and it is also the one
most frequently met with. It is found in some fifteen
localities throughout the United States. One locality is
known in New York State. These cavities are generally
found in granites, granito-porphyries, hornblendic and
other gneisses and insmoky quartz. The most character-
istic feature of the carbon dioxide in the cavities is its re-
markable expansive quality—so great that in touching it
the warmth of the hand will completely vaporize the
liquid compound. Mr. Julien has devoted special atten-
tion to the determination of the temperature at which
the liquid expands and for that purpose has devised a
form of apparatus to be used in such estimations. The
piece of mineral containing the cavity is mounted on a
microscopic slide and placed in the new apparatus,
which consists of a long metallic box, with a small tube
on the surface, to which a rubber tube is attached. The
whole apparatus is placed in the microscope. On blow-
ing into the rubber tube sufficient heat is obtained to
cause the expansion of the bubble of carbon dioxide.
Readings are made of the temperature at which the bub-
ble disappears and also of the temperature at which the
bubble reappears. Mr. Julien’s results agree within two
tenths of a degree Fahrenheit.

Thus by the ordinary method (Fuessi’s) two results,
80.1 and 79.5 were obtained, while with the improve-
ment six results were obtained as follows: 79.6, 79.4,
79-6, 79.5, 79.5 and 79.6. Mr. Julien also gave a very
interesting description of “ Reticular Fluid Cavity”’ in
Topaz from Braz'l, whose bubble was the largest ever
discovered, being 2.28 m. m. in length. He also referred
to the spontaneous motion observed in the bubbles and
to the general bearing of the entire subject of the gen-
sis and formation of rocks. M. B.

8?

M. DucueEmw, the inventor of the compass with circular
magnets, now adopted in the French navy, has lately de-
vised, for correction of compasses, a system of magnetic
compensators, in which magnetic bars of annular or circu-
lar form are used in place of the straight ones. These have
the advantage of insuring much greater magnetic stability
than straight bars, especially when lightning occurs in the
neighborhood of the ship.

SCIENCE.

A NEW ROTIFER.

In a filtering of Hemlock lake water (Rochester’s water
supply) made in August of last year, -I noticed a rotifer
that at once struck meas different from any that I had
before observed or seen described. On classification it
proved to be a Brachionus, and a diligent search through
the somewhat scattered literature on the subject has since
failed to satisfy me that this form has ever been described.

7-1000ths of an inch.

“1wSyOd

“WHuLlNaA

BRACHIONOUS CONIUM.

The Micrographic Dictionary uses the classification of
Ehrenberg, while Carpenter in his work, ‘“‘ The Microscope
and its Revelations,” adopts that of Dujardin. While
all classifications of the Rotatoria’ thus far made are in
some ways unsatisfactory, that of Ehrenberg seems the
least faulty, and according to it I find that this organism,
by reason of having its rotary disk divided into two parts
(Yygotrocha) and having a carapace, would show that it
belongs to the family “ Brachzonea.” ‘There are five
genera in this family. The Brachionus has one eye-spot
and forked foot, and to this genus the rotifer unquestion-
bly belongs : “ Brachéonus Concum.”

Lorica irregularly truncate, slightly reticulated over en-
tire surface except the collar carrying frontal spines; this
latter portion has a hard vitreous appearance. ;

Ten frontal spines, the middle one on the dorsal sur-
face longer than the balance and describing almost a
right angle turn near its center to one side. This spine
half as long as the carapace of the rotifer. Eye-spot
prominent. No openings on dorsal surface of carapace.

Four posterior spines, one at either extreme side and
one on either side of anal opening. ‘Tail or foot, slender
and bifid. Extreme length of rotifer including anterior
and posterior spines, seven one-thousandths (7-1000ths)
of an inch.

Unfortunately a dead specimen had to be used for the
drawing, hence no definite description can be given of
mouth parts for internal structure. The external appear-
ance is, however, so strikingly characteristic as to serve
all purposes of identification until the internal structure
can be fully described, H. F. ATWOOD.

235

MICROSCOPICAL NOTES,

The subject of standard screw gauges was recently
brought before the R. M. S., and the question of the ac-
curacy of 50 duplicates, made for distribution, was dis-
cussed. Mr. Bevington considered “ they were as near the
standard as could be expected.’ Mr. Beck pronounced
them on trial to be defective. It seemed to be conceded
that the original “taps and dies” had been lost, but as
Mr. Crouch thought that the present set of duplicates
was sufficiently perfect for all practical purposes, we
suppose opticians must rest and be thankful for what they
can obtain. Considering the deterioration, which must
occur from the wear and tearof the cutter, it is to be re-
gretted that perfect accuracy cannot be given to the
standard gauges issued by this society.

On the presentation of a paper by Mr. Shrubsole on the
“ Dzatoms of the London Clay,” the President, Professor
Martin Duncan, made the following interesting statement
on the subject. He said that “those who studied this
class of subjects would be greatly interested in the paper
which had been brought before them; and no doubt
had it been read before the Geological Society, there
would have been considerable discussion upon it. The
London clay had at the bottom of it large beds of
pebbles; these were all water-worn, and clearly indi-
cated an old shore. Just above this, on a_ sinking
shore like it, would be precisely where they should ex-
expect to find diatoms. But the London clay just above
this became a little more marine, and this fact would
acccunt for their not finding these fresh-water forms
there also. Then it should be remembered that the oc-
currence of diatoms was subject to great variations,
and that they were always found in greatest abundance
in the neighborhood of silicious rocks. As regarded their
age, he thought there could be no doubt that they lived at
the time of the Lower Eocene. There were, however, some
peculiarities about the London clay, there being no other
strata which were deposited under the same conditions,
because it was not a reef deposit, but it positively told
the story of an open estuary leading down to a very
large river. This was one reason why they would not
find the diatoms in similar deposits in Italy or Wales.
It was not an uncommon thing to find that in other
fossils the carbonate of lime was replaced by sul-
phide of iron. Phosphate of lime was often also re-
placed by sulphide of iron, and the interstices of other
tossils were often found filled with the same substance,
which was an exceedingly common mineral in the Lon-
don clay. Silica was not the difficultly-solyble substance
which it was formerly thought to be, so that its place
could be as easily filled up by any other mineral which
was less soluble than itself—from which consideration he
thought the matter might be explained. But when they
came to the question of antiquity, it was not so easy to
give an opinion as to whether Count Castracane’s
diatoms in the Carboniferous series were with good
reason thought to be diatoms. In the Tertiary of course
they found them; but if Count Castracane’s propositions
hold good, we ought to be sure to find them in the inter-
mediate series.”

Mr. Shrubsole said Mr. Kitton’s idea was that they
were fresh water diatoms which had been washed down
into the coal-beds.

The President expressed himself unable to accept such
a suggestion.

Last week the Whittaker Court Marshal was con-
tinued, and Dr. Piper of Chicago, was examined as an
expert on Microscopy. In cross-examination questions
were submitted to the witness on the construction of the
Microscope, which Dr. Piper admitted were beyond his
knowledge. One question related to the composition of
the glass used for the construction of lenses for the
Microscope.

Possibly few Microscopical experts could answer

236

questions on this point, and we would be obliged if any
of our correspondents would furnish a few facts. We
understand that some makers make use of a very soft
glass, the surface of which becomes defaced in-a short
time: a dealer calls this ‘‘ spongy gass.” We would like
to know where the respective makers purchase glass
for objectives, and its composition.

ASTRONOMY.

COMET (4) 1881.
Prof. Barnard, of Nashville, Tenn., announces the

discovery of acomet on the morning of May 12, 1881, in |

R. A. 22" 59™ 185, dec. + 14° 24’ 30’. An observation

on the following day gave R. A. 22" 58™ 52°, dec. + 14° |
36’ o', thus indicating a motion 24° in R. A., and 11” in|

Dec. The comet is reported as very faint.

ON THE USE OF THE ELECTRIC TELEGRAPH DURING
TOTAL SOLAR ECLIPSES.*

If we suppose a single observer to be prepared for the
observation of all the total solar eclipses of a century, we
shall find that the entire amount of time during which
he may contemplate the totally eclipsed sun will not dif-
fer much from an hour. We may be sure then of the
expediency of any scheme whereby the rare moments
of these eclipses may be utilized to their utmost ex-
tent. If such scheme 1s devised, two impor.ant results
are likely to follow.

(1.) Economy of the sum-total of energy in any
particular line of solar research.

(2.) A consequent enlargement of the means of re-
search in other directions.

The general conception of the scheme proposed in
this paper may be very briefly stated : Suppose a station
to the east and a station to the west on the line of
any total eclipse, as widely separated as practicable,
and equipped for similar observations of discovery dur-
ing the progress of the eclipse; the method proposes
the electro-telegraphic transmission of important observa-
tions made at the western station to observers at the
eastern station, with due speed for their verification or
rejection when the lunar shadow reaches the latter
Station.

For illustration, consider the next total eclipse,—that
of 1882, May 16. In detail, the particular advantages
in connection with this eclipse seem to be about these:

(1.) The path of totality is almost exclusively on
land. Central eclipse begins in West Africa; the line
of totality passes to the north-east, crossing Upper
Egypt and the Nile at El-Akhmym ; thence over the Red
Sea, crossing the Tigris a few miles to the south of
Bagdad ; then passing a little to the south of Teheran,
it traverses Central Asia, and leaves the Asiatic Conti-
nent somewhat to the north of Shanghai.

(2) Though not generally through the inhabited
regions of the globe, the path of totality les through
several inhabited regions which are widely separate,
viz: Egypt near the Nile, Central Persia and Eastern
China.

(3.) These regions are inter-connected by telegraphic
cables and land-lines.

Now, we will suppose that an important observation
of discovery is made at El-Akhmym,—an observation
of an intra-mercurial planet for example. Between 40
and 45 minutes of absolute time elapse before totality
comes on at Teheran. During thisinterval the observer
at El-Akhmym will have an abundance of time for
transcribing che apparent magnitude and the precise
position of the new body, and transmitting the same to
his fellow-observer at Teheran several minutes before the
lunar shadow reaches him. The latter observer will

*Abstract of a paper by D. P, Todd, M. A., presented before the
American Academy of Arts and Sciences, Jan, 12, 1881.

SCIENCE.

then have leisure to proceed with the setting of his
circles, the verification of their readings, and the pointing
of his instrument to the precise part of the heavens
indicated. He may then be able to see the suspected
object before the eclipse becomes total. He may also
decide upon a neighboring star for comparison with the
planet, and thus obtain a very accurate determination of
its position. The observer at Teheran should also be
prepared for an independent search for the suspected
planet, in the event of receiving a negative message from
the observer at El-Akhmym.

The observation at El-Akhmym should also be trans-
mitted to Shanghai, (reached by the shadow more than
two hours after totality at Teheran), for independent
verification at that point. We might thus observe the
result of nearly three hours’ motion of the planet,—
which we might reasonably expect to give important
data in regard to its orbit about the sun. Of course,
the result of observation at Teheran would also be trans-
mitted to the observer at Shanghai.

It was my intention primarily to have considered the
total eclipse of 1882 merely as an illustration of the
method proposed. Further investigation, however, seems
to show that it is at least one of the two most favorable
eclipses during the present decade, if not during the
present century.

WASHINGTON, May 18, 1881. W. C. W.
COMET (4), 1881, BARNARD.

To the Editor of ‘‘ SCIENCE :”

On the morning of the 12th, while sweeping the eastern
sky in search of comets, at about three o’clock, an object
entered the field of my telescope which I strongly sus-
pected was a comet, as I did not know of any nebula near
its place. I at once secured its position relative to a
Pegas?, it being in the field with that star. Its position
at seven minutes past three o’clock was:

Ri As 222 5O™ yates
Decl. + 14° 24’ 29"

The object was watched at intervals until about four
o'clock, when daylight prevented further observation.
During this time no motion was detected. Wishing to
confirm the discovery by a second observation, before an-
nouncing it, I waited until the following morning, when
upon turning my telescope to the point where the object
was seen, I found it had disappeared.

No doubt now remained in my mind of its cometary
character. I began a search to re-discover it. After
sweeping for some time in the immediate neighborhood,
I found it again as day-light was whitening the sky. It
was very close north following a Pegasz. The object was
then only visible when the bright star was ob-
scured by a part of the ring suspended in my eye-piece.
It followed the star by six seconds and was therefore in
R. A. 22" 58" 52s. I estimated the difference of declina-
tion between comet and star, and found it to be in north
declination 14° 36. No doubt now remaining that it was
a comet I telegraphed its position to Professor Swift, Di-
rector of the Warner Observatory at Rochester. On the
morning of the 14th I again began a search as soon as
the object had risen above the horizon, but it could not
be found. At first I attriputed my not finding it to its
low altitude and the bright moonlight. The search was
continued until daylight, and I was deeply mortified at
not finding any trace of the object. In the morning tele-
grams from Rochester and Boston announced failure to
find it at those places.

A short search this morning, when the sky had cleared,
at about day-light, resulted no better than yesterday morn-
ing. The object on the 12th was slightly smaller than
Swift’s last comet, which I had been observing on the
11th, and was probably a little brighter. On the 13th it

SCIENCE.

237

appeared very faint. This I attributed to its proximity to_

the bright star. :

I shall continue the search for it. Tne moon will leave
in a few days and I then hope to be able to see the comet
again. E, E. BARNARD.

May 15, 1881.

EE oo

CORRESPONDENCE.

[ The Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed
by his correspondents. No notice ts taken of anonymous communi-
cations.|

To the Editor of ‘“SCIENCE:”

I should have attempted a reply to the restrictions of
Mr. Dopp before this time if I had not had my hands too
full of other work, but lest any might think I have noth-
ing to say if an answer of some kind did not shortly
appear, I will ask the favor of a little space, and first I
entirely disclaim the pretension of undertaking to recon-
struct Physical Science which Mr. Dopp seems to impute
to me, and whatever was put forward as new was only
hypothetical, and perhaps | was not guarded enough in
specifying itas such. Yetthere is more that may be said
for some of the statements made than appears in those
papers, which were very brief and did not pretend to give
references. But now if I shall deal with the subject of
internal and external energy which is attacked in the last
part of Mr. Dopp’s paper, it will save saying very much
about the first part.

Mr. Dopp quotes from Maxwell’s works on Heat, and
says they disprove and invalidate all my calculations.
But it will probably be allowed to hear Maxwell in
1875 against Maxwell of 1872:

“in 1860 I investigated the ratio of the two parts of
the energy on the hypothesis that the molecules are elas-
tic bodies of invariable form. I found, to my great sur-
prise, that whatever be the shape of the molecules, pro-
vided they are not perfectly smooth and spherical, the
ratio of two parts of the energy must be always the same,
the two parts being in fact equal.’ He also says a few
lines beyond.when speaking of the researches of Boltz-
mann, he “ makes the whole energy of motion twice the
energy of translation.” See Nature, volume 11, p. 375.
This language justifies my work and my calculations
are not invalidated. What is to be understood by
E’ — E = .¢,, is their difference and not a ratio, and the
expression in the paper is wrong, but there is nething in
the paper that depends for its correctness upon any
mathematical expression in it, whether it is right or
wrong, and cannot be raised against it. That is to say,
there is nothing in the first paper that is a deduction from
any mathematical work given.

As to my definition of ether as not matter, again Max-
wellis quoted against me, and I will therefore again quote
Maxwell in my favor. ‘According to Thomson, though
the primitive fluid is the only true matter, yet that which
we call matter zs not the primitive fluzd ztself but a
mode of motion of that primitive fluzd.” See, Art.
Atom Enc. Brit., 9th Ed. The italics are mine, but if it
does not plainly make a distinction between ether
and what we call matter, then I don’t understand
it. ButI claim more, that to call ether the primitive
matter is to call two different things by the same name,
and my first paper was a protest against that. Newton’s
law of Universal Gravitation states that ‘every particle
of matter in the Universe attracts every other particle of
matter,” and until it is discovered that ether possesses
this property of attraction, I hold that the name matter
should not be applied to it. If, however, any one thinks
it to be a proper use of words, I shall not quarrel with
him, only when he talks to me of matter I shall need to
ask whether he means gravitative matter or non-gravi-
tating matter. As for the objection that I use the term
density applied to ether and am therefore to be held to
what is implied in the word; any one who undertakes to

express a new conception must either employ words that
have some fixed meaning or else coin some new word
which in its turn must be defined with old words. So
while the term density conveys my meaning in a tolera-
ble way, I do not wish to have it imply that density in
ether and density in matter are identical. In the same
article on Atoms, Maxwell says concerning the vortex-ring
theory : “ We haye to explain the inertia of what is only
a mode of motion,” and this is in strict accordance with
all I have written about it.

We do know that the motions of atoms set up corres-
ponding motions in the ether, and it is not difficult to
perceive how it may happen, though the particular
mechanical conditions may notall be known. Assuming
that the condztions are mechanical, then the analogy of
the vibrating tuning fork is not so far fetched as it might
be. I do not see the necessity for my being held to
atoms combining in only one plane. It is as easy to
see that three or four or more could all unite at the same
place so as to form a radial structure or a triangular one
when one of the two represented in the diagram should
swing round 120°, which, so far as I can see, would not
imperil its stability at all, and it then would be in posi-
tion for another similar atom to unite with each, and so
on almost any kind of a geometrical solid made. But I
did not intend to assert at all that in this hypothesis there
was anything more than an idea. I am not ignorant of
the molecular form of ordinary matter, but my assump-
tion was that the molecular form was due to its vibratory
energy, and, consequently, I was mostly treating of atoms,
and the statement was made that at or near absolute
zero the chemical affinity was 7z/, and hence dissocia-
tion. This is plainly the case if chemism is due to heat
vibrations, but it is corroborated by mathematical calcu-
lations. Ina paper read before the American Academy,
in February last, by Mr. D. E. N. Hodges, of Harvard
College, but which has not yet been published, the same
conclusion is deduced from thermo-dynamic considera-
tions, namely, that at absolute zero “there can be no
cohesion of molecules, and probably the same for atoms ;
it is the temperature of dissociation.’”’ Mr. Dopp quotes
from Professor Tait what he knew about the phenomena
of vortex-rings, but since Mr. Dopp’s paper was written
he has probably heard of some more phenomena of vor-
tex-rings. See “ SCIENCE,” April 16th.

As to the paper on Atoms as forms of Energy the zdea
is not mine, but Thomson’s, and whether or not the
method therein shown of computing atomic weights is
mathematical jugglery, as Mr. Dopp calls it, all I
have to say is, | did nut stake anything upon it. I
thought if matter is a form of energy, the fact should
appear in atomic weights, and so I made the calculations
and published them, and if anyone thinks they signify
nothing, why I will not quarrel with him. After so long
a paper finding fault with anything I had written, it was
something of a pleasure to read that he thinks my theory
can be made “a fair working hypothesis to explain adhe-
sion, cohesion, and even crystallization,—surface tension
of liquids and capillary attraction, and possibly those of
osmosis, dialysis and occlusion.”

This is not an unworthy stock of phenomena to explain,
and if what I advanced can not be made to do all I pro-
posed to have it do, I might be content if it explained in
a fair way any one of the above phenomena.

A. E, DOLBEAR.
COLLEGE HILt, Mass., May toth, 1881.

To the Editor of SC1ENCE —

As two of your correspondents, Mr. A. E. Dolbear and
Mr. George W. Rachel, have adversely criticized certain
points in my article in the April 9 number of “ SCTENCE,
and as I still consider my position as stable, I must re-
quest a limited space to reply to these gentlemen.

The main difficulty seems to be that I have gone

238

SCIENCE.

counter to certain authors whom they are disposed to
consider as authorities. But, in my view of the case,
Science has no authority, except the authority of facts,
and theoretical views are always fair food for criticism.
Mr. Dolbear quotes from Clausius to the effect that “all
heat existing in a body is appreciable by the touch or the
thermometer; the heat which disappears * * * *
exisis no longer as heat, but has been converted into
work.” Heat is undoubtedly appreciable, but not neces-
sarily measurable, by the touch orthe thermometer. As
the heat capacity of any substance increases its tempera-
ture effect for equal volumes of inflowing heat dimin-
ishes, so that the thermometer fails to indicate the exact
quantity of heat which a substance receives in passing
through a fixed range of temperature. It is customary
in late authors to speak of this apparently lost heat as
converted into work, or, in other cases, to speak of it as
changed from actual into potential energy. This is, un-
doubtedly, a very convenient way of getting around the
difficulty ; but, with all due deference to the distinguished
writers who advance this hypothesis, I venture to ques-
tion if it is astrictly scientific way. To come plump up
against a difficulty in your path, to explain this difficulty
by anicely sounding word which explains nothing, and
then to go swimmingly on, enables one to get over a
great deal of ground in a short time; but it is very apt
to leave stumbling blocks tor those who come after.

I should certainly like to see a precise definition of the
word “‘work” in this connection. Heat produces a cer-
tain effect. That effect is called work. But the impor-
tant question remains, what has become of the heat? It
was amotion. Has it ceased to be a motion? If so,
then motion can cease to exist. Yet I hardly think any
scientist will admit such a possibility. But if it has not
ceased to be motion, where is it? Is the word “ work”
advanced as a name for some new mode of motion?
Whether it is or not, however, it fails to explain what
has become of the heat. We meet with a like difficulty
in the theory of the conversion of actual into potential
energy. Actual energy we can readily comprehend ; it is
the energy of the motion of masses. But what is poten-
tial energy? It is a possibility of mass motion. A body
rests upon the earth. It cannot possibly descend further.
It has no potential energy. A body is suspended in the
air. It may possibly descend further. It has potential
energy. Potential energy then, is possibility of motion.
Actual motion has been converted into possible motion.
If this amounts to more than the explaining of a difficulty
by a meaningless phrase, I should certainly be glad to
have some one scientifically explain the explanation. I
must quote from my former article: ‘‘ Motion is motion
and cannot possibly be or become anything else.’’ Ac-
tual motive energy cannot cease to exist, and be replaced
by an abstract possibility of motion, called potential
energy.

In regard to Mr. Rachel’s remarks on my views re-
specting variation in heat capacity, he must permit me to
correct his quotation. He quotes meas saying: “‘ Tem-
perature and heat are very different things.” I find my
expression to be: ‘“‘ Temperature and aédso/ute heat are
very different things.’’ There is a considerable difference
of meaning between these two expressions, which it
would have been well for him to give me credit for. The
main difficulty in the minds of both my critics seems to
be a somewhat confused idea as to what constitutes heat.
Mr. Dolbear claims that the free vibration of molecules is
not heat. In this he certainly disagrees with most auth-
ors. Mr. Rachel states that ‘latent heat is not heat.”
He intimates that it is work, but will he be kind enough
to explain scientifically just what work means in this
connection? He says further, ‘‘ Water does not con-
tain more heat than ice at 32°; it contains * * * more
motion, but not motion of the heat kind.”’ Of what kind
then? ‘Nor is it true that as density diminishes the heat

capacity increases.’ The heat has disappeared as heat,
“but it nevertheless exists in the gas as a greater range
of mobility.”

We here get his definition of “‘ work.’’ It is “ motion,
but not motion of the heat kind ;” it is ‘a greater range
of mobility.’”’ Motion, then has not ceased to exist, and
we have been splitting hairs about nothing. It is mole-
cular motion, but not the special mode of motion which
he calls heat. Yet it would be well to bear in mind that
scientists are somewhat indefinite in their ideas as to just
what mode of motion does constitute heat. In one case
they speak of radiant waves as heat, in another as local
molecular vibrations as heat; in a third, ot the free me-
tions Of gas particles as heat, and in a fourth, of motive
influences which cease to affect the thermometer as heat,
for what else is meant by absolute heat? The authorz-
zzes certainly consider that heat continues to exist as
heat in the case of increased heat capacity, when they
assert that specific heat varies with variation in the
temperature of substances. Thus it seems that a!] mo-
tive influences of which we become aware in matter,
outside of gravity, electricity, magnetism, light, chem-
ism, and mass motion, are grouped together as heat,
their varying conditions being simply pointed out by
qualifying adjectives. The phrase, ‘‘ Latent Heat,” has
by no means gone out of use. Sir William Thomson,
in the last edition of the Encyclopedia Britannica, con-
siders it necessary to still retain it. In fact there are
various modes of motion, some centrifugal, others centri-
petal in their effects, so closely related to ordinary heat,
that it has proved more convenient to consider them as
special heat conditions than to devise separate names for
them.

Mr. Rachel is still more decisive in regard°to another
portion of my article. He says, “ Mr. Morris’s concep-
tion of the action of gravity is still more erroneous.
This gentleman says, ‘the eatth must fall towards the
body with the same energy that the body displays in fall-
ing towards the earth’! Now the two fundamental laws
of gravitation, as discovered by Newton, are attraction
acts in direct proportion to mass and in indirect propor-
tion to square of distance. The statement of Mr.
Morris is therefore absolutely false.”

Perhaps so, yet I hardly think that Newton himself
would have so absolutely denied my proposition. Let
us suppose the falling body to be increased until it equals
the earth in weight. What would follow then—would
not gravity cause them to approach each other with
equal energy? Their attractive pulls upon each other
would be equal, and therefore the effects of these pulls
must be equal.

If, however, the falling body be greatly decreased in
weight, this may seem to some to changethe elements of
the problem. Yetit can readily be shown that difference
in weight makes no difference whatever in the result.
We must not Jook upon the earth as fixed and the fall-
ing body alone as movable. They are both freely float-
ing masses, each capable of yielding to any exterior im-
pulse. The size or weight has nothing to do with the
question. If an atom and the earth be side by side, and
be attracted by a distant mass with the same vigor, they
must move with equal energy towards it. Yet an energy
which would give the atom excessive speed would pro-.
duce an inappreciable effect upon the earth. ,

Suppose, for the sake of illustration, that the falling
body weighs one pound and the earth one million pounds.
Then the falling body will attract each pound of the
earth’s‘mass with a vigor dependent on its distance, and
be attracted by it with equal vigor. To reach the whole
attraction of the falling body we must add together this
million of separate attractions. But, in lke manner, to
get the whole attraction of the earth we must add to-
gether its million of separate attractions. The body
exerts a separate attraction upon each pound of the

SCIENCE.

239

earth’s mass. Each pound of the earth’s mass reacts
with an equal vigor of attraction upon the body. We
must add all these separate attractions together to get
the whole sum of attraction in either case, and these
whole sums are necessarily equal. The body, therefore,
attracts the earth with as much vigor as the earth at-
tracts: the body, and necessarily, therefore, they must
approach each other with equal energy. Of course not
with equal speed. Under the above supposition their re-
spective weights were as a million to one, and a million
pounds falling one inch would be equivalant to one pound
falling a million inches. Their acceleration in speed
must likewise,in both earth and body, obey the law of
gravitative acceleration.

It is well, therefore, to bear strictly in mind, that in
gravitation, as in every other form of force, action and re-
action are always equal and opposite.*

CHARLES MORRIS.

2223 Spring Garden street, Philadelphia.

net

PRIMEVAL ROTATION AND COSMICAL RINGS.
Il.
To the Editor of “ SC1ENCE”:—

Prof. A. Winchell, recounting the history of formation
of the solar system from a sphere of incandescent gas,
says: ‘‘ The cooling and contraction of this vapor in-
augurated a rotation.” ! :

Matter is governed by law, hence the ball of gas must
have obeyed laws governing gases. Men have detected
several laws of nature, while doubtless there are others
eluding research. ‘Lhe globe of gas was dominated by
known or unknown laws; if by unknown, no scheme of
planetary evolution can be outlined ; by known, hypothe-
ses are tested by their application. There exists a doc-
trine, the Nebular Hypothesis, and we take it for granted
that its advocates conceive the gaseous sphere to have
been wrought by known laws.

But no law of nature yet discovered is able to cause a
sphere of gas to rotate.

Contracting by cooling did not begin rotation, for, by
dynamic laws, the mass was not hot, but cold. If hot,
contracting would not cause rotary motion, but would
give rise to two motions, centripetal and peripheral, both
radial instead of circular. The heaviest atoms, gravitat-
ing towards the centre, would displace the lightest to-
wards the circumference.

Repulsion did not exist; this force can only obtain in
matter #o¢ dissociated. Repulsion causes dissociation
and vanishes, gravity reasserting dominion. Hence, re-
pulsion is more ancient than that gravity which caused
the mass to develop a solar system; else the first state
of matter was in dissociation.

These things are unknowable; therefore, with adher-
ents of the hypothesis, we dismiss repulsion, leaving the
mass subject to no known energy but gravity. If repul-
sion did act it could not cause rotation. Gravity could
never cause the ball to turn; it would bring every atom
to a rest. The whole mass would arrange itself in con-
centric strata, whose distance from the centre would de-
pend on specific gravity. Calm would ensue unless pres-
sure was sufficient to force atoms within range of chem.
ism. Chemical reaction would have no power to start
axial revolution. It would evolve heat, repulsion and
temporary expansion, which, waning, would leave the
mass smaller through combination, no sign of rotary mo-
tion having appeared. The mass extended half way
to a Centauri, it being equal in mass tothe sun. Helm-
holtz has shown that if the matter in the solar system
expanded to Neptune, “it would require several cubic
miles to weigh a single grain.’ But the same matter

_ *In my previous article, above referred to, there is a typograph-
ical error, which slightly confuses the meaning. On page 167,
line 49, the phrase ‘‘ this force is increasing,” should read, “this
force is unceasing.”

| filled a sphere whose radii were half the distance of the

stars in length. Estimation ofits tenuity indicates that
a space as large as the moon only eontainedagrain. Yet
it was “intensely heated.”* It is not known how many
atoms make a grain; counting them by the million, they
were yards apart, in frigid voids—hot! Obeying gravity,
they descended with slowest conceivable motion ; at no
point in their fall displaying tendency to move in arcs of
circles at right angles to their radial movement, which
they must do to’begin rotation in the cosmic sphere. In
the present state of knowledge, judging from laws at
work in the Universe, it can be safely asserted that the
ball had no rotary motion. Ignoring these considera-
tions, we will assume with Winchell that it was in revol-
ution.

“The cooling and contraction of this vapor inaugu-
rated a rotation which was inevitably accelerated to such
an extent that a peripheral ring was detached which be-
came a planet. The same process continued and other
rings were detached which became other planets in due
succession. Similarly, the planetary masses detached
rings which became their satellites.’

Conceiving the mass to have cut loose from 61 Cygni
and other cosmic masses; admitting cooling, contrac-
tion and acceleration, then the sphere would be unable
to cast off by any law of nature hitherto discovered, the
least particle, to say nothing of a massive ring. The
ball had dwindled to the orbit of Neptune, acquiring
such volocity as to no longer remain intact, so it cast off
equatorial matter enough to form that planet.

The rate of motion on the equator was only 3.36 miles
a second ; and a vacuum as made by Crookes is as a solid
compared with the density of the ring; yet Neptune’s
mass is nearly 102 sextillions of tons®. The material,
being exterior, was of the lowest specific gravity of any in
the mass; thence its volume was enormous; so great as
not to be peripheral. The word periphery alludes to the
surface, and Winchell says the ring was peripheral. It
was not,—it was formed of gas torn up from a depth of
hundreds of millions of miles, in order to secure sub-
stance sufficient to form Neptune. If not,—the mass
was piled above the level of the equator, an impossi-
bility, as gravity would bring it down. As soon as force
raised a line of atoms above the equatorial level, around
the ball, the next line of atoms below would ascend,
then the next, andso on. The poles would depress caus-
ing the mass to assume lenticular form. This would
retard rotation, allowing central attraction to regain con-
trol, bringing the mass to a sphere as in the beginning.
This oscillation must take place so long as the mass re-
maineda gas. Should it become fluid, then the alterna-
tions would be between a sphere and spheroid, and the
mutation would obtain until solidification sets in. No
atom at any period had power to overcome gravity, the
stability of the mass being assured by inhering laws.
The mass of the solar system, the mass of any planet,
the direction and velocity of the planet’s original motion,
determine what orbit it shall traverse.

The orbit of Neptune is determined; it makes regular
revolutions, hence the centre of the assumed ring that
formed it, when abandoned coincided with the present
track of the planet’s centre. Therefore the ring was not
detached when the mass was lenticular, for its edge then
extended far beyond where Neptune now revolves ; if it had
been the planet would now describe our orbit much
farther com the sun.

The mass reached the present path of Neptune when
spherical, and that world was thrown off where it now
makes circuit, the mass being a sphere when it parted
with its first ring.

1Geology of the Stars, p. 260.
2Youman’s{Correl. and!Con. Forces, p. 231.
3Geology of the Stars,<p.'279.

4Geology of the Stars,’p. 279.

5Chambers’ Astronomy, p. 898.

240

Then a segment half way to Uranus was torn away
entirely around the ball, and the rupture took place
along the chord of the arc. A section of this ring
would be flat inside and curved outside; else a ring
lifted out of the equator quite around the sphere, whose
sections were circular, leaving concave walls of gas in
north and south latitude. Neptune would condense
somewhere on a line in the centre of gravity of the ring.
In either case the orbit of the first world would be wearer
the sun than now. It could not have been thrown off
the surface, as there was not material enough; nor from
the edge of the lens-shaped mass, nor frcm beneath the
surface of the sphere, for from either place the orbit
would not be where it is. It could not have been cast
off at all. EDGAR L, LARKIN,

NEW WINDSOR OBS., May 11¢h, 1881.

—_—_— oO

BOOKS RECEIVED.

THE HUMAN Bopy.-—-An Account of its Structure and
Activities and the Conditions of its Healthy Working.
By H. NEWELL MARTIN, D.Sc., M.A., M.B.. Henry
Holt and Company, 1881.

This book is the fourth of the “ 4merzcan Sctence
Sertes’’ of manuais prepared under the direction of
Messrs. Holt and company, and will be found of equal
value, as a popular guide to the subject treated, to the
three works which preceded it. It is a reliable work,
being compiled from the best authorities, and is not
intended for specialists, but for general readers and
students.

In an age when the Physician is called upon to explain
to his patient, the vazsenx ad’etre of the treatment sug-
gested, and even to describe the peculiar condition of the
organs affected, some knowledge of Human Anatomy
and Physiology appears essential to those who desire to
act as consulting physician in their own cases.

To meet such a demand for a popular work on the
human body, Dr. Martin has prepared the present
volume, which is free from technicalities, or scientific
terms requiring interpretation. The reader has the ad-
vantage of one hundred and sixty-five excellent. illustra-
tions,and as Dr. Martin’s style of writing is both clear
and comprehensive, the task of the reader is an easy
one.

The earlier works of this series have been reviewed in
“SCIENCE” and comprise the following manuals :
Astronomy, by Professors Simon Newcomb and Edward
S. Holden: otany, by Professor C. E. Bessey : Zoology,
by Professor A. S. Packard, Jr.

OSTEOLOGY OF SPEOTYTO CUNICULARIA Var. Hy-
pogeea, and of Eremophila alpestris, by R. W. SCHU-
FELDT, U.S, A.—Extracted from the Bulletin of the
U.S. Geological and Geographical Survey—Washing-
ton, Feb. 11th, 1881.—Four full page illustrations.

ABSTRACT OF TRANSACTIONS of the Anthropological
Society of Washington, D.C., with the annual report of
the President.—For the year ending Jan. 20, 1880, and
for the second year ending January 18th. 1881. Pre-
pared by J. W. POWELL.—Washington, 1881.

THE TWELFTH ANNUAL REPORT of the American Mu-
seum of Natural History—Central Park, New York
City—Dated February 15th, 1881.

REPORT of the Cruise of the U. S. Revenue Steamer
Corwzn in the Arctic Ocean, by Capt. C. L. HOOPER, U.
S. R. M,—November 1, 1880—Washington, 1881.

REPORT of the Director of the Detroit Observatory of
the University of Michigan—October 1, 1879, to Janu-
ary 1, 1881, Ann Arbor, Michigan, 1881.

SCIENCE.

ABSTRACT of some Paleontological Studies of the Life
History of Spirifer laevis H. by, Professor H. S. W1L1L-
IAMS of Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y.—Reprinted
for American Journal Science.

OBSERVATIONS on Jupiter by L. TROUVELOT—Presented
March oth, 1881.—Reprinted from the proceedings of
the American Academy of Arts and Sciences.

PROCEEDINGS of the U. S. National Museum, 1881.
Check List of Duplicates of Fishes from the Pacific coast
of North America (221 Species) distributed by the
Smithsonian Institution in behalf of the United States
National Museum.—Prepared by DAVID S. JORDAN
and PIERRE L. Jouy.—April 13, 1881.

DESCRIPTION of anew species of Squalius (Squalius
aliciz from Utah Lake, by PIERRE LOUIS Jouy.

DESCRIPTION of a new Gobioid Fish (Othonops eos)
from San Diego, Cal. by ROSA SMITH.

On a Duck new to the North American Fauna, by
ROBERT RIDGWAY.

ON Amazilia yucatanensis (Cabot) and A. cerviniventris,
Gould, by ROBERT RIDGWAY.

DESCRIPTIONS of new species of Fishes (Uranidea mar-
ginata, Potamocottus Bendirei) and of Myctophum
crenulare, J. and G.—by TARLETON H. BEAN.

NOTES on the Fishes of the Pacific Coast of the United
States by DAviID S. JORDAN and CHARLES H. GIL-
BERT.

In this paper descriptions are given of 109 species of
fishes known to occur along our Pacific Coast between the
Mexican boundary and that of British Columbia, with
notes on the distribution, habits, size, value, etc., of each
species, in advance of the publication of a general des-
criptive work.

AMERICAN KINDERGARTEN MAGAZINE.—Edited by

Emily M. Coe, Bible House, New York.

We have pleasure in recognizing the sterling merit of
this excellent little Monthly, a leading feature of which
appears to be an attempt to popularize science in a form
suitable for children. The present number contains
articles introducing the young readers to the best methods
of classification of the Animal Kingdom. The journal is
in its third volume, and issold for one dollar a year,

———— >

NEw APPLICATION OF THE SUB-PRODUCTS OF COAL-TAR.
—Mr. Sanders, of St. Petersburg, has succeeded in pro-
ducing from the heavy oils of coal-tar,a new substance
which, in many cases, takes the place of india-rubber with
advantage. It is prepared in the following manner. A
given weight of a mixture in equal parts of wood-oil and
coal-tar oil, or of coal-tar and hemp-oil, is heated for sev-
eral hours, at a temperature of about 318° Fahr., soas to
disengage the injurious substances and increase the viscos-
ity of the mass, until it may be drawn out in threads. A
second quantity, equal to the former, of linseed-oil, prefera-
bly thickened by boiling, is now added, and also from one-
twentieth to one-tenth per cent. of ozocerite with ‘a little
spermaceti. In the meanwhile, the mass is kept at a uni-
formly high temperature for some hours, when from one-
fifth to one-half part of sulphur per cent. is added, after
which the product is moulded or otherwise worked in the
same manner as india-rubber. The proportions of the
three oils named above may be varied so as to obtain a
harder or more elastic substance, as may be required. The
product is elastic and tenacious, standing the weather better
than india-rubber, and is not deteriorated by great pressure
or a high temperature. It is said to be specially suitable
for the insulation of telegraph wires, and may be employed
alone or mixed with india-rubber or similar resinous sub-
stances.

ELecTROLYsIs.—Mr. E. F, Smith finds that a black hydra-
ted oxide, Urs Ou, is precipitated when a galvanic current
is passed through a solution of uranium acetate, formate,
or nitrate,

4

Foe |

SCIENCE. 241

Sb mIiNG E:

A WEEKLy ReEcorD OF SCIENTIFIC

ProGRESs.

JOHN MICHELS, Editor.

PUBLISHED AT

TRIBUNE BUILDING, NEW YORK.

P, O. Box 3888,

SATURDAY, MAY 28, 1881.

In his recent address to the Royal Microscopical
Society of London, the President, Dr. Lionel S.
Beale, F. R. S., introduced some interesting facts re-
lating to the present limits of microscopic vision,
and indicated the advance that may be anticipated for
the future in this direction.

Within five years it has been often asserted by
those who make the Physics of the Microscope their
special study, that the limits of microscopic vision had
been almost reached by modern objectives, and that
further advance was barred by insuperable difficulties.
Since this time the record of progress contains numer-
ous instances of advances made beyond these barriers
which authorities considered until now insurnount-
able. Dr. Beale claims that “he only who is quite
ignorant of the many and great improvements made
in our methods of research, and in the instruments
required for investigation, would think of fixing any
limit to the advance of microscopical inquiry.”

With improved instruments, the Microscopists have
discovered improved methods of preparing objects for
examination, and subtle agents united with the most
delicate manipulation are now employed to develop
structure, requiring the highest power of microscopic
definition and amplification. We remember with Dr.
Beale the time (within ten years) when in many
branches of inquiry it was truly said that the optical
instruments were in advance of the methods of making
examinations, when our magnifying powers were higher
than we could use, without losing, rather than gain-
ing, as regards the definition of delicate structure.
All this has now changed; the power of definition of
objectives has been more than doubled, but the
Biologist, in his investigations, anxiously demands
higher powers and more perfectly corrected objec-
tives. ;

Until recently the Histologist was satisfied with
powers of five to six hundred diameters, Dr. Beale,

‘in his recent address, states: ‘Our present limit of

observation in investigations on the structure and
action of the tissues of man and the higher animals,
in my opinion, includes the use of magnifying powers
of 2000 diameters. Objects considerably less than
the hundred-thousandth of an inch can be studied
with advantage, but how much less than these dimen-
sions cannot, I think, be determined with accuracy
at this time ; for so much depends upon the character
of the object, and a number of small points of detail
as regards mode of examination.

But in other departments of Microscopical research
our present means of investigation enable those
familiar with the requisite methods of inquiry to de-
monstrate characteristics of structure far more intricate
and minute than the above remark would infer.
Various modifications of immersion lenses and in im-
mersion media have greatly contributed to advance
our knowledge of structure and action in the lower
forms of life, and there is every reason to think that,
as time goes on, methods of observation will be still
improved and new methods discovered.”

Another aid to perfect Microscopy is Photography,
for by its use ‘“ things dimly seen by the eye may be
very distinctly and correctly delineated, and with a
perfection of accurate detail which a few years ago
we should not have supposed possible.” In this direc-
tion Dr. Beale states that “in all probability the
application of photography to investigations upon
minute structural details will be carried far beyond
anything yet reached, although it is really wonderful
how much has been achieved up to this time.”

It will thus be seen that a variety of circumstances
is steadily leading the way to what may be termed
A NEW MICROSCOPY.

Both the Microscope and objectives, as also methods
of manipulation, are being revolutionized, producing
entirely new results. Even a new style of literature
of the subject is developing. As far back as June,
1875, the editor of this journal, in a paper prepared
for Popular Science Monthly, then foreshadowed this
change. The article was headed, “ Zhe Microscope
and its Misinterpretations.” A happy satisfaction
then reigned among Microscopists, both with their
instruments and their work, and the article was
criticised as an assault upon the integrity of Microscopi-
cal research. It is some satisfaction to the present
writer to find that those who then came forward as cham-
pions of the perfect microscopical work of that day,
are now the most active leaders of the new reform.
We refer to Mr. John Phin, the present editor of
The American Journal of Microscopy, who can claim
the honor of having established the first successful
microscopical journal in the United States, and Pro-
fessor J. Edwards Smith, of Cleveland, the author of

242 SCIENCE.

the recent book ‘How to see with the Microscope,”
a work which is a valuable addition to Microscopical
Literature ; both wrote articles against “ Zhe Mis-
interpretation of the Microscope.” In that article
we gave very strong illustrations of the “ ssrepresen-
tations” referred to, but the paper was written some
years in advance of the present developments, which
have made the case much stronger. The disputed
resolution of the ‘‘ Podura” scale was then quoted as
an instance of an objective giving two distinct resolu-
tions of an object, one of which was clearly an errone-
ous one, but who would have then anticipated that
the spherules on “ Angulatum” which we have for so
many years religiously regarded as the true ultimate
resolution of that diatom, would prove to be an illu-
sion? While to make the case more complicated, Pro-
fessor E. Abbe states that “ while it is not my opinion
that the Angulatum valve is composed of spherules,
yet even if such should exist, they would not have a
different effect.”

Thus “ Zhe Misinterpretation of the Microscope”
under certain conditions, is no myth, but an admitted

fact; we welcome then the improvements which shall
at least partially remedy the evil. The high angle

objectives of the present, although far from perfect,
give great hope for the future, and we trace in
Professor Smith’s work, to which reference has been
made, the advent of a higher intelligence among
Microscopical workers. This new spirit of progress
is well described by Dr. Beale when he says, the
Microscopist, like the Astronomer, is ever longing
to get a little beyond the point at which he has
already arrived. Each new fact gained by research
seems but to indicate the existence of more and
more important things beyond. Limit is reached
and then surmounted, but soon a new limit seems to
rise from the mists in the distance towards which the
worker is impelled by new hopes and desires. It is
this never-halting progress which distinguishes scien-
tific from every other kind of inquiry, and particularly
microscopical investigation, for it can never be com-
pleted. It deals with the illimitable. The boundaries
of to-day are found to have vanished to-morrow, and
the eyes and understanding begin to penetrate into
regions which but a short time before had been con-
sidered far beyond the range of possible investigation.

CONDUCTIBILITY OF GLASS FOR THE GALVANIC CURRENT.
—According to A. Sewarz, if two platinum wires are inter-
posed in the same circuit, the one passing through the free
air while the other lies between two glass plates, or is
melted into a thick capillary tube, at a certain temperature
of the tube the former glows brilliantly, while the second
remains dark. If the glass becomes heated the former
grows dark, whence the author concludes that the glass has
become more conductive.

THE PRODUCTION OF SOUND BY RADIANT
By Bain Ge New

By ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL,

In a paper read ‘before the American Association for
the Advancement of Science, last August, I described
certain experiments made by Mr. Sumner Tainter and
myself which had resulted in the construction of a ‘‘ Pho-
tophone,’ or apparatus for the production of sound by
light ;+ and it will be my object to-day to describe the
progress we have made in the investigation of photo-
phonic phenomena since the date of this communica-
tion.

In my Boston paper the discovery was announced that
thin disks of very many different substances emztted
sounds when exposed to the action of a rapidly-inter-
rupted beam of sunlight. The great variety of material
used in these experiments led me to believe that sonor-
ousness under such circumstances would be found to be
a general property of all matter.

At that time we had failed to obtain audible effects from
masses of the various substances which became sonorous
in the condition of thin diaphragms, but this failure was
explained upon the supposition that the molecular
disturbance produced by the light was chiefly a surface
action, and that under the circumstances of the experi-
ments the vibration had to be transmitted through the
mass of the substance in order to affect the ear. It was
therefore supposed that, if we could lead to the ear air
that was directly in contact with the illuminated surface,
louder sounds might be obtained, and solid masses be
found to be as sonorous as thin diaphragms. The first
experiments made to verify this hypothesis pointed to-
wards success. A beam of sunlight was focussed into
one end of an open tube, the ear being placed at the
otherend. Upon interrupting the beam, a clear, musical
tone was heard, the pitch of which depended upon the
frequency of the interruption of the light and loudness
upon the material composing the tube.

At this stage our experiments were interrupted, as cir-
cumstances called me to Europe. z

While in Paris a new form of the experiment occurred
to my mind, which would not only enable us to investi-
gate the sounds produced by masses, but would also per-
mit us to test the more general proposition that sovorous-
ness, under the enfluence of intermittent light, ¢s a prop-
erty comnton to all matter.

The substance to be tested was to be placed in the in-
terior of a transparent vessel, made of some material
which (like glass) is transparent to light, but practically
opaque to sound.

Under such circumstances the light could get in, but
the sound produced by the vibration of the substance
could not get out. The audible effects could be studied
by placing the ear in communication with the interior of
the vessel by means of a hearing tube.

Some preliminary experiments were made in Paris to
test this idea, and the results were so promising that they
were communicated to the French Academy on the 11th
of October, 1880, in the note read for me by Mr. Antoine
Breguet.{ Shortly afterwards I wrote to Mr. Tainter,
suggesting that he should carry on the investigation in
America, as circumstances prevented me from doing so
myself in Europe. As these experiments seem to have
formed the common starting point for a series of inde-
pendent researches of the most important character,
carried on simultaneously, in America by Mr. Tainter,

*A Paper read before the National Academy of Arts and Sciences,
April 21, 1881.

+ Proceedings of American Association for the Advancement of Science,
Aug. 27, 1880; see, also, American Journal of Science, vol. xx, p. 305;
Journal of the American Electrical Society, vol. ili, p. 3; Journal of the

ociety of Telegraph Engineers and Electricians, vol. ix, p. 404; Annales
de Chimie et de Physique, vol. xxi.

t Comptes Rendus, vol. xcl, p. 595.

~

:
‘
|

. beam upon the substance in the tube.

SCIENCE.

243

and in Europe by M. Mercadier,+ Prof. Tyndall,{ W. E.
Roéntgen,§ and W. H. Preece,| I may be permitted to
quote from my letter to Mr. Tainter the passage describ-
ing the experiments referred to:

METROPOLITAN HOTEL, RUE CAMBON, PARIs,

Nov. 2, 1880.
DEAR Mr. TAINTER:

* * * Thave devised a method of producing sounds by the
action of an intermittent beam of light from substances that can-
not be obtained in the shape of thin diaphragms or in the tubular
form; indeed, the method is specia'ly adapted to testing the gen-
erality of the phenomenon we have discovered, as it can be adapt-
ed to solids, liquids, and gases.

Place the substance to be experimented with ina glass test-tube,
connect a rubber tube with the mouth of the test-tube, placing the
other end of the pipe to the ear. Then focus the intermittent
I have tried a large num-
ber of substances in this way with great success, although it is
extremely difficult to get a glimpse of the sun here, and when it
does shine the intensity of the light is net to be compared with
that to be obtained in Washington. I got splendid effects from
crystals cf bichromate of potash, crystals of sulphate of copper,
and from tobacco smoke. <A whole cigar placed in the test-tube
produced a very loud sound. I could not hear anything from
plain water, but when the water was discolored with ink a feeble
sound was heard. I would suggest that you might repeat _these
experiments and extend the results,"’ &c., &c.

Upon my return to Washington in the early part of
January,tt Mr. Tainter communicated to me the experi-
ments he had made in my laboratory during my absence
in Europe.

He had commenced by examining the sonorous proper-
ties of a vast number of substances enclosed in test-tubes
in a simple empirical search for loud effects. He was
thus led gradually to the discovery that cotton-wool,
worsted, silk, and fibrous materials generally, produced
much louder sounds than hard rigid-bodies like crystals,
or diaphragms such as we had hitherto used.

In order to study the effects under better circum-
stances he enclosed his materials in a conical cavity in a
piece of brass closed by a flat plate of glass. A brass
tube leading into the cavity served for connection with
the hearing-tube. When this conical cavity was stuffed
with worsted or other fibrous materials the sounds pro-
duced were much louder than when a test-tube was em-
ployed.- This form of receiver is shown in Fig. 1.

Mr. Tainter next collected silks and worsteds of differ-
ent colors, and speedily found that the darkest shades
produced the best effects. Black worsted especially gave
an extremely loud sound.

As white cotton-wool had proved itself equal, if not
superior, to any other white fibrous material before tried,
he was anxious to obtain colored specimens for compari-
son. Not having any at hand, however, he tried the

. effect of darkening some cofton-wool with lamp-black.

Such a marked re-enforcement of the sound resulted that
he was induced to try lamp-black alone.

About a teaspoonful of lamp-black was placed in a
test-tube and exposed to an intermittent beam of sun-
light. The sound produced was much louder than any
heard before. \

Upon smoking a piece of plate-zlass, and holding it in
the intermittent beam with the lamp-black surface to-
wards the sun, the sound produced was loud enough to
be heard, with attention, in any part of the room. With
the lamp-black surface turned from the sun the sound
was much feebler.

Mr. Tainter repeated these experiments for me im-
mediately upon my return to Washington, so that I
might verify his results.

+‘* Notes on Radiophony,”’ Comptes Rendus, Dec, 6 and 13,1880; Feb.
21 and 28, 1881. See, also, ¥Yournal de Physique, vol. x, p. 53.

+ ** Action of an Intermittent Beam of Radiant Heat upon Gaseous
Matter.” Proc. Royal Society, Jan. 13, 1881, vol. xxxi, p. 307.

a On the tones which arise from the intermittent illumination of a
gas.”” See Annalen der Phys. und Chemie, ¥an., 1881, No. 1, p. 155.

\** On the Conversion of Radiant Energy into Sonorous Vibrations.’’
Proc. Royal Soctety, March 10, 1881, vol, xxxi, p. 506.

ttOn the 7th of January.

Upon smoking the interior of the conical cavity shown
in Fig. 1, and then exposing it to the intermittent beam,
with the glass lid in position as shown, the effect was
perfectly startling. The sound was so loud as to be
actually painful to an ear placed closely against the end
of the hearing-tube.

The sounds, however, were sensibly louder when we
placed some smoked wire gauze in the receiver, as
illustrated in the drawing, Fig. 1.*

When the beam was thrown into a resonator, the in-
terior of which had been smoked over a lamp, most
curious alternations of sound and silence were observed.
The interrupting disk was set rotating at a high rate of
speed, and was then allowed to come gradually to rest.
An extremely feeble musical tone was at first heard,
which gradually fell in pitch as the rate of interruption
grew less. The loudness of the sound produced varied
in the most interesting manner. Minor re-inforcements
were constantly occurring, which became more and more
marked as the true pitch of the resonator was neared.
When at last the frequency of interruption corresponded
to the frequency of the fundamental of the resonator, the
sound produced was so loud that it might have been
heard by an audience of hundreds of people.

The effects produced by lamp-black seemed to me to
be very extraordinary, especially as I had a distinct
recollection of experiments made in the Summer of 1880
with smoked diaphragms, in which no such re-enforce-
ment was noticed.

Upon examining the records of our past photophonic
experiments we found in vol. vii, p. 57, the following
note:

“Experiment V.—Mica diaphragm covered with lamp-
black on side exposed to light.

“Result: distinct sound about same as without lamp-
black.—A. G. B. Fuly 18th, 1880.

“Verified the above, but think it somewhat louder
than when used without lamp-black.—S. 7., Fuly 18¢h,
1880,

Upon repeating this old experiment we arrived at the
same result as that noted. Little if any augmentation
of sound resulted from smoking the mica. In this ex-
periment the effect was observed by placing the mica
diaphragm against the ear and also by listening through
a hearing-tube, one end of which was closed by the
diaphragm. The sound was found to be more audible
through the free air when the ear was placed as near to
the lamp-black surface as it could be brought without
shading it.

At the time of my communication to the American
Association I had been unable to satisfy myself that the
substances which had become sonorous under the direct
influence of intermittent sunlight were capable of repro-
ducing the sounds of articulate speech under the action
of an undulatory beam from our photophonic transmitter.
The difficulty in ascertaining this will be understood by
considering that the sounds emitted by thin diaphragms
and tubes were so feeble that it was impracticable to pro-
duce audible effects from substances in these conditions
at any considerable distance away from the transmitter ;
but it was equally impossible to judge of the effects pro-
duced by our articulate transmitter at a short distance
away because the speaker’s voice was directly audible
through the air, The extremely loud sounds produced
from lamp-black have enabled us to demonstrate the
feasibility of using this substance in an articulating photo-
phone in place of the electrical receiver formerly employed.

The drawing (Fig. 2*) illustrates the modein which the
experiment wasconducted. The diaphragm of the trans-
mitter (A) was only 5 centimetres in diameter, the diameter
of the receiver (B) wasalso 5 centimetres, and the distance
between the two was 40 metres, or 800 times the
diameter of the transmitting diaphragm. We were
unable to experiment at greater distances without

*See page 247 for illustrations.

244

a heliostat on account of the difficulty of keeping
the light steadily directed on the receiver. Words and
sentences spoken into the transmitter in a low tone of
voice were audibly reproduced by the lamp-black re-
ceiver.

In Fig. 3* is shown a mode of interrupting a beam of
sunlight for producing distant effects without the use of
lenses. Two similarly-perforated disks are employed,
one of which is set in rapid rotation while the other
remains stationary. This form of interrupter is also
admirably adapted for
work with artificial
light. The. receiver
illustrated in the
drawing consists of a
parabolic reflector, in
the focus of which is
placed a glass vessel
(A) containing lamp-
black or other sensi-
tive substance, and
connected with a
hearing-tube. The

SCIENCE.

is cut off the converse process takes place. The lamp-
black particles cool and contract, thus enlarging the air
spaces among them, and the enclosed air also becomes
cool. Under these circumstances a partial vacuum
should be formed among the particles, and the outside
air would then be absorbed, as water is by a sponge when
the pressure of the hand is removed.

I imagine that in some such manner as this a wave of
condensation is started in the atmosphere each time a
beam of sunlight falls upon lamp-black, and a wave of

P rarefaction is origin-
ated when the light
is cut off. We can
thus understand how
zt zs that a sub-
stance like tamp-
, black produces in-
tense sonorous vibra-
tzons in the sur-
vounding air, while
at the same time zt
communicates a very
feeble vibration to

beam of light is inter-

the diaphragm or

rupted by its passage
through the two
slotted disks shown at B, and in operating the instrument
musical signals like the dots and dashes of the Morse
alphabet are produced from the sensitive receiver (A)
by slight motions of the mirror (C) about its axis (D).

In place of the parabolic reflector shown in the figure,
a conical reflector like that recommended by Prof. Syl-
vanus Thompson} can be used, in which case a cylin-
drical glass vessel would be preferable to the flask (A)
shown in the figure.

In regard to the sensitive materials that can be em-
ployed, our experiments indicate that in the case of
solids the physical con- - ~
dition and the color are

Fig. 5.

solid bed upon which
zt rests.

This curious fact was independently observed in Eng-
land by Mr. Preece, and it led him to question whether,
in our experiments with thin diaphragms, the sound
heard was due to the vibration of the disk or (as Prof.
Hughes had suggested) to the expansion and contraction
of the air in contact with the disk confined in the cavity
behind the diaphragm. In his paper read before the
Royal Society on the roth of March, Mr. Preece describes
experiments from which he claims to have proved that
the effects are wholly due to the vibrations of the con-
| fined air, and that the dzsks do not vibrate at all.

a I shall briefly state my
reasons for disagreeing

two conditions that f/
markedly influence the
intensity of the sonorous |}
effects. The loudest
sounds are produced
Jrom substances in a
loose, porous, spongy con-
diizon, and from those
that have the darkest or
most absorbent colors. i
‘he materials from || |
which the best effects |}! jf
have been produced are |\\

with him in this conclu-
sion :

1. When an intermit-
tent beam of sunlight is
focussed upon a sheet of
hard rubber or other
material, a musical tone
can be heard, not only
by placing the ear im-
mediately behind the
part receiving the beam,
but by placing it against
any portion of the sheet,

cotton-wool, worsted, fi-

even though this may be

brous materials gener- ;
ally, cork, sponge, plat- eee
inum and other metals

in a spongy condition, and lamp-black.

The loud sounds produced from such substances may
perhaps be explained in the following manner: Let us
consider, for example, the case of lamp-black—a sub-
stance which becomes heated by exposure to rays of all
refrangibility. I look upon a mass of this substance as
a_ sort of sponge, with its pores filled with air instead
of water. When a beam of sunlight falls upon this mass
the particles of lamp-black are heated, and consequently
expand, causing a contraction of the air-spaces or pores
among them.

Under these circumstances a pulse of air should be ex-
pelled, just as we would squeeze out water from a
sponge.

_ The force with which the air is expelled must be greatly
increased by the expansion of the air itself, due to contact
with the heated particles of lamp-black. When the light

*See page 247 for illustrations,
t Phil. Mag., April, 1881, vol. xi, p, 286,

Fig: 6.

a foot or more from the
place acted upon by the
light.

2. When the beam is thrown upon the diaphragm of
a “Blake Transmitter,’’ a loud musical tone is produced
by a telephone connected in the same galvanic circuit
with the carbon button (A) Fig. 4.* Good effects are also
produced when the carbon button (A) forms, with the
battery (B), a portion of the primary circuit of an induc-
tion coil, the telephone (C) being placed in the secondary
circuit. ‘

In these cases the wooden box and mouth- piece of the
transmitter should be removed, so that no air-cavities
may be left on either side of the diaphragm.

Lt zs evident, therefore, that in the case of thin disks
a real vibration of the diaphragm ts caused by the ac-
tion of the intermittent beam, independently of any ex-
pansion and contraction of the atr confined in the cav-
zty behind the diaphragm.

Lord Rayleigh has shown mathematically that a to-and-
fro vibration, of sufficient amplitude to produce an audible

* See page 248 for illustrations,

*U

SCIENCE.

245

sound, would result from a periodical communication
and abstraction of heat, and he says : “ We may conclude,
I think, that there is, at present no reason for discarding
the obvious explanation that the sounds in question are
due to the bending of the plates under unequal heating.”
(Nature, xxiii, p. 274). Mr. Preece, however, seeks to
prove that the sonorous effects cannot be explained upon
this supposition ; but his experimental proof is inade-
quate to support his conclusion. Mr. Preece expected
that if Lord Rayleigh’s explanation was correct, the ex-
pansion and contraction of a thin strip under the influ-
ence of an intermittent beam could be caused to open
and close a galvanic circuit so as to produce a musical
tone from a telephone in the circuit. But this was an
inadequate way to test the point at issue, for Lord Ray-
leigh has shown (Proc. of Roy. Soc., 1877) that an aud-
ible sound can be produced by a vibration whose ampli-
tude is /ess than a ten-millionth of a centimetre, and cer-
tainly such a vibration as that would not have sufficed
to operate a “make-and-break contact” like that used
by Mr. Preece. The negative results obtained by him
cannot, therefore, be considered conclusive.

The following experiments (devised by Mr. Tainter)
have given results decidedly more favorable to the theory
of Lord Rayleigh than to that of Mr. Preece:

1. A strip (A), similar to that used in Mr. Preece’s
experiment was attached firmly to the centre of an iron
diaphragm (B) as shown in Fig. 5, and was then pulled
taut at right angles to the plane of the diaphragm.
When the intermittent beam was focussed upon the
strip (A), a clear musical tone could be heard by apply-
ing the ear to the hearing tube (C).

This seemed to indicate a rapid expansion and con-
traction of the substance under trial.

But a vibration of the diaphragm (B) would also have
resulted if the thin strip (A) had acquired a to-and-fro
motion, due either to the direct impact of the beam or to
the expansion of the air in contact with the strip.

2. To test whether this had been the case an addition-
al strip (D) was attached by its central point only to the
strip under trial, and was then submitted to the action
of the beam, as shown in Fig. 6.

It was presumed that if the vibration of the diaphragm
(B) had been due to a Jushzng .force acting on the strip
(A), that the addition of the strip (D) would not interfere
with the effect. But if, on the other hand, it had been
due to the longitudinal expansion and contraction of the
strip (A), the sound would cease, or at least be reduced.
The beam of light falling upon the strip (D) was now
interrupted as before by the rapid rotation of a per-
forated disk, which was allowed to come gradually to
rest.

No sound was heard excepting at a certain speed of
rotation, when a feeble musical tone became audible.

This result is confirmatory of the first.

The audibility of the effect at a particular rate of in-
terruption suggests the explanation that the strip (D) had
a normal rate of vibration of its own.

When the frequency of the interruption of the light
corresponded to this, the strip was probably thrown into
vibration after the manner of a tuning fork, in which
case a to-and-fro vibration would be propagated down
its stem or central support to the strip (A).

This indirectly proves the value of the experiment.

The list of solid substances that have been submitted
to experiment in my laboratory is too long to be quoted
here, and I shall merely say that we have not yet found
one solid body that has failed to become sonorous under
proper conditions of experiment.*

* Carbon and thin microscope glass are mentioned in my Boston paper as
non-responsive, and powdered chlorate of potash in the communication to
the French Academy, (Comptes Rendus, vol. xlc, p. 595.) All these sub-
stances have since yielded sounds under more careful conditions of ex-
periment,

EXPERIMENTS WITH LIQUIDS,

The sounds produced by liquids are much more diffi-
cult to observe than those produced by solids. The high
absorptive power possessed by most liquids would lead
one to expect intense vibrations from the action of inter-
mittent light, but the number of sonorous liquids that
have so far been found is extremely limited, and the
sounds produced are so feeble as to be heard only by the
greatest attention and under the best circumstances of
experiment. In the experiments made in my laboratory
a very long test-tube was filled with the liquid under ex-
amination, and a flexible rubber-tube was slipped over
the mouth far enough down to prevent the possibility of
any light reaching the vapor above the surface. Pre-
cautions were also taken to prevent reflection from the
bottom ofthe test-tube. An intermittent beam of sunlight
was then focussed upon the liquid in the middle portion
of the test-tube by means of a lens of large diameter.

RESULTS.
(CURE NENG IS GAn oie ooops POD OO ROD GDOOC No sound audible.
Water discolored by ink............ .... Feeble sound.
IIE S Sada osnaae noe BAe nocbes codec No sound heard.
SW pMIniC Ethers = « bed cier-nie' Feeble, but distinct sound
FANMNOMIAS. ae «! cms «6 ahahers hisbers fs ss so se
Ammonio-sulphate of copper. sé ¥¢ ss f
WVGETI OMI cy. oveyexscueeresiese.s: 213 ‘é as ss is
Indigo in sulphuric acid...... s sf uy ee
Chlorideioh copper... - A o % ss

The liquids distinguished by an asterisk gave the best
sounds.

Acoustic vibrations are always much enfeebled in
passing from liquids to gases, and it is probable that a
form of experiment may be devised which will yield better
results by communicating the vibrations of the liquid to
the ear through the medium of a solid rod.

EXPERIMENTS WITH GASEOUS MATTER.

On the 2gth of November, 1880, I had the pleasure of
showing to Prof. Tyndall in the laboratory of the Royal
Institution the experiments described in the letter to Mr.
Tainter from which I have quoted above, and Prof,
Tyndall at once expressed the opinion that the sounds
were due to rapid changes of temperature in the body
submitted to the action of the beam. Finding that no
experiments had been made at that time to test the
sonorous properties of different gases, he suggested filling
one test-tube with the vapor of sulphuric ether, (a good
absorbent of heat,) and another with the vapor of bi-
sulphide of carbon, (a poor absorbent,)and he predicted
that if any sound was heard it would be louder in the
former case than in the latter.

The experiment was immediately made, and the result
verified the prediction.

Since the publication of the memoirs of Rontgen* and
Tyndallt we have repeated these experiments, and have
extended the inquiry to a number of other gaseous bodies,
obtaining in every case similar results to those noted in
the memoirs referred to.

The vapors of the following substances were found to
be highly sonorous in the intermittent beam: Water
vapor, coal gas, sulphuric ether, alcohol, ammonia, amy-
lene, ethyl bromide, diethylamene, mercury, iodine, and
peroxide of nitrogen. The loudest sounds were obtained
from iodine and peroxide of nitrogen.

I have now shown that sounds are produced by the
direct action of intermittent sunlight from substances in
every physical condition (solid, liquid, and gaseous), and
the probability is, therefore, very greatly increased that
sonorousness, under such circumstances, will be found to
be a universal property of matter.

*Ann, der Phys, und Chem., 1881, No. 1, p. 155.
tProc. Roy. Soc., vol. xxxi, p. 307.

246

SCIENCE.

UPON SUBSTITUTES FOR SELENIUM IN ELECTRICAL
RECEIVERS.

At the time of my communication to the American
Association the loudest effects obtained were produced by
the use of selenium, arranged in a cell of suitable con-
struction, and placed in a galvanic circuit with a tele-
phone. Upon allowing an intermittent beam of sunlight
to fall upon the selenium a musical tone of great in-
tensity was produced from the telephone connected
with it.

But the selenium was very inconstant in its action. It
was rarely, if ever, found to be the case, that two pieces
of selenium (even of the same stick) yielded the same
results under identical circumstances of annealing, etc.
While in Europe last autumn, Dr. Chichester Bell, of
University College, London, suggested to me that this
inconstancy of result might be due to chemical impurities
in the selenium used. Dr. Bell has since visited my labor-
atory in Washington, and has made a chemical examina-
tion of the various samples of selenium I had collected
from different parts of the world.. As I understand it to
be his intention to publish the results of this analysis very
soon, I shall make no further mention of his investiga-
tion than to state that he has found sulphur, iron, lead,
and arsenic in the so-called “selenium,” with traces of
organic matter; that a quantitative examination has re-
vealed the fact that sulphur constitutes nearly one per
cent. of the whole mass; and that when these impurities
are eliminated the selenium appears to be more constant
in its action and more sensitive to light.

Prof. W. G. Adams* has-shown that tellurium, like
selenium, has its electrical resistance affected by light, and
we have attempted to utilize this substance in place of

ih, UT i “TTT

Hig. v=

selenium. The arrangement of cell (shown in Fig. 7)
was constructed for this purpose in the early part of
1880; but we failed at that time to obtain any indica-
tions of sensitiveness with a reflecting galvanometer.
We have since found, however, that when this tellurium
spiral is connected in circuit with a galvanic battery
and telephone, and exposed to the action of an inter-
mittent beam of sunlight, a distinct musical tone is
produced by the telephone. The audible effectis much
increased by placing the tellurium cell with the battery
in the primary circuit of an induction coil, and placing
the telephone in the secondary circuit.

The enormously high resistance of selenium and the
extremely low resistance of tellurium suggested the thought
that an alloy of these two substances might possess inter-
mediate electrical properties. We have accordingly mixed
together selenium and tellurium in different proportions,

*Proc. Roy. Soc., vol. xxiv, p. 163.

and while we do not feel warranted at the present time in
making definite statements concerning the results, I may
say that such alloys have proved to be sensitive to the ac-
tion of light.

It occurred to Mr. Tainter before my return to Wash-
ington last January that the very great molecular disturb-
ance produced in lamp-black by the action of intermittent
sunlight should produce a corresponding disturbance’ in
an electric current passed through it, in which case lamp-
black could be employed in place of selenium in an elec-
trical receiver. This has turned out to be the case, and
the importance of the discovery is very great, especially
when we consider the expense of such rare substances as
selenium and tellurium. ;

The form of lamp-black cell we have found most effec-

tive is shown in Fig. 8. Silver is deposited upon a plate
of glass, and a zigzag line is then scratched through the
film, as shown, dividing the silver surface into two por-
tions insulated from one another, having the form of two
combs with interlocking teeth.

Each comb is attached to a screw-cup, so that the cell
can be placed in an electrical circuit when required. The
surface is then smoked until a good film of lamp-black is
obtained, filling the interstices between the teeth of the
silver combs. When the lamp-black cell is connected
with a telephone and galvanic battery, and exposed to the
influence of an intermittent beam of sunlight, a loud mu-
sical tone is produced by the telephone. This result seems
to be due rather to the physical condition than to the na-
ture of the conducting material employed, as metals in a
spongy condition produce similar effects. For instance,
when an electrical current is passed through spongy plat-
inum while it is exposed to intermittent sunlight, a distinct
musical tone is produced by a telephone in the same cir-
cuit. In all such cases the effect is increased by the use
of an induction coil; and the sensitive cells can be em-
ployed for the reproduction of articulate speech as well as
for the production of musical sounds.

We have also found that loud sounds are produced from
lamp-black by passing through it an intermittent electri-
cal current ; and that it can be used as a telephonic re-
ceiver for the reproduction of articulate speech by electri-
cal means.

A convenient mode of arranging a lamp-black cell for

.
=

247

SCIENCE.

248 SCIENCE.

249

SCIENCE.

Fig. 12.

s*

SCIENCE.

133 Ie 5C 27 27 46 48

ee
Ultra Red. ane Green.

Indigo. Violet.

Ultra Violet. }

i Green Sith.
» Hard Rubber Shavings.
|| \vapor of Sulphuric Ether.

a
i
at

1 E =
dind vener: |
Procite of Nitrogen. |

q ie ¥ ra Absorption
_ Absorption by Hard Rubber. =

SCIENCE. 251
- Blue worsted, Cl ut eg LAS Vif fo WCC
Purple silk, ct Ut a oe A Olt
Brown silk, Ot se fe SU 0 7
Black silk, § cs é GER 2 bs
Red Silk, “ “e “ec “e 5.24. “
Black worsted, Ss OF us ROBO ue
Lamp-black. — In receiver the limit of audibility
could not be determined on account of want of
space. Sound perfectly audible at a distance
OL rere ags ae eT reel 8 abe babeh Seda sis cea. eeepc ve 10.00 ‘“*

“
l

Fig. 9.

experimental purposes is shown in Fig. 9. When an
intermittent current is passed through the lamp-black,
(A) or when an intermittent beam of sunlight falls upon
it through the glass plate (B) a loud musical tone can be
heard by applying the ear to the hearing-tube (C).
When the light and the electrical current act simultan-
eously, two musical tones are perceived, which produce
beats when nearly of the same pitch. By proper arrange-
ments a complete interference of sound can undoubtedly
be produced.

UPON THE MEASUREMENT OF THE SONOROUS EFFECTS
PRODUCED BY DIFFERENT SUBSTANCES,

We have observed that different substances produce
sounds of very different intensities under similar circum-
stances of experiment, and it has appeared to us that
very valuable information might be obtained if we could
measure the audible effects produced. For this purpose
we have constructed several different forms of apparatus
for studying the effects, but as our researches are not yet
complete, I shall confine myself to a simple description
of some of the forms of apparatus we have devised.

When a beam of light is brought to a focus by means
of alens, the beam diverging from the focal point be-
comes weaker as the distance increases in a calculable
degree. Hence, if we can determine the distances from
the focal point at which two different substances emit
sounds of equal intensity, we can calculate their relative
sonorous powers.

Preliminary experiments were made by Mr. Tainter
during my absence in Europe to ascertain the distance
from the focal point of alens at which the sound pro-
duced by a substance became inaudible. A few of the
results obtained will show the enormous differences ex-
isting between different substances in this respect.

DISTANCE FROM FOCAL POINT OF LENS AT WHICH
SOUNDS BECOME INAUDIBLE WITH DIFFERENT
SUBSTANCES,

Zinc diaphragm (polished)................... 1.51 m
Hard rubber diaphragm. : Be ameter foils ota cis Bos ss
Tin-foil ho) APSR ERC ARC aan ZOor
Telephone “_ (Japanned iron)....... CAT Ge
Zinc ue (unpolished) 22a. &: 2akoy £5
White silk, (In receiver shown in Fig. 1.) 3.10 “
White worsted, ee = C <r) Aor!
Yellow worsted, ae Hi fp AKO.“
Yellow silk, < se S ae
White cotton wool, “ a re Sar Aango <‘
Green silk, H nba Se

1

Mr. Tainter was convinced from these experiments
that this field of research promised valuable results, and
he at once devised an apparatus for studying the effects,
which he described to me upon my return from Europe.
The apparatus has since been constructed and I take
great pleasure in showing it to you to-day.

(1.) A beam of light is received by two similar lenses
(A B, Fig. 10*), which bring the light to a focus on either
side of the interrupting disk (C). The two substances,
whose sonorous powers are to be compared, are placed
in the receiving vessels (D E)—so arranged as to ex-
pose equal surfaces to the action of the beam —which
communicate by flexible tubes (F G) of equal length,
with the common hearing-tube (H). The receivers
(D E) are placed upon slides, which can be moved along
the graduated supports (I K). The beams of light pass-
ing through the interrupting disk (C), are alternately cut
off by the swinging of a pendulum (L). Thus a musical
tone is produced alternately from the substance in D
and from that in E. One of the receivers is kept at a
constant point upon its scale, and the other receiver is
moved towards or from the focus of its beam until the
ear decides that the sounds produced from D and E
are of equal intensity. The relative positions of the re-
ceivers are then noted.

(2.) Another method of investigation is based upon
the production of an interference of sound, and the
apparatus employed is shown in Fig. 11.* The inter-
rupter consists of a tuning-fork (A), which is kept in
continuous vibration by means of an electro-magnet (B).

A powerful beam of light is brought to a focus be-
tween the prongs of the tuning-fork (A), and the passage
of the beam is more or less obstructed by the vibration
the opaque screens (C D) carried by the prongs of the
fork,

As the tuning-fork (A) produces a sound by its own
vibration, it is placed at a sufficient distance away to be
inaudible through the air, and a system of lenses is em-
ployed forthe purpose of bringing the undulating beam
of light to the receiving lens (E) with as little loss as
possible. The two receivers (F G) are attached to slides
(H I) which move upon opposite sides of the axis of the
beam, and the receivers are connected by flexible tubes
of unequal length (K L) communicating with the com-
mon hearing-tube (M).

The length of the tube (K) is such that the sonorous
vibrations from the receivers (F G) reach the common
hearing-tube (M) in opposite phases. Under these cir-
cumstances silence is produced when the vibrations in
the receivers (F G) are of equal intensity. When the
intensities are unequal, a residual effect is perceived.
In operating the instrument the position of the receiver
(G) remains constant, and the receiver (F) is moved to
or from the focus of the beam until complete silence is
produced, The relative positions of the two receivers
are then noted.

(3). Another mode is as follows: The loudness of a
musical tone produced by the action of light is compared
with the loudness of a tone of similar pitch produced by
electrical means. A rheostat introduced into the circuit
enables us to measure the amount of resistance required
to render the electrical sound equal in intensity to the
other.

* See pages 248 and 249 for illustrations,

252

SCIENCE.

(4.) If the tuning-fork (A) in Fig. 11 is thrown into
vibration by an undulatory instead of an intermittent
current passed through the electro-magnet (B), it is prob-
able that a musical tone, electrically produced ‘in the
receiver (F) by the action of the same current, would
be found capable of extinguishing the effect produced in
the receiver (G) by the action of the undulatory beam of
light, in which case it should be possible to establish an
acoustic balance between the effects produced by light
and electricity by introducing sufficient resistance into
the electric circuit.

UPON THE NATURE OF THE RAYS THAT PRODUCE

SONOROUS EFFECTS IN DIFFERENT SUBSTANCES.

In my paper read before the American Association last
August and in the present paper I have used the word
“light ” in its usual rather than its scientific sense, and |
have not hitherto attempted to discriminate the effects
produced by the different constituents of ordinary light,
the thermal, luminous, and actinic rays. I find, however,
that the adoption of the word “‘photophone”’ by Mr.
Tainter and myself has led to the assumption that we
believed the audible effects discovered by us to be due
entirely to the action of luminous rays. The meaning
we have uniformly attached to the words “ photophone”’
and “lizht”’ will be obvious from the following passage,
quoted by my Boston paper :

“ Although effects are produced as above shown by
forms of radiant energy, which are invisible, we have
named the apparatus for the production and reproduc-
tion of sound in this way the ‘photophone’ decause an
ordinary beam of light contains the rays which are
operative.”

To avoid in future any misunderstandings upon this
point we have decided to adopt the term “ radzophone,”
proposed by M. Mercadier, as a general term signifying
an apparatus for the production of sound by any form
of radiant energy, limiting the words thermophone, pho-
tophone, and actznophone, to apparatus for the production
of sound by thermal, luminous, or actinic rays respec-
tively.

M. Mercadier, in the course of his researches in radio-
phony, passed an intermittent beam from an electric lamp
through a prism, and then examined the audible effects
produced in different parts of the spectrum. (Comptes
Rendus, Dec. 6th, 1880.)

We have repeated this experiment, using the sun as our
source of radiation, and have obtained results somewhat
different from those noted by M. Mercadier.

A beam of sunlight was reflected from a heliostat
(A, Fig. 12*) through an achromatic lens, (B) so as to
form an image of the sun upon the slit (C).

The beam then passed through another achromatic
lens (D) and through a bisulphide of carbon prism (E),
forming a spectrum of great intensity, which, when
focussed upon a screen, was found to be sufficiently
pure to show the principal absorption lines of the solar
spectrum.

The disk-interrupter (F) was then turned with sufficient
rapidity to produce from five to six hundred interruptions
of the light per second, and the spectrum was explored
with the receiver (G), which was so arranged that the
lamp-black surface exposed was limited by a slit, as
shown.

Under these circumstances sounds were obtained in
every part of the visible spectrum, excepting the extreme
half of the violet, as well as in the ultra-red. A continu-
ous increase in the loudness of the sound was observed
upon moving the receiver (G) gradually from the violet into
the ultra-red. The point of maximum sound lay very far
out in the ultra-red. Beyond this point the sound began
to decrease, and then stopped so suddenly that a very
slight motion of the receiver (G) made all the difference
between almost maximum sound and complete silence.

*See page 249 for illustrations,

(2.) The lamp-blacked wire gauze was then removed and
the interior of the receiver (G) was filled with red-worsted.
Upon exploring the spectrum as before, entirely different
results were obtained. The maximum effect was pro-
duced in the green at that part where the red worsted ap-
peared to be black. On either side of this point the
sound gradually died away, becoming inaudible on the
one side in the middle of the indigo, and on the other at a
short distance outside the edge of the red.

(3.) Upon substituting green silk for red worsted the
limits of audition appeared to be the middle of the blue
and a point a short distance out in the ultra-red, Maxi-
mum in the red.

(4.) Some hard-rubber shavings were now placed in
the receiver (G). The limits of audibility appeared to be on
the one hand the junction of the green and blue, and on
the other the outside edge of the red. Maximum in the
yellow. Mr. Tainter thought he could hear a little way
into the ultra-red, and to his ear the maximum was
about the junction of the red and orange.

(5.) A test-tube containing the vapor of sulphuric ether
was then substituted for the receiver (G). Commencing at
the violet end, the test-tube was gradually moved down
the spectrum and out into the ultra-red without audible
effect, but when a certain point far out in the ultra-red
was reached a distinct musical tone suddenly made its
appearance, which disappeared as suddenly on moving
the test-tube a very little further on.

(6.) Upon exploring the spectrum with a test-tube con-
taining the vapor of iodine the limits of audibility ap-
peared to be the middle of the red and the junction of
the blue and indigo. Maximum in the green.

(7.) A test-tube containing peroxide of nitrogen was
substituted for that containing iodine. Distinct sounds
were obtained in all parts of the visible spectrum, but no
sounds were observed in the ultra-red.

The maximum effect seemed to me to be in the blue. The
sounds were well marked in all parts of the violet, and I
even fancied that the audible effect extended a little way
into the ultra-violet, but of this I cannot be certain. Upon
examining the absorption spectrum of peroxide of nitro-
gen it was at once observed that the maximum sound
was produced in that part of the spectrum where the
greatest number of absorption lines made their appear-
ance.

(8.) The spectrum was now explored by a selenium
cell, and the audible effects were observed by means ot
a telephone in the same galvanic circuit with the cell.
The maximum effect was produced in the red. The aud-
ible effect extended a little way into the ultra-red on the
one hand and up as high as the middle of the violet on
the other.

Although the experiments so far made can only be
considered as preliminary to others of a more refined na-
ture, I think we are warranted in concluding that the
nature of the rays that produce sonorous effects tn dif-
ferent substances depends upon the nature of the sub-
stances that are exposed to the beam, aud that the sounds
are in every case due to those rays of the spectrum that
are absorbed by the body.

THE SPECTROPHONE,

Our experiments upon the range of audibility of differ-
ent substances in the spectrum have led us to the con-
struction of a new instrument for use in spectrum analy-
sis, which was described and exhibited to the Philosophi-
cal Society of Washington last Saturday.* The eye-piece
of a spectroscope is removed, and sensitive substances
are placed in the focal point of the instrument behind an
opaque diaphragm containing a slit. These substances
are put in communication with the ear by means of a
hearing tube, and thus the instrument is converted into a
veritable “‘ spectrophone ” like that shown in Fig. 13.+

* Proc. of Phil. Soc. of Washington, April 16, 1881,
{See page 250 for illustrations,

SCIENCE.

Suppose we smoke the interior of our spectrophonic
receiver, and fill the cavity with peroxide of nitrogen gas,
We have then a combination that gives us good sounds
in all parts of the spectrum (visible and invisible), except
the ultra-violet. Now, pass a rapidly-interrupted beam of
light through some substance whose absorption spectrum
is to be investigated, and bands of sound and silence are
observed upon exploring the spectrum, the silent posi-
tions corresponding to the absorption bands. Of course,
the ear cannot for one moment compete with the eye in
the examination of the visible part of the spectrum; but
in the invisible part beyond the red, where the eye is use-
less, the ear is invaluable. In working in this region of
the spectrum, lamp-black alone may be used in the spec-
trophonic receiver. Indeed, the sounds produced by this
substance in the ultra-red are so well marked as to con-
stitute our instrument a most reliable and convenient sub-
stitute for the thermo-pile. A few experiments that have
been made may be interesting.

(1.) The interrupted beam was filtered through a sat-
urated solution of alum.

Result: The range of audibility in the ultra-red was
slightly reduced by the absorption of a narrow band of
the rays of lowest refrangibility, The sounds in the visi-
ble part of the spectrum seemed to be unaffected.

(2.) A thin sheet of-hard rubber was interposed in the
path of the beam.

Result: Well-marked sounds in every part of the ultra-
red, No sounds in the visible part of the spectrum, ex-
cepting the extreme half of the red.

These experiments reveal the cause of the curious fact
alluded to in my paper read before the American Asso-
ciation last August—that sounds were heard from
selenium when the beam was filtered through both hard
rubber and alum at the same time. (See table of results
in Fig. 14.*)

(3.) A solution of ammonio-sulphate of copper was
tried.

Result: When placed in the path of the beam the
spectrum disappeared, with the exception of the blue and
violet end, To the eye the spectrum was thus reduced
to a single broad band of blue-violet light. To the ear,
however, the spectrum revealed itself as two bands of
sound with a broad space of silence between. The in-
visible rays transmitted constituted a narrow band just
outside the red.

I think I have said enough to convince you of the value
of this new method of examination, but I do not wish
you to understand that we look upon our results as by
any means complete. It is often more interesting to
observe the first totterings of a child than to watch the
firm tread of a full-grown man, and I feel that ow first
footsteps in this new field of science may have more of
interest to you than the fuller results of mature research.
This must be my excuse for having dwelt so long upon
the details of incomplete experiments.

I recognize the fact that the spectrophone must ever
remain a mere adjunct to the spectroscope, but I antiti-
pate that it has a wide and independent field of useful-
ness in the investigation of absorption spectra in the
ultra-red.

CONTRIBUTIONS TO COMPARATIVE PSY-
CHOLOGY.

By S. V. CLEVENGER, M. D.

I. INSTINCT AND REASON,

In St. George Mivart’s recent work, ‘The Cat,’”’ Chap.
XI treats of the Psychology of that animal. Amidst the
usual ambiguity to be found wherever such subjects are

*See page 250 for illustrations,

253

treated, Mivart occasionally formulates his views. On
page 369 his words admit of no other interpretation than
an acknowledgement that instinct is nearly, though not
quite pure automatism. The possession of reason by the
cat is at first evasively dealt with, and finally on page
373, flatly denied. Mivart finds fault with Herbert Spen-
cer’s views as to instinct: ‘‘According to Mr. Spencer it
is a higher development of reason which it has replaced,
owing to the establishment of a more perfect adjustment
of inner relations to outer relations than exists where
mere reason is concerned.’’ ‘That opinion of Spencer’s
is one of the many which deserves to be rescued from the
oblivion his involved style threatens to inflict upon the
mass of his writings. From pure morphological and his-
tological observations I have been led to the conclusions at
which Spencer arrives by a wholly different route. The
nervous system is a net-work of conducting substance
interrelating the units of the animal body.

In an article by Spitzka (“‘ Insane Delusions ”’ page 34,
Fournal Nervous and Mental Dzsease, January, 1881),
occur the following words : “In fact I should, if asked to
point to the chief factor on which the higher powers of
the human brain depend, lay less stress on the cortical de-
velopment as such, than in the immense preponderance of
the white substance due to the massive associating
tracts.”

Automaticity created by unvarying persistence of im-
pressions resulting in certain definite movements, whether
occurring through heredity, or during the lifetime of the
individual (as proficiency in piano playing, etc.), has, for
its material substratum, absolute definiteness of associa-
tion of those parts which the nervous system connects ;
thus, regarded as a colony, the component individuals of
the organism are brought into thorough automatic rela-
tionship with one another, and to that part of the environ-
ment to which the organism responds instinctively.

On the other hand reason is represented by the discon-
nected, shifting, short and long nerve fibres, as the arcu-
ate of the cerebrum, not as yet assigned to any definite
location. Reason thus is the struggle toward automa-
tism. Instinct is the outcome of the struggle. Broadly
viewing the higher nervous organization of animals there
is a perpetual tendency to the establishment of nerve
routes which would eventuate in handing over perfect
control of every function to the highest nerve system.
Spitzka expresses this (Architecture of the Brain, page
649 J. N. & M. D. Oct. 1879) : ‘With the development of
these highest projection fibres, the cerebral hemispheres
gradually encroached on the independency of the lower
ganglia, until in its maximal development as found in
man, it resembles a great empire which holds a number
of tributary states in sway under a common powerful
rule. The automatical unity now attained, finds its par-
allel psychical culmination in that more perfect conscious-
ness of the ego, which is peculiar to man.” There is
nothing debatable about this tendency on the part of the
nervous system ; the greater relative masses of the longi-
tudinal and transverse associating tracts in the spinal
cords, spinal and cerebro-spinal nerves and brains of all
animals, in proportion to their reasoning and instinctive
abilities, point to a prevailing law which seeks the reduc-
tion of all animal movements to the simplest mechanical
methods. A corollary from instinct being perfected
reason, would be that the saivation of reason to
the race depended upon the vicissitudes and shifting cir-
cumstances with which we are surrounded, amounting to
rescue from the fate mentioned by Wallace in degrada-
tion through parasitism. DeQuincey calls the human
brain a palimpsest. In old age new tissues of any kind
are formed with difficulty, new routes in the brain strive
in vain for establishment; in senility the nervous tracts
established in youth, and upon which all subsequent as-
sociations are founded, are the last to suffer disintegra-
tion, hence youthful recollections become at this time
more vivid,

254

SCIENCE.

FURTHER NOTES ON THE BRAIN OF. THE
SAUROPSIDA.
By E. C. SpitzkKa, M. D.

1. A most notable feature of the cerebral hemispheres
of such reptiles as the Alligator, Iguana and sea-turtle is
the absence of a proper choroid plexus in the lateral ven-
tricle. This is the more remarkable as in the amphibia,
the choriod plexus is very well developed. The sea-turtle
has a few vascular coils protruding into the lateral ven-
tricle at its posterior portion; nothing of the kind can be
identified in the Iguana or in birds.

2. On removing theinner cerebral wall of an Alligator’s
hemisphere it can be seen that the Corpus Striatum is
continued into the pedicle of the olfactory bulb, as a dis-
tinct prominence. In fact the substance of the pedicle is
in the main a continuation of the Corpus Striatum and of
the basilar part of the hemisphere, the dorso-lateral cor-
tex becoming attenuated to a mere film on entering that
structure. The lumen of the pedicle is a continuation of
that recess of the lateral ventricle which undermines the
‘mesal side of the root of the Corpus Striatum.

3. The Corpus Striatum is relatively more massive in
the Sauropsida, than in any other animal group. It
reaches its maximum in birds, where also the lateral ven-
tricle is most reduced. It seems as if a secondary fusion
must occur, as explaining the apparent obliteration noted
in the latter group.

4. A careful study of the structure designated as the
anterior commissure of the reptile’s brain has failed to
convince me that this structure is to be considered as the
homologue of the same commissure in the mammalian
brain. So far I am inclined to consider it as represent-
ing the Corpus Callosum, at least in part. Its fibres are
medullated.

5. The inner face of the hemispheric wall is finely stri-
ated ; this is due to the fasciculation of the nerve fibres
lying subjacent to the ventricle; they correspond to the
Corona radiata.

6. It is not difficult to see that the greater part of the
cerebral surface, that is, the entire basilar and more than
half of its lateral aspect is the representative of what in
the mammalia is the least voluminous and functionally
the least important portion, namely of the Island of Reil
and the preperforate region. In some reptiles (Chely-
dra, Boa) these two districts or their homologues are de-
marcated from each other by ashallow sulcus. The
area homclogous with the Island of Reil, corresponds
pretty accurately to the base of the Corpus Striatum ;
the other, represented in mammals by the Swdstantza
perforata anterior is a bodily continuation of the thal-
amic halves, a marked constriction separates them from
the thalami proper, on the dorsal surface.
constitute a species of prothalamus.

There remains then as thé representative of the convo-
luted portion of the cerebral hemispheres of the placental
mammalia, merely the delicate thin walled portion of the
reptilian cerebrum. It is here where the pyramidal nerve
cells are found in the best development. In the tenuity
of the subjacent nerve layer, it closely resembles the
hemispheric wall of the mammalian embryo.

7, There are two varieties of cerebell1 found in the
Sauropsida; to these might be added a third or funda-
mental type from which the other or divergent types may
be derived.

The fundamental type is found in serpents and apodal
lacertians, as weil as in Chelonia of a low type (Boa,
Bascanion, Pseudopus, Chelydra). Here the cerebellum
is a mere lip covering the entrance to the mesencephalic
ventricle, as in the Amphibia, and in embryos.

The second type is found in the higher Chelonia (Cis-
tudo, Naunemys, Calemys, Thalassochelys) and the
Crocodilia (Alligator). Here the lip has become inflated,
and extends like a hollow hood directly backwards over
the fourth ventricle.

It corresponds in its best develop- ‘

Perhaps they |

ment to nothing so much as to a baseball cap. This re-
semblance is heightened by the presence in the Alligator
and Thallassochelys of a distant rim. I have found, in an
individual of Cistudo, the Cerebellar cap dented from
above, and turned inside out, as it were; the individual
had suffered prolonged starvation.

The third variety is found in lacertians (Iguana) and
birds (Struthio, Aro, Trichoglossus, Gallus, Columba,
Phoenicopterus, etc). Here the cerebellar lip creeps up,
as it were, on the posterior declivity of the optic (and post
optic) lobes, firmly tied down to these by the arachnoid,
In birds the lip becomes reflected from the highest point,
and descends backwards.

The highest form of the second variety is found in the
Alligator, where in the adult and in larger specimens,
though not in the one or two-year-olds, there are distinct
transverse sulci. In the sea-turtle an indication of trans-
verse sulci is observed in hardened specimens; they may
be artifacts, however. : ;

8. An important feature of the reptilian brain are the
lateral eminences of the Oblongata, which, from their
connection with the eighth pair of cranial nerves, merit
the designation of emznenti@ acustice. A reliquary frag-
ment in the mammalia constitutes the Fasciola cinerea.
But the greater portion of this, in reptiles (Alligator,
Iguana) exceedingly complicated body seems to bea sort
of herald of a higher cerebellar development, and the
very similar lateral bodies of the human embryonic Oblon-
gata appear to be swallowed up in the cerebellar mass.
Future research must determine whether the szclez
dentatd are derivable from these masses or whether some
of the lesser cerebellar lobules monopolize them. In the
Alligator they closely simulate cerebellar fo/za, and con-
sist of gray and white substance. It is from them that
arises the emznentia transversa ventreculé quartz so well
developed in the Iguana and Alligator. In the latter the
acoustic convolvuli are in morphological connection with
the lateral kink of the cerebellum.

g. On comparing a series of animals beginning with
the Amphibia, passing thence to the Sauropsidaand end-
ing with the mammalia, we find that there is this close
correspondence to a series of mammalian embryonic and
foetal brains, that while in the lowest types the nerve
fibres of the spinal cord are well provided with mzye/zn,
and the Oblongata presents the same maturity of struc-
ture, that it is only in higher types that the Cerebellum
and Mesencephalon show the same or an approximate
histological advance, which involves the Thalamus and
Cerebrum in their entity only in the very highest types.
This is an important confirmation of the laws laid down
by Flechsig and Meynert.

10>

ASTRONOMY.
THE MORRISON OBSERVATORY.

The Morrison Observatory—the gift of Miss Morrison,
a former resident of Glasgow—was bu'lt at Glasgow,
Missouri, in 1875. The building is well adapted to the
purpose it is intended to serve, and was cons ructed un-
der the supervision of Prof. C. W. Pritchett, who con-
sulted several of the leading astronomers of the counts
in preparing his plans. ee

The position of the observatory is, latitude, 39° 16°
16.8” north. Longitude 14 3™ 5.93° west of Washington.
The latitude was obtained from observations recently
made with the Transit Circle, and discussed by Prof. H.S.
Pritchett ; the longitude from an exchange of signals
made with the United States Naval Observatory in 1880,

For instrumental equipment, the Morrison Observatory
possesses one of Clark’s finest 12% equatorials. It is of
17 feet focal length, and has already been the means of
discovering a number of faint double stars. In 1877 and
again in 1879, a large number of observations of the
satellites of Mars were obtained. J/zmas has been ob-

SCIENCE.

255

served on at least three occasions, and has been suspected,
without being positively identified, a much larger number
of times.

The Transit Circle was made by Troughton and Simms,
London, in 1876 and was mounted in 1877. The con-
struction of the instrument and the method of mounting
are quite similar to the instruments in use at Greenwich,
and Haivard College Observaory.

The telescope has a clear aperture of 6 inches, and a
focal length ot 6 feet 4 inches. The axis is cast in a
single piece, into which fit the steel pivots, 3.50 inches
in diameter. The Y’s are of gun metal, and their bear-
ing surfaces 2.50 inches long, 0.74 inches wide. The piers
are of iron, and are firmly bolted to heavy stone caps
which rest upon brick foundations. The circles are 24
inches in diameter, divided to 5’, and read by four micro-
scopes each.

The reticule in the focus of the telescope carries 15
vertical and 5 horizontal threads—the yertical threads
being all carried by the Right Ascension micrometer
screw, and the horizontal threads by the declination
screw. There are no fixed threads in the field.

The Transit Circle is furnished with two collimators
having object glasses of 4 ft. 3 in. focal length and 4.33
in. aperture. The distance between the bearing points
of thecollimator Y’s is 3 ft. loin. In the focus of each
collimator are fixed two close vertical threacs (about 5.3”
apart) and one horizontal thread. In the ordinary time
observations it is customary to observe for collimation
immediately before the observations cf star transits, and
then set the micrometer so as to destroy the error in
collimation,

The Standard Sidereal Clock of the Observatory is
Frodsham No. 1369. It was mounted in 1877, and has
been running for two years past on a very small and con-
stant rate.

In addition to these instruments, the Observatory is
furnished with an excellent 4-in. Clark Comet Seeker, an
Altazimuth by Gasella, and the usual barometers, ther-
mometers, etc.

The work now being carried on is chiefly equatorial,
and may be divided into two parts, as follows:

1. Double Star Work. A list consisting chiefly of
binaries which have been neglected for some years (some
of them for ten or twenty, or even thirty years) and will
well repay observation. Besides these, a selected list of
Burnham’s stars, which are suspected of binarity, or which
are quite newand have not been observed. Most of these
stars are in the southern sky, and including the list for
personal equation, will make a total of about 500 doubles.
This work is well under way and will probably be con-
cluded within a year,

2. The second part of the equatorial work consists of
observations, descriptive and micrometric, upon planets
and their satellites, and includes a series of observations
extending over several years, upon the satellites of Saturn,
and observations upon the red spot of Jupiter since its
discovery at Glasgow in 1878. x

With the Meridian Circle, no work is done beyond the
ordinary observations for time.

The Time-Service of the Observatory, inaugurated
within the past year by Prof. H. S. Pritchett, has met
with well deserved success, and its value is fully appre-
ciated by the people of the State, Two time balls are
dropped by the Observatory clock—one in St. Louis and
one in Kansas City—and the clock signals are regularly
distributed over a large and constantly increasing area.
Owing to its position—-almost exactly one hour west of
Washington—the Morrison Observatory will doubtless
be largely depended upon in regulating the time of the
Mississippi Valley, if any of the schemes for ‘‘ Uniform

Time” which have recently been proposed are ever
adopted.

Though so well equipped instrumentally, Morrison Ob-
servatory, like many a similar institution of longer stand-

_ing, is sadly crippled for want of funds: its income being

barely sufficient for the support of a director without as-
sistance. It is greatly to be regretted that one of the
most promising observatories in the country should
be thus curtailed in its usefulness, merely for want of
proper financial support. W.C. W.

DISCOVERY OF AN ASTEROID.

The Smithsonian Institution has received from M.
Foerster, of Berlin, the announcement of the discovery
by M. Palisa, at Pola, on the 20th of May, 1881, of a
planetoid of the thirteenth magnitude, in

R.A.

15h 3m
Ween, 230 2h
with a daily motion of 8™ xorfh.
CORRESPONDENCE.

[ The Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed
by his correspondents. No notice is taken of anonymous communi
cations. |

LOCUSTS AND SUN SPOTS.
To the Edztor of ““SCIENCE:”

Str: It may concern some of your readers to know
that I have just made the interesting discovery, that the
multiplication and migration of the Rocky Mountain
Locust (Caloptenus spretus), has been hitherto in exact
agreement with the minima of Wolf’s sun spot cycles as
given (Mem. As. Soc. vols. XLII and XLIII), and its de-
crease has as nearly accorded with the maxima, there not
being a year’s difference. On European areas, it may be
remarked, insect migration but rarely agrees with these
maximaand minima, the chief periods being obtainable
by counting the elevens since 1846, There likewise exists
this marked difference, in that while the American locust
spreads to the east and west of south, European mi-
grants come north and east.

It would be important to determine the multiplication
of the Corn Weevils in relation to the sun spots. Cannot
the trade keep diaries? As the more destructive kind
comes from the tropic, the minimum period should be
dreaded. A. H. SWINTON.

GUILDFORD, ENG., May, 1881.

THE VIEWS OF DR. HOLMES UPON THE PRO-
POSED REVISION MODIFICATIONS OF AN-
ATOMICAL NOMENCLATURE,

We are permitted to publish the following letter from
Oliver Wendell Holmes to Professor B. G. Wilder re-
specting the articles on ‘‘ Anatomical Nomenclature”
which appeared in Nos. 38 and 39 of this journal. It
may not be generally known to our readers that ‘‘ The
Autocrat of the Breakfast-table”’ has been for many
years the Professor of Anatomy in the Harvard Medical
School. BOSTON, May 3, 1881.
Dear Dr. Wilder :

1 have read carefully your papers on Nomenclature. I
entirely approve of it as an a¢temft, an attempt which I
hope will be partially successful, for no such sweeping
change is, I think, ever adopted as a whole. But I am
struck with the reasonableness of the system of changes
you propose, and the fitness of many of the special terms
you have suggested.

The last thing an old teacher wants is, as you know
full well, anew set of terms for a familiar set of objects.
It is hard instructing ancient canine individuals in new
devices. It is hard teaching old professors new tricks.
So my approbation of your attempt is a szc vos non
vobts case so far as lamconcerned. There is one term
which I do not quite fancy, Zero, which you couple with
fes in naming the rhinencephalic lobe. I should prefer
the old term dbus with ¢heca unless there is some ob-
jection I do not see.

What you have to do is to keep agitating the subject,

256

SCIENCE.

to go on training your students to the new terms—some
of which you or others will doubtless see reasons for
changing—to improve as far as possible, fill up blanks,
perhaps get up a small manual in which the new’ terms
shall be practically applied, and have faith that sooner
or later the best part of your innovations will find their
way into scientific use. The plan is an excellent one,
it is a new garment which will fit Science well, if that
capricious and fantastic and old-fashioned dressing lady
can only be induced to try it on.
Always very truly yours,
O. W. HOLMEs.

i?

A CURIOUS EGG,
E. E. BARNARD.

One of my hens of the “ Dominico” breed is account-
able for the presence to-day of a most remarkable egg,
which was found in the hen’s nest. This singular object
measured about three inches in its longest diameter, a
round oval in shape, not like the ordinary egg with a
large and a small end. ‘The shell was thin and soft to
the touch, resembling the ‘‘ skin ” that is found inside an
eggshell. Pressing on one end of the egg, a hard object was
felt inside the shell. Opening the egg, by cutting with a
sharp knife, two eggs were found, one perfect with a hard
shell, slightly smaller than the ordinary egg, the other
perfect in every respect, save that it possessed no shell.
The egg with the shell was enclosed in the white of the
other. These two eggs occupied the two ends of the
original shell. Upon opening the one with the hard
shell it was found to be perfect. Putting the two eggs in
separate cups, the one which had the hard shell was
slightly smaller and its yolk of a pale yellow; the yolk of
the other was somewhat deeper in color.

Here we have a rare phenomenon; first a large egg
with slightly soft shell; inside this two eggs, one perfect
in a hard shell, the other without shell but otherwise
perfect.

NASHVILLE, Tenn., A/ay 9.

—— tt

BOOKS RECEIVED.

A MEMORIAL OF JOSEPH HENRY. Published by order
of Congress, Washington, 1880.

The present volume presents in a handsome and conve-
nient form the historical facts relating to the career of
Professor Joseph Henry, and a record of the various
ceremonies and memorial exercises celebrated after his
death in honor to his memory.

The memorial exercises at the Capital include ad-
dresses by President Garfield, Hannibal Hamlin, Robert
E. Withers, Professor Asa Gray, William B. Rogers,
General Sherman and others.

The concluding words of President Garfield’s address
may well be quoted as conveying the general esteem in
which Professor Henry was held by all who knew him.
“ Remembering his great career as a man of science, as
a man who served his Government with singular ability
and faithfulness, who was loved and venerated by every
circle, who blessed with the light of friendship the
worthiest and the best, whose life added new lustre to the
glory of the human race, we shall be most fortunate, if
ever in the future, we see his like again,”

tt

NOTES.

RECENT experiments by M. Grehaut, prove that the quan-
tity of carbonic acid exhaled by any one individual of an
animal species is about constant. Fifty litres of air passed
through the lungs of a dog, 9kg. weight, yielded 2.747 gr. of
CO,z, Eight days after the experiment was repeated, and

the CO, was 2.810 gr. In man, the same volume of air cir-
culating through the lungs, receives 3.333 gr. of COg. Irri-
tations and inflammations of the respiratory mucous mem-
brane (e. g. through inhaling sulphurous acid), considera-
bly decrease the exhalation of CO,. The gas then tends
to accumulate in the blood.

GALVANIC GILDING.—M. Rod gives the composition of a
bath to be used at temperatures from 50° to 80° C. It con-
sists of 60 parts crystalline phosphate of soda, 10 parts
bisulphate of soda, 1 part cyanide of sodium, 2% parts
chloride of gold, and 1,000 distilled water. In order to
prepare the bath the water is divided into three portions of
700, 150, and 150 respectively. The phosphate of soda is
dissolved in the first lot, the chloride of gold in the second,
and the other ingredients in the third. The two first por-
tions are gradually mixed together, and the third is then
slowly added. A platinum plate is used as anode.—Ze
Monde de la Science.

RADIATION THROUGH EBONITE.—Captain Abney exhib-
ited at the Physical Society of London, a number of photo-
graphic negatives taken by himself and Colonel Festin by
radiation through thin sheets of ebonite. The light from
the positive pole of an electric lamp was sent through a
thin sheet of ebonite jin. thick, and photographs taken
showed the radiation to have a low wave-length, from 8,000
to 14,000, The carbon points of the lamp could be photo-
graphed through the sheet, and Colonel Festin observed
the sun’s disc through it. The ebonite showed a grained
structure, and different samples of ebonite gave different
results, but all gave some result, in course of time at least;
old ebonite, like that used in some of Mr. Preece’s experi-
ments, scattering the light more than new ebonite. Dr.
Moser exhibited the passage of the rays through the ebonite
to the audience by means of a galvanometer. Professor
Guthrie observed that Captain Abney had proved that
light as well as heat traversed the ebonite, and Dr. Coffin
stated that compositions of ebonite, apparently the same,
might vary considerably.

PHOTOGRAPHIC PHOTOMETRY.—A promising application
of photography to precise measurement of phenomena of
light has been recently tried by M. Janssen. The method
is advantageous in that photography reveals the action of
the extremely weak luminous and the ultra-violet rays ; but
the chief advantage lies in the permanence of the results
as against the fugitive nature of ordinary photometric com-
parisons, which, too, require the simultaneous presence of
the two light sources. The various amounts of metallic
deposit on the photographic plate cannot well be weighed,
so M. Janssen measures by the degree of opacity produced.
His photometer consists of a frame with sensitised plate,
before which is passed at a known rate of uniform motion
a shutter having a slit. If this slit were rectangular, a
uniform shade would be produced on the plate; but by
making it triangular he obtains a variation of shade, de-
creasing from the side corresponding to the base of the tri-
angle to that corresponding to the apex. It is further
proved that the photographic deposit does not increase as
rapidly as the luminous intensity. Now, to compare the
sensibility of two plates differently prepared, they have
merely to be exposed successively in the frame under like
conditions, and the points where they show the same opacity
being compared to the points of the triangular slit corre-
sponding to them, the ratio of the apertures at those points
expresses the ratio of sensibility. Thus the new gelatino-
bromide of silver plates are proved to be twenty times as
sensitive as the collodion plates prepared by the wet pro- -
cess. Again, to compare two luminous sources, they are
made to act successively on two similar plates in the pho-
tometer, and the points of equal shade in the plates indi-
cate, as before, the relation sought. M., Janssen has com-
pared the light of the sun and some stars on these principles,
preparing from the former ‘‘solar scales” (with uniform
degradation of shade), under exactly determined conditions
as to sensitive layer, time of solar action, height of the sun,
etc. Circular images of stars are obtained by placing a
photographic plate a little out of focus in the telescope,
and a series of these, got with different times of exposure,
are compared with the scales obtained from sunlight. M.
Janssen will shortly make known some of his results.

SCIENCE. 269

eee NCE :

A WEEKLY ReEcoORDOF SCIENTIFIC
PROGRESS.

JOHN MICHELS, Editor.
PuBLISHED AT

TRIBUNE BUILDING, NEW YORK.

P. O, BOX 3838.

SATURDAY, JUNE 11, 1881.

We have received a copy of the Annuaire
de TL Observatoire Royal de Bruxelles—a_ book
of nearly four hundred pages, published under
the supervision of Dr. J.C. Houzeau. This number
is the forty-eighth issue of the series, and contains the
customary data regarding calendars; rising, setting
and meridian passages of the sun, moon and planets ;
eclipses of the sun and moon, and transit of Mercury;
occultations of stars by the moon; eclipses of the
satellites of Jupiter ; positions of fixed stars ; elements
of the planets and their satellites, and of the periodic
comets; various data pertaining to weights and
measures, geographical positions, etc. It is a note-
worthy fact, that while the astronomical repertoire
supplies a need for Belgium—as the similar Annuaire
du Bureau des Longitudes does for France—we have
no like publication in America. It must cost really
very little to print it, and the expense of compilation
can not be great. It is not a little remarkable that
Americans generally should so long be content with
dependence upon patent medicine almanacs for this
class of information.

Among the appended articles, we note a few which
carry more than a passing, special interest—Ze G/obe
Terrestre— Quel est le Climat le plus Favorable aut
Développement de la Civilisation?—L’ Astronomie
dans 7 Antiquité—Listhme de Panama. Monsieur
L. Niesten, a well known astronomer of the Royal
Observatory, contributes no less than four articles to
this issue of the Axnuaire, two of which appear to
have been prepared with great care, and are astron-
omically of much importance. The last transit of
Mercury, May 6, 1878, was very fully observed every-

where, and M. Niesten deserves mich credit for his

well arranged digest of every sort of observation on
that occasion. Those who are concerned with gene-

ral relations on the rapidly multiplying group of small
planets will get a deal of information from Niesten’s
article, Zes Astéroides—which is, in fact, a compre-
hensive history of these bodies. An accompanying
map serves to bring out some points which are made
clearer by graphical representation. Astronomers
and others will have frequent occasion to refer to an
article (which it is remarkable should not have long
ago been prepared by some one)—/omenclature des
Observatoirés Astronomiques LExistants, gui out la
Caractére ad’ Etablissements Publics. About 120 ob-
servatories are included in this list, and there are
given, as far as known, the year of founding, the con-
nection of the observatory, some brief description of
the instruments, and the names of all the directors
of each establishment, including the dates of their

installation.
+

THE AMERICAN CHEMICAL SOCIETY.

The June meeting of the American Chemical Society
was held Friday evening, the 6th inst., Prof. A. R. Leeds
presided. Mr. A. P. Hallock was elected a regular
member. The first paper before the Society was by Dr.
Chas. A. Doremus, ‘On the Composition of Elephants
Milk.’ The sample was obtained from the mother of the
baby elephant “ America” which is now on exhibition in
this city. The baby weighed 213% pounds at birth
and at the end of ayear turned the scales at 900 pounds.
Considerable difficulty was experienced in procuring the
sample, and but a very small quantity was obtainable.
Three analyses were made and the figures are herewith
given:

I re Ill.

April ns April 9. April ro.

Morning. Noon. Morning.
QUAN Eyre a6 eee. epee. rgcc, 36ce. 72cC.

Cream, percent........<.. 52.4 Ss ; 62.

Reaction. 0... svesvecncee Neutral. Slightly alkaline. Slightly
acid.

Sp Grae ase ele - ce= 26ft ~~) - edceRd 1.0237

IN 100 PARTS BY WEIGHT.

Water. s eo scess dissec cree 67.567 69.286 66.697
STelvsls cE Gas edieioe nes 32.433 30.714 33-303
al eter versersras< career sisisie) © 17.546 19.095 22.070
Solidsanitaty scarce -/<-- 14.887 Te II 233
Gaseintee ase cie ss moleoeiacls ; 3.694. 3.212
SURE SnenipenacpeconEenc 5ae 74.236 7.207 7-392
NG cetera sie atsseiietlese ease eters 0.651 0.658 0.629

It will be noticed from these analyses that the milk is
peculiarly rich in the nitrogenized materials. The volume
of cream compared with that obtained from an Aldemey
cow is also quite large. Under the microscope the milk
globules appeared very uniform in size and were un-
usually clear. Although it is generally claimed that the
fat when burned emits a peculiar odor by means of which
it is possible to distinguish the animal from which it has
been obtained, yet in the present instance no odor was
perceptible from the fat which was separated from the
milk. This is the only analysis of elephant’s milk on record,
and Dr. Doremus is certainly deserving of much credit
for the interesting information which he has obtained.
His entire paper will be published in the proceedings of
the Society. An analysis of the milk of an hippopotamus
is added for the sake of comparison :

WE ee650 cof dobpocr Be BCOUDO SUC COOROCCE Ie 99.43
SHES caeecoacenctionaune pUrE Stor) saors ode 9.57
Tn GOD ROO CUM OOD de EEO SU RAR OG Ona mcnGe Soc 4.51
Casein; and milk sugar... << ...0<0.-¢-ce0e. vs 4.40

BEE diaiptasale di clelers cc's, ain aisieia ain cisieiqialajoln’< acini is/ota te 0.11

SCIENCE.

SLEEP AND SOMNAMBULISM.*
By M. REGNARD.
[Translated From the French by the Marchioness Clara Lanza.]

Il.

LADIES AND GENTLEMEN :—In the middle ages and
up to the present century Somnambulists, together with
epileptics and hysterical women, were ciassed with sor-
cerers and those supposed to be possessed by the devil.
They were exorcised with others afflicted in similar ways
and generally burned alive with great ceremony and re-
joicing.

During this unenlightened era, one man of genius
proved himself. in regard to Somnambulism, to be an ex-
ceptional observer and has left us a description of it which
no modern neurologist would repudiate. His name,
gentlemen, is upon your lips. It is Shakespeare who in
his tragedy of Macbeth has given us a masterly descrip-
tion of automatism. You are all familiar, doubtless, with
the sleep-walking scene, but I will recall a portion of it to
your mind. After having committed her terrible crimes
Lady Macbeth has attacks of Somnambulism. One of
her ladies in waiting informs the court physician and both
sit up at night to await the coming of the queen.

“ Gentlewoman—Lo you, here she comes! This is
her very guise; and, upon my life, fast asleep. Observe
her: stand close.

Doctor—How came she by that light ?

Gentlewoman.—W hy it stood by her: she has light by
her continually: "Tis her command. ve

Doctor.—VYou see her eyes are open.

Gentlewoman.—Ay, but their sense is shut.

Doctor —What is it she does now? Look how she
rubs her hands. :

Gentlewoman.—It is accustomed action with her, to
seem thus washing her hands; I have known her con-
tinue in this a quarter of an hour.

Lady Macbeth —Y et here’s a spot.

Doctor.—Hark! She speaks: I will set down . what
comes from her, to satisfy my remembrance the more
strongly.

Lady Macbeth.—Out, damned spot! Out, I say !—
one ; two; why, then, ’tis time to do ’t :—Hell is murky!
—Fie, my lord, fie! A soldier and afeard! What need
we fear who knows it, when none can tell our power to
account ?>-- Yet who would have thought the old man to
have had so much blood in him ?

Doctor.—Do you mark that. Z

Lady Macbeth—The Thane of Fife had a wife; where
is she now ?>—What, will these hands ne’er be clean? No
more o’ that, my lord, no more-o’ that; you mar all with
this starting.

Doctor.—Go to, go to; you have known what you
should not.

Gentlewoman.—She has spoke what she should not, I
am sure of that; heaven knows what she has known.

Lady Macbeth.—Here’s the smell of blood still; all the
Eee aes OF Arabia will not sweeten this little hand. Oh!
Oh! Oh!

Doctor What a sigh is there! The heart is sorely
changed.

Gentlewoman.—\ would not have such a heart in my
bosom for the dignity of the whole body.

Doctor.—W ell, well, well.

Gentlewoman.—Pray God it be, sir.

Doctor. —The disease is beyond my practice; yet I have
known those which have walked in their sleep, who have
died holily in their beds.

Lady Macbeth.—W ash your hands, put on your night-
gown ; look not so pale—I tell you yet again, Banquo’s
buried ; he cannot come out of his grave.

Doctor. —Even so.

Lady Macbeth.—To bed, to bed; there’s knocking at

*A lecture delivered before the Association Scientifique de France.

the gate. Come, come, come, come, give me your hand;
what’s done, cannot be undone. To bed, to bed, to bed.
Exit.

Doctor.—Will she go now to bed?

Gentlewoman.—LDirectly.

Doctor.—F¥ oul whisperings are abroad ; unnatural deeds
Do breed unnatural troubles. Infested minds
To their deaf pillows will discharge their secrets.

More needs she the divine than the physician.
God, God, forgive us all! Look after her:
Remove from her the means of all annoyance,
And still keep eyes upon her. So good night ;
My mind she has mated, and amazed my sight ;
I think but dare not speak.

Gentl.woman.—Good night, good doctor.

Gentlemen, do you not think this fine description con-
tains all the details I previously gave you, and that Shake-
speare has shown himself scientifically superior to all who
have hitherto attempted to represent this singular neryous
affection ?

I have now finished what I had to say about natural
Somnambulism and find myself confronted by the most
difficult point of my subject, provoked or induced Som-
nambulism—Magnetism if you insist upon my employing
that detestable word.

It is quite possible by means of various practices which
I shall make known to you later, to produce a nervous
affection very similar to Somnambulism, but yet differ-
ing from it in several ways. The effects obtained depend
of course upon the subject and the methods employed,
and the conditions resulting from these may be divided
into three, all of them however, being sometimes induced
in a single person. These three states are:

1. Hypnotism.

2. Sleep.

3. Catalepsy.

4. Automatism.

Gentlemen, during the latter part of the foregoing cen-

‘tury an Austrian physician of great repute, seemingly,

arrived in Paris. His name was Mesmer and he had discov-
evered the means, by a purely physical process, of produc-
ing certain effects upon the human organism which were
considered to be perfectly prodigious. Mesmer appeared
first about the time when great excitement was being
caused by the first discoveries in electricity, made by the
Abbé Nollet, and when the singular action produced up-
on a magnetized needle by a fluid apparently permeating
the earth, attracted universal attention. Mesmer an-
nounced that he was master of another fluid which was
but a modification of the terrestrial one and which oper-
ated upon the vital forces, and when properly directed could
become a most important curative means.

He made an offer to the government to sell his secret
which he estimated to be worth several million francs.
The French ministers, however, were prudent and al-
lowed Mesmer to keep the great mystery to himself.

His method had nothing about it resembling real mag-
netism. His performances took place in a partially
darkened room in the middle ot which was placed a large
tub generally covered. A number of rods were placed
crosswise on the top around which the people seated
themselves. Soon the sound of a piano was heard, ©
while the atmosphere grew heavy with perfumes. Mes-
mer walked about the room with a prophetic air, touch~~
ing the forehead of each person, and executing a series
of theatrical gestures. The subjects then fell into a
comatose state. They remained in ecstasy, almost entire-
ly deprived of sensibility and movement, and only recov-
ered under the influence of broad daylight and fresh air.

There was not a bit of Magnetism in all this. The
subjects were generally hysterical women. Their im-
agination was greatly excited and the same thing recur-
red to them as now happens to those persons we hear of
as being afflicted with religious mania, etc.—they were
hypnotized. weg

SCIENCE.

To Mesmer we cannot even give the credit of inven-
tion, for hypnotism or uncompleted Somnambulism or
ecstatic sleep, as you choose to call it, occupies still as
it did then a high place among certain religious sects.
It is nothing more than ecstacy, where exterior compre-
hension is lost and replaced by a series of visions ex
rapport with the preoccupation of the subject. I will
show you presently that although ecstasy is generally of
a religious character, there are many exceptions and that
in fact any vivid mental emotion can provoke it.

The fakirs of India frequently induce the condition,
not by absorbing themselves in some holy or poetical
idea, but simply by gazing fixedly at space or some
bright object or spot; some of them look at the end of
their nose. The Grecian monks are also celebrated for
being able to produce Hypnotism by looking steadily at
acertain point or thing, and will remain insensible for
hours. The result of this is that they enjoy the reputa--
tion of either holiness or witchcraft, according to the
form of the delirium which usually follows.

At all times that which was called contemplative
ascetictsm has been produced by fixing the gaze upon
some brilliant or shining object to which was attributed
some particular virtue or sacredness. These contempla-
tions, together with violent mental excitement, were rap-
idly succeeded by hallucinations, apparitions, and in
short, ecstasy.

Mahometanism even, although not particularly mys-
tical, has likewise produced special forms Hypnotism. A
prolonged and monotonous sound in these cases was
more effectual than a fixed gaze.

Among the disciples of Hussein, the martyr, ecstacy “is

at A se. ".
induced by means of tambourines beaten incessantly in
_a rapid and monotonous manner, accompanied by meas-

ured chanting. This ceremony frequently occurs at
night, and in a short time the subjects are in a state of
ecstacy, in which cutaneous insensibility is so marked
that all the tortures undergone by the martyr can be like-

‘wise inflicted upon them without eliciting a cry or groan.

But these phenomena are shown in still more intense
a manner in the sect of Aissaoua, many representations
of which can be met with in our Algerian colony. Those
who have had the rare good fortune of witnessing one of
their ceremonies have been struck with the degree of
anesthesia which seems to affect these people.

The ceremony takes place at night, generally in some
deserted plain. The tambourines keep up a constant
monotonous sound. ‘The subjects seat themselves about
an immense fire and gradually fall into a condition of
ecstacy. Some of them writhe convulsively and utter
prolonged cries. Anzsthesia becomes complete and then
some can be seen applying their tongues to bars of red
hot iron, while others eat Barbary figs, the long thorns of
which come directly through their cheeks from the inside,
causing their faces to stream with blood. Still others
swallow live spiders and scorpions, which remarkable,
feats often result very seriously. :

In short, all Hypnotics proceed precisely the same way,
by fixing the eyes, generally squinting, upon a certain
point, or else listening attentively to a monotonous
sound.

These methods which have been and always are em-
ployed to produce the phenomena, are, as we shall see,
quite determined.

We are indebted to Braid for the first well regulated
and experimental work upon Hypnotism, and in 1841, this
English surgeon, after having witnessed so-called mag-
netic experiments, discovered that the prolonged fixture
of the eye or hearing, and not a mysterious fluid, was the
source of the incontestable phenomena he had observed.
Scientific Magnetism, we may say, began with Braid.

He knew a series of experiments, for the most part
extremely curious, which had just been made in France
by Dupotet and Puységur. These two men, who were
imbued with Mesmer’s ideas, had wondered if the tub

28

were really necessary, and if the magnetic fluid we all
possess could not be transmitted from one person to an-
other. They therefore procured a number of nervous
persons and endeavored by a series of motions which
nowadays we designate as passes, to realize some palp-
able effects. By this means sleep was produced much
more rapidly than by Mesmer’s method. Magnetism
had been effected by communication, and it exists to this
day, considerably augmented and enriched by all sorts of
inconceivable folly.

Braid asked himself whether passes did not consti-
tute a simple hypnotic process, and whether the contem-
plation of a fixed or moving point would not produce the
same result as all these absurd magnetic gestures. His
experiment was crowned with success, and his subject
fell into the hypnotic sleep by simply looking at a metal
ball. The magnetic fluid had been overturned !

The condition formed in this purely physical manner
was such, and the insensibility so complete, that Braid
was able to operate upon the subjects, and even amputate
their limbs. His experiments were repeated in France by
Broca, Verneuil and Laségne, the same results making
themselves apparent.

Unfortunately, hypnotism cannot be induced with ev-
erybody. Anumber of unsuccessful attempts have always
been observed, and then came the introduction of chloro-
form andether. Braid’s experiments Were lost in obliv-
ion until a courageous French savant, Professor Charcot,
took them up, and brought them to points, which I shall
proceed to demonstrate.

But first of all, let me show you some experiments in
hypnotism, Animals can be hypnotized by Braid’s process
as well as human beings.

Here is an old experiment borrowed from Father
Kircher. I take ahen and place it upon this black table
in a sitting position, its head resting on the table. I then
trace a chalk line from the end of its beak, upon which
its eyes are instantly fixed. I remove my hands, and
you seethe hen remains motionless. I can pinch it and
burn it, stillit does not move. If I replace the chalk line
by an electric light, the effect will be still more intense.
This fact is equally noticeable in man, a sudden surprise
ean produce the same effect. I seize the chicken
brusquely and place it rudely upon the table. It is mo-
tionless, hypnotized, Preyer says cataleptic, the word is,
however, of no consequence. The same experiment is
very successful, you also see, with a sparrow. If the bird’s
head be placed beneath his wing, the hypnotic sleep lasts
a very long time.

A Guinea pig can be easily hypnotized. I take one of
these little animals, a female, for M. Laborde has shown
that the experiment is only successful with this sex, and I
extend it brusquely upon its back. You see that it re-
mains as I have placed it without moving, and that it is
insensible, for I pinch it with all my strength.

Here ts another one upon whose ears I hang some bril-
liant bits of steel. It turns its head from side to side to
look at them, and now has fallen asleep so soundly that I
cannot wake it. I fire a pistol so close to its ear that its
moustache is singed, but it does not move.

These animals are hypnotised ; their condition consists
in a total loss of sensibility. But they are not asleep, they
do not dream, they are not somnambulists.

Hypnotism can be produced in almost any one who
makes himself perfectly passive. But if you experiment
upon one of those persons whom we call hysterical you
will obtain quite a different condition. The same means
bring you to artzfictal somnambulism. The difference
in the subject produces the difference in the effects. Here
it is that M. Charcot’s experiments and the Salpétriére
investigations begin, in which I was kindly permitted to
assist.

I must first of all tell you what_a hysterical subject is
and what constitutes the principal phenomena she pre-
sents, for we shall see that her condition of Somnam-

272 SCIENCE.

bulism is a mere modification, sometimes a simple repro- ”

duction of them.

A hysterical woman at first sight cannot be distin-
guished from any other, unless we except a rather
strange expression of face and a peculiarity of dress.
These persons always cover themselves with several loud
colors which do not harmonize in the least. I shall soon
tell you the reason of this.

The first thing to be observed in them is avesthesta ;
hysterical women are sometimes paralyzed on one side of
the body and. sometimes on both. They can then be
pierced with long needles without feeling anything what-
ever, and fall into all sorts of singular errors as one side
of their body seems to be dead. They do not know
where their arms or legs are unless they look at them.
Sometimes they allow themselves to be burned without
percieving it. One day, a hysterical patient at La
Salpétriére found a hole in the stocking she was about
putting on. She sewed it up, and walked about all day.
On going to bed that night she was unable to remove
the stocking, and on calling for help it was discovered
that she had sewed it to her foot.

A French physician, M. Bureq, has shown that the
application of metal to the insensible parts render them
sensible. This is called metallo-therapy, and singu-
larly encugh, the committee who examined this phenom-
enon affirmed that while sensibility returned to one arm,
for example, it disappeared in the other at precisely the
same point, so that the subject was in no wise bene-
fited. :

Anesthesia of the skin also extends to the other
senses. Hysterical women do not hear well, their sight
is defective and, generally speaking, they are unable to
dis'‘inguish colors; sometimes with one eye and often
with both they are achromatopsic ; everything looks gray
to them. Their senses are therefore in a state similar to
sleep, from which certain exciting influences such as
metals, electricity, etc., can rouse them~ temporarily.

Their muscles are frequently paralyzed. There is
nothing in fact, more common than a hysterical paralytic.
Sometimes the muscles are violently contracted, and re-
main thus for years. An intense emotion can suddenly
stop the paralysis in contraction. I need not tell you how
this is achieved.

These contractions also, can be induced easily. It is
only necessary to rudely sieze the arm of a hysterical
woman and it will remain contracted in whatever position
you place it. In short, these people have periodical attacks
in which they reproduce nearly everything that we can
obtain from them by magnetism.

When a hysterical woman is about to have cne of these
attacks, the first thing,she experiences is a certain un-
easiness and discomfort, as though a ball rose from her
stomach and remained stuck in her throat. This is
nothing more than muscular contraction of the ceso-
phagus. Suddenly, she utters a loud cry and falls back-
wards. Her eyes roll wildly and a sort of foam appears
upon her lips. Simultaneously, her arms are violently ex-
tended and her clenched hands turned towards the inside.
The entire body becomes as rigid as in an attack of Te-
tanus. Then the patient utters a prolonged scream,
bends her body in the form of an arch in such a way that
her weight is sustained solely upon the head and heels.
This period is succeeded by all kinds of disordered moye-
ments which last from two to three minutes. Then con-
traction begins. Sometimes the whole body contracts,
sometimes only a portion. In this way, the contraction
of the arms frequently places the patient in the attitude of
the crucifixion and this last generally for days accom-
panied by complete insensibility. Then intervenes a
period of repose. One would say that it was all over and
that the patient slept. But indeed itis but the beginning
of the final and most interesting period of all, the ecstasy
which M. Charcot has termed adtztudes passtonnelles.
The patient absolutely ignorant of all her surroundings,

neither perceiving sound or light, begins to follow out a.
dream which has the peculiarity of being always the same

and is the reproduction of some event, or series of events,
belonging to her existence. My friend M. Bourneville,
physician to L’Hospice de Bicétre, and myself have pub-
lished a book wherein all these facts are minutely de-
scribed. It is called the Sconographic photographique
de la Salpétrtere and compmises the entire study of
hysteria as wellas Somnambulism. The descriptions are
completed by a series of pictures produced by an instan-
taneous photographic process, and these I shall now pro-
ceed to show you.

In the aftztudes passionnelles, the hysterical patient is
really a spontaneous and automatic somnambulist. You
will now understand why it will be so easy presently to
put her in a condition of artificialSomnambulism. I will
show you some attztudes passtonnelles. The. patient
sees some frightful object as you may imagine by her
terrified position. But see, her features relax and here
we have religious ecstasy. Once more the scene changes
to give way to this when she keeps time to music which
she thinks she hears.

The young girl represented in these photographs has
been subject to these attacks for six years. Her hallu-
cination or dream has never changed in a single detail,
and there are a hundred more precisely like her in Paris.

Gentlemen, you will probatly ask if this terrible dis-
ease, so much talked of at the present day, is new—if
it is a production of this “nervous century,” if I may so
express myself, or whether it is of ancient date. My re-
ply is a simple one. Hysteria is as old as humanity it-
self. No matter how far back you may travel in the
history of the world, you will always find it. What, in-
deed, were the pythonesses, the ancient sibyls, the sor-
ceresses and possessed of the middle ages, if not som-
nambulists and hysterical women? The descriptions of
their paroxysms cannot leave us in doubt, for their char-
acteristics are plainly shown. Do we not know that they
were pricked and burned without being aware of it.
And did not this very fact prove that the devil had set
his stamp upon them, and did it not invariably result
in their being butchered alive? Better still, painting as-
sists us to form a vivid impression of these attacks. Look
at the “ possessed’ which figure in the works of Rubens,
Raphael, Jordaens and Breughel, and you will immedi-
ately recognize the attitudes which I have just shown
you in the photographs. Here are some copies of these
famous pictures. Look at them and see if you can doubt
for a moment.

This long diversion,I have made purposely, that you
might fully comprehend the precise ground upon which
we stand. ‘The means employed to produce Hypnotism
can induce hysterical manifestations similar to those pro-
duced spontaneously. These manifestations are artzfictzal
Somnambulism, Catalepsy and Auiomaizsm.

To provoke Somnambulism requires a very simple
mode of operation. It is the same as that employed to
induce Hypnotism. You can make the person fix her
eyes upon a bright object. Ordinarily, however, you
seat yourself directly in frcnt of her and tell her to look
at you steadily. After a minute or two has elapsed, you
see her eyes assume a vague expression, then fill with
tears, and finally, in a short time, varying from a minute
to a quarter of an hour, according to the subject, they
close, the head falls and sometimes a little foam appears
upon the lips. Sleep is produced, real sleep accompan-
ied by total loss of sensibility. This is, therefore, more
than Hypnotism. '

If the subject is restless, her thumbs can be held in the
closed hand. As for passes, I have always observed that
they retard the sleep instead of promoting it. M. Richet,
on the contrary, places great faith in these movements.

You see, gentlemen, that nothing can be more simple.
A little patience the first few times and the thing is done.
There is no fluid, be it understood ; the magwetzzer has

Here again the subject alone is the agent,

SCIENCE. 273

nothing individually to do with the phenomenon. All | and sleep is produced subjectively and without the inter-

that takes place originates with the swdzect whose brain
is actually annihilated and brought to such a condition
that any dream can be provoked by suggestzon. We
have in fact, an automaton similar to that which I called

- your attention to in Natural Somnambulism, only while

the latter merely obeys the impulse of memory, the

former is subject to our will. ;
Hypnotism can also be produced by simply placing

the thumbs gently upon the closed eyelids of the sub-

- ject, allowing the hands in the meanwhile to rest upon

his temples and press upon the eye-balls. This
process is very effectual with some subjects. A person
accustomed to be hypnotized can be put into the condi-
tion by having some one shout suddenly and authorita-
tively in his ear, ‘Sleep! A theatrical gesture accom-
panying the command makes it more effective. The
Abbé Faria, a celebrated charlatan who completely mys-
tified the world about twenty years ago, always adopted
this method. The other ways, however, are preferred at
La Salpétriére, and also at Breslau by the well-known
Professor Heidenhaim.

All that I have just said refers to the first experiments
made with subjects. After they have once been hypno-
tized, however, the state can be induced much more
easily. Here it is that Imagination steps in and mounte-
banks are allowed the utmost liberty of action. The
mere idea that he is about to be put to sleep causes the
subject to fall asleep almost immediately, If,in addition,
he is made to think that the operator possesses some
secret influence, or supernatural power, you will soon see
what may happen.

A patient at La Salpétriére, who had firmly persuaded
herself that I had a peculiar influence upon her, fell into
a hypnotic condition every time she saw me, independ-
ent of the locality. She often became hypnotized upon
the staircase or in the middle of the courtyard. One day
some one said to her jokingly that she could be hypnot-
ized simply dy the wld in the midst of a public ceremony
which was to take place a few hours later, and she act-
ually refused to appear on this occasion so fully was she
convinced that what had been mentioned would really
occur. In such cases, the imagination is everything.
The subject alone is responsible for all that happens. A
few examples will make you thoroughly understand what
Imean. I have actually succeeded in persuading patients
that they could not leave the room because I had mag-
netized the door-knobs. They would hesitate for a long
time before approaching them, and ss soon as they
touched them they became hypnotized. Need I tell you
that nothing whatever had been magnetized? This ex-
perience is important, for by means of it we can explain
cases in which the subjects fall into the condition while
drinking a glass of magnettzed water, or while lying
down beneath a magnetized tree.

Magnetic experiments made at a distance belong to the
same category. How often we have read of magnetizers
who have succeeded in putting subjects into a deep sleep
while the former is in one room and the latter in another.
I have fre-
quently tried this experiment. A patient named P—~
was told, “ M. Regnard is in the next room and he is mag-
netizing you.” She would instantly exhibit great uneasi-
ness and then fall into adeep sleep. This even happened
when I was not in the next room or even in France, and
when, I am free to confess, I was thinking of anything
rather than her.

On another occasion I said to a patient that I would
magnetize her at three o’clock in the afternoon, and ten
minutes after making this remark I had forgotten all about

it. On the following day, however, I learned that she
had fallen asleep precisely at three o’clock.

The immense number of absurdities which go to com-
pose magnetizer’s guide books can be explained in this
way. The imagination of the subject is vividly affected

vention of any exterior influence. No matter what man-
ner of Magunetzsm is employed the result is always pre-
cisely the same—the subject remains inert.

Different peculiarities are then observable, the most
important of which is hyper-muscular excitability. In a
normal condition our muscles are very susceptible. Any
violent check causes them to contract, and the same effect
is often produced+by reflex action.

In artificial Somnambulism, the action of the spinal cord
being no longer moderated by the brain which is annihi-
lated. the muscles contract by reflex action beneath the
very smallest influence. - Pass your finger as lightly as
possible over the forearm of a sleeping hysterical woman
and you will immediately perceive muscular contraction.
Charlatans obtain this effect by gently touching the mus-
cles while apparently only making passes. By causing
the muscles of the back to contract subjects can be made
to assume positions which appear incompatible with the
equilibrium. Here are a couple of photographs taken of
two somnambulists. One of them, you see, has her head
thrown back until it nearly touches her waist, while the
other rests with her feet on the back of one chair and the
nape of her neck on the other, her body bent in the form
of an arch. I show you these two positions, so frequently
exhibited by would-be performers of miracles, simply that
I may explain to you how I obtained them.

All the results reached so easily in magnetic sleep are
nothing more than hysterical muscular contraction. This
can be proved by the fact that if the patient is awakened
during this state, the contraction remains indefinitely, and
in order to remove it she must be put to sleep again, and
antagonistic muscles contracted.

The study of this important branch of the subject led
M. Charcot and his students to the investigation. of a
most curious thing, and one which has helped to calm the
fears of people, who, without witnessing the experiments
performed, denounced the whole affair as an imposition.

Gentlemen, there are about two thousand persons in
this room. With the exception of a few physicians who
are present, it is probable that none of you know the action
of the muscles as described by Duchenne, of Boulogne,
nor yet the distribution of the nerves situated in the arm.
Do you believe that a girl who can neither read nor write,
and who comes from the most obscure portion of Brit-
tany, could be versed in the details of this delicate physiol-
ogy? For my part, I do not believeit. If she is an im-
poster, we shall soon discover it. Here she is; let us
hypnotize her, and then excite the cubital nerve at the
elbow, and see if she makes a wild gesture. Not at all;
she merely bends her little finger, the third finger and
thumb. The cubital nerve therefore, only affects these
three fingers. Many medical students of my acquaintance
are ignorant of this fact. Let us now excite the sterno-
mastoid muscle, this diagonal cord which appears upon
the neck when the headis turned. You see, she turns her
head towards the opposite side. Better still, let us excite
the face muscles with this pencil, and you perceive the
same effects appear as were obtained by Duchenne with
electricity, such complex effects, too, that even physiolo-
gists have difficulty in remembering them. If this girl is
only pretending, she is exceedingly clever. I shall have
finished my remarks upon sleep, after having told you that
itis quite possible, at this period, to make the subject rise
and follow you, and utter loud cries, should any one come
between you and her.

The second state which can be produced by Hypnotism
upon hysterical subjects, is Catalepsy, This dzzarrecon-
dition, of which I shall attempt to give you an idea, exists
normally in the patient, and the processes employed only
serve to develop it. Sometimes it appears without any
provocation whatever. Nothing is easier than to make
the subject pass from a sleeping state to a cataleptic one.
It is only necessary to open his eyes suddenly, and he will
then remain as though transfixed. His eyes assume a

274

SCIENCE,

_ set stare, and whatever attitude you cause him to take, he
will remain in indefinitely. He can be placed in the most
trying postures, and he will stay just as you have put him,
and as long as you choose. I have here some photo-
graphs of several people taken while they were in this
state. Youcan see how impossible and extraordinary the
postures appear, and how they can be maintained fora
great length of time. I may say, however, that nothing
can be easier than than this kind of photography. The
subjects never make the slightest movement, and it is
even pretended that the celebrated sculptors of antiquity
made use of cataleptics as their models. This may not
be true, but it is quite possible.

There are other ways of inducing Catalepsy. Do you
recollect the process generally employed to produce sleep ?
It was the sight of a brilliant object, or the prolonged
noise of a monotonous sound. The same means are
physically made use of to induce catalepsy. Let us sup-
pose, for instance, thata hysterical subject is made to
listen to the prolonged vibrations of a single octave
struck upon the piano. Nothing is .more irritating than
this monotonous sound. The subject rapidly falls into a
cataleptic state, and singularly enough, remains in it as
long as the octave. is struck. As soon as the sound
ceases however, the catalepsy disappears.

What is thus produced by a sound can also be caused
by intense light. Here are a few subjects whom I will
place directly in front of this electric light. You see they
become cataleptic instantly. If the light is extinguished
you perceive they will fall backwards into a non-catalep-
tic sleep. A sudden noise or an instantaneous flash of
light can produce the phenomena equally well. I re-
member witnessing a curious scene one day at La Sal-
pétriére. It was during some public ceremony, and a
military band was playing in the court yard of the estab-
lishment. One of the patients under the care of M.
Charcot listened to the music with the most intense
delight. ‘Suddenly there came a clash from the brass
instruments which made us all tremble, but the patient
fell into a cataleptic state and had to be carried from the
room. A short time after another patient went during
a holiday toa concert. No doubt on that occasion the
musicians performed some “ music of the future,” for the
patient suddenly fell into a cataleptic condition, and had
to be removed.

It is very easy to reproduce these phenomena. It can
be done by beating a Chinese gong unexpectedly in the
subject’s presence. You all know what a disagreeable
sound itis. The patient makes a gesture of fright and
remains rooted to the spot in a state of catalepsy. A
sudden explosion of gunpowder is equally effective. I
must tell you however, gentlemen, that this last experi-
ment has its disadvantages. Catalepsy produced in this
way often terminates with an attack of hysteria. On
one occasion it was followed by a sort of frenzy which
lasted five days and then stopped spontaneously.

While in a state of catalepsy the subject is not cogni-
zant of his surrcundings. He neither sees nor hears,
neither does he speak, differing in this latter respect
from the somnambulist or hypnotic subject. The mus-
cles, moreover, are not hyper-excitable. It is singular,
however, that while in this condition it is exceedingly
easy to provoke automatism by suggestzon. Take for
instance a cataleptic subject. Place him in an attitude
expressive of anger, love, expectation or prayer. His
face will immediately assume the expression required to
complete the effect.

The second degree of automatism is a little more com-
plicated, and will recall to your mind the effect obtained
with somnambulists when an idea suggested to them
produces others. Veritable hallucinations can be formed
in this way.

To obtain this result, place yourself in front of a sub-
ject who is ina cataleptic state and endeavor to attract

his attention. This is the. difficult point inasmuch
as nearly all his senses are annulled. When you
have succeeded, however, make a motion for example, as
if you were trying to catch a bird. This gesture will im-
mediately suggest an idea to the subject and be followed
by a series of conceptions. The catalepsy ceases in-
stantly and is succeeded by automatism. The subject
rises, begins to run rapidly. His mind gradually wakens,
a dream commences and generally speaking nothing is
more curious than to watch its development. Sometimes
he appears to be fleeing from a serpent, at others from
an apparition, and so real do the hallucinations appear to
him, that he would dash through a glass door or out
of a window while attempting to escape from: or follow
his illusion. I may add that if the act suggested be
quickly realized, the subject will repeat it indefinitely. If
1 place a cake of soap in his hands he will go through
the motion of washing them interminably. One patient
that I had continued for three hours and would have
gone on still longer had I not stopped him,

I have shown you how you must proceed to induce the
condition. Now I must tell you how to dismiss it. It is
very simple. Magnetizers make passes, physicians
merely tap the subject’s cheek lightly with their fingers,
or sprinkle a few drops of water upon the face. I must
also tell you that it is not desirable or prudent to allow
the state to continue for a long time. Two subjects I
have seen nearly died in consequence cf remaining ina
cataleptic condition twenty-four hours. Respiration
nearly ceased, the heart beat almost imperceptibly and
asphyxia followed. Death, undoubtedly was not far off.

Gentlemen, I am done. I have told you all that I know,
all that I have seen in regard to this famous anzmadl mag-
netzsm. I have said nothing, however, about reading
with bandaged eyes or by means of second sight, nor
have I spoken of divination or the art of curing disease
by magnetism. Such things have no place in Science.
They are not mentioned at Sorbonne. Our asylums of
Bicétre and Charenton, or our court-rooms seem to me
the only places where they may be discussed from time to
time.

After all it is not, perhaps, astonishing that such
b¢zarres, physiological facts as those I have just demon-
strated, should have tempted charlatans and deceived
imbeciles. : fe

Before I leave you, gentlemen, let me tell you what J
fear and what I wish.

I fear that while speaking to you so earnestly about
sleep I have performed my best experiment. Do you
recollect >—words succeeding words like the monotonous
tic-tac of a clock, and only when the sound ceases does
the audience awake with a start.

But away with this fatal thought, and allow me to tell
you what I wish. I hope that I have succeeded in con-
vincing you that all the astounding facts connected. with
Magnetism and Somnambulism are merely pathological
exaggerations, diseases of sleep. That they are absol-
utely determined, that they can be produced when and -
how we choose upon particular subjects, without any
magnetic fluid and without the aid of superior or super-
natural forces. If I have persuaded you upon these

points, I have destroyed one of the most laughable su-_ .

perstitions which still exist in the world, and this evening
cannot be considered as thrown away as concerns either
you or me. For my part, I shall always look upon it as
one of the happiest and most profitable of my life.

Vo.ta’s BArrery.—To render Volta’s battery constant
and depolarized, Count Mocenigo fixes twelve couples with
their elements on a horizontal axis, a trough of acidulated
water having twelve compartments is then brought up by a
lever motion so as to cover a good third’ of the surface of
the battery, and a rotatory movement is communicated to
the axis,

SCIENCE.

a a a a

FOSSIL ORGANISMS IN METEORITES.*
- By GEO. W. RACHEL.

Dr. Hahn’s work, of . which “SCIENCE” gave a short
“notice in its last issue, promises to revolutionize many
views which have heretofore been believed to be firmly
and irrevocably established. _ It is not at all necessary to
accept all the conclusions and agree with all the various
lines of reasoning, into which the author has been led by
~ his results, but nobody will fail to perceive the portentous
"meaning of the results with which his untiring efforts in
~ this important matter have been rewarded.

There has been formerly a manifest tendency to belittle
~ small things and apparently insignificant phenomena, and
bestow the greatest attention on those matters which im-
’ press the observer by their magnitude. Modern science
has done away considerably with this erroneous method
- and has taught us that it is the little things which achieve
great results in nature, as a rule. To this class of phe-
nomena, which has been habitually underrated until a
comparatively recent time, belong the meteorites, shooting
stars and meteoric dust generally. Chladni’s view that
they fall from the skies, pronounced in 1795, was ridiculed
by the learned men of the times. One member of a com-
mittee sent by the French Academy to investigate the fall
of a meteorite in the neighborhood of L’Aigle, Le Luc,
declared that he would really be forced to believe what
the people who witnessed the fall said, if he did not know
that such a thing was w¢derly zmposszble.

It was not long, however, until the celestial origin of
these bodies was universally recognized, several other
falls of large meteorites occurring during the first decade
of the present century, which could no longer be explained
away. After this various stones that were known to have
fallen upon the earth were examined and described, anda
good many more which were recognized to be of celestial
origin.
investigated has gradually become very large. _ Kessel-
mayer, in his great work on the subject, describes 647
distinct falls.

It is not now necessary to recall’ the several results
of these investigations, nor to describe the peculiar
properties of meteorites on which the resemblances and
differences between those celestial minerals and our ter-
restial rocks are based. Suffice it to state that between
the two types which have been recognized, viz: those
consisting exclusively of iron, and those which are com-
posed of certain silicious minerals, such as Auzyite,
Bronzite, Olivine, Anorthite and other Feldspars, there
are all the possible combinations of both; the ferrous
meteorites predominate, however, those with a consider-
able percentage of silicious constituents being compara-
tively rare, and the purely silicious still more so.

It is the latter, the silicious material, which has been
examined with such remarkable results by Dr. Hahn.
This occurs usually in light-colored spherical or pear-
shaped masses (xovdpol) similar to the nests of crystals
(druses) which are a well-known occurrence in crystal-
line rocks. These peculiar forms consist principally of
Bronzite and Enstatite, which to the naked eye show an
appearance graphically described by Kesselmayer twenty
years ago.

Prof. Giimbel, of Munich, in a report made to the
Royal Bavarian Academy of Sciences has described
them, on the basis of Kesselmayer’s book and his own
researches, as follows:

“ Longitudinal sections show columns and fibres, com-
posed of small polyhedra, which in cross sections look
like irregular polygons. These polygons often show a
sort of radiating arrangement in their interior, issuing
from what appears to be an ill-defined nucleus; this nu-

* Hahn, O. Die Meteorite (Chondrite) and ihre Organismen; Laupp;
Tiibingen, 1881, with 32 photolithographic plates,

The number of all the various specimens thus’

275

cleus seems to have been changing its place gradually,
for the radii show an irregularity such as would be pro-
duced by such change of site. The fibres, for that is
what these structures look like, are not of equal size
throughout, but taper off into points and occasionally
even send off branches. This is especially visible in
cross-sections where one set is apparently replaced by
others, these in turn by others, and so on. All the fibres
consist, as has been stated, of_a light centre, and a dark
enclosing substance.”

This description was given in 1878, and it certainly
reads like what Hahn has proved it to be: foss¢l organ-
zsms [

This successful amateur, for such he was before he
succeeded in gaining his present reputation by his. partici-
pation in the debate on the ‘“Zozdon canadense,” and then
resigned his government position to pursue this peculiar
line of research at his leisure—this “ Gerichts-Referen-
darius, a D.” has by an ingenious application of the
comparatively new method of making transparent sec-
tions of these meteorites accomplished results-of which
many a specialist might be proud. In order to exclude
the error to which human vision and draughtsmanship
might be liable, he has prepared photographic reproduc-
tions of his specimens, and on 32 excellent plates he pre-
sents the scientific world with 142 of these highly inter-
esting preparations. Most of the fossil structures thus
revealed belong to the animal world, indeed, Hahn him-
self professes that he is unable to find evidences of veg-
etable organisms ; these, however, since the appearance
of his work in February, have been recognized by Prof.
Karsten, of Schaffhausen, Switzerland, in sections pre-
pared by him from a portion of the very meteorite in his
possession which has furnished a considerable number
of Hahn’s specimens. Two of these Prof. Karsten has
drawn, and the cuts are published in an exhaustive
paper on Hahn’s book, together with his own observa-
tions and those of others on this very subject in the Ger-
man Journal ‘‘ Die Natur,” edited by Mr. Karl Mueller,
of Halle, Prussia.

As to the genuineness of Dr. Hahn’s discovery there
can be no possible doubt, and it has been generally ad-
mitted—reluctantly by some, it is true—that these
“Chondrites” consist almost exclusively of fossil organ-
isms. Dr, D. F, Weinland, a member of the Academy of
Sciences, of Philadelphia, where he formerly resided, has
also published a review of Hahn’s book in the “ Aus-
land,” edited by Friedrich Von Hellwald, of Tiibingen,
Wurtemberg, in which he states that by the kindness of
the author he has had the opportunity of examining
these specimens, and although this examination has not
given exactly the same results in regard to the determin-
ation of the particular kind of organism, he cheerfully
admits that they are organisms, and this fact will not be
doubted by any one who scans the plates published by
Dr. Hahn.

In a postscript to this review, Dr. Weinland informs
the reader that the author has entrusted to him the diffi-
cult task of classifying all the fossil organisms in more
than three hundred of his specimens—of which Hahn
has prepared over six hundred—and Dr. Weinland who 1s
a competent naturalist, gives a few of his preliminary re-
sults. He compares the material which these sections
display to the detritus of which the youngest coral lime
and sandstone (coralline crag) consist such as is found
on the shores of the Mexican Gulf. He furthermore
states that complete forms are rarely found, but that the
material is sufficiently abundant to construct many com-
plete species, in the manner usually applied to fossil re-
mains.

The number of the various species of polypi, crinoids
spongiz and algiz which are united by a silicious mater-
ial, Dr. Weinland estimates after a cursory examination
at about fifty.

One of the corals is set down by various observers as

276

SCIENCE.

_ resembling to the Favosztes Goldfussz * from the Siluri-
an Grauwacke, another is compared to the Calamopora
Naumannz from the same strata. ,

The structure of these corals is excellently preserved ;

- the columnar structure, the stomata, the rays in the cells,
‘indicating the partitions between the columns in cross-
sections, in short, all the various parts can be perfectly
well demonstrated.

Of Spongiz Dr. Weinland has already determined
three different genera, Of a peculiar bluish-colored
sponge he says he could draw a perfect picture, so num-

- erous are the various longitudinal and cross-sections in
which it occurs, it would be as easy as it would be to
draw it from a living sponge.

Algz have also been recognized as foiming part of
this intricate network of fossils. Dr. Weinland has deter-
mined several as belonging to the Cocconeis, while Prof.
Karsten describes others belonging to the genera, Lef-
tothrix, Leptomitus and Hysterophyma. (The latter
gentleman reminds the reader of the fact, that Reinsch
has lately demonstrated the existence of these and other
Algz in coal, some of his specimens containing as much
as twenty per cent of such organisms.

But what is the most interesting feature of all the or-
ganisms thus ingeniously and unexpectedly brought to
light in meteorites is their Lilliputian size. The coral-
tree, above referred to as a Favosztes, presents itself to
the naked eye as a white spot on the section, not larger
than a pin’s head. Its greatest diameter measures nine-
tenths of a millimeter, and the single cells not more than
about five one-hundreths of a millimeter. All the other
organisms detected show the same pygmean propor-
tions, the spiculae of sponges. for instance, being abso-
lutely indefinable to the naked eye.

The origin and formation of these celestial foss'ls could
not possibly have been different from what we know it
to be with our terrestrial specimens. They tell us of a
planet, on which aquatic life was sufficiently developed
to produce them and to preserve them after death by a
process of infiltration with silicious material, which dis-
solved the lime of which these structures must have con-
“sisted as far as their inorganic constituents are con-
cerned, and supplanted it by the various kinds of silicious
minerals, filling up also the interstices and openings
which had formerly contained organic substance. This
planet, therefore, must have had a comparatively long
period of existence; it must have had an atmosphere and
its surface must in whole, or in part, have been covered
by water. What the cause has been of its destruction
and its utter disintegration we are, certainly, unable to
tell; but the meteoric stones which formed part of it
have happily crossed the orbit of our planet and thus en-
abled us to divine its history, at least in part.

In connection with this subject, it may not be amiss to
give a short synopsis of the history of our knowledge of
organic constituents in meteoric stones.

The first to detect the existence of organic substance
in meteorites was the great Woehler. In the meteorite
which fell on April 17th, 1857, near Kaba in Hungaria,
he found unmistakable traces—while analyzing it—of a
combination of Carbon and Hydrogen. Then the fact
was remembered that on Oct. 13th, 1835, a fire ball had
exploded in the neighborhood of Bokkeveld, Cape Col-
ony, scattering a great number of soft, black stones over
the fields, weighing, as far as could be judged, several
hundred pounds. These stones emitted a strong am-
moniacal smell and were found to be impregnated with
water and bitumen. Woehier obtained one of these
meteoric stones and found that it contained, besides one
and two-thirds per cent of carbon, a quarter of one per
cent of organic matter proper.

* A drawing of this fossil ccral is given by ‘Dana in his Textbook on

Geology, on page’111. (Ed. 1868.)

_ Referring to this discovery, Friedrich Mohr* wrote,
sixteen years ago:

“This is sufficient proof that there was present in this
meteorite a carbo-hydrate similar to our ozocerite, idria-
lite, seberrerite, mineral wax, etc. According to our ter-
restrial experience we must therefore conclude that on
the planet of which they formed part, there must have
existed organisms, at least plants, which are the real
cause of the many deoxidized combinations which we
find in meteorites. The existence of plants would evi-
dently condition the presence of free oxygen, which does
not speak against the presence of these products of de-
oxidation, since the plants themselves require oxygen for
completing their cycle, in so far as they are ultimately
(by decomposition), re-transformed into carbonic acid,
without which condition a long, unbroken chain of veg-
etable life would be inconceivable, But the water must
be liquid in order to act, and this implies that this planet
must have had a certain size to enableit to be sufficiently
warmed by the sun. The small meteorites, as they come
to us, must in spite of their being exposed to the sun’s
rays, have the temperature of cosmic space, since they
are, just as are high mountain peaks, too insignificant to
become heated by insolation alone. Only an enlarge-
ment of size enables a celestial body to develop heat
enough to produce a warm atmosphere. This circum-
stance supports strongly the view, that meteorites have
not been formed independently, but that they have
formed part of a larger body, on which processes, sim-
ilar to those obtained on our planet, have been going
on.

This is certainly interesting reading to-day, knowing
as we do that the planet in question has also been an
abode of animal life.

Other meteorites containing organic substances have
been recorded since then. Thus at Orgueil, France,
1864; at Knyahinya, Hungary, June 9, 1866. This phe-
nomenon is the most important since very many of the
most convincing specimens, prepared by Dr. Hahn, have
been obtained from a stone weighing 27 lbs., which
formed part of the 600 Ibs. that fell in that particular
locality on that day.

The most curious meteoric shower, however, was ob-
served in 1870 in Sweden. Black pieces, consisting al-
most exclusively of mold, descended ona snow-field, and
could thus be easily collected. Mold is always the result
of some organic process, and living particles play the effi-
cient part in its production.

Since bacteria are known to be able to withstand a tem-
perature of —100° C, without losing vitality, the Thomp-
son—Richter hypothesis of the propagation of life through
the universe in this manner becomes almost a tangible
reality. But, we forbear! The perspective opened by
Dr. Hahn’s discovery is too grand to be discussed in the
brief space, allowed this notice. It is only to be regretted
that the favored discoverer seems inclined to tamper with
his good fortune in so far as he draws conclusions from
his newly established facts which few will be willing to
admit. He thinks,it possible that the formation of living
matter may have begun in cosmic space, that cells were
developed from Chaos anda certain vegetative process
could have gone on in the gaseous and liquid masses supr
posed to have been the formative matter of. our sola-
system, etc. Prof. Karsten is even of the opinion that
meteorites might form in the upper strata of our atmos-
phere. As proof he adduces the few recorded showers of
polygonal hail-stones and especially the two cases of ice-
meteorites. On May 28th, 1892, there fell near Puztem-
ischel, Hungary, a block of ice weighing 1200lbs. and Hayne
in his “ Tracts historical and statistical on India” reports
the fact that near Seringapatam a mass of ice fell from
heaven, as large as an elephant, which took, in spite of
the tremendous heat, over two days to melt.

* Geschichte der Erde, 1866, p. 500,

SCIENCE. (277

If we should be asked.our opinion as to what the origin
of these ice-meteorites may have been, we should be in-
clined to answer that they are very probably a small part
of the collections of water (oceans?) which, we know,
must have existed on the disintegrated planet to which
our stone and iron-meteorites once belonged.

The various theories which have been held to explain
certain well-known facts about meteoric bodies, notably
Schiaparelli's ingenious hypothesis connecting comets
with meteorites, the fact that most comets give a spec-
trum, closely resembling that.of carbon, and many others

will have to be revised in the light of this discovery, andit

may be safely claimed that Dr. Hahn’s book will prove to
_be one: of the most important contributions to natural
science of the present time.

——— ~» —-— —_

ASTRONOMY.

Prof. Mark W. Harrington, of Ann Arbor Observatory,
announces, jn a private letter to the editor, the varia-
bility of star D. M. + 0° .2910, the position of which for
1855.0 is

A. R. 12h. 6m. 28.4s. Decl. + 0° 23.5’

It reached its minimum on May 22 or 23, when it was of
the magnitude of D. M. + 0° .2914, which is given by
Argelander as 8.7, It is now increasing in brightness at
the rate ofa tenth ofa magnitudeaday. Thestar, in the
same right ascension and in 15’ south cf the variable

“(D. M. + o° .2911), is of a fine orange color, and should

be put inthe list of red stars.

Observers desiring informaticn, charts, or comparison
stars, for use in observing the variable, will be cheerfully
assisted by Prof. Harrington or the editor.

M. Eugene Bleck, of the Observatory of Odessa, Rus-
sia, has communicated the following observations and
elements of Comet (a), 1881, Swift:

Odessa M. T. App. @. App. ¢.
1881 A MOU SS > HAIRS S, Facil ow
May 4 14 5015 O15 26.53 + 33 25 3.7

5 14 28 12 019 1.00 + 32 24 36.7
“7 Ag 36° 2 «0° 2635.05. +30 15 5.9
ELEMENTS.

T = 1881, May 20.8294.

7 = 299 47 53
2 = 123 59 25
Ci 9e 550. O
log. 9 = 9.76570.
The cor parison with the middle place gives
Obs.—c¢, dAcos. B = — "24"

éB=+ of 2 \

Careful search has been made at Boston, at Cambridge
by Mr. Wendell, at Clinton, N. Y., by Prof. Peters, and
by others, for Barnard’s Comet, but without success.

SCIENCE OBSERVER,

Spectal Circular No. 13.
BosTon, June 2, 1881.

——————

UNDERGROUND WIRES IN Paris.—The Municipal Coun-
cil of this city are contemplating adding to their funds by
taxing wires placed in the sewers. The proposed tax will
be 2ofr. per kilometre up to 500, 30fr. from 5c0 to 1,000,
4ofr. from 1,000 to 1,500, and so on, with an increase of
ofr. for each 5co kilometres. Z’Electricité says that the
number of kilometres of wire placed in the sewers being
about 7,000, the Compagnie des Téléphones will have to
pay something like 59,500fr. It adds that the company
make no objection to this tax,

BOOKS RECEIVED, .

SECOND REPORT OF THE UNITED STATES ENTOMOLO-
GICAL COMMISSION, for the years 1878 and 1879, re-
lating to the Rocky Mountain Locust, and the West-
ern Cricket, etc., with illustrations, Washington 1880.

This volume will be read with interest by naturalists,
and the facts and-statistics relating to the ravages of lo-
custs, and the laws and characteristics governing their mi-
grations are very complete.

The interesting chapter entitled “The Brain of the
Locust”’ opens with these lines. ‘In order to appreciate
the habits, migratory, reproductive, etc., of the locust, and
to learn something of its general intelligence as an insect,
and as compared with other insects, it is necessary for us
to study with a good deal of care the organ of the locust’s
mind, zt. é., its nervous system, comprising its nervous
centres and the nerves arising from them. The present
chapter will be devoted to a study of the brain.”

It may be confidently affirmed that with methods far
subtler and reasoning much more profound, than any em-
ployed by the author of this chapter, we shall always fail
to find in the structure of the nervous system any explana-
tion of the migratory and reproductive or of any. other
habits as Aaézts in any animal. A large wing-ganglion
means a flying insect—of course, a large optic ganglion
means that vision is a powerful sense in the animal in
which it is found ; an atropic olfactory bulb, in man the
monkeys and seals, means that the sense of smell does
not play so important a role in these animals as in the fox,
dog, lion, camel and opossum, where the bulb is large.
The preponderance of the brachial enlargement of the
cord in the mole and bat is related to the preponderance
of the anterior extremities over the posterior in these ani-
mals, but it no more serves to explain the difference in
psychical habits existing between the two, nay it does so
to a less degree even than the external structure. There
are species of locusts which are not migratory and a study
of their brains should be made if Mr. Packard wishes to
draw inferences as to habits from the cerebral struc-
ture ; in other words, if he would trace out the line of de-
marcation between a ‘‘migratory”’ and a “ non-migra-
tory” brain.

We believe that the clause in question has been in-
serted with the purpose of indicating that there zs a con-
nection between the chapter it opens and the general
purposes of the Report. Ifso, if it was the writer’s ob-
ject to lead the lay mind to look upon his paper as
pointing cut methods by which, through a careful pur-
suit of the logical lines and the ratiocination passing
through the cells or nerve-tracts of the locust’s nervous
system, we should in course of time be enabled to over-
reach and anticipate him by our superior reasoning power,
in amanner comparable to that followed by a detective
shadowing a forger, we can only say that it might have
been omitted. Science needs no apology and the
excellent plates accompanying this part of the Report
alone justify the expense incurred by Government in get-
ting them up.

We consider it unfortunate that in a chapter not likely
to be perused by the lay reader at all, so much matter of
a semi-popular character should have been included. — It
is the attempt to popularize the distinction between the
brain of insects and of vertebrates (p. 224) that has led
Mr. Packard to the commission of actual errors. Thus
speaking of the nervous system of vertebrates, he says:
“ The gray matter is situated in the centre and consists
Jargely of nerve or so-called ‘ganglion cells,’ while the
external white matter of the brain or cord is composed
of a mass of nerve fibres.” This is correct only as ap-
plying to the very lowest vertebrates ; in man, the mam-
malia and reptilia, the gray matter is more or less near
the surface, in some centers altogether cor¢zca/, while the
white matter is internal, Mr, Packard adds, as another

278

SCIENCE.

discrimination : “‘ moreover the entire brain of an insect
is white, as are all the ganglia.”

On page 226, he says that the outer part of the brain
is made up of a “slightly darker, usually pale grayish,
white portion ’’—, where the tissue consists of small gan-
glion cells, it is naturally rather darker than
in those regions where the tissue consists of the more
loosely disposed, large ganglion cells.”

So that we have a fundamental contradiction in refer-
ence to an alleged fundamental distinction, quite aside
from the notorious fact that in the lowest vertebrates the
nervous system is as ‘‘white”’ as in insects, and that the
convoluted “mushroom” body or “cerebrum”’ of the
ant contains sharply demarcated gray and white sub-
stances.

The chapter is accompanied, as stated, by plates of
great value, most of these being fac similes of sections
prepired by Mr. Norman J. Mason. On the whole,
nothing new is added to our knowledge of the adult in-
sectean brain in general, or the locust’s in particular, that
has not been carefully reported by Floegel, Newton and
Michels. But through the great patience ard skill of Mr.
Mason, Professor Packard has been enabled to study sec-
tions from the embryo brain, a subject not yet worked up,
owing to the difficulty of preparing the specimens. The
most important results obtained is that the nerve-fibres
develop from an originally finely granular substance,
thus confirming the observations of Schmidt and Hensen
for the mammalian embryo.

In view of the loudly trumpeted theory recently revived
by Dr. J. J. Mason, after having repeatedly received the
coup de grace at the hands of Stieda, Meynert and others,
that large cells are motor, it is interesting to note that
those of the optic ganglion in the locust are among the
largest cells in its nervous system. RoMeNS:

——_—_$_$___<¢_______—

CORRESPONDENCE.

The Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed
by his correspondents. No notice is taken of anonymous communi-
cations. |

To the Editor of ‘* SCIENCE.”

Limax maximas L. A specimen of this slug was
brought me May 16. It came through a faucet con-
“nected with the water works. Being an introduced
species and not frequently found, this fact may be of
interest.

Polygala pancifolia, wild. Specimens with pure white
flowers have been sent from Lunenburg, Mass., two
years in succession. J. H. PILLSBURY.

SPRINGFIELD, May 27, 1881.

SPECTRUM ANALYSIS.

At a meeting of the Royal Astronomical Society held
on the 13th of May, Mr. Norman Lockyer asked permis-
sion to offer the following address. He said:

“The chemical constitution of the heavenly bodies is
one that demands some attention from astronomers.
Twenty years ago the observations of Kirchoff and Stokes
enabled us to get some glimpses into the chemical con-
stitution of the sun. Kirchoff’s view was that substances
with which we are acquainted exist in the atmosphere of
the sun, and that their presence was demonstrated by an
exact matching both with respect to wave-length and in-
tensity of the lines of certain chemical elements. Before
his time Frauenhofer had noted the coincidence of the
bright yellow line of sodium with the D line in the solar
spectrum, but Kirchoff showed that also in the case of
iron, magnesium, cobalt and several other substances
there were coincidences between lines, which went to
show that what was true with respect to sodium was true
with respect to these other bodies. Nine years ago, we had
not merely the opportunity of comparing these bright
lines in the spectrum of the sun’s atmosphere, as revealed

to Frauenhofer, but we had the opportunity of studying
the spectra obtained from very small portions of the sun’s
atmosphere, in regions where we should expect an exceed-
ingly high temperature —namely, in the regions of spots
and in the regions of prominences, When we began to
examine these spectra, we found that the lines were
thickened, and the question appeared much less clear
than it did before. Of 460 iron lines recorded by Kirchoff,
only three were observed in the prominences, and these
were not the lines that were seen thickened in spots; so
that a great many fresh questions were raised, and the
idea of the decomposition of the iron by the high tem-
perature was forced upon us. I wish to bring before you
to night the results of some purely astronomical inquiries,
lately undertaken by the Solar Physics Committee with
respect to the behavior of the lines in the spectra of spots
and prominences. We had before us the admirable work
undertaken by Prof. Young in 1872, on the spectra of the
prominences; but his observations only lasted for a
month, and we felt that we wanted more facts, so what
we have been doing at Kensington during the last two
and a half years, has been to obtain and tabulate the
spectra of a hundred sunspots, and these we have com-
pared with the Italian observations of prominence
lines. It was impossible to note and map down
the behavior of all the lines in the spot spectra.
The Committee, therefore, attempted something which
was more modest, and contented themselves with ob-
serving twelve lines in the most easily visible part
of the spectrum, between F and D (pinned to the black-
board was a diagram with the spectra observed placed
one beneath the other, at the top were the iron lines of
the Frauenhofer spectrum stated by Angstrom to be co-
incident with the bright lines of iron). The first point
which strikes one on examining this diagram is the enor-
mous number of iron lines, both in the solar spectrum
and in the iron spectrum, as mapped by Angstrom, who
used an electric arc of thirty or more Bunsen cells. They
remind one of a great piano, only a few notes of which
are played over and over again in the spot spectra, but
always producing a different tune. If you examine the
lines individually, you will find that every line has been
seen with every other line. Oneis struck by the mar-
vellous individuality, so to speak, of each. The lines do
not go in battalions, or companies, or corporal’s files, but
in single units. The great importance of obtaining these
observations is not so much for the observations them-
selves, as for the comparison they enable us to make
with the observations of the lines in prominences, be-
cause the prominences are hotter than the spots. The
spots are caused by down-currents where the solar at-
mosphere is brought down from cooler regions. Thev
are opposed to prominences, which are ejections of
heated matter from the interior of the sun. Here (point-
ing to the diagram) we have arranged the observations
of prominences by Tacchini since 1872. What isthe
result? First of all, you will note a very great sifnplifi-
cation ; the brightest part of the sun has given the fewest
lines. Next, there is not a single line common to the
two series. In passing from the iron lines in the spots to
the iron lines in the flames we pass from one spectrum to
another, and the two spectra are as distinct from one an=-
other as the spectrum of magnesium is distinct from the
spectrum of chlorine, or any other substance you please.
These phenomena are the last-we should expect. We
can understand that a difference in the quantity of iron
vapor present, might make a certain difference in the
spectrum; but we are driven to something quite inde-
pendent of any change corresponding to quantity. We
see that as the temperature is increased the simplicity of
the spectrum is increased; just as a chemist finds with
regard to the substapeeS which he has under his control.
the function of temperature is to simplify. Why, then, if
this is the result of working with increased temperature
here, should notthe simplification be due to the breaking

SCIENCE. 270

up of the iron into simpler constituents? Mr. Lockyer
went on to state that the probability that the elements
are so broken up by the intense heat of the lower regions
of the solar-atmosphere is increased by finding that many
of the lines seen in the lower regions are common to
more than one element. He did not believe that the
bright lines seen at the beginning and end of totality
which are frequently spoken of as belonging to the revers-
ing layer correspond to the dark lines of the Frauenhoter
spectrum. In witnessing another total eclipse he should
concentrate his attention on two of the basic iron lines,
and note their behavior at the instant of totality.

Mr. Ranyard said : It is some years since we have seen
Mr. Lockyer at a meeting of the Society. 1 am glad to
see him here again, not only for the sake of the very elo-
quent lecture which he has given us, but also because of
the influence which a Society like this is likely to have on
those who read papers before it. It gives an opportunity
of criticising theories and of asking questions, which is
no doubt beneficial to the person who brings the theories
forward. Mr. Lockyer has referred to a theory, which
he has very widely discussed, with regard to the non-
elementary nature of the elements, and the evidence to
be derived from solar observations, I understood him to
say that he would expect a greater heat to give us a less
complex spectrum.

Mr. Lockyer: I never said anything of the kind.

Mr. Ranyard ; I was about to say that the reverse ap-
pears tobe the case. I hope that Mr. Lockyer will after-
wards take the opportunity of explaining what he means.
The spectrum of the photosphere is very complicated as
compared with the spectrum of sunspots and prominences.
If any fact needs dwelling upon with respect to the sun,
itis the number of lines which cannot be matched with
terrestrial elements, and the complication of the spectrum
increases as you proceed downwards to the sun’s limb;

* that is, as you proceed from cooler to warmer regions.

In the region of the Corona, very few lines have been
observed ; that may be, it is true, because of their faint-
ness ; but with the exception of the hydrogen lines, the
lines seen in the spectrum of the Corona, which, of
course, is much cooler than the region of the chromo-
sphere, do not correspond to known lines of any terres-
trial element. There is, of course,an enormous field for
study here; but the fact which I want to point out, is
that you do not get a simplified spectrum in the sun with
greater heat, and if the facts which Mr, Lockyer has
referred to with regard tothe common lines in the spectra
of different elements are to be relied upon, it will not fol-
low that the common lines correspond to the similar
parts of the two elements, an that the other lines corre-
spond to mere overtones, given out with greater heat.
But I should like to ask Mr. Lockyer whether he has
taken note of the observations of Professor Young, who
has examined these lines common to two or more ele-
ments in the solar spectrum with great dispersion, and
has found that they nearly all break up into double lines
or groups of lines. I think outof fifty-seven lines all but
four were shown to be thus broken up, and there was
some doubt about these four.

Mr. Christie said : Similar observations to those which
Mr. Lockyer has described with regard to the spectra of
Sunspots have been made at Greenwich, and without
adopting his theory, I may say that our observations
agree with those which have been made by Mr. Lock-
yer. Wehave not confined our attention merely to the
iron-lines which are thickened in the spot spectrum. But
we perfectly confirm what Mr. Lockyer says, namely that
in the spectrum of one spot there is one group of iron-
lines thickened, while in the spectrum of another spot,
there will be an altogether different group affected.

Se

TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM.—The French Government are
about to establish an obseryatory for terrestrial magnetism
at Cape Horn, ~— f

A NEW DISCOVERY IN PHOTOGRAPHY.

At the last meeting of the Photographic Society of Great
Britain, Mr. L. Warnerke described the discovery he has
recently patented. The discovery he said consisted in the
fact that a gelatine plate submitted to pyrogallic acid be-
came insoluble in those parts acted upon by light, exactly
in the same way as gelatine was acted upon by chromic
salts, the insolubility being in proportion to the amount of
light and the thickness of the gelatine. This property he
proposed to utilize in various ways. The drawback in tne
ordinary gelatine process was that unless the exposure were
very accurately timed there was considerable davger of
over-exposure, and, as intensification was very difficult,
pictures by the gelatine process were often inferior to those
by collodion. by the new process he was, however, able
not only to intensify, but also to overcome the drawbacks
arising from over-exposure. The latter he effected by using
the emulsion on paper. He had found that no matter how
much the paper was over-exposed the picture—provided
the developer was restrained sufficiently—was not injured,
while in the case of the emulsion on glass there was not
only halation of the image, but a reversal also. The trans-
fer of the image from paper on to the glass was a very easy
matter. The paper was immersed in water and placed in
contact with a glass plate. The superfluous moisture was
removed bya squeegee, and the paper could then be stripped
off, leaving the tissue on the glass. Hot water was then ap-
plied, which dissolved all the gelatine not acted on by light,
together with the free bromide or soluble salts, and the image
was left upon the glass in relief. Intensification he effected
by mixing with the emulsion a coloring non-actinic matter,
which was not affected by silver. Aniline colors he had
found answered the purpose, and in that way special emul-
sion for special purposes could be prepared. ‘that method
of preparation he thought would be especially suitable for
magic-lantern slides. He claimed for his discovery that by
it relief could be obtained far more easily than by the or-
dinary bichromatised gelatine, and therefore it was espec-
ially suitable for the Woodburytype process. By mixing
emery-powder with the emulsion it was rendered fit for en-
graving purposes, and by acombination with vitrified colors
the image could be burnt in and so*was adapted for
enamels, In the ordinary methods of producing enamels
from carbonised gelatine the latier, from the difficulty of
burning it without the formation of bubbles, was a great
source of trouble. By using a suitable emulsion, however,
so little gelatine might be employed that this drawback was
overcome, The process could also be adapted for collotype
printing. In the course of his remarks, Mr. Warnerke
demonstrated the removal of a gelatine picture produced
by his method from paper on to glass, and showed that the
mere immersion and washing in hot water fixed the picture
by the dissolving of the gelatine unacted upon by light,
which thus carried away the free bromide of silver. in con
clusion, he stated that the sensitive paper could be used in
the camera in lengths wound on rollers; and exhibited a
camera which he had made for the purpose.

Captain Abney, after some remarks in reference to hala-
tion and reversal of the image, remarked that in the pro-
duction of enamels by Mr, Warnerke’s process there was
some danger of the silver producing the well-known yeliow
colour which spoilt so many vitrified photographs. The
discovéry made by Mr. Warnerke was a most 1mportan
one, and in regard to Woodburytype, really opened up quite
anewera. Mr. W.S. Bird endorsed Captain Abney’s re
marks as to the value of the process, To be able to pro
duce gelatine negatives without the fear of the yellow stain
was a great boon, and the only point was whether photo-
graphers would take the trouble and risk in the necessary
transfers. As to its adaptability to Woodburytype, there
could not be the slightest doubt, The great difficulty was
to obtain the necessary relief, and he knew ofa company
which had recently gone to a great expense to fit up the
necessary machinery, when Mr. Warnerke was able to give
them what they wanted at a merely nominal cost.

Mr. T. Sebastion Davis also referred to the importance
of the discovery, and suggested that by the useof the emu!-
sion on paper a landscape might be photographed in which
the clouds and the foreground might be rendered with
equal truth, instead, as was too. often the case, of the sky

280

SCIENCE.

being over-exposed. Mr. T. Bolas inquired whether Mr.
Warnerke had tried adding bichromate of potash to his
emulsion. The addition of bromide of silverin the case
of acarbon print was supposed to increase its sensitiveness,
but whether it did so he could not say. Mr. Warnerke in
the course of his reply, said he had not found the yellow
colour spoken of by Captain Abney, in the enamels which
he had made. It was possible to eliminate all the silver by
the use of ferric salts. With regard to Mr. Davis’s sug-
gestion, he was afraid he must tarow cold water upon it,
for he did not think it could be realized unless he used a
developer for the clouds different from that used for the
foreground. He had not tried bichromate of potash as
mentioned by Mr. Bolas.

i

ESTIMATION OF FAT IN MILK.

-The plan I adopt is as follows :—ro grms, of milk are
evaporated in a platinum boat (of suitable construction), to
near dryness (to complete dryness if you wish to determine
the total solids) in the water-bath ; the boat is now inserted
into the extraction tube (which is plugged with a little cot-
ton-wool and contains a stopper in the narrow part of the
tube), and then connected to an upright Liebig’s condenser.
A small tarred flask is now fixed on to the end of the ex-
traction tube (50 to 100 c. c. capacity) containing ether. The
ether is evaporated by means of hot water, and when suffi-
ciently condensed in the tube above, so as to completely
cover the platinum boat, the stopper of the extraction tube
is turned andthe ether allowed to remain for about six
hours or all night if convenient. All that now remains to
be done is to cautiously open the stopper and allow the
ether and oil to flow into the tarred flask ; boil the ether re-
peatedly until extraction is complete. Disconnect the
flask, evaporate the ether dry,-and weigh the oil. The
platinum boat may also be taken from the extraction tube,
dried in water-bath, and weighed, which will give the solids
not fat, then ignited and weighed, and we have the ash. If
there is any doubt in the mind of the operator that the
ether has not been able to penetrate the residue, after there
have been several extractions made, the boat may be with-
drawn from the extraction tube, the residue detached from
its sides by means “of a small platinum spatula, and the
whole again returned to the extraction tube, and the opera-
tion of extraction repeated. When the extraction has been
conducted as described, there is no fear of any fat being
left undissolved in the residue. The following duplicate
analyses are the results I have just obtained from a sample
of milk I have reason to believe is geauine or unadulter-
ated. The amount of milk operated upon was 10 grms,
Specific gravity, 1027°3.

Totalisolidsec canes else aes 10.2440 10.2448
1.9940 2.9001
8.2500 8.2447
0.6940 0.6969

WILLIAM JOHNSON, F.I.C., F.C.S., &c.

—————————
THE ELECTRIC RAILWAY.

One of the novelties at the Crystal Palace, London, on
Easter Monday, was the opening of an electrical railway,
constructed by the Société Anonyme d’Electricité of Brus-
sels, on the Siemens system. On the upper terrace of the
Palace grounds, overlooking the charming scenery of
Sydenham, a miniature circular line of railway, consisting
of three lines of metals, has been laid down, surrounding
one of the ornamental ponds, and a small wooden hut
erected beside it as a passenger station. On this railway,
which is about 300 metres in length, and has a gauge of
about 50 centimetres, or Ig inches, between the outer rails,
stands the electrical locomotive. Its length is about four
feet ; its breadth about a metre ; its height about as much,
and its weight some three-quarters of aton. It is, in fact,
a Siemens dynamo-electric machine, neatly boxed in, and
mounted on a truck with four metal wheels, and provided
with a break and alarm bell for its control by the man in
charge. A stationary engine of about eight horse-power
nominal, in a shed about thirty yards from the railway line,
drives a stationary dynamo-electric machine, from which
the electro-motive currentis primarily obtained. Two wires

are connected with this fixed dynamo-machine. By one of
them the current flowing out is conveyed to the mid-rail of
the railway, to which it is attached by an iron plate bolted
on. The second or return wire is attached to the exterior
rail of the railway. The mid-rail is supported upon wood
blocks, and is thus in a certain degree insulated. Beneath
the electrical locomotive a brush of iron wires sweeps the
mid-rail, and the electrical current is thus taken up into the
locomotive, where it passes through the mounted Siemens
machine within it, the large bobbin of which is thereby
caused to revolve, and the current passing away by the
wheels of the truck to the exterior rails of the road, is con-
veyed back to the stationary dynamo-machine. As the
current thus circulates, and the bobbin of the mounted
machine revolves, it drives the four wheels of the truck as
the locomotive moves on, hauling after it a load of nearly
three tons with ease at the speed we have named.

NOTES.

INTERNAL DISCHARGES OF ELECTRIC CONDENSERS.—
B. Villarii—The author’s conclusions are that the heat
evolved by the internal discharge may be neglected in case
of feeble discharges; beyond certain limits it manifests
itself and increases very rapidly with the discharges them-
selves ; thus the first means to augment this internal heat is
to make use of jars charged to a very high potential. The
internal discharge is sensibly augmented if the exterior
spark is produced between two small balls of 20 to 30 mm.
in diameter; it decreases, on the contrary, by almost one-
half if the spark is taken from a point and one of the balls.
The inverse is the case for the heat produced by the exter-
nal exciting spark. For a given charge the internal dis-
charge increases if the inner coating of the jaris dimin-
ished.

RESEARCHES ON THE CHANGE OF STATE IN THE NEIGH-
BORHOOD OF THE CRITICAL PoINT OF TEMPERATURE.—L.
Cailletet and P. Hautefeuille—The authors remark that
near the critical point there are witnessed for very slight
variations of temperature, phenomena which have led An-
drews to regard the gaseous and the liquid states as distant
terms of one and the same state of matter, which may pass
from one to the other bya continuous series of changes.
It is impossible to know what is the state of the matter
which gives rise to the moving and wavey striz which dis-
place each other above the mercury on operating in the
vicinity of the critical point. A slow decrease of pressure
often shows if a tube is filled with a liquid or a gas, for in
the latter case the release gives rise to a general mist and
to liquid drops; but this procedure furnishes no clue to
the nature of these striz. The authors have overcome this
difficulty by coloring carbonic acid with the blue oil of gal-
banum. They have found that these undulating striz dis-
solve the oil, and are consequently produced by liquefied
carbonic acid. They conclude that matter-does not pass by
insensible degrees from the liquid to the gaseous state.

ON THE ACTION OF THE SELENIUM RADIOPHONE.—M. E,
Mercadier observes that the sounds produced in the selen-
ium receivers which he has studied result chiefly from the
luminous radiations, The rays of the spectrum act from
the limit of the blue, on the indigo side, as far as the ex-
treme red, and even a little beyond the red. The indigo,
violet, and ultra-violet rays are without perceptible action
in the conditions under which he has experimented, The
maximum effect is always produced in the yellow portion
of the spectrum: Radiophones with glass tube-receivers
containing air, in contact with a smoked surface, give a dif-
ferent result, the action being principally thermic.—Compées
Rendus.

Law RELATING To CABLES.—ZL’E/ectricité says that there
is some idea of appointing a commission to inquire into the
state of international law relating to submarine cables.
The Minister for Foreign affairs in France, M. St. Hilaire,
has stated that, in case the forthcoming Congress of Elec-
tricians should arrive at any decision on the subject, he
will send a circular to the various Governments suggesting
the holding of an international conference.

SCIENCE.

281

SCIENCE:

A WEEKLY ReEcoRDOF SCIENTIFIC
PROGRESS.

JOHN MICHELS, Editor.
PUBLISHED AT

TRIBUNE BUILDING, NEW YORK.

P. O, BOX 3838.

SATURDAY, JUNE 18, 188r.

Art the last meeting of the “ American Chemical
Society,” Professor A. R. Leeds called attention to the
reported adulteration of certain articles of food, and
made special reference to the adulteration of sugar and
syrups, with glucose.

The result of Dr. Leeds’ examination of sugar
shows, that it was of excellent quality and almost free
from any adulteration, and that he was enabled, atter
investigations, to “ contradict with equal decisiveness,
the notion that table syrups are largely, almost uni-
versally, adulterated with glucose syrups,”

As Dr. Leeds stated that one of the objects of his
paper was to correct, what he calls, sensational reports
of adulteration, and to place on record his own scien-
tific work as evidence that adulterations to a large ex-
tent do not exist, it may be prudent to test the integ-
rity of his work, by comparing it with results achieved
by another ,chemist, having a high reputation as an
analyst, who appears to have made investigations coy-
ering the same ground, as that instituted by Professor
Leeds. We allude to Professor Harvey W. Wiley,
whose paper on “‘ Glucose and grape-sugar” appears
at an opportune moment. According to Professor
Wiley, the manufacture of glucose is conducted on a
scale which will result in eleven million bushels of
corn being used for that purpose during the present
year, and as a bushel of corn will produce about 30
pounds of glucose, it would appear that over three
hundred million pounds of glucose will be placed
on the market during the year 1881, with every indi-
cation that the quantity will be doubled in 1882.

What becomes of all this glucose? Professor Wiley
states that some of it is used for brewing beer, taking
the place of malt ; it is also given as a food for bees ;
“all soft candies, waxes and taffies, and a large pro-
portion of stick-candies and caramels are made of
glucose”; but “A VERY LARGE PROPORTION OF ALL
THE GLUCOSE MADE IS USED FOR THE MANUFACTURE

OF TABLE syRuPS.” * * * ‘When these syrups
are sent into the shops, they are sold to consumers
under such altisonant names as Maple Drip, Bon Ton,
Upper Ten, Magnolia, Extra Choice, Golden Drip,
White Loaf Drip,” ete. etc. * * * “Dealers tell
me that these syrups, by their cheapness and excel-
lence, have driven all others out of the market. So
much is this the case that it is no longer proper to call
glucose the ‘ coming syrup.’ It is the syrup which has
already come.”

“‘Grape sugar is used chiefly for the adulteration of
other sugars. When it is reduced to fine powder; it
can be mixed with cane sugar in any proportion, with-
out altering its appearance. Since the grape-sugar
costs less than half the price of cane sugar, this adul-
teration proves immensely profitable.”

We do not propose to decide upon the issue thus
raised by Professors Leeds and Wiley, but as both
admit to have spoken after a full investigation, it is
difficult to discover how results so different were arrived
at. We believe that Professor Leeds reported cor-
rectly on the samples as he found them, but if Profes-
sor Wiley is correct, the former must have been very
fortunate, or, perhaps, unfortunate, in the selection of
his samples.

We are in receipt of a communication, stating that
glucose sugar has now an immense sale, and that in the
West, nine-tenths of the syrups on the market have but
5 to 15 percent. of cane sugar.

Possibly in first-class stores in New York City, the
sugars and syrups offered for sale are genuine, but it
appears folly to shut our eyes to the immense use of
glucose and grape-sugar for mixing purposes.

If Professor Leeds wishes his future communications
on adulteration to be read with “ vivid interest,” or his
reports to reach what he terms, ‘a commanding posi-
tion in the literature of adulterations,” he will offer some
evidence that Professor Wiley is in error, while a
few facts, showing the destination of the 500 tons of glu-
cose and grape-sugar manufactured every day, will
be timely and welcome.

We find that the first cost of glucose and grape-
sugar is about one cent a pound, and that it is sold
direct for three to four centsa pound. The manufac-
ture therefore of glucose is a profitable industry, and
one likely to be conducted with spirit and enterprise.

Is glucose wholesome? It may be early to answer
this question, as some physicians are opposed to its
use, but, as an article of food, it is now generally ac-
knowledged to be a wholesome product, and if care-
fully and properly made, free from any deleterious
substances. We therefore fail to find any reason why
this thriving industry should not be conducted openly,
and the product sold on its merits, thus escaping the
odium which is cast on all counterfeit substances.

282 SCIENCE.

Tue latest number of the journal of the Royal
Microscopical Journal is largely occupied with papers
discussing the question of angular aperture; that by
Mr. Frank Crisp disposes of 60 pages, and another by
Professor E. Abbe occupies 30 pages.

The editor of the American Journal of Microscopy
proposes to offer the whole of Mr. Crisp’s paper in a
forthcoming number ; those, therefore, who are inter-
ested in the subject can read it there in its integrity ;
in the meantime, the résumé to be found in another
part of this issue, may be found useful. We may re-
mind our readers that this discussion has continued for
the last ten years, with the prospect of a settlement of
the question as remote as ever.

Probably the Counsel for Cadet Whittaker, at the
recent court-martial, was not aware of the magnitude
of the question when he asked Professor Piper, of
Chicago, “‘ What is Angular Aperture?” Perhaps Mr.
Park Benjamin, who is said to have prompted the
question, will himself answer the question,

A WRITER In “ Zhe Journal of Science” defends
the old system of “ Weights and Measures” as against
the metric system. He admits that in refined scien-
tific investigations the metric system has advantages,
but he is opposed to it for purposes of daily life and
retail trade. He maintains that the nomenclature and
the notation of the metric system requires reorganiz-
ing, with plain, simple and short names for its various
grades, to be expressed in such a manner as to banish
the decimal point beyond all ordinary transactions.

It appears to us that the metric system requires
little apology for its defects, when, as the writer ad-
mits, the old system is complicated, and has a total
want of unity in its weights and measures. In Eng-
land, a peck of potatoes, apples, etc., is 20 lbs. in
Lancashire, 21 lbs. in Sheffield, 14 Ibs. in Hudders-
field, and 16 Ibs. in Halifax. A stone of anything is
in some districts 14, and in others 16 lbs. A gill in
the north of England is half, but in the south only a
quarter, of a pint. Almost every county has its pecu-
liar acre, and these examples might be multiplied.

A WRITER in “ Zhe Astronomical Register” draws
attention to an error in the “ Memoir” of Sir William
Herschell, and repeated by Professor Holden, in “ Sir
William LHerschell, his Life and Works,” in styling
Sir William a baronet.

We find Mr. James L. McCance is correct in mak-
ing the inference that Sir William Herschell was
created a knight, only. His son, Sir John Frederick
William, was created a baronet in 1838.

We notice that Burke’s Peerage affords little infor-
mation on the subject, giving no date when the great
astronomer was created a knight. Professor Holden
mentions the year 1816 as the date of that event.

THE UNITY OF NATURE.
By THE DUKE OF ARGYLL.
VIII.

THE ORIGIN OF RELIGION CONSIDERED IN THE LIGHT
OF THE UNITY OF NATURE,

If any one were to ask what is the origin of hunger or
what is the origin of thirst, the idleness of the question
would be felt at once. And yet hunger and thirst have
had an origin. But that origin cannot be separated from
the origin of Organic Life, and the absurdity of the ques-
tion lies in this—that in asking it, the possibility of mak-
ing such a separation is assumed. It involves either the
supposition, that there have been living creatures which
had no need of food and drink, or else the supposition,
that there have been living creatures which, having that
need, were nevertheless destitute of any corresponding
appetite. Both of these suppositions, although not in
the abstract inconceivable, are so contrary to all that we
know of the laws of Nature, that practically they are re-
jected as impossible. There always is, and there always
must be, a close correspondence between the intimations
of sensibility and the necessities of Life.- Hunger is the
witness in sensation to the law which demands for all
living things a renewal of force from the assimilation of
external matter. To theorize about its origin is to theor-
ize about the origin of that law, and consequently about
the origin of embodied Life. The Darwinian formula is
not applicable here. Appetite cannot have arisen out of
the accidents of variation. It must have been coeval with
organization, of which it is a necessary part. The same
principle applies to all elementary appetites and affec-
tions, whether they be the lower appetites of the body or
the higher appetites of the mind. They exist because of
the existence of certain facts and of certain laws to
which they stand in a relation which is natural and neces-
sary, because it is a relation which is reasonable and fit-
ting. Really to understand how these appetites and
affections arose, it would be necessary to understand how
all the corresponding facts and laws came to be. But in
many cases—indeed in most cases—any such understand-
ing is impossible, because the facts and the laws to which
every appetite corresponds are in their very nature ulti-
mate. They are laws behind which, or beyond which,
we cannot get. The only true explanation of the appe-
tite lies in the simple recognition of the adjusted relations
of which it forms a part; that is to say—in a recognition
of the whole system of Nature as a reasonable system,
and of this particular part of it as in harmony with the
rest. Any attempted explanation of it which does not
start with that recognition of the reasonableness of Nature
must be futile. Any explanation which not only fails in
this recognition, but assumes that the origin of anything
can be interpreted without it, must be not only futile but
erroneous.

Men have been very busy of late in speculating on the
origin of Religion. In asking this question they gener-
ally make, often as it seems unconsciously, one or other
of two assumptions. One is the assumption that there
is no God, and that it must have taken a long time to in-
vent Him. The other is that there is a God, but that
men were born, or created, or developed, without any
sense or feeling of His existence, and that the acquisition
of such a sense must of necessity have been the work ot
time.

I do not now Say that either of these assumptions is in
itself inconceivable, any more than the supposition that at
some former time there were creatures needing food and
drink and yet having no appetites to inform them of the
fact. But what I desire to point out is, first, that one or
other of these assumptions is necessarily involved in most
speculations on the subject, and secondly, that, to say the
least, it is possible that neither of these assumptions may
be true. Yet the method of inquiry to be pursued re-

(
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SCIENCE.

283

specting the origin of Religion must be entirely different,
according as we start from one or other of these assump-
tions, or as we reject them both. If we assume that there
is no God, then the question how Mankind have come so
widely to invent one or more of such imaginary Beings,
is indeed a question well worthy of our utmost curiosity
and research. But, on the other hand, if we start with
the assumption that there is a God, or indeed if we assume
no more than that there are Intelligences in the Universe
superior to Man, and possessing some power greater than
his own over the natural system in which he lives, then
the method of inquiry into the origin of Religion is im-
mensely simplified. Obviously the question how Man
first came to recognize the existence of his Creator, if we
suppose such a Being to exist, becomes in virtue of that
supposition relegated to the same class as the question
how he first came to recognize any other of the facts or
truths which it concerns him most to know. Indeed from
its very nature this truth is evidently one which might be
more easily and more directly made known to him than
many others. The existence of a Being from whom our
own being has been derived involves, at least, the pos-
sibility of some communication direct or indirect. Yet
the impossibility or the improbability of any such com-
munication is another of the assumptions continually in-
volved in current theories about the origin of Religion.
But no such assumption can be reasonably made. The
perceptions of the Human Mind are accessible to the in-
timations of external truth through many avenues of
approach. In its very structure it is made to be respon-
sive to some of these intimations by immediate apprehen-
sion. Man has that within him by which the Invisible
can be seen, and the Inaudible can be heard, and the In-
tangible can be felt. Not as the result of any reasoning,
but by the same power by which it sees and feels the
postulates on which all reasoning rests, the Human Mind
may from the very first have felt that it was in contact
with a Mind which was the fountain of its own.

No argument can be conducted without some assump-
tions. But neither ought any argument to be conducted
without a clear understanding what these assumptions
are. Having now cleared up the assumptions which are
usually made, we can proceed with greater confidence in
the discussion of the great problem before us. The origin
of particular systems of religious belief is, of course, a
mere question of fact. A few of these systems belong to
our own time ; others have arisen late in the historic ages
and in the full light of contemporary evidence. Some,
again, are first recognized in the dawn of those ages, and
their distinctive features can only be dimly traced through
evidence which is scanty and obscure. Religion is the
origin of all these systems of Belief, but no one of them
represents the origin of Religion. None of them throw
any other light on the origin of Religion than as all ex-
hibiting the one essential element in which all Religion
consists. And it would be well if men, before philoso-
phizing on the origin of Religion, had a more accurate
conception of what they mean by it. The definitions of
Religion have been even worse than the definitions of
Morality. Just as the attempt is made to account for
morals apart from the sense of duty or of obligation in
conduct, so is the attempt made to account for Religion
apart from the sense of Mind or Will in Nature. The
great effort seems to have been to try how the essential
idea of Religion could be either most completely eliminated
or else most effectually concealed. For example, a feeling
of absolute dependence has been specified by Schleiermac-
her as the essence of Religion. Yet it is evident that a
sense of absolute dependence may be urgent and oppressive
without the slightest tincture of religious feeling. A man
carried off in a flood, and clinging to a log of wood, may
have, and must have, a painful sense of absolute depen-
dence on the log. But no one would think of describing
this sense as a feeling of Religion. A savage may have
a feeling of absolute dependence on his bows and arrows,

or on the implements of his chase ; or disease may bring

home to hima sense of his absolute dependence on the
organs of his own body, which alone enable him to use
his weapons with success. But it does not follow that
the savage has any feeling of Religion towards his bow,
or his arrow, or his net, or his fishspear, or even to
his own legs and arms, Any plaus:bility, therefore,
which may attach to the proposition which indentifies
Religion with the mere sense of dependence, is due en-
tirely to the fact that when men speak of the sense of
dependence they suggest the idea of a particular kind of
dependence— namely, dependence upon a Being or a Per-
sonality, and not dependence upon athing. That is to
say, that the plausibility of the definition is entirely due
to an element of thought which it is specially framed to
keep out of sight. A sense of absolute dependence on
purely physical things does not necessarily contain any
religious element whatever. But, on the other hand, a
sense of dependence on Personal or Living Agencies,
whether they are supposed to be supreme or only superior
religions to our own, isa feeling which is essentially relig-
ious. But the element in that feeling which makes it relig-
ious is the element of belief in a Being or in Beings who
havePower and Will. When we say of any man, or of any
tribe of men, that they have no Religion, we mean that
they have no belief in the existence of any such Being or
Beings, or at least no such belief as to require any ac-
knowledgment or any worsh'p!.

The practice of worship of some kind or another is so
generally associated with Religion, that we do not usually
think of it otherwise than es anecessary accompaniment.
It is a natural accompaniment, for the simple reason that
in the very act of thinking of Superhuman Beings the
mind has an inevitable tendency to think of them as pos-
sessing not only an intellectual but a moral nature which
has analogies with our own. It conceives of them as
having dispositions and feelings as well as mere Intellect
and Will. Complete indifference towards other creatures
is not natural or usual in ourselves, nor can it be natural
to attribute it to other Beings. In proportion therefore
as we ascribe to the Superhuman Personalities, in whose
existence we believe, the authorship or the rule over, or
even a mere partnership in, the activities round us, in the
same proportion is it natural to regard those Beings as
capable of exercising some influence upon us, whether
for evil or for good. This conception of them must lead
to worship—that is to say, to the cherishing of some
feeling and sentiment in regard to them, and to some
methods of giving it expression. There is, therefore, no
mystery whatever in the usual and all but universal
association of worship of some kind with all conceptions
of a religious nature. ;

It is to be remembered, however, that, as a matter of
fact, the belief in tre existence of a God, or more Gods than
one, has come, though rarely, to be separated from the wor-
ship of them. Among speculative philosophers this sepa-
ration may arise from theories about the Divine nature,
which represent it as inaccessible to supplication, or as
indifferent to the sentiments of men. Among savages it
may arise from the evolution of decay. It may be noth-
ing but “a sleep and a forgetting ”"—the result of the
breaking up of ancient homes, and the consequent im-
possibility of continuing the practice of rites which had
become inseparably associated with local usages. Among
philosophers this divorce between the one essential ele-
ment of Religion and the natural accompaniments of
worship, is well exhibited in the Lucretian conception of
the Olympian gods, as well as in the condition of mind of
many men in our own day, who have not rejected the idea
of a God, but who do not feel the need of addressing Him
in the language either of prayer or praise. Of this same

1Professor Tiele’s definition of Religion corresponds with that here
given :—‘* The relation between Man and the Superhuman Powers in
which he belieyes.’”’ (‘Outlines of the History of the Ancient Re-
ligions,”’ p. 2.)

284

SCIENCE.

divorce among savages we have an example in certain
Australian tribes, who are said to have a theology so
definite as to believe in the existence of one God, the
omnipotent Creator of heaven and of earth, and yet to be
absolutely destitute of any worship.2 Both of these,
however, are aberrant phenomena—conditions of mind
which are anomalous, and in all probability essentially
transitional. It has been shown in the preceding pages
how imposslble it is to regard Australian or any other
savages of the present time as representing the probable
condition of Primeval man. It needs no argument to
prove that it is equally impossible to regard speculative
philosophers of any school as representing the mind of
the earliest progenitors of our race. But neither of sav-
ages nor of philosophers who believe in a God but do not
pray to Him, would it be proper to say that they have no
Religion. They may be on the way to having none, or
they may be on the way to having more. But men who
believe in the existence of any Personal or Living Agency
in Nature superior to our own, are in possession of the
one essential element of all Religion. This belief is
almost universally associated with practices which are in
the nature of worship—with sentiments of awe, or of
reverence, or of fear.

It is not inconsistent with this definition to admit that
sects or individuals, who have come to reject all definite
theological conceptions and to deny the existence of a
living God have nevertheless been able to retain feelings
and sentiments which may justly claim to be called re-
ligious. In the first place, with many men of this kind.
their denial of a God is not in reality a complete denial,
What they deny is very often only some particular con-
ception of the Godhead, which is involved, or which they
think is involved, in the popular theology. They are re-
pelled, perhaps, by the familiarity with which the least
elevated of human passions are sometimes attributed to
the Divine Being. Orthey may be puzzled by the anom-
alies of Nature, and find it impossible to reconcile them
intellectually with any definite conception of a Being who
is both all-powerful and all-good. But in faltering under
this difficulty, or under other difficulties of the same kind,
and in denying the possibility of forming any clear or
definite conception of the Godhead, they do not necessarily
renounce other conceptions which, though vague and
indefinite, are nevertheless sufficient to form the nucleus
of a hazy atmosphere of religious feeling and emotion.
Such men may or may not recognize the fact that these
feelings and emotions have been inherited from ancestors
whose beliefs were purely theological, and that it is in the
highest degree doubtful how long these feelings can be
retained as mere survivals. It is remarkable that
such feelings are even now artificially propped up
and supported by a system of investing abstract
terms with all the elements of personality. When men
who profess to have rejected the idea of a God declare,
nevertheless, as Strauss has declared, that “the world is
to them the workshop of the Rational and the Good,”’
—when they explain that ‘‘that on which they feel them-
selves to be absolutely dependent is by no means a brute
power, but that it is Order and Law, Reason and Good-
ness, to which they surrender themselves with loving con-
fidence,” we cannot be mistaken that the whole of this
language, and the whole conceptions which underlie it,
are language and conceptions appropriate to Agencies
and Powers which are possessed of all the characteristics
of Mind and Will. Order and Law are, indeed, in some
minds associated with nothing except matter and
material forces. But neither Reason nor Goodness
can be thus dissociated from the idea of Person-
ality. All other definitions which have been given of
Religion will be found on analysis to borrow whatever
strength they have from involving, either expressly or
implicitly, this one conception. Morality, for example,

2‘* Hibbert Lectures,’ by Max Miiller, 1878, pp. 16, 17.

becomes Religion in proportion as all duty and all obli-
gation is regarded as resting on the sanctions of a Divine
authority. In hke manner, Knowledge may be identified
with Religion in proportion as all knowledge is summed
up and comprehended in the perfect knowledge of One
who is Allin All. Nor is there any real escape from this
one primary and fundamental element of Religion in the
attempt made by Comte to set up Man himself—Human-
ity—as the object of religious worship. It is the Human
Mind and Will abstracted and personified that is the ob-
ject of this worship. Accordingly, in the system of
Comte, it is the language of Christian and even of Cath-
olic adoration that is borrowed as the best and fullest
expression of its aspirations and desires. Such an im-
personation of the Human Mind and Will, considered as
an aggregate of the past and of the future, and separated
from the individual who is required to worship it, does
contain the one element, or at least some faint outline
and shadow of the one element, which has been here
represented as essential to Religion—the element,
namely, of some Power in Nature other than mere brute
matter or mere physical force—which Power is thought
of and conceived as invested with the higher attributes
of the Human Personality.

Like methods of analysis are sufficient to detect the
same element in other definitions of Religion, which are
much more common. When, for example, it is said that
“the Supernatural ”’ or “the Infinite” are the objects of
religious thought, the same fundamental conception is
involved, and is more or less consciously intended. The
first of these two abstract expressions, ‘‘the Supernat-
ural,” is avowedly an expression for the existence and the
agency of superhuman Personalities. It is objectionable
only in so far as it seems to imply that such agency is no
part of “‘ Nature.’ This is in one sense a mere question
of definition. We may choose to look upon our own
human agency as an agency which is outside of Nature,
If we do so, then, of course, it is natural to think of the
agency of other Beings as outside of Nature also. But,
on the other hand, if we choose to understand by

“Nature” the whole system of things in which we live
and of which we form a part, then the belief in the
agency of other Beings of greater power does not neces-
sarily involve any belief whatever that they are outside
of that system. On the contrary, the belief in such an
agency may be identified with all our conceptions of what
that system, as a whole, is, and especially of its order
and of its intelligibility. Whilst, therefore, ‘the Super-
natural,” as commonly understood, gives a true indication
of the only real objects of religious thought, it compli-
cates that indication by coupling the idea of Living
Agencies above our own with a description of them
which at the best is irrelevant, and is very apt to be mis-
leading. The question of the existence of Living Beings
superior to Man, and having more or less power over him
and over his destinies, is quite a separate question from
the relation in which those beings may stand to what is
commonly but variously understood by “ Nature.”

The other phrase, now often used to express the ob-
jects of religious thought and feeling, ‘the Infinite,” is a
phrase open to objection of a very different kind. It is
ambiguous, not merely as “the Supernatural” is ambig-
uous, by reason of its involving a separate and adventi--
tious meaning besides the meaning which is prominent
and essential; but it is ambiguous by reason of not nec-
essarily containing at all the one meaning which is es-
sential to Religion. ‘The Infinite” is a pure and bare
abstraction, which may or may not include the one only
object of religious consciousness and thought. An In-
finite Being, if that be the meaning of “the Infinite,” is
indeed the highest and most perfect object of Religion.
But an infinite space is no object of religious feeling.
An infinite number of material units is no object of re-
ligious thought. Infinite time is no object of religious
thought. On the other hand, infinite power not only

SCIENCE.

285

may be, but must be, an object of religious contempla-
tion in proportion as it is connected with the idea of
Power in a living Will. Infinite goodness must be the ob-
ject of religious thought and emotion, because in its very
nature this conception involves that of a Personal Being.
But if all this is what is intended by “the Infinite’’ then
it would be best to say so plainly. The-only use of the
phrase, as the one selected to indicate the object of

Religion, is that it may be understood in a
sense that is kept out of sight. And the ex-
planations which have been given of it are

generally open to the same charge of studied ambiguity.
“ The Infinite” has been defined as that which trans-
cends sense and reason,—that which cannot be compre-
hended or completely and wholly understood, although it
may be apprehended or partially conceived.* And no
doubt, if this definition be applied, as by implication it
always is applied, to the power and to the resources, or
to any other feature in the character of an Infinite Being,
then it becomes a fair definition of the highest conceiv-
able object of religious thought. But, again, if it be not
so applied,—if it be understood as only applying to the
impossibility under which we find ourselves of grasping
anything which is limitless,—of counting an infinite
number of units,—of traversing, even in thought, an in-
finite space,—of living out an infinite time,—then “the
Infinite” does not contain the one essential element
which constitutes Religion.

Similar objections apply to another abstract phrase,
sometimes used as a definition of the object of religious
feeling, namely, ‘the Invisible.’’ Mere material things,
which are either too large to be wholly seen, or too small
to be seen at aJl, can never supply the one indispensable
element of Religion. In so far, therefore, as invisibility
_ applies to them only, it suggests nothing of a religious

nature. But insofar as ‘‘ the Invisible’ means, and is
intended to apply to, living Beings who are out of sight,
to Personal Agencies which either have no bodily form,
or who are thought of and conceived as separate from
such form—in so far, of course, “the Invisible,” like
“the Infinite,” does cover and include the conception
without which there can be no Religion.

Definitions of meaning are more or less important in
all discussions ; but there are many questions in which
they are by no means essential, because of the facility
of which we refer the abstract words we may be using
to the concrete things,—to the actual phenomena to
which they are applied. -When, for example, we speak
of the religion of Mahomet, or of the religion of Con-
fucius, or ot the religion of Buddha, we do not need to
define what we mean by the word “ Religion,” because
in all of these cases the system of doctrine and the con-
ceptions which constitute those religions are known, or
are matters of historical evidence. But when we come
to discuss the origin, not of any particular system of
belief, but of Religion in the abstract, some clear and
intelligible definition of the word Religion becomes ab-
solutely essential, because in that discussion we are deal-
ing with a question which is purely speculative. It is
idle to enter upon that speculative discussion unless we
have some definite understandirg what we are speculat-
ing about. In the case of Religion we cannot keep our
understanding of the word fresh and distinct by thinking
of any well-known and admitted facts respecting the
beginnings of belief: There are no such facts to go
upon as regards the religion of Primeval Man. Those,
indeed, who accept the narrative attributed to the in-
spired authority of the Jewish Lawgiver have no need to
speculate. In that narrative the origin of Religion is
identified with the origin of Man, and the Creator is
represented as having had, in some form or another, di-
rect communication with the creature He had made.
But those who do not accept that narrative, or who,

3 Max Miiller, ‘‘ Hibbert Lectures,’’ 1878.

without rejecting it altogether, regard it as so full of
metaphor that it gives us no satisfying explanation, and
who assume that Religion has had an origin subsequent
to the origin of the species, have absolutely nothing to
rely upon in the nature of history. There is no contem-
porary evidence, nor is there any tradition which can be
trusted. Primeval man has kept no journal of his own
first religious emotions, any more than of his own first
appearance in the world. We are therefore thrown back
upon pure speculation — speculation indeed, which
may find in the present, and in a comparatively recent
past, some data for arriving at conclusions, more or less
probable, on the conditions of a time which is out of
sight. But among the very first of these data, if it be
not indeed the one datum without which all others are
useless, is a clear conception of the element which is
common to all religions as they exist now, or as they can
be traced back beyond the dawn of history into the dim
twilight of tradition. Of this universal element in all
religions ‘‘ the Infinite’ is no definition at all. It is itself
much more vague and indefinite in meaning than the
word which it professes to explain. And this is all the
more needless, seeing that the common element in all
religions, such as we know them now, is one of the
greatest simplicity. It is the element of a belief in sup-
erhuman Beings—in Living Agencies, other and higher
than our own.

It is astonishing how much the path of investigation
is cleared before us the moment we have arrived at this
definition of the belief which is fundamental to all re-
ligions. That belief is simply a belief in the existence
ot Beings of whom our own Being is the type, although
it need not. be the measure or the form. By the very
terms of the definition the origin of this belief is and
must be in ourselves. That is to say, the disposition to
believe in the existence of such Beirgs arises out of the
felt unity of our own nature with the whole system of
things in which we live and of which we are a part. It
is the simplest and most natural of all conceptions that
the agency of which we are most conscious in ourselves
is like the Agency which works in the world around us.
Even supposing this conception to be groundless, and
that, as some now maintain, a more scientific investiga-
tion of natural agencies abolishes the conception of
design or purpose, or of personal Will being at all con-
cerned therein,—even supposing this, it is not the less
true that the transfer of conceptions founded on our own
consciousness of agency and of power within us to the
agencies and powers around us, is a natural, if it be not
indeed a necessary conception. That it is a natural con-
ception is proved by the fact that it has been, and still is
so widely prevalent ; as well as by the fact that what is
called the purely scientific conception of natural agencies
is a modern conception, and one which is confessedly of
difficult attainment. So difficult indeed is it to expel
from the mind the conception of personality in or behind
the agencies of Nature, that it may fairly be questioned
whether it has ever been effectually done. Verbal de-
vices for keeping the idea out of sight are indeed very
common ; but even these are not very successful. I have
elsewhere pointed out* that those naturalists and phi-
losophers who are most opposed to all theological expla-
nations or conceptions of natural forces do, nevertheless,
habitually, in spite of themselves, have recourse to lan-
guage which derives its whole form as well as its whole -
intelligibility, from those elements of meaning which re-
fer to the familiar operations of our own Mind and Will.
The very phrase “ Natural Selection’ is one which likens
the operations of Nature to the operations of a mind exer-
cising the power of choice. The whole meaning of the
phrase is to indicate how Nature attains certain ends
which are like “selection.” And what “selection” is
we know, because it is an operation familiar to ourselves.
But the personal element of Will and of purpose lies

4“ Reign of Law, ’? Chaps. I. and V.

286

SGIENCE.

even deeper than this in the scientific theory of Evolu-
tion. When we ourselves select, we may very often
choose only among things ready made to our hands.
But in the theory of Evolution, Nature is not merely
-represented as choosing among things ready made, but
as at first making the things which are to be afterwards
fitted for selection. Organs are represented as growing
in certain forms and shapes ‘in order that’ they may
serve certain uses, and then as being “selected” by that
use in order that they may be established and prevail.
The same idea runs throughout all the detailed descrip-
tions of growth and of development by which these pro-
cesses are directed to useful and serviceable results. So
long asin the mere description of phenomena men find
themselves compelled to have recourse to language of
this sort, they have not emancipated themselves from the
natural tendency of all human thought to see the ele-
ments of our own personality in the energies and in the
works of Nature. But whether the attempt at such
emancipation be successful or not, the very effort which
it requires is a proof of the natural servitude under
which we lie. And if it be indeed a natural servitude,
the difficulty of getting rid of it is explained. It is hard
to kick against the pricks. There is no successful rebel-
lion against the servitudes of Nature. The suggestions
which come to us from the external world, and which
are of such necessity that we cannot choose but hear
them, have their origin in the whole constitution and
course of things. To seek for any origin of them apart
from the origin of our whole intellectual nature, and
apart from the relations between that nature and the
facts of the universe around us, is to seek for something
which does not exist. We may choose to assume that
there are no Intelligences in Nature superior to our own;
but the fact remains that it is a part of our mental con-
stitution to imagine otherwise. If, on the other hand, we
assume that such Intelligences do exist, then the recog-
nition of that existence, or the impression of it, is
involved in no other difficulty than is involved in the origin
of any other part of the furniture of our minds. What
is the origin of Reason? The perception of logical nec-
essity is the perception of a real relation between things;
and this relation between things is represented by a cor-
responding relation between our conceptions of them.
- We can give no account of the origin of that perception
unless we can give an account of the origin of Man, and
of the whole system to which he stands related. What,
again, is the origin of Imagination? It is the mental
power by which we handle the elementary conceptions
derived from our mental constitution in contact and in
harmony with external things, and by which we combine
these conceptions in an endless variety of forms. We
can give no account of the origin of such a power or of
such a habit. What is the origin of Wonder? In the
lower animals a lower form of it exists in the shape of
Curiosity, being little more than an impulse to seek for
that which may be food, or to avoid that which may be
danger. But in Man it is one of the most powerful and
the most fruitful of all his mental characteristics. Of its
origin we can give no other account than that there ex-
ists in Man an indefinite power of knowing, in contact
with an equally indefinite number of things which are to
him unknown. Between these two facts the connecting
link is the wish to know. And, indeed, if the system of
Nature were not a reasonable system, the power of know-
ing might exist in Man without any wish to use it. But
the system of Nature, being what it is—a system which
is the very embodiment of wisdom and knowledge—such
a departure from unity is impossible. That unity con-
sists in the universal and rational correspondence of all
its essential facts. There would be no such correspond-
ence between the powers of the human mind and the
ideas which they are fitted to entertain, if these powers
were not incited by an appetite of inquiry. Accordingly,
the desire of knowledge is as much born with Man as the

desire of focd. The impression that there are things
around him which he does not know or understand, but
which he can know and understand by effort and inquiry,
is so much part of Man’s nature that Man would not be
Man without it. Religion is but a part of this impression
—or rather it is the sum and consummation of all the
intimations from which this impression is derived.
Among the things of which he has an impression as exist-
ing, and respecting which he desires to know more, are
above all other things, Personalities or Agencies, or Beings
having powers like, but superior to his own. This is
Religion. In this impression is to be found the origin of
all Theologies. But of its own origin we can give no
account until we know the origin of Man.

I have dwelt upon this point of definition because
those who discuss the origin of Religion seem very often
to be wholly unconscious of various assumptions which
are necessarily involved in the very question they pro-
pound. One of these assumptions clearly is that there
was a time when Man existed without any feeling or im-
pression that any Being or Beings superior to himself ex-
isted in Nature or behind it. The assumption is that the
idea of the existence of such Beings is a matter of high
and difficult attainment, to be reached only after some
long process of evolution and development. Whereas
the truth may very well be, and probably is, that there
never was atime since Man became possessed of the
mental constitution which separates him from the brutes,
when he was desti‘ute of some conception of the exist-
ence of living Agencies other than his own. Instead of
being a difficult conception, it may very well turn out to
be, on investigation, the very simplest of all conceptions.
The real difficulty may lie not in entertaining it, but in
getting rid of it, or in restraining its undue immanence
and power. The reason of this difficulty is obvious. Of
all the intuitive faculties which are peculiar to Man, that
of self-consciousness is the most prominent. In virtue
of that faculty or power, without any deliberate reason-
ing or logical process of any formal kind, Man must have
been always familiar with the idea of energies which are
themselves invisible, and only to be seen in their effects.
His own loves and hates, his own gratitude and revenge,
his own schemes and resolves, must have been familiar
to him from the first as things in themselves invisible,
and yet having power to determine the most opposite
and the most decisive changes for good or evil in things
in themselves invisible, and yet having power to deter-
mine the most opposite and the most decisive changes
for good or evil in things which are visible and material.
The idea of Personality, therefore, or of the efficiency of
Mind and Will, never could have been to him inseparable
from the attributes of visibility. It never could have been
any difficulty with him to think of living Agencies other
than his own, and yet without any form, or with forms
concealed from sight. There is no need therefore to hunt
farther afield for the origin of this conception than
Man’s own consciousness of himself. There is no need
of going to the winds which are invisible, or to the
heavenly bodies which are intangible, or to the sky, which
is immeasurable. None of these, in virtue either of mere
invisibility, or of mere intangibility. or of mere immeas-
urableness, could have suggested the idea which is funda-
mental in Religion. That idea was indeed supplied to
Man from Nature; but it was from his own nature in
communion with the nature of all things around him. To
conceive of the energies that are outside of him as like
the energies that he feels within him, is simply to think
of the unknown in terms of the familiar and the known.
To think thus can never have been to him any matter of
difficult attainment. It must have been, in the very
nature of things, the earliest, the simplest, and the most
necessary of all conceptions.

The conclusion, then, to which we come from this
analysis of Religion is that there is no reason to believe,
but on the contrary many reasons to disbelieve, that there

SCIENCE.

287

ever was a time when man with his existing constitution,
lived in contact with the forces and in the face of ener-
gies of Nature, and yet with no impression or belief that
in those energies, or behind them, there were Living
Agencies other than his own. And if man, ever since he
became Man, had always some such impression or
belief, then he always had a Religion, and the question
of its origin cannot be separated from the origin of the
species.

It is a part of the Unity of Nature that the clear percep-
tion of any one truth leads almost always to the percep-
tion of some other, which follows from or is connected
with the first. Andso it is in this case. The same
* analysis which establishes a necessary connection between
the self-consciousness of Man and the one fundamental
element of all religious emotion and belief, establishes an
equally natural connection between another part of the
same self-consciousness and certain tendencies in the
development of Religion which we know to have been
widely prevalent. For although in the operations of our
own mind and spirit, with their strong and often violent
emotions, we are familiar with a powerful agency which
is in itself invisible, yet it is equally true that we are
familiar with that agency as always working in and
through a body. It is natural, therefore, when we think
of Living Agencies in Nature other than our own, to
think of them as having some form, or at least as having
some abode. Seeing, however, and knowing the work of
those Agencies to be work exhibiting power and resources
so much greater than our own, there is obviously unlim-
ited scope for the imagination in conceiving what that
form and where that abode may be. Given, therefore,
these two inevitable tendencies of the human mind—the
tendency to believe in the existence of Personalities other
than our own, and the tendency to think of them as
living in some shape and in some place—we have a
natural and sufficient explanation, not only of the exis-
tence of Religion, but of the thousand forms in which it
has found expression in the world. For as Man since he
became Man, in.respect to the existing powers and appa~
ratus of his mind, has never been without the conscious-
ness of self, nor without some desire of interpreting the
things around him in terms of his own thoughts, so neither
has he been without the power of imagination. By vir-
tue of it he re-combines into countless new forms not
only the images of sense but his own instinctive interpre-
tations of them. - Obviously we have in this faculty the
prolific source of an infinite variety of conceptions, which
may be pure and simple or foul and unnatural, according
to the elements supplied out of the moral and intellectual
character of the minds which are imagining. Obviously,
too, we have in this process an unlimited field for the de-
velopment of good or evil germs. The work which in
the last chapter I have shown to he the inevitable work
of Reason when it starts from any datum which is false,
must be, in religious conceptions above all others, a work
of rapid and continuous evolution. The steps of natural
consequence, when they are downward here, must be
downwards along the steepest gradients. It must be so
because the conceptions which men have formed respect-
ing the Supreme Agencies in Nature are of necessity
conceptions which give energy to all the springs of action.
They touch the deepest roots of motive. In thought they
open the most copious fountains of suggestion. In con-
duct they affect the supreme influence of Authority, and
the next most powerful of all influences, the influence of
Example. Whatever may have been false or wrong,
therefore, from the first in any religious conception must
inevitably tend to become worse and worse with time,
and with the temptation under which men have lain
to follow up the steps of evil consequence to their most
extreme conclusions.

Armed with the certainties which thus arise out of
the very nature of the conceptions we are dealing with
when we inquire into the origin of Religion, we can now

‘approach that question by consulting the only other

sources of authentic information, which are, first, the
facts which Religion presents among the existing gener-
ations of men, and, secondly, such facts as can be safely
gathered from the records of the past.

On one main point which has been questioned respect-
ing existing facts, the progress of inquiry seems to have
established beyond any reasonable doubt that no race of
men now exists .so savage and degraded as to be, or to
have been when discovered, wholly destitute of any con-
ceptions of a religious nature. It is now well understood
that all the cases in which the existence of such savages
has been reported, are cases which break down upon
more intimate knowledge and more scientific inquiry.

Such is the conclusion arrived at by a careful modern
inquirer, Professor Tiele, who says: ‘The statement
that there are nations or tribes which possess no religion,
rests either on inaccurate observations or on a confusion
of ideas. No tribe or nation has yet been met with desti-
tute of belief in any higher Beings, and travelers who as-
serted their existence have been afterwards refuted by
facts. It is legitimate, therefore, to call Religion, in its
most general sense, an universal phenomenon of hu-
manity.’”®

Although this conclusion on a matter of fact is satis-
factory, it must be remembered that, even if it had been
true that some savages do exist with no conception
whatever of Living Beings higher than themselves, it
would be no proof whatever that such was the primeval
condition of Man. The arguments adduced in a former
chapter, that the most degraded savagery of the present
day is or may be the result of evolution working upon
highly unfavorable conditions, are arguments which de-
prive such facts, even if they existed, of all value in sup-
port of the assumption that the lowest savagery was the
condition of the first progenitors of our race. Degrada-
tion being a process which has certainly operated, and is
now operating. upon some races, and to some extent, it
must always remain a question how far this process may
go in paralyzing the activity of our higher powers or in
setting them, as it were, to sleep. It is well, however,
that we have no such problem to discuss. Whether any
savages exist with absolutely no religious conceptions is,
after all, a question of subordinate importance; because
it is certain that, if they exist at all, they are a very ex-
treme case and a very rare exception. It is notorious that,
in the case of most savages and of all barbarians,
not only have they some Religion, but their Religion is
one of the very worst elements in their savagery or their
barbarism.

Looking now to the facts presented by the existing Re-
ligions of the world, there is one of these facts which at
once arrests attention, and that is the tendency of all Re-
ligions, whether savage or civilized, to connect the Per
sonal Agencies who are feared or worshipped with some
material object. The nature of that connection may not
be always—it may not be even in any case—perfectly
clear and definite. The rigorous analysis of our own
thoughts upon such subjects is difficult, even to the most
enlightened men. To rude and savage men it is impos-
sible. There is no mystery, therefore, in the fact that the
connection which exists between various material objects
and the Beings who are worshipped in them or through
them, is a connection which remains generally vague in
the mind of the worshipper himself. Sometimes the ma-
terial object is an embodiment ; sometimes it 1s a sym-
bol; often it may be only an abode. ‘Nor is it wonderful
that there should be alike variety in the particular objects
which have come to be so regarded. Sometimes they are
such material objects as the heavenly bodies. Sometimes
they are natural productions of our own planet, such as
particular trees, or particular animals, or particular things
in themselves inanimate, such as springs, or streams, or

5“ History of Religion,” p. 6.

288

mountains. Sometimes they are manufactured articles,
stones or blocks of wood cut into some shape which has
a meaning either obvious or traditional. ,

The universality of this tendency to connect scme ma-
terial objects with religious worship, and the immense
variety of modes in which this tendency has been mani-
fested, is a fact which receives a full and adequate ex-
planation in our natural disposition to conceive of all
Personal Agencies as living in some form and in some
place, or as having some other special connection with
particular things in Nature. Nor is it difficult to under-
stand how the embodiments, or the symbols, or the
abodes, which may be imagined and devised by men, will
vary according as their mental condition has been de-
veloped in a good or in awrong direction. Andas these
imaginings and devices are never, as we see them now
among savages, the work of any one generation of men,
but are the accumulated inheritance of many generations,
all existing systems of worship among them must be re-
garded as presumably very wide departures from the con-
ceptions which were primeval. And this presumption
gains additional force when we observe the distinction
which exists between the fundamental conceptions
of religious belief and the forms of worship which have
come to be the expression and embodiment of these. In
the Religion of the highest and best races, in Christianity
itself, we know the wide difference which obtains be-
tween the theology of the Church and the popular super-
stitions which have been developed under it. These
superstitions may be, and often are, of the grossest kind.
They may be indeed, and in many cases are known to be,
vestiges of Pagan worship which have survived all re-
ligious revolutions and reforms; but in other cases they
are the natural and legitimate development of some
erroneous belief accepted as part of the Christian creed.
Here, as elsewhere, Reason working on false data has
been, as under such conditions it must always be, the
great agent in degradation and decay.

METEOROLOGICAL ELECTRICITY.

Ciel et Terre gives a description of a cyclone which
passed over Japan on the night of the 3d or ath of October,
1880. At Tokio a rapidity of 45 metres per second has
been observed, but this had only a rapidity of 10 metres;
its diameter was not very considerable, 240 kilometres. The
fall of the barometer, though rapid, was far from being as
prompt as that occurring eight days before on the coasts of
the Island of Formosa, where a depression of 73 millimetres
in 4 hours, or 18 millimetres per hour, was observed. These
indicate that the old theory of whirlwinds is perfectly use-
less to account for meteorological phenomena.

io

THE APERTURE OF MICROSCOPE-OBJECTIVES.

The last number of the Yournal of the Royal Micros-
copical Society is largely occupied with a discussion of
this question by Prof. E. Abbe, of Jena, and Mr. Frank
Crisp, one of the secretaries of the Society.

The subject appears to have been again brought up by
a paper by Mr. G. Shadbolt (President of the Society in
1856), who claimed to have ‘‘demonstrated beyond dis-
pute that no objective could have an aperture of any kind
in excess of 180° angular in air.’”’ The grounds on which
Mr. Shadbolt rested his demonstration are disposed of in
detail in the papers now published; but with this aspect
of the matter we do not propose to deal, confining our-
selves to the more general consideration of the subject,
apart from any controversial matter.

The proper definition of the aperture of a microscope-
objective was, for a long time, as is well known,’ a very
vexed one among microscopists. The astronomer has

SCIENCE.

always a ready definition for the telescope, the aperture
of which was simply estimated by the absolute diameter
of the object-glass. No such absolute measure is, how-
ever, possible in the case of the microscope-objective, as
the lenses of which it is composed vary in diameter within
considerable limits, and the larger lens is by no means
ths larger aperture, as is readily seen by the comparison
of the large lenses of the low powers with the small
lenses of the high powers, which yet much exceed the
fermer in aperture.

In consequence of this difficulty, the angle of the pencil,
as it emanates from the object, and prior to its transmis-
sion through the objective to the image, came to be very.
generally considered as the proper measure of the aper-
ture of the objective. This was at a time when dry or
air objectives were generally known, immersion objectives
not having been brought into ordinary use.

But even with air objectives the angle of the radiant
pencil did not afford a true comparison, which could only
be made by the szzes of the angles; but when immersion
objectives were originated—that is, objectives in which
water or oil replaced the air in front of the objective—the
use of the angies became very misleading, for now three
angles might all have the same number of degrees and
yet denote very different values, according as they are in
air, water, or oil.

It therefore became necessary to find a substitute for
the angles in the comparison of apertures; for although
it was no doubt possible to bear in mind that 82° in air
was less aperture than 82° in water, and the latter less
than 82° in oil, yet the use of the same figures inevitably
tended to produce confusion in the minds of microscopists
—so much so that it was stoutly maintained by one party
that the apertures in the three cases we have referred to
were identical because the angles were the same.

A solution of the difficulty was discovered by Professor
Abbe, who pointed out that the true definition of aper-
ture (in its legitimate meaning of ‘‘opening’’) was ob-
tained when we compared the diameter of the pencil
emerging from the objective with the focal length of the
objective.

e It will be desirable to explain somewhat more in detail
how this conclusion is arrived at—as given in Prof. Abbe’s
paper.

Taking in the first case a szug/e-lens microscope, the
number of rays admitted within one meridional plane of
the lens evidently increases as the diameter of the lens
(all other circumstances remaining the same), for in the
microscope we have at the back of the lens the same cir-
cumstances as are in front in the case of the telescope.
The larger or smaller number of emergent rays will,
therefore, be properly measured by the clear diameter;

and as no rays can emerge that have not first been

admitted, this must also give the measure of the admitted
rays.

Buppowe now that the focal lengths of the lenses com-
pared are not the same,—what then is the proper meas-
ure of the rays admitted ?

If the two lenses have equal openings but different
focal lengths, they transmit the same number of rays to
equal areas of an image at a definite distance, because
they would admit the same number if an object were sub-
stituted for the image—that is, if the lens were used as a
telescope-objective. But as the focal lengths are differ-
ent the amplification of the images is different also, and
equal areas of these images correspond to different areas
ot the object from which the rays are collected. There-
fore, the higher-power lens, with the samé opening as the
lower power, will admit a greater number of rays in all
from the same object because it admits the same number
as the latter from a smadler portion of the object. Thus
if the focal lengths of the two lenses are as 2:1, and the
first aroplifies N diameters, the second will amplify 2 N
with the same distance of the image, so that the rays
which are collected Zo a given field of 1 mm. diameter of

SCIENCE.

289

the image are admitted from a field of x mm. in the

I :
first case and of x mm. in the second. Inasmuch as

2

the “opening” of the objective is estimated by the diam-
eter (and not by the area) the higher-power lens admits
twice as many rays as the lower power, because it admits
the same number from a field of Za/f the diameter, and in
general the admission of rays with the same opening, but
different powers, must be in the inverse ratio of the focal
lengths.

In the case cf the single lens, therefore, its aperture
must be determined by the ratzo between the clear open-
zug and the focal length, in order to define the same
thing as is denoted in the telescope by the absolute
opening.

Dealing with a compound objectzve, the same consid-
erations obviously apply, substituting, however, for the
clear opening of the single lens, the diameter of the pen-
cil at its emergence from the black lens of the objective
—that is, its clear effective diameter.

All equally holds good, whether the medium in which
the objective is placed is the same in the case of the two
objectives or different, as an alteration of the medium
makes no difference in the power.

Thus we arrive at the general proposition for all kinds
of objectives. ist. When the power is the same, the
admission of rays varies with the diameter of the pencil
at its emergence. 2nd. When the powers are different
the same admisston requires dzfferent openings in the
proportion of the focal lengths, or, conversely, with the
same opening the admzssion ts tn tnverse proportion to
the focal length—that is, the objective which has the
wider pencil relatively to its focal length has the larger
“aperture.

Thus we see that, just as in the telescope, the absolute
diameter of the object-glass defines the aperture, so in
the microscope, the ratio between the utilized diameter
of the back lens and the focal length of the objective de-
fines its aperture.

This definition is clearly a definition of aperture in its
primary and only legitimate meaning as “opening’’—that
is, the capacity of the objective for admitting rays from
the object and transmitting them to the image; and it at
once solves the difficulty which has always been involved
in the consideration of the apertures ot immersion ob-
jectives.

So long as the angles were taken as the proper expres-
sion of aperture, it was difficult for those who were not
well versed in optical matters to avoid regarding an angle
of 180° in air as the maximum aperture that any objec-
tive could attain. Hence water-immersion objectives of
96° and oil-immersion objectives of 82° were looked
upon as being of much Zess aperture than a dry objective
of 180°, whilst, in fact, they are all egwa/—that is, they
all transmit the same rays from the object to the image.
Therefore, {80° in water and 180° in oil are unequal, °
and both are much larger apertures than the 180° which
is the maximum that the air objective can transmit.

If we compare a series of dry and oil-immersion ob-
jectives, and, commencing with very small air-angles,
progress up to 180° air-angle, then taking an oil-immer-
sion of 82° and progressing again to 180° oil-angle, the
ratio of opening to power progresses continually also,
and attains its maximum, not in the case of the air-angle
of 180° (when it is exactly equivalent to the oil-angle of
82°), but is greatest at the oil-angle of 180°.

If we assume the objectives to have the same power
throughout, we get rid of one of the factors of the ratio,
and we have only to compare the diameters of the emer-
gent beams, and can represent their relations by dia-
grams. Our figure (which is taken from Mr. Crisp’s
paper) illustrates five cases of different apertures of Yin.
objectives—viz., those of dry objectives of 60°, 97° and

180° air-angle, a water-immersion of 180° water-angle,
and an oil-immersion of 180° oil-angle. The inner dotted
circles in the two latter cases are of the same size as that
corresponding to the 180° air angle.*

RELATIVE DIAMETERS OF THE ( UTILIZED) BACK-LENSES OF

VARIOUS DRY AND IMMERSION OBJECTIVES OF THE SAME
POWER (%) FROM AN AIR-ANGLE OF 69°? To AN OIL-ANGLE

OF 180°,

Numerical Aperture
1.52
= 180° oil-angle.

Numerical Aperture

1.33
= 180° water-angle.

Numerical Aperture
1.00
= 180° air-angle.
= 96° water-angle.
= 82° oil-angle.

Numerical Aperture

“75
= 97° air-angle.

Numerical Aperture

.50
= 60° air-angle.

A dry objective of the full maximum air-angle of 180°
is only able (whether the first surface is plane or concave)
to utilise a diameter of back lens equal to twice the focal
length, while an immersion lens of even only 100% (in
glass) requires and utilises a /arger diameter, Zz. ¢., it is
able to transmit more rays from the object to the image
than azy dry objective is capable of transmitting. When-
ever the angle of an immersion lens exceeds twice the
critical angle for the immersion-fluid, z. ¢., 96° for water
or €2° for oil, its aperture is in excess of that of a dry
objective of 180°.

Having settled the principle, it was still necessary,
however, to find a proper notation for comparing aper-
tures. The astronomer can compare the apertures of his
various telescopes by simply expressing them in inches;
but this is obviously not available to the microscopist,
who has to deal with the vazzo of two varying quantities.

Prof. Abbe here again conferred a boon upon micro-
scopists by his discovery (in 1873, independently con-
firmed by Prof. Helmholtz shortly afterwards) that a
general relation existed between the pencil admitted into
the front of the objective and that emerging from the
back of the objective, so that the ratio of the semi-diam-
eter of the emergent pencil to the focal length of the ob-
jective could be expressed by the sine of half the angle
of aperture (7) multiplied by the refractive index of the
medium (7) in front of the objective, or z sin. # (z being
1.0 for air, 1.33 for water, and 1.5 for oil or balsam).

When, then, the values in any given cases of the ex-
pression 72 sin. z« (which is known as the “numerical
aperture’’) has been ascertained, the objectives are in-
stantly compared as regards their aperture, and, more-

* The explanation of the mistaken supposition that the emergent beam
is wider in the case of the immersion objectives because the immersion-
fluid abolishes the refractive action of the first plane surfacc of the ob-
jective (which, in air, reduces all pencils to 80° within the glass), belongs
rather to the controversial branch of the matter. It is, ewe: fully
dealt with in the papers referred to. ‘

290

SCIENCE,

over, as 180° in air is equal to 1.0 (since z = 1.0, and
the sine of half 180° or g0° = 1.0), we see with equal
readiness whether the aperture of the objective’is smaller
or larger than that corresponding to 180° in air.

Thus, suppose we desire to compare the relative apert-
ures of three objectives, one a dry objective, the second
a water-immersion, and the third an oil-immersion.
These would be compared on the angular aperture view
as, say, 74° air-angle, and 118° balsam-angle; so that a
calculation must be worked out to arrive at a due appre-
ciation of the actual relation between them. Applying,
however, ‘‘numerical’”’ aperture, which gives .Co for the
dry objective, .go for the water-immersion, and 1.30 for
the oil-immersion, their relative apertures are immedi-
ately appreciated, and it is seen, for instance, that the
aperture of the water-immersion is somewhat less than
that of a dry objective of 180°, and that the aperture of
the oil-immersion exceeds that of the latter by 30 .

When these considerations have been appreciated, the
advantage possessed by immersion in comparison with
dry objectives is no longer obscured. Instead of this ad-
vantage consisting merely in increased working distance
or absence of correction-collar, it is seen that a wide-
angled immersion objective has a larger aperture than a
dry objective of the maximum angle of 180° ; so that for
any of the purposes for which aperture is desired, an im-
mersion must necessarily be preferred to a dry objective.

The task of making an abstract of these papers was
not a light one and we are indebted to the Euglsh
Mechanics for the above résumé.

BOOKS RECEIVED.

DISCOVERY OF THE PREGLACIAL OUTLET OF THE
BASIN OF LAKE ERIE INTO THAT OF LAKE ONTA-
RIO; with notes on the Origin of our Lower Great
Lakes. By PRoF. J. W. SPENCER, B. A. Sc., Ph. D.,
F. G. S., Kings College, Windsor, N.S. 1881.

As one new branch of knowledge is raised to a science,
there still seems to be some other rising to importance.
For a long time the explanation of the Physical Features
of America has been handed over to the rival Glacier and
Iceberg theories, and though much good work has re-
sulted, yet an almost unlimited amount of nonsense has
been written, especially by the extreme or ultra-glacial
school. During all these years comparatively little atten-
tion has been given to the subject of the river geology,
more than that many buried channels have been recorded
with but few attempts at the reduction of the abstract facts
toa branch of Science. There has, however, been a very
great difficulty, owing to the Preglacial valleys often
being entirely obscured, or, if apparent, an absence of the
knowledge of their depths has prevented generalization.
In most of the cases recorded, the buried channels have
not had courses greatly differing from those of modern
times. It has been known for some time that the
waters of most of the great lakes had southern outlets
when at higher levels, and even to-day the drainage of
Chicago passes to the Mississippi. It has been frequently
suggested that Lake Ontario emptied by the Mohawk into
the Hudson. This, however, was not the case. We are
then compelled to place General G. K. Warren as the
father of Fluviatile Geology, for he discovered that the
Red River of the North (with Lake Winnipeg, the Sas-
katchewan, and other great rivers of the North West terri-
tories of .Canada, as tributaries) discharged by the
Minnesota river into the Mississippi, and thus produced
a river to which no modern water is comparable. On
further investigation Gen. Warren’s views are found to
require some modification, yet this does not detract from
the position which may be fairly assigned to him, Dr.
Newbury’s observations in Ohio have also thrown much
additional light on the subject, but a much more im-

Pennsylvania, when from a careful study of the levels and
borings for oil in that State, he discovered that the Upper
Alleghany and several other rivers now flowing into the
Ohio, formerly emptied into Lake Erie (or its basin).

But the most important contribution on the subject
of Fluviatile Geology that has been made is the recent
paper of the above title, by Professor Spencer, now
of Kings College, Nova Scotia, but formerly residing
in the lake region, in the Province of Ontario. The
paper of the above title was read before the American
Philosophical Society, of Philadelphia, and its publi-
cation will be found in the forthcoming proceed-
ings of that Society. It is also being reprinted as an
appendix to Report Q 4 of the Pennsylvania Survey, as
shown by the maps which accompany the author’s
edition, of which we have just received a copy. The fol-
lowing is a synopsis of the principal points of the paper:

The Niagara escarpment bends abruptly at the west-
ern end of Lake Ontario, and has a height of about 500
feet above the lake. Through this limestone ridge the
Dundas valley extends, and enters the extreme western
end of thelake. At the narrowest portion of the valley the
width is upwards of two miles, and the margins are those
of the walls of a perfect cazon, 500 feet deep. But by
boring near one of its margins, the buried channel is
found to reach 227 feet below the surface of Lake Ontario,
making a total depth of 743 feet, but with a computed
depth in the central part of its course of not less than
1000 feet. The author first discovered that the ancient
upper portion of the Grand River left its modern course
south of Galt, and although a portion of the old bed is
entirely obscured, yet by pursuing the course of the deep
wells the ancient route can be traced through the drift to
the western end of the Dundas cazon and Lake Ontario.
In following up this subject Dr. Spencer discovered that
the lower portion of the Grand River was formerly an
outlet of the Erie basin, which discharged by a course
from a point southward of Cayuga (Province of Ontario),
and flowed to the westward of this town and entered the
present valley, which is two miles wide and eighty feet
decp, but underlaid deeply with drift. Westward of
Seneca the ancient river left its modern course and passed
into the Dundas valley. All these observations are elabor
ately worked out by levels, deep well borings, and
deep ravines, with the one well in this course indicating
a depth of 1000 feet of drift in the ancient valley, measur-
ing from the limestone floor of the county.

The outlet of Lake Erie is directly opposite to that of
the ancient Alleghany River.

Again, Dr. Spencer has made a study of the sound-
ings of the lakes, and has discovered a long submerged
escarpment extending along the southern side of Lake
Ontario to near Oswego, at the foot of which the Ancient
River from the Dundas Valley ran. The author has
shown that an ancient, broad channel, extended from
Lake Huron and entered Lake Erie between Port Stan-
ley and Vienna, in the Canadian Province of Ontario,
This channel has a marginal depth of 200 feet below
Lake Erie, but with a probable depth sufficient to drain
Lake Huron.

With regard to Lake Superior, Prof. Spencer shows
that it formerly emptied into the northern end of Lake
Michigan, and formed a river channel now represented
by deep pot-holes. He brings forward some of the evi-
dence showing that Lake Michigan emptied or was com-
pletely drained by the tributaries of the Mississippi, and
that this lake was probably disconnected from Lake Hu-
ron. Atthe same time, he shows that Lake Superior
(when it was at no higher level than at present) did not
empty by the Green Bay and valley of the Fox and Wis-
consin Rivers.

The author denies the hypothesis of the glacial origin
of the Great Lakes, and brings forward strong evidence
in support of his views. He correlates with his work and

portant work has been accomplished by Mr. J. F, Carll, of ) maps the buried channels discovered in Pennsylvania and

-

SCIENCE.

Ohio, the whole constituting the broadest study on the
“Great River Age”’ that has been made. He considers
the great lakes as largely valleys of subaérial erosion, tra-
versed by the Grand River which he has worked out.
The Ancient buried course of the Niagara, the author
considers as interglacial, being formed and closed sub-
sequent to the closing of the Dundas Valley. Of course,
all this presupposes the action to have been going on
when the continent was six hundred feet higher, and
from the pot-holes in the New York Harbor, we know it
to have had an altitude of at least 900 above the present
elevation. To perfect the work there remains the discov-
ery of the outlet of Lake Ontario, which was not by the
Mohawk, as in its valley near Little Falls, it passes
over hard rock. Yet Prof. Spencer insinuates, in
this paper, that he is on the track of this discovery
also, and that the study will be pursued during the com-
ing summer. We wishthe author every success, and if
this ancient outlet be discovered, certainly he will
have added much to his already most important discov-

~ ery, and will fairly be considered as one of the founders of

this new scientific development.

It must be further stated that the author does not con-
sider all the ancient buried rivers now running south-
ward, but formerly flowing northward, as having in any
way been derived from glacier action, and more recently
than the paper, which we are reviewing, a notice by him
was read before the American Philosophical Society
showing that the Monongahela flowed directly north-
ward by the upper Ohio, Beaver, Mahoning and Grand
Rivers of Ohio (the last three reversed in Preglacial
times) to Lake Erie, thus adding another important trib-
utary to the Erie Basin and further changing the physi-
cal features of the Continent. _

This paper, which is the first preliminary notice of his
work on the Great River Age, will do much to draw at-
tention to the interesting subject which is destined to
have an equal place with Glacial Geology, with the ex-
treme views of which it will be found to conflict more or
less.

——————_ 4 or ——————

ON M. C. FAURE’S SECONDARY BATTERY.

The researches of M. Gaston Planté on the polarization
of voltameters led to his invention of the secondary cell,
composed of two strips of lead immersed in acidulated
water. These cells accumulate and, so to speak, store up
the electricity passed into them from some outside gene-
rator, When the two electrodes are connected with any
source of electricity the surfaces of the two strips of lead
undergo certain modifications. Thus, the positive pole
retains oxygen and becomes covered witha thin coating
of peroxide of lead, while the negative pole becomes re-
duced te a clean metallic state.

Now, if the secondary cell is separated from the primary
one, we have a veritable voltaic battery, for the symmetry
of the poles is upset, and one is ready to give up oxygen
and the other eager to receive it. When the poles are
connected, an intense electric current is obtained, but it is
of short duration. Such a cell, having half a square metre
of surface, can store up enough electricity to keep a platin-
um wire I millim. in diameter and 8 centims. long, red-hot
for ten minutes. M. Planté has succeeded in increasing
the duration of the current by alternately charging and
discharging the cell, so as alternately to form layers of
reduced metal and peroxide of lead on the surface of the
strip. It was seen that this cell would afford an excellent
means for the conveyance of electricity from place to place,
the great drawback, however, being that the storing capa-
city was not sufficient as compared with the weight and
size of the cell. This difficulty has now been overcome
by M. Faure: the cell as he has improved it is made in
the following manner:

The two strips of lead are separately covered with
minium or some other insoluble oxide of lead, then covered
with an envelope of felt, firmly attached by rivets of lead.
These two electrodes are then placed near each other in
water acidulated with sulphuric acid, as in the Planté cell,

291

The cell is then attached to a battery so as to allow a cur-
rent of electricity to pass through it, and the minium is
thereby reduced to metallic spongy lead on the negative
pole, and oxidised to peroxide of lead on the positive pole ;
when the cell is discharged the reduced lead becomes
oxidised, and the peroxide of lead is reduced until the cell
becomes inert.

The improvement consists, as will be seen, in substitut-
ing for strips of lead masses of spongy lead ; for, in the
Planté cell, the action is restricted to the surface, while in
Faure’s modification-the action is almost unlimited. A bat-
tery composed of Faure’s cells, and weighing 150 lbs., is
capable of storing up a quantity of electricity equivalent to
one-horse power during one hour, and calculations based
on facts on thermal chemistry shows that this weight could
be greatly decreased. A battery of 24 cells, each weighing
14 lbs., will keep a strip of platinum 5ths of an inch wide,
I-32nd of an inch thick, and g feet Io ins. long, red hot for
a long time.

The loss resulting from the charging and discharging of
this battery is not great: for example, if a certain quantity
of energy is expended in charging the cells, 80 per cent of
that energy can be reproduced by the electricity resulting
from the discharge ot the cells ; moreover, the battery can be
carried from one place to another withoutinjury. A battery
was lately charged in Paris, then taken to Brussels, where
it was used the next day without recharging. The cost is also
said to be very low. A quantity of electricity can be pro-
duced, stored. and delivered at any distance within 3 miles
of the works for1%d. Therefore these batteries may be-
come useful in producing the electric light in private houses.
A 1250 horse-power engine, working dynamo machines giv-
ing a continuous current, will in one hour produce 1000
horse-power of effective electricity, that is to say 80 per
cent of the initial force. The cost of the machines, estab-
lishment, and construction will not be more than £40,000,
and the quantity of coal burnt will be 2 lbs. per hour per
effective horse- power, which will cost (say) %d. The ap-
paratus necessary to store up the force of 1000 horses for
twenty-four hours will cost £48,000, and will weigh 1500
tons. This price and these weights may become much less
after a time. The expense for wages and repairs will be
less than 4d. per hour per horse-power, which would be
424 per day. or £8800 a year; thus the total cost of one-
horse-power foran hour stored up at the works is 3d,
Allowing that the carriage will cost as much as the pro-
duction and storing, we have what is stated above, viz.,
that the total cost within 3 miles of the works is 1¥d.
per horse-power per hour. This quantity of electricity will
produce a light, according to the amount of division,
equivalent to from 5 to 30 gas burners, which is much
cheaper than gas.—Chemical News.

9 ——__—_—-_

MICROSCOPY.

We offer the following notes culled from the pages of
the Fournal of the Royal Microscopic Soctety :—

A singular species of Ncarus is described by A. D.
Michael, found by him at Land’s End, England. It
belongs to the genus Dermaletchus (Koch) Analges
(Nitsch) but does not fit into any of the five genera, or
sub-genera, into which Robins has divided the group.
The leading feature in this curious creature was that the
male had the lett leg of the second pair conspicuously
larger than its fellow on the right side, had a totally dif-
ferent tarsus, and supported by a different and more pow-
erful epimeral and sternal arrangement. This de-
formity makes this species entirely different to any other
Nearus.

Haustein has observed in the central cells of chara,
chlorophyll-bodies containing starch which could not be
regarded as the product of assimilation. C. Dehnecke
has now investigated a number of similar instances, in
which the starch contained within the chlorophyll-grains
appears not to serve the purpose of immediate assimila-
tion, but to be stored up as a reserve material,

A new stereoscopic eye piece has been arranged by
Professor E, Abbe. The special feature of this instrument

292

is the ingenious arrangement whereby, by simply turning
the caps with the diaphragms, orthoscopic or pseudos-
copic effect can be produced instantly at pleasure. It is
more particularly available for tubes of short length for
which the Wenham prism is inapplicable.

Powell and Leland have completed a new I-12 having
two front lenses. The maximum numerical aperture is
1.43 (= 140° in crown glass of mean index 1.525), ob-
tained by a front lens several degrees greater than a
hemisphere, mounted on a plate of glass .o03 inch in
thickness, which is itself mounted in the usual metal
work by the zone projecting beyond the circumference of
the lens. With this front lens the focal distance from
the exposed surface of the plate on which the lens is
mounted is .007 inches. A second front, nearly a hemi-
sphere, is mounted in the usual way by a burred edge of
metal covering the extreme margin of the lens. This
front gives a numerical aperture of 1.28 (= 115° in glass)
and the focal distance is then 0.16 inch. The third front
provides a numerical aperture of 1.0 (=82° in glass, as
nearly as possible), and the working distance is then .024
inch—probably the greatest working distance hitherto
obtained with a 1-12 of that aperture.

Dr. Reidel, an assistant to Professor Abbe, has found
two new fluids suitable for homogeneous objectives. The
first is a solution of Gum Damar dissolved in hot oil of
cedar-wood. The oil which is obtained in Germany has
a refractive index of 1.51 o#/y, but by the Damar this
can be raised to 1.54. If carefully distilled it becomes
sufficiently pale and loses its stickiness. The other
medium isa solution of zodate of zinc in Price’s ordinary
glycerine (7 = 1.46). This salt is very soluble in glycer-
ine, and a refractive index of 1.56 or more can be ob-
tained, and therefore there is no difficulty in making a
solution of 1.52 which is the standard index at 18° cent.
Professor Abbe has furnished Mr. Zeiss with a new form-
ula for homogeneous ¢ , this having a numerical aperture
of 1.40 and adjusted for the new fluids.

Mr, T. Charters White, R. M.S., calls for some re-agent
suitable for mounting insects; carbolic acid renders the
chitinous envelope transparent, but has the same effect on
the internal organs also. Dr. Mathews also objected to
carbolic acid, as it caused the abdomen of insects thus
mounted to.collapse. Those who have had some experi-
ence in making preparations for insect anatomy will per-
haps have suggestions to make.

SCIENCE,

We lately called attention to infusoria found in
cases of epidemic catarrh, called Asthematos céliarzs,
Dr. Leidy doubted the character of this form and sug-
gested its being a cz/¢ated epithelium. Dr. Carter now
maintains that it is correct to call it an infusorium, be-
cause by culture in mucus outside the body, they increase
in number, and they are found in morbid secretions of the
conjunctiva where no ciliated epithelia exist—more-
over, those remedies only cure the disease which kill the
Asthematos.

> —_—_——_

THE STEREORACHYS.

A new specimen of this gigantic and marvellous reptile
from the permian schists of Igornay (Sadne and Loire) has
been presented by M. Gaudry, who gives an exceedingly
interesting description of it. Among the results formulated
by the learned paleontologist, one of the most striking is
the continuity of life of the primary epoch to the secondary
one. We aretending more and more to the ideaof the slow |
modifications of terrestrial conditions, and are therefore re-
ceiving more and more from the gratuitous supposition of
the revolutions of the globe.

To the Editor of ““SCIENCE:”

DEAR SIR:—In the last number of your valuable
periodical, at the close of a review of Professor Packard’s
work on the “Brain of the Locust,” the writer states:
“In view of the loudly trumpeted theory recently re-
vived by Dr. J. J. Mason, after having repeatedly re-
ceived the coup de grdce at the hands of Stieda, Mey-
nert and others that large cells are motor, it is interesting
to note that those of the optic ganglion in the locust are
among the largest cells in its nervous system.”

This is a complete error,so far as I am concerned.
No such claim has ever been made by me in any form,
by hint, inference or otherwise. In my last paper on the
dimensions of nuclei there appears this sentence: “At
the same time it may be true that all large cells connect
with motor filaments. The sentence which immediately
precedes this one clearly proves that I refer here exclu-
sively to the spinal cord of turtles. This is reviving no
theory. Yours truly,

JOHN J. MASON.
NEWPORT, Fume 13, 1881.

SUN SPOTS.

The following record of observations, made by Mr. D. P. Todd, Assistant, has been forwarded by Prof. S.
Newcomb, U.S. Navy, Superintendent Nautical Almanac Office, Washington, D. C., to Gen. H. B. Hazen.

|
. DisapPEARED BY REAPPEARED BY Tota NuMBER
DATE TiS me Or unew Soar Rotation. | Sotar RoratTIon. VISIBLE.
APRIL, 1881. || REMARKS,
Groups. | Spots. Groups. | Spots. Groups. Spots. Groups. Spots.
—— << | —
PPG) alii non non I 5 fo) ° I I 3 Io
By LOAD sores 2 II I I I 2 4 tzo | Few faculee.
TS Geb elaecne fo) ° fo) fo) ° ° 4 +20 Faculee.
Gras eee I 3 fo) fo) I 3 5 +18 Faculee.
(ie OPEL eoGHne I 3 I 5 I 3 4 14 | Facule.
IO, IO a.M...... ° 3 ome fo) 3 3 8 | Facule. ;
nd CRED Wonnse ) ° ye ents ° co) 2 | Faculze. ‘|
TAy Saisie vices 2 15 |" Peres a = 3 | t2o | Facule. 5
Se srl eo 2 al tee gel oee ae ee é 9 3 {42 { Facul. Manyof the spotssmall.
BE) (OVA. Wess vine fo) +60 | Ae PP eee ee 6 tig | Faculze. Many of the spots small. a
BAren7 valleys ° ° | I ) 20 fo) fe) 4 +85 | Faculz. Many ofthe spots small. } 1
| Spots probably disappeared by
g solar rotation. a
BU Ses inicie ‘
my 3 z 7 Pen 2 2 : as = 3 , ee) } Faculee. Many ofthespots small.
28 ea eTIMe, ¢ ofates ° ° 2 +45 fo) ° 3 Bite)
SSN Vateatarels | ° ° ° ° ° ° 3 10 Faculze.
30;4 sae iia = I 4 2 9 I 4 2 5 Facule.

¢ Approximated.

SCIENCE.

293

SCIENCE: -

A WEEKLy ReEcorpD oF SCIENTIFIc

PrRoGRESS.

JOHN MICHELS, Editor.

PUBLISHED AT

TRIBUNE BUILDING, NEW YORK.

P, O, Box 3838,

SATURDAY, JUNE 25, 1881.

NOTICE TO CORRESPONDENTS.

The writer of a paper ‘‘ Ox Ether"’ will much oblige by for-
_ Warding his name and address.

THE DISCOVERY OF NEPTUNE.

The brilliant theoretical discovery of this planet by
Leverrier and Adams, will be distinctly remembered
~ by many of our readers. Soon after the publication
of the mathematical investigation made by the two
astronomers who had won so much glory, Professor
Benjamin Pierce, of Harvard College, startled the
scientific world by the announcement that after all
this discovery was only a happy accident, and that the
planet found by Galli, in accordance with the direc-
tions of Leverrier, was not the planet “to which geo-
metrical analysis had directed the telescope.” This
statement by Professor Pierce has, we believe, found
but little credence among European astronomers and
mathematicians. Among those who were well quali-
fied to judge, and who may be considered as free from
from national prejudice on this question, we mention
Hansen, the well-known theoretical astronomer of
Germany, and Jacobi, one of the ablest mathema-
ticians of the same country; both of whom expressed
the opinion that Professor Pierce was himself mis-
taken. In a posthumous book recently published on
“ Ideality in the Physical Sciences,” edited by his son,
Professor J. M. Pierce, the present professor of math-
ematics in Harvard University, Professor Pierce reit-
erates his former opinion on the discovery of Neptune.
It appears that a few years before his death he had
made a careful review of his former investigations, and
says, p. 173: “I strictly adhere to the correctness of
my early statement.” This opinion seems to be
shared also by Professor J. M. Pierce, who says, p.
201 of the Appendix: “It is to be regretted that the

correction of the error was not received, on the part
of the French astronomer, with the magnanimity and
fairness which it is always painful not to find associa-
ted with high intellectual power.”

Intrinsically, the question raised by Professor Pierce
is an interesting one, and the whole matter seems to
us worthy of a new and careful discussion. It may
well be doubted whether the argurnent used by Pro-
fessor Pierce, that there is a change in the character
of the perturbations near the distance of 35.3, will
apply to the method employed by Leverrier and
Adams in their discussion of the perturbations of
Uranus. This method is so interesting that we invite
the attention of students of theoretical astronomy to
this question, which seems to us capable of a com-
plete and definitive mathematical solution.

—_~9—_____—.
VIVISECTION.

Dr. Darwin in a letter to a friend has expressed his
views upon vivisection. He writes:

“T know that Physiology cannot possibly progress ex-
cept by means of experiments on living animals, and I
feel the deepest conviction that he who retards the pro-
gress of Physiology commits a crime against mankind.
Anyone who remembers, as I can, the state of this science
half a century ago must admit that it has made immense
progress, and is now progressing at an ever-increasing
rate. What improvements in medical practice may be
directly attributed to physiological research is a question
which can be properly discussed only by those physiolo-
gists and medical practitioners who have studied the his-
tory of these subjects; but so far as I can learn, the
benefits are already very great. No one, unless he is
grossly ignorant of what Science has done for mankind,
can entertain any doubt of the incalculable benefits which
will be derived from Physiology, not only by man, but by
the lower animals.”

— _ E———

PROBABLE BRANCHIAL ORIGIN OF THE THY-
ROID AND THYMUS GLANDS.

By S. V. CLEVENGER, M.D.

There are many reasons for believing that the thyroid
and thymus are rudimentary gills, one of the main ob-
jections to the view being the structure of these bodies,
but in the light of modern biology, structure is almost
meaningless in homologizing, besides, the tissues of these
parts are not the same in all animals. Owen (Vol. I. p.
565) says the thymus appears in Vertebrates with the es-
tablishment of lungs as the main or exclusive respiratory
organ. In Siren and Proteus the thymus is wanting, as
in all fishes. Gegenbaur (p. 554) speaks of the thyroid
as an organ with unknown physiological relations, and
that ‘‘in fishes it is placed not far from the point at which
it was formed, that is, at the anterior end of the trunk of
the branchial anterior and between it and the copula of
the hyoid arch. In amphibia near the larynx, and is set
on the inner surface of the posterior comna of the hyoid.”
Gegenbaur considers it as an organ of use among Tuni-
cata. This latter idea, as well as the one I have ad-
vanced, needs verification. I am unwilling to devote
more time to the subject until I can ascertain whether
some one has not preceded me in announcing the homol-
ogy, if it be really one. Much light can be thrown upon
the disease known as Goitre by clearing up this point,

294

THE ADDRESS OF THE PRESIDENT OF THE
ROYAL MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY.

LIONEL S. BEALE, F. R. S.

As it is usual on this occasion for the President to de-
liver an address, I venture to offer for your consideration
this evening some suggestions in connection with a sub-
ject which in one or other of its aspects must needs be
of great interest to every one who wishes to learn all he
can about the wonderful changes which continually go
on in all living things, some being within and some be-
yond the present limit of scientific investigation; and
though I shall express some views with which perhaps
many here will not agree, I trust my remarks may kindle
interest and encourage discussion, rather than offend.
Where wrong I shall be glad to be corrected, but I claim
permission to speak freely what I think, and liberty to
advance my conclusions, which, though not at present
very popular, may yet be worthy of your consideration.

THE MICROSCOPIC LIMIT, AND BEYOND.

Increased skill and ever-extending knowledge may
enable the scientific worker not only to reach the utmost
limit of inquiry in his time, but possibly to gratify that
constant desire to see into the limitless region which lies
beyond the bounds of actual investigation. This is the
hope which encourages the thoughtful observer; for who
would not consent to spend years in patient research, if
by so doing he could succeed, as it were, in projecting
his intellect, were it ever so short a distance, beyond the
circumscribed region in which the senses can alone oper-
ate? Failures and disappointments may be endured if
only the observer’s mind be buoyed up by the hope that
ere his nerve-tissues grow too old, and begin to fail, the
longing of his intellect will probably be gratified. To
many, indeed, who are unable or unwilling to look into
the secrets of nature, such hopes and desires will seem
unintelligible or incredible. They will be regarded as
the idle fancies of an idle mind; and the ardent scientific
inquirer will be pitied or condemned as a weak, foolish
person who, like a child, is unable to repress his morbid
curiosity to peer into the unseen, and his craving to kno w
the unknowable ;—as one deserving to be classed with
simpletons and madmen, on the ground that it is absurd
to suppose that a really sensible person would spend his
life in hard work without remuneration, in preference to
doing that which would enable him to gain wealth, and
to live at ease, if not in luxury and enjoyment. And cer-
tainly it must be confessed that in few departments of
research is there less prospect of gaining by success such
rewards as are generally sought for, than in the one to
which we are attached.

The microscopist, like the astronomer, is ever longing
to get a little beyond the point at which he has already
arrived. Each new fact gained by research seems but to
indicate the existence of more and more important things
beyond, Limit is reached and then surmounted, but
soon a new limit seems to rise from the mists in the dis-
tance, towards which the worker is impelled by new
hopes and desires. It is this never halting progress
which distinguishes scientific from every other kind of
inquiry, and particularly microscopical investigation, for
it can never be completed. It deals with the illimitable.
The boundaries of to-day are found to have vanished to-
morrow, and the eyes and understanding begin to pene-
trate into regions which but a short time before had been
considered far beyond the range of possible investiga-
tion.

He only who was quite ignorant of the many and great
improvements constantly being made in our methods of
research, and in the instruments required in investigation,
would think of fixing any limit to the advance of micros-
copical inquiry. The records of the work of this Society
contain many examples of progress towards and advance

| remarks just made would lead you to infer.
| modifications in immersion lenses and in immersion media
| have greatly contributed to advance our knowledge of

SCIENCE.

beyond barriers regarded not very long before, and by
considerable authorities, as insurmountable. I well re-
member the time when in many branches of inquiry, it
might have been truly said that the optical instrument
was in advance of the methods of examination; when
our magnifying powers were higher than we could use
without losing rather than gaining as regards the defini-
tion of delicate structure. As, however, time went on,
this was changed. New and improved methods of ex-
amining tissues were discovered, and means adopted, by
which excessively thin layers could be submitted to ex-
amination, and a power of five or six hundred diametres
was no longer sufficient to enable the observer to see all
that it was almost certain was to be seen. These re-
marks more particulary apply to a class of researches
upon which I was engaged in 1856-60, concerning the
structure and arrangement of the ultimate nerve-fibres in
various tissues and organs. Indeed, I feel quite sure that
at and before that time advance was actually retarded by
the discouragement offered in some quarters, and the hy-
pothetical objections raised to the use of very high pow-
ers, and more especially to the methods of preparation of
the tissues that were necessary before they could with
any advantage be submitted to examination.

Although at this time we can work easily with a twelfth
and a twenty-fifth, the results of observation conducted
with the aid of such powers are still regarded by some
with doubt and incredulity ; and if we draw attention to
actual structure and arrangement discovered by the higher
powers, which could not possibly be demonstrated with
the aid of a more moderate lens, our statements may
possibly be met with insinuations that what was advanced
as the result of observation was, after all, discovered by
the imagination only.

Our present limit of observation in investigations on the
structure and action of the tissues of man and the higher
animals, in my opinion, includes the use of magnifying
powers of upwards of 2000 diameters. Objects consider-
ably less than the hundred-thousandth of an inch in
diameter can be studied with success, but how much less
than these dimensions cannot, I think, be determined with
accuracy at this time; for so much depends upon the
character of the object, and a number of small points of
detail as regards the mode of examination. All who are
accustomed to work with high magnifying powers are well
aware of the great advantages gained by some very slight —
change in the degree of illuminating power, the direction
and concentration of the rays of light, and very slight and
happy alterations in the focus, which may momentarily
reveal to the mind new facts of the greatest importance
after, perhaps, many-hours of careful but almost profitless
study.

But in other departments of microscopical research, our
present means of investigation enable those familiar with

| the requisite methods of inquiry to demonstrate character-

istics of structure far more intricate and minute than the
Various

structure and action in the lower forms of life; and there
is every reason to think that, as time goes on, methods of
observation will be still improved and new methods dis-
covered, and that in consequence conclusions already ar-
rived at will have to be greatly modified or entirely
changed. Not only so, but by the aid of photography
things dimly seen by the eye may be very distinctly and
correctly delineated, and with a perfection of accurate de-
tail which a few years ago we should not have supposed
tobe possible. In all probability, the application of pho-
tography to investigations opon minute structural details
will be carried far beyond anything yet reached, although
it is really wonderful how much has been achieved up to
this time

As regards direct observation, with the aid of very high
magnifying powers, upon animal tissues, a department of

SCIENCE.

295

microscopical work which has engaged much of my at-
tention during many years, I would remark that many
observations have been made upon the structure and ar-
rangement of the most delicate nerve-fibres less than the
hundred-thousandth of an inch in diameter, and other
tissue-elements of very small insects. With due care,
facts are.ascertained which could not have been demon-
strated with the aid of object-glasses magnifying less than
from 2500 to 3000 diameters. Not only is the demonstra-
tion of structure and arrangement satisfactory, but in
many cases ‘a conception of the action and working of the
textures during life has been formed, which would not
otherwise have been obtained. The exact relation of
certain delicate nerve-fibres to the living matter of the
nerve in special organs has been determined, and many
elementary facts necessary for the determination of the
changes constituting nerve action have been ascertained.

To my mind, however, the study, with the aid of high
powers and various improved means of examination, of
the phenomena which occur in living matter during life,
transcends in importance at this time all other inquiries
in which the Microscope takes a leading part. For these
changes characterize every form of living matter at every
period of its being, and in every condition of health and
disease. In every form of living matter which exists or
has ever existed, the great mystery of life and death is en-
acted under our very eyes, but we have not yet been able
to discover the exact nature of the change, though we can
prove most conclusively that it is not merely mechani-
cal or chemical, as some pertinaciously insist. No
chemist or physicist has been able to explain the
changes which do occur, or has succeeded in imitating
them out of the livirg body. The most diverse structures
and the most widely different chemical compourds are
produced by changes occurring in particles of living mat-
ter which could not be distinguished from one another,
and which are equally devoid of color and structure.
Many of the current theories on the nature of vital phe-
nomena are in advance of some that were propounded*
two thousand years ago; and yet men occupying high
scientific positions are found to defend them, and to repeat
again and again statements concerning the relation be-
tween the living and non-living, which are at variance,
not only with facts familiar to every one, but are contra-
dicted by the experience and knowledge every person
possesses concerning certain vital phenomena of his own
organism j

When a particle of living matter is increasing in size
—is growing by taking lifeless matter into its substance,
and without itself losing anything, is communicating to
certain of the elements of this non-living matter, or to
combinations of these, the marvellous powers it possesses
—movements take place, it may be in every part of the
original mass. These movements are, however, always
most observable, most acive, and most extensive at
some part of the circumference. Occurring now en one
side, now on the opposite, it is very improbable that the
movements in question are determined by any changes
occurring in, or by force belonging to, any non-living
matter in the vicinity of the living mass. These remark-
able movements are universal in the world of life. They
are more accelerated in some kinds of living matter than
in others, but they are present in all, and in most are
discernible at some time or other during the course of
existence. Parts of the living matter continually tend to
move away and separate from the rest, not in conse-
quence of any attraction between these and surrounding
matters outside, nor from any repelling influence exerted |
by parts of the mass itself upon other parts. There |
seems to be an active tendency on the part of different
portions of a living mass to move away fiom the rest
and so to detach themselves, and, having acquired vital
power, to become independent, and to increase and then
divide, This remarkable tendency on the part of every

‘which seem to act the part of leader.

kind of living matter to divide and subdivide begins to

operate as soon as the original mass has attained a cer-
tain size, and it seems to increase in intensity as the liy-
ing matter approaches its proper dimensions. Invariably
when a certain size has been reeched, which, however, is
different for different kinds of living matter, division
occurs. ‘The size is always, within certain very moderate
limits, fixed and definite-for the living matter of each
particular species of living being. Among the lowest
forms of existence, however, no definite limit of size has
to be attained befcre division can occur. Particles
smaller than the smallest particles that can be seen with
the aid of the highest magnifying powers freely divide
and subdivide, and there is reason to think that under
certain conditions the division and infinite multiplication
of the animate particles may continue for a considerable
time, none of them attaining their fully developed form
or dimensions. In higher forms of life, premature divi-
sion of a living mass before it has grown for a proper
time and reached a certain size, is very detrimental, and
ijn many cases disastrous ; for it is associated with deg-
radation or even complete loss of formative, construc-
tive, and developmental power. In some cases, by the
rapid multiplication and division of the particles, the well
Leing of the whole organism is jeopardized, and death
may be occasiored by the changes brought about by
great increase and rapid growth and multiplication of
certain particles of living matter belonging to the blcod
or to some of the tissues.

When a portion of a mass of living matter moves
away from the rest, the moving portion invariably pre-
sents a convex surface, of which the portion in the exact
centre is of course in advance of the rest and is the
point towards which the movement of adjacent portions
tends. It almostseemsas if one minute portion had moved
away from the rest and had dragged with it neighboring
portions, the power of the particles constituting which was
not strong enough to actin opposition to it or to resist its
influence. These seem to yield and follow the one or
few particles in which the movement is strongest, and
It may be that
certain particles here and there, having attained a larger
size, or from being more active than the rest, move for-
ward and determine the direction which is to be taken
by those near. As far as can be seen, multitudes of liv-
ing particles stream in one direction, the greater number
being either carried along by the very few or irresistibly
drawn onwards by them. The direction taken by flocks
of birds and clouds of insects in still air or upon the sur-
face of smooth ground, and shoals of fishes in water, is
evidently determined and often very quickly changed in
obedience to impulses affecting a very few of the great
multitude of individuals of which the whole body is com-
posed. These movements cannot, however, correctly be
compared with those of amass of living matter, inasmuch
as there is no reason whatever for supposing that, in the
latter, one particle has the power of choosing and de-
termining, much less of ccnveying to its neighbors the
results of its decision or choice and the request to
follow.

It will, of course, be said by some that the remarkable
phenomena we are considering are comparable with the
movements occurring among iron filings under the in-
fluence of the magnet, or with the Brush discharge of
electricity, the movements of the streams of highly at-
tenuated moving matter in vacuum tubes, and other
changes in place affecting particles of non-living matter.
Surely it must be obvious to any one who thinks over the
facts of the case that no true analogy has been shown to
exist between the movements of living particles and
those of any form of non-living matter. Nevertheless,
the existence of such analogy is still maintained by a
few, although the fallacy of the arguments upon which
it is supposed torest has been many times pointed out.

I dare say that for some time to ccme it will be most diffi-
cult to get a hearing for any views not in accord with the

296

SCIENCE.

materialist tendencies of what is miscalled the sczence of
our time. Thought is to be crushed, and any speculations
are tobe condemned which do not happen to favor the
arbitrary dogmas of the purely physical school. ‘But no
doubt these attempts, like preceding ones of the same
order made at different periods of history—although they
may succeed for a time, and by them people may be
driven away from the truth—will ere long be given up.
They may be safely left to the gradual process of disin-
tegration and ultimate dissipation by which these and
such-like fancies of physical ingenuity will be disposed
of.

As I have shown elsewhere, whenever tissue and other
matters peculiar to living beings are to be formed, living
matter undergoes change. In fact, the act of forming
these things corresponds with the cessation of life in the
particles.

Let us now consider the probable nature of the mar-
vellous forces or powers which operate upon the material
of the living matter, and determine the relations to one
another of the elements or collections of elements of
which it consists. By the relations established between
the elements shortly before living matter dies, will de-
pend the properties and composition of the resulting
formed substances. The changes in each particular kind
of living matter are somewhat different, but peculiar to
and characteristic of that particular kind, and as regards
it, constant and uniform. But no differences in the
chemical composition or in any physical characters to be
shown in different kinds of living matter, will in any way
account for or explain ‘the differences so remarkable in
the formed material which is produced by or results from
the death of the living matter. Nor do any properties
of the particles yet discovered enable us to suggest a
plausible physical hypothesis to account for the facts.

All those peculiarities in form, structure, and properties
of tissue, which characterize the multitudinous forms of
life around us, and which enable us to distinguish them
from one another, are imposed upon the matter of the
moment when it passes from the living to the formed
state, or succeed as the result of a long series of changes
then initiated. These peculiarities are not found in any
ordinary matter, and can only be accounted for on the
supposition that some force, property, or power exists
which is peculiar and belongs to the matter only while
its life lasts. This exerts but a temporary influence on
the material particles, which are by it constrained to take
up such prearranged positions with respect to one an-
other as must necessarily result in the formation of
definite compounds. To this prearranged disposition of
the atoms of matter must every character of formed
material and every distinctive property of tissue be traced
back. This is, indeed, the cause of the varying form,
structure, and property of every tissue and every living
form in nature. The instant the influence of vital power
in restraining the combination of atoms, ceases to be ex-
erted, definite compounds are formed, but these are not
living. The matter of which they consist has ceased
to live. There are no phenomena occurring in non-liv-
ing matter in any way comparable with these vital phe-
nomena.* Scientific opinion on these matters has lately
been unduly influenced by a materialist party, which, like
a political caucus, has assumed the right to direct thought
and to promulgate ‘the particular dogma which alone is
to be accepted by the faithful.

If nowI permit myself to pass beyond the point to
which I have been led by actual observation,—if I try to
advance beyond the present microscopic limit, travelling
as it were upon the same lines as when observing within
it, and try to realize the phenomena which occur during
the early period of development of some comparatively
simple vegetable tissue, a leaf for example,—I think the
following description will not be far from the truth: A
mass of living matter, endowed with special powers
working under certain definite conditions, takes up cer-

tain materials and increases in size thereby. Imparting
to the new matter its powers, unweakened in force, as it
grows, it soon divides into several portions, each of which
in like manner grows and divides. The arrangement of
the several masses, though fixed within certain limits, is
determined not by any forces, powers, attractions, or repul-
sions acting upon all of them, but simply by the rate of
growth of each, and division of the several masses under
then existing external conditions; the dimensions each
was to attain, as well as its properties, composition,
color and the like being due to the life, force, or power
each separate mass derived from the parental one which
gave it origin, and from which it had been detached.
But while the above phenomena are proceeding, changes
are also occurring on the surface of each mass. The
living matter in this situation, whether from the particles
first formed, and being therefore the oldest, reaching the
surface, and coming to the end of their living existence,
or from some other cause I cannot say—passes out of
the living state, and the component particles or certain
of them combine, assume a certain form, and acquire
physical properties they never possessed before. The
formed material thus produced owes its colour, chemical
composition, physical characters, internal structure, and
the like, to the vital force or property in obedience to
which the elements of the matter were made to occupy
such positions and assume such relations with respect to
one another just before death as must ensure the forma-
tion of the particular substances which result.

From the moment when the formation of the formed
material occurred, the relative position of the several
masses probably altered little. Growth may no doubt
take place in certain directions by outgrowths, but none
of the elementary parts with its surrounding formed
non-living material cannot move from its place and get
before or above any of its neighbors, as must at least
be held to have been possible up to the time when its
movements were restricted by the formed substances on
its surface. ‘

I would here remark generally, that if very little non-
living matter is associated with the living matter, the lat-
ter may move in any direction with equal facility, and one
part of a mass may place itself above or in advance of
another portion just as easily as it could descend below
it. But when a layer of formed material has been pro-
duced on the surface of the living matter, the entire ele-
mentary part becomes subject to gravitation in conse-
quence of the quantity of non-living matter that is
formed. :

There is not, I think, any good reason for accepting
the conclusion that one of a collection of elementary
parts, at any period of development, can sympathize or
otherwise influence the actions of others, as Virchow
seems to think. The suggestion that any force or power
acting, as it were, from a centre, governs, regulates. and
determines the changes taking place in surrounding and
more or less distant particles, is, in my opinion, inadmis-
sible. We might, with as much show of reason, refer
the harmonious action of the several parts of the adult
organism to some controlling or governing power situ-
ated we know not where, influencing, we know not how,
actions of many different kinds occurring at considerable
distances from the seat of its existence. Although very
high authorities have given their sanction to views of the
kind, and have advocated the existence in connection
with each individual organism of some power or force
capable of operating through material of even considera-
ble thickness and of controlling matter at a distance, I
venture to assert that the conclusions are not supported
by the results of observation and experiment. The idea
of one particle of living matter influencing other parti-
cles at a distance from it, much less sympathizing with
or being affected by vital changes occurring in them,
cannot, I think, be entertained by any one who has
studied the phenomena as they occur in living beings.

SCIENCE,

297

One can indeed conceive tissues of the most elaborate
character, and new matter of the most wonderful prop-
erties and most complex composition, being developed in
the most regular and orderly manner without supposing
that any governing or controlling power acts upon them
at all, as it were, from a centre. That the most wonder-
ful order is manifest in the arrangement of the compo-
nent elementary parts, say, of a growing leaf, must be obvi-
ous to every one who has ever examined it; but I feel
confident that as soon as each living particle has been
detached from the mass which preceded, it is no longer
influenced by the latter, and does not influence neighbor-
ing masses. Each may be pressed upon by its neigh-
bors, and press upon them in turn during growth, but
there is no reason to suppose that any one determines
the composition, governs the motion, or regulates the
action of others. The nutrient matter is distributed to
all by vessels or channels running amongst the several
collections. Those elementary parts farthest from the
nutrient supply will grow more slowly than those nearest
to it, but no formative or constructive of synthetic or
analytic influence is exerted by the nutrient fluid upon
the living matter, nor by the several elementary parts
upon one another. Each is under the influence of the
vital power associated with the matter of whichit in part
consists; and whether each can exist independently if
separated from its neighbors, or dies soon after it is de-
tached, depends not upon any influence exerted upon it
by those neighbors, but simply upon the inherent capa-
bilities of its own vital power, transmitted to it from the
living matter which existed before it, and of which it once
formed a part.

Nevertheless, each individual elementary part, say, of
a leaf, or other organ or tissue, must not in any case be
regarded as an individual, independent, or self-dependent
organism, for it constitutes but a part of a highly complex
whole which has been gradually formed in accordance
with a definite structural plan and arrangement, foreseen
and prepared for as it were from the very first.

It is only by attributing the observed phenomena to
the operation ‘of a special force or power, having no
analogy whatever with any known inorganic forces or
powers, that a reasonable explanation of the facts can be
framed. The phenomena which have been referred to
cannot correctly be compared to any processes or actions
which occur independently of life, neither can any true
analogy be pointed out between these and any physical
or chemical changes or actions of which we have at this
time any knowledge or experience. That the formation
of all tissues and organs is governed by “law” is no
doubt true, but the “law” is unknown, and whatever
may be its terms, the mode of its operation upon matter
is as different from that of any laws that are known to
operate in the non-living, as are the known and observed
facts of life from those of the inorganic matter of the
world.

Now as regards the nature of the actual phenomena of
living matter which are at present beyond the range of
observation, at least two diametrically opposite ideas are
entertained.

I, There is the commonplace notion that structure
exists which will account for the actions which take place,
but that the details of this supposed structure are too
minute or too delicate to be demonstrated by any magni-
fying powers which have yet been constructed. For this
idea there is no sufficient justification. It is one of those
assumptions in elaborating which the modern materialist
is so ingenious. In this way he struggles, and with some
success, to postpone for a time the inevitable fal! of the
system he has endeavored to make popular in spite of the
overwhelming evidence of facts against it. Here I must
remark that the word “ structure’’ as employed by physi-
cists is used in a sense utterly distinct from that in which
we use the word. This is evident enough if we consider
what is understood by the “structure” of a crystal and

-the “structure” of an organ or tissue.

The first “ struc-
ture” at once disappears when the crystal is dissolved
and reappears whenever it is formed. ‘he other struc-
ture results, or, as some say, is evolved, only after many
series of changes of a very complex character have been
completed. Once destroyed, the structure of an organ-
ism can only be restored by a long course of similar de-
velopmental processes. In fact, there is not the faintest
analogy between the structure of an organism and the
structure of a stone—the structure due to the operation
of living forces and the structure which is inherent with
other properties in non-living matter.

2. There is the view supported by myself, and in favor
of which I have adduced evidence which I believe to be
perfectly convincing, that living matter has no definite
structure whatever—that, in fact, its particles, and very
probably their constituent atoms, are in a state of very
active movement, which renders structure and fixity of
arrangement impossible—this active movement being an
essential condition of the living state, which latter ceases
when the movement comes toa standstill. According to
this view the idea of structure as belonging to living mat-
ter is inconceivable.

Now we know of no state in which non-living matter
exhibits any analogy with matter in the living state, so
that the cause of the state under consideration must have
reference to the living state, and to that only ; and to re-
assert, as many continue to do, that the phenomena man--
ifested by living matter are to be accounted for by the
properties of the material particles, is silly and perverse ;
and though the view of the peculiar nature of the vital
power here put forward and based upon a consideration
of the phenomena of living matter, may be ridiculed by
materialists, every one who thinks over the matter will
see at once why this course is taken by them.

Professor Huxley, in his article “Biology,” in the
“Encylopedia Britannica ”’—without defining what he
means _ by the words “ molecular ”’ and ‘ machine ’’—as-
sures his readers that ‘‘a mass of living protoplasm is
simply a molecular machine of great complexity, the total
results of the working of which, or its vital phenomena,
depend, on the one hand, upon its construction, and, on
the other, upon the energy supplied to it; and to speak
of vitality as anything but the name of a series of opera-
tions, is as if one should talk of the ‘horologity ’ of a
clock.’’* This is the sort of teaching that has long re-
tarded the progress of thought, and affords an example of
the puerile objections palmed off on the public as scien-
tific criticism, and supposed to be sufficient to controvert
evidence founded upon observation, and arguments based
on facts which any one may demonstrate: Is it not
most wonderful that Professor Huxley can persuade him-
self that a single reader of intelligence will fail to see the
absurdity of the comparison he institutes between the in-
visible, undemonstrable, undiscovered “ machinery” of
his supposititious ‘‘ molecular machine ”’ and the actual
visible works of the actual clock, which any one can see
and handle, and stop and cause to go on again ?

Magnify living matter as we may, nothing can be
demonstrated but an extremely delicate, transparent, ap-
parently semi-fluid substance. But observations on some
specimens under certain advantages of illumination, and
with the aid of the very highest magnifying power that
can be brought to bear, favor the conclusion that living
matter should be regarded as consisting of infinite num-
bers of infinitely minute particles, varying much in size,
and possibly capable of coalescing, free to move amongst
one another, as they exist surrounded by a fluid medium
which contains the materials in solution for their nutri-
tion, and other substances. +

[To be concluded in our next issue. ]

* Huxley, Article ‘“* Biology,’”’ Encyc. Brit,
t From the Journal of the R. M,S.

208

SCIENCE.

TRICHINA IN MEAT.

A short time ago the public was greatly excited over
the introduction into France of trichinated meat.. It is
remembered that the first case of trichina was noticed at
Lyons on provisions exported from America. As regards
the importance of this question, it is sufficient to state
that, according to official documents, the importations of
salt pork and of lard amounted in 1880 to 46,164,000 kilo-
grammes, of which 37,102,000 kilos. came from the United
States. The prefecture of police ordered the inspectors
of slaughter houses to examine all the incoming speci-
mens of salt and smoked pork in the different stations and
especially that of Batignolles. This station received in-
deed all the envoys of Havre, where four-fifths of Ameri-
can imports are disembarked. Unfortunately there was a
great disproportion between the service of inspection and
the continually increasing extent of the provisions. The
result was an encumbering of provisions suspected of be-
ing contaminated at the points where the inspection took
place. A certain number of merchants, moreover, desi-
rous of entering into the possession of their merchandise,
so as not to retard its delivery, have sought to evade in-
spection, and in order to obtain this end took advantage
of the small number of inspectors, who, being grouped
at certain points, thus allowed certain entries to be free
from all verification; they have accordingly introduced
their merchandise at these points.

The administration should put an end to this invasion.
The Secretary-general of the police departments, anxious
for the public health and its interests has, in concert with
the Prefect of police, taken opportune measures and
charged the municipal Laboratory to investigate the tri-
chinated provisions that have passed the ports. The offi-
cers of the Laboratory, accompanied by a commissary of
police, proceeded to those accused of introducing un-in-
spected provisions. Microscopic examination has in sev-
eral cases shown the presence of trichine. We have,
therefore, thought it useful to demonstrate the procedure,
very simple, which is pursued in the investigation of this
infection.

A specimen is taken from the muscular portion, and as
much as possible in the vicinity of the bone or tendons,
which is very easily accomplished by means of the instru-
ment represented in figure 1. A small fragment of meat is

Fic, 1—INsTRUMENT FOR EXTRACTING SPECIMENS OF MEAT, AN
SHEATH.

D ITS

cut with a scissors from the fibres, and stretched ona
plate of glass. A drop of diluted alcohol is added or
some potassa, and the preparation is levelled by cov-
ering it with a lamina of glass (fig. 2); then placed on
the stage of the microscope. A magnification of 70 dia-
meters is sufficient for seeing the trichina quite distinctly.
It is preferable, nevertheless, in order to work more rapidly
and to distinguish the trichine of the striated muscular
fibres, to magnify it 140 diameters.

Fig. 3 represents one of these preparations seen under
the microscope ; two trichina are enclosed in their cyst
and the third has free movement over the muscular tissue.

The parasites that are met with on the trichinated meats
of America are not dead, as is proved by the following
experiments. A cut is made is made into the trichinated
meat ; distilled water is used instead of alcohol, and we
begin our search for a free trichina.
then placed upon Ranvier’s hot platinum, and the tem-
perature is raised to 4o° C. At the end of a certain
time, displacements of the trichina will be observed.
These movements become stronger from 42° C. to 45° C,
and at 50° C, the animal dies.

The preparation is |

The municipal laboratory, in employing this very sim-
ple mode of investigation thas, as we have mentioned,
been able to detect contaminated provisions in Paris, and
has caused their seizure.

Moreover, as soon as the invasion was known, the nec-
essary precautions were announced to the public, and all
the journals have reproduced the circular of the minister.

Trichinated meat, which has been sufficiently cooked
in order that the central portions attain at the lezst a tem-
perature of 60° C., can be eaten without danger; for
this purpose, each kilogramme of meat should be cooked
about an hour.

The municipal Laboratory adds that it would be advan-
tageous to add vinegar during the cooking.

Such are the means taken at first by the administraticn
to oppose the importation of trichinated provisions.

It remains still to give a decision in regard to provis-
ions stopped at the port as suspected. . The inspectors
being few in number, rejected a whole chest as soon as
they discovered a trichina. It was hardly possible to do
otherwise, unless a veritable army of microscopists was at
hand, as is done for instance, in Germany, or the pork
shop keepers be responsible for the sale of trichinated
pork——a procedure which would set 18,000 microscopes
in pursuit of the infection.

M. Pasteur, who was consulted upon the question,
whether all the provisions of a chest should be seized, if
only a single trichinated fragment had been encountered,
replied in the affirmative, basing his decision upon the
following reasons:

“Tt is not because I believe in a direct contamination
caused by the wanderings of trichinz from one piece to
another, but, in addition to the fact that this contamina-
tion can be made through the falling of trichinated
débrzs upon those which are not, the separation becomes
illusory through the difficulty of effecting it. Finally, a
trichinated piece may appear healthy, even after a careful
examination.”

tea
Fic. 2—Tricuinous Meat PREPARED FOR MicroscopicAL ExaMINaA-

tion. A, Grass Stipe. B. Tun Grass Cover.
C. Portion oF TrIcHINOUS MEaT.

The “Conczle de 0 Hygiéne et de la Salubrité” at-
tached to the prefecture of police has noticed the impos-
sibility of examining under the microscope all the salted
provisions exported from America. As but a small
quantity chosen from each cask can be examined, the
Council has formed the opinion that the only efficacious
means of saving the public health should be to prohibit
absolutely the importation of American salted provisions
into France. And to prevent the consumption of trichi-
nated meats already introduced, the Council, adopting the .
view of M. Pasteur, has expressed the opinion that the
admistration should destroy all the contents of casks en-
closing several pieces that are known to be infected with
trichina. ‘ 7

In this state of affairs, we believe that immediate pro-
hibition would be the best course for the government to
follow. We will recall, besides the fact that Spain, Portu-
gal, Greece, etc., have prohibited American provisions ;
that Italy has prohibited all imports of pork; that Ger-
many has interdicted the entrance of any minced pork
meat coming from America, and finally that Hungary has
| taken like measures.

‘themselves in part by this

SCIENCE.

209

It has been objected that a prohibition would deprive
the working class of alarge quantity of cheap meat ; an-
other objection is the hinderance to commerce. These rea-
sons do not appear valid to us, if there be real danger for
the public health, andif there be, as we have said, and as |
the experiments of M. Chatin show still, living trichine
in American hams. The danger resides especially in the
use of strings preserved in brine, which enter into the |

composition of pig’s cheese and of sausages and hashes |
of all kinds, such as the pork-
seller delivers them, that is to
say, always imperfectly cook-
ed.

It is possible that a person
may partake of trichinated
meat, before its contamina-
tion has been noticed, and if
a case of trachinosis be not
remarked, it is only because
the diagnostic of the disease
is but little known, and has
no positive character. Wait-
ing until the labors of Ger-
man physicians, which are
but little spread in France,
enlighten us on the symp-
toms of this affection, we
deem it useful to examine
under the microscope the
faeces of those suffering from
typhoid fever, in order to find
out whether, under the cover
of this malady, there is not,
as often happens, a case in
point of trichinz eliminating

way.—La Nature.

fil | nN

1G. 3—PorTION OF TricHinous Meat as SEEN UNDER THE MIcRo-

TRICHINOSIS. ©

Dr. E. C. WENDT presented to the New York Patho-
logical Society, April 13th, specimens illustrating Trichi-
nosis. The slides under the microscope showed muscu-
lar trichinz in a free state. They exhibited different
degrees of parasitic development, although they were all
taken from the same woman. The infested muscles
were obtained from a recent fatal case of the disease
which had occurred in Ho-
boken. For the history of
the case he was indebted to
Dr. W. T. Kudlich of that
city. The whole course of
the malady, from the initial
enteric symptoms through a
typhoid stage with intense
muscular pains to the lethal
termination, was so typical
that the detailed clinical ac-
count of this case might be
omitted. It should be stated,
however, that shortly after the
young robust wife fell ill,
the husband also took to his
bed with well-marked symp-
toms of trichinosis. In view
of the present agitation of
the public mind over the
wholesale prohibition of Am-
erican pork by the Continen-
tal powers, it might be of
interest to remember that in
the present instance the dis-
ease was unmistakably traced
to a home product. The

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Fic. 4—MicroscorE PLacep 1N Posit10N FOR THE EXAMINATION OF TRICHINOUS MEAT aT A TEMPERATURE OF 40° C, By MEANS OF THE HEATING
PPARATUS OF RANVIER, AS USED BY THE MunicipaAL CHEMICAL LABORATORY AT PARIS, ,

HiaUNTNAN

300

SCIENCE.

purposes of experimentation; and, while entirely new
facts were not elicited, a few words might be said as to
the results of various trials.

Encapsulated trichine were notoriously tenacious of
life; but here were the immature, only recently emi-
grated parasites, still wandering about in the muscles.
A few of the animals had indeed already assumed the
position of a spiral coil, which was the preparatory stage
of encapsulation, But the majority were either stretched
out or twisted at either extremity. Little pieces of the
woman’s muscles were exposed to the action of cold, be-
ing several] times frozen. Examination, four days after-
ward, found them apparently quiescent. A gradual ele-
vation of temperature up to about 100° F. soon proved
that life was not extinct, in so far, at least, as active mo-
tions can be interpreted as an indication of vitality. Ten
days later the parasites were still alive. Some of the flesh
was then allowed to undergo partial putrefaction. Even
then the animals were living. This was thirteen days
after the death of the woman.

On the day following the autopsy, some fresh muscle
was teased, and, there being an abundance of living
trichine, many thus became isolated. The animals were
never seen to actually creep along in a definite direction.
Their movements resembled the unfurling and recoiling
of apennon. Nevertheless, a change of place was now
and then fortuitously effected. Next, the parasites were
subjected to the action of different reagents. Saliva pro-
duced no visible effect upon them. Dilute acids resulted
in increased activity of motions. Alkalies made them
sluggish. Concentrated solutions of both rapidly killed
them. In carbolic acid they squirmed and writhed be-
fore dying. Glycerine, contrary to what was supposed,
did not immediately kill them. Some lived for ten min-
utes after its addition. Finally, however, the worms
became shrivelled up into almost shapeless filaments. If
previously heated, however, they retained their form to a
great extent.

A little of the fresh muscle was submitted to artificial
digestion by being placed in a suitable fluid and exposed
for twelve hours to about body heat. The muscle was
in great part dissolved at the end of this time, and
many free parasites were found in the liquid. But they
were, if anything, less active than they had been, and, as
soon as the liquid was allowed to cool, their movements
ceased, to be renewed, however, on reheating the slide.
A noteworthy fact, and one of great interest, was that
the trichine had unquestionably grown. But, though
their size was now increased, and although indications
of sex could be barely perceived, a distinct evolution into
mature males and females was not obtained. It must
be remarked, however, that future experiments at such
artificial breeding may be more successful. Through an
inadvertence the continuation of the artificial digestion was
interfered with, the animals being killed by over-heating.

Portions of partially putrified muscle were placed in
vials containing water, with the addition of a small pro-
portion of glycerine, carbolic acid, and alcohol. In this
liquid the parasites were maintained in a comparatively
good state of perservation, showing the details of their
interesting organization with satisfactory clearness.
Permanent specimens, no matter what technique of pre-
paration may be employed, were never found as perfect
as recent ones made from bits of muscle thus kept. Of
course, fresh would answer still better than partially de-
cayed muscle.

Concerning the pathological condition of the infested
muscles, the changes there found were the frequently
described conditions of acute myositis accompanied by
vitreous metamorphosis, cloudy swelling, and fatty de-
generation. In some places the interfascicular hyperz-
mia and small-celled infiltration were beautifully seen.

The subject of trichinosis had occupied his attention
for a number of years; but this was not the place to dis-
cuss the many questions which presented themselves;

only one further remark as to the diagnostic value of ex-
amining small bits of muscle removed from accessible
regions in patients suspected of trichinosis. If the ani-
mals were found, of course the evidence was incontrover-
tible. But, vzce versa, a conclusion could not be arrived
at. This he wished to emphasize, because a contrary
opinion was prevalent in some quarters. In the present
fatal case of trichinosis, small bits of the deceased
woman’s muscles were torn from the gastrocnemius and
deltoid muscles ; and while some specimens had contain-
ed numerous parasites, others had been found without
them. In the diaphragm, intercostal muscles, and other
well-known places of predilection, every examined speci-
men showed abundant parasites.

Dr. Carpenter’s observation at the dead-house of Belle-
vue Hospital had been that encysted trichinze were found
more frequently in the pectoral muscles or the diaphragm
than in the deltoids or the gastrocnemii.

The President (Dr. T. E. Satterthwaite), remarked that
the subject of trichinosis was now of very great interest
to the country at large, and we should be anxious to get
all the light possible upon it. Though a vast amount of
labor had been expended on the origin, clinical history,
and treatment of trichinosis, we have good reason to sup-
pose it was seldom recognized during life, and even after
death would often escape notice, unless the examiner had
his attention specially directed toward the possibility of
its occurrence. Consequently our present statistics could
not be relied upon in forming an opinion as to its pre-
valence. One of the points on which we needed more
information was the period of incubation. This was var-
iously placed at between ten and forty-two days; or,
rather, according to our present ideas, it would take ten,
but might take forty-two days for the young trichine to ap-
pear in the muscles after the infected meat had been eaten,

Now, it was just upon this variable period that the
dealers relied chiefly when they were prosecuted for
selling trichinous meat. As most infected persons are
Germans, who are in the habit of eating uncooked meat,
more or less continuously, it is generally easy for the
accused to show that other hams or sausages were eaten
during this period of forty-two days, and as statements
are to be found that a limited number of living trichine
have been eaten without harm, it is almost impossible to
secure conviction. Dealers therefore do not ask for an
examination of hogs or their products, nor are they afraid
fo being convicted, even should they sell trichinous meat,

Now it is particularly important to determine whether
or not there is in this variable time between the inges-
tions of the animal and the subsequent migration of the
larval form, and more experiments should be made on
animals to determine it.

Then another point is important, which is, How fre-
quently is trichinosis met with? In Europe it is said to

‘occur in from one to two per cent. of all cadavers. In

this country we have as yet no trustworthy data; at least
this conclusion may be drawn from the recent report of
late Assistant-Surgeon Glazier, to the U. S. Marine Ser-
vice. Still we know that eight hogs out of a hundred
were once found trichinous in Chicago, and though this
percentage has been once exceeded in Germany, it is a
large one, and invites consideration.

Especially important was, he thought, the determina-
tion whether living trichinz can really be swallowed
with impunity, if in small numbers, and, if so, what
quantity is necessary for infection ; whether such trichi-
nz be the larval or fecundated forms; and whether
emetics or purgatives were not afterward employed to
expel them, as in this latter case it is reasonable to sup-
pose they might have been removed without harm to the
individual.

The President further remarked that there were now
no specially appointed officials who made it their duty to
inspect meat, as was formerly done. A diminished ap-
propriation led to the suspension of this work.

dye

SCIENCE. 301

BOOKS RECEIVED.

ISLAND LIFE; OR, THE PHENOMENA AND CAUSES OF
INSULAR FAUNAS AND FLoRAS, including a revision
and attempted solution of the Problem of Geological
Climates, by ALFRED RUSSEL WALLACE.—Harper
Brothers, New York, 1881.

The authors of the theory of evolution undoubtedly feel
the responsibility involved in revolutionizing one of the
most important branches of Science; it is therefore natural
to find both Dr. Darwin and Mr. Wallace devoting their
best energies to aid evolutionists in placing ‘the theory ”’
upon a sound basis.

Perhaps one of the strongest arguments. that can be
advanced in favor of evolution is the fact, that it offers a
key for solving difficulties encountered by naturalists,
which hitherto were inexplicable, or accounted for by a
line of reasoning now shown to be erroneous.

The distribution of animal life upon .the globe, which
forms the subject of the present work, exhibits in a strong
light some of the fallacies of the older naturalists, and the
value of the theory of evolution in interpreting the work
of Nature.

The old school of naturalists explained the geographi-
cal distribution of animals by believing, that “the several
species of animals and plants” were special creations,
and consequently assumed, that every animal was exactly
adapted to the climate and surroundings amid which it
lived, and that the only, or, at all events, the chief reason
why it did not inhabit any other country was that the
climate or general condition of that country was not
suitable to it.

In the present state of knowledge respecting the fauna
and flora of the whole world, it is not difficult to prove
that other reasons must be found to account for the
phenomena met with in the general distribution of ani-
mal life, and Mr. Wallace makes the case quite clear by
giving some striking illustrations.

It is true that hot climates differ from cold ones in all
their organic forms, but its effects are by no means con-
stant, but are irregular and uncertain, and the contrast
does not bear any proportion to the difference of tem-
perature.

For instance, between frigid Canada and sub-tropical
Florida there are less marked differences in the animal
productions than between Florida and Cuba or Yucatan,
which are much more alike in climate and so much
nearer together. So the differences between the birds
and quadrupeds of temperate Tasmania and tropical
North Australia are slight and unimportant as compared
with the enormuus differences we find when we pass from
the latter country to equally tropical Java, and if we com-
pare corresponding portions of different continents, we
find no indications that the almost perfect similarity and
general conditions have any tendency to produce similarity
in the animal world. The equatorial parts of Brazil and
of the west coast of Africa are almost identical in climate
and in luxuriance of vegetation, but their animal life’ is
totally diverse. In the former we have tapirs, sloths, and
prehensile-tailed monkeys ; in the latter, elephants, ante-
lopes, and man-like apes; while among birds, the tou-
cans, chatterers and humming-birds of Brazil, are re-
placed by the plantation-eaters, bee-eaters and sun birds
of Africa. Parts of South-temperate America, South
Africa and South Austalia correspond closely in climate ;
yet the birds and quadrupeds of these three districts are
as completely unlike each other as those of any parts of
the world that can be named. The present work,
although complete in itself, is one of a series prepared by
Mr. Wallace to account for the geographical distribution
of animal life, by the theory of evolution, and being the
result of many years study by one of the most eminent
of living naturalists, will command the attention of all who
desire to find a true solution of the subject.

Some of the most remarkable and interesting facts in

“the distributions and affinities of organic forms are pre-
sented by zs/azds in relation to each other and to the sur-
rounding continents. Yet their full importance in connec-
tion with the history of the earth and its inhabitants has
hardly yet been recognized; and in order to direct the
attention of naturalists to this most promising field of re-
search, Mr. Wallace has restricted himself in the volume
now before us, to the elucidations of some of the prob-
lems there presented to us.

Such then is the scope and purpose of “ Island Life, or
the Phenomena and Causes of Insular Faunas and
Floras,” involving the study of a class of subjects em-
bracing in their very nature the visible cutcome and
resudical product of the whole past history of the earth.
There is no royal road to the acquisition of knowledge,
and to prepare those readers who have not been trained
in such studies to appreciate the conclusions drawn,
Mr. Wallace in the first eight chapters devotes much
space to the explanation of the mode of distribution,
variation, modification and dispersal of species and
groups, illustrated by facts and examples; of the true
nature of geological change as affecting continents and
islands; of changes of climates, their nature, causes and
effects ; of the duration of geological time and the rate
of organic development.

The aim of Mr. Wallace in this work is the develop-
ment of a clear and definite theory, and its applica-
tion to the solution of a number of biological problems,
That theory may be briefly stated as follows: That
the distribution of the various species and groups of
living things over the earth’s surface, and their aggre-
gation in definite assemblages in certain areas, are the
direct result and outcome of a complex set of causes,
which may be grouped as ‘“ dzologzcal”’ and “fhysz-
cal.’ The bzological causes are mainly of two kinds—
first, the constant tendency of all organisms to increase
in numbers, and to occupy a wider area, and their
various powers of dispersion and migration through
which, when unchecked, they are enable to spread
widely over the globe ; and secondly, those laws of evolu-
tion and extinction which determine the manner in which
groups of organisms arise and grow, reach their maxi-
mum, and then dwindle away, often breaking up into
separate portions which long survive in very remote
regions. The physzcal causes are mainly of two kinds.
We have, first, the geographical changes which at one
time isolate a whole fauna and flora, at another
time lead to their dispersal and intermixture with
adjacent faunas and floras, and here Mr. Wallace
endeavored to ascertain and define the exact nature and
extent of these changes, and to determine the question
of the general stability or instability of continents
and oceans; in the second place he also investigated
the exact nature, extent and frequency of the changes of
climate which have occurred in various parts of the
earth, because, as it may be supposed, such changes are
among the most powerful agents in causing the dispersal
and extinction of plants and animals. The importance
attached to the geological climates and their causes,
induced Mr. Wallace to discuss this branch of the sub-
ject at some length, and the most recent investigations
of geologists, physicists and explorers were fully called
into requisition.

Mr, Wallace next applied these facts and theories to
explain the phenomena presented by the floras and faunas
of the chief islands of the globe, which are classified, in
accordance with their physical origin, in three groups
or classes, each of which is shown to exhibit certain well
marked biological features. :

Mr, Wallace then defines what are called “areas of
distrzbutzon,” as applied to species, genera and families,
and, taking British mammals and land birds, he follows
them over the whole area they inhabit, and obtains a
foundation for the establishment of ‘ zvolog¢cal regions,”

) and a clear insight is formed of their character as dis-

302

SCIENCE.

tinct from the usual geographical divisions of the globe.

All these facts are then shown by Mr. Wallace to be
a necessary result of the “/Zaw of evolution.’ The na-
ture and amount of “varvzation” are exhibited by a
number of curious examples; the origin, growth and
decay of species and genera are traced, and all the inter-
esting phenomena of isolated groups and discontinuous
generic and specific areas are shown to follow as logical
consequences.

The remaining subjects discussed by Mr. Wallace
carry him into the realm of fierce controversies, and
relate to theories involving problems awaiting further
investigations for their solution.
—The Position of the Great Oceans and Chief Land
Areas—is dealt decisively by Mr. Wallace, who claims
that “on the whole they have remained unchanged
throughout geological time.’’ This declaration of the
author has been already challenged, and we shall watch
with interest if Mr. Wallace is capable of maintaining his
position on this subject.

Perhaps the most valuable part ot this work is the
discussion of the question of geological time as bearing
on the development of the organic world, leading to an
investigation as to the exact nature of past changes of
climate.

In answer to those who may consider the subject last
spoken of as unsuited to such a work as the present, the
author claims that, although many of the causes intro-
duced are far too complex in their combined action to
enable us to follow them out in the case of any one
species, yet their broad results are clearly recognizable,
and we are thus enabled to study more completely every
detail and every anomaly in the distribution of living
things, in the firm conviction that by doing so we shall
obtain a fuller and clearer insight into the causes of
nature, and with increased confidence that the ‘“ mighty
maze” of Being we see everywhere around us is “not
without a plan.”

No person should offer an opinion on the ‘theory of
evolution’ who has not studied tnis work of Mr. Wal-
lace, for it forms an essential part of the literature ot the
subject.

te

NOTE IN REGARD TO “PRIMITIVE DESIRES.”

In a communication published in an earlier number of
“SCIENCE,” (No. 29, Jan. 15, 1881) Dr. Clevenger, of
Chicago, discusses the relalation existing between the
desire for food, and the desires connected with the multi-
plication of the species. He appears to draw the conclu-
sion that hunger is the primitive desire.

There are some observations made by alienists, which
strongly tend to confirm Dr. Clevenger’s theory.

It is well known that under pathological circumstances,
relations obliterated in higher development and absent in
health, return and simulate conditions found in Jower and
even in primitive forms.

An instance of this is the fzca or morbid appetite of
pregnant women, and hysterical girls for chalk, slate pencil
and other articles of an earthy nature. To some extent,
this has been claimed to constitute a sort of reversion to
the oviparous ancesiry, which like the birds of our day
sought the calcareous material required for the shell
structure in their food (?)

There are forms of mental perversion, properly classed
under the head of the degenerative mental states, with
which a close relation between the hunger appetite and
sexual appetite becomes manifest.

Under the heading ‘ Wollust.—Mordlust-Anthro-
pophagie’’ Krafft. Ebing describes a form of sexual
perversion, where the suffered fails to find gratification
unless he or she can bite, eat, murder or mutilate
the mate. He refers to the old Hindoo myth of Czva
and Dwurgd as showing that such observations in the
sexual sphere were not unknown to the ancient races.

One of these subjects |

He gives an instance, where after the act, the ravisher
butchered his victim, and would have eaten a piece of
the viscera, another where the criminal drank the blood
and ate the heart, still another where certain parts of the
body were cooked and eaten.*

In reference to this question, Dr. Clevenger some time
ago sent me the following interesting letter, which, antic-
ipating much that I should otherwise say, may find a
place here.

CHICAGO, February 17, 1881.
Dear Doctor :

The suggestions that you made, ina recent ncte to me, on the ex-
tension cf the Hunger Theory to Man, are of too much valuenotto
be published. Professor E. D. Cope kindly sent me the reprint
of an article of his entitled ‘‘ The Origin of the Will” which ap-
peared in the Penn Monthly, for June, 1877, wherein the Professor
takes the ground that Hungeris the primitive desire. ‘‘ The move-
ment of the Amoeba in engulfing a Diatcm in its jelly is as much
desigred, as the ciplomacy of the statesman or the investigations of

| the student,ard the motive may be the same in all three cases ; viz.:

hunger’ (p. 438). ‘‘ In the lowest animal the first movement was
doubtless a mere discharge of force; but the first designed action,
the appropriation of food, was due to a sense of want or hunger,
which isa form of pain. This was followed by gratification, a
pleasure, the memory of which constituted a motive for a more
evidently designed act, viz.: pursuit '’(p. 446). I am rather in-
clined to reverse the conception of the unconscious being derived
from the conscious act and conclude that the pain of hunger is
akin to the desire barium may have forsulphuric acid or any mole-
cule may have for another.
Yours truly,
S. V. CLEVENGER.

I cannot see the necessity of considering ‘‘ the move-
ment of the Ameeba, as designed as the diplomacy of the
slatesman etc.” It is either a truism according to one
reading, or utterly erroneous—according to another. If
“as designed’”’ in the above means—based on the same
broad summation of registered impressions potent in in-
tellectual activity, I must say that due regards have not
been paid to very fundamental facts in framing the clause
criticized. E. C, SPITZKA.

LETTERS TO THE EDITOR.

[The Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed
by his correspondents. No notice is taken of anonymous communi-
cations.]

To the Editor of ‘“‘SCIENCE:”

In reply to the remarks made by Mr. Morris about my
communication to you (No. 43), I would like to say a
few words.

In the first place I beg to enter a protest against
the gentleman’s suggestion with which he prefaces his
reply, to wit:

“The main difficulty seems to be that I have gone
counter to certain authors whom they are disposed to
consider as authorities,’ meaning Prof. Dolbear and the
writer. As to this objection, so often raised at the pres-
ent moment, it seems to me that it is only applicable in
case the authority is adduced in place of an argument,
or in order to fortify it. Asa rule, men of an independ-
ent turn of mind do not believe or accept theories be-
cause this or that authority has advanced them, but be-
cause they are plausible to them—perhaps only as long
as they do not hear of any other in regard to the subject.
But, it they should adopt another theory in place of one
formerly held, it is certainly not on account of the fact
that it has emanated from a certain authority, but be-
cause their mode of thinking and working out problems
agrees with that which originated the theory, z. e. the
authority’s.

Since I have nowhere in my letter quoted any authority
specifically, gathering my arguments from the works of
those men whose writings are most congenial to my
frame of mind, and from them weaving the net of my
intellectual product with an cccasional glimpse from my

* Ueber gewisse Anomalien des Gceschlechts-tricbes, Von Kraft-
Ebing, Arch f. Psychiatrie VII.

SCIENCE.

393

own brains, I would seem to be justified in resenting this
peculiar argumentation. ‘

I might, in view of this unjust criticism, retort that
perhaps it is altogether a better way to rely on an occa-
sional authority, a good number of whom are towering
up high above the sea of opinions as trustworthy bea-
cons of light, than to steer along without looking up to
them as guides now and then, and perhaps be wrecked
on some unknown shore or unsuspected reef. The ten-
dency to scoff at authorities because they are authorities,
is just as pernicious as that to put faith in them for this
same reason only.

As to my somewhat confused idea of heat, of which
Mr. Morris takes the liberty to speak, I confess that I
have supposed he understood the difference between
radiant and conducted heat,* and he also was aware
what was understood by universal consent with the ex-
pression “work.’’ I should not have undertaken this dis-
cussion on physical subjects had I not been convinced
that the terms to be used were agreed upon. However,
Mr. Morris seems to be in a fair way to come down to
the very last questions about the nature of motion and
matter. ;

As to ‘latent heat,” if Mr. Morris, Sir Wm. Thomp-
son,* and many others persist in calling heat that which
is not heat, they are at liberty do so; yet they are wrong.

This I have conclusively shown, and Mr. Morris has
not even tried to argue on it. Nor hashe thought neces-
sary to argue in regard to my remarks on his erroneous
conception of the action of gravity. He only reiter-
ates his assertion that the energy with which a body
weighing a million pounds would fall on a body weighing
one pound is the same. In order to prove this he says
“we must add,” and add and add, and then ove will de-
velop just as much energy as a wzz//zon /

It seems futile to argue longer on a proposition that
is in direct conflict with Newton’s first law. If Mr. Mor-
ris has no room for the latter in his Universe, J must
respectfully decline to enter it, preferring to stay outside
of it in company with Sir Isaac and various others equally
sound and reliable.

lf Mr. Morris says motion is motion and cannot possi-
bly become anything else, he is certainly right; but he
forgets that there are certain forces for which we have
as yet not been able to Jrove conclusively that they are
motions. Ofcourse, Mr. Morris has told us how he con-
ceives of this relation between gravity and molecular
motion,so called. (And there is cohesion and magnetism
yet to account for.) But his explanations are wide away
from the mark, which lies in an entirely different direc-
tion.

The combined action of all the radiant energy emanat-
ing from an infinite number of celestial bodies is trans-
mitted in every direction through the Universe, and by
oscillations, vibrations, and undulations of the attenuated
matter (o¢ e¢her—there is no ether!) which fills the in-
terstellar spaces. In striking the surface of the various
orbs, great and small, it exerts a uniform pressure,
gravity.

Respectfully,

GEO. W. RACHEL, M. D.
NEw YorK, May 30, 1881.

THE “ Astronomzische Nachrichten.’ —It is announced
that after the termination of the current volume, by
authority of the Prussian Government, a new arrange-
ment for the management of this journal will take effect.
It will be edited by Prof. A. Krueger, the director of the
Observatory at Kiel, in co-operation with the president of
the “ Astronomische Gesellschaft,’ of which association
it will become a recognized organ.

* Science, Vol. I. p. 245. L. 24 fr. below,

_ ** Admits that t is not heat, but favors the expression for conven-
ience,

“To the Editor of SCIENCE:

I can scarcely permit such curious statements as made
by Prof. A. E. Dolbear, to pass unnoticed, In“ SCIENCE”’
No. 43, he says :—‘‘ The decaying stump that shines by
night, has a temperature not appreciably higher than
surrounding objects.’”” Can it be possible that he com-
pares the state of matter in ancient wood, with the in-
conceivably rare gas whence Neptune was formed ?
Several cubic miles of it only weighed a grain, as has
been proven by Helmholtz. It was in dissociation, no
two atoms touched, therefore we assert with reason that
it was absolutely cold and dark. The atoms in the
stump had been in intimate association ; indeed their or-
ganization was once so complex as to have been endowed
with that most mysterious of all entities—LIFE !

When decaying, it was surrendering the force whose
work organized it, and its faint luminosity was a portion
thereof. The light was a result of preceding work, but
in interstellar space, where atoms were yards apart, no
previous work had been performed, and no force evolved
whether heat, light, or any other save gravity and the
slowest radial motion possible.

EDGAR L, LARKIN.
NEW WINDSOR OBs,, IIl., Fume 13, 1881.

_—— OO

REPEY TO DR. J. J. MASONS LETTER,

The writer of the review referred to, states that not-
withstanding the construction which Dr. J. J. Mason
now desires to see placed upon his words, the most care-
ful reader would fail to draw any other conclusion from
Dr. Mason’s article, than that it was written in support
of the theory that large cells are motor, and that sensory
cells are small. It is true as Dr. Mason states that the
sentence just preceding the one quoted in his letter refers
specifically to the spinal cord of the turtle. But it is
none the less true that the whole paragraph polemizes
against a statement of Stieda’s that the observations
‘have great weight against the conclusion that only the
large nerve cells are connected with motor fibres,” as
not representing the ordinary view. In the earlier part
of his article, Dr. Mason indeed goes so far as to ques-
tion the statements of our best cerebral antomists that
certain very large cells are connected with the auditory,
z. é, a. sensory nerve, and this in obedience to the same
theoretical bias which is manifested a few lines further
on in this wise. “I would suggest, however, to those
who may feel disposed to regard these cells (large cells
of auditory nucleus and oblongata) as connected with
the sense of hearing, that such a view involves giving to
this apparatus in its central portion, a structure almost
identical with one universally admitted to be motor, like,
for example, that concerned in raising the lower jaw ;
whereas in the central structures for vision and olfaction
the cells are allvery small.” (Italics are own.) What
other than the size of the cells and their nuclei does Dr.
Mason refer to when he speaks of a “structure univer-
sally ‘admitted to be motor?” Especially when it is
borne in mind that immediately after he claim that all
sensory cells are very small. In view of all this Dr.
Mason’s statement that no such claims as the one im-
puted to him by the reviewer had ever been made by
him “in any form by hint, inference or otherwise,”’ must
have been penned in strange forgettulness of what he
has laid down in his published article. The reviewer
can only interpret the remonstrance as an abandonment
by Dr. Mason of his previous position. Every statement
in the quoted paragraphs is simply erroneous, and to
bring Dr. Mason face to face with facts that he has
questioned, the reviewer refers to Dr. Mason’s statement
that the cells connected with vision “are very small,”
and the reliable findings of Professor Packard, who hap-
pened to state that in the locust these cells are very
large in relation to the other cells of the nervous system,

R.C.S

304 SCIENCE.

THE CONSERVATION OF ELECTRICITY.

The following is from the preface to ‘‘ Elementary Les-
sons in Electricity and Magnetism,” by Sitvanus P.
THOMPSON, now in the press.

““The theory of electricity adopted throughout is that
electricity, whatever its nature, is ove, not ¢wo. That this
electricity, whatever it may prove to be, is not matter, and
energy ; that it resembles both matter and energy in one re-
spect, however, in that it can neither be created nor de-
stroyed. The doctrine of the Conservation of Matter, es-
tablished a century ago by Lavoisier, teaches us that we
can never destroy nor create matter, though we can alter its
distribution and its forms and combinations in innumerable
ways. The doctrine of the Conservation of Energy which
has been built up by Helmholtz, Thomson, Joule, and
Mayer during the last half century teaches us that we can
neither create nor destroy energy, though we may change it
from one form to another, causing it to appear as the
energy of moving bodies, as the energy of heat, or as the
static energy of a body which has been lifted against gravity
or some other attracting force into a position whence it can
run down, and where it has the potentiality of doing work.
So, also, the doctrine of the Conservation of Electricity,
which now is growing into shape, but here first enunciated
under this name, teaches us that we can neither create nor
destroy electricity, though we may alter its distribution—
may make more to appear at one place and /ess at another—
may change it from the condition of rest to that of motion,
or may cause it to spin round in whirlpools or vortices
which themselves can attract or repel other vortices. Ac-
cording to this view all our electrical machines and batteries
are merely instruments for altering the distribution of
electricity by moving some of it from one place to another,
or for causing electricity when heaped up in one place to do
work in returning to its former level distribution. Through-
out these lessons the attempt has been made to state the
facts of the science in language consonant with this view ;
but rather to lead the young student to this as the result a
his study than to insist upon it dogmatically at the outset.’

EEE

A WATER CARRYING TORTOISE.

At a meeting of the Academy of Sciences the other even-
ing, a very fine specimen of the desert land tortoise, from
Cajon Pass, San Bernardino county, California, was re-
ceived. The specimen had been carefully prepared, and
was as large as an ordinary bucket. The tortoise is a native
of the arid region of California and Arizona, and Prof. E.
T. Cox, who was present, related a curious circumstance
connected with it.

He found on dissecting one of them that it carried on
each side a membrane, attached to the inner portion of the
shell, in which was about a pint of clear water, the whole
amount being abouta quart. He was of the opinion that
this water was derived from the secretions of the giant
barrel cactus, on which the tortoise feeds. This cactus
contains a great deal of water.

The tortoise is found in sections of country where there
is no water, and where there is no vegetation but the cac-
tus. A traveler suffering from thirst could, in an-emer-
gency, supply himself with water by killing a tortoise.
They are highly prized by Mexicans, who make from them
a delicious soup. The foxes of the desert attack the tor-
toise and finally overcome them by dragging them at times for
miles.

B. B. Redding said he would try to obtain a live one for
the Academy in order that its habits and peculiarities may
be carefully observed and noted. He instanced being on
the Gallapagos islands in 1849 and assisting in the capture
of 92 land tortoises, varying from 450 to 600 lbs. in weight,
which the vessel brought to San Francisco and sold for
more money than the whole cargo of lumber netted at that
time. They were two months on board the vessel, yet ate
nothing and those killed had in them considerable quanti-
ties of pure water. They live on the high lava rocks, which
rise as mountains on the island, where there are no springs
or streams, and the only dependence of animal life for
water is necessarily upon the irregular and uncertain rain
showers,

It may be mentioned that the tortoise are of different spe-
cies, though they may have the same habit in respect of
carrying water. The famous edible species of the coasts
of the Pacific and Indies, of which the headquarters is at
Gallapagos islands, is the Zestudo Jndica. They grow to
five, six, and even seven hundred pounds or more. Those
found in this State are smaller and are the Agassiz species
first described some years ago by Dr. J. G. Cooper, if we
recollect aright. Those Mr. Redding describes from the
Gallapagos were offered water while on the ship but refused
it. Yet when killed they all contained water. The place
they inhabit isa dry one, lacking water. It may be that
they go to the high places and obtain it from the vegetation,
the same as our species does.

ee

DALTONISM.—A Belgian Commission is making investi-
gations on Daltonism. Their method of procedure is as
follows:—On atable exposed to the bright sunlight are
placed skeins of wool varying in color, Thesubject under
examination is given, for example, a green colored one
and he is told to select another of the same color. If he
does so without hesitation, he is not affected with Dalton-
ism, but he is still subjected to other trials, as for instance,
the observation of colored signals at a distance. This ap
plies especially to those employed on railways.

New REcORDING APPARATUS OF MOVEMENTS.—About
twenty years ago M. Marey proposed to inscribe the differ-
ent movements of living animals by means of a lever, as
light as possible, and protected from every cause tending to
set itin vibration, Since this epoch a considerable num-
ber of operations have been accomplished by the aid of this
instrument ; thus, the phenomena of the circulation of the
blood, of respiration and of the movements of the heart
have, in the employment of this method, been conclusively
solved. Nevertheless one objection has been raised
against these instruments: inthe sometimes excedingly
complicated tracings of physiological acts, the proper
movements of the lever have increased the real curve of
the movement which is to be inscribed. M. Marey has
therefore invented and presented to the Academy a new in-
scriptic apparatus, the lever being reduced, which gives
microscopic inscriptions, and thus can inscribe rapid
movements with the greatest precision. The tracings of
this instrument, which may be produced by the vibrations
of the voice, or by the breath, are afterwards enlarged by
projection and reduced to the necessary size. The micros-
copic inscription given by the new apparatus extends to an
almost indefinite degree phenomena susceptible of registra-
tion,

FLUORESCENT SUBSTANCES.

By transmitted

SUBSTANCE. light. Fluoresces.
Masdalasred? sc. a. eeeise oii Red Red
Induline (acid sol.)........... Dirty green | Red
Nigrosine (acid sol.).......... Dirty green | Red
Tri-sulpho-acid of induline....) Blue Red
Resorcin (di-azo compound)*..) Yellow Vermilion
Resorcin (di-azo compound)*..| Violet red Vermilion
Resorcin (di-azo compound)...| Green Dark red
Resorcin (phthalic acid com-

POUDG) sce peteaieietn etree Yellow Green
Resorcin (phthalic acid and

bromine compound)........ Red Green
Amido-phthalic acid.......... Colorless Green
Murexide (di-azo compound)..| Yellow Green
Beta-naphthole. . sates «cjciietelele Brown Blue
Naphthalamine*™. 20. < cm. ee Colorless Violet-blue

The four marked * are the best for exhibition purposes,
the last surpassing sulphate of quinine. The fluorescence
of the di-azo resorcin compound in direct sunlight shows a
fluorescence not inferior to vermilion paint in brilliancy.

SIDNEY JEWSBURY,

SCIENCE.

305

BOlENGCE:

A WEEKLY RECORD OF SCIENTIFIC
PROGRESS.

JOHN MICHELS, Editor.
PUBLISHED AT

TRIBUNE BUILDING, NEW YORK.

P. O, BOX 3838.

SATURDAY, JULY 2, 1881.

THE NEW COMET.

The great comet which has so suddenly flashed into
our Northern sky is one of the most brilliant comets
that has appeared for many years. It has a large and
very stellar like nucleus which is surrounded with en-
velopes, very much like those of the Donati comet of
1858, which was described so well by Protessor
~ George P. Bond of the Harvard College Observatory.
The dense nuclei of such comets give one the idea of
a mass and quantity of matter quite different from
the ordinary telescopic comets, through which the
faintest stars can be seen. The tail of the present
comet is now about twelve or fifteen degrees in
length, and altogether this comet presents a very
beautiful spectacle at three o’clock in the northeastern
morning sky. The motion of the comet is three or
four degrees toward the north, and it will soon reach
a position where it will be visible during the entire
night in the greater part of the United States.

The first duty of the astronomers will be of course
to get observations of its positions and to compute
the orbit of the comet. Since for this purpose obser-
vations on three days are sufficient, we shall soon have
a certain knowledge of its motion. The knowledge
of the orbit will decide the question whether this is the
large comet whose discovery was telegraphed to
Europe from Buenos Ayres by Dr. B. A. Gould, on
June. 1st, and also whether it is identical with the
great comet of 1807. The observations of the comet
of 1807 were discussed in a very complete manner
by Bessel who found its periodic time to be between
1400 and 1900 years, and it will be a curious fact if
the true period proves to be only seventy four years.

This great comet also presents a good opportunity
for the spectroscopists to examine its chemical nature,
and a rare occasion for the study of the physical con-
stitution of comets. No doubt these questions will

be well attended to by the astronomers and students
of our country.

The question of the formation of a comet’s tail, and
how the particles of matter are driven out from the
nucleus in the direction opposite the sun has not yet
been answered in a satisfactory manner, and all the
facts that can be gathered from observations of this
comet will be extremely valuable. In_ his discussion
of the physical constitution of Hailley’s comet in its
appearance of 1835 Bessel found that a repulsive
force from the sun was very decidedly shown by the
observations of the tail. Similar results were reached
by Professor Pierce of Harvard College, Professor
Norton of Yale College and by Dr. Pope in their dis-
cussion of the Donati comet of 1858.. This is an in-
teresting question and it may have an intimate relation
with the theory of a resisting medium in space which
has been indicated by the motion of Encke’s comet.

We learn that unfortunately the weather at Wash-
ington has been unfavorable for several days past ;
but from the numerous good telescopes scattered over
the country, we doubt not that good observations of
this interesting comet will be gathered.

—————————————

THE ADDRESS OF THE PRESIDENT OF THE
ROYAL MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY.
LIONEL S. BEALE, F.R.S.

(Concluded from page 297.)

One may transport oneself in imagination into infinite
space, amid the never-ceasing vibrations visible and in-
visible—‘ The lucid interspace of world and world, where
never creeps a cloud, or moves a wind,” and may per-
haps all but see combined in one mental image, as they
ever course through space, suns and worlds and systems.
And although at first the mind is almost lost in the con-
templation of the infinite physical vastness presented it,
it is nevertheless able to seize in some degree a more
than shadowy conception of the exactness and regularity
of the eternal movements, and to recognize the never-ceas-
ing operation in the material universe of inflexible, un-
changing law.

But he who in imagination can succeed in mentally
placing himself amid the atoms in the interatomic spaces
of a living particle, will be in the very heart as it were of
an infinity of a very different order—infinite movement
and change affecting infinitely minute particles, so very
near to one another that the matter otf one may as it
were run into that of the other, and the masses divide
and subdivide again. Of all this movement and change
of particles how very little of what occurs in a portion of
matter not more than the one hundred-thousandth of an
inch in diameter can be comprised in one mental image ?
But beyond all this there is the power of prospective
change, acting through years it may be, which is some-
how associated with the minute particles of living mat-
ter, as well as many complex phenomena of which the
mind cannot take cognizance as a whole; but must
consider, as it were, one by one in several successive
pictures.

Could we peer into the very substance of the living
particle itself as it was increasing in size and commu-
nicating to non-living matter its wonderful properties,
what should we see? What is it that happens at the
moment when a little complex organic matter dissolved

306

in water passes from the non-living to the living state?
Should we see atoms being arranged and entering into
new combinations according to some physical. properties
inherent in the very matter—atoms combining according
to their chemical affinities; or should we see the com-
plex chemical compounds of the pabulum being changed,
their elements being somehow torn asunder trom their
combinations, or rather quietly separating from one an-
other in obedience to some force or power of which we
cannot form any accurate conception? The most extra-
ordinary active atomic movements must be taking place,
and in the quietest possible manner. Certainly the
phenomena which accompany ordinary chemical decom-
positions in non-living matter do not occur. No two
things in this world can be more dissimilar than man’s
chemical laboratory and nature’s laboratory in this living
matter. That the formation of the germ is to be ac-
counted for by the operation of the ordinary forces of
matter is one of the most absurd of absurd propositions ;
but that the idea of such an origin should still be en-
tertained and taught by a physicist or chemist is unac-
countable.

There are no actions in non-living matter with which
the actions of living matter can with any degree of fair
ness oraccuracy be compared. No argument in essential
particulars can be pointed out which would justify the
use of the word ‘analogy’’ without doing violence to
truth and cheating the reason. To maintain the identity
of the vital and inorganic forces on the ground of some
fancied analogy between vital action and crystallization
is most wrong and willfully misleading, for the fallacy has
been many times exposed and exploded. Been a crystal
and living matter there is not the slightest analogy, for
the one can be destroyed and caused to re-form as many
times as we like, while the living matter cannot be even
dissolved. In the attempt to dissolve it, it dies, and can-
not be reproduced.

It is obvious that before particles of living matter pass
from the living into the forméd state their component
atoms, or groups of them, must somehow be made to
take up a definite position with respect to one another.
Such changes of place as must occur can only be brought
about by some peculiar force, property, or power, the ac-
tion of which is temporary. Seeing that the changes in ques-
tion can take place only while matter is in the temporary
living state—this matter having been detached from mat-
terin the same living condition—the force or power in
question must be of an exceptional nature, and of an
order different from that to which the ordinary forces or
powers of non-living matter belong. This wonderful
living power which is postulated causes the atoms or the
particles of the matter to take up certain positions favor-
able to their combination in a certain definite manner.
Thus certain substances are formed which have a pecu-
liar chemical composition, and in certain cases special
properties and endowments not possessed by substances
that can be formed in any other way. It seems to me it
would be as unreasonable to maintain that the bricks, or
rather the clay of which they are made, or the silica and
alumina of the clay, or the properties of the elements
entering into the composition of these substances, design,
fashion and build the house, as to assert that the forma-
tion of living things is due to the physical properties of the
materials of which their bodies are composed. Vital
powerimpresses as it were its seal upon the matter—upon
the structures of the living organism—and ought surely
therefore to be considered as above and superior to the
mere stuff *that it moulds. Vitality, or vital power, forces,
bends, arranges, and fashions just as man_ himself
moulds and fashions the clay he works with, only silently,
invisibly, more perfectly, and in a definite and pre-
arranged manner, and without mind or will or ingenuity,
or instruments or organs,

Judging from the facts, is it not indeed more probable
that the ordinary properties, the attractions, the affinities

SCIENCE.

of mere matter are in suspension rather than in action,
while the matter continues to be in the living state?
When these properties and affinities come into play, do
we not get from the matter that was alive albuminous
matters, fat and other things, of known properties and
definite composition ? But neither these nor any definite
compounds existed when the matter was living. They
came into being at the moment of its death. The idea of
these substances existing in the living matter is inadmis-
sible, for if they were there, some of them could be dem-
onstrated. Such a substance as fatty matter cannot, of
course, exist in the living state ; fat cannot grow and form
fat out of materials which contain the elements of the
substance in different states of combination, any more
than granite can. If it be conceded that during the living
state the ordinary properties and affinities of the matter
are suspended, it will be admitted that none of the ordi-
nary properties of material particles can be reasonably
credited with the ability to interfere with the exercise of
affinities ; and therefore it seems reasonable to conclude
that some totally different power, vztalzty or vztal power
(which same, unlike the ordinary properties of the matter,
is lost or ceases to act when living matter dies), is the true
cause of the exceptional state in which the material par-
ticles are held while the matter remains living.

But thought may take us yet further. Gradually pass-
ing inwards towards the centre, through vast concentric
layers of particles, we arrive at last in imagination near
the centre of a particle far too minute to be visible,
where the atoms of lifeless matter first live. As to the
actual nature of this wonderful change which occurs, we
are, and from a purely physical point of view must remain,
in darkness. Forit is certain that the new temporary living
state is absolutely district from the non-living state in
which the matter existed but an instant before. Before
long this will, I doubt not, be generally admitted by those
acquainted with the facts and not biassed by previous
confessions or beliefs.

It is invariably in living matter devoid of structure and
form, that all those wonderful actions of surpassing in-
terest which result in the development of form the most
striking and structure the most elaborate, are carried on.
Forces or powers, but of a non-material order, trans-
mitted through succeeding particles of the same kind, and
continuously operating, it may be upon vast quantities of
matter, through centuries or centuries of centuries (mil-
lions on millions of years’), are the activities by which
the re-arrangement of the elements under certain fixed
conditions which eventuate in definite and predetermined
form, structure, and composition, is brought about. The
changes, conversions, formations in question, at present
invisible and undemonstrable, require considerable time
for their completion. Compared with the visible phe-
nomena which succeed them, and which may be watched,
described and delineated by us, they are slow indeed.
During days, weeks and months, in darkness and in si-
lence, arrangements and re-arrangements of the most
complex character incessantly and quietly proceed, as we
say, in obedience to /aws (though we do not 4mow), ere
the first visible traces of the new being can be discerned
by the most careful investigation.

Remember that the changes in question affect a mere
modicum of matter. A grain, nay, the hundredth, the
thousandth part of a grain, and far less than this may at
one time constitute the material substance from which
springs a tree that inits maturity will comprise tons of
matter, every grain of which will be stamped with indiv-
iduality. Is itnot, then, most strange that in these days
which surpass all previous time in the passion exhibited
by men to see into the nature of things, that attention
should be so much absorbed in considerations relating to
the mere matter of which a living thing is made, while
the study of the forces and powers which have effected
the forming and shaping of the material substance is not
only almost wholly neglected, but positively discouraged ?

SCIENCE.

And yet these forces or powers fashion the germ and
cause it to be like its predecessors, or modify its charac-
ter and cause it to give rise to forms perhaps not before
attained. With what shall these forces of the living
world, operating so marvellously upon infinitesimal par-
ticles of matter, be compared? The changes have been
likened to those which take place in the formation of crys-
tals, which can be dissolved and caused to re-form as
often as we choose; to the aggregation of particles of
lifeless matter which can be made to separate or aggre-
gate as we will; to machines which are made by us in
separate pieces and afterwards put together ; and to many
other things between which and living particles there is
not the faintest resemblance or the slightest analogy.
Uninquiring, unthinking persons have been, and are at
this time, misled by crude and false comparisons, and
deceived by forced and fancied analogies. The coarse
materialism of our day ought long ago to have been dis-
missed with scorn as unworthy of the age in which we
live, and of the acceptance of any one who would not
disgrace himself by helping to force thought back again
to the point it had reached more than two thousand years
ago.

No one acquainted with the facts of vital change can
doubt that phenomena of the same order as those in op-
eration to-day attended the development of primeval
forms of life. For not only do we meet with living matter
producing the same structures as existed during early
periods, but it is probable that some of the living things
now growing and multiplying are identical with some
that existed in the very dawn of life-history. Unbroken
continyily, descent, dercvation, in operation through the
ages without change in power or property, or alteration
in form or composition ; vepetz¢zon wi'hout gain or exalt-
ation ; contznuous descent without degradation or improve-
‘ment; monotonous succession without progression or
advancing evolution. Nevertheless, we are expected to
accept the dictum that amid these myriads of myriads of
similar organisms, here and there one more fortunate or
more gifted than the rest—we are not told why, when, or
how—became endowed with the marvellous power of
endless modification. Weare asked to believe that rigid
laws uniformly operating with the same consequences, for
ages, suddenly changed, and that long-imposed uniform-
ity gave place to capability of differentiation. But if we
try to realize what, according to the terms of the hypoth-
esis must have happened in the living matter, into what
a sea of fantastic conjecture do we plunge! The new or
modified powers must have originated in or emanated
from particles in the very centre of minute living spher-
ules. When we consider the minuteness and insignifi-
cance as far as the mere matter is concerned, of the living
particles we are referring to, many will, I think, be in-
clined to admit that it is at least as probable that new
forms of living matter of this infinitesimal minuteness
originated anew, as that forces which had been in opera-
tion for ages, under inexorable unchanging laws, were
entirely and suddenly changed or removed, and replaced
or supplemented by additional and very different forces
obeying very different laws.

Moreover, as no direct or positive evidence of a reliable
character has yet been obtained in favor of the direct
conversion of non-living matter of any kind into a living
form, while there is nothing to indicate that the passage
from the non-living to the living was effected by gradual
change, as has been suggested by some, it is as reasona-
ble to assume that several infinitesimal life-forms with
very different powers of development sprang at once into
life, though the ultimate form to be assumed was post-
poned for ages, as that one single living form only was
so formed with the power both of endless monotonous
repetition, as well as of infinite and never-ceasing capac-~
ity of variation and change, one or other of these oppo-
site attributes being accidentally exercised or capriciously
taken advantage of by such of the descendants as were

307

assured that they were above all the most fitted to sur-
vive.

Doctrines of evolution are, no doubt, an advance upon
the direct mechanical formation of fully formed organ-
isms hypothesis; but although some evolutionists have
so expressed themselves as to lead us to infer that an
idea so absured as the above had been entertained, it
need scarcely be said the inference is their own and
totally unfounded, suggested by themselves for the satis-
faction of ridiculing-it and exposing its inferiority to their
own hypothesis. No doctrine of evolution yet put for-
ward seems to afford any help to those who are familiar
with the characters of the living matter of different or-
ganisms, as far as these can be elucidated by any means
at present known. Evolutionists generally do not take
cognizance of the difficulties which are so patent to
microscopical observers. Some of them have hardly
condescended to notice the living matter, out of which
and by which all the forms of life they profess to account
for are developed. It is true that it has been suggested
that there are structural differences in the apparently
similar manner, which structural differences result in the
production of such dissimilar beings; but speculations
concerning hypothetical] structure are as futile as those
which deal with the hypothetical form and properties of
the hypothetical inhabitants of Jupiter.

All living matter is, I repeat, structureless, and it is to
the power rather than to the mere matter we must. look
for the explanation of the marvellous differences in the
beings evolved by different kinds. The similarity of
various embryos of different animals has often been al-
luded to, and it has been said, for example, that at a cer-
tain period of development the embryo of man could not
be distinguished from that of adog. That there is a gen-
eral rough resemblance is perfectly true, but, on the
other hand, any one who examined the minute structure
of corresponding tissues and organs, would not find the
likeness so great as is supposed, while he would be
struck with a great number of points of difference. Not
one structure could be found in any part of one embryo
which did not exhibit peculiarities by which it could be
distinguished. It would, therefore, scientifically be more
correct to say that the embryos were of /zke one another,
than that they were déke. But any argument based upon
the likeness, if it existed, would not help the evolutionist,
inasmuch as the “ likeness’”’ is far greater at an earlier
stage of existence, betore any form or structure whatever
has appeared. Every living form comes from an equally
structureless material, and the forms near one another
in the scale are not more like one another than they are
like forms far above or far below them. If, for example,
the evolutionist would examine embryonic living matter
at a very early period of development, he would discover
not only that man and dog were not to be distinguished,
but that not one form of living matter could be distin-
guished from any other form in nature; nay, the living
matter which might become dog or man could not be
identified by any means at our disposal, or distinguished
from that which belonged to amceba or plant, and yet it
is put forward as a discovery of recent date that certain
properties manifested by the tissues of animals also
characterize some of those plants.

But after all, the assumed likeness is but a likeness in
certain general points, and those who wish us to draw
certain conclusions from their statements, ought to be
asked to point out how it is that every cell, every issue of
the embryos they regard as being alike or identical,
exhibits peculiarities and individual characteyistics of its
own as regards elementary arrangement, rapidity of
formation, rate of growth, duration of existence, and a
number of other points. Again, the statements about
the changes occurring during development inthe lower
animals being represented by identical changes occuring
during the earlier periods of development in the higher,
are correct only when taken in a very rough and general

308

SCIENCE.

way. Such phencmera, it is said, show unity of plan,
and favor tte hypothesis of the descent of jelly-fishes
from sponges, ard of man fromapes. No doubt they do
if the mind is already prepared to receive such ideas,

Those, however, who really study the operations of na- |
ture in her inner recesses where and while she is at work, |
will certainly often find where identity is affirmed, diver-
sity really exists. Rough general resemblances can no |

doubt be pointed out, and be made much of, by those
who do not look too closely or intently; but those who
examine minutely and patiently will find that im very
many cases the general resemblances will be outnum-
bered and outweighed by specific irreconcilable differ-
ences and individual peculiarities.

If then we examine living matter in that early period
of development ere any structural peculiarities whatever

have been manifested, we shall be face to face with the |

problem of life.

For it is at this time, when the matter |

is without form, that the dispositions of the material |

particles, which at length result in the development of
form, are made. Preparation is made for the division of
the mass of the living matter into several portions, and
for the orderly disposition of these in respect to one
another, as well as in respect of the new masses which
at some future time are to be detached from them.
Throughout the whole period of the life of many organ-
isms, similar wonderful changes are continually taking
place, at least as respects the living matter of certain

parts and organs; but we have no means of distinguish- |
ing the living matter which continues monotonously re- |

peating similar changes, from. living matter which divides
and subdivides into masses, which in turn gives rise to

successive generations of living particles, which may |

differ from one another and from all that have gone be-
fore, in Power.

As far as I am aware, no form of the doctrine of evolu- |
tion yet enunciated takes into account the phenomena of |

the living matter in which and by which all the changes
recognized and professed to be explained are carried on.
And yet it is only by these actions in living matter that
evolution can be made to appear a plausible hypothesis.

Only by carrying out very careful investigations on this |

formless, structureless living matter can we reasonably
hope to obtain anything approaching an accurate con-
ception of the wonderful working of real living nature. It
seems to me that the “nature” of the evolutionist is but
a fanciful and highly colored picture in which ideas sug-
gested by investigations in stockyards and shambles are
depicted, with the addition of the horrible scenes assumed
by a vivid imagination to be enacted in the supposed ever-
lasting fight for existence and scramble for mastery, in
which conquerors are always being conquered by creatures
just a shade more fitted to survive than themselves. Here
is creation by destruction in a never-ceasing scramble go-
ing on for millions on millions of years, in which the only
thing certain seems to be that the greatest misery is as-
sured to the greatest number; life succeeding life, without
good or reason or joy or hope ; peaceful nature a continual
massacre of experimental forms to be massacred in their
turn, and these by more; a constant struggle to survive,
in which success is rewarded by extermination. The
“nature ” of evolutionists is a very strange nature indeed,
in which oppression, destruction, and tyranny seem to be
the chief agents in creation and formation, development
and advancement.

But besides the evolution of living forms and of the dif-
ferent organs, we are to believe in an evolution of matter.
an evolution of worlds, of suns, of systems. Rel:gion,
law, and justice, art, science, and even thought are all pro-
ducts of this universal, never-ending evolution. But what
is evolution, and who has given to the term an accurate
definition? We shall be told there is evolution and evolu-
tion.
enough, and there is no general agreement as to what is
meant by evolution, and whether the use of the term

One man’s evolution goes too far, another’s not far |

| as a caterpillar.

should be restricted to the living world or extended to the
universe—though it must be obvious to any one who con-
siders the question that the evolution of a living form and
the evolution of the matter of a stone are as far removed
from one another as are the question of the nature and
scope of Infinite Power and the nature and properties of
a gas or a metal.

Herbert Spencer has defined his “evolution” to be a
change from an indefinite incoherent homogeneity to a de-
finite coherent heterogeneity, through differentiations and
integrations. But is not every one of these polysyllabic
words as elastic as the word the meaning of which they
are to explain? Every assertion made is wanting in proof,
and most of the words may be used in totally different
and even in opposite senses.

Any one who ventures to express a doubt concerning
the absolute correctness of the assemblage of vague and
even contradictory conjectures comprised in any hypothe-
sis of evolution, is in danger of being abused and called
names. Hemay be denounced to the world as a con-
temptible person who has made a vile and abusive attack
upon some infallible authority who affirms himself to be
the real discoverer of all the secrets of all the molecular
machinery of creation. We now live under the most
ridiculous of all forms of despotism. It has been said
that we must accept such and such views or be debarred
from accepting anything! But is it possible for any un-
biassed person to accept implicitly doubts, vague sugges-
tions of what may be, or can be, or might be—specula-
tions, hypotheses, conjectures concerning things that lived
under conditions which are in great part only conjectural?
Probably no living person accepts as it stands ‘The Origin
of Species,’ and it is doubtful whether the first chapter, or
even the first sentence of the first chapter, would hold its
ground without considerable alteration and qualification
if subject to searching critical examination.

The facts known to microscopical observers in connec-
tion with the act of living of the smallest particle of the
simplest forms of living matter are no more to be accounted

| for by any of the extravagant crotchets lately advanced as

explanations of the facts, than are the general broad phen-
omena of nature which are under the observation of all.
Evolution is a wholly satisfactory explanation only to
those whose minds have been trained to submission to
evolutional authority, and who have brought themselves
to regard things as they have been told they ought to re-
gard them, instead of venturing to use their senses, and
reasoningt on the facts presented to their observation—
and indeed see for themselves with their own eyes instead
of accepting, without ever seeing, what they are told has
been seen by eyes which are supposed to be specially
plivileged to see.

As evidence of the nonsense often advanced in favor
of some form of evolution, let me quote a few sentences
trom an article on “ Butterfly Psychology,” published in
the St. Fames’s Gazette. Like most advocates of evolu-
tion, the writer has the knack of telling his story in such
a pleasant way as to make people imagine that he is ex-
plaining the nature and cause of things he describes,
while in truth he is doing nothing of the kind. He ex-
plains nothing at all, but merely announces astounding
assumptious based upon conjectures of his own, or of
others.

“In early life the future butterfly emerges from the egg
At once his many legs begin to move,
and the caterpillar moves forward by their motion. But
the mechanism which set them moving was the nervous
system, with its ganglia working the separate legs of each
segment. This movement is probably quite as automa-
tic as the act of sucking in the new-born infant. The
caterpillar walks, it knows not why, but simply because
it has to walk. When it reaches a fit place for feeding,
which differs according to the nature of the particular
larva, it feeds automatically. Certain special external
stimulants of sight, smell, or touch set up the appropri-

SCIENCE.

ate actions in the mandibles, just as contact of the lips
with an external body sets up sucking in the infant. All
these movements depend upon what we call instinct—-
that is to say, organic habits registered in the nervous
system of the race. They have arisen by natural selec-
tion alone, because those insects which duly performed
them survived, and those which did not duly perform
them died out. After a considerable span of life spent in
feeding and walking about in search of more food, the
caterpillar one day found itself compelled by an inner
monitor to alter its habits, Why, it knew not; but, just

as a tired child sinks into a sleep, the gorged and full-fed |

caterpillar sank peacefully into a dormant state.”

Of course all this may eve been written in joke. The
writer may possibly be laughing at evolutionists. The
“inward monitor” of the “ gorged and full-fed caterpil-
lar’’ undoubtedly looks rather suspicious, but one hardly
likes to hint at anything so serious. Evolutionists will, I
dare say, repudiate such “ evolution ’’ as a mere travesty,
but it is quite time that half-a-dozen evolutionists who
agree on main points should clearly state their belief.

In conclusion, let me ask you as students of nature’s
processes, whether you have not seen enough to convince
you that the revival of the assumption which has been
abandoned and reintroduced many times during the last
few centuries, that the lifeless is the sole origin of the
living—that in fact the non-living and the living are one
—is now unjustifiable, and cannot be reasonably enter-
tained, This monstrous fallacy, though taught with the
greatest confidence, is based on assumption, and is sup-
ported by arbitrarily selected facts, and by not a few mis-
representations and dogmatic assertions. Whenever any
form of this false doctrine has been successfully forced
into popularity, it has led to the adoption and propaga-
tion of the most grievous errors and grotesque conceits.

COMET OBSERVATIONS AT PRINCETON.

The weather has been so unfavorable at Princeton,
that we have been unable to make any very satisfactory
measures upon the spectrum of the comet. On Saturday
evening the comet was visible fairly for an hour or so,
before it descended into a bank of cloud. On Sunday
evening it was beautifully seen for about half an hour,
and then was obscured by a fog which still continues.

The spectrum of the nucleus is very bright. It is ap-
parently continuous, though there may be a little special
emphasis at.the points where the usual carbon lines
ought to appear. The spectrum of the coma and of the
tail is precisely like that of most comets, showing three
bands which coincide sensibly with those given by the
flame of a Bunsen gas-burner, presumably due to a hy-
drocarbon of some sort.

On Saturday evening the nucleus looked much like a
star-fish. having five projecting points formed by jets of
light protruding from the central globe toa distance of
from four to ten seconds of arc. These jets were not
equal in length or brightness, and were not symmetrically
disposed with reference to the axis of the comet’s tail.
Two of them were somewhat curved, they were all dif-
fuse and blunt at the extremity, rather than pointed.

On Saturday, instead of jets, the nucleus had a nearly
circular envelope surrounding it, sharply defined from
the coma. Its diameter was perhaps 20”, but the fog
came on before any measures could be made. This disc
of light, surrounding the nucleus, was not uniformly
bright :—it was more brilliant on the side next the Sun,

and there was a curious dark opening in it of oval form,

_some 20° one side of the axes of the tail.

3°9

We were pre-
paring to study the spectrum of this enyelope critically,
when we were cut off by the mist.

Although the Comet is now receding from both Sun
and Earth, it is rising so much higher in the Northern
Sky each night, that if the weather beccmes favorable, it
may yet be possible to get something more satisfactory ;
but just at present the rain is pouring and the prospect
is rather dreary. C, A. YOUNG.

PRINCETON, N. J., Fume 27, 1881. ,

—_——__—__ + —- ——-..-

LETIERS 1O/THE EDITOR:

[The Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed
by his correspondents.
cations.|

No notice ts taken of anonymous communi-

LOCUSTS AND SUN SPOTS.

To the Editor of ‘‘SCYENCE:”

SiR: Perhaps you will permit me to explain one in-
apposite word occurring in my communication on the
above subject.

When I stated that European migrants come north and
east, I should rather have said zorthk and west, the set of
the migrations, as far as known, is on European areas
north and west; and in this direction, butterflies, sphinx
moths and locusts, whose point of departure has been
traced to Southern Asia or Northern Africa, travel period-
ically ; the occurrence being made known to us by their
vanguard, so to speak, sweeping over the eastern shore
of Great Britain. That this track is not voluntarily chosen
by instinct, but rather due to a prevailing south-easterly
direction of the winds, rests now-a-days on a great
amount of experience. A. H. SWINTON,

GUILDFORD, ENG,, Sune, 1882.

ter

THE BEUE COLOR OF THE SKY.

Prof. Cornu having established the fact that the at-
mosphere of the earth exercises an energetic absorption
upon the ultra-violet rays of the spectrum, whose limit
varies according to the statement of the atmosphere and
the altitude of the sun. Prof. Hartley sought to attribute
this limitation to the influence of ozone. His experiments
have demonstrated.

1.—That the ozone is a normal constituent of the
higher atmosphere, where it is more abundant than on
the earth,

2.— That this quantity of atmospheric ozone suffices to
limit the spectrum in the ultra-violet region, without con-
sidering the absorption caused by the great density of the
oxygen and nitrogen.

3.—That the blue tint of the atmosphere is due to the
presence of ozone.

In respect of this Jast point, Prof. Hartley remarks
that, if the ozone exists in the high regions of the atmos-
phere, the light reflected by clouds at a great heighth
has a blue appearance because it traverses a gas of this
color, It is so likewise with the light illuminating the
distant portions of a landscape. Experiments have
shown that 25 milligrammes of ozone for every square
centimeter of a layer of 80 kilogr. thick can produce this
phenomenon.

WE learn that Prof. H, S. Prichett, Director of the
Glasgow Observatory, has been appointed Professor of
Mathematics in Washington University, St. Louis, Mis-
souri.

310

SCIENCE.

DOLBEAR’S NEW TELEPHONE SYSTEM.

Among the exhibits at the forthcoming International
Electrical Exhibition at Paris, the new telephone we are
about to describe will command attention as an original
and important invention.

It embodies the most recent discoveries of Professor

A. E. Dolbear, of Tuft’s College, Massachusetts, who,

as one of our most esteemed contributors, needs no in-
troduction to the readers of ‘‘ SCIENCE.” :

The advantages claimed by Professor Dolbear may be
summarized as follows:

1. Itis a ew and independent system which has im-
portant advantages over the Bell and other Telephonic
methods.

2. Its capability of transmitting speech over longer
lines of wires than has been hitherto employed, and its
freedom from the troubles of induction.

3. It is a silent instrument, the words coming out
clear without the sputtering aud confused noises of the
old system.

4. Itis an absolute departure from the Bell system,
and its principles of operation entirely independent.

We are enabled to place before our readers a descrip-
tion of this original telephone prepared by Professor
Dolbear himself, illustrated by some excellent cuts loaned
to us by Mr. H. C. Buck, who is leaving for Paris to
represent Professor Dolbear at the forthcoming Electrical
Exhibition.

Before describing Professor Dolbear’s Telephone in
detail, we may state that in order to receive messages by
the Bell system it is necessary to use between the ear and
the line wire an electrical machine, consisting of a magnet,
a magneto-coil to influence the magnet, which coil is con-
nected with the line wire and with the ground. Take out
this machine, and we take out the Bell telephone system—
this is substantially what Professor Dolbear claims to do
—for to receive a message, he takes out the machine, and
puts the end of the telegraph wire directly to the ear.
For conyenience of ordinary use Professor Dolbear pro-
vides the receiving end of his telegraph wire with a small
handle, in which he arranges a couple of thin diaphragms,
one of them attached to the wire—a contrivance that
improves the vocal delivery of the line wire.

Professor Dolbear thus describes his invention:

RECEIVER.

This consists, in its simplest form, of two metallic
disks about two inches in diameter, so mounted as not to
be in metallic contact, and this is effected by turning a

‘i
a
|

Nl

ne

| |

Nl

Ficure 1,

flange in a hard rubber case so they may be kept apart
by it (see Fig. 1). A cap is screwed down upon each
plate; one of them having a small hole in the middle of it
to listen at; the other is a larger one, having a knob
turned upon it for conveniently holding it in the hand.
Through the middle of the knob a screw is sunk which
touches the back plate and serves to adjust it to the best
position relative to the front or vibrating plate. The
back plate is thus: fastened at both edge and middle,
which prevents it from vibrating, while the front plate is
only fast at its edge, leaving the middle free to vibrate.

a},
2)

ron

:

[

La’

7

|

3 eT mT rel

Ficure 2,

Each of these plates, A B, Fig. 2, is in metallic connec-
tion with the induction coil so as to be its terminals.
When thus connected and one makes and breaks connec-
tion in the primary circuit, a click may be heard by one
holding the receiver near to the ear. If a Helmholtz in-
terrupter be employed to make and break the primary
circuit, the pitch of the fork can easily be heard, and with
a Rezss transmitter or other suitable one in the same
place, any kind of a sound will be reproduced.

The explanation of this is easily understood from the
foregoing description of the conditions present. The
electromotive force generated by induction in the coil
changes the two terminals in the receiver, one positively,
the other negatively ; they therefore attract each other.

One of them is free to move, while the other is rigid.
The middle of the freer plate consequently moves slightly
toward the other whenever they are electrified, and zz so
doing spends the energy of the electrectty, while its elas-
ticity brings it back to its place, It is not essential, how-
ever, that both of these terminal plates should be con-
nected to the induction coil, for if only one is connected,
the recurring charges will cause the free plate to vibrate,
for a charged body will attract any other body, so if the
connection be to the back plate it will attract the front
one and make it moye, and if the connection be to the
front plate it will attract the back plate and approach it.
The effect will be increased by putting the finger upon

. other is fixed underneath it at a short distance.

SCIENCE. 311

the terminal that is free ; not because it makes a ground,
as it is termed in electrical science, or completes an elec-
trical circuit, for if the individual listening be as perfectly
insulated as glass or hard rubber can make him, the sound
is as loud as if he stood on the ground ; but the individual
becomes electrified by induction, it is the same as enlarg-
ing the terminal would be. Consequently receivers are

FrGuRE 3.

made having only one wire terminal (see Fig. 3), the
other plate being connected by a conductor to a metallic
ring upon the knob, and this receiver is as efficient as the
other.

Electricians will recognize in this structure what is
technically known as the azy condenser, and the mutual
attraction of the two plates has been employed as a means
of measuring electrical potential. In this case one of the
plates is suspended from one arm of a balance, while the
The at-
traction of the plates when they are electrified requires an
extra weight to keep them apart, and the weight needed
is the measure of the attractive force. But the plates will
attract each other when glass or mica or any other non-
conducting substance is placed between them in the
place of the air ; and one might expect-that if such an air
condenser would give sonorous results, other forms of
condensers, would do so likewise, and this is so. Indeed,
whoever has charged a Leyden jar has probably noticed
the sounds coming from it when it is nearly saturated.
In 1863 Sir Wm. Thompson had his attention directed to
the sounds produced by discharge in an air condenser.*

When the two plates of Epinus’s condenser are in met-
allic contact no sounds whatever can be produced by it,
but if they are separated by a thin film of air they will

i

|
Hh
Ht

|

Ficure 4.

* See papers on Electro-Statics and Magnetism, page 236.

reproduce speech (see Fig. 6, at E). In the first case the
electricity passes from one plate to the other without
doing work or changing its form; while in the latter, its
form is changed and work is done, and between the best
conductors, such as silver and copper and the perfect.
non-conductor air there are all degrees of conductibility,
and whenever electricity spends its energy upon an im-
perfect conductor it results in heating it; that is, in
molecular and atomic vibrations, Consequently an un-
dulatory current from an ordinary transmitter, when sent
through an imperfect conductor, will set up sound vibra-
tions in it which may be appreciated by the ear. Let,
then, any poor conductor, like a disk of carbon, a sheet
of paper or of gelatin, or such chemical substances as
ammonium chloride, be placed between the terminal
plates, and an undulatory current sent through them will
result in sound, and speech may be reproduced.

Now, the phenomena observed in Geissler’s tubes and
Crooke’s tubes show that the residual gaseous molecules
are violently impelled from the electrified terminals, not
simply because they are electrified, but because they are
heated, for the same phenomena are witnessed when the
terminals are heated in other ways; so it is probable that
between the plates of the air condenser there is an actual
impulsion of the air particles from one to the other, and
that the phenomenon of attraction is not isolated from
molecular impact. Receivers have been made in which
a vacuum could be produced between the plates, but no
great difference could be observed in their performance ;
and when one reflects upon the immense number of

680)

Wi
if

S
\
\
\

Ficure 5.

molecules left in the best vacuum yet produced, it is not
a matter for much surprise.

When a non-conductor, such as air, or vulcanite, or
mica, separates the two plates, there is acomplete trans-
formation of the electricity at the limiting surfaces, and
with small condensers the efficiency depends upon the
electromotive force employed. For low electromotive
forces, such as common batteries of a few cells can give,
the effect is almost inappreciable, and for this reason
such a receiver as this is quite free from the disturbance
known as induction, and which is so troublesome in the
magneto-telephone, such induced currents being generally
of low electromotive force.

Among the earliest of my experiments, made while de-
veloping this method, was to attach one terminal wire
from an induction coil to the outer coating of a Leyden
jar, taking the other wire from the coil in one hand, and

312

applying one ear to the
knob of the jar. Every
word spoken at thetrans-
mitter was distinctly
heard, but the prickly
sensation due to the el-
ectricity was too dis-
agreeable. Another re-
ceiver, not less curious
than the Leyden jar, was
found in the pair of insu-
lating handles made for

the medical application YF

of electricity. | When
these were connected to
the coil wires, and one
held in each hand by
the wooden part, while
the metallic ends were
placed at the ears, any

kind of a sound at the 4

transmitter was heard
without any difficulty,
but of course the same
sensation was felt as
with the jar. Many forms
of condensers have been
employed with capacities
too small to measure up

Ficure 6.

SCIENCE.

platinum does very well.
It is a matter of some
surprise that the old
transmitter is still spok-
en of as a make and
break circuit, and that it
can only transmit pitch,
whereas, whether it
breaks or not when a
sound is made in it de-
pends solely upon the
intensity of that sound,
» just as with the Blake
7, transmitter, if one talks
gently to the original
Reiss transmitter, it not
only does not break, but
it transmits speech with
all its qualities.
Accompanying the
transmitter an induc-
tion coil is shown at I,
Fig. 6, and as the work-
ing of the receiver de-
pends upon electromo-
tive force and not upon
current, it is necessary,
if a coil be used to raise
the electromotive force,

to two micro-farads, and these in all sorts of relations, | to have one with many more turns than is needed
charging the plates from batteries, from Holtz machines, | with the magneto receiver, and the best results have
charging the line as in cable works, etc., all of which give | been obtained with a coil having a resistance of four or
results that differ only in degree.

THE TRANSMITTER.

| five thousand ohms, but it is probable that this will be re-
duced.
On account of the high electromotive force a better in-

As with other systems in common use, there is | sulation is needed than ordinary telegraph lines give,

a transmitter as well

containing battery and
coil. This transmitter
is substantially the
same as the one in-
vented by Reiss in
1861. His consisted of
a cubical box (see Fig.
6) about five inches
on a side, having an
opening on one side
to talk into, and an-
other one on top, across
which the diaphragm
was fastened. A pin
of platinum was glued
to the middle of the
membrane, and con-
nected by a wire to
a binding screw. A
V-shaped wire with
platinum point touch- }

ed upon the platinum WN
of the membrane, and \
with its binding screw \

served to complete a
galvaniccircuit. This
one (see Fig.10) differs
from this of Reiss only
in making the chamber
smaller, making the

connecting wire on top ~

T-shaped, and substi-
tuting carbon or other
suitable substance for
the platinum ; but the

f1\I
(Hib!

as a_ receiver.
the transmitter is attached

One form of

when the in@uction coil is at the further end of the line,

to the door of a box | but if it is at the receiving end, and a low electromotive

|

|

x), force is employed in
the primary, then or-
dinary insulation will
answer. Again, the
electromotive force be-
ing high, inserted re-
sistances do not so
markedly decrease the
efficiency of the instru-
ment, as in the case
with the magneto-tel-
phone. For instance,
the articulation is per-
fect and loud enough
with a resistance of
fifty thousand ohms,
a resistance equal to
five thousand miles ot
common. telegraph
ii|)\|| wire, and- it may be
| heard through a re-
sistance of a million
' ohms, practically an
infinite resistance.
i If one of the termi-
| nals of a receiver be
charged in any way,
| the reaction between
\\\\|. the two plates will be
‘i stronger than it will be
without, Let, then,
| one terminal be at-
iM}, tached to a knob of a
Nl), Holtz machine that is
|X kept charged by rota-

wie i ‘il Ve 1 aS

otal lit
Wi Ht

il} ih

‘an
GPG i
Hh |
Me
pi

an |
tl i

ila

FicureE 7,

SCIENCE.

tion.
any other source otf electricity with high potential
will answer the same purpose. Hence a battery of a
large number of cells may be substituted for the Holtz
machine, and one of the terminals of the battery may go
to the ground, though this is not essential, This arrange-
ment will keep the terminal plate charged to the poten-
tial due to the chemical relations and number of cells in
the battery. If the battery be placed in the Jine wire it
will keep both ends of the line charged. A Volta’s pile
may be substituted for the battery in either place, and so
may a charged condenser of any capacity, the electrically

Ficure 8,

charged terminals in this system acting in a way analo-

gous to the permanent magnets in the magnetic system.
There are various other ways of employing condensers,

and as one would infer from the preceding descriptions

of the phenomena, these condensers will talk, that is, |
they will reproduce in sound the varying electrical con-_
ditions to which that may be subjected, as will also either |

a battery or a Volta’s pile. -

I have often heard them talk, and have made many |

experiments with such receivers.
By this system telephonic communication can be se-
cured through ordinary medical electrodes.

In perfecting this new telephone Professor Dolbear |
has given long and constant study to the scientific prob- |
lems involved, while the mechanical construction has —

been prosecuted by Mr. H. C. Buck, aided by skilled
machinists and competent assistants. The above con-
cise description in the inventor’s own words will give our
readers a clear understanding of the principles that
underlie his interesting invention, and it only remains for

us to describe in brief the several figures in our front |

page engraving.

Fig. 7 shows the telephone in actual use, the transmit-
ter being secured to the wall, the battery and induction
coil being placed in a box on the floor, or in a convenient
closet. Fig. 4 is a perspective view of the new receiver ;
Fig. 2 a face view of the same, with a portion of the cas-
ing broken away to show the connection of the two bind-
ing posts, A B, with the diaphragms, C D, and the

313

The sounds will be heard much louder, and | diaphragms is regulated are shown in the sectional view

Fig. 3.

Fig, 8 illustrates the principle of electrical attraction
upon which the action of the new receiver is based ; the
electrostatic charge received by the plate, E, from the
induction coil attracts the pith ball suspended in front of
the plate.

Fig. 6 shows the two plates, E, of an Epinus conden-

‘ser, placed near together and connected with the termi-

nals of the secondary wire of the induction coil, I, and
used as a telephone receiver.

Tl

HT

fi.

Ficure 9,

Fig. 5 illustrates the essential features of the new tel-
ephonic system. I being the induction coil whose pri-
mary is in circuit with the battery, B, and transmitter, T,
the receivers, R, are each connected with a single ter-
minal of the secondary wire of the coil, I.

Fig. 9 shows Professor Dolbear’s experimental tele-
phone transmitter. In this instrument the diaphragm, A,
is horizontal, and carries a carbon electrode, upon which
rests a moveable carbon electrode connected by an arm
with a delicately pivoted bar supported by the diaphragm
cell. The local circuit is from the battery, B, through
the carbon electrodes, and through the primary of the in-
duction coil, I.

—+er-

EXTRACTION OF SILVER.—To extract the silver from silver-
ed objects, these should be plunged into a bath composed
of a mixture of 1oo grammes of finely pulverised saltpetre
and 1000 grammes of sulphuric acid. Ifthe acid is weak,
the copper and the other metals except the silver will be
attacked ; if the acid is concentrated the silver alone will

adjusting screws by which the distance between the | be dissolved.

314

SCIENCE.

UPON A MODIFICATION OF WHEATSTONE'S
MICROPHONE, AND ITS ADAPTABILITY
TO RADIOPHONIC RESEARCHES.*

By ALEX. GRAHAM BELL,

In August, 1880, I directed attention to the fact that
thin discs or diaphragms of various materials become
sonorous when exposed to the action of an intermittent
beam of sunlight, and I stated my belief that the sounds
were due to molecular disturbances produced in the sub-
stance composing the diaphragm.’ Shortly afterward,
Lord Raleigh undertook a mathematical investigation of
the subject, and came to the conclusion that the audible
effects were caused by the bending of the plates under
unequal heating. This explanation has recently been
called in question by Mr. Preece,? who has expressed the
opinion that, although vibrations may be produced in the
discs by the intermittent beam, such vibrations are not
the cause of the sonorous effects observed. According
to him the aerial disturbances that produce the sound
arise spontaneously in the air itself by sudden expansion
due to heat communicated from the diaphragm—every
increase of heat giving rise toa fresh pulse of air. Mr.
Preece was led to discard the theoretical explanation of
Lord Raleigh on account of the failure of experiments
undertaken to test the theory.

He was thus forced, by the supposed insufficiency of
the explanation, to seek in some other direction the cause
of the phenomenon observed, and, as a consequence, he
adopted the ingenious hypothesis alluded to above.
But the experiments which had proved unsuccessful in
the hands of Mr. Preece, were perfectly successful when
repeated in America under better conditions of experi-
ment, and the supposed necessity for another hypothesis
at once vanished. I have shown in a recent paper read

Fic. 1.

before the National Academy of Science‘ that audible
sounds result from the expansion and contraction of the
material exposed to the beam, and that a real to and fro
vibration of the diaphragm occurs, capable of producing
sonorous effects. It has occurred to me that Mr.
Preece’s failure to detect with a delicate microphone the
sonorous vibrations, that were so easily obseerved in our
experiments, might be explained upon the supposition that
he had employed the ordinary form of Hughes’ micro-

phone shown in Fig. 1, and that the vibrating area was

* A paper read before the Philosophical Society of Washington, D. C.
June rz, 1881,
! American Association for Advancement of Science, August 27, 1880.

2 Nature, vol. xxiii., p. 274.
% Royal Society, March ro, 1881.
4 April 21, 1381

confined to the central portion of the disc. Under such
circumstances it might easily happen that both the sup-
ports, a 4, of the microphone might touch portions of the
diaphragm which were practically at rest. It would, of
course, be interesting to ascertain whether any such
localization of the vibration as that supposed really
occurred, and I have great pleasure in showing to you
to-night the apparatus by means of which this point has
been investigated.

ge

ULL:

SS
ZZZZZLEN

SSS SS SSS
AZZ zoo
LADD ZZ

S>
ZZ

S

Fic. 2.

The instrument is a modification of the form of micro-
phone devised in 1827 by the late Sir Charles Wheat-
stone, and it consists essentially of a stiff wire, 4, one
end of which is rigidly attached to the centre of a metallic
diaphragm, 4. In Wheatstone’s original arrangement,
the diaphragm was placed directly against the ear, and
the free extremity of the wire was rested against some
sounding body—like a watch. In the present arrange-
ment, the diaphragm is clamped at the circumference like
a telephone-diaphragm, and the sounds are conveyed to
the earthrough a rubber hearing-tube, c. The wire
passes through the perforated handle, D, and is exposed
only at the extremity. When the point 4 was rested
against the centre of a diaphragm upon which was
focussed an intermittent beam of sunlight, a clear, musi-
cal tone was perceived by applying the ear to the héar-
ing-tube c. The surface of the diaphragm was then
explored with the point of the microphone, and sounds
were obtained in all parts of the illuminated area and
in the corresponding area on the other side of the dia-
phragm. Outside of this area on both sides of the dia-
phragm, the sounds became weaker and weaker until, at
a certain distance from the centre, they could no longer
be perceived.

At the points where we would naturally place the sup-
ports of a Hughes’ microphone (see Fig. 1) no sound
was observed. We were also unable to detect any
audible effects when the point of the microphone was
rested against the support to which the diaphragm was
attached. The negative results obtained in Europe by
Mr. Preece may, therefore, be reconciled with the positive
results obtained in America by Mr. Tainter and myself,

» A still more curious demonstration of localization of

ae

SCIENCE. 315

vibration occurred in the case of a large metallic mass.
An intermittent beam of sunlight was focussed upon a
brass weight (1 kilogram), and the surface of the weight
was then explored with the microphone shown in Fig. 2.
A feeble but distinct sound was heard upon touching the
surface within the illuminated area and for a short dis-
tance outside, but not in other parts.

In this experiment, as in the case of the thin dia-
phragm, absolute contact between the point of the micro-
phoneand the surface explored was necessary in order
to obtain audible effects. ssow, I do not mean to deny
that sound waves may be originated in the manner sug-
gested by Mr. Preece, but I think that our experiments
have demonstrated that the kind of action described by
Lord Raleigh actually occurs, and that it is sufficient to
account for the audible effects observed.

i

ASTRONOMY.

On the 23rd ultimo, Mr. E. L. Larkin, a subscriber
and contributor to this journal, telegraphed to Professor
Swift, of Rochester, the discovery of a comet in the con-
stellation of Auriga; but as others have since made the
same claim, the priority of discovery awaits confirmation
by those who dispense the pecuniary reward offered by
Mr. Warner for all comets discovered during the present
year.

We reserve until next week our report on this interest-
ing celestial object, by which time our correspondents
will have worked out the results of their observations,
which have been delayed by atmospheric and other diffi-
culties. The comet is now plainly visible, and American
astronomers are on the alert to thoroughly examine it with
all the appliances which modern science has placed at
theircommand. At the date of our writing nothing re-
liable has been determined by actual observations, but
some interesting facts, based on preliminary and partial
observations, have been communicated, which, if accepted
with reserve, pending final results, may be found useful
to those directing their attention to the comet.

Professor Henry Draper is said to have made several
successful photographs of the erratic stranger. Profes-
sor C, A. Young, of Princeton, has examined its spectrum,
and reports that that of the nucleus was continuous,
while that of the coma was sensibly coincident with the
spectrum of the Bunsen burner flame. As seen directly
in the 9% inch equatorial, with eye-pieces of the lowest
pewer, on the evening of the 26th, the nucleus was small
and bright, with five bright jets of unequal length project-
ing from it a short distance. The tail showed three
maxima of brightness, of which the brightest was near
the axis, and was quite convex in the direction of increas-
ing right ascension. On the 26th he states the spectrum
was-about the same, but the nucleus, instead of showing
jets as before, was nearly surrounded by an envelope.

Professor Boss of the Dudley Observatory determines
the diameter of the nucleus to be seven seconds or 1 500
miles, at an estimated distance of 45,000,000 of miles.

Professor Asaph Hall considers it most probable that
the comet is identical with that discovered by Professor
B. A. Gouldat Buenos Ayres of the 1st of June. On the
26th ultimo an observation was made at the naval ob-
servatory, Washington, which indicated “the position of
the comet at its lowest culmination, obtained with the
transit circle, was at 11 h. 27. P. M., Right ascension
5 h., 48 m., 384-100 s., North declination, 57 deg., 40 m.,
52 sec.

THE LUNAR ECLIPSE.—The eclipse of the moon on
June II was seen under favorable conditions at the Naval
Observatory, Washington. The only observations of
importance were observations of occultation of B, A. C.
5862, and two faint stars during the eclipse.

THE OHM.

A British Association committee has been reappointed
for the remeasurement of the Ohm, and of other units. It
is not to their work, however, that we wish now to draw
attention, but rather to a good stroke in the right direction,
done in the Cavendish laboratory by Lord Rayleigh with the
assistance of Dr. Schuster and others. The old British
Association apparatus has been fitted up again, with such
improvemeats as the criticism of nearly twenty years has

suggested. It will be remembered that this is the only
method in which the measurement of transient currents by
ballistic galvanometers is not employed. A circular coil
of insulated wire forming a closed circuit rotates about a
vertical axis, and the electrical current induced in it by the
eatth’s magnetism gives a steady deflection to a magnetic
needle at its centre. The manifold precautions, calcula-
tions and corrections which have to be entered into by the
experimenters are given by Professor Fleeming Jenkin and
others. One important correction is that which is due to
the self-induction of the coil which retards the current,
and a most important fact has been brought to light by
Lord Rayleigh, namely, that this self-induction is consider-
ably greater than it was thought to be by the original com
mittee. Professor Rowland, assuming that an unknown
error existed proportional to the square of the speed of the
rotation, has found that the original experiments of the
committee lead to the result that the Ohm is 0.74 per cent.
smaller than it was intended to be, and his own experi-
ments lead to its being 0.89 smaller. Kohlrausch found it
nearly 2 per cent. too great, and Weber thought it correct.
The Cavendish laboratory experiments lead to its being
I.05 per cent. too small, and the elaborate paper to the
Royal Society in which this result is given promises a re-
determination with new apparatus on the same principle.
In making the present determination a new method of sus-
pension of the needle, a stroboscopic method of measure-
ment of the speed—the old governor and the tinkling bell
being discarded—and driving the coil by means of a water
turbine instead of by hand, are some of the improveme: ts
which have been introduced.

It is to be remembered that no re-measurement of the
Ohm can ever effect our use of it asa standard. It is no
longer to be regarded as exactly equal to one thousand

-million C. G. S. units, but this is of no more consequence

than the fact that one gramme is no longer regarded as
being exactly equal to the mass of a cubic centimetre ot
water at 42 C.— The Electrician,

ALCOHOL IN WATER AND AIR.

Aninteresting discovery has been brought before the Acad-
emy of Sciences by M. Muntz, Chief of the laboratories be-
longing to the Agricultural Institute. He has found that al-
cohol is distributed throughout the universe, in the sun, air,
water of the ocean and streams. It is a known fact that
fermentation is a general phenomenain air, water and earth ;
This fermentation gives off CO’, and as a necessary conse-
quence, alcohol. This is what the experiments of M.
Muntz have demonstrated; he has been able to prove the
presence of alcohol in water, etc., by reducing the alcohol
to an zodoform state by means of iodate and carbonate of
soda. The precipitate which is obtained even in the pres-
ence of a millionth quantity of alcohol, affects the crystal-
line form of the snow examined under the microscope.
The alcohol is produced in earth containing organic matter
in decomposition, and hence it extends into the waters of
streams, and into the atmosphere. Still, the portions are so
infinitesimal that a water-drinker will never feel himself
“‘alcoholized ;” the dose of alcohol contained in a cubic
metre of water (1000 litres), being at the most a gramme.—

ELASTIC RESTORATION OF CAOUTCHOUC.—Objects made
of this substance easily lose their elasticity. Dr. Pol,
however, avers that their elasticity may be restored by
plunging them foran hour into a mixture composed of 2
parts of water and 1 part of ordinary ammoniac,

316

SCIENCE.

THE TELEPHONIC RECEIVER.

Mr. Preece has presented to the Royal Society the result
of his investigations upon radiophony. They relate to the
phenomena produced by the action of intermittent rays
upon discs and vases of different substances. Confirming
and pursuing the investigations of Mercadier in France,
and of Tyndall, he has come to the conclusion that the
sounds produced under these conditions are due to calor-
ific effects, and not to light.

Caoutchouc and ebionite (hardened caoutchouc), are ab-
solutely opaque, but they act as diathermics or tranparen-
cies for calorific rays; the radiating heat can act through
a screen of these materials. ,

It has been proved by delicate experiments, that six vi-
brations or more can be produced during a second, by the
intermittent action of the heat, producing a dilitation of the
disc’s mass. The phenomena, therefore, produced by Bell
and Tainter are not due to an absorption of heat, changing
the volume of the affected substance.

Mr. Preece made use of a specially constructed chamber
and is convinced that the sounds are produced by the con-
tained air, and not by the discs or surfaces of the chamber.
In it is placed a mechanism which recails that by which the
‘*moulinet”’ of Crook’s radiometre is moved under the in-
fluence of the heat.

He has proved, finally, that the absorbing for the heat of
the gas, contained in the chamber experimented on, influ-
ences the production of the sounds. These experiments
have been repeated upon bottles blackened with camphor
smoke, both on their exterior and interior surfaces.

Mr. Preece has thus been led to think that a wire of pla-
tinum, traversed by an intermittent current, can become a
source capable of producing on suitable walls calorific rays,
which have the power to cause sounds through the heating
of the gas on contact with these walls.

The experiment was crowned with success; it was made
at first by sending currents into a spiral of platinum by
means of a stop-wheel turned with the hand, and when a
good microphone was substituted a reproduction of the
wood was effected.

Thus has been realized a receptive telephone founded
upon an entirely new principle—(ZLa Nature).

Sanaa —

ALTERATION OF MILK.

M. Fauvel, in the capacity of chemist to the municipal
laboratory of Paris, has discovered that the milk em-
ployed for babes oftgn undergoes an alteration which has
hitherto been unsuspected. In his investigations he has
noted the presence of cryptogamic vegetations. These are
found in the tubes of glass and caoutchouc, which enter into
the construction of the small feeding apparatus, especially
so in the swelling of the rubber which the infant sucks.
The new microphite can be easily cultivated in whey, and
the author has thus observed the various stages of its devel-
opment. This, however, is but the first of M. Fauvel’s in-
tended investigations. This discovery is important from a
hygienic point of view. These observations were confirmed
by the fact that twenty-eight out of thirty-one cases pre-
sented these symptoms. (La ature.)

——— - +e» ——_—___— _—-

NOTES.

FIRE BALLS.—There are many persons who persist in
their statement that fire-balls exist only in imagination ;
but here is the authentic statement of Henry O. Forbes,
who, in a letter to /Vatuve thus describes the phenom-
enon.

“JT was standing in a window on the second floor of
the Hotel Braganza (in Lisbon), which stands close to
and high above the Tagus, and had an unbroken view of
the river. There occurred a flash followed by an instant-
aneous crash, but the tail of the flash, however, gave ori-
gin to two balls, which descended separately and not far
apart, towards the‘river, and when quite close to, or in
contact with the water, burst in rapid sequence, with ex-
plosions which might have been the crack of doom,’

PHOSPHORESCENCE.—Mr. W. Crookes, after submit-
ting the action of precipitated aluminum to the action of
electric discharges in a Geissler tube, announces that a
phosphorescence similar to that obtained from the ruby
was developed. This is, evidently, the reproduction of
the phenomena obtained, a long while ago, by M. Edw.
Becquerel by means of the solar light. Mr. Crookes, in-
deed, adds that the aluminum, if sufficiently electrified,
passes from an amorphous state into a crystalline struc-
ture, a fact quite credible, and that it assumes at the same
time a rose shade kindred to that of the natural ruby, a
tint very difficult to understand.

EFFECTS OF TEMPERATURE UPON MAGNETISM.—-
Mr. John Trowbridge has just completed the following ex-
periment in the physical laboratory of Harvard University.
He submitted a bar of iron to a great cold of 60° cent.
below zero, obtained by evaporating CO®. He proved
that the decrease of magnetism, suspected by Wiedeman,
if the bar be at a lower temperature than that allowing
magnetic impregnation, is indeed a demonstrated phy-
sical fact. The bar, which had been magnetized at 20%
C. below zero, had lost almost % of its magnetism after 47
minutes of exposure to this cold. He also observed that, by
keeping a bar of steel for a certain time at a temperature
of 20° cent., 50 per cent of its primitive magnetism was re-
stored.

PREECE ON FAURE’S BATTERY.—Mr. Preece, the
electrician, is not favorable to Mr. Faure’s battery. He
remarks that although it possessed considerable force its
resistance was very feeble and it could therefore give a
powerful current. He dwells especially upon “ time ”’ as
a factor in electric experiments. A strong current of one
minute duration can be readily obtained, but for pur-
poses of lighting, something more durable is needed, It
is a pretty thing, but for to-day it is not practical.

THE AURORA BOREALIS.—The idea that the Aurora
Borealis gave forth a distinctly audible sound was hitherto
regarded as absurd. Physicists, however, are beginning
to acknowledge it as a fact. ‘“ /Vadure,’ of London
has a few letters on the subject. There seems to be two
opinions as regards the nature of the sound produced.
One party pretends that the noise is analogous to the
rustling of silk, the other party compares it to the sound
of crackling flames. The question however will shortly
be solved by means of baloon ascensions that are now
being made.

Action of Light upon Phosphorescent Bodies.—M. Clé-
mandot.—The author maintains that phosphorescence is a
purely physical phenomenon, due to a vibratory action ex-
ercised chiefly by the blue ray of light. He connects these
phenomena of vibration in phosphorescent bodies with
those which light occasions in organized bodies,

NOTE.

I wish some one would begin with the start given by
the paper on polarization of sound, in “SCIENCE” for May
14, and thoroughly go through the subject of Etherial.
Physics. ;

The mechanics and elementary laws of action of the
Ether substance are needed.

The seemingly rotary or spiral course pursued by the
particles conveying light and electricity, as shown in the
polarization of light and in that of magnetism, are
especial subjects of choatic conception. And there is
more beyond ! SAMUEL J. WALLACE.

a

NOTICE TO CORRESPONDENTS.

The writer of a paper ‘‘ On Ether’’ received by us, will much
oblige by forwarding his name and address.

SCIENCE.

Ss ALRNCE:

A WEEKLY ReEcorpD oF SCIENTIFIC

PROGRESS.

JOHN MICHELS, Editor.
PUBLISHED AT

TRIBUNE BUILDING, NEW YORK.

P. O, BOX 3838,

SATURDAY, JULY 9, 1881.

OBSERVATIONS UPON THE COMET AT
PRINCETON.

The comet has been seen and observed every night
since June 25, except on June 30th. Every night,
however, except July 2d and 3d, the observations

have been interfered with by clouds, so that very little
continuous thoroughly satisfactory work has been pos-
sible.

The light has fallen off rapidly. On the 26th, the
comet was for half an hour better seen than at any
other time, and the nucleus was judged to be just
about equal to Arcturus in brilliancy. On July 2d,
it was compared pretty carefully with the Pole Star
and with @ Urs. Majoris by sguznting, so that the
blurred images of star and comet were brought close
alongside. I judged it just equal to Polaris and about
4 to 4 of a magnitude fainter than Dubhe.

The nucleus and coma have presented a very inter-
esting series of telescopic phenomena, in the main
such as have been seen in all other large comets. It
is noteworthy, however, that immediately behind the
nucleus no strongly marked dark shadow-like stripe
has been developed, nor, what is perhaps just as com-
mon on the contrary, any bright central streamer.
On the whole, the central portion of the tail has been
a little less brilliant than the edges, even close to the
head, but the difference has been slight. On the 25th,
the nucleus about 10 P. M. showed 5 projecting jets,
much like the pseudopodia of some low animal organ-
ism—not well formed, nor distinct, nor symmetrical,—
their length from two to six times the diameter of the
nucleus, those on the front of the nucleus being the
longer.

On the 26th, the nucleus was almost entirely sur-
rounded with a nearly complete, well defined, circular
envelope about 1’ in diameter. In this envelope was

317

a-curious oval vacuole, behind the nucleus, but on the
preceding side of the axis of the tail.

On subsequent evenings no envelopes nearly so
complete were noted—only jets of varying length and
position, those on the side of the sun being apparently
blown back, like flowing hair, by some solar repulsion.

On the 29th there was but one jet on the sunward
side, and this was curiously curved toward the preced-
ing side, making the whole look like a comma. (We
use preceding rather than Western, because below the
the pole where the comet was, the terms Eastern and
Western might lead to misapprehension.)

On July 1st the head was curiously unsymmetrical.
The coma was extended out in the South following
direction like a great liberty cap, the axis of the prin-
cipal jet which divided both ways, in front like hair
parted in the middle, being inclined some 50° to the
line of this extension.

With the spectroscope a number of observations
have been made.

The nucleus has generally given a simply continu-
ous spectrum, extending from below C well above G;
but on June 25th and July rst, it showed distinct band-
ing at points where the bands of the spectrum of the
coma crossed it.

This was seen by several observers on the 25th, and
by both Mr. McNeill and myself on the rst.

The spectra of some of the brighter jets had been
caught and isolated several times. They were in ail
cases continuous, without detectable bands of any
kind.

The spectrum of the tail was found to be continu-
ous, with a faint superposed band-spectrum, the same
as that of the coma. On July rst and 2d this band-
spectrum was distinctly traceable to at least 15’ dis-
tance from the head of the comet, the continuous
spectrum perhaps 5 or 10’ further.

The spectrum of the coma consisted of the usual
three bands; but both the upper and lower bands,
though pretty bright, were very ill defined; so much
so, that I could obtain no satisfactory measurements of
wave length, farther than to observe on June 25th and
26th, that the lower edges of the upper and lower
bands of the so-called ‘first’ spectrum of Carbon, (A,
5635 and 4740) given by a Bunsen burner, fell appa-
rently near the lower limit of these two bands in the
comet spectrum as seen with a one prism spectrum.
But these comet-bands did not look at all like the
flame bands, the difference of appearance being so
great, as somewhat to shake my belief for the time
being, in the identity of the two spectra.

The middle band, on the contrary, was perfectly de-
fined at its lower edge, and with the one prism spect-
roscope distinctly showed three fine lines in the band,
and these, so far as could be judged, coincided exactly

318

SCIENCE.

$$ ee EEE
with the three lines in the middle band of the carbon | hough the peculiar appearance of the upper and

spectrum.

This resolution into lines was seen by Professor
Brackett, as well as by Mr. McNeill and myself, on
June 29th; it was still evident on July 2d, but no
longer on July 3d.

The coincidence with the middle band of the flame
spectrum,has always appeared to be precise; but to
obtain further evidence as to the exact position of the
band a careful comparison was made on July 2 with
the 4 lines of the magnesium spectrum, using the
Grubb spectroscope with a dispersive power of four
sixty-degree-dense flint prisms and a magnifying power
of about 25.
fined upper edge of 4 just touched the lower edge of
6,, Then, the spark producing the magnesium spec-
trum being suppressed, the bright wire of the microme-
ter was set upon the lower edge of the comet band;
finally, the spark being restored, the distance was
measured from the edges of 42. In this way twelve
readings were obtained by Mr. McNeill and myself,
all giving results ranging between 5160.0 and 5160.5,
the mean being 5164.8 +-0.7. I do not think the
possible error can exceed 2 divisions, or three times
the probable error. If so, the Comet spectrum can-
not possibly be identified with the second Carbon spec-

trum, (the spark spectrum of a Geissler tube contain-

ing CO ). Since the corresponding band of that spec-
trum has a wave-length of 5198.4. The wave-length
of the band in the flame spectrum is 5165.3—both
according to the figures of Dr. Marshall Watts, given
in Wature, vol. 20, page 28.

As a further test, on July 3d, the suggestion of Dr
Watts, made in the paper referred to, was followed out
by confronting the comet-spectrum by means of an
occulting bar, directly with Geissler tubes containing
CO and COs, and with the Bunsen-burner flame. The
bands on this night were more distinctly defined than
On previous occasions, though the nucleus spectrum
was less brilliant, and the result of the confrontal was
very satisfactory and decisive. The upper and mid-
dle bands were found undoubtedly coincident, so far
as the power used could show, with the flame spec-
trum, and zo¢ with the bands of the tube spectra. In
the case of the lower band, the evidence was less con-
clusive, because the edge was ill defined and faint,
making pointing difficult, and because bands of the
flame and tube spectra are nearly coincident here.
Still, even with this band, the evidence of about half
a dozen pointings turned in the same direction.

On the whole, I consider it now absolutely certain,
that the'comet-spectrum is not the second spectrum
of Carbon, whether it be the frs¢ or not. As to this
latter point I do not feel quite sure, but the coinci-
dences are certainly very remarkable and close,

The slit was opened until the well de-.

lower bands when the comet was brightest requires
explanation. C. A. Younc.

PRINCETON, Fuly 4, 1881

————~_—_—_

PRIMORDIAL COSMIC RINGS.
TUT;
By EDGAR L. LARKIN.

The doctrine that a sphere of atoms, abandoned rings,
or any other shaped masses can develop into planets is a
physical error. It is impossible that the ball revolved.
Face the south, hold the plane of the page of “SCIENCE”
horizontally, call the paper the centre of the sphere, and
it will be seen that to cause rotation. force must be ap-
plied, if above the centre, from west to east; below, from
east to west; to the right, from below, upward; and to
the left, from above, downward. The gas was of ex-
cessive tenuity, and external force instead of causing ro-
tary motion would displace the atoms in front of it. The
mildest, or most violent force alike, would be unable to
cause revolution ina globe of atoms of such extreme
mobility. But there was no external force; energy is a
property of matter, and the nearest matter was 20 trill-
ions of miles away. If the sphere rotated the motion
came from internal causes, none of which could have
at that time existed. There were no vortices, currents,
tides or whirlwinds in matter of such rarity ; no force
outside, and none within save the slowest possible radial
descent. The sphere was at rest. No point in the ex-
periment of M. Plateau had analogy to the generation of
rings on the gaseous globe. He placed a globule of oil
ina fluid having like specific gravity, passed a wire
through it, and turned it as an axis until the sphere of
oil partook of the rotation, flattened and detached a ring.
The cosmical mass was of rare gas, and existed ina
void, with no external power to turn it. If Plateau had
suspended a ball of hydrogen in a vacuum, annihilated
the attraction of the earth, and then made it revolve
without applying force, the cases would be similar.

Neglecting the laws of Nature we will assume that the
primitive sphere was in rotation. Admitting it, a de-
monstration will be made that if by unknown law it cast
off a ring or any other form of mass, said portion could
not have been abandoned anywhere in the vicinity of the
orbit of Neptune. :

First proposition :—If the sphere by rotary motion, or
other mode of force cast off its equator, matter which
condensing made Neptune, then that planet formed, and
now moves on a line that coincided with the Centre
of Gravity of the discarded mass, no matter what was its
shape, size or density.

This statement we deem self-evident, incapable of ar
gument, and an absolute truth. ;

Second proposition :—If the ring that contained the
matter now existing in Neptune, was thrown off the
equator of a sphere, a section of the ring perpendicular
to its length would be either a circle, or a segment of a
circle. That is, the ring would be either cylindrical, or flat
inside and curved outside, the curvature being the are of a
great circle, a meridian bisecting the poles of the sphere.
We can conceive of no form of mass capable of being
detached from the circumference of a sphere. other than
cylindric or segmental.

Third proposition:—If the Neptunian ring was not
cast off when the mass was a sphere, it was abandoned
after the ball had depressed at the poles, and elongated
at the equator. And a perpendicular section of such de-
tached protuberance would be some one of the Conic
Sections. Re

Draw a chord’of an are from north to south any dis-
tance below the orbit of Neptune, so that it does not de-

SCIENCE.

319

scend farther than half way to Uranus, or 500,000,000
miles ; then all the matter alluded to in this paper will be
above the chord. So long as the mass remains spherical
the chord will cut out a segment ofa circle. Now let the
cosmic sphere receive some unknown impulse that will
accelerate its velocity of rotation, and the mass will
change to a spheroidal form. The chord of the are will
shorten, matter at the equator will become elevated and
sections of the protuberance will change curvature. Make
both ends of the chord points of tangency, and produce
tangents to the curve to infinite space. Then if rotation
accelerates, the curve bounding the ascending equatorial
protuberance must continually change form, and the tan-
gents, direction; while sectional curves will pass all var-
ieties of the hyperbola, parabola and ellipse. Thus let
the mass become very oblate, pass a cutting plane down
to the chord, and the curve cut out will be hyperbolic.
Increase rotation; the equator will become higher, the
chord shorter and the sections parabolic. Let the veloc-
ity be still accelerated, the equatorial matter will be lifted
to greater altitudes, the chord will be shorter than ever,
and the sections elliptical. To this reasoning the objec-
tion may be raised by some that no matter how flattened
the mass might become, sections cut to the chord of the
arc would in every case be elliptical. Wedo not insist
that they would be hyperbolas or parabolas; but will
prove if ellipses, that elliptical segments are more fatal
to the theory of ring formation than are segments of any
other form of curve. Two factors engaged in the evolu-
tion of cosmic rings—gravity and an opposing force gen-
erated by rotary motion. We attack the whole Nebular
Hypothesis with the fact that if the revolving gaseous
mass abandoned matter at present existing in Neptune,
the planet is now in the position of the centre of gravity
of the detached portion. This being true, Neptune
never became a member of the solar family by displace-
ment of its material from the original mass, because no
mass could have been cast off whose centre of gravity
coincided with the orbit of that world. Let us see if the
Neptunian ring was abandoned when the cosmic mass
was asphere. If so, the ring was either cylindrical or
a segment of a circle. But the centre of gravity of a sec-
tion of acylindric ring is in the centré of the section.
Since Neptune now traverses a path once the centre of
gravity of the ring, it follows that when detached the
spere of gas was larger than a ball bounded by the Nep-
tunian orbit,as there must have been as much matter
above the centre of a section of the ring as below. The
larger the sphere the slower the rotation, hence it did
not rotate as rapidly as it would, had it been equal in size
to a globe having the diameter .of Neptune’s track.
But it had to revolve faster to detach a ring because
Neptune now moves on an orbit with a velocity of 3.36
miles per second; yet displays no tendency to leave it on
atangent. And greater detaching force would have
been required to cause a ring to leave the equator than
would now be necessary to throw Neptune off its orbit,
because the force had to overcome what little cohesion
the dissociated atoms had. The sphere must have been
far larger than the path of Neptune, because the ring, be-
ing abandoned at the equator, had to be hundreds of
millions in thickness to secure gas enough to condense
into the planet, and its rate of rotation proportionately less
than its present velocity.

It is certain that the ring whence Neptune was formed
was woz cylindrical. The only other possible form of
ring is segmental. The distance of centres of gravity of
all circular segments from the centre of the circle can be
calculated. The problem resolved itself into this :—given
the distance of the centre of gravity of the segment of a
circle from the centre, to find the dimensions of the seg-
ment, and radius of the circle. We know that Neptune
is in the position of the centre of gravity of whatever
shaped mass was detached. But it lies on the circum-
ference of a circle whose radius is the distance to the

rf

sun. Therefore the circle must have been larger than its
orbit to be able to afford a segment having sufficient size
to have its centre of gravity coincide with the track of
Neptune. In all these computations we take the distance
of Neptune from the sun to be 2,780,000,000 miles.—Ele-
ments of 1850, Newcomb’s Astronomy. The ring of
whatever shape is supposed to be detached, severed,
straightened, and cut into an infinite number of sections
perpendicular to its length. In the case in question,
sections are segments of a circle, and we are in search of
the radius of the circle whence the segment was cut.
We have found the length of the radius to be 3,000,000,-
3
000 miles, by means of the formula, G——>>z-__ wherein

G=the distance of the centre of gravity of the segment
from the centre of the circle.

C=the chord of the arc, or base of the segment.

A=the area of the segment.

That is—* Divide the cube of the chord of the segment by
twelve times the area of the segment; the quotient will
be the distance of the centre of gravity required from the
centre of the circle.’—Vogde’s Mensuration p, 237.
Making approximation with a circle whose radius was
2,900,000,000 miles, with chords at different distances
within the Neptunian orbit, it was found in two trials that
a circle of that radius was untenable. Using a circle
having a radius of 3,000,000,000 miles, and chord de-
scending 300,000,000 miles, it was soon found that the
centre of gravity of that segment was in distance from the
centre equal to the distance of Neptune from the sun.
But the chord was 2,600,000,000 miles long! Does any-
body believe that a break took place along a line of such
length, and 300,000,000 miles below the equator of the
sphere? Was detachment possible when the sphere ro-
tated slower than the orbital velocity of Neptune now is,
yet shows no signs of elevating toa tangent to its path,
though moving with unimpeded force? The first world
was not abandoned by the cosmical mass when a sphere.

Could it have been formed from the matter contained
in the segment of any other curve known to geometers ?

To find the centre of gravity of a parabolic area :—
“The centre of gravity is on the axis, at a distance from
the vertex equal to three-fifths the altitude of the seg-
ment,” Peck’s Calculus p.175. Then Neptune, as it is
the centre of gravity of the parabola must be two-fifths
above the base or limiting plane of the curve, We have
made calculation of the altitudes of several possible para-
bolas, by locating the base at different distances between
the orbits of Uranus and Neptune. The following table
shows the distances of the limiting planes below Neptune,
the altitudes of the segments, above the base,—above
Neptune,—and also gives the diameter of the mass on the
hypothesis, that it could have been so elongated as to make
it possible that parabolas could be cut out of the equator
by perpendicular planes.

TABLE I. ALTITUDES OF PARABOLAS. DISTANCES IN MILES.

Distances of Altitudes Altitudes Diameters of
Base Above Above Mass when so
Below Neptune. Base. Neptune. Expanded.

7,060,000,000
6,760,000,000
6, 460,000,000
6, 160,000,000
5,860 000,000
5,710,000,000
5,635,000,000

500,000,000
400,000,000
300,000,000
200,000,C00
100,000,000

50,0C0,000

25,000,000

I,25C,009,000
1,000,000,000
750,000,000
500,000,000
250,000,000
125,000,000
62,500,000

750,000,000
600,000,000
450,000,000
300,000,000
150,000,000

75,000,000

37,590,000

Should these figures be deemed unsatisfactory, be-
cause they relate to sections or surfaces, while actually
considering a solid ring, a table of Jarabolodds is in-
serted. The ring was 17,467,000.000 miles long, cut it

in an infinite number of parabolic sections; revolve each

320

SCIENCE.

about its axis considered motionless, and an infinite
number of paraboloids will be generated, all interlacing
throughout the length of the ring. The centre of grav-

ity of a paraboloid is two-thirds the d

vertex to the limiting plane.

istance, from the

TABLE II. ALTITUDES OF PARABOLOIDS IN MILES.

Distances of Altitudes Altitudes | Diameters of
Base Below Above Above |Mass when so
Neptune. Base. Neptune. | Elongated.

| |
500,000,000 I,500,000,00C | I,000,000,000 | 7,560,000,000
400,000,000 I,200,000,C00 800,000,000 7, 160,000,000
300,000,900 g00,000,000 600,000,000 6,760,000,000
200,090,000 609,000,000 400,000,000 6, 360,000,000
100,000,000 300,000,000 200,000,000 5,900,000,000
50,000,000 150,000,000 100,000,000 | 5,760,000,000
25,000,000 75,000,000 50,000 ,000 | 5, 660,000,000

No tables of altitudes of hyperbolas or hyperboloids
have been inserted} as the distances of their gravitation
centres differ so little from parabolic segments, that it
was not thought best to fill up the columns of
“SCIENCE ”’ with useless figures. For those who think
the ring could not have been left when sections were
parabolic or hyperbolic, we give a table of altitudes of
ellipsoids, that is when sections cut to the chord as be-
fore, were ellipses. ‘The centre of gravity of a semi-
prolate spheroid of revolution is on its axis of revolution
and at a distance from the centre equal to three-six-
teenths the major axis of the generating ellipse.” —Peck’s
Calculus, p. 175.

Therefore Neptune is 3-16 above the conjugate axis,
and 13-16 below the vertex of the ancient semi-ellipsoid,
all the worse for the theory of ring detachment. Con-
sider the ring cut by perpendicular planes descending to
the chord, into an infinite number of semi-ellipses. The
chord becomes the conjugate ; revolve each curve about
its semi-transverse axis regarded as stationary, then the
ring will be made up of an infinite number of semi-pro-
late spheroids of revolution, each so nearly coincident
with the next as to have the surfaces fail to coincide only
by infinitesimal space. The table is computed by call-
ing the conjugate diameter, the chord of the arc, and the
semi-axis major, the line reaching from its centre up to
the equator, Neptune being in the centre of gravity of
the solids of revolution.

TABLE III. ALTITUDES OF SEMI-PROLATE SPHEROIDS.

Diameters of

Distances of Altitudes Elevations :
Conjugate Axes Above Above SUS Poe
Below Neptune. Base. Neptune. =

Elongated.

500,000,000
400,000,000
300,000,000

2,667,000,090
2,134,000,000
1,600 000,000

2,167,000,000
I,734,000,000
I,300,000,000

9,894,000,000
9,028 000.000
8, 160,000,000

200,000,000 1,066,000,000 866,000,000 7,292,000,000

100,000,000 533,000,000 433,000,000 6, 426,000,000
50,000,000 266,000,000 216,500,000 | 5,5q2,000,000
25,000,000 133,000,000 108,250,000 5,778,000,000

These tables of absurd figures are inserted to show
the hypothesis irrational. No such extension of the mass
was possible, and no protuberance could have arisen
above the equator able to afford perpendicular sections,
hyperbolic, parabolic or elliptic. Nor could the chord
become the limiting plane of any parabola, hyperbola or
conjugate axis of any ellipse. Yet, the tables are logical
deductions from the doctrine of ring detachment, for if
the mass depressed at the poles, and elongated at the
equator, curvature of radial sections must have assumed
all varieties of conics. Since the centres of gravity of all
these curves, and solids generated by their revolution are

known, the figures are correct if the theory is true. It
will be shown in a paper on mass, volume and density,
that most of these equatorial elevations could not have
contained matter enough to form Neptune.

Is it credible that the primeval mass ever detached
rings or any other shaped portions? From the altitudes
of these conoids it is seen that to cast off the Neptunian
material the rupture in every case took place at depths
of hundreds of millions of miles, where cohesion was
greatest and rotary velocity least! In all these compu-
tations the abandoned masses were considered as homo-
geneous, as difference in density in a gas of such exces-
sive rarity cannot enter as a factor at depths of a few
hundred million miles. It may be said that cohesion
in a gas so rare, was not a factor. Granted, then
rotation Was not, since a ball of gas of such tenuity as
to have no cohesion, could not possibly be set in revolu-
The equatorial edge of the mass could not have
become angular, for sections cut to the base would be
triangles, whose centres of gravity are two-thirds the
distance from the angle to the base, and nowhere near
where Neptune exists. Neither could sections have been
cissoidal, conchoidal, cycloidal or sectoral, nor of any
other similar curvature known to geometry. The surface
was not irregular; loose masses did not float above the
periphery ; the matter was all of the same specific grav-
ity, hence duoyaucy did not obtain on a mass of dissoci-
ated atoms. ‘The mass existed in a void, else external
matter by friction would haveinduced currents from east
to west. No modes of energy save rotary force, existed
to detach a ring, no internal repulsion, as that had van-
ished in dissociation. The dogma is beset on all sides
with difficulties. When the mass was spherical, matter
enough to form Neptune was unable to Jeave the equator ;
when elongated, segments of enormous depth had to be
left by the shrinking mass, to afford material sufficient to
condense into the oldest planet; and the break occurred
where it was most difficult to be made, and where the
power necessary to make it was the least.

Not only the most complex, but the simplest laws of
nature dispute the Nebular Hypothesis. Even primary
schools have text books wherein laws are laid down that
subvert it! Primers of natural philosophy teach that if
a revolving sphere diminishes in diameter, its velocity of
rotation becomes accelerated, and the same primers
teach that if the diameter increases the velocity dimin-
ishes. Therefore, if the primeval gaseous sphere ever
revolved, said rotation caused the equatorial diameter to
increase in length; but as soon as lengthened the
velocity of rotation diminished and the mass again be-
came a sphere, the oscillation always remaining within
small limits. The diameter of the mass when spherical
was 5,560,000,000 miles; can it be believed that rotation
so far gained mastery over retardation as to allow the
mass to attain diameters ranging between 6,000,000,000
and 7,000,000,000 miles to detach parabolic segments ;
and between 6,000,000,0c0 and 9,090,000,000 miles to
abandon semi-prolate spheroidal sections to make up a
ring? Weare unable to conceive that valid argument
can be made in favor of the detachment of matter in any
form or volume from the mass. This theory, opposed by
every known law of nature has actually been entertained
by eminent physicists, geometers and astronomers, fully
conversant with these same laws that destroy the doctrine;
a thing long noted by psychologists, wherein delusions
hold sway over fine minds with greater tenacity than
ideas known ‘to be true.

tion.

SEISMOLOGY IN JAPAN.—The labors of the Seismological
Society of Japan have established the fact that there is a
chronic center of disturbance within a radius of a few miles
from Yokohama. We are glad we do not reside in the said
Yokohama ; at the same time, we congratulate the society
on the success attending its researches,

SCIENCE.

THE USE OF WATER AS A FUEL.
By Dr. GEORGE W. RACHEL.

The results of certain experiments, made with what
has been called the Holland Hydrogen Locomotive, have
lately been published in several city papers. They are
not only of the highest practical importance, but of great
scientific interest, so that it appears entirely proper to
discuss them from that aspect in this journal.

The fuel used is naphtha and water ; the manner in
which combustion is accomplished by a peculiar unique
apparatus may be shortly described thus:

The principal feature of this new invention is an iron
retort having two compartments, one for naphtha and
the other for water. The two fluids are conducted into
the two chambers by induct-pipes at one end of the re-
tort, while at the opposite side there are two escape-pipes,
through which the vapors of the two substances escape
from their respective chambers, where gasification has
taken place. The two gases are being mixed by passing
into a common receptacle, the manifold, and from there
they are distributed through three main pipes to the 352
burners. Of these 44 are placed directly under the (four)
retorts, while the balance is arranged under the boiler.

The astonishing results obtained by this ingenious ap-
paratus have been the subject of many discussions in
various scientific and industrial journals on both sides of
the Atlantic. The attacks have usually been directed
against the possibility of making an advantageous use of
the hydrogen for the purpose of combustion. The ex-
planation that in the Holland retort the principal source
of the tremendous heat produced, is due to the combus-
tion of hydrogen derived from the dissociation of the
water vapor, has been supposed to be met by the follow-
ing statement :

The dissociation of the steam must consume as much
heat, as is afterward developed by the combustion of
the hydrogen.

It was contended that the principle of the Holland
method was entirely wrong, implying an error against the

_law of the conservation of energy which is the funda-
mental law of the Universe, and therefore this whole
matter must be a delusion. :

This objection, which looks plausible enough can be
shown to be erroneous, as it is based on a misconception,
orrather a misinterpretation of this great law of Nature.
The error consists in the wrong application of the word
heat ; the sentence containing the objection to be correct,
must read thus:

The dissociation of the steam must require as much
energy, as is afterward developed by the combustion of
the hydrogen thus obtained. Now, it is a fact, that the
energy developed by the combustion of the hydrogen in-
variably takes the form of heat, but the principle of the
correlation of forces which forms the basis of this very
law, teaches us that it must not necessarily do so during
the process of dissociation. In order to fully expose the
misinterpretation of Nature’s fundamental law contained
in the objection above quoted, we may be allowed a few
words on the subject of dissociation.

Prof. H.ST, CLAIR DEVILLE, who first succeeded in an
ingeniously contrived apparatus to dissociate water vapor
into its elements, hydrogen and oxygen, estimates the tem-
perature required for the purpose at 6000°C, probably
even somewhere near 8000°C. Prof. SCHROEDER VAN
DER KOLK even places it at a still higher figure, viz.: about
10,000°C. But these figures, it must be well understood,
refer to the dissociation of water vapor in the absence of
any other element. If, on the contrary, the dissociation
is induced to take place in the presence of other elements
notably metals—the dissociation temperature is low-
ered considerably. Thus, for instance, the dissociation is
effected in the presence of platinum, at 1700°C ; iron
filings, 1400°C; silver, r000°C, instead of 8000°C.

The question is now: How are we account for this?

321

Prof. DEVILLE in a controversy now going on between
Prof. AD. WuURTZ and his school, and BERTHELOT and
himself, on this very subject of dissociation, replies to
some objections of his adversaries, as follows :*

It is a well-established fact that the dissociation of
water-vapor takes place at much lower temperatures in
the presence of certainelements. .... These and other
examples . .. . prove that the development of heat dur-
ing the formation of a compound body, does not hold any
known relation to its dissociation temperature. Evidently
the error is very frequently committed in regard to these
processes to confound actual and kinetic energy, actual
and latent heat.”

The relation referred to in this passage, must, how-
ever, in the light of the law of ‘Conservation of Energy”
be one of absolute equivalency ; the energy expended on
one process—dissociation—must under all circumstances
be equivalent to the energy developed during the other
process—formation of the compound body, z. ¢. in our
case water-vapor.

If, therefore, our experiments show that the tempera-
ture of dissociation is lowered in the presence of certain
elements, we must look for some other form of energy
which supplants the amount of heat saved. What force
is it that steps in here and plays the role of a dissociat-
ing agent in place of the tremendous heat? The
answer is obvious, it is chemzcal affinity, for chemical
affinity is the only formof energy capable of such intensity
of action. Furthermore, chemical affinity is to a certain
extent not directly discernible and measurable, as
FRIEDRICH MOHR has shown.t

The irrefutable proof for our assertion lies in the fact
that there is in the case under consideration, always
formed an oxide of the metal employed. We find the
molten silver and platinum cevered with thin films of
their respective oxides while the iron filings show an
amount of oxidation which is—as it is in the two former
cases—in direct proportion to the quantity of yapor dis-
sociated. The chemical affinity of the glowing and mol-
ten metals to the oxygen of the water-vapor being greater
than the chemical affinity of hydrogen to oxygen, they
appropriate the oxygen of the steam, and, combining
with it, form their respective oxides—-thus liberating the
hydrogen and accomplishing dissociation.

DEVILLE’S above-quoted statement, that there is no
known relation betweenthe formation—and dissociation-
temperatures of compound bodies must be modified,
therefore, in the light of the foregoing observations.
What he is pleased to call “ Kinetic energy’ and “latent
heat” is actually notking else than chemical affinity.
The position of WURTZ and his followers, by the way,
is untenable; they contend that the two temperatures
should be equal,(in accordance with the law of the conser-
vation of energy) and meet the often observed fact that
these temperatures differ considerably with the assertion
that, as theoretically they should not do so, the observa-
tions are wrong. Their interpretation of the great prin-
ciple contains the same error which the objections to the
Holland process are suffering from ; they insist that the
energy which produces dissociation must take the form
of heat and heat only, because heat is the only form of
energy met with during formation. They forget that
such limited application of this great principle is entirely
arbitrary and that the only requirement of the law is that
of absolute equivalency, while there is no rule as to the
kind of energy required.

I have been somewhat elaborate in my remarks on
the subject of dissociation, because the conditions under
which the dissociation of steam ta’es place in the Hol-
land process are the exact counterpart to those which
have just been dwelled upon. Instead of the metals, the

*Comptes rendus, 1879.
{ Science Vol. I,’pg. 244.

322

carbon of the Naptha-gas reduces the dissociation-tem-
perature.

The fact that under certain conditions carbon has a
dissociating action on steam, or—as some put it—carbon
may be burned up with watery-vapor, has been known
for along time; the presence of free hydrogen in furnace
and generator-gases is due to this circumstance. The
difference between the dissociating action of carbon on
water-vapor as compared with that of the metals above-
mentioned is only one of degree. The temperature at
which zt takes place 7s much lower.

After a prolonged and careful observation of the phe-
nomena connected with the Naphtha and water-process
under consideration, the writer was firmly convinced that
the carbon in them plays the role of a dissociating agent,
and that the temperature at which its dissociating prop-
erty asserts itself must be a low one, comparatively speak-
ing. For, in this way only was it possible to account for
remarkable results of the HOLLAND heating method.

Unhappily, we were not then acquainted with the ex-
periments presently to be discussed, although the fact
privately communicated to us that MR. MOSES FARMER,
of Hartford, the well-known philosopher, had found ex-
perimentally the temperature at which carbon will disso-
ciate water-vapor to be not much above 900° C., seemed
to confirm the position taken.

While our proposal to entrust some able chemist with
this investigation was under consideration, we became
aware of the fact that the desired experiments had al-
ready been made in another quarter of the globe more
than a year ago. Thus, fortunately, a doubt of their
genuineness, which otherwise might perhaps have been
entertained by the opponents af the HOLLAND method,
is out of the question.

PROFESSOR ACKERMAN, who is superintendent of the
chemical labratory atthe Stockholm School of Mines, re-
quested one of his assistants, Mr. C. G. DAHLERUS, to
make some experiments with the view of determining the
temperature and other circumstances required for the
combustion of carbon with watery vapor. The real aim
was to explain the occurrence of free hydrogen in both
furnace and generator gases; this fact is, as we said be-
fore, well-known to mining engineers.

The apparatus used by DAHLERUS consisted of a tube
filled with charcoal, which was heated in a combustion
furnace, while steam, generated in a separate boiler, was
allowed to pass through it. The temperature was deter-
mined by trays of steatite containing pieces of Mayer-
hofer alloys, with various melting points being intro-
duced intothe tube. The gases generated were collected,
after having passed through a spiral gas tube in order to
condense the steam they contained, and were then anal-
yzed. Every experiment lasted at least two hours before
a sample of the gas was taken, the pressure of the steam
in the induct pipe being kept as uniform as possible.

The results of these experiments have confirmed the
correctness of our position, and have shown that dissocia-
tion of watery vapor in the presence of carbon takes place at
much lower temperatures than has hitherto been admitted.

Mr. DAHLERUS, in giving a table of his results, sums
up as follows:

“On examining this table it appears that watery vapor
is decomposed at a temperature which is indicated by the
alloys as from 450° to 500° C.; but the temperature may,
in fact, not have been higher than 400° C., because zene
in the interior of the tube was not fused in any of the
jirst five experiments.”

It is evident that in the Naphtha and water process
the conditions, under which the dissociating action of
carbon on water vapor takes place, are much more favor-
able to it than those obtained in the apparatus used by
DALHERUS for his experiments.

In the first place the action of carbon in the latter
gentleman’s apparatus could not but be of a very slow
nature, the surface only of the glowing charcoal in the

SCIENCE.

tube being enabled to gasify and act chemically on the
steam surrounding the pieces of it. In the process un- ~
der consideration, however, the whole of the carbon
of the naphtha is in gaseous condition and by diffusion
the vapor is acted upon simultaneously at every point.
Furthermore, this very gasification of the carbon re-
quires a definite, not inconsiderable, amount of. heat
which in DAHLERUS’ apparatus has to be supplied by
the steam itself, this being the only substance admitted
into the presence of the charcoal in the tube. In the
new process, on the contrary, this gasification is effected
before the carbon-compounds of the naphtha are mingled
with the steam and no loss is therefore experienced in
in this direction. But, aside from these details—for the
combustion-furnace will probably furnish the wanting
heat—the highly important fact is established by these
experiments that chemical affinity does, in this dissocia-
tion process, supplant heat for the greater part. And,
considering the great advantages, above detailed, of the
HOLLAND process over these experiments, we are justi-
fied in assuming the lowest temperature, found sufficient
by DAHLERUS in five of his experiments, as entirely
sufficient in the HOLLAND process also. Jmstead of
8000° C., therefore being required for the dissoctation of
water, zt will here take place at 400° C,

A gain therefore of, say for convenience’s sake, nine-
teen twentieths is effected ; for every particle of hydrogen
thus dissociated and liberated, at 400° C., will develope
its full 8000° C., on combustion with oxygen, z. e.,on be-
ing burned up by the draft air. And this saving is ac-
complished by the supplanting of heat with chemical
affinity, the latter performing the greatest part of the
work of dissociation.

Nor is this all !

It is necessary to state here that DAHLERUS in pur-
suing his work had in view also, the preparation of
water gas, which has been introduced into Sweden by
PROF. TORREL, who was one of the commissioners from
that country to the Centennial Exhibition at Philadelphia.
He therefore endeavored to find the most favorable con-
dition for the production of water gas, a mixture of
hydrogen and carbonic oxide whichis known in this coun-
try under various names (¢,¢. STRONG, LOWE and others.)

This explains the following sentence in the conclusions
he draws from his results :

“ Further we see that the greater the excess of watery
vapor the richer in carbonic acid are the gases; or, in
other words, that carbonic oxzde zs very easily burned to
carbonic acid by means of watery vapor, and that the
content of carbonic oxide is increased both by a lessened
excess of watery vapor and by the raising of the temper-
ature, The best gas is thus obtained by raising the
temperature as high as possible and by a moderate supply
of steam.”

What DAHLERUS refers to as the dest gas must be un-
derstood to be water gas in the accepted sense of the
word, viz.: A mixture of carbonic oxide with hydrogen.
It is for this reason that he advises the use of a limited
supply of steam only ; for, if there is an unlimited supply
of steam, the dissociation of the same continues and the
carbon, instead of being confined to its first stage of ox-
idation (to carbonic oxide), completes this process and is
burned up to carbonic acid. Although the result is by
these means a gas much richer in hydrogen—in fact
twice as rich—this is not what the manufacturer of
water-gas wants. He wants a product that may be used
for illumination as well as for heating purposes and,
therefore, he does not want an almost pure hydrogen-
flame—which is non-luminous, as is well known. But
with the HOLLAND process this is quite different ; here
the manufacture of illuminating gas is effected in a sepa-
rate automatic arrangement which does not concern us
here now. In the process under consideration, therefore,
the heating quality of the gases is the only consideration.
This, the mere so, since there is here no separate gener-

SCIENCE. 323

ator from which the gases therein manufactured are led
away in pipes to the heating-place. The generator, 2. e.
the HOLLAND retort is at the heating-place, in the fire-
box of the locomotive, and the full effect of the carbon
combustion is therefore obtained in both cases, whether
the dissociation of the steam takes place to furnish oxy-
gen for the first stage of this combustion only or
whether the dissociation is accomplished so as to burn
up the carbon completely witn oxygen derived from the
dissociated water-vapor. But there is this great differ-
ence: If the carbon derives allthe oxygen necessary for
its complete conversion into carbonic acid from the dis-
sociation of the steam, there will be twice as much hy-
drogen liberated as against its conversion into carbonic
oxide only, as will be seen from the following statement
of the two cases by DAHLERUS :

“When watery vapor burns carbon to carbonic oxide,
there are formed from two volumes of watery vapor and
one volume of carbon two volumes of carbonic oxide and
two volumes of hydrogen; further, when carbon is
burned by watery vapor to carbonic acid, there are
formed from one volume of carbon and four volumes of
watery vapor, two volumes of carbonic acid and four vol
umes of hydrogen. Consequently the volume of hy-
drogen in the gases is equal to the volume of carbonic
oxide and double that of the volume of carbonic acid.”

In connection with these important relations I must,
in conclusion, refer to the results of numerous experi-
ments, made with the HOLLAND process, which can
only be fully and satisfactorily explained in the light of
the previous discussion. They are certainly a most
remarkable series of experiments, never before equalled
or excelled ; the results accomplished by the Naphtha and
water process have startled all experts and scientists who
have witnessed them, while those who have not seen their
actual performance reluctantly admit their genuine-

. ness. Yet they are absolute facts, and the possibilities

which they have in store are greater than anything
that has as yet been reported.

In starting the fire under the boiler of this locomotive,
it must be stated, there is first lighted a small tank filled
with naphtha, which is placed under one of the retorts
in the fire-box. As soon as this retort is thereby suf-
ficiently heated to gasify the naphtha, naphtha-gas is
burned under all the retorts, and water admitted into
them to be converted into steam. When both naphtha
and water are thus gasified, their gases are jointly ad-
mitted to all the burners under the whole length of the
boiler, and the generation of steam now begins in earnest.
As soon as feasible, steam from the boiler is introduced
into the retorts instead of water, so that after th’s period
the naphtha only has to be gasified in the retorts.

I now give one of Mr. CONANT’S tables in full, containing
the results of an experiment he witnessed on April 29th:

LIGHTED AT to:05 A.M. GAS STARTED AT 10:35.

} |
Torats.
Steam, Time, | Naptha, io Safe
Per Lb./Per Min) |———_——_—_.
Pounds. M. Gall. Ks \
Gall, Gall. || Gail. H: M,
5.62 «56 08 || 5.62 1 09%
3-83 +40 27 || 9.45 I 24%
2.7 +29 axShe ||) x2-45 t 43
2.41 24 27 14.76 I 52
2.14 .20 27 16.9 2 00
2.14 2 30 19.04 207
1.61 16 32 «|| ~20.65 22
| 1.07 .10 <4O' ||! 25.72 215%
1.07 +10 24 || 22.79 2 20
| 1.07 10 27 || 23.86 2 24
1.07 .I0 27 || 24-93 2 28
1.07 10 27. || 26.00 2 32
|
Engine started out—safety valve blowing—oil disturbed and no record.
|
133-------------- 5 ---- | ---- | ---- coe ee

Pop valve blowing ay. 33 sec., with 32 sec, intervals. No right of way
and no run,

The puzzling fact that the higher the temperature
and the steam-pressure rise, the less naphtha is burned,
would be absolutely inexplicable if it was not for the
relations alluded to in the foregoing observations: Up
to 60 or 70 pounds of steam-pressure in the boiler the
consumption of naphtha averages 2.14 gals. for every
ten pounds of pressure added,-while above these figures,
it averages only 1.07 gals.—just one-half of the former
quantity—for every additional 10 pounds. We know
what that means. It means that there is an evident
supplanting of the naphtha by some other much more
powerful heating agent ; the naphtha in this process un-
mistakably plays a subordinate role, as far as the
heating is concerned. We know its task. It dissociates
the water and thereby liberates its hydrogen; it is the
latter that furnishes the bulk of the caloric energy de-
veloped. During the earlier stages, when the steam-
pressure is yet comparatively low, the quantity of steam
introduced into the retorts is limited and the carbon
therefore is burned up to carbonic oxide only by disso-
ciated oxygen ; as soon, however, as the steam-pressure
rises above a certain point the quantity of steam intro-
duced is very soon sufficient to furnish all the oxygen
necessary for the complete combustion of the carbon of
the naphtha to carbonic acid. Thus, we are enabled by
a correct interpretation of Nature’s laws to explain fully
and satisfactorily the paradoxical fact that the greater
the heat, the less the consumption of oil. We know
that instead of two volumes of hydrogen in the first, we
must have four in the second case.

There is one other point which I may probably feel
called upon to treat of, viz.: the utter invisibility of this
tremendous fire. For the present the above will suffice,

——§_§{_o—____—..

DR. GUNTHERS ICHTHYOLOGY.*

Less than a century ago the last edition of the Sys-
tema Nature of Linrzeus, published in 1766, was taken
as_ the basis and text of essentially anew compilation by
Johann Friedrich Gmelin, and among the species ad-
mitted by Linraus were intercalated those subsequently
added by others to the system. There were very many
duplications arising from the imperfect acquaintance
of the compiler with his subject, but nevertheless, all
told, only 826 species of fishes were named. There are
now known, in round numbers, nearly ten thousand spe~
cies. In the interval between the compilations of Gmelin
and the present were published works of a like nature,
by Walbaum, Lacépéde, Bloch, Schneider, and Shaw.
These were all finished before 1804, and were all of very
little value. For considerably more than half a century
no other descriptive general enumeration of fishes was

‘completed. Meanwhile, from 1828 to 1849, Cuvier and

Valenciennes gave to Ichthyology 22 volumes of a work

‘designed to be a general natural history of fishes, but

this was never finished. At last, in 1859, was commenced
and in 1870 brought to an end, a work purporting to enu-
merate all the species of fishes known to the dates of

‘publication, by Dr. Albert Giinther, under the auspices

of the British Museum. For this contribution the scien-

tific world was laid under great obligations to the author

as well as publisher. It was a compilation requiring
considerable skill and acquaintance with the literature,
and the work may be said to haye been moderately well
performed. Its author followed the outlines of classifi-
cation proposed many years before by the illustrious
Johannes Miiller. On the whole this was the best
course, perhaps, to be taken atthe time. In 1861, how-

ever, he gave a systematic re-arrangement of the Acan-

thopterygian families, which was above all characterized
by an excessive valuation placed on very trivial charac-

* An introduction to the study of fishes. By Albert C. L. G. Gtinther,
Edinburgh; Adam and Charles Black.: 1880, :

324

SCIENCE.

ters, and was, in some respects, a step backwards, al-
though of not very much moment.

Another and most radical modification—the next stage—
may be fitly noticed in the author’s own words. [1.]
“The discovery (in the year 1871) of a living representative
of agenus hitherto believed to be long extinct, Ceratodus,
threw a new light on the “affinities of fishes. [2.] The
author who had the good fortune of examining this fish,
was enabled to show that, on the one hand, [3] it was a
form most closely allied to Leptdoszren,; on the
other, that it could not be separated from the
Ganoid fishes, and therefore that also [4] Lefz-
dostyen was a Ganoid: a relation pointed out already
by Huxley in.a previous paper on ‘ Devonian Fishes,’ [5]
This discovery led to further considerations of the relative
characters of Miiller’s sub-classes, and to the system
which followed in the present work” (pp. 25-26). In regard
to this claim there are several noteworthy and character-
istic features.

(1) In 1870, in Dr. Giinther’s Cat. Fishes Brit. Mus.,
vol. 8, p. 323, it is expressly admitted that “after-[the
‘sheet’ descriptive of Protopterus and Lepzdoszren| had
passed through the press, Mr. Krefft informed me of the
most interesting discovery that.a living representative of
Ceratodus had been found in Queensland. Nothing
of this genus was hitherto known beyond teeth, as those
described and figured by Agassiz in Poiss Foss. iii, p. 129,
pls. 18-20.” (2) Dr. Giinther knew nothing whatever of
Ceratodus till he received a communication respecting it
from Mr. Krefft. (3) As indicated by Dr. Giinther himself
(Trans. Royal Soc., v. 161, for 1871), Mr. Krefft, in even
the title of his paper, published April 28, 1870, and before
Dr. Giinther’s “reply had time to reach Mr. Krefft,” recog-
nized the affinity of the genus to Lepzdoszren, (4) As
early as 1860, Gill (as Brandt, Peters, Liitken and others
subsequently recognized) showed that “ Lefzdoszren was
a Ganoid,” and that Polyfterus was a type intermediate
between the ordinary Ganoids and the Dipnoi. (5) Conse-
quently the only novelty in Dr. Giinther’s work was “ the
system which is followed in the present volume,” which
has been pronounced by an eminently competent judge to
be “a triumph of systematic gaucherze.”’ Whatever is
true in the statements examined had been appreciated be-
fore Dr. Giinther labored and only what is untrue to
nature and to science was original with him. The co-or-
dination of the facts enumerated was the necessary logical
result of the successive steps.

But what is ‘ the system which is followed in the present
work?’’ Only the salient features may be noticed, and
these will sufficiently appear from the enumeration of the
sub-ordinal, ordinal and super-ordinal groups. These
are:

I. SuB-CLASS—PALAICHTHYES.
I. Order—Chondropterygii.
I. Sub-order—Plagiostomata [Sharks and Rays].
II. Sub-order—Holocephala [Chimzroids].
II. Order—Ganoidei.
I. Sub-order—Placodermi [Extinct].

II, = —Acanthodini [Extinct].
es —Dipnoi.

IVs ares —Chondrostei.

We es —Polypteroidei.

Wiligme 2 —Pycnodontoidei [Extinct].
Wi ae —Lepidosteoidei.

VDD =i —Amioidei.

Il. SuB-CLASS—TELEOSTEI.
I. Order—Acanthopterygii.

II. “ —Acanthopterygii Pharyngognathi.
Ill. “© —Anacanthini.

IV. “ —Physostomi.

V. —Lophobranchii.

VI. ‘“ —Plectognathi.

III. Sub-Class—Cyclostomata.
IV. Sub-Class—Leptocardii,

To those familiar with the facts and details of the an-
atomy of fishes and the inferior vertebrates, this enu-
meration will be its own best commentary. Suffice it for
the present at least to affirm that it involves more con-
tradictions and inconsistencies than have been mani-
fested in any recent taxonomical exposition of any class
of animals emanating from a respectable source.

Almost equally in disaccord with the cultivators of the
other branches of Vertebrate Zoology is Dr. Giinther in
his treatment of GENERA.

The extreme of differentiation is practiced by ornithol-
ogists, (provided the differences are obvious and external),
and a course is pursued in mammalogy which has received
the sanction of the greatest number of students of that
class, during at least the last quarter of a century.
American ichthyologists have endeavored to comply
with the principles on which genera in the latter class
have been recognized as much as the differences of facts
will permit, and although, of course, there are many dis-
agreements as to detail, there is an essential congruity
between them. The principles, if any, applied by Dr.
Giinther are undiscernable from his work. His methods
indeed, seem to have varied with the whim of the mo-
ment and to have been modified for each case: the re-
sults then happening appear for him to have crystallized
and not to have been subject to review or further consider-
ation afterwards. Strange contrasts constantly occur in
the extension or limitation of the groups. In the genus
Tetrodon, for example, is discoverable a very consider-
able range of variation, not only in external features but
still more markedly in the details of structure, and espec-
ially in the bones of the head. So great are these that
there are three well defined major groups and a number
of minor ones entitled to generic distinction, but, never-
theless, our author has refused to admit more than one
“genus” for all the representatives of the type, whereas,
in the related group of Diodontines, he has recognized a
number of genera upon characters of very much less
moment, such as the development of the spines, nostrils,
&c. Under the genus Gasterosteus are confounded all
the representatives of the family of Gasterosteids, and
yet upon differences of the same kind as those which
distinguish, for example, the ‘“ Gasterosteus spinachia”
from the other species of Gasterosteus, are elsewhere
constituted distinct famzdzes.

These examples might be extended indefinitely. Heter-
ogeneous combinations of forms on one hand chance in
strange contrast with isolated generic types on the other,

Comprehensiveness of genera fer se is not a great
evil, provided there is consistency in the treatment of the
subject, and that all share as nearly alike as the nature of
the case allows. It is to the assignment of inordinate
value to a few superficial characters, and the subordina-
tion, to the manifestation of such, of other characters
whose coincidence demonstrates them to be of greater
importance, that we object. Itis true that the accept-
ance of such comprehensive groups isolates in a measure
the class in which they are recognized from others
and tends to constantly mislead the inquirer who would
compare the constituents of the several classes, @ g., as
to their geographical or geological relations. Even this,
however, is of minorimportance. It is the utter disie-
gard of the gradations of structural differences exhibited
by Dr. Giinther in his constitution of genera that detracts
so much from the value‘of his work. To enter into de-
tail would necessitate space equal to the portion consid-
ered, and some instances must suffice.

Serranus (p.'381) is distinguished among its allies by
the “small scales,” presence of “ very distinct canines in
both jaws,” and the absence of serratures from the lower
margin of the preoperculum. Under the genus thus de-
fined, there are not only species which disagree with the
principal characters, but the ¢ypzcal Serrani (S. cabrilla,
S. scriba, etc.) are more nearly related to the species of
Centroprést?s than to the rest of their associates. A

SCIENCE.

325

natural arrangement—z.e. one based on their anatomical
details—would require, first, the fusion of the Giintherian
genera Centropristis, Anthias, Callanthias, Serranus,
Anyperodon, Prionodes, Plectropoma, and Trachypoma ;
then the wide removal of certain forms, and finally the
disintegration of the conglomeration on an entirely differ-
ent basis from that accepted by Giinther.

The instances wherein genera are referred to families
with the diagnoses of which they diametrically disagree
are numerous. Leaving out of consideration cases of
conflict of genera or species with the characters assigned
as ordina/ to the including group (e.g., Pogonzas, Scie-
na, Gerres) the following are examples:

The genus Dactyloscopus is referred to the family Blen-
niide, in which the spinous portion of the dorsal fin is
said to be ‘‘as much developed as the soft, or more.”
Dactyloscopus has in the most evident manner, not-
withstanding the erroneous definition of Giinther (Cata-
logue of the Fishes in the British Museum, Vol. IIL, p.
279), only the first ten to twelve dorsal rays spinous, all
the others being articulated. In fact, Dactyloscopus has
nothing whatever to do with the Blenniidz, but is very
closely related to Lepéoscopus, and belongs unquestiona-
bly to the same group; in other words to an entirely
different division of fishes in the Giintherian system.
(See Trachinide p. 462.)

The genus Zoarces, (p. 497) also referred to the family
of Blenniidz, still more disagrees with the true repre-
sentatives of that family in the structure of the dorsal fin
and, as he himself admits, has ‘‘no other fin spines ” than
a few near the caudal; it shows, in fact, an organization
similar to that manifested in the family Lycodide of
Giinther, (p. 537) placed by him in a different order of
fishes—the Anacanthini.

Stphonognathus is a remarkable genus referred to the
family of Labride. This family is defined as having, in
addition to other characters, ‘the soft anal similar to
the sott dorsal, ventral fins thoracic, with one spine and
five soft rays,” and “ branchiostegals five or six.’’ Noth-
ing whatever is said respecting the anal, ventrals, or
branchiostegals..of SzJhonognathus and as the necessary
data are thus entirely suppressed, it would naturally be
assumed that the genus would have the characters at-
tributed to the family. In fact, however, SzAhonogna-
thus has not the ‘‘soft anal similar to the soft dorsal,”’
there are 7o ventral fins, and there are only fourbranchios-
tegal rays. It will be thus apparent that it would be im-
possible to identify this fish from Dr. Giinther’s Intro-
ductiou, unless it were assumed that great blunders
had been made. This is indeed the case, but it is
not safe to assume that the author is an habitual
blunderer, and to proceed on that basis, even in the
case of Dr. Giinther. We are somewhat prepared, how-
ever, for the idiosyncrasy exhibited by Dr. Giinther,
when he compares the relationship of Szphonaognathus to
Odax as being similar to that of Badbzrussa to Sus (see
Catalogue of Fishes in B. M., v. 4, p. 243). Any one who
can really entertain such views, and consider the differ-
ences between the mammalian genera to be of the same
kind or degree as those between the fish genera is unfit
to institute comparisons.

Numerous genera are adapted, which, although they
may be good, consistency would require Dr. Giinther to
merge with others. Thus we have Ptyonotus (which he
has unnecessarily substituted for Zrzglopszs of Girard)
retained for a form in the family of Cottide (p. 480) ; this
is, however, far more closely related to the “ Co¢tus guad-
recornzs”’ of Giinther than are any of his other species
of that heterogeneous group. Pammedas is still retained
as the name of a distinct genus which is allied to 7rachy-
notus, although it had been named before Dr. Giinther
applied his, and its affinities have been well-known for
many years to be with Centrolophus: it is indeed toa
species of that genus (the C ovadzs), that the P. percz-
formzs is most closely related, and yet in spite of the con-

current testimony of previous ichthyologists we find it in-
jected, in the “Introduction to the Study of Fishes,” into
a family remote from that to which Cextrolophus has been
referred. Asexamples of other forms unnaturally sepa-
rated we may instance (1) Chetopierus (p. 390) and
Aprion (p. 397); (2) Grystes (p. 392) and Huro (p. 393),
and (3) Aulzscops and Aulorhynchus (p. 508). The last
type, it may be remarked, is more nearly related to the
so-called Gasterosteus spinachta than to the Fistu-
lariidae and should be either referred to the same family
or differentiated as a distinct one.

Changes of the names of established genera on trivial
pretexts are also indulged in. The name of 7rzglopszs
was abandoned for P¢yonotus because there was a 7rzglops
previously established. Although they are unquestion-
ably much alike, they are sufficiently different, and Stein-
dachner has even lately named a genus A¢herznops, know-
ing well that A¢herznopszs had already been proposed for
another genus of the same family. Dactylopus is dis-
carded for Vudlsus because, forsooth, the term DACTy-
LOPODA had previously been applied by Meyer to a
group (not genus) of extinct reptiles. And yet our author
himself retains both Chondrosteus and Chondrostei
etc., without the slightest demur. Xzphasza@ is rejected
with an exclamation mark (!) and the yet more objection-
able name Xzphogadus proposed because the author was
dissatisfied with the name,and—we strongly suspect—still
more with the namer (Swainson). Why expect any better
reason ?

The idea is conveyed in the work—and that it has been
extensively claimed elsewise by our author is no secret-—
that all the established genera are admitted in this vol-
ume. Without counting the scores of genera that Dr.
Giinther refuses to recognize, but which every one ap-
plying the canons observed by mammalogists and ornith-
ologists would adopt, there are many which even that
author could scarcely neglect unless through ignorance.
Among those omitted, and which are especially interest-
ing, on account of representing previously unknown
types of high value (families or sub-families), or because
they throw light on the relations of families in which
they belong are: Elassoma, Xentchthys, Hoplopagrus,
Gnathanacanthus, Nematistius, Grammtcolepis, Bathy-
master, Coltunculus, Oxylebzus, Anoplopoma, Dactylag-
nus, Myxodagnus, Anarrhichthys, Plagiotremus, Che-
nopsts, Nematocentrzs and Profzstzus. If he had really
known Hoflopagrus (referred to incidentally on page
279, but not otherwise noticed), he, Zerkaps, would not
have so far separated his “ Perctde’”’ (pp. 375-379) and
“ Spartde’’ (405-410), as he has done: if he had known
Cottunculus he would, Zerhaps, have recognized the
affinity of Psychrolutes to the Cottéde, and not isolated
it as the type of a remote family—at least no scientific
ichthyologist would have failed to so profit by the know-
ledge. The work of Bleeker, Steindachner, Klunzinger,
Liitken, Vaillant, Sauvage, Giglioli and Collett in Eu-
rope, and that of all American ichthyologists has, how-
ever, been almost of nought so far as Dr, Giinther is con-
cerned. It need be only remarked, in connection with
the latter, that of the numerous genera of Etheostomine
fishes only Pzleoma (Percina) and Boleosoma (p. 379) are
recognized. The reason therefore is no secret—they are
too small, and as they have not been able to grow larger,
they do not deserve to be considered. The interesting
relations, physiological and morphological, that they pre-
sent are not sufficient to outweigh this cogent objection.
Among American fishes there is no group that has been
so much written about and that is better known than the
genus Mzcropterus, but notwithstanding Dr. Giinther
has not yet learned that he has distributed its well defined
representatives under three genera, nor that Huro was
based on a mistake and is nota valid genus, nor that there
are two, and only two, well-determined species, and those
two can not be generically distinguished. When it is
further remarked that only three genera are recognized

326

SCIENCE,

for the Centrarchines and Lepomines, and that these are
diagnosed by the least important and most fallacious
characters, and that thereby the species are thrown into
almost inexplicable confusion, some idea may be formed
of the unreliability of the work. :
The general anatomical portion of the work is, on the
whole, really a tolerably good réswmé of facts respect-
ing the structure and organization of fishes, for the
author has wisely followed Gegenbaur, Huxley and
Parker without sufficient deviation to fall into much
error. One great objection to it, however, is the undue
prominence given to the peculiarities of the teleostean
types and the exhibition of them in such a manner as to
prevent the reader’s conception of the range of variation
in the forms treated of, and especially as to the taxono-
mic value of such variations. In this connection too, we
may notice the reproduction of some rather strange
views. Thus, it is said that ‘‘the numbers of the dorsal
and anal rays give good specific, generic, or even family
characters,’ except when greatly increased, while ‘the
taxinomic [taxonomic] value of this character becomes
uncertain. The numbers of the pectoral and caudal rays
are rarely of any account”’ (p. 44). The last remark
embodies a striking illustration of the length to which
Dr, Giinther’s neglect carries him in contempt of the facts.
Far from the number of the completely developed caudal
rays being of no account, there are rarely deviations in
the number in related forms, and when such prevail they
generally accompany other decided modifications of
structure and are available for major diagnostic pur-
poses, as Bleeker has observed. Again, it is claimed
of the pectoral limb that the structure of that of Cera-
todus ‘‘ evzdently”’ represents one of its first and lowest
conditions’ (p. 74). So far is this from being “evident”
that it is difficult to understand how any one familiar
with the stucture and development of the limb in the
Selachians and related types, and conversant with the
logic of science could entertain for one moment such an
opinion and, on the contrary, not look upon the Cerato-
dontoid limb as an extreme deviation from the primitive
type. But the very climax of absurdity and unscien-
tific comparison is exemplified in the case of Ceratodus
by the homologisation of the basal segment of the axis
of the pectoral fz (not that which supports it) with the
basal cartilage of the Sturgeon, and which itself is the
source of several other errors (pp. 74, 76). A comparison
of the pectoral limbs of Ceratedus and Polypterus would
be sufficient to prevent any scientific naturalist from
making such a blunder. We need not dwell further on
such defects but in connection with the systematic
portion, we cannot omit to notice that Dr. Giinther
recognizes that in the Chondropterygians there are no
bones representing the membrane bones of the skull of
the Ganoid and higher fishes ; that at the most there are
simply ‘rudimentary maxillary elements” (p. 69); that
the scapular arch “is formed by a single coracoid carti-
lage” (p. 69); that ‘‘thesame type of branchial organs
[as in the Cyclostomes] persists in Chondroplerygzans,
which possess five, rarely six or seven, flattened pouches
with transversely plaited walls,” each pouch opening
“ outwards, and by an aperture into the pharynx, without
intervening ducts” (p. 137); and that an “ air bladder
is absent but occurs in all Ganoids,” etc. (p. 141), and
that the generative organs are very peculiar (p. 166).
Yet in spite of all these differences, in tace of the recog-
nized similarity between the teleosteoid Ganoids
(Amza, &c.) and certain Physostomes, and in ignorance
of the evanescence of the characters designed to differ-
entiate the Teleosts, he adheres to the combination of the
Ganoids with the Chondropterygians in one sub-class-—the
Palzichthyes. It is indeed a “singular concurrence”
of characters (p. 312)—but not of important ones—that is
employed to segregate this group, for not one is common
to all the members included in it, and at the same time
exclusive of other types. A knowledge of the anatomi-

cal labors of recent biologists would have instructed
him as to this fact. The “Sub-class Palzichthyes ” is
indeed, as has been said by a recent well qualified iudge, ~
“a triumph of systematic gaucherze.” The group in
fact is the outcome of a confusion of ideas respecting
generalized characters and extravagant valuation of cer~
tain facts entitled to consideration but by no means to
anything like the extent admitted,

Quite as inscrutable as his Morphology is Dr.
Giinther’s Physiology. As we turn the pages of the
Introduction we come across strange assertions respect-
ing the functions connected with structural peculiarities.
Several of these may be taken as examples.

The power of ejecting from the mouth drops of water
to some distance, and with such force as to dislodge in-
sects and precipitate them into the water, has been attrib-
uted to more than one Javanese fish, but whether the
real shooter was a Chelmo,a Toxotes, or an Epzbulus, or
each one, (or even whether any actually had such power),
seems to have become doubtful. Skepticism as to any
case might have been legitimate, but Dr. Giinther un-
qualifiedly asserts that as to Chelmo “ thzs statement ts
erroneous,’ and that the feat “ zs Jractzsed by another
fish of this family (Zovotes). The long slender bill of
Chelmo (which is a true salt-water fish) rather enables
it to draw from holes and crevices animals which other-
wise could not be reached by it” (p. 399). Zoxotes has
an unusually deeply cleft mouth, and one less fitted to
perform such a feat as that in question could scarcely be
found. The inaptness of the structure to the alleged
function might well evoke skepticism in anyone, and this
being once excited, the literature respecting the several
fishes which have been named ejaculators will demon-
strate that (1) there is no odservatzonal basis for the at-
tribution of blowing-drops of water to the Zovrofes, and
(2) there have been observations (by Hommel, Rein-
wardt and Mitchell), of a certain kind, of ejaculatory
feats by Che/mo. In fact, if it is conceded that the feat
is performed by a fish, in the sentences repeated from
Dr. Giinther, there are concentrated seven distinct er-
rors: (1) denial in spite of evidence, (2) affirmation with-
out sufficient basis, (3) denial in face of (comparative)
adaptation of structure to function, (4) credulity in spite
of inaptness of structure to function, (5) gratuitous as-
sumption of a function—“ to draw from holes and crevices
animals which could not otherwise be reached by it,”’ (6)
the assumption, by implication, that the Archer was not
a salt-water type, although the first observer (Hommel)
especially stated that it was a sea-fish, and (7) erroneous
taxonomy in the association of Zoxofes in the same fam-
ily with Chedmo. Almost all possible kinds of errors
have thus culminated in this single case.

An instance of another gratuitous assumption respect-
ing a function, refers to a Sciznoid fish,

The genus “ Cod/ichthys Giinther”’ (previously named
Sctenozdes by Blyth) is distinguished bya “ great devel-
opment of the muciferous system on the head and the
small eye,’’ and this characteristic ‘leads one [and but
one—Dr. Giinther alone] to suppose that these fishes live
in muddy water near the mouths of large rivers” (p. 430).
What teleological relation there is between muciferous
channels and small eyes and the muddy water of large
(or any kind of) rivers, Dr. Giinther has not vouchsafed
to inform us. That such characteristics do not usually -
indicate the conditions suggested, is admitted by Dr.
Giinther himself, for he has recognized that “the muci-
ferous system of many deep-sea fishes is developed in an
extraordinary degree ”’ (p. 300), and that a large portion
of the deep-sea forms are characterized by small eyes
(pp. 300-301). The fact is that instead of the inference
in question being the outcome of a consideration of the
structure indicated, it is the result of data concerning the
habitat of one species of the genus and the desire to con-
nect the structure with some function, however irrele-
vant. It is recorded in the “ Catalogue of the Acanthop-

SCIENCE.

327

terygian Fishes in the British Museum”’ (v. 2, p. 316)—
a work which has served as the basis of the “Introduc-
tion to the Study of Fishes’—that the “ Codlzchthys

pama” inhabits the “Bay of Bengal, entering rivers.”
The statement given as a deduction is therefore really a

_co-ordination—and an entirely sophistical one—of the
ascertained structural peculiarity and the habitat of that
species.

One other characteristic deduction, also relating to a
Sciznoid type, may be noticed because of its interest to
American students.

The “Drum” of the Atlantic (Pogonzas chromzs)
is especially mentioned in connection with “the extra-
ordinary sounds which are produced by it and other allied
Scienoids.”’ “It is [says Dr. Giinther] still a matter of
uncertainty by what means the “ Drum’’ produces the
sounds. Some naturalists believe that it is caused by
the clapping together of the pharyngeal teeth, which are
very large molar teeth. However, if it be true [sage
proviso ! | that the sounds are accompanied by a tremu-
lous motion of the vessel, it seems more probable that
they are produced by the fishes beating their tails against
the bottom of the vessel in order to get rid of the parasites
with which that part of their body is infested.’’ In this
paragraph are several illegitimate assumptions and
inferences which a slight knowledge of the literature re-
specting the subject would have prevented. (1) The
sounds are entirely independent of ‘ vessels.’’ (2) There
Was no reason to suppose that the fish in question was
more infested with parasites in the tail than any other.
(3) The statement that “allied Sciznoids ” (and this is
especially true of the closely related fresh-water sheeps-
head, or Haflozdonotus, referred by Giinther to a genus
with which it has not the slightest affinity!) produce
similar sounds was for the moment forgotten. (4) The
co-ordination of facts and phenomena rendered it un-
necessary to look to such source for solution. (5) The
source indicated was one of the most improbable that
could be conceived. There is, indeed, ample cause for
surprise that any educated ichthyologist could suppose
that a fish would agitate its tail in the manner suggested
to relieve aspasmodic pain, such as is postulated by the
explanation given. Our author’s credence in the allega-
tion that the sounds produced are “accompanied by a
tremulous motion of the vessel,’’ was, as we have. seen,
sufficient to impel him to substitute a most improbable
for at least a probable hypothesis.

A mistake of another kind is made respecting the Rays.
It is said that “the majority are ovzfarous”’ (p. 336).
As was long ago recognized by Miiller and Henle, the
Raiidz are the only oviparous rays; Gunther includes
them all in one family and four genera, and admits about
35 species.
known, are viviparous ; they number, in his opinion, five
families, twenty genera and more than Ioo species, conse-
quently the majority are vzvzparous /

Whether a work so abounding in errors that we are
only able to specify a few as examples and hint at some
kinds of others is worth acquiring must be left to the

_teader to judge. Asa curiosity in taxonomical literature
it certainly zs, but for such purposes as are most desirable
—correct information and identification of genera—it as
certainly zs ot. THEO. GILL,

ES

DESCARTES AND THE BAROMETRIC THEORY.—At one of
the late sittings of the Academy of Moral and Political
Science, M. Nourisson made an extremely interesting com-
munication relative to a letter of Descartes, in which the
great philosopher clearly indicates the principal of atmos-
pheric pressure, twelve years before Toricelii’s experiments
on the barometer. Toricelli constructed the fast barometric
tube in 1643; in 1647 Pascal accomplishes his celebrated
experiments of Puy-de-Dome and of the “Tour Saint
Jaques.” It would appear that Descartes had suggested to
the author of Pensées the idea of this mode of experiment.

All the others recorded by him, so far as

CORRESPONDENCE.
To the Edttor of SCIENCE:
ON ETHER.

There are two theories in regard to ether, one of
which assumes that it isa discontinuous medium, that is,
a medium composed of particles at enormous distances
apart, as compared with their diameters.

In this theory ether is spoken of or defined as an “ im-
ponderable elastic medium.” If we examine the above
definition we find several inconsistencies. To begin
with, an imponderable body is a body without weight.
Now the weight of a body, is the result of the mutual
attraction, exerted between it and some other body ; in
other words, weight is the effect of gravitation. Now
as every particle attracts every other particle with a force,
that is directly as the mass, and inversely as the square
of the distance between them, an imponderable body
must be one in which the mass is zero, or that is at
such a distance from every other body that the re-
ciprocal of the square of this distance is zero, The last
supposition is of course absurd.

Now the mass of a body is equal to the product of its
volume and density, or #7/=d V and if MW is equal to
zero, either d or V must be zero and as it would be im-
possible to conceive of a body that occupies no space, we
must think of @ as equal to zero, or in other words an
imponderable body is simply a portion of space. This
same theory assumes that radiant energy is transmitted
by means of the moving particles of ether, z. ¢., one
particle moving with a certain velocity, strikes another
and imparts some of its energy to it and this flying off
strikes another and so on. But the momentum of a
MV?

2
(V=Velocity), making 4 equal to zero, as we must if

the particles are imponderable, we have O V=JZ,=0
2

body is expressed by JZ V and its energy by

and =H=o0, hence the transmission of radiant

energy by an imponderable substance, composed of
particles is an impossibility. If we assume that the
particles are effected by gravitation, then at once it is
evident that the ether could not be of equal density
throughout the universe, for around each celestial body
there would be an atmosphere of ether which would
gradually decrease in density from the surface of the
body outwards.

By elasticity in the above definition, is meant that
property of matter, possessed by gases in the highest de-
gree, of having its volume or density changed by some
force and regaining its former state when the original
condition are again imposed. When a gas is compressed,
the mean free path of the molecules is shortened and
the compressibility is dependent upon the length of the
mean free path. When the pressure is removed, the gas
expands, the expansion being due to a conversion of the
energy of vibratory motion of the molecules or heat into
energy of translation. If the ether is elastic, then of
course with a change from less to greater density the
particles must be moved nearer together, and the com-
pressibility will be dependent upon the average distance
between the particles. | When a change from greater to
less density takes place, the particles must be moved
farther apart and the explanatory reason given for this
expansion is that the energy of the moving particles
causes the expansion.

From what has been said in regard to imponderability,
itis evident that a discontinuous imponderable elastic
substance is an impossibility according to the present
ideas of dynamics. The transmission of radiant’energy
by a discontinuous ether, if the particles are ponderable,
is possible in two ways, Ist, By an alternate rarefaction,
and condensation of the ether, similar to the manner in
which sound is transmitted through air, 2d, By the

328

movements of individual particles. If the first is true,
the same conditions must apply to the transmission of
radiant energy, as to the propagation of sound. Sound
travels through air with a velocity of 330 miles per
second, at o° cent.

Taking for an example a sound produced by a body vi-
brating 20,000 times per second and dividing the velocity
of sound by this number, we have as the wave length
16.5 mm. Clausius has shown that the mean free path
of an oxygen molecule is 5000 times its diameter.

Taking ace : yor mM. as the diameter, we have to!
mm. as the mean free path of an oxygen molecule, and
dividing the length of the sound wave calculated above,
by this number we have 1665 x 104, or the length of the
wave of this extremely high note, is 1665 x 104 times
longer than the mean free path of an oxygen molecule,
hence it 1s evident that the propagation of sound 1s de-
pendent primarily upon the movement of aggregates of
molecules.

The elasticity of the ether is assured to be many times
greater than that of the most perfect gas. Assuming
that it is 1000 times more elastic than oxygen gas, the
average distance between the surfaces of the particles
must be 1000 times greater than the average distance
between the surfaces of the oxygen molecules.

Taking as the mean free path of an oxygen molecule,
10‘ mm., the distance between the particles of ether
would be .1 mm. Now the wave length of a certain ray
of red light is .000,609 mm., hence the average distance
between the particles is 164 times as great as this particu-
lar wave length. It follows from this, that the transmis-
sion of radiant energy, through such an elastic medium
as the ether, cannot be in any way comparable with the
propagation of sound through air. If the energy is not
transmitted in this manner, then it must be transmitted
in the second way, z. é., by the movements of individual
particles. But with an ether as elastic as generally as-
sumed, this is impossible, since the average distance be-
tween the particles is 164 times as great as the length of
a comparatively long undulation, and it would be absurd
to say that a vibrating molecule could, by impact with a
particle of ether, send the particle 5000 times the diame-
ter of the molecule, and further, that the particle would
return from this long journey in time for the next vibra-
tion. Even assuming that the particles of ether could
move fast enough to accomplish this movement in each
vibration, then if the molecules are circular, the particle
would have to return ina line that was normal to the
surface of the molecule at the point of contact, or it
would fly off in another direction after impact with the
molecule, and as the particles are so far apart, as com-
pared with the diameters of the molecules, if one particle
was driven off there would be no other to take its place.
There would also be required a series of particles in a
straight line between the body receiving and the body radi-
ating energy.

But it is needless to enlarge upon this method of trans-
mitting radiant energy, for the constant length of undu-
lation and undulatory motion itself, would be impossible
in a medium, in which the average distance between the
particles was 164 times as long as an undulation.

The only discontinuous medium through which radiant
eflergy could be transmitted, would be one in which the
average distance between the particles was a small frac-
tion of an undulation, But inamedium of this sort
there would be hardly any chance for compression, much
less than in oxygen gas, and to assume that ether is less
elastic than a gas, is contrary to the theory of discontin-
uous ether. As a discontinuous ether will not answer the
requirements, we must, if we assume amy ether, assumea
continuous one. By means of a continuous ether all the
phenomena of light can be explained. One is inclined,
however, to apply to a continuous ether the same reason-
ing as is applied to matter. But as ether is not matter,

SCIENCE.

we cannot with justice attribute to it any of the proper-

ties of matter except extension and elasticity, and till we

are much farther advanced in our knowledge of the uni-

verse, it will be impossible to say anything about ether,

except to assume its existence and its continuity. B.
_——————— es

THE COMET:

The comet was seen from this Observatory at 14h. 30m.,
June 22, 1881. The latitude of the place is 41° 13';
longitude from Washington in time, 53m. 48s. This
longitude is approximate, as we have no transit, and
being without a correct astronomical clock, are continu-
ally annoyed for want of true time. The latitude is
somewhat indeterminate, as the declination circle has no
Vernier, reading seconds. The telescope (a fine 6 inch
Alvan Clark & Sons), is not precisely in the meridian,
and we are unable to place it there with accuracy, hay-
ing no micrometer. With all these hindrances, the ad-
justment is such that catalogued stars are always in field
with power of 60, but in many cases fail to come to the
centre or line of collimation. When observation was
first made the declination was 43° 10’, then make d=the
declination = 43° 10’, and 4 = the latitude of New Wind-
Sor —41ce13,, and take:

log. tan. d = - - - 9.972,188
log. tan. A = - - - 9.942,478
log. sin. 55° 15’= - - 9.914,666 -

which being converted into time = 3h. 41m. ; and 6h. —
3h. 41m. = 2h. 19m., A. M., June 23, mean local time in
New Windsor, or time of comet’s rising, that is, of the
nucleus. The tail being several degrees long and direec-
ted towards Polaris, was above the horizon some time
before.

Had the horizon been water, the nucleus would have
come in sight at 2.19, as it was, an interval of 11m. was
required to bring it above undulations of the earth. We
thought best not to telegraph before seeing the nucleus,
but as soon as we positively knew the apparition to be a
comet, haste was made to send dispatch. The village
is on a branch railroad and telegraph offices are not open
nights, so we had to send to the residence of the opera-
tor, arouse and engage him to go to the office and send
telegram. This took time, and it was not until after 3
A. M. that message was sent. Meanwhile we endeavored
to place telescope on nucleus but were unable to, as there
was a tree in range, causing another delay until 3.30,
when observation was made—the nucleus being an hour
above horizon and in apparent

eae - - ee 5h. 34m,
6 - - - - - - 43° Io’
a rough position, as no corrections were made for re-
fraction or parallax.

The telegram read: ‘Vast comet in northeastern
heavens.” After mature consideration we regret using
so many words, one only—‘‘ Comet,’’—was all! that was
necessary, when the acute observer, Swift, would have
been on the alert at once. Before sunrise we were
favored with 30 minutes good definition, when two enve-
lopes were seen, the nucleus extending a bridge to the
external surface of the inner one. Since, the nucleus has
changed form, is no longer round, but has prolonged into
a beak-shaped mass, and looks like Comet III., 1862,
August 29, as drawn by Challis (Chambers’ Astronomy,
p. 322). The cometary matter is of great tenuity, as it
was seen to run over a sixth magnitude star at Ioh, June
28, which passed about 15” from nucleus, yet it was visible
through the immense volume of gas.

The comet was seen from many points in the Western
States twenty-four hours before noticed at this place,
by steamboat hands, street-car drivers, railroad conduc-
tors, night-watchmen, policemen and many others whose
business required them to be out all night.

NEW WINDSOR, ILL., ¥uly st, 1881. EDGAR L, LARKIN,

a a

SCIENCE.

329

mo HINGE :

A WEEKLY ReEcorp OF SCIENTIFIC

PrRoGRESs.

JOHN MICHELS, Editor.

PuBLISHED AT

TRIBUNE BUILDING, NEW YORK.

P, O. Box 3888,

SATURDAY, JULY 16, 1882.

We are indebted to Professor Edward S. Holden
for a series of seven interesting drawings of the re-
cently discovered Comet ; they are now being engraved
and will appear in “ ScrENCE” next week.

These drawings were made by Professor Holden
from observations made with the 15-inch equatorial of
the Washburn Observatory.

We have received a copy of the instructions fur-
nished to the officers in command of the expedition-
ary force to Lady Franklin Bay, which appear to
have given general satisfaction, and probably suffice
for all the purposes of the expedition. Still we
regret to find that the services of a naturalist
have not been considered requisite, and that no pro-
vision appears to have been made’ for collecting speci-
mens and information respecting the Fauna and
Flora of the Polar regions. A microscope is not even
added to the list of apparatus provided for the use of
the expedition.

Mr. Alfred Russell Wallace in his last work, “ Is-
land Life,” observes that there is an enormous
waste of labor and money with comparatively scanty
and unimportant results to natural history, of most
of the great scientific voyages of the various civi-
lized governments during the present century.
All these expeditions combined have done far
less than private collectors in making known the
products of remote lands and islands. They have
brought home, he asserts, fragmentary collections,
made in widely scattered localities and these have
been usually described in huge folios, whose value is
often in inverse proportion to their bulk and cost.
The same species have been collected again and
again, often described several times, and, not infre-
quently stated to be from places they never inhabited.

- The result of this wretched system, says Mr. Wallace,

is, that the productions of some of the most frequently
visited and most interesting islands on the globe are
still very imperfectly known, while their native plants

and animals are being yearly exterminated. The rem-
edy suggested by Mr. Wallace, is that resident nat-
uralists at a very small annual expense, should be ap-
pointed, who, he considers, would do more for the
advancement of knowledge in this direction, than all
the expensive expeditions which have again and again
circumnavigated the globe.

We are of course aware that most of the many re-
cent expeditions to the polar regions have been
specially organized for the promotion of the physical
sciences, but the value of an expert naturalist on such
occasions should not be neglected, and wherever per-
manent stations are established the naturalist may be
expected to do good work, and even occasionally in-
terpret natural phenomena which are sometimes in-
explicable to the physicist.

a

The comet has been observed here (with the excep-
tion of June 27) on every night since June 23, although
clouds have often considerably hindered the work.

In addition to the measurements of position, the
light of different parts of the comet has been
photometrically determined. This work, very prob-
ably, has been undertaken only at this Observatory.
The instrument employed for the purpose is one which
has already been extensively used here for measuring
the light of nebulz. The results of these observa-
tions are expressed in stellar magnitudes on Pogson’s
logarithmic scale, regarding the light of a star of the
givenmagnitude as diffused over a circle 1’ in diameter,
the brightness of which would then be equal to that
of the observed portion of the nebula or comet. On
the first five nights of the present month, various parts
of the coma and tail have thus been observed. The
result, from a provisional reduction, is as follows:

Coma, o.'5 south of nucleus, magnitude 6.9

“0.'5. north of sf 7.8
Tail, 0.°5 S s Gs 9.6
oe 1.°O “ce “e ae 10.3
“ee 2 Te) “ oe oe IL Oo
“se 3.°0 “c “cc 6 the
“ 4.°o “ ce sé 6

I add the corresponding results, also from pro-
visional reductions, for some other comets and nebulz :

palasaisi COmetyES7 Gidea. skillets ohisid 4 os magnitude 8
CBOMEH TESS! dena iee calabro «cht las. ds se cee - 7
Webb’s Planetary Nebula, DM. + 41°4004 fs 4.7
Brightest part of great nebula in Orion (20
points in which have been observed),..... ey 8.0
INGbulalGHGs AAS. bcc. sise tah cmioresio® cnice« se T.2
fectimnmen Cnpe coh A GOD at scl s citag: wiaieeze eo alte e oe 11,3

On June 28th, and on July 1, 3, 5 and 6, the co-
ordinates of a number of points in the border of the
comet’s tail were observed for the purpose of determin-
ing its form.

EpwarD C, PICKERING.

HARVARD COLLEGE OBSERVATORY,
Cambridge, U. S., Fuly 6th, 1881.

Sg

SCIENCE.

a

THE UNITY OF NATURE.

By THE DUKE OF ARGYLL,
IX.

THE ORIGIN OF RELIGION CONSIDERED IN THE LIGHT
OF THE UNITY OF NATURE.

( Continued.)

The considerations set forth in the previous chapter
indicate the fallacies which lie in our way when we en-
deavor to collect from the worship of savage nations any
secure conclusions as tothe origin of Religion. Upon
these fallacies, and upon no more safe foundation,
Comte built up his famous generalization of the four
necessary stages in the history of Religion. First came
Fetishism, then Polytheism, and then Monotheism, and
last and latest, the heir of all ages, Comtism itself, or the
Religion of Humanity which is to be the worship of the
future.

Professor Max Miiller has done admirable service in
the analysis and in the exposure which he has given us
of the origin and use of the word “ Fetishism,” and of
the theory which represents it as a necessary stage in
the development of Religion.’ It turns out that the word
itself and the fundamental idea it embodies, is a word
and an idea derived from one of those popular superstitions
which are so common in connection with Latin Chris-
tianity. The Portuguese sailors who first explored the
West Coast of Africa were themselves accustomed to
attach superstitious value to beads, or crosses, or images.
or charms and amulcts of their own. These were called
“feticos.”” They saw the negroes attaching some simi-
lar value to various objects of a similar kind, and these
Portuguese sailors therefore described the negro worship
as the worship of “feticos.’”’ President de Brosses, a
French philosopher of the Voltairean epoch in literature,
then extended the term Fetish so as to include not only
artificial articles, but also such great natural fea-
tures as trees, mountains, rivers and animals. In this
way he was enabled to classify together under one in-
discriminate appellation many different kinds of worship
and many different stages in the history of religious de-
velopment or decay. This is an excellent example of
the crude theories and false generalizations which have
been prevalent on the subject of the origin of Religion.
First, there is the assumption that whatever is lowest in
savagery must have been primeval—an assumption
which, as we have seen, is in all cases improbable, and
in many cases must necessarily be false. Next thereis
great carelessness in ascertaining what is really true-even
of existing savages in respect to their religious beliefs.
It has now been clearly ascertained, that those very
African negroes whose superstitious worship of material
articles supposed to have some mysterious powers or
virtues, is most degraded, do nevertheless retain behind
and above this worship certain beliefs as to the nature
of the Godhead, which are almost as far above their
own abject superstitions as the theology of a Fén-
élon is above the superstitions of an ignorant
Roman Catholic peasant. It is found that some
African tribes have retained their belief in one Su-
preme Being, the Creator of the world, and the circum-
stance that nevertheless no worship may be addressed
to Him has received from Professor Max Miiller an ex-
planation which is ample. ‘It may arise from an ex-
cess of reverence quite as much as from negligence.
Thus the Odjis or Cohantis call the Supreme Being by
the same name as the sky; but they mean by it a Per-
sonal God, who, as they say, created all things and is
the Giver of all good things. But though He is omni-
present and omniscient, knowing even the thoughts of
men, and pitying them in their distress, the government

1 Hibbert Lectures, 1378,

of the world is, as they believe, deputed by Him to in-
ferior spirits, and among these, again, it is the malevolent
spirits only who require worship and sacrifice from man.’”
And this is by no means a solitary case. There are
many others in which the investigations of missionaries
respecting the religious conceptions of savage nations
have revealed the fact that they have a much higher
theology than is indicated in their worship.

The truth is, that nowhere is the evidence of develop-
ment in a wrong direction so strong as in the many
customs of savage and barbarous nations which are
more or less directly connected with Religion. The
idea has long been abandoned that the savage lives in a
condition of freedom as compared with the complicated
obligations imposed by civilization. Savages, on the
contrary, are under the tyranny of innumerable customs
which render their whole life a slavery from the cradle
to the grave. And what is most remarkable is the irra-
tional character of most of these customs, and the diffi-
culty of even imagining how they can have become es-
tablished. They bear all the marks of an origin far
distant in time—of a connection with doctrines which
have been forgotten, and of conceptions which have run,
as it were, to seed. They bear, in short, all the marks
of long attrition, like the remnants of a bed of rock
which has been broken up at a distant epoch of geolog-
ical time, and has left no other record of itself than a
few worn and incoherent fragments in some far-off con-
glomerate. Just as these fragments are now held to-
gether by common materials which are universally dis-
tributed, such as sand or lime, so the worn and broken
fragments of old religions are held together, in the shape
of barbarous customs, by those common instincts and
aspirations of the human mind which follow it in all its
stages, whether of growth or of decay.

The rapidity of the processes of degradation in Re-

ligion, and the extent to which they may go, depends on
gone very far in- —

a great variety of conditions. It has
deed, and has led to the evolution of customs and beliefs
of the most destructive kind among races which, so far
as we know, have never been exposed to external condi-
tions necessarily degrading. The innate character of this
tendency to corruption, arising out of causes inherent in
the nature of Man, becomes indeed all all the more strik-
ing when we find that some of the most terrible practices
connected with religious superstition, are practices which
have become established among tribes which are by no
means in the lowest physical condition, and which inhabit
countries highly blest by Nature. Perhaps there is no ex-
ample of this phenomenon more remarkable than the
“customs” of Dahomey, a country naturally rich in pro-
ducts, and affording every facility for the pursuits of a
settled and civilized life. Yet here we have those terrible
beliefs which demand the constant, the almost daily sacri-
fice of human life, with no other aim or purpose than to
satisfy some imaginary Being with the sight of clotted gore,
and with the smell of putrefying human flesh. This is only
an extreme and a peculiarly terrible example of a general
law, the operation of which is more or less clearly seen in
every one of the religions of the heathen world, whether
of the past or of the present time. In the very earliest
ages in which we become acquainted with the customs

of their worship, we find these in many respects strange ~

and unaccountable, except on the supposition that even
then they had come from far,and had been subject to
endless deviations and corruptions through ages of a long
descent.

Of no Religion is this more true than of that which
was associated with the oldest civilization known to us—
the civilization of Egypt. So strange is the combination
here of simple and grand conceptions with grotesque
symbols and with degrading objects of immediate wor-

2 Hibbert Lectures, pp. 107, 108,

SCIENCE.

ship, that it has been the inexhaustible theme of curious
explanations. Why a Snake or why a Dung-beetle should
have been taken to represent the Divine Being, and why
in the holiest recess of some glorious temple we find en-
shrined as the object of adoration the image or the coffin
of some beast, or bird, or reptile, is a question on which
much learned ingenuity has been spent. It has been
suggested, for example, that a conquering race, bringing
with it a higher and a purer faith, suffered itself to adopt
or to embody in its system the lower symbolism of a local
worship. But this explanation only removes the diffi-
culty—if it be one—a step further back. Why did such
sufferance arise? why was such an adoption possible?
It was possible simply because there is an universal
tendency in the human mind to developments in the
wrong direction, and especially in its spiritual conceptions
to become more and more gross and carnal.

Nor is it difficult to follow some, at least, of the steps
of consequence—that is to say, the associations of thought
—by which worship may become degraded when once any
serious error has been admitted. Animal worship, for
example, may possibly have begun with very high and
very profound conceptions. Weare accustomed to regard
it as avery grotesque and degraded worship, and so no
doubt it was in its results. But if we once allow ourselves
to identify the Divine Power in Nature with any of its
operations, if we seek for the visible presence of the
Creator in any one of His creations, I do not know that
we could choose any in which that presence seems so im-
manent as in the wonderful instincts of the lower animals.
In a previous chapter we have seen what knowledge and
what foreknowledge there is involved in some of these.
We have seen how it often seems like direct inspiration
that creatures without the gift of reason should be able
to do more than the highest human reason could enable
us to do—how wonderful it is, for example, that their pre-
vision and provision for the nurture and development of
their young should cover the whole cycle of operations
in the second work of creation which is involved in the
metamorphoses of insects—all this, when we come to
think of it, may well seem like the direct working of the
Godhead. We have seen in a former chapter that men of
the highest genius in philosophical speculation, like Des-
cartes, and men of the highest skill in the popular exposi-
tion of scientific ideas, like Professor Huxley, have been
led by these marvels of instinct to represent the lower
animals as automata or machines. The whole force and
meaning of this analogy lies in the conception that the
work done by animals is like the work done by the me-
chanical contrivances of men. We look always upon such
work as done not by the machine but by the contriving
* mind which is outside the machine, and from whom its
adjustments are derived. Fundamentally, however little
itmay be confessed or acknowledged, this is the same
conception which, in a less scientific age, would take an-
other form. What is seen in the action of an automaton
is not the mechanism but the result. That result is the
work of mind, which seems as if it were indwelling in
the machine. In like manner, what is seen in animals
is the wonderful things they do; and what is not seen,
and is indeed wholly incomprehensible, is the ma-
chinery by which they are made to do it. Moreover,
it is a machinery having this essential distinction from
all human machines, that it is endowed with life, which
in itself also is the greatest mystery of all. It is, there-
fore, no superficial observation of animals, but, on the
contrary, a deep pondering on the wonders of their
economy, which may have first suggested them to reli-
gious men as at once the type and the abode of that
Agency which is supreme in Nature. I do not affirm as
an historical fact that this was really the origin of ani-
mal worship, because that origin is not historically
known, and, like the origin of Religion itself, it must be
more or less a matter of speculation. Some animals
may have become objects of worship from having origin-

331

ally been the subjects of sacrifice. The victim may have
been so associated with the god to whom it was devoted
as to become his accepted symbol. The Ox and the
Bull may well have been consecrated through this pro-
cess of substitution. But no such explanation can be
given in respect to many animals which have been wor-
shipped as divine. Perhaps no further explanation need be
sought than that which would be equally required to ac-
count for the choice of particular plants, or particular
birds and fishes, as the badges of particular tribes and
families of men. Such badges were almost universal in
early times, and many of them are still perpetuated in
armorial bearings. The selection of particular animals
in connection with worship would be determined in dif-
ferent localities by a great variety of conditions. Cir-
cumstances purely accidental might determine it. The
occurrence, for example, in some particular region of
any animal with habits which are at once curious and
conspicuous, would sufficiently account for the choice of
it as the symbol of whatever idea these habits might
most readily suggest or symbolize. It is remarkable,
accordingly, that in some cases, at least, we can see the
probable causes which have led to the choice of certain
creatures. The Egyptian beetle, the Scarabzus, for ex-
ample, represents one of those forms of insect life in
which the marvels of instinct are at once very conspicu-
ous and very curious. The characteristic habit of the
Scarabzeus beetle is one which involves all that mystery
of prevision for the development of the species which is
common among insects, coupled with a patient and la-
borious perseverance in the work required, which does
not seem directly associated with any mere appetite or
with any immediate source of pleasure. The instinct by
which this beetle chooses the material which is the proper
nidus for its egg, the skill with which it works that ma-
terial into a form suitable for the purpose, and the in-
dustry with which it then rolls it along the ground till a
suitable position is attained—all these are a striking
combination of the wonders of animal instinct, and con-
spicuous indication of the Spirit of wisdom and of knowl-
edge which may well be conceived to be present in their
work.

But although it is in this way easy to imagine how
some forms of animal-worship may have had their origin
in the first perception of what is really wonderful, and in
the first admiration of what is really admirable, it is also
very easy to see how, when once established, it would
tend to rapid degradation. Wonder and reverence are
not the only emotions which impel to worship. Fear,
and even horror, especially when accompanied with any
mystery in the objects of alarm, are emotions suggest-
ing, perhaps, more than any, that low kind of worship
which consists essentially in the idea of deprecation.
Some hideous and destructive animals, such as the cro-
codile, may have become sacred objects neither on
account of anything admirable in their instincts, nor on
account of their destructiveness ; but, on the contrary,
because of being identified with an agency which is
beneficent. To those who live in Egypt the Nile is the
perennial source of every blessing necessary to life. An
animal so characteristic of that great river may well have
been chosen simply as the symbol of all that it was, and
of all that it gave to men. There is no mystery, there-
fore, in the crocodile being held sacred in the worship of
the God of Inundation. But there are other animals
which have been widely invested with a sacred charac-
ter, in respect to which no such explanation can be given.
The worship of serpents has been attributed to concep-
tions of a very abstract character—with the circle, for
example, into which they coil themselves, considered as
an emblem of Eternity. But this is a conception far too
transcendental and far-fetched to account either for the ori-
gin of this worship or for its wide extension in the world.
Serpents are not the only natural objects which present
circular forms. Nor is this attitude of their repose,

332 SCIENCE.
curious and remarkable though it be, the most | dation. The philosopher, or the teacher, or the prophet
striking peculiarity they present. They have been | who may first personify this abstract conception, and

chosen, beyond any reasonable doubt, becatise of the
horror and terror they inspire. For this, above all other
creatures, they are prominent in Nature. For their de-
ceptive coloring, for their insidious approach, for their
deadly virus, they have been taken as the type of spirit-
ual poison in the Jewish narrative of the Fall. The power
of inflicting almost immediate death, which is possessed
by the most venomous snakes, and that not by violence
but by the infliction of a wound which in itself may be
hardly visible, is a power which is indeed full of mystery
even to the most cultivated scientific mind, and may well
have inspired among men in early ages a desire to pac-
ify the powers of evil. The moment this becomes the
great aim and end of worship, a principle is established
which is fertile in the development of every foul imagin-
ation. Whenever it is the absorbing motive and desire
of men to do that which may most gratify or pacify mal-
evolence, then it ceases to be at all wonderful that men
should be driven by their religion to sacrifices the most
horrid, and to practices the most unnatural.

But if we wish to see an illustration and an example of
the power of all conceptions of a religious nature in the
rapid evolution of unexpected consequences, we have
such an example in the case of one man who has lived in
our own time, and who still lives in the school which he
has founded. I refer to Auguste Comte. It is well
known that he denied the existence, or at least denied
that we can have any knowledge of the existence, of such
a Being as other men mean by God. Mr. John Stuart
Mill has insisted with much earnestness and with much
torce that, in spite of this denial, Auguste Comte had a
religion. He says it wasa religion without a God. But
the truth is, that it wasa religion having both a creed
and an ideal object of worship. That ideal object of
worship was an abstract conception of the mind so defin-
itely invested with personality that Comte himself gave
to it the tile of Tne Great Being (Grand Etre). The
abstract conception thus personified was the abstract
conception of Humanity—Man considered in his past, his
present, and his future. Clearly this is an intellectual
Fetish. It is not the worship of a Being known or be-
lieved to have any real existence; it is the worship of an
idea shaped and molded by the mind, and then ariifici-
ally clothed with the attributes of personality. Itis the
worship of an article manufactured by the imagination,
just as Fetishism, in its strictest meaning is the
worship of an article manufactured by the hand.
Nor is it difficult to assign to it a place in the classifica-
tion of religions in which a loose signification has been
assigned to the term Fetishism. The worship of Human-
ity 1s merely one form of animal-worship. Indeed,
Comte himself specially included the whole animal crea-
tion. It is the worship ot the creature Man as the con-
summation of all other creatures, with all the marvels and
all the unexhausted possibilities of his moral and intel-
lectual nature. The worship of this creature may cer-
tainly be in the nature of a religion, as much higher than
other forms of animal worship as Man is higher than a
beetle, or an ibis, or a crocodile, or a serpent. But so
also, on the other hand, it may be a religion as much
lower than the worship of other animals, in proportion
as man can be wicked and vicious in a sense in which
the beasts cannot. Obviously, therefore, such a worship
would be liable to special causes of degradation.. We
have seen it to be one of the great peculiarities of Man,
as distinguished from the lower animals, that whilst they
always ovey and fulfill the highest law of their being,
there is no similar perfect obedience in the case of Man.
On the contrary, he often uses his special powers with
such perverted ingenuity that they reduce him to a con-
dition more miserable and more degraded than the condi-
tion of any beast. It tollows that the worship of Human-
ity must, as a religion, be liable to corresponding degra-

enshrine it as an object of worship, may have before him
nothing but the highest aspects of human nature, and its
highest aspirations. Mill has seen and has well expressed
the limitations under which alone such a worship could
have any good effect. “That the ennobling power of
this grand conception may have its full efficacy, he
should, with Comte, regard the Grand Etre, Humanity
or Mankind, as composed in the past solely of those who,
in every age and variety of position, have played their
part worthily in life. It is only as thus restricted that
the aggregate of our species becomes an object worthy
our veneration.’ This, no doubt, was Comte’s own
idea. But how are his disciples and followers to be kept
up to the same high standard of conception? Comte
seems to have been personally a very high-minded and a
very pure-minded man. His morality was austere, al-
most ascetic, and his spirit of devotion found delight in
the spirit of the Christian Mystics. Yet even in his hands
the development of his conceptions led him to results
eminently irrational, although it cannot be said that they
were ever degrading or impure. But we have only to
consider how comparatively rare are the examples of the
the highest human excellence, and how common and pre-
vailing are the vices and weakness of Humanity, to see
how terrible would be the possibilities and the probabili-
ties of corruption in a religion which had Man for the
highest object of its worship. Nor is this all that is to be
said on the inevitable tendency to degradation which
must attend any worship of Humanity. Not only are the
highest forms of human virtue rare, but even when they
do occur, they are very apt to be rejected and despised
of men. Power and strength, however vicious in its ex-
ercise, almost always receives the homage ot the world.
The human idols, therefore, who would be chosen as
symbols in the worship of humanity, would often be those
who set the very worst examples to their kind. Perhaps
no better illustration of this could be found than the his-
tory of Napoleon Buonaparte. J think it is impossible to
follow that history, as it is now known, without coming
to the conclusion that in every sense of the word he was
a bad man—unscrupulous, false, and mean. But his in-
tellect was powerful, whilst his force and energy of
character were tremendous. These qualities alone, ex-
hibited in almost unexampled military success, were suffi-
cient to make him the idol of many minds. And as mere
success secured for him this place, so nothing but failure
deprived him of it. Not afew of the chosen heroes ot
Humanity have been chosen for reasons but little better.
Comte himself, seeing this danger, and with an exalted
estimate and ideal of the character of womanhood, had
laid it down that it would be best to select some woman
as the symbol, if not the object, of private adoration in
the worship of Humanity. The French Revolutionists
selected a woman, too, and we know the kind of woman
that they chose. It may be wise, perhaps, to set aside this
famous episode ina fit of national insanity as nothing
more than a profane joke; but the developments of
anthropomorphism in the mythology of the Pagan world
are a sufficient indication of the kind of worship which
the worship of Humanity would certainly tend ‘to be.
The result, then, of this analysis of that in which all
Religion essentially consists, and of the objects which it
selects, or imagines, or creates for worship, is to show
that in Religion, above all other things, the processes of
evolution are especially liable‘to work in the direction of
degradation. That analysis shows how it is that in the
domain of religious conceptions, even more than in any
domain of thought, the work of development must be
rapid, because, in the absence of revelation or the teach-
ings of Authority, fancy and imagination have no guide
and are under no restraint.

3 Mill’s ‘* Comte and Positivism,” p. 136.

SCIENCE.

333

When, now, we pass from the -phenomena which
Religion presents in the present day to what we know of
its phenomena in the earliest historic times, the conclusions
we have reached receive abundant confirmation. Of the
Origin of Religion, indeed, as we have already seen, history
can tell us nothing, because, unless the Mosaic narrative
be accepted, there is no history of the origin of Man.
But the origin of particular systems of Religion does come
within the domain of history, and the testimony it affords
is always to the same effect. In regard to them we have
the most positive evidence that they have been uniformly
subject to degradation. All the great religions of the
world whicn can be traced to the teaching or influence of
individual men have steadily declined from the teaching of
their founders. In India it has been one great business
of Christian missionaries and of Christian governors, in
their endeavors to put an end to cruel and barbarous
customs, to prove to the-corrupt disciples of an ancient
creed that its first prophets or teachers had never held the
doctrines from which such customs arise, or that these
customs are a gross misconception and abuse of the doc-
trine which had been really taught. Whether we study
what is now held by the disciples of Buddha, of Con-
fucius, or of Zoroaster, itis the same result. Wherever we
can arrive at the original teaching of the known founders
of religious systems, we find that teaching uniformly
higher, more spiritual than the teaching now. The same
law has effected Christianity, with this difference only,
that alone of all the historical religions of the world it has
hitherto shown an unmistakable power of perennial re-
vival and reform. But we know that the processes of cor-
ruption had begun their work even in the lifetime of the
Apostles ; and every church in Christendom will equally
adimit the general fact, although each of them will give a
different illustration of it. Mohammedanism, which is
the last and latest of the great historical religions of the
world, shows a still more remarkable phenomena. The
corruption in this case began not only in the lifetime but
in the life of the prophet and founder of that religion.
Mahomet was himself his own most corrupt disciple. In
the earliest days of his mission he was best as a man and
greatest as a teacher, His life was purer and his doctrine
more spiritual when his-voice was a solitary voice crying
in the wilderness, than when it was joined in chorus by
the voice of many millions. In his case the progress of
development in a wrong direction was singularly distinct
snd very rapid. Nor is the cause obscure. The spirit of
Mahomet may well have been in close communion with
the Spirit of all truth, when, like St. Paul at Athens, his
heart was stirred within him as he saw his Arabian
countrymen wholly given to idolatry. Such deep impres-
sions on some everlasting truth—such overpowering con-
victions—are in the nature of inspiration, The intima-
tions it gives and the impulses it communicates are true
in thought and righteous in motive, in exact proportion
as the reflecting surfaces of the human mind are accu-
rately set to the lights which stream from Nature. This
is the adjustment which gives all their truthfulness to the
intimations of the senses ; which gives all its wisdom and
foresight to the wonderful work of instinct ; which gives
all their validity to the processes of reason, which is the
real source of all the achievements of genius ; and which,
on the highest level of all, has made some men the in-
spired mouthpiece of the oracles of God. But it is the
tenderest of all adjustments—the most delicate, the most
easily disturbed. When this adjustment is, as it were,
mechanical, as it is in the lower animals, then we have
the limited, but, within its own sphere, the perfect wis-
dom of the beasts. But when this adjustment is liable to
distortion by the action of a Will which is to some extent
self-determined and is also to a large extent degraded,
then the real inspiration is not from without, but from
within—then the reflecting surfaces of mind are so
longer set true to the light of Nature; and
then “if the light within us be darkness,

~

how great is that darkness!” Hence it is
that one single mistake or misconception as to the
nature’ and work of inspiration is, and must be a mistake
of tremendous consequence. And this was Mahomet’s
mistake. He thought that the source of his inspiration
was direct, immediate, and personal. He thought that
even the very words in which his own impulses were em-
bodied were dictated by the Angel Gabriel. He thought
that the Supreme Authority which spoke through him
when he proclaimed that “the Lord God Almighty was
one God, the Merciful, the Compassionate,” was the same
which also spoke to him when he proclaimed that it was
lawful for him to take his neighbor’s wife. From suchan
abounding well-spring of delusion the most bitter waters
were sure to come. How different this idea of the methods
in which the Divine Spirit operates upon the minds of
men from the idea held on the same subject by that great:
Apostle of our Lord whose work it was to spread among
the Gentile world those religious conceptions which had
so long been the special heritage of one peculiar people !
How cautious St. Paul is when expressing an opinion not
directly sanctioned by an authority higher than his own!
“T think also that I have the Spirit of God.’ The in-
junction, “‘ Try the spirits whether they be of God,” is one
which never seems to have occurred to Mahomet. The
consequences were what might have beenexpected. The
utterances of his inspiration when he was hiding in the
caves of Mecca were better, purer, higher than those which
he continued to pour forth when, after his flight to Medina,
he became a great conqueror and a-great ruler. From
the very first indeed he breathed the spjrit of personal
anger and malediction on all who disbelieved his message.
This root of bitterness was present from the beginning.
But its developments were indeed prodigious. It was the
animating spirit of precepts without number which, in the
minds and in the hands of his ruthless followers, have in-
flicted untold miseries for twelve hundred years on some
of the fairest regions of the globe.

Passing now from the evidence of the law of corruption
and decline which is afforded by this last and latest of the
great historical religions of the world, we find the
same evidence in those of a much older date. In the
first place, all the founders of those religions were
themselves nothing but reformers. In the second
place the reforms they instituted have themselves all
more or less again yielded to new developments of
decay. The great prophets of the world have been men
of inspiration or of genius who were revolted by the cor-
ruptions of some pre-existing system, and who desired
to restore some older 2nd purer faith. The form which’
their reformation took was generally determined, as all
strong revolts are sure to be, by violent reaction against
some prominent conception or some system of practice
which seemed, as it were, an embodiment of its corrup-
tion. In this way only can we account for the peculiar
direction taken by the teaching of that one great histor-
ical Religion which is said to have more disciples than
any other in the world. Buddhism was in its origin a
reform of Brahminism. In that system the beliets of a
much older and simpler age had become hid under the
rubbish-heaps of a most corrupt development. Nowhere
perhaps in the world had the work of evolution been
richer in the growth of briers and thorns. It had forged
the iron bonds of caste, one of the very worst inventions
of an evil imagination ; and it had degraded worship in-
to a complicated system of sacrifice and of ceremonial
observances. There seems to be no doubt that the
teaching of the reformer Sakya Muni (Buddha) was a re-
volt andareform. It was a reassertion of the para-
mount value of a life of righteousness. But the inteilect-
ual conceptions which are associated wiih this great eth-
ical and spiritual reform had within themselves the germs
of another cycle of decay.

(To be continued.) ,

334 SCIENCE.

THE COMET. the coma was apparently homogeneous as it also was on
; : . : : July 2. On June 28, however, there were two spurs of
The comet is daily becoming a fainter object, and | jight spreading away from the opposite sides of the head
astronomers are now employed in making investigations | like angel’s wings. On July 2,1 did not observe these at
based on their observations. ‘all or they were very faint. On July 6 I observed the
We understand that Pro- appearance that I have de-
fessor O. Stone, of Cincin- ’ scribed. It may be that
nati, has published a state- this was the same thing
ment that he saw the nu- that I saw on June 28,
cleus of the comet divide observed from a different
into two parts. Professor point of view. It is not
Stone is not one likely to improbable, however, that
be mistaken in an obser- the nucleus has really di-
vation of this nature, but vided. Comets appear to
we understand he has not have a tendency to do that.
been confirmed in this dis- To a correspondent of
covery, as observations the N.Y. 7rzbune, Profes-
since made with the large sor Harkness said:
equatorial at Washington “We think that the No-
have failed to show any vember meteors are the
division. A disturbance, debris of a comet which
however, has been observed first made its appearance
in the nucleus, which Pro- about the year 900. This
fessor Skinner considers debris, to all appearance,
might be mistaken for a continues to trail along

division as described by the whole orbit of the
Professor Stone. Heap or Donati’s Comer, AFTER Bonp. comet of which it formed
On the 6th of July a part and which has

the comet was ob-
served by Mr. Rock
of the Naval Observ-
atory, who thus, de-
scribes what he saw:

“A bright tongue
of light about one
revolution long in di-
rection of tail, with
a slight node _ near
end and_ curved.”

In explanation of
this Mr. Rock said:
“I observed the
comet at the time of
its lower culmina-
tion about twenty
minutes after mid-
night. The nucleus
did not appear to be
divided, but a bright
band streamed out
in the direction of
the tail. This band
was about fifteen
seconds of the arc
in length. Near the
end of it was a bright
spot, and that por-
tion of the band ex-
tending beyond it
was curved in the
same general direc-
tion as the tail, but
in a somewhat short-
er arc. It is possible
that the observer at
Cincinnati was not
able to distinguish
the band of light
which I saw uni-
ting the nucleus and
the node, and so con-
cluded that he saw about wave length
two nuclei. When 577 to 428 ; the coma
I first observed the ; gave three bright
comet, on June 28, Comer or 1881, AFTER Pror, Henry Draprer’s PHOTOGRAPH. bands; wave lengths

disappeared. The
August meteors are
assigned a similar
origin. Biela’s comet
reappeared once
after its nucleus had
separated into two
parts; it has never
been observed since.
All comets appear to
diminish in bright-
ness, and it is prob-
able that they be-
come gradually dis-
integrated. I have
undertaken spectro-
scopic investigation
of this comet, suffi-
cient to convince me
that the spectrum
is the same as that of
all comets. I made
observations on June
28 and July 1 and 2.
On June 28, I found
a bright continuous
spectrum with three
bands very hazy, the
whole indistinct.
Evidence of polari-
zation was not trust-
worthy, and I con-
cluded there was
no polarization. On

of the nucleus was
right, showing two
bands; wave lengths
approximately550.29
and 611.5. On July
2,1 found a bright,
continuous spectrum
extending from

July 1 the spectrum.

Ee

SCIENCE.

approximately 548.4,
513.3,.467.2.. The tail
gave no. continuous
spectrum. The mean
of eighteen comets ob-
served gives us wave
lengths .as_ follows:
556.4, 512.7 and 470.6 ;
the mean of two
nights’. work on this
comet gave me 549.3,
512.4 and 467.2. These
two sets of figures
agree as nearly as
could be expected, con-
sidering that I used in
my observations. a
single 60° prism, and
there can be no doubt
whatever that this is
the usual comet spec-
trum.”

Professor A. Hall
also observed that he
had_ received from
Baron Struve, of the
Imperial Observatory
at Palkova, an ephe-
meris of Encke’s comet
extending from July 29
to November 14, and
preparations are mak-
ing atthe Naval Ob-
servatory for careful
observations of that
body, which is con-
sidered of great
scientific interest.

We present our
readers with an il-
lustration showing
the appearance of
the comet in one of
Professor Henry
Draper’s photo-
graphs for which we
are indebted to
Messrs. Harper
Brothers, and we
hope to shortly pub-
lish Professor Drap-
er’s mature views
based on his obser-
vations and photo-
graphs, both of the
comet and its spec-
trum.

To a correspond-
ent Prof. Draper
gave the following
particulars :

“Tn the spectrum
of the comet there
is one great band
in the ultra-violet re-
gion beyond the line
H. This morning
I brought the spec-
troscope with me to
the city, and have
taken photographs
of the spectrum of
the electric arc with
it. The electric arc

Group or Various ComETs,

Views or Encke’s Comet, 1871

Nove mb: rl

335
contains carbon; not,
in all probability, the
pure element of carbon
volatilized, but some
compound of carbon—
most likely a hydro-
carbon. The spectrum
of the electric or voltaic
arc shows a_ strong
band at the ultra-vio-
let region, due to the
presence of this carbon
or carbon-compound,
This spectrum I mean
to compare with that
of the comet, to see
whether the bands in
the ultra-violet region
correspond in the two.
If they do, the pres-
ence of some form of
carbon in the comet
will be demonstrated.
My impression at pres-
ent is that the ultra-
violet spectrum of the
comet does prove that
it contains carbon, but
I cannot speak with
certainty until after I
have made more care-
ful measurements of
the photographs.
At all events, my
experiments must
settle the question.

We are indebted
to Professor Picker-
ing, of Harvard Uni-
versity, for some
valuable observa-
tions which will be
found in another col-
umn,

ON THE TAILS
OF COMETS.

One of the most
important articles in
the June number of
Urania is that by
M. Th. Bredichin,
on the Tails of Com-
ets. After a series
of investigations he
arrives at the con-
clusion that the po-
sition, curvature and
structure of a tail
are explained by the
repulsive force of the
sun and by the efflu-
via of cometary mat-
ter from the nucleus
towards the sun with
a certain initial ve-
locity or repulsion,

336

ON THE OVERGROWN TEETH OF FIBER
; WIBETHICUS.

By HERMAN L. FAIRCHILD.

No group of animals is more clearly marked by a
single feature than the Aodentza by their peculiar incisor
teeth. Except in the Rabbits which have a supplemen-
tary pair in the upper jaw, the number is always four.
The enamel is mostly, sometimes wholly, on the anterior
surface ; where also the dentine is harder. The constant
abrasion consequently preserves a keen chisel edge which
admirably adapts them for gnawing. This purpose re-
quires them to be of a certain length. To keep that
length, the loss from wear is compensated by continual
outward growth from the base, the growth being sup-
plied from permanent pulp. The outward growth and
the terminal wear are nicely balanced.

It is evident that a loss of one incisor prevents ab-
rasion of the opposing tooth, which, continuing to push
outward, may become so long as to interfere with the
proper use of the jaws and the remaining teeth. Such
cases, while not unknown, are sufficiently rare to be of
great interest to the naturalist, and’ of wonderment to
the unscientific.

* Fig. 1, represents a striking example of such malforma-

tion in the case of a muskrat, Fzber Webethicus. The
figure is three-fourths the size of the specimen. This skull
was found on the bank of Sacandaga River, town of
Edinburgh, Saratoga Co., N.Y. Unfortunately no other
portion of the skeleton was coilected ; but the most un-
observing could not fail to notice such remarkable teeth.
It was naturally supposed that some strange creature
had been discovered. Falling into the hands of the
writer its character was discovered and a normal speci-
men was procured for accurate comparison. The latter
is shown in figure 2.

When removed from their sockets the overgrown in-
cisors show a growth nearly to a complet circle, although
the curvature is somewhat spiral. Their terminations

*'This illustration was used, without comment, in an article by the
writer in the Popular Science Monthly for June, 1880,

- SCIENCE.

exhibit the normal form produced by abrasion at a time
when the teeth were of the proper length, and are natur--
ally discolored with foreign matter on account of long
disuse. The yellow color of the front surface of these
incisors is fainter towards the ends, but still marked.

As the mandible is missing it is impossible to know
what was the difficulty with the lower incisors. They
might have been broken by severe usage or carried
away by a gun-shot. But that the animal once possessed
them is shown by the naturally abraded ends of the re-
maining ones. The trouble seems to have been of a
character which prevented the after growth of the lower
incisors. Forif they had grown out again after an in-
jury, they would have been forced to take a position in
front of the lengthened upper incisors. This would have
prevented the forward and backward motion necessary
for mastication, and so prominent in Rodents, and more-
over would undoubtedly have worn the anterior surfaces
of the overgrown upper teeth. But the latter do not
show the least unnatural abrasion, while the molars do
show that they were used. Probably the breaking of the
teeth near the bone would have so exposed the pulp as
to destroy it and the implanted part of the injured teeth.

The fairly clean fresh surfaces of all the upper molars
would indicate that the lower molars were quite intact
and that the greatly lengthened teeth did not interfere
with mastication, however much they interfered with pre-
hension. The accumulation of foreign matter upon the
sides of the molars is greater than on those of the normal
skull. Perhaps this is due to less discrimination in choice
of food, and possibly to somewhat greater age.

That the animal lived some considerable time after its
misfortune, is proven by the great length of the teeth. The
time required for this growth is unknown. Itis, however,
a very interesting point and should be determined. The
rate of growth of the incisors may vary, possibly in the
same individual, according to the kind of food and conse-
quent wear; at least it would not be right to assume that
the rate of growth is atways the same. Observation up-
on a Rabbit or other rodent would be valuable but not
conclusive, as the rabbit is entirely vegetarian in diet while
the Muskrat is quite omnivorous. To answer the ques-
tion before us, the observation should be made upon a
Muskrat having the lower incisors removed or rendered
useless, in order to repeat as nearly as possible the con-
ditions under which we imagine our specimen existed.

As the ends of. the overgrown incisors had long passed
the point of greatest interference they did not prevent the
taking of food with the mouth; and the creature prob-
ably did not die from starvation. '

If the readers of “ SCIENCE” can give any facts bear-
ing on this matter from their personal knowledge and ob-
servation they will confer a favor by sending them to these
columns. ;

In Forest and Stream of April 4, 1878, there is asketch
of a Woodchuck’s skull showing an abnormal lengthening
of both pairs of incisors, which, according to the descrip-
tion, did not prevent the animal from procuring sufficient
food to keep it in good condition. And Owen's “ Odonto-
graphy” brietly describes (page 411, old ed.) the abnor-
mal elongation of the incisors of rodents ; and notices the
skull of a beaver, of which a lower incisor formed a com-
plete circle. Plate 104, Fig. 7, of the above work, also
shows the abnormal upper incisors of a rabbit.

—EE SSS

ABSORBING POWER OF THE ATMOSPHERE.—M. Laight had
long ago shown that the radiating light of the sun is largely
absorbed by the layer of atmosphere. But penetrating more
deeply into the question, he has successively and separately
studied the absorption undergone by each ray of the spec-
trum. He concludes that these diverse rays are from being
equally absorbed, and that the radiation is modified accord-
ing to the degree of absorption. One of the results of this
interesting fact is that the color of the sun is different from
that which we attribute to him.

SCIENCE. 337

BOOKS RECEIVED,

ANTHROPOLOGY: An Introduction to the Study of
Man and Civilization, by EDWARD B. TYLOR,
D.C. L., F. R. S. With Illustrations. D. Apple-
ton & Co., New York, 1881.

The present volume is one which will be very accep-
table to a large class of scientific readers, for it places
before them within the compass of a book of three hun-
dred pages, the principles on which the science of An-
thropology is based, and a synopsis of the mass of facts
collected and arranged by Anthropologists, which are
scattered in some fifty standard works and hundreds of
indepéndent papers on the subject.

As an introduction to the science of Anthropology,
Dr. Tylor’s work is a great success, and if carefully
studied will save a vast amount of desultory reading on
the part of the student, and as strictly technical details
are carefully avoided, the author has succeeded in bring-
ing the subject within reach of readers who have received
or are receiving the ordinary higher English education.

The work opens with a brief but sufficiently compre-
hensive survey of the varieties of men, their language,
their civilization and their ancient relics, thus showing by
vestiges of man’s early existence, what proofs we have
of his first appearance and ultimate development.

The most common observer cannot fail to notice the
broad distinction among races of men, but it is only
within modern times that these distinctions have been
worked out by scientific methods. One of the first ques-
tions which arise in tracing the history of mankind, is,
did man originate from one stock sin some primitive
centre, and afterwards spread far and wide, or are the
Negroes, Mongolians, Whites and other races distinct
species, each sprung from a separate origin.

Dr. Tylor favors the views propounded by modern
zoologists, which is against the several origins of man-
kind, for two principal reasons. First, that all tribes of
men, from the blackest to the whitest, the most savage
to the most cultured, have such general likeness in the
structure of their bodies and the working of their minds,—
as is easiest and best accounted for by their being de-
scended from a common ancestry, however distant,—and
secondly, that all the human races, notwithstanding their
form and color, appear capable of freely intermarrying
and forming cross races of every combination, which
appears to point to a common ancestry. The author
therefore advises the acceptance of this theory of the
unity of mankind as best agreeing with ordinary exper-
ience and scientific research.

Any decision on this subject, however, must be con-
sidered provisional only, as our means of judging what
man’s progenitors were like, bothin mind and body, be-
fore the forefathers of the present negroesand Tartars
and Australians were separated into dis‘inct stocks, i$ at
the best most imperfect. Nor is it yet clear by what
causes these stocks or races passed into their different
types of skull and limbs, of complexion and hair.

We find no aid from the study of ancient inscriptions
and figures, as to the condition of races at the beginning
of historic times.

Figures of Egyptians drawn more than 4000 years ago,
describe features very similar to those found in Egypt at
the present day. The celebrated inscription of Prince
Una, dating back 2000 years B. C., makes mention of the
Nahsz or Negroes who were levied and drilled by ten
thousands for the Egyptian army; and on the tomb of
Knumkept of the 12th dynasty there is represented a
procession of Amzu, who are seen by their features to be
of the race to which Syrians and Hebrews belonged. In
fact all the evidences derived from ancient monuments,
geography and history, prove that the great race-divisions
of mankind are of no recent growth, but were already

settled before the beginning of the historical period. We
must then look to the prehistoric period as the time when
the chief work was done of forming and spreading over
the world the races of mankind.

We might expect that “language ” would tell of man’s
age on the earth, but the reader of this work will find
that although there is evidence that all recent language
was derived from one primitive language, the most
patient research shows that all trace of that primitive
language is lost.

The first chapter of Dr. Tylor’s work includes a history
of the civilization of man and his gradual development
in the appreciation of Art. The first traces of man in
the stone age is described, dating back from twenty to a
hundred thousand years, presenting evidence that, even at
that remote period, man possessed all the attributes
of humanity in a savage and rude condition.

In the second chapter man is compared with the brute
creation. To show how man may have advanced from
savagery to civilization is a reasonable task and is worked
out to some extent by the author. But the evidence is
wanting for crossing that mental gulf that divides the
lowest savage from the highest ape.

The general conclusion advanced by the author in this
branch of the subject is expressed by Dr. Tylor as fol-
lows: “On the whole the safest conclusion warranted
by facts is that the mental machinery of the lower animals
is roughly similar to our own, upto a limit. Beyond this
limit the human mind opens out into a wide range of
thought and feeling which the beast mind shows no sign
of approaching. If we consider man’s course of life from
birth to death, we see that it is, so to speak, founded on
functions which he has in common with lower beings.
Man, endowed with instinct and capable of learning by
experience, drawn by pleasure and driven by pain, must
like the beast, maintain his life by food and sleep, must
save himself by flight, or fight it out with his foes, must
propagate his species and care for the next generation.
Upon this lower framework of animal life is raised the
wondrous edifice of human language, science, art and
order.”

To the many who have yet to master the principles of
this, the latest of sciences, ‘‘ duthropology,” we com-
mend this book as one which will be read with much sat-
isfaction and profit, for the study of man and civilization
is not a matter of scientific interest only, but at once
passes into the practical business of lite. We have in it
the means of understanding our own lives and our place
in the world, vaguely and imperfectly, it is true, but at
any rate more clearly than any former generation.

The knowledge of man’s course of life from the remot-
est past to the present, will not only help us to forecast
the future, but, says the author, guide us in our duty of
leaving the world better than we found it.

———<—<—— _ ~~ —_.

CORRESPONDENCE.

[The Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed
by his correspondents. No notice is taken of anonymous communi-

cations.)
FIRE BALES.
To the Editor of “ SCIENCE” :—

The interesting instance, narrated in a recent number
of “SCIENCE,” of the descent of fire balls as observed
by Henry O. Forbes, calls to mind two occurrences which
I’ have witnessed under circumstances favorable for
accurate observation.

One sultry summer day, at sea, I was lying on the deck
of a small schooner, watching in the sky the gathering
clouds of a sudden and violent thunder shower. I was
looking over the main mast, whose top was in the centre
of my field of view. As the first scattered drops of rain
began to fall, and in advance of any lightning or thunder,
there appeared upon the top of the mast a brush of fire

338

SCIENCE.

remarkably like that which is often produced on a small
scale in electrical experiments. This brush shone very
distinctly against the heavily overcast and darkened
sky; and it looked about as large as the hand of a half-
grown child, with the fingers spread moderately apart.
After one or two seconds.it seemed to change into a ball
of fire, of smaller size but greater intensity, and distinctly
round in outline, which glided smoothly down the sur-
face of the mast and across the wooden deck, until it
passed over the stern of the boat and entered the water
with an explosion not unlike the report of a large pistol.
There was no lightning-rod upon the vessel, but the
wood of the mast and of the deck was quite wet by the
time the ball passed over it. The electrical disturbance
did not approach the mast with a visible flash, and the
sound of the explosion, the only sound noticed, was de-
cidedly from the direction where the ball entered the
water. The ball left the mast in a ‘line at right angles
to a tangent at the point of departure, while the nearest
course to the sea would have been in the direction of the
tangent; but having once commenced to cross the deck
it took a perfectly straight course. The wood over which
it passed was slightly discolored in several places, but not
at all charred.

On another occasion I was standing, with several com-
panions, in a carriage-house, in the country, having taken
refuge there from a sudden shower. Through an open
door we were gazing intently upon a large barn near by,
discussing the safety of occupying that more commodious
retreat, when a flash of lightning, in the usual zigzag
form, passed obliquely from the clouds to the barn, strik-
ing the ridge at the very summit of the roof. Thence it
passed, as a distinct ball of fire, over the wet shingles
down the surface of the roof to the eaves and there
entered the barn. We thought there was a report as the
ball entered the barn, which had been recently filled with
treshly gathered hay, but were not certain, owing to the
nearly, if not practically, simultaneous arrival of the
thundersound. The nearest door of the barn was opened
within a very few seconds, and the interior was found
filled with fire and smoke ; although the roof over which
the ball had passed remained unaffected until destroyed
by fire breaking out from within the building. Although
I had been the only one in the party to insist in taking
refuge in the carriage-house instead of the barn, there
seemed to arise on the part of the majority a considera-
ble unwillingness to further dwell upon the reasons for
preferring the latter place of safety.

R. H. WARD, M. D.

To the Editor of ‘‘ 8CIENCE.”

Allow me in reply to R. C. S. again to tell him, most
emphatically, that I have never entertained, for a mom-
ent, the idea of “reviving ’’ or advocating the theory that
motor cells can be distinguished from sensory ones by
their size. In order to “ revive”’ a theory it must be re-
stated in some form. In the “transactions” of the
American Neurological Association, published in the Four-
nal for Nervous and Mental Disease, July, 1880, p. 476,
I am correctly reported as stating that ‘‘so far as sensa-

tion went, it had nothing to do with the subject of the |-

paper.’ My theory relates exclusively to the nuclie in
so-called motor cells. They are called motor not by any
means on account of their size, but from their evi-
dent connection with motor filaments. In spite of my
denial, R. C. S. still asserts the wrong thing, and shows
none of the customary regret at having possibly misun-
derstood me.

Prof. Stieda is referred to by me not to “ polemize”’
against him, but to show that, while he had measured
their cells and their nuclie in the spinal cord of turtles,
he had not anticipated me in atttibuting difference in
size to difference in energy. Stieda’s expression is;

Physiologische Dignitat, which I translate physiological
importance. As neither sensation nor sensory cells are
here mentioned by him, it seemed plain that he, like my-
self, referred solely to cells of the spinal cord which, by
their close relation to motor filaments, are supposed to
have a motor function.

The careful reader for whom R. C. S. so dogmatically
responds, is respectfully requested to bear in mind that
the three brief articles which I have published, relate
throughout to Reptilesand Batrachians, and not to mam-
mals. With this reminder he will have, I think, no
difficulty in reading, in some places, between the lines.

As to the auditory nerve centres, it remains for me to
state that the paragraph which R. C. S. quotes was
offered as a mere suggestion to one who seemed also to
think that the large cells in the vicinity of the roots of
the auditory nerve, in the iguana, bore some relation to
my theory. As his communication was stated to be pre-
liminary in character, and had nothing to do with my
subject, I decided to make no personal reference, sug-
gesting that these cells (as claimed fourteen years ago by
Deiters) were of doubtful function, and that the cells re-
lated to vision and olfaction were (in reptiles, etc.,) all
very small. This, I believe, is true, but it revives no
theory.

I leave my unknown critic to the contemplation of this
clause which appears in his last publication : ‘‘ Notwith-
standing the construction which Dr. J. J. Mason now de-
sires to see placed upon his words,” doing him the jus-
tice to suppose that he knows what he insinuates, and
that being mortal, he will hasten to admit that he may
have misunderstood me.

JOHN J. Mason, M. D.

Newport, R. I., July 2, 1881.

ed

DECOMPOSITION OF WATER.—In decomposing water by
discharging Leyden jars through platinum electrodes, Dr.
Streintz finds that, with very small electrodes giving pass-
age to a series of discharge currents in one direction, and
then left to themselves, a remarkable reversal of E.M.F. oc-
curs, but only when the discharges do not exceed a certain
number. Dr. Streintz made use of a quadrant-electrometer
in his experiments.

SmmpLE MeTHop OF DETERMINING THE TEMPORARY
HARDNESS OF WATER.—In order to ascertain the alkalinity
of springs on the spot, with samples not exceeding 10 c.c.,
and with a single reagent, the author makes use of a tube
of 30 to 4o c.m. long, closed at the bottom, and with a mark
showing the capacity of 10 c.c, From this mark upwards
the tube is graduated into 0.1 c.c. To determine the tem-
porary hardness the tube is filled to the lowest mark with
the water in question, and a little piece of filter-paper, which
has been previously steeped in extract of logwood and
dried, is thrown in, thus giving the water a violet color.
Centinormal hydrochloric acid is then added from a drop-
ping bottle, till the color of the liquid inclines to an orange.
The tube is then closed with the thumb and well shaken.
The greater part of the carbonic acid escapes, and the liquid
becomes red again. Acid is again added, and the shaking
repeated until the next drop of the acid turns the liquid toa
pure lemon-yellow, a point which a little practice is easily
reached. The amount of acid used is read off on the tube
itself. The author proposes to express the alkalinity of a
water by the number of c.c. of centinormal acid needed to
neutralise 10 c.c. Hethinks that this method will be found
useful both for sanitary and geological purposes.—V.
WARTHA.

CHEMISTRY OF THE PLATINUM METALS.—Contrary to the
prevalent view, all the platinum metals, if precipitated by
zinc in a state of very fine division, are soluble to a con-
siderable extent in nitric acid, whether weak or strong,
so that palladium cannot be separated from such a mixture
by means of nitric acid. The solubility appears to depend
on the relative proportion of one or other of the metals in the

SCIENCE.

339

mixture (mass action.) Pure palladium, even in thinleaves,
is not easily soluble in nitric acid, whilst all the other pla-
tinum metals are perfectly insoluble if in a moderately com-
pact condition. Palladium cannot be isolated by agitation
with mercury from a solution which, along with the platin-
um mietals contain base metals, such as copper, lead, &c.,
since the mercury precipitates, not merely the palladium,
but all the other platinum metals, forming probably amal-
gams. From the platinum metals thus precipitated by
mercury, metal free from mercury cannot be obtained by
distillation and subsequent ignition, since a part of the
mercury forms a stable compound with the platinoids.
—THEODOR WILM.

GLYCERIN.—Notwithstanding the low price which pre-
vails for almost every description of raw produce and
manufactured goods, there are a few articles which form
notable exceptions. Perhaps one of the most remarkable
of these is refined glycerin, which, within the last two
years, has advanced from about £30 to £130 per ton avoir-
dupois for 30° B. ‘This enormous advance is due partly to
increased consumption, diminished production and the in-
fluence of speculation working on a market devoid of stocks.
In view of the present position of the article and the pros-
pect of a continuance of high prices for a considerable time
to come, the attention of soapmakers is now being turned
to the utilization of their waste ‘“‘leys,” and various new
processes for recovering the glycerin contained in these
liquors have lately been tried with more or less successful
results. Apart from minor impurities, waste soap ‘‘leys”’
are generally found to contain glycerin, carbonate of soda
or caustic soda, chloride of sodium, gelatin and albumen.
One of the processes for recovering the glycerin which
promises to be the most economical and the most success-
ful begins with concentrating the liquor until the salts con-

tained therein begin to crystallize. The liquid is then cooled
and filtered to rid it of gelatin and albumen. It is after-
wards made to absorb carbonic acid, which precipitates
bi-carbonate of soda, and which is separated from the liquor
in the usual way. After undergoing this process the liquor is
then made to absorb gaseous hydrochloric acid until what
remains of carbonate of soda has been converted into chlo-
ride, and further, until all, or almost all, the chloride of
sodium has been-precipitated and separated from the liquor
in the usual manner. Arrived at this stage, the liquor con-
tains water, glycerin and hydrochloric acid. The acid is
then evaporated entirely and absorbed in water for using
afresh. The dilute glycerin remaining can be purified by
filtering it through animal charcoal or by concentrating and
distilling it in the usual way.

AN INDUSTRIAL AND TECHNOLOGICAL Museum. —An In-
dustrial and Technological Museum of a very comprehen-
sive character is in course of organization at Sydney. It is
to include animal, vegetable and mineral produce in the crude
and in the manufactured states: waste products, of whatso-
ever origin, foods with their constituents, and that necessary
shadow side of the picture, their adulterations ; educational
appliances; sanitary apparatus and systems, models, plans,
machinery, etc., for mining ; agricultural machinery and
manures ; models, drawings, and descriptions of patents;
a department of economic entomology; ethnological speci-
mens, etc. One remark in the prospectus may call up a
smile. The museum is intended to occupy a similar posi-
tion to the South Kensington Museum. This might be
construed to mean that it is to occupy a site as far out of
the way of merchants, manufacturers, patentees, etc., as
possible. We need scarcely say that the project has our
best wishes.

METEOROLOGICAL REPORT FOR NEW YORK CITY FOR THE WEEK-ENDING JULY 4g, 1881.

Latitude 40° 45' 58";

Longitude 73° 57’ 58"; height from ground, 53 feet ; above the sea, 97 feet ; by self-record-

ing instruments.

BAROMETER. | THERMOMETERS.
EAN FOR |
AES bat MAXIMUM. MINIMUM, MEAN, MAXIMUM. MINIMUM, MAXI'M
| = ee a AES ©
JULY. Reduced | Reduced Reduced | Dry | Wet | Dry Wet Dry Wet
to to Time. to Time. | Time Time Time Time. |InSu
Freezing.| Freezing, Freezing. | Bulb.| Bulb.| Bulb. Bulb. Bulb. | Bulb. | : WW
Sunday, 3---| 29.974 30.100 | 0 a.m.| 29.898 |12 p.m.| 77.3 | 67.3 S70 5 poms Ee 6 p.m.| 65 5 am.} 60 | 5 a.m.| 139.
Monday, 4---| 29.861 29.898 | 0 a.m.) 29.800 | 5 p.m.| 71.6 | 67.6] 85 £p.m.| 72 |1p.m.J 7o | 5 a.m.| 66 | 5 a.m} 136.
Tuesday, 5---| 29.850 29.906 | 9 a.m.| 29.790 | 7 p.m.| 77.3 | 70.7 85 5 p.m,| 75 5 p.m.| 68 3 a.m.| 66 |3 a.m.| 138.
Wednesday, 6..-| 29.828 29.902 |12 p.m.| 29.750 4 a.m.| 82.7 | 75.0 88 4 p.m.) 79 7 p-m.| 74 5 a.m.|} 70 5 a.m.| 147.
Thursday, 7---| 29.983 30.002 9 a.m.| 29.892 |1t2 p.m.| 76.0 | 69.3 83 3 p.m.) 71 3 p.m.| 7o 5 a.m.|} 68 5 a.m. 143.
Friday, ---| 29.927 29.998 |12 p.m.| 29.836 | 6 a,m.| 67.0 | 65.0 7 7 a.m.| 69 | 7a.m.} 64 | 2p.m.| 63 2 p.m. 85.
Saturday, 4---| 30.059 30.090 |12 p.m.| 29.998 | 0 a.m,| 70.3} 66.6 | 80 | 4 p. m.) 72 4 p.m. 63 | 6 a.m.| 62 6a.m.| 140
Dry. Wet.
| Mean) for the weeke-------esseaee 74.6\GERTCES! 2-2 2- an sase 68.8 degrees.”
Maximum for the week, at 4 pm. 6th_88, = at 7 pm 6th, 79. *S
Minimum ‘“ * 6am. gth-63. se at 5 am 3rd, 60. =
Range ‘* oO, eee 25. a io ee aes 2g ; -19. se
\ rs
WIND. HYGROMETER. CLOUDS. RAIN AND SNOW. g
FORCE IN
SRerront MELOCIEY San ce aa enan OM VALOR ee Awe CLEAR, ° DEPTH OF RAIN AND SNOW. |.°
IN MILES.| .on FRET HUMIDITY. OVERCAST, 10 IN INCHES. 10
ULY. aoe = |i=s - Fi = FI ; = : eh
: Distance) ,; | a) €| s/e)e|é g g g | Time | Time | p,.4-/8 5
7 a.m.\2 p.m./9 p. m,| for the @| Time. a a aladl/ al a e a a of of. -| tion. |3 ©
| Day. is a fo n a a i a a a HS ee Ey | h.m. |& ie
t,t. A dee vd | | eae | pened ake Ing. ing. aie
| | : | rf’ 3 Te
Sunday, 3-\W. S, W.|W. D.w.|w. Ss. W. 180/274) x.20pm]| .416 | .558 | .585 | 69 | 49 | 55 | 2cir- |2cir.cu.j2cu.s. | ----- | ----- | ----- =o
Monday, 4-|D. n.W.je. n.e.| w. 104 |4 | 6.30pm| .58r | .644 | .654 | 72 | 85 | 85 | 3 cir. s.|gcir.cu./9 cu. 1.30pm|7.15 pm 5.45 | .80] 0
Tuesday, Galeite Cs [Se Se Gs|| Si We 904 \2%4 8.30pm} .622 | .650 | .717 | 85 | 59 | 70 | gcu. (3 Ccir. cu.|5 cir,cu.] -~.-- | ---.- eee pent (OE.
Wednesday, 6-| w. (n.n.e.|n.n.w. 14t |2 | 2.40pm] .690| .836 | .773 | 70 | 65 | 71 | © |4cir.cu.|2cir.cu./5.copm|s.r5pm) o.15 | .o4] t
Thursday, 7-| ne. | s.e sKe: 180 |3 | 2.00pm} .641 | .6x0 | .631 | 76 | 56 | 80] 2cir. |3cir.cu.|1o | --_.. | 2... [ese 2a fe
Friday, a) Se. je. 1. e./n. ne, 202 (6%|11.40am| .682 | .562 | .536| go | 94 | 84 |10 i) |10 |g.00amM)2.0copm! 5.00 4
Saturday, 9-j\e.n.e.)s.s.e.}s.s.e. loz jt | 4.copm! .529 | .648 | .622 | 89 | 73 85 | gcu. /7cir.cu.|10 pete, | eee Pe Ne = uf\.0
| | | |
Distance traveled during the weeek. ........-...----.----- 1,003 miles, Totalamount of water for the week:_=...-.<-....-----~2..-=----- go inch,
Maximum force-...------------- sre ean ee ee ene ae 6% lbs. Danan On Tainan teen adonias sce ceo a eae 11 hours.

DANIEL DRAPER, PH. D.

Director Meteorological Observatory of the Department of Public Parks, New York.

340

SCIENCE.

WAR DEPARTMENT REPORTS.

METEORS OBSRRVED DURING MAY, 1881. ‘

Almota, Wash. Ty., 18th. Boise City, 3d. Ft. Stevenson, 2d,
very brilliant, observed about 8 p. m. in the southern heavens;
first appeared about 5° above the horizon and inclined south and
downward; its flight lasted about 5 seconds, leaving a faint train ;
in size, it was apparently nearly equal to that of the full moon.
Fredericksburg, Tex., 22d, 10.10 p. m., altitude 45°, direction
from northwest to southeast; as it passed along it gave a light

much brighter than the stars, leaving a trail of dark blue color and

exploded apparently into three balls of fire.

Davenport, 22d,

Washington, D. C., oth, 9.45 p. m., appeared 45° above south-
eastern horizon, pursued a northwesterly course through zenith;

extent of its visible path was about 20°.
a.m., from east to west.

Wood's Holl, 3d, 2.10

Woodstock, Md., 17th, 9 p. m.; 23d,

9 p. m., from southeast to northwest; 24th, 8 35 p. m., from west

to east. Williamstown and _Fall River,

Mich., 27th. Fayette, Miss., 1st.

Volney, N. Y.

, 23d.

ass., 13th. Thornville,

Atco, N. J., 22d, 24th, North
Waterburg, N. Y., 2d. Little Mountain,

Ohio, 7th. Mission House, Wis., 2d.
Table of Maximum and Minimum Temperatures for May, 1881.

STATE
OR
TERRITORY.

Alabama sdedoze

Kentucky
Louisiana
st

Maryland Sy ee!
Massachusetts- -
Michigan

“

| U. S. Army Post

U. S. Army Post
SuRGEON oR VOLUNTARY

SIGNAL SERVICE. SURGEONS OR VOLUNTARY STATE SIGNAL SERVICE,
OBSERVERS,
| OR
: Z : . || TERRITORY. 7 iar
% | : * S hs 5
Station. Sis Station. = = Station. s
Montgomery ---| go°® | 58° | Auburn and Minnesota ----| Moorhead ------ 88°
SCS Pe Ee SE Green Springs-| .__ | 56° s* ----| St. Vincent - a
--- | Texas Hill --- || Mississippi ---.| Vicksburg -- 94°
gx°. [een ceeaeeere Sea PMssoUrs 2 2 e St. Louis - -- gi°
61° | Mt. idac==-=- =~ --- || Montana __._-_- Fort Keogh----- 98°
--- | Fayetteville --.-| 21- }48° | es Oks 5.5 ee Ft. Assinniboine
va api Std eat fae & Rock Creek_| __-
31° 30° || Nebraska... _- North Platte _..| 88°
oe i miNevada .- 22.5 Winnemucca ---| 86,
Pike's (Peak <.. =| 2s ase sae PR ic le Sie eee ee
New London.--| 89° | --- .-- || N. Hampshire_}] Mt. Washington) 61°
New Haven..--| --- | 36° | --- || New Jersey.---]| Sandy Hook.--_| 91°
Ft. Bennett -.--| 92° | 28° 22° 3 =2-_| Barnegat --— Ate 3
Bismarck ---.-- See 200 --- || New Mexico-.-| La Mesilla__ ‘ror°
Breakwater -...| 82° | 45° Sec be (Sante Peco cos ara
Washington -..| 95° | 44° see |] New, York. <== - New York City. 93°
Jacksonville_._-| 96° | 63° | Ft. Barrancas_.:-| -._ | -.. 2: Buffalo
SR eee eee --- | --- | St. Augustine
sera tee --= | ===]. and! Honston--|, 22--|\6e°
Augusta 222 =2_|‘98° (22) Morsyun see 99° dLe-=
Atlanta _.-_-.--| --- | 52° | McPherson Bks..| -_- | 50° |
Dubuque ------| 90°} --- | Clinton | 95° | 35° | See We ee ee
Davenport 2£=.-| ~2=/|/389)|2=--2--=5— soe Ese] Oregon. sess Roseburg-
Ft. Lapwai-_--__- 88h) 272) ete soe S --. | --. |] Pennsylvania --| Pittsburg
Lewiston and . pe all lee eens, meee
Boise City. -- | Be, eee eee .-- | --- || Rhode Island_.| Newport
Springfield - 37° | Pecria and | | South Carolina.| Charleston ----| 91°
Ghicagor-----=— Ses || eerie 93° . || Tennessee --..| Knoxville -.---- 93°
Indianapolis----| 89° | 44° | aaa DeOxaSicsso eee Rio Grande_-.-- 102°
nee eae Se Axe Ss chee. =| BortDavis a 3[ye5-
Fort Gibson.__.| g2° | __- =o tah. 2-28 = Salt Lake City__| 86°
Port Sull-2- 32" gee wy Eee col ease sek a] Boe ee sce Sees
Leavenworth-_-_-| go° | 43° | Independence ---| 93° | --. |} Vermont-- Burlington ----_] 85°
ee Ue eee ae oe Eons |. GlayGentres=o<albo4s Nao ee ee eas Poe
Louisville -.--- _-- || Virginia .----..| Lynchburg -----| 96°
Shreveport ___- is F a | Fort Myer
New Orleans_-__! .-- || Washington Ty Almota
Portland 27° ‘ : Colfax == ae
Eastport -_- _.. || West Virginia.-; Morgantown----| 85°
Baltimore | Woodstock 38° || Wisconsin . --_- Madison -.-----. 88°
Boston Williamstown ---| 25° oe eg eee Milwaukee
Marquette - Hudson and | Wyoming------ | Cheyenne -
Port Huron --_-- Litchfield ---_- 1 ogo) | aoe CO es 8 Re Ss
Pemcgchorére soo5 | Wt, Bradys —---=|/ 22 \|\24e
SUN SPOTS.

OBSERVERS.

= Station. a a

2 | ze
=a | s — ne
ay:
37° | Ft. Niobrara---.- 96° Tea
28° | Carson City ----- 94° ee
-5., | Palisade®=--2 ==-= [occ fl 25P
8° | Contoocookville - 88° | -_-
--- | South Amboy ---| 97° | ---
97°" AtCD Sane eee SLs
=a || Fee Union! 22252 ease
oot sseae ene e 28 ee ee
--- | West Point--- fa hee Yaa
32° | Madison B’ks 21°
2-, ||" Weldont=*=—3= a
50° | Murphy- -- 43°
aes, | Cincmmatizs ee, sand hoe

36° | Jacksonburg and

s-5 Ruggles g6° | ---
36° | Ft. Klamath_ Eee ir?
38° | Milton .._--- = Osea aes
=.! | Dyberry, -2— eens Ps
39° | Ft. Adams -- |. al ae
56° | Arken = =2-ss 97° | 53°
49° | ----~------------ --- | ---
.-- | Ft. Ringgold ----|106° | ---
4r°:), Fe Brown-=-—- 3s 36°
40° | Promontory ----- =
.-- | Kelton --- 30°
30° | Charlotte - a
--- | Wookstock 23°
-.- | Accotink== 22 ie
43° | Ft. Monroe 42°
BON ese see sama aa
39° | Flemington------ =
360) Beloit S=-sa2e— oe a2
Ft. Fetterman_-.| 85° | 16°
Ft. Budger--- 1c] ess )ane

Facule were seen at the time of every observation.

REMARKS,

Noto EN civ | DISAPPEARED BY | REAPPEARED BY Tota NuMBER
7 Sovar Roration, || SOLAR ROTATION. VISIBLE.
DATE,
MAY, 1881.
Groups. | Spots. || Groups. | Spots. || Groups. | Spots. || Groups.| Spots.
° ° I I ° 2 I 6
4 9 ° all 2exec |) a-222 5 15
° ° I 2 ° ° 4 13
° ° ° ° ° 18
° 4 ° ° ° ° c 25 Many of the spots small.
° ° ° ° ° ° 4 18
I 3 ° 3 I 3 5 18
° 7 I 4 ° 7 3 17
I 10 I 2 I 10 2 20t
I 2 ° ° I 2 3 22t
° ° ° ° ° ° 2 13t
° ° ° ° ° ° 2 8
2 5 ° ° I 2 4 8
° o ° ° ° ° 3 9
I 5 ° ° ° ° 4 16
° 10 ° ° ° ° 4 2ét
° 10 2 6 ° ° 2 of
I 7 ° to T 7 3 37
L 7 ° | ° ° 6 4 44t {
a | ¥ rs 5 a =a : 56t f Many of the spots small,
° ° ° 8 ° ° 4 48T |
2 tst ° oo] I I 6 6ot
° 10 ° 5 | ° 4 5 6st J

j

a

SCIENCE.

341

ECTENCE.-.

A WEEKLY ReEcorp OF SCIENTIFIC

ProcRESs.

JOHN MICHELS, Editor.

TERMS:
PER YEAR, ~- = - Four DoLtrars.
6 MonrTHs, = = - - Two e
3 - - - - - ONE «
TEN CENTS.

SINGLE COPIES, - 7 s A

PUBLISHED AT
TRIBUNE BUILDING, NEW YORK.
P, O. Box 3838

SATURDAY, JULY 23, 1881.

ProressorR Lewis Swirt informs us that he has
been receiving letters claiming the Warner Prize, at
the rate Of seventy per day for some time past ; it may
be convenient, therefore, if we state the conditions
on which Mr. Warner offers the reward for the discoy-
ery of comets during the year 1881.

In the first place the comet must be telescopic,
which is a bar to all naked eye observers, and the
comet must be. unexpected. An exception is made to
this condition in favor of the comet of 1812, the re-
appearance of which is expected.

The first discovery of the comet must be made in
the United States or Canada. To secure the prize |
immediate notification must be made by telegraph to
Professor Lewis Swift, of Rochester, Director of the |
Warner Observatory. This telegram must give the
time of the discovery, the position, direction and daily
rate of motion with sufficient exactness to enable at
least one astronomer to find tt.

A study of these conditions will prevent useless
applications and many disappointments. The first
condition, however, which appears to limit claimants
to the class who possess telescopes, should, in our |
opinion, be construed to object to naked eye observa-
tions only. A good opera or field binocular glass |
could be used with good effect ina search for comets.
Caroline Herschell used a very simple instrument, and,
in the course of her life, discovered no less than eight
comets. With a tube with two glasses, such as was |
commonly used “as a finder,” she used to “sweep”
for comets, writing down and describing all remark-
able appearances.

We direct atterition to a series of interesting draw-
ings of comet B, 1881, made by Professor Edward S.

~ Holden at the Washburn Observatory, with the 15-inch
telescope, constructed for the late Professor Watson,
which will be found on pages 346 and 347 of this issue.

Professor Holden has attempted to delineate the
appearance of the comet on six consecutive nights,
commencing on the 24th of June, and also on the
8th and r1th of July.

aa —

Messrs. S. E. Cassino & Co., of 299 Washington
street, Boston, are about to publish an international
directory of the names and addresses of all thosé who
are engaged in any of the departments of Science.
Such a work can only be arranged in a satisfactory
manner with the co-operation of scientific men. We
therefore cordially respond to a request from Messrs.
Cassino to make known their intentions in this direc-
tion, and we call upon all scientists at once to for-
ward their names and addresses to the publisher.

This notice is not only intended for professional
scientists, but for the large class of amateurs, who may
be collecting, or giving their attention to any scien-
tific specialty.

As the directory is partly prepared, prompt atten-
tion is essential to those who would have their names
included.

- —————+o_—_____—

AMERICAN ASSOCIATION FOR THE AD-
VANCEMENT OF SCIENCE.

WE remind our readers that the annual meeting of
the American Association for the advancement of Science
will be held this year at Cincinnati, commencing on the
17th of August next. The executive committee announce
that the sessions otf the Association will be held in the
Music Hall and Exposition Buildings, on Elm street. All
the meetings, general and sectional, will be under one
roof. Each section will have a room regularly assigned

| to it,and every necessary facility in the way of tables,

blackboards, etc,, will be provided. The offices of the
Permanent and Local Secretaries, Reporters’ Room,
Post Office and Reception Rooms will all be on the first
floor. Between the morning and afternoon sessions a
daily lunch will be served in the wing of the Exposition
Buildings known as Horticultural Hall.

On the first day of the meeting, besides the general.
session for organization, some of the official addresses
will be delivered. In the evening there will be a citizens’
reception.

On the following days the usual routine business will
be transacted, papers will be read, and so on. A variety
of social entertainments will be provided, and an after-
noon is to be devoted to visiting the Zoological Garden.

Members of the Sub-Section of Anthropology, and
others who are interested, will have an opportunity to
examine the excavations at Madisonville, and to visit
other localities of antiquarian interest near Cincinnati.
After the adjournment of the Association, excursions will
be organized on the Cincinnati Southern Railroad, and
also, it is hoped, to the Mammoth Cave.

Beginning on the evening of August 16, and continuing
through the meetings of the Association, there will be an
exhibition of scientific apparatus, appliances, and collec-
tions, This exhibition is to be in charge of the Depart-
ment of Science and Arts of the Ohio Mechanics’ Insti-
tute,and a large amount of valuable material will be
shown, Some of the leading dealers in chemicals, ap-

342

paratus, microscopes, minerals and zoological specimens |

have already notified the Special Committee of their in- |

tention to exhibit. The goods here displayed are to be

kept over for the Ninth Cincinnati Industrial Exposition, |

opening September 7, the Managers of which have offered
special premiums for this class of exhibits.

The local executive committee comprises the following
names: A. T. Goshorn, Chairman ; F. W. Clarke, Ormond
Stone, Secretaries; Julius Dexter, Treasurer; J. D. Cox,
William McAlpin, Herbert Jenney, George W. Jones,
Archer Brown, C. W. Wendte, Robert Brown, Jr.

CONTRIBUTIONS TO COMPARATIVE PSyY-
CHOLOGY.

By S. V. CLEVENGER, M. D.
II]. LANGUAGE.

has had but little consideration anatomically and physio-
logically. The philologists and ethnologists have been
trying to interpret phenomena while ignoring the mechan-
ism directly concerned therein. As readily might the op-
erations of a locomotive be explained by a person who had
never seen one. Herbert Spencer, on the origin of lan-
guage, is discursive and inconclusive. Darwin passes
hastily over the subject in his “ Descent of Man,” but
later (2) lays the foundation for a proper study. Bastian
may be taken as the representative of the majority express-
ing opinions on language (3). Hesays: “ Language was
started by some hidden and unknown process of natural
development or asa still more occult God-sent gift to
man.’ If inquiries are to terminate in such assumptions,
why not extend our conceptions of occult God-sent gifts,
to the explanation of the Universe? Bastian’s words
mean, “I cannot fathom it, therefore, no one should try
to do so.”’

Mivart (4) adopts the usuaily accepted divisions of
language :

I. Sounds which are neither articulate nor rational,
such as cries of pain, or the murmur of a mother to her
infant.

II. Sounds which are articulate, but not rational, such
as the talk of parrots, or of certain idiots, who will re-
peat, without comprehending, every phrase they hear.

III. Sounds which are rational, but not articulate, such
as the inarticulate ejaculations by which we sometimes
express assent or dissent from given propositions.

{V. Sounds which are both rational and articulate,
constituting true speech.

V. Gestures which do not answer to rational concep-
tions, but are merely the manifestations of emotions and
feelings.

VI. Gestures which do answer to rational conceptions
and are, therefore, external, but not oral manifestations
of the mental word. Such are many of the gestures of
deaf mutes, who, being incapable of articulating words,
have invented or acquired a language of gesture.

Analyzing these divisions, we find therein the prevailing
idea to be that :

I. Language consists of speech and gesture (This essay
will be directed toward proving that speech is also ges-
ture; hence Language zs gesture accompanted, or not
accompanied with sounds).*

* No attempt at a perfect definition is made here.
bility of absolute definiteness, in a world where everything is relative,
seems, in this instance, not to have occurred to the metaphysicians.
Language, owing to its blending of voluntary and involuntary, and con-
sisting of gestures, used thoughtlessly, as well as those for expressing
thought, is inseparable from other animal activities. One definition of
Life 1s that it consists of Motion, but everything moves, hence everything
lives, and there is no such thing as Death. Even the mathematical defin-
ition of a point is absurd and unthinkable. Who can define Health or
Disease satisfactorily ? ‘

In fact the impossi-

SCIENCE.

II. Language is voluntary or involuntary.

An impassable gulf exists between the voluntary and
the involuntary in the minds of those who are disposed
to reverence authority more than logic. The history of
human thought proves Agnosticism to be a far better
friend to man than Vaticanism or its disguises. Huxley
(5) concludes that “‘ We are conscious automata endowed
with free will in the only intelligible sense of that much-
abused term—inasmuch as in many respects we are able
to do as we like—but none the less parts of the great
series of causes and effects, which in unbroken continuity,
composes that which is, and has been, and shall be—the
sum of existence. As to the logical consequences of
this conviction of mine, I may be permitted to remark
that logical consequences are the scarecrows of fools, and

| the beacons of wise men. The only question which any

wise man can ask himself, and which any honest man will
ask himself, is whether a doctrine is true or false?”
Kussmaul (6) feels justified in claiming that “each act
of the will is always also the realization of a movement

Excepting in Kussmaul’s (1) elaborate essay, speech | image previously sketched out in the recollection, or an

| entire chain of such movement images.” * * #*

| Sensory process.”

“What we call the will zs not only a motor, but always a
That which is involuntary in.our ac-
tions appears, neurologically speaking, to be most evi-
denily reflex, and those who know most about the mech-
anism of the will, know also that it is none the less reflex
for being complex, or for having evaded the analysis of
dualists and those ecclesiastically biased. It is from this
automatical basis that I seek an explanation for the hith-
erto inexplicable. Brown-Sequard insists that speech is
a reflex phenomenon (21). We find certain muscles,
tendons, bones and cartilages concerned in mastication,
and deglutition of food common to many vertebrates. Many
of these same parts, separately or conjointly, prove useful
tothese animals in noise production: A woodpecker (7)
finds by drumming rapidly upon a sonorous piece of
wood, that he excites the admiration of his kind, and at-
tracts attention to himself. When he repeats the opera-
tion for the distinct purpose of exciting admiration and
attracting attention, he uses as much and precisely the
same kind of reason, as the serenader, who pours out his
rhyme to the jingle of a guitar. Wilder (8) speaks of the
inharmonious feline nocturnes, and Lzeder ohne Worte,
but cats to whom that sort of music is addressed, find it
quite as rational and expressive as the seranaded biped,
and the greater part of both sorts of caterwauling, may
be interpreted to mean the same thing, inharmonious only
to those not interested.

Thus the brays, snorts, shrieks, grunts, etc., of the myriad
kinds of animals are only methods for expressing their
satisfaction or displeasure. Many such sounds being
made use of after their accidental origination. The
North American Indian uses the hoggish grunt in affirm-
ation, and a perusal of Darwin’s ‘Expression of the
Emotions in Man and Animals” would be profitable to
philologists who are not too strongly permeated by a
metaphysical bias. At the outset any animal having ob-
served that its noises, of whatever origin, attract atten-
tion of other animals would be led to the use of such
noises as are serviceable. All that follows is simply an
improvement upon these conceptions, and the animal
that uses one noise or gesture, or a thousand, to bring it-
self into’relation with other animals, expresses, in so do-
ing, an idea, conveys a thought and hence speaks.

But this matter of reason and language possessed by
animals has been ably worked out by observers and
thinkers (9).

When water in an engine boiler is low and the alarm
whistles through a simple float device; or when portions
of machinery jar and scrape, the necessity for more water
or oil is conveyed to the engineer’s mind, and by a means

comparable to the mechanism of crying. Just so the

colony of beavers dive out of sight when they hear the

| warning slap of the sentinel’s tail.

SCIENCE. 343

Professor Whitney, of Yale (10), thinks that “there
needs to be, perhaps, a radical stirring up of the subject,
a ventilation of a somewhat breezy, even gusty order,
which shall make words fly high and noisily against one
another before agreement shall be reached. If so, the
sooner it is brought, in whatever way, the better; and
they are no true promoters of the progress of Science
who strive to smooth things over on the surface and act
as if all were serene and accordant below.” The gentle-
man just quoted might have made short work of his op-
ponents had he approached the controversy physiologic-
ally.

M. Renan (11) says: ‘‘ Languages have sprung forth
completely formed trom the very mould of the human
spirit hike Minerva from the head of Jupiter.’’ Schleicher,
Steinthal and Miiller are guilty of similar puerilities. The
latter claims that ‘‘animals cannot talk because they have

because they do not talk.”
be pardonable in scholars of metaphysical tendencies, but

| experienced.

there are structural changes similarly wrought after
maturity has been reached. Organs that have arrived at
their full size possess a certain modifiability.” (17) (This
I would apply to the structural changes in the brain
inevitable upon language learning as well as to those oc- .
curring through training or drilling in any art or trade in-
volving manual dexterity or proficiency.)

“The growth of muscles exercised to an unusual de-
gree is a matter of common observation. In the often
cited blacksmith’s arm, the dancer’s legs, and the
jockey’s crural adductors we have marked examples of
modifiability which almost every one has to some extent
It is needless to multiply proofs. The oc-
currence of changes in the structure ot the skin when ex-
posed to a stress of function is also familiar. That
thickening of the epidermis on a laborer’s palm results

| from continuous pressure and friction is certain.” * * *
no general ideas; they evidently have no general ideas |

This sort of reasoning might |

when we find Carl Vogt refusing to deal with the ques- |
tion, and Haeckel (12) saying, ‘Our ape-like progenitor |

very probably did not possess an articulate language of
ideas,’ the appearance of this essay does not seem to
require an apology. To deny, as Mivart (13) does, that
“the cat, or anyother beast or bird” has the gift of
speech, and to base this denial upon man having a peculiar
language of sounds and gestures to express his thoughts,

is quite as sensiblea proceeding as for the woodpecker to °

taunt man with his inability to drum in its peculiar way.

“Psychology,” says Mivart, “denotes the study of all the!
activities, both simultaneous and successive, which any |

living creature may exhibit.” Mivart, therefore, is the
grossest kind of materialist, without knowing it, for
“ Psyche,” after this definition, consists of motion alone,
and this pre-supposes a material origin.
mentions a deaf and dumb lad who, after having acquired
a gesture language, told of years of abuse to which he
had been subjected by an inhuman father and narrated
other details of his previous life. Kussmaul cites this as

“ An orchestral conductor gains by continual practice an
unusually great ability to discriminate differences of
sound, and in the finger reading of the blind we have
evidence that the sense of touch may be brought by ex-
ercise to a far higher capability than is ordinary. The
increase of power which habitual exertion gives to men-
tal faculties needs no illustration, every person of educa-
tion has personal experience of it.”’ (18)

Language, therefore, may be regarded as pure gesticu-
lation and its perfectibility as dependent upon the gradual
evolution of the reasoning powers,.of animals. This
being the case, it requires but a glance at the construc-
tion of the jargons of to-day (by courtesy called lan-
guages) to convince us of the very low plane to which
man with his much vaunted intellect has arrived. From

| the teleological standpoint, certainly German with its

| nonsensical genders, French with its slaughter of letters

| origin.

an evidence of the speech faculty, upon its creation, find- |

ing everything prepared for it in the way of ideas to
convey. The phylogenesis of speech should be studied
by proper consideration of such facts. The dog only

needs human speech to tell in words what he thinks |
and expresses in every other way beside when his master |

takes a gun to start on a hunt for game.

We may set aside all consideration of sound in language
by remembering that persons entirely deaf may converse
in the regular way, “judging of what was said by the
movements of the lips and tongue, which they had
learned to connect with particular syllables ; and regulat-
ing their own voices in reply by their voluntary power,
guided in its exercise by their muscular sensations” (15).

Speech therefore is the same as any other muscular act
under the control of the will. The jaw is a limb, the
parts accessory to which and concerned in its move-
ments are as susceptible of cultivation as is the arm, and
in the matter of speech acquisition, and the gradually
better and better subjection to the mind of all bodily
parts concerned in its expression. Herbert Spencer’s
words are applicable though the passages here given had
no reference to the point under consideration :

“ Functions, like structures, arise by progressive differ-
entiations just as an organ is first an indefinite rudiment
having nothing but some most general characteristic in
common with the form it is ultimately to take; so a
function begins as a kind of action, that is like the kind
of action it will eventually become, only in a very vague
way.” (16) Thus a “lecture”’ by the Rev. Joseph Cook
was predetermined by the bark of the primordial dog.
(Vogt says “let them bark, it is their nature.”’)

“In animals, however, besides analogously structural
changes wrought during the period of growth by subjec-
tion to circumstances unlike the ordinary circumstances,

| for euphony sake, and English with its multitude of bar-
Kruse (14) |

barisms, must have had more of a malign than divine
(But then the tower of Babel story accounts for
it all.) Maudsley (19) mentions the inability of the
Bosjesmen to talk in the dark, owing to their depending
more upon signs than vocables for intercommunication.
The North American Indians can thus converse without
uttering a single sound. Laura Bridgeman may also be
mentioned as expressing her thcughts, and even “ mut-
tering ’’ in her dreams by finger motions. The necessity
for such considerations as the foregoing appears in the
philological bias which has crept into our physiological

| literature through the one-sided studies of such men as

von Schlegel, and‘through their claims that the pertectly
regular and complex construction of languages of many
barbarous nations is a proof of the divine origin of lan-
guage. By placing language upon an equal footing with
all other voluntary gestures we see at once that speech is
entitled to no more regard than any other set of complex
motions performed by any animal to subserve rational
purposes. We cannot deny the possession of rational
language to animals when we see them conveying their

,thoughts and desires with. and without sounds, by

menaces, contortions, glarings, and a multitude of
other movements. I have known mules and oxen
on the arid plains of the West to acquaint a
thirsty heid half a mile away that water has been dis-
covered. All of us know of the hen’s ability to talk to its
chickens. The most perfect rhetoric and oratory of man
can be said, therefore, to differ from these animal expres-
sions only 77 degree, and often the most pretentious dis-
course conveys fewer ideas than the cluck of a hen or
the growl of adcg. A pure linguist, hence, can claim
but little more in an intellectual way than a pure gym-
nast. Different groups of muscles, nerves, bones, etc.,
are exercised and cultivated by each. Man can claim
no more for developing adroitness in the use of his jaws,
lips, tongue and larynx than any animal which, finding
itself in possession of certain other limbs and groups of
muscles turns them to the utmost possible advantage.
The great function of the jaw was masticatory, its use

344

in enunciation of words was subsequently developed. The
hands of our progenitors were adapted to climbing trees
and by subsequent training are made dexterous in us in
the use of tools. The point I desire to bring prominently
into view is, that the speech faculty has for its basis
nothing more important than prehensile abilities. The
mechanic is entitled to the same amount of respect as
the linguist ; in fact, the mechanic is more apt to have
acquired a respectable amount of skill in the use of his
tools, as generally his labor is directed to some useful
and definite end; not necessarily so with the linguist,
his acquisition of a fewjargons frequently causes him
to be mistakenly regarded as intellectual. Itis not the
ability to use tools or to speak that elevates man above
his fellow animals, for man is not the only animal that
speaks or uses tools. The intellectual differences be-
tween men consist in the greater power of co-ordination
and correlation of faculties.

Dr. M. Dax, in 1836, designated the left anterior lobe
of the brain as the seat of language, because loss of
speech often coexisted with disease of this part, though
the labors of Bouilland previously had paved the way
for this definiteness. Aubertin aud Broca finally assigned
this faculty as centralized in the “operculum,” and Dr.
Wm. A. Hammond (20), in reviewing the subject, con-
‘cludes that: ‘‘ The integrity of the posterior part of the
third frontal convolution, and perhaps of the second, is
indispensable to the normal operation of the function of
speech.” Hughlings Jackson, and Ferrier agree with
Broca in restricting the location to the operculum, but
Dr. Hammond (20) claims:

1. ‘That the organ of language is situated in both
hemispheres, and in that part which is nourished by the
middle cerebral artery.

2. “That while the more frequent occurrence of right
hemiplegia, in connection with aphasia, is in great part
the result of the anatomical arrangements of the ar-
teries which favors embolism on that side, there is strong
evidence to show that the left side of the brain is more
intimately connected with the faculty of speech than the
right.”

I would like to suggest to the advocates of opercular
and insular localization an idea which has probably not
been previously advanced, to wit: The sinistral nature
of central cerebral speech innervation has, doubtless,
some relation to the azygous tendencies of the parts con-
cerned therein; for example, the tongue, uvula, maxille,
vocal cords, etc., though not strictly fused or impaired,
present peculiarities of structure and synchronism of
motion of the bi-laterally placed parts widely different from
those of the extremities, which could easily influence in-
nervation to centralize upon one side of the brain, par-
ticularly when favored by the better blood supply afford-
ed by the left middle cerebral artery. Were the two
hands of man joined so as to restrict motion mainly to a
perpendicular plane, as in the case of the lower jaw, then
we might expect the summit of the ascending frontal
convolution on the left side to develop over the corres-
ponding part on the right side as a centre for arm
motions. But this matter of localization has not been
firmly established. Dr. E. C. Spitzka, before the Medi-
cal Society of the County of New York in 1877, reviewed
“the Localization of Cerebral Diseases in the Light of
recent Anatomical Discoveries’ (22). Spitzkaacknowl-
edged that ‘‘the fibres which ultimately abut in the
hypoglossal and facial nerve nuclei can be traced into the
operculum and island, giving us an anatomical basis for
the aphasic symptom,” but insisted that ‘‘our faculty of
speech 1s certainly more complex than is generally sup-
posed, and the terms amnesic and ataxic aphasia, by no
means exhaust the possible pathological interferences
with its delicate mechanism. The first step in the
acquirement of speech isits phonetic element. We hear
a word or sound, and as far as it is a mere sound impres-
sion it is registered in a sensory area of the cortex.

SCIENCE.

We then experiment, as it were, with our motor appar-
tus, until we find the combination requisite to re-
peat said word or sound. This motor innervation
has its conscious seat in Meynert’s region, while the sen-
sory perception is located ina distant area (probably,
though not certainly) the occipital lobe. Now in order
that the sensory perception may control the ‘correct-
ness’ of the motor expression the two must be associ-
ated. It will then be indifferent, whether the sensory °
center, the motor center, or the associating band be de-
stroyed, we will have aphasia in either case. And there
are still more intimate relations which may be equally
interfered with, causing either aphasia, agraphia, alexia, or
a combination of any two of these, or all.’ * * * “ Any
intricate intellectual processes must involve the greater
part, or the whole, of one hemisphere.” This was a fos-
terzorz completely, and ‘‘localizers’’ should not fail to
read the proceedings of that meeting carefully. These
views are consistent with the theory I recently presented
to the American Neurological Society concerning the
histogenetic function of nerve cells in opposition to their
being “ force producers.” Spitzka has shown that the
Island of Reil has nothing whatever to do with the de-
velopment of the speech faculty. In some aberrant
forms he found this lobe largely developed. It would
seem that primarily this region has, if it have any connec-
tion at all with speech innervation, only a certain con-
venience of situation, an accidental contiguity to certain
fasciculi which was taken advantage of as the speech
faculty developed.

(1). Ziemssen’s Cyclopedia. ;

(2). “Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals.”

(3). “ The Brain as an organ of the Mind.”

(4). “ The Cat.’

(5). “On the Hypothesis that Animals are Automata
and its history.”

(6). Op. Cit.

(7). The Duke of Argyll, in Mature. See “SCIENCE,”
Vol. I, p,-24.

(8). “Anatomical uses of the Cat.”

(9). Houzeau. “ Etude sur les facultés mentales des
animaux comparées a celles de Uhomme, Mons. 1872.
Bechstein “Naturgeschichte der Hof und Stubenvogel.,
C. G. Leroy, Intelligence and Perfectibility of Animals.”

(10). “Are languages Institutions? Contemporary
Review.

(11). “ Origine du Langage,” Chap. III.

(12). Naturliche Schopfungsgeschichte.

13. Op. Cit. }

(14). “ Ueber die Taubstummen” u. s. Ww. Schleswig,
1853, S. 54.

(15). Carpenter’s Physiology, p. 727.

(16). Principles of Biology, Vol. I., p. 157.

(17). Ibid, Chap. V., p. 184.

(18). Loc. Cit., p. 187.

(19). ‘‘ Physiology of the Mind. 2

(20). ‘Diseases of the Nervous System, Seventh

Edition, 1881, p. 182, eZ seq.

(21). E. C. Seguin, Quarterly Fournal of Psycholog-
zcal Medicine, Jan. 1868. q

(22). Journal Nervous and Mental Disease, Vol. IV,
PP. 724-734-

——_—_.——— —_—<—<_<—

AETHER.
By PLIny EARLE CHASE.
Professor of Philosophy in Haverford College, Pa.

The laws of ethereal action and re-action are laws of
action and re-action in an elastic atmosphere.

The following well known laws have an important —
bearing upon photodynamics and other ethereal re-
searches:

1. Cyclical activities may often be accurately repre-
sented by formulas which introduce mean or average ve-—

SCIENCE,

ee

locities and mean vzs veva. This is the foundation of
Maxwell's theory of the equality of mean vzs vzva in the
molecular movements of different gases at equal tempera-
tures, and of Pfaundler’s discovery that in estimating the
heat of dissociation, the mean should be taken between
the temperatures of incipient and of complete dissociation.

2. The’ projectile force, which produces flight or cy-
clical motion against any central acceleration or, retar-
dation, is equivalent to the mean acceleration or retar-
dation multiplied by one-half the time of flight or cyclical
motion.

3. The velocities of wave motion in elastic fluids, and
of cosmical and molecular orbital motion, can all be ex-

pressed by the common formula v = V 2 gh.

4. Every periodic vibrating or orbital motion can be re-
garded as the sum of a certain number of pendulum
vibrations. (Fourzer’s theorem.)

5. The distance of the centre of oscillation from the
centre of relative stability is at two thirds of the length of
a linear pendulum, or at the square root of four tenths of
radius in a rotating sphere.

6. The acceleration of any force, which is uniformly
diffused from or towards a given centre, varies inversely
as the square of the distance from the centre.

7. Times of revolution under the action of such forces,
vary as the three halves power of the distance ; distances
vary as the two thirds power of the time.

8. Centres of inertia, or nodes, in avibrating elastic
medium, tend to produce harmonic nodes.

9. The mutual inter-actions of cosmical, molecular or
atomic bodies are proportioned to the respective masses ;
actions which are considered with reference to a single
active centre vary directly as the mass and inversely as
the square of the distance.

to. In elastic atmospheres the densities decrease in
geometrical progression, as the height above the surface
increases in the arithmetical progression.

11. Living force, or vzs vzva, is proportional to the
product of mass by the square of the velocity.

12. The distance of projection against uniform resis-
tance is proportioned to the living force.

13. In condensing nebulz, the velocity of circular or-
bital revolution is acquired by-subsidence, from a state of
rest, through one-halt of radius.

The following additional propositions may be readily de-
duced from the foregoing.

14. Mean vis viva may be represented by the vzs uzva of
centres of oscillation.

15. The force of planetary projection should be referred
to perihelion; the force of incipient subsidence, to ap-
helion.

16. In synchronous orbits, the mean velocity of rectili-
near oscillation is to the velocity of circular orbital oscil-
lation as twice the diameter is to the circumference.

17. The acceleration or retardation of a centripetal
force varies as the fourth power of the velocity of orbital
revolution.

18. In cyclical motions, the resultant of all internal
forces must be in equilibrium with the resultant of all ex-
ternal forces, at the expiration of each half cycle.

19. The modulus of. cyclical motion is equal to the
product of mean acceleration by the square of the time of
a half cycle.

20. The sum of all external forces may, therefore, be
represented by a velocity which is equivalent to the
mean or resultant internal force acting for one-half of
the cyclical time.

21. The influence of a central force which acts at the
extremity of a linear pendulum is nine times as great
upon the centre of oscillation, as its influence upon the
centre of suspension.

22. The limiting vzs vzva of wave propagation is five-
ninths of the mean vzs vzva of the oscillating particles.

23. In condensing nebule, rupturing forces which are
due to central subsidence may be,represented by frac-

\

345

tions in which the denominator is one greater than the
numerator.

24. In synchronous rotation and revolution, the nucleal
radius varies as the three-fourths power of the limiting
atmospheric radius.

25. The variation in mean ves vzva of gaseous volume
is to the variation in vzs vzva of uniform velocity as I is
to 1.4232.

26, The mean thermal and mechanical influences of
the sun must be in equilibrium.

27. The collisions of particles, in subsiding towards a
centre of force, tend to form belts at the centre of linear
oscillation.

28. The limiting velocity between tendencies to aggre-
gation and tendencies to dissociation is to the velocity in
a circular orbit as the ratio of the circumference of a
circle to its diameter is to the square root of two.

29. In explosive, as well as in cyclical motions, equili-
brium must be established between internal and exter-
nal forces.

30. Apsidal and mean planetary positions must also be
controlled by like tendencies to equilibrium.

31. Undulations in an elastic medium maintain the
primitive velocity which is due to their place of origination.

32. When two or more cyclical motions are combined,
they must all be modified by the tendency to conserva-
tion of areas.

33. In expanding or condensing nebule, the conserva-
tion of areas maintains a constant value for the modulus
of rotation.

34. Instantaneous action between different masses or
particles, by mere material intervention, is impossible.

35. In synchronous motions about different centres,
the mean distances from the centres of motion vary as
the cube root of the masses or other controlling forces.

36. Constant velocities; in a homogeneous elastic me-
dium, represent constant living forces.

37. The time of acquiring orbital velocity, at Laplace’s
limit of possible atmosphere, is to the time of acquiring
“nascent ”’ or dissociative velocity at the nucleal limit, as
the d:ameter of a circle is to its circumference.

These laws are applicable in all branches of radio-
dynamics, viz.: photodynamics, thermodynamics, elec-
trodynamics, cosmodynamics, chemical physics, hydro-
dynamics and pneumatics.

COMET C, 1881.

At 3 A.M., of the 14th instant, a comet was observed at
Ann Arbor by Mr. J. M. Schaeberle, an amateur astronomer,
who has the privilege of the University Observatory.

Mr. Henry M, Parkhurst, of Brooklyn, whose recent cal-
culations on comet B, 1881, proved to be very accurate, has
published in the New York Heva/d the following observa-
tions on Mr. Schaeberle’s comet :

‘The position of the new comet on the 2oth instant at 2h.
46m., Washington mean time, was :—Right ascension, 5h.
54m, 58s.; North declination, 40 degrees, 40 minutes. This
shows a motion of 29 minutes per day—an increase of 7
minutes—showing that the comet is not so distant as I had
hoped. Ihave not succeeded in reconciling my two posi-
tions with that telegraphed for the time of discovery. To
satisfy the right ascension given the comet must have al-
ready passed its perihelion and be moving in such an orbit
that it will pass between the earth and sun within a fort-
night, and be no more seen in this hemisphere. The in-
creased brightness this morning tends to support this idea.
Yet it may not have reached its perihelion ; in which case
it may be visible for a month longer. I shall be compelled
to wait for a third accurate observation before I can deter-
mine the orbit more exactly. In any event the comet is
coming directly toward the earth, and it will become much
brighter than at present, so that it will probably be visible
to the naked eye as soon as the moonlight ceases to inter-
fere. It is now about 12 degrees southeast of Capella, the
bright star in the northeastern sky at 3 o’clock in the morn-
ing.

246

SCIENCE,

eo

COMET B, 1881,

With the drawings of the above comet we received
from Professor Edward S. Holden the following letter:

MADISON, WISCONSIN,

Fuly 9, 1881.
To the Editor of “ SCIENCE.”

My DEAR SIR—As you request, I send you with this,
the drawings of the head of the bright comet which have
been made here. The 15%-inch equatorial, with the
zone eyepiece (field 25'.5, power 145), has been used.
The drawings have all been made by me, and in them
the darker the shading, the brighter the corresponding
part of the comet.

Very sincerely yours,
EDWARD S. HOLDEN.

WASHBURN OBSERVATORY,

DESCRIPTION OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

June 24, 1831, 14h., m. t.
2 2h eee Ioh.,m.t. Hazy and
outlines of comet not well seen. The drawing shows
only the structure of the head. The nucleus is not
round, and is eccentric in the envelopes.

Figure 3. June 26, 1881., 11h., 22m., m. t. Hazy
and clouds. The dark semi-circular line in upper part
of nucleus represents a dark part.

Figure I.

“ 7 “

Figure 4. June 27, 1881, 13h., m. t.
see 5: 285.0 = Ole aimsate
cs etG: iSe-220 wastes hy, 3Om iinet.
“« 7, July 8, “ 10h., 35 m.—Moonlight.

The nucleus is not double. There is a dark, narrow
channel between the following side of the nucleus and
the envelopes, as in the figure.

Figure 8. July 11, 1881, gh., 30m., m. t.—Strong
moonlight and twilight.—In this fgure, which is engraved
differently to the others, the white part represents light,
and the shading darker portions.

FIGURE 4.

Advices from Europe state that this comet was ob-
served by Dr. Elkin, of the Royal Observatory, Cape of
Good Hope, who states that after a week of overcast sky
the comet was found there on May 31. Mr. L.A. Eddie,
F.R.A.S., of Graham’s Town, saw it on May 27, and
others claim to have seen it two days earlier. On June 4
the tail was 6° long, coma 20 minutes, and nucleus 20
seconds in diameter; the comet was as bright as a
Columbe.

Mr, William Huggins states that “On Friday night,
(June 24) I obtained, with one hour’s exposure, a photo-

graph on a gelatin plate of the more refrangible part of
the spectrum of the comet which is now visible. This
photograph shows a pair of bright lines a little way beyond
H in the ultra-violet region, which appear to belong to the
spectrum of carbon (in some form) which I observed in
the visible region of the spectra of telescopic comets in
1866 and 1868, There is also in the photograph a con-
tinuous spectrum in which the Fraunhofer lines can be
seen. These show that this part of the comet’s light was
reflected solar light.

FIGURE 3.

This photographic evidence supports the results I ob-
tained in 1868, showing that comets shine partly by
reflected solar light, and partly by their own light, the
spectrum of which indicates the presence in the comet of
carbon, possibly in combination with hydrogen.”

The following spectroscopic notes, by W. H. M.
Christie, of the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, will be
read with interest :

With the Sheepshanks equatorial (6? inches aperture)
the head showed the want of symmetry that has been re-
marked in some other comets. On June 24 the preceding
side was much the brighter, there being a strong brush or

FIGuRE 8.

arc of light on that side, with a bright fan close to the
nucleus and a much smaller arc on the following side,
the two arcs appearing to spring from the nucleus on
opposite sides, and higher up to interlace. A very re-
markable feature was a straight wisp of light extending
from the nucleus nearly along the axis of the tail. On
June 25 this had become much less striking, and the
appearance of the head had entirely changed. The follow-
ing side was then much the brighter, and the general ap-
pearance was that of a parabolic envelope, with a much
brighter unsymmetrical parabola placed within it, the
latter having its focus on the following side of the nucleus,
and its axis turned round in the direction 7 Z s f from
that of the tail,

347
is.

Ww

Fic. 6.

Washburn Observatory,

HOLDEN

FiG. £:

EDWARD S

SCIENCE.

made by Prof

7
1881

,

Fic.

FIG, 5.
f Comet B

ings oO

Draw

348 SCIENCE.

The greater part of the head gave a bright continuous
spectrum, obliterating the usual cometary bands, but one
portion showed three bands, in the green, blue, and vio-
let respectively. Measures of the principal band in the
green show that it coincides with the band in the first
spectrum of carbon (blue base of flame) at 5165, and not
with that of the second spectrum (vacuum-tube) at 5198.
The bands in the blue and violet appear to correspond,
as nearly as could be estimated, with bands in the first
spectrum of carbon. These observations were made with
the half-prism spectroscope mounted on the 12}-inch
equatorial, a dispersive power of about 183° trom A to H
being used, with a magnifying power of 14 on the view-
telescope, as in the measures of star-motions in the line of
sight. No decided polarisation was detected either in
the head or the tail. Cloudy weather has prevented any
observation of the comet since June 25.

ed

THE UNITY OF NATURE.
By THE DUKE OF ARGYLL.
IX.
THE ORIGIN OF RELIGION CONSIDERED IN THE LIGHT
OF THE UNITY OF NATURE.

( Continued.)

These conceptions seems to have taken their form
from the very violence of the revulsion which they
indicate and explain. ‘The peculiar tenet of Buddhism,
which is or has been interpreted to be a denial of
any Divine Being or of personal or individual immor-
tality, seems the strangest of all doctrines on which
to recommend a life of virtue, of self-denial, and of
religious contemplation. But the explanation is ap-
parently to be found in the extreme and ridiculous devel-
opments which the doctrines of Divine Personality and
of individual immortality had taken under the Brahmin-
ical system. These developments do indeed seem almost
incredible, if we did not know from many other examples
the incalculable wanderings of the human imagination
in the domain of religious thought. The doctrine of the
transmigration of souls at death into the bodies of beasts
was a doctrine pushed to such extravagances of concep-
tion, and yet believed in with such intense conviction
that pious Brahmins did not dare even to breathe the
open air lest by accident they should destroy
some invisible animalcule in which was embodied the
spirits of their ancestors. Such a notion of immortality
might well oppress and afflict the spirit with a sense of
intolerable fatigue. Nor is it difficult to understand how
that desire of complete attainment, which is, after all,
the real hope of immortality, should have been driven to
look for it rather in reabsorption into some one universal
Essence, and so to reach at last some final rest. Free-
dom from the burden of the flesh, rendered doubly bur-
densome by the repeated cycles of animal existence
which lay before the Brahmin, was the end most natur-
ally desired. For, indeed, complete annihilation might
well be the highest aspiration of souls who had before
them such conceptions of personal immortality and its
gifts. A similar explanation is probably the true one of
the denial of any God. A prejudice had arisen against
the very idea of a Divine Being from the concomitavt
ideas which had become associated with personality.
The original Buddhist denial of a God was probably in its
heart of hearts merely a denial of the grotesque limita-
tions which had been associated with the popular concep-
tions of Him. It was a devout and religious aspect of
that most unphilosophical negation which in our own
days had been called the ‘‘ Unconditioned.”” In short, it
was only a metaphysical, and not an irreligious, Atheism.
But although this was probably the real meaning of the

Buddhistic Atheism in the mind of its original teachers,
and although this meaning has reappeared and has found
intelligent expression among many of its subsequent
expounders, it was in itself one of those fruitful germs of
error which are fatal in any system of Religion. The
negation of any Divine Being or Agency, at least under
any aspect or condition conceivable by Man, makes a
vacuum which nothing else can fill. Or rather, it may be
said to make a vacuum which every conceivable imagina-
tion rushes in to occupy. Accordingly, Buddha himself
seems to have taken the place of a Divine Being in the
worship of his followers. His was a real personality—
his was the ideal life.. All history proves that no abstract
system of doctrine, no mere rule of life, no dreamy aspira-

.tion however high, can serve as an object of worship for
any length of time. But a great and a good man can
always be deified. And so it has been with Buddha.
Still, this deification was, as it were, an usurpation. The
worship of himself was no part of the Religion he taught,
aad the vacuum which he had created in speculative be-
lief was one which his own image, even with all the
swellings of tradition, was inadequate to fill. And so
Buddhism appears to have run its course through every
stage of mystic madness, of gross idolatry, and of true
fetish-wership, until, in India at least, it seems likely to
be reabsorbed in the Brahminism from which it originally
sprang.

And so we are carried back to the origin of that great
Religion, Brahminism, which already in the sixth or
seventh century before the Christian era had become so
dégraded as to give rise to the revolt of Buddha. The
course of its development can be traced in an elaborate
literature which may extend over a period of about 2000
years. That development is beyond all question one of
the greatest interest in the history of Religion, because
it concerns a region and a race which have high tradi-
tional claims to be identified with one of the most ancient
homes, and one of the most ancient families of man.
And surely it is a most striking result of modern inquiry
that in this, one of the oldest literatures of the world, we
find that the most ancient religious appellation is
Heaven-Father, and that the words “ Dyaus-pitar’’ in
which this idea is expressed are the etymological origin of
Jupiter Zeverarj#p—the name for the supreme Deity in the
mythology of the Greeks.

We must not allow any preconceived ideas to obscure
the plain evidence which arises out of this simple fact.
We bow to the authority of Sanskrit scholars when
they tell us of it. But we shall do well to watch the
philosophical explanations with which they may accom-
pany their intimations of its import. Those who ap-
proach the subject with the assumption that the idea of
a Divine Being or a Superhuman Personality must be a
derivative, and cannot be a primary conception, allow all
their language to be colored by the theory that vague per-
ceptions of “The Invisible”’ or of “The Infinite,” in
rivers, Or in mountains, or in sun and moon and stars,
were the earliest religious conceptions of the human mind.
But this theory cannot be accepted by those who remem-
ber that there is nothing in Nature so near to us as
our own nature,—nothing so mysterious and yet
so intelligible—nothing so invisible, yet so sugges-

tive of energy and of power over things that can

be seen. Nothing else in Nature speaks to us so
constantly or so directly. Neither the Infinite nor the In-
visible contains any religious element at all, unless as
conditions of a Being of whom invisibility and infinitude
are attributes. There is no probability that any abstract
conceptions whatever about the nature or properties of
material Force can have been among the earliest con-
ceptions of the human mind. Still less is it reasonable
to suppose that such conceptions were more natural and
more easy conceptions than those founded on our own
personality and the personality of parents, Yet it seems
as if it were in deference to this theory that Professor

4

SCIENCE. 349

Max Miiller is disposed to deprecate the supposition that
the “ Heaven-Father” of the earliest Vedic hymns is
rightly to be understood as having meant what we mean
by God. Very probably indeed it may have meant some-
thing much more simple. But not the less on that ac-
count it may have meant something quite as true. I do
not know, indeed, why we should set any very high esti-
mate on the success which has attended the most learned
theologians in giving anything like form or substance to
our conceptions of the Godhead. Christianity solves the
difficulty by presenting, as the type of all true concep-
tions on the subject, the image of a Divine Humanity, and
the history of a perfect Life. In like manner, those
methods of representing the character and attributes of
the Almighty, which were employed to teach the Jewish
people, were methods all founded on the same principle
of a sublime Anthropomorphism. But when we come
to the abstract definitions of Theology they invariably
end either in self contradictions, or in words in which
beauty of rhythm takes the place of intelligible mean-
ing. Probably no body of men ever came to draw up

‘such definitions with greater advantages than the Re-

formers of the English Church. They had before them
the sublime imagery of the Hebrew Prophets—all the
traditions of the Christian world—all the language of
philosophy—all the subtleties of the Schools. Yet of
the Godhead, they can only say, as a negative definition,
that God is “ without body, parts, or passions.”’ But, if
by ‘passions’? we are to understand all mental
affections, this definition is not only in defiance
of the whole language of the Jewish Scriptures, but
in defiance also of all that is conceivable of the Being
who is the author of all good, the fountain of all love,
who hates evil, and is angry with the wicked every day.
A great master of the English tongue has given another
definition in which, among other things it is affirmed
that the attributes of God are “incommunicable.’’* Yet,
at least, all the good attributes of all creatures must be
conceived as communicated to them by their Creator,
in whom all fullness dwells. I do not know, therefore,
by what title we are to assume that “‘what we mean by
God”’ is certainly so much nearer the truth than the
simplest conceptions of a primeval age. It is at least
possible that in that age there may have been intima-
tions of the Divine Personality, and of the Divine Presence
which we have not now. Moreover, there may have
been developments of error in this high matter, which
may well shake our confidence in the unquestionable su-
periority of “what we mean by God” over what may
have been meant and understood by our earliest fathers
in respec! to the Being whom they adored. Some con-
ceptions of the Divine Being which have been prevalent
in the Christian Church, have been formed upon theolo-
gical traditions so questionable that the developments of
them have been among the heaviest burdens of the
Faith. It is not too much to say that some of the doc-
trines derived from scholastic theology, and once most
widely accepted in the Christian Church—such, for ex-
ample, as the fate of unbaptized infants—are doctrines
which present the nature and character of the Godhead
in aspects as irrational as they are repulsive. One of the
most remarkable schools of Christian thought which has
arisen in recent times is that which has made the idea of
the “Fatherhood of God” the basis of its distinctive
teaching. Yet it is nothing but a reversion to the sim-
plest of all ideas, the most rudimentary of all experiences
—that which takes the functions and the authority of a

father as the most natural image of the Invisible and

Infinite Being to whom we owe “life and breath and all
things.” In the facts of Vedic literature, when we care-
fully separate these facts from theories about them, there
is really no symptom of any time when the idea of some
Living Being in the nature of God had not yet been at-

* J, H. Newman, ‘‘ Idea of a University,” p. 60,

tained. On the contrary, the earliest indications of this
conception are indications of the sublimest character, and
the process of evolution seems distinctly to have been a
process not of an ascending but of a descending order.
Thus it appears that the great appellative ‘“ Dyaus,”
which in the earliest Vedic literature is masculine, and
stood for ‘‘ The Bright cr Shining One,” or the Living
Being whose dwelling is the Light, and in later times be-
come a feminine, and stood for nothing but the sky.® It
is quite evident that in the oldest times of the Aryan
race, in so far as those times have left us any record, not
only had the idea of a Personal God been fully conceived,
but such a Being had been described, and addressed in
language and under symbols which are comparable with
the sublimest imagery in the Visions of Patmos. How
firmly, too, and how naturally these conceptions of a God
were rooted in the analogies of our own human person-
ality, is attested by the additional fact that Paternity was
the earliest Vedic idea of Creation, and Dyaus was in-
voked not only as the Heaven-Father, but specially as the
“ Dyaush pita ganita,’ which is the Sanskrit equivalent
of the Greek Zev¢ ratip yeverhp.

When, again, we are told by Sanskrit scholars that
the earliest religious conceptions of the Aryan race, as
exhibited in the Veda, were Pantheistic, and that the
Gods they worshiped were “ Deifications”’ of the Forces
or Powers of Nature, we are to remember that this is an
interpretation and not a fact. It is an interpretation,
too, which assumes the familiarity of the human mind in
the ages of its infancy with one of the most doubtful and
difficult conceptions of modern science—namely, the ab-
stract conception of Energy or Force asan inseparable
attribute of Matter. The only fact, divested of all pre-
conceptions, which these scholars have really ascertained
is, that in compositions which are confessedly poetical the
energies of Nature were habitually addressed as the en-
ergies of Personal or Living Beings. But this fact does
not in the least involve the supposition that the energies
of Nature which are thus addressed had, at some still
earlier epoch, been regarded under the aspect of Material
Forces, and had afterwards come to be personified, nor
does it in the least involve the other supposition that,
when so personified, they were really regarded as so many
different beings absolutely separate and distinct from each
other. Both of these suppositions may indeed be matter
of argument; but neither of them can be legitimately
assumed. They are, on the contrary, both of them open
to the most serious, if not to insuperable objections. As
regards the first of them—that the earliest human con-
ceptions of Nature were of that most abstruse and diffi-
cult kind which consists in the idea of Material Force
without any living embodiment or abode, I have already
indicated the grounds on which it seems in the highest
degree improbable. As regards the second supposition
—viz,, that when Natural Forces came to be personified
each one of them was regarded as the embodiment of a
separate and distinct Divinity—this is a most unsafe in-
terpretation of the language of poetry. The purest Mono-
theism has a Pantheistic side. To see all things in God
is very closely related to seeing God in all things. The
giving of separate names to divers manifestations of one
Divine Power may pass into Polytheism by insensible
degrees. But it would be a most erroneous conclusion
from the use of such names at a very early stage in the
history of religious development, that those who so em-
ployed them had no conception of One Supreme Being.
Inthe Philosophy of Brahminism even, in the midst of
its most extravagant Polytheistic developments, not only
has this idea been preserved, but it has been taught and
held as the central idea of the whole system. “There is
but one Being—no second.’”’ Nothing really exists but
the one Universal Spirit, called Brahmin; and whatever

350

SCIENCE.

Spirit.* This is the uncompromising creed of true Brahmin-
ism. If, then, this creed can be retained amidst the ex-
travagant Polytheism of ‘later Hindu corruptions, much
more easily could it be retained in the early Pantheism of
the Vedic hymns.

There is, however, one kind of evidence remaining,
which may be said to be still within the domain of his-
tory, and that is the evidence derived from language,
from the structure and etymology of words. This evi-
dence carries us a long way further back, even to
the time when language was in the course of its for-
mation, and long before it had been reduced to writ-
ing. From this evidence. as we find it in the facts report-
ed respecting the earliest forms of Aryan speech, it seems
certain that the most ancient conceptions of the
energies of Nature were conceptions of personality.
In that dim and far-off time, when our prehistoric
ancestors were speaking in a language long anterior
to the formation of the oldest Sanskrit, we are told that
they called the sun the Illuminator, or the Warmer, or
the Nourisher; the moon, the Measurer; the dawn, the
Awakener; the thunder, the Roarer; the rain, the
Rainer ; the fire, the Quick-Runner.?. We are told further
that in these personifications the earliest Aryans did not
imagine them as possessing the material or corporeal
forms of Humanity, but only that the activities they ex-
hibited were most easily conceived as comparable with
our own. Surely this is a fact which is worth volumes of
speculation. What was most easy and most natural then
must have been most easy and most natural from the be-
ginning. With such a propensity in the earliest men of
whom we have any authentic record to see personal
agency in everything, and with the general impression of
unity and subordination under one system which is sug-
gested by all the phenomena of Nature, it does not seem
very difficult to suppose that the fundamental conception
of all Religion may have been in the strictest sense
primeval.

But the earliest records of Aryan worship and of Aryan
speech are not the only evidences we have of the com-
parative sublimity of the earliest known conceptions of
the Divine Nature. The Egyptian records are older still;
and some of the oldest are also the most sublime. A
hymn to the rising and setting sun, which is contained in
the 125th chapter of the “ Book of the Dead,” is said by
Egyptian scholars to be ‘“‘the most ancient piece of
poetry in the literature of the world.’’® In this Hymn
the Divine Deity is described as the Maker of Heaven and
of Earth, as the Self-existent One; and the elementary
forces of Nature, under the curious and profound expres-
sion of the “ Children of inertness,’ are described as His
instruments in the rule and government of Nature.® Nor
is it less remarkabie that these old Egyptians seem to have
grasped the idea of Law and Order as a characteristic
method of the Divine Government. He who alone is
truly the Living One is adored as living in the Truth, and
in Justice considered as the unchanging and unchangea-
ble Rule of Right, in the moral world, and of order in the
physical causation.!° The same grand conception has
been traced in the Theology of the Vedas. The result of
all this historical evidence may be given in the words M.
Renouf: “It is incontestably true that the sublimer por-
tions of the Egyptian Religion are not the comparatively
late result of a process of development or elimination
from the grosser. The sublimer portions are demon-
strably ancient; and the last stage of the Egyptian Re-
ligion, that known to the Greek end Latin writers, was by
far the grossest and most corrupt.”

® Professor Monier Williams, “* Hinduism,” p. 11.
7 Max Muller, Hibbert Lectures, 1878, p. 193.

® Renouf Hibbert, Lectures, 1879, p, 197.

* Hibbert Lectures. by Renouf, pp. 198, 199.

10 Jdem, 1879, PP, 119, 120.

——————————— el

ANCIENT PLANETARY RINGS, VOLUME,
MASS AND DENSITY.

By EDGAR L, LARKIN,
ifn

In Astronomical literature there is engrafted a venera-
ble doctrine giving details of the processes of evolution
of the solar system, trom a mass of incandescent gas.
The theory is a hundred years old. It says, all matter
now in the sun and planets was once in a State of rare
gas, extending beyond the orbit of Neptune. The gas
was hot; it cooled, contracted, and rotated. When by
condensation it had dwindled to the insignificant limits of
the Neptunian orbit, its velocity of rotation was so great
that a ring of gas was detached from the equator of the
shrinking sphere. This ring in time formed Neptune.
In like manner all the planets were formed, the residue
of the primordial mass being the sun. This error has
been taught to children, and so tenacious are the tradi-
tions of youth, that geometers have been known to cling
to the illusion in mature years. It has but one rival—
perpetual motion—and is known as the Nebular Hypothe-
sis. Ifit is true it can be handled by arithmetic ; if false,
computation will detect the fallacy.

How shall it be attacked ; and what can be learned of
the primeval state of matter? Can we peer into the
depths of primordial time when worlds were in develop-
ment? The geologist penetrates strata, and writes the
records of the earth. Can the history. of Neptune be
written? And can we trace the processes of its evolu-
tion? Ifso,the mass, volume and thence the density, of
the ring whence it formed must be determined. We
know its mass.in terms of terrestrial matter, it was 102
sextillion tons, or 204 septillion pounds; because that is
the amount of matter now in Neptune... By what possi-
ble means can its volume be learned? The problem
seems incapable of solution, mathematics apparently
being unable to furnish a method of grappling with the
question. We have used diligence to find records show-
ing that the volume and density of the ring have ever
been calculated, and failed. But there is one way of
learning the magnitude of the mass of gas whence Nep-
tune condensed. It is based on the doctrine of the
CENTRE OF GRAVITY, and it is a fact in nature which
subverts the Nebular Hypothesis. We know that if the
revolving sphere discarded equatorial matter to make
Neptune, the planet formed in the line of its centre of
gravity. There are formule for the determination of the
distances of centres of gravity of segments from the cen-
tre of the circles whence they were cut. There are only
three possible forms of rings that can be cut from the
periphery of a sphere—segmental, cylindric and another,
whose sections are in shape like sections cut by a per-
pendicular plane passirg through a bi-convex lens. This
geometrical figure is formed by the revolution of a seg-
ment of a circle about its chord held quiescent ; and the
solid generated is a circular spindle. ‘This form we over-
looked in the previous paper. The volumes of these
rings are sought, the data being the distances of their
centres of gravity from the centre of the sphere, which is
the distance of Neptune from the sun—2,780,000,000
miles. It has been shown in-these notes that the radius
of the only sphere large enough to afford a segment of
sufficient size to have its centre of gravity coincide with
Neptune’s orbit, was three (3) billion miles. The dimen-
sions of this segmental ring cut off by passing the chord
of the segment around the sphere, were: chord, 2,600,-
000,000 ; altitude, 300,000,000; and length, 17,500,000,-
ooo miles, the length of the path of Neptune. Therefore
its volume was nine (9) octiliion cubic miles, and as this
number of miles had to contain 204 septillion pounds, one

cubic mile held .0224 pounds, or 157 grains, 45 cubic -

miles being required to contain one pound of gas.
“ At 15.5° C, (60° F.), and 30 inches barometric pres-
sure, 100 cubic inches of Hydrogen weigh 2.14 grains.”

|

SCIENCE.

35!

Fowne’s Chemistry, p. 137. Thence one cubic mile of
hydrogen weighs over five (5) trillion grains, or 777 mil-
lion pounds, And as the ring was of such density as to
require one cubic mile to contain 157 grains of matter,
the Neptunian mass was thirty-four(34) billion times less
dense than hydrogen.

The volume of the sphere, radius three (3) billion
miles, whence Neptune was detached, the ring being seg-
mental, was $ 7 R? =113 octillion cubic miles. But the
ring was in volume nine octillion cubic miles, nearly ;'s
the entire mass !

What unheard of convulsion took place to disrupt the
mass and cause it to part with 74 its bulk! What in-
conceivable power was displayed if the dogma is true,
yet all the force present was gentle centrifugal tendency
caused by slow rotations of 3.36 miles per second !

The mass of the first world is y5}55 of the solar sys-
tem, but ;4 the volume was required to make it. The
volume of a sphere bounded by the orbit of Neptune is
Yt D*'=go* octillion cubic miles, and as it contained 4
nonillion pounds of gas, each cubic mile held 44 pounds,
—17,500,000 times less in density than the lightest body
on earth, the mass being homogeneous. But it was not
since the centre must have been compressed.

The density of the segmental ring was 34 billion times
less than hydrogen, therefore, the sphere was old when it
cast away its first world, having had time to acquire in-
ternal density, greater than peripheral, in the proportion
of 17 millions to 34 billions. All along we have been
quoting Helmholtz, where he says :—“ It required several
cubic miles to weigha single grain,’—not having made
calculation, but now we do not see how he arrived at
these results, as one cubic mile, by following the prin-
ciple of centre of gravity, is found to have contained 157

rains.

He probably alluded to the mass when expanded
larger; but if extended to half the distance of the stars,
a thousand cubic miles might have been required to con-
tain one grain of matter. And we feel that we are tra-
versing solid ground, in basing these deductions on the
doctrine of thé centre of Gravity. The volume of a
cylindric ring to form Neptune must have been the same
as the segmental, the density being nearly equal. The
diameter of a section of a cylindric ring whose length
was equal to that of Neptune’s orbit, in order to have
the required volume, was 822,000,000 miles. Since the
planet coalesced in its centre of gravity, which was its
geometrical centre, the material of the ring extended
411,000,000 miles above, and the same distance below
the orbit. This added 822,000,000 miles to the equator-
ial diameter of the mass, retarded its assumed rotation,
and prevented detachment of any particle of matter. The
disrupting force had to be applied, not where Neptune
revolves, but 411,000,000 below, at a point where force
was weakest, and resistance strongest. And then such a
ring was subjected to lateral pressure, and could not be
severed on that account.

The ring made up of an infinite number of solids gen-
erated by revolution of circular segments about their
chords, to have the same volume as segmental and cylin-
dric, was in radial diameter 380,000,000, and in diam-
eter north and south 2,090,000,000 miles. If this form of
ring was discarded the break took place 190,000,000 be-
low the orbit, and along a line more than two billion
miles long. Rotation was slower than the orbital veloc-
ity of Neptune, and the separation was again required to
be made where the force to cause it was in minimum,
and its opposing powers, gravity and cohesion, at a max-
imum. We reassert thatin no possible case could the
Neptunian matter have been detached from the primeval
mass when it was a sp/ere.

Neither could it have been separated when sections of
the protuberance were parabolic ; thus a chord, or limiting

* Ninety Octillion.

plane, the base of a parabolic segment, in order to cut
out a ring in volume sufficient to contain the Neptunian
gas, was in length 634,000,000, in altitude 1,250,000,000,
the vertex extending 750,000,000 above, and base de-
scending 500,000,000 miles below, the orbit, in order that
Neptune might condense in its centre of gravity. This
would make the equatorial diameter of the mass 7,060,-
000,000 miles a physical impossibility, for rotation would
have come to a dead rest ages before such elongation.
Consider the curvature of sections semi-elliptical and
results are still more absurd. Since the mass was un-
able to part with rings whose sections were hyperbolic,
parabolic or semi-elliptic, we dismiss as untenable all
varieties of such ring-shaped masses.

Now conceive the mass a sphere again and at rest;
let rotary motion be imparted, and should the velocity
become sufficient, the equatorial regions will become a
swelling tide. But when a protuberance elevated motion
waned, and the equator subsided. When at greatest
altitude the whole mass was an ablate spheriod. There-
fore, we lay down this proposition which must have ob-
tained if the Hypothesis of ring displacement is true. If
the equatorially expanding mass parted with a ring, it
did so at the first opportunity.

And such fullness of time was when a segment of an
ellipse could be cut away large enough to have Neptune
in its centre of gravity. When the mass was an ablate
spheroid, sections cut by passing planes through the entire
mass, at right angles to the equator, bisecting the poles,
would all be plain curves—ellipses. And a segment
severed from the equator to make Neptune, was a seg-
ment of an ellipse, whose centre of gravity coincided with
that planet’s present track. The dimensions of this ring
were, height, 319,000,000, and chord 2,350,000,000 miles,
to have volume sufficient, to contain gas enough to
solidify into the most remote member of the solar system.
The axes of the ellipse whence this segment was cut were
transverse, 5,800,000,000, and conjugate, 5,400,000,000,
the diameter of the mass when spherical being 5,560,-
000,000 miles. Therefore, we say that during all muta-
tion in form of the primordial cosmical mass, admitting
the hypothesis true, its equatorial diameter was never
augmented more than 240,000,000 miles, as is seen in
these dimensions.

Mathematical instruments of delicacy are required to
measure such small deviation from a sphere. Yet, it was
able to discard a ring having a volume of nine octillion
cubic miles. Basing conclusions on the sure foundation
of the principle of the centre of gravity, we assert that the
mass never detached rings whose sections were of any
form of curvature known to geometry. Then none were
cast off, since every department of celestial mechanics is
known to be subject to rigid mathematical laws.

The theory of cosmic evolution, which holds that
planets were formed of masses detached from an aeri-
form sphere belongs in that list of delusions which re-
tarded the early progress of astronomy—the ‘“Geocen-
tric System,” the “Firmament,” and “ Music of the
Spheres.”’

NEw WINDSOR, ILL., Fuly 10, 1881.

CORRESPONDENCE,

[The Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed
ee gaat Casi _ No notice ts taken of anonymous communi
cations,

To the Edztor of “ SCIENCE ”’:—

Dr. J. J. Mason in his second rejoinder to the critic-
ism made by a reviewer in SCIENCE, leaves his un-
known critic to the contemplation of the latter’s clause.
“Notwithstanding the construction which Dr. J. J.
Mason now desires to see placed on his words,” and
does him “the justice” of supposing that the critic

352

knows what he insinuated. This the critic did indeed
know! In view of the inconsistency between the text
of his article, and the dementz of his first rejoinder, he
considered himself justified in insinuating that Dr.
Mason had come to recognize that one of his views was
untenable, and preferred to deny having entertained that
view to admitting its errors publicly. If I have misin-
*terpreted Dr. Mason’s paper, I fail to see it even now,
for the doctor fails to answer my question: What other
than the size of the cells and their nuclei, does Dr.
Mason refer to when he speaks of a structure univer-
sally admitted to be motor?” Until he answers this, I
would suggest that further correspondence on this head
is a waste of the space in your periodical, and that de-
mands for “customary regrets”’ are premature. I am
as willing now as I have been throughout not only to
withdraw my original stricture, but also the statements
that have grown out of the controversy, if Dr. Mason
can explain this passage and those with which it is as-
sociated, differently from my interpretation, and the
meaning evident on their face.

Such an explanation should, however, avoid the incon-
gruity existing between the text of Dr. Mason’s article and
the explanation he now gives of his real intention in
polemicizing against Stieda, which I must confess I have
not been able to assimilate. Dr. Mason might also answer
this question. Why has he, if his “ three brief articles”
relate throughout to reptiles, and Batrachians referred to
the bat as bearing out his theory, and why has he incor-
porated an explanation as his own, which I published two
years before, without even mentioning my name, or
that of some one else who may have anticipated me?

SCIENCE.

My publication was certainly known to Dr. Mason, and
he cannot fall back upon the flimsy excuse that it was a
“preliminary ’”’ communication, and had nothing to do
with his subject. If the explanation was worth while in-
corporating in Dr. Mason’s paper, it was worth while
giving its author credit for it, just as it was worth while
referring to the author of the Iguana article by name,
if it was worth Dr. Mason’s while to offer suggestions
in a patronizing way, which were altogether unneces-
sary as a matter of instruction, and as which they seem
intended to appear.

I consider this subject closed, as far as Iam concerned,
until such time as the main question here repeated, is
properly answered. E.G, (SPITZEAS

NEw YORK, 130 E. 5oth Street, July 19, 1883.

————_».» ___

NOTES.

The Chemiker Zeitung states that all the English and
French professors at the University of Yeddo, Japan, have
been dismissed, and their places filled with Germans. The
Japanese Minister of Public Instruction is a German pro-
fessor. The Chinese are about establishing a German
University at Pekin. These facts should be duly weighed
by those who still doubt the superiority of German research
over English cram and examinations !

AccorDING to M.A. Gaudry the Permian ‘reptiles of
France diminish the vast interval which exists at present
between the reptiles and the monotrematous mammals.

Tue ferment which M. Béchamp supposed he had dis-
covered in chalk has been traced, by MM. Chamberland
and Roux, to an experimental error. ,

METEOROLOGICAL REPORT FOR NEW YORK CITY FOR THE WEEK ENDING JULY 16, 1881.

Latitude 40° 45’ 58" N.; Longitude 73° 57’ 58" W.; height from ground, 53 feet ; above the sea, 97 feet ; by self-record-
ing instruments.

BAROMETER. THERMOMETERS.
i | |
MEAN FOR ete y. | SIMU | 7
aye MAXIMUM. MINIMUM, | MEAN MAXIMUM. MINIMUM. MAXIM
JULY. Reduced | Reduced Reduced | | |
| opts : Dry | Wet | Dry . Wet | ~.- lee Wet
= to, | Time. | to. _| Time. | Bafb.| Bulb.| Bulb. /™e- Bulb.) Time: (aie) SMe aah.) team
Freezing.| Freezing. Freezing. | |
Sunday, 10.--| 30.044 30.094 | 9 a.m.| 29.982 ie Pp. =| 72.6 | 68.6 | 82 | 4p.m.. 74 4p.m.| 66 | 4 a.m.|] 65 | 4 a.m.| 134.
Monday, I1--| 29.943 29.996 |12 p.m.| 29.900 | 2 p.m.| 72.0 | 69.3 | 80 |x a.m.) 74 |r11 a.m.| 65 |12p.m.| 63 |12 p.m.| 129.
Tuesday, 12--] 29.956 30.000 | 9 a.m.} 29.900 ro p.m-| 69.7 | 65.7] 76 |4p.m,) 70 | 5 p.m | 63° | 4:a.m.]|- 62 (5 a.m. 13%
Wednesday, 13 -| 29.805 29.900 |oa.m.| 29.744 6p.mJj 79.6 | 72.6] 90 |4p.m.. 80 | 4 p.m 68 |3 a.m.) 66 | 3 a.m.) 135.
Thursday, 14--| 29.889 29.976 |12 p.m.| 29.794 | o a.m.| 80.0 | 71.3 | 86 | 3 p.m.) 74 | 2 p.m.) 75° |6a.m.| 69 6a.m.| 143.
Friday, I5--| 30.002 30.022 g a.m.| 29.976 o a.m.} 76.3 | 69.7 82 3 p.m.) 72 Ip.m.| 70 ,/12 p.m.) 67 6 p.m.| 138.
Saturday, 16--] 29.801 29.984 oa.m.| 29.618 |12 p.m] 78.6 | 71.6 83 3 p.m.) 73 3 p.m.) 69 | 5 a.m.| 67 5 a.m.) 134.
| Dry. Wet.
Mean forthe. week. . 22.gé_ Joa: seat Foe ee 29.920 inches. Mean for the week______-- = ous 75.5 degrees”. 5--.<---= 69.9 degrees.
Maximum for the week at 9 am., July roth-__-_.-_._------- 30.094 ** Maximum for the week,at 4 pm. 13th go, “at 4 pm 13th, 80. =
Minimum ne atw2 Bl., ;) xo -n.-*) see 29.618 ‘* Minimum ‘ “4am. 12th 63. ‘* at 5 am 12th, 62.
Range: 2652223 288 2 coon oe ee 476 “* Range ‘ * FRC 27. st /)e (eos eee 18S
re oe a pe £3 = = =
Z
WIND. HYGROMETER. CLOUDS. RAIN AND SNOW. |g
°
ae FORCE IN 7
‘ |VELOCITY = RELATIVE CLEAR ° DEPTH OF RAIN AND SNOW
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7. a.m.2 p.m.9 p.m.| for the | | Time. Pa roe tec tal) on hers Sac a Begin-| End= } Ea 22
salle Ki Beedle Fosan Mae al m C TEEeee
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Sunday, 10) s. s s. 98 | %| 3.30pm] .577 | .704 | .668 | 84 | 73 | 85 |10 2 cir. Cu.)3 cir. ae 4
Manne Tr. 8, 0.7|. 28 le. n. e.! 106 1% 11.30am| -668 | .799 | -591 | 85 | 86 | 89 |10 +, 10 10 | ae aaa | Se =
Tuesday, 12-\€.n. €.| ©. 5.5. €. 113 Y%| 5.30pm| .516 | .604 | .622 | 83 | 72 | 85 | gcu. |5cu. 5 cu. P | °
Wednesday,13- 5. S. W.|W. S. W.|W. S. W.| 137 2%) 2.copm) .644 | .836 | .787 | 85 | 65 | 74 |10 jo 3 cu. |4.00pm|5.copm -.-.- == lew
Thursday, 14-| n. w. (n..n.w.| n. w. 122 |1¥4| 9.30am) .601 | .691 | .664 | 65 57 | 69 | 0 | 3cir.cu.)8 cu. =| ----- | ----- 1.00 | .or| I
Friday, 15.\€. 0. €./e. 8. €.|S. 8. e.| 130 3% |10.00am) .568 | .677 | .666 | 68 66 | 77 | 6cir.cugcir.s. jo = | ----- | ----- | pine BS
Saturday, 16-| s.w.| s. w. |w.s. Ww. 135 3%| 4.40pm) .655 -677 | .717 | 81 | 60 | 70 | 1 cir. pares > eine | PRESEN fe Ae = = aa Se fi
! i
ist traveled during the WEOK. of ation ssn asuesa et aaon 84x miles. Total amount of water for the week....--..---.------------------ 12 inch,
a le fovte Wha a ae he EL e oS ee 2 SE ad 11% lbs. Duration of rains <1... 2c 8 7 oe eee ee 4 hours 15 minutes,

DANIEL DRAPER, Ph. D.

Director Meteorological Observatory of the Department of Public Parks, New York.

)
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SCIENCE.

mere NGE::

A WEEKLY ReEcorp OF SCIENTIFIC

ProGRESss.

JOHN MICHELS, Editor.

THRMS:
Per YEAR, - x : Four Dotrars.
6 MonTus, s - - - Two
3 « - - - - ONE <
SINGLE CopIEs,- - = = - TEN CENTS.

PUBLISHED AT

TRIBUNE BUILDING, NEW YORK.
P, O, Box 8838.

SATURDAY, JULY 30, 1881.

THERE appears to be an open question between
Professor Ormond Stone, of Cincinnati, and Mr.
Rock, of Washington, as to whether the nucleus of
Comet b, 1881, divided on the night of the 6th in-
stant.

Both astronomers appear to have observed the
comet at the same time, but have recorded somewhat
different results.

On reference to “ SciENcE,” July 16th, page 334,

will be found a statement of what Mr. Rock saw, as
follows :

On the 6th of July the comet was observed by Mr. Rock of the
Naval Observatory :

“A bright tongue of light about one revolution long in direction
of tail, with a slight node near end and curved.”

In explanation of this Mr. Rock said: ‘‘I observed the comet
at the time ofits lower culmination about twenty minutes after
midnight. “The nucleus did not appear to be divided, but a bright
band streamed out in the direction of the tail. This band was
about fifteen seconds of the arc in length. Near the end of it was
a bright spot, and that portion of the band extending beyond it

was curved in the same general direction as the tail, but ina some-
what shorter arc.”

And then referring to Professor Stone’s report of a
division of the nucleus, he adds:

‘Tt is possible that the observer at Cincinna'i was not able to
distinguish the band of light which I saw uniting the nucleus and
the node, and so concluded that he saw two nuclei. When I first
observed the comet, on June 28, the coma was apparently homo-
geneous as it also was on July 2. On June 28, howeve-, there
were two spurs of light spreading away from the opposite sides of
the head like angel’s wings. On July 2, I did not observe these
at all or they were very faint. On-July 6, I observed the appear-
ance thatI have described. It may be that this was the same
thing that Isaw on June 28, observed from a different point of
view. It is not improbable, however, that the nucleus has really
divided. Comets appear to have a tendency to do that.”’

In another part of this issue will be found a letter
from Professor Stone, reiterating his former claim of

353

having observed a division of the nucleus of this
comet on the night of the 6th instant.

“He states that on the 6th of July, during obser-
vations made between to p. m. and 3 a. m., he saw
a bright red jet projected from the nucleus into the
dark region on the side of the nucleus opposite the
fan, which was totally different in appearance from
those usually seen. There was a dark line separating
it from the nucleus. During the first few minutes a
decided change took place. The jet seemed to sepa-
rate and form a nucleus of its own, so that for a time
the comet appeared double.”

It may assist in a solution of this subject if our
readers inspect the continuation of the interesting
drawings of this comet, made by Professor Edward S.
Holden, to be found on another page of this issue.*

The drawings we published last week showed the
appearance of the comet on 24th, 25th, 26th, 27th,
28th and 2oth of June, and the nights of the 8th and
11th of July. Those presented in this number give
views of the comet for the nights of the 13th, 14th,
17th and 18th of July.

The drawing for the r1th of July is interesting as
showing ‘‘a dark narrow channel between the follow-
ing side of the nucleus, and the envelopes,” but, added
Professor Holden, “‘the nucleus is not double.” But
the drawing we offer this week for the 18th instant, is
quite remarkable as showing a decided division of the
nucleus, and Professor Holden remarks in his note to
it, ““THE NUCLEUS IS DOUBLE (it has not been pre-
viously),” and those who inspect this drawing will find
two nuclei.

The drawings of Professor Holden and the obser-
vations of all who have watched this comet, show
conclusively that the form of the nucleus changed
very rapidly and continuously, and as we have the
best evidence that the nucleus divided on the 18th in-
stant, it makes it very probable that a similar phe-
nomenon occurred on the 6th of the same month, es-
pecially as Professor Stone is an accomplished
observer, and not likely to be mistaken in his descrip-
tion of the optical appearance of a celestial object.

os

AN experiment illustrating ‘‘fatigue” in the sense of
hearing (corresponding to fatigue of the retina) has been
described by Herr Urbantschitsch. Two tubes are adapted
to the ears, and adjusted, so that a given tuning-fork is
heard equally on both sides. Nowstrike the fork strongly,
and let it sound a little through one tube; then deaden it
somewhat by touching. The ear on that side fails to catch
the weakened sound, but on transferring the fork to the
other ear, the sound is heard distinctly. If the weaker tone
presented be of different pitch from the strcnger, it is heard
on both sides equally. The failure of sensitiveness in the
other case is very transient.

* On account of delay in engraving these drawings, they are reserved
until next week’s issue.

354

LATENT SOLAR LIGHT.*
Translated from the French, by the Marchioness CLARA LANZA.

A remarkable stone, which plays quite an important
role in ancient history, is the carbuncle, literally trans-
lated, glowing coal, which shines and glimmers in the
dark. Lucien relates that in the Temple of Hieropolis
there is the statue of a Syrian goddess in whose fore-
head is placed a stone called Zychzms or lamp. This
stone was moderately brilliant during the day, but at
night it illuminated the temple from one end to the other.
Shakespeare, in Titus Andronicus, says, while speaking
of Prince Bassianus’ body:

“Upon his bloody finger, he doth wear
A precious ring, that lightens all the hole,

Which, like a taper in some monument,
Doth shine upon the dead man’s earthy cheeks.”

It is said that formerly dwarfs and gnomes wore one

of these stones upon their heads as miners carried their |

lamps. We have likewise been told that certain birds
knew where to find them and make use of them to
illumine their nests. The tendency which has been
remarked in birds, notably crows, to pick up brilliant
objects, has naturally given rise to numerous legends
and anecdotes among all people, and it is declared that
in America numbers of birds light up their nests by
placing therein fire-flies. The carbuncle has stiil another
secret property, for it renders the object it adorns, invisible
both to man and beast. The question may therefore
properly arise, how did man happen to discover this
treasure which birds alone were apparently able to dis-
tinguish ? Poetic fancy, we may say, has answered this
query. The invisibility is caused by a ray of light which
blinds the eye. A mirror, however, does not become so
easily dazzled, and if, while walking along the edge of a
brook, you perceive the reflection of a nest in the water,
while with your naked eye you are unable to discover
it, you may be sure that the stone is there. The legend
of the carbuncle first arose in India, the land of precious
stones, and it was founded upon the remarkable capacity
possessed by many diamonds and a few rubies of shin-
ing for a long time in the dark after being exposed a few
moments to the sun or merely broad day-light. This
phenomenon appears to have been studied and experi-
mented upon tor the first time in Europe somewhere
about the seventeenth century, by the celebrated natu-
ralist, Boyle. In India, however, the knowledge of it
can be traced bick to the furthest antiquity, as can be
proved by referring to a passage in the famous drama
called Sakunta/a, whose author certainly lived long be-
fore the beginning of our era. The passage is this:

“Among the just whose souls enjoy the most complete
repose, there is a hidden radiance, which illumines them
with its faint glimmer. Thus shines the precious sun
stone, as soon as an outward ray of light-strikes it.”

At Bologna, which, as we know, is a well-known
scientific centre, there lived at the begmning of the
seventeenth century, a shoemaker named Vincenzo Cas-
cariolo, who like many other men of his tirne, determined
to discover primitive matter in the shape of the philoso-
pher’s stone, and by means of it,change the vilest and most
worthless metals into pure gold. He had already exper-
imented with fire and water upon all possible substances,
organic and inorganic, when in 1604, some writers say
1612, he found, one day upon Mount Paderno, close to
his own dwelling, a grayish-white stone, of a fibrous

structure, and whose weight being considerable, made |

him suspect some unusual property. He calcinated a
portion of it with some coal, and night falling while he
was engaged in the operation, he saw with utter stupe-
faction, that the entire contents of his crucible, shone
with a ruddy glow, although the furnace had become

_* This article was originally written in German and published a short
time ago in the Gartenlause.

|

SCIENCE.

quite cold. With trembling hands he seized the stone,
not doubting in the least that it was the famous philo-
sophical one, of which he had so long been in search—
still less did he doubt, when he observed afterwards,
that only the fragments which were exposed to the sun
or broad daylight were brilliant. Alchemists in those
days called the sun a golden planet. In their works they
employed an identical sign to designate both the lumin-
ary and the metal, and they firmly believed that the rays
of the former penetrated the latter, as water is soaked
into a sponge. This mysterious connection is clearly
indicated in a brief opuscule discovered during the mid-
dle ages, no one knows exactly where, and of which
there exists now only a Latin translation, the original,
however, doubtless having been found in some Egyptian
tomb. It is called “The Emerald Table of Hermes
Trismegistus,” and among other things it is therein stated
that “the father of the Philosopher’s Stone, is the sun,
its mother the moon. Separate the earth from fire, and
you will obtain the wonder of the world, all shadows
will flee before you.” These obscure words were ap-
plied to the new luminous body called phosphorus, and
the phosphorescent stone of Bologna, excited the young
disciples of chemistry, to the highest pitch of interest.
Although this substance did not at once realize the

| great expectations set abroad concerning it, and not-

withstanding the fact that it was obliged to renounce
entirely the ~é/e of philosopher’s stone, it nevertheless
caused its discoverer to make a considerable sum of
money, for men seeking knowledge and instruction came
from all countries to Bologna, and purchased this natural
curiosity toa great extent. Poets likewise wrote lauda-
tory Latin verses to the now celebrated shoemaker, com-
paring him to Prometheus who stole fire from heaven,
and placed it on the earth. Enormous enthusiasm was
manifested everywhere for this remarkable stone. -Vol-
umes were written about it, and it was even stated that
the sun and moon were nothing more than huge masses
of Bologna phosphorus. For a long time it was thought
that the stone existed nowhere but at Bologna, but later
It was discovered that it was composed principally of
spar or sulphate of baryta, which was to be found in
numerous places.

Alchemists gathered fresh hope in 1674, when Chris-
tian Balduinus, intendant at Grosenhain in Saxony ob-
tained an analogous luminous body by the calcination of
nitrate of lime. He called it hermetic phosphorus or
solar gold, and in several works he declared that this
was indeed the veritable philosopher’s stone whose
properties he was engaged in studying. The only Ger-
man Naturalistic Society at that period was the “ Leopold
Academy of Natural Curiosities,” and this organization
received the new inventor into their midst under the
honored title of Hermes, which has ever remained in the
chemical world. Since then, it has always been supposed
that the hermetic or philosophical stone must be lumin-
ous, and Dickinson, physician to Charles II, of England,
relates in his ‘‘Old Physical Truths”’ (1702) that Noah,

' whom he regarded as one of the ancestors of hermetic

science, had placed a large gleaming stone of some sort,
called zohar in Hebrew, upon the top of his ark, so that
he might have perpetual light during the night, and that
moreover the scientific knowledge of this same Noah had
caused him to nourish every animal in the ark with an
extract made from the meat or plant which the creature
preferred, thus economizing space and doing away with
the necessity of removing from the ark such bones, leaves,
skins, etc., which might otherwise have been there.
Chemical researches advanced with singular activity ;
for about the same time that Balduinus was performing
his experiments, Brand, of Hamburg, an obstinate in-
vestigator discovered a substance which produced lumin-
ous vapor, and condensed itself into yellow drops that
shone in the dark without being exposed to the sun.
Professor Kirchmayer, of Wurtemburg, announced to

the world emphatically, that the long sought for
“perpetual light’’ had at last been found, while an-
other enthusiastic novice wrote a work upon the
Phosphorus mtrabzlés and its marvellous brilliancy.
Here again the future did not justify all the hopes which
might have been expected. This substance, however,
which still goes by the name of phosphorus has become
one of the necessities of our age.

Phosphorus gradually entered the scientific period. In
1768 an English chemist, Canton, obtained a new kind
by calcinating oyster shells with sulphur, and it was
finally discovered that the best absorbents of light were
combinations of sulphur, calcium, baryum and stron-
tium. However, other metallic sulphurets and various
substances are equally capable of making in the dark
what is called solar, magnetic or electric light. The
method of preparation, of course, has considerable in-
fluence and lights of divers colors can be obtained ac-
cording to the process employed. By calcinating sul-
phates with organic substances, or carbonates with sul-
phur, a very brilliant phosphorus can be obtained, con-
sisting principally of baryta, another of lime, less lumin-
ous anda third of strontium, which gives forth a very
feeble light. Sulphate of baryta gives a phosphorescent
product of an orange color. When the sulphate is pre-
pared artificially the light is greenish.

Later, Ozarm obtained other luminous bodies by cal-
cinating lime with sulphate of arsenic or sulphate of anti-
mony, while another chemist, Bach, by heating sulphur
with calcinated oyster shells which had probably been
washed with a solution of ammoniac and realgar, pro-
cured a phosphorus so brilliant that its light was even
visible during the day.

It is by this means, or others which are similar, that
‘the luminous flowers are prepared which lately have ap-
peared to such an extent. They are covered with some
phosphorescent substance which makes them glimmer in
the dark with a beautiful bluish light. The luminous
matter is pulverized and applied to the object by means
of a varnish or anything else that will stick. By employ-
ing phosphorus of different colors very pretty effects can
be produced, bouquets of all shades, glittering butterfles,
luminous inscriptions, etc. But the most interesting of
all is undoubtedly luminous photography, which is made

by placing a paper covered with phosphorescent powder |

behind the glass negative of a photograph. Heat brings
out the luminous qualities as we'l as light, and very pe-
culiar and beautiful effects can be obtained by writing
upon such a paper as has just been described with a
pointed piece of heated metal.

Unfortunately these interesting amusements are not
eligible as regards trade, for as soon as it is exposed to
the air sulphuric luminous matter gradually loses its
properties and acquires the disagreeable odor of spoiled
eggs, while the object by the end of a week or two is
not phosphorescent at all. On the other hand, it can be,
very well preserved by putting it into air-tight glass
tubes, and phosphorus of all colors thus prepared can
be had from Geissler’s establishment in Bonn. It has
been proposed to make inscriptions of these tubes for the
night bells of hotels, physicians’ houses and druggists’
shops, the daylight being sufficient to make them very
luminous at night. Another idea, conceived by Gustave
Ullig, is to make the faces of watches and clocks phos-
phorescent, as the glass covering them would be a pro-
tec'ion against destruction.

As to the physical explanation of phosphorescence, it
was thought for a long time that the light was composed
of little eddies or whirlpools of subtile matter, and that
sunlight became condensed and accumulated in them.
Later, when it was known that light is only a vibratory
movement, and that the phosphorus on the end of
matches only burns because it is united with the oxide
in the air, it was thought that in all the old _phosphor-
escent substances the light was produced alone under

SCIENCE. ;

|

| rays can also be observed upon the surface.

555

the influence of a slight oxidation. This explanation,
however, is false, and only during the last century was
the true one made known by a celebrated German phy-
sician named Euler.

It is generally believed that the planets, the tops of
mountains, and all celestial bodies, are visible, simply.
because they reflect the rays of the sun. This is also
false. Brilliant surfaces alone, more or less, reflect light,
others absorb it On the contrary, and cause vibration
just as a musical sound makes all the objects which it
strikes vibrate. Certain surfaces, however, can only re-
produce certain vibrations (blue or red for example) of
solar light, which is composed of the vibrations of the
seven prismatic colors, and when these vibrations are re-
peated in our eye, the surfaces appear to us blue or red,
as the case may be.

In the same way that consecutive vibrations can be
determined after sound, so phosphorescence succeeds
the action of light. Euler affirmed that the greater
number of bodies would present these luminous vibra-
tions if they were observed immediately after they had
been exposed to the sun, and if a continued sitting in the
dark had rendered the eyes of the observer very sensible.
Tne French physician, Becquerel, constructed an instru-
ment about twenty years ago called the phosphoroscope,
by means of which he demonstrated that most sub-
stances, paper, stone, oyster shells, etc., shone for a
short time after being exposed to the light, that is to’say,
a second or the fraction of a second, and that solar phos-
phorus was only distinguishable from other bodies b
the persistence of this property. But whether this as-
sertion be true, generally speaking, or not, the subject
itself is not by any means simple, and there are a mass
of circumstances of which we must take account.

Modern physics teach us that a number of bodies, nota-
bly colored organic matter and some metallic combina-
tions, become phosphorescent, but only when they are
lighted. This sounds like a paradox, but facts can prove
the assertion. There are certain substances, both liquid
and solid, which by reflected light appear to have another
color than the one transmitted. A peculiar emission of
Petroleum,
solutions of sulphate of quinine, decoctions of Indian
bark, etc., emit bluish rays ; the etherized extract of green
leaves, blood red rays; uranium glass, which is pale green
and used principally in the manufacture of Rhine wine
glasses, emits reddish yellow rays. If any of these
dichroic subtances are selected and placed in a dark
room lighted only by an electric current traversing a glass
tube, they will shine brilliantly, each one in its particular
color, certainly with more splendor than the electric light,
and yet only while the latter illumines them. How is this
curious phenomenon to be explained? Howcana feeble
light produce such a brilliant one ?

It has been said above that white light is composed of
seven colors, or, more properly speaking, of an infinite
number of colors, which after their dispersion from the
prism separate one from the other and form a long band.
The red rays are those which vibrate the slowest, and the
violets those which vibrate the most rapidly. But just
as there are in addition to the red rays others which
vibrate slower still and are manifested not as luminous
rays, but calorific ones, so there are besides the violets,
ultra violet rays which vibrate so quickly that we cannot
directly perceive them, although they are known by their
energetic chemical action. This is notably the case in
photography, and for this reason they are termed chemi-
cal rays, or invisible light. A pale, electric_light, is a
peculiarity of these rays, and the latter give to certain
bodies that remarkable dichroic radiance which has been
called fluorescence, because it was observed for the first
time in fluor-spath. However, if on one side these rays

| produce a light which cannot be perceived by our retina

owing to the extreme rapidity of their vibrations, on the
other, the bodies thus illuminated should be able to

356

diminish the rapidity by vibrating themselves more slowly,
and thus render the rays visible. Ultra violet rays could
consequently be transformed into violet, blue or green ;
blue rays into yellow or red. What generally happens,
however, is that they change red rays to purely calorific
ones and thus make them invisible.

We must here make several important observations.
First of all, violet rays do not only produce the greatest
fluorescence, but also the greatest phosphorescence. Red
rays produce neither the one nor the other. Luminous
or dichroic substances give a light differing from that
which they receive. It has been demonstrated, finally,
that the closest relationship exists between the two phen-
omena—That fluorescence can be considered as an in-
tense phosphorescence which can be seen in broad daylight,
but which dies with the light which gave it birth, while
phosphorescence is only a feeble but persistent fluores-
cence.

“Solar phosphorus” generally reproduces luminous vi-
brations even when it has *ceased to receive the latter,
and it can transform calorific rays into luminous ones. A
diamond acts in this way, also fluor-spath, and nearly all
artificial phosphorus. One of the last named gives forth
a light of various colors, if it is heated to different degrees
after being exposed to the light. Sulphate of strontium
produces a deep purple light at 20°, a violet light at 15°,
blue at 40°, bluish-green at 70°, greenish-yellow at 100°,
and reddish-yellow at 200°,

Moreover, phosphorescence, like fluorescence, can be
produced by means of an electric light rich in chemical
rays. If you expose to such a light a flower, a butterfly
or any other object covered with phosphorescent powder,
it will assume a magnificent appearance. The English
chemist, Crookes, prepared diamonds and rubies in this
way, by enclosing them in an air-tight glass ball placed
in the immediate vicinity of the negative pole, from which
a luminous current issued. The effect was superb, recall-
ing all sorts of fairy stories. Some African diamonds
shone with a brilliant blue light, and a large greenish one
produced such an intense radiance that it almost looked
like a lighted candle. In fact the light was quite suffi-
cient to read by, and the history of that famous stone in
the Temple of Hieropolis seemed really probable. A col-
lection of small diamonds from various countries, placed
in any receptacle that is air-tight, will produce parti-colored
fiery lights, blue, pink, red, orange, yellow, green and pale
green, all mingling together.

In a third recipient, Crookes placed a quantity of un-
cut rubies, which, when the electric light fell upon them
shone with such a gorgeous red flame that they appear-
ed to be incandescent. Artificial rubies prepared by
Feil in Paris gave as brilliant a light as the real ones,
and white crystals became rose-colored or deep red.
Such wonderful carbuncles would have astonished even
the authors of the old legends.

OE

A curtous thing occurred lately in the works of M.
Fleury, at Cette (Hérault). The feed-water of the boiler
giving much incrustation, M. Fleury was advised to put
into the boiler some fragments of zinc as a de-incrustant,
and did so. In a few days, spite of oiling, the steam-
engine began to work very badly, the piston catching a great
deal, and it soon became necessary to stop and make exam-
ination. The piston was found to be covered with a thick
adherent layer of copper. It was put on the lathe, and at
certain ovalised points, the metallic layers were so thick
that the tool worked in copper ‘alone. The explanation
given by M. Fleury is this: The boiler was connected with
the engine by copper pipes. Particles of zinc carried off by
the steam would form with the copper numberless small
galvanic couples; hence the transpert of copper to the
piston, which would principally attract them by reason of
its motion, and of the heating produced. It is remarked in
Les Mondes, that the eminently electric properties of ex-
panding steam may have helped in development of the
phenomenon,

SCIENCE,

DRAPER’S SELF-RECORDING, MERCURIAL
BAROMETER.

We are indebted to Dr. Daniel Draper for preparing an
abstract of his weekly Meteorological report for this
journal, the third of which appears this day in another
column.

Dr. D. Draper is director of the Meteorological Obser-
vatory of the Department of Public Works, Central Park,
where all observations are made by self-recording instru-
ments, especially designed and arranged for this purpose.

The great object Dr. Draper had in view when design-
ing these instruments, was to combine simplicity of
construction with perfect efficiency. His great success
is well known to all familiar with Meteorological Science,
and we propose in the course of a few articles to fully
describe these instruments, and illustrate the subject
with excellent wood cuts.

We commence the series with a description of the ap-
paratus for recording Barometric observations.

“T was led to construct this form of barometer from the
fact that with the photographic one it cannot be told
what the atmospheric fluctuations are until the next
morning, when the photographic plate is developed.
Even then, ifthere has been much variation in temper-
ature, it alters the sensitiveness of the collodion film, so
that it is very difficult to read the tracing. The con
struction of the pencil instrument is as follows : pe

In the pencil barometer the glass tube is 36 inches in
length, the upper portion being of larger diameter than
the lower ; it is held firmly in a fixed position, and filled
in the usual manner with quicksilver; its lower or open
end dips into a tube or reservoir containing the same
metal. This reservoir is suspended on two spiral steel
springs, and has freedom of motion up and down, When
the pressure of the atmosphere diminishes, a portion of
the mercury flows out of the tube into the reservoir;
this becoming heavier, stretches the steel springs, causing
the ink pencil fastened to them to mark downwards, If
the pressure increases the reverse movement takes place.
The ink pencil makes its mark on a ruled paper register,

SCIENCE.

carried at the rate of half an inch per hour from right to
left by a clock.

There is a third steel spring of the same length and
strength as those on the reservoir, stretched by a weight
toa distance equivalent to 30 inches on the barometer
scale. The object of this spring is to give the correction
of temperature for those sustaining the reservoir. The
register paper should always be set to the same line on
which the pencil of this spring marks.

The movements of the mercury on the register can be
magnified to any required extent by increasing the length
of the spiral springs. In this instrument it is multiplying
twice.

DESCRIPTION OF INSTRUMENT.

The tube marked a @ is of glass; the upper part is of a
larger diameter than the stem, @ being 3 of an inch in-
ternal diameter and Io inches long, while the stem, 4, is
¥% ofan inch bore and 26 inches long. The total length
of the tube is therefore 36 inches. The reservoir, ¢, is
suspended from a brass frame, @, fastened to the back of
the case. This frame also holds the upper ends of the
steel springs, ¢, e, @. The glass reservoir, c, is of the same
diameter and length as the upper part of the tube, @; on
its open end is turned a flange to hold it in a brass frame,
7, towhich are fastened the lower ends of the steel
springs, ¢ @; it also carries an ink pencil, g, that touches
the ruled paper on the board % %, which is drawn aside
by the clock, z. The spring, 4, is for the correction of
temperature on the other springs. Heat has a slight
effect on them, causing them to lengthen about +; of an
inch from go degrees Fahr.; to allow for this, the third
spring, 4 is weighted with a lead weight and pencil, it
marks its fluctuations on the upper line of the register
sheet. In this manner this instrument gives the correc-
' tion for temperature (or reduction to 32°) from the fact
that it weighs the mercury instead of measuring its length,
which is affected by heat.

Ink pencils of the barometer and other instruments are
made by drawing narrow glass tubing to a fine point,
which lightly touches the paper register, leaving a mark
of red ink that has been diluted with about one quarter
of its volume of glycerine. The glycerine prevents the
ink from drying too rapidly. The advantage of this form
of pencil over lead ones is that it requires little or no
pressure to produce a mark.

To receive the atmospheric fluctuations a suitable
ruled paper is fastened by means of small brass clamps,
kk, tothe board, # %, which is hung by rollers to the
thick steel rod fastened to the sides of the case, on which
the paper ‘s carried from right to left by the clock, z, at
the rate of % an inch per hour, by means of the pulley
on the hour arbor of the clock. ‘The wire that connects
the register board to the clock is soft steel, number 28
wire gauge; having only one turn round the pulley
it readily slips so that the board can be pushed sideways
for the adjustment of time, or for the renewal of the shee
of paper.” :

+» -—_____

ON AN OCCURRENCE OF GOLD IN MAINE.*
By M. E. WApDsworTH.

The gold under consideration here is found on Sew-
ard’s Island, a small island in the town of Sullivan,
Hancock County. The gold is found in quartz veins
cutting an eruptive mass of diabase. This diabase forms
a dike of about forty feet in thickness, lying approxi-
mately parallel to the bedding of an indurated fine-
grained argillaceous mica schist; all dipping nearly S.
30° W., 24° to 42°. The dip averages about 35°, and the
strike is far from being uniform. Crossing the diabase
at various angles, but generally from north to south, are
segregated quartz veins. In some places the rock is a

*From the Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative Zoology. —Har-
yard College,

357

confused reticulated mass of these veins, with patches
of diabase lying between them. The veins vary in
width from a mere seam to even a foot in breadth,
Starting where only one or a few of them are visible,
they gradually increase in number, until they be-
come quite numerous, while they will doubtless be
found to fade away as they began. The diabase
and schists are cut by several dikes of diabase
running approximately at right angles to the strike of the
schist, or parallel to the veins. The vein stone is quartz,
together with some calcite, tremolite and chlorite, and
carries tetradymite and gold.

So far as examination has been made, the veins in
the diabase carry gold, and the decomposed diabaseim-
mediately adjacent to the quartzveins also contains that
metal to a greater or less extent. The gold occurs prin-
cipally in small grains in the vein in conection with the
tetradymite, bits of decomposed diabase, and in the
cavernous portions, but not in the compact quartz of the
vein itself. The tetradymite is in irregular grains and
masses, showing a brilliant metallic lustre, and a well-
marked basal cleavage. The locality is worked for it
gold, and was visited by the writer in December last

CAMBRIDGE, Mass.

+o

ELEMENTS AND EPHEMERIS OF COMET
(c), 1881.—SCHAEBERLE,

The elements and ephemeris of the comet, given be-
low, are those computed at the observatory of Lord
Crawford, at Dun Echt, Scotland, and cabled to the
Sczence Observer by means of the code adapted by S. C.
Chandler, Jr., and John Ritchie, Jr.

ELEMENTS.

Perihelion Passage, 1881, Aug.

214 .50, Greenwich
Mean Time.

fo} !

Long. Perihelion NO af)
Dist. Perihelion from Node = 121 9
Long. Node = 97 36f Eg’ 1881.@
Inclination == Wie = Sy |
log. Perihelion Distance, 9.8069.
EPHEMERIS.
Greenwich midnight —R.A.— —Decl.—
1881. TEM AO 2 :
Aug. 3 On 433 4 +47 46
7 7 wUn 2a BOs UE
II 7 54 56 52 20
15 8 59 24 52 57

Computed by Drs. Copeland and Lohse, at Dun Echt
Observatory, from observations at Vienna and Dun Echt.

The following elements have kindly been furnished by
Prof. Ormond Stone, of Cincinnati :—

T = August 19.202.

o = 122 30 21

i= 108) 42 2. AL

Fe DAD Sh hie 2
log. g = 9.79590.

Science Observer Spectal Circular No. 16

THE following simple electrical experiment is described
in Z’£lectricien. A small box of pasteboard is closed with
a lid of fine glass, on the upper surface of which collodion
is applied several times (but not so much as to render the
lid opaque). In the box are placed insect forms, made of
sponge or cotton. On rubbing the collodion surface with
dry fingers, in dry weather, the insects move about in a cu-
) rious manner.

358

PHOTO-MICROGRAPHY,
By Dr. CARL SEILER.

All workers in microscopy, doubtless, appreciate the
necessity of correctly recording, not only in writing, but
also by means of pictures or drawings, many of the ap-
pearances seen in the field of the microscope. We can
do this by drawing an outline of the objects observed,
by the aid of the camera luczda ; but not only does this

require some practice, but also a considerable amount of |
time, and even then the resulting picture will not be a |
correct representation of the field of the microscope, |

because it will always be tinged more or less by the
imagination of the draughtsman, and will be more or
less diagramatical in consequence.

With photography, on the other hand, an exact repro-
duction of the image thrown upon the screen can be
obtained, and in much less time than it takes to make
even a comparatively simple drawing with the camera
luctda. It is the object of this chapter to give an idea
of the means employed to obtain a photographic picture

of a microscopic object—means which are in the hands |

of every microscopist, and which do not require a great
outlay of money.

A room with a southern exposure, which can be
darkened; a mirror, movable in all directions, outside
of the window ; an achromatic combination of lenses of
from eight to ten inches focal length; a microscope
which can be tilted so as to be horizontal, and a stand
to hold the screen and sensitive plate, are all the appa-
ratus absolutely necessary besides the chemicals used in
ordinary photography.

These different pieces are disposed of as follows (FIG.
1): The mirror (a), which should be eight or ten inches
long by about four inches wide, is attached to a board
which fist into an opening in the dark shutter of the
southern window, and is to be moved by rods from the
inside. Instead of this mirror, or in conjunction with
it a heliostat is of great advantage to throw the light of
the sun constantly in one direction, for, if once adjusted,
it need not be disturbed, and thus a great deal of time
is saved. Until recently such an instrument was too
costly for the use of students, but of late Mr. Kuebel,
of Washington, D. C., has put a heliostat in the market
which works very satisfactorily and which is sufficiently
low in price to be within the reach of many who desire
to work in photo-micrography. The board in the shut-
ter has in its centre a circular opening containing an
achromatic combination of lenses (4), such as the back
combination of a one-fourth portrait photographic lens.

The microscope is secured on the window-sill in a
horizontal position, so that the axis of the tube is in a
line with the axis of the achromatic combination, and
at such a distance from it that the burning focus is
about half an inch from the back combination of the
sub-stage condenser (¢@). The eye piece is then removed
from the microscope, and the tube lined with black vel-
vet, to prevent internal reflection, as far as possible, and
the whole apparatus is covered with dark cloth, to pre-
vent stray rays of light entering the darkened room,

|
|

SCIENCE,

This done, the sun’s rays are reflected from the mirror
outside the window, through the achromatic combination,
which acts as a concentrator and throws a powerful
light through the condenser, through the object on the
stage (s), and thus a brightly illuminated image is formed
by the objective (0) on the screen, which latter, when
the negative is to be taken, is replaced by the sensitive
plate.

This image, when thus formed, must be focused with
the greatest care and accuracy, in order to obtain a sharp
negative; and as the screen must be at some distance
from the microscope in order to obtain the necessary
magnification of the object, it is necessary to have some
contrivance for turning the fine adjustment at a distance.

| For this purpose it will be found that a small pulley,

placed alongside of the micrescope, having an endless
band running over it and the milled head of the fine
adjustment, answers the purpose very well, when the
axis of the pulley is connected by means of a universal
joint to a fishing-rod, which by its sections can be made
Jonger or shorter, thus bringing its end close to the
screen.

The tube of the microscope, even when all internal
reflection has been obliterated, still remains a drawback,
inasmuch as it reduces the size of the image, or rather
the disk of light, the more, the longer it is. There are,
however, some stands made in which the tube can be
entirely removed, such as the old Ross stand, and they
are therefore very desirable for phote-micrographic pur-

OSES.
f Any good objective of wide angular aperture and
good definition can be employed for photography, pro-
vided monochromatic light is used in making the nega-
tive. When such is the case the visual and chemical
foci fall in the same plane and a special correction of the
objective for photography becomes unnecessary.

Such a light is obtained by passing the rays of the
sun through a cell containing a strong solution of am-
monio-sulphate of copper (c) before they enter the sub-
stage condenser. I have found some difficulty in making
the cell containing this solution, as the copper salt will
dissolve almost any cement, and if exposed to the action
of the air, very rapidly becomes decomposed, and the
solution is thereby rendered useless for the purpose. I
have used with satisfaction a cell made of a brass ring,
lined on its inner side with lead or tin, having a thread
cut on its outside, to which flanged rings are secured.
Upon the edges of the inner ring a ring of rubber pack-
ing is applied, and upon it a disk of plate glass is laid,
which is tightly pressed upon the rubber by the flanged
ring. Thus a cell is obtained very similar to the round,
flat spirit leveis, and which will hold the ammonia
sulphate of copper solution for months without change.
In filling the cell care should be taken to leave room
for a small air bubble, for if the cell is completely filled
the heat of thesun’s rays will expand the solution
sufficiently to cause leakage.

This solution, besides giving monochromatic light, at
the same time filters out almost all the heat rays from
the light, so much so that an immersion lens may be
used for any length of time without the drop of water
evaporating. e

At the present time, when dry plate photography has
been developed to such an extent that it has superseded,
in a great measure, the wet process, it has been thought
that it would be the most simple, economical and satis-
factory for photo-micrography ; but after repeated trials
by myself, as well as many others working in the same
direction, it has been found that it is not only more ex-
pensive, but also takes more time, in the long run. The
reason of this is that it is impossible to judge, with any
degree of certainty, as to the actinic power of the light
forming the image on the screen by merely looking at
it, and that a trial plate only will give an idea of the
length of exposure necessary for a given day, time of day

objective, and subject, to be photographed, It is true
we can expose a dry plate for trial, but then we tnust
develop it immediately, and the time of developing a
dry plate is about three times that of developing a wet
one, and a dry plate is also about three times as costly
as a wet.one. ‘Therefore the old wet collodicn process is
the best.

The collodion to be used should be an old one, and
contain some free iodine. I have found that a mixture
of “ Anthony’s red labeled” and “ McCollin’s delicate
half-tone” collodions—both commercial articles—some
five or six months old, gives very satisfactory results.
The nitrate bath should contain forty grains of nitrate
of silver to the ounce of water, and should be slightly
acidulated with nitric acid. The developer should be a
weak one: twelve to fifteen grains of the double salt
ammonio-sulphate of iron to the ounce of water, con-
taining a few drops of a solution of gelatin and acetic
acid as a restrainer. :

After the negative has been fixed in the usual way,
with hyposulphite of soda or cyanide of potassium, it is
almost always necessary to intensify it, which is easily
done by flowing the plate while wet with a watery solu-
tion of iodine until the film becomes white; then it
is to be washed under the tap and flowed with a solution
of sulph’de of ammonium, which imparts to the negative
a dark brown color, and thus strengthens its printing
quality.

The object to be photographed should be as thin as
possible, because the lens will depict only one plane of
it, and it should present as much contrast and differenti-
ation of its elements as possible; this is especially the
case in animal tissues, and when high powers are used,
the focus should be taken with the greatest care fur one

- particular potnt to be brought out ; a general focus not

particularly sharp in any one point, will not give a
satisfactory negative.

The screen upon which the image is focused should
be of plate glass, having an extremely fine ground sur-
face on one sidé—the side next to the object. Such a
surface can easily be prepared by flowing the glass plate
with a good negative varnish, and when this is set but
not yet dry, lightly breathing on it, when an extremely
fine and even frosting of the surface will show itself,
sufficient to arrest and reflect the rays of light forming
the image.

In photo-micrography, as well as in ordinary micro-
scopy, proper illumination of the object is of the greatest
importance, and frequently a poor objective will show
a better definition in the hands of a skilled manipulator
than the best objective can when the light is not
properly managed. In this one point lies the difficulty
of photo-micrography, and itis the stumbling block over
which so many fall who undertake to photograph micro-
scopic objects.

As a general rule the best light is obtained when the
back lens of the sub-stage condenser is about half an
inch beyond the burning focus of the larger condenser
in the shutter, that is about eight and a half inches from
this condenser, and when the light is absolutely central.
But this distance cannot be strictly adhered to, inasmuch
as different objectives require different illumination. In
practice, I find that in order to obtain the proper distance
ofthe condenser for a particular objective, it is best to
put a blood-slide, upon which the corpuscles are in one
layer only, on the stage, and project the image on the

screen, moving the condenser backward and forward |

until, when sharply focused, no concentric rings are seen
in the disks. The object to be photographed can then be
substituted for the blood-slide, and the light will be
found to be all that is desired. (Compendzum of Mz-
croscopical Technology.)

Proressor HeLMHOLTz will issue a collection of his scat-
tered scientific memoirs in the autumn.

SCIENCE. 359

PLANTE AND FAURE BATTERIES,

The annexed illustrations of the secondary batteries,
which are exciting so much interest at the present time
will, with the accompanying description, enable the
reader to understand their construction. At the recent
soirée given by the Council and academical staff of
King’s College, several forms of electric-lighting appar-
atus were used-; but that which attracted most attention
was a battery of forty-four accumulators of Faure’s de-
sign, working twenty of Swan’s lamps. The celis were
charged in Paris by a Gramme machine, and were ar-
ranged in groups of four in cubical boxes, the whole be-
ing coupled up in series. The current supplied by this
arrangement, shown by a galvanometer in the circuit
while the lamps were alight, was about twenty-three
webers, and was perfectly steady—the Faure battery
yielding an almost equal current during the whole time,
until the charge becomes exhausted, when it breaks
down suddenly, without any noticeable warning. Mr.
Spottiswoode also uses the Faure battery to work Swan

Fie. 1.

and Maxim lamps in his private house. Figs. 1 and 2
represent the Planté cell. The preparation is as follows:
Two sheets of lead (it may be as thin as stout lead-foil)
are laid the one on the other, separated by two strips
of india-rubber, the whole being rolled up as shown in
Fig. 1. The roll having been completed, the cylinder
used in its formation is withdrawn, and it is consolidated
by a wrapper of gutta-percha, and inserted in a glass jar
filled with water and 1-roth part acid. An electric cur-
rent is then made to pass through the cell; oxygen is
given off, and produces a thick cushion of peroxide of
lead on one sheet ; hydrogen is given off at the other
sheet. If the current with which the cell has been
charged be cut off, and the two sheets are connected, a
current will be produced, owing to the presence of the
oxygen, which leaves the sheet where it has accumulated
and attacks and oxidises the other sheet. ‘This secondary
current, which is very small at first, gains strength each
time the operation is repeated; in course of time the
surfaces of the sheets are changed, the one being covered
with a cushion of peroxide ot lead, the other with lead
reduced toa spongy mass. ‘The cell is then complete,
and in a_ state of electrical accumulation. That was
Planté’s first successful battery. Subsequently he tried
the plan of separating the two sheets of lead by canvas,
the cell taking the form of Fig. 2. He then found that it
was necessary to leave a small space between the sheets
to provide for the escape of the gases which were pro-
duced at the end of the charge ; subsequently india-rub-
ber bands were employed in preference to canvas. M.
Planté also tried carbonate of lead, minium, &c., but with-
out improving upon the results already obtained. The

360

SCIENCE.

Fic. 2.

Faure battery is similar to the above :—Two sheets of
lead are taken, about 7%in. wide; one about 23in. long
and about 1-25th of an inch thick, the other 15in. long
and 1-48 in. thick. Each of these is furnished with a
strong strip of lead at one of itsends. Each sheet has a
layer of red lead spread on its surface, the lead being
made into a paste with water, the larger sheet having
about 800 grammes on its surface, and the smaller 700
grammes. On each surface a sheet of parchment is laid,
and the whole is introduced into a sheathing of thick
felt. The sheets are laid one above the other; at the
same time several bands of india-rubber are placed in an
oblique fashion, as shown in Fig. 3. The roll is placed
in a leaden jar strengthened by copper bands, and
covered in the interior with red lead and felt. The cell
then presents the appearance shown in Fig. 4. One of
the pieces of lead which jut out is curved and soldered
to the outer jar, acidulated water is put in, and the bat-
tery is ready for work.

We give the above figures as a guide, but there is no
special reason for adhering to them, and it may be
doubted whether either the parchment or felt is an abso-
lute necessity ; for good batteries have been constructed
by painting stout lead-foil with red lead made into paste
with water slightly acidified with oil of vitriol, and wrap-
ping the plates in flannel or canvas which has been pre-
viously coated with the red lead paint. The painted
surfaces are of course put together. Thin lead is used
to keep the weight down as much as possible and to re-
duce the cost.

—<—————— oe

THE LESSON OF THE COMET; DOES IT SHOW
A NEW FORCE?

By SAMUEL J. WALLACE, Washington. D. C.

There is one important consideration in relation to a
comet and its tail which does not seem to have been pro-
perly noticed. A comet is generally supposed to be a
mass, cloud or assembly of masses, particles and possi-
bly gases, which travel together through the heavens, but
do not actually form a single cohering body.

Now the remarkable point is this. When this assem-
bly of matter of various sizes and conditions approaches
the sun at a great velocity it seems to be acted upon by
two forces in opposite directions at the same time, the
one driving it forward toward the sun and the other driv-
ing it out away from the sun, and apart laterally.

And these two forces seem to act at different rates on
different parts of the matter, so as to drive some parts
forward, forming the head of the comet; to drive other
parts forward with a less force, and spread them apart,
forming the brighter part of the tail; while they act to
actually drive other parts away into space, as the brush
of the tail.

This is an action like that familiar to us in concentrat-
ing ores and in separating grain from the chaff. When
ores are powdered fine and sifted down ashaft, up which
a strong current of air is blown, the heaviest and richest
particles fall through the opposing current to the bottom
while the lighter and worthless particles are blown up and
away. In this manner the rich ore is separated from the
poor, and in a like way grain is separated from the chaff.
This occurs because there are two forces acting against
each other—the wind and gravitation—which act at aif-
ferent rates on the different particles and separate them.

The comet looks as if it was undergeing this very op-
eration of concentration, or separation of the heavy parts
from the light parts, under the action of gravity driving
inward to the sun or some other opposing force driving
outward and apart.

What makes this so remarkable is that the substance
of the planets seems to have been separated in this very
same manner. If we take the recognized specific gravi-
ties of the several planets and set them down in the order
of their occurrence from Neptune, the furthest, inward to
Mercury, the nearest the sun, beginning with one as the
unit, we will find a gradual increase in weight per cubic
foot from one for Neptune up to about nine for Mercury.
If we set down the velocity of the planets in the same
manner we will find the singular fact of an increase in the
same way, from one for Neptune to about nine for Mer-
cury. Sothatthe velocity andthe weight per footincrease
together in a way that looks very suspicious of some con-
nection between them.

What makes it look so singular is that the distance from
the sun decreases almost in the very ratio of these two
proportions multiplied into each other; or in the very
way which it would do if the planets were formed of
matter which had been concentrated by the heavy parts
being driven toward the sun by gravity and the lighter
parts being driven away by some other force—such as
that which seems to be driving off the tail of the comet—
so that each planet was formed of matter separated by
its specific gravity in a general way, according to its dis-
tance from the sun and its velocity. Another thing which
confirms this singularity is that the average weight of the
meteoric masses which fall on to the earth, made up mostly
of iron and some lighter rock, is very nearly that of the
earth itself, taken as a whole, or about five and a half on
the same scale, due to its position and velocity.

All this leads us to suppose that there is a force driv-
ing outward from the sun, as gravity drives toward it, but
acting in proportion to the size of particles as gravity acts
in proportion to their weight, which separates matter so
that its average distance from the sun and its velocity
shall conform to its average weight.

If this is true, as it seems, it throws light upon an ob-
scure point, which may be considered as one of the most
sublime within the reach of science; the nature of that
wonderful mystery of gravitation itself, which holds and
moves all the innumerable hosts of heaven in their ever-
lasting circuits.

The course of modern thought is to render inconceiv-
able the action of gravity as of an immaterial agent.

The theory of Lesage that it is the result of converg-
ing corpuscles of wave beats from all sides tending to
drive bodies together is both sublime and in accordance
with the habits of modern thought. But it utterly fails
in one half of the problem. It does not explain what be-
comes of the dynamic energy of this force after it strikes
a mass of matter, by which disappearance it is supposed
to produce a shadow outward on all sides, to which the
result of gravitation of masses to each other is attributed.

But if it should appear that there is a force thus going
outward from the sun and other matter, as comets and
planets in this way seem to indicate, then we are compelled
to account for it also, which is the very force that
Lesage’s theory failed to show, and which his force re-
quires for its complement.

SCIENCE.

This would require only to suppose the form of the
force changed, in quantity proportionate to the quantity
of matter, by passing through it, so. as to act against
particles in proportion to size, and to some other features,
of which velocity and kind are elements, instead of in
proportion to weight only, as before.

We cannot blame Lesage for overlooking the incon-
sistency of the utter disappearance of so much dynamic
energy as his theory requires, because in his day the idea
of the conservation of energy had not grown up; and it
was a great, a sublime, grasp of thought, to conceive of a
relation of mechanical action which was parallel in its
nature to that utter, that bewildering, mystery of gravi-
tation, which seemed as if it could only be due to the
fiat or-action of Creative Energy itself, acting forever
and everywhere de novo, yet, at the same time, al-
ways with an absolutely steady and measured force and
relation to quantity of matter, to distance in space, and
to length of time, which indicated kinship in character
to the other proximate and not ultimate forces of
nature.*

But we cannot so easily overlook the failure of those
who have later considered this theory to notice this
great dynamic hiatus, and to follow it up to some con-
clusion.

These facts, stated, of the comets, of the planets, and
of meteorites, indicate very clearly that there is a pecu-
liar propulsive force acting outward from the sun.

And this force is of the general nature required to fill
this hiatus.

Can we further determine anything of its nature?

We have already seen that it seems to act upon some
kinds of matter in preference to other kinds; and that
there seems to be different varieties of this selec'ive dif-
ference caused by and in some proportion to velocity.

This last is a curious feature. How can velocity act
to increase the action of a force on one kind of matter
more than on another? Can any of the facts of ordinary
knowledge give us any indications ?

If we subject different substances to dry friction,
electro-static disturbance is produced; the dfferent
kinds of substance will be acted upon differently, and
perhaps the difference may be increased by the increase
of the friction.

Now the condition shown in the comet is very much
like that of an electrified body. But we must not jump
to conclusions without examining the attendant condi-
tions which would govern the facts.

We can suppose that the velocity of a body or assem-
blage of bodies through the ether, required to transmit
light, or through a space containing other sfray particles
of matter, might produce a friction that would set up in
it an electrified state ; and which would be increased by
increase of the velocity.

We can suppose that the light and electrical bodies,
and the heavy metals would be electrified to different
degrees; or at least that there would be different electric
states produced,

And we can suppose that THE FORCES ACTING OUT-
WARD FROM THE SUN ACT ON PARTICLES IN SOME PRO-
PORTION TO THEIR ELECTRIFIED STATES; and that on
striking an assembly of particles it is reflected from their
members, something like light is, in a great number of
directions, which tends to drive them outward, and, in a
‘less degree, to disperse them apart, as shown by the tail
of the comet.

These suppositions show that the requirements which
observation seems to call for have parallellisms within

* We may believe that under the whole face and system of Nature
there is an ultimate creative force which acts immediately each instant, to
keep alive, to measure, and to guide, ali of the actions and reactions tak-
ing place ; but that is a conclusion and not a “knowledge.” If it is true,
yet it chances that the character of the action is such that we recognize
all actions and reactions as taking place in chains having equality of links
and certain peculiarities we call laws; which constitute proximate
Causes,

361

our knowledge, and indicate the course of new enquiries.

As a result of these and other considerations we may
be led to infer that the growth of the solar system has
been affected by such causes. That the heavy metals
have, in coming into it, taken positions at last, very
much dependant upon their weight and kind, in which
respect the Earth, Venus and Mars, in their great interior
masses, may represent the region of iron, while Mercury
may represent the region of still heavier metals, and the
outer planets the great mass of lighter substances; the
average or mean distance of a body from the sun being
governed inversely as the square of its mean velocity.

Thus a comet and its tail may become the missing link
in astronomy and in science.

—_—

CORRESPONDENCE.

[The Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed
by his correspondents. No notice is taken of anonymous commiunit-
cations.)

To the Editor of “SCIENCE ”’:—

I have been interested in reading Mr. Rock’s account of
his observation of the great Comet on the 6th of July.
On that evening the comet was hidden at this Observa-
tory by clouds until about ten o’clock, local time, when Mr.
Wilson went into the dome to observe its position with
the eleven-inch refractor. He soon returned, however,
and called my attention to the remarkable appearance of
the nucleus. . { went to the dome and from that time un-
til three o’clock we alternately examined the Comet, mak-
ing sketches and measures. The fan had its usual
appearance, but when first observed a bright red jet pro-
jected from the nucleus into the dark region on the side of
the nucleus opposite the fan. This jet was totally differ-
ent in appearance from those usually seen. It was at first
straight and in brightness rivalled the nucleus itself; in
fact at the first glance it seemed to form one with the nu- |
cleus. Ona closer inspection, however, I saw that it had
a transparent appearance but still intensely bright and
red. The next glance showed that there was a dark line
separating it from the nucleus. Mr. Wilson had already
called my attention to this dark line before I went to the
dome. During the first few minutes a decided change
took place. The jet seemed to separate and form a nu-
cleus of its own, so that for a time the comet appeared
double ; gradually, however, the detached portion grew
fainter, until when last seen, at about threein the morning,
although plainly visible, it was no brighter than the fan-
shaped appendage on the opposite side of the nucleus. I
noticed the band of light which Mr. Rock speaks of as
connecting the “node” with the nucleus, and mentioned
it to Mr. Wilson at the time, but this afterwards disap-
peared, leaving a separate mass floating like a cloud in
the dark region opposite the fan.

There can be no question that a great outburst took
place in the comet on that evening, nor that a portion of
the nucleus became detached. The phenomenon was
watched very carefully for five hours and I think I could

hardly be mistaken in what I saw. ORMOND STONE.
CINCINNATI OBSERVATORY, Yuly 19, 1881.

—_————

To the Editor of “ SC1ENCE.”

In Mr. Rachel’s reply, in No. 52, to my letter in No.
47 of “SCIENCE,” he appears to entertain a different
conception of the law of gravitation from that which I
supposed to be usually entertained by astronomers. As
there may be many others who share his view, it seems
advisable to give a more detailed exposition of what I
think was Sir Isaac Newton’s own conception, and is
that of many more recent as:ronomers.

Newton’s law of gravitation is that “every particle of
matter in the universe attracts every other particle with

362

SCIENCE. i

a force that is directly proportioned to the mass of the
attracting particle and inversely to the square of the dis-
tance between them.” The first question arising is,
what are we to understand by “particle ’ in this theory ?
Certainly not a mass of utterly indefinite size. Undoubt-
edly Sir Isaac meant a mass of unit size, since the very
terms of the proposition require this. Forif every par-
ticle attracts every other particle with a certain vigor,
then it must necessarily attract two particles with twice
the vigor with which it attracts one. Or if a particle of
unit mass attracts another with unit vigor, then it must
attract two others, or one other whose mass is double
the unit vigor. And as each of these two others attracts
it with the unit vigor, then their sum, or their double
mass, must attract it with double the unit vigor. It is
simply the principle, still clder than Newton in its ex-
pression, that ‘“‘ action and reaction are always equal and
opposite.”

But if it be granted that such will be the reaction be-
tween a unit and a double unit mass, the whole question
is settled. For if the second mass may be doubled it
may be quadrupled, or may be increased a million fold,
without any difference in the principle. And likewise
the first mass may be increased without affecting the
principle. A mass of one unit attracts a mass of ten
units with an energy equal to ten units, since it attracts
each of the ten with unit energy. And each unit of the
ten reacts on the one with unit energy, so that their
combined attraction equals ten units. Again, if the
first mass contain two units, each of these separately
acts upon each of the ten with unit energy. Thus as
each unit of the two exerts ten units of energy, the two
together exert twenty units. In other words, the energy
which the first mass exerts upon the second is propor-
tioned to the product of the number of mass units in the
first into the number of mass units in the second; and
the action of the second upon the first also is in propor-
tion to the product of their units.

This is the true principle of the attraction of gravita-
tion. We may take the unit mass of any size we wish.
In the action between the earth and the moon, for in-
stance, we may take the mass of the moon as the unit,
that of the earth being about 75 units. The moon will
attract each unit of the earth with unit energy, and the
whole earth with an energy of 75 force units. But
each unit of the earth will react upon the moon
with unit energy, and the whole earth will exert
on the moon an energy of 75 force units.
the moon attracts the earth with precisely the
same vigor as the earth attracts the moon. Of
course the resulting motions are not the same, but
the resulting momentums are precisely equal. As the
earth is 75 times the weight of the moon a motion of one
foot per second in the earth would give it a momentum
equal to that given the moon by a motion of 75 feet per
second. It is well known that the moon does not re-
volve around the centre of gravity of the earth, but that
these two bodies revolve around their common centre of
gravity. But this common centre is within the mass of
the earth, and may be found by dividing the distance be-
tween the centres of the earth and moon by the ratio of
their weights. If we take this distance as 240,000 miles,
and divide by 75—the weight of the earth as compared
with the moon—the common centre of gravity will ap-
pear to be 3200 miles from the earth’s centre.

Or we might consider this case from the principle of
inertia. The earth having 75 times the mass of the moon
has 75 times the inertia, or resistance to exterior forces.
Thus its movement in response to lunar attraction is
only 1-75th that of the moon in response to terrestrial at-
traction. But its weight being 75 times greater, its
momentum in response to lunar attraction must be pre-
cisely equal to the moon’s momentum in response to the
earth’s attraction; or, in other words, their vigor of
action upon each other must be precisely equal. This

Thus |

movement of the earth under the action of the moon does
not affect the line of its orbital movement, since it is less
than the length of the earth’s radius. Its movement is
like that of a bead with a large aperture, which advances
along a string moving from side to side, but not leaving
the string. But as the earth moves about 46 millions of
miles in its orbit while completing one of these gyrations,
the effect is excessively minute. That of the moon, in
fact, which swings 240,000 miles to each side of the
orbit each fortnight, is very slight when compared with
the length of the orbit.

But if, the earth being 75 times the mass of the moon,
it also attracted the moon 75 times mcre vigorously than
the moon attracts the earth, this common centre of gray-
ity would befound by dividing 240,000 by 75” and would
be but 36 miles from the earth’s centre. As to which of
these results is the more correct the books will show,

I am, therefore, obliged to repeat the idea advanced in
my former article. An atom falling towards the earth
attracts it with as much energy as the earth attracts the
atom, and they move toward each other with equal mo-
mentums. But the great weight of the earth reduces its
rate of motion towards the atom to a speed inconceivably
small, while the small weight of the atom gives it an ex-
cessively rapid speed towards the earth. It would be
strange if, at this Jate date in the history of the theory of
gravitation, I had been the first to advance this idea as
Mr. Rachel seems to suppose. Perhaps my mode
of presenting it may be original, but I can readily quote
other expressions of the same idea. Thus Dr. Ball,
Royal Astronomer of Ireland, speaks as follows, in his
article on Gravitation in the new edition of the Ency-
clopedia Britannica: ‘It has been found that the inten-
sity of the attraction of gravitation between two masses
is directly proportional to the product of those masses.”’
This is precisely the result I have reached in the above
argument. Again he says: ‘Let m, and m' be the.
masses of two bodies, and let 7 be their distance. The
force with which m attracts #7’ is equal in magnitude
though opposite in direction to the force with which
m attracts #. The reader may perhaps feel some diffi-
culty at first in admitting the truth of this statement.
We speak so often of the effects which the attraction
of the sun produces on the planets that it may seem
strange to hear that eacii planet reacts upon the sun
with a force precisely equal and opposite to the force
with which the sun acts upon the planets.”’ He illus-
trates as follows: “ Suppose the earth and the sun to be
at rest in space, and prevented from approaching each
other under the influence of gravity by a rigid rod ex-
tending from one to the other. If now the sun pressed
toward the earth more vigorously than the earth to-
ward the sun the greater pressure of the sun must
overcome the lesser pressure of the earth, and the whole
arrangement would be driven through space in the
direction in which the rod points outward from the sun.
For there would be a motion producing vigor in the sun
unopposed by a sufficient resistance in the earth. And
yet, in the event of such a movement, we would have
the kinetic energy of their motion created out of noth-
ing, which is now weli known to be impossible.’ Such
is Dr. Ball’s argument briefly stated. It leads to the
same result as mine, and I therefore claim to be in full
accord with the Newtonian law of gravitation.

In regard to the other points of Mr. Rachel’s letter
there is nothing on which I desire to dwell. As to the
use of the phrase “ Latent Heat,” the scientific world
will be very ready to give it up if a term can be sug-
gested more significant of the character of the energy
indicated. But there would be nothing gained by
simply substituting one unmeaning name for another.
Mr. Rachel himself uses the phrase “ Radiant Heat,”
yet he must be aware that the mode of motion so called
is very different from ordinary Heat Motion, Radiant
Heat is readily convertible into Static Heat; but so is

SCIENCE.

Electricity ; and we have the same warrant to consider
Electricity as some modification of Heat. In fact the
term “‘Radiance’”’ would be a more distinctive appella-
tion than “ Radiant Heat.”

As to trust in authorities, of course we must trust in
them as long as their explanations seem most in accord-
ance with facts, but no longer. Well-established facts
are the only trustworthy data of Science. No theory can
be sustained against the pressure of unconformable facts.
In short, every theory is in danger while a single fact re-
mains unexplained. For the facts of nature are so
closely linked that each in some way bears upon all, and
all upon each. And yet itis by no means advisable to
stop theorizing, for correct theories are themselves facts
of science—facts concerning forces and relations as de-
duced from facts concerning things. And every par-
tially correct theory is a footstool through which higher
levels of conception may be reached ; while every theory
proved incorrect is a warning board, advising all future
scientists not to waste time in following a path that leads
nowhere. CHARLEs MORRIS.

2223 SPRING GARDEN STREET, PHILADELPHIA,

BOOKS RECEIVED.

TEXT-BOOK OF EXPERIMENTAL ORGANIC CHEMIS-
TRY for Students, by H. CHAPMAN JONES. D. Van
Nostrand. New York, 1881.

Although termed a text-book, the author admits that
this little volume will be found of greater use as a com-
panion for the student in the laboratory, who wishes to
study organic chemistry both practically and theoreti-
cally.

We recommend this volume to those who have a lim-
ited time at their command for study, and are not over-
burdened with cash, the author having wisely restricted
the number of experiments, and suggested only such
as are ayailable in a laboratory of the humblest pre-
tensions, and the use of expensive chemicals is alto-
gether avoided. The author has shown considerable
judgment in arranging this work, the plan of which is ex-
cellent, because while the subject has been reduced to its
simplest form, the instructor will find-all that is necessary
for teaching the elementary stages of practical organic
chemistry, and it will serve as a reliable guide to the aver-
age student who relies on his own resources for instruction.

CONTRIBUTIONS TO METEOROLOGY: being results de-
rived from an Examination of the Observations of the
United States Signal Service, and from other sources.
By ELIAS LOOMIS, Professor of Natural Philosophy
in Yale College.

A pamphlet reprinted from the Amerzcan Fournal of
Sczence, being the subject matter of a paper read before
the National Academy of Sciences. Washington, April
Ig, 1881. :

ON THE GROUP “4” ON THE SOLAR SPECTRUM.
By WILLIAMC. WINLOCK. From the proceedings of
the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. Pre-
sented by Professor Wolcott Gibbs. June 9, 1880,

The most complete charts of the solar spectrum now
available are Kirchhoff’s, which were published in 186r,
and Angstrém’s, published in 1869. Kirchhoff employed
a battery of four flint-glass prisms, with a collimator
and observing telescope each of about 4 centim. aper-
ture and 49. centim focal length; while Angstrém used
telescopes of about 4.6 centim. aperture, and 36.3 centim.
focal length, and a diffraction grating made by Nobert,
containing about 133 lines to the millimetre.

Such great advances have been made very recently in
the construction of optical instruments, and more espec-
ially in the ruling of diffraction gratings, that it would now

~ 363

be possible to enlarge Angstrém’s great chart almost as
much as heimproved upon Fraunhofer’s first maps. But
it would be an almost endless undertaking for a single
observer to attempt a map of the whole spectrum, from
the ultra-violet to theinvisible red, brought to light by our
most powerful instruments, and accordingly most physi-
cists who have paid especial attention to solar spectro-
scopy have devoted themselves to a careful study of de-
tached portions which appear of unusual interest. Asa
contribution to this work, the following observations upon
the group of dark lines “4,’”’ of the solar spectrum, were
undertaken by Mr. Winlock, at the suggestion of Dr.
Gibbs, and carried on under his immediate supervision.

—————— Es

A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON THE MANUFACTURE OF
STARCH, STARCH-SUGAR AND DEXTRINE, based on
the German of Ladislaus Von Wagner and other au-
thorities, by JULIUS FRANKEL. Edited by Robert
Hutter. Illustrated by 58 engravings, covering every
branch of the subject. Henry Carey Baird & Co., 810
Walnut street, Philadelphia, 1881. Price, $3.50.

The increased manufacture of Glucose and the pros-
pect of this substance becoming a staple article of pro-
duce in the United States, makes this volume a welcome
addition to the excellent series of technical works pub-
lished by this house.

Those about to engage in the manufacture of Glucose
will find this treatise an indispensable guide, and, as we
understand, it is the only work in the English language
describing in detail the processes and machinery made
use of in this important class of industry.

It is stated in the preface that this subject has been
heretofore surrounded by more or less mystery than any
other manufacture of recent years, and that access to fac-
tories has been barred to all but workmen, and that in-
ventors and manufacturers of the necessary machinery
have refused to furnish drawings of the machines. It is
therefore evident that the present work, which has been
prepared with care, intelligence and zeal by one who is a
master of the subject, must be a valuable acquisition to
those interested in this industry.

- Mr. Frankel introduces the subject by describing the
Chemistry of Starch, its technology and methods of manu-
facture. The Chemistry of Starch-sugar is then taken
up and its manufacture in all its branches explained in-de-
tail, The author concludes with an exhaustive descrip-
tion of Dextrine and its manufacture.

It was Professor Kirchhoff, of St. Petersburg, Russia,
who made the important discovery in 1811, that starch
boiled in diluted sulphuric acid is transformed into sugar,
but the origin of glucose manufacture dates from the time
of Napoleon I., when the Engl.sh were blockading the
Continent. At the time it caused a great and general sen-
sation, as it was then thought that grape sugar was iden-
tical with cane sugar, and hence could in every respect be
substituted for that product. This new branch of indus-
try was, therefore, pursued with energy, and immense
quantities of starch-sugar were manufactured, but subse-
quently, when it was proved that this material was by no
means identical with cane sugar, being less soluble, of
less sweetness, and notat all suitable to serve as a substi-
tute for the former, then for a number of years the de-
mand ceased. Of late years a revival has taken place in
this industry, and in 1876 Germany alone produced in her
47 glucose, starch-sugar and syrup factories 1oo million
pounds, and as we stated in a recent article 500 tons a day
of glucose are now produced in the United States.

It is singular to observe that such substances as Starch,
Grape-sugar and Cane-sugar, which have such opposite
properties in some respects, are almost chemically alike.
If starch absorbs two molecules of water, it becomes
transformed into glucose (grape or starch sugar), while
cane sugar contains one molecule more than starch and
one molecule less than the starch sugar. The chemical

364

SCIENCE.

composition of these substances may be compared by ar-
ranging their formule in the following manner :

Gra Hao Ojo, or Gis Hijo Oyo = Starch,
Cig Hee Orr, or Ci2 Hi: Oj; = Cane Sugar.
Cha Hos Ona, or Cis Hie (Or — Grape Sugar.

Grape-sugar is largely diffused throughout the animal
kingdom, and is found in most of the sweet tasting fruits.
It is contained in the honey of the bee, and is separated
in large quantities in the urine of those unfortunates who
suffer from that disease of the kidneys called dzabetes
mellztus, Grape-sugar is not only found in nature but
can be produced chemically. Thus it is formed as a re-
sult of the action of diluted acids, diastaste, gluten, sal-
iva, etc. on starch, and for this reason starch is used for
its production on a large scale.

The fullest directions are given in this work for the
manufacture of glucose from starch, and we congratulate
the publishers on producing a book at a moment so
apropos, and we regret we cannot devote more space to
the subject; we advise, however, all interested in this new
and rising industry to obtain a copy of the work, for it,
apparently presents all the facts bearing on the manu-
facture of glucose, in a very convenient form.

REPRODUCING DRAWINGS, DESIGNS, &c.

The following method of reproducing drawings, &c., in
any desired color, has been patented by M. M. Tilhet, of
18 Rue dela Paix, Paris. The paper upon which the design
is to be reproduced in order to prepare a negative copy is
first passed through a bath composed of the following ma-
terials in aboutthe proportions given: White soap, 30 parts
by weight; alum, 30 parts; Flanders glue, 4o parts; the

white of eggs or albumen beaten up, Io parts; glacial acetic
acid, 2 parts; alcohol at 60 degrees, 10 parts; water, 500
parts. The paper, after having been removed from this
bath, is passed through a second bath composed as follows:
Burnt umber, ground in alcohol, 50 parts by weight; black
pigment, 20 parts; Flanders glue, 10 parts; water, 500
parts; bichromate of potash, 10 parts. The paper having
been thus treated must be kept when dry in a dark place.
In order to prepare positive paper for the prints, a bath is
used similar to the last, but without the umber, for which
black pigment is substituted, Or, if it is desired to obtain
colored proofs instead of black ones, the black pigment is
replaced by a pigment of red, blue, or any other desired
color. To prepare the copies, the design or drawing is
placed in an ordinary photographic printing frame, the back
of the design being next to the glass, and a sheet of nega-
tive paper prepared in the way first described is placed in
contact with it. The frame is then exposed to light, two min-
utes exposure being sufficient in good weather. The sensitive
paper is then removed from the frame in a dark place and
is placed in water, when the design becomes visible in
white, and the paper is then allowed to dry. In order to obtain
positive pictures from the negative thus prepared, the latter
is placed in the printing-frame with a sheet of the positive
paper prepared in the manner above described in contact
with it, and after exposure to light for a sufficient time, that
is to say, about two minutes, the positive paper is removed
in a dark place, and is plunged into water, which removes
the part of the pigment which has not been affected by the
light, without its being necessary to touch it. Any number
of copies of the design or drawing may be produced by the
novel method described upon any kind of paper, and in any
color or colors. The proportions of the different materials
used to prepare the baths as above described may be varied
to suit varying circumstances, such as the weather and the
character of the design or of the paper.

METEOROLOGICAL REPORT FOR NEW YORK
Latitude 40° 45’ 58" N.; Longitude 73° 57’ 58” W.; height o

CITY FOR THE WEEK ENDING JULY 23, 1881.
f instruments above the ground, 53 feet ; above the sea, 97

feet ; by self-recording instruments.

BAROMETER. THERMOMETERS.
MEAN FOR ; i

Pra ay cel MAXIMUM. MINIMUM. MEAN, MAXIMUM. MINIMUM. MAXI'M

JULY. Reduced | Reduced Reduced

- P Dry | Wet | D : Wet . Dr . Wet .

to to. Time. to. Time Bulb.| Bulb.| Bulb. Time. Bulb.| /1™e- | Buib Time Bulb Time. |InSun.

Freezing.| Freezing. Freezing.
Sunday, 17--] 29.579 29.618 | 0 a.m.| 29.508 | 5 p.m.| 73.6 | 66.6 | 81 2p.m.| 72 |2p.m.| 64 |12 p.m.| 60 |12 p.m.| 131.
Monday, 18..| 29.523 29.596 | oa.m.| 20.446 4 p.m.| 69.3 | 61.3 74 4p.m.| 63 4 p.m.| 62 6 a.im.} 59 6a.m.| 126.
Tuesday, 19--| 29.611 29.690 |12 p.m.} 29.542 o a.m.-| 74.7 | 65.0 84 3 p.m,| 68 4p.m.| 66 6 a.m.| 60 6 a.m.| 130.
Wednesday, 20 -| 29.686 29.742 g9 a.m.| 29.632 |12 p.m] 77.3 | 68.0] 83 5 p.m.) 7 5 p.m.| 69 | 6 a.m.| 65 6a.m.| 123.
Thursday, 21--| 29.553 29.638 |12 p.m.| 29.500 | 2 p.m.| 78.3 | 69.3 | 87 3 p.m.| 72 2p.m.| 69 |12 p.m.| 64 |12 p.m.| 135.
Friday, 22--| 29.596 29.638 |oa.m.| 29.546 | 6 p.m.} 73.3} 66.0] 77 | 3 p.m.| 69 6 p.m.| 66 5 a.m.| 62 6a.m.| 127.
Saturday, 23--| 29.646 29.922 -|T2 p.m.) 29.586 | 3 a.m.) 72:0 | 65.7] 79 | 3 p.m>|) 68) | 3 (p.m 652 | 52a mai Ore) baat, de] eon

Dry Wet.

|

Mean for the week 29.599 inches.

Mean for the week 74.0 degrees

aieeee eee ca Seen 65.9 degrees.

Maximum for the week at 9 am., July 2oth..-......--....-- 29.742 °* Maximum for the week,at 3 pm. atst 87, ‘* at2 pm aust, 72.
Minimum a Abigap iiss: cc pietrOt Meee. oe emo Ol ee Minimum ‘ “6am, 18th 62. ‘© at 6am 18th, 5y.
Range cena sec- uae sea ee een nee eee a ae ee .296 “* Range ‘“ MY conc deena 25. *S ue oon cee 13 s
WIND. HYGROMETER. CLOUDS. RAIN AND SNOW. g
3
1 | FORCE IN
VELOCITY : RELATIVE CLEAR, ° DEPTH OF RAIN AND SNOW
ep ee NDR ML OCH | Case EIS [PANE OS VEIT rey prey ee OVERCAST, 10 IN INCHES.
SQR. FEET. hi i Fe
7 . . . . . . * 7 »
ea Distance) ,: Ai) "8? | ey Bul g 8 g es ae Dura-|§ 8]
7 a,.m./2 p.m.|g p.m.| for the | = | Time. a rom rn es fo = a = « a roe Begin-| End- | tion. Ee eo
Day. |4 SN a a) halo a a oa ing. ing. sm. |e
=< | uae Le “\ = = alle paki eee Cae a | F, ce a
Sunday, 17 |W.N.W.|W.0.W.|n, 1.W. 217 |6 4.40pm] .537 | .663 | -495 | 72 | 63 | 70 | 3%lr.cu2cir.cu.jo ~- | ----- | ----- | -.... as, | lig!
Monday, 18.| n. w. |W. n.w.|w. n.w. 238 |974|11.40am| .433 | -429| 449 | 73 | 51] Or | reir. |7 cir.cu.jo ~ | -22-- | ----2 | 22 ee Sole
Tuesdiy, 19- W.n.w.| n. w. w. 219 |6%| 1.50pm| .457 | .460 | .554 | 69 | 42 | 64 | 0 | NTSGLEI CIO We) allem eeneran eee == ie
Wednesday,20-| w. |W.S.w.| Ss. Ww. 156 |2%| 1.30pm] .537 | .534 | -612 | 72 | 49 | 62 | 4cir.cuzcir.cusj1o = | ~---- | -.--- | ----- Pee |
Thursday, 21-.w.s.w.| n.w. |n.n. w. 227 |434| 3.20pm| .614 | .609 | .568 | 68 | 51 | 67 | 3.cir.cu‘qcir.cu.jo =| --2-- | --.-_ | ----- Cane
Friday, 22.| nN. W. |n.N.w,|n, n, e€ 82 \2) 8.50pm] .495 | .564 | .568.| 70 | Or | 67 | 2 cir. |g cu. O12) | Sea eer en eee = se
Saturday, 23-| nm. | n. e. |n.n.w 140 |2 2.30pm) -489)|, «564))|| +505)|) 7a eOt | 70) 8 (ClrCUlAcir CU. |e tnnises | eee ee een ea Eee fro
i | a“ es _! lS : deo!
Distance traveled during the week. --.--------- ---------- 1279 ‘miles. Total'amount of water for the week... .u.-aees-owsscneceeseneoene o inch,

Maximum force 9% |bs.

Director Meteorolo

Duration of rain

DANIEL DRAPER, Ph. D.
gical Observatory of the Department of Public Parks, New York.

SCIENCE.

365

Sore NCE:
A WEEKLY RecorpD OF SCIENTIFIC

ProGRESs.

JOHN MICHELS, Editor.

THERMS:
PER YEAR, - - = Four Do.Lars,
6 MonrTHs, - - - - Two Ԥ
3 ag - - - ~ ONE La
SINGLE CoPIES, - = - - TEN CENTS.

PUBLISHED AT

TRIBUNE BUILDING, NEW YORK.
P, O, Box 388388,

SATURDAY, AUGUST 6, 1881.

The crime of Guiteau has directed public attention
to the subject of mental diseases ; we will therefore
endeavor to explain the teachings of some of the most
prominent of modern alienists who have recorded the
results of their investigations, and classified the vari-
ous phases of this, the greatest curse of humanity.

The first point of interest to be discovered is, can
any line be drawn between partial and absolute insan-
ity; if one faculty-of the mind is affected do all suc-
cumb ?

On this point, as on most others bearing on this
subject, there is much difference of opinion ; but the
most advanced alienists appear to be now satisfied
that a partial form of insanity exists, which is termed
monomania. The German and French alienists have
long since recognized this distinction and invented
terms to express it, but it appears to be due to Dr.
Edward C. Spitzka to have introduced this term with
its proper modifications into English psychological
literature.

The delusions of the monomaniac are what would
be day-dreams in other people, “but which have be-
come fixed realities for the former, owing, it is said, to
a faulty cerebral association system, which permits
collateral circumstances to act as supports for the
patient’s erroneous conception.”

The general intellectual status of monomaniacs,
though rarely of a very high order, is moderately fair,
and generally the mental powers are sufficient to keep
the delusion under check for the practical purposes of
life, and although many are what is termed crotchety,
irritable and depressed, yet the sole mental symptoms
of the typical cases of this disease consists of the fixed
delusions.

Without describing in detail the various features of

monomania, let us take an imaginary case of this
character, and sketch its leading characteristics. To
protect us from any reproach of exaggeration or of
drawing a fictitious image, we will take an extract
from a paper by Dr. Edward C. Spitzka read before
the New York Neurological Society, as far back as
November 1880.

The monomaniac after experiences incidental to the
early stages of the disease at length concludes that he
isa person of some importance.

“ Some great political movement now takes place, he
throws himself into it either in a fixed character that
he has already constructed for himself, or with the
vague idea that he ts an influential personage. He
secks interviews, holds actual conversations with the
big men of the day, accepts the common courtesy shown
him by those in office as a tribute to his value, ts re-
jected, however, and then judges himself to be the
victim of jealousy or of rival cabals, makes intemperate
and querulent complaints to higher officials, perhaps
makes violent attacks upon them, and finally is incar-
cerated in a jail.”

The writer of this paper had no intention of being
prophetic in his utterances, but our readers cannot
fail to observe tne very close relation the above picture
bears to any mental portrait which might be drawn of
the assassin Guiteau.

It is curious that all through this train of ideas to
which the monomaniac abandons himself there is seen
a chain of logic and inferences; there is no gap any-
where. Ifthe inferences of the patient were based
upon correctly observed facts and associated with a
proper correlation with his actual surroundings, his
conclusions would be perfectly correct.

We have therefore in the monomaniac an individ-
ual with full reasoning powers, and intellectually the
equal of most men. In what respect does his status
differ from the sane man? ‘The answer is, that he is
possessed with a fixed delusion or insane project.

To follow the subject intelligently, let us now en-

‘quire what an alienist terms a delusion, and analyze

its nature. This can be done profitably, for we are
told that such a preliminary investigation is the most
direct step for those who would be initiated into the
mysteries of the insane mind.

Genuine delusions are divided into two funda-
mental classes; the first styled SysTEMATIZED DELUs«
SIONS as contrasted with the second class of UNsys-
TEMATIZED DELUSIONS.

It may be here stated, that assuming Guiteau to be
a monomaniac, his delusions would be of the first
class.

The highest general mental development among con-
stitutional lunatics is found among those who cherish

306

SCIENCE.

systematized delusions of social ambition; the delu-
sion being often the outgrowth from a dream, or from
an actual hallucination. These men usually imag-
ine themselves the worst enemies of mankind, or are
social reformers, inventors, poets, &c.; but as Spitzka
remarks, it is often noticed, especially with patients of
high culture, that the delusions are not so monstrous
as to lead to an error in the patient’s sense of identity,
but limited to his self-esteem in the abstract.

- Systematized delusions may also be of an expansive
errotic character, when the patient constructs an ideal
of the other sex, and may on some occasion discover
the incorporation of his ideal, in an actual personage,
usually in a more exalted position than his own.
Systematized delusion may also be of an expansive
religious nature, or lastly of a DEPRESSIVE CHARACTER.

We would like to give our readers a formula by
which they might detect a systematized delusion, but
although alienists are specific in their language and
ample in their detail, brevity is not attempted, as
perhaps not possible in treating so complicated a sub-
ject.

When, however, we see an individual without any
manifest disturbance of his emotional and effective

states, in full possession of the memories accumulated
in the receptive sphere, and able to carry out most or
all of the duties incident to his social position, yet
firmly believing in the reality of that which from his
education and. surroundings, we should expect him to
recognize as absurd, or radically wrong, the probabil-
ity is that the phenomenon is due to a systematic de-
Lusion.

The one fundamental character which distinguishes
the delusions of systematic delusional lunatics, is the
correlation with their surroundings, or of their unele-
vative physical status. However falsely the patient’s
sensations and external circumstances may be inter-
preted, yet, after all, there is a pseudo logical chain
running from them to the delusion which they keep to
create and to sustain. ‘This is absent in the case of
patients exhibiting unsystematized delusions. Again,
up to a certain stage, the systematized delusion is an-
alogous to a healthy conception, this is never the case
in an wasystematized delusion.

The factors engaged in producing the systematized
delusion are two-fold. One, the predisposition we
have recognized as presumably based upon anomal-
ous condition of the brain, and the other some excit-
ing cause which must be studied.

For instance; the general mental tone of the
patient. Ifhe be of sanguine disposition, the delu-
sion is often the outgrowth of a day-dream, on the
plan of the saying that the wish is father to the
thought. If he be of a suspicious turn, delusions of
persecutions are apt to arise.

Again, the physical state may influence the patient.
If this be fair, delusions are apt to be expansive, and
to involve social and sexual matters.

And lastly, the circumstances of the patient, as the
age in which he lives, the education he receives, his
social condition, All these modify the character of

the delusions of this class of the insane. It is ad-
mitted that while all these factors are of the highest
importance, they will never create a systematic delu-
sion, unless the cerebral predisposition exists.

Of the unsystematic delusions we shall be brief, as
they are characteristic of the acuter insanities, and
are, therefore, more easily recognized. The patient
exhibiting them never acts in strict accordance with
his assumed character, and there is no consistency in
his behavior. The unsystematized delusional luna-
tic will tell you that he is possessed of a million
dollars, but he cannot account for his being richer to-
day than he was yesterday.

It is pointed out that the great line of demarcation
between the two classes of delusions lies in the
fact, that, in the systematized delusion all the powers
of logic and mental qualities that the man ever had
are utilized by him in the construction and defense of
his delusion, and as Spitzka points out is of great
medico-legal importance, are also utilized in the carry-
ing out of his schemes of defense or evenge. On the
other hand, the unsystematized delusionist is de-
prived of his logical power, and apart from his hallu-
cinations is unable to specify any support for his
morbid ideas, and his actions betray that same lack
of system which his delusions do.

We are indebted to two papers* by Dr. Edward C.
Spitzka in presenting this classification of delusions
of Monomaniacs, and we are somewhat surprised to
find that he appears to ascribe all these classes of
delusions to direct cerebral troubles, in fact he ridi-
cules their being attributed to functional complications
and diseases of other organs of the body.

The expert alienist can no doubt draw the distinc-
tion, and decide correctly on the true source of the
mental disturbance, but it cannot be doubted that
much error in this respect is exhibited by the inex-
perienced, for delusions of every kind are manifested at
least temporally in many forms of disease, which in
some cases may be so persistent as to appear chronic.

As Dr. Spitzka himself frequently protests in his papers —

on the indiscrimate power which courts and physicians
possess, who often consign “ useful members of society
to the living tomb of an asylum, and to the tender
mercies of an ex-horse car conductor, or ex-night

watchman or other politician,” he will excuse the ex-—

ception we take to the too ready desire of many per-
sons to place in the category of “ maniacs,” men who
are merely hypochrondriacal or depressed and vicious
in disposition.

We have indicated the form of insanity, which may
be ascribed to the case of Guiteau, but we have no
desire to prejudge the case. ‘The crime was barely
committed before Cabinet Ministers, Physicians,

Editors, and a large portion of the public, immediately

jumped to the conclusion that the assassin was mad ;
that such, a verdict was hastily given all must now ad-

* hheoyngy

mei

mit. Whether the evidence, which will undoubtedly be ~ :

produced at the trial, will justify the first impression,
and release the prisoner from the responsibility of this

crime, will be a matter to be watched with considerable —

interest.

*Insane delusions, their mechanics and their dragnostic bearing. The

Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, January, 188:. Monomaniac or
“ Primere Verruecktheit.”” Read before the Neurological Society, Nov.
5, 1880, Reported in St, Louis Clinical Record, ;

SCIENCE.

WE recently called attention to a report made by
Professor Leeds to the Chemical Society, of New
York on the adulterations of certain articles of food,
The tenor of the report was to show that food
products in general were unadulterated and pure,
and to cast ridicule on those who asserted to the
contrary. Among other specific statements Prof.
Leeds stated that he had made a special examination
of sugar syrups, and asserted that the result of his in-
vestigations showed, that they were free from any ad-
mixture of glucose.

Side by side with Prof. Leeds’ report we gave the
statement of Prof. Wiley that 500 tons of glucose
was made daily in the United States, the bulk of
which was used for adulterating cane sugars, and
that the glucose of commerce as sold in the Western
States was largely composed of syrup made from
starch.

We publish in this issue a letter from Prof. Wiley
in confirmation of his report, stating that the man-
ufacture of a sugar, which is a mixture of glucose
and cane sugar, is carried on in New York city or
its vicinity.

oF enor See
AMYLOSE.

As a thousand tons of sugar made from starch
will within a few months be placed on the market
daily, half that amount being already the con-
sumption of that -article of commerce, it appears de-
sirable to make use of some name by which this sub-
stance may be known and at the suggestion of Prof.
Wiley, we propose “ AMYLOSE” as an appropriate
term.

AmyLOsE will include all varieties of syrups and
sugars manufactured from starch. (Lat. Amylum,
Starch).

NOTE ON PHOTOGRAPHS OF THE SPECTRUM
OF THE COMET OF JUNE, 1881.

By PROFESSOR HENRY DRAPER, M.D.

The appearance of a large comet has afforded an op-
portunity of adding to our knowledge of these bodies by
applying to iia new means of research. Owing to the
recent progress in photography, it was to be hoped that
photographs of the comet and even of its spectrum might
be obtained and peculiarities invisible to the eye detected.
For such experiments my observatory was prepared, be-
cause for many years its resources had been directed to
the more delicate branches of celestial photography and
spectroscopy, such as photography of stellar spectra and
of the nebula. More than a hundred photographs of
spectra of stars have been taken, and in the nebula of
Orion details equal in faintness to stars of the 14.7 mag-
nitude have been photographed.

It was obvious that if the comet could be photographed
by less than an hour’s exposure, there would be a chance
of obtaining a photograph of the spectrum of the coma,
especially as it was probable that its ultra-violet region
consisted of but few lines. In examining my photographs
of the spectrum of the voltaic arc, a strong band or

367

group of lines was found above H, and on the hypothesis
that the incandescent vapor of a carbon compound exists
in comets this band might be photographed in their spec+
trum.

Accordingly, at the first attempt, a photograph of the
nucleus and part of the envelopes was obtained in seven-
teen minutes on the night of June 24th, through breaks
in the clouds. On succeeding occasions, when an expos-
ure of 162 minutes was given, the tail impressed itself to
an extent of nearly ten degrees in length.

I next tried by interposing a direct vision prism be-
tween the sensitive plate and object glass to secure a
photograph which would show the continuous spectrum
of the nucleus and the banded spectrum of the coma,
After an exposure of eighty-three minutes, a strong
picture of the spectrum of the nucleus, coma and part of
the tail was obtained, but the banded spectrum was over-
powered by the continuous spectrum.

I then applied the two-prism spectroscope used for
stellar spectrum photography, anticipating that although
the diminution of light would be serious after passing
through the slit, two prisms and two object glasses, yet
the advantage of being able to have a juxtaposed com-
parison spectrum would make the attempt desirable, and
moreover, the continuous spectrum being more weakened
than the banded by the increased dispersion the latter
would become more distinct.

‘Three photographs of the comet’s spectrum have been
taken with this arrangement with exposures of 180 min-
utes, 196 minutes and 228 minutes, and with a compari-
son spectrum on each. ‘The continuous spectrum of the
nucleus was plainly seen while the photography was in
progress. It will take some time to reduce and discuss
these photographs and prepare the auxiliary photographs
which will be necessary for their interpretation. For the
present it will suffice to say that the most striking feature
is a heavy hand above H which is divisible into lines and
in addition two faint bands, one between G and & and
another between Z and H. I was very careful to stop
these exposures before dawn, fearing that the spectrum
of daylight might become superposed on the cometary
spectrum.

It would seem that these photographs strengthen the
hypothesis of the presence of carbon in comets, but a
series of comparisons will be necessary, and it is not im-
probable that a part of the spectrum may be due to other
elements.

271 MADISON AVENUE, NEW YORK.

OBSERVATIONS ON SIREDON LICHENOIDES.*
By Wm. E. CARLIN.

Como Lake is a body of water about two miles and a
half in circumference. It has no known outlet, but is fed
by a stream of pure spring water about two feet wide and
a foot deep, which, continually running, prevents the
lake’s absorption by evaporation. The lake is quite shal-
low and can be easily waded at almost any part, being not
more than ro feet deep in the deepest place that I have
been able to find. The bottom of the lake is soft and is
covered in most places with grass and weeds. The water
is strongly impregnated with alkali, and a large number
of cattle are said to have died a number of years ago from
drinking it. It is very disagreeable to the taste. The
amount of water varies about 14 inches during the year,
being highest in the spring from the melting snows, and
lowest in the autumn. This is the home of the Szredon
lichenotdes (Baird). ‘They never enter the stream of fresh
water, preferring the alkali water of the lake. They seem
to suffer no inconvenience, however, if placed in fresh
water. I have caught as many as a hundred and fifty and

*From the Proceedings of United States National Museum,

368

placed them in a cauf, and have never had one die from
the change. The change to fresh water undoubtedly
hastens the metamorphosis into the Amzblystoma form, as
I have noticed quite a change in the course of twenty-four
hours in individuals placed in the cauf, while an equal num-
ber kept in the alkali water in the boat have shown no
change in any of them in several days. I have kept six
at different times in jars of fresh water until they have
completed their metamorphosis. I made no systematic
note of appearance from day to day, but my observation
was careful and regular. In two cases the change in ex-
ternal appearance was so abrupt that I would have been
almost certain that another salamander had been substi-
tuted for the one in the jar had I not had him so com-
pletely under observation that it was impossible. The gills
had assumed a stubby form about half the length that
they were the night before, and the gill on the back onthe
back of the body was nearly half gone; it took air quite
often, and I removed it from the jar and placed it in a box
with some lake grass around it to keep it moist. It com-
pleted the metatmorphosis in a few days. I did not feed
it any during this time. While it was in the jar it was
well fed with tlies. The jar was placed upon a table in
the telegraph office. The flies at first had to be pushed in
front of it with a pencil. It finally got to know that tap-
ping the jar with a pencil meant a fly, and would rise to
the surface immediately and snap at whichever it saw first,
pencil or fly. It furnished train-men continual amusement
while here, and they kept it constantly gorged. Those
that I kept well fed in jars and seldom changed the
water, say once in three days, usually began to
show a slight change in from two to three weeks,
and all of them completed the change into the Amdly-
stoma inside of six weeks, while I have had but three
changes of those kept in the cauf (sixty of them) in three
months. During that time they have not been fed at all.
The Szredon mextcanus is said to never undergo the
transformation in its home, and Professor Marsh doubts
that it ever makes it here. This doubt I can put at rest.
They do make the change here, and in large numbers.
During the latter part of the month of July and the en-
tire month of August, if the day is rainy or misty, they
come from the lake to the shore in large numbers, and
secrete themselves under some piece of wood or rock
where they can keep moist. Sometimes they venture out
in a shower, and the sun catches them before they can
obtain shelter either in the lake or under cover, and ina
few minutes kills them. They can be found dried hard
anywhere about the lake, on the shore or in the grass.
While catching Szvedon I have seen and caught a num-
ber of Amblystoma in the lake, with the metamorphosis,
as far as I could see, as complete as those we find half a
mile from the lake. They cover the ground by thousands
during a warm summer rain, coming from every conceiv-
able place where they could have found shelter, from
under rocks, boards, old ties, and out of gopher holes. I
have a cat that eats them greedily. She has fished sev-
eral out of jars on the table and devoured them during
the night when there was no one to watch her; and I
am told by a resident that the numerous skunks that live
around the lake live principally on them. They are of
two colors, a blackish green and a yellowish green color.
I have had two of the blackish green complete the
change in sequence, while one of the yellowish green was
completing it under the same circumstances of change of
water and food. I think this will be found to be the re-
sult in all similar cases. I have caught them in all
stages of growth and in all stages of their changes into
the Amblystoma state. During the months of July and
August they lie close to the shore of the lake, where it is
shallow; but after the first frost they disappear com-
pletely, or at least I have never been able to find them. I
think they must bury themselves in the mud at the bot-
tom of the lake, as I have stirred up the grass often and
have not seen them issue from it.

SCIENCE.

AN ANALYSIS OF WATER DESTRUCTIVE TO
FISH IN THE GULF OF MEXICO.*
BY F. M. ENDLICH.

Having completed the examination of sea-waters from
the Gulf of Mexico, so tar as the scant supply would per-
mit, I have the honor to offer the following report there-
upon, the water in which the fish die being designated
as A, the good water as B:

A. B.
Specie eravity. o-oo pelea 1.024 1,022
Solid constituents (total), per cent... 4.0780 4.1095
Ferric compounds, per cent......... 0.1106 0.0724
Injurious organic matter........... ratic—=3 ratio—2

I find that the water A contains a large quantity of
Alge@ and infusorza. It is eminently probable that the
former may have had an injurious effect upon the fish.
Specimens of the alge have been submitted to Professor
Goode, who will send them to some expert, in order that
their specific gravity may be determined.

The “dead fish” in possession of the United States
National Museum are such that any examination of the
organs of respiration will be of no avail.

I cannot find, even by spectroscopic analysis, any min-
eral constituents in the water A which could noxiously
affect the fish.

In my estimation the death of fish was caused by the
more or less parasitic alge, which are found in large
quantities in water A, but do not occur at all in water B.

In case the same phenomenon should recur, the pres-
ence of an expert in the questions involved, more partic-
ularly chemistry and botany, would most likely lead to
definite results,

Prof. S. F. BAIRD,

Secretary the Smithsonian Institute,
WASHINGTON, D. C.

A MICROSCOPICAL STUDY OF THE IRON ORE,
OR PERIDOTITE OF IRON MINE HILL,
CUMBERLAND, RHODE ISLAND.t+

By M. E. WADSWORTH.

The attention of the writer was first particulatly called
to this formation by some specimens presented to him
by Mr. H. B. Metcalf in the Spring of 1880, These
did not appear to the writer to be any common ore of
iron, but rather fragments of a basic eruptive rock con-
taining much iron. Sections were accordingly made
which revealed its true character. re a

The formation was described by Dr. Charles T. Jack-
son in his report on the Geological Survey of Rhode
Island in 1840. He states that Iron Mine Hill “isa
mountain mass of porphyritic magnetic iron ore, 462 feet
in length, 132 feet in width, and 104 feet in height above
the adjoining mcadow. From these measurements,
which were made over only the visible portion of this
enormous mass of iron ore, it will appear that there are
6,342,336 cubic feet of the ore above natural drainage.
... Its specific gravity is from 3.82 to 3.88....This ore is
remarkable both on account of its geological situation
and its mineralogical and chemical composition. It ap-
pears to have been protruded through the granite and
gneiss at the same epoch with the elevation of numerous
serpentine veins which occur in this vicinity. This will
appear the more probable origin of this mass, when we
consider its chemical composition in comparison with
that of the iron ore, which we know to have been thrown
up with the serpentine, occurring on the estate of Mr.
Whipple, and the fact that the ore at Iron Mine Hill is
accompanied by serpentine mixed with its mass in every ~

* From the Proceedings of United States National Museum.

+ From the Bulletin of The Museum Comparative of Zoology.—Har.
yard College. 7

SCIENCE.

\

369

part, gives still greater reason for this belief.”
52, 53-)

He gives as the result of his chemical analysis of the
“Porphyritic [ron Ore from Iron Mine Hill, Cumber-
land,” the following (2. ¢., p. 53):—

(ia DD:

SL OD Neer anette cee ech ac. af Sian bi0 'o.\e'8siets. 3 23.00
JO) Rs Pe SS See ea 13.10
Fe,0; ofeeaget Be cies. sirviiehe glee 0l 0:78 “s,. ae). 27. 60
2) Ak 2S a 12.40
I a eee eG cca ctlacerers cs 2.00
JE) eA 2 See ne 4.00
pili Dees ae OS ERS Sey ne Si: age a 15.30
PisGWamdelOSSecrn. wena re see. se 2.60

pieeteeth Ae St ob causes bias 6 e747 100,00

In 1869 the Rhode Island Society for the Encourage-
ment of Domestic Industry published a report relating to
the coal and iron in Rhode Island, from which we glean
the following. The iron ore is regarded as practically
inexhaustible, the mass at Iron Mine Hill visible above
drainage being estimated at two millions of tons.

“Tt is also conceded, as regards quality, that the Cum-
berland ore is free from sulphur and phosphorus, the
most common and worst impurities, and that it contains
manganese, the most prized of all the elements found in
connection with iron. For these reasons the Cumber-
land ore is sought by manufacturers at a distance, to mix
with softer ores and improve their quality, and is now ex-
ported from this State for that purpose.”

It seems that this Iron Mine Hill ore was employed in
1703, mixed with the hemitite of Cranston, R.I., for the
casting of cannon. The work was done at Cumberland,
and, in part at least, “ the cannon used in the celebrated
Louisburg expedition, in 1745,’ were cast from these
ores. The manufacture was abandoned in 1763, owing
to an explosion of the furnace, by which the proprietor
was killed.

During the administration of John Adams the same
ores were also used for the manufacture of cannon. It
seems that the Cumberland (Iron Mine Hill) ore was
employed in the manufacture of charcoal iron at Easton,
Chelmsford, and Walpole, Mass., as late as 1834. “The
Cumberland ore, mixed with equal quantities of Cranston
hematite or bog ore, produced, for a long period, a char-
coal iron unsurpassed in this country. . . . The Cumber-
land ore contains an uncertain percentage of titanium,
which, while it improves its quality, helps make it refrac-
tory. The ore is porphyritic, the magnetic oxide being
associated with earthy minerals, principally feldspar and
serpentine.” It would seem that in 1869, and before,
the ore was largely shipped to Pennsylvania to mix with
other ores.

A letter of Professor R. H. Thurston, published ‘n
this report, states: ‘‘ The Cumberland iron ore is of the
‘kind known to mineralogists as ‘ilmenite ;) among met-
talurgists as ‘titaniferous magnetic ore,’ and iron manu-
facturers, on account of its peculiar value for producing
steel, would term it a ‘steel ore.” . . . The Cumberland
ore is conveniently located and of inexhaustible extent ;
it is perfectly free from noxious elements, though some-
what refractory; it will furnish a very strong iron ora
most excellent steel; it can be smelted within the State
at a profit ; it can be made directly into steel at a much
greater profit; steel made from it will bring the highest

~ prices in the market.”

Professor Thurston states that the mean of various
analyses made of this ore is about as follows:

Se SRR Ae Re Lae a a 22.87

a RaniaaD in ies Weicatie '<ipors oh 3 alisnnel sir Lobe ita aiiunie\ 10.64
0!

FeO { DAS sa et Yo 44.88

BUA UMS stan tata vshaa.ay) ¢ ofche str siy Raste aah oe 2.05

EET Oe CES La SS OOU 7 Hoke Lino Doe 0.65

INO er iraeyaenie: Sail. sis cthin avencie Sbacpee & cio 5.67

Bins Oat PUG Bite oc Belt te, ares 9.99
CD ets Sh oT Eas Fic, Oca EIA 1 )#10:20
HH @kandiloss Petree ees seen: 3.05

STO allstars eetmieil «ate she Mh eae de ree 100,00

The ore on one side of the hill, where it has been most
extensively quarried, shows a dark, somewhat resinous
groundmass, holding large striated crystals of feldspar.
The resinous lustre and greenish-yellow color, as ob-
served under the lens, are caused by the presence of
olivine. The olivine becomes more strongly marked on
the slightly weathered surfaces seen on the faces of the
quarry. Under a lens of high power, the olivine shows
clearly on the fresh fractures. The olivine in weathering
decomposes toa yellowish and reddish-brown ferruginous
powder, leaving the other constituent of the rock, the
magnetite, well marked. The magnetite decomposes
more slowly, and forms an incoherent mass after the de-
cay of the olivine. The rock gelatinizes with hydroch-
loric acid, and yields a titanium reaction. A fragment
allowed to stand a day or two in weak hydrochloric acid
yielded gelatinous silica copiously.

A section made with special reference to the feldspar
crystals shows large porphyritic crystals of the latter en-
closed in a mass of magnetite and olivine.

The magnetite forms irregular, more or less connected
masses, making a sort of sponge-like structure. Its
rounded and irregular cavities are filled with olivine,
which also occupies the interspaces between the magne-
tite masses. The olivine is in rounded forms, which
sometimes show one or more crystal planes. It is cut
through by numerous fissures, that usually show a fer-
ruginous staining along their sides. The olivine also
holds grains of the magnetite. Except the fissuring and
ferruginous staining, the olivine is comparatively clear,
and shows little signs of alteration,

The plagioclase feldspar shows well-marked lines of
cleavage and fracture, and is somewhat kaolinized along
these lines. It contains a few irregular flakes of biotite
together with grains of olivine and magnetite.

The order of crystallization appears to have been, first
the magnetite, then the olivine, and lastly the feldspar,

This rock is similar to the celebrated iron ore of Taberg,
Sweden, as described by A. Sjoren in the Geologiska
Foéreningens Forhandlingar (1876, III. 42-62; see also
Neues Jahrbuch fiir Mineralogie, 1876, 434, 435.) The
Taberg rock has been worked as an iron ore tor over
three hundred years. This Swedish ore is called by
Sjoren “ magnetite-olivinite.”

The feldspar is confined to the peridotite found on one
side of the hill, where the peridotite passes into a compact
greenish-black rock, showing patches of serpentine and
grains of magnetite. From this fact it seems necessary
to regard the feldspar as abnormal and local in the rock,
which in general is composed of olivine and magnetite
or their alterative products.

The structure remains about the same in the non-
feldspathic portions as it is in those before mentioned as
holding feldspar. But the olivine is entirely changed toa
greenish serpentine which shows beautiful fibrous polari-
zation. The serpentine retains the form of the olivine
grains, their inclusions, and the network of fissures before
mentioned. In some of the sections considerable car-
bonate was seen, presumably dolomite. In one section
part of the olivine grains, especially towards their interior,
remained unchanged, but on their edges they were al-
tered to serpentine. Another change was observed here :
the formation of secondary crystals of irregular outline
that belong probably to actinolite. Some are elongated
and narrow; other are short and broad, traversed, by
cleavage planes. They evidently belong to the mono-
clinic system.

The origin of this rock could not be told from its
field relations, as its contact with any other rock could

370

SCIENCE.

not be found. Since the only method in which its origin
can be absolutely shown cannot be used without expen-
sive excavation, it only remains to give the probabilities
so far as ascertainable from the mass itself. Such micro-
scopic characters and mineral association have been, so
far as we know, only found in eruptive rocks when the
origin of such rocks has been studied with sufficient
care to determine it. Hence we must conclude it is
most probable that this mass is eruptive also, until found
to be otherwise.

It closely resembles in structure and composition
some of the meteorites, except that its iron is oxidized’
and not in a native state—a resemblance which for
others of the peridotites has long been pointed out.
It is rocks of this character, as has been suggested by
others, that give us the most probable clew to the inte-
rior composition and structure of the earth.

The rock in the field shows, to our mind, no signs of
structural planes that should: be referred to sedimenta-
tion. On one side the rock is massive and jointed, and
on the other it is jointed in fine parallel planes. This
portion of the rock is more highly metamorphosed than
the other, and, as is usual in highly altered eruptive
rocks, joints parallel to certain lines of pressure occur.
The writer has seen this structure in many rocks that
were indisputably eruptive, forming well marked dikes in
other rocks.

A rod away from the main mass of the iron ore, near
one end, some serpentine appears that cannot be di-
rectly connected with the other peridotite. Microscopi-
cally its characters and structure are the same as the
main rock, and there is no reason to regard it as distinct.
The rock nearest to the peridotite is a mica schist some
hundred feet away. It shows no characters that would
indicate the transition of the ore into it.

The locality was visited by the writer in October last,
in company with Professor A. S. Packard, Jr., of Brown
University, and Mr. T. S. Battey, of the Friends’ School,
Providence, R. I. To the latter gentleman I am espec-
ially indebted for a copy of the paper of the Rhode
Island Society before mentioned, and for other favors.

This examination may serve as an illustration of the
aid that microscopical lithology may be to the practical
-side of life, since now, for the first time since this rock
has been worked, can the ironmaster who wishes to use
it approach understandingly the metallurgical problems
it presents; whether he desires to employ the rock asa
whole, or to concentrate the magnetite first.

—————E——ESss

In direct-vision spectroscopes the number of prisms in-
volves a considerable loss of light. M. Zenger now usesa
liquid prism of ordinary form, having attached on its ante-
rior plane a quartz prismof the same refringent angle, but
arranged in opposite direction. The posterior face of the
liquid prism carries a plane parallel piate. The rays fall
normally on the quartz. The loss of light is by this arrange-
ment reduced to a minimum. The spectra obtained are
very intense, and the lines are well defined. A single par-
allelepiped of the kind decomposes the D line to the naked
eye, and with a small Galilean telescope, magnifying five
times, one can distinguish the difference of breadth of the
two lines, and easily see the extreme red and ultra-violet
rays, though there are only two prisms of 60 degrees.

M. Po.iAKorr, the distinguished Russian naturalist, has
examined a horse presented by Colonel Prejvatsky to the
St. Petersburg Academy, and decides itto be a new species,
which he has named ZLguus Przewalskii, A translation of
his memoir appears in the ‘‘ Annals of Natural History,”
and from this it appears that the new representative of the
family of undivided-hoofed mammals is in some respects
intermediate between our domestic horse and the wild ass,
but it differs from the asinine genus in having four callosi-
ties, one on each leg. In the form of skull, absence of
dorsal stripe, and other particulars it resembles the domestic
horse. This newly-recorded animal is indigenous to the
plains and deserts of Central Asia, and has not hitherto
fallen under the dominion of man.

COMET (6), 1881.

We continue the interesting series of sketches of this
comet, made by Professor Edward S. Holden with the
15-inch equatorial at the Washburn Observatory, Madi-
son, Wisconsin.

July 13, 1881. gh. 30m.
July 14, 1881. toh, 20m.
FIGURE 2.

July 17, 1881.

FIGURE 3.

July 18, 188:.

FIGURE 4.
The nucleus is DOUBLE (it has not been previously)
Pp = 275° +,8 = 1".5, with a dark space between the
parts.

a

DO WE SEE NON-LUMINOUS BODIES BY RE-
FLEGTEED LIGHT?
By A. G. GAINES, Pres. St. Lawrence University, Canton, N. Y.

All who have treated this subject have answered the
above question with an unequivocal yes.

It may appear presumptuous to call the answer in ques-
tion. Nevertheless, while reflecting recently on some of the
peculiar facts of light and vision the thought came to me to
doubt this universally accepted proposition; and now I
wish to express my more confirmed doubts, and give some
reasons for thinking we must revise our views on this
point to some extent.

What I now hold is that neither ¢ransmztted nor re-
Jiccted light reveal to us in vision either the body trans-
mitting or the body reflecting, but that radzant light does
reveal in vision the radiant body, and that the light by
which any non-luminous body is visible is essentially of
the nature of radiant light, and is properly to be so called.
Paradoxical as these views may seem on bare statement, I
think that a little consideration of the facts involved will
soon convince us that they must be accepted as true, and
show us that the present paradox is due to the illusions of
an erroneous point of view.

It is a known and universally accepted truth that ¢vams-
mitted light does not reveal the transmitting medium. It
may be refracted, little or much, but when it reaches the
eye it reveals, not the refracting medium, but the body
from which it was emitted. The refracting or transmit-
ting body may be vzszd/e, but is not visible by transmitted
light. Were it perfectly transparent, that is, were it to
transmit a// the light coming to it, it’ would be invisible.
This is no new truth, but one universally held and taught ;
and thus far we are all agreed.

SCIENCE.

Now let us attend to reflected light. As we attend to
it we shall learn that reflected light does not reveal the
reflector but the body emitting it. If bodies are seen by
reflected light, they should be more clearly seen in pro-
portion as they reflect more perfectly the light falling on
them. The facts are exactly contradictory to this. In
proportion as any given surface is a good reflector it is to
that degree invisible, and when a surface becomes a per-
fect reflector it becomes invisible. Can it then be true
that bodies are seen by reflected light when it is paipably
_true that the better they reflect tight the less visible they
are? The reflected light makes visible the body emitting
it, not the reflecting body, and it results that, in studying
the stars, the astronomer uses nearly indifferently a reflect-
ing or arefracting telescope. Plainly then, we would say, it
is not by reflected light that bodies are visible. This con-
clusion cannot be escaped by any conjectures as to the
extent and form of the reflecting surface. The minutest
surface reflecting the sunlight gives a brilliant, dazzling
star, not a revelation of itself. Curved, convex or con-
cave, or variously warped surfaces give only images va-
riously enlarged or diminished, or variously distorted, of
the body emitting the light, and not at all of the surfaces
reflecting it. If the microscope be applied to the surface,
the facts are still found to be as above stated. No theory
of minute reflecting surfaces changes any of these facts,
unless it were imagined that a surface might be so small
as to decompose the light falling on it, but this result would
be destructive of the theory now objected against. Thus
it appears from all the facts stated and referred to that the
proof is conclusive that, in no case is a body seen as such
by the light it reflects.

If, now, we go on to inquire as to the light by which
bodies are seen, we may find some good reasons for be-
. lieving it to be essentially radzunt laght, even when pro-
ceeding from non-luminous bodies. Note, then, that it
is the peculiarity of radiant light that it is emitted in
straight lines in every possible direction from every
luminous point. The light, hence, by which such a
point or body is seen is @vergent light, and the office of
the optical apparatus is to bring it to a focus on the re-
tina. It is not possible for a single point (the minimum
of visible surface,) in any reflecting surface to reflect
light in every direction ; and for light thus to proceed in
every direction from a luminous point is the distinguish-
ing characteristic of radiant light. What thus charac-
terizes the light of what are called luminous bodies
will be found to characterize the light by which all non-
luminous bodies are visible. From every point of any
such visible body the light proceeds in every possible
direction ; whence we note that every such point is a
point of dispersion or radiation, and not a point of reflec-
tion. Here, as we learned in the case of luminous bod-
ies, the light by which any ordinary non-luminous body
(so-called) is seen is dzvergent, and the office of the
optical apparatus is to bring it to a focus on the retina.
This brings before us the perfect similarity of the
conditions under which luminous and non-luminous
bodies are seen; and which seem to compel us, hence,
to regard the light by which non-luminous bodies are
seen as having essentially the same qualities and relations
as radiant light.

If, now, we seek to know how this can be explained,
seeing that non-luminous bodies are not original sources
of light, I think we may find a nearly perfect analogy
in the facts of heat that may afford us much help. We
are tolerably familiar with radiant and reflected heat.
The heat which a body reflects follows all the laws of
‘reflected light, and has this peculiarity, that it does not
change the temperature of the reflecting surface. For
the rest, the heat which falls on a body, and, as it is said,
is absorbed by it, raises the temperature of the absorbing
body, and immediately said body begins to radzate
heat, and the heat thus radiated shows all the essential
characteristics of radiant heat. What we wish to have

371

particularly noted here is, that this Zea¢ has been all
along said to be radzated, not reflected. By the prin-
ciple of the correlation of forces the heat which is said
to be absorbed is transformed first into increased mole-
cular activity in the absorbing body, and then again
transformed into what is emitted as radiant heat ; and
this emission is in straight lines in every direction from
every point in the surface of the body radiating, All
this is plain, and in perfect agreement with the accepted
theory of heat. We have now only to apply these facts
and principles, by analogy, to light, and we may obtain
an equally plain and consistent theory of light as to vis-
ible bodies.

We have already called attention to the fact that the
light which a surface reflects does not reveal that sur-
face. The light by which any non-luminous body is seen
is emitted, let us say, radzated, from every point of its
surface. This may now be explained by supposing the
light (luminous energy) received by such a body as in
some degree or manner absorbed by the superficial par-
ticles of the body, and then radiated from every such par-
ticle as a centre, analogous to what we believe of heat.
The light thus taken in appears to be always
decomposed, with numberless variations of results; so
that the light emitted or radiated is always of a different
color from that received. This difference of color affords us
another contrast between the light by which bodies are
seen and reflected light ; this last being always of the same
color as the incident light. In making this statement we
have in mind the fact that the same surface may both reflect
and radiate light; and that, hence, in each case we must
take care not to confound the one with the other in mak-
ing our observations. When this caution is observed,
the statement above concerning the color of reflected
light will not, we think, be called in question.

The explanation, then, that I would offer is, that the
light which falls on non-luminous bodies (so far as it is
not reflected) is somehow absorbed by them, decomposed,
and then radiated, at least in part, that the body is visible
by this radzated light, and not at all by that light which
it reflects. In these actions and reactions between the
luminous energy falling on a non-luminous body and the
body itself, we think it not improbable that there are some
correlations of force; and that these may be essential
parts of the change that enables the light radiated to
make visible the non-luminous body.

If the views presented in this paper be allowed, they
enable us to place the facts of phosphorescence, and may
be of fluorescence, in harmony with the action on light of
ordinary non-luminous bodies ; and differing from these
chiefly, if not wholly, in degree only. Andisit not true
that this so-called phosphorescence is possessed in some
degree by every visible body ? We do not now speak of
cases of slow combustion, like exposed phosphorus, but
those continuing to emit light for a time after being cut
off from extraneous light, like snow and the diamond.
We would look for the explanation of these greater de-
grees in phosphorescence in the power of the bodies ex-
hibiting it to absorb and decompose light more deeply,
and then more tardily radiate the luminous energy, than
is true of non-luminous bodies generally.

It may be proper here to notice the facts of zrzdescence,
with which our theme may have some interesting con-
nections. Inasmuch as the facts of iridescence are ex-
plained by the interference of the luminous waves, caused
by the reflection of light from very thin lamine, it might
be thought the same explanation would apply to decom-
position of light by ordinary non-luminous bodies. We
think the facts in the two cases so different that the same
explanation is not applicable to both. In the first place,
the facts of iridescence agree with the usual character-
istics of reflected light; while, on the contrary, we have
noted in this paper that the facts in the case of ordinary
visible bodies do not so agree. And, in the second place,
the results of the decomposition of light in iridescence

372

agree with the results obtained by prismatic decomposi-
tion; while the results in the other case do not. We
think it would be correct to say that iridescence, does not
reveal non-luminous bodies in the same way, nor with the
same certitude, as that light reveals them by which they
are ordinarily visible. In making this last statement we
have in mind the fact that the iridescent surface, in ad-
dition to its iridescence, also emits or radiates light in the
same manner as ordinary visible bodies ; and that these
two facts are not to be confounded in our observations
and reasonings. Without pursuing the subject further
into details, these are some of the reasons why we think
the facts of iridescence are not inconsistent with the main
doctrine of this paper. :

We conclude then, by reason of the facts and relations
to which we have now called attention, we cannot believe
that it is correct to say that non-luminous bodies are seen
by veflected light; and we offer the suggestion that the
light by which such bodies are seen should fairly and
properly be called vadzant light, as manifesting all the
essential qualities of such light.

+o

CORRESPONDENCE.

[The Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed
by his correspondents. No notice 7s taken of anonymous communi-
cations.

To the Editor of ‘‘ SC1ENCE.’”

In an article on overgrown teeth of Fiber Zibethicus
(which by a singular typographical error is printed Fiber
Wibethicus) in “SCIENCE” for July 16th, the writer
describes a not very uncommon phenomenon among
rodents to which I can add an interesting example.

The inclosed drawing represents a similar case, being
a woodchuck (Arctomys monax) ; it will be noticed that
one of the upper teeth has grown far enough to form a
semicircle while the other upper incisor has described a
somewhat larger curve and finally thrust itself through
the first and then continued to form a compete circle, as
will be evident from the figure. This specimen was
mounted here (with one other similar but not so extreme

a case) and is now in the Museum of Comparative Zoology |

at Cambridge. F. W. STAEBNER.

Fulv 20, 1881. .
Warp's NATURAL SCIENCE ESTABLISHMENT, Rochester, N. Y.

COMET (c) 1881.

To the Editor of “‘ SC1ENCE.”

The comet discovered by Mr. Schaeberle at Ann
Arbor, July 13, promises to become a very interesting
object, not only because it will soon be visible to the

SCIENCE.

naked eye, but also because its orbit shows great simi-

Jarity to the great comet of 1337, as may be seen by the

following comparison : y

1881 (Stone) 1337 (Hind) 1337 (Lanzier)
° 44! go? 4r'

Distance of perihelion from node-. 122° 30/ 108)
Longitude of node._-_.---..------ 98 43 99 6 gs
Inclinationic.. 2. 2-- 2S eees te ee 14t 35 137 6 139 32

Logarithm perihelion distance ___- 795 r -

The difference between the orbits of the two comets is
perhaps not greater than the uncertainty of that of 1337.
The latter was first seen in China on the 26th of June,
and afterwards in Europe on the 24th of October.

Schaeberle’s comet has been observed here on a num-
ber of mornings, and its increase in brightness has been
quite perceptible. This morning the tail was very ap-
parent, the sky was very cloudy, or I presume it would
have been visible to the naked eye. It ought to be quite
plainly visible at any rate before the end of this week.
It will be at perihelion and nearest the earth about the
2oth of August, and will remain at approximately the
same distance from us for a week or more. A few days
before that time its right ascension will have become
equal to the sun, so that when at its greatest brilliancy it
will be visible in the evening. While it will undoubtedly
become a magnificent object, it will not probably equal
the great comet now receding from us.

ORMOND STONE.
Mt. Lookout, O., Fwly 25, 1881.

ASTRONOMICAL NOTE.

WASHBURN OBSERVATORY, UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN,
MADISON, WIS., July 17, 1881.

To the Edztor of ‘‘ SC1ENCE.”

Among the new red stars found here, the following is
by far the finest and may be of interest :
Anon. 9 mag. R. A. 1" 48™ 45:; Dec. = + 58° 40’.2
1880.0. EDWARD S. HOLDEN,

ADULTERATION OF SUGAR.
To the Editor of SC1ENCE.”

DEAR StrR—In the leading editorial of “ SCIENCE”’ of
June 18, you speak of the different results obtained by
Prof. Leeds and myself of examination of commercial
sugars and syrups for glucose and grape sugar. I can
only take exception to one statement contained therein,
z. é., the one which intimates that these different results
form the theme of a scientific controversy. Since the
reception of your letter I have renewed my inquiries for
statistics, and can now say that I do not believe my es-
timates of the quantities made in the United States are
very wide of the truth. Dealers and manufacturers are
extremely reticent on the whole subject, and it is only by
hard work and often indirection, that one can get at the
truth. In your own city, New York, there is a large es-
tablishment for making ‘“‘New Process Sugar,” the
Manhattan Refining Company, unless it has lately
changed its name. Yet a prominent New York chemist
stated publicly, and published over his own signature,
that he had made diligent search for this establishment,
and it could not be found. At the same time, to my
personal knowledge, a western firm had just received a
large consignment of ‘“ New Process Sugar’ from this
firm,

At the Boston meeting of the A. A. A. S., I stated on
the strength of this personal knowledge that I believed
the Manhattan Company was no myth. This statement
was published in the Boston and New York papers, and
was seen by the proprietors of the Manhattan Company.
They wrote to assure me that I was right in my state-
ment, sending me at the same time samples of their
different sugar for analysis.

Within the past year the mixing of sugars has largely
increased, and is now carried on in New York, in
Buffalo, in Chicago, and at other points, A prominent

SCIENCE:

5

sugar dealer has just told me “some of these establish-

ments turn out five hundred barrels daily.”

From the best information I can get, I would place
the daily yield of mixed sugars at 1500 to 2000 barrels.
This, remember, is only a careful estimate from all the
data I can get. The process is increasing just as fast as
dry white grape sugar can be made.

_ With regard to table syrup, I can only reiterate my
former statements. In response to a recent inquiry a
prominent dealer has just written me as follows :

““My observation leads me to believe that fully four-
fifths of all the syrup sold throughout the western and
northwestern States and Territories are composed of
glucose, with enough cane syrup or molasses added to
give it the color most desirable to the buyer or con-
sumer.”

I have no accurate information respecting the eastern
trade. I am not without a suspicion, however, from the
appearance of some syrups which I have lately seen on
Boston tables, that the beautiful svrap made from the corn
of our westera prairies, has invaded the very stronghold
of the dirty retuse syrups of the sugar refineries.

Respectfully,
H. W. WILEY.
Boston, Fuly 27, 1881.

WATE RSAS: PUEDE:

To the Editor of “SCiENCE”’:

I am interested in the paperof Dr. Rachel, in “ Scr-
ENCE,” July 9, on the use of water in combustion.

The subject is a most important one; and I regret a
mistake which a reader might fall into from an inadver-
tency, I suppose, in not more clearly distinguishing
between the degrees of temperature at which the trans-
fer of oxygen takes place from the hydrogen of the water
to the carbon set free by the dissociation of the naphtha,
and the number of heat units set free or absorbed by
such transfer, which is a very different thing.

It is not a case of the dissociation of water, but of the
dissociation of naphtha, and the ¢ransfer of oxygen
from the hydrogen to the carbon so set free ; a carbon
which was very loosely held by the hydrogen in naphtha.

It is only a trade of so much carbon for so much
hydrogen; the absolute heat of which, according to
authorities, are almost exactly equal in complete burning.

But while the trade is thus equal in absolute heat,
there is practically an enormous gain; and it is very im-
portant to see just what it is.

We get our heat all in hydrogen instead of in carbon,
and so avoid the enormous prac ical Icsses which attend
the usual mode of burning carbon, ~

We get ourheat in hydrogen, which is the easiest of
all things to get all of it out by burning, instead of in
carbon which is one of the hardest of all things to get it
all out of, the difference being much Jike that between
the ease of getting our money out of a bank or out of a
lot of debts where from half to three-fourths or nine-
tenths is almost always finally lost.

The practical man does not understand very well what
it means when he is told that the use of coal under boilers
only produces five per cent of its energy in work. It
means this: that a series of enormous losses is made
in trying to get the heat out of the carbon in burning.
An enormous quantity goes off as black smoke and soot,
not burned. An enormous quantity goes off as carbonic
oxide, giving up only athird of its heat, instead of giving
it all up by Lurning to carbonic acid. An enormous quan-
tity of heat is lost in heating up the great quantity of
gases and air, that pass off without being fully burned,
which prevents a high temperature. An enormous quan-
tity of heat is carried up the chimney, because a little
coat of soot and ashes on the boiler does not allow it to
go into the boiler fast enough while passing so rapidly to
the chimney. Is it any wonder that an enormous revolu-

tion is to be made by a mode of burning where water is
used not for any energy to be got out of it, but by which
the heat is taken from carbon, and put into hydrogen,
where it all flashes into usable form the instant the air
can reach it? Where the whole heat is liberated at one
point where it is wanted, instead of in a long, imperfect
flame? Where there is not a particle of soot or dust to
tarnish the boiler and prevent the heat from passing into
it wherever it strikes? And where the heat is nearly all
in that low form of invisible radiance which is best suited
to radiate on to, and be absorbed by, the boiler without
waiting for the heated gases to actually strike it to give
up their heat by slow convection ?

It is a fact well known in the use of the alcohol and
gas flames, that if you want them for heating alone you
want the non-luminous flame only ; because with a lum-
inous flame a large part of the heat is in the form of
light, which is not so readily absorbed by substances as
heat, as it is with the non-luminous flame; and another
large part is held by the gases as convective heat, and
cannot so freely pass into substances by radiation, as in
the radiation from the non-luminous flame.

Thus the revolution in combustion by the use of water
consists in transferring the heat from carbon to hydro-
gen, by which all the great losses of burning are avoided,
and the entire heat is obtained clean, without smoke, at
the exact point desired, and in the form which takes right
hold of the work without loss of time or energy.

These things are of an incalculable value; very
much better than any mysterious supposed increase of
heat from the water itself.

Though it is important to forma non-luminous gas
by means of water to utilize the carbon, yet the water so
added takes up a share of the heat to raise its tempera-
ture along with the other gases, and so reduces the
temperature in proportion to its quantity.

So, if we need high heats we must use the least quan-
tity of water, which will turn all the carbon into a suit-
able gas,

If we add water enough to make the carbon of 100
pounds of naphtha into carbonic acid, it will take 250
pounds of water, if we assume that the naphtha aver-
ages a composition of C, His, containing 84 pounds of
carbon and 16 pounds of hydrogen ; and the result would
be 30 pounds of hydrogen and 310 pounds of carbonic
acid, This would require 1530 pounds of air to burn it,
and produce 1880 pounds of gas, of which over one-
seventh would be due to the water, and the temperature
would be less than ® of what it would have been with-
out, if an equally perfect burning could have been se-
cured without ; because the water, as steam, has about
twice the capacity for heat, as the other gases.

If we only add enough water to make all the carison
into carbonic oxide, it will take only half as much water;
125 pounds to 100 pounds of naphtha making about
one-thirteenth of the gas after burning ; and reducing the
temperature only one-seventh.

But if we use only 36 pounds of water to 100 pounds
of naphtha, one gallon of water to four gallons of
naphtha, the gases may be something like this:

Marsh gas, CH,, 80 pounds.

Carbonic oxide, CO, 56 pounds.
which with 1530 pounds of air (20,000 cubic feet) to
burn it, will make 1666 pounds of gas; and the water
added will only reduce the temperature one-twenty-fifth
part, instead of so much as before.

In each case the air to burn it, and the units of heat
produced, will be the same; but the temperature will
vary with the proportion of water added, and, also,
with the quantity of unburned air passing through.

One of the great advantages of the water process is the
condition of blast with which the fuel unites with the air,
by which the thorough mixture and burning is secured.
And it is very important that the quantity of air going
into the furnace be regulated so as to furnish only about

374 SCIENCE:

the right amount. All that is more or less than the exact
amount required, reduces the temperature so much.

In ordinary furnaces, it has been estimated that much
more than half the heat is lost by this one item alone. If
the air passes freely in above the coal, twice as much goes
in as is burned; if it all passes in under the grate, then
only one-third the heat is given off, as only carbonic oxide
escapes. ;

Probably the advantages with crude petroleum or
with coal, of the water process, would be of still greater
value.*

SAMUEL J. WALLACE.

WASHINGTON, D. C.

BOOKS RECEIVED.

OBSERVATIONS OF DOUBLE STARS made at the United
States Nayal Observatory by ASAPH HALL, Professor
of Mathematics, U. S. N. Rear Admiral Rogers, U.
S. N., Superintendent, Washington, 1881.

In introducing this work Professor Hall gives some
very interesting details respecting the methods used in
making observations at the Naval Observatory and the
condition of the instruments.

He also presents his reasons for undertaking these ob-
servations and indicates the scope of the present work.

He states that his regular observations with the 26-
inch refractor of the Naval Observatory were begun in
the spring of 1875, the instrument at that time being in
charge of Professor Simon Newcomb. ‘‘ Professor New-
comb gradually withdrew from observing with this in-
strument, which came under my direction sometime in
July of the same year. The micrometrical measure-
ments which had been made by Professors Newcomb
and Holden were chiefly of the sateliites of Uranus and
Neptune, and the discussion of these measurements of
the two outer satellites of Uranus brought out very
clearly what had been indicated before by Von Asten ;
viz, the existence of a large constant difference in the
angles of position measured by Mr. Otto Struve, director
of the Imperial Observatory at Pulkowa. As it is our in-
tention to repeat the measurements of the satellites of
Uranus and Neptune after a few years, and as it seemed
probable that similar differences might exist in the obser-
vations of double stars, it occurred to me that the best
way of comparing and uniting the observations of differ-
ent astronomers would be for each one to observe the
same double stars at nearly the same time. I wrote to
Struve proposing that this should be done, and that he
should select the list of stars. In reply he informed me
that such a series of observations was already in progress
between himself and Baron Dembowski, and after adding
to the list of stars a few of greater distances, this list and
an account of the proposed work were published by
Struve in the “ Vierteljahrsschrift der Astronomischen
Gesellschaft.” Band xi, p. 227.+

It was understood that each observer should avoid all
knowledge of the observations of other astronomers, in
order that his work might be done independently, and in
my own case this rule has been carefully adhered to. But
now nearly four years have elapsed since Struve’s publica-
tion, and it is probable that all the astronomers engaged
in this work have collected such a number of observa-
tions that the publcation of my own results will not in-
fluence the independence of theirs. Moreover, the end
of the year 1879 seems to be a favorable epoch for pub-
lishing my observations of double stars made before 1880,

* This superiority of the non-luminous combustion for heating was
discovered by Professor Henry. He says: ** With this arrangement the
light of the flame was increased, while the time of bringing the water to
the boiling point was aiso commensurably increased, thus conclusively
showing that the increase of light was at the expense of the diminution
of the temperature.”’

t Mittheilung tiber unternommene Beobachtungsreihen zur Verglei-
chung von Mikrometer messungen. 1876, Anfang Juni, Orto Srruve.

since I hope to make some changes which in the future
will enable me to observe under conditions more favor-
able to accuracy.

I have therefore collected and revised all my observa-
tions of double stars, and the results are given in the
following pages. In order to make this collection com-
plete I have concluded the few observations made in the
year 1863 with the equatorial of 9.6 inches aperture.
The whole number of observations is 1614.

it will not be necessary to give any general description
of the 26-inch refractor made by Alvan Clark and Sons
for the Naval Observatory, since such descriptions can be
found in the annual volumes of the Observatory for 1873
and 1874. It will be sufficient to say that the form of
the mounting adopted by the makers for this Equatorial
is such that the instrument, notwithstanding its great
size, is handled with ease ; and the harp-shaped piece that
supports the polar axis is very convenient when observing
near the zenith. Generally the instrument is pointed on
a star by means of what are called the “ rough circles.”
These circles are the edges of the hour and declination
circles, which were painted white, and then divided by
lines of black paint, the hour circle into spaces of ten
minutes of time and the declination circle into degrees.
This method of pointing is usually accurate enough to
find the object, but as the painting was not well done
errors as great as 15’ to 20’ could be made in some parts
of the rough declination circle. An accurate reading for
the position could be made by means of the finely divi-
ded circles, but this involves considerable time and
trouble. On account of the delay in the observations
which would be caused in making the change, and of the
natural inertia in getting rid of a poor thing to which one
has become accustomed, this defective circle for the de-
clination was used until June, 1879, when the circle was
painted white and divided again under the care of Mr.
Gardner, the instrument maker of the Observatory.. The
settings are now much more accurate and give but little
trouble, and the saving of time is very great. It is pos-
sible that a few cases may be found where, on account
of an erroneous setting in declination, I have observed a
different object from the one supposed.

The ease and rapidity with which observations can be
made with a filar micrometer depend largely on the per-
formance of the driving-clock. The accuracy of the ob-
servations also is ina measure dependent on this per-
formance, but patience and skill on the part of the ob-
server will in a good degree make up for a poor perform-
ance of the clock. The motive power of our driving-
clock comes from a small water-wheel which is driven
by water drawn from the Potomac water pipes. At first
the water was applied directly to the conical pendulum,
but the pressure of the water was so variable that weights
attached to an endless cord (Huygen’s loop), were placed
between the water-wheel and the pendulum by Professor
Newcomb. When this had been done the performance
of the clock is said to have been tolerable; but in the
autumn of 1875 it became very troublesome, and the ob-
server was frequently annoyed by the stopping of the
clock. This trouble continued and became worse until
July, 1876, when the clock was dismounted by Mr, Gard-
ner and myself.
ical pendulum had been given a conical shape, and
had rested in a conical cup. The friction and heat
had been so great that the lower end of this shaft
had become very rough and twisted to a gimlet
shape, thus stopping the clock. The bearing of the shaft
was changed and made of a plane agate surface, the
lower end of the shaft being rounded to a slightly curved
surface. The friction of the upright shaft of the water-
wheel was also diminished by clamping a set of friction
wheels to this shaft and letting them play on a horizontal
iron surface. The weights on the Huygen’s loop were
changed for cups carrying shot. With an average pres-
sure of the water, and the machinery well: oiled, these

The lower end of the shaft of the con-.

|

SCIENCE,

375

weights are 7% and 3% pounds, but the weights can be
varied to suit the resistance and the pressure by changing
the shot. Since these changes the performance of the
clock has been tolerably good. Still this clock needs
much care, and being dependent on an unsteady pres-
sure of water a delay in the observations sometimes oc-
curs. The great length of the telescope, which exposes
it to the action of the wind, is also a hindrance to the
steady driving of the clock. :

The difficulty in turning the dome, of about 42 feet di-
ameter, has increased. This difficulty is caused proba-
bly by the uneven settling of the supporting walls, and
the bulging of the dome in the direction of the slit. The
labor of turning the dome through a revolution is so
great that lists of north and south objects are prepared
beforehand by the observer in order to avoid as much as
possible the turning of the dome.

After some practice, and on becoming familiar with
the instrument and micrometer, my manner of observittg
a double star has been as follows: In order to measure
the angle of position the two wires are separated a con-
venient distance and the stars are placed between them.
The position-circle is turned by the hand until both stars
appear midway between the wires, and then the circle is
read. The light having been taken out of the microm-
eter, the wires are turned thirty or forty degrees forward
and backward several times before the light is thrown
on the wires again for the purpose of making the settings
of the circle as independent as possible, and another
reading is made. Generally four readings of the position-
circle are taken. Then this circle is turned 90° from the
mean of the readings and the double distance is meas-
ured. First the stars are bisected by the wires and the
micrometer is read ; then the wires are reversed and the
stars are bisected again. The wires are then restored to
their original position and another double distance is
measured. ‘Two such distances are generally observed.
An estimated value of the angle of position is always re-
corded, as well. as the sidereal time of the observation,
and also an estimate of the weight of the observation.
This weight depends simply on the condition of the
images of the stars, and the numbers 1 to 5 are used for
expressing the weights; 1 denoting a very poor condition
of the images, 3 an average condition, and 5a perfect
condition. I have very rarely observed double stars
when the images were so poor as to be given the weight
1. As far as possible I have avoided all knowledge of
the angles and distances observed by other astronomers.
In my observing-list these quantities are omitted, and no
comparison with other observations is made until my own
observations of a star are completed. It is possible, there-
fore, that in some cases my angles may differ by a mul-
tiple of a quadrant from those observed elsewhere.

I have omitted observations of color and of magnitude.
These observations have now become a specialty, and
such observations as I could make would not do much
more perhaps than tend to introduce confusion. In the
case of stars observed by the Struves, to which most of
my observations belong, I have adopted their magni-
tudes. In most cases these magnitudes are brighter than
those of the scale to which I have been accustomed;
thus what the Struves would call a 7th or 8th magnitude
I would call an 8th or a oth.

Very few of the observations have been made in the
twilight, which offers the best conditions for observing
double stars, since, the observer residing at a distance
re the observatory, it has not been convenient to do
this.

With such a large objective great changes occur in the
appearance of the stars during a single mght. Generally
so long as rapid changes of temperature are going on
the performance of the object-glass is not good. But on
a few nights of the year, when all the atmospheric con-
ditions are favorable, the performance of the glass is ex-
cellent, and its separating power is all that could be de-

sired. Usually ruddy and reddish stars are the most
difficult to observe, a result which may be caused by the
figure of the objective. After having been in use two
years the form of the lenses seemed to have undergone a
slight change, and in the beginning of May, 1876, the
surfaces of the flint lens were refigured by Mr. Alvan
Clark and his son, Mr. Alvan G. Clark. This is the
only change that has been made in the objective. On
@ single occasion water collected between the lenses, and
they were taken out, cleaned by Mr. Gardner, and re-
turned to their cell with very little trouble.

Until March, 1878, all the observations were made
with my left eye; but having used my eyes very much
during the preceding year, and having done a good deal
of computing by gaslight, my eyes became weakened. In
March, 1878, while observing the stars in the Trapezium
of Orion with a field illumination which was very un-
steady, my left eye suddenly became bloodshot. After a
rest of a week the eye resumed its natural appearance,
but on observing again the blood reappeared in the eye.
I then began to use my right eye, and have used it since
in most of the observations. From a number of trials I
think that this change of eyes has produced only a small
change in my habit of observing an angle of position.

till it is possible that some systematic difference in the
angles may exist on account of this change, as there was
at first some awkwardness in observing with my right
eye. Inall my observations the head of the observer
was kept in an upright or natural position.”’

The elaborate introduction of Professor Hall leaves us
little scope for further explanation. We may state, how-
ever, that the tables in which these observations are con-
densed cover nearly 150 folio pages, and will be accepted
as a valuable addition to the literature of this subject,
which has been much developed of late by the researches
of Mr. Burnham and others.

A PARASITE IN 2Z.GERIA SYRINGAE. HARR.
By G. H. FRENCH, Carbondale, Ill.

When examining the stems of some lilac bushes in
my yard, I found a place in the bark of one where it
seemed. that an ASgerian pupa might soon protrude
for the purpose of liberating the moth. Upon cutting
away the thin film of bark, I found the end of a
chrysalis visible. I carefully cut away the wood, took
this out and put it in a jelly dish surrounded with lilac
leaves to prevent its drying up, and waited for the imago
to come torth. June 5th, a week after the chrysalis had
been put into the jelly dish, 1 saw something among the
leaves which I supposed was the expected moth, but
which proved to be a hymenopter. I did not know but
the insect might be one of the boring bees that often
resort to the holes left by A°gerians in whick to rear their
young, but an examination of both the insect and the
empty pupa case assured me that I had a parasite. The
chrysalis was certainly that of an A‘gerian, having all the
characteristic marks of the pupee of that family ; and the
insect in emerging from it had gnawed a hole near the
end on the left side instead of the usual method of emer-
gence of insects from their own pupa cases. More than
this, the specimen was a true Ichneumonide and nota
Crabronide as I at first thought it might be. This is the
first time I have known of any parasite working in the
A“ gerians.

I make the parasite to be Pha@ogenes Alter, Cres, Itis
shining jet black, 40 of cn inch long, the antenne 25
jointed, the first 8 black, the next 4 white and the rest
dark brown. The joints of the legs are a little pale.

It is impossible for me to say when the parasite was
introduced into its host; but it must have been before it
pupated, because the chrysalis when taken from the bush
was entire, showing no broken place. That the A2gerian
was 4, Syringe, | have no doubt, I do not know of any
other boring in the lilac.—Pagz/zo, 7

376

SCIENCE.

TABLES FOR QUALITATIVE CHEMICAL ANALYSIS, with
an Introductory Chapter on the Course of Analysis, by
Professor HEINRICH WILL of Giessen, Germany.
Third American, from the eleventh German, edition.
Edited by CHARLES F. HIMES, Ph. D. Henry Carey
Baird & Co., Philadelphia, 1881. Price, $1.50.

In this work a series of fourteen tables are presented
which will be found of the highest value to the chemical
student, and will be the means of saving a large amount
of time if used by those engaged in chemical analysis.
These tables are compact, but sufficiently explicit, and
the summary view of the general course of qualitative
analysis, and of the classification of compounds, accord-
ing to the properties relied upon for their detection,
afford a thread, as it were, around which chemical facts
may crystalize as they accumulate. \ These tables appear
well adapted for a course of college studies, and their
popularity and scientific character is indicated by their
general adoption in the German Universities. With such
an endorsement, we anticipate a large sale for this book
among American students of Chemistry.

TRICHINA: IN RATS.

In regard to Dr. GLAzier’s belief that rats are not the
‘“‘headquarters”” of trichinz elaborate, expressed in his
Official report on trichinz and trichinosis, the following,
taken from the Gettschrift fiir unkros Kopische Fleisch-
schan, is of interest:

Dr. MERKEL, County Physician at Vwremberg, Bavaria,
had asked the Microscopical Society at that city to examine
as many rats for trichine as they could collect for the pur-
pose. He distributed blanks among the members, which

he requested to be filled. Within six months 111 of these
troublesome animals had been so examined, with the fol-
lowing result :

Of 40 rats caught at or near abattoirs, 8 (20%) showed
trichine, while 71, caught on private property, showed 8
(11.27%) ; total, 111 rats, showed 16 (14.4%).

This would certainly confirm the idea that the neighbor-
hood of those places where swine will devour anything that
offers—which they would presumptively do otherwise only
after having been fed—rats are more dangerously infected
than where the porcine tribe is more regularly cared for.

Saal

Some New Facts Azsour Rasies.—It is known that M.
Pasteur is directing his attention to the subject of rabies.
The virus of that disorder of course exists in the saliva, but
M. Pasteur has now proved that it does not exist there only.
The brain substance also contains it, and, used to inoculate
hglthy animals, will reproduce the disease as effectively as
the saliva. Matter from the medulla oblongata and the
frontal portion of one of the brain hemispheres and the
liquid of the brain have been thus employed with success.
Again, one of the great difficulties in research on rabies
arises from the uncertainty of development of the evil after
inoculation or a bite, and the long time of incubation. M.
Pasteur is nowable to communicate the disease surely, and
to shorten considerably the time of incubation. His method
is to inoculate directly the surface of the brain, having re-
course to trepanation, and using as inoculating matter the
cerebral substance of a mad dog as pure as possible. In
that case the first symptoms of rabies appear infallibly in a
week or two, and death ensues in less than three weeks.
In these researches, of which we may expect to hear more
shortly, M. Pasteur has the co-operation of MM. Chamber.
lain, Roux and Thuilier.

METEOROLOGICAL REPORT FOR NEW YORK CITY FOR THE WEEK ENDING JULY 30, 1881.
Latitude 40° 45’ 58" N.; Longitude 73° 57’ 58” W.; height of instruments above the ground, 53 feet ; above the sea, 97

feet ; by self-recording instruments.

BAROMETER,

THERMOMETERS.

MEAN FOR i | F F
cate GR) MAXIMUM. MINIMUM. | MEAN. MaXIMUM, MINIMUM. MAXI’M
JULY. me | : l = ‘ Tort: il |
ced | Reduced Reduced Deel | |
¢ | rps ry | Wet | Dry : | Wet : | Dry | 7: Wet .
to. to. Time. to | Time. Baib:| BulkscBules Time | Bulb. | Time. | Buib.| Time Bulb Time. |In Sun,
Freezing.) Freezing. Freezing. | | |
- = | es | | | ——
Sunday, 24--| 29.812 29.862 la2 p-m.| 29.722 oa.m.| 76.3 | 68.3 85 Zep. im. aie Bape T6sm | Stas anes Seam). TAR
Monday, 25--| 29.809 29.862 Oo a.m.| 29.744 6 p.m.| 77.6 | 72.0 | 86 4 p.m.| 76 4 P- m.| 7% | 5 a.m.| 67 5 a.m.) 138.
Tuesday, 26--| 29.730 29.748 © a.m.| 29.704 5 p.m.| 76.3 | 70.3 81 3P.m, 72 |10a.m.| 7% (12 p.m.| 69 |12 p.m.) 130.
Wednesday, 27 -| 29.726 29.776 | 9 a.m.| 29.698 6 p.m.| 71.3 | 67.0 80 5 p.m.) 70 6 p.m.) 65 | 5 a.m. 65 5 a.m.| 127.
Thursday, 28--| 29.751 29.836 |12 p.m.| 29.702 oa.m.| 71.3 | 67.0} 78 I p.m., 70 5 p.m.) 63 5 a.m.| 63 5am.) 143.
Friday, 29--| 30.017 30,102 |12 p. 29.836 o a.m.| 68.0 | 67.6 72 3 p.m.| 70 3 p.m.) 64 | 5 a.m.) 64 Ia.m.| 126.
Saturday, 30--| 30.164 30.190 I p.m.| 30.102 | 0 a.m.| 64.6 | 64.0 | 68 |11 a.m.) 66 3 a.m.| 64 |12 p.m.| 64 |z2 p,m. 94.
| Dry. Wet.
Meaniforjthe:.week, 525-2230 2 ae. oe. seen oee Soames 29.858 inches. | Mean for the week__._-...__-.-..- 72 CCCP CCS prams naman 68.0 degrees.
Maximum for the week at x pm., July 30th__--_.-__--_--_-- 30.190 * Maximum for the week,at 4 pm. 25th 86, ‘sata pmasth, 76. us
Minimiim AE Gipinthy wh athe ees eae 29.698 ** Minimum ‘“ “5am. 28th63. ‘* ats5am 28th, 63. ~ ‘
Range .2 28222 2252 si 2s feaeesae ese eo eae nee ae eee FAQ 2 wee Range “ eee 23. eres ee cs 13.
hah ae ire ; el Rees hale ; | ra)
WIND. } HYGROMETER. CLOUDS. RAIN AND SNOW. g
°
oy il Pate a FORCE IN rb \ ae. | a aug eee Se
; VELOCITY a : a RELATIVE CLEAR, ° DEPTH OF RAIN AND SNOW
PISO NNO Sc IN MILES |) oes FORE EION VASO rOMID Eee OVERCAST, 10 IN INCHES.
SQR. FEET. |
ULY. Sia car acme Aaa aie RS (ayer Tee =e peace mT || ge DT oe : ; ; F rg ar
J | Distance eee Cele ewe - E ae a Dura-| 5 8
7a.m.2p.m.g p.m.) forthe | Time haloes Bull ered] ae ae a a Begin-| End- tion. oF
| Day. x — a fon ~ a fon ~ a fey ing. ing. | h. m,. pe
Sunday, 24-\n. 0.W.) S.oW. Ss. 77 1% 5.50Pm| .537 | -597 | 628 | 71 | 53 | 72/0 y 2cir. CUO see eed ie ar eee yells
Monday, 25.| s. w. s. s. 187 |4 | 6.15pm) .64r | .746| 744 | 76] 64 | 86 | 2cix. |7 cir.cu.j2cir,cu.| —--.- | (<5 | lod. -- |.0
Tuesday, 26.s. Ss. W..W.n.W.|W.S.W 203 14 0.20am| .73t | .585 .666; 99 | 55 | 77 | gcu PEAS) [Seay §| S52 eee eee al
Wednesday,27-|n.n.w.| n.w. | Ss. 88 1 4.09pm| .626 | .59t_ .595 | 94 | 68 | 76 | gcu 7cir; cu.jo° © ~~ || Soon eee eee het fe
Thursday, 28-) n. Ww. w.n.w.|s. 5S. ©. 102 1%) 3.00pm| .536 | .614 | .668 84 | 68 85 | reir. 9g ou. © vd sonoma ae er aerae i ane
Friday, 29.| n. €. et dies 123 4%) 0.50pm! .617 | .745 | .662 109 | 95 |100 |10 Scir.cu.|5 cu. | ----- | ----- | ----- -- | 9
Saturday, 30-| ne. n. ¢. n, é. 199 ©5%|12.00m | .583 | .583 | .596 | 94 | 94 |100 | ro gcu, ‘10 { o.30pm| 2pm. 1.30 | .o5| 6
| ac | 3 Veena il oe | y 8.oopm|r2 pm. | 4.09 | .15
Distance traveled during the week .......-----.---------- 979 miles. Total amount of water for the week... --.- tp enue eee .20 inch,
a a a eres SL we eo ee ee 5% Ibs. Diirabionlor watne-—- --2 — ooo foe cee eee ae 5 hours 30 minutes.

DANIEL DRAPER, Ph. D.

Director Meteorological Observatory of the Department of Public Parks, New York,

SCIENCE.

377

SCIENCE:

A WEEKLy ReEcorp oF SCIENTIFIC

ProGRESs.

JOHN MICHELS, Editor.

THRMS:
PER YEAR, + - = - Four Do.Liars.
6 Monrus, - = - - Two fs
3 “ 4 - = ie ONE «
SINGLE CoPIES, - - - - TEN CENTS.

PUBLISHED AT
TRIBUNE BUILDING, NEW YORK.
P, O, Box 3888,

SATURDAY, AUGUST 13, 1881.

Tue Proceedings for the past year of the Amer-
ican Association for the Advancement of Science have
been distributed to the members; they do honor to
the Society by whom they are issued, and hold forth
the brightest hopes for its future.

The friends of the Association will learn with satis-
faction that the number of members steadily increase,
and that the roll of honor now comprises one thousand
five hundred and fifty-five names, a glance at the list
showing that it represents the intelligence of the
United States.

The very laudable objects of the Association are
the advancement of Science, which it endeavors to
carry into effect by arranging annual meetings of its
members, “to promote intercourse between those who
are cultivating Science in different parts of America,
its Constitution expressing the desire to give a
stronger and more general impulse and more system-
atic direction to scientific research, and to procure for
the labors of scientific men increased facilities and a
wider usefulness.” 3

It will thus be seen that the leading feature of the
Association is co-operation, the secret of all success
and the keystone of human progress. Perhaps in no
country in the world does this necessity for co-opera-
tion exist to a greater degree than in the United
“States, with its vast amount of territory and great
area.

Men of education, with minds specially adapted for
the highest scientific work, are often isolated from
their fellow workers, and thousands who are “cul-
tivating” Science are spread over the States and

Territories, silently plodding over problems of vital
interest or investigating the great scheme of Creation.

| Surely an Association which is a bond of union be-

tween such a widely dispersed class should be recog-
nized on its merits by those for whose benefit it is
established, and we may add, that the only practical
sign of appreciation of the advantages offered, is active
membership.

The Association at present numbers fifteen hundred
members, and has an income of less than six thousand
dollars, a sum which is well husbanded and turned to
the best advantage by the executive officers of the
Association, who are enabled this year to present two
handsome volumes to each member, which are alone
equivalent in value to the subscription paid.

We desire, however, to see the list of members
largely increased, and considering the Association has
existed over thirty years, the number should not be
less than five thousand, an income would then be at
the disposal of the Executive Committee which would
enable it to encourage scientific research in a manner
worthy of the Association and the cause of human
progress which it represents.

We desire also to see the permanent fund of the
Association placed on a more substantial footing, and
supported by those who can strengthen it from their
superabundant wealth, without a financial effort on
their part.

We speak within bounds when we assert, that it is
a standing scandal and reproach on the mez of intel-
ligence of the United States, to find that the single
patron of the “American Association for the Advance-
ment of Science” is a woman. Is there no American
gentlemen with sufficient chivalry to follow so bright
an example? We trust that the meeting of the Asso-
ciation, which will open next week, will not close
without at least one response, to the challenge we now

make.
——— Ss

ASTRONOMICAL OBSERVATORIES.
By SIMON NEWCOMB.

Among the contributions of public and private munifi-
cence tothe advance of knowledge, none are more worthy
of praise than those which have been devoted to as-
tronomy. Among all the sciences, this is the one which
is most completely dependent upon such contributions,
because it has the least immediate application to the wel-
fare of the individual. Happily, it is also the science of
which the results are best adapted to strike the mind, and
it has thus kept a position in public estimation which it
could hardly have gained if it had depended for success
solely upon its application to the practical problems of life.
That the means which have been devoted to its prosecu-
tion have not always been expended in a manner which
we now see would have been the best, is to be expected
from the very nature of the case. Indeed, a large por-
tion of the labor spent in any kind of scientific research
is, in a certain sense, wasted, because the very knowledge
which shows us how wemight have done better has been
gained through a long series of fruitless trials. But it is
due both to ourselves and the patrons of astronomy that
as soon as any knowledge bearing upon the question of

378

SCIENCE.

the past application of money to the advance of science is
obtained, use should be made of it to point out the mis-
takes of the past and the lessons for the future. It is now
patent to all who have made a wide study of the subject
that large amounts have been either wasted or applied in
ways not the most effective in the erection and outfit of
astronomical observatories. Since Tycho Brahe built
his great establishment at Uraniburg, astronomical re-
search has been associated in the public mind with lofty
observatories and great telescopes. Whenever a mon-
arch has desired to associate his name with science, he
has designed an observatory proportional to the magni-
tude of his ambition, fitted it out with instruments on a
corresponding scale, and then rested in serene satisfaction.
If we measure greatness by cubic yards, then Peter the
Great and ‘“‘Le Grand Monarque” were the founders of
two of the greatest observatories ever built. That of St.
Petersburg was completed in 1725,the year of Peter’s
death, and was an edifice of two hundred and twenty-five
feet front, with central towers one hundred and forty feet
high. it had three tiers of galleries on the outside for
observation, and was supplied with nearly every instru-
ment known to the astronomers of the time, without ref-
erence to the practicability of finding observers to use
them. It was nearly destroyed by fire in 1747, but was
partially rebuilt, and now forms part of the building oc-
cupied by the Imperial Academy of Sciences. The Paris
Observatory, built half a century earlier, still stands, its
massive walls and arched ceilings reminding one rather
of a fortress than of an astronemical institution.

Notwithstanding the magnificence of these structures,
they have had little essential connection with the progress
of astronomy. It is true that the work done at both es-
tablishments takes a prominent place in the history of
science, but most of it could have been done equally well
under wooden sheds erected for the protection of the in-
struments from the weather. In recent times, the St.
Petersburg Observatory has been found so unsuitable for
its purpose that no observation of real value can be
made, and its existence has been nearly forgotten. The
great building at Paris, though associated with a series
of astronomical researches second to none in the world,
has really served scarcely any other purpose than those of
a physical laboratory, store-house andoffices. The more
important observations have always been made in the
surrounding garden, or in inexpensive wings or other
structures erected for the purpose.

With these establishments it will be instructive to com-
pare the Greenwich Observatory. The latter has never
won the title of great. It was originally established on
the most modest scale, for the special purpose of making
such observations as would conduce to the determination
of the longitude at sea. Although it has now entered
upon its third century, no attempt has ever been made to
reconstruct it on a grand scale. Whenever any part of
it was found insufficient for its purpose, new rooms were
built for the special object in view, and thus it has been
growing from the beginning by a process as natural and
simple as that of the growth of atree. Even now, the
money value of its structure is less than that of several
other public observatories, although it eclipses them all
in the results of its work. Haeckel lays itdown asa
general law of research that the amount of original in-
vestigation actual¥y prosecuted by a scientific institution
is inversely proportional toits magnitude. Although this
may be regarded as a humorous exaggeration, it teaches
what the history of science shows to be a valuable lesson.

A glance at the number and work of the astronomical
observatories of the present time will show how great a
waste of means has been suffered in their erection and
management. ‘The last volume of the ‘‘ American Ephe-
meris’”’ contains a list of nearly 150 observatories, sup-
posed to be, or to have recently been, in a state of
“astronomical activity.” The number omitted because

they have lain inactive it is impossible to estimate; but ) observations is necessary to the usefulness of such an

it is not unlikely that, in this country at least, they are as
numerous as those retained. It is safe to say that nearly
everything of considerable value which has been done by
all these establishments could have been better done by
two or three well-organized observatories in each of the
principal civilized countries. Indeed, if we leave out of
account local benefits, such as the distribution of time,
the instruction of students, and the entertainment of the
public, it will be found that nearly all the astronomical
researches of really permanent value have been made at
a very small number of these institutions. The most use-
ful branch of astronomy has hitherto been that which,
treating of the positions. and motions of the heavenly
bodies, is practically applied to the determination of geo-
graphical positions on land and at sea. The Greenwich
Observatory has, during the past century, been so far the
largest contributor in this direction as to give riseto the
remark that, if this branch of astronomy were entirely
lost, it could be reconstructed from the Greenwich obser-
vations alone. During the past twenty years, the four
observatories at Greenwich, Pulkowa, Paris and Wash-
ington have been so far the largest contributors to what
we may call geometrical astronomy that, in this particu-
lar direction, the work of the hundred others, in the
northern hemisphere at least, can be regarded only as
subsidiary.

This remark, it will be understood, applies only to that
special branch of astronomy which treats of the positions
and motions of the heavenly bodies. The other great
branch of the science treats of the aspect and physical
constitution of these bodies. It dates from the invention
of the telescope, because, without this instrument and its
accessories, no detailed study of the heavenly bodies is
possible. The field open to the telescope has, during the
last twenty years, been immensely widened by the intro-
duction of the spectroscope, the ultimate results of which
it is scarcely possible to appreciate. Photography has
recently been introduced as an accessory to both instru-
ments; but this is not so much an independent instru-
ment of research as a means of recording the results of
the spectroscope and telescope. To this branch of the
science a great number of observatories, public and pri-
vate, have duly contributed, but, as we shall presently see,
the ratio of results to means is far less than it would have
been had their work all been done ona well-organized
system.

Nearly all great public observatories have hitherto
been constructed for the purpose of pursuing the first
branch of the science,—that which concerns itself, so to
speak, with the geometry of the heavens. This was nat-
urally the practice before the spectroscope opened up so
new and rich a field. . Even now, there is one sound rea-
son for adhering to this practice—namely, that physical
investigations, however made, must be the work of indi-
viduals, rather than of establishments. There is no need
of a great and expensive institution for the prosecution
of spectroscopic observations. The man of genius with
imperfect instruments will outdo the man of routine in
the greatest building, with the most perfect appliances
that wealth can supply. The combination of qualities
which insures success in such endeavors is so rare that
it is never safe to count upon securing it. Hence, even
now, a great observatory for the prosecution of physical
research would be a somewhat hazardous experiment,
unless the work it was to do were well mapped out
beforehand. '

Considering the great mass of observatories devoted
to geometrical astronomy, the first thing to strike the
professional student of their work is their want of means
fora really useful and long-continued activity ; and this
notwithstanding that their instrumental equipment may
be all that could be required. The reason is that their
founders have not sufficiently taken into account the fact
that the support of astronomers and the publication of ©

SCIENCE.

379

establishment, and requires a much larger = ate
than the mere outfit of the building. Let us take, for in-
stance, that omnipresent and most useful instrument, the
meridian circle. Four or five of these instruments, of
moderate size, located in good climates, properly manned,
under skillful superintendence, working in co-operation
with each other, would do everything necessary for the
department of research to which they are applicable, and
a great deal more thanis to be expected from all the
meridian circles of the world, under the conditions in
which they are actually placed. They could, within the
first five years, make several independent determinations
of the fundamental data of astronomy, including the po-
sitions and motions of several hundred of the brighter
fixed stars. In five years more, they could extend their
activity so as to fix the position of every star in the heay-
ens visible to the naked eye; and, during the ten years
following, could prepare such a catalogue of telescopic
stars as there is no prospect of our seeing during the
next half-century.

There are probably not less than twenty meridian cir-
cles in this country alone, most of them antiquated, it is
true, yet, so far as average size and cost are concerned,
amply sufficient for the work in question. How many
there may be in other countries it is impossible to esti-
mate, but probably fifty or upward, and the number is
everywhere constantly increasing. Should we seek out
what they are doing, we should probably find half of them
rusting in idleness upon their pivots. With others, some
industrious professor or student would be found making,
unaided, a series of observations to be left among the
records of the establishment, or immured in the pages of
the ‘‘ Astronomische Nachrichten,”’ with small chance in

either case of ever being used. Wemay be sure that the
’ solitary observer will soon find something else to do, and
leave the instrument once more in idleness. Others we
should find employed in the occasional instruction of
students, a costly instrument being used where a rough
and cheap one, which the student could take to pieces
and investigate at pleasure, would answer a far better
purpose. Yet others we should find used in distributing
time to the neighboring cities or states, or regulating
chronometers for the shipping of a port. I dare not
guess how many we should find engaged in work really
requiring an instrument of the finest class, and gaining
results which are to contribute to the astronomy of the
future, but in our own country there would hardly be
more than three.

The general cause of this state of things lies upon the
surface. Itis as true in astronomy as in any other depart-
ment of human affairs that the best results can be at-
tained only by a careful adaptation of means to ends.
Failures have arisen, not from the intervention of any
active opposing agency, but because observatories have
been founded without a clear conception of the object to
be attained, and therefore without the best adaptation of,
means to ends. To build an observatory before know-
ing what it is going to do is much like designing a ma-
chine shop and putting in a large collection of improved
tools and machinery before concluding what the shop is
to make, and what are the conditions of the market open
to its products. Some hints on the considerations which
should come into play in the erection of any new obser-
vatory may not be out of place. as pointing out the rem-
edy for the evils we have described.

Heretofore, the practice has usually been first to decide
upon the observatory, and to plan the building; next, to
provide instruments ; and lastly to select an astronomer,
and, with his advice, to decide what direction the activi-
ties of the establishment should take. This order of
proceeding should be reversed. ‘The first thing to be
done is to decide what the observatory shall be built to
do. The future astronomer would, of course, have a con-
trolling voice in this decision, and should, therefore, be
selected in adyance, One thing which it is especially

important to decide is to which of the two great divisions
of astronomical research attention shall principally be
directed. If the prosecution of geometrical astronomy is
kept in view, the conditions of advance in that department
of the science must be kept in mind. The public is too
apt to associate astronomy with looking through a tele-
scope. That some of the greatest astronomers of mod-
ern times, such as-Kepler, Newton, Hansen, Laplace and
Leverrier, scarcely ever looked through a telescope as
astronomers, is not generally understood. For two
thousand years, astronomy has furnished the great
geometers of the world with many of their profoundest
problems, and thus has advanced hand in hand with
mathematics. It borrows its fundamental data from
observation, but the elaboration and development of its
results taxes the powers of the mathematical investigator.
The work of making the necessary observations is so
much easier than that of developing the mathematical
theories to which they give rise, that the latter is com-
paratively neglected alongside the former. It is lamenta-
ble to see what a collection of unused observations are
found in the pages of scientific periodicals, to say nothing
of those which have remained unpublished in the records
of observatories. Under these circumstances, it is not
worth while to found any more observatories for the
prosecution of geometrical astronomy, except under spe-
cial conditions. Among these conditions we may
enumerate the following:

Furst. The institution should have such an endow-
ment as to secure the continuous services of two or three
observers, and to publish at least the results of their ob-
servations in a condensed form.

Second. The instrument should be of the finest class,
but not necessarily of large size. This is not a difficult
condition to fulfill, since such instruments are not very
costly. One reason for observing it is that it is only
within the last few years that the highest perfection has
been attained in the construction of instruments of
measurement.

If these two conditions can be really fulfilled, it is very
desirable to add afew more to the great number of
meridian circles now in existence, for the simple reason
that it is easy to exceed them in perfection. Iltis, how-
ever, to be remarked that a good climate is a scientific
prerequisite for the success of an observatory of any kind.
The value of observations is decidedly lessened by the
breaks in their continuity due to the intervention of
clouds. It is therefore extremely desirable that, so far as
possible, new observatories should hereafter be erected
under sunny skies.

If an observatory is to be devoted to physical research,
a more modest outfit, both in the way of endowment and
of instrumental means, may be sufficient to serve an ex-
cellent purpose. Instead of being a great co-operative
work, requiring the continuous labor of several persons,
physical research may be divided up into sections almost
as small as we please, each of which may be worked by
an individual astronomer with any instrument suited to
the purpose in view. To the success of such an obser-
vatory, a clear sky is even more necessary than to one
engaged in measurement. Whether a great telescope
will be necessary, will depend principally upon what is to
be done. ‘The consideration which is realiy of the first
importance is the astronomer, The man who is really
wanted will do more with the most inexpensive instru-
ments than another one with the most costly ones. As
already remarked, physical research is mainly the work
of the individual, and what we want is to secure the ser-
vices of the ablest man and then supply him with such
means of research as are necessary to the problems he
has in view. New questions are arising so frequently,
and the field of physical research is now so wide, that it
is impossible to lay down any general rules for a physical
observatory, except that means should be furnished for sup-
plying the investigator with any instrument he may want,

380

A third class cf observatories are those intended for
instruction in astroncmy. The requirements, in this
direction are so different from those necessary to re-
search that it is impossible to combine the highest
efficiency in both directions with the use of the same in-
struments. The number of observatories especially de-
signed for pure instruction are very few in number.
The instruments necessary for the purpose are of the
simplest kind; indeed, so far as mere training is con-
cerned, the engineer’s level, transit, and theodolite can
be made to serve most of the purposes of the astronomical
student. What the latter really wants is that training of
the eye and the mind which will enable him to under-
stand the theories of instroments, the methods of elimi-
nating the errors to which they are subject, and the
mathematical principles involved in their application.
In this, as in nearly every department of professional
education, we may lay it down as a rule that the wants
of a liberal and of a professional education are, so far as
the foundation is concerned, identical. Weare too prone
to lead the student into the minute details of a subject
without that previous training in first broad principles
which, though it may not immediately tell on his progress
as a student, will be felt throughout his life to whatever
field of work he may devote himself. Such a transit in-
strument as Hipparchus might have made,—a wooden
level mounted on an axis and supplied with slits to serve
the purpose of sights,—properly mounted in the meridian,
could well be made to take the place of the transit instru-
ment for purposes of instruction. Scarcely any higher
skill than that of a cabinet-maker would be required in
its construction. The object at which the student should

then aim would be, with the aid of this instrument, to’

determine the error of his clock or watch within a few
seconds. If he is really acquainted with the principles
of the subject, and has his eyes properly trained, he will
have no difficulty in soon learning to do this.— (Vorth
American Review).

a see Ss

MICHIGAN FLORA.

By CHARLES F. WHEELER and ERWIN F. SMITH, Hubbardston,
Michigan.

The following interesting sketch forms the preface to a
catalogue of the Phanogamous and vascular Cryptoga-
mous Plants of Michigan, Indigenous, Naturalized and
Adventive, which can be obtained of W. S. George &
Co., of Lansing, Michigan:

The climate of the Upper Peninsula of Michigan is
colder than that of the Lower Peninsula, the surface is
considerably broken, especially in the western part, and
the flora is in many respects decidedly northern, resem-
bling in part that of British America, and in other re-
spects like that of N. New England and Canada. Pines,
firs, cedar, larch, junipers, elms, poplars, black ash, bass-
wood, maples, and birches, are the principal trees.
Pinus strobus, the prevailing species southward, is here
largely supplanted by its more northern and less valuable
congener, P. veszmosa, whose tall, slim trunks are, how-
ever, ingood demand for driving piles. Under-shrubs,
like Rubus Nutkanus and Taxus baccata, var. Cana-
denszs, are common, and indicate a tendency toward nor-
thern types that we find more strongly developed in the
herbaceous plants. Among the latter we note as found
rarely, or not at all, in the Lower Peninsula, but fre-
quently northward, and often having a high northern range,
such plants as Anemone parviflora, Viola Selkirkiz,
Potentilla frigida, Stellaria borealts, Saxtfraga Azzoon,
S. tricuspidata, Pinguzcula vulgards, Castillea pallida,
Flalenia deflexa, Physalis grandiflora, Tofieldia, pal-
ustris, Salix adenophylla, Eriophorum alpinum, Aspid-
zum fragrans, etc., etc.

The influence of climate on vegetation may be summed
up in afew words, The climate of the Lower Peninsula

SCIENCE.

is not as.severe of as that of the Upper, nor so even, but
is subject to frequent, sudden, and extreme changes of
temperature—as great a variation during the winter sea-
son as 53° Fahr. in less than 24 hours having been re-
corded. Such rapid changes more or less affect vegeta-
tion, especially the tender branches of cultivated trees,
which are sometimes seriously injured. In oneor two in-
stances a like effect on our forest trees has been noticed.
The annual range of temperature is about 116°, and the
annual mean 46°. Of rain-fall, including what falls in
form of snow, we have, yearly, about thirty inches. Our
snow-fall is much less, for the same latitude, than that of
New York and New England. In the center of the
peninsula, we seldom have more than a few inches at a
time.

The proximity of the Great Lakes exerts a marked influ-
ence in equalizing the temperature and the effects are
marked upon our flora.

Trees like Lzvzodendron Tulipifera, Asimina triloba,
Cercts Canadenszs, Gleditschia triacanthos, Cornus
Jiortda, Nyssa multzflora and Morus rubra, which be-
long to Ohio and Central Illinois, have crept northward,
favored by the mild influence of the lake winds, through
the central and western part of the Lower Peninsula,
often beyond the middle, and the same is true of smaller
and less noticeable plants. 42:

As might be expected from the uniform surface of the
peninsula, the flora is much alike throughout. Probably
three-fourths of our species are common to all sections,
though by no means equally distributed ; some being very
abundant in one district and rare in another at no great
distance. In most cases such change is due to soil rather
than to difference in elevation, temperature, or atmos-
pheric moisture.

The Lower Peninsula is covered with a deep drift of
alternating sands, clays and gravels, and the flora of any
section depends chiefly on which of these happens to lie
uppermost. With reference to its flora, the Peninsula
may be roughly divided into two great divisions—the
hard-wood and the soft-wood lands; one representing
the Appalachian flora, and the other, the Canadian,

The hardwood country lies south of latitude 43°, and
consists of very fertile sand, clay, or loam, mostly cleared
of the original forest, and largely cultivated.

The sandy or stony drift of many river valleys in this
section supports a heavy growth of oak, frequently in-
terspersed with walnut and hickory, while the margins of
the streams, and the neighboring swamps, abound in
soft maples, swamp and chestnut oak, white and black
ash, elm, hackberry, sycamore, bu'ternut and similar
trees. Willows, dogwoods, viburnums, and buttonbush,
are common shrubs in the swamps; and hazel, hawthorn,
wild cherry and plum, June berry, witch-hazel, etc., are
abundant on the dryer ground.

On the uplands, and away fiom streams, clay, loam,
and a peculiar blackmuck soil, supersede the sands and
gravels of the valley. The prevailing timber here is
beech ana maple and oak forest in about equal propor-
tions. Beech and maple (Acer saccharinum and var.
nigrum) generally grow together, forming magnificent
forests of great extent. The best wheat farms are usu-
ally found on uplands near streams, where the oak tim-
ber gradually shades into beech and maple. Plains of
fertile sand covered with a low, or scattering growth of
oak (oak openings) are frequent, and always very desira-
ble for farming purposes. Four species of oak are usu-
ally found on such plains—Q. alba, macrocarpa, coccinea
and ¢znctorza.

Marshes densely covered with tamarack are common
in this part of the State, and nourish in their thick shade
such plants as Drosera rotundifolia, Sarracenia pur-

purea, Khus venenata, Ribes rubrum, Chiogenes hispid-
ula, Salix candida, Smilacina trifolia, Pogonia ophio-
glossordes and Calopogon pulchellum. Arborvite, red
cedar and black spruce are comparatively rare, ra

SCIENCE.

A similar tract of soil and timber occurs in the upper
end of the Peninsula, north of a line drawn from Thun-
der Bay west to the head of Grand Traverse Bay. This
is commonly known as the “Traverse Region,” and has
a flora much like that we have just described, with the
exception that some of the southern species disappear,
and northern ones begin to take their place, or if found

growing further south, here first become frequent.

The littoral flora of Little Traverse Bay is rich in in-
teresting species, among which may be mentioned asmall
form ot Cakzle Americana, Lathyrus maritimus, Poten-
tella Anserina, Tanacetum Huronense, Artemzsia
Canadensts, Cnicus Pitchert, Funcus Baltecus, Tritz-
cum vtolaccum, T,. dasycarpum, a peculiar form of
Bromus ctiliatus, Calamagrost?s longifolza, C. arenarta,
and Eguisetum vartegatum, The flora of the low dunes
at the head of the Bay comprises, among others, the fol-
lowing species: Yunzperus Sabina, var. procumbens,
Prunus pumila and Cornus stolontfera, half buried in
the drifting sand, Yyperzcum Kalmzanum, Saltx glauco-
phylla, and varieties, Lz/zwm Philadelphicum, etc. In
a moist depression were found Aradzs lyrata, Coreopsis
lanceolata, Arctostaphylos Uva-urst, Primula farinosa,
Lithospermum hirtum, Triglochin marzitimum, var.
eltaum, Carex aurea, C. Gtderz, etc., etc. In thickets
near the shore were found Adzes balsamea, Picea alba,
Sheperdia Canadensis, and Rubus Nutkanus. Deep
forests of hemlock and yellow birch (2. Zetea) mixed with
a fine, tall growth of striped maple (A. Pennsylvanzcum)
are frequent, having underneath a tangled growth of
Taxus baccata, var. Canadenszs, and under all a carpet of
Lycopodium annotznum. Alternating with these are
sandy plains covered with a dense growth of Vaccinzums,

_ yielding a great abundance of fruit. Sugar maples and
basswood are also abundant in this region, and reach an
immense size. In fact, finer groves of maple it would be
difficult to find in any part of the State.

The pine country proper lies between the two tracts
we have thus described, and embraces about 15,000
square miles. It is composed largely of sand hills and
plains, either scantily furnished with vegetation, or
densely covered with pine forest. Argillaceous tracts
wooded with beech and maple also occur, like oases in
a desert ; and swamps abound, with the usual lowland
timber. Forests of hemlock spruce are frequent, and
there are occasional ridges of oak. Birch (BL. lutea) also
begins to be a common forest tree, and attains a large
size. The usual timber of the barrens is Jack Pine (P.
Bankstana). Climatic and other influences have com-
bined to produce groves composed entirely of this species
of large size and of great beauty, for, instead of being “a
straggling shrub, or low tree’’ (Gray), it rises, often
50-60 feet, straight and symmetrical. All through this
region Pznus strobus is the prevailing species and fur-
nishes most of the lumber, but P. 7eszzosa is frequent as
far south as Clare county, and occurs sparingly in the
northern part of Isabella county, which appears to be its
southern limit.

Such is the general character of the sylva down to
about latitude 43°, but in the western part of the State,
owing perhaps to moister climate, or to favorable soil,
hemlock spruce is more abundant, and reaches much
farther south, nearly or quite to the Indiana line, and the
same is true of white pine.

- Portions. of the counties of Clare, Missaukee and Ros-
common represent an undulating plateau, which is 700-
800 feet above the level of the great lakes, and hasan in-
teresting flora, as yet little studied. This region was ex-
amined in June, 1876, and revealed a number of northern
plants. In thesouthern part of Clare county were found
Ledum latifolium, Kalmta glauca, Physalis grandz-
Jiora (not before found south of the Upper Peninsula),
Corydalis glauca, and Gerantum Caroléntanum—the
two latter species growing luxuriantly in the deep woods,
after fires. Inthe shade of the Jack Pines grew Prunus

381

pumila, Potentilla tridentata (not before observed in
Lower Peninsula), Krzgza Vzirginica, Arctostaphylos
Uva-urst, Linarta Canadensts, Kelerta cristata, Carex
Houghtonizz, etc., etc. Near Houghton Lake were found
Adlumia cirrhosa, Ribes lacustre, Dracocephalum par-
viflorum, Streptopus roseus, and S. amplexifolius ; and
in Muskegon river, near its source, Potamogeton lucens.
Pinus resinosa was noticed frequen'ly, growing with
common pine, and near the center of Clare county it be-
came more abundant, forming groups. Single individuals
stretch upwards 150-160 feet, their clean, copper-colored
boles often rising roo feet to the first limbs.

The flora of the deep pine woods is interesting, though
rather monotonous. Very little undergrowth is found,
and their gloomy recesses nourish only such plants as
love thick shade. Here the club-mosses (Lycopodiums)
find a congenial home, and flourish luxuriantly, while
Clintonza borealzs covers the ground. The great round-
leaved orchid (Habenarza orbiculata), with its tall,
greenish spike and twin leaves close to the earth, is also
frequent and striking. We shall also meet AZz¢chella
repens, Smilacina bifolia, Trellium grandiflorum, per-
haps, and a few ferns, particularly Asplenzum Filix-
femina, and Phegopterzs Dryopterzs. Other species
occur, of course, but not so abundantly. In more open
places, and on ridges, we meet Rhus aromatica and
Comptonza along with wintergreen (Gaultherza) and
trailing arbutus (ZAzgea ), and are often fortunate enough
to find the wax-white, fragrant flower of Moneses unz-
flora or Polygala pauczfolza, hiding its shining leaves
under a wealth of showy pink blossoms.

The floral treasures of the pine region lie, however, in
its swamps and lake borders rather than in the deep
woods. Therein grows Lzzvmea borealzs in all its delicate
beauty, carpeting the ground, and close at hand, the odd,
brown-purple flower of Cyfrzfedzum acaule and the small
yellow blossom of its water-loving relative C. parvzflo-
rum. in such swamps, or within a stone’s throw of
them, may be found many other plants of equal interest,
such as Medéola Virginica, Ledum latifolium, Andro-
meda polifolia, Kalmza glauca, Lonicera oblongifolia,
Cardamine pratensts, Gerardia aspera, Mitella nuda,
Eriophorum vaginatum, etc. On lake margins we shail
find Lyszmachza and the blue Ponfederza and more rarely,
Nes@a and Eleocharzs quadrangulata. The lake itselt,
most likely, will be full of Vymphewa, Nuphar, Utricu-
larzus, and a world of Potamagetons and similar water
weeds. Shrubby Vaccznzums \ine the bluffs, and here
and there gleam the white trunks of paper birches
against the dark background of pines.

In the thick-pine country, where the lumberman’s axe
has let in the sunlight, new plants spring up freely.
Here, Prunus Pennsylvanica and poplars are frequent,
and the blackberry is omnipresent. <Avralza hispida and
Physalis pubescens are also peculiar to such land, and
in August Guaphalium decurrens may be seen white-
ning thousand of acres,

One seldom beholds a drearier sight than a dead and
deserted lumber region. The valuable trees were all
felled years ago, and the lumberman moved on to fresh
spoils, leaving behind an inextricably confused mass of
tree tops, broken logs, and uprooted trunks. Blackberry
canes spring up everywhere, forming a tangled thicket,
and a few scattering poplars, birches, and cherries serve
for arboreal life, above which tower the dead pines,
bleached in the weather and blackened by fire, destitute
of limbs, and looking at a distance not unlike the masts
of some great harbor. Thousands of such acres, repel-
lant alike to botanist and settler, can be seen in any of
our northern counties.

In certain districts considerable beech is found asso-
ciated with the pine. The soil of such tracts is usually
of better quality, and can be rendered productive without
much labor. It may be noticed that in such cases the
pine also grows thriftier and makes better lumber,

382

SCIENCE.

Sections of this andthe Traverse region of Michigan
are still sparsely settled, or not at all, and have been visi-
ted rarely by botanists. Consequently, we may expect
many editions to our flora, as well as corrections, when
this region is as thoroughly known as the south half of
the State now is; our ignorance, rather than nature’s
parsimony, explaining why we have so few species credi-
ted to us. The most promising field for the botanist
evidently lies in the Houghton Lake region and north-
ward, and in the upper Peninsula, many parts of the in-
terior of which are botanically unknown.

Our flora, as here presented, contains in all 113 families
(orders), and 1,634 species. The composites claim the
largest number of species, 182—about one-ninth of all.
Sedges follow with 176 species; grasses, 139; rosacee,
61; ferns, 56; leguminose, 55; figworts, 46; mints, 40;
mustard and crowfoot, 39 each; heath family, 35; and
umbellifere, 27. We have 165 trees and shrubs, about
20 of whichare valuable timber trees. At least 40 of our
trees and shrubs are worthy of cultivation for ornament.
Sugar maples and elms are commonly planted, while the
tulip tree, basswood, Kentucky coffee tree, black walnut,
and butternut, among deciduous trees, and hemlock,
white pine, black spruce, arbor vite, and red cedar,
among evergreens, deserve more attention. About 20
species of woody and herbaceous native climbers are
frequent, and some are worthy of cultivation, (see State
Pomological Report of ’79 for a list.) Ninety medicinal
plants are admitted into the U.S. Pharmacopeeia, 45
belonging to the primary list, and an equal number to
the secondary, while a number of others deserve atten-
tion at the hands of Pharmacists.

It may be stated in conclusion that, in the preparation
of this catalogue, we have spared no pains to make it
thoroughly reliable, a majority of the species enumerated
having passed through our hands, and the remainder be-
ing admitted only on good authority. We have pre-
ferred to make a useful rather than aa /arge catalogue,
and, on this ground, we have rejected a number of
species, some of which may yet make good their claim to
be considered as part of our flora. We cannot hope to
have escaped all errors, and crave charitable judgment
for any such the kind reader may discover, trusting that
they may be found errors of omission rather than of com-
mission.

In our arrangement of orders, we have preferred, as
more convenient, to follow the 5th edition of Gray’s
Manual rather than later works. The vexatious subject
of synonomy has received considerable attention, and
will, we believe, be found brought down nearly to date.
Further observations will be published from time to time
in the form of addenda, towards increase of which we
solicit correspondence and contributions from all parts of
the State.

IontIA, MICH., January 20, 1881.

DISRUPTION OF PLANETARY MASSES FROM
THE PRIMEVAL NEBULA.

V.

By EDGAR L. LARKIN.

It has been shown in this series that the gaseous sphere
could not have parted with any form of ring known to
geometers. All varieties of segmental rings were exam-
ined, and their displacement found impossible by known
laws of mechanics. The nebula subsided from space to
the dimensions of the orbit of Neptune, else its assumed
rotation could not have been equal to the orbital velocity
of that planet,

Indeed, it must have revolved faster, for matter along
the line of the centre of gravity of the ring moved with
the rate that Neptune now has. ‘Then the outside of the
ring moved faster and the inside slower than the Neptu-
nian velocity. But the inside was required to move with
greater rapidity than any other point to exceed attraction

and disrupt the mass. From this consideration alone
the doctrine of ring detachment is subverted.

We are now to demonstrate that no particle whatever
can be detached from a revolving sphere whether gase-
ous, fluid or solid, by any force known to man. Tan-
gental force in no case overcomes radial, being unable
from known physical laws, which teach that not an atom
ever left a rotating cosmical mass. We have made cal-
culation of the maximum effect ot tangental force on
matter on the equator of the sphere when coincident with
the orbit of Neptune, radius being 2,780,000,000 miles.
And.if the solar parallax is modified, bringing Neptune
somewhat nearer, the figures will not be in material er-
ror. lt is a law of mechanics that if matter is thrown
off the periphery of a revolving sphere by force evolved
by rotation, the detached portion always, when maximum
power is exerted, traverses a line tangent to the curva-
ture at the point of departure. If a revolving globe
should burst, the pieces would be projected along tan-
gental lines and never rise higher, But what is a tan-
gent to the Neptunian orbit, and what is its departure
from the curvature of that mighty sphere whence Nep-
tune’s mass is said to have been detached? It is apos-
tulate of the Hypothesis that the nebula was a sphere,
else it could not have parted with matter in the form of a
ting. We adopt the idea that it was round, and for the
purposes of trigonometry imagine the surface to have
been as level as still water. We are in search of the de-
parture of the tangent from the curve at different dis-
tances along the equator, to learn how far tangental force
was able to project matter above the periphery.

The length of 1" of arc on the equator of the nebula
was 13,478 miles, and we made selection of 8” of arc or
107,824 miles to find the amount of its deflection froin
the tangent. The curvature cannot be detected by tables
of logarithmic functions carried to the sixth decimal
place—thus:

log. sin. 1’ = 6.463726
log. 60 = 1.778151
log. sin. 1" = 4.685575
log. 8 = .903090
log. sin. 8" = 5.588665
and
log. tan. 1" = 4.685575
log. 8 = .903090
log. tan. 8" = 5.588665

That is, the logarithmic sine and tangent of 8” are the
same ; hence the arc cannot be told from a straight line
by ordinary tables. This being the case, radii drawn to
the centre from each extremity would be equal in length,
and it follows that any particle of matter on the equator
of the primeval sphere, after having traversed more than
a hundred thousand miles under the influence of tan-
gental force, was no further from the centre than when
it started, making the formation of a ring, or detachment
of an atom, alike impossible.

Not deeming it true that an arc of such length had no
curvature, and not having logarithmic tables for exact
computation of functions near their limits, we ‘vere
obliged to use the cumbersome method of natural sines,
cosines and tangents, carrying the calculation to the
twentieth decimal place to secure accuracy.

To find the cosines of such minute arcs use was made
of the formula—Cos.=1—¥% sin.*, and for secants—

Sec. A=—-A..

cos.
Applying these formule to the arc of 8" it was found —
that the secant was only 1.94 miles longer than the
radius. That is, the curvature of the sphere at any
point distant 107,824 miles from another, made a point
of tangency, is less than two miles! Let us watch the
career of an atom destined to be cast off the equator to

——_—t———s—é=#é____—ss=sé__=—s_sssi. a _——————_— a,

SeLENCE: 383

become a part of the Neptunian ring. Conceive the
sphere at rest; let some unknown law cause it to rotate,
with constantly accelerating velocity, until finally equato-
rial atoms are moving so fast that tangental force just
counteracts gravity. The particles will be balanced and
without weight. Increase rotation, and the atoms will
move on a tangent instead of the surface of the sphere.

But they had to move 50,000 miles before it could be
determined whether they were traversing the periphery
or tangent, and over 50,000 more miles in order to attain
an elevation of two miles! Todothis the maximum
force was required, as it alone was able to project matter
to the tangent.

Nothing in nature can exceed the feebleness of this
maximum tangental force. An atom on the equator re-

quired 8h. 54m. to traverse 107,000 miles, and then it was

not quite two miles further from the centre. Yet this
gentle force cast off a ring whose mass was 102 sextillion
tons, if the Hypothesis is true.

No theory ever advocated concerning the development
of the planets has:so little in its favor as that of ring de-
tachment. Below is a table showing the increase of dis-
tance of equatorial atoms from the centre of the sphere
after having traversed different arcs from the point where
they became balanced between the opposing forces, cen-
tripetal and tangental.

The first column gives the arcs, the second their length
in miles, and the third shows the gain in distance from
the centre of the nebula, after reaching the extremity of
arcs, providing the matter touched the tangents.

Altitudes
Arcs. Length in Miles. | of Matter in
Miles.
1¢7,824 1.94
134,780 | 2.78
202,170 7s
336,950 20,
808,671 a by
8,086,710 11,759.
48,520,266 417,061.
|

But no atom could rise above the periphery, for the
entire periphery itself would rise. Thus, let a particle
become subject to tangental force and fly along a tangent.
Let the force be enormous, sufficient to hurl equatorial
matter along a tangent of 1° or 48,520,666 miles, and it
will then be 417.061 miles more distant from the centre.
The next atom behind would follow and all others on the
same line around the sphere. The next inner particle
would become elevated, and the next until the space
417,061 miles filled with gas, the result of the process
being that the equatorial diameter of the nebula in-
creased 834.122 miles. Bft this diminished rotation
allowed gravity to regain dominion and bring down the
protuberance to a level as before. This mutation must
obtain inall rotating masses so long as they remain gas
or liquid, the areolar velocity being a constant. During
the ascent and fall of the equatorial matter it is seen that
no particle wandered away, but every one returned at the
command of gravity. When amass solidifies its rotary
velocity cannot accelerate, and since matter is unable to
part from a fluid sphere it cannot possibly leave a solid.
Hence no cosmical mass, whatever its size, density or
rate of revolution, ever detached an atom by force gene-
rated by rotary motion. Suppose the nebula received an
impulse that imparted inconceivable velocity of revolu-
tion, causing peripheral matter to rush on a tangent of 20°,
flattening the mass into the shape of a bi-convex lens,
then rotation must have almost ceased, when gravity
reasserted mastery. Let one imagine himself to have
been placed on the equator of the nebula, assuming the
gas visible, which was not the case. An ordinary tree
could then be seen with a telescope at a distance of
50,000 miles! The top of acommon terrestrial moun-

tain would have been in sight at a distance of more than
100,000 miles! The observer would have found himself
in the midst of a mighty plain, and would have been
able to see mountains a hundred thousand miles in every
direction, so slight was the curvature. Ata distance of
1° or 48,000,000 miles the depression below a tangent
was only 417,000 miles. The diameter of the sun is
852,000 miles; therefore, if it were. placed on the cir-
cumference of the primeval sphere, its semi-diameter
could be seen at that enormous distance. Reverse
nature’s laws, making it possible that tangental force
can disrupt a revolving mass, then with the sphere’s
known rotation of 3.36 miles per second (admitting the
Hypothesis true) could a ring have been abandoned P
Could the rotary motion even cause currents to flow from
the latitudes to the equator, or even produce an equa-
torial elevation in so vast a level capable of detection by
some distant micrometer? We answer no, because
Neptune, with the same velocity, keeps on its orbit. We
fail to see why the theory of ring displacement was ever
entertained, since no analogy in nature suggests it.
NEw WINDSOR OBS., Aug. 8, 1881.

MICROSCOPICAL TECHNOLOGY.
Dr. CARL SEILER'’S METHODS.
MOUNTING,

For mounting, both resinous and aqueous solutions
may be used, which each possess advantages over the
other, and for this reason a controversy has been going
on for some time, between eminent microscopists, in
regard to the advantages of glycerine, on the one hand,
representing the aqueous mounting media and balsam,
on the other, representing the resinous class. The truth
is, that both should be used, as occasion requires.
Glycerine, or its equivalents, should be used when it is
desired to bring out delicate striae, lines, hair-like pro-
jections, such as cilia on the epithelium of the respira-
tory tract, processes of the ganglionic nerve cells, and
so forth, and for delicate vegetable preparations. Balsam
should be used when clearness and transparency of the
object, and brilliancy as well as durability of the stain-
ing is desired.

In order to clearly understand this the student will do
well to mount two preparations of the same tissue, the
one in balsam, or other resinous medium, and the other
in glycerine or its equivalent, and then compare the re-
sults. He will find that the one medium is better suited
for a particular preparation than the other.

Balsam. Among all resinous substances Canada
balsam is the best for mounting purposes, provided it has
been properly prepared. To do this, take a clear sample
of balsam and evaporate it in a water bath, to dryness,
that is, until, when hot, all odor of turpentine has disap-
peared, and, when cold, it is hard and brittle, like resin.
This will take several days ; and great care should be
exercised in keeping the water bath full of water, for as
soon as the temperature in the balsam is raised above
212° F. it turns brown, and is then unfit for use.

When thus evaporated the balsam is again heated in
the water bath and enough of Squibb’s absolute alcohol
is added to dissolve it and make the solution of the con-
sistency of thin syrup. It is now allowed to cool and
poured into a spirit lamp, the wick having been re-
moved, in which itis kept for use, the glass cap of the
lamp protecting it from dust and preventing the evapora-
tion of the alcohol. If, after using for some time, the
solution becomes too thick, it should be warmed by
placing the spirit lamp in warm water and adding to it
some warm absolute alcohol. If the alcohol used in dis-
solving the balsam or in diluting the solution is not
strong enough, a white precipitate will form, which may
be redissolved by the application of heat, but will reap-
pear when exposed to ‘the air, in a thin layer on the

384

slide, and the solution thus becomes useless for mount-
ing. ;

Having cleaned his slides and covers, and having his
balsam solution prepared, the student may now proceed
to mount the objects in the following way: Place one of
the stained sections which have been kept in alcchol in
asmall shallow dish containing some absolute alcohol,
and allowit to remain there for some minutes, so as to
remove all traces of water which may remain in it from
the staining ffuid and which have not been removed
by the washing in the weaker alcohols. Then float it
on the surface of some oil of cloves, also contained in a
shallow glass or porcelain dish, until it has become
transparent, when it shculd be remcved from the oil,
spread out on a glass slide and covered with a thin cover
glass which has been taken from the bottle filled with
alcohol and wiped dry with a soft rag. The specimen
is now ready to be examined under the microscope, in
order to see whether it will pay to permanently mount
itin balsam. If found good the cover glass is carefully
removed and all superfluous oil remaining on the section
and on the slide is taken up with the edge of a piece of
blotting paper, the object covered with a drop of the bal-
sam solution, a fresh, dry cover is placed upon it, taking
care to exclude any air bubbles, and pressure is made
upon the cover to press out all superfluous balsam. In
order to prevent the formation of air bubbles in the speci-
men the cover should be held by the forceps, near the
edge, the opposite edge should be carefully placed into the
balsam and the cover gradually lowered over the section
until it hes flat upon it. If, after pressing the cover
down, it is found that the balsam does not extend to the
edge of the cover all round, a small drop of balsam
should be placed near the edge, at the point where the
balsam under the cover joins the empty space, when it
will run in by capilliary attraction. The slide is then
Jaid aside to allow the balsam to dry spontaneously,
which will take place in from four to six weeks, or it may
be placed in a drying oven, the temperature of which is
not raised above 130° F., when it will be ready for finish-
ingin a much shorter time. An excellent apparatus of
this kind is sold by dealers in microscopical appliances.
It consists of a box of copper containing movable trays,
surrounded by another larger box, also of copper, so that
a space remains between the two boxes, which, when the
oven is used, is filled with water through an opening at
the top. A thermometer is inserted through this open-
ing, and a lamp is placed under the outer box, which
raises the temperature of the water up to any desired de-
gree, and thereby warms the air in the inner box. A
current of air is established through the inner box by
ventilators, both at the top and bottom. Specimens
which have been double stained with indigo should not
be exposed to either heat or sunlight, as they will fade
under these circumstances.

The fact that the oil of cloves or other volatile oils
which may be used in its stead shrink many of the more
delicate tissues, and the difficulty attending the removal
of large thin sections from one solution to the other, as
well as the danger of tearing while they are spread upon
the slide, has led the author to discard the oil of cloves
as a clearing agent, and to adopt a plan of mounting in
balsam, which avoids all these dangers and which has
the advantage that the slides may be finished imme-
diately.

MOUNTING IN BALSAM.

After one of a number of sections which have been
stained together has been examined in oil of cloves, and
has been found to be good, the others may be inferred to
be also good and worth mounting. One of them is
placed in absolute alcohol, and after it has remained
therein for some time, is floated upon a cover glass,
which need not be wiped dry after taking it from the
bottle of alcohol in which the Covers are kept, held-in a

SEFENCE.

pair of forceps whose ends have been bent so as to stand
at right angles to the shafts, and to close on top of
each other. The cover with the section on it is then
lifted out of the alcohol, when the specimen will be
found to be evenly spread out, needing but little unfold-
ing at the edges, which sometimes fold over; the lower
surface is to be wiped dry and a drop of the alcoholic
solution of balsam is placed on the section, which, on the
cover, is set aside ina place free from dust, to clear up
and allow the balsam to get dry. After fifteen or twenty
minutes another drop of balsam should be placed upon
it, in order to prevent the drying of the tissue. After
twelve hours the balsam has dried sufficiently on the
cover so that the specimen can be mounted, in the fol-
lowing manner: Take the cover up with a pair of
forceps and place a drop of crude berzole* on the bal-
salm and quickly place the cover, with the balsam down,
on a clean slide, as near the centre as possible, and
taking care to avoid air bubbles. Then warm the slide
over a spirit lamp, place on a turn-table and quickly
centre the cover so that its edge does not seem to shake
when the slide is rapidly revolved. Next run a ring of
cement around the edge, as will be described presently,
and then press gently upon the cover, to cause the sec-
tion to lie flat, and to press out the surplus of balsam,
which, with a little management of the pressure, will run
into the ring of cement. Another ring of cement may
then be applied, when the slide is ready to be labeled
and put away.

The cement for balsam mounting which is most satis-
factory was devised by Mr. T. W. Starr, of Philadelphia,
and is prepared as follows:

Clear Canada balsam, 370 grains.
Deodorized benzine, 140 grains.
Spirits turpentine, 120 grains,
Gum dammar, 185 grains.

Mix the balsam and benzine well together in a bottle,
then add the turpentine and shake until mixed; finally,
add the gum dammar, in selected pieces, and shake fre-
quently till dissolved. Ifnecessary, the solution should
be filtered through absorbent cotton, previously moist-
ened with turpentine.. A portion of this is to be placed
in a small glass-capped vial, to the cap of which is
attached a small saé/e brush, which will come to a point,
the ordinary camel’s hair brush not being suitable for
ringing, as it spreads too much. If the solution is too
thick to flow readily it should be diluted with spirits of
turpentine until the proper consistency is obtained. This
fluid is also an excellent mounting medium when the
object has previously been cleared in oil of cloves or
turpentine. For ringing, this cement may be colored
by adding to it a few drops of alcoholic solution of ani-
line of any shade desired, or it may be mixed with white
zinc, when the resulting ring will appear as if made of
porcelain. ;

The specimen to be ringed is placed upon the turn-
table, and if any balsam has soiled the slide or the cover
it must be removed by scraping with a sharp knife and
afterward wiping with a soft linen rag wet with benzole.
Asa matter of course, the balsam should be hard, so that
the cover: will not be displacad by the scraping and
wiping. If the cover should not be in the centre, and a
self-centering turn-table is used, the slide is to be M
warmed until the balsam becomes soft, when the cover M4
may be centered on the turn-table. Having thus pre- ;
pared the slide, the brush in the cement bottle is removed g
and the surplus scraped off, so that it is almost dry ;
with the left hand the turn-table is spun round rapidly
and the point of the brush applied to the edge of the -
cover for a moment only, holding the brush slanting in ;

*The refined benzole or benzine, which is frequently sold for benzole,
is to volatile for our purposes, ‘ wy

SCIENCE.

the right hand, and that hand resting upon the stand of |

the table. The brush is then moistened a little more
with the cement and again applied to the edge of the
cover, without, however, allowing the hair of the brush
to touch the glass; the small drop at the point of the
brush only should be in contact with the glass and be
carried around by the rapid spinning of the turn-table.
The slide is then set aside so as to allow the ring to be-
come thick by evaporation of the benzine and turpen-
tine, when the applications of cement may be repeated
until the desired thickness is obtained.

If colored or white zinc cement is to be used it should
not be applied until after the first rings of clear cement
have become hard, as otherwise the colored cement will
run in under the cover and be disseminated among the
mounting medium. If white zinc cement has been used,
it may be still further improved by running one or two
fine lines of asphaltum varnish around it, but not before
the cement has thoroughly hardened.

The making of a neat ring around the edge of the
cover isan art which can only be acquired by practice and
experience, and therefore a few hints in regard to the
causes of failure will greatly help the beginner.

If the ring, when finished, shows irregularties both at
its inner and outer edge, the cement used is too thick and
should be diluted with turpentine. If the ring is too
broad—wider than about one-thirty-second of an inch,
unless intentionally widened—the brush has been pressed
down too hard upon the glass, which causes it to spread,
or too much of the cement has been applied at once.
This is especially the cause when irregularities or bulging
in the edges of the ring are noticed.

If the ring is filled with minute air bubbles, the
brush has been kept too long in contact with the glass in
making the first ring, or its point has been brought in
contact with the first ring in making the second applica-
tion, when only the minute drop should have touched the
glass ; or, finally, the solution may be too thick.

MOUNTING IN GLYCERINE.

When a preparation is to be mounted in glycerine, it
should, after having been stained, be placed in dilute
glycerine for twenty-four hours, and then for the same
length of time in strong glycerine (Bower’s), in order to
make it transparent. The section is then carefully
spread upon the slide; a clean cover, which has been
wiped dry, is placed upon it and pressed down, to re-
move the excess of glycerine from under the cover, and
a small spring-clip is applied, so as to hold the cover in
position during the subsequent manipulation of washing.
The excess ot glycerine must now be removed as care-
fully as possible by washing it off with a stream of water,
either from a syringe or from a tap, taking care not to dis-
place the cover in doing so. The slide is then stood on
edge to dry, the spring-clip still holding the cover, and
when all the water has evaporated it is ready for ringing.
In order to do this the spring-clip must be removed, the
slide placed upon the turn-table, the cover centered and
a ring of some water-proof cement applied, in the man-
ner described above.

The best cements for this purpose are, first, the so-
called Bell’s cement, which may be obtained from any
dealer in microscopical supplies, and the composition of
which is a secret with the makers ; and second, the au-
‘thor’s gelatine cement, which is prepared as follows:

Take of—
Coxe’s gelatine, 2 drachms.
Gum ammoniac, IO grains,
Acetic acid, No. 8, I ounce.

Dissolve the gum ammoniac in the acetic acid and filter
through absorbent cotton; then warm the acid and gum
solution by placing the vessel containing it in a water
bath and add the gelatine, stirring until it is dissolved,

385

when the resulting solution should be filtered or strained
through muslin. After a ring of this cement has been
made around the edge of the cover, and has become set,
it should be painted over with a solution of bichromate
of potash in water (ten grains to the ounce) and exposed
to either sunlight or ordinary daylight. The action of
the light is to make the chromate of gelatine which has
been formed insoluble and thus perfectly waterproof.
After this gelatine cement ring has become hard, it
should be covered with a ring of white zinc cement,
when it will be found that none of the glycerine will
leak out, even after the specimen has been kept for
years.

If thicker pieces than thin sections, such as pieces of
the mucous membrane of the intestine or bladder of ani-
mals, are to be mounted in glycerine or other watery
medium, a cell must be employed. This consists of a
ring made of either glass, rubber, metal or cement, and
which is high enough to prevent the cover-glass from
pressing upon the specimen when mounted. In order
todo so, the ring, if it be of glass, rubber or metal, is
first cemented upon the slide with marine glue or the
gelatine cement, and is accurately centered with the
turn-table. If the cell is to be made of cement a ring
of the required diameter (which must be a little smaller
than the diameter of the cover-glass) is spun upon a
slide in the same manner as was described for applying
the ring to the edge of the cover in finishing slides, and
is built up to the required height by repeated applica-
tions of the brush. It should then be set aside to dry
and harden. Any of the cements may be used for this
purpose, provided they will stick well to the glass.

Just before mounting the top of the ring forming the
cell must be moistened with gelatine cement; the speci-
men, which has been made transparent by soaking in
glyccrine, is then placed in the centre of the ring, enough
glycerine is added to fill the cell and the cover is applied.
It an air bubble is left under the cover the latter must be
lifted up and more glycerine must be added; if, on the
other hand, too much liquid has been used, the surplus
must be washed off, as described above. A ring of
gelatine or Bell’s cement is next spun around the edge
of the cover, in order to seal up the cell, and it is then
finished with white zinc cement.

An excellent substitute for glycerine is Farrant’s so-
lution, which combines all the advantages of glycerine
and some of those of balsam, inasmuch as it has nearly
the same index of refraction as glycerine, and becomes
hard like balsam, doing away with the necessity of a
waterproof cement. The formula generally given in the
text-books for this solutionis not correct, and the author
has found that the following formula is more satisfac-
tory :—

Picked gum arabic, 4 drachms.
Camphor water, 4 fl drachms.
Glycerine, 2 fl drachms.

Dissolve and strain through muslin.

Specimens to be mounted in this medium must first
be made transparent by soaking in strong glycerine, and
may then be mounted as though the solution were a
resinous mounting medium. Great care should be taken
to exclude air bubbles, as they cannot afterward be got-
ten rid of. This medium is especially adapted for delicate
animal membranes and soft vegetable tissues.

Some specimens, especially vegetables, such as seeds,
pollen grains, sections of wood, etc., may often with ad-
vantage, be mounted dry, z. e., without much previous
preparation, and without any mounting medium, but they
must then be examined as opaque objects, and must be
viewed by reflected light.

If an object is to be thus mounted, a disk is painted
with asphaltum varnish in the centre of the slide, which
is spun around upon the turn-table while applying the
brush with varnish, A disk of dead black paper may

386

SCIENCE.

be pasted upon the slide, instead of the disk of varnish,
to serve as a dark background. A cell ring is then ap-
plied around the edge of the disk, and the object -is fast-
ened in the centre of the cell by means of mucilage or
glue. This done, the cover is placed upon the ring and
cemented down as described above.—(Compendium of
Microscopical Technology.)

THE DEARBORN OBSERVATORY.

The annual report of the Board of Directors of the
Chicago Astronomical Society, together with the report
of the Director of the Dearborn Observatory, dated May,
1881, is now published.

The first report is brief, and states that the Society has
entered into a contract with the city of Chicago for fur-
nishing standard time to the City Hall. In order that
this contract may be more satisfactorily fulfilled, the
Directors of the Society have ordered from Messrs.
Howard & Co., of Boston, two new clocks, which will
cost about $1000. The cost of running wires and other
equipments has been $574.

The friends of the Society have contributed the funds
required to meet the immediate wants of the Observatory,
but the Society reiterate the often-repeated call for a per-
manent endowment, which will not only enable it to con-
tinue its present course of action, but to enlarge its
sphere of astronomical work and take an honorable place
among the prominent astronomical Observatories of
Europe and America. The Directors express a hope
that the time has arrived when the public-spirited citi-
zens of Chicago will contribute the amount to accom-
plish this object, and we heartily trust that the confi-
dence expressed in this respect may receive a prompt
confirmation. The Dearborn Observatory is built and
equipped with one of the finest equatorials in the United
States; the question of endowment is therefore one which
calls for immediate action.

In the second report Professsr G. H. Hough states the
nature and amount of the astronomical work carried on
at the Dearborn Observatory during the past year by
himself and Messrs. Elias Colbert and S. W. Burnham.

The planet Jupiter has received the attention of a large
number of astronomers during the past two years, espe-
cially of amateurs, and much writing of a miscellaneous
character has appeared on the subject. As the proper
study of markings and spots on celestial objects require
the use of a telescope of great optical power, combined
with good definition, the following report of observations
on the planet Jupiter, made with the Dearborn equa-
torial, which possesses these conditions, will be read with
interest, especially as they do not confirm many observa-
tions made under less favorable circumstances.

The planet Jupiter was made a special study during
the past year. The first observation was secured on May
6, 1880, and the last on January 30, 1881. During this
period the various spots and markings on his disc were
subjected to micrometer measurements whenever prac-
ticable. It isreadily apparent to any one who has exam-
ined contemporaneous drawings or sketches made by
different observers and telescopes, that they are gener-
ally unreliable, unless based on micrometer measurement,
and frequently give rise to erroneous deductions with
regard to the phenomena in question. We believe the
time has passed when mere estimations or sketches are
of value in any department of practical Astronomy.
Jupiter presents such a variety of phenomena on his disc,
at different times, that it has been accepted as an estab-
lished fact that his surface is subject to sudden and rapid
changes, which may be accomplished in a few days or
even a few hours.

The observations made at the Dearborn Observatory
during the past two years does not confirm this statement.
On the contrary, all minor changes in the markings or

spots have been slow and gradual, such as might be pro-
duced by the operation of measurable mechanical forces.
In fact, the principal features have been permanent, no
material change being detected by micrometer measure-
ment.

The following is a summary of the observations on
Jupiter :
GREAT RED SPOT.

Longitude, 37 Nightss ry. cok: os Ae 560 measures,

Latitude, 1230 MES CS. a ast See 34 u

Leagth, 20S: ade Se ni., Sicectatcte en en 67 ws

Breadth, TO! = E917; Ss. SSMS Aes 32 i

Position of majiaxis, S27 G5 . SGtkNS ABI. 16 ts
"LOtadinac ss settee vs can: SERGE ee Lemme

EQUATORIAL BELT.

Observed on 26 nights—
Position\of the Northtldge... 0. hs. een epee

Latitude 33 Ag [Bee serine oe Neral aie eee 34
Wyadthorihe Belts. c..tco..0-1a) ee ake) eee eee 53 s
EDOtAG: .)... vnc selenite ane os eee Ree eee 174 ce

EQUATORIAL WHITE SPOTS.

Observed on 18 nights—

TOM GUNG SH oie. 2's << aie dee sorte tis eee eel eee ee 240 Measures.
TeathQudles) ttt tsi2)- «sce. cee eae see ee eee 15 ys
dic} 2| Eanes AnBOOM Dn SAM AN an doss5- 255 A

POLAR SPOTS,

Observed on 22 nights—

1bfoy 1131581: RRR PS SOS SnD een anooc be gone 144 Measures,
Watton... 5 cisfeieielee:s eames inca ett is eee 40 ee
PLOUALS... ois ks Beets} STs it oe ee epee eee 184 te

Being a total of 1,379 micrometer measurements.

From the micrometer measurements for longitude of
spots, the equatorial diameter of the planet is deduced on
50 different nights, and from the latitude measures, the
polar diameter on 13 nights.

The following deductions have been drawn from these
observations.

ROTATION OF JUPITER.

The period of the planet’s rotation, as obtained by dif-
ferent observers, has varied between 9* 49™ and g" 56™,
The observations made on the great red spot during the
opposition of 1879, gave for the rotation period about
9" 55™ 34°; being 8 seconds greater than the previously
accepted value.

The discussion of our longitude measures on the great
red spot, made from September 25, 1879, to January 27,
1881, comprising a period of 490 days, gives for the mean
value 9! 55™ 35.25,

When the individual observations are compared, how-
ever, with this value, there is found to be a well marked
maximum displacement of the center of the spot amount-—
ing to 1’.4 of arc, indicating that the center gradually
oscillated to this extent in longitude, corresponding to—
an actual displacement on the surface of Jupiter 3,200
miles. pe

The observations are all well represented by making
the rotation period depend on some function of the
time.

The period 9" 55™ 33.2° + 0.18°,/ Z satisfies all the
observations with a mean maximum error of 0”.5 of arc.
In which the zero epoch is September 25, 1879, and Z is
the number of days after that date.

This formula gives for the rotation at the date January
27, 1881, 9" 55™ 37.25, agreeing essentially with the value
deduced directly from the observations made during the
two months previous to that date.

The rotation period derived from the observation of
polar spots was as follows ;

SCIENCE. 387

Interval Be-
: Longi- tween .
Latitude. tude. | Extreme Ob- Rotation.

servations.
White Spot... ----- +10/'.46 3h oom 2 months g" 55™ 39.3°
NVhite ss’ Vefenes --11//,62 ghig7m os 31.08
White ‘‘ —11’’.62 4 26m Baths 33-68
Black ‘ 2 31.0%
Black . ** I 40.58
Meancofeallt =." Sees. || Sphere Wes go! 55™ 35.15

|

The latitude is simply the measured distance north or
south of the Jovian equator, reduced to the mean dis-
tance of the planet from the earth. The zero of longitude
is the center of the great red spot.

The white spots were egg-shaped, about 1” of arc in
length, and were only visible under favorable atmo-
spheric conditions.

The rotation period derived from the small spots indi-
cates an average displacement during two months of
2" of arc, or 4,600 miles, or an average drift in longitude
of nearly 3 miles per hour.

ROTATION FROM EQUATORIAL SPOTS.

From July 8 to October 1, 1880, comprising a period of
85 days, the longitude of a white spot, between the
equatorial belts, in latitude 2'.3, was observed on 10
nights. The rotation, as deduced from this spot, was
g' 50" 00.56%, representing all the observations within
o’.3 of arc, showing that the motion, so far as we know,
was absolutely uniform. From October 28, 1880, to
January 30, 1881, during a period of 94 days, another
white spot, in latitude 2’.8, and differing 20 deg. in

_ longitude from the first, was observed on 8 nights.

The rotation was g" 50™ 09:.8, with uniform motion.

If the great red spot is supposed fixed, then the mean
drift of the equatorial spots would be about 270 miles
per hour in the direction of the planet’s rotation, or the
spot made a complete revolution around the planet in
about 42 days.

The approximate diameter of the equatorial white
spots was 1”.2 of arc, or 2,800 miles.

These observations leave the true period of the rota-
tion of Jupiter in a very unsettled condition. The great
red spot was frequently measured to ascertain whether
it was subject to any marked change, in position, size or
shape.

The following are the mean results for the two opposi-
tions of 1879 and 1880, reduced to the mean distance
of the planet from the earth :

| 1879. | No. of Obs. | 1880. No. of Obs.

Led: eee | 12’/.25* 9 II/.55 20

teadthnss-).s-c a%s | 3/746 | 8 3//.54 Io ‘
7.14 I2

Watitude 2... 2a. | 6.95 | 8

The position of the major axis of the spot was
measured as follows, the number indicating the inclina-
tion of the axis of Jupiter’s equator as compared with
Marth’s ephemeris.

1880, July 27 4 2°.3
Auge 6 2°.5
See bed) 4 (2°26)
pom CGw yt ac
1881, Jan. 17—0°.8. Definition poor.

These numbers indicate a remarkable degree of per-
manency with regard to the size, shape and position of
the spot, during the two oppositions. Our observations
do not warrant the assumption of any considerable
change since September 25, 1879.

The actual size of the object, as seen with our teles-
cope, was as follows:

Length, 29,600 miles.
Breadth, 3,300 ‘“

The smaller telescopes make the approximate length
considerably less than the real value. |

POLAR BELTS.

During the opposition of 1880 the polar belts were not
as sharply detined as during 1879, with the exception of
Nos. 2 and 3, the latter of which became very conspicu-
ous. During the month of June, when the planet was at
about mean distance, no trace of polar markings could
be seen. And it was not until July 4, when the distance
was 0.948, that the belts 2 and 3 were barely visible.
Markings on the southern hemisphere were first seen on
July 24, when the distance of the planet from the earth
was 0.888.

The latitude of 2 and 3 was as follows:

1879. 1880,
No. 2, + 9".78 + 9".75
No. 3, + 5’.98 + 5”.89

EQUATORIAL BELT.

The great equatorial belt remained without any
material change in size or position, as the following
measurements will show :

1879. 1880,
Latitude N. Edge, + 2".59 + 2".35
Waidthicnsscieecsle- 6".77 7’ .O4

During both years the position of the north-edge was
parallel to Jupiter’s equator, as given in Marth’s ephe-
meris.

PHENOMENA.

Whena satellite crosses the disc of the planet it usually
disappears in our telescope, when one-fourth to one-third
across the disk, and reappears at an equal distance from
the preceding limb, proving that the center of the disc is
more luminous than the satellite.

In the case of the first satellite, it is sometimes seen to
transit as a grayish spot, and remains visible when on the
middle of the disc ; such a phenomenon was observed on
December Io, 1880.

On July 3, 1880, the second satellite during transit
passed almost directly over the center of the great red
spot, when it appeared sensibly as bright as when off the
disc.

On November 1, 1880, I had the good fortuue to wit-
ness the transit of the shadow of the second satellite over
the center of the red spot, and, at the same time, the
transit of the shadow of the first satellite over the disc
of the planet.

The shadow of the satellite, when fully projected on
the red spot, was distinctly visible, but not quite as black
as the shadow on the disc, proving that the red spot,
although much less luminous than the disc, was yet
much more luminous than the shadow.

THEORY OF JUPITER,

The generally accepted theory is, that the planet Jupi-
ter is surrounded by a dense atmosphere, that the belts
are the solid portions of the planet, and that the minor
spots are clouds floating in the atmosphere. It is diffi-
cult, if not impossible, to reconcile the known phenomena
with any theory yet proposed. But whether there are
a sufficient number of well determined facts to form a
better one, is doubtful.

Accurate observations are needed on the markings
seen at different times on his disc; not sketches and gen-
eral statements, but suitable micrometer measurements,
from which may be deduced the motions and changes
taking place on the surface. And until this method is
pursued there is but little hope of solving the problem of
his physical constitution.

It has occurred to me, however, that the known phe-
nomena might be explained in the following hypothesis,
viz: the surface of the planet is covered with a liquid

388

semi-incandescent mass; that the belts, the great red
spot and other dark markings, are composed of matter
of lower temperature. The egg-shaped, polar white
spots are openings in the semi-fluid crust. This hypo-
thesis would account for the slow and gradual changes
occurring on the surface, which does not seem reason-
able on the simple atmospheric theory.

Over the liquid surface is an atmosphere in which is
formed the equatorial white spots which are of the nature
of cloud,

In conclusion the director expresses what we can well
believe to be his sincere regrets at the loss of the valuable
services of Mr. S. W. Burnham, who has accepted a
position inthe Washburne Observatory, at Madison, Wis.
During the past year Mr. Burnham, as heretofore, had{the
use of the great equatorial for double-star observations,
and reported the discovery since May, 1880, of about
fifty new double-stars, all of which were measured at
least three times. About one-half of the number are
close double, not exceeding 1".5 in distance. Among the
more prominent stars are g persei, 5 persei, x pegasi, y
foracis and 60 arietis. He also made about 609 measures
on previously-known double-stars.

Dr. CopeLAnpD and Mr, Dreyer have been compelled to
change the title of Urania, as itappears that name was
appropriated by some astrological serial. In future, then,
Urania, the astronomical serial, will bear the title Cofer-
nicus.

——__+ —____—__

Ir is rumored that Prof. Huxley will be asked to allow
his name to be entered for the Linacre professor of physi-
ology vacant by the death of Prof. Rolleston.

SCIENCE.

COMET (8) 188r.

The following observations of the Great Comet of 1881,
made at Australian Observatories, have been kindly
furnished for publication by Professor Wm. Harkness,
U.S.N., to whom they were communicated by Mr.
Todd, Superintendent of the Adelaide Observatory.

’

Date. R. A. |Dec. South. Station. | * Of Comparison,
|
fiz mifhaitivew Sioa Fae

May 22, —- —4 58 — |35 30 — Windsor---| B. A. C. 1573

“23, — —4 59 — |35 14 — Melbourne-| Lacaille 1685

Sh 25; =a 14 59 46. |94eexs 390) Homdite yweeaiiee eee ore

26, 6 “17\5° 0 16:62|33, 40° 44.9 Melbourne:| 2 eo--2-- ose aoe

‘\ 27,18 105 1 3.07/32 31 2. |Windsor- ..| Lacaille 1785

‘28, 8 o'5 x 25. |32\ 22 7. |Adelaide .-| Columba

28, 18 o|5 zr 35.67/32 3 48. \)Melbourne.

“29, 5 39/5 1 48.52/3t 42 42. ms

“205.7 20/5 -%. 51.7 130 39 39. |Adelaide =~

Ssenmigon t 5a 2. $208 31130) 5h ae Me

30,7 335 2 26.12/30 50 49. | *

Pate Sis * 2) S4xogo) foe mx. oe

“31, 18 23'5 3 12.38|29 34 14. |Melbourne-
UNE rs) 25/5 - 3, 20:a0|2o" SG) “om <

“1, 6 485 3 32.8 |29 2 58. |Adelaide -.| Washington 2173

* 3, G4 4l5 4 37.6 |26 5: 36,-|Melbourne:}) .--.

“50 6 10—— = "|24- 35 =" Adelaide: "\\= es serene

Pee lO 6 O15. 11 38.4 sBeee 0m “ Rigel

Siz ere Os! 12° 19:4 \sOuedo, 20. o tT. Orionis

; wa ens hams) es:

Windsor...-Lat. 33 36 29 S., Long. to 3 21.8 E. of Greenwich.
Sydney en 9% 345 Sr ar oe to 4 50.8 me
Melbourne-** 37 49 53‘ st 9 39 54.8 a9
Adelaide==. *S 34. 55 3p SY 9 14 21.3 Me

WASHINGTON, Aug. 9, 1881. W.C. W.

METEOROLOGICAL REPORT FOR NEW YORK CITY FOR THE WEEK ENDING AUG. 6, 1881.

Latitude 40° 45' 58" N.; Longitude 73° 57’ 58" W.; height of instruments above the ground, 53 feet ; above the sea, 97
eet ; by self-recording instruments.

BAROMETER. j |

THERMOMETERS.

ae Pee MAXIMUM. MINIMUM. MEAN. MAXIMUM. MINIMUM. MAXI'M
ses Reduced | Reduced Reduced | dit : |
AUGUST ee Sita Wag eee iran Dry | Wet | Dry | 7. Wet | 7; Dry | 7; et | op:
3 to to Time. to Time Time. | Time Time Time. |InSun,
Freezing.| Freezing. Freezing. Bulb.) Bulb a] ue ie] Bulb
Sunday, 31--| 39.094 30164 | 9 a.m.| 30.044 | 9 p.m! 67.6 | 66.3 | 73 4P.m.| 69 /12 p. m.| 63 | ra.m.| 63 Eb atmi| “129:
Monday, T..| 30.060 30.096 | 9 a,m.| 30.036 | 9 p.m.| 74.3 | 70.3 | 80 | 3 p.m.| 73 | 3 p.m.) 68 5 a.m.| 67 5 a.m.) 140,
Tuesday, 2..| 30.014 30.058 g a.m.| 29.966 6 p.m.| 75.0 | i71.0 81 4P-m,| 74 | 5 p.m.| 70 2a.m.| . 69 2a.M.| 143.
Wednesday, 3 -|] 29.975 30.006 7 a.m.| 20.942 4 p.m.| 76.6 | 71.0 | 85 4 p.m.) 75 7 p.m.) 67 | 6 a.m.) 67 | 6 a.m.| x4t.
Thursday, 4--| 29.970 29.996 9 a.m.} 29.940 6 p.m.| 81.7 | 174.0 gr 4Pp.m.| 79 | 4p.m.) 7o | 5 a.m.| 69 5 a.m.) 142.
Friday, 5--| 29.930 29.976 | 9 a.m.| 29.898 6 p.m.| 82.3 | 75.5 | 94 3 Pp.m.| 79, }2 p.m.j. 75 | 5 asm.) 73 5 @.m.| 14a
Saturday, 6..| 29.864 29.914 7 a.m.| 29.804 7 p.m.| 83.0 | |76.3 | gf 2p.m.| 80 | 2 p.m.| 78 12 p.m.| 73 |x2 p.m.| 139.
: | Dry. Wet.
Meantfor the week! 2/2202 C2 che -- I Pe ese ae. 2g9eo inches, Mean for the* week: --=-s-----=--=- 77.4 degre€s .....------- 72.0 degrees.
Maximum for the week at 9 am., July 31st --.-..-.--------- 30,1645 5° Maximum for the week,at 2 pm. 6th gr. ‘*at2pm 6th, 80. 2S
Minimum * at 7 pm., Aug, 6th Z ea Minimum ‘“ “ram, 31st 63. fe at 1am 31st, 63. be
TREES eee ites e seni eee eee eh ST SSeS TES se ‘2 Range ‘“ MS eno ede 2 rey. WSL aoe oes 17. bd
WIND. HYGROMETER. CLOUDS. RAIN AND SNOW. |
ay eal FORCE IN_ ‘ A g
| - D
| = | VELOCITY aN ste RELATIVE CLEAR ° DEPTH OF RAIN AND SNOW | 9°
JULY | UAE ONIN. jis MILES.| one BORCH O RVG HORS Merrie OVERCAST, 10 IN_ INCHES.
an | Distance) ,; | £| &€|/!8|/e},el]é Bese a Time | Time | Dura- a
AUGUST. | Feats ai : : RELY. \OPs. cha te cS : 5 of fa a Paes SB e|0
7. a.mM,\2 p. m./9 p.m. oS the Ss ime, a roe a | 8 | & fF | a a Begin- Ende tion EF ro
i als ad ee ed a om
| | |
Sunday, gtz|) nD. 6.) Le. Si5e 132 |1%) 4.00am| .596 | .635 | .658 109 | 90 | go |10 g cu. |Io0 1.30pm| 4pm. | 2.30 | .03| 0
Monday, 1.|W.S.W.| Ss. s 119 2 | 4.00pm .644 | .717 | .706 | 85 | 70 | go |10 2cir,Cucs|9CUe) see lenee et | eee ==) 1a
Tuesday, 2g Bee ass s 118 |2%| 3.30pm] .706 | .717 | .693 | 99 | 70 | 85 |10_ 3 cir, CU.IB GU, | | Waa=- ey |e eane | oem Sa
Wednesday, 3-| Bm. W. (n.n. €.| S. Ww. | 61 Y%| 2.00pm| .648 | .663,| .744 | 95 | 57.| 77 |3icir.cu.lacir. jo | ~---- | ----- Wee =< ae
Thursday, 4-1. 0.W.| n. W. |s. Ss. w. 57 | %| 5.00pm) .64r | .765 | 816 | 76 | 56 | 74 |o | IaICIE. CLis|Ole = ilies ten eee soa
Friday, 5-|W.n.w.|S.S.¢.| S. W 82 | 3.40pm) .757 , 855 | .787 | 82 | 62 | 74 \2 cir. ° lo g.i5pm jro am 0.45 | .07| 0
Saturday, 6-.'s. Ss. W.S. S. W.| S. W 176 5%| 2.20pm! .772 | .874 | .814 | 78 | 60) (82 ‘\2 cir.cur|z'cjs.e) (ci... \iaeea ee eee) eee Behe
Wistance heavaled during the week..+----5---52-taee sand 745 miles. | Total amount of water for the week.....----2-..------+--<2---- .to inch. -
Maximum force: $25 ---- 2-20 fon- ane = no nn on en enema 5% \bs. tr
DANIEL DRAPER, Ph. D. oa
Director Meteorological Observatory of the Department of Pyblic Parks, New York.»

SCIENCE,

389

SelreNCTE :

A WEEKLY ReEcorp OF SCIENTIFIC

ProGRESs.

JOHN MICHELS, Editor.

THRMS:
Per YEAR, = - = Four DoLuArs.
6 Monrus, c 2 - - Two ci
3 y - - - - ONE ne
SINGLE CoPIEs, - ~ = - TEN CENTS.

PUBLISHED AT
TRIBUNE BUILDING, NEW YORK.
P, O. Box 3838.

SATURDAY, AUGUST 20, 1881.

The International Electrical Exhibition at Paris
was opened with much écZa¢ on the roth instant by
the President of the French Republic.

The brief telegraphic dispatches describing the
> event, all state that Edison’s exhibit was the chief
centre of attraction, and that great interest was shown
for the forthcoming exhibition of certain novelties
which he had sent. These appeared to prove that the
energies of the great electrician were far from exhausted
on this subject, and that his fertile brain is as active
as ever.

We are promised a very detailed report of this ex-
hibition, so defer particulars until it arrives. England
and Germany occupy the largest space of the foreign
countries represented, America and Belgium coming
next in order. All the departments on the day of
opening were incomplete, the Americans complain-
ing much of the dilatory behavior of the French work-
men, who seemed to have no idea of the value of
time.

We presume that the object of exhibitions of this
character is to stimulate those engaged in electrical
investigations, and to form landmarks in the history
of electrical progress. In that light the Exhibition has
many advantages, but Edison appears to have suffered
from his generous permission to permit all comers to
inspect the progress of his inventions. Many misin-
terpreted what they saw, and came to false conclu-
sions, while men of no mental endowment who were
mere clever mechanics, assiduously appropriated the
ideas of the man of brains, and have since produced
barefaced copies. These men have so far proceeded
unchecked, but the time appears to have arrived
when Edison has decided to enforce with vigor all
those patent rights which he has secured after so

many years of patient study and unremitting toil, in-
volving the outlay of an immense amount of money.

The seizure of the “ Maxim” electric lamps at
the Paris International Exhibition appears to have
been directed in consequence of such a decision, and
we can assure Mr. Edison that the public. will
heartily sympathize with him in his attempt to enforce
his just rights.

We are informed by cable that Sir George Biddell
Airy has retired from the office of Astronomer Royal,
and his successor appointed.

Sir George was born on the 27th of July, 1801, and
was elected a Fellow of Trinity College in 1824. He
commenced his career as a scientific teacher in 1826,
when he was elected Lucasian Professor. In 1828he
was elected Plumian Professor, and entrusted with
the management of the Observatory at Cambridge
which had been just then erected and supplied with
one of its instruments. On taking charge of the new
Observatory he commenced a series of observations,
but his able services there will be best remembered
by the admirable methods he introduced in the calcu-
lations and observations, by which their utility was
greatly increased.

Professor Airy had also the satisfaction of superin-
tending the mounting of the Equatorial, the Mural
Circle and the Northumberland Telescope (the last
entirely from his own plans), at the Cambridge Uni-
versity.

In the autumn of 1835 the office of Astronomer
Royal became vacant by the resignation of Mr. John
Pond, and at the request of Lord Auckland, Airy re-
ceived the appointment for this distinguished office,
which he has since filled with so much benefit to
science and honor to his country, for a period which
has covered nearly half a century.

In 1833 he received the gold medal of the Royal
Astronomical Society “for his discovery of the long
Inequality of Venus and the Earth;” and again in
1846, for his ‘Reduction of the Observation of
Planets made at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich,
from 1750 to 1830.”

WE have the pleasure of directing the attention of
our subscribers to a very interesting work by A. B.
Hervey, A. M., on ‘ Sea Mosses,” being both a col-
lector’s guide and an introduction to the Study of
Marine Algze. It is published by S. E. Cassino, of
Boston. In another part of this issue will be found
an extended extract from this book, giving Mr. Hervey’s
methods of collecting and preserving specimens, and
the article will, doubtless, be read with interest at this
season, when so many are at the seashore, with full
opportunities for commencing the study of this de-
partment of Cryptogamic Botany.

390

SEA MOSSES—TIME AND PLACE FOR COL-
LECRINGS

Most collecting on our Atlantic coast will be done
during the summer and early autumn months. But I
must remind those of you who live by the sea, or have it
accessible at all times, that many things of the greatest
beauty and interest will be missed if you do not go to
the shore early. Our finest Caddzthamniton C. Amerz-
canus can be had in its rarest beauty early in March and
even in February. The finest varieties of our Rhodo-
mela subfusca are only to be found in the early spring
months, This is true of many other plants. You will
be surprised, also, to see what quantities of things you
can find as late-as November and December. Indeed,
if you are to know these plants thoroughly, you must
collect them at all seasons of the year. Then you will
know when they come and when they go, and when they
are in their greatest perfection. Those living and col-
lecting on the Pacific coast are not fenced away by an
icy wall, as we are on our shores during two or three
months of our hard, inclement winters ; so they can col-
lect the year around. Dr. Anderson assures me that
most of them are more beautitul and of more luxuriant
growth during the Summer than during the Winter
months. In general, there are three principal places for
collecting ‘‘ Sea Mosses”’ by the shore.

First, from the mass of material which the sea throws
up upon the beaches, and leaves behind it when the tide
goes out. This will be your main resource for getting
the plants that grow in deep water. By many causes
they will be loosened from their holdings in the depths,
and will then float up to the surface and margin of the
sea, and will be cast on shore. By carefully turning over
these masses, which will be found along almost every
sandy or pebbly beach, you will be able to get plants
which could otherwise be found only by dredging in
deep water. And, by careful search, too, among this
material you will find all the deep water forms.

Second, upon the rocks and in the tide pools when the
tide is out.

You can collect living plants in their native homes

here only. Of course,no Alge grow upon the sandy
beaches. You must, therefore, seek all such as grow be-

tween the tide-marks upon rocky shores. Put on a pair
of stout rubber boots, and go two or three hours before
low tide, and search in every place, following the tide
down to its farthest retreat. Many of the best things are
found close down by low water mark, and some a little
below that. These latter can be got best by taking ad-
vantage of the extreme low run of tide which comes
about “new” and “full moon.” The advantage of go-
ing before low tide and following the retreating water
down is that you are not so apt to get a drenching, by
the unexpected advance of a great wave, as when the
tide is coming in; for, if you are close by the water’s
edge when the tide is rising, busily intent upon getting
your floral treasures, you will very likely find yourself
soaked with brine, tor
“The breaking waves dash high
On a stern and rock-bound coast.”

In hunting through the tidal region for plants, hunt
everywhere, and collect everything found growing, and
when collected, like Captain Cuttle, ‘make a note of it.”
If you cannot remember without, carry a small memoran-
dum book and enter in it the habitat of each particular
kind as you collect it. The tide pools, that is, the little
basins in the rocks out of which the water is never
emptied, are the places where the choicest collecting may
be had. And the nearer they are to the low tide limits
the more likely they will be to have abundance of vegeta-
ble lifein them. But do not fail to look, also, under the
overhanging curtain of ‘“ Rockweed”’ which shadows the

* From Sea Mosses—by A, B, Hervey—S. E. Cassino, Boston.

SCIENCE.

perpendicular sides of the cliffs and great boulders. You
will often find some beautiful plants there, as, for in-
stance, the Péz/ota elegans, the Cladophora rupestrzs and
other smaller ‘‘ mosses.”

Third, by standing on some low, projecting reef, by the
side of which the tide currents rush in and out, you will
see many of the more delicate, deep water forms, all
spread out beautifuliy and displayed in all their native
grace, carried past, back and forth, in the water. Many
of these, like the Polystphonze, are seldom thrown on
shore in good condition, or if they are, do not long re-
main so. This, therefore, is by far the best place to take
many of these plants. To do this you must be provided
with some simple instrument for reaching down into the
water, and seize them as they go floating by. I have
found nothing more convenient for this than a wire
skimmer, which can be got at any house-furnishing tin
shop, tied with a stout string to a light, strong stick, five or
six feet long. The water passes through the meshes of
this with little resistance, but the Alga, with its delicate
branches thrown out widely in every direction, is very
readily caught by it. It will also serve to a limited extent
as an implement for detaching plants from their hold-
ings which grow in deep tide pools, or in the sea, not too
far below low water mark. For the rest of your

s COLLECTING APPARATUS

you may have as little or as much as is convenient. A
simple basket or box, with a few newspapers in it to
wrap up and keep somewhat separate the different sorts of
your collectings, will do very well. If it is convenient, have
a case made with a half-dozen or less wide-mouthed bottles
set init, each provided with acork. The case should also
have a compartment for storing coarse plants, news-
papers, paper bags, or whatever you may use for keeping
different species, or the plants from different localities
separate. Then, as your plants are collected, they may
be roughly sorted and put in different bottles. But two
or three bottles should be reserved for the most delicate
and fragile forms. And as there are several of them
which rapidly perish on being exposed to the air, the bot-
tles should be kept partly filled with sea-water. The more
delicate Polysiphonzas, the Calithamnzons, Dasyas, and
some others, will need this protection. I have found a
quart fruit-jar very handy. I get the kind that I can
fasten a string around the neck, so as to carry it sus-
pended in one hand, which leaves the other always free to
gather in the plants with. A jar, whose cover goes on
and off with the least possible trouble, is the one to be
selected. The only disadvantage in using a receptacle of
this sort for your collection is that in climbing over the
wet and mossy rocks, your feet may chance to slip, and
you get a tumble; then, in your efforts to save yourself,
you will forget all about your fragile glass jar, and will
smash it into a thousand pieces, upon the hard stones,
and perhaps lose your whole collection. But two or
three of these jars carefully packed in a basket, so
as not to be easily broken, would perhaps, furnish as
handy a collecting apparatus as you could extemporize
at the sea shore.

MOUNTING AND PRESERVING.

For “ floating out” your “ Sea Mosses,” as it is called,
you should have a pair of pliers, a pair of scissors, a stick
like a common cedar “ pen stalk,” with a needle driven
into the end of it, or, in lack of that, any stick carefully
sharpened ; two or three large, white dishes, like “wash
bowls,” botanists drying paper, or common blotting-paper,
pieces of cotton cloth, old cotton is the best; and the
necessary cards or paper for mounting the plants on.

You will use the pliers in handling your plants in the
water. The scissors you will need for trimming off the
superfluous branches of plants which are too bushy to look
well, when spread upon the paper, and to cut away para
sites. The needle should be driven point first, a consid-
erable distance into the stick, so as to make it firm, and

SCIENCE. 391

allow you to use the blunt end of it in arranging the finer
details of your plant on the paper. For drying paper, of
course, you can use common newspapers, by putting
many thicknesses together; and a great many, no doubt,
will do that. But sheets of blotting paper will be found
much more satisfactory; twenty-five of them cut into
quarters.would probably be all you would use, and those
you could easily take in your trunks. What will be found
cheaper and still more serviceable, if you are going to
mount a large number of plants at once, is a quantity of
botanist’s “ drying paper.” It can be had of the “ Natu-
ralists’ Agency,’ 32 Hawley street, Boston, Mass., for, I
believe, $1.25 per 100 sheets ; probably also of other sellers
of Naturalists’ supplies in all the large cities on both sides
of the continent. It is a coarse, spongy, brown felt paper,
cut into sheets 12 x 18 inches, and has a fine capacity for ab-
sorbing moisture. Forconvenience, the cotton cloths should
be madethe same size asthe drying paperused. Some col-
lectors, who dg not care to mount a great number of speci-
mens at once, but-want to have them very smooth and fine,
when dry, use no drying paper at all, but in the place of
it, have thin smooth pieces of deal, got out a foot or so
square and one-quarter or one-third of an inch thick ;
upon these they spread one or more layers of cotton and
lay the plant on them and put as many more over it; the
cotton absorbs the moisture and the boards keep the
pressure even and the papers and the plants straight and
smooth throughout. For ‘“ mounting paper” each one
must use his own taste. Many prefer cards cut of uni-
form size ; they can be had at almost any paper store or
job printing office made to order. Four and a half by
six and a half inches, is a neat and convenient size. But
if you want to mount several hundred or several thousand
spceimens, in the course of a season, so as to have some
to give to your friends, and to make up a number of books
or albums, to sell at Church or Charity fairs, then per-
haps the expense will be an item worth considering. In
that case you will find it cheaper to buy a few quires of
good 26 or 28 pound demy paper, unruled of course. The
paper is in unfolded sheets 16 x 21 and will cut into

convenient sizes for mounting any plants ordinarily col-

lected. By halving it you have sheets 8 x 21, or 10% x
16 inches. By quartering, the sheets are 8 x 10% inches ;
halving these you get an octavo sheet 5% x 8 inches,
which is quite large enough for the majority of plants.
One half of this will give a sheet 4 x 5% inches which
will be the size most used ; while the smallest plants look
best on the half of these sheets, 214 x 4 inches.

With your large white dishes filled near to the brim
with sea water, or, if you are away from the ocean with
water made artificially salt, take a few of your plants from
the collecting case, and put them in one of the dishes.
Here, handling them with your pliers, shake them out
and clean them of any adhering sand or shells, trim away
parasites and superfluous branches and generally make
them ready for ‘floating out.” Thence, transfer them
to the other dish. Then take your card or your paper,
selecting a piece large enough to give the plant ample
room, and leave a margin of white all around, and having
dipped it in the water put it quite under the floating plant,
holding the paper with your left hand and managing
it with your right. Now float the plant out over the
paper and draw the root or the base of itup near the end
of the paper next your hand, so that you can hold
it down on the paper with the thumb of the left hand,
-the rest of the hand being under the paper in the water.
Now, slowly lift the paper up to the surface and draw it
out of the water in such a way that the water will flow
off from it in two or three directions. This will spread
the plant out somewhat evenly over the paper. But in
many cases you will need to arrange the plants in their
most natural and graceful position, and also take care
that they do not get massed upon each other, and make
unsightly heaps while others are left bare. They should
be caretully arranged so as to make the most beautiful

picture possible. In some fine and delicate plants, too
much care cannot be bestowed, in having the remote
branchlets all naturally disposed and spread out. This
final work of arranging details, you will do with your
needle while you hold the paper very near to the surface
of the water with your left hand, so near, indeed, that
there will be just water enough, and no more, above it
to float the delicate parts which you are manipulating.
Oftentimes it will be found convenient, after the paper
with the plant on it has been removed from the water, to
re-immerse a part of it at a time and re-arrange the sev-
eral parts separately. But all this can easily be done,
more easily than I can tell how todo it. A very little
practice will give you the “knack” perfectly. And, in-
deed, these plants are by no means refractory, or hard to
manage. They will do anything you can reasonably
want them to, while you humor them by keeping them
in their native element. In fact, you will commonly
need to do no more with them, than to just help them
to do what they are willing and disposed to do themselves.
For if you will let them take on your paper the form and
outline which they have by nature in the water, there
will be nothing left to desire, for their color, form and
movement all combine there to make them the loveliest
and most graceful things that grow. When you have
put the last finishing touches upon the “floating” pro-
cess and your “Sea Moss” is adjusted on your paper so
as fo be ‘“‘a thing of beauty and a joy forever,” then
you want to lay the paper upon some inclined surface—
any smooth board will do—to drain away the super-
fluous water. Thence it is to be transferred, in a few
moments, to the press, for drying.

This is made in the following manner: Laying down
one of the above described sheets of blotting paper,
botanists’ ‘drying paper” or boards of muslin-covered
deal, you lay your paper with the plant on it upon this,
the plant up. Cover the board or drying paper all over
with “floated’’ specimens in the same way. Over all,
and lying directly upon the plants spread your piece of
muslin. Upon this put another sheet of the paper, or
board, and upon this again a layer of plants, then a
piece of the muslin, more paper, plants, muslin, and so
on until you have disposed of all your collection, or so
much of it as you care to mount. Upon the last layer of
plants put a final sheet of paper, and over all a stout
board as large as the drying paper. Upon this lay some
heavy weights—stones will be as handy as anything at
the seaside. I should put on, I think, about fifty pounds
of them if I were using botanist’s drying paper, which
has a good deal of give in it. With the use of boards,
unless there are a good many thicknesses of muslin, it
would not do to weight it so heavily, cr some of the
plants would be crushed beyond recognition. I use the
drying paper and always have two boards, one for the
bottom and one for the top of my press. Then when I
have made the pile complete, I can put it aside in some
convenient corner out of the way, and set the stones to
work bearing down upon it, a business for which they
seem to have some conspicuous and weighty gifts.

Some botanists recommend that the drying paper be
removed in the course of five or six hours, and the
cloths and papers again in twenty-four hours. This will,
perhaps, be the best if anyone has plenty of time. But
my practice has always been to let them lie twenty-four
hours and then give them a change of both cloths and
papers, being careful in removing the cloths so as not to
lift the plants from the mounting paper.

The second time in the press they should be subject to
a harder pressure, seventy-five or one hundred pounds
of stone being not too much. In twenty-four hours more
most of them will be quite dry and ready to be put into
your herbarium, album, or whatever you use for the
final disposition of them. Those that are not perfectly
dry should be put back in the press with dry papers and
cloths for another day’s stay.

poz

When the plant is perfectly dry and removed from the
press you should, before putting it away and forgetting
these facts, write on the back ot the paper the exact date
and place of collecting. ,

People often ask me what I use to make the plants
stick so firmly to the paper, supposing, evidently, that it
is necessary to have some kind of gum or mucilage for
that purpose. I have to answer that I have for most of
them to use nothing whatever; that there is sufficient
gelatinous mat'er in the body of the plant to make it per-
fectly adhere to the paper without other aid. And the
reason for putting the muslin over the plants in the pro-
cess of pressing and drying is, that they may not stick to
the drying paper which is above them, the muslin not
adhering to the plants at all except in some few cases.

But a considerable number of ‘‘Sea Mosses” do not
adhere to paper well. They either have not gelatinous
matter enough in them or will not give it out to glue their
bodies to the paper. Various devices are resorted to in
these cases. Sometimes the plant, after being dried in
the press in the usual way, is simply strapped down with
slips of gummed paper. Sometimes they are fastened
down with some kind of adhesive substance, after
being dried, gum tragacanth being the best for this.
Others take them and float them out a second time in
skimmed milk and after wiping off the milk from the
paper, from the plants, except directly under the plants,
put them in the press to dry again, when, it is said. they
stay. I have never tried this method. A friend of mine
who is famous for the artistic way in which she always
“lays out” her “Sea Mosses” tells me that for these
forms which lack what the Phrenologist might call ‘ad-
hesiveness ’’ she prepares from the “ Irish Moss”’ Chron-
dus crispus a semi-fluid paste, into which she dips them
before putting them on paper, and then carefully removes
all of it from the paper and plant, except what is between
the two and then put them in the press. By this means
they are made to stick “like paper on the wall.”

In preparing the coarser “ Rockweed” and “Kelp”
for the herbarium, another method will have to be per-
sued. These will almost all turn very dark, or quite
black, in the process of drying. I am accustomed to
treat them by the following method: Taking them
home, I spread them out in some shady place and let
them lie for a few hours, perhaps twenty-four, perhaps
less or more, until most of the water in them has evapor-
ated, but not till they have become hard, stiff and
brittle. Then I put them between sheets of drying paper
and lay them in the press, and keep them there until the
process of drying is complete. A little practice will be
the only way by which you will be able to tell if they
have been dried long enough in the open air. If you
find them inclined to mould while kept in the press, you
may be sure they are not dry enough, throw them away
and get some new ones.

It is sometimes desirable to keep the treasures we
have gathered from the sea unmounted, that we may
carry them away to await a more convenient season tor
floating them out, or that we may send them to some
friend or correspondent on the other side of the continent,
or beyond the seas. It is, therefore, fortunate that all but
the more delicate and perishable of these plants, may be
dried rough, rolled up and kept any length of time,
transported around the world, and then, when put in
water again, will come out in half an hour, as fresh and
bright and supple and graceful as they were when taken
from their briny home. The friend just referred to
assured me that even the Cal/thamuza, Dasye and
the most delicate Polyszphonie, and such like plants, may
be so treated by first shaking the wa‘er out of them, and
then thoroughly mingling them with dry seasand, and
drying them rough in the usual way. She says the sand
will adhere to the most delicate fibres and ramuli of the
plant in such a way as to keep them separate and pre-
vent their getting glued together, then, when they are

SCIENCE:

afterwards soaked out, the sand will be disengaged, and
the plant will be left as good as ever it was. Perhaps I
ought to suggest that “soaking out’ should always be
done with salt water, unless you know you have only
those plants which fresh water willnot hurt. When I
have had specimens of the ‘“ Rockweed,” or “Kelp,”
sent to me ‘rough dried,” I have found it best to pre-
pare them for mounting, not by immersing them in
water, and so get a great quantity of moisture into
them, which would have to be expelled afterwards, with
no little trouble, but by wrapping them about with wet
towels ; from these they would imbibe enough damp-
ness to be manageable, and not enough to make them
troublesome.

Before taking leave of this part of my subject I must
permit myself to add a word to a point which botanists
commonly think too little about, viz., the display of taste
in the mounting of their plants. To the mere botanist
a plantis a sfeczmen of a given genus and species, inter-
esting only forthat fact. If it is a full grown typical
form with fruit, all the better. Now, all are not botan-
ists. Most of those who will read these pages will have an
interest in these plants, to which the scientific interest
will be secondary. I want to say then to them, look
for the best things; get the whole plant when you can,
but get and preserve the most perfect and beautiful
plants. It is the rule with botanists to put but one
species on each paper or card. I ccrtainly advise disre-
garding this rule, unless you are mounting for scientific
purposes altogether or chiefly. With numberless shades
of red, which one group of ‘‘Sea Mosses” will give you,
with the various kinds of green the other two will pre-
sent, you will have an opportunity to display all the taste
and skill you are master of. For in combining several
different colors and forms on the same paper you may
often produce the most brilliant results. A little practice
will soon make you able to handle two or three plants at
the same time in “ floating them out”’ almost as readily
as you can manage one. Then, again, you will find it
possible with some of the more slender plants to work
interesting and beautiful “designs” in the same way.
Initial letters, even monograms, may not be beyond your
reach with a little care and practice. Let the “Sea
Mosses”’ contribute to the cultivation of every faculty
and all poss’ble means of pleasure for you.

For preserving your treasures after they are neatly
mounted, pressed and dried, you have two courses open to
you. You can take care of them as the botanist does
by arranging them systematically in a herbarium, with
covers of stout manilla paper, folded 10% x 16 inches for
each genus, and the species separated by white sheets of
thinner cover, or you can provide yourself with blank
books, made for the purpose, having the leaves cut to fit
the sizes of paper or card which you mount your plants
on, so as to slip the corners of the cards into the cuts.
It is well in that case to provide a book with leaves large
enough to hold two or four cards each. By following the
directions here given I cannot doubt you will soon be-
come a successful collector, and an expert in mounting
and preserving ‘“‘ Sea Mosses.”’

EE oo

ACCORDING to M. Chappuis (Bzd/. Soc. Chim.) the phos-
phorescence of phosphorus vapor by ozone. .Phosphorus
is not luminous in pure oxygen at 15°, and at the ordinary
pressure, introduction of a trace of ozone causes luminos-
ity ; those substances which hinder the luminosity of phos-
phorus, e. g. turpentine oil, are substances which destroy
ozone. If alittle turpentine oil is brought along with phos-
phorus into a tube containing pure oxygen, and a small
quantity of ozone is then passed in, the phosphorus exhib-
its luminosity for a few moments only ; M. Chappuis sup-
poses that this is due to the combustion of phosphorus
vapor by the ozone, and that the transiency of the pheno-
menon is explained by the rapid removal of the ozone by
the turpentine oil.

SCIENCE. 393

THE ROTATORY POWER OF COMMERCIAL
GLUCOSE AND GRAPE SUGAR. A METHOD
OF DETERMINING THE AMOUNT OF RE-
DUCING SUBSTANCE PRESENT BY THE
POLARISCOPE.
By Pror. W. H. WILEY.
From the Journal of the American Chemical Society, Vol. ll,

In “the trade” the name of grape sugar is applied
only to the solid product obtained from corn starch. On
the other hand, the term “glucose ”’ is given to the thick
syrup made from the same material.

I shall use these words in their commercial sense.

INSTRUMENTS EMPLOYED.

I used in the following investigations two polariscopes
made by Franz Schmidt and Haensch, Berlin. The
readings of these instruments, after correction for dis-
placement, agreed well together.

The one was the instrument ordinarily used, in which

the purple ray is employed, and the quartz half moons |

give blue and red tints.

Both of these instruments are graduated to read 100
divisions, each equal to one per cent sugar with a solu-
tion containing 26.048 grms. pure cane sugar in 100 c.c,
In addition to this scale the half shadow has another
which gives the actual angular rotation.

This is especially convenient when the specific rotatory
power of a substance is to be determined. The angular
rotation, however, can be calculated for the former
instrument.

For if we take the specific rotatory power of cane

sugar at 73.8°, we have the following equation:
ee ee Oe age
henge me 3 45.

Each division on the cane sugar scale is therefore
equal to 0°.3845 angular measure.

This quantity corresponds to the transition tint. It is
different for the-differently colored rays, In the half
shadow polariscope, an instrument particularly adapted
to persons afflicted with any degree of color-blindness;
the mono-chromatic light coming from the sodium-Bun-
sen lamp passes through.a crystal of acid potassium
chromate. The ray thus produced is less rotatable than
the “transition tint.”

When the instrument gives too divisions on the sugar
scale, it shows an angular rotation of only 34°42’ = 34°.7.
Our division, therefore, of the sugar scale, is equal to
o0°.347 angular measure.

To determine the specific rotatory power of cane sugar
for the sodium-acid potassium chromate ray, we use the
following equation :

_ 34°.7 X 100
Sp; rot. pr. = 2 x 260048

To determine the specific rotatory power for any other
substance which has been determined for the transition
tint, we multiply by the factor 0.9024.

Thus, if we take the specific rotatory power for any
other substance which has been determined for the
transition tint, we multiply by the factor 0.9024.

Thus, if we take the specific rotatory power of dex-
trine for the transition tint at 139°, for the half shadow
tint it will be 139° X 0.9024 = 125°.4.

These data rest upon the accepted formula :

== 00",0-

a
aXv
oy 2 a
(2) ow
Here « = angular rotation.
6 = specitic rotatory power.
ana

amount of substance in one grm. of the
solution,

5 = specific gravity of solution.
2 = length of observation tube.
w = weight of substance in grms.

MATERIAL,

The glucose studied in the following examinations,
was made by the Peoria Grape Sugar Company. I am
under obligations to Mr. Allen, the superintendent, for
many favors in connection with my work. The grape
sugars were made in Buffalo.

ROTATORY POWER.

The average value of 4 for the “half shadow ray ” is
nearly 85°. For the purple ray it is nearly 94°. It
however varies extremely in different samples.

The following table will show the range of these var-
iations.

TABLE I.
Showing variations of 9 in different specimens of glu-

cose and grape sugar, together with the specific grav-
ztzes of the same.

No. | 0 | Sp. Gr. No. 0 Sp. Gr
Bete a et-tas-for | gI.50 1.406 DE tases 89.36 1.416
BR rate a2 gI.50 1.407 eee oe 87.73 1.422
Qe ras ae ae 98.10 I.440 He BocsOoae 89.77 I.417
ing dtiaomde | 79-93 I.414. LAR a ciereistere 70.84 1.463
ead a eriote 7547. | 1.414 LU OG Orie 69.40 1.463
GR tex. 83.97 1.417 Ge. sie sie 87.67 I.412
CE teat 82.75 1.416 7 revo sesvas 109.99 1.427
io sano e 86.41 DeATSS |e O23 tera 93-17 I.431
Qeeainetere | 84.05} ¥.416 | 19-++-+e0 89.75 I.409
TOM ordie, seh acs | 87.19 | 1.417 a seg OOF gl.31 I.42I
| i

From a study of this table it is seen that within small
limits 4 is independent of the specific gravity of the solu-
tion. Nos. 14 and 15 were grape sugar, and the specific
gravity is much higher here than in the glucose, while
the value of 4 is much less.

Where the increase in density, however, is considera-
ble, as in 3 and 17, there is also a marked increase in the
value of 6, although this increase is not proportional to
the increment of specific gravity. In masses of homog-
eneous nature and structure we should expect a przorz
that # would always be proportional to the density of the
body, z. e., to the amount of optically active matter in a
unit number of grammes.

It is thus seen without further argument that commer- .
cial glucoses are not optically homogeneous, even when
made in the same factory and by processes which do
not sensibly vary.

A further study of these optical reactions convinced
me that the rotatory power of commercial glucose in-
creased as the percentage of reducing substance dimin-
ished.

The following table shows the value of 0 and the cor-
responding percentage of reducing matter as obtained by
Fehling’s solution.

TABLE II.
’
No. 8 % Glucose. No. 0 |Z Glucose.
|

ae Pree 91.50 53-20 | Ei Xieis aisia foe 89 .63 53-50
Le Mi aes gI.50 52.36 || I2--+----- 87.73 56.49
Cece 98.10 54-60 Bee Gem ccd 89.77 52.36
Ae 3 es 79-93 61.73 |} I4...-.--- | 70.84 69.93
CE ereeey 75-47 Caco Wl WES yee. | 69.40 69 . 30
Ota. 83.97 59-35 || LO setae <M OPeOF 56.34
OE 82.75 61.40 Ly RECO | 109.99 39.22
er cer 86.41 Beso il qioe names 93-17 57-14
Gant ae t 84.11 SS255 |p tOsccenec] 89.75 54.37
Ese tits ae 89.19 | 55.60 |] 20s. evens gI.31 56.81

It will be seen by the above table that as the per cent

394 SCIENCE.

of reducing matter increases, the value of 4 diminishes,
and wice versa. Nos. 14 and 17 show extreme cases of
this law. Nos. 3, 18 and 20, because of their high speci-
fic gravities, should not be included in the above gener-
alization. Having thus established the law that the per
cent of reducing matter is in general inversely as the
value of 9, it is next proposed to investigate the relation
between these two quantities, and determine whether it
is constant or variable.

From Nos. 1 and 2, of table II, it is seen that fora
value of 6 = 91.50, the percentage of reducing matter is
52.78. Let us say for convenience in calculation that
§ = 91.50 corresponds to reducing substance — 53 per
cent. Let us consider next, some of the cases which the
value of @ differs widely from 91.50. No. 17 of above
table affords an example.

The difference is, 109.99 —91.50 — 18.49. The differ-
ence in the per cent of reducing substance is 53—39.22
—= 13.78. Thus an excess of the value of @ of 18.49 cor-
responds to a deficit of 13.78 in the percentage of reduc-
ing matter.

Therefore a variation of each degree in the value of 0
is equivalent to 0.745 in the percentage of a reducing
matter. By similar calculations with the other data fur-
nished by the table, I have found, not including Nos. 3,
18 and 20, marked by the high specific gravity, that this
number lies between 75 and 78.

I will give the calculation for the first of these num-
bers, and compare them with the numbers obtained by
analysis. :

TABLE III.
ie ae Santa GROG % Glucose % eer
0.75 Factor. | Fehling’s Sol.
53-00 53.20
53-00 52.36
62.06 61.73
65.03 62.50
58.64 59-35
59-57 61.40
56.81 58.80
58.58 58.55
56.21 56.60
54.62 53:50
55-82 56.49
54.29 56.18
58.32 69.93
69.56 | 69.30
55-88 56.09
39-14 39-22
54-32 54-05
53-14 56.81
47.15 54-60
51-75 57-14

In the above table, Nos. 18, 19 and 20 are the three
specimens with high specific gravity. We will, there-
fore, exclude them from the discussion. In the other
numbers the percentage of reducing matter, as calculated
from the reading of the polariscope, falls short of the
amount obtained by the alkaline copper test ten times,
and by an average of 1.018. It exceeds that amount
seven times with an average of 0.75. We thus see that
the polariscope will eaable us to compute the reducing
matter present in a glucose with a probable error of less
than one per cent. This is quite accurate enough for
practical purposes.

Perhaps a larger number of determinations should be
made before constructing a formula for determining the
amount of reducing in substance a “straight ’’ glucose.
The following formule, however, are given provisionally,
subject to some slight correction derived from more ex-
tended data,

We'may have three cases :
1. The value of 9 = 91.50
2. t SIO T50
3. " “> IGiE5o°
In the first case the percentage of reducing substance
in a glucose, if not far from 1.410 sp. gr., will be nearly

53:
In the second case the required percentage may be

found by the following formula, in which a = difference
between the value of 6 and 91.50, and g = per cent re-
ducing required—
g = 53 + 0.75 a oro.78 a.
In the third case we have

g = 53 —0.75 aoro.78 a,

In order to make the principle of more general appli-
cation, I have modified the calculations so as to apply
the formula directly to the cane sugar scale of the instru-
ment.

To this end, for instruments using 26.048 grammes for
100 divisions, it is convenient to use only 10 grms. of the
glucose. If 26.048 grms. are employed, the neutral point
is thrown entirely beyond the limit of the scale. Ten
grammes is the quantity which has been employed in the
following table.

The average reading of the sugar scale for ten grammes
is about 50.

In the following table will be found the results of the
experiments.

TABLE IV.
% Reducing
NuMBER. Scale. ar ea Difference.
culation,

Tins stotetntetstatatels(stetete lator 52.65 53-43 53-20 +0.23
i scinor Cot qoan 52 65 53.43 52.36 +1.07
Ser anob hasan wees 46.07 61.66 61.73 —0.07
eee Sin dite Gaobins 6 43-05 64.90 62.50 +2.40
Dons hobocha@anges oO 48.04 58.75 59-35 —o,60
OWE silos aets Sage 47.70 59.63 61.40 Ey
I PAGE PRO TEED 49.80 57-00 58.80 —1.80
Phawincso mo din cody Oe cn 48.45 58.56 58.55 +0.01
Queso lectern ates 50.26 56.45 55-60 +0.85
TOR igor tore iter 51.50 54.88 53-50 +1.30
Tire Bey ORTON 50.57 56.04 56.49 —0.45
eT seapansoit faseeeteceneient 51.74 54.58 56.18 —I.60
Ts setraie tora eat iees 40.83 68.21 69.93 Sis
TA AS ceases eter aes 40.00 69.25 69.80 —0.05
Lite aS Op Oph pLieKuSe 50.53 56.09 56.34 —0O.27
LG? Semone reesei 63.80 39.50 39.22 +0,28
LPR GADA DMO ae 51.73 54-37 54.05 +0.32
Ite GOSS Goes 52.63 53.46 56.81

Qari loreteens ereretotecteesers 56.53 48.59 54.60
BOs set eee ee 53-70 52.10 57-14

~The above calculations were made from the following

data.
Starting with Nos. 1 and 2, and discarding small frac-

tions, we find that 53 divisions of the cane sugar scale.

correspond to 53 per cent of reducing matter nearly.

By a method of calculation entirely similar to that em-.

ployed in determining the reducing matter from the
fluctuations of 0, I have found that a variation of one
degree in the sugar scale corresponds to an inverse var-
iation of nearly 1.25 per cent of reducing substance.
We may have as in the previous calculation three cases.
ist. The reading of the scale = 53
2d. “ “cc “ec “ > 53
3d. “ec “cc “ce “ < 53
In the first case 53 — 58 per cent nearly.
In the second case, placing @ for the reading of the
scale, we have
g = 53 — (a—53) 1.25
In the third case we have
& = 53 + (53—@) 1.25

r

In seven of the first seventeen cases the percentage of
reducing substance calculated by the above formula, ex-
ceeded that given by the copper test, and by a mean
amount of 0.539.

In ten of them it fell short, and by a mean amount of
0.938. This method, therefore, can be relied upon to
give results which do not vary from the copper test ex-
cept by a small amount.

Not much more in the way of accuracy can be claimed

SCIENCE. 395
TABLE V.
ae = = ee
se edieahe Z é ;
2 = ubstance same same by
NUMBER. Scale. by Cal- Corrected. | Cu. Sol.
culation. |
isle ah hagmarr, ace oe © 52.63 53.46 55-83 56.81
1 i COD CD LpODoe 56.53 48.59 55.17 54.60
Ry ale canals ayebe tole ater ater 53-70 52.10 56.55 51.14

for the copper test itself.

In Nos. 18, 19 and 20 we have again the cases where
the high specific gravities vitiate the results of the calcu-
lation.

CORRECTION FOR SPECIFIC GRAVITY.
I next proceeded to find out a method for correcting

the reading of the polariscope for variations, caused by~

changes in the specific gravity of the specimens. First
I determined the percentage of water in glucose of differ-
ent specific gravities ; following are the results:

I,
Sp. gr. = 1.440
Weight taken = Gea iiSa meelaplet. cishy.
Loss — 0.35; at 170°, 2 hours.
PercentH:0 = 0.35 = 5.515 = 6,37.

nT
ho) ora 1.431
Weight taken = 5.86
Loss 0.53, 170%, 2 hours.
Per cent H.0 = 0.53 + 5.89 = 9.05.

Il.
Sp. gr. = 1.409
Weight taken = 4.038
Loss a 0.622, 170°, 3 hours.
Percent H:0 = _= 15.40

IV.
Sp. gr. 2 aa 1.416
Weight taken = 4.425
Loss 0.525, 170°, 2 hours.
PercentH:0 = _= 11.93

V.
Sp. gr. 1.417
Weight taken 8.639
Loss = 1.091, 170°, 3 hours.
Per cent H:0 = _ = 12.70

Vi.

SOLID GRAPE SUGAR.

Sp. gr. = 1.463
Weight taken = 7.215, 170°, 3 hours.
Loss — 0.61
PercentH,O = 9.29

These data are scarcely sufficient to establish a rule
for correction for variations in specific gravity, but it ap-
pears from them that the formule will not vary much
from the following :

The rule, 53 divisions = 53 per cent, seems applicable
to samples in which the percentage of H.O is 12 to 14,
and of which the sp. gr.is from 1.409 to 1.414. For each
variation of 0,001 in the specific gravity, the percentage
of H,O varies about 0.3.

Thus if we take the two extreme cases, viz.: 6.37 and
15.14 per cent of H.O, we find the corresponding speci-
fic gravities to be 1.440 and 1.409, a difference of 0.031.

The difference in the percentage of water is 9.03. The
quotient of 0.0903 + 0.031 = 3 nearly,

Let us apply these data to the correction of Nos, 18,
19 and 20 in table IV. I give below these numbers and
also their correcticns.

The above corrections were based on the supposition
that 53 divisions of the scale correspond to 53 per cent
reducing matter, when the sp. gr. = 1.409, and the per-
centage of water I5.

We may therefore construct the following provisional
formulze for estimating the correction to be applied to the
reading of the scale when the sp. gr. of the specimen
varies much from 1.409.

Let « = reading of scale.
« a’ = corrected reading.
“ ¢€ = sp. gr. of the sample.

Then a’ = a—3 a (e—1.409), when the sp. gr. is greater
than 1.409, and a =a + 3a (1.409—®), when ¢ is less
than 1.409.

I next propose to undertake some investigations to
show the nature and number of the optically active prin-
ciples present in glucose.

a
THE UNITY OF NATURE.
By THE DUKE OF ARGYLL.

xX.

THE ORIGIN OF RELIGION CONSIDERED IN THE LIGHT
OF THE UNITY OF NATURE,

(Concluded.)

IN the beginning of this chapter I have observed how
little we think of the assumptions which are involved in
putting such questions as that respecting the origin of
Religion. And here we have come to a point in our in-
vestigations at which it is very needful to remember
again what some of these assumptions are. In order to
do a let us look back fora moment and see where we
stand. ‘

We have tound the clearest evidence that there is a
special tendency in religious conceptions to run into de-
velopments of corruption and decay. We have seen the
best reasons to believe that the religion of savages, like
their other peculiarities, is the result of this kind of evo-
lution. We have found in the most ancient records of
the Aryan language proof that the indications of religious
thought are higher, simpler, and purer as we go back in
time, until at last, in the very oldest compositions of hu-
man speech which have come down to us, we find the
Divine Being spoken of in the sublime language which
forms the opening of the Lord’s Prayer. ‘The date in ab-
solute chronology of the oldest Vedic literature does not
seem to be known. Professor Max Miiller, however, con-
siders that it may possibly take us back 5000 years.}
This is probably an extreme estimate, and Professor Mon-
ier Williams seems to refer the most ancient Vedic
hymns to a period not much more remote than 1500
B. C.2. But whatever that date may be, or the corres-
ponding date of any other very ancient literature, such as
the Chinese, or that of the oldest Egyptian papyri, when
we go beyond these dates we enter upon a period when
we are absolutely without any historical evidence what-
ever, not only as to the history of Religion, but as to the

1 Hibbert Lectures, p. 216.
2 ** Hinduism,” p. 19.

396

SCIENCE.

history and condition of Mankind. We do not know even | evidently framed on the assumption of a Fatherless

approximately the time during which he has existed,
We do not know the place or the surroundings of his
birth. We do not know the steps by which his ‘know-
ledge ‘‘grew from more to more.” All we can see with
certainty is that the earliest inventions of Mankind are
the most wonderful that the race has ever made. The
first beginnings of human speech must have had their
origin in powers of the highest order. The first use of
fire and the_discovery of the methods by which it can be
kindled; the domestication of wild animals; and above
all the processes,by which the various cereals were first
developed out of some wild grasses—these areall dis-
coveries with which in ingenuity and in importance no
subsequent discoveries may compare. They are all un-
known |to history—-all lost in the light of an effulgent
dawn. In speculating, therefore, on the origin of these
things, we must make one or other of two assumptions—
either that Man always had the same mental faculties
and the same fundamental intellectual constitution that
he has now, or that there was a time when these faculties
had not yet risen to the level of Humanity, and when his
mental constitution was essentially inferior.

On the first of these assumptions we proceed on the
safe ground of inquiry from the known to the unknown.
We handle a familiar thing; we dissect a known struc-
ture; we think of a known agency. We speculate only
on the matter of its first behavior. Even in this pro-
cess we must take a good deal for granted—we must
imagine a good deal that is not éasily conceivable. I
we try to present to our own minds any distinct image
of the first Man, whether we supposed hitn to havef
been specially created or gradually developed, we shall
soon find that we are talking about a Being and about a
condition of things of which science tells us nothing, and of
which the imagination even cannot form any definite con-
ceptioa. The temptation to think of that Being as a
mere savage is very great, and this theory underlies nine-
tenths of all speculations on the subject. But, to say
the very least, this may not be true, and valid reasons
have been adduced to show that it is in the h’ghest de-
gree improbable. That the first Man should have been
born with all the developments of savagery is as impos-
sible as that he should have been born with all the de-
velopments of civilization, The next most natural re-
source we have is to think of the first Man as something
like a child. But no man has ever seen a child which
never had a parent, or some one to represent a parent.
We can form no picture in our mind’s eye of the mental
condition of the first Man, if we suppose him to have
had no communication with, and no instruction from,
some Intelligence other than his own. A child that
has never known anything, and has never seen exam-
ple, is a creature of which we have no knowledge, and
of which therefore we can form no definite conception.
Our power of conceiving things is, of course, no measure
of their possibility. But it may be well to observe where
the impossibilities of conception are, or may be, of our
own making. It is at least possible that the first Man
may not have been born or created in the condition which
we find to be so inconceivable. He may have been a
child, but having, what all other children have, some in-
timations of Authority and some acquaintance with its
Source. At all events, let it be clearly seen that the de-
nial of this possibility is an assumption; and an assump-
tion too which establishes an absolute and radical dis-
tinction between childhood as we know it, and the
inconceivable conditions of a childhood which was
either without Parents, or with Parents who were com-
paratively beasts. Professor Max Miiller has fancied our
earliest forefathers as creatures who at first had to be
“roused and awakened from mere staring and stolid
wonderment,” by certain objects ‘‘which set them for
the first time musing, pondering, and thinking on the
visions floating before their eyes.” This is a picture

childhood—of a Being born into the world with all the
innate powers of Man, but absolutely deprived of all
direct communication with any Mind or Will analogous
to his own. No such assumption is admissible as repre-
senting any reasonable probability. But at least such
imaginings as these about our first parents have refer-
ence to their external conditions only, and do not raise
the additional difficulties involved in the supposition that
the first Man was half a beast.

Very different is the case upon the other of the two
assumptions which have been indicated above. On the
assumption that there was a time when Man was differ-
ent in his own proper nature from that nature as we
know it now —when he was merely an animal not yet de-
veloped into a Man—on this assumption another element
of the unknown is introduced, which is an element of
absolute confusion. It is impossible to found any rea-
soning upon data which are not only unknown, but are
in themselves unintelligible and inconceivable. Now it
seems as if many of those who speculate on the origin
ot Religion have not clearly made up their minds whether
they are proceeding on the first of these assumptions or
on the second; that is to say, on the assumption that
Man has always been, in respect to faculty, what he now
is, or on the assumption that he was once a beast. Per-
haps, indeed, it would be strictly true to say that many
of those who speculate on the origin of Religion proceed
upon the last of these assumptions without avowing it,
or even without distinctly recognizing it themselves. It
may be well, therefore, to point out here that on this as-
sumption the question cannot be discussed at all. We
must begin with Man as Man, when his development or
his creation had made him what he is; not indeed as re-
gards the acquisitions of experience or the treasures of
knowledge, but what he is in faculty and in power, in the
structure and habit of his mind, in the instincts of his
intellectual and moral nature.

But, as we have also seen at the beginning of this
chapter, there are two other assumptions between which
we must choose. Besides assuming something as to the
condition and the powers of the first Man, we must also
make one or other of two assumptions as to the existence
or non-existence of a Being to whom his mind stands in
close relation. One is the assumption that there is no
God; and then the problem is, how Man came to invent
one. The other is that there is a God; and then the

‘question is, whether He first formed, and how long He

left, His creature without any intuition or revelation of
Himself ?

It is really curious to observe in many speculations on
the origin of Religion how unconscious the writers are
that they are making any assumption at all on this sub-
ject. And yet in many cases the assumption distinctly
is that, as an objective reality, God does not exist, and
that the conception of such a Being is built up grad-
ually out of wonderings and guessings about “the Infi-
nite” and “the Invisible.”

On this assumption I confess that it does not appear
to me to be possible to give any satisfactory explanation
of the origin of Religion. As a matter of fact, we see
that the tendency to believe in divine or superhuman
Beings is a universal tendency in the human mind. As~
a matter of fact, also, we see that the conceptions which
gather round this belief—the ideas which grow up and
are developed from one consequence to another respect-
ing the character of these superhuman Personalities and
the relations to mankind—are beyond all comparison the
most powerful agencies in molding human nature for
evil or for good. There is no question whatever about
the fact that the most terrible and destructive customs
of barbarian and of savage life are customs more or less
directly connected with the growth of religious super-
stitions. It was the perception of this fact which in-
spired the intense hatred of Religion, as it was known to

SCIENCE.

him, which breathes in the memorable poem of Lucre-
tius. In all literature there is no single line more true
than the famous line—‘‘ Tantum religio potuit suadere
malorum.” Nor is it less certain, on the other hand, that
the highest type of human virtue is that which has been
exhibited in some of those whose whole inspiration and
rule of life has been founded on religious faith. Reli-
gious conceptions have been historically the centre of all
authority, and have given their strength to all ideas of
moral obligation. Accordingly, we see that the same
hatred which inspired Lucretius against Religion because
of its power for evil, now inspires other men against it
because of its power for good. Those who wish to sever
all the bonds which bind human society together, the
State, the Church, the Family, and whose spirits are in
fierce rebellion against all Law, human or divine, are and
must be bitter enemies of Religion. The idea must be
unendurable to them of a Ruler who cannot be defied,
of a Throne which cannot be overturned, of a Kingdom
which endureth throughout all generations. The belief
in any Divine Personality as the source of the inexorable
laws of Nature is a belief which enforces, as nothing
else can enforce, the idea of obligation and the duty ot
obedience. Se

It is not possible, in the light of the unity of Nature, to
reconcile this close and obvious relation between religious
conceptions and the highest coaditions of numan life with
the supposition that these conceptions are nothing but a
dream. The power exercised over the mind and conduct
of Mankind, by the belief in some Divine Personality with
whom they have to do, is a power of having all the marks
that indicate an integral part of the system under which
we live. But if we are to assume that this belief does
not represent a fact, and that its origin is any other than
a simple and natural perception of that fact, then this ne-

- gation must be the groundwork of all speculations on the
subject, and must be involved, more or less directly, in
every argument we use. But even on this assumption it
is not a reasonable explanation of the fundamental post-
ulates of all Religion—namely, the existence of super-
human Beings—to suppose that the idea of personality
has been evolved out of that which is impersonal; the
idea of Will out of that which has no Intelligence; the
idea of life out of that which does not contain it.

On the other hand, if we make the only alternative as-
sumption—namely, that there is a God, that is to say, a
Supreme Being, who is the Author of creation,—then the
origin of man’s perception of this fact ceases to have any
mystery other than that which attaches to the origin of
every one of the elementary perceptions of his mind and
spirit. Not a few of these perceptions tell him of realities
which are as invisible as the Godhead. Of his own pas-
sions his perception is immediate—of his own love, of his
own anger, of his own possession of just authority. The
sense of owing obedience may well be as immediate as
the sense or aright toclaim it. Moreover, seeing the
transcendent power of this perception upon his conduct,
and, through his conduct, upon his fate, it becomes an-
tecedently probable, in accordance with the analogies of
Nature and of all other created Beings, that from the
very first, and as part of the outfit of his nature, some
knowledge was imparted to him of the existence of his
Creator, and of the duty which he owed to Him.

- Of the methods by which this knowledge was imparted
to him, we are as ignorant as of the methods by which
other innate perceptions were implanted in him. But no
special difficulty is involved in the origin of a perception
which stands in such close relation to the unity of Nature.
It has been demanded, indeed, as a postulate in this dis-
cussion, that we should discard all notions of antecedent
probability—that we should take nothing for granted,
except that Man started on his course furnished with
what are called his senses, and with nothing more. And
this demand may be acceded to, provided it be well un-
derstood what our senses are. If by this word we are to

397

understand nothing more than the gates and avenues of
approach through which we derive an impression of ex-
ternal objects—our sight, and touch, and smell, and taste,
and hearing—then, indeed, it is the most violent of all
assumptions that they are the only faculties by which
knowledge is acquired. There is no need to put any dis-
paragement on these senses, or to undervalue the work
they do. Quite the contrary. It has been shown in a
former chapter how securely we may rest on the wonder
and on the truthfulness of these faculties as a pledge and
guarantee of the truthfulness of other faculties which are
conversant with higher things. When we think of the
mechanism of the eye, and of the inconceivable minute-
ness of the ethereal movements which that organ enables
us to separate and to discriminate at a glance, we get
hold of an idea having an intense interest and a supreme
importance. If adjustments so fine and so true as these
have been elaborated out of the unities of Nature, whe-
ther suddenly by what we imagine as Creation, or slow-
ly by what we call Development, then may we have the
firmest confidence that the same law of natural adjust-
ment has prevailed in all the other faculties of the per-
ceiving and conceiving mind. The whole structure of
of that mind is, as it were, revealed to bea _ structure
which is in the nature of a growth—a structure whose
very property and function it is to take in and assimilate
the truths of Nature—and that in an ascending order, ac-
cording t> the rank of those truthsin the system and con-
stitution of the Universe. In this connection of thought
too great stress cannot be laid on the wonderful language
of the senses. In the light of it the whole mind and
spirit of Man becomes one great mysterious retina for re-
flecting the images of Eternal Truth. Our moral and in-
tellectual preceptions of things which, in their very na-
ture, are invisible, come home to us as invested with a
new authority. It is the authority of an adjusted struc-
ture—the mental organization of which has been molded
by what we call natural causes—these being the causes
on which the unity of the world dlepends.

And when we come to consider how this molding, and
the molding of the human body, deviates from that of the
lower animals, we discover in the nature of this deviation
a law which cannot be mistaken. That law points to the
higher power and to the higher value in his economy of
faculties which lie behind the senses. The human frame
diverges from the frame of the brutes, so far as the mere
bodily senses are concerned, in the direction of greater
helplessness and weakness. Man’s sight is less piercing
than the eagle’s. His hearing is less acute than the
owl’s or the bat’s. His sense of smell may be said hardly
to exist at all when it is compared with the exquisite
susceptibilities of the deer, of the weasel, or of the fox.
The whole principle and plan of structure in the beasts
which are supposed to benearest to him in form, is a
principle and a plan which is almost the converse of that
on which his structure has been organized. The so-
called man-like Apes are highly specialized ; Man on the
contrary is as highly generalized. They are framed to
live almost entirely on trees, and to be dependent on ar-
boreal products, which only a very limited area in the
globe can supply. Manis framed to be independent of
all. local conditions, except indeed those extreme con-
ditions which are incompatible with the maintenance of
organic life in any form. If it be true, therefore, that he
is descended from some “arboreal animal with pointed
ears,’ he has been modified during the steps of that
descent on the principle of depending less on senses such
as the lower animals possess, and more and more on what
may be called the senses of hismind. The unclothed and
unprotected condition of the human body, the total
abscence of any organic weapon of defense, the want of
teeth adapted even for prehension, and the same want of
power for similar purposes in the hands and fingers—
these are all changes and departures from the mere
animal type which stand in obvious relation to the mental

398

powers of Man. Apart from these, they are changes
which would have placed the new creature at a hopeless
disadvantage in the struggle for existence. It is not
easy to imagine—indeed, we may safely say that it is
impossible to conceive--the condition of things during any
intermediate steps insucha process. It seemsas if there
could be no safety until it had been completed—until the
enfeebled physical organization had been supported and
reinforced by the new capacities for knowledge and de-

sign. This, however, is not the point on which we are
dwelling now. We are now speculating on the origin of
Man. Weare considering him only as he is, and as he

must have been since he was Manat all. And in that
structure as it is, we see that the bodily senses have a
smaller relative importance than in the beasts. To the
beasts theses sense tell them all they know. To us they
speak but little compared with all that our spirit of inter-
pretation gathers from them. But that spirit of inter-
pretation is in the nature of a sense. In the lower ani-
mals every external stimulus moves to some appropriate
action. In Man it moves to some appropriate thought.
This is an enormous difference; but the principle is the
same. We can see that, so far as the mechanism is
visible, the plan or the principle of that mechanism is
alike. The more clearly we understand that this organic
mechanism has been a growth and a development, the
more certain we may be that in its structure it is self-
adapted, and that in its working it is true. And the
same principle applies to those other faculties of our
mental constitution which have no outward organ to in-
dicate the machinery through which their operations are
conducted. In them the spirit of interpretation is in com-
munication with the realities which lie behind phenom-
ena—with energies which are kindred with its own. And
so we come to understand that the processes of Develop-
ment or of Creation, whatever they may have been, which
culminated in the production of a Being such as Man, are
processes whoily governed and directed by a law of adjust-
ment between the higher truths which it concerns him
most to know, and the evolution of faculties by which
alone he could be enabled to apprehend them. There is
no difficulty in conceiving these processes carried to the
most perfect consummation, as we do see them actually
carried to very high degrees of excellence in the case of a
few men of extraordinary genius, or of extraordinary vir-
tue. In science the most profound conclusions have been
sometimes reached without any process of conscious rea-
soning.
the triumphs of intellect are to be gained only by labori-
ous thought, and by the gains of one generation being
made the starting-point for the acquisition of the next.
This is the general law. But it is a law which itself as-
sumes certain primary intuitions of the mind as the start-
ing-point of all. If these were wrong, nothing could be
right. The whole processes of reasoning would be viti-
ated from the first. The first man must have had these
as perfectly as we now have them, else the earliest steps
of reason could never have been taken, the earliest re-
wards of discovery could never have been secured. But
there is this great difference between the moral and the
intellectual nature of Man, that whereas in the work of
reasoning the perceptions which are primary and intui-
tive require to be worked out and elaborately applied, in
morals the perceptions which are primary are all in all.
It is true that here also the applications may be infinite,
and the doctrines of Utility have their legitimate applica-
tion in enforcing, by the sense of obligation, whatever
course of conduct Reason may determine to be the most
fitting and the best. The sense of obligation in itself is,
like the sense of logical sequence, elementary, and, like
it, is part and parcel of our mental constitution. But un-
like the mere sense of logical sequence, the sense of mor-
al obligation has one necessary and primary application
which from the earliest moment of Man’s existence may
well have been ail-sufficient. Obedience to the will of

SCIENCE.

It is clearly the law of our nature, however, that”

legitimate Authority is, as we have seen in a former
chapter, the first duty and the first idea of duty in the mind
ofevery child. If ever there was a man who had noearthly
father, or if ever there was a man whose father was, as
compared with himself, a beast, it would seem a natural
and almost a necessary supposition that, along with his
own new and wonderful power of self-consciousness,
there should have been associated a consciousness also
of the presence and the power of that Creative Energy
to which his own development was due. It is not possi-
ble for us to conceivé what form the consciousness
would take. ‘No man hath seen God at any time.”
This absolute declaration of one of the Apostles of
the Christian Church proves that they accepted, as
metaphorical, the literal terms in which the first
communications between Man and his Creator are
narrated in the Jewish Scriptures. It is not necessary to
suppose that the Almighty was seen by His first human
creature walking in bodily form in a garden “in the cool
of the day.’ The strong impressions of a spiritual
Presence and of spiritual communications which have
been the turning-point in the lives of men living in the
bustle of a busy gnd corrupted world, may well have
been even more vivid and more immediate when the first
‘‘ Being worthy to be called a man”’ stood in this world
alone. The light which shone on Paul of Tarsus on the
way to Damascus may have been such a light as shone
on the father of our race; or the communication may
have been what metaphysicians call purely subjective,
such as in all ages of the world do sometimes “ flash
upon that inward eye which is the bliss of solitude.”
But none the less may they have been direct and over-
powering. The earliest and simplest conception of the
Divine Nature might well also be the best. And although
we are forbidden to suppose the embodiment and visi-
bility of the Godhead, we are not driven to the alterna-
tive-of concluding that there never could have been any-
thing which is to us unusual in the intimations of His
presence. Yet this is another of the unobserved assump-
tions which are perpetually made—the assumption of an
uniformity in Nature which does not exist. That “all
things have continued as they are since the beginning”
is conceivable. But that all things should have con-
tinued as they were since before the beginning is a con-
tradiction in terms. In primeval times many things had
then just been done of which we have no knowledge
now. When the form of Man had been fashioned and
completed for the first time, like and yet unlike to the
bodies of the beasts; when all their organs had been
lifted to a higher significance in his; when his hands had
been liberated from walking and from climbing, and had
been elaborated into an instrument of the most subtle
and various use; when his feet had been adapted for
holding him in the erect position; when his breathing
apparatus had been set to musical chords of widest com-
pass and the most exquisite tones; when all his senses
had become ministers to a mind endowed with wonder
and with reverence, and with reason and with love—then
a work had been accomplished such as the world had
not known before, and such as has never been repeated
since. All the conditions under which that work was
carried forward must have been happy conditions—
conditions, that is to say, in perfect harmony with its
progress and its end. They must have been favorable,
first, to the production and then to the use of those
higher faculties which separa'ed the new creature from
the beasts. They must have been in a corresponding de-
gree adverse to the incompatible with the prevalence ot
conditions tending to reversion or to degradation in any
form. That long and gradual ascent, if we assume it to
have been so,—or, as it may have been, that sudden
transfiguration,—must have taken place in a congenial
air and amid surroundings which lent themselves to so
great a change. On every conceivable theory, therefore,
of the origin of Man, all this seems a necessity of thought.

SCIENCE.

But perhaps it seems on the Theory of Development even
more a necessity than onany other. Itis ofthe essence of
that theory that all things should have worked together
for the good of the Being that was to be. On the lowest
interpretation, this “ toil co-dperant to anend ”’ is always
the necessary result of forces ever weaving and ever in-
terwoven. On the higher interpretation it is the same.
Only, some Worker is ever behind the work. But under
either interpretation the conclusion is the same. That
the first man should have been a savage, with instincts
and dispositions perverted as they are never perverted
among the beasts, is a supposition impossible and incon-
ceivable. Like every other creature, he must have been
in harmony with his origin and his end—with the path
which had led him to where he stood, with the work
which made him what he was. It may well have been
part of that work—nay, it seems almost a necessary part
of it—to give to this new and wonderful Being some
knowledge of his whence and whither—some open vis-
ion, some sense and faculty divine.

With arguments so deeply founded on the analogies of
Nature in favor of the conclusion that the first Man,
though a child in acquired knowledge, must from the first
have had instincts and intuitions in harmony with his
origin and with his destiny, we must demand the clearest
proof from those who assume that he could have had no
conception of a Divine Being, and that this wasan idea
which could only be acquired in time from staring
at things too big for him to measure, and from won-
dering at things too distant for him to reach.
Not even his powers could extract from such things that
which they do not contain. But in his own Personality,
fresh from the hand of Nature,—in his own spirit just
issuing from the fountains of its birth,—in his own Will,
willing according to the law of its creation,—in his own
desire of knowledge,—in his own sense of obligation,—
in his own wonder and reverence and awe,—he had all
the elements to enable him at once to apprehend, though
not to comprehend, the Infinite Being who was the
Author of his own. :

It is, then, with that intense interest which must ever

belong to new evidence in support of fundamental truths
that we find these conclusions, founded as they are on
the analogies of Nature, confirmed and not disparaged
by such facts as can be gathered from other sources of
information. Scholars who have begun their search into
the origin of Religion in the full acceptance of what may
be called the savage theory of the origin of Man—who,
captivated by a plausible generalization, had taken it for
granted that the farther we go back in time, the more
certainly do we find all Religion assuming one or other
of the gross and idolatrous forms which have been indis-
criminately grouped under the designation of Fetishism—
have been driven from this belief by discovering to their
surprise that facts do not support the theory. They
have found, on the contrary, that up to the farthest
limits which are reached by records which are properly
historical, and far beyond those limits to the remotest
distance which is attained by evidence founded on the
analysis of human speeeh, the religious conceptions of
men are seen as we go back in time to have been not
coarser and coarser, but simpler, purer, higher—so that
the very oldest conceptions ot the Divine Being of which
- a any certain evidence are the simplest and best
of all.

In particular, and as a fact of typical significance, we
find very clear indications that everywhere Idolatry and
Fetishism appear to have been corruptions, whilst the
higher and more spiritual conceptions of Religion
which lie behind do generally even now survive among
idolatrous tribes as vague surmises or as matters of
speculative belief. Nowhere even now, it is confessed,
is mere Fetishism the whole of the Religion of any
people.- Everywhere, in so far as the history of it is known,
it has been the work of evolution, the development of

399

tendencies which are deviations from older paths. And
not less significant is the fact that everywhere in the im-
agination and traditions of Mankind there is preserved the
memory and the belief ina past better than the present.
“It is a constant saying,” we are told, ‘“ among African
tribes that formerly heaven was nearer to man than it is
now ; that the highest God, the Creator Himself, gave
formerly lessons of wisdom to human beings ; but that
afterwards He withdrew from them, and dwells now far
from them in heaven.’’ All the Indian races have the
same tradition; and it is not easy to conceive how a
belief so universal could have risen unless as a survival.
It has all the marks of being a memory and not an imag-
ination. It would reconcile the origin of Man with that
law which has been elsewhere universal in creation—the
law under which every ceature has been produced not
only with appropriate powers, but with appropriate in-
stincts and intuitive perceptions for the guidance of these
powers in their exercise and use. Many will remember
the splendid lines in which Dante has defined this law,
and has declared the impossibility of Man having been
exempt therefrom :—

Nell’ ordine ch’io dico sono accline
Tutte nature per diverse sorti

Pit al principio loro, e men vicine ;
Onde si muovono a diversi porti

Per lo gran mar dell’ essere; e ciascuna
Con istinto a lei dato che la porti.

* * * * >

Né pur le creature, che son fuore
D'intelligenzia, quest’arco saetta,

Ma quelle c’hanno intelletto ed amore.3

The only mystery which would remain is the mystery
which arises out of the fact that somehow those instincts
have in Man not only been liable to fail, but that they
seem to have acquired apparently an ineradicable tendency
to become perverted. But this is a lesser mystery than
the mystery which would attach to the original birth or
creation of any breature in the condition of a human
savage. It is a lesser mystery because itis of the essence
of a Being whose Will is comparatively free that he
should be able to deviate from his appointed path. The
origin of evil may appear to us to bea great mystery.
But this at least may be said in mitigation of the diffi-
culty, that without the possibility ef evil there could be
no possibility of any virtue. Among the lower animals
obedience has always been a necessity. In Man it was
raised to the dignity of a duty. It is in this great change
that wecan see and understand how it is that the very ele-
evation of his nature is inseparable from the possibility of a
Fall. The mystery, then, which attaches to his condition
now is shifted from his endowments and his gifts to the use
he madeof them. The question of the origin of Religion
is merged and lost in the question of the origin of Man.
And that other question, how his Religion came to be
corrupted, becomes intelligible on the supposition of wil-
ful disobedience with all its consequences having become
“inherited and organized in the race.’’ This is the for-
mula of expression which has been invented or accepted
by those who do not believe in original instincts or intui-
tions, even when these are in harmony with the order and
With the reasonableness of Nature. It may well there-
fore be accepted in a case where we have to account for
tendencies and propensities which have no such charac-
ter—which are exceptions to the unity of Nature, and at
variance with all that is intelligible in its order, or rea-
sonable in its law.

If all explanation essentially consists in the reduction
of phenomena into the terms of human thought and into
the analogies of human experience, this is the explana-
tion which can alone reconcile the unquestionable cor-
ruption of human character with the analogies of Crea-
tion. ;

‘* Paradiso,” canto i. 110-120,

400

~
‘

SCIENCE.

For the present I must bring these papers to a close.
If the conclusions to which they point are true, then we
have in them some foundation-stones strong enough to
bear the weight of an immense, and, indeed, of an im-
measurable, superstructure. If the Unity of Nature is
not a unity which consists in mere sameness of mate-
rial, or in mere identity of composition, or in mere uni-
formity of structure, but a unity which the mind recog-
nizes as the result of operations similar to its own; if
man, not in his body only, but in the highest as well as
in the lowest attributes of his spirit, is inside this Unity
and part of it; if all his powers are, like the instincts
of the beasts, founded on a perfect harmony between his
faculties and the realities of creation; if the limits of his
knowledge do not affect its certainty; if its accepted
truthfulness in the lower fields of thought arises out of
correspondences and adjustments which are applicable
to all the operations of his intellect, and all the energies
of his spirit ; if the moral character of Man, as it exists
now, is the one great anomaly in Nature—the one great
exception to its order and to the perfect harmony of its
laws ; if the corruption of this moral character stands in
immediate and necessary connection with rebellion
against the Authority on which that order rests; if all
ignorance and error and misconception respecting the
nature of that Authority and of its commands has been
and must be the cause of increasing deviation, disturb-
ance, and perversion, then, indeed, we have a view of
things which is full of light. Dark as the difficulties
which remain may be, they are not of a kind to under-
mine all certitude, to discomfit all conviction, and to dis-
solve all hope. On the contrary, some of these difficul-
ties are seen to be purely artificial and magnet, |

whilst many others are exposed to the suspicion of be-
longing to the same class and category. In some cases
our misgivings are shown to be unreasonable, whilst in
many other cases, to say the least, doubt is thrown on
Doubt. Let destructive criticism do its work. But let
that work be itself subjected to the same rigid analysis
which it professes to employ. Under the analysis, unless
I am much mistaken, the destroyer will be destroyed.
That which pretends to be the universal solvant of all
knowledge and of all belief, will be found to be destitute
of any power to convict of falsehood the universal in-
stinct of Man, that by a careful and conscientious use of
the appropriate means he can, and does, attain to a sub-
stantial knowledge of the Truth.

ELEMENTS OF COMET (4), 1881.

(Communicated by Rear Admiral JOHN RODGERS, Superintend-
eat U. S. Naval Observatory.)

The following elements have been computed by Prof.
Frisby, U. S. N., from observations made with the
Transit Circle at the Naval Observatory :

Time of perihelion passage, June 16, .37001.

Tr = 265° 31 15."4
Q = 270 58 27
log q = 9.866748
t = 63 25 55-7
MIDDLE PLACE.
C—O
dAcosB — 13."4
6B + 62.1

METEOROLOGICAL REPORT FOR NEW YORK CITY FOR THE WEEK ENDING AUG. 13, 1881.
Latitude 40° 45’ 58" N.; Longitude 73° 57’ 58" W.; height of instruments above the ground, 53 feet ; above the sea, 97

feet ; by self-recording instruments.
BAROMETER. THERMOMETERS.
MEAN FOR : Bin 5: & etd? ’
ah ENE. MAXIMUM. MINIMUM. MEAN. MaXIMUM. era M. MAXI'M
AUGUST i j
; Reduced | Reduced Reduced | | | 7
A Dry | Wet | Dry - Wet : Dry | 7: Wet .
to. to. Time. to | Time. Bulb.| Bulb.| Bulb,’ 2™€- | Bulb. Time Buib.| Time. | pip. Time. |InSun.
Freezing.) Freezing. Freezing. |
= [= = —_—— | | |
Sunday, ¥==| 263795 29.810 | 0 a.m.| 29.722 | 2 p.m| 73.6 | 70.6} 79 2f.m.| 73 |2p.m.| 67 |12 p.m.) 67 |12 p.m.| 123:
Monday, 8__| 29.889 29.910 |12 p.m.| 29.796 | oa.m.| 70.0} 65.3 78 5 p.m.| 69 7Pp.m.) 61 | 5 a.m.) 60 | 5 a.m.) 149.
Tuesday, 9--| 29-794 29.910 }0Oa.m.| 29.632 |12 p.m.| 74.0 | 67.7 | 8r 3.P-m,) 71 | 6 p.m.| 62 Bap m_| 6x |6a.m.| 141.
Wednesday, 10.-] 29.616 29.710 |12 p.m.| 29578 5 a.m.| 77.3} 70.0] 86 |2p.m.| 74 5p m.| 64 |r2 p.m. 62 |12 p.m.) 141.
Thursday, 11--| 29.832 29.878 |10 a.m.| 29.710 | 0 a.m_| 69.7 | 63.3 78 | 4p.m.| 67 |6p.m.) 59 | 5 a.m. 58 | 5 a.m.|. 139.
Friday, I2..| 29.803 29.872 | 7 a.m.} 29.700 |12 p.m.| 74.6 | 67.6) 8r | 2 p.m.) 71 | 2 p.m.| |} 5 a.m.| 61 5 a.m.) 138.
Saturday, 13--| 29.560 29.700 | oa.m.| 29.498 6 p.m.| 81.3 | 73.7 | 96 | 4 P.m. 81 6 p.m.| 70 | 5 4. m.| 66 | 5 a.m. 146.
| Dry. Wet.
Mean‘for the; week: 52-2 2262224 o-oo ee eee 29.752 inches. | Mean for the week__-_------------- 74-3 degrees Se 68.3 degrees.

Maximum for the week at 12 p. m., August 8th

Maximum for the week,at 4 pm. 13th 96. at 6 pm 13th, 81.

Minimum at 7p. m., August 6th Be Minimum “ “5am. 11th 59. 7 at 5 am 11th, 58. ~
RAM Ge eae ee ene eee nee eee eee ae Range ‘ S* (pe 37- ot (tt 23s 23.

WIND. HYGROMETER. CLOUDS. RAIN AND SNOW. |,
= 8
’ 5 a ey | vry| FORCE IN ‘ ; : 5
j | VELOCITY as 3 _| RELATIVE CLEAR, ° DEPTH OF RAIN AND SNOW | 9
| ted ts Seba) UN MALES. |e RORCE OR VGH UMIOIc eS OVFRCAST, 10 IN INCHES. :
SQR. FEET. tas a

i |~ ‘a 3 > > rel ee : alee apie . 5 = . 5 aT
AUGUST. | Distance) ,; | E =| A.B) eB ep tty: & rte Time ) Dura-| 5 2 re
|7 a.m.\2 p.m.\g p.m.) for the | S| Time. a a&| al ad|/ ala a lee rH Begin-| End- tion. a5 e
| Pa leg sul een a} sn} alo the? ct glecaicn ing. ing. | Bias

| . cir. |3.45aM| gam.| 5.1 <2
Sunday, 7-| S. W. Si W2"| 5: We | 187 6% 4.30am| .693 | .730 | .708 | 85 | 74 |x00 |8 cu. 8 cir. cu. 4S cart Beane ve ey oe “63 we
Monday, 8.| n. {n.n.w.| s.e. | aut |1%|11.00 pm] .516 | .554 | .622 | 83 | 64 | 85 |rcir. jscu. jo | ----- | - port trees -- 14
Tuesday, g-|W. 5. W.| S. w. |S. S. W. 179 |4 | 2.50pm| .509 | .612 | .666 | 74 | 62 | 77 \scir.cu.s 6 cir.cu. \7 cu. 10 PM)105 pM 0.30 | or! g
Wednesday,10-|w. s. Ww. n,n. w.|n. n. W.) 246 5% | 1.15 pm) .666 | .596 | .644 | 77 | 48 | 85 (0 3 cu. Oy. ge neko dl eee see -- Vip
Thursday, 11-\n. n.w. n,n, €./ 5. 5. €. | 112 |1%| 9.10 am|'.465 | .449 | .580| 78 | 52 | 80 jo © oe lok 8 SU Seen aa eee desaass |=
Friday, 2.) Ww. 4k. 8. W.|5. 5. We 137 |2 5-40 pm) .476 | .624 | .666 | 69 59 | 77 2 cir. Ss. 7 cir. PAs Os Peer eee mss -16

Saturday, 13-wW.S W.| S. W. mM. n.e. 230 3%) 4.00pm) .608 | -768 | .829 | 80 | 5x | 78 |7 cu. 4cu. (5cu. | ----- | ----- | ----- =
Distance traveled during the WEN! 5 2 Awe soe Lh A ee 1,202 miles, Total amount of water for the week--..~--------.-------------- .75 inch,
Masini force: 3. 2.5. Ses aeeeee conan ee eee ee ae 4% ibs. Duration of sain. 2. sos bec eee aa 13 hours, 30 minutes.

Director Meteorological Observatory of the Department of Public Parks, New York, i¥

DANIEL DRAPER, Ph. D.

SCIENCE.

Be LENCE :

A WEEKLy ReEcorp oF SCIENTIFIC

ProGRESs.

JOHN MICHELS, Editor.

THERMS:
PER-YEAR, <= . = Four DoLiars.
6 MonTHus, - - - - Two
3 oe = - - - ONE se
SINGLE CoPIES, - = - - TEN CENTs.

PuBLISHED AT
TRIBUNE BUILDING, NEW YORK.
P, O. Box 3838.

SATURDAY, AUGUST 27, 1881.

THE CINCINNATI MEETING OF THE AMER-
ICAN ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCE-
MENT OF SCIENCE.

. The thirtieth meeting of this Society was held at
Cincinnati, on the 17th of August and following days,
and adjourned on the 23rd.

The meeting opened with some discouraging fea-
tures, due principally to the marked absence of many
of the most prominent members of the Association.
Among the absentees we noticed retiring President
Lewis E. Morgan, of Rochester ; Professor Spencer F.
Baird, Professor O. C. Marsh, of Yale; Professor
Asaph Hall, of Washington ; Professor W. B. Rogers,
of Boston; Professor Burt G. Wilder, of Cornell ;
Professor Simon Newcomb, of Washington ; Professor
George F. Barker, of Philadelphia ; Professor Alex-
ander Graham Bell, of Washington, and Professor
Alexander Agassiz, of Cambridge.

It is agreeable to record that in spite of these de-
sertions, which in most cases were unavoidable or due
to sickness, the Cincinnati meeting has been in many
respects most successful, showing that the “esprit de
corps” of the great body of the Association is at a high
standard and requires no fostering spirit to maintain

its vitality.

The following registration shows the attendance of
members at the annual meeting since 1869:

PEN SIS ahs GLE ores BRCtIe) IC IOI SOMA BRET ee eae ORC RR Ee 244
OAC —LOU Ene ree acer eee cares ciate w siolchoas © . 188
Meg ba POMS. 12,5; cvorein ereje'c e clee oreichae ine ttete sod 196
BO TL —EIDUGUCr. cee sce succes cer eyes Papi the acs LOK.
ego OGUAM Caister mates: siqs'erk «allo mse aevee iiege oh 304 195
DO fA ENOL re oe asi o.a oie 2 Sone wot peraeie elie tae. s : 224
Hela SUT in 6 RSE Hot anteo Lie) a air. 6. Oe eae 165
ea Cree AL Ohta to tay tres ids ol ti avvtpie ies o's ivy sluiajuy Ghtele eles 1 « 215

O77 WASHIUIILG EE tots trite piolosers oie ae hie Clare me Matic ts 176

401
TO78— Sti, LOWISMtey tleleeiellcerept ae ates weleis's dea voice 134
1879=—Saratoga Werke rier wraein ieee c.0.c\ soe ese eer 256
OSO=—— DOStOMMy- Vyas else ievetan eA aires = sts.o; sid er cs2i esoe = 997

At the recent Cincinnati meeting the attendance of
members was about 550, which compares most favor-
ably with all previous years, excepting the last at
Boston, which from various circumstances was a phe-
nomenal year of success.

The growing popularity of the Association, or the
increased interest of the massesin scientific matters, is
shown by the registration of 4oo new names on the
roll of the Association, the majority of whom resided in
Ohio, Indiana and Kentucky.

An agreeable feature of this meeting was the exhibi-
tion of scientific apparatus by those engaged in such
manufactures.

Messrs. Beck, Bausch and Lomb, Bullock, Queen &
Co., and Sexton for Gundlach showed exhibits, which
made it evident that microscopists can command all
they desire from the optician, provided the one
essential of dollars and cents are within their reach,
and even in this respect improvements have been
made, which have greatly reduced the expenses of
microscopists.

The following gentlemen acted as officers of the
association on this occasion.

CINCINNATI, 1881.

Prestdent.—GEORGE J. BRUSH, of New Haven, Con-
necticut.

Vice President, Secttcon A.—WILLIAM HARKNESS, of
Washington, D. C.

Vice Prestdent, Section B.—E. T. Cox, of San Francis-
co, Cal.

Chairman of Permanent Subsection of Chemistry.—G.
C. CALDWELL, of Ithaca, N. Y.

Chairman of Permanent Subsectzon of Microscopy.—
A. B. HERVEY, of Taunton, Mass.

Chairman of Permanent Subsection of Anthropology.—
GARRICK MALLERY, of Washington, D. C.

Chairman of Permanent Subsection of Entomology.—
JOHN G. Morris, of Baltimore, Md.

Permanent Secretary.—F. W. PUTNAM, of Cambridge,
Mass.

General Secretary —C. V. RILEY, of Washington, D.C.

Secretary of Section AE. T. TAPPAN, of Gambier, O.

Secretary of Sectton B — CHARLES S. MINOT, of Boston,
Mass.

Secretary of Permanent Subsection of Cheméstry-—
ALFRED SPRINGER, Cincinnati, O.

Secretary of Permanent Subsection of Microscopy.—
W.H. SEAMAN, of Washington, D. C,

Secretary of Permanent Subsection of Anthropology.—
J. G. HENDERSON, of Winchester, III.

Secretary of Permanent Subsection of Entomology.—
B. PICKMAN MANN, of Cambridge, Mass.

Treasurer.—WILLIAM S, VAUX, of Philadelphia, Pa.

Nearly two hundred papers, described in the follow-
ing list, were entered to be read.

402

a

. Amylose.

. The nitrogenous

SCIENCE.

DIDTLES OF PAPERS,

. Magnetic survey of Missouri.—Francis E. Nipher.
. On the effect of prolonged stress upon the strain in

timber.—2. H. Thurston.

. Numerical elements of the orbits of the seven Electrical

Vortices, to whose motions atmospheric storms are
principally due, with the processes by which they have
been derived, and examples given of the application of
the formula by which their positions on the surface of
the earth can be computed for any given time.— Tomas
Bassnett.

. Universal Energy ot light.—PAxy Larl Chase.
. A new system of interest, discounts, etc.—Fames W.

Robinson.

The constitution of the “Atom” of science.—J/7s. A. B.
Blackwell.

Cafions, as I have seen them, with some thoughts as to
their origin.— Wm. Bross.

The unification of geological
Owen.

Recent discoveries, measurements, and temperature ob-
servations made in Mammoth Cave, Ky.—J@. C. Hovey.

nomenclature.—Aichard

. A remarkable case of retention of heat by the Earth.—

HH, C. Hovey.

. Coal dust as an element of danger of mining ; shown

by the late explosion in the Albion Mines, in Nova
Scotia.—Z. C. Hovey.

. The successful administration of nitrous-oxide for den-

tal and surgical operations.—C. P. Howland.

. An Iso-picraminic acid.—Charles W. Dabney, Fr.
. Development of Sugar in Maize and Sorghums.— Peter

Collier.

. A revision of the anatomy of the ethmoid bone in the

mammalia.—Harrison Allen.

. The life unit in plants —Ayron D. Halsted.
. On Bopyrus manhattensis from the gill-cavity of Palz-

monetes vulgaris Stimpson.—Car/ F. Gissler.

. The uncivilized mind in the presence of higher phases

of civilization.—Ofis 7. AZason.

. The stone images and idols of the mound-builders.—

Wm. McAdams.

. Some remarkable relics from mounds in Illinois.—

Wm, McAdams.

. Stone implement showing glacier marks— Wm. Mc-

Adams.

. The occurrence of Cretaceous fossils near mouth of

Illinois river.— Wm. McAdams.

. Mound-builders’ skeleton.— Watson C. Holbrook.

. Stone implements in the drift.— Watson C. Holbrook,

. Prehistoric hieroglyphics.— Watson C. Holbrook.

. A contribution to Croll’s theory of secular climatal

changes.—W. F. McGee.

. Influence of forests upon streams.—David D. Thompson.
. Alchemy, the cradle of Chemistry.

Illustrated by lan-
tern views.—H. Carrington Bolton.

. The great primordial force.—H.. R. Rogers.
. ‘‘Mixed” or ‘‘ New Process” sugars.

With methods
and results of analysis.—//. W. Wiley.

Its nature and method of manufacture. Its
optical properties—H. W. Wiley.

. Relation of reducing power as measured by Fehling’s

solution to the rotatory power of commercial glucose
and grape sugar.—Second paper.—//. W, Wiley.

On a new material suitable for stop-cocks and stoppers
for reagent bottles,—H. W. Wiley.

. The stereoscope, and vision by optic divergence.—W.

Le Conte Stevens.
constituents of grasses.—Clifford

Richardson.

, Mineralogical Notes.—Benjamin Silliman.
. On the influence of the structure of the nerve-fibres

upon the production and conduction of nerve-force.—
HT, D. Schmidt.

The recurrence of faunas in the Devonian Rocks of
New York.—//. S. Williams.

. Note on some Fish remains from the Upper Devonian

of New York.—/Z/. S. Willams.

. Note on specimens of Ptilophyton and associated fos-

sils collected by Dr. H. S. Williams, in the Chemung
Shales of Ithaca, N. Y.—¥. W. Dawson.

4t.
42,
43.
44.
45.
46.
47.

48.

49.

50.

BT.

. Electricity, Magnetism, Gravitation.

. Digital differentiation.—A.

Composition and quality of American Wines.—Henry
B. Parsons. :

On Dibromiodacrylic and Chlorbromiodacrylic Acids.
—C. F. Mabery and Rachel Lloyd.

On Chlortribrompropionic Acid.—C, 7, Mabery and H.
C. Weber.

Alhazen’s Problem: its history and _ bibliography,
together with various solutions of it.—Zarcus Baker.
Is the law of repetition the Dynamic Law underlying
the Science of Chemistry ?—/ss Virginia K. Bowers.
A study of blcod during a protracted fast—Lester
Curtis.

A. contribution to the study of Bacterial Organisms,
and commonly found on exposed mucus surfaces, and
in the alimentary canal of healthy individuals.—Geo.
M. Sternberg.

Suggestions for improvement in the manufacture of
glass, and new methods for the construction of large
telescopic lenses.—G. W. /Yolley.

On the electrical resistance and co-efficient of expan-
sion of incandescent platinum,—Z. L. Nichols.

On recent deep-sea soundings in the Gulf of Mexico
and Caribbean Sea, by the U. S. Coast Survey.—¥. Z.
ffilgard.

Symmetrical method of Elimination in Simple Equa-
tions, by the use of some of the principles of Determ-
inants.— Fas. D. Warner.

. A Musical Local-telegraph alphabet.— Wilham Boyd.
. An Improved Sonometer.— W. Le Conte Stevens.
. A new and improved freezing Microtome.— 7homas

Taylor.

. Anew and Improved Freezing apparatus for use in

Surgical and Dental Practice, being a substitute for
the ether spray.— Thomas Taylor.

. Bacteria and Micrococci, and their relations to plant cul-

ture.— Thomas Taylor.

Their phenomena
considered as the manifestation of one force.—S. S.
Parsons.

. The Berea Grit of Ohio.—dward Orton.
. The Gold-bearing drift of Indiana—Geo. Sutton.
. On the amount of Glacial erosion in Ohio, Indiana and

Illinois, with some deductions therefrom—Z. W.
Claypole.

. On the Discovery of an Archemediform Tenestellid in

the Upper Silurian Rocks of Ohio.——-Z. W. Claypole.

. Life-history of the Buckeye Stem-borer. Sericoris in-

strutana Clem.—£. W, Claypole.

. Some needed reforms in the use of Botanical Terms.—

Charles R. Ridler.

F. Howe.

The excavation of the Grand Cafion of the Colorado
River.—C. £. Dutton.

. On the cause of the Arid climates of the Far West.—

C. E. Dutton.

. Evolution and its place in Geology.—Zdward S. Ed-

munds.

. A Short study of the Features of the Region of Lower

Great Lakes, during the Great River Age; or notes on
the Origin of the Great Lakes of North America.— 7.
W. Spencer.

. On the inhabitants of N. E. Siberia, commonly called

Chukchis and Namollo.—W. H. Dadi.

. A Lawgiver of the Stone Age.—/fovatio Hale.
. Llex cassine, the Black Drink of the Southern Indians.—

Fohn G. Henderson.

. Was the antelope hunted by the Indians on the prairies

of Illinois ?— ohn G. Henderson.

. Agriculture and Agricultural Implements of the Ancient

Inhabitants of the Mississippi Valley.— ohn G. Hen-
derson.

. Houses of the Ancient Inhabitants of the Mississippi

Valley.— Yohn G. Henderson.

. Comparative Differences in the Iroquis Group of Dia-

lects.—Jvs. Erminnie A. Smith.

. Typical thin sections of the rocks of the cupriferous

series in Minnesota.—/V. . Winchell.

. The limited biological importance of synthetic achieve-

ments in Organic Chemistry.—A Mert B. Prescott.

. Onamesal cusp of the deciduous mandibular canine

of the domestic cat, Felis domestica.—Burt G. Wilder.

SGEENCE,

403

479. Remarks on the Classification and Distribution of

Producti—S. H. Trowbridge.

Note on a comparison of Newcomb’s Tables of Uranus
and Neptune, with those of the same planets by Le

Verrier.—D. P. Todd.

The Saroscope: Register of eclipses traced from Eden’s
prime, 3939 B. C.—A. W. Brown.

. Pentachloramyl formate.—A/fred Springer.

3. On the features of Equivalence to Chemical Elements,
shown by electricity and heat.— Samuel F. Wallace.

On a signa of logical connection in Equations.— Samuel

F. Wallace.

. On an abbreviation in writing a long series of figures,
and its use in calculations.—Samuel F. Wallace.

. Retarded Development in Insects.—C. V. Riley.

. New Insects Injurious to American Agriculture.—C.
V. Riley.

. The Egg-case of Hydrophilus triangularis.—C. V.
Riley.

. On the Oviposition of Prodoxus decipieus.—C. V.
Riley.

. The Cocoon of Gyrinus —C. V. Riley.

. Ozark Highlands.—G. C. Swallow.

g2.—On the disposition of color—markings of domestic
animals.— Wm. H. Brewer.

. On the ancient Japanese bronze belts.—Zdw. S. Morse.

On changes in Mya and Lunatia since the deposition of

the New England Shell-heaps.—Zdw. S. WZorse.

. On worked shells in New England Shell-heaps.—Zdw.
S. Morse.

. Natural and industrial history of the White Pine in
Michigan — Wm. Hosea Ballou.

Experiments to determine the comparative strength of
globes and cylinders of the same diameter and thick-
ness of sides.— S. Marsden.

g8 On a convenient method of expressing micrometrically
the relation between English and metric units of length
on the same scale— Wm. A. Rogers and Geo. F. Ballou.

99. Evidence of atomic motion within liquid molecules, as
based upon the speed of chemical action.— 2. B. Warder.

too. On anew method of applying water power of small
head to effect the direct compression of air to any re-
quired high pressure.—Z. 7. Eddy.

tor. A preliminary investigation: of two causes of lateral

deviation of spherical projectiles based on the kinetic
theory of gases.—H7. T. Eddy.

102. Phenomena of growth in plants —D. P. Penhallow.

103. On the life duration of the Heterocera (moths).— .

A, Lintne?.

to4. On the action of Pilocarpin in changing the color of

the human hair.—D. W. Prentiss.

105. On a simple method of measuring faint spectra— Wm.

fTarkness.

On the methods of determining the solar parallax,

with special reference to the coming transit of Venus.
—Wm. Harkness.

80.

81.

106.

107. The sources of the nitrogen of plants—W. O. At-
water.

108. The chemistry of fish and invertebrates— WV. O. At
water. .

109. The quantitative estimation of nitrogen.—WV. O. At-
water,

110. The quantitative estimation of Chlorine.—W. O. At-
water.

111. Historic Notes on Cosmic Physiology.—7. Sterry
LTunt.

112, Upon the use of the Induction Balance as a means of

determining the location of leaden bullets imbedded in

the human body.—A lexander Graham Bell.

Upon a new form of electric probe.—A/lexander Gra-

ham Bell.

The best method of mounting whole chick embryos.—

Charles Sedgwick Minot.

Note on whether man is the highest animal.—Chardes

Sedgwick Minot,

Note on the segmentation of the vertebrate body.—

Charles Sedgwick Minot.

117. The motion of roots in germinating Indian Corn— WV.

F. Beal.

118. Exhibition of some archeological specimens from

_ Missouri. —S. ZH. Trowbridge.

113.
114.
II5.

116.

119. Animal myths of the Iroquois.——Mrs. Eyrminnie A
Smith.

120 A remarkable invasion of northern New York bya
Pyralid Insect (Crambus vulgivagellus)—F. A. Lintner.

121. On the wave-lengths of the principal lines of the Solar
Spectrum.— 7. C. Mendenhall.

122. How does the bee extend its tongue.—A. F. Cook.

123, The Syrian Bees.—A. F. Cook.

124. Carbolic acid as a preventive of Insect Ravages.—-A.
F. Cook.

125. A. new self-registering Mirror Barometer.—fohn R.
Paddock.

126. On the length of life of Butterflies —W. H. Edwards.

127. On certain habits of Heliconia charitonia.—W. ZZ,
Edwards.

128. Notes on experimental Chemistry.—A bert B. Prescott.

129. Additional facts on the fertilization of Yucca.— 7omas
Meehan. ,

130. On the Interpretation of of Pictographs by the applica-
tion of Gesture-signs.— W. ¥. Hoffman.

131. On the great outburst in Comet 4 of 1881, observed at
the Cincinnati Observatory.—Ormond Stone.

132. An alleged abnormal peculiarity iu the history of
Argynnis myrina.— W. 7, Edwards.

133. Some new torms of apparatus for the chemical labora-
tory.— G. C. Caldwell.

134. Time service, Carleton College Observatory.—W. W.
Payne.

135. Note onthe theory of the flight of elongated projectiles.
—H. T. Eddy.

136. On the mechanical Principles involved in the flight of
the boomerang.—/Z. 7. Eddy.

137—On aconvenient form of slide case.—odt. Brown,

vr.
138. A filtration evaporation balance.—4. Carmichael.
139. The liquifaction of glass in contact with water at 250° c.
—H, Carmichael.

140. Anew Radiometer.—/Z. Carmichael.

141. A new differential Thermometer.—/. Carmichael.

142. On some relations of Birds and Insects.—S. 4.
Forbes.

143. Comparison of Maya dates with those of the Christian
Era.— Cyrus Thomas.

144. A new theory of the formation of Hail.—Zeonard
Waldo.

145. Method of determining the value of the Solar Parallax
from meridian observations of Mars.— ¥. R. Hastman.

146. Numbers of cometary orbit relative to perihelion dis-
tance.—H. A. Newton.

147. Phonetics of the Kayowe language.—Albert S. Gat-
schet.

148. The needle telephone, a new instrument by Dr. Good-
man, of Louisville, Ky.—% Lawrence Smith.

149. Hiddenite, a new American gem.—% Lawrence Smith.

150. Iron with anomalous chemical properties —F Law-
vence Smith.

151. Determination of Phosphorus in iron.—¥. Lawrence
Smith.

152. Nodular concretions in meteoric iron, bearing on the
origin of same.— ¥. Lawrence Smith.

153. An anomalous magnetic property of a specimen of
iron.— F. Lawrence Smith.

154. Regulator of filter pumps.— ¥. Lawyvence Smith.

155. Ringing Fences.—S. W. Robinson.

156. Niagara River. Its cafion, depth and wear.— Wm.

Flosea Ballou.
157. On the relations of the growth, size ar.d age of animals.
Charles S. Minot.
158. Suggestions of co-operation in furthering the study of
entomology.—B. Pickman Mann.
On Standard Time.—Z. B. Elliott.
The Electrophore and electric lighting.—Z. B. Elliott.
An attachment for burettes avoiding the necessit y of
using glass stop-cocks.—/7. A. Roeder.
On a new form of balances.—/™. A. Roeder.
Natural Filtration of water for domestic use in cities.
—G. C. Swallow.
Note on an experimental determination of the value
of t—TZ. C. Mendenhall.
Remarks upon and an exhibition of Japanese Magic
mirrors. —7Z. C. Mendenhall.

159.
160.
161.

162.
163.

164.
165.

404

SCIENCE.

166. Notice of a fern indigenous to California, but hereto-
fore considered as an introduced hot-house species.—
Mrs. Leander Stone. :

167. Scheme for aiding the Euler’s transformations of co-
ordinates.— 7. D. Warner.

168. The temporal process of the malar bone in the ancient
human crania from Madisonville.—/rank W., Langdon.

169. Buffalo drives on the Rock river in Wisconsin.—
— Stephen D. Peet.

170. The Emblematical Mounds on the four lakes of Wis-
consin.— Stephen D. Peet.

171. Fossil teeth of Mammals from the Drift of Ilinois.—
Wm. McAdams.

172. On comparison of yard and metre by means of rever-
sible pendulum.—C. S. Peirce.

173. Exhibition of a curious stone relic.—G. WV. Holstein.

174. Some Phenomena in the conjugation of the infusorium
Actinophrys Sol_— 7. D. Cox.

175. On the errors to which Self-registering clinical ther-
mometers are liable.—Leonard Waldo.

176. Note on the chemical examination of maize residue
from the manufacture of glucose.—C. Gilbert Wheeler.

177. The Temperature of North German Traps at the time
of their extrusion.—/. Carmichael.

178. Recent existence of sword-fish, shark, and dolphin in
the fresh water pond near Buffalo, N. Y.—Wm. Zim-
merman.

179. Antiquity of Man in America —W,. De Haas.

180, Progress of Archeological Research.—W. De Haas.

181. The Mound Builders. An inquiry into their assumed
southern origin. W. De Haas.

182. Four years’ observation with the Lysimeter, at Fram-
ington, Mass.—Z. Lewzs Sturtevant.

The next annual meeting of the Association will
take place at the City of Montreal under the Presi-
dency of Dr. J. W. Dawson, Principal of McGill
College. The election of Dr. Dawson will be a wel-
come announcement in all scientific circles, and the
meeting for 1882 will doubtless be one of the most
memorable in the annals of the Association.

We commence this week with the publication of
a series of the papers read at the Cincinnati meet-
ing or abstracts prepared by the authors. Those who
have not forwarded their communications are request-
ed to do so as soon as convenient. We shall be will-
ing to prepare suitable illustrations, if a request for the
same is made at once, to afford time for their pre-

paration.
Pin 1 ee a Se

REPORT ON THE GEOLOGY AND RESOURCES
OF THE BLACK HILLS OF DAKOTA. By
HENRY NEWTON, E. M., and WALTER P. JENNEY,
E. M., Washington, D.C., 1880.

The report onthe Biack Hills issued six years after
the death of its leading observers, to whose name at least
it may prove an appropriate monument, comprises the
geology, paleontology, mineral resources, lithology and
related subjects of interest of that boss of rocks whose
circular uplift commands the outstretched plains of cen-
tral Dakota.

To the fames sacra aur? may at least be attributed
one important service in this connection, as it was a tran-
sient disturbance with the Indian settlers, caused by the
appearance of gold hunters on their domain, that imme-
diately led to the survey.

The Black Hills had been assigned to the Sioux, and
this unauthorized irruption raised the question how far
the United States Government might permit a violation
of their contract with the Indians, and how much bene-
fit in mineral wealth would accrue to the new explorers

and settlers if their incursions were tolerated. To an-
swer more especially this latter question, and to make
substantial contributions to general knowledge, the United
States Government instituted a survey of this interesting
and unknown country, and to Messrs. Jenney, and New-
ton, was intrusted its management and direction, under
the auspices of the Department of the Interior.

After six months spent in this wild and inhospitable
region, members of the survey returned, richly pro-
vided with means for a more deliberate examination of
its character, and scientific aspects in the laboratories and
cabinets of the east.

A delay—one of the innumerable hitches incident to
congressional apathy or pre-occupancy—in the appro-
priation of monies for the printing of their report, in-
vited Mr. Newton to revisit the hills in the spring of 1877
to complete his observations, mend or extend his theories,
and here he contracted typhoid fever, of which he died—
a loss to science, to society and education.

The work begun under his vigorous and intelligent
supervision naturally halted, and although many of its
various parts were long since completed, it is only now
that in a compiled form they appear in print.

Mr. Gilbert edited the work and undeitook the dif-
ficult and thankless task of deciphering, compacting and
evolving from the dzsjecta membra of Mr. Newton’s
notes, the part devoted to the discussion of the geology,
physical and stratigraphical of these hills. It is not diffi-
cult to detect the mind and pen of the author of the
“Geology of the Henry Mountains,” and whether or not
the essay would form an exact reproduction of Mr. New-
ton’s views, it is itself a valuable monograph, instructive
and suggestive.

The Black Hills cover an area of 850 square miles,
rising from the level and uninhabited wastes about them
to an altitude at their highest point of nearly 8000 feet,
thickly covered with dense and primeval forests of pine,
whose condensed shadows from afar hides all else, and
for long marches distinguishes these highlands to the ap-
proaching traveller, j

The Black Hills, briefly, are an uplift of conformable
strata, displaying their consecutive beds in symmetrical
succession, from a central axis or elevation, disintegrated
and channelled, sculptured and modified by subzrial and
aqueous erasion. The simplicity and perfection of their
stratigraphical structure render them comparatively easy
of exposition, and make them a capital example of prim-
ary sedimentation, possibly to become classic in future
illustrations of geological principles.

The formations, as they are crossed from the centre of
the group outward to the circumference, and similarly
disposed on every side—z. ¢., sloping inward to the cen-
tre—are the archzan, Potsdam sandstone, carboniferous,
shales and limestone, red beds—Trias, Jura—cretaceous
and then beyond, upon the plains Tertiary. The central
area is a diversified region abounding in park-like ex-
panses, wild and rugged chasms, peaks, isolated pyramids,
picturesque gorges, table-lands and a net-work of enfil-
ading streams pouring outward east and west to swell
the waters of the Cheyenne and Belle Fourche rivers,
This is the archaan area or axis, upon whose flanks re-
pose the higher strata, and in whose gulches and stream
beds were found the traces of gold which first brought
these hills to scientific notice. This axis lies generally
north and south, is slightly arcuate, with its convexity
pointing eastward, and is composed of schists, quartzites,
gneiss rock, granite, trachytic intrusions and associated
metamorphic slates. The granite and quartzites form
salient ridges, and the trachyte sharp peaks in the land-
scape.
is the Potsdam, unconformably bedded upon the upturned
edges of archzan slates, carrying characteristic fossils and
made up of basai conglomerate, sandstone locally altered
around trachytic cones to quartzite, and calcareous beds.
This rock has undergone extensive removal along with

Next out-cropping underneath the carboniferous

SCIENCE.

405

the carboniferous strata which surmounts it ; indeed, ac-
cording to the results of the survey, has been removed
from the entire uncovered archzan nucleus. Here a re-
markable gap occurs ; the next succeeding formation is
the carboniferous, and we pass from the primordial at
one step to the end of the paleozoic strata, with the strik-
ing omission of the Silurian and Devonian systems.
are then told that the carboniferous limestone overlies
conformably this lower rock—a statement hardly credible
—that its hard and resistant strata rise in conspicuous
relief like an amphitheatric wall around the included and
debased archzan area, with a talus of dedrzs composed
of its own and Potsdam fragments, piled upon its sides.
Beyond the mural escarpments of the carboniferous, a
trough-like valley encircles the latter formation like a
moat, the bottom of which is formed of the Red Beds,
probably Trias or Jura. These consist of marls and clays,

. sandstone or limestone bands, whose soft material has
been easily and largely removed. Beyond this again, and
rising from it in steep cliffs, the mechanical basis of the
cretaceous is met—the Dakota Sandstone—forming the
foot hills which encircle as a final group this geological
unit. Beyond again stretches the plains of tertiary
strata,

The history of the Black Hills, as written by this sur-
vey, is this: A low archzean area primarily, whose erasion
and degradation has furnished the sands, and fragments
of which the Potsdam sandstones, conglomerate, and
quartzites have been formed, has been finally overlaid
upon submergence with a regular but unconformable sheet
of Potsdam rock. The dome thus made has been lifted
from the water and for the long. time from the Potsdam
to the Lower Carboniferous remained dry land, not even
subjected—an extraordinary statement—to considerable
denudation. Then the carboniferous sea flowed over all
and deposited its even floor of limestone over the Pots-
dam, which two, most regularly superimposed, now form
the walls of the archzan inclosure, from which they have
been removed by erasion.

The Triassic and Jurassic followed, surmounting the
carboniferous with beds of marl and clays, and adding
their accumulations to the rising mound of strata.

Lastly, the cretaceous sealed in the column of deposits
so that the ideal dome assumed the form of the adjoined
section after upheaval.

IDEAL CROSS-SECTION OF THE BLACK HILLS.

1. Archean Schists. 5. Red Beds.
. Granite. 6, Jura.

3. Potsdam. 7. Cretaceous.
4. Carboniferous. 8. Tertiary.

Then the uplift occurred which brought these heavy
beddings upward in a flat-topped oval displacement, a
highland from which, by a process of enormous denuda-
tion, the cretaceous and the Jura and Red Beds have been
pared away, their slanting beds and monoclinals now sur-
rounding the hills. The carboniferous and Potsdam have
also disappeared from the large area on the east side of
the dome, where the archzean schists are exposed, and in
time will retreat further and further, uncovering new por-
tions of the azoic terrain. The carboniferous now forms
the surface rock of the wide western plateau, and is
deeply cut by a net-work of anastomosing cafions. A
bird’s-eye view of the whole presents the aspect of an
everturned colossal pastry, with its bottom crust on one

We |

side badly gnawed away. In this place it would be im-
possible to discuss the serious questions which arise in
reference to this exposition. Its guarantee is in the field
work and observations of its authors, and it certainly pre-
sents a geological chapter of extreme interest.

Prof. Whitfield’s important contributions in the palz-
ontology form a striking feature in the report. Mr. Jenney
reports, after a detailed examination of the mineral re-
sources of the country, that “the Black Hills are pre-em-
inently a gold-producing region.”” Mr. Caswell contrib-
utes a chapter on the lithology of the Black Hills.

Very much of general scientific interest is found
throughout this handsome volume, and the United States
Government have, in its publication, added one more
honor to its deserved eminence amongst nations re-organ-
izing science, and added one more debt to the increasing
sum due to it from all scientific students.

L. P. GRATACAP.
WASHINGTON, 1880. ‘

THE GREAT PRIMORDIAL FORCE. *

By HENRY RAYMOND RoGe_rs,’M. D., Dunkirk, N. Y.

The law of ‘“ Conservation of Force’ having received
the full and unqualified endorsement of all true scientists,
is to-day the basis of all physical philosophy and the
key to the explanation of all physical phenomena. No
view of force can henceforth be accepted which is incom-

patible with it.

It may be said to be the product of the last half cen-
tury, its origin being obscure and uncertain. Its earlier
conceptions evinced but little promise of the grand
future that awaited it, and its advancement, like that ot
all fundamental truths, has been exceedingly slow. It
must be confessed that to-day, even, our knowledge of its
provisions is but rudzmentary. In the way of applying
it to the explanation of the mysteries ot nature’s varied
phenomena but little has yet been done. We are con-
fident that whenever this immutable law shall be properly
applied, a new era will have dawned upon physical
science.

Another fundamental principle of recent discovery has
been developed ard passu with that mentioned, and in
importance is only secondary to it, viz:—the ‘ Unity of
Force,’’—the correlation of all the forces. It has been
demonstrated that all forms of force are resolvable into
one another, it is therefore manifest that whatever name,
or designation, we may give to these varied forms, but
one essence pervades and animates them all. Instead of
many independent forces, set forth in an irrational, con-
tradictory, and mostly complicated philosophy, actually
there exists One Great Primordial force; simple in its
character, competent to explain all physical phenomena,
and in harmony with the nature of things. It is the
force that rules the universe of matter,—innumerable
star-suns and minutest atoms alike ; and, for its realm, it
has the vast bewildering space and all the cosmical
bodies which occupy its depths.

This force is real and sabstantzal. ‘ Conservation of
force proves as certainly as it proves anything, that all
force is substantial. Nothing can be conserved, or pre-
served, unless it is something that exists, and it seems to
be an axiomatic truth that nothing can exist unless it be
a substance of some kind. If force in one form is con-
vertible into force of another form, then all force in
whatever form it may be exerted is substance, since it is
impossible to conceive of the conversion of one thing into
another thing, and neither thing be anything substantial.
Our inability to take cognizance of the constituents, or
corpuscles of a force, is no valid reason to a thoughtful

* Read before the A. A. A. S., Cincinnati, 1881.

. 406

SCIENCE.

mind why such force should not be regarded as a real
substance—as literally and truly an entity, as is the air
we breathe.” ,

The two fundamental principles having been ascer-
tained, our acquaintance with the essential nature of the
primordial force depends upon the use we make of our
positive knowledge of the specific operations of the sev-
eral forms of force, as now, for the first time, we are en-
abled to understand and interpret them. Since we are
just beginning to appreciate the great law of conserva-
tion of force and the great fact of the unity of all the
forces, a better reading of physical phenomena is ren-
dered possible. By these data we plainly read that this
force is e/ectrzc in its constitution. We claim that the
electric theory is a factor in the explanation of all the
phenomena.

We are able to perceive that a great celestial battery
is in operation, to which the primordial force owes its
perpetual development; a battery differing from our own
magneto, and dynamo-electric batteries only in scale of
operation. It has the same essential constitution, and
modus operandz. Quite like the battery of man’s con-
struction, the celestial battery requires the co-operation
of two elements, either of which, acting independently,
is incapable of producing force, but acting in concert, the
two develop all known forces of the universe. These two
elements which have never yet been adequately associated
in the interpretation of the phenomena of gravity, heat,
light, etc, are motion and magnetism ; the motions of
the celestial spheres, and the magnetic constituent of each
celestial sphere. True, the scientific world has vaguely
conceived of the development of power through the
agency of celestial motions, but it has failed to formulate
any exact philosophy of the manner in which those mo-
tions should develop actual force. Such a philosophy is
accessible.

It is known that the earth is a vast magnet, having a
magnetic axis nearly corresponding to its geographical
axis, and terminating in a Josztzve, or northern pole, and
in a megatzve, or southern pole. But the earth’s inherent
magnetic force must remain purely Potential, or static,
and without the ability to act, or to move, except through
the co-operation of a separate and independent force,
whereby this static magnetism may be converted into
active, vital currents. From our experience with the
electric battery, we know that motion, and change of
polarity, are capable of producing vital, active force, from
force inert and dormant. In the celestial, as in the
terrestial battery, motion and change of polarity are pre-
requisite to the awakening of inert, dormant force, into
vital, active force.

That electricity may be obtained from magnetism by
motion, or that magnetism, conjoined with motion, may
be made the source of electricity, is well understood. So,
by their unceasing rotation the magnetic sun and earth
furnish both the needed motions, and the incessant

change of polarity, which are requisite to the completion |

of the celestial battery. Thus, through the medium of
revolving celestial armatures, acting upon celestial mag-
nets, sfaf#ics are converted into dyzamzcs, on a scale
commensurate with the demands of the universe; and
that dream of the ages, perpetual motion, is found a re-
alized fact in nature.

All space being pure vacuum, distance is virtually an-
nihilated, and all the spheres are brought relatively into
close proximity, Mercury, 37,000,000 of miles from the
sun, and Neptune 2,800,000,090 of miles, stand alike in
their relation with the great central orb. This condition
is thus favorable to such “‘ actzon at a distance,” asis
found zadzspensable to the inter-communications going
on between the bodies which constitute the universe of
matter. The fact of instantaneous action at a distance,
and without a medium of transmission, though ques-
tioned, is demonstrated in the action of gravity.

Through the operation of the celestial battery a great

current of force is incessantly in motion from the sun to
the earth. Both thelaw of conservation, and the law of
magnetic action, demand that a current of equal propor-
tion shall as incessantly return from the earth, to the sun;
—the one current cannot for a moment exist without the
other. Were this retura current interrupted, the light of
the sun would instantaneously cease, all life would be-
come extinct, and, the power of cohesion being sus-
pended, the earth and everything thereon would return
to their original elements, and vanish into space. In
this action, and retro-action, we find a grand magnetic
circuit between the earth and sun, through the operation
of which the earth’s portion of the primordial force is
utilized. The same conditions which exist between the
sun and earth, as described, exist also between every
satellite and its primary, and between the star-suns of
the universe.

SOLOMON was wiser in some respects than the
scientists of the present day. He says that ‘‘ The wind
returneth again according to his czycuzts. All the rivers
run into the sea, yet the seais not full; unto the place
from whence the rivers come, thither they return again.”
Science recognizes the immense movement of force from
the sun to the earth,—but has she made sufficient ac-
count of the fact that the earth is not full? Has she
recognized the fact that back to the sun again, in some
form or other, the rivers of energy must return in cease-
less circuit? And yet, the law of conservation demands
it, and the electrical theory satisfies the demand.

The various manifestations, or affections, of the prim-
ordial force which receive the appellation of the great
physical forces have their fullest and clearest explanation
through the interpretation given by the electrical theory.

GRAVITY CONSIDERED AS AN AFFECTION OF THE
PRIMORDIAL FORCE,

Science has strangely neglected to examine the field
which gives best promise of an ultimately satisfactory
explanation of this phenomena.

According to the present popular philosophy, “ gravity
acts directly as the mass, and inversely as the square of
the distance.” FARADAY says, “ The received idea of
gravity appears to me to ignore eatirely the principle of
the conservation of force, and, by the terms of its defini-
tion, if taken in an’ absolute sense, ‘ varying inversely as
the square of the distance’ to be in direct opposition to
its

If gravity acts directly as the mass, then surely, as the
sun’s mass is cons/ant, and the earth’s mass is also con-
stant, the force of attraction should at all times remain
invariable, and the earth’s orbit should consequently be a
true circle, instead of an ellipse. If gravity acts inversely
as the square of the distance, then the earth at aphelion
could not without the aid of some other force or inter-
fering cause, be returned to perihelion. but the lessening
attraction would permit it to move on indefinitely into
space.

PT he electrical theory, however, suggests a more ra-
tional, clear, and satisfactory philosophy, and makes pro-
vision for the elliptical orbit of the members of the solar
system. In order that the earth’s orbit, for example, —-
should be elliptical, the mutual attraction existing be-
tween the sun and the earth must necessarily increase
and diminish with mathematical exactness and regu-
larity. To such regularly varying attraction, and to no
other cause, can the ellipticity be due. Attraction is
greatest about the 21st of December when the two bodies
are nearest each other, and least about the 21st of June,
when they are relatively the most distant. Whether the
attraction between the sun and earth shall be greater, or
shall be less, depends altogether upon their relative
position. Thus when the earth’s south-pole presents
nearest the sun, the attraction between the two bodies is
the greatest, and when the earth’s north-pole so presents,

SCIENCE.

407

attraction is least. Why should this variation in position
produce such a variation in attraction? In the light of |
the electrical theory the following explanation is con-
fidently advanced :

On the 21st of December the fosztzve sun, (S.) and the
negative south-pole of the earth’s magnetic axis (N.) are
in closest relation to each other, and the north-pole, (P.)
is out of the field, therefore the opposing conditions, viz:
the fosztzve sun, and the zegazzve portion of the earth,
represented by the south-pole, acting in concert, produce
attraction between the two bodies, according to the elec-
trical law that w#/zkes attract each other. At that date
the centre of the great electric sun-current strikes the
earth at a point 23% «legrees south of the equatorial line,
and from thence moves in the direction of its mass
towards, and along the earth’s natural magnetic axis; in
this instance, towards the north. This northerly move-

ment of the electric mass is concurrent with the earth’s
magnetic axis, and the force of attraction between the
two bodies is thereby increased to its maximum.

On the 21st of June precisely opposite conditions exist :
the fosztzve sun, and the osétzve north-pole, are in
closest reldtion to each other, and the south-pole is out
of the field; attraction between the two bodies is conse-
quently at that date lessened, and this in accordance

with the electrical law that /zées repel each other. And,
too, the centre of the great sun-current strikes the earth
at a point 23% degrees north of the equator, and its
mass moves in a southerly direction. The direction of this
electrical movement is coztrary to the earth’s natural
magnetic axis, and the force of attraction between the
two bodies is further lessened ; consequently at that date
they are found at their greatest distance apart,—viz :
several millions of miles more distant than on the 21st of
December.

On the 20th of September, and the 20th of March, the
sun is equidistant from the eatth’s two polar extremities,
and the centre of the great sun-current strikes the earth
at the equator in a direction at right-angles with the
earth’s magnetic axis. The electrical conditions are thus
balanced, and the earth at those periods is equally dis-
tant from the sun.

The degree of ellipticity of each planetary orbit is due
to the inclination of its axis: if the axis isat right angles
with the plane of the ecliptic, the poles must be equi-
distant from the sun, and attraction and repulsion thus
become equalized, and the orbit must necessarily be cir-
cular. Had the axis of the earth been perpendicular to
the plane of the ecliptic, the sun would always have ap-
peared to move in the equator, the days and nights would
have been equal, and there could have been no change in
the seasons.

The extent of ellipticity in any orbit is governed by the
amount of axial divergence from such right-angle.

As a further demonstration of the ability of the elec-
trical theory to account for the grand phenomena of the
universe, we will apply it to the philosophy of the earth’s
axial motions. Electricity and Magnetism are regarded by

scientists at the present day as virtually ideatical. The
correlation of heat and magnetism is apparently as pro-
nounced, as witness certain natural phenomena which
bear directly upon this point. The tropical plant, the
phytolacca electrica, is known to produce marked elec-
trical effects; a touch of atwig gives tothe hand as
vivid a shock as that of a Rumkorff battery. At the dis-
tance of seven or eight paces, the influence of the plant
is manifested through a compass needle, the closer the
proximity, the more marked are the demonstrations ; and
ifthe compass is placed in the centre of the bush, the
movement of attraction previously shown by the needle
is changed into that of rapid rotation. The intensity ot
the phenomena varies with the time of day. At two
o'clock P.M. it attains its maximum, and at night its mag-
netic powers are scarcely perceptible. It is thus demon-
strated that at precisely the same hour, viz: two o’clock
P.M. eat intensity, and magwetzce intensity are co-z7cz-
dent, From this hour each diminishes, and from the
morning until two o’clock P.M. each increases in the
same proportion. The hour of the least magnetic effect,
or the most wegatzve condition, is shown by the follow-
ing phenomenon to occur at a period of time opposite to
that of its maximum, or fosztzve condition, viz: two
o'clock A.M. It is the experience of miners whose lives
are passed in the depths of the earth, that between
twelve and two o’clock in the night, if there is a loose
stone or bit of earth in the mine it is sure to fall. Says
a miner of many years experience : “ About this time it
seems that everything begins to stir, and soon after twelve
o'clock, although the mine has been as still as the tomb
before, you will hear particles of rock and dirt come tum-
bling down, and if there is a caving piece of ground in
the mine it is sure to give way.”

From these and such like familiar suggestions on the
part of nature we may infer that the portion of the earth
which is at any given time specially under the action
of the great sun-current, becomes e/ectro-fosttzve, the
maximum intensity occurring at two o’clock P.M. During
the night the magnetic condition changes, and is at two
o'clock A.M. most electro-negatzve. Thus at twoo’clock
P.M. the sun on the one hand, and that portion of the
earth on the other hand, being in like electrical condit-
ions, viz: eectro-fosztzve, mutually repel each other, and
the consequent fusz moves the earth in revolution. The
revolving earth turning eastward, is continually carrying
its zegatzve condition of the night into the field of the
fostizve sun, a mutual attraction therefore takes place
with its consequent ##// upon that side ; and thus is gen-
erated the process of an incessant attraction on the east
side, and of repulsion on the west side, giving to the earth
its axial motion.

Gravity may therefore legitimately be claimed as purely
an electrical phenomenon.

The words of the grand old FARADAY now stand
forth in lines of light, viz: Gravity, surely this force must
be capable of an experimental relation to electricity, mag
netism, and the other forces, so as to bind it up with them
in reciprocal action, and equivalent effect.

SUN HEAT, as an Affection of the Great ONE-FORCE.

The demonstrations of our senses, as well as the teach-
ings of all the ages, lead us to attribute to the sun the
possession of a most dazzling brilliancy, an unlimited
amount of heat. Soitcertainly appears. Yet thesimple
fact that the earth receives its heat through the agency of
the sun, is not conclusive evidence that the sun is itself
hot. On the contrary, it is well known that heat rapidly
diminishes in the direction of the sun, and that at the
altitude of considerably less than three miles lies the line
of perpetual frost, the temperature of space progressively
lowering beyond that point. The space therefore which
separates the earth from the sun, 93,000,000 of miles in
extent, is inconceivably cold ; its intensity is variously es-
timated at from #zzus a few hundred degrees, (Fahr.) to

408

SCIENCE.

mznus 18,000,c00 of degrees. It seems incredible that
scientists who possess the knowledge of these facts can
entertain the thought, or attempt to maintain the theory,
that heat comes from the sun, as Aeaz, through sucha
distance, and such a medium. And, if not coming as
heat, then the previously existing philosophies of the
functions of the sun are fundamentally erroneous.

Science at the present time admits of four different
explanations of the production of sun heat, viz: (1.)com-
bustion of cosmical substances falling into the sun; (2.)
arrest of motion of substances thus supposed to fall into
the sun; (3.)contraction of the solar mass; and (4.)
dissociation of compound bodies in the sun’s substance.
Each of the foregoing hypotheses stands in direct op-
position to the inexorable law of conservation of force.
Each recognizes the presence of a vast flood of heat,
light, and force incessantly issuing from the great solar
mass, and proceeding therefrom with inconceivable
velocity to the earth. Yet neither of them makes pro-
vision for the retro-acting, or returning current, which
under the law of conservation, becomes indispensable.
Each assumes the actual and indispensable presence of
heat at the sun, as an element in the solar economy. But
inasmuch as heat cannot come from the sun as heat,
there really exists at the sun no necessity for the enor-
mous production there, such as these hypotheses demand.
The prodigious destruction of material claimed to be in-
volved in the production of heat at the sun, and the ex-
penditure of an inconceivable amount of force in pro-
jecting the same in all directions,-and to inconceivable
distances into space, are uncalled for, and therefore ir-
rational. Upon the electrical theory, no such extrava-
gant and irrational processes are needful.

A true understanding of the great physical phenomena
of our earth depends upon a correct knowledge of the
constitution of its atmosphere. There is a more vital
element than clouds, vapors, gases. This constituent is

magnetic in its character, and may be designated as |

static, from its habit in equilibrium, and also in contradis-
tinction from the vast acfzve current which fills the space
between the sunand the earth. In all scientific formule
of its constitution, this principle as a real entity has been
ignored. The fact that the atmosphere is a vast mag-
netic reservoir, that it is the most magnetic of all earthly
bodies except iron, nickel, and cobalt, is well understood ;
yet there appears to have been no suspicion of the grand-
eur and importance of its functions in the earth’s physical
economy. As constituted, the atmosphere is peculiarly
adapted to co-operate with the sun in this economy.

In fact it is the medium and instrument of all the sun’s
terrestrial operations. Prepared by such knowledge
of the constitution of the atmosphere, we can better
comprehend the philosophy of the action of the great sun-
current so incessantly moving earthward.

By means of the dynamo-electric machine, it is dem-
onstrated that motion or magnetism, (or both,) is con-
verted into heat and light ; so does not analogy suggest

that the grand motions of the heavenly spheres are by the
same principle converted into sunlight, and sun-heat ;
thus making unnecessary the measureless and ceaseless
destruction of material that is demanded by the present
theory? Our atmosphere supplies the conditions re-
presented by the ‘carbon point,’ and the “ platinum
coil,” inpractical electricity. A current invisible, with-
out manifestation, passes through space, as electricity
through wires, until, meeting the resistance and favorable
conditions of our atmosphere, there occur those wonder-
ful and important phenomena, heat, and light. No par-
ticle of either heat or light need therefore come as such
from the sun to the earth, the current being wholly in-
visible and cold in its passage. Fora practical demon-
stration of such transmission of a current, we are much
indebted to experiments made by Prof. MAHLON
Loomis, of WASHINGTON, D. C. Without any visible
means of transmission, he succeeded in sending the mag- }

netic current from one mountain top to another twenty
miles distant.

In the light tenuous atmosphere of the summits of lofty
mountains, the human body often experiences the fiercest
effects of sun-heat, and the pyrheliometer of POUILLET
also records such effects for the reason that the body

‘and the instrument™become objects of reszstance to the

current, and a local heat is thus developed, which is far
greater than that of the light atmosphere surrounding,
which offers no such resistance. It is hardly necessary
to add that the greater heat always manifested on the
surface of the earth beneath is owing to the fact of a
denser medium, and a consequent greater resistance,

The battery of mundane construction—our best aid and
interpreter in the reading of universal phenomena—while
it is the developer of heat, light, and power, is itself
neither luminous, hot, nor magnetic. To explain the
effects of the sun, therefore, there is not the least reason
to infer that it is itself luminous, or even warm. Potential
action generated in a dark, cold body may produce great
heat, light, and attraction, at a distance from the seat of
activity, and what is thus wrought artificially, in a small
way, may surely be done naturally, and in a tremendous
fashion, by the grand forces of the sun.

SUNLIGHT.

The same process develops sunlight. If lines be drawn
from the sun to the earth, tangent to both, these lines
will enclose a tapering space, the sun at the big end,
the earth at the small end, and the space between a trunc-
ated cone, this space may be designated the solar cone or
cone-space. Within this space incessant circulation is
going on, and all the phenomena of gravity, heat, light,
are produced through their reciprocal activity. The field
of encounter between the forces of the sun and earth is
our atmosphere, and in the collision light is generated.
Being thus conditioned upon the atmosphere, light and
heat cannot be found in space beyond the lines of the
solar cone.

It is to be observed that light rapidly diminishes in the
direction of the sun, even as we have seen to be the case
with heat. Beyond the lower portion of the atmospheric
mass, there is no dazzle; and the human eye in looking
upon the great orb is not dazed.. Thus the exceeding
brilliancy which characterizes the sun’s rays, so far from

| being a phenomenon located in the sun itself, as is the

popular, and even the scientific conception, is actually
confined to the lower strata of our atmosphere.

If light were transmitted to us from the sun in perfect
intens.ty, the entire vault of heaven must appear as lum-
Inous as our sun.

The sun is therefore not the manufacturing place and
distributing reservoir of actwal light and heat; it is
rather the source from whence the whole solar system is
supplied with the zzvzs¢ble, potentzal light and heat,
which become developed where it is required. The
great central orb may therefore be regarded as like unto
the earth, on its surface, and in its surroundings, viz: a
dark, cool, habitable body.

OTHER RECOGNIZED FORMS OF FORCE.

All other recognized forms of force have their best ex-
planation in the same theory. se

It may be necessary to caution against a natural mis-
conception which is fruitful in seeming objections against
the theory advanced. Let it be understood then, that
man’s machinery must always work to disadvantage
when made to illustrate the operations of nature. The
machine itself is an inert thing, a dead weight interposed,
the working of which requires the expenditure of force.
In nature’s operations, on the contrary, -without labor or
friction, one form of force under proper conditions trans-
mutes itself into another form, there being no loss of
force in the change. We must recognize the fact of an
unimpaired energy in the universe, the fact that force is
never lost nor wasted.

SCIENCE.

409

The Great Primordial force owes its genesis to the in-
itial impulse which set all spheres in motion in vacuous
space. To this universal principle, not only all physical
force, but new life itself is due.

HUMBOLDT says: “It is indeed a brilliant effort,
* worthy of the human mind, to comprise in one organic
whole the entire science of nature, from the law of grav-
ity to the formative impulse in animated bodies.”’

That the earth, and the sun, and all the heavenly
bodies, are possessed of the mysterious magnetic energy,
and consequently exert a powerful magnetic influence
over each other, has long ago been conceived by such
men as HERSCHEL, HUMBOLDT, FARADAY ; and is the
faith of scientists to-day. But when we have arrived at
such a conclusion, it is impossible for us to stop short,
and not make the necessary deductions therefrom.
Mighty magnets, when involved in mighty motions, must
produce mighty currents and mighty effects. It is not
for nothing that these powers and conditions exist. If
we admit the premises, we must not ignore the conclu-
sions that are necessitated. Provision must be made for
the outcome of every admitted fact in science.

Therefore, it is with assurance that we urge the elec-
tric theory, and maintain that the burden of proof rests
with those, who, admitting the elements of motion and
magnetism, have yet made no provision whatever for
their keeping.

Besides, there are two other principles already alluded
to—the conservation of force, and the unity of all the
forces—with respect to which it may be demanded, to
what other result do they lead, and can they lead, in all
reason and logic, than to the admission of the grand fact
of a Great Primordial Force.

THE TIDAL EVOLUTION OF THE MOON.

On Saturday, June 4th, in the Museum Buildings,
Trinity College, Dr. Ball, Astronomer Royal for Ireland,
delivered an interesting and instructive lecture on recent
discoveries in astronomical science. Dr. Ball said that
from the variety of topics which might fairly be dealt with
in his lecture he would select three, and in making this
selection he had been mainly guided by the relative im-
portance of different astronomical problems. He had
also endeavored to exercise his choice so that his lecture
should, as far as possible, refer to the various branches of
astronomy. Having dealt with two branches of his sub-
ject, Dr. Ball described “‘ Darwin’s Theory of the Tidal
Evolution of the Moon.” It had, he said, been the triumph
of modern gravitational astronomers to indicate the
changes which must be going forward in asystem devoid
of rigidity. It was at all events easy to show that the
tendency of these changes lay in one direction, and this
was the most important point for consideration. Every-
one was aware of the daily movements of the sea, which
were called the tides. Most people were aware that the
movements of the waters were caused by the attraction
of thesun and the moon. Let them ponder therefore on
the tides, as they seemed to give a clue to some of the
profoundest of nature’s secrets. He had heard that the
port of Dublin was gradually being improved by the
deepening of the bar, He had heard that the deepening
of the bar had been attributed to the judicious action of
the Port and Docks Board. But what the board had
chiefly done was to call into requisition the scouring
power of the tide, which, as he was informed, was gradu-
ally reducing or bearing away the bar, The tide was
therfore accomplishing, at the bar of Dublin, the same
kind of work as could be accomplished by men or by
steam-engines. In other words, the tide was here doing
a useful work that could otherwise only be done by the
expenditure of energy. It was the same elsewhere. The
tides were doing work useful or the reverse, and expend-
ing energy in so doing. Where did the energy come

from? It could not be created. It could only come
from the store of energy available for such purposes in
the solar system. The reserve energy whence the tides
drew the supplies they were daily consuming consisted
partly in the daily rotation of the earth on its axis. The
earth was like a mighty flywheel which would absorb a
prodigious amount of energy in setting it in motion, and
which would give out that energy before it would be
brought to rest. The rotation of the earth on its axis was
a vast but not inexhaustible storehouse of energy, on
which the tides could draw for thousands of years. En-
ergy also existed in the solar system in many other forms,
some of which could also be rendered available for the
tides. So far as was known, the total amount of energy
could not be increased. The important question was
Can that total ever be diminished ? The tides were di-
minishing it every day. The small oceanic tides were not
the sole source of the expenditure. The solid body of the
earth itself must be subject to tides; still more must the
fluid or gaseous members of our system be subjected to
tides. All tides involved friction, and all friction involved
joss of energy. Here, then, was the great discrepancy
between the theory of Lagrange and the actual condition
of oursystem. Lagrange’s calculations assumed that the
total energy of the solar system was constant, but the
actual fact was that the energy was slowly diminishing.
The tracing of tidal evolution was chiefly due to the
labors of Mr. G. H. Darwin, son of the celebrated natural-
ist. The influence of the tides had already been
recognized as the cause of the same face of the
moon being always bent on the earth. Whether the
tides were merely oceanic, or whether they were
actual bodily tides, the results remained much
the same. At the present time the moon revolved around
the earth in a month: the earth revolved on its axis in a
day. The tides produced in the earth by the moon must
act to reduce the rate of the earth’s rotation, The effect
of the tides on the earth was to lengthen the day. The
day was gradually lengthening, but this change could not
take place without areactionary change on the moon.
The change undergone by the moon was perhaps a little
difficult to understand, as it depended on some by no
means simple dynamical principles. The friction of the
tides consumed the energy of the system. It turned a
large portion of that energy into heat, which was then
radiated off into space to be forever lost. But the fric-
tion of the tides could not alter the moment of moment-
um of the system. As the earth became gradually
slower and slower in its rotation its moment of moment-
um decreased, yet for this to happen the moment of mo-
mentum of the moon should increase. It followed math-
ematically that as the tides gradually made the earth
rotate more and more slowly, the moon must be getting
farther and farther away from us. At the end of a
million years from the present time the day will be more
than one day of twenty-four is now; and in one million
years hence the moon will move round the earth at a
greater distance than she does now, and the length of
the month will be correspondingly increased. In the far
distant future therefore, we are to look for an increased
length of month. The length of day will, however, in-
crease much faster than the length of the month, until at
length the duration of the day equals that of the month.
When this time arrives the moon will have moved out to
a distance half as great again as it is at present, and the
length of the month will have increased to two months.
Our day will then have increased from twenty-four hours
up to nearly two months. and as the moon continues to
to show the same face to us, we are destined to turn the
same face on the moon. Were the earth and the moon
the only bodies in the universe, such a state of things
might go on forever. The sun, however, will produce
tides in the earth which will again modify their move-
ments. He had said that the moon was gradually reced-
ing farther and farther from the earth, and that the

4IO

SCIENCE.

length of the day was increasing—getting gradually
longer and longer. But how long has this been going
on? Yesterday was shorter than to-day. The day
which Homer had was shorter than our day, but not
indeed to any appreciable extent. There can be no
doubt, however, that a million years ago the day was
appreciably shorter than the day is at present. He wished
to conduct them back to an exceedingly remote period,
to a critical epoch in the history of the earth. That epoch
must have been more than fifty millions of years ago,
but how much more he could not tell. At that extremely
remote time the day was greatly less than it is at pres-
ent. It was only, indeed, a fraction of its present amount,
being only from two to four hours long. He would trace
back the moon to the same remote epoch to which he
had conducted the earth. The tides in the earth are
forcing the moon gradually away from us at present.
The moon was therefore formerly nearer to us than it is
now. Millions of years ago the orbit of the moon was
much less than it is at present. The time of the moon’s
revolution was much smaller and the moon must have
been quite close to the earth, and whirled round the lat-
ter in a period of from two to four hours equal to the
period of the earth’s revolution on its axis. Such, then,
is the primeval condition of things to which the tracing
of tidal evolution conducted. Antecedent to this critical
epoch they could hardly go with any degree of certainty.
After explaining Darwin’s theory in reference as to the
supposed rupture of the earth at a very remote period of
time, and the consequent formation. of the moon, the
lecturer proceeded to speak of the surprise with which
astronomers realized that the small interior satellite of
Mars revolved on its axis in less than a third of the time
—nearly 24 hours—which the primary occupied in re-
volving on its own axis. He also spoke of the tremen-
dous forces in action at remote periods when tides rose
to a height of a thousand or two thousand feet, scouring
rocks and carrying enormous quantities of matter to the
sea, and when that action caused so much comparatively
rapid manufacture of strata.

MR. DARWIN ON DR. HAHN’S DISCOVERY OF
FOSSIL ORGANISMS IN METEORITES.

Dr. Hahn’s discovery, of which an elaborate account
was given in No. 50 of SCIENCE, has stirred up: a lively
discussion of this highly interesting subject. Dr. Hahn
has taken steps to enable Prof. von Quenstedt, the re-
nowned Tiibingen geologist, and all others who ex-
pressed the desire to examine his microscopic preparations.
It is understood that all those who have availed themselves
of the opportunity thus offered have become convinced of
the genuineness of Dr. Hahn’s discovery.

It is very interesting to note the position taken by the
greatest of living evolutionists in this controversy, if it
can still be called such. Charles Darwin, on receipt of
Dr. Hahn’s work, wrote to him:

‘Oe It seems to be very difficult to doubt that your
photographs exhibit organic structure . . . ,” and further-
more:

“. . . your discovery is certainly one of the most im-
portant.”

Not content with the mere presentation of his work,
Dr. Hahn visited the veteran zoologist and brought his
preparations to him for inspection.

No sooner had Mr, Darwin peered through the micro-
scope on one of the finest specimens when he started up
from his seat and exclaimed :

« Almighty God ! what a wonderful discovery !
derful !”

And after a pause of silent reflection he added:

“ Now reaches life down !”’

The latter remark no doubt refers to the proof fur-
nished by Dr. Hahn’s discovery that organisms can reach

Won-

our planet from celestialspace. It is an acknowledgment
of the relief Mr. Darwin must have felt in not being
forced to a belief in a primeval “ generatzo eguivoca.”
As was suggested in the paper referred to, ‘“ the
Richter-Thomson hypothesis of the origin of life on the
earth has become a tangible reality !” R.

AN AFTERNOON ON PASSAIC RIVER.

On the 25th day of last month the editor, in company
with his former colleague on the Quarterly, Mr. J. L.
Wall, escaped from the city and made a trip to the town
of Belleville, on the Passaic River. A row-boat was
engaged, and we proceeded to collect specimens from
along the shores. Not many species of algae were found,
nor was there any great variety of animal forms, but the
water-plants, so hardy and useful in aquaria, the Avacha-
ris Canadenszs and Vallésnerza spzral’s, were abundant.
Reaching over into the shallow water, it was an easy
matter to obtain perfect plants of Vad/zsner¢a with good
roots, and we collected a number of them. The Aza-
charzs grows so readily without roots that the more fresh
looking stems were carried home without regard to the
roots. An old can was made use of to carry home some
of the river mud, in which to plant the Vadlzsnerza,
The mud was placed in the bottom of a tall specie jar, the
roots of the plant were properly embedded, and the jar
filled with water. The next morning, after the water was
cleared by settling. the mud was covered with a layer of
clean sand, which tends to prevent riling of the water by
a slight disturbance. All the leaves of the Vad/zsnerza
were removed, so that a new growth might start in the
aquarium. It is probable that we will thus obtain some
vigorous plants of Vad//¢snerza for use during the coming
winter. The Axacharzs was simply thrown into a large
aquarium, where it will doubtless grow without further
care. Rowing about slowly, a long, green, spiral filament
was observed reaching up to the surface of the water.
It was two or three feet in length, and bore a peculiar
flower at the end. This was the female flower of Vad/zs-
nerza, a very interesting object for study; it was quite a
surprise to us, as the plant does not usually flower as
early as July. Looking toward the shore, the water was
covered with an innumerable quantity of white specs,
which attracted our curiosity. Rowing up to them, we
found that they were the male flowers of Asacharzs.
These are very curious flowers. ‘T:he long, tubular peri-
anth, sometimes two or three inches in length, reaches
from the axil of a leaf to the surface of the water, and
bears the stamens above. It would easily be mistaken
for the flower-stem, but it is really the tubular perianth.
These flowers were very abundant, so that the water
appeared white with them. The pollen-grains were
numerous, and could be seen floating about on the water
in little clusters resembling snow-flakes. Potamogeton
was abundant, in several forms, and the common arrow-
plant, so named from the shape of the leaf, Pontedarza
cordata, which is also good for large aquaria. This plant
should be set in a flower-pot, with suitable soil in which
to root, and then submerged, either wholly or in part.

Among the alge, two species of Oscillaricaceze were
found quite actively moving Osczllarza tenzus and lttor-
alts, and Lyngbya majuscula. The most interesting
specimen of all, however, was a species of Ulothrzx, a
very common, filamentous, green algz, in which the cells
are about as long as they are wide. It was interesting
because when we examined it, at about seven o’clock the
next morning, the process of giving off swarm-spores had
just begun. The entire contents of each cell in whole
filaments, quickly formed into green, spherical masses,
which began to move about in the confined space within
the cells; soon the cell-walls ruptured, and the contents
escaped as very active swarm-spores, somewhat elon-
gated in form, and furnished with four long, whip-like
appendages, or flagella, by means of which they could

—

“SCIENCE.

4II

swim about. They measured 5.48 to 8 (.00022 to .00033-
inch in diameter), After a while they become attached
to some object, lose their flagella, elongate and subdivide,
forming new growths of Ulothrzx.—The American
Monthly Microscopical Fournad.

SELENOGRAPHICAL.

For the purpose of comparing drawings of lunar
objects, it is proposed to circulate at frequent intervals,
among observers, a portfolio containing sketches and
descriptions of various formations, which will ultimately
be presented to the Selenographical Society. To cover
expenses, an annual subscription of 2s. 6d. will be re-
quired. Among those who have already signified their
intention of joining in the movement are Rey. F.B.
Allison, Mr. W. R. Birt, Mr. T. P. Gray, Rev. R.S. Hutch-
ings, and the Rev. Dr. Richards. Those who are willing
to add their names to the above list are requested to
communicate with the editor of ‘‘ SCIENCE.”

+>

BOOKS_RECEIVED.

SEA MosseEs. A Collector’s Guide and an Introduction
to the Study of Marine Alge, by A. B. HERVEY,
A.M. _ S. E. Cassino, Boston, 1881,

We welcome this excellent book, published at a season-
able moment, which will make it doubly appreciated by
the public.

To the thousands who are now making a temporary
home within the sound of the surf and who love the sea,
seeking its presence for rest of spirit or health of body,
the present work will be found a welcome companion
and guide, opening up a new channel for the pleasant
passage of leisure hours. No longer need the idler
watch the incoming and outgoing of the tides with list-
less indifference, or be weary of the beating of sleepless
waves, as they go tumbling among the rocks.

The author prepares the way for another pleasure
which “this great and wide sea”’ can give us, besides
that which she offers to our fancy and our dreams. In
the contemplation and study of the exquisitely beautiful
flora which she nurtures in her ample waters.

If you become acquainted with these plants, their
beauty, delicacy and grace, and know their names,
habits and history, you will admit the sea has added a
new charm to your existence.

There may be no royal road to knowledge, but Mr. A.
B. Hervey has certainly selected the shortest and most
agreeable path by which the tyro may acquire a practical
knowledge of the department of Cryptogamic Botany, in-
cluded in the study of the most beautiful of Marine Alge,
the Sea Mosses.

The publishers have done justice to Mr. Hervey’s work,
and have produced a handsome printed book of nearly
300 pages, with twenty full-page colored illustrations of
the most beautiful of the Sea Mosses, which will be found
of great value to the student engaged in these studies.

No person of intelligence residing within reach of the
sea, should remain without a copy of this work.

——$_—_—___—_<—_—_.

Pror. S. P, LANGLEY has made the following calculation :
—A sunbeam one square centimeter in section 1s found in
the clear sky of the Alleghany Mountains to bring to the
earth in one minute enough heat to warm one gramme of
water by 12 C. It would therefore, if concentrated upon a
film of water :-500th of a millimetre thick, r millimetre
wide, and ten millimetres long, raise it 834 in one second,
provided all the heat could be maintained. And since the
specific heat of platinum is only 0.0032, a strip of platinum
of the same dimensions would, on a similar supposition, be
warmed 7 one second to 2603°C.—a temperature sufficient to
melt it !

NOTES.

FAurRE batteries are now made with flat plates, the roll-
ing up of the sheets having been found to produce many
cracks in the minium.

FRoM exact experiments, M. Mascart finds that the
intensity of current capable of producing in one second the
electrolysis of the equivalent of a substance expressed in
milligrammes is equal to 96.01 webers.

REMSEN has again investigated the action of finely-divided
iron in inducing the formation of cyanide whea nitrogen is
passed over a hot mixture of carbon, iron, and an alkaline
metal ; he finds that freshly reduced iron induces a large
formation of cyanide, but that iron after keeping for some
time loses this power,

7

THE PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS oF MATE.—Maté, or Par-
aguayan tea, is known to be extensively used in South
America, and almost universally in Brazil, the common
practice being to pour boiling water on some of the powder
(consisting of ground leaves and twigs of certain species),
then to suck the infusion through tubes provided with
strainers. MM. d’Arsonval and Conty have recently in-
quired into the action of this substance, administering it to
dogs, either by injecting into the veins or by introduction
into the stomach, and they have observed a remarkable
effect of it on the gases of the blood. It dimishes the car-
bonic acid and oxygen both of the arterial and of the venous
blood to a large extent, sometimes a third or even half of
the normal quantity. This action, whichis less intense
during digestion, and has no necessary relation to phenom-
ena of excitation of the sympathetic nerve-system, is some-
what obscure as to its ‘‘mechanism,” but its existence
proves directly the importance and nutritive value of the
aliment in question, which, consumed in such large quan-
tities in South America, is almost unknown in Europe.

Pror. IRA REMSEN, of the Johns Hopkins University,
Baltimore, has been lately experimenting as to whether the
chemical behavior of a metal is in any way influenced by
magnetic action, and has obtained some interesting results.
The best effects were got by placing a shallow, thin iron
vessel holding copper sulphate solution over the poles of a
magnet. Out of the magnetic field the solution would de-
posit a uniform coating of copper, but in the field the lines
marking the outlines of the poles were sharply disting-
uished as depressions in the deposit. In this case a per-
manent magnet was used capable of supporting 55 lbs. With
an electro-magnet still more striking effects were observed.
There was no deposit of copper on a narrow space marking
the outline of the poles. Within this the deposit was
fairly uniform, but outside the copper was deposited in ir-
regular ridges running at right angles to the lines of force,
and apparently coincident with the lines marking the
equi-potential surfaces. By increasing the power of the
electro-magnet, the actionis intensified, and the area af-
fected is broadened. The cause of the phenomenon has
not yet been elucidated.

Pror. E. Lommet describes in Wied. Aun. a new polar-
ising apparatus in which two plates of platinocyanide of
magnesium, cut perpendicularly to the optic axis, are used
as polariser and analyser, just asin the tourmaline pincette.
Such a section of this crystal transmits a blue light, which,
when the angle of incidence exceeds 2°, it is found to be
perfectly polarised in the plane of incidence, and it there-
fore can be used, if tilted to that extent out of perpendicu-
larity to the axis, as a polariser for a pencil of parallel blue
rays. One curious point in respect to the behavior of
thin film thus prepared is the following: Let ordinary non
polarised light be lcoked at through the crystal while the
latter is normal in the line of sight. A white central spot,
perfectly circular in form, and non-polarised, is observed in
the middle ot a blue field, which 1s polarised at every point
radially, The only other crystals which can be used for
polarising pincettes are the tourmaline and herapathite
(iodo-sulphate of quinine); the point of difference between
these and the platino-cyanide of magnesium is that while
the two former (which are negative crystals) absorb the or-
dinary ray, and must therefore be cut parallel to the optic
axis, the latter absorbs the extraordinary ray, and must
therefore be cut at right angles to the optic axis.

412

SCIENCE.

A CONTINUOUS registering thermometer for recording the
temperature of the body has just been described by its in-
ventor, M. Marey. It consists of a brass tube communi-
cating with a Bourdon manometer, containing oil, and
closed. Any change of temperature, by altering the inter-
nal pressure, makes the curved manometer tube curl more
or less, and to itis fixed an index which registers the move-
ments by inscribing them on a recording cylinder. The
thermometric bulb may be at some distance from the in-

scribing apparatus, being connected by a flexible tube of
annealed copper. Two such bulbs may beapplied to differ-
ent parts of the body, even to the interior. It is possible
therefore to note the relation between the temperatures of
the interior and exterior of the body. If we remember
rightly, an analogous but more portable instrument was
suggested some time ago by Mr. Donald Macalister, but
we are not aware whether his instrument is yet before the
public.

SUN SPOTS.
The following record of observations made by Mr. D. P. Todd, Assistant, has been forwarded by Prof. S. Newcomb, U. S. Navy,
Superintendent Nautical Almanac Office, Washington, D. C.
|
DISAPPEARED By || REAPPEARED BY || ToTaL NUMBER
Norjox New Sorar Rotation. || Sotar Rorarion.| VISIBLE.
DATE, REMARKS
JUNE, 188.
Groups. | Spots. Groups. | Spots. || Greups. | Spots. Groups. | Spots.

an I A |i daeen || Sons I 2 3 9

5 gs | 2 oye eee |) ees iil coese 4) ssere 4 4ot
12, | 2 5 I 3 I 2 5 45t

15, 2 10 | I 5 I 3 7 sot
16, ° ° | ° ° ° ° 7 4ot
18, | ° ° 2 10 ° ° 5 25t

10, ° ° ° fo) ° -O 4 15
oy Fy ° ° ° ° ° ° 3 10
22, ° ° ° ° ° ° 2 5
23, | 2 5 ° ° 2 5 4 10
24, ° 7 ° ° ° ° 4 17
26, I 25t I 2 I 15 4 4ot
29, I 25t ° ° I 10 } 5 65t Many of the spots small.
30, | ° ° ° ° ° ° H 5 60t Many of the spots small.

t Approximated. Faculz were seen at the time of every observation.

Published by order of the Secretary of War.

W. B. Hazen, Brig. & But. Maj. Gen'l Chief Signal Officer, U. S.A

METEOROLOGICAL REPORT FOR NEW YORK CITY FOR THE WEEK ENDING AUG, 20, 1881.

Latitude 40° 45’ 58" N.; Longitude 73° 57’ 58” W.; height of

instruments above the ground, 53 feet ; above the sea, 97

feet ; by self-recording instruments.

BAROMETER.

THERMOMETERS.
MEAN FOR ; es
ead MAXIMUM. MINIMUM. MEAN, MAXIMUM. MNNIMUM. MAXIM
AUGUST ‘ ii. aol
: Reduced | Reduced Reduced |
- | mn: Dry | Wet | Dry - Wet : Dr . Wet :
_fo | to, | Time. | to, | Time. | puib.| Bulb.| Bulb 22: | Burb.| TM™e- | Bufb.| Time- | Burp.| Time. |InSun.
Freezing,| Freezing. Freezing.
Sunday, 14--| 29.686 29.778 |12 p.m.| 29.596 | 0 a.m-| 71.3 | 64.0] 78 | 3 p.m.| 7t | oa.m.| 66 |12 p.m.) 52 |12 p.m.) 140.
Monday, 15--] 29.902 29.986 |12 p.m.| 29.778 o a.m.| 69.6 | 63.6 76 |} 3 p.m.) 66 |2p.m.| 63 | 5 a.m.J 60 | 5 a.m.| r4o.
Tuesday, 16--| 30.031 30.062 |10 p.m.| 29.986 | o a.m.}| 66.3 | 60.7 7 I p.m,| 62 Ip.m.} 59 |12p.m.| 57 |I2 p.m.| 134.
Wednesday, 17--| 30.031 30.064 g a.m.| 30000 |12 p.m.| 60.3 | 58.0 | 67 4p.m.| 60 |5 p.m.) 56 | 5 a.m.| 55 Bde Ms|atie.
Thursday, 18--| 29.919 30.000 | 0 a.m.| 29.890 |12 p.m.| 63.6 | 60.0] 67 3 p-m.| 62 |10 p.m.) 57 ra.) 37: I a.m. 98.
Friday, 19--| 29.786 29.890 |o0a.m.| 29.718 |12 p.m.| 67.0 | 63.6 | 7o | 3 p.m.| 65 | 3 p.m.| 64 | 3 a.m.| 61 | 3 a.m.) 174.
Saturday, 20--| 29.65r 29.718 |oa.m.| 29.600 | 6 p.m.| 73.7 | 67.0| 81 4p.m.| 7o |4p.m.| 66 | 4a.m.| 64 | 4a.m.| 144.
i | Dry. Wet. .-
Meanitor the sweek sete eee te nee ee eee eee 29.858 inches Mean for the week_.-------------- 67.4 degrees See ee 62.4 degrees.
Maximum for the week at 9 a. m., August 17th 30.064 ** Maximum for the week,at 4 pm. 2oth 81. « ato am 14th, 71. 5
Minimum at oa.m., August 14th 29.596 ‘* Minimum ‘“ “5am. 17th 56. , ats am r7th, 55. =
Range eases Se cane e ee eons eer een os ee eee oe ome PAOBPer Range ‘ Mh Jas See ace 25. Min [eet se. Sites 16,
WIND. HYGROMETER. CLOUDS. RAIN AND SNOW. sy
ee rey io A 2 eka au ee x g
ett? VELOCIEY|| So Sane ees ap | RELATIVE CLEAR, ° DEPTH OF RAIN AND SNow | ©
Ne ST TN MILE SH Cae ee | MOREE OS SEO SMILES OVERCAST. 10 IN INCHES.
SQR. FEET. tba oe yaa
. ory a x <3 a 7 = . . . . . as . bh
AUGUST. | ares d| @] ad] elela) & FI a» | Time |) Shee eee ae
7.a.m,|2 p.m.|g p.m.| for the || Time.| @ | a} a] ad] al & s a & | Begin-| End- | #0". |2 Elio
| | Day. |4 ro a a|n|alo S a a ing. ing. as
Sunday, 14-| Nn. w. |N.n. w./n. 0. Ww. 213 |4%| 6.20am| .543 | .492 | .462| 79 | 53 | 65 |2cir. cu. 4 cir. cu. ee ie! ‘
Monday, 15-0. n.¢€.n. np. e.n.n. €. 234 (7 2.00am| .489 | .532 | .509 | 74 | 63 | 74 |I Cir. s. 7 clr. cu. an, ae :
Tuesday, 16. n.n.€,/€, n.e€./e, n, €. 151 |2%\10.20am| .470 | .462 | .433 | 73 | 65 | 73 |7 Cir-cu.|10 SoM,
Wednesday,17-| n.e. | e€ |s. S. © 145 |534| g.ooam| .422 | .460 | .473 | 87 | 83 | 88 |4 cir. cu.|10 or] 7 :
Thursday, 15.)n. n.e,/e. n. e.|/n, n. €. 116 |2 | 4.00am -456 | .470 | .483 | 88 | 73 | 78 |10 g cu. ae .
Friday, 1g-| 1. |n,n.W./n.n. w. 83 | %| 2.00pm] .516 | .564 | .556 | 83 | 80 | 84 jg cu. 9 cu, sara 3
Saturday, 20.| n.e. | n. e. In.n.w. 73 (2% 11.10am|] .556 | .537 .628 | 84 ! 54 | 72 /8cu. 3 cu. 7 cu. eeees | ae ;
Distance traveled during the week.--.-..-----..---------- 1,015 miles, Total amount of water for the week....--..-----.-------------- § 03 inch,
Maximum force... ----- sec enccnecne -neenn come ncnsenen-=--= 7 Ibs. Duration of rains... -- 5-2. = So. oe ene ne ene 2 hours, 30 minutes,

Director Meteorological Observatory of the Department of Public Parks, New York.

DANIEL DRAPER, Ph. D.

SCIENCE.

SCIENCE -

A WEEKLy ReEcorp OF SCIENTIFIC

PRoGRESS.

JOHN MICHELS, Editor.

TERMS:

Per YEAR, - - - Four DoLiars.
6 Monrus, = - : - Two .¢
3 “ee % = = es ONE “e
SINGLE COPIES, - : = - TEN CENTS.

PUBLISHED AT

TRIBUNE BUILDING, NEW YORK.
P. QO, Box 3888

SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 3, 1881.

The attempt to utilize compressed air as a motive
power for street cars in cities, appears to have been
most unsuccessful. About four years since, a com-
pany was organized in New York city for the purpose
of building street cars on the pneumatic system,
capable of replacing those drawn by horse power,
and about the early part of April, 1878, a passenger
car propelled by compressed air was running on the
Second avenue, New York, between 63d and 93d
streets.

The experiment was considered perfectly satisfac-
tory for a first attempt, as the cars performed their
work admirably; and the public press and various
eminent engineers considered the problem solved.
There was, however, an essential element of success
that was wanted, which appeared insignificant at the
time, but which proved fatal to the whole scheme.
This was a failure on the part of the engineers to
design machinery which should be constant in its
working, requiring little attention from the driver.

It was supposed that in building future composite
pneumatic engine cars these defects could be
remedied.
principle were placed on trial, the same trouble was
experienced, and the experiment was abandoned,
causing a considerable pecuniary loss to the promoters
of the company.

The Pneumatic Tramway Engine Company, un-
daunted by past losses and failures, have renewed
their efforts, and have recently constructed a pneu-
matic traction engine, which we understand will be
immediately placed on trial on one of the New York
elevated railroads, The successful working of Elec-
tric Railway Engines has probably increased the
difficulties of those who are advocating the use of

But when the six cars built on this:

413

compressed air as a motive power. In the absence of
smoke, odor, noise and cinders, both the electric and
compressed air systems have many advantages over
steam for elevated railroads, and the question of
economy wiil probably decide which system shall be
finally accepted. At the present moment all the
advantages appear to be in favor of the electric
railways for use within city limits, and it is probably
a mere matter of time, for all the New York elevated
railroads to be running their trains by this system.

THE STATE AND HIGHER EDUCATION.*
By PROFESSOR N. H. WINCHELL.

The incentive to the following address appears to have
been certain remarks made officially by President John
of Hamline University, who considered that “ higher edu-
cation should not be under the control of the State,” and
that the design of the State Colleges has been a conspic-
uous and universally acknowledged failure.

In the first part of the paper Professor Winchell pre-
sents an historical sketch of the circumstances, the result
of which was “that the State finds itself in the conduct of
systematic education.”

After tracing the progress of education in Europe he
states :

Thus we find that none of the old universities, except
when under the control of the government, and some-
times not even then, have been willing to modify their cur-
ricula in compliance with the demands and spirit of the
age. If they have done it, as more lately at Oxford Uni-
versity, it is only after the force of public sentiment has
been able to batter down the walls of prejudice and con-
ceit with which they have been surrounded. During this

whole conflict throughout Europe the Church, in its va-

rious forms, but particularly the Roman church, instead
of being the champion and refuge of free thought and
free knowledge, has been the most powerful obstacle to
its progress, and has persistently opposed every movement
to introduce the means for disseminating useful knowledge
among the people. The heat of the conflict is passed.
The tide has set in the right direction. The old universi-
ties perceive the triumph of modern science. European
governments are unanimously striving for the establish-
ment of modern schools of science on the broadest foun-
dations, and equipping them with the fullest appliances.

Now let us turn to America, and inquire how this his-
tory has been mirrored on our institutions of higher
learning.

In the first place the church colleges that arose in this
country prior to 1824, or even later, were modeled after
the medieval universities of Oxford and Cambridge, so far
as they expanded into the dimensions of a university. For
the most part they were simply colleges of classical lore,
with but one course of study, aiming specifically. at first,
to educate young men for the clerical profession. As they
were born of the English universities, so they inherited
their medieval narrowness and bigotry. As the early
church had grappled with Copernicus and Galileo, and had
been worsted, so the later church would grapple with every-
thing that bore a resemblance to or intimation of any new
fangled notions of nature. Although the world had made
wonderful strides in human knowledge, the colleges shut
their eyes and. ears to the change. The age demanded
education in the great industries that characterize modern
society, but could get only that of the age of Elizabeth,
As modern science and civilization began to buzz about
their doors, they drew themselves within their shells, af-
frighted, like snails. Having none of the elements of the

* Delivered before the Minnesota Academy of Natural Sciences, Jan.
12, 1881.

414

SCIENCE:

new light within them, they were literally enslaved to them-
selves and could not escape. They began to sink in pub-
lic esteem. Their graduates failed conspicuously in
competition in all the affairs of life with self-made men.
Finally, in view of this disparity between the demand and
supply of industrial and scientific instruction in America,
a far-seeing and generous business man, Stephen Van
Renssellaer by name, came forward with private means,
and became the first to endow, in America, a ‘school of
theoretical and applied science.” This was done in 1824,
and it is located at Troy, New York. Twenty years later
the first voluntary effort was made within one of the old
church colleges of America to regulate the curriculum so
as to conform to the new demands, aud although pushed
by one of the ablest educators of America, Francis Way-
land, in his own institution, and with his own denomina-
tion, at Brown university, the movement ended in a con-
spicuous defeat of the “new education.” After the
successful establishment of the Troy Polytechnic Insti-
tute, the example of Van Renssellaer was followed in
Connecticut by Joseph E. Sheffield in the founding of the
Sheffield Scientific school, which became attached to, but
by no means recognized as co-ordinate with, the old line
course in Yale college. This wasin 1860. In 1847, soon
after the failure of Dr. Wayland at Brown University,
Abbot Lawrence endowed the Lawrence Scientific school
at Harvard college.

About this time the legislature of the new States of
the West began to express the sentiments of the people.
In Illinois conventions met in 1851 to consider such
means as might be deemed expedient to further the
interests of an agricultural community, and to take steps
toward the establishment of an agricultural college.
They met not as Presbyterians, or Methodists, or Ro-
manists, but as an agricultural community. The next
year petitions were sent to Congress for the endowment
of industrial universities in each State. In 1850 the
agricultural college of Michigan was provided for by the
State constitution, and went into operation in 1855. The
scientific course of the University of Michigan was
ordered by the State legislature in 1851. In 1858 Iowa
appropriated money for a model farm and an agricultural
college. In Kentucky, under the guide of Regent Bow-
man, an institution, chartered in 1858, had been estab-
lished for “ diffusing education among the industrial
classes.” In Pennsylvania an agricultural college was
established in 1854, and in Maryland in 1856. In New
York, as early as 1837, a project for establishing an
agricultural college at Albany was entered upon anda
site was selected. This resulted in failure. It was re-
vived in 1844, and again failed through the death ofa
liberal friend of the enterprise; but in 1856 the State
Agricultural Society of New York induced the legisla-
ture to appropriate $40,000 for a college of agriculture.
This institution was established at Ovid; and died when
the war of the rebellion broke out in 1861, The Peo-
ple’s College, at Havana, N. Y., intended entirely for the
industrial classes, was at first offered the national agri-
cultural land grant of New York State, but failing to
comply with the conditions imposed by the legislature,
this fund was passed to Cornell University at Ithaca.
These institutions, all established prior to the year 1862,
when Congress passed and the President approved the
great educational land grant law had come into exist-
ence in compliance with the demands of modern civiliza-
tion, and not at the instance of the church colleges, but
often in the face of obstacles and discouragements
thrown in their way by the church schools. But Presi-
dent John says that the “ facilities of higher education
existed in this country, and met all demands, before State
colleges were thought of.” With the single exception of
Yale College and Hamline University at Red Wing,
which established a so-called “Scientific Department,”
the former in 1846 and the latter in 1857, not one of the
church colleges, so far as I have been able to learn,

showed the first symptom of knowing, much less recog-
nizing, the difference in educational need between the
age of Bacon and that of Lincoln.

The soil, therefore, was all ready for the seed. The
bill introduced by Mr. Morrill of Vérmont was vetoed by
conservative Buchanan. Passed again at the instance of
Mr. Wade, with only seventeen opposing votes, it was
signed by President Lincoln on the 2d of July, 1862. It
has been said that times of war witness the birth of great
ideas and the initiation of great enterprises. It is true
that in the United States, with the establishment, through
rivers of blood, of the national idea, was also established
the idea of higher education by the State as one of the
justifiable means, in a republic, of self-defence and self-
perpetuation.

This is all passed now, nearly two decades ago. If
we proceed to inquire what has been its effect, we shall
be able to answer another of President John’s surprising
statements. Is the design of the law establishing these
industrial colleges by Congress, ‘‘ a conspicuous and uni-
versally acknowledged failure ? ”

One of the first effects of this land grant by Congress
was an awakening in the church colleges, then existing,
to the value of the public domain as an educational
agency. This was so rapid, and so great, that some of them
succeeded in capturing the whole fund almost before the
people knew it had been givento them. In others, along
with a compliance with the terms of the act, the State
demanded representation on the controlling board ; but
in most cases the church colleges were passed by, and
new institutions were founded by the various States,
though still, in many cases, combined with some other
State or private fund.

In the second place, this law, which has so positively
been pronounced a failure, brought into existence up to
1876, about forty schools of agriculture and mechanic
arts, often styled national schools of science. These have
come into existence since 1862—except in three States
where similar institutions had already been endowed by
State funds. Insome cases also the fund was applied by
the State legislatures to rejuvenate weakly scientific insti-
tutions, or further endow those that were flourishing. In
the meantime, since 1862, the various churches of the
United States had founded, up to 1876, 106 denomination-
al schools. Some of these are based on broad foundations,
and, like Hamline University, offer the student the most
complete scientific as well as classical and literary cul-
ture. While the national schools of science are mainly
confined to their own sphere—the primary intent of the
law creating them—the new church schools cover all the
fields of knowledge. It cannot certainly be unjust to
them to compare their patronage by the youth of the
country, with that received by the State schools. This,
perhaps, will throw some light on the question of their
asserted failure.

The 106 denominational colleges, established between
1862 and 1876, both inclusive, as reported by the Com-
missioner of Education, are found to be giving instruc-
tion to 13,757 students, including all departments, pre-
paratory and undergraduate, in all branches of know-
ledge, from theology to chemistry and engineering, giving
them an average of 130 students for each institution. Of
these students, 9,066 are reported as in the preparatory
(or secondary) grade of study, an average of 85 for each
institution; and 4,691 are reported in undergraduate
studies—an average of 44 for each institution.

Taking the same authority for the statistics of the forty
State schools of agriculture and mechanic arts, and in-
cluding only those students that are strictly in those de-
partments, wherever a pre-existing college received the
congressional grant, we find 4,891 students, which gives
an average of 122 for each institution. Of these, 631
are reported in preparatory (or secondary) courses,
and 4,260 in the undergraduate courses of study. This
gives the state schools an average of 16 in the prepara-

SCIENCE.

415

—

tory classes and 106 in the higher classes. Thus it can
be seen that, as institutions of higher learning, the at-
tendance on the new church colleges is but 41 per cent
of that on the State colleges. Hence, if the law of con-
gress which called into existence these State colleges be
a failure, how much greater the failure of that sec-
tarian spirit which called these 106 denominational col-
leges into existence.

Another remarkable effect of this movement toward
popularizing higher education in America was the reno-
vation and elevation of the church colleges, then existing,
and the establishment of numerous others with much
broader and a more liberal scope of instruction. This of
itself has resulted in immense benefit to education, as
well as to the church in America. This effect is as im-
portant as the creation of the State schools themselves.
The church has always been the principal agent of
higher education, at least in the United States, and the
recognition, by these institutions, of the great underlying
truths of nature, and of the ministration of her laws to
the daily comfort of man, is an epoch in the history of
the nineteenth century, which, in its effects on the race,
will exceed all other achievements of the “new educa-
tion.” It will contribute not only to the spread of
science, but also to the spread of Christianity, particu-
larly among those intelligent classes of the people who
have been hostile to it, or indifferent, because of the atti-
tude of the Christian church toward the truths of mod-
ern science. If the church once recognizes the fact that
every enlightened nation is in arms against its supine
adherence to medieval education, and condescends to
place itself in harmony with the truths of creation as well
as revelation, one of the greatest obstacles to the evan-
gelization of the world will be removed. It is easy to
see that the material aspects of modern civilization are
rapidly penetrating unchristian and uncivilized nations,
outstripping the church in evangelizing them. How
much better it would be if the two agencies could go
harmoniously-together into the same field, co-operating
to accomplish the same end.

What has been said, so far, relates to the past.
A few matters of fact have been stated. They pertain to
the title, by which the State received, and holds, the ed-
ucational structure which she has occupied. But Presi-
dent John not only disputes the title, but also the right
of the State to occupy this field. We admit that force
does not always coincide with right, and that, although
nine points in the law are established when peaceful pos-
session is proven, the tenth point may have the right on
its side. Let us enquire, then, if. there be a consistent
reasonableness in the State’s attempting and continuing
to do this work. We shall not attempt here the justifi-
cation of the State in establishing and maintaining primary
and secondary schools. It is not demanded. In passing,
however, we will except President John’s definition of
the duty of the State to educate. He fixes it at the
“limit of necessity to preserve its own existence.” So
let it be. We shall recur to it again. But, specifically,
as relates to higher education, the leading objections that’
have been urged are the following: (1) The personality
of the State. President Elliot has fully presented this
objection. It is foreign to the free spirit of American
republicanism to witness the controlling influence and
authority of the State in social and educational affairs.
It smacks of the divine right of kings, and isa reminder
of the despotism of Europe, two centuries ago. Now all
this may be an objectionin monarchical governments,
but it seems rather strange that any promising edu-
cator in republican America should forget that here
the people are the State. There is no kingly personality
interfering with the domestic and social institutions of
the community. The authority that controls is the ag-
gregate will of the community. The chief right of the
State’s power is to conserve this aggregate will. Such
an expression of the will of the people is voluntaryism in

the discharge of its highest organic function, and is not
“paternal government.” (2) Again it is objected to
State education, that it tends to uniformity, and not to
variety, reducing all pupils to the same pattern, and
smothering the aspirations of genius which spurns con-
ventionalities and revels in the gratification of its own
idiosyncrasies. This objection is more valid in the lower
schools than-in the higher. In the higher schools it is
very questionable if the institutions of the church would
be as lenient with idiosyncrasies in pupils, as those of
the State. Judging from the past it would be folly fora
student with an idiosyncrasy of genius to flee to a church
college for its indulgence. We cannot see how this ob-
jection applies more fully in State colleges than tochurch
colleges. In fact itis one of the necessary sacrifices
which an individual has to make, when he becomes one
of an organized community. He receives the benefits of
combined effort in all directions, and he has to surrender
the personal freedom to act in certain directions in
which his action would transgress the aggregate good of
the community. The schools are for the average pupil—
both State schools and church schools—and he with an
idiosyncrasy will look in vain for a place to disport him-
self. (3). Itis urged again that it is not economical.
Because, forsooth, a sectarian zeal demands denomina-
tional colleges, and “cannot conscientiously accept this
service of the State,” and will maintain colleges of its
own, therefore the State cannot rightfully duplicate
these institutions and tax the denominations for their
maintenance. Not to mention the brevity of the time
elapsed since the sects were willing to “do the same
kind of work”’ as the State University, it is enough to
reply that this argument applies against all State organi-
zation for education. The Roman Catholic insists on
maintaining his own hospitals, and objects to taxation for
public schools. The Atheist opposes the public tax be-
cause in these schools is taught the idea of a God, the
Jew because the New Testament is read, or the Protes-
tant because it is not. This argument against the pub-
lic schools may be applied with equal reason against the
State’s management of the deaf and mute. At least,
certain medical fraternities might use it because they
cannot “conscientiously” endorse nor accept the methods
of treatment practised by the State. (4). But the fourth
objection, after all, is the chief one urged by the oppo-
nents of State schools—they do not correctly indoctrinate
the studentin matters of religious dogma. It is said
that ‘the State by self-imitation cannot teach religion.”
This assertion the State accepts, and would fain leave it
to the proper agent, yet the State is not therefore “ pro-
hibited by statutory limitation from throwing the least
safeguard around the minds of our youth, “ which is one
of the surprising inferences of President John. The
State in its educational operations will always be gov-
erned by the aggregate sentiment of the people. Those
fundamental ideas of religion, which are accepted by all
sects, the State institutions will be compelled to teach.
If, peradventure, for a time they happen to lapse from
this high duty, the will of the community will sooner or
later be restored. They are creatures of the people.
They will teach what the people can agree on shall be
taught. While they must not teach sectarian dogma,
they must not become centres of atheism nor of infidelity.
If they did either, they would not long survive. Like
the schools of Switzerland, they are based on the
“principles of Christianity and democracy.’’ The spec-
ial, political and denominational application of these
broad platforms is left to party politics, and to various
sects.

We venture the assertion, however, that when the
true kernel of this objection is found, it will not consist
in a fear of the non-inculcation of these truths by the
State, but in a jealousy of the sects, one against the
other. Education by the church has been considered es-
sentially the training of the youth and doctrines of the

416

SCIENCE.

catechism. Though greatly extended in scope, it is still
animated by the same cardinal principle. Each sect
must defend itself by teaching its own dogmas to the
youth, and, though every State college were to be abol-
ished, there would be still as great a reason for maintain-
ing all the denominational colleges. How long it would
be before they would degenerate to the condition of mere
sectarian propaganda, as before the revival, no one can
say, but there would be a strong tendency in that direc-
tion. Freed from the competition of State colleges, their
zeal in the teaching of science would soon lag. Not hav-
ing ready access to the public means and resources of
instruction, such as the State archives, maps, authorities,
explorations, surveys, statistics, and to the avenues by
which the State knows and readily regulates the great
industries of the people, the church colleges would very
soon see that there is an actual incongruity in their as-
suming to direct the scientific and industrial education of
the people. It is the chief business of the church to
look after the spiritual well-being of the people and not
to fit them to carry forward the complicated machinery
of modern civilization. Religion is the lubricator of this
vast system, and the church is the agent by which it is
applied. When the church departs from this sphere,
she forsakes the true idea of the primitive church. When
she leaves her spiritual kingdom and assumes to direct
in the construction of steam engines, in the handling of
theodolites and compasses, in the management of cotton-
gins, in the measurement of the angles of crystals, and
the distances to the stars, she may very reasonably be
held to be out of her sphere. She has the privilege, of
course, of doing all these things, and there was a time
when she had good reason to do them, and was urged to
do them, as the only capable agent ; but that time has
- passed, and it can hardly be considered to be her duty to
do them in the nineteenth century, when other agents
equally capable have arisen, endowed with that special
duty and function.

One of the boasted advanced steps of the nineteenth
century is the separation of the church and State. In
the mere manipulation of the governmental machine this
is fully realized in the United States, and in much of
continental Europe. But the administration of the laws
is not the State, nor, indeed, is the making up of the
laws, nor both of these united. True statesmanship
surveys the whole body politic. It foresees and often in-
stitutes national enterprises. It watches the external and
also the internal influences that move the masses; it
takes advantage of the shifting markets for the domes-
tic products. It notes the rise and decline of the various
industries. It applies stimulants when needed and re-
pression when necessary. In short, the State is an all-
prevading, energizing, regulating, far-seeing organiza-
tion of the people; the culminating expression of the
modern democracy. It is this machinery, which in our
day is very closely connected with the appliances of
modern science, which is not free from the church, but
which the church assumes still to direct. Instead, we
claim that it is the right and duty of the State itself to
look after its own interests, and especially its highest in-
terests, and to take measures to qualify citizens not only
to read their ballots, but to discharge all the duties of
high citizenship. There is no limit to this duty short of
the necessity of the State, as has already been admitted.
That which constitutes a State—‘“ high-minded men ”—
is its necessity, and that it is the duty of the State to
provide, to the end that its multifarious industry may be
under the guide of the highest statesmanship.

———

THE French Government has appointed a committee,
presided over by Rear Admiral Bourgeois, to study the
different applications of electricity to navigation.

THE Society of Telegraph Engineers and Electricians
will hold a meeting in Paris on September 21,

MAGIC MIRRORS*.
By M. BERTIN.
{Translated from the French by Marchioness Clara Lanza.]

LADIES AND GENTLEMEN :—The term Magic was
formerly applied to those metallic mirrors employed by
sorcerers, necromancers, astrologers and charlatans, and
by means of which spirits were invoked and the future
predicted. These mirrors, transmitted from antiquity to
the middle ages, were used to a very great extent about
the sixteenth century, and up to two hundred years ago
they were constantly seen in Europe. Now they are
found nowhere except in the far East. We are able to
furnish any amount of information about this strange
superstition, but it is not of these mirrors that I intend to
speak.

There is another kind of magic mirror, so-called be-
cause it produces effects apparently marvelous but real.
History will tell you nothing, however, about these mir-
rors, and they are not even mentioned in any book of
physics. Their appearance in Europe is quite recent, and
as they are exceedingly rare, there is not often an oppor-
tunity presented for observing them. _ It is of this scien-
tific curiosity that I shall talk to you this evening.

These mirrors are an uncommon variety of metallic
ones. The latter you know were the first invented by
man. The Greeks and Romans had no other kind, except
a few specimens of glass mirrors made at the factory in
Sidon. But glass when not quicksilvered does not make
a good mirror, and it was not until the thirteenth century
that quicksilver was employed for the purpose. Up to
that date metallic mirrors alone were used, and even now
some uncivilized nations employ and mannfacture no
other kind.

The Chinese and Japanese, for instance, are an exam-
plet. Since they have been in constant communication
with European nations, however, they have partially
adopted our glass mirrors and send us their metal ones
as objects of curiosity. Chinese mirrors are exceedingly
rare, so rare, in fact, that there is not one to be had in
Paris. This leads me to think that they are no longer
manufactured. Japanese mirrors, on the contrary, are
very conimon. This is perhaps owing to the fact that in
Japan the mirror is not only a necessary article for the
toilet, but also an object of national worship. The
primitive religion of the country, which is still embraced
by the aristocracy and called Syzthzsm, worships the
goddess of the sun as its principal divinity, and the
Emperors of the nation are supposed to be her descend-
ants. This goddess invented the metallic mirror, and
presenting it to her son bade him preserve it religiously.
In the palace of Mikado, theretore, the mirror chamber
is as carefully attended to as that of the Emperor him-
self, and often receives greater attention. In the temples
of Syzthzsm the only object of worship is a mirror, kept
in a box covered with several wrappings of silk. Although
this religion has been abandoned by the greater portion
of the people, who have since become Buddhists, the
mirror, nevertheless, has always remained a precious
article. The ladies keep it raised upon a tall easel, which
brings the glass upon a level with their eyes when they
stand upon tip-toe. When they wish to remove it they
hold it carefully by the handle, sometimes thrusting the
latter into a piece of split bamboo.

These mirrors are of bronze of various sizes and shapes,
but always portable. One side is polished and amal-
gamated, It is also generally convex, so that the images
reflected look somewhat distorted. The other side is flat
or slightly concave and is always ornamented by figures

* Alecture delivered before the Association Scientifique de France.

t This statement is not altogether correct. The Chinese manufacture
glass mirrors, and very seldom, if ever, use metallic ones any more,

SCIENCE.

in relief of more or less perfect workmanship. Japanese
mirrors usually are more beautiful than the Chinese.

Here, gentlemen, are a few. I cannot pass them
among you, but I can show them to you perfectly well
by means of the magic lantern. This one is the copy of
a mirror brought from Japan by Professor Dybowski.
This second one belongs to General Teissier. The de-
signs are of the reverse or unpolished side.

Among these mirrors there are a few of a lesser thick-
ness, which possess a remarkable property. Although
they reflect ordinary images in a diffused light, if a ray
of sunlight falls across the polished surface and is re-
flected upon a white screen, the ornamentation upon the
reverse side will be transported to the screen. This is
what we call a magic mirror.

The first that appeared in Europe came from China.
The Chinese, in fact, have known of them for a very long
time. One of their historians who flourished in the
eleventh century of our era, mentions them with admira-
tion. Another writer, who lived in the year 1300, gave
us a supposed explanation of the phenomenon. The
Chinese Encyclopedia contains an article upon the sub-
ject, which has been translated by our great sinologue,
Stanislas Julien. These mirrors have always been rare,
but persons who have lived in China assure me that they
can sometimes be found in Chinese curiosity shops.

We are not sure that the mirrors were ever purposely
made. It is probable, on the contrary, that they are
merely the result of imperfect fabrication. In regard to
the Japanese this is absolutely certain, for magic mirrors
are unknown in Japan. Neither the manufacturer nor
the person who sells them has any idea of their peculiar
property. European savants, however, have found
magic mirrors from Japan many times. In 1832 M.
Prinsep described one in the Fournal de la Socreté
Astatzgue, which he had discovered in Calcutta. In
1877 Mr. Atkinson, Professor in the Imperial University
of Jeddo, observed that numbers of Japanese mirrors
produced magical effects. This attracted the attention
of M. Ayrton, Professor in the Engineering School in the
same city, who immediately began to investigate the
matter. After examining five or six hundred he affirmed
that three or four out of every hundred were magic.

Partially magic mirrors ought to be very common, and
Iam quite sure if I had been permitted to examine the
Japanese collections in Paris, I should have found several.
I am indebted to General Teissier for two beautiful mir-
rors that he brought from Japan. One of them is de-
cidedly magic. I will have an electric light thrown
across it and then upon the screen. You will see a part
of the design upon the back appear.

Although we can furnish no written testimony con-
cerning these mirrors, several learned men however, es-
pecially those who had traveled extensively, knew all
about them. In the year 1830 Humboldt came all the
way from Berlin to Paris, in order to show the Academy
of Sciences a mirror which he believed to be magic. The
experiments were made at the Observatory. Unfortun-
ately there are no traces of them to be found in the
scientific reviews of the period, but we know that the
whole affair was a fiasco. Our illustrious chemist, M.
Dumas, who was one of the investigators, affirms that
Humboldt’s mirror could not be considered magic in any
sense of the word.

The first magic mirror that appeared in Europe was
owned by M. Monchez, the Director of the Observatory
in Paris. On his return from China he brought with him
several mirrors, one of which was magic and had been
sold as such. This mirror was presented to the Academy
of Sciences on the 22d of July, 1844.

In 1847 a second one appeared belonging to the collec-
tion of the Marquis de la Grange. Stanislas Julien gave
a detailed description of this one, in which he stated that
the reflection obtained was identical with the reverse of
the mirror, but that the latter was not in relief. This

417

mirror, therefore, should not have been magic at all, or if
it was, all our modern theory would be upset. Many
attempts have been made to find this mirror, but up to
the present time the search has proved fruitless.

A third magic mirror was presented to the Academy
in 1847 by Person, Professor of Physics in Besancon.
Person’s report consists of twenty-five lines only, but it
is extremely important, as it contains the whole theory
of magic mirrors, which, until then was unknown.

Finally, in 1853, Maillard presented the Academy
with a fourth mirror, which was not magic to any great
extent. It is now in the Collége de France. I have held
itn my hands, examined it carefully, and I can assure
you that it is an exceedingly bad specimen. A great
deal of imagination must be possessed by any person
who can call the effects of this mirror magic.

This, gentlemen, was the last, and the excitement about
magic mirrors began gradually to subside. Nothing
more was heard of them till the year 1878, when MM.
Ayrton and Perry, both professors in the Engineering
School, at Jeddo, presented the Royal Society of London
with several magic mirrors which they had brought from
Japan. For the first time, technical observations were
made concerning the construction of these mirrors. As
to the mirrors themselves, the effects produced by them
were truly marvellous. We were unable, however, to
form any correct judgment upon them until last year,
when M. Ayrton brought four to Paris. The experi-
ments made by him proved very successful, and were wit-
nessed by me with great interest.

Since then, the fame of magic mirrors has revived with
double intensity,

A few days after M. Ayrton’s séance I received a
visit from my old pupil M. Dybowski, Fellow of the
Academy of Physical Science, who returned from Japan
after a professorship of more than two years at the Uni-
versity of Jeddo. Of course, you all know that after the
revolution of 18€9, Mikado’s government founded large
scientific schools in the capital. Unfortunately, they no
longer “import” professors from Europe, but content
themselves with such pupils as we turn out.

Like all Japanese, M. Dybowski was ignorant of the
existence of magic mitrors. He brought with him, how-
ever, as curiosities, four mirrors of antique manufacture,
which are called Zemfle mzrrors in Japan, and consid-
ered to be superior to modern ones, as the fabrication
has grown exceedingly defective of late, owing, probably,
to the competition of European mirrors. We experi-
mented together with these four specimens, one of which
was found to be magic in a slight degree. This mirror
has been the starting-point of all our subsequent pro-
gress. Of course, this was naturally the consequence of
a sound theory, which, however, was not immediately
established.

The oldest on record is that given by a Chinese author
of the thirteenth century. According to him, “the cause
of the phenomenon is due to the use of fine and coarse
copper. If, in manufacturing the mirror, the image of a
dragon is produced in relief upon the reverse, a similar
dragon is engraved upon the polished side. This last is
concealed by filling up the lines of the engraving with
copper. The metal is then incorporated with a purer
quality of copper, while the mirror is submitted to the
action of fire. Finally, the surface is polished and
washed over with amalgam.’”’ The author, however,
does not seem to see that if the difference in the reflec-
tive power of the two qualities of copper was sensible
enough to make the phenomenon appear, this variation
must necessarily disappear under the application of the
amalgam.

Brewster’s theory does not differ notably from the
Chinese explanation. He says the polishing effaces the
engraving and renders it invisible in a diffused light,
leaving upon the metal, however, variations of density
and reflective power, which makes the image quite visible

418

SCIENCE.

when exposed to the sun. But Brewster was not aware
that the surface of the mirrors was amalgamated, and
we may safely say that he was wrong to attempt a’solu-
tion of the mystery, without ever having seen a magic
mirror.

Nevertheless, before rejecting his idea completely, let
us seek to verify it. I myself have had an engraving made
upon copper, then caused it to be effaced. When it was
no longer visible in a diffused light, it was, unfortunately
no longer visible when exposed directly to the sun. Per-
haps I went badly to work, and very likely a more care-
ful and delicate operator might have succeeded better.
We might have explained in this way the effects of an
extraordinary mirror mentioned by M. Ayrton, which,
instead of reproducing the image engraved upon the re-
verse, disclosed to the astonished spectators the gro-
tesque features of a Buddhist saint.

Brewster’s theory, fortunately, was not known in
France when public attention was directed upon magic
mirrors. I say fortunately, because his opinion, being
that of a celebrated man, might have led us astray. The
first French physician who examined a magic mirror,
Person, immediately discovered the true solution of the
problem. In the first place, he found that the polished
surface of the mirror was not perfectly convex, but only
so in certain parts, corresponding with the lines of the
figure upon the reverse. In the portions corresponding
to the relief, it was almost flat. Rays of light reflected
upon the convex parts diverge, and produce but a faint
image. On the contrary, rays reflected upon the flat
portions retain their parallelism, and produce an image
which is very intense. This is why the ornaments in
relief appear brilliant upon a dark background.

This irregularity of the surface depends of course upon
the method of fabrication. When taken out of the cast,
the mirror presents the appearance of a flat disk. Before
being polished it is scratched in every sense of the word
with a pointed instrument, to which it naturally offers
more resistance in the thick parts than in the thin. This
operation makes it at first slightly concave, and by the
elastic reaction of the metal it becomes convex. This
convexity is more sensible in the thin places than in those
corresponding to the relief of the design. ‘The mirror is
finally polished with a whet-stone, then with charcoal,
which must frequently destroy the irregularities which
produce the magical effect. The surface thus becomes
perfectly smooth, but generally one or two cavities can
be found. The manufacturer fills these in with balls of
copper which he has ready prepared and of all dimen-
sions, and which he afterwards rubs and polishes until
he thinks they are invisible to the naked eye. An ex-
pectation, however, which is but imperfectly realized,
generally speaking. The entire surface is then rubbed
by hand with an amalgam composed of equal portions of
mercury and tin.

Such are the details of the manufacture of magic mir-
rors. It is easy tosee that they quite agree with Person’s
explanation, but the latter has one objection. How, it
will be asked, can the surface of the mirror be irregular
without this being apparent in the images it reflects in a
diffused light ?

However, this objection is removed when we come to
consider the facts attentively.

A mirror with a perfectly regular surface is an exceed-
ingly rare object. Here, for instance, is a flat, metallic
mirror employed in astronomical observations. The re-
flections it gives are very good.

Here also is a silver plaque which reflects in a manner
equally perfect. If however, it is made to reflect an
electric light, we can see clearly that the surface is not
uniform, for we are able to perceive, so to speak, every
blow of the hammer which it received during the process
of manufacture. Here is one of those little round mir-
rors which we buy for a few pennies at the bazaars. It is
excellent and extremely serviceable if you desire to comb

your beard, but detestable if you wish it to reflect light.

By means of these examples you can easily see that all
our common mirrors are irregular and reflect light imper-
fectly, although forms can be reflected by them very
well. These are true magic mirrors, only the image re-
flected is as irregular as the mirror itself, while that of
the Japanese mirror is regular like the curves of the sur-
face which produces it.

But are we quite certain that the flat and the convex
parts of an irregular mirror reflect a sufficiently variable
amount of light to make them quite distinct, one from
the other. Let us see:

Here is a convex mirror, the summit of which has
been planed off, making a flat mirror in the middle of a
convex one. I will now reflect it upon the the screen by
means of an electric light. You see the central portion
is a very brilliant disk which shows that the flat mirror
reflects the cylindric portion. Around it is a black circle
in which there is no light at all. This is the space be-
tween the cylinder and a sort of funnel which contains
the light reflected by the convex mirror. This light
forms around the black circle a grayish ring of feeble in-
tensity and quite distinguishable from the white central
disk. The difference would be much more marked if
the two lights were closer together.

Here I have another mirror which is flat. Tothe middle
of it has been attacheda convex lens. The whole has then
been silvered. A reflecting light you see, shows us up-
on the screen, a large spot nearly black surrounded by
a brilliant ring which has another ring around it of a gray
color. The centre and the rings about it are produced
by the reflection upon the central convex lens, across
which comes the cylinder formed by the reflection upon
the flat mirror.

The variation in intensity of the two reflectionsis enor-
mous, particularly in the centre, which only appears
black by contrast. For, of course, there is just as much
light upon the central disk as upon the edges. We
know that it is really luminous for we can cast upon it
the shadow of an opaque body.

It has been, I hope, clearly demonstrated to you, there-
fore, that the curves upon the surface of the mirror pro-
duce inequalities of marked intensity when reflected.
You have, however, a perfect rightto remain in doubt as
to Person’s theory, because in all magic mirrors, these
irregularities are very faint, being almost invisible to the
naked eye. Although Person has endeavored to sustain
his theory by direct observations upon the surface of his
mirror, it was necessary to support it still further by
means of new experiments.

An Italian savant, M. Govi, has undertaken this task,
and in 1864 and 1865 presented two papers upon the sub-
ject to the Academy of Turin.

The first one contains several experiments made for
the purpose of upholding Person and utterly demolishing
Brewster. But Brewster was determined not to give in,
and after having translated M. Govi’s article for the
Sctentific Review, he followed it up with a quantity of
remarks and objections which he certainly never would
have made had he ever been fortunate enough to hold
a magic mirror in his hands.

The stupidity of the illustrious Scotch physician had a
very good result, for it incited M. Govi to seek new proofs
and obtain a surer ground than ever for his opinion. In
this way he conceived the idea of making the most im-
portant and most curious experiment which had yet been
seen in regard to metallic mirrors. He thought that by
heating the mirrors on the back, the warmth would take
effect sooner upon the thin parts than upon the thick ; that
the former would become more convex, and thus the
magic property would increase in such mirrors as already
possessed it in some degree, and might possibly be pro-
duced in those which were not magic.

Here is General Teissier’s mirror—you have already
seen that it was slightly magic—I shall now have it heated

SCIENCE.

419

by means of a gas light placed behind it, and you will im- | This is a wegat¢zve form of the first, in which we saw

mediately see that the magical effects become more in-
tense. It develops by degrees and produces nearly all the
forms and images which are on the back, quite perfectly.
You observe that the great quantity of small figures which
are in but slight relief are not visible, while all the others
of pronounced relief are clearly brought out. This fact
is an important one. It shows us that we must look for
magic mirrors only among those having ornaments in de-
cided relief upon their backs. You must also know that
they are not to be found among very thick mirrors. The
experiment is still more successful with this Japanese
toilet mirror.

The first experiments, after reading M. Govi’s papers,
were made by M. Ayrton and myself, as we desired to
verify the investigation of the Italian savaz¢ before pub-
lishing them, and at the same time study thoroughly this
very interesting subject, hoping that we might be able,
perhaps, to reproduce the mirror in France instead of im-
porting them from the extreme East. You must bear in
mind that we had but one mirror at our disposition and
that one but slightly magic. It belonged to M. Dybowski.
We began by heating it as { shall show you presently. Here
is the natural mirror which is hardly magical at all. You
see the effect is produced in proportion to the amount of
heat employed. Heat applied to several other Japanese
mirrors bought in Paris or borrowed from collectors pro-
duced a magical effect upon them all.

These experiments were repeated by us very often. But
it was not long before we discovered the inconveniences
of the heating method. First of all, as it is extremely
difficult to preserve an equal degree of warmth upon the
entire surface. The image is rarely perfectly regular ;
then the mirror itself is somewhat altered. The reverse
becomes covered with a bronze iridescence while the sur-
face loses its polish because the heat destroys the amal-
gam which covers it, the mirror loaned to me wasin a fright-
ful condition when I returned it,but it was finally put in order
again. The spots upon the back were removed by a coating
of slightly acidulated water, and the amalgamation replaced
by nickel plating which made a more perfect and durable
polish. Before giving it back to its owner, however, we
had numerous copies made from it, and it was one of
these which I showed you a few moments since.

The disadvantages of heating made us wonder if the
same effect could not be produced by a different method,
and we thought of pressure. M. Duboscq solved the
problem by means of this box. You see it is not thick,
and is of the precise diameter of the mirror which is
attached to the upper part by an iron ring and one of
India rubber, The under portion is closed and provided
with a spout and plug which it connects with the little
hand pump well known as the Gay-Lussac. This pump
inhales on one side, and exhales on the other. If weat-
tach an India rubber tube to the spout, on the exhaling
side the movement of the piston will compress the air
behind the mirror, We will now try it.

The mirror becomes more convex and the image
widens. The thin portions protrude more than the
others and the magical effect grows more and more pro-
nounced. It will be quite complete when the pressure
attains two atmospheres. We haveit now! You see,
the effect is perfect. It is certainly much finer than any-
thing M. Ayrton has shown us, although his experiments
astonished us so much.

We can also produce an inverse effect, by attaching
the rubber tube to the inhaling spout. The action of the
pump will remove the air beneath the mirror, which will
become less convex and you see the luminous disk con-
tract. The thin portions corresponding to the outlines
of the design will yield more than the others, become
less convex and perhaps concave. They will reflect more
light and we may see a new image appear which will be
the exact reverse of the preceding. That is to say, that
the parts in relief will appear black upon a white ground.

the relief traced in white upon a black surface.

M. Deboscq made many other experiments, one of
which I will relate to you before I conclude.

I wished to go still further. I wished to have a cast
taken of the mirror while it is magic, and make a
galvano-plastic deposit in the mould so that we might
have a magic surface instead of a mirror. We tried this
three times. The plaster moulding was very successful
and the surface magic, but the galvano-plastic deposit
was a complete failure. If any one here among my audi-
ence can give me any advice upon the subject I would be
most grateful.

Gentlemen, I hope sincerely I have been able to in-
terest you in this new subject of magic mirrors. If I
have succeeded in making my meaning throughout, clear
to you, these mirrors will no longer be a mystery, and
you will have seen once more how Science, by slow but
sure efforts, is finally able to explain and reproduce phe-
nomena, which at first sight seemed miracles, always
provided that the phenomena are real and not mere
phantoms of human credulity.

or

RECENT SURGICAL CASE.

The following case, which, in some respects, is similar
to that of President Garfield’s, may be read with interest
for the purpose of comparison. The man was sent to St.
Michael’s Hospital, Newark, N. J., where his case was
considered hopeless at the date of his entry. We are in-
debted to Dr. H. C. H. Herold for a copy of the following
report:

George Freund, age 36, Germany, ex-policeman.—Ad-
mitted to hospital July 4th, suffering from bullet wound
of chest. The wound was produced by a 22-inch calibre
pistol, and situated an inch and three-quarters below and
half an inch to the left of the left nipple. When seen
half an hour after admission his pulse, temperature and
respiration were all normal. On examining his lungs the
percussion note was normal. On auscultation, rales were
heard over both lungs, resulting from chronic bronchitis.
He is subject to attacks of asthma. Heart sounds nor-
mal. Ordered one-quarter of a grain of morphine every
two hours until sleep was obtained.

July 5——Morning. Passed a very restless night, not
seeming to feel the effects of the morphine. Tempera-
ture, 102; pulse, 120; respiration, 32, and very labored.
It was ascertained on examination that he was suffering
from an asthmatic attack. He has had no spitting of
blood and no sign of any lung trouble. Ordered grains
x of iodide of potash, three times a day. July 5.—Even-
ing. Complains of great pain in the vicinity of the
wound, extending toward the stomach. Temperature,
102; skin feeling to the hand cold and covered with a
clammy sweat. Pulse, 80; quite feeble and compressi- —
ble, intermitting at every second beat. Respiration, 30 ;
not labored, having recovered from his asthmatic at-
tack.

July 6.—Passed a very restless night ; one-eighth grain
of morphia given every two hours; temperature, 103;
pulse, 110; respiration, 40; labored and sighing; slight
hemorrhage from wound; all pain left him.

July 7.—Passed a quiet night, sleeping very well; only
one-eighth grain of morphia administered ; temperature,
101; pulse, 106; respiration, 18; slight hemorrhage from
wound ; expectoration of a sputa which looks very much
like laudable pus.

July 8,——Slept quite well, taking one-eighth grain of
morphia ; complains of some pain in vicinity of wound ;
hemorrhage ,from wound ceased; has taken no food
since admission, being sustained by stimulants, beef tea,
milk, etc.; temperature, 102; pulse, 115, quite strong, in-
termitting at every fifth beat ; respiration, 26.

July 9.—Very comfortable night, taking only one-

420

SCIENCE.

eighth grain of morphia; wound discharging laudable
pus; temperature, 101% ; pulse, 110; respiration, 24.

July 10.--Restless night, no morphia being given.
Wound still discharging healthy pus. Temperature,
101% ;. pulse, 110; respiration, 26.

July 11.—Temperature, 101; pulse, 110; respiration,
24.

July 12.—Temperature, 102; pulse, 110; respiration,
22. Ordered digitalis.

July 13.— Temperature, 100% ; pulse, 100 ; respiration,
22. Urine containing traces of albumen. Solid food ta-
ken and retained.

July 14.—Temperature, 101; pulse, 108; respiration,
20.

July 15.—Temperature, 100% ; pulse, 95; respiration,
22.
July 16.—Temperature, 100% ; pulse, 100; respiration,
22.
July 17.—Temperature, Iof; pulse, 100; respiration,
23%
ily 18.—Temperature, 101; pulse, 100; respiration,
22s
July 19.—Very restless night. Temperature, 101% ;
pulse, 130; respiration, 34. Complains of pain in the re-
gion of the heart.

July 20.— Temperature 101 ¥ ; pulse, 120; respiration,

4,

: July 21.—Temperature, Io1; pulse, 112; respiration,
2.
: July 23.—Restless night, troubled much by a short,
hacking cough; wound entirely healed, Temperature,
1003 ; pulse, 106; respiration, 32. Vomited his break-
fast.

July 24.—Passed a restless night notwithstanding the
tree use of bromide’ Temperature, 103; pulse, 130; res-
piration, 38. Still troubled with cough, which distresses
him greatly ; cannot retain solid food. Stimulants freely

iven.
: July 25.—Slept better, but cough still troubles him ;
breathing labored. Temperature, 1003 ; pulse, 65 ; res-
piration, 39 ; muscular twitching of hands and feet.

July 26.—Much more comfortable this morning. Tem-
perature, 100% ; pulse, 92; respiration, 40; digitalis dis-
continued. bad:

July 27.—Temperature, 99; pulse, 58; respiration. 36.

July 28.—Temperature, 98%; pulse, 56; respiration,

oO.
; July 29.—Temperature, 99 ; pulse. 60; respiration. 32.
July 30.—Delirious during the night, attempted to get
out of bed. Temperature, 99% ; pulse, 52; strong and
full ; respiration, 28. ER

July 31—Temperature 99% ; pulse, 68; respiration,
32. Delirious during night. Bromides given freely.

August 1.—Temperature, 100 ; pulse, 52; strong and
full ; respiration, 34.

August 2.—Temperature, 98 34 ; pulse, 51 ; respiration.
30. Delirious during night. hak

August 3.—Temperature, 98 % ; pulse, 108 ; respiration,
22. Troubled very much with attacks of coughing.

August 4.—Temperature, 98%; pulse, 100; respira-
tion, 24. aoe

August 5.—Temperature, 98% ; pulse, 96; respiration,

Arist 6.—Temperature, 100; pulse, 96; respiration,
20.
August 7.—Temperature, 99 ; pulse 94 ; respiration 19.
August 8—Temperature, 98 34 ; pulse, 88; respiration,
22; sleeps well; appetite, good. shake

August 9.—Temperature, 98% ; pulse, 90 ; respiration,
20.

August 13.—Temperature, pulse and respiration have
remained the same as on August 9. The patient for the
first time to-day since his injury has been allowed to get
up and dress. : ;

August 18.—Doing well since last report. Walks

around the wards; eats and sleeps well, the bullet re-
maining in his body.
—_——— i
ON THE GERM THEORY.
By PRoF. PASTEUR.

“ The subject of my communication is vaccination in
relation to chicken cholera and splenic fever, and a
statement of the method by which we have arrived at
these results—a method the fruitfulness of which inspires
me with boundless anticipations. Before discussing the
question of splenic fever vaccine, which is the most im-
portant, permit me to recall the results of my investiga-
tions of chicken cholera. It is through this inquiry that
new and highly important principles have been introduced
into science concerning the virus. or contagious quality ot
transmissible diseases. More than once in what I am
about to say I shall employ the expression virus-culture,
as formerly, in my investigations on fermentation, I
used the expressions, the culture of milk ferment, the
culture of the butyric vibrion, etc. Let us take, then, a
fowl which is about to die of chicken cholera, and let us
dip the end of a delicate glass rod in the blood of the
fowl with the usual precautions, upon which I need not
here dwell. Let us then touch with this charged point
some Jouzllon de poule, very clear, but first of all ren-
dered sterile under a temperature of about 115° centi-
grade, and under conditions in which neither the outer
air nor the vases employed can introduce exterior germs
—those germs which are in the air, or on the surface of
all objects. In a short time, if the little culture vase is
placed in a temperature of 25° to 35°, you will see the
liquid become turbid and full of tiny microbes, shaped
like the figure 8, but often so small that under a high
magnifying power they appear like points. Take from
this vase a drop as small as you please, no more than can
be carried on the point of a glass rod as sharp as a
needle, and touch with this point a fresh quantity of
sterilized douzllon de poule placed in a second vase, and
the same phenomenon is produced. You deal in the same
way with a third culture vase, with a fourth, and so on
to a hundred, or even a thousand, and invariably within
a few hours the culture liquid becomes turbid and filled
with the same minute organisms.

“ At the end of two or three days’ exposure to a tem-
perature of about 30° C. the thickness of the liquid disap-
pears, and a sediment is formed at the bottom of the
vase. ‘This signifies that the development of the minute
organism has ceased—in other words, all the little points
which caused the turbid appearance of the liquid have
fallen to the bottom of the vase, and things will remain
in this condition for a longer or shorter time, for months
even, without even the liquid or the deposit undergoing
any visible modification, inasmuch as we have taken
care to exclude the germs of the atmosphere. A little
stopper of cotton sifts the air which enters or issues
from the vase through changes of temperature. Let us
take one of our series of culture preparations—the hun-
dredth or the thousandth, for instance-—and compare it
in respect to its virulence with the blood of a fowl which
has died of cholera ; in other words, let us inoculate un-
der the skin ten fowls, for instance, each separately with
a tiny drop of infectious blood, and ten others with a
similar quantity of the liquid in which the deposit has
first been shaken up. Strange to say, the latter ten
fowls will die as quickly and with the same symptoms as
the former ten; the blood of all will be found to contain
after death the same minute infectious organisms. This
equality, so to speak, in the virulence both of the culture
preparation and of the blood is due to an apparently
futile circumstance. JI have made a hundred cuiture
preparations—at least, I have understood that this was
done—without leaving any considerable interval between

* ““ International Medical Congress.’’ London, 1881,

SCIENCE.

421

the impregnations. Well, here we have the cause of the
equality in the virulence.

“Let us now repeat exactly our successive cultures
with this single difference, that we pass from one
culture to that which follows it—from the hun-
dredth to, say, the hundred and first, at intervals, of
a fortnight, a month, two months, three months or
ten months. If, now, we compare the virulence of
the successive cultures, a great change will be ob-
served. It will be readily seen from an inoculation
of a series of ten fowls that the virulence of one cul-
ture differs from that of the blood and from that of a pre-
ceding culture when a sufficiently long interval elapses be-
tween the impregnation of one culture with the microbe
of the preceding. More than that, we may recognize by
this mode of observation that it is possible to prepare cul-
tures of varying degrees of virulence. One preparation
will kill eight fowls out of ten, another five out of ten,
another one out of ten, and another none at all, al-
though the microbe may still be cultivated. In fact, what
is no less strange, if you take each of these cultures of at-
tenuated virulence as a point of departure in the prepara-
tion of successive cultures and without appreciable inter-
val in the impregnation, the whole series of these culures
will reproduce the attenuated virulence of that which has
served as the starting point. Similarly, where the virulence
is null it produces no effect. How, then, it may be asked,
are the effects of these attenuating virulences revealed in
the fowls? They are revealed by a local disorder, by a
morbid modification more or less profound in a muscle, if
it is a muscle which has been inoculated with the virus.
The muscle is filled with microbes which are easily recog-
nized, because the attenuated microbes have almost the
bulk, the form, and the appearance of the most virulent
microbes.

“But why is not the local disorder followed by death?
For the moment let us answer by a statement of facts.
They are these: the local disorder ceases of itself more or
less speedily, the microbe is absorbed and digested, if one
may say so, and little by little the muscle regains its nor-
malcondition. Then the disease has disappeared. When
we inoculate with the microbe, the virulence of which is
null, there is not even local disorder, the mature medzca-
trzx carries it off at once, and here, indeed, we see the in-
fluence of the resistance of life, since this microbe, the
virulence of which is null, multiplies itself. A little far-
ther, and we touch the principle of vaccination. When
the fowls have been rendered sufficiently ill by the atten-
uated virus which the vital resistance has arrested in its
development, they will, when inoculated with virulent virus,
suffer no evil effects, or only effects of a passing character.
In fact, they no longer die from the mortal virus, and for
a time sufficiently long, which in some cases may exceed a
year, chicken cholera cannot touch them, especially under
the ordinary conditions of contagion which exist in fowl-
houses. At this critical point of our manipulation—that
is to say, in this interval of time which we have placed be-
tween two cultures, and which causes the attenuation—
what occurs? I shall show you that in this interval the
agent which intervenes is the oxygen of the air. Nothing
more easily admits of proof. Let us produce a culture in
a tube containing very little air, and close this tube with
anenameller’s lamp. The microbe in developing itself,
will speedily take all the oxygen of the tube and of the
liquid, after which it will be quite free from contact with
oxygen. In this case it does not appear that the microbe
becomes appreciably attenuated, even after a great lapse
of time. The oxygen of the air, then, would seem to be
a possible modifying agent of the virulence of the microbe
of chicken cholera—that is to say, it may modify more or
less facility of its development in the body of animals.
May we not be here in presence of a generai law appli-
cable to all kinds of virus ? What benefits may not be the
result ? We may hope to discover in this way the vaccine
of all virulent diseases; and what is more natural than to

begin our investigation of the vaccine of what we in French
call charbon, what you in England call splenic fever, and
what in Russia is known as the Siberian pest, and in Ger-
many as the Milzbrand.

“In this new investigation I have had the assistance of
two devoted young savants—MM. Chamberland and
Roux. At the outset we were met by a difficulty.
Among the inferior organisms, all do not resolve them-
selves into those corpuscle germs which I was the first
to point out as one of the forms of their possible develop-
ment. Many infectious microbes do not resolve them-
selves in their cultures into corpuscle germs. Such is
equally the case with beer yeast which we do not see de-
velop itself usually in breweries, for instance, except by
a sort of scissiparity. One cell makes two or more,
which form themselves in wreaths; the cells become de-
tached, and the process recommences. In these cells
real germs are not usually seen. The microbe of chick-
en-cholera and many others behave in this way, so much
so that the cultures of this microbe, although they may
last for months without losing their power of fresh cul-
tivation, perish finally like beer yeast which has exhausted
all its aliments. The anthracoid microbe in artificial
cultures behaves very differently. In the blood of ani-
mals, as in cultures, it is found in translucid filaments
more or less segmented. This blood or these cultures
freely exposed to air, instead of continuing according to
the first mode of generation, show at the end of forty-
eight hours corpuscle germs Cistributed in series more or
less regular along the filaments. All around these cor-
puscles matter is absorbed. as I have represented it
formerly in one of the plates of my work on the diseases
of silkworms. Little by little all connection between
them disappears, and presently they are reduced to
nothing more than germ dust.

“If you make these corpuscles germinate, the new cul-
ture reproduces the virulence peculiar to the thready
form which has produced these corpuscles, and this re-
sult is seen even after a long exposure of these germs to
contact with air. Recently we discovered them in pits
in which animals dead of splenic fever had been buried
for twelve years, and their culture was as virulent as
that from the blood of an animal recently dead. Here I
regret extremely to be obliged to shorten my remarks, I
should have had much pleasure in demonstrating that
the anthracoid yerms in the earth of pits in which animals
have been buried are brought to the surface by earth-
worms, and that in this fact we may find the whole
etiology of disease, inasmuch as the animals swallow
these germs with their food. A great difficulty presents
itself when we attempt to apply our method of attenua-
tion by the oxygen of the air to the anthracoid microbes.
The virulence establishing itself very quickly, often after
twenty-four hours in an anthracoid germ which escapes
the action of the air, it was impossible to think of dis-
covering the vaccine of splenic fever in the conditions
which had yielded that of chicken-cholera. But was
there, after all, reason to be discouraged? Certainly not ;
in fact, if you observe closely, you will find that there is
no real difference between the mode of the generation of
the anthracoid germ by scission and that of chicken-
cholera. We had therefore reason to hope that we
might overcome the difficulty which stopped us by en-
deavoring to prevent the anthracoid microbe from pro-
ducing corpuscle germs, and to keep it in this condition
in contact with oxygen for days, and weeks, and months.
The experiment fortunately succeeded.

“In the ineffective (seutre) bouzllon de poule the
anthracoid microbe is no longer cultivable at 45° C. Its
culture, however, is easy at 42° or 43°, but in these con-
ditions the microbe yields no spores. Consequently it is
possible to maintain in contact with the pure air at 42°
or 43° a mycélienne culture of bacteria entirely free of
germs. Then appear the very remarkable results which
follow. Inamonth or six weeks the culture dies—that

422

SCIENCE.

is to say, if one impregnates with it fresh douzl/on, the
latter is completely sterile. Up to that time life exists
in the vase exposed to air and heat. If we examine the
virulence of the culture at the end of two days, four
days, six days, eight days, etc., it will be found that long
before the death of the culture the microbe has lost all
virulence, although still cultivable. Before this period it
is found that the culture presents a series of attenuated
virulences. Everything is similar to what happens in
respect to the microbe in chicken cholera. Besides, each
of these conditions of attenuated virulence may be re-
produced by culture ; in fact, since the charbon does not
Operate a second time (me réczdzve pas), each of our
attenuated anthracoid microbes constitutes for the
superior microbe a vaccine—that is to say, a virus capa-
ble of producing a milder disease. Here, then, we have
a method of preparing the vaccine of splenic fever. You
will see presently the practical importance of this result,
but what interests us more particularly is to observe that
we have here a proof that we are in possession of a gene-
ral method of preparing virus vaccine based upon the
action of the oxygen and the air—that 1s to say, of a
cosmic force existing everywhere on the surface of the
globe.

“Tregret to be unabie, from want of time, to show
you that all these attenuated forms of virus may very
easily, by a physiological artifice, be made to recover
their original maximum virulence. The method I have
just explained of obtaining the vaccine of splenic fever
was no sooner made known than it was very extensively
employed to prevent the splenic affection. In France
we lose every year, by splenic fever, animals of the
value of twenty million francs. I was asked to give a
public demonstration of the results already mentioned.
This experiment I may relate in a few words. Fifty
sheep were placed at my disposition, of which twenty-
five were vaccinated. A fortnight afterward the fifty
sheep were inoculated with the most virulent anthracoid
microbe. The twenty-five vaccinated sheep resisted the
infection ; the twenty-five unvaccinated died of splenic
fever within fifty hours. Since that time my energies
have been taxed to meet the demands of farmers for
supplies of this vaccine. In the space of fifteen days we
have vaccinated in the departments surrounding Paris
more than twenty thousand sheep, and a large number
of cattle and horses. If I were not pressed for time I
would bring to your notice two other kinds of virus
attenuated by similar means. These experiments will
be communicated by-and-by to the public. I cannot
conclude, gentlemen, without expressing the great pleas-
ure I feel at the thought that it is as a member of an
international medical congress assembled in England
that I make known the most recent results of vaccina-
tion upon a disease more terrible, perhaps, for domestic
animals than small-pox is for man. I have given to
vaccination an extension which science, I hope, will
accept as a homage paid to the merit and to the immense
services rendered by one of the greatest men of England,
Jenner. What a pleasure for me to do honor to this
immortal name in this noble and hospitable city of
London!”

FROM a privately issued report on silk cultivation in
the Chinese province of Kwangtung, we learn that in the
Pakhoi district, on the southern seaboard, wild silkworms
are found which feed on the camphor tree, and their
silk is utilized in a singular manner. When the cater-
pillar has attained its full size, and is about to enter the
pupa state, it is cut open and the silk extracted in a form
much resembling catgut. This substance, having under-
gone a process of hardening, makes excellent fish line,
and is generally used for that purpose in the Pakhoi dis-
trict,

CORRESPONDENCE.

[The Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed
by his correspondents. No notice is taken of anonymous communi-
cations. |

To the Edztor of “SCIENCE.”

Mr. Samuel J. Wallace, commenting on my paper on
“The Use of Water as a Fuel”’ (““SCIENCE,” Vol. IL., p.
321), inan interesting communication to you (“ SCIENCE,”
Vol. IL., p. 373), suggests an inadvertancy on my part in
“not more clearly distinguishing between the degrees of
temperature at which the transfer of oxygen takes place
from the hydrogen of the water to the carbon set free by
the dissociation of the naphtha and the number of heat
units set free or absorbed by such transfer, which is a
very different thing.”

To this I would state in reply that I have purposely re-
frained from an elaborate calculation of the thermal ef-
fects in heat units for several reasons. Of these I shall
detail but a few of the more important at present.

In the first place, my intention was to give the scien-
tific rationale of the chemical processes involved in the
generation of the tremendous heat produced by the Hol-
land retort with so insignificant an amount of naphtha ;
and, furthermore, I wanted to show that the application
of the principie of the correlation of forces and conserva-
tion of energy to this new and original process of combus-
tion has been undertaken heretofore on an erroneous as-
sumption ; lastly, I intended to prove, in the shortest and
clearest possible manner, what a proportion of heat was
gained, and in what manner—viz., by the dissociation of
steam in the presence and by the agency of the carbon
contained in the naphtha.

For these and other reasons, I avoided long explana-
tions and calculations of other points, such as, for instance,
the “dissociation of the naphtha,” as Mr. Wallace puts it,
and the figuring up of the heat units generated by the
several elements on combustion. In order to re-affrm my
position, which is, on most points, not that assumed by
Mr. Wallace, I may be allowed to offer the following re-
marks :

It is self-evident that the carbon of the naphtha, in
order to act independently, must firstbe set free ; this is
accomplished by the heating of the naphtha, in its cham-
ber of the retort, up to the point of gasification. On meet-
ing the steam in the manifold, the carbon of the naphtha
leaves its hydrogen and forthwith unites with the oxygen
of the watery vapor, forming ezther carbonic oxide or
carbonic acid, according to the amount of steam intro-
duced.

Thus there is certainly a decomposition of the naphtha
into its elements, as Mr. Wallace intimates; but by far
the most important process is the dzssoczatzon of the
watery vzpor which Mr. Wallace refuses to recognize,
insisting, as he does, that there is only a ¢vansfer of the
oxygen from the hydrogen of the steam to the carbon of
the naphtha. How this is possible, without the previous
dissociation of the steam, I am unable to understand.
Mr. Wallace furnishes, indeed, the best argument against
his own statement, by mentioning the well-known fact
that the carbon in the naphtha is very loosely held by
its hydrogen. But it is also a well-known fact that the
oxygen of the steam is very tenaciously held by its hydro-
gen, so much so that it was considered impossible to
separate, ¢o dzssoczate, them by heat for a long time. Not
until the late Henri St. Clair Deville * devised an appa-

* It is with profound grief that the announcement of the great chemist’s
death has been received everywhere. At his funeral (July 5th) M. Pas-
teur made an eloquent speech. The London Chemical News has an obitu-
ary in which occurs the following passage: ‘‘His highest achievement, from
a Strictly scientific point of view, was the establishment of the laws of dis-
sociation. Previously, decomposition was regarded as a simple phenom-
enon, effected and completed, in the case of every substance, ata fixed
temperature, Deville showed that in some cases it is effected within cer-
tain limits of temperature, being arrested ata given heat by the equi-
librium established between the decomposing body and the product of de-

compcsition,””

SCIENCE.

423

ratus for this purpose was this dissociation accomplished
by heat alone.

The reason for this state of things is apparent. Hy-
drogen in uniting with oxygen to form water develops
the greatest amount of heat, a greater amount, in fact,
than an equal weight of any other knownelement. And
just here I would ask Mr. Wallace which authority has
stated that the ‘“‘absolute heat of carbon and hydrogen
are almost exactly equal in complete burning.’’ On the
contrary, all authorities agree, and all investigators have
established beyond doubt the fact, that hydrogen devel-
ops more than four times as much heat on combustion
than does an equal weight of carbon. The figures at
present universally accepted as a standard are those de-
termined by Favre and Silberman, during their carefully
conducted and numerous experiments. According to
them—

I grain of hydrogen develops 34,462 units of heat.
I grain of carbon 3 8,080 units of heat.

on complete combustion.

This great advantage in the heat-producing power of
hydrogen is the principal reason why scientists have con-
stantly striven to substitute this element for carbon,
which is now universally used as fuel. But until lately
only this was thought impracticable, because it was be-
lieved that the same amount of heat was necessary to ob-
tain the hydrogen by the dissociation of water, which
would ultimately be obtained by the combustion of said
hydrogen. And even the processes of Strong and others
for the generation of so-called ‘water-gas’ have not
changed this erroneous view. For, the advantages arrived
at by them were ascribed rather to various extraneous
causes* than to the one principal cause, z. ¢., the dissocia-
tion of steam by the chemical affinity of carbon, and the
consequent generation of a not inconsiderable amount of
hydrogen.

This very same line of argument has been followed in
the discussions about the Holland process, and the prin-
cipal aim of my paper was to controvert it, and to show
that itis zo¢t heat, but chemzicul affinzty, which does by
far the greatest part of the work of dissociation. I was
enabled to do so on the basis of Dahlerus’ experiments,
which have proved conclusively that carbon will disso-
ciate water at 400° C, instead of 8000° C, which is De-
ville’s figure for the dissociation-temperature of water in
the absence of any other element.t

From the foregoing the readers of ‘“SCIENCE”’ will
perceive that the enormous gain obtained by actual ex-
periment with the Holland locomotive is satisfactorily
explained on scientific grounds.

All the further argumentation of Mr. Wallace covers
the earlier water-gas processes of Lowe, Strong and others;
they generate their gaseous fuel in a separate contrivance
(the generator) and afterward burn it. For this reason
they want to accomplish only the first stage of carbon,
combustion water-gas, consisting of hydrogen and car-
bonic oxide. In the process under consideration, however,

air, etc.

+ The combustion~(and dissociation-) temperature may be found by
calculation from the thermal effect and the specific heat of the product
(z. e., water) in the following manner, according to Mour (Mech, Theorie
d. chem, Affin., p. 102): ; : ;

If one part of hydrogen burns up with eight parts of oxygen, forming
nine parts of water, 34462 units of heat are generated which are contained
in the watery vapor thus formed. If the specific heat of steam would be the
same as that of water, the actual temperature of these nine parts of water
would be:

62
oes 38290° C.
Since the specific heat of steam is, however: .475, the actual tem-
perature of the nine parts of watery vapor is:
8:
3273 8061° C.

“475 4 Ps
For this reason 8000° C has been assumed as the dissociation-tempera-
ture of watery vapor.

that and the water, is placed just where the heating is to
take place. All the heat, therefore, that is developed by
the carbon combustion is utilized, as is also all the heat
which is developed by the dissociated hydrogen burning
up with atmospheric oxygen.

Indeed, this process is the only one which comes pretty
near to fulfill all the requirements of an ideal method.
These are;

1. Gaseous condition of the fuel.
2. Complete combustion (no smoke, no ashes).
3. Full effects of the caloric energy developed.

4. Regulation of the draught-air, so as to admit the
least amount of atmospheric air practicable.

5. Greatest possible percentage of oxygen in atmos-
phere of combustion. (The oxygen derived from the dis-
sociation of the steam being employed for the combustion
of carbon, the necessary draught-air is thereby materially
reduced and thus the percentage of oxygen increased).

6. Universal adaptibility (kitchen and parlor stoves, fire
places, stationary and other boilers, locomotives and ocean
steamers can be accommodated with it, and illuminating gas
is prepared automatically by an additional chamber in the
retort).

7. Simplicity of apparatus. (May be managed by the
turning of a few faucets.)

8. Cheapness of the fuel employed. (Water is certainly
to be obtained everywhere at small expense, while the
price of naphtha is only three cents a gallon if bought by
the single barrel.)

g. Fuel used of the greatest heating capacity, with
each atom of Carbon burned, there are burned at the
same time four atoms of Hydrogen, thus ;

AHO e =
(Water.)

C, Hy +
(Naphtha.)

2 (COs) +
8 H.

The eight Hydrogen are burned with atmospheric
Oxygen.

Crude oil z. ¢. petroleum that has undergone one distil-
lation, to free it from its mineral and waxy ingredients,
may be used, but would be much dearer. Naphtha, it
may be said in conclusion, is not one of the distillation
products, as might be inferred from the name: It is the
unused residue from all the various distillation-processes
to which petroleum is subjected. Jf 2s a waste product
and therefore cheaper than anything else.

It is obtained in this wise:

The crude oil as it is received from the stills of the
petroleum regions is subjected to twelve successive
distillations, and the following products result :

Cymogene.
Rhigolene.
Gasolene.

C. Naphtha.
8B, Naphtha.
A. Naphtha.
Benzine.
Kerosene.
Mineral Sperm Oil.
Lubricating Oil.
Paraffin.

Of these only the last four are completely used in the
arts and for illuminating purposes. The unused residue
of all the others is thrown back into the residue remain-
ing from the last distillation. The quality of the mixture
called Naphtha, and used inthe Holland process is there-
fore not always the same, but this does not at all alter its
value as a fuel, as it does not alter the main features of
this process, as they have been explained in our remarks,

GEO. W. RACHEL, M. D.

424

SCIENCE. .

King’s Cross Station, Great Northern Railway, is now
lighted by means of electricity, a beginning having been
made last week by means of the Crompton system. There
are 12 Crompton lamps within the station, six being placed
over the arrival, and a similar number over the departure
platform. Two other lamps of larger size are placed out-
side the station building. The interior area lighted con-
sists of two bays, each 880 feet long and 105 feet wide, and
42 feet high, as well as the cab-rank adjoining the arrival
platform, which is 40 feet wide. The total area lighted is
220,000 square feet, giving an area of 18,133 square feet, or
nearly half an acre, to each lamp. The lamps are sus-
pended at a height of 30 feet from the platform level, and
are arranged on four circuits, the light of each lamp being
computed as equivalent to 4ooo candles. Any unpleasant-
ness from the intensity of the light is obviated by the use
of semi-transparent glass in the lower portion of the lan-
terns. The two exterior lights are estimated at 6000 can-
dles each, are placed at an altitude of 70 feet, the lanterns
being of clear glass. The current is supplied by means of
five Burgin dynamo-electric machines, which are driven by
a semiportable engine by Messrs. Marshall, Sons & Co., of
Gainsborough, working up to 35-horse power.

i

THE death of John Duncan, the Alford, England, botan-
ist, is announced as having taken place last week in his
85th year. The deceased adopted the occupation of a
weaver by trade, but devoted all his spare time to the study
of botany. His splendid collection of plants he handed
over to Aberdeen University a year ago, but he has lived
barely six months to enjoy the fund which public recogni-
tion of his merits placed at his disposal in his declining
years. The story of John Duncan’s life is to be told by
Mr. Jolly, himself an enthusiastic botanist.

Various attempts have been made to explain the tails of
comets. A recent one by M. Picart is as follows: The Sun, |
the stars, nebulae and comets, are composed not only of
ponderable matter in the gaseous state, but of imponder-
able matter, the luminous ether, revealed, in the case of the
sun by the zodiacal light, and in that of nebula, by their
irregular forms contrary to gravitation. A comet far from
the sun, appears in spheroidal form, due to gravitation of
its ponderable matter (its luminous ether being then in-
visible because of distance and feeble light). But on
nearing the sun, the luminous ether of this body repels that
of the comet (this being a characteristic property of the
ether) so forming the tail. The form and direction of the
tail are thus quite independent of gravitation; and the
enormous velocity ceases to bea difficulty, as it is if the
matter of the tail be thought ponderable. M. Lamey has ob-
served that the solar light, being unable completely to pene-
trate the comet’s tail, illumines only the left part, produc-
ing a true cometary phase. :

THE assimilation of nitrogen by plants has, of late, been
carefully studied by Signor Lamattina, of Rome, who ar-
rives at the following results: Plants absolutely require to
assimilate nitrogen, and they obtain it in three forms: (1)
In the nitrates of the ground; (2) In the ammonia of the
air; (3) In the State of protoxide in the atmosphere. The
nitrogen in the state of nitrates, absorbed by the roots, is
for transport and diffusion of mineral substances, princi-
pally potash, in the leaves, helping to form chlorophyll and
hydrocarbons. The nitrogen absorbed in the form of am-
monia by respiration, serves for formation of albuminoids,
fibrine, etc. The nitrogen absorbed in the state of protoxide,
appears to serve as complement of the food of the plant,
acting both as corrective, by neutralising the basis in excess,
and helping in the formation of alkaloids.

METEOROLOGICAL REPORT FOR NEW YORK CITY FOR THE WEEK ENDING AUG. 27, 1881.

Latitude 40° 45’ 58" N.; Longitude 73° 57’ 58” W.; height of instruments above the ground, 53 feet ; above the sea, 97
feet ; by self-recording instruments.

BAROMETER. THERMOMETERS.
EEN ECR MAXIMUM. MINIMUM, MEAN, MAXIMUM. MINIMUM. MAXI’M
THE DAY.
AUGUST. |p :
educed | Reduced Reduced |
- - Dry | Wet,| Dry - Wet . Dry : Wet .
to to Time to Time Time. Time Time. Time. |InSun,
Freezing,| Freezing. Freezing. Bulb.} Bulb,| Bulb. Bulb Bulb. Bulb.
Sunday, 21--| 29.628 29,678 |12 p.m.| 29.598 | 5 p.m.| 77.0] 69.0| 85 |5 p.m.) 73 |5p.m.| 68 |5 a.m. 65 | 5 a.m.) 144.
Monday, 22.-| 29.802 29.896 |12 p.m.| 29.678 | 0 a.m.| 74.0] 66.0 | 81 3 p.m.| 69 |2p.m.| 67 |12 p.m.| 62 |12 p.m.| 139.
Tuesday, 23--| 29.979 30.046 |12 p.m.| 29.896 | o a.m.| 72.3 | 64.0 | 83 5 p-m,| 69 | 2°p. m.| -i6r 6a.m.| 59 |6a.m.| 140.
Wednesday, 24 -| 30.138 30.196 |12 p.m.| 30046 oa.m.| 73.3 | 66.6 82 2p.m.| 73 2p.m.| 63 5 a.im.| 60 6a.m.| 141.
Thursday, 25--| 39.200 30.212 g a.m,| 30.168 6 p.m.| 70.3 | 64.6 | 76 3 p.m.| 67 3p.m.| 65 | 3 a.m.| 62 | 3 a.m.| 1x31.
Friday, 26.-| 30.151 30.198 | oa.m.| 30.110 | 4 p.m.} 71.7 | 67.0] 82 3 pm,||_ 73) || Sup.m:;|| 163 7 a.m.| 62 | 8 a.m.| 134.
Saturday, 27--| 30.114 30.156 | 9 a.m.| 30.072 | 6 p.m.| 72.0] 66.7| 78 |2p.m.| 7o |2p.m| 66 |6a.m.} 64 |6a.m.| 128,
Dry. Wet.
IMeaniforthes weeka- 29. ona een ae eee ee 30.002 inches | Mean for the week...---.--------- 72.9 degrees .-.-.--=---- 66.2 degrees.
Maximum for the week at 9 a. m., August 25th __-_--..--. 30.212 ** Maximum for the week,at 5 pm. 21st 35. hs at5 pmaist, 73. Es
Minimum Le at 5p.m., August 2zst -.----.-... 29.598 ‘* Minimum ‘“ 6am. 23d 61. 7 PRae 6am 23d, 59. x
IRatige i 2225 2st <n seen Se aeen cae ones eae eoeee ee 614) = Range “ OS ae atm ee 24. Se get aw eee 14.
WIND. HYGROMETER. CLOUDS. RAIN AND SNOW. i
= )
N
FORCE IN iS
VELOCITY . RELATIVE CLEAR ° DEPTH OF RAIN AND SNOW
ETON: TW MILES!) oo eR | MOREE OR VAZOK | MeimMDIne OVERCAST. 10 IN INCHES.
SQR. FEET. a4 me
. . * . . . . e = “kh
AUGUST. Distance] ,; & & Blel|eé|eé 5 E & Tie ime Dura- | § =
7 a.m.|\2 p.m.|9 p.m,| for the | % | Time a rm et ee ice) ey % a rom Begin-| End- tion. z 5
Day. a n a alnia a Srl a a ing. ing. -m. ay es
| a —es - | —
Sunday, 21-| n. |n.n.e.|w.n 123 |3%| 11am _ | .537 | .623 | .652| 71 | 53 | 73 |3Cir.cu.S 3 Cu. Ss. |10 11 pmir1zpm_ 0,30 | or | 3
Monday, 22-| nN. Ww. | n. w. |A.n.W 153 |3 3-30 pm| .516 | .547 | .537 | 70 | 52 | 71 |o 3cu ° BN ee ae Ne a0 OP
Tuesday, 23-| n. wW. | n.w. in.n.w 155 |2%| 4.40pm| .433 | .547 | .489 | 72 | 52 | 62 |o 3 cu oe sha ae i
Wednesday,24-|n. n.e.| n.e. | s.e. 12r 4 1.30 pm| .462 | .663 | .564 | 65 | 63 | 79 |o rcir.cu.Jo | ---~- Jeo
Thursday, 25-|S. Ss. €.| S. |S. S.W 140 |2%4| 3.20pm] .509 | .554 | .543 | 74 | 64 | 79 |8 cu jo (<a |e SP) Pe (Fe)
Friday, 26.|W.S. Ww. Sy {8.8.0 150 |2 3.00pm! .576 | .624 | .608 |100 | 59 | 80 |10 tcu em Fee eee Boa ie
Saturday, 27-| Ss. w. fie re Ad 140 |2 | 4.40pm]! .543 | .625 | .586| 79 | 65 | 80 |8 cu rcu Oo Ryall | boareeteecy || Peretinanes a Le
Distance traveled during the week. bet. pair tf Oe tar 982 miles, Total amount of water for the week..-------------------------- .or inch,
Maximum force -28 5. ak pees eee nas ope eee eee 4; bs; Ditration of wain.c oscse coe. ee eben eee oo hours, 30 minutes,

DANIEL DRAPER, Ph. D.

Director Meteorological Observatory of the Department of Public Parks, New York.

SCIENCE.

425

Sere INGE :

A WEEKLY ReEcorp OF SCIENTIFIC

PRoGRESS.

JOHN MICHELS, Editor.

THRMS:
PER YEAR, - = = - Four DoLLars.
6 MonTHs, - - - - Two ue
3 ss = - - - ONE ls
SINGLE CoPIEs, - 2 = - TEN CENTS.

PUBLISHED AT
TRIBUNE BUILDING, NEW YORK.
P, O, Box 88388.

SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER bo, 1881,

Residents of New York city who visited Cincin-
nati on the occasion of the meeting of the Ameri-
can Association for the Advancement of Science,
doubtless returned with a better appreciation of the
water supply of their own city.

Cincinnati draws its supply of water direct from
the Ohio river, at a point within the city limits, and
within a few yards of the outlet of a main sewer
which discharges its abominations into the already
discolored and muddy waters of the river.

Some idea may be formed of the condition of this
water, when we state, that a small quantity poured
into a washing basin, obscured the view of the bot-
tom of the utensil, so opaque is the water by reason
of its muddy impurity. And yet, the river at this
time was at its best, for, undisturbed by rains or floods,
it flowed past the city reduced to its lowest limits, and
in its highest condition of purity.

Unanimity among the population of a large city on
any one point, is not to be expected, but, it was with
some surprise we heard expressions of admiration
regarding this water, from some Cincinnatians. The
majority of the people, however, were disgusted with
the water supply of the city, and many were seeking
their own remedy by the construction of artesian
wells. The public press of Cincinnati, during our
visit was loud in its denunciations of the evil, making
excellent suggestions for obtaining the water supply
from a purer source, and other needed improvements.

Recently the question has been much discussed, as
to whether a city should draw its supply from a river,
or from lakes and storage reservoirs. Which will give
the best results?

This question is beset with many difficulties, and, in
our opinion, cannot be determined in such a manner,
that any particular decision for future guidance, zz ad/

cases, can be delivered. We apprehend that local
causes and conditions which vary for every locality,
having due weight and being well considered, should
decide the question.

Of course absolute purity is not demanded, neither
is it essential. The object to be aimed at, and that must
be secured at any cost, is such a condition of purity
which may be expressed by the term “fitness.”

A water that is free from any impurities dangerous
to health, of a good color and inodorous, may be con-
sidered “fit” for the supply of a city.

The question as to the best source for a supply of
water, has of late received much attention from chem-
ists and sanitary engineers. Reviewing the discus-
sions, we express the opinion, that water drawn from
a river which is free from sewage contaminations and
not subject to discoloration, is preferable to water
collected in lakes and storage reservoirs. ‘The stor-
age of water in reservoirs for long periods, without
doubt, causes a deterioration in the quality of the
water, generating a variety of animal and vegetable
forms that are characteristic of stagnant waters, and
which are dangerous to health. River water, on the con-
trary, if not contaminated directly near the source of
supply, is usually free from those impurities which are
most undesirable.

On this point we refer our readers to ‘‘ ScIENCE,”
Vol. I. page 67, where will be found an analysis
of the water supply of Newark, N. J., obtained
from the river Passaic, contrasted with water used
in that city, obtained from driven wells. The
result showed that the water from the Passaic
river, although contaminated with sewage to a
certain extent, and below what may be consid-
ered a satisfactory condition, stood at the head of the
list in regard to purity and general fitness for sani-
tary purposes. We believe that recently Professor
Leeds, of Hoboken, has made analyses of the same
waters, with very similar results.

But, from whatever source water may be obtained, a
certain amount of manipulation appears to be essen-
tial before it is fit for distribution in a city. In the
first place it should be held in a reservoir for 24 hours,
to permit the suspended matter to subside; it should
go through some simple process of filtration; and,
lastly, be pumped to a sufficient elevation to secure a
supply of water to the upper part of every house in
the city.

The question of the public filtration of water for
city use no doubt presents many difficulties, but until
such filtration is accomplished by the authorities, every
householder should make use of a filter, to cleanse
from impurities, the water used for drinking and cook-
ing purposes ; for apart from the question of health,
the interest of the public in securing pure water is

426

not confined to its use as an article of diet, because
for all purposes for which water is employed, the purer
it is, the better it is adapted for use.
ee Lo
THE CONNECTION OF THE BIOLOGICAL
SCIENCES WITH MEDICINE,.*
By 7, HS] Muxtey, WilsD:

“The great man whose name is inseparably connected
with the foundation of medicine, Hippocrates certainly
knew very little—indeed, practically nothing—of anatomy
or physiology; and he would probably have been per-
plexed even to imagine the possibility of a connection be-
tween the zodlogical studies of his contemporary, De-
mocritus, and medicine. Nevertheless, in so far as he
and those who worked before and after him in the same
spirit ascertained, as matters of experience, that a wound
or a luxation, or a fever, presented such and-~ such
symptoms, and that the return of the patient to health
was facilitated by such and such measures, they estab-
lished laws of Nature and began the construction of the
science of pathology. Alltrue science begins with empiri-
cism, though all true science is such exactly in so far as it
strives to pass out of the empirical stage into that of the
deduction of empirical from more general truths. Thus,
it is not wonderful that the early physicians had little or
nothing to do with the development of biological science ;
and, on the other hand. that the early biologists did not
much concern themselves with medicine. There is noth-
ing to show that the Asclepiads took any prominent
share in the work of founding anatomy, physiology, zoo-
logy and botany. Rather do these seem to have sprung
from the early philosophers, who were essentially natural
philosophers, animated by the characteristically Greek
thirst for knowledge as such. Pythagoras, Alemzon,
Democritus, Diogenes of Apollonia, are all credited with
anatomical and physiological investigation; and though
Aristotle is said to have belonged to an Asclepiad family,
and not improbably owed his taste for anatomical and
zoological inquiries to the teachings of his father, the
physician Nicomachus, the ‘ Historia Animalium,’ and
the treatise ‘De Partibus Animalium,’ are as free from any
allusion to medicine as if they had issued from a modern
biological laboratory.

“Jt may be added, that it is not easy to see in what
way it could have benefited a physician of Alex-
ander’s time to know all that Aristotle knew on these
subjects. His human anatomy was too rough to
avail much in diagnosis, his physiology was too erroneous
to supply data for pathological reasoning. But when the
Alexandrian school, with Erasistratus and Herophilus at
their head, turned to account the opportunities of study-
ing human structure afforded to them by the Ptolemies,
the value of the large amount of accurate knowledge
thus obtained to the surgeon for his operations, and to
the physician for his diagnosis of internal disorders, be-
came obvious, and a connection was established between
anatomy and medicine, which has ever become closer and
closer. Since the revival of learning, surgery, medical
diagnosis, and anatomy have gone hand in hand. Mor-
gagni called his great work ‘ De Sedibus et Causis Mor-
borum per Anatomen Indagatis,’ and not only showed
the way to search out the localities and the causes of dis-
ease by anatomy, but himself travelled wonderfully far
upon the road. Bichat, discriminating the grosser con-
stituents of the organs and parts of the body one from
another, pointed out the direction which modern research
must take; until at length histology, a science of yester-
day, as it seems to many of us, has carried the work of
Morgagni as far as the microscope can take us, and has
extended the realm of pathological anatomy to the limits
of the invisible world.

* International Medical Congress London, 188r.

SCIENCE.

“ Thanks to the intimate alliance of morphology with
medicine, the natural history of disease has, at the pres-
ent day, attained a high degree of perfection. Accurate
regional anatomy has rendered practicable the exploration
of the most hidden parts of the organism, and the deter-
mination during life of morbid changes in them ; anatomi-
cal and histological post-mortem investigations have sup-
plied physicians with a clear basis upon which to rest the
classification of diseases, and with unerring tests of the
accuracy or inaccuracy of their diagnosis. If men could
be satished with pure knowledge, the extreme precision
with which, in these days, a sufferer may be told what is
happening, and what is likely to happen, even in the most
recondite parts of his bodily frame, should be as satisfac-
tory to the patient as it is to the scientific pathologists
who gives him the information. But I am afraid it is not;
and even the practising physician, while nowise underes-
timating the regulative value of accurate diagnosis, must
often lament that so much of his knowledge rather pre-
vents him from doing wrong.than helps him to do right.
A scorner of physic once said that Nature and disease
may be compared to two men fighting, the doctor to a
blind man with a club, who strikes into the sé/ée some-
times hitting the disease and sometimes hitting all Nature.
The matter is not mended if you suppose the blind man’s
hearing to be so acute that he can register every stage of
the struggle and pretty clearly predict how it will end. He
had better not meddle at all until his eyes are opened—until
he can see the exact position of the antagonists, and make
sure of the effects of his blows. But that which it be-
hooves the physician to see, not indeed with his bodily
eye, but with clear intellectual vision, is a process, and
the chain of causation involved in that process. Disease,
as we have seen, is a perturbation of the normal activities
of a living body ; and it is and must remain unintelligible
so long as we are ignorant of the nature of these normal
activities. In other words, there could be no real science
of pathology until the science of physiology had reached
a degree of perfection unattained, and indeed unattainable,
until quite recent times.

“So far as medicine 1s concerned, I am not sure
that physiology, such as it was down to the time of
Harvey, might as well not have existed. Nay, it is, per-
haps, no exaggeration to say that, within the memory of
living men, justly renowned practitioners of medicine and
surgery knew less physiology than is now to be learned
from the most elementary text book, and, beyond a few
broad facts, regarded what they did know as of extremely
little practical importance. Nor am I disposed to blame
them for this conclusion; physiology must be useless, or
worse than useless, to pathology, so long as its funda-
mental conceptions are erroneous. Harvey is often said
to be the founder of modern physiology, and there can be
no question that the elucidations of the function of the
heart, of the nature of the pulse, and of the course of the
blood, put forth in the ever-memorable little essay, ‘ De
motu cordis,’ directly worked a revolution in men’s views
of the nature and of the concatenation of some of the
most important physiological processes among the higher
animals, while indirectly their influence was perhaps even
more remarkable. But, though Harvey made this signal
and perennially important contribution to the physiology
of the moderns, his general conception of vital processes
was essentially identical with that of the ancients; and
in the ‘ Exercitationes de generatione,’ and notably in the
singular chapter, ‘ De calido innato,’ he shows himself a
true son of Galon and of Aristotle. For Harvey, the
blood possesses powers superior to those of the elements ;
it is the seat of a soul which is not only vegetative, but
also sensitive and motor. The blood maintains and
fashions all parts of the body, zdgue summa cum pro-
videntia et tntellectu, tn finem certum agens, guast
vattocinto guodam uteretur. Here is the doctrine of
the Azeuma, the product of the philosophical mould into
which the animism of primitive men ran in Greece, in

SCIENCE.

427

tull force. Nor did its strength abate for long after Har-
vey’s time. The same ingrained tendency of the human
mind to suppose that a process is explained when it is
ascribed to a power of which nothing is known except
that it is the hypothetical agent of the process, gave rise,
in the next century, to the animism of Stahl; and later
to the doctrine of a vital principle, that asylum zgno-
rantz@ of physiologists, which has so easily accounted for
everything and explained nothing, down to our own times,

“Now, the essence of modern, as contrasted with
ancient physiological science, appears to me to lie in its
antagonism to animistic hypotheses and animistic phrase-
ology. It offers physical explanations of vital phenomena,
or frankly confesses that it has none to offer. And, so
far as I know, the first person who gave expression to
this incdern view of physiology, who was bold enough to
enunciate the proposition that vital phenomena, like all
the other phenomena of the physical world, are in ulti-
mate analysis, resolvable into matter and motion, was
René Descartes. The fifty-four years of life of this most
original and powerful thinker are widely over-lapped on
both sides by the eighty of Harvey, who survived his
younger contemporary by seven years, and takes pleasure
in acknowledging the French philosopher’s appreciation
of his great discovery. In fact, Descartes accep‘ed the
doctrine of the circulation as propounded by ‘ Herveeus,
médecin d’Angleterre,’ and gavea full account of it in his
first work, the famous ‘ Discours de la Méthode,’ which
was published in 1637, only nine years after the exercita-
tion ‘De motu cordis;’ and, though differing from Har-
vey in some important points (in which it may be noted,
in passing, Descartes was wrong and Harvey right), he
always speaks of him with great respect. And so im-
portant does the subject seem to Descartes, that he re-
turns to it in the ‘Traité des Passions,’ and in the
‘Traité de !Homme.’

“Tt is easy lo see that Harvey’s work must have had a
peculiar significance for the subtle thinker, to whom we
owe both the spiritualistic and the materialistic philoso-
phies of modern times. It was in the very year of its
publication, 1628, that Descartes withdrew into that life
of solitary investigation and meditation of which his phil-
osophy was the fruit; and, as the course of his specula-
tions led him to establish an absolute distinction of Na-
ture between the material and the mental worlds, he was
logically compelled to seek for the explanation of the
phenomena of the material world within itself, and having
allotted the realm of thought to the soul, to see nothing
but extension and motion in the rest of Nature. Des-
cartes uses ‘thought’ as the equivalent of our modern
term ‘ consciousness.’ Thought is the function of the
soul, and its only function. Our natural heat and all the
movements of the body, says he, do not depend on the
soul. Death does not take place from any fault of the
soul, but only because some of the principal parts of the
body become corrupted. The body of a living man differs
from that of a dead man in the same way as a watch or
other automaton (that is to say, a machine which moves
of itself) when it is wound up, and has in itself the physi-
cal principal of the movements which the mechanism is
adapted to perform, differs from the same watch or other
machine when it is broken, and the physical principle of
its movements no longer exists. All the actions which
are common to us and the lower animals depend only on
the conformation of our organs and the course which the
animal spirits take in the brain, the nerves, and the mus-
cles, in the same way as the movement of a watch is pro-
duced by nothing but the force of its spring and the fig-
ure of its wheels and other parts.

“ Descartes’ treatise on ‘Man’ is a sketch of human
physiology in which a bold attempt is made to explain all
the phenomena of life, except those of consciousness, by
physical reasonings. Toa mind turned in this direction
Harvey’s exposition of the heart and vessels as a hydraulic

mechanism must have been supremely welcome. Des-
cartes was not a mere philosophical theorist, but a hard-
working dissector and experimenter, and he held the
strongest opinion respecting the practical value of the new
conception which he was introducing. He speaks of the
importance of preserving health, and of the dependence
of the mind on the body being so close that perhaps the
only way of making men wiser and better than they are is
to be sought in medical science. ‘It is true,’ says he,
‘that as medicine is now practised it contains little that is
very useful; but without any desire to depreciate, I am
sure that there is no one, even among professional men,
who will not declare that all we know is very little as com-
pared with that which remains to be known; and that we
might escape an infinity of diseases of the mind, no less
than of the body, and even perhaps the weakness of old
age, if we had a sufficient knowledge of their causes and
of all the remedies with which nature has provided us.’ *
So strongly impressed was Descartes with this that
he resolved to spend the rest of his life in trying to
acquire such a knowledge of nature as would lead to the
construction of a better medical doctrine.* The anti-Car-
tesians found material for cheap ridicule in these aspira-
tions of the philosopher; and it is almost needless to say
that, in the thirteen years which elapsed between the pub-
lication of the ‘ Discours’ and the death of Descartes, he
did not contribute much to their realization. But for the
next century all progress in physiology took place along
the lines which Descartes laid down.

“The greatest physiological and pathological work of
the seventeenth century, Borelle’s treatise ‘De motu ani-
malium,’ is, to all intents and purposes, a development of
Descartes’ fundamental conception ; and the same may be
said of the physiology and pathology of Boerhaave, whose
authority dominated in the medical world in the first half
of the eighteenth century. With the origin of modern
chemistry and electrical science, in the latter half of the
eighteenth century, aids in the analysis of the phenomena
of life, of which Descartes could not have dreamed, were
offered the physiologist. And the greater part of the
gigantic progress which has been made in the present cen-
tury is a justification of the provisions of Descartes. For
it consists essentially in a more and more complete reso-
lution of the grosser organs of the living body into phy-
sico-chemical mechanisms. ‘JI shall try to explain our
whole bodily machinery in such a way that it will be no
more necessary for us to suppose that the soul produces
such movements as are not voluntary than it is to think
that there is in a clock a soul which causes it to show the
hours.’+| These words of Descartes might be appropri-
ately taken as a motto by the author of any modern treat-
ise on physiology.

“But though, as I think, there is no doubt that Des-
cartes was the first to propound the fundamental
conception of the living body as a physical mechanism,
which is the distinctive feature of modern as contrasted
with ancient physiology, he was misled by the natural
temptation to carry out, in all its details, a parallel be-
tween the machines with which he was familiar, such as
clocks and pieces of hydraulic apparatus and the living
machine. In all such machines there is a central source
of power, and the parts of the machine are merely pas-
sive distributors of that power. The Cartesian school
conceived of the living body as a machine of this kind;
and herein they might have learned from Galen, who,
whatever ill use he may have made of the doctrine of
“natural faculties,” nevertheless had the great merit of
perceiving that local forces play a great part in physiology.
The same truth was recognized by Glisson, but it was
first prominently brought forward in the Hallerian doc-
trine of the ‘vis insita’ of muscles. If muscle can con-
tract without nerve, there is an end of the Cartesian me-

* Discours de la Méthode.

t De la Formation du Feetus.

6mo. partie. Ed. Cousin. P. 193.

428

chanical explanation of its contraction by the influx of
animal spirits.

“The discoveries of Trembley tended in the same direc-
tion. In the fresh water Hydra no trace was to be found
of that complicated machinery upon which the perfor-
mance of the functions in the higher animals was sup-
posed todepend. And yet the hydra moved, fed, grew,
multiplied, and its fragments exhibited all the powers of
the whole. And, finally, the work of Caspar F. Wolff,t
by demonstrating the fact that the growth and develop-
ment of both plants and animals take place antecedently
to the existence of their grosser organs, and are, in fact,
the causes and not the consequences of organization (as
then understood), sapped the foundations of the Cartesian
physiology as a complete expression of vital phenomena.
For Wolff, the physical basis of life is a fluid, possessed
of a “vis essentialis ’ and a ‘ solidescibilitas ;’ in virtue of
which it gives rise to organization ; and, as he points out,
this conclusionstrikes at the root of the whole iatro-me-
chanical system.

“Tn this country the great authority of John Hunter
exerted a similar influence, though it must be admitted
that the too sibylline utterances which are the outcome
of Hunter’s struggles to define his conceptions are often
susceptible of more than one interpretation. Neverthe-
less, on some points Hunter is clear enough. For ex-
ample, he is of opinion that ‘spirit is only a property of
matter’ (‘Introduction to Natural History,’ page 6), he
is prepared to renounce animism (I. c., p. 8), and his con-
ception of life is so completely physical that he thinks of
it as something which can exist in a state of combination
in the food. ‘The aliment we take in has init, in a fixed
state, the real life, and this does not become active until
it has got into the lungs, for there it is freed from its
prison’ (Observations on Physiology,’ p. 113). He also
thinks that: ‘It is more in accord with the general
principles of the animal machine to suppose that none of
its effects are produced from any mechanical principle
whatever, and that every effect is produced from an
action in the part, which action is produced by a stimulus
upon the part which acts, or upon some other part with
which this part sympathizes, so as to take up the whole
action’ (Il. c., p. 152). And Hunter is as clear as Wolff,
with whose work he probably was unacquainted, that
‘whatever life is, it most certainly does not depend upon
structure or organization ’ (I. c. p. 114).

“‘ Of course, it is impossible that Hunter could have in-
tended to deny the existence of purely mechanical opera-
tions in the animal body. But while with Borelli and
Boerhaave, he looked upon absorption, nutrition, and
secretion as operations effected by means of the small
vessels, he differed from the mechanical physiologists,
who regarded these operations as the result of the me-
chanical properties of the small vessels, such as the size,
form, and disposition of their canals and apertures.
Hunter, on the contrary, considers them to be the effect
of properties of these vessels which are not mechanical,
but vital. ‘The vessels,’ says he, ‘have more of the
polypus in them than any other part of the body,’ and he
talks of the ‘living and sensitive principles of the ar-
teries,’ and even of the ‘ dispositions or ‘feelings of the
arteries.’ ‘When the blood is good and genuine, the
sensations of the arteries, or the dispositions for sensa-
tion, are agreeable. It is then they dispose of
the blood to the best advantage, increasing the growth
of the whole, supplying any losses, keeping up a due suc-
cession, etc.’ (I. c., p. 133).

“Tf we follow Hunter’s conceptions to their logical
issue, the life of one of the higher animals is essentially
the sum of the lives of all the vessels, each of which is a
sort of physiological unit, answering to a polyp; and, as
health is the result of the normal “action of the vessels,”
so is disease an effect of their abnormal action. Hunter

¢~ Theoris Generationis, 1759.

e+ v=

SCIENCE.

thus stands in thought, as in time, midway between Borelli,
on the one hand, and Bichat, on the other. The acute
founder of general anatomy, in fact, outdoes Hunter
in his desire to exclude physical reasonings from the
realm of life. Except in the interpretation of the action
of the sense organs, he will not allow physics to have
anything to do with physiology. ‘To apply the physical
sciences to physiology is to explain the phenomena of
living bodies by the laws of inert bodies. Now, this is a
false principle, hence all its consequences are marked
with the same stamp. Let us leave to chemistry its
affinity, to physics its elasticity and its gravity. Let us
invoke for physiology only sensibility and contractility ’ *
Of all the unfortunate dicta of men of eminent abil-
ity this seems one of the most unhappy, when we
think of what the application of the methods and the
data of physics and chemistry has done towards bringing
physiology into its present state. It is not too much to
say that one half of a modern text-book of physiology
consists of applied physics and chemistry, and that it is
exactly in the exploration of the phenomena of sensibility
and contractility that physics-and chemistry have exerted
the most potent influence.

“ Nevertheless, Bichat rendered a solid seivice to phy-
siological progress by insisting upon the fact that what
we call life in one of the higher animals is not an invis-
ible unitary archeus dominating from its central seat the
parts of the organism, but a compound result of the syn-
thesis of the separate lives of those parts. ‘ All animals,’
says he, ‘are assemblages of different organs, each of
which performs its function and concurs, after its fashion,
in the preservation of the whole. They are so many
special machines in the general machine which consti-
tutes the individual. But each of these special machines -
is itself compounded of many tissues of very different
natures, which, in truth, constitute the elements of these
organs (I. c., Ixxix.) The conception of a proper vitality
is applicable only to these simple tissues, and not to the
organs themselves (I. c., Ixxxiv.).’ And Bichat proceeds
to make the obvious application of this doctrine of syn-
thetic life, if I may so call it, to pathology. Since dis-
eases are only alterations of vital properties, and the
properties of each tissue are distinct from those of
the rest, it is evident that the diseases of each tissue
must be different from those of the rest. Therefore, in
any organ composed of different tissues, one may be dis-
eased and the other remain healthy, and this is what
happens in most cases (I. c., Ixxxv.). Ina spirit of true
prophecy, Bichat says: ‘We have arrived at an epoch
in which pathological anatomy should start afresh.’ For,
as the analysis of the organ had led him to the tissues as
the physiological units of the organism, so, in a succeed-
ing generation, the analysis of the tissues led to the cell
as the physiological element of the tissues. The con-
temporaneous study of development brought out the
same result, and the zodlogists and botanists, exploring
the simplest and the lowest forms of animated beings,
confirmed the great induction of the cell theory. Thus
the apparently opposed views which have been battling
with one another ever since the middle of the last cen-
tury have proved to be each half a truth.

“The proposition of Descartes, that the body of a
living man is a machine, the actions of which are explic-
able by the known laws of matter and motion, is un-
questionably largely true. But it is also true that the
living body is a synthesis of innumerable physiological
elements, each of which may nearly be described in
Wolff's words, as a fluid possessed of a w2s essentzalzs,
and a sol¢desczbilitas ; or, in modern phrase, as proto-
plasm susceptible of structural metamorphosis and func-
tional metabolism ; and that the only machinery, in the
precise sense in which the Cartesian school understood
mechanism, is that which co-ordinates and regulates

* Anatomie générale, i., p. liv.

eo

‘SCIENCE.

these physiological units into an organic whole. In
fact, the body is a machine of the nature of an army, not
of that of a watch, or of a hydraulic apparatus. Of this
army, each cell is a soldier, an organ a brigade, the
central nervous system headquarters and field tel-
egraph, the alimentary and circulatory system the com-
missariat. Losses are made good by recruits born in
camp, and the life of the individual is a campaign, con-
ducted successfully for a number of years, but with cer-
tain defeat in the long run.

“The efficacy of an army at any given moment de-
pends on the health of the individual soldier, and on the
perfection of the machinery by which he is led and
brought into action at the proper time; and, therefore,
if the analogy holds good, there can be only two kinds of
diseases, the one dependent on abnormal states of the
physiological units, the other on perturbation of their
co-ordinating and alimentative machinery. Hence, the
establishment of the cell theory in normal biology was
swiftly followed by a ‘cellular pathology’ as its logical
counterpart. I need not remind you how great an in-
strument of investigation this doctrine has proved in the
hands of the man of genius, to whom its development is
due, and who would probably be the last to forget that
abnormal conditions of the co-ordinative and distributive
machinery of the body are no less important factors of
disease. Henceforward, as it appears to me, the connec-
tion of medicine with the biological sciences is clearly
defined. Pure pathology is that branch of biology which
defines the particular perturbation of cell-life, or of the
co-ordinating machinery, or of both, on which the pheno-
mena of disease depend.

“ Those who are conversant with the present state of
biology will hardly hesitate to admit that the conception
of the life of one of the higher animals as the summation
of the lives of a cell-aggregate, brought into harmonious
action by a co-ordinative machinery formed by some of
these cells, constitutes a permanent acquisition of physio-
logical science. But the last form of the battle between
the animistic and the physical views of life is seen in the
contention whether the physical analysis of vital phenom-
ena can be carried beyond this point or not.

“There are some to whom living protoplasm is a sub-
stance even such as Harvey conceived the blood to be,
summé cum providentia et tntellectu in finem certum
agens, guast ratioc¢nzo guodam ; and who look, with as
little favor as Bichat did, upon any attempt to apply the
principles and the methods of physics and chemistry to
the investigation of the vital processes of growth, meta-
bolism, and contractility. They stand upon the ancient
ways; only, in accordance with that progress toward
democracy which a great political writer has declared to
be the fatal characteristic of modern times, they substi-
tute a republic formed by a few billion of ‘animula’ for,
the monarchy of the all-pervading ‘anima.’ Others, on
the contrary, supported by a robust faith in the universal
applicability of the principles laid down by Descartes,
and seeing that the actions called ‘vital’ are, so far as
we have any means of knowing, nothing but changes of
place of particles of matter, look to molecular physics to
achieve the analysis of the living protoplasm itself into a
molecular mechanism. If there is any truth in the re-
ceived doctrine of physics, that contrast between living
and inert matter, on which Bichat lays so much stress,
does not exist. In nature nothing is at rest, nothing is
amorphous; the simplest particle of that which men in
their blindness are pleased to call ‘ brute matter’ is a vast
aggregate of molecular mechanisms, performing com-
plicated movements of immense rapidity, and sensitively
adjusting themselves to every change in the surrounding
world. Living matter differs from other matter in degree
and not in kind; the microcosm repeats the macrocosm ;
and one chain of causation connects the nebulous original
of suns and planetary systems with the protoplasmic
foundation of life and organization, From this point o1

|

429

view pathology is the analogue of the theory of pertur-
bations in astronomy; and therapeutics resolves itself
into the discovery of the means by which a system of
forces competent to eliminate any given perturbation may
be introduced into the economy. And as pathology
bases itself upon normal physiology, so therapeutics rests
upon pharmacology, which is, strictly speaking, a part of
the great-biological topic of the influence of conditions
on the living organism, and has no scientific foundation
apart from physiology.

“It appears to me that there is no more hopeful indi-
cation of the progress of medicine toward the ideal of
Descartes than is to be derived from a comparison of the
state of pharmacology at the present day with that which
existed forty years ago. If we consider the knowledge
positively acquired in this short time of the modus oper-
andi of urari, of atropia, of physostigmin, of veratria, of
casca, of strychnia, of bromide of potassium, of phos-
phorus, there can surely be no ground for doubting that,
sooner or later, the pharmacologist will supply the physi-
cian with the means of affecting, in any desired sense,
the functions of any physiological element of the body.
It will, in short, become possible to introduce into the
economy a molecular mechanism which, like a very cun-
ningly contrived torpedo, shall find its way to some par-
ticular group of living elements, and cause an explosion
among them, leaving the rest untouched. The search
for the explanation of diseased states in modified cell-life ;
the discovery cf the important part played by parasitic
organisms in the etiology of disease; the elucidation of
the action of medicaments by the methods and the data
of experimental physiology—appear to me to be the
greatest steps which have ever been made toward the
establishment of medicine on a scientific basis. I need
hardly say they could not have been made except for the
advance of normal biology.

““There can be no question, then, as to the nature or
the value of the connection between medicine and the
biological sciences. There can be no doubt that the
future of pathology and of therapeutics, and therefore that
of practical medicine, depend upon the extent to which
those who occupy themselves with these subjects are
trained in the methods, and impregnated with the funda-
mental truths, of biology.

«“ And, in conclusion, I venture to: suggest that the
collective sagacity of this Congress could occupy itself
with no more important question than with this. How
is medical education to be arranged, so that, without
entangling the student in those details of the systematist
which are valueless to him, he may be enabled to obtain
a firm grasp of the great truths respecting animal and
vegetable life, without which, notwithstanding all the
progress of scientific medicine, he will still find himself
an empiric ?”

NOTES ON EXPERIMENTAL CHEMISTRY.*
By PROFESSOR ALBERT B. PRESCOTT.

I. Determinations of the limits of (1), temperature in
solution; (2), temperature in dry state; (3), alcoholic
fermentation; and (4), acidity, compatible with the
starch converting power of diastase of barley malt.

II, Determinations of the solubility of precipitated
aluminium hydrate in excess of ammonium hydrate, with
and without ammonium chloride.

at eg ee

In a paper by M. L. Boudenoot in the Nouvelles Annales
de la Construction, describing the various forms of explosives
of the nitro-cellulose class, a new compound is mentioned,
called by its inventor, M. Anders, gelatino-diaspon. It is
composed of wood-cellulose and nitro-glycerine, is un-
affected by cold, is not sensible to blows or shocks, and
explodes only by a sudden increase of temperature to
about 160° C. (320° Fahr.) It burns quietly when ignited
in the open air, and is not injured by water.

* Read before the A. A, A, S., Cincinnati, 1881,

430 SCIENCE.

THE. PARIS ELECTRICAL EXHIBITION.

[From Our Paris CoRRESPONDENT. |]

To the Editor of “SCIENCE.”

This letter leaves Paris somewhat !ate, considering the
official opening of the Electrical Exhibition took place
eight days ago, and that the opening to the public fol-
lowed the next day, viz., the 11th of August, but in fact
the exhibition is not opened even yet, although the pub-
lic is admitted during some"hours of the day to look at
the half-finished structures and to inspect the dust-coy-
ered instruments.

The daily newspapers and some so-called scientific
papers, which give to their readers sensational articles
rather than correct information, have been for about ten
days crowded with descriptions of the opening and the pro-
gress of the electrical exhibition, but the real good scien-
tific papers have hitherto only given short notes, because
it has, as yet, been impossible to study the value of the
different instruments in the exhibition building, where
everything is still in a half-finished state and where the
noise of hammers and carpenters’ instruments are still
heard in every corner.

Notwithstanding this, I will endeavor to give you in
this letter a description of the actual state of the exhibi-
tion, which will serve your readers as an introduction to
the more special articles with which I will furnish your
paper weekly.

When we first enter the Palais de }’Industrie through
the principal pavilion, which is situated on the side of the
Champs Elysées, we observe a series of beautiful statues
which serve as ‘‘candelabres” for lamps of the Werdermann
system, and when we approach the entrance to the great
nave our eyes are attracted with two enormous images
representing a male and female lion, while we observe
above our head a beautiful chandelier of iron wrought in
tasteful style, furnished with Siemens lamps. This
lustre will undoubtedly be very attractive if the arrange-
ments for the light are made as carefully by the French
firm of the well-known house of Siemens, as those in the
German department, where some evenings ago the pre-
liminary experiments made with the Siemens lamps
attracted the general admiration of all those who had
the privilege to witness them.

In the centre of the nave a light-house is erected,
which is a copy of the light-houses that guard the
coasts: of France. It is surrounded by a_ small
water-basin, which, although it may be called orna-
mental, is perfectly useless for the purpose for which
it is destined, on account of its limited dimensions
and the outlines of its borders, which form a star. This
basin is intended as a field of exercise for the boat of M.
Trouvé, called the Zelephon, which is driven by an
electric motor, in connection with a Bunsen battery, and
the length of which nearly equals the radius of the cir-
cumference of the basin.

I may here say a few words about M. Trouvé’s boat,
on account of which a good deal of nonsense has been
published in European and American papers, one of the
latter mentioning not long ago that M. Trouvé’s boat,
with which he experimented upon the Seine, contained
a battery of M. Faure, but M. Trouvé is too well ac-
quainted with the value of scientific instruments to
depreciate the merits of the Planté battery and to substi-
tute for it Faure’s modification, as long as the former
is better.

Count Du Moncel, whose name is well known among
all electricians, on account of his excellent work on the
“ Application of Electricity,” which is the most complete

work of its kind in existence, and also on account of his’

other numerous publications and inventions relating to
this part of Science, presented on the 7th of July last a
note to the Academy of Sciences, in which M. Trouvé
describes in a very precise manner the motor used by

him in propelling a little boat. This note will give to
your readers exact and correct information regarding the
merits and properties of the motor used in the little canoe
which is now seen in the Electrical Exhibition, and I
therefore quote this note verbatim :

“A motor having a weight of 5 kilogrammes and in
connection with six elements of a secondary battery of
Planté, which produces a labor of 7 kilogrammeters per
second, was placed on the 8th of last April upon a tricy-
cle, which latter, rider and battery included, hada weight
of 160 kilogrammes, and gave to the vehicle a celerity of
12 kilometers per hour.”

“The same motor, used on the 26th of May, ina boat
having a length of 5.50 meters and a breadth of 1.20
meters, holding three persons, gave to this boat a celerity
of 2.50 meters in descending the Seine at Pont-Royale
and of 1.50 meter in moving against the current. “The
motor obtained its electro-motive power by means of two
batteries, consisting each of 6 elements of bichromate of
potash, and the propeller was furnished with a coil hav-
ing 3 branches.

“On the 26th of June I renewed the experiment upon
the quiet waters of the upper lake of the Bois de Bologne,
using a coil with 4 branches having diameters of 0.28
meter and being in connection with 12 elements of Bun-
sen with flat plates such as are used in the Ruhmkorff
battery. The liquid of these elements consisted of one
part of hydrochloric-acid, one part of nitric acid, and two
parts of water in the porous vessel, in order to diminish
the disengagement of hypoazotic vapors.

“The celerity of the little boat, which was measured
with an ordinary log, rose in the commencement to 150
meters within 48 seconds, or a little more than 3 meters
per second; but after three hours of working it had
diminished to 150 meters during 55 seconds. After five
hours of working the electricity was still 2.30 meters per
second.”

So much about M. Trouvé’s boat, of which a number
of miniature specimens, in good working order, may be
seen in the upper story of the Exposition building.

At the left-hand side of the nave, nearest to the light-
house, are the exhibitions of Great Britain, Germany and
the United States. The exhibition of Germany is that
which has the most imposing appearance and is also that
which was first completed. Two enormous “ candela-
bres” in forged iron ornament the entrance of the
department, and contain lamps of ‘‘ Gebrueder Siemens ”
of Berlin. Near them stand two trophies crowned with
the Prussian eagle, and behind them, upon a large num-
ber of tables, may be seen a collection of electrical instru-
ments of all kinds, which we will describe in our reports
hereafter. At the right-hand side of the department we
see the busts of five German pioneers in the field of Elec-
trical Science, viz.: Otto von Guericke, Ohm, Sommer-
ing, Steinheil, and Gauss.

The historical collection of instruments in the German
department is of the highest interest in a retrospective
way. I will only mention an exact copy of the first
machine for static electricity, constructed in the year
1670 by Otto von Guericke, consisting of a sulphur globe,
which was electrified by turning it by means of an axis
and using the hand as a rubber; an electrical egg, so-
called, property of Prince Pless, of Germany, and con-
structed at the commencement of the 18th century ; an
electro-chemical apparatus for telegraphing, constructed
by Thomas Sémmering in Munich in the year 1809—
the telegraphing with this instrument is done by the
decomposition of water. A magneto-electric telegraph
of Gauss and Weber, constructed in 1833—this telegraph
was used in 1837 1n order to keep up a telegraphic com-
munication between the physical laboratory aud the mag-
netical observatory in the University of Gottingen; the
copy of the first telephone ever constructed, and invented
in the year 1861 by Reis, and a great many other appa-
ratus of equal interest,

431
SCIENCE.

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432

SCIENCE.

Amongst the other electrical instruments in the front
part of the department, especially worthy of attention, are
some of the most important instruments used in thé
physiological institution of Berlin and mostly due to the
genius of the celebrated German professor ‘“‘ Dubois—
Reymond ”’ of Berlin. These instruments will be used in
experiments before the French Academy of Sciences and
the Electric Congress, by Professor Arthur Christiani, of
the Medical Faculty of the Berlin University, who has
been sent for this purpose to Paris and arrived here a
few days ago.

A large space in the German department is occupied
by the extensive exhibitions of the firm of Siemens &
Halske of Berlin, and there may be also seen the first
electro-locomotive constructed by this firm in the year
1867 and the first machine of that renowned type, which
was invented at nearly the same time by Mr. Wheat-
stone in England and Mr. Siemens in Berlin.

The exhibit of Mr. Siemens is, in my opinion, one of the
most important of all the exhibits in the whole building
of the Palais de 1’ Industrie, and the excellent instruments
and apparatus manufactured by this firm, which oc-
cupy a large place in the German, French and English
departments of the exhibition create general admiration.
I shall endeavor, during the following week, to furnish
you with an explicit description of some of the more im-
portant instruments of the Siemens exhibition and your
readers will then be able to judge for themselves of
their value.

The exhibition of Great Brztazn is still far from
being complete, and this is very easily explained, by the
fact that the English government, although after a very
long hesitation, finally having taking part in the exhibi-
tion has not consented to contribute anything for the ex-
penses, and it is marvellous that under such circum-
stances the English exhibitors have been able to con-
tribute so much as they have. The only portion of the
English exposition which is nearly complete is that of
Siemens Brothers, who, among other things, exhibit a
great number of apparatus for submarine telegraphy
which are displaved on several large tables, and of which
the most conspicuous is a full sized buoy ornamented
with a flag. One fact which I must not forget to men-
tion, is, that the pavilion of the British post-office is un-
doubtedly erected in excellent taste and is not only the
most conspicuous but also the most beautiful in the ex-
hibition (with the exception of the pavilions of the Ital-
ians). This pavilion is divided into two parts, the one
containing a historical collection which is very remark-
able and consists of the first instruments of telegraphy,
among others that ingenious telegraph apparatus of
Cook and Wheatstone, which was used with several
wires and which now, after the invention of duplex,
quadruplex and multiplex systems seems rather primitive,
while the other part consists of a collection of all the
modern instruments of telegraphy which can only be ap-
preciated by a more minute description, and a great help
to the study of these instruments is their excellent ar-
rangement, which is due to the labors of Mr. Preece.

The exhibition of the United States is not at all what
it should be, and it is greatly to be regretted that Eu-
ropeans will receive a very wrong impression of the pro-
ductiveness of your country if they judge by the scanty
exhibits which America has sent to the Paris exhibi-
tion.

Most of the Americans to whom I have spoken seem
to recognize this fact very fully, and it is generally re-
gretted that many of the beautiful electrical inventions of
the United States cannot be displayed here, where they
would certainly create a sensation. But it seems that the
United States Government was too interested in politics
to care for a worthy representation at the electrical ex-
hibition, and the more intelligent class of the French
public know how to appreciate the difficulties with which
the American exhibitors had to contend on this account,

as well as on account of the great distance which sepa-
rates their country from Europe.

Among the apparatus, which are already installed, may
be mentioned the Bell telephone, the automatic time-
register and alarm, the Dolbear telephone, of which you
have already given a long description in your paper, and
which is now exhibited in a neat little pavilion erected
by Mr. Buck and Mr. Stetson, who, by their industry, set
an example to the tardy French workmen ; and the ex-
hibition of the United States Signal Service, which con-
tains an ingeniously constructed distance-barometer,
anemoscope and anemometer, invented by Mr. Eccard.
The display of the other exhibitors are not yet finished,
and I reserve that of Mr. Edison’s until it is more com-
plete, as it promises to be the most interesting and valu-
able one in the building, and will demand a special
report to do it justice.

If we continue our walk through the Exhibition to-
wards the East Entrance, we come to the department of
Belgium and Austria. That of Belgium offers a very
beautiful aspect, and is displayed in two fine pavilions,
which are furnished with several crystal cases ornament-
ed by copper posts. The galvano-plastic exhibits in this
department are worthy of the greatest attention, but sci-
entifically, the most interesting exhibit is that of the
meteorological station of Brussels. Austria has contrib-
uted a great many apparatus which serve for the security
of railways.

The pavilion of Italy, which we next enter, is
a beautiful oblong building, and attracts much atten-
tion. Until yesterday it was nearly empty, but the
instruments begin now to be installed, and within a few
days the visitors of the Exhibition will have the privilege
of seeing the ingenious: instruments that Volta, Gulvani
and Nobili constructed with their own hands, and to read
the original letters in which these great scientists pub-
lished their first ideas regarding their new and wonderful
discoveries. This Italian pavilion, in connection with the
post office pavilion of England and the retrospective col-
lection of the Germans, form together the material for the
three most important chapters in the history of elec-
tricity.

The exhibition of Holland offers, so to say, an appen-
dix to them, and the instruments for static electricity there
shown, excel, perhaps not in quality, but at least in gran-
deur all other instruments of this kind. The enormous
machine and battery of Leyden-bottles of Van Marum,
of which we have all heard when we were school boys,
form the most interesting part of this exhibition, and the
whole, including the enormous natural magnets, makes
upon the visitor an impression that he is visiting an ex-
hibition of the Scientists of the land of the pyramids.

Passing the departments of Spain and Switzerland, and
leaving at the left the exhibition of Russia and Norway,
which have all contributed in an appreciable manner to
the interesting show of apparatus, we arrive at the en-
trance station of the Siemens’ electrical railway which is
not yet completed on account of several modifications
which his construction had to undergo. It will be run-
ning, however, within a few days.

Returning now again to the centre of the nave, and
entering the western half of the building, we see before
us the French portion of the exhibition.

At the left hand side viewed from the light-house, is a
pavilion in very good taste filled with the shining silver
and gold exhibits, and with the highly artistic galvano-
plastic reproductions of the renowned firm of Christofle
& Co., and on the right hand side from the light-house
in a pavilion corresponding exactly in style with the
former, we see the exhibits of the Jablochkoff Electric
Light Company. This department contains a complete
collection of all the different kinds of apparatus used by
this company, and amongst others a new dynamo-electric
machine of Jablochkoff, which is of excellent con-
sttiron. :

SCIENCE.

433

The pavilion of the Czty of Parzs contains instruments
for the distribution of time and electrical instruments for
the service of the fire companies. This pavilion is sur-
rounded by the exhibitions of different French railroad
lines, which contain an enormous amount of apparatus
too complicated and too numerous to mention in this
short review.

One of the most interesting parts of the French exhibi-
tion is the pavilion of the Ministry of Posts and Tele-
graphs, which contains a complete collection of all the
modern apparatus employed in the telegraph service of
France. This pavilion is bounded on its North, South
and East sides by highly interesting collections of
different French firms, while on its West side the great
staircase leads to the upper stories. Of the exhibits
in the upper story I will give only a general catalogue
because the installments are as yet too unfinished to
render it possible to give any detailed description of them,
and the experiments with the electric lights and tele-
phones, to which this portion of the palace is mostly de-
dicated, will not commence before eight days.

Hall A, immediately opposite to the grand staircase, is
a beautifully furnished drawing room called the “ Salon
du President’ and will be lighted by the Werdermann
light.

SHrall I contains a gallery of paintings but it is to be
hoped that the light of the ‘‘ Lampe-Soleii ”’ which is here
exhibited will be better than the pictures, which are
wretchedly bad.

Hall 2 contains a stage which once figured in the, so-
called, “ Athenzeum,” in the “ Rue des Martyrs.” This
stage will be used for showing stage effects produced by
electric lights, and the light will be furnished by the
Werdermann Company.

Hall 3 is a tastefully furnished dining-room, with table
temptingly set, in which the Werdermann light will also
be displayed.

Hall 4 is an apartment consisting of vestibule, kitchen
and bathing-room, which will be lighted by incandescent
lamps fed from reservoirs consisting of Faure’s secondary
battery and furnished by “La Société de la Force, et la
Lumiere.”

I have made it a special object to study the value of
the Faure-battery in regard to which so much has been
said pro and contra, and propose to furnish your excel-
lent paper with impartial reports on this subject as
soon as any definite knowledge of it can be obtained.

Halls 5 and 6, which are united in one, will display
lights of the ‘‘ Systeme-Jamin ” and contain a collection
of Gramme-machines modified by M. Jamin.

Hall B contains a collection of smaller electrical ap-
paratus, of electrical toys and also an exhibition of Jab-
lochkoff candles.

Halls 7 and 8 are dedicated to telephone experiments,
hall 7, being lighted by “La Société de la Force et la
Lumiére ” while the light of hall 8, is furnished by Mr.
Brush, The preliminary experiments with the telephones
in these halls have been exceedingly satisfactory, the music
of the Grand Opera and the words spoken in the
“ Théatre-Francais”’ (both of these buildings being con-
nected by telephone-wires with halls) can be so plainly
heard that one may really imagine himself to be one of
the audience present, instead of being several kilometers
distant from the places of performance. A person, who
has never witnessed these telephone experiments can
have no idea of the value of the microphone and tele-
phone, and the public, before which these experiments
will be made in about eight days, will be greatly aston-
ished to see those reports verified which it has hitherto
taken for exaggerated descriptions of sanguine writers.

Hall 9 contains chiefly electrical apparatus devoted to
medical purposes, and will be lighted by Méritens, who
also has there exhibited the most of his special apparatus.

Hall 10 is dedicated to the exhibition and the light of
the firm of “Sautter et Lemonnier,”

Hall 11 has Jablochkoff light and will also exhibit the
apparatus used for photographing by electric light.

Hall 12 will be lighted by the Spanish society of elec-
tricity which employs Gramme’s lamps.

Hall 13 serves for the display of Siemens’ differential
lamps and contains an excellent collection of instruments
of precision and of Geissler tubes.

Hall 14 contains machines of the system Wilde and
Alliance, it will be lighted by means of Wilde’s candles,
furnished by the Parisian Company of Wilde’s light.

Hall C contains cables, telephones, and telegraph in-
struments and will be lighted by incandescent lamps of
Maxim furnished by the United States Electric Lighting
Company.

Hall 15 has, among other things, a nice collection of
lightning-rods and contains Jaspar’s light.

Hall 16 has lamps of M. Anatole Gérard.

Hall 17 contains electro-chemical instruments, appara-
tus for galvano-plastics, etc., and lamps of the Gramme
system.

Hall 18 contains a highly interesting museum of histor-
ical instruments of electricity. The light is furnished by
Messrs. Mignon and Rouart.

Hall 19 will be lighted by a company from Lyons, display
ing the processes of Lontin, Bertin and Mersanne, and also
contains the electro-pneumatic clocks of Mr. Mayrhofer,
which form one of the most interesting parts of the elec-
trical exhibition.

Hall 20 contains a retrospective museum and a library
of works on electricity; the light in the former will be
Ses by Mr. James Fyfe, that in the latter by Mr.
Daft.

Hall 21 serves as a restaurant and is ornamented by a
large chandelier containing Swan’s incandescent lamps.

Hall 22 serves as a reading-room and will be lighted by
the Brush system.

Hall D is the place where the Congress will meet, and
halls 23 and 24 contain the exhibition of Edison, of which
I shall not now speak in detail, reserving a description for
a special letter, when I will attempt to do justice to this
interesting exhibit. GUSTAVE GLASER, Ph. D,

PARIS, Auweoust 17, 1881. :

THE AMERICAN CHEMICAL SOCIETY.

The first meeting of the American Chemical Society,
after the summer vacation, was held on Friday evening,
September 2, with Vice-President Leeds in the chair.
The minutes of the previous meeting were duly passed
on and Dr. H. Endemann elected to the position of
Editor of the Journal. The first paper presented to the
Society was “On the Detection of Oleomargarine,” by
Mr. P. Casamajor. This method is based on the differ-
ences between the density of butter and oleomargarine.
A drop of the suspected fat is melted and poured into
alcohol at 15°C; if it is butter, on account of its greater
specific gravity, it immediately sinks to the bottom of
the vessel, while if it is oleomargarine it remains on the
surface.

Mr. Casamajor followed by-a second paper on the
“Detection of Sugar House Syrups from Starch Sugar
Syrups.” The author found that by dissolving the given
sample (1oc.c. are taken) in three times its volume of
methylic alcohol, the ordinary sugar syrup will become
entirely dissolved, while the starch sugar syrup becomes
precipitated under the same conditions. Partially dis-
solving indicates, of course, a mixture of both.

“ A Short Table for Testing Sugar by Inversion ” was
the title of the third paper. It was also by Mr. Casa-
major. Assuming that D=the first deviation in a
reading of a polariscope and — D’ the second, substract-
ing them we have D + D’,

t = the temperature.

When a solution of pure sugar is 100, the sum of the
two readings will equal 144. Making a equal to the

434
true deviation, we have from the above constants
ce D+ Ds

144—t

In the table given by Mr. Casamajor the quantities
which t was equal to was given, so that by a simple cal-
culation it became readily possible to determine the value
of the true deviation. The table was based on the
much larger one of Clergets.

The fourth paper of the evening was by Mr. A. H.
Elliot and it consisted of a description of “A New
Form of Apparatus for the Analyses of Gases.”’ It was
very severely criticised by Dr. Endeman as being de-
cidedly inferior to the more complicated forms devised

by Professor Hempel. M. B.
aS eee
THE SUCCESSFUL ADMINISTRATION OF NI-

TROUS OXIDE AS AN ANASTHETIC FOR
DENTAL AND SURGICAL OPERATIONS.*
Dr. E. P. HOWLAND, Washington, D. C.

The successful administration of nitrous oxide consists
in administering it to patients in such a manner that
during operations they will not suffer pain, and that they
will be in such a condition that the dentist and surgeon
can successfully perform the operation and afterwards
that the patients are found not to be injured by its admin-
istration. The first requisite for success is that the
nitrous oxide should not have more than one per cent of
pure oxygen or three per cent of atmospheric air, and
that it should be perfectly free from all other gases or
vapors. Nitrous oxide with two per cent or more of
pure oxygen or five per cent or more of atmospheric air,
will not produce perfect anesthesia and the patient will
feel the pain of the operation and pronounce the gas a
failure. The adding of one per cent of pure oxygen to
nitrous oxide has the benefit of partially oxygenating the
blood and in a measure preventing the spasmodic action
of the muscles and at the same time produce satisfactory
anesthesia. According to experiments made in France
by P. Bert, ten per cent of oxygen or fifty per
cent of atmospheric air can be added to nitrous
oxide to oxygenate the blood, and at the same
time produce perfect anesthesia if it is breathed in a
chamber under a pressure of twoatmospheres. A certain
amount of nitrous oxide taken into the lungs is necessary
to produce insensibility, and it can be diluted with any
innocuous gas and still produce anesthesia, provided this
amount is inhaled in the given time. Under pressure in
a chamber more gas is breathed in a given time, as the
nitrous oxide is condensed the same as the air in the
chamber and under a pressure of two atmospheres, two
volumes of nitrous oxide would be condensed into one
volume, so that the nitrous oxide could be diluted with
equal measures of atmospheric air and still the quantity
of nitrous oxide inhaled would be the same as if breathed
ordinarily and the quantity of oxygen breathed sufficient
to arterialize the blood. Rapid breathing of nitrous
oxide produces quick anesthesia, but nothing is gained
by it in practice. It is very difficult to produce anzsthe-
sia with nitrous oxide at high elevations above the ocean,
because the low pressure of the atmosphere allows the
gas to expand so that a less quantity is taken into the
lungs in a given time than is required to produce insen-
sibility. Valve inhalers have generally proved a failure,
because they admit atmospheric air with the gas in suf-
ficient quantity to to prevent perfect anesthesia. As
near as | can ascertain, more than one-half of all the
dentists of the United States who have used nitrous oxide
have abandoned its use on account of want of success in
producing satisfactory insensibility and thereby injuring
instead of benefiting their practice. One cause of fail-
ure is the unskillful administration of the gas in allowing

* Read before the A. A. A, S., Cincinnati, 1881,

SCIENCE.

air to be inhaled with it, by not having the lips closed
tight around the inhaler, and other causes ; not using the
nose as a valve for expiration exactly at the right time;
not stopping the administration at the point of greatest
anesthesia and not having sufficient self-possession un-
der all circumstances and emergencies to know just what
to do and when to doit. But the greatest cause is the
failure of producing perfect anzesthesia from the mixture
of atmospheric air in the nitrous oxide that has been kept
in a gasometer over water for a few days. The gas be-
comes mixed with air through the medium of the water
and defective gasometers and cocks. The trouble and
cost of making tresh gas every few days has caused the
great abandonment of its use. Skillful administrators,
who have a large practice and make fresh gas before
deteriorated by air, are making nitrous oxide a success.
Other dentists can make gas a success by obtaining it
condensed in cylinders, when the gas will keep unadul-
terated and unchanged for years. The only drawback
to a paying success 1s the present great cost of the con-
densed gas, which in the small cylinders amounts to
about thirty-five cents for each administration, when the
gas can be made in the dentists’ laboratory for about
three and a half cents for each administration.
apparatus can now be obtained that enables each dentist
to make and condense his own gas and keep it for any
length of time. Physicians and surgeons do not use
nitrous oxide on account of the trouble and cost of mak-
ing and keeping it, and the greater amount of practice
and skill required in its successful administration than with
the more dangerous ether and chloroform. Nitrous oxide
requires a costly apparatus to manufacture it, and bulky
receptacles to hold and administer it from, and the gas
is for sale in but two places in the United States, while
ether and chloroform can be carried in a bottle in thz
pocket and purchased at every drug store in the land.
Nitrous oxide can be administered with almost absolute
safety, while ether and chloroform can point to their
victims in every city and hospital. Money, labor and
skill can make nitrous oxide successful with both dentist
and surgeon, and taking into account the value of human
life, nitrous oxide should stand at the head of all
anesthetics, and its practical use be encouraged instead
of ether and chloroform. '

I have administered nitrous oxide in over thirty
thousand cases for dental and surgical operations, and
have had uniform success. I have never had a case of
injury from lung or heart disease, but in many cases of
throat and lung diseases a marked and permanent im-
provement. I have kept a large number of patients per-
fectly anesthetic for surgical operations from five to
thirty-five minutes, and the pulse during these operations
has been nearly uniform and full. The success cf pro-
longed operations consists in first producing perfect
anesthesia and then breathing air to arterialize the blood
and before consciousness returns again breathing nitrous
oxide, the necessary intervals varying in different patients
from one-fourth to one-half minute. The average length
of time occupied in dental operations from the first com-
mencement of breathing the gas till return of conscious-
ness has been two minutes. To encourage and make
nitrous oxide a greater success in the future, the dental
and medical colleges should employ successful operators
to lecture and instruct graduates so that the particular
knowledge and skill acquired by them in practice can be
learned by others.

On October 17 next, fifty years will have elapsed since
Prof. Bunsen, the eminent chemist, received his doctor’s
diploma from Gottingen University. He, however, intends
to absent himself from Heidelberg on the day in question,
in order to avoid all congratulations and speech-making.

Mr. W. H. M. Curistiz, F.R.S., First Assistant at
Greenwich Observatory, has been appointed Astronomer
Royal, in succession to Sir George Airy, who retires after
holding the office for nearly half-a-century.

An.

~ SCIENCE.

SOME NEEDED REFORMS IN THE USE OF
BOTANICAL TERMS.*

By CHARLES E. RIDLER, M.A., Master of High School, Kings-
” ton, Mass.

Te

Seventy per cent of 700 examined species and varieties
of “ flowering plants,’ and 65 per cent of all the “ flow-
erless plants,” as given in Mann’s Catalogue, have differ-
ent names ; 3646 “flowering plants’ and 178 “ flower-
less” are given in the list. If to these per centages,
the names of the genera and orders be added, there will
be a total of more than 4000 different ones to be remem-
bered, east of the Mississippi ; and if collections are made
elsewhere, the number becomes appalling. Only 14 names
are used five times or more, and over 50 per cent are
used but once ; that is, among the flowering plants every
other name is new, and among the flowerless two out of
every three are new.

Many of the specific names describe the plants as be-
ing “like” some other plant or thing, and both Latin and
Greek terms are employed todo this. Thus, over a hun-
dred different specific names were found ending in folzzm
or Phylion (leat), and ozdes (like)! Among some other
things noted are the following: Adjectives are frequently
used in their different degrees of comparison without any
meaning whatever ; there is a great diversity in the use
of proper names of persons, countries and States; speci-
fic words are frequently found differing only in their end-
‘ings and not in their roots; one English word is often
described by several Latin, with only a slight difference
in meaning, and the question is whether one word might
not be used in place ot several givenin a set?; Greek and
Latin names exist with the same meaning; Greek and
Latin terms are used to describe the same plant; double
specific names, and similar specific and generic terms are
common ; occasionally a term is employed which denotes
a specific’ difference far more common than it is used;
and many compound and coined words of doubtful au-
thority® are scattered throughout the list—in all of which
there is a great need of reform. The plan is suggested,
at least in this country, and especially for use in the
school-room, of having in the study of botany nothing
but English words for the English-speaking race. If
Greek and Latin, however, are to be retained, they should
be kept in their purity. These reforms in the use of
botanical nomenclature are urged for the great mass of
tired students of both sexes, and their teachers, in the
United States, rather than for the eminent botanists and
horticulturists, who may remonstrate against any change
which will rob the science of its choicest literature.

ee

THe Révue Industrielle, in a recent number, gives a
curious instance of the spontaneous galvanization of an
engine piston, which took place at Cette, Hérault. The
boiler having become much encrusted, some scraps of zinc
were introduced to loosen the coating. Several days after-
wards, the piston began to work with difficulty ; when it
was taken out, it was found to be covered with a thick
coating of copper. This is supposed to have occurred from
the particles of zinc carried with the steam into the copper
steam-pipes forming a number of minute galvanic elements
in combination with the copper; the vibration of the piston
then attracted the copper molecules to itself, whilst the
heat and the electric properties of the steam are considered
to have facilitated their attachment to it.

* Read before the A. A, A. S., Cincinnati, 1881.

VWith /folium: Alismae, apit, alni, bellidi, delphini-ilict. myrtt,
parnasst, primulea, rosmarini, etc., etc. ; with phyllon: tricho, argo,
chryso, lepto, rhizo, lepido, etc., etc.; with odes: anemon-lunarin,
we hesperid, cheiranth, meliloi, etc., etc.

2Such as, Vulgaris, officinalis, vulgata, media, communis (common) ;
sylvestris, nemorosa, sylvatica and the like. ‘

’ The paper gave a long list of words used by botanists which cannot be
found in the lexicon, such as grandiflora, and other compounds of /fos ;
arabisans, advensis, cucullaria, variolaris, cataria, asprelium,
tateri—folia and other compounds of /olia,; salina, atro-purpurea,
and others,

435

BOOKS RECEIVED.

THE ANCIENT BRONZE IMPLEMENTS, WEAPONS AND
ORNAMENTS OF GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND,
by JOHNSE. VANS, DaGs Li LU. D., Fo Ris., &e:
D. Appleton and Company, f, 3, and 5 Bond street,
New-York, 1881.

As Dr. Evans admits, the period covered by the
Bronze age cannot be fixed within a precise limit, es-
pecially for any particular country. Through the suc-
cessive stages of civilization, when the Stone period gave
way to that of the bronze period, and was succeeded by
the Iron, a long course of years must have passed, and
eyen in any particular district the change could not have
been sudden.

There must, therefore, have been a time when in each
district the new phase of civilization was introduced, and
the old conditions had not been changed; the three
stages of progress represented by the Stone, Bronze and
Iron periods, like the three principal colors of the rain-
bow, overlapping and intermingling one with the other,
through their succession.

In discussing the chronological position of the bronze-
using period, the possible use of copper unalloyed with
tin, cannot be overlooked; in fact the probability that
native copper may have continued for a lengthened per-
iod before it was discovered that the addition of a small
portion of tin rendered it not only more fusible but added
to its elasticity and hardness, must be apparent to all.
While dwelling on this point Dr. Evans points out that
even after the advantages of the alloy over the purer
metal were known, the local scarcity may at times have
caused so small a quantity of that metal to be employed,
that the resuiting mixture could hardly be recognized as
bronze ; or at times the dearth may have necessitated
the use of copper alone, either native or as smelted from
the ore.

Of this Copper Age, however, but feeble traces are to
be found in Europe, if, indeed, any can be said to exist,
but in India important discoveries have been made of
copper instruments; these, however, were accompanied
with ornaments of silver, which appeared to mitigate
against their extreme antiquity, as the production of
silver involves a considerable amount of metallurgical
skill, and probably an acquaintance with lead and other
metals.

The most instructive instance of a Copper Age, as
distinct from one of Bronze, is that which has been dis-
covered in our own couniry, where we find good evi-
dence of a period when, in addition to stone as a material
from which tools and weapons were made, copper also,
was employed, and used in its pure native condition with-
out the addition of any alloy. The State of Wisconsin
alone, has furnished upwards of a hundred axes, spear
heads and knives formed of copper, and to judge from
some extracts from the writings of the early travellers
given by the Rev, E. F. Slafter, that part of America
would seem to have entered on its Copper Age long be-
fore it was first brought into contact with European civ-
ilization, towards tne middle of the sixteenth century.
On some parts of the shores of Lake Superior native
copper occurs in great abundance, and no doubt at-
tracted the attention of the early occupants of the
country, who undoubtedly availed themselves of its
ductile property to produce spear-heads and other
weapons.

To those who have supposed that iron, which is a
simple substance and easily produced from its ores, may
have been in use before copper ; the author replies, that
without denying the abstract possibility that in some
parts of the globe such might have been the case, he
considers that among the nations occupying the shores
of the Mediterranean—a part of the world which may be
regarded as the cradle of European civilization—not
only are all archzlogical discoveries in favor of the suc-

436

SCIENCE.

cession of iron to bronze, but even historical evidence
supports their testimony.

The study of this subject necessarily involves an
investigation relating to the date when man first became
acquainted with the methods of working the various
metals, and the reader will find in this work a carefully
prepared synopsis of all the evidences bearing on their
disputed points. The introductory chapter describing
this controversy will be found one of the most interesting
and instructive in the book.

The great body of the work is devoted to an examina-
tion and description of the various forms of Bronze
weapons and instruments which have been found in the
British Isles, treating separately the different classes of
instruments, intended each for special purpose, and at the
same time pointing out their analogies with instruments
of the same character found in other parts of Europe.
To bring this department within the comprehension of
all readers, Dr. Evans has presented five hundred and
fifty superb wood engravings of specimens; thus the
archeologist who possesses this work, finds himself, as
it were, passing through a museum of Bronze antiquities,
aided by the friendly guidance of one who is a master of
the subject, and capable of pointing out important details
and characteristics, even in the most ordinary implements,
which, to the cursory observation of a student, would
appear devoid of meaning.

Dr. Evans concludes this interesting work with a
chapter on the chronological arrangements of the various
types of bronze, and an examination of the various means
at our command for fixing the approxzmate date and
duration of the period. On the latter point, after what
we have stated on the subject, no surprise need be ex-

pressed when we state, that Dr. Evans offers an opinion
only with great reserve. Subject to this reservation, we
find that he attributes eight or ten centuries as the total
duration of the Bronze Period, placing the beginning
some 1200 or 1400 years before the Christian era. It is
questionable whether such an antiquity wiil meet all the
necessities of the case, for as Professor Evans himself
points out, it is difficult to believe that the Phoenicians,
or those who traded with them, landed in Britain and
spontaneously discovered tin.

This work will prove to be of the highest value to
archeologists and to all who would trace the course of
human progress to its earliest phases. Its general ar-
rangement is most excellent, and adapted for practical
work. In addition to a general index, a geographical and
topographical index is presented, which greatly adds to
the value of the work. The publishers have performed
their part of the work most efficiently, and have pro-
duced a handsome volume, illustrated in the highest style
of the engravers’ art, which will in future be held as an
authoritative work of reference, and a store-house of facts
from which the student and specialist may draw material
of the highest value.

wi ee ge et

Ir has been resolved to invite the British Association to
meet in Aberdeen in 1883. The invitation will be pre-
sented at the forthcoming meeting of the Association at
York. The Association will meet in Southampton in 1882,
and an influential local committee has already been ap-
pointed.

eS

Tue Government of India has declined for the present
to award the prize of £100 offered for the best ‘“‘ manual of
hygiene” for the use of the British soldier.

METEOROLOGICAL REPORT FOR NEW YORK CITY FOR THE WEEK ENDING SEPT. 3, 1881.
Latitude 40° 45’ 58” N.; Longitude 73° 57’ 58" W.; height of instruments above the ground, 53 feet ; above the sea, 97

feet ; by self-recording instruments.

BAROMETER.

THERMOMETERS.
‘
pea Se MAXIMUM. MINIMUM. MEAN. MAXIMUM. MINIMUM. MAXI’M
AUGUST. oak Tha
ae Reduced | Reduced Reduced | ;: ime
ec e
SEPTEMBER. to to. Time to Time. ate, wee a Time. se Time. eee Time. ae Time. |In Sun,
Freezing.| Freezing. Freezing. ‘i : : ‘ :
Sunday, _28--| 30.020 30.088 | oa.m,| 29.990 | 4 p.m.| 76.3 | 69.0] &@9 | 4p.m. 75 | 4p.m.| 67 | 6a.m.| 64 | 7a.m.! 139.
Monday, 29--| 30.102 30.128 |12 p.m.| 30032 oa.m.| 76.0] 70.0 | 86 | 3 p.m.| 74 | 5 p.m.| 67 5 a.m.| 66 | 5 a.m.| 139.
Tuesday, 30--| 30.129 30.190 | 9 a.m.| 30.086 | 5 p.m.| 77.6 | 72.0} 85 4 p.M,| 75 4 pam.) 70> ||| 5.a.m,) 68 5 a.m.) 135+
Wednesday, 31--| 29.988 30.100 | 0 a.m.| 29.900 |12 p.m.| 82.7 | 73.3] 93 | 4p.m.| 78 4 p-m.| 72 6 a.in.| 68 | 6a.m.} 140.
Thursday, 1--| 29.823 29,900 | 0 a.m.| 29.780 |12 p.m.} 81.0 | 72.6 87 I-p.m.| 76 Ip.m.| 75 6 a.m.| 70 6a.m.| 131.
Friday, 2--| 29.786 29.800 | 9 p.m.| 29.748 | 4 p.m.] 73.3 | 69.3 73 RB p.m:|) gr 3 -p-m.| 68 |12 p.m.| 66 |z2 p.m. Q7-
Saturday, 3--| 29.864 29.966 |11 p.m.| 29.800 o a.m,| 69.6 | 65.3 74 3 p.m.| 68 3 p.m.| 66 | 7 a.m.) 63 7 a,.m.| 128.
Dry. Wet.
Mean torithe wee khesss a= tes = aaa ls ee eee ett 29.958 inches. Mean for the week.-.-------------- 76.6 degrees |------=----- 70.2 degrees.
Maximum for the week at 9 a.m., August z3oth........--- 30.190 ‘* Maximum for the week,at 4 pm. 31st 93. ‘at 4pm 31st, 78.. y
Minimum O) at 4p.m., Sept. 2d = Minimum ‘“ 7am gd noo: iS gat\7 am wod* og ee
FERANY Ge ene as ede eed era y Range: j* Som "urate ops seae ee 27 SES gp Se RR ee 15. o
WIND HYGROMETER. CLOUDS. RAIN AND SNOW. gj
pe eS eee : a g
imy| FORCE IN ss ; 3°
‘ VELOCITY RELATIVE CLEAR, ° DEPTH OF RAIN AND SNOW
AUGUST RESON: IN MILES. | el a FORCE IO VAF OR: UMmDl ov OVERCAST. 10 IN INCHES.
x3UST. | SQR. : : : Pes
AND ir yeaa i 7 : : : =] i Time | Time £5
SEPTEMBER Peel lb Re stele alt figs tle 2 B | of | of | Dut-15 3] 0
7 a.m.|2 p.m./9 p.m.| for the | «| Time. a a, rl atc nde ea a a Begin-| End- tion, ¢ EE
| | DE | a Sees Ve | asa esta lle 8 a ing. | ing. a
ees eae z | pee a _ ing. ove
Sunday, 28.|W.S.W.| S. |€.5S.€. 94 | %) 3.15pm] .543 | .623 | .679 | 79 | 48 | 8x |3 cir. jo | Of) 8 eee ayy ena eae Be ie.
Monday, 29-/€. N. €.|S. S. €.| S.S.¢€. 102 |t 2.30 pm| .622 | .650.| .693 | 85 | 54 | 85 |o I Cir, pC SW | Reece || omc ie ax = ==) ae
Tuesday, 30-|S. S. €.|S.S.@. |S. Ss. W. 103 |24| 9.50pm] .682 | .746 | .704 | 90 | 64 | 73 |10. lo S cir: \) Lo2e— sec eee Sale
Wednesday,31- W.S W.'S. S. W.| S. W. 187 |234| 2.00am| .631 | .724 | .746 | So | 48 | 64 |3 cir. |o ° aan ee | Fae er Br fie!
Thursday, 1-| w. | Ww. Ss. W. 179 \1%| 9.50pm! .666 | .7o5 | .703 | 77 | 55 | 66 jo |g cu, CC a Ween me | aeons Bear)
Friday, 2.\n.n.W.| e¢. e. 114 | 1.40 am] .668 | .678 | .644 | 85 | 73 | 85 |10 10 10 4.40pm|5.30pm) o.50 | .05 | o
Saturday, 3-|n.n.e.| ec. s.€. 104 | H%| 4.20pm] .536 | .604 | .564 | 84 | 72 | 79 |8cu. |4cu, Sc,” \|) 22st oe eee =m
Distance traveled during the week. ....-....-.. ..-------- 883 miles, Total amount of water for the week......-.-.--- -«------------ .05 inch,
Maxim 10%C6 a= ose eee ee em ee 2% |bs. DDikation of aint one. -o62- ee aee ee co hours, 50 minutes,

DANIEL DRAPER, Ph. D.

Director Meteorological Observatory of the Department of Public Parks, New York.

SCIENCE.

~ SCIENCE:

A WEEKLy ReEcorp OF SCIENTIFIC

ProGRESs.

JOHN MICHELS, Editor.

THRMS:
Pre -VEar, «- - - - Four DoLiars.
6 Monrus, = - - - Two ss
S {3 : = - = ONE ns
TEN CENTS.

SINGLE CopPits, = - : 2

PUBLISHED AT

TRIBUNE BUILDING, NEW YORK.
P, O, Box 8838

SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 17, 1881.

In a recent Government publication, prepared by
Professor F. W. Clarke, S. B., of Cincinnati, we find
the following paragraph relating to the purchase of
- scientific apparatus, which may be studied with profit
by the manufacturers :

““Some years ago Congress passed an act authorizing
schools and colleges to import apparatus free of duty.
This act is not so widely known among teachers as it ought
to be, nor do those who know it fully realize the saving in
expense whick it implies. Goods bought of a local mid-
dleman cost their European price, plus a heavy duty and
the expense of transportation, with a large profit to the
dealer over and above the sum of the foregoing items. A
school, by importing its apparatus directly, can save the
duties and the local dealer’s profit—a retrenchment of from
forty to fifty per cent. A hundred dollars thus expended
ona direct foreign order will buy as much material asa
hundred and fifty laid out at home. A knowledge and an
application of these facts will enable many a school to do
far more in the way of laboratory work than is considered
possible now. To be sure, it ts desirable that home trade
should be patronized, but not in such a way as to cripple
science. The present duties bring in but a trifling revenue
to the government and might be abolished without injury to
any one. If this were done, our schools and colleges could
afford to buy more goods of American dealers ; the latter,
with larger sales, could ask more reasonable profits ; and so
both buyer and seller would be benefited.

This paragraph once more revives a question
which we trust will not be dismissed until some prac-
tical decision has been arrived at. Congress has
abolished the duty on scientific apparatus and instru-
ments, in tke interest of colleges and other rich cor-
porations, but, demands of the poor student, a tax of
fifty per cent. upon every instrument purchased by
him.

Such a discrimination in the collection of duties is
neither just nor reasonable, and appears to have failed
even in achieving any good results in the direction an-
ticipated. On the contrary, it has crippled the — busi-

437

ness of the American manufacturers, and forced them
to charge exorbitant prices on the limited sales
they could make under such a system.

We fully concur in the suggestion made by Pro-
fessor Clarke, that, as these duties bring in but a
trifling revenue to the government, they might be
abolished, and that without injury to anyone.

We are also glad to find Professor Clarke, while
speaking as the representative of the class most bene-
fited by this discriminative legislation, taking such a
liberal view, and advocating its entire abolition.

Weare unable to offer the view that “the trade”
may take on a measure which will bring them in open
competition with European manufacturers, possibly
they may require to be educated to an apppreciation
of a course, that will ultimately result in a condition
of business, which will be beneficial to their best in-
terest.

With the abolition of the discrimination in favor of
colleges, etc., and of all duties on scientific instru-
ments, the first result would be to equalize the prices
of such manufactures, irrespective of the place where
they are made. Universities and colleges in such a
case could afford to buy of the domestic manufacturer
and would doubtless do so. The one point that
would have to be considered in such an open market,
would be that of gua/ity, and the American manufac-
turer of scientific apparatus has nothing to fear on
that head, while with larger sales more reasonable
profits could be accepted ; thus both buyer and seller
would be benefited. We trust that the next Congress
will take some action in this matter, and place scien-
tific apparatus and instruments on the free list of the
tariff, and thus remove an obnoxious tax on know-
ledge, and increase the facilities for the acquisition of
scientific and technical education among the masses
of the people.

WE are informed that Dr. T. Sterry Hunt, of Mon-
treal, and Professor James Wall, sailed for Europe on
the roth instant, for the purpose of attending the In-
ternational Geological Congress, to be heldat Bologna,
Italy, on the 26th of September. We have written to
Dr. T. Sterry Hunt, who is both a subscriber and
contributor to this journal, to send us a report of this
meeting, and have no doubt that we shall be thus en-
abled to place before our readers a reliable account of
the doings of this Congress.

EUS SUE BUSES

WE understand the Edison Light Company has been no-
tifled that the French Government, after inspecting all the
electric lights in the Paris Electrical Exposition, has se-
lected the Edison Company to light the Grand Opera-house
of Paris with the Edison electric light. The Edison Com-
pany will ship the necessary electrical machinery to France
by the next French steamer, and will light up 800 Edison
electric lamps in the opera-house on Oct. 7.

438

SCIENCE.

HISTORIC NOTES OF COSMIC PHYSIOLOGY.*
By Dr. T. STERRY HUNT.
[Abstract.]

The author began by insisting that general physiology,
as the philosophy of material nature, is co-extensive with
general physiography, in which sense it was employed by
the best writers up to the first year of this century. In
the abridgements of the Philosophical Transactions of the
Royal Society up to 1700, and to 1720, the chief division
is into Mathematical and Physiological subjects, the
latter including the phenomena of the three kingdoms of
nature. There is a physiology not only of animals and
plants, but of the inorganic world, and from terrestrial
physiology we rise to a conception of the physiology of
the Cosmos or materia] universe; a subject which from
the earliest times has attracted the attention of philoso-
phers. One of the most evident of the problems thus
presented is that of interstellar space, and its relations to
our earth and its gaseous envelope. After noticing the
views of the ancient Greeks, the author referred to the
discovery by Alhazen of the refraction of light, from the
phenomena of which the Arab philosopher attempted to
fix the limit of the terrestial atmosphere. He then noticed
the similar attempts of later observers, and adverted to
the well-known hypothesis of Wollaston, who endeavored
to assign thersto an absolute limit on grounds which are
inadmissible. He adverted to various views as to the
so-called ether of space, which Newton thought, must
include exhalations from celestial bodies, and noticed the
hypothesis of Grove that the medium for the transmis-
sion of radiant energy through space is but a more atten-
uated form of the matter which constitutes the gaseous
envelopes of the earth and other celestial bodies, between
which, through this medium, Grove supposed material in-
terchanges might take place. ‘The suggestion of Arago
as to the possibility of determining the density of the rare
matter of interstellar space was noticed, as well as that
of Sir William Thomson, who has even attempted to fix
the minimum density of the luminiferous medium, which
he, like Grove, conceives may be a rarified extension of
the terrestrial atmosphere. Mattieu Williams, adopting
the hypothesis of the atmospheric nature of the interstel-
lary matter, has attempted to show how the sun in its
course through space may condense this matter with the
evolution of heat and thus replenish the solar fires.
From this ether also by a stoichiogenic process the various
chemical species are perhaps generated.

The author had endeavored to approach the study of
interstellary matter from a wholly different side. Froma
consideration of the chemical and geological changes of
which we have evidence in the earth’s crust since the be-
ginning of life on the planet, it is clear that enormous
volumes of carbonic dioxide have become fixed partly in
the form of carbon, with evolution of oxygen, and partly
as carbonates—equal in the aggregate to 200 atmos-
pheres or more. ‘This enormous volume, it is held, must
have come from outer space to supply the gradual ab-
sorption of the gas from the atmosphere, while by a re-
verse process of diffusion the great amount of liberated
oxygen may have been got rid of, and the equilibrium of
the atmosphere in this way maintained. The conse-
quences, both meteorological and geological of this pro-
cess were discussed by the author in 1878, and more fully
in 1880 in an essay on The Chemical and Geological Re-
lations of the Atmosphere in the Amerzcan Fournal of
Sczence. Asa farther contribution to the history of these
views, the author proceeded to show that Sir Isaac New-
ton not only held to the presence in interstellar space of
exhalations from the sun, the fixed stars, and the tails of
comets, which he supposed to become diffused in and to
form part of the ether, but even suggested that this
etherial matter is the solar fuel and essential to planetary

* Read before the A. A. A. S., Cincinnati, 1881.

life. From a consideration of the processes of vege-
table growth and decay, Newton arrived at the conclu-
sion that elements from interstellar space, brought by
gravity within the terrestrial atmosphere, serve to
nourish vegetation, and by its decay are converted into
solid substances. In this way are, according to him,
generated not only combustible (sulphureous) bodies, but
calcareous and other stones, whereby the mass of the
planet is augmented. These views put forward in New-
ton’s famous Hypothesis concerning Light and Color in
1675, and in the Queries to the Offzcs, are more definitely
enunciated in Propositions 41 and 42 of Book III of the
Principia. :

+o

ON THE UNIFICATION OF GEOLOGICAL

NOMENCLATURE.
By RICHARD OWEN.

With a view to proposing such Geological Terminology
as would probably be acceptable to a large majority of
the scientific representatives of those nations sending de-
legates to the International Congress for the Unification
of Geological Nomenclature, it seems necessary to offer
for discussion some principles, and to lay down some

SUGGESTIVE RULES:

I. To agree that ail questions shall be decided by a
plurality vote; or, if thought best, by a two-third ma-
jority.

2. To assign distinctive names for the headings of
geological divisions and subdivisions, instead of calling,
for instance the “ Silurian,” sometimes an “Age,” at
others a “ Period, System, Era, Formation,” or as by the
French “ Etage,’’ which is translated by Surenne as
meaning (when applied to Geology) stratum or layer.
Further suggestions on this point will be given in the
‘“‘Conspectus of Headings.”

3. To arrange under these heads, when thus decided
upon, such formations as are generally considered of
nearly coordinate value, in lieu of giving the same ap-
parent importance to a minor subdivision, say of Upper
Silurian (such as Salina), or one of the Devonian (e. g.
Chemung) that we assign to the whole Tertiary. The
subjoined Tabular View offers a modified coérdination.

4. To select, as far as practicable, for the geological
formations thus arranged, geographical terms, indicating
the areas where these tormations prevail extensively, or
have been studied very thoroughly. This would obviate
any controversy on mooted points regarding the litholog-
ical or paleontological character of the formation. In
order to illustrate the practical application of this rule,
let us take for examination the nomenclature proposed
by the illustrious Sir R. Marchison, in his great work
of 1854, ‘Siluria,” descriptive of the geological forma-
tion in the country inhabited by the ancient ‘ Silures.”
His work of 1839 was entitled “The Silurian System,”
but his later publication showed a preference for the
shorter and more expressive form asa noun. The ad-
jective has, with slight modifications, been adopted in
most modern languages; but by selecting the noun
“Siluria,”’ we unify for universal recognition. The same
may be said for “ Devonia.”’ If it is not considered too
great an innovation to alter terms already so well re-
ceived, we might say “ Silur-Britannia,”’ “ Devon-Cale-
donia,” and proceed then to distribute the honors among
different nationalities, as more fully exhibited in the Con-
spectus. The term Carboniferous is not correct when
applied to Mountain Limestone or Millstone Grit, be-
sides Coal Measures cannot be so rendered into other
modern languages as to make a suitable subdivision, it is
therefore suggested to name the system after the region
having the greatest Coal area (the United States), and
the Coal Measures after a European country in which
coal is well developed. This would give us Appalachia
or Carbon-Appalachia for the system, and Belgia for

SCIENCE.

439

the productive Era, while the great development of
Millstone Grit in Ireland furnishes the term “ Hibernia,”
and the celebrated Adelsberg grotto or cave in Mountain
Limestone suggests the term “ Austria,’ as appropriate
for that Era. So also Perm-Russia, because the Per-
mian system prevails so extensively from Kasan to the
Gulf of Tscheskaia, near the White Sea ; Trias-Germania,
because the Germans have given to all geologists the sub-
division of that system (Bunter, Muschelkalk and Keuper)
also Jura-Gallia, because the system prevails largely, and
has been studied minutely in France. This plan of no-
menclature would also serve to recall to the geologist,
and convey to the student, important facts regarding the
distribution of the formation.

5. Somewhat in the same-manner, uniformity might be
given to the names of nonfossiliferous rocks, by adopting

Dr. Dana’s orthography, as given in his latest works,
where he employs the letter “y”’ instead of “i” as in
Granyte, to distinguish rocks from re with names
ending in “ite.” Even the final “e” may as well be
omitted in order to unify for other ieuataged: and we

then have, for example, Granyt, Syenyt, etc., or we may

_even so apply the rule as to have international names for

Limestone, Sandstone, Magnesian limestone and the like,
calling them Calkyt, Silikyt, Dotomyt, etc. Some Ger-
man scientists (see Cotta’s ‘‘Gesteinslehre ’’) use, for in-
stance, the word Quartzit, writing it however with an ‘‘i.
6. It is thought further that, in many cases, geological
terms might be abbreviated, so as to be readily intelligible
in all languages, somewhat on the symbolic system
adopted in chemistry. A conspectus of the proposed
modifications in geological nomenclature, with a column

SUGGESTIVE CONSPECTUS, TOWARDS UNIFICATION OF GEOLOGICAL NOMENCLATURE.

Eon PERIOD. Era. Epocnu, EQUIVALENTS.
e Neolithic
eozoic “12 b Mentonia Modern
33 Antillia or Gaudeloupia | a Neandertha Paledithic
XIII. Cimbria b Nile-Gange Recent
or 32 Madagascaria a Nora» loxandria (or Auckland-Kawhia)-
(New Zealand) Reindeer
aiewas 31 Scythia or Siberia 2 Rhenus- Port Hudsonia (os) Coe
XII. Patagonia (b Bier nore er ucenie (Newburg, N. cme
30 Pampas-Virginia ., and Big-bone Lick)
a Badin sANeeata eee
oe ae i 29 Suedia b Regio Greenlandica eae
. Scandinavia Glacial or Drift
28 Laboradoria 4 a Arctico-Boria or Borea
X. Ter-Pliocene or| ( 27 Sicilia 4 a Girgenti—Catania
Italia } b Etruria—Apulia Pliocene 4 Sumter (Dana)
Cenozoic 26 Subapenninia a Carolina—Virginia Aralo—Caspian of Lyell
25 Emodi—India b Sivalik—Pannonia
or Me, Bor Morons or [ (Himalaya) a ye a (or Pikermi, or Pen-| ] Be LOM
recia telicus-Sar) iocene { Yorktown
Tertiary | . b Caucaso—Tongria |
24 Helvetia a Se mesen, Sisk |
23 Parisia b Alabama—Georgia
VIII. Ter-Eocene or \ ta Berlin—Westphalia Bocene} Alabama
Afric-Asia ie Aegypto—Persia or Sues- ; b ae J eee Epoch
sonia a Dalmatia—Syria
{ 21 Anglo-Senonia Mestricht —Venetia } Up. Wh. Chalk
< | Pyrencei—Carpatesia | Lower do.
Mesozoic Texas—Niobraria
VII. Creta-Hispania | 20 Lusitania Drie Sian ena Cretaceous4 Upper Green sand
or Magellan—Circassia
e - [ , Wealden — Sussexia-Néocomien of d’Or- 7 :
econdary 19 Neocomia bigny ower do.
r 18 Portlandia Cee Bowouite (Boulogne sur mer) Wealden
VI, Jura-Gallia 17 Dagar pooestca — Onions Jurassic rome foe
16 Vindelicia oll—Avonia Liassic do
15 Bolivia Cheshire—Somersetia | Keuper
4 Beaufort—Lunevillia |
V. Trias-Germania ig Hewoucta Ee eae nodosts) fice Muschelkalk
. Brunswick loc. Eng. lilif.
[3 Saxonia { Connecticut—Moravia Bunter
1V. Perm—Russia 4 x2 Kasan-Tscheskaia { St ee { Permian
- - Missouri Pennsylvania } ( Coal Measure
(x1 Carbonia or Belgia ; Nail dnt Gaim Bria
. Michigan—Tasmania
III, Carbonaria { Menongolia (W. Virginia)
: Cumbria (Yorkshire Mt.) F :
Paleozoic 10 Hibernia Adelabere Nova eatin: Carboniterous { Millstone Grit
or Togas, eee a, St. Louis, etc., |
Austria (en Ges
or . | Stbearb 6 ee (Ohio) | Subcarb 5 Lime-
Carbon-Appalachia 9° Alemania Volga—Uralia . { (c l plone orSandstone
Villmar—Catskillia ; atski
II, Devonia or De- [ 8 Livonia or ne ee ae | Nassau—Westphalia or Franconia | Chemung
Prima Plymouth—Eifelia j
r aes, { 7 Rhen—Prussia oh reuters “Chena unigta aos oe
von-Caledonia Cathay —Potoria amilton
[ 6 Neregonia (Norway) | Dalecartia | \ Corsiferou
: Gottland—Tyrolia elderberg
5 Scania | Bene eee Ey o
. - edina—Clintonia & | Niagara
I. Siluria or Silur- 4 Niagaria 1 Wenlock-—Pentlanda D!
1 3 Boiohemia or Trentonia | Caradoc Trentonia Silurian { A
Britannia : Vitré—Murcia fe renton
2 Canadia | Llandeils—Esthonia Bs :
< Canadian
Cine Potsdam—Longmyndia H Be i
Sets Acadia J (Cambrian

ee = el

440 SCIENCE.
DIFFERENT HEADINGS, WITH ONE OR Two EXAMPLES.
MACROCHRONE. | Eon, | PERIOD. ERA. Epocu, MICHROCHRONE,
| ae = ee
(Greatly extended time.)|(*‘ A space of time, a(‘‘ An interval of inde-|(‘‘ A succession of years (‘* A pause.’’) (Comparatively short
| life-time.’’) finite time.’’) between two fixed time.)
Permia points.’’) Fi
Examples. | Carbonaria Austria (Mt. limest.) |4 Iowaia | gerne ee phen:
Neptunia Paleozoic Eon. Devonia * § Potsdamia as
(all aqueous rocks.) | | Siluria ( Cambria | Acadia

EXAMPLES SHOWING THE ADAPTABILITY OF CERTAIN HEADINGS TO MOST OF THE MODERN LANGUAGES.

System. Sub-system. Group. Sub-group or Section.
(** An assemblage of ob- (‘‘ An assemblage of ob- Sectio.
jects ranged in regular jects in a certain) La section.
| sub-ordination, or re-| | order.’’) | Die section.
| lated by some common | Le Groupe. La sezione.
| law.”’) Die Griiggen. La seccion,
Didenuy (70) Il gruppo. or grade or member,
| Le systéme. El grupo, with slight modifica~
| Das System tions can be used in
Meise, the above languages.
El sistéma.
ABBREVIATED FORMS WITH SOME EXAMPLES.
For Periods. For Eras. For Efpochs. | For Members,
Roman numerals, Arabic numerals Small letters marks used to the right
I, 11, Il, etc., or I, 2, 3, etc., as Ds. C. eres and above the era

Capital letters

A BC, etc., applied thus:
I = Silusia.

or A = *$

(2. = Canadia

applied thus: {repeated for the epochs| letter, similar to the
of each era. ]} power-sign in mathe-

{ 2?= Vitré-Murcia matics,

) 28=Llandeils-Esthonia)Thus to designate the

{1°= Potsdamia Burlington member of

}.18= Acadia the Iowa subcarnifer-

ous, we would write:

INT .:g* vor’. ig°a*

. = Cambria

of the leading present equivalents is submitted below, in
which it will be observed that one great object, kept in
view, was the recording particularly by the Epoch names,
such localities as are noted for having given us remark-
able fossils, characteristic of that peculiar formation,
whether found in well-known regions of Europe and
America, or in such distant countries as Patagonia, N,
Zealand, the Cape of Good Hope, Greenland or Spitz-
burgen, etc.
NOTE TO TABLE I.

To further facilitate the understanding of some of the
suggestions submitted, a tabular view is subjoined, giv-
ing different headings, with their definitions from standard
dictionaries, as well as a conspectus of the symbols.

NOTE TO TABLE 2,

Probably some difficulties, and, despite of care exer-
cised, some errors in the details may be pointed out ; but
if the general principles are found acceptable, or sug-
gestive of such discussion as may ultimately lead to uni-
fication of our Geologicai Nomenclature, the object
proposed, in the preparation of this paper, will be at-
tained.

A NEW MATERIAL FOR STOP-COCKS AND
STOPPERS FOR REAGENT BOTTLES.*
By H. W. WILEY.

For some time I have been working with a compound
invented by Mr. T. J. Mayall, of Reading, Mass., and
known as the Mayall metal. One form of this compound
was intended as a material for journals, pneumatic tubes,
etc. .It is made of 5 to 6 parts-graphite, J part rubber
and % part sulphur. Instead of sulphur, sulphide of
antimony can be used. The material is a perfect self-
lubricant and to a high degree resists the action of acids
and alkalis.

From its properties I was led to believe that it would

* Read before the A, A. A, S,, Cincinnati, 1881,

be especially useful for chemical apparatus, in the manu-
facture of stop-cocks, connecting tubes, etc. My expec-
tations were fully realized. ‘

I have used it with success for burettes, cocks for hy-
dro-sulphuric acid, stoppers for hydrote bottles, etc,
These never stick, no difference how firmly they are
pressed in nor how long they are left. The material is
firm and elastic and will hold threads nearly as well as a
metal.

I regard it as peculiarly useful for stop-cocks for acids,
especially hydro-sulphuric. It is capable of a high polish,
and will not tarnish. Slightly modified in composition
it is used for covering houses and plating the bottoms of
ships. Placed on ships it seems to prevent entirely the
adhesion of barnacles, Strange as it may seem, it also
makes an excellent insulating material for telegraph
wires. I have not yet tried the effect of ozone upon it
and only partially of permanganate of potassium.

es

PHONETICS OF THE KAYOWE LANGUAGE.*
By ALBERT S. GATSCHET.

Books printed in Indian languages often render those
tongues in a most imperfect manner, on account of the
deficient knowledge of Indian phonetics on the part of
the authors. The Kayowe language is a fair average
specimen of Indian pronunciation, and is very rich in
sounds, having no less than forty-four sounds, if we
count in the long and the nasalized vowels. In its pho-
netic series the most conspicuous fact is the prevalence
of the nasals and the total absence of dsh, tch, which are
so conspicuously frequent in the majority of American
languages, of r and of v. The palatal series is represented
by one consonant only; the guttural and dental series
are well represented, while in the labial series p, b, andm
are the only frequent sounds. F is found in some words
only, where it alternates with p, pai, or fai, land, earth.
Among the sounds not frequently met with are sh, w.

~ # Read before the A. A. A, S., Cincinnati, x88,

SCIENCE.

441

‘Nasalizing is a prominent feature in Kayowe phonetics,
more so in the vocalic than in the consonantic series
No word begins inl or w. Final syllables of words ter-
minate just as often on a consonant asin a vowel, but
all other syllables usually end ina clear or nasalized
vowel. Every diphthong is adulterine; that is, every
combination of two colliding vowels differing from each
other can be pronounced as a monosyllable and a dis-
syllable. Thus we can pronounce as well ze-iba as zeiba
arrow. ‘The fact that every vowel can become nasalized
(and many of the consonants also) is one of the curious
features of the language. This nasalization is either the
one observed in the French an, in, on, un, or it consists
in the addition of an n to the vowel. All these Kayowe
peculiarities are very commonly observed in the majority
of American languages, and also in most of the unwritten
languages of other partsof the world. The standard or-
thography which is adopted for recording a written lit-
erary language exercises undoubtedly some influence
upon the pronunciation of the natives, but where the
language is not fixed by writing, we perceive constant
alternation of the sounds pronounced with the same vocal
organ, as of the gutturals, dentals, and labials among
themselves.
“ This is also the case in Kayowe, and a full list of the
“sounds in it is as follows:

CONSONANTS:
Gutturals: k, g, kh (aspirate), h, ng.
Palatals: y.
Linguals: 4, g, sh, 1.
Dentals: t, d, s, z, n, nd, ’dl.
Labials: p, b, f, w, m, mb.
VOWELS: a, a, 4, a, e, @, &, (the primitive vowel), i, i,
TO wOstls tr. Ul...
—_——————

TYPICAL THIN SECTIONS OF THE ROCKS OF
THE CUPRIFEROUS SERIES IN MINNE-

SOTA*.
By PRrRoressoR N. H. WINCHELL.

This paper was in pursuance of the same line of inves-
tigation as that by the same author read last year before
the Association, but gave the detailed methods by which
general results had been attained in the study of the
stratigraphy of the cupriferous rocks. By means of the
microscopic examination of the crystalline rocks of the
series, two groups of rocks were discovered, one being
those generally accepted as igneous by Pumpelly, Cham-
berlin and by Owen, and the other the result of change
from the sedimentaries. The former one dark colored
and heavy, consisting essentially of labradorite, augite
and magnetite, but the latter are lighter colored, gener-
ally showing a reddish tint, and consist essentially of
orthoclase, quartz and hornblende. Itis the latter group
that in this connection possesses the greatest interest,
as the author regards them as the true equivalents of the
shales and sandstones that in some places are seen
interbedded, without metamorphism, with the igneous
rocks of the other group. They play a very important
part in the geology of northeastern Minnesota, where, in
their varied lithology, exhibiting different stages of crys-
tallization, they not only are spread over a large geo-
graphical area, but afford some of the niost interesting
geological studies.

The author suggested that probably the titaniferous
iron ore which is so largely associated with the igneous
rocks of the cupriferous series, had its origin in the fer-
ruginous shales of the sedimentary series, by the reduc-
tion of the oxides with which they are colored, at the
time of the igneous disturbances.

The paper was accompanied by a series of fifty thin
sections made by the author, with brief descriptions, and

* Read before the A. A, A. S,, Cincinnati, 1881,

by samples of the rocks from which they were taken, in-
tended to illustrate the lithological distinctions pointed
out.

——————

WORKED SHELLS IN NEW ENGLAND SHELL-
HEAPS.*
By Pror. EDWARD S. MORSE.

Mr. Morse called attention to the fact that heretofore
no worked shells had been discovered in the New Eng-
land shell heaps. A similar absence of worked shells
had been noticed in the Japanese shell heaps. Worked
shells were not uncommon in the shell heaps of Florida
and California. Mr. Morse then exhibited specimens of
the large beach cockle (Lunatia), which showed unmis-
takable signs of having been worked. The work con-
sisted in cutting outa portion of the outer whorl near the
suture. To show that this portion could not be arti-
ficially broken he exhibited naturally broken shells of the
same species, both recent and ancient, in which the frac
tures were entirely unlike the worked shells.

es

A REMARKABLE INSTANCE OF RETENTION
OF HEAT BY THE EARTH.t
By H. C. Hovey. .

The fact is well known that heat may be retained for a
long period by the rocks and soils of the earth; but it is
seldom that dates can be fixed with approximation to
accuracy as can be done in the instance the particulars
of which are now given.

My attention was called, a year ago, by Mr. james
Hudson, manager of the Albion mines, in Pictou county,
Nova Scotia, to a peculiar area including about two acres
of ground, where the snow never lay long without melt-
ing, and the frost, even in severe winters, never pene-
trated but for a short distance. All over this space are
scattered fused masses of clay and ironstone, resting on
the outcrops of what are locally known as the “ Main”
and the “‘ Deep” seams of bituminous coal, which at this
point are about 450 feet apart and partially affecting the
outcrops of other seams. On inquiry as to the probable
date of the fire that had left this area of scorie and ashes,
I was told that this portion of Nova Scotia was visited
early in the seventeenth century by French explorers, and
that an account of the harbor called Pictou was given in
1672 by Monsieur D’Enny, who was appointed Governor
of the Gulf of St. Lawrence in 1654. The name “ Pic-
tou” is said to be derived from a Micmac word signify-
ing fire , aad the traditions of the Indians still point to
this locality as having been, a long time ago, the scene of
a fierce and long-continued fire, which made them avoid
the place as being visited with the anger of the gods.

The coal measures of Pictou were discovered in 1798,
at the very point now described; and the discoverers
represented the spot as covered with ashes, over which
grew large hemlock trees. About twenty years ago,
while a drain was being dug in this locality, a tree was
cut down that showed 230 rings of annual growth; and
three feet below the root of this tree a large piece of
wood, fashioned by some sort of axe, was found in a
good state of preservation. It is Mr. Hudson’s opinion
that at least 300 years must have passed since the ex-
tinction of the fire at this point, and it is known that none
has been rekindled since; its ignition may have been
effected by chemical action, or by a stroke of lightning,
or by artificial means applied to one of the so-called
springs or feeders of inflammable gas that issue along
the outcrops of these unusually thick seams,

Last spring it was found necessary to sink a small pit
at the crop of the Deep seam on this area, in doing which

* Read before the A. A. A. S., Cincinnati, r$8x.
t Read before the A. A. A.S., Cincinnati, 1881,

A42

SCIENCE.

.the facts were obtained concerning the long retention of

heat by the earth, to which I have already referred. Mr.
Edwin Gilpin, Government Inspector of Mines, has kindly
placed at my disposal what information he could gather
on the subject, which I give, using, to some extent, the
language of this careful and accurate observer. Mr.
Gilpin has prepared a comparative view of sections of
the same strata, made only a short distance apart, the
design being to exhibit the changes made by igneous
action.

The present section is taken at the new pit sunk by the
Albion Mines Company on the burnt area; and what is
termed the orzgznal sectzon is one given in Sir William
Logan’s Report of the Geological Survey of Canada,
1869, p.69. [he distance between the localities where
these two sections were made is so small that the com-
parison is at least instructive, and answers our purpose
as well as anything that can be had.

PRESENT SECTION. ORIGINAL SECTION.
ft. in. ft. in.
Surface of burned clay....22. o Black, argillaceous shale, |
with many bands of |
iron-stone I to 2 inches }2. 6
thick. Total thickness |

144 ft. 6 in.
Brown carbonaceous
Band of hard scoriz...... 4.0 Shale. tees eet I,.I0
(Bad Coals oF asecect 0. 2
Reddish ashes: .2..--*.-.. 3. 0 Good coale 2 aes.-es cee 3-0 7a)
Hardened shale........... 2. oO Black shale with iron- |
stone bands........ ‘ 12 |
Good coal (being upper part Goodicoal= 3. 53.22 S22 Bait
of the Deep Seam) Coarsé:coal 95. 552-.5. o. 8 f
juceod icoal re aa -9|
Depth ofseite- oe cect A254 \ Coarse, Coals: - cen - o.1I |
Good.eoal’ 25. 255225). 3.4
\iCodrse’coale- =F... -2 a 5.10 }
Total thickness of
the Deep Seam. ; 2 5°

The surface cover consists of clay, with boulders of
sandstone and layers of gravel. The small portion of
the 144 feet of black argillaceous shale filled with iron-
stone balls, passed through by the shaft, has been con-
verted into an almost continuous mass of scorie, very
hard and compact, and difficult to drill through.

The next layer represents the upper portion of the
deep seam, which has been completely burned away,
leaving a compact, laminated reddish ash. And it was
in this ancient bank of ashes, known to be more than
300 years old, that the retention of heat was. observed,
which it is now my object to place on record. Immedi-
ately on opening the pit, the heat of the ashes, at a point
30 feet below the surface, was tested by a reliable ther-
mometer, and was found to be 80° Fabr. at a time when
the surface temperature varied from a minimum of 45°
to a maximum of 65° Fahr.

Soon after an opening had been made through the pit
to the workings in the mine, the air-currents caused the
temperature rapidly to fall to the normal point.

The consideration of the gradual radiation of the heat
of the earth suggests the idea that abnormal increases in
the temperatures of deep mines may be due in some cases
to the presence, at comparatively short distances, of
masses of heated matter, which are, geologically speak-
ing, modern, though they may be historically ancient.

te

RECOVERY OF OLD VULCANIZED CAouTCHOUC.—The
pieces are heated in contact with steam, when the sulphur
is volatilized and the caoutchouc melts and is collected as
a liquid, used in preparing water-proof covers, etc.

RapIOoPpHONY.—Professor Mugna, repeating M. Merca-
dier’s experiments, in which an intermittent beam meets a
smoked surface within a glass tube, containing aqueous or
ammoniacal vapor, and furnished with an ear tube, adds to
the effects by attaching a small microphone to an elastic
membrane closing the tube. By this means he finds it pos-
sible to operate at a sufficient distance from the interrupt-
ing disc to render its noise no longer disturbing.

PILOCARPIN :—ITS ACTION IN CHANGING THE
COLOR OF THE HUMAN HAIR.*
By D. W. Prentiss, M. D. Washington, D. C.

Pilocarpin is an alkoloid of Jaborandi and the active
principle.

Jaborandi is a Brazilian drug recently introduced into
medicine.

The leaves are the offic’al part of the plant.
pus Pennatifolius.)

The effect upon the human system is powerful and
peculiar,

(It produces profuse sweating and salivation, and stim-
ulates the growth of the hair.)

Two cases were reported.

In the first case, the medicine was given to relieve
uraemia consequent upon suppression of urine due to
Chronic Pyelztzs.

The patient was alady twenty-five years of age, a
blonde of petite figure.

The pilocarpin (hydrochlorate) was administered by
hypodermic injection, commencing December 16, 1880,
and being continued at intervals until February 22, 1881.
The usual dose given was one centigram, but on several
occasions this dose was doubled.

The object of its use was to eliminate urea from the
system by sweating and salivation.

The immediate effect produced was profuse sweating
and salivation, calculated to amount to not less than
fourteen pints. (See Phila. Med. Tzmes, July 2, 1881.)

The result to the patient on each occasion was great
exhaustion, but the ureamic symptoms were relieved.

Twenty-two “sweats” were administered in all, and
from thirty-five to forty centigrams of pzlocarpin were
used.

(Pilocar-

CHANGES IN THE COLOR OF THE HAIR,

Specimens of the hair were exhibited to the section, as
also a colored plate showing the changes in the color.

Two specimens dated respectively November 1879, and
November, 1880, were of a very light color, tinged with
yellow, and showed that the color of the hair had not
changed during that year.

The third specimen dated January 12, 1881, was a
chestnut brown, and the fourth dated May, 1881, almost
pure black.

The administration of the Pilocarpin began December
16, 1880, the change was first noticed December 28, 1€80,
and was thenceforth progressive.

In addition to the change of color the hair has become
thicker and coarser than formerly, and while previously
dry, is now quite oily.

The hair on other parts of the body is also changed in
color.

The eyes have become a much darker blue.

In the second case, the Pilocarpin was administered
to an infant fourteen months of age, afflicted with Mem-
braneous Croup. (See Phila. Wedzcal Tzmes, August 13,
1881.)

The treatment was commenced June 19, 1881; two
milligrams of hydro-chlorate of Pilocarpin being given
every hour, afterwards increased to four milligrams every
hour. It was administered for nine days, the amount
being diminished towards the last.

The first specimen of hair was taken June 17, 1881,
and the second June 27, 1881,

The color of the first is light yellow, and the second is
a decided shade darker. This effect, of changing the
color of the hair, if subsequent experience shall confirm
it, adds another to the marvellous influences of Jaborandi
on the human system.

The modus operand? of the change is still to be deter-
mined. It is probably connected with the fact that
Jaborandi stimulates the nutrition of the hair.

" * Read before the A. A. A. S., Cincinnati, 1881,

SCIENCE.

443

. - There appears to be reason to believe that the color of
the hair is due to an oily pigment, and that this is in-
creased under the influence of Jaborandi.

Shaving the scalp usually has the effect of making the
hair thicker and darker, on the contrary, as age advances
‘and the processes of nutrition are enfeebled, the hair be-
comes thin and dry and whitens.

SS

THE CONSTITUTION OF THE
SCIENCE.*

By Mrs, A. B. BLACKWELL, SOMERVILLE, N. J.
‘ [Abstract.]

This paper developed the hypothesis that in each atom
of matter a given quantity of force and extension are
conditioned by each other to act in special modes, rigidly
adjusted in time and space. All atoms react against
many opposed and unlike forces simultaneously, hence
each atom must bea highly complex (not compound),
elastic structure, which, by its changes in space, gives the
direction, extent, rate of vibration, and all modes and
transformations of the atomic force.

We can explain this variety and change of action, if
we suppose every atom to alternately expand and con-
tract unlike filaments or poles that act and react in vibra-
tions towards and from a common axis, which is at rest.
No point outside this axis can be at rest, except when
held in equilibrium by other atoms. Reaction is equal
and opposite between every part of the atom, and be-
tween it and all other atoms. Chemical combination is
the interlocking, the literal intertwisting of certain poles
of the combining atoms. Such combination brings to
rest, makes latent, the opposed combining poles, wholly
or in part ; the more completely this is done the greater
the transformed motion called heat, and the more stable
the compound.

In combining, the uniting poles are massed or knotted,
as any intertwisting cords would be, and many-atomed
molecules require no extra room for their vibrations ; but
all gases contain equal numbers of molecules to the
volume. But the atomic axes are shifted to a common
centre ; and thus the vibrations of all the free poles are
more or less modified, according to the number and kind
of the combining factors; they are always so far modi-
fied that the molecules of any compound vapor cannot
repel those of either of its constituents, nor those of any
unlike vapor—the explanation being that the periods of
greatest expansion, the stretch outwards in their free
poles are not synchronous. In like molecules they are
synchronous, and the free poles, striking at any point
short of greatest expansion, drive the atoms asunder.
We call them mutually repellant. The action of all re-
pulsive forces will admit of similar explanation. Push or
strain in one direction compels counter-push or strain in
another direction; hence opposed electricities, magne-
tisms, and polarization in general.

Gravitation may be considered the concurrent result of
brief intertwisting of the physical poles; cohesion and
crystalogenic energy represent more permanent inter-
locking. But chemical and physical combination are
-supposed to be alike in kind—the result of opposed,

adapted mechanical energy. Chemical action in general
produces more radical changes in the sensible properties
of substances, because, taking the initiative, it sifts the
atomic axes, and subsequent combinations are but in ac-
commodation to these previous changes.

The hypothesis attempts to give a fairly adequate ex-
planation of material changes; of the Zow and why of
such changes.

The unlike elements of matter are supposed to be con-
ditioned in special groups, but are essentially of the same
type, and their changes are all in time and space only.
There is held to be a higher type of atoms in the living

“ATOM” OF

* From the A. A, A. S., Cincinnati, 1881,

sentient, or “mind matter” group, which we know only
through their active organisms. In these atoms, force is
conditioned both by extension and by intensiveness, and
not in time and space alone—as with simple matter, but
in time and space and sentience.

Possible changes in sentience, emotion, may be nascent
in these atoms just as complex motion is nascent in all
uncombined or but little combined atoms. Complexity
of action in molecule and larger mass against which any
atom must react in equal measure and opposite direc-
tions, compels complexity in the atomic reactions, and in
the higher type of atoms one phase of all these reactions
represents changes in sentience-sensations, thoughts,
volitions.

Molecular complexity sufficient to excite a pleasurable
degree of feeling would tend instinctively to repeat itself ;
hence the rise of organisms. The organism is the
sentient atoms everchanging active molecule; and organic
growth is adapted to the more and more complex sen-
tient states. Decadence means failure in such adjust-
ments. Sentient changes vary all the way between the
low sentient state of profound sleep and the most alert
phase of self-consciousness, but they are all individual or
atomic changes. This hypothesis claims to offer an ex-
planation of the joint facts both of matter and of mind.

> —

BACTERIA AND THEIR RELATIONS TO PLANT
CULTURE.

By THOMAS TAYLOR, MICROSCOPIST, OF THE*DEPARTMENT
OF AGRICULTURE.

If we examine, under a high power of the microscope
asmail portion of the scum of a fermenting infusion of
vegetable matter, numerous particles of a globular shape
will be observed, measuring about one twenty-thousandth
of an inch in diameter, uniform in size and shape, highly
refractive and frequently found in gelatinous masses.
These are known as micrococci, or spherical bacteria.
Associated with them is generally found another descrip-
tion of germs of the same diameter, but of a rod-like
shape, jointed and of various lengths. In common vege-
table fermenting infusions they are seldom observed over
.003 of an inch in length, and are frequently under .oor of
an inch. They have generally an active motion, as seen
under a high power (as have also the micrococci), and
are known as rod-bacteria (from bacterion, a_ staff).
Botanists of the present day assign both of these organ-
isms to the division alga.

Many investigators believe that certain species of these
organisms produce contagious fevers, but there certainly
are other species which perform a most useful part in the
economy of nature, and in many of our valued industries
their active co-operation is absolutely necessary. It is
well-known that they are the chief agents of fermentation
and putrefaction, and it is to the decomposing power they
thus exert, in conjunction with the action of the ele-
ments, that all organic bodies decay and restore to the
earth soluble fertilizing salts, instead of the insoluble and
therefore unavailable material of which, in their un-
changed state, they are made up. There is high authority
for stating that organic substances are not inherently
unstable. Under suitable conditions they may remain
for an indefinite period wholly unaltered. It is well-
known that in some portions of the earth the carcasses
of dead animals tend to dry up and become mummified.
In the arctic region the remains of animals imbedded in
ice are kept in perfect preservation for centuries. It is
only under conditions more or less favorable to the ex-
istence and multiplication of the small organisms which
produce fermentation and putrefaction that rapid decay
takes place.

Without bacterian fermentation the compost heap of

Read before the A. A, A. S., Cincinnati, 1882,

444

SCIENCE.

the farmer would remain valueless as plant food.. The
stubble and the dead grasses of our fields, and the fallen
leaves, twigs, branches and trunks of trees would remain
comparatively unchanged but for the chemical action ex-
cited by the same agency. Fish guano, and all unfer-
mented organic fertilizers, must undergo bacterian fer-
mentation or putrefaction after their application to the
soil, or they will remain in a stable form, and their am-
monia, locked up in the tissues of which it forms a com-
ponent part, will fail to yield its return of profit to the
farmer. It is asserted that the great nitre beds of India
owe their origin to the action of microscopic germs, and
the production of nitrate of lime by artificial means pre-
sents a similar instance of the results of bacterian action.
In this last-named operation animal and vegetable matter
combined with lime is laid out in great beds and left for
a period of two years, or until fermentation and putrefac-
tion, coupled with the action of the air, have produced
nitric acid, when nitrate of lime is formed, to be subse-
quently converted into nitrate of potash.

Some of the most beautiful colors used in dyeing are
produced by’subjecting lichens to bacterian fermentation,
and the fermentation of stable refuse yields an even heat,
which is extensively utilized in the manufacture of white
carbonate of lead, as well as in the cultivation of mush-
rooms and of various early vegetables. The value of the
edible fungi thus produced, alone amounts in Europe,
Asia and America to millions of dollars per annum.
The utilization of bacteria and similar organisms in the
operations of baking and brewing, and the production of
wine and vinegar, is familiar to every household.

While bacterian fermentation or putrefaction is an es-
sential part of the process which fits dead organic matter
to become food for plants, the former appears to be an
incidental source of one of the common practical diffi-
culties encountered by the farmer and horticulturist, viz.:
the tendency of soils to becomesour. Some of the lower
forms of fungi are denominated “acid formers,” and the
mode in which these act will, I think, illustrate the pro-
cess by which sourness of soil is brought about. If we
dissolve a little sugar in water, add a small quantity of
yeast fungus, and subject the solution to a suitable tem-
perature, fermentation ensues—the sugar is converted
into alcohol and carbonic acid, and in process of time the
alcohol is oxidized, becoming acetic acid. As the result
of some late observations, I am convinced that a similar
change often takes place during the progress of those fer-
mentations of which bacteria are the agents, and that
these organisms, though in a less distinctive sense, might
also be called “acid formers.” So far as my observation
extends, solutions in which bacterian ferments are in ac-
tive progress, invariably become acidulated, and I have
also found that soils in which bacteria and micrococci are
revealed by microscopic examination—and _I find them in
all soils of average fertility--give perceptible acid reac-
tions when tested by litmus paper.

That acidity is so often produced in excessive quanti-
ties may be due in part to the character of the unmarket-
able substances left upon the land in the operations of
agriculture, such as the stalks of corn, the stubble of the
smaller cereals, decayed grasses, the fallen leaves and
twigs of fruit trees, and the roots of field and garden
plants in general. In all of these there is a preponder-
ance of cellulose, which substance is resolvable succes-
sively into starch, dextrine and glucose, and from this
last, as from the solution of sugar in the experiment above
referred to, is ultimately produced acetic acid.

The neutralization of the excess of acid in the soil is
not the least of the ends subserved by the use of lime
and other alkalies in agriculture; but another means
which contributes to keep its quantity within wholesome
limits is thorough drainage. If the soil of potted plants
‘be not watered with sufficient frequency and copiousness
it soon becomes sour, and gardeners have learned by ex-
perience to leave at the top of each flower-pot a water

space of two inches, more or less, depending on the size
of the pot. By filling this space with water as often as
necessary the soil is kept sufficiently free from organic
acids, which are washed out through the aperture below ;
and this is precisely similar to what takes place in any
well-drained field.

I have already referred to the opinion that certain
species of bacteria produce contagious fevers; but from
what has been said above, it will be sufficiently apparent
that this is by no means the chief function of this class
of organisms. However great their baneful activity at
times may be, their services to man and to organized ex-
istence in general are infinitely greater. Moreover, the
former is but occasional and sporadic, while the latter
is practically constant and universal. If the materials
once used by the life principle in building up organic
bodies could not be used over and over again for the same
purpose, life must soon cease through the exhaustion of
all that is capable of sustaining it. Itis in that which has
lived, but lives no longer, that life finds the greater part of
its sustenance ; but, as we have already seen, that vege-
table life upon which all animal life ultimately depends
can not use this sustenance in the form in which life left
it. Before organic matter is available as plant food, it
must be reduced almost to its primitive elements; and, -
as has been pointed out, its reduction is mainly effected
through those processes of fermentation and putrefaction,
in which bacteria appear to be the most active and import-
ant agents. Thus we find among those simple forms of
life, which are supposed to have been the first to make
their appearance on our planet, and to which, if we ac-
cept the theory of evolution, even the most complex of
existing organisms owe their origin—an agent which,
from the very inception of life upon the earth, has con-
tinuously performed a function without which the succes-
sive generations of plants and animals could not have
existed ; and stupendous as is its work, it is an agent so
minute that twenty million individuals of its class might
be inclosed within a globe small enough to pass through
the eve of a cambric needle.

or

ANCIENT JAPANESE BRONZE BELLS.*
By PRrRor. EDWARD S. MORSE.

Mr. Morse described the so-called Japanese Bronze
Bells which are dug up in Japan. These bells had been
described and figured by Prof. Monroe in the Proceed-
ings of the New York Academy of Sciences. Mr. Kanda,
an eminent Japanese archeologist, had questioned their
being bells from their peculiar structure.

Mr. Morse had seen a number of bells of different
kinds, some of considerable antiquity, but none of them
approached these so-called bronze bells. Mr. Kanda had
suggested that they were the ornaments which were
formerly hung from the corners of pagoda roofs, but the:
fact that none of them showed signs of wear at the point
of support, rendered this supposition untenable. Mr.
John Robinson, of Salem, the author of a work on Ferns,
had given the first suggestion as to the possible use of
these objects. He has asked why they may not have
been covers to incense burners. Curiously enongh, old
incense burners are dug up which have the same oval
shape that a section of the bell shows. The bell has
openings at the base and also at the sides and top, so that
the smoke of burning incense might escape. It is quite
evident that these objects are neither bells nor pagoda
ornaments, and this suggestion of Mr. Robinson’s may
possibly lead to some clue regarding their origin.

— ee

ELrcrric MOTIVE POWER FoR OMNIBUSES,— The Faure ac-
cumulators have been tried again by the Paris omnibus
company on a tramway with a carriage arranged for the
purpose. The experiment is said to have been highly suc-
cessful.

*Read before the A, A. A.S§,, Cincinnati, 1881,

SCIENCE.

TIME SERVICE OF CARLETON COLLEGE OB-
SERVATORY, AT NORTHFIELD, MINNESOTA.*

WILLIAM W. PAYNE.

_ The observatory of Carleton College is located at

Northfield, Minn., forty miles south of St. Paul, on one
of the main lines of the Chicago, Milwaukee and St.
Paul Railway. It was built in 1878. Its latitude was
determined by Professor B. F. Thomas in 1879, by a
series of observations made with a Wiirdemann zenith
telescope of two-inch aperture loaned to the Observatory
for that purpose by Lieut. Edward Maguier, Chief Engi-
neer of the Department of Dakota. He used the Talcott
method and found the latitude to be 44° 27’ 4t"+. In
August, 1880, the work was done a second time by
myself, using the same instrument and method, and ob-
serving forty pairs of stars from Sofford’s catalogue on
three different nights. After the proper reductions the
latitude was found to be 44° 27’ 4o0."8.

In October, 1880, by the aid and courtesy of the officer
just named, and Lieut. O. B. Wheeler, of the Lake Survey
Corps, the longitude of the observatory was determined.
The Coast Survey meridian of St. Paul was used as the
base of operation. Observations were taken at both
points on two different nights and telegraphic signals
were exchanged. Independent reduction of the observa-
tions showed the longitude of the Observatory to be
Th 4™ 23°.85 west of Washington and 14.3 seconds west
of the meridian of St. Paul.

INSTRUMENTS.

The Observatory is furnished with the following instru-
ments:

A Clark Equatorial, 84-inch aperture, 10} feet, with
complete mounting.

A Byrne Equatorial, 4.3-inch aperture, with portable
mounting.

A Transit made by Fauth & Co., Washington ; teles-
cope of: 3-inch aperture and 42-inch focal length with
reversing apparatus.

Two Howard clocks with electric and magnetic at-
tachments for use in regulating and sending time.

A Bond Siderial Chronometer with break-circuit and
an ordinary Clark Chronograph.

TIME SERVICE.

The time service of the Observatory began October 23,
1878, immediately after the clock was-set and regulated,
the N. W. Telegraph Company (now . Western Union)
having previously asked for time, and having built a line
to the Observatory and furnished it with a telegraph
office.

The electrical time-signals are given by the mean time
clock which has a break-circuit attachment operated by
a small wheel on the shaft carrying the seconds hand.
This wheel, which contains thirty-one teeth, spaced to
represent two seconds except three which give continu-
ous seconds to mark the close of each minute. This
clock is placed in a local circuit with appliances for cut-
ting it into the main telegraph lines for daily, noon
signals. By arrangement with the railroad companies
the clock is put into line before twelve daily and thus
‘give ¢hree full minute signals, the last stroke of the third
minute being the time of twelve exactly.

Until recently the distribution of the time has been
effected in the following manner:

The principal officers of five of the seven different rail-
roads centering in St. Paul and Minneapolis were con-
nected with the main office of the Chicago, Milwaukee,
and St. Paul Railway either directly or at some intersect-
ing point, and in this way our central mean time clock
has daily operated all the main lines of these companies.
The branch lines use the same time, having it repeated by

.. ® Read before the A, A, A, S., Cincinnati, 1881,

‘445

hand. When the main lines are thus connected the
clock has given its break-circuit signal distinctly over
1285 of wire in six different States and territories and
ranging from Kansas City to St. Paul, Winona and Mc-
Gregor in Iowa.

For a few weeks recently, the signal has been modi-
fied by reversing the points of the relay in the local cir-
cuit forthe purpose of a make circuit signal on the main
line. A five minute signal attachment has also been ap-
plied to the clock that time balls may be dropped at
noon daily in connection with our railroad time service.
Arrangements are already made to drop a time ball in
each of the cities of St. Paul and Minneapolis, apparatus
for the same being already in hand.

The five-minute attachment, as it is called, that aids in
dropping these time-balls, is a plain disk attached to the
train of the clock so as to revolve once in five minutes; a
portion of the circumference representing fourteen seconds
is cut away. This disk is placed in the local circuit and
serves to keep it closed, and hence main lines open during
fourteen seconds preceding the szxtéeth one before noon.
The interval gives opportunity to connect time-balls with
electrical apparatus for dropping the same by the single
twelve o'clock stroke from the clock. The dropping ap-
paratus that I use for these balls is manufactured by
Prof. H. S. Pritchett, of St. Louis. It is neat, simple and
effective.

DISTRIBUTION OF THE TIME.

The following railroad companies take the Northfield
meridian time directly or indirectly, and use it over their
lines without change.

Miles.

1, C.M.and St. P. R’y, onits five divisions West
of the Mississippi now embracing an aggregate
NERC Ole, 4-528 Aevetaas atta oh tach wk stadeets) ousys°s pinks A

2. W. & St. Peter R’y, (branch of N. W. R’y,)
uses both Northfield and Barabvo signals but runs

2271

on Northfield time West of the Missisippi........ 484
3. St. P. M. & O, from Sioux city to Elroy Wis., on
allgits brane hese fra sc cris gecesi eiaccks x eer 963
4. M. & St. L. R’y, from Minneapolis South.... 260
5. Northern Pacific Railway to the end of its
CRAG a eis tsirenes ts casein eye ad pore igh nied sie aie 680
6. St. P.M. & M. certainly to St. Vincent and (1
(AIDE AG) WWAia KIDS) oaks ey os bows oe aaiseen Pao codc 630
Frome See be OED OCMIL Dl teorer ads, <sensue’s om, § Ser ary eA 153
Malkinewastotall Offer. srsrcctesie hich < cot Beier sae: 5541

The last two companies named do not take time
directly from the observatory but from jewelers in the
city of St. Paul who receive our daily signals. .

It will be seen readily by inspecting a map that the
territory traversed by these great railroads embraces all
of Minnesota and forts of Iowa, Nebraska, Dakota, Wis-
consin, Montana, and probably the Province of Manitoba.

+o

CHANGES IN MYA AND LUNATIA SINCE THE
DEPOSITION OF THE NEW ENGLAND
SHELL HEAPS.*

By PRoF. EDWARD S. Morse.

This communication embraced a comparison between
the shells peculiar to the ancient deposits made by the
Indians along the coast of New England, and similar
species living on the coast at the present time. Mr.
Morse referred to similar comparisons which he had
made in Japan, wherein he had found marked changes
to have taken place; changes which showed that the
proportions of the shells had greatly altered.

He had made a large number of measurements of shells
from a few shell heaps of Maine and Massachusetts, and
had obtained very interesting results) The common

*Read before the A, A, A, S,, Cincinnati, 188z.

446

SCIENCE.

—_——_———_ sv SSFSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSssssMFMMMSsFseeee

clam (Mya) from the shell heaps of Goose Island, Maine;
Ipswich, Mass., and Marblehead, Mass., in comparison
with recent forms of the same species collected in thé
immediate vicinity of these ancient deposits, showed that
the ancient specimens were higher in comparison with
their length than the recent specimens.

A comparison of the common beach cockle (Lunatia)
from the shell heaps of Marblehead, Mass., showed that
the present form had a more depressed spire than the
recent forms living on the shore to-day, and this variation
was in accordance with observations he had made on
similar species in Japan.

~~.

AMERICAN COAL FIELDS.

The areas of the anthracite coal fields, confined to a
few counties of our State, are so well defined that we
need be in no doubt as to their extent ; and this limited
area admonishes us that we should carefully husband
our inheritance, and not waste it. The fact is well es-
tablished, that for every ton shipped to market, two are
wasted. The loss in the operations of mining, the pil-
lars left to support the roofs of the mines, the loss in
preparation, each contributes to this great aggregate.
How to prevent these losses, by use of improved ma-
chinery, and by more thorough methods of working the
mines, should be the study of our mining superintendents
and engineers. Several suggestions with a view to a
partial remedy, present themselves.

first—The owning of the land by the operators
would make them careful to mine all the coals. As
tenants for a limited term of years, their object is merely
to take out that coal, and in such a manner as will cost
them little, and bring them much.

Second.—lf the lands are to be leased, the term should
be long enough to enable them to mine all the coal beds
covered by the lease.

Thzrd.—The lease should contain clauses subjecting
the methods of mining, ventilation and drainage to the
supervision of the owner’s mining engineers ; limiting the
lengths of “breasts” to seventy yards or less; forbidding
the use of monkey rolls, or the rebreaking of the coal;
providing for the dumping in separate heaps of the coal
dirt and the slate and rock.

Fourth.—We need larger collieries, and fewer of them,
with perfected machinery, for hoisting, pumping and
breaking.

fifth.—More capital is required to open the mines for
extensive and exhaustive working, by driving the gang-
ways to the extreme ends of the territory, and then min-
ing towards the outlet, so as to obviate the necessity of
retracing our steps and robbing the pillars.

In Schuylkill county we are specialists. We are de-
pendent upon one substance: coal is king. There is no
gold, silver, lead, copper, or other valuable metals.
Though we have good iron ores, they are so disseminated
as not to furnish us one workable bed. Yet we largely
help Pennsylvania to furnish nearly halt the iron manu-
factured in the United States. We have a large farming
area well cultivated by our industrious and frugal German
farmers. Our convenient location to the great markets
of the Atlantic seaboard, our canals and abundant rail-
road facilities, our great commodity, always give a
promise and an attitude among the great countries of our
grand old commonwealth, which we are ever proud to
realize.—Geology of Schuylkill County, by P.W.Scheafer.
Pottsville, Pa.

———EEEE——E

The latest addition to microscope stands is the swing-
ing sub-stage. This American invention has been adopted
by most of the English manufacturers. In the last number
of the Yournal of the R. M. S. we find the value of the
swinging sub-stages disputed by Mr. Crouch, and that Mr.
Stevenson concurred in this view, and described them as
useless incumbrances and unsuitable for use with certain
apparatus, which is essential to the display of some objects,

ASTRONOMY.

COMET C (SCHABERLE), 188r.

This comet has been observed here since the 16th of
July. When first seen it was large, round and bright, and
slightly condensed at the centre, being very plainly visible
in a 1%-inch telescope. On the morning of the roth it
had increased sensibly in brightness ; a faint tail could be
traced for a distance of fully 15’, pointing in a northwest-
erly direction ; on the above date its position was obtainee
from © (Theta) Aurigas in the following manner: Thd
comet and star were separated too far to be both seen in
the field of the telescope together, the comet was also too
far north of the star for both objects to be seen at once
in the finder. One of the wires in the finder eye-piece
was made parallel with the meridian, and then the star,
which preceded the comet, was brought into the field and
its passage of the wire obtained; the telescope was then
carefully moved northward in declination until the comet,
entered the field when its passage of the wire was ob-
served; in this manner the difference of R. A. was ob-
tained ; the difference of declination was then estimated.
From a mean of several passages of the star and comet
its position on July 18th at 15h. 40m., Nashville mean
time, was found to be R. A. 5h. 52m, 52sec.,and Decl. 40°
15. The R. A. will be very little out, but the declination
may be over a minute in error.

Its position was obtained in the same manner on the
2oth (A. M.), using the same star at 3h. 35m., R. A. 5h.
53m. 54sec., Decl. +:40° 42’, with probably several min-
utes of error in the declination. On July 24, at 15 hours,
the comet was visible to the naked eye, appearing about
as bright as a sixth magnitude star (Prof. Swift, of the
Warner Observatory, saw it with the unaided eye as early
as the morning of the 23d).

On the 28th a small star-like nucleus was visible with
the telescope. ;

Aug. 3 (A. M.), it was very easily visible with the naked
eye, traces of the tail being seen without a telescope. A
naked eye comparison with comet B showed C to be the
brighter. Comparing it with a six magnitude star it was
of the same brightness, but, covering a larger area, it was
more noticeable than the star. The tail, in the telescope,
was long and slender and straight as a shaft. :

Aug. 4 (A.M.), the comet was quite conspicuous with
the unaided eye, the tail stretching out for some distance.
In the telescope the nucleus was small, round and pale,
and star-like in form, Turning the telescope from comet
C to comet B, the two were identical in brightness, but B
was slightly broader about the head and tail, and the nu-
cleus was not so distinct ; but considering the low altitude
of C it must have been really much brighter than B.

On August 14 it was visible in the evening after sun-
set, being quite plainly visible to the naked eye, with its
tail streaming upwards for several degrees. In the tele-
scope it was many times brighter than comet B.

21 inst., in the evening, the comet was as bright to the
eye asa 3% mag. star. It appeared very graceful,
straight and slender in the telescope. On this occasion
I obtained its position with the aid ef a ring micrometer,
referring the comet to Psz urse@ mznorzs.

1881, August 21 ds., 14.1m. Washington, m. t. 5 a=rth. o8m. 08.5s.
This was the apparent position. O=+45° 13’ 42"

22 inst., evening, its tail could be traced with the tele-
scope for a distance of about 6°, and was visible to the
naked eye for about the same distance. A faint lightish
stripe was visible on this date, extending from near the
head to a degree or so along the middle of the tail. The
following side of the comet’s head and tail were distinctly
defined, the sky appearing quite dark up to the very body
of the comet, but the preceding side was ill-defined and
blended, the sky being whitish for some distance from
the comet; there also appeared to be a diffused sort of
short tail running out some Io’ or so from the n. p. side

“SCIENCE.

447

of the head ; the nucleus was small and not very well
defined.

This comet differs considerably in general appearance
from the comet now in wrs@ mznor. Thehead of B was
large and broad, and its tail spread out greatly. Comet
C has a small, narrow head with a very long slender
shaft-like tail running from it in a straight line.

E, E. BARNARD.

NASHVILLE, TENN., August 26.

i ———__—_—————_
JUPITER.

The following cut represents the planet Jupiter on
October 21st and October 29th, 1879, as seen with the
18% inch Chicago refractor, with power 638.

JUPITER

6-30 Oor. 21571879

Pe. Ao
= 3S

922M: Ocr. 2971879

The numbers on the right indicate the faint belts,
which were systematically arranged on either side of the
planet’s equator.

The great Equatorial Belt, crossing the center of the
disc, was composed of two separate belts, being divided
by an irregular rift extending through the central por-
tion. The color of this belt was reddish-brown-brick
color, and the total width was 15,780 miles.

The great red spot shown in the center of the disc, on
October 29th, was essentially of the same color as the
equatorial belt, only more brilliant; it was about 30,000
miles in length and 8000 in breadth. Under fair atmos-
pheric conditions, the equatorial belt was always visible
uP. to the edge of the disc, with very slight diminution of
color.

CORRESPONDENCE.

COMET @., 1881.

HARVARD COLLEGE OBSERVATORY,
CAMBRIDGE, U. S. September 13, 1881.

To the Editor of ‘‘ SC\ENCE.”

SiR :—The spectrum of comet 4, 1881, according to
Dr. Konkoly (Odservutory, 53, p. 257) contains five
bright bands. From the mean of measures made with dif-
ferent spectroscopes on different nights, their wave-
lengths in millionths of a millimetre were found to be
560, 545, 515, 472 and 468. The first, third and fourth of
these bands are evidently due to carbon and, as Dr. Vogel
has shown, are coincident with those of the banded stars
of Secchi’s fourth type. The other two bands appear to
coincide with those of Ll. 13412. Last winter the spect-
rum of this star was found to consist mainly of bands
having wave-lengths 545, 486 and 466 (Vature, xxiii, 604),
The line 486 is probably due to hydrogen. The singular
kinship of comets and banded stars is thus confirmed
by astar whose spectrum seems to be quite unique.

EDWARD C, PICKERING.

To the Editor of SCIENCE.”

About two weeks ago, I found that one of the turtles
which I keep for experimental purposes, a Chrysemys
picta had laid eggs; all but one of these had been de-
voured whether by the turtle itself (as I have known
to be the case with the same species, when kept in cap-
tivity) or by some alligators living in the same tank I
could not discover. The perfect egg, I imbedded in
moist sand, after carefully washing it, and finding yes-
terday, that it had not undergone development, I opened
it and to my surprise found a living maggot, the larva
probably of the Musca vomztorza, creeping around ac-

_ tively in the space between the half dessicated yolk and

the shell membrane. It measured about four millimeters
in length. As it crawled out of the aperture in the shell
which I had made I threw the specimen away as it did
not show the original anomoly.

Analogous observations have been made in the chick’s
egg. Cases are not infrequent where one egg has en-
closed another or even several eggs, legs of beetles,wisps
of straw and other foreign bodies. But this is I believe
the first case where a living animal has been found in an
egg. Ofcourse the explanation of its presence is the
same as in the case of the other substances referred
to. iB Cc SPITZ RA.

—EEE———— SSS

BOOKS RECEIVED.

ELEMENTS OF ALGEBRA, by G. A. WENTWORTH, A.
M., PROFESSOR OF MATHEMATICS IN PHILLIPS
EXETER ACADEMY, 8° BOSTON. Ginn & Heath,
1881 ; viii, 380 pp.

This addition to American a gebraic literature is the
sort of book that is to be expected from a live teacher.
It bears the stamp of experience upon it and gives evi-
dence throughout of the one end and aim of teaching
beginners in algebra the art of algebraic manipulation.
We say the art rather than the science, because the aim
is clearly to familiarize the pupil with the av/, to teach
him Zow to manipulate rather than to lay stress upon
the reasons for the processes, the author being evidently
a disciple of Thomas Hill in his belief “ Facts before
reasoning.” This is shown by such statements as
“From these it may be assumed, etc.”’; ‘‘ It may be veri-
fied that, etc.”

The author has paid ‘particular attention to brevity
and perspicuity in definitions,” a thing which cannot be
too highly commended, and without which any algebra,
however good in other respects, will not succeed.

This matter of definitions is, as every teacher under-
stands, a very important matter, if not for the algebra it-
self, then at least as a matter of right training and clear
thinking. Definitions should be memorized, but memor-
ization is not enough; they must be thoroughly under-
stood. With those teachers who do not agree with this
view we will have no disagreement, for the student
trained to thoroughly comprehend is generally found by
that very process to have secured that definition in his
memory. Ina text book, therefore, which aims at clear-
ness and brevity in definition, a valuable training is
afforded the student by leading him to carefully weigh
the definitions ; to consider whether the definition can be
curtailed without loss of clearness, or whether it be not
already too brief to be intelligible; to consider whether
it is too restricted or too extended in its application, etc.

With the view of emphasizing this important matter
we shall call attention to some of the definitions in this
book, and at the outset let us premise that the definitions
of mathematical terms must conform to the usage of ma-
thematicians. It is a well-known fact that certain fea-
tures of text books, faults as well as excellencies, are
faithfully reproduced. Witness the statement concerning
the rotation period of one of the major planets, erron-
eously given in one of the earlier editions of “‘ Herschell s
Outlines,” and this error faithfully copied into astrono-

448

SCIENCE. 7

mical text books for nearly half a century. Witness also
those mathematical tables ‘“‘independently computed for
this work” containing errors identical with older tables.
The definitions given by a professional teacher, whose
knowledge is gained from and chiefly confined to text
books, will therefore be found to differ from those of a
mathematician, astronomer or physicist, whose concep-
tions are drawn from memoirs and documents differing
radically from text books. If a mathematician, not a
teacher, should write an algebra he would probably reflect
usage of mathematical terms by mathematicians better
than the teacher ; at the same time the teacher might ex-
press himself with more clear conciseness and in a
manner better adapted to the class room.

The differences pointed out above are illustrated in the
work before us. A co-efficient is defined as a known
factor, in accordance with the usual custom of defining
it; it is certain that this restriction is not kept up even in
algebraic text-books, as they speak of indeterminate
(meaning undetermined) co-efficients. That the leading
letters of the alphabet usually stand for known quantities
is something which the student has to wzlearn as soon as
he gets out of the elements, and often before, as is the
case in this work when Interest, Annuities, etc., is
reached. The statement (p. 27) that “it is usual to prefix
to the parenthesis the sign of the first term that is to be
enclosed within it,” may be questioned.

“ An equation ”’ according to this book “is a statement
that two expressions are equal.’ Suppose we make this
statement: ‘One pound is equal to sixteen ounces,’
will not this conform to the definition and at the same time
will it not fail to represent the algebraist’s conception of
an equation? According to the definition of ‘‘ Equation

of Condition” x * — my is not an equation of condition.
“To solve an equation is, to find Zhe value of the un-
known quantity,” thus implying that there is but one
value that will satisfy the equation, an impression that
will subsequently require correction. The terms cancel
and reduce so much used are not defined. The usage
of the first is in accordance with general use but not in
accordance with the usual definition. In fact no defini-
tion of it in any algebra (I am ready to be corrected)
conforms to mathematical usage.

The definition of fraction is purely the arithmetical one
in which the numerator and denominator are supposed to
be integers and hence fails as a general definition, just
as the definition of zzdex or exponent fails through too
great limitation or from tacitly assuming that a general
symbol will only have special values.

In spite, however, of the points to which we have
called attention above we consider this algebra a useful
one. The numerous examples afford the student ample
resources for getting practically familiar with algebraic
manipulation, and the conspicuous absence of set rules
compels the work to be done thoughtfully rather than by
rule of thumb. Factoring, that important branch of alge-
bra is fully treated, though the same can hardly be said of
radicals. The chapter on logarithms is well done, much
better than is common, and to our mind is decidedly the
best chapter in the book, The book is well printed and
attractive in appearance in spite of the lines at the top of
the page and is very free from typographical errors. We
have only noticed one, p. 349, Ex. 20, where $1o should
read $5. MARCUS BAKER.

U.S. COAST AND GEODETIC SURVEY OFFICE,
WASHINGTON, D. C., August 11, 1881.

METEOROLOGICAL REPORT FOR NEW YORK CITY FOR THE WEEK ENDING SEPT. Io, 1881.
Latitude 40° 45’ 58" N.; Longitude 73° 57’ 58" W.; height of instruments above the ground, 53 feet ; above the sea. 97

feet ; by self-recording instruments.
BAROMETER. THERMOMETERS.
eeu Stee MAXIMUM. MINIMUM. MEAN. MAXIMUM. MINIMUM. | Maxi’
THE DAY.
SEPTEMBER. |
Reduced | Reduced Reduced at og | = |
. Tr: Dry | Wet | Dry : | Wet | -p- Dry - Wet . :
to. to. Time. to. Time. | Buib.| Bulb. Bulb.’ Time. | pyjp.| Time. | Buib. Time. Bulb,| Time. InSun.
Freezing.| Freezing. Freezing. | |
Sunday, 4--| 39.008 30.032 |12 p.m.| 29.950 | 0 a.m | 68.3 | 64.7 71 3Pp.m.| 66 | 3 p.m.) 65 | 6a.m.| 62 | 6 a.m. gt.
Monday, 5--| 30.051 30.096 9 am.| 30008 6 p. m.|- 75.3 | 70.6 82 4p.m.| 75 | 4 p.m.) 68 Bava.) 6G) |\"sea- m.| 132.
Tuesday, 6..| 30.007 30.042 9 a.m.| 29.988 4 p.m.| 84.6 | 76.0 | 97 4 p.m, 81 4 p.m.) 74 5 a.m.) 72 | 5 a.m.) 150.
Wednesday, 7.-| 29-934 29.992 | 9 a.m.| 29.894 5 Pp.m.| go.6 | 76.0 IOI 3 p-m.| 83 6pm.) 79 | 6a.m.| 73 6a.m.) 154.
Thursday, 8--| 30.031 30.088 | 9 p.m.| 29.928 oa.m.| 79.0 | 71.3 &9 2p.m.| 78 | 2 p.m.) 69 (12 p.m.| 53 |12 p.m.| 133.
Friday, g--| 30.003 30.082. | o a.m.| 29.950 7 p.m.| 73.3 | 68.0] 78 | 4p.m.| 72 | 4 p.m.) 68 5 a.m.| 64 | 5 a.m, 96.
Saturday, 10--| 29.933 29.994 ga.m.}| 29.900 |12 p.m.| 72.0 | 69.3 75 ga.m.| 71 ga. m. | 66 |12 p.m.| 65 fa Dr. h FFs.
Dry. Wet.
Meanforithe weeks comes. == — = sent eee ees 29.995 inches. Mean for the week__-.------------ 77.6. degrees ..-----=se-5 70.8 degrees.
Maximum for the week at -o a. m., Sept. 5th ----.-_------- 30.096 Maximum for the week,at 3 pm. 7th ror. ‘at 6pm 7th, 83. =
Minimum us at 5p. m., Sepr-7thet2a-2> eee 29.894 ‘° Minimum * 6am, 4th 65. at6éam 4th, 62. aS
Mas Sed 352 Skee Se seen seecane essen seco os .202 * Range ‘‘ M gsr cee 36. Be te eee £21 ps
WIND HYGROMETER. CLOUDS. RAIN AND SNOW. a
B
| | FORCE IN ' ;
§ VELOCITY) RELATIVE CLEAR, ° DEPTH OF RAIN AND SNOW | 9
PASSED IN MILES,| ooo = ® | RORCE OR WAEOR: fT UMIDITN. OVERCAST. 10 IN INCHES.
ia | SQR. FEET. | * | (
== - 5 | . . 7 . | . . . - TT: ~~ he
SEPTEMBER lGoreanrel a (id) He a ee See & | Time) Time | Dura-|2 3] |
7 a.M.\2 p.M./9 p. m. for the = | Time Ay a All ica een eel ae eats aa Begin End- | tion. os aa
| Day. || Lv Pe ns Nea [a SEAS: N | s Soa eas ing. [Ba <o}_
e i | | |
Sunday, f=) 52 €. Cy Prey | 87 | %\11.30pm +516 | .572 | +599 | 83. 75 8&4 8 cu. 9 cu. gcu, ae leo,
Monday, 5-| S. Ww. ee ee ths O 158 |24| 0.50am| .599 | .717 | .757 | 84 | 70 | 8x jécu. /8 cu. jo e. re
Tuesday, 6.|w.s w.| n.w. | Ss. Ww. | 81 %| 5.30pm] .757 | -741 | .850 | 90 | 46 | 68 |10 \3.cir. cu. 1 cir.cu. eet |
Wednesday, 7- W.S.W. W. 1.W. w. 122 2%| 2.00pm] .717 | .559 | .827 7° | 28 | 57 |1 cu. 4 cir, cu. 1 Cir, aes) |
Thursday, 8-0. n.w.€. n. e. (| 117. 1%} 3.20pm] .6go | .809 | .52g | 70 | 59 | 74 jo 10 10 oe ee
Friday, g.| ¢. 8.¢. |S..S. €.] S. ©. 63 ¥%| 4.00pm] .529 | .625 -693 | 74 | 65 | 85 |10 10 10 ae
ee 3 Ae 8.40 pm| .706 | .704 | .6 81 | 89 |10 cu; fro. 4 [OR SuNaieore oo kG
Saturday, 10o.| s.¢. n.e. | n. €. 4 \7 -40P oe | +704 | »035 | go | | | |4.40pm|r1o pm. 08
Dina traveled during the week 732 ~miles. Total amount of) water for, theiweek= 5-252 -5c22 ae .09 inch.
Maximum foréé:s- 220-254 22 == 20 enenee cae nn aot an enna 7_ Ibs. Durationtofitawn 7. es eee ene 6 hours, 20 eee

Director Meteorological Observatory of the Department of Public Parks, New Sinbed

DANIEL DRAPER, Ph. D.

SCIENCE.

449

SCIENCE:

A-WEEKLy Recorp OF SCIENTIFIC

ProGRESs.

JOHN MICHELS, Editor.

THRMS:
Per YEAR, - = - Four DoLLars.
6 Monrus, = - - - Two es
3 ce - - - - ONE as
SINGLE CopIEs, - - = - TEN CENTS.

PUBLISHED AT

TRIBUNE BUILDING, NEW YORK.
P, O, Box 3888.

SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 24, 1881.

ENCKE’S COMET.

This comet is now visible in telescopes of moderate
power, and will increase in brightness until November,
when it may be visible to the naked eye. Tbe cor-
rections to the ephemeris, computed by Dr. Back-
lund, of the Pulkowa Observatory, are as follows :

Aa = — 39°.0 Ad = — 1'.4

These corrections may vary a little as the comet
approaches the earth, but it can be found without
trouble. If we consider the great care and labor that
have been given to the calculation of the ephemeris;
and the fact that the perturbations by nearly all the
principal planets have been computed, as well as the
effect of the resisting medium in space, the corrections
to the ephemeris seem to be very large. This comet
affords another example of what is now most needed
in Astronomy, viz., complete and careful theoretical
investigations. It will be comparatively easy to ob-
tain a great number of observations of this comet
during its present return, while a much smaller number
of good observations is sufficient. The attention of
astronomers should be given rather to a satisfactory
determination of the motion of the comet, since
the recent computers of its orbit do not have the
success of Encke in predicting its returns.

THE WARNER-ASTRONOMICAL PRIZES.

We recently explained, in an editorial, the condi-
tions on which Mr. H. H. Warner consents to pre-
sent to each of the discoverers of comets during the
year 1881, the sum of two hundred dollars. We also
stated that applicants for the prize for Comet 4, 1881,
were presenting their claims at the rate of sixty per
diem.

We now learn by a communication from Mr. C. S.
Whittemore, secretary to the Rochester Astronomical

Society, that nearly 3000 letters were received claim-
ing priority in the discovery of this comet, all of which
have been examined. Asa result of such examina-
tion, Professor Lewis Swift reports that ‘‘no conclu-
sion can be reached that would be scientific and
satisfactory.” In other words, the claims of the 3000
applicants are ignored, and the prize of $200 for
this, the most important of the three comets, so far
discovered in 1881, is withdrawn.

We cannot refrain from expressing our dissatisfac-
tion with this decision, and the methods employed in
arriving at it, which we believe to be neither ‘scien-
tific nor satisfactory.”

Mr. Warner, in a letter to the public dated Septem-
ber 5th, states, that two of the conditions on which he
consented to give a prize of $200 to the discoverer of
every comet appearing in 1881, were as follows:
That it should be “telescopic” and “unexpected.”
He now claims that ‘* Comet 4 was neither telescopic
nor unexpected.” Under these circumstances if-Mr.
Warner had simply announced that Comet @ did not
come within the meaning of his advertised prize, his
course would have been intelligible and satisfactory.
But he himself has stated, that in spite of these dis-
qualifying circumstances, he ‘“ was anxious, could the
first discoverer be found, to make a special reward of
$200.” In other words, a decision was arrived at to
waive the disqualifications, and to proceed as if they
did not exist, and the same letter admits that Pro-

fessor Lewis Swift “‘ examined” the 3000 applications
on their merits. Such being the case, when Professor
Swift found that he was unable to arrive at a “scien-
tific and satisfactory conclusion,” he should (under
the terms of the contract between Mr. Warner and
the public), have instantly referred the matter to
Professor Asaph Hall, of Washington, and the other
gentleman named as referee.

Under these circumstances we consider that Mr.
Warner is under the moral obligation of carrying out
his contract in regard to this matter, and insisting on
Professor Swift taking the proper steps to arrive at
some decision. Probably the mere perusal of the
3000 letters would instantly reduce the number to
some half dozen applicants, whose cases could be
submitted to Professor Hall, who would probably
decide upon their merits within a week.

The second point in Mr. Warner's letter to which
we would draw attention, is that in which he states,
that to mitigate his disappointment in not being able
to trace the “first discoverer” of Comet 2, he proposes
as a balm to the claimants, and to encourage astron-
omical study, to offer a prize of $200 to the person
who shall prepare the best essay on “Comets: Their
Composition, Purpose and Effect upon the Earth.”

450

SCIENCE.

The conditions are as follows :

“rst. The essay must be written in plain language,
each term to be defined in brackets immediately fol-
lowing, and must not exceed 3000 words.

“and. Each essay must be signed with a nom de
plume, and a sealed envelope must accompany the
essay superscribed with the zom de plume, and con-
taining the real name of the author.

“3rd. All the essays must be filed with Dr. Lewis
Swift, Director of the Warner Observatory, Rochester,
N. Y., by November 1, 1881, and he will submit them
to the judges.

“T hope that this prize will produce valuable addi-
tions to popular astronomical literature.”

We regret that Mr. Warner was not better advised
when he arranged the title of the essay and named the
conditions. By “f/ain” language we presume he
calls for “simple” language, but we are unable to
explain his desire that “each technical term shall be
defmed in brackets immediately following.” For
whose benefit is all this defining to be offered? Is
it to aid Professor Swift and the judges? If to aid
readers, when the essay is subsequently published,
would not a simple glossary of the scientific terms
used, added at the end, be more appropriate? If
“each technical term is to be defined,” we fear that
a large percentage of the 3000 words permitted will
be used for this purpose.

Again, would it not be a more creditable arrange-
ment, that the essays be filed with some independent
person, instead of Professor Swift, who is at least
a beneficiary of Mr. Warner, and is both a compe-
titor and the judge in these prize gifts?. (We think
Professor Swift awarded the first Warner prize for
comets to himself.)

Lastly, we find that no names are given of those
who are to be judges of the value of the prize
essays. This omission is very important, and seems
to raise a doubt whether any judges whose opinion
is worthy of respect can be secured to connect them-
selves with a scheme proposed under such conditions.
Again, what disposition is to be made of the essays
received by Mr. Warner? nothing is guaranteed in this
respect ; and will Professor Swift once more announce
to the essayists that “no conclusion can be reached
which is scientific and satisfactory ?”

We do not wish our remarks to be interpreted in a
sense which implies that either Mr. Warner or Professor
Swift are desirous of acting improperly in this matter,
although their behaviour may, in some quarters, be
severely criticised; we rather lean to the view that
their judgment and discretion is at fault, and that
they require the counsel of some friend who can so
advise them, that they arrive at “ conclusions which

are scientific and satisfactory.” Mr. Warner hopes
that his prize “will produce valuable additions to
popular astronomical literature ;’ we fear that under
the conditions he offers, he will be inundated with
vulgar scientific trash.

In conclusion, we offer Mr. Warner one word of
advice. If he honestly desires to encourage real
scientific work and literature, let him permit such
men as Hall, Newcomb, Pickering, Young, Stone,
Holder or Draper to arrange the title of his prize
astronomical essay, and request them to name the
conditions, and be the judges, of the merits of the
papers submitted. The decision of any two of the
gentlemen we have named would be satisfactory to
those who are likely to be competitors, provided
they acted independently, and untramelled by Mr.
Warner or any of his Rochester friends.

HYPERMNESIA OR EXALTATIONS OF
MEMORY .*
[Translated from the French by the Marchioness CLARA LANZA. ]

Until now our pathological study has been confined to
destructive forms of memory. We have seen the latter
diminished, sometimes completely destroyed. There are
however, precisely contrary cases, in which the appar-
ently abolished memory comes to life again as it were,
and faint recollections become intensely vivid. Is this
exaltation of the memory (called technically hypermnesia)
amorbid phenomena? It is at least certainly an an-
omaly. When we remark further that it is always con-
nected with some organic disorder or bizarre condition,
we cannot deny that it comes witbin our province to dis-
cuss it. There are other subjects, amnesia for instance,
which are more instructive, but we should not neglect it
for that reason. We will see therefore what there is to
learn about perszstence of recollections.

Hypermnesia is divided into two classes—general and
partial.

General exaltation of memory is difficult to determine,
because the degree of excitation is quite relative. The
force of this faculty varying to a great extent in different
individuals we cannot measure it by any common stand-
ard. The amnesia of one person may possibly be the
hypermnesia of another. It is, if we may employ the
word, a change of ¢ove in the memory, such as occurs in
every other form of psychological activity, thought,
imagination or sensibility. Moreover, when we say that
the excitation is general, it is nothing more than a prob-
able induction. Inasmuch as the memoryis subject to
the condition of our consciousness, and as consciousness
is only produced in the form of succession, all that we
can affirm is, that in the course of a period more or less
extended a mass of recollections spring up in every
direction.

General exaltation seems to depend exclusively upon
physiological causes, particularly the rapidity of cerebral
circulation. It is therefore apparent very often, in cases
of acute fever. It is also produced in insanity, ecstasy,
and hypnotism, sometimes in hysteria and in the begin-
ning of certain mental diseases.

Besides these purely mental pathological instances
there are others of a more wonderful nature which de-
pend probably upon the same cause. Numbers of per-
sons who narrowly escaped drowning have stated, that
in the moment when asphyxia began, they seemed to see
all at once their entire life in all its details, even the most

# See Les Maladies dela Mémoire by Th. Ribot, Paris 1881,

SCIENCE.

trifling incidents appear distinctly before them. One
person in particular, declared that he saw his’ whole ex-
istence rolled out in retrograde succession, not like a
mere indistinct sketch, but in precise details, making a
panorama of his life, in which every act was accompanied
by a feeling of pleasure or pain.

An analogous circumstance relates to a man of re-
markable intelligence who happened to cross a railroad
track just as an express train approached. He had just
time to throw himself lengthwise between the rails. As
the train passed over him, the sense of his danger caused
every incident in his life to suddenly rise before him in
memory.

Even allowing for possible exaggerations, these facts
reveal a hyper-activity of the memory. of which in a
normal state we can form no idea.

I will quote one more instance, due to stupefaction
from opium, and at the same time I will beg the reader
to observe how well it confirmed the explanation of the
mechanism of recollection given in another chapter.

“It seems to me,” says DeQuincy in his celebrated
Confesszons, ‘that I have lived seventy years or a whole
century in one night. The most trivial events of my
youth, forgotten scenes belonging to my early years, were
constantly brought before me. It cannot be said that I
remembered them, for had they been mentioned to me
while awake, I should not have been capable of recalling
a single one of them as forming a part of my previous
existence. But placed before me as they were in a
dream, like so many intuitions, made up of the most
vague circumstances and their accompanying sentiments,
I recognized them instantly.”

All these general excitations are transitory. They
endure no longer than the causes which produce them.
Does permanent hypermnesia exist? If the word can be
accepted in this rather forced sense, it must be applied
to those singular developments of the memory which are
the continuation of some chance accident. In ancient
authors we find many cases of this kind related. We
have no reason to doubt them, for modern investigators,
Romberg among others, have noted a wonderful and
permanent development of the memory, following small-
pox, etc. The mechanism of this transformation being
impenetrable, we have, however, no reason to insist upon
it.

Partial exaltations are by their very nature limited.
The ordinary tone of the memory being maintained in its
generality, everything beyond this can be easily ascer-
tained. These forms of hypermnesia are the necessary
co-relatives of partial amnesia.

In the production of partial hypermnesia there is noth-
ing resembling a fixed law. It presents itself under the
form of isolated facts, that is to say, it is the result of a
series of conditions which escape us. Why is a certain
group of cells forming a particular dynamic association
put in motion sooner than another ? Wecan give no rea-
son, neither a physiological nor a psychological one.
The only cases wherein we can affirm the appearance of
a fixed law, are those of which we shall speak later,
where several languages return successively to the mem-
ory.
Partial exaltations generally spring from morbid causes.
But sometimes they occur in a healthy state. Here are
two examples: :

«A lady in the last stages of a chronic malady was
taken from London into the country. Her little daughter,
who was a baby, not yet able to speak, was brought with
her, and after a short interview, was taken back to the
city. A few days later the lady died. The child grew
up without having any recollection of her mother. When
she had attained maturity, however, she had occasion to
see the room in which her mother died. Although she
was ignorant of this fact, she trembled as she crossed the
threshold. On being asked the cause of her emotion, she
replied; ‘I haye a distinct impression of having been in

451

this room before. There was a lady in bed here in this
corner. She seemed to be very ill, and she bent over
me,weeping.’ ””!

« A man endowed with a highly artistic temperament
(observe this point) accompanied some friends to a castle
somewhere in Sussex. He had no recollection of ever
having been there before. On approaching the entrance
he had a sudden vivid impression of having already seen
it, and, with the remembrance of the door came also a
recollection of people above and beneath the portico,
together with some donkeys standing by. As this con-
viction grew upon him more and more, he questioned his
mother, thinking she, perhaps, might be able to
enlighten him. She told him that when he was about
sixteen months old he had been in the neighborhood with
a large party of people, that he had been carried in a
basket upon a donkey to the castle and left down stairs
with the servants and their donkeys while the other
members of the party had installed themselves above the
portico to eat their dinner.’”

The mechanism of recollection in these two cases
does not admit ofany ambiguity. It is a revival, by con-
tiguity, after a long interval. They present that which
happens throughout every instant of life in a striking and
uncommon form. In order to recover a lost recollection
have not many of us returned to the spot where the idea
arose, endeavored to place ourselves as nearly as possible
in the same material situation and thus see the remem-
brance spring to life ?

As to hypermnesia arising from a morbid cause I will
give one example.

“ At the age of four years, a child submitted to trefin-
ing in consequence of fracturing its cranium. When his
health was quite restored he had no recollection of the
accident or the operation. But at the age of fifteen,
while suffering from delirious fever, he described the
operation to his mother, mentioning the physicians and
those present, the details of their dress, and other minute
particulars, with the utmost exactitude. Up to this time he
had never spoken of the matter nor had he heard any one
mention it.’

The revival of languages completely forgotten deserves
to be spoken of more at length. The instance reported
by Coleridge is so hackneyed that I shall not repeat it.
There are many others of the same kind which are to be
found in the writings of Abercrombie, Hamilton and
Carpenter. Anzsthetic sleep produced by chloroform or
ether can produce the same effects as febrile excitation.
“ An old forester lived during his youth on the frontier
of Poland, and spoke scarcely anything but Polish. Later
he removed to German territories. His children testified
that for thirty to forty years he had neither heard nor
pronounced a single Polish word. During an anesthetic
sleep of about two hours this man spoke, prayed and
sang fluently in Polish.*

A still more curious thing is the regresszve recollection
of several languages. Untortunately, the authors who
have mentioned this use the term and note the fact with-
out properly interpreting either.

The most interesting case was observed by Dr. Rush,
of Philadelphia. An Italian named Dr. Scandella, a
man of remarkable learning, resided in America. He
was a complete master of the Italian, English and French
languages. Hetook the yellow fever, and died of it in
New York. In the beginning of his illness he. spoke
nothing but English. After that only French, and on the
day of his death, Italian—his native language.

The same writer speaks in rather confused terms of a
woman who was subject to transitory attacks of acute
mania. When first seized she always spoke very poor

1 Abercrombie. “ Essay on Intellectual Powers.”
2 Carpenter. Mental Physiology.
3 Abercrombie. Work before quoted.

4M. Duyal. Hypnotisme daus fe Nouvequ diet de Médicine, p.144,

452 SCIENCE.

Italian. When at the height of her insanity—French.
During the first period of recovery, German; and while
convalescent, her mother tongue, English.

If we throw aside this regression as far as it deals
with several languages and content ourselves with more
simple cases, we find abundant and very precise in-
stances. A Frenchman living in England, and speaking
English perfectly, received a violent blow upon the head.
During his entire illness, he was unable to say a word in
any language except his native French.

There is nothing, however, more instructive than the
following fact, related also by Dr. Rush: “A Lutheran
clergyman, of German origin, living in America, had in
his congregation a great number of Germans and Swedes,
who, before dying, repeated prayers in their mother
tongue. Most of these, he said, he was sure had not
spoken a word of German or Swedish for fifty or sixty
years.”

Winslow has stated that numbers of Catholics, con-
verted to Protestantism, have prayed strictly in accord-
ance with the Roman ritual, during attacks of delirium
preceding death

This revival of languages, iost forms and ceremonies,
seems to me only to be interpreted by a particular case of
the law of regression. In consequence of a morbid ac-
tion, which generally precedes death, the most recent im-
pressions of the memory are destroyed, and this annihi-
lation descends gradually until it reaches the oldest ac-
quisitions and impressions. They acquire a temporary
activity, and are produced in consciousness for a certain
period before being wiped out forever. Hypermnesia,
then, is merely the result of negative conditions. Re-
gression does not follow from a normal return to con-
sciousness, but from the suppression of more intense and
vivid conditions. It resembles a weak, faltering voice,
which cannot make itself heard until the loud speech of
others has ceased. Impressions, certain habits belonging
to childhood or youth, suddenly return, not because they
are pushed forward by some cause, but because there is
no longer anything to cover them. Recollections of this
kind, are, strictly speaking, only a march backwards to-
wards certain conditions of existence which seemed to
have disappeared forever, but which a final working of
the memory, before entire dissolution, brings once more to
the surface. Iwill abstain, however, from: further reflec-
tions which these facts naturally suggest, reserving them
more properly to moralists. It could be shown, for ex-
ample, that certain religious frenzies, which have over-
taken people upon their death-bed, are, to psychology,
merely the necessary effect of a general breaking up, for
which there is no remedy.

Independent of this confirmation of our regressive law,
is the surprising persistence of these latent conditions of
memory which we have called residuum. Were it not
for these disorders of the memory we could form no idea
of it, for consciousness reduced to itself can only affirm
the conservatiou of those conditions wh‘ch constitute life
and a few others dependent upon the will, inasmuch as
they have become fixed by habit.

Must we draw, then, the conclusion that nothing is ever
lost in the memory? Must we infer that an impression
once formed there is indestructible, and that at any
moment it is likely to be revived ? Several writers, Maury
particularly, have given striking examples to uphold this
theory. However, there is no peremptory reason to deny
that even without the existence of morbid causes, there
are residuums which disappear. It is quite possible that
certain cellular modifications and other dynamic associa-
tions are too unstable to last. In short we may say
that the persistence agrees with a fixed rule, at least,
in the majority of cases.

As to the manner in which these distant impressions

Deg an article by M, Delboeuf in the Revue Philosophiqgue, February
1880,

are preserved and reproduced in memory, we do not know.
I will tell you, however, how it can be conceived in the
hypothesis which I have adopted throughout this work.

If we admit cellular modifications and dynamic associa-
tions to be the material substratum of recollection, there
is no memory, however crowded with facts and impres-
sions, which is unable to retain everything. For, if the
cellular modifications are limited, the possible dynamic
associations are innumerable. We may suppose that the
old associations reappear when the new ones, being tem-
porarily or effectually unorganized, leave the road free.
The number of possible revivals being diminished the
chances augment in proportion for the return of the most
stable associations, that is to say, the oldest. I have no
desire to insist upon a non-verifiable hypothesis. My
aim is to keep closely within the bounds of certainty,
and not wander off into doubtful paths.

It has been found impossible to place under the cate-
gory of any of the preceding morbid types, a certain
illusion of a peculiar nature, which occurs rarely, or
rather, is seldom observed. There have only been three
or four cases mentioned, and up to the present time no
special term has been used to designate it. Wigan has
called it very improperly, double consciousness. Sander, an
illusion of the memory (Zrrzxznerungs-tauchung). Other
writers have termed it false memory. This latter name
seems to me the most preferable. The condition con-
sists in the belief that an entirely new state has been ex-
perienced before, so that, when it is produced in reality, for
the first time, it seems to be a repetition.

Wigan, in his well known work upon the duality of the
mind, says that while present at the funeral service of the
Princess Charlotte in Windsor Chapel, he suddenly ex-
perienced the impression of having witnessed precisely
the same spectacle sometime previous. The illusion was,
however, but transitory. Many others of a more lasting
nature have been recorded. Lewes associates the phe-
nomenon with some which are more common. When
We are in a strange country, for instance, it frequently
happens that a sudden turn in a path or river brings us
face to face with a view which we are certain we have
contemplated before. Sometimes, on being intro-
duced to a stranger, we feel sure that we have already
seen him. While reading, new thoughts will often pre-
sent themselves to the mind as being familiar®.

This illusion, I think, can be easily explained. The
impression received, evokes in our past, similar or anal-
ogous impressions, vague, confused and hardly percept-
ible, but nevertheless sufficiently defined to make us
think the new condition is only a repetition of a former
one. There is a basis of resemblance rapidly felt be-
tween two conditions of consciousness, which causes one
to be identified with the other. It is, of course, an error,
but it is only a partial one, because there really exists in
the past, something which resembles an identical former
state.

If, however, this explanation suffices for simple in-
stances, here are others which do not admit of it.

A sick man, says Sander, on being told of the death of
an acquaintance, was seized with an access of ungovern-
able terror because he thought he had already experi~
enced the impression at some former time. ‘“ It seemed
to me,” he said afterwards, ‘‘ that I was in the same bed
on another occasion and X came to me, saying ‘Miiller is
dead.’ I answered, “‘he died long ago. How can he
die twice?”

Dr. Arnold Pick reports the most complete case of
false memory that I know of. It assumed the form of a
chronic disorder. An educated man, of good reasoning
powers, was suddenly attacked—about the age of thirty-
two—with a most peculiar mental affection. If he was
at an entertainment of any sort, or paying a visit, the

6 Lewes, See Prodlems of Life and Mind, 3d series.
7 Sander, Archiv fiir Psychiatrie, 1873, IV.

SCIENCE.

453

¢

event, with all its attendant circumstances, appeared so

familiar to him that he was absolutely sure he had pre-
viously experienced the same impressions, surrounded by
the same people or objects, with the same sky, weather,
etc. If he ventured to undertake a new occupation of
‘any kind whatever, he was certain he had done it before
and under identical conditions. Sometimes the sen-
‘sation would occur the same day, in the course of a few
minutes or hours, sometimes it did not strike him until
the day following, but it was always a distinct impression.

In this phenomenon of false memory, there is an
anomaly of mental mechanism which escapes us, and
which is difficult to comprehend in a healthy state. The
person affected, no matter how acute an observer he
might be, could only analyze the condition when he
ceased to be deceived by it. From the examples given it
would seem to me that the impression received is repro-
duced in the form of some image. To employ a physio-
logical term, there is a repetition of the primative cerebral
process. This is a very ordinary phenomenon. It occurs
in every recollection which is not caused by the actual
presence of the object. The only difficulty is to discover
why this image which arises a minute, an hour or a day
after the real condition, should appear to be a repetition
of the latter. We may possibly admit that the mechan-
ism of recollection acts in a distorted manner, for my
part, however, the following explanation seems more ex-
plicit :

The image formed in this manner is very intense and
partakes of the nature of an hallucination. It is, appar-
ently, a reality, for nothing rectifies the illusion. Conse-
quently, the real impression is forced back, as it were, and
assumes the character of a recollection. It becomes
realized in the past, erroneously if we consider the facts,
objectively, properly, if we consider them subjectively.
The hallucination, although very vivid, does not efface
the actual impression, but as the latter is quite separate,
and as the former is produced at a comparatively late
period, the-real occurrence appears to be a second ex-
perience. ‘Lhe hallucination assumes the place of the
actual impression, it seems to be more recent, and this is
really the case. Of course, to us who judge according
to what we see externally, it is false to say that the im-
pression was received twice. To the person afflicted,
however, who determines solely as his consciousness
may dictate, it is true that the impression was actually
received twice.

To the support of this explanation, I would call atten-
tion to the tact that false memory is nearly always allied
to sume mental affection. The person mentioned by
Pick suffered from a form of insanity. He was contin-
ually endeavoring to escape from people he supposed
were his persecutors. Hallucinations in this instance
would be perfectly natural. I do not, however, wish to
assert that my theory is the only possible one. In regard
to this isolated condition of false memory, much more
numerous and concise observations than mine are prob-
ably required.

>.

THE EXCAVATION OF THE GRAND CANON
OF THE COLORADO RIVER.*
By Capt. C. E. Dutton, U. S. A. U.S. Geological Survey.

The Grand Cajion of the Colorado River is the
longest, widest and deepest of the almost continuous
chain of cafion valleys through which the upper half of
that river flows, Its length is 218 miles, its width from
5 to 11 miles, and its depth trom 4500 to 6000 feet. For
convenience of discussion it may be arbitrarily divided
into four divisions: 1st. The Kaibab division ; 2d. The
Kanab; 3d. The Uinkaret; 4th. The Sheavwits division.
The upper or Kaibab division is the grandest, widest
and most diversified, and a little deeper than the others

* Read befcre the A. A. A.S, Cincinnati, 1881.

The three others are simpler in form and much alike in
their topographical features, Capt. Dutton first exhibi-
ted a view of the cajion in the Uinkaret division, showing
its simplest and most typical form. It consists of an
inner and an outer chasm, or a cafon within a cafon.
The outer chasm is five to six miles wide, and is walled
on either side with palisades 2000 feet high, of singularly
noble and graceful profiles, which confront each other
across a comparatively smooth plain. Within this plain
is sunken the inner gorge, descending 3000 feet lower,
and having a width a little greater than its depth. At
the bottom of the inner gorge flows the Colorado River,
a stream about as large as the Ohio between Pittsburg
and Wheeling. The strata in which the chasm is cut
are chiefly of carboniferous age. The summit of the
outer canon wall is very near the summit of that series.
The chasm throughout the greater part of its extent
cuts below the carboniferous and penetrates the Lower
Silurian, and even the Archzan schists, revealing the
fact that before the carboniferous was deposited the
country had been extensively ravaged by an erosion
which swept away heavy bodies of Silurian, and probably
also of Devonian strata. The carboniferous now rests
upon the beveled edges of the flexed older strata, and
in many places rests upon the completely denuded
Archean.

The region adjoining the chasm and for 40 to 60 miles
on either side is a nearly level platform presenting the
summit beds of the carboniferous system patched over
here and there with fading remnants of the Permian. The
strata is very nearly, but not quite horizontal. There is a
slight dip to the northward rarely exceeding one degree,
but as the general course of the river is along the strike,
the edges of the strata disclosed in the Cafion walls are to
all appearances rigorously horizontal.

From 40 to 60 miles north of the river are found the
principal masses of the later formations, including the
Permian, Trias, Jurassic, Cretaceous and Lower Eocene.
These form a series of terraces rising successively like the
steps of a gigantic stairway as we move northward. Each
formation is terminated southwardly by a great cliff and
the strata are nearly horizontal, collectively they have been
named the Southern Terraces of the High Plateaus. The
latest formation which was deposited in this region was
the Lower Eocene.

To the geologist it is obvious that the formations of the
Terraces now terminated by gigantic cliffs once extended
further out towards the southward and formerly covered
regions from which they have been denuded. Captain
Dutton is confident that all these terrace formations once
reached entirely across the Grand Canon platform in
full volume, and that their ancient shore line is found in
Central Arizona. The thickness of the strata thus’ de-
nuded was a little more than 10,000 feet on an average,
and the area from which they have been swept away is
more than 13,000 square miles. It is through the heart
of this denuded region that the course of the Grand Can-
on is laid. The denudation began probably at an epoch
not far from Middle Eocene time, since at that epoch took
place the final emergence of the region from a marine con-
dition (through the brackish water and lacustrine stages)
to the condition of ¢erra firma.

It is apparent that the cutting and development of the
present Grand Cajion is only a closing episode of a long
history of erosion, extending from Middle Eocene time
down to the present. Before the river could begin its
attack upon the summit beds of the carboniferous which
now form the crests of its upper walls, it had to cut
through more than 10,000 feet of superior strata. This
would alone indicate that the beginning of the present
cafion cannot date far back in Tertiary time, and Capt.
Dutton thinks that the evidence points strongly to the
conclusion that its excavation in the carboniferous began
in Pliocene time. This evidence is cumulative and not

» direct, but is derived from a comparison of many groups

454

SCIENCE.

of facts which are too numerous and complex to be sum-
marized very briefly. One group of facts bearing upon
the question of age is found in the comparative study of
the lateral drainage channels and their gradual extinc-
tion by the progressive development of the arid climate
of the region which took place in Pliocene time. Nearly
all the ancient tributaries of the Grand Cafion appear to
have dried up at the beginning of its excavation or very
soon after, and the whole work shows the influences upon
arid climate.

The Grand Cafion district has also been subject toa
great amount of uplifting, amounting in the aggregate
according to locality, to 16,000 to 19,000 feet. The pres-
ent elevation of its surface above the sea is the difference
between the amount of uplift and the thickness of strata
removed, and is from 7,000 to 9,000 feet. This great
elevation is considerably surpassed in some other portions
of the West. Obviously, it has been an important factor
or essential condition in the process of cafion cutting,

The peculiar forms of the drainage channels of the
Plateau country, and of which the chasms of the Colo-
rado are extreme developments, are ascribed to the op-
eration of two groups of processes acting under abnor-
mal conditions. It is customary to say that the rivers
have cut their canons. This is but a partial truth, for
the rivers cut passages no wider than their water sur-
faces. The first group of processes is termed corrasion,
the result of which is the continuous sinking of the bed
of the stream by the grinding action of flowing water
charged with sand. Many factors enter into this result,
and their mutual relations are highly complex. But ina
general way it may be said that a river with a rapid de-
scent, carrying a notable quantity of sediment, but not
enough to overload it or overtax its transporting power,
will continuously corrade or grind down and deepen its
channel. If it is overloaded, a portion of its sediment
will be deposited and form a protective covering to the
bed-rock. Under special conditions it will actually build
up its bed. Most rivers, along their middle and lower
courses have their general conditions so adjusted that
there is little or no tendency either to build up or cor-
rade. To this equilibrium of adjustment all rivers are
tending, and most rivers have nearly or quite reached it.
The Colorado is exceptional in this respect, and its ten-
dency is to corrade. Its waters, though carrying great
quantities of sediment, are still under-loaded, and could
carry more if they could get it. This tendency to cor-
rade may be ascribed to the fact that the country through
which it flows has been gradually rising in altitude
through Tertiary and probably also Quaternary time, and
this elevation produces and maintains a rapid declivity
in the stream-bed, which in turn imparts a high velocity,
and consequently great transporting power to its waters.

The widening of the cuts made by corrasion is the
work of the second group of processes, viz., weathering.
This is also a very complex action, and cannot be briefly
summarized. To this action is due the remarkable sculp-
ture of the canon and cliff walls and all those surprising
resemblances to architectural forms which are so abun-
dantly displayed in the Plateau country, and most especi-
ally in the Grand Canon.

The concluding portion of Captain Dutton’s lecture
was devoted to a description of the scenery in the Kai-
bab division of the cafion, which is declared by all who
have seen it to be the most sublime and impressive spec-
tacle in the world,

nea

NEw OBSERVATORY.—A meteorological station is to be
erected at Pavia, under the direction of Professor Cantoni.
Investigations will be made at this station on the influence
of heat, light, electricity, etc., on vegetation in general, and
some cultivations in particular, and also the diurnal and
annual variations of terrestrial magnetism.

MIXED SUGARS.*
By PROFESSOR H. W. WILEY.

Mixed sugars are made of cane sugar and amylose
(starch sugar.) Within a few years the mixed sugar in-
dustry has advanced from a small beginning to a busi-
ness of considerable importance. It is difficult to get
accurate data of the amounts of this sugar made. Man-
ufacturers and dealers are extremely reticent on the whole
subject, and often refuse to talk about it at all. I have,
howeycr, after considerable trouble, been able to get at
the ngures which will give at least an approximate esti-
mate.

The principle centers of the grape sugar industry are
Brooklyn and New York, Buffalo and Peoria. Froma
careful comparison of the data which I have been able
to collect, I place the daily product of mixed sugars at
the several factories at 1,500 barrels. This will be found
not far from the truth. It is rather under than over the
true number. It is thus seen that the mixing of sugars
is a fact which is altogether too large to be laughed at.
It must be remembered, too, that the manufacture is
rapidly increasing, and is only limited now by the quan-
tity of dry white amylose that can be made.

Amylose costs 3% to 4 cents a pound by wholesale.
Uuntil the price of corn became so high it was half a
cent less than this. It is, therefore, a very profitable
business to mix it with cane sugar and sell the whole
for the same price which the cane sugar would fetch
alone. I have here on the table specimens of these
mixed sugars. Here are eleven samples made by the
Manhattan Refinery, of New York, also six samples from
the Atlantic Refinery, of Buffalo, and six samples from
Henry Hobart, of New York. These sugars are sold re-
tail under various names. Of these I may mention “New
Process Sugar,” “ Niagara A B C,” “ Harlem B,” “ Ex-
celsior C.’”’ and various others. To the eye these sugars
look very much like straight cane sugars, and are gener-
ally pure and wholesome. They differ from the pure
cane sugars in being less soluble in water and in being
less sweet to the taste.

It has been estimated that amylose is two and a half
times less sweet than sucrose ; but this depends largely
on the method of manufacture. Some samples of amy-
lose will be found quite sweet, while others impart even
a bitter taste.

In the manufacture of mixed sugars it is highly im-
portant that the amylose be dry. If hydrated amylose
be used it is found almost impossible to pulverize it, and
when ground it is pasty and sticky. Machines have been
patented for obtaining finely granulated amylose from
the well dried specimens. It is quite impracticable, how-
ever, to obtain amylose entirely dry, and it is capable of
being worked very well when it still contains § to 1o per
cent of water. This water is put in when sold at the
same price as pure sucrose. Ina commercial sense it is,
therefore, not a disadvantage. The amylose which is
used in mixing is generally made by high conversion
under pressure. It, therefore, contains a high percentage
of glucose, (dextrose) as compared with the maltose and
dextrine present. It is, therefore, less sweet to the taste
than the liquid amylose, where the percentage of maltose
is larger. ;

Many schemes for the estimation of the different con-
stituents of a mixed sugar have been proposed. For a
discussion of the methods of analysis by reduction and
fermentation, I refer to my paper read before this section
last Saturday. I will content myself here with a brief
outline of the method which I have employed. The
water is estimated by heating two or three grammes in a
flat platinum dish to 150° C. for two hours. The per-
centege of cane sugar I determine by Clerget’s method.
First get the total rotation in the polariscope then invert

* Read before the A, A, A. S., Cincinnati, 1881.

= SCrENCE.

455

by heating to 68°, then polarizing again, carefully noting | COAL DUST AS AN ELEMENT OF DANGER

the temperature. From these readings the percentage of
cane sugar present is calculated from the following for-
mula :

’

a—a
nee t
7

Here a=first reading of polariscope.
a'=second reading of polariscope.
t—temperature of observation.
x—percentage cane sugar required.

In connection with the polariscope readings I also
made reductions both before and after inversion, and
thus obtained valuable data in regard to the nature of
the amylose present, as well as securing a check on the
optical results. ‘ at

Following is a scheme of an analysis which will illu-
strate the method of procedure:

Reduction. Took tog.in 1000c.c. Of this, to reduce
1oc.c, Fehling’s Solution, took 27.8 c.c.

Then 1000: 27.5=x:.05 (.05g = sugar corresponding
to 10 c.c. copper solution.)

Whence x = 1.8 g. = 18 percent reducing matter.

>

Polarization. 26.048 g.in 100C.c. gave........ 97°.8+
After inversion at 21° SOPs ere caie 2°.6—
ID pVer id= =| Gane coueurcoUad 100°. 4

21 :
1009.4 + 144 — a ae = per cent sucrose.

Reduction after inversion.
For 1oc.c. copper solution took 5.35 c.c.
Then 1000; 5.35 =X: .05.

8 SS.OS Gils SS QoOan oe co Boer oon decease 93-50 per cent.
Deduct 18 per cent due to amylose =.. 75.50 ‘“
WWWerttonInVvert SUPA... cee no. cee wenn ne s
Sucrose by polariscope.. 5.1.5... oes 45.2 ss

Amylose, water and ash by difference...

Following are the results of twelve examinations of
mixed sugar :

Per cent Per cent Amylose, Water,
No. Reducing Sucrose by Ash, etc.,
Matter. Polariscope. by difference.
Beever srarste erste eos *29.70 *7 1.4 28.6
Fig COCO OCT OIOOD 24.6 64.35 35.65
Si eacrnd Artest 25.64 68.2 31.80
/ bea Shien oT 25.00 64.72 35.28
(sic. sched Meee 22.52 66.80 33.20
OS. eis Se Sar 24.4 60.34 39.66
hes cis C AORN Oke 26.88 60.7 39.30
eiPiocus ah wo olor 25.00 68.6 31.40
Qt Sere Sensei: 30.5 59.9 40.10
TGGrn timers ae os 25.8 71.6 28.40
Lge hake oa ea 26.6 61.0 39 00
LD te Sot asa caer 18.0 75.4 24.60

The analysis of mixed sugars is at this time a matter
of great public interest. It is important that the public
be not defrauded by purchasing sugars under false names.
It is true that the manufacturers, as far as I know, do
not sell the mixed sugars as s¢tvazght, but when they
pass into the hands of the retail dealers they are usu-
ally disposed of as if they were genuine. I do not antici-
pate that mixed sugars will jeopardize the public health.
When well made they are certainly palatable and harm-
less. For boiling with fruits, etc., as in making pre-
serves, they are quite as efficient ascane sugars. Never-
theless a ‘‘mixed sugar” should be bought, sold, and
consumed as a mixed sugar, and thus all “winking” at
fraud be prevented.

* One of these numbers is evidently incorrect. On looking over my notes
I cannot find the mistake, and I have no more of the sugar with which to
repeat the analysis. I think the error is in the per cent of reducing mat-
ter.—H. W. W,

IN MINING; SHOWN BY THE LATE ExX-
PLOSION IN THE ALBION MINES IN NOVA

SCOTIA.*
By H. C. Hovey.

My object, in this communication, is to lay before the
public by permission of Mr. Edward Gilpin, Inspector of
Mines for Nova ‘Scotia, the results of his investigations
into the part played by coal dust in spreading and aug-
menting the terrible explosion that took place in the
Albion mines, near Stellarton, on the East river, N. S.,
on the 12th of November, 1880.

Explosions are frequent in the coal mines of England
and Belgium. causing loss of many lives and the
destruction of much property. But in our own country,
as arule, we are fortunately exempt from such calamities.
On the other side of the Atlantic there are special causes
leading to these explosions ;- the thinness of the seams,
the depth of the workings, the gaseous nature of the
coals most prized for their coke and illuminating power,
all combining to render difficult the great problem of
producing ventilating currents sufficiently powerful and
searching to insure the safety of the workmen.

Within the last few years men of scientific and practical
knowledge have studied into these disasters and their
causes, hoping that some remedy might be found that
could remove the dreadful uncertainty hanging over the
lives of those who help to sustain the fabric of modern
civilisation. It was discovered by a rigid inspection of
all available accounts of explosions, that many of them
had occurred in pits known to be, asa rule, not danger-
ous from explosive gas, or declared to be free from it
shortly before the moment of the accident. Then the
fact gradually became apparent that a seemingly inno-
cuous constituent of the mines, namely, coa/ dust, played
an important part in spreading and augmenting the
blasts. It was as if the wadding of a gun was composed
of an inflammable material which, on ignition of the
charge, doubled its effect.

It is well-known that chemical action is often induced
in heaps of slack, such as exist in thick coal workings,
and that the heat evolved may be enough to cause igni-
tion. The danger is increased when the broken coal is
comminuted, and floats in the air, as in this form, under
various conditions, it may undergo rapid oxidation.
Galloway’s experiments show that when the particles of
dust are so fine as to pass through the gauze shield of a
safety lamp, an explosion may be caused by their igni-
tion. Bauerman states that, in the Franco-Belgian col-
lieries, ‘‘ several fatal explosions have been traced to the
firing of coal dust from the flame of a shot, even in cases
where no fire-damp was present in the workings.”

A brief glance at the history of the Albion Mines will
not be misplaced. The main seam, which has been con-
tinuously worked since 1807, attains the remarkable thick-
ness of 37 feet 6 inches, and is a highly bituminous coal,
well adapted for gas and coke-making. It contains sev-
eral layers of iron stone up to one foot in thickness, but
may be considered as an unbroken mass of coal.

The earliest workings, now known as “the Burnt
Mines,” furnished large quantities of coal, until they
were abandoned in 1839 on account of fire, which blazed
so fiercely from the shafts that the chains used in raising
the coal tubs, were melted. A new opening, the Bye
Pit, was worked till 1863, when a fire occurred from a
shot lighting gas. This was extinguished ; but a short
time after the gas ignited at the boilers, which were
within a few yards of the top of the pit. and the works
had to be closed up. The Foster Pit was next opened,
but in 1869 spontaneous combustion caused a fire, which
necessitated its abandonment before it was fairly under
way.

* Read before the A, A, A._S., Cincinnati, 1881,

456

SCIENCE.

At length the Foord Pit was won out, and, with its
great pumps and engines, formed one of the finest coal-
mining establishments in America. The ventilation was
effected by a large Guibal fan, similar to those used in
the Pennsylvania Mines, and capable of circulating
120,000 cubic feet of air per minute through the ramifi-
cations of the mine. The workings of the Foord Pit,
which is nearly 1,000 feet deep, extend about 1,800 yards
to the north, and 1,700 yards to the south, having an
average breadth of 350 yards. The galleries varied in
height from 9 to 15 feet, being driven in the upper part
of the seam, the lower part being left for later operations.
The ventilation through the south side was maintained
‘at the average rate of 25,000 cubic feet per minute.
Shortly before the accident referred to, I went entirely
through the colliery, in company with Mr. Gilpin and the
overman, and we remarked the perfection of the ventila-
tion, and the consequent absence of deleterious gases,
even in the remotest bords.

On the morning of the disaster the night watchmen
reported the mine to be free from gas, except in small
and harmless quantities. From what source, then,
originated the series of explosions that began within an
hour from the time this report of entire safety was made,
and continued at intervals until the mine became a furn-
ace, whose flames could be subdued only by emptying
into its burning chambers the waters of the adjacent
river? Was there some sudden exudation of gas from the
solid coal, or was this explosion due to the firing of coal
dust from a safety-lamp or the flame of a blast ?

None of the forty-four men who witnessed the begin-
ning of the catastrophe escaped to tell the story or ex-
plain the mystery, and those rescued from more distant
galleries had but conjectures to offer. The workmen on
receiving the assurance that the mine was free from gas,
received their orders, descended the drawing shatt, re-
ceived their safety-lamps at the lamp cabin and a part of
them went into the north side workings and the rest went
into the south side dips and waited for their tools to be
sent in for distribution. At this moment the explosion
took place that was first noticed at the fan-shaft, where
it blew the cover of the fan-drift off, and about one min-
ute later it was apparent at the drawing shaft, having
traveled in the one case wth and in the other agaznst
the ventilating current.

The only additional facts definitely ascertained were
gathered by an exploring part led by Mr. Gilpin, who,
shortly after the original explosion and at the risk of life,
descended into the pit and penetrated as far as the after-
damp would allow them to go. The locality where the
unfortunata workmen whom they tried to save were
known to be was 1,200 yards south of the shaft ; and the
point reached by the party was only about 600 yards in
that direction.

It was evident that the flame of the explosion had not
reached as far as this, for there were no marks of fire on
the dead bodies of men and horses found, nor was the
splintered wood-work charred. They carried two corpses
to the surface for examination, and it was found that one
of these died of the after-damp, and the other from being
dashed against some timber.

The walls of the galleries had been swept clear of
timber, and presented the appearance of having been
brushed with a broom. This was due to the passage of
great volumes of dust which lay on the floor of the
level in waves and drifts, into which the party often sank
up to their knees. A similar effect was visible in the
mine level, but not to so great a degree ; as it was damper
about the floor, and from the effects observed it would
appear that, while the explosion passed along each level
simultaneously, it had greater power in the lower one, as
the doors were blown toward the upper, or main level.
Clouds of the finer particles were carried up the shaft,
and were swept on into the North-side levels.

At the lamp-cabin, where the safety lamps were

|

cleaned and given to the men after being examined by
the shot-firers, an open light had been kept burning for
years, as ii was considered a safe place, being
within a few feet of the bottom of the shaft. But
here a secondary explosion took place, demolishing the
cabin, burning the horses between the shaft and the
cabin, and fatally injuring the lamp-man by igniting his
oil-soaked clothing, so that he died ina few days. The
effect of the explosion did not extend far into the north
side, and some of the men there were ignorant of the
disaster until warned by the over-man to leave the pit.

Secondary explosions caused by extracted, or generated
gas, are nearly always in the vicinity of the primary one;
but here is a case where the second was half a mile from
the first, with an intervening space of at least a quarter of
a mile known to be free from gas, because men were in it
with lamps which showed no indications of its presence.

The ignition of these volumes of dust would, no doubt,
have done serious injury to the shafting, had not the
latter been wet and indeed saturated with water oozing
under pressure through the upper strata into the shaft,
and then falling to the bottom; so that, although else-
where the mine was a very dry one, it was here in such a
condition that the flame would be extinguished as soon
as it touched the damp walls. The necessity of watering
dusty mines has been pointed out by Inspector Gilpin,
and this is said to be practised in some of the Belgian
collieries. The present instance shows that such a pre-
caution would tend to reduce the range of the explosion
of the dust.

Attempts were made to restore the ventilation of the
workings in the Albion Mines, when the presence of a
large fire was discovered, and this made it necessary to
flocd the galleries. In about 48 hours after the explosion,
a trench had been cut through to East River, and the
water was let in at the rate of 15,000 gallons per minute,
until, within a week, all the workings were filled. This,
of course, made further investigations impossible, and
nothing will be known beyond what has here been
told.

The subject is one of acknowledged importance.
There have been frequent explosions in flouring mills,
said to be attributable to the ignition of flour dust. At
a late meeting of the Manchester Geological Society, (in
England), experiments were made to show that even finely
powdered slate will spread the flame of gas explosions.
Since the preparation of the present paper, a report has
been made before the royal commission on accidents in
mines, by Mr. F. A. Abel, Chemist to the British War
Department, in which it is claimed, as demonstrated, that
coal-dust is not only a fiercely burning agent, but when
suspended in air currents may operate as an exploding
agent. It operates, aside from its inflammability, as a
finely divided solid, in “determining the ignition of only
small proportions of fire-damp and air, and consequently
in developing explosive effects,” z.¢., under circumstances
which, in the absence of the dust, would be attended by
no danger.

+

HISTORY OF ALHAZEN’S PROBLEM.

Abstract of a paper read before the American Association for the
Advancement of Science, Cincinnati, August, 1881, by MARCUS
BAKER, U. S. COAST AND GEODETIC SURVEY, Washing-
ton, DaG:

Alhazen’s problem is an optical one and was thus
stated by the Arabian Alhazen for whom the problem is
named. ‘“ Gzven a lumznous point and a point of vision
unequally distant from the center of a convex spherical
mirror, determine the point of reflexton.”’ The solution
of this problem involves the solution of the following
geometrical problem now generally known among mathe-
maticians as Alhazen’s problem. /vom two given points
in the plane of a given circle draw lines meeting in the
circumference and making equal angles with the tangent
drawn at that point,

a

- SCIENCE.

This problem was first solved by Alhazen, a learned
Arabian of the 11th century, and published at Basle, in
Latin, in 1572. Since that time it has been studied by
several distinguished mathematicians and a variety of
* solutions given. The paper presented contained a col-
lection of these solutions aiming to be complete. Eleven
solutions were contained in this collection, beginning with
Aljhazen and ending with a solution by E. B. Seitz, in
1881.

The first five solutions are by geometrical construc-
tions, in which the points sought are determined by the
intersections of a circle and hyperbola. The sixth solu-
tion, also a geometrical construction, is by means of the
intersection of a circle and parabola. The seventh,
eighth, ninth and eleventh solutions are by analytical or
algebraical methods, while the tenth is a trigonometrical
solution. —

Among the people who have studied and solved the
problem are Alhazen, Barrow, Hutton, Huyghens, Kaest-
ner, Leybourn, L’Hospital, Robins, Seitz, Sluse and
Wales. A complete list of bibliographical references
was appended to the paper.

The paper contained further, an extension of the prob-
lem, firs¢, to the surface of a sphere, and second, to an
ellipse. The first case was illustrated by the following
practical example:

The great circle track between San Francisco, Cal.,
and Yokohama, Japan, reaches nearly to latitude 52° N.
The Pacific mail steamers plying between these ports
usually avoid going north of latitude 45° N. Now, if the
45th parallel of latitude be designated as one north of
which the steamer is not to go, in what longitude must
-this parallel be reached in order that the steamers’ path
between the ports shall be the shortest possible? The
extension of Alhazen’s problem to the surface of the
sphere solves this problem and the longitude required is
168° W. from Greenwich.

The extension of the problem to the case in which an
ellipse replaces the circle gives rise to a very complex
equation of no special value.

WASHINGTON, D. C., Sept. 13, 1881.

a te

ROTATION OF REDUCING POWER, AS MEAS-
URED BY FEHLING’S SOLUTION TO THE
ROTATORY POWER OF COMMERCIAL
AMYLOSE (GLUCOSE AND GRAPE SUGAR).

SECOND PAPER.*
By Pror. H. W. WI Ley, Lafayette, Ind.

In a paper read at the Boston meeting of this Associ-
ation! [ called attention to the fact that the reducing
power of Amylose, measured by Fehling’s Sol., could be
readily determined by the polariscope. Since that time
I have extended the series of observation then reported,
and with such results as justify the conclusions at which
I arrived.

In commercial Amyloses, whose specific gravities do
not vary much from 1.410, the reducing power is reliably
calculated from the reading of the polariscope. The
average percentage of water in these Amyloses is
nearly thirteen. If we allow one per cent for optically
inactive substances present, we may safely place the
optically active matter at 86 per cent. By prolonged
boiling with acids, even if they be quite concentrated,
only about 82 per cent of reducing matter is obtained.?
Further boiling causes the mass to turn brown, and may
even cause a decrease in the amount of reducing matter
found. Since there is so much difference of opinion
respecting the reliability of Fehling’s solution, and since

* Read before A. A. A. S., Cincinnati, 1881,

1 Proceedings of this Association, 1880, p. 308; Journal Am. Chem.
Soc., Vol. IL., p. 387.

2 Proceedings A, A, A. S., 1880, p. 320.
Vol. II., p. 399.

Journal Am. Chem. Soc.,

457

there is no other reducing mixture that works as well, it
would, perhaps, be better to use the polariscope for the
determination of the amount of substances present in an
Amylose capable of reducing the various solutions used
for grape sugar measurements.

In the following table the calculation of the reducing
power was made by the formule, * which I have already
explained. Although, in a few cases, the specific gravity
varied by a few thousandths from 1.410, the difference
has not been of sufficient importance to make any correc-
tion*.

Since the ordinary Amyloses, called grape sugars, of
commerce differ from those called glucoses only in hay-
ing the processes of conversion carried further, it is found
that the same rule applies to them also. In fact, I
believe it will be found true with all varieties of Amylose
made by use of sulphuric acid, provided 8.6 grammes of
the anhydrous substance be used in each 100 c.c, of the
mixture to be examined.

Following are the results of my observations:

TABLE I.
1a ~O wy
au | oe | 85

pal Pe le os) eae

VA | al OnO Me vg
No. i eal Pa 5 gd g Be3 | Difference. Wee

& | S83) 285 | Ses |

a | 328) sa2 | See

na Pi eames

+ — 1880,

Dcxe I.414 | 52.1 | 53:04 | 52.05 | 0.04 September 15
2... 1.419 | 52.2 | 53.00 | 53.00 | 0.08 | ... s 14
3 +--+) 1.410 | 53.8 | 51.00 | 55-05 | 1.07 | ... a 15
Ara eilleete ores. I'53-2) | 55.05 | 49:09)" ..-- | 3.3) October | re
rae I.4T2 | 51.0] 54.01 | 51.06 | 0.06] ... | ss 18
One: reggie Tied ol Eve xox Pal Maton Asya anu iy lie a 19
Fass LeALZaleS E100 SacA5) | 52.44- 160.64. | |... + 19
Serer) Ledge 149-7.) S502) |-50r03) | 0.66.4)... re 20
Dirws I.408 | 49.0 | 55.05 | 49.09 | 0.09 eke 5 2r
IO ..../ 1.413 | 49.5 | 55.04 | 50.00 | 0.05 fis h 21
II ....| 1.41% | 48.1 | 56.06 | 48.05 | 0.04 me “ 17
12 1.421 | 48.8 | 56.04 | 48.08 | 0.00 | 0.0 ‘ 16
LS} s+ I.417 | 50.0 | 57.00 | 48.00 | ... 2.0 ug 16
14 ..-.| 1.413 | 46.4 | 56.07 | 48.04 | 2.00 : 14
5) ce I.417 | 48.1 | 56.05 | 48.06 | 0.05 s 14
16. I.418 | 46.3 | 58.02 | 46.05 | 0.02 bs 13
U7, oe I.412 | 47.2 | 57.00 | 48.00 | 0.08 ... 2 12
TS: Cael pensee | 72.0 | 37.03 | 72.63 | 0.63 | ... | Unknown.

The above analyses were of samples sent by the man-
ufacturers, the Peoria Grape Sugar Company. They
represent the whole number of samples examined
and in the order in which the analyses were made.
Seventeen of them were of syrups, and the eighteenth
of a solid sugar. Only four out of the eighteen show
discordant results. In one of these the specific gravity
was not determined. It was my intention to make these
four analyses in duplicate, but a press of other business
prevented. In general, it appears that the results given
by the polariscope, by the above method of calculation,
are a little too high. If they were diminished by 5 the
agreement would be better. That the reducing power
of Amylose can be correctly calculated from its rotatory
power is certainly established from the thirty-eight un-
selected instances which have been presented,

So

ELecrric LIGHT FoR LIGHTHOUSES —The first of the
series of lighthouses round the French coast which are to be
henceforth illuminated by electricity, has, with all its neces-
sary machinery, been completed. It is called the ‘‘ Phare
de Planier,” and is situated at the mouth of the Rhone,
near Marseilles.

3 Proceedings A. A. A.S., 1880, p. 313. Journal Am. Chem. Soc.
Vol. II., p. 393.

4 Proceedings A, A. A. S., 1880, p. 316. Journal Am. Chem. Soc.,
Vol. II., p. 395.

458 SCIENCE.

ON THE INTERIOR CONDITION OF THE TER-
RESTRIAL GLOBE.
By M. E. ROCHE.

Generally we admit that the earth is entirely fluid in
its interior, with the exception of a thin crust, and most
of the mathematical studies on the figure and the consti-
tution of the earth assume this fluidity. Thus by attrib-
uting to this fluid a certain law of compression, Laplace
has deduced a corresponding law of densities, which
Legendre had already examined before him, and which
permits the calculation of the flattening of the different
surfaces de nzveau of the terrestrial mass. I have my-
self proposed another law of compressibility, which con-
ducts to a very simple formula for the increment of the
density. The conditions which every hypothesis must
satisfy, on the distribution of the mass in the interior of
the earth, are that it must accord with the value of the
superficial flattening, and also with a certain constant
depending on the phenomenon of precession. These
conditions are very approximately satisfied in the hypo-
thesis of fluidity, if we admit that the terrestrial flattening
is nearly 33>; but if this flattening is greater than z}5, as
it seems to result from the most recent determinations,
the agreement no longer exists.

There is need, therefore, of a new examination of these
researches under a different hypothesis, for example, in
considering the globe as formed of a nucleus or solid
mass very nearly homogeneous, covered with a lighter
shell whose density, from geological considerations, can
be estimated as 3 with respect to water. This constitu-
tion of the globe being supposed, I find that it is possible
to conciliate the actual values of the precession and of
the flattening, if we take account of this, that the inter-
ior nucleus of the globe solidified and has taken its defin-
itive form under the influence of a rotation less rapid
than that with which the earth is now animated. =

In every case the contraction due to this cooling of
the globe must lead to a progressive acceleration of
its angular velocity. But if this globe is fluid the figure
of the different strata adapts itself continually to the ro-
tation which has place at each instant, in such a way
that finally there remains no trace of the successive vari-
ations which their flattening have undergone since the
origin. If, on the contrary, at a certain epoch of the
cooling the interior strata have passed to a solid state,
these strata have taken and preserved a flattening very
different from that which would be attributed to them
by the general equation of hydrostatics applied to a mass
entirely fluid and possessing a rotation common to all its
parts. The formule calculated in the hypothesis of a
solid nucleus contains at the same time the constant g,
the actual ratio of the centrifugal force to the equa-
torial gravity, and value g», of the same ratio at the epoch
of the solidification of the central mass. This last ele-
ment, not being determined, we can give to it a value
such that the superficial flattening accords with the co-
efficient of precession. It is necessary for this to suppose
go less than g, whence it results that the terrestrial ro-
tation has undergone an acceleration since the consolida-
tion of the interior nucleus.

The physical and astronomical conditions of the prob-
lem permit also the determination, with some precision,
of the dimensions and specific weight of this central mass.
If we leave out of consideration the crust purely super-
ficial, as also a slight condensation towards the centre
where the heavier materials would be collected, the con-
stitution of the globe will be as follows: a nucleus, of
which the density is nearly 7, covered with a shell of
density 3, whose thickness does not attain one-sixth of
the entire radius.

The central terrestrial mass is therefore in specific
weight analogous to meteoric iron, while the stratum
that envelops it is comparable to aerolites of a stony
nature, where iron enters only in a small proportion,

“BOOKS RECEIVED.

THE MICROSCOPE AND ITS RELATION TO MEDICINE
AND PHARMACY. Edited by CHas. H. STOWELL,
M. D., and LouISA REED STOWELL. Published
monthly. Ann Arbor, Michigan; 1881.

There are already two journals published monthly
which are devoted to microscopy, it is therefore with
some surprise that we find athird journal of the same
description appealing to the patronage of Microscopists.

“The Microscope’’ claims to supply a want in offering
physicians a journal which treats exclusively of Medical
and Pharmaceutical Microscopy, thus differing from the
two former microscopical journals which cover the whole
field of Microscopy.

We believe that the success of “ The Microscope”
will depend upon that journal being conducted strictly
within the limits of its own programme. Undoubtedly
the majority of American microscopists are members of
the medical profession and, therefore, “ Ze Mzcroscope”’
may look for a numerous constituency.

“ The Microscope’ has been produced in an excellent
form, is well printed, and illustrated with good illustra-
tions, and if the editors will confine the columns to JZ/z-
croscopy, to the exclusion of facetious “items” clipped
from their exchanges, they may hope to place their
journal on a firm basis.

CORRESPONDENCE.

[The Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed
by his correspondents. No notice is taken of anonymous communi-
cations.)

To the Editor of “SCIENCE.”

Permit me to suggest a few questions that should be
answered by the author of “The Great Primordial
Force.” (See ‘‘SCIFNCE,” p. 405.)

Let me introduce my questions by announcing my
belzef in the conservation of energy and in the unity of
force and by expressing a Zope that the time will come
when the phenomena peculiar to the different #zanzfesta-
zzous of force may be comprehended and their identity
demonstrated.

The following questions are respectfully suggested :

1. When, and by whom, has it been dem )nstrated that
gravitation is resolvable into light or heat?

2. If all force ‘‘is substance,” or matter, (see “SCIENCE,”
p. 405, last paragraph), then, at least some matter is
force. What then is the distinction between matter and
force ?

3. On p. 406, it is asserted that the two elements,
“ Motion and Magnetism,” “develop all known forces of
the universe.’ How can motion exist without a przor
force, and what zs magnetism ?

4. What produces the revolution of the revolving celes-
tial armatures ?

The foregoing questions may be sufficient for the
present, but it is due to science that statements claiming
to be scientific should be ¢vw¢AZs. Let us examine some
of the author’s statements.

It is asserted that “if gravity acts inversely as the
square of the distance, then the earth at aphelion could
not, without the aid of some other force, return to peri-
helion.” It is to be feared that the author of the above
question is not aware that the inertia of matter is an ex-
perimental fact, and is entirely sufficient to bring back
the planet from aphelion to perihelion.

As to the law of inertia, all matter, if not acted upon
by some external force, will continue in its present state,
whether of motion or rest, and because while a planet is
passing from perihelion to aphelion the tangent to its
orbit makes an obtuse angle with its radius vector ;.
therefore its inertia counteracts, and to a certain extent,

-SGIENCE.

opposes its centripetal force, from perihelion to aphelion, | of
_ of force, and by the terms of its definition, if taken in an

and because at aphelion, the tangent of its orbit, is at right
angles with its radius vector, and from aphelion to peri-
helion the angle between the tangent and radius vector is
acute, therefore, the inertia of the planet co-operates with
the centrifugal force from aphelion to perihelion.

Hence, zvzerfza, in conjunction with the centripetal
force, is sufficient in all cases of elliptic motion, to bring
back the planet from aphelion to perihelion.

Again, the writer says, (p. 407) ‘the degree of ellipticity
of each planetary orbit is due to the inclination of its
axis.’ That the reader may judge how much weight
should be allowed the author’s statement, let this state-
ment be compared with known facts.

The eccentricity of the earth’s orbit is .0167922; that
of Venus is .0068618. The inclination of the earth’s axis
is about 23%°; that of Venus 75°. That is, the inclina-
tion of the earth’s axis to its orbit is less than one-third
that of Venus; whereas, the eccentricity of the earth’s
orbit is more than twice that of Venus.

The author’s statement, therefore, is not only not sup-
ported by the facts, but is in conflict with the facts.

J. E. HENDRICKS.

DES MOINES, Sept. 3, 1881.

—————_r—__—_—. 1

To the Editor of ‘SCIENCE ”’:—

The prevailing scientific ideas of any period are re-
garded by the common people, and even by the scientists
of that period as indubitable facts, without due examina-
tion of their origin or their foundation. But further
thought and observation often compel a reluctant retreat
therefrom. Thus present conceptions have all the weight
of perfect truth. We call them “ /acés.”

The rapid discoveries of the present age, and the un-
precedented freedom of thought are disturbing all theories
that are not well founded. The new law of Conservation
of Force will cause the final destruction of every theory
that is not in harmony with it. The paper upon the
“Great Primordial Force” was but an effort to bring the
explanation of the physical forces into consistency with
that all-governing law.

That the paper should give rise to such questions as
those proposed by our critic was most natural, and we
shall endeavor to answer them in the same candid spirit
in which they were asked.

1. Bodies fall by force of gravitation. Resistance to
such fall of course produces light and heat, precisely as
resistance to the motion of the electrical current produces
the same. If we admit that the electrical current is con-
vertible into these forms, by parity of reasoning, so is
gravity.

2. The relations of matter and force seem adequately
set forth in the paragraph referred to. (See “SCIENCE,”
p. 405.) Electricity, which in its tenuity pervades all
matter, is abundantly demonstrated to be itself matter in
varied form, as in the thunderbolt, the fire ball, and in
the St. Elnios fire.

3 and 4. The only rational explanation, whether to us
satisfactory or unsatisfactory, of the origin of force, is
found in the hypothesis and admission of already existing
force, the przmum mobzle. HELMHOLTZ says, that a
body set in motion around the sun in vacuous space, and
with a certain velocity will continue to move with the
same velocity to all eternity. It is sufficient for us to
know that the motion zs, and the magnetism zs, and thus
we have the “ celestial armatures” already in revolution,
—the effects of which it is for usto observe. To us the
effects are, and are called, the “ physical forces.”

Our critic is disturbed by our questioning of the dogma
that “ gravity acts inversely as the square of the distance,”
—on the ground that if that force is weakened by the
earth’s being removed to aphelion, it could not again
bring back the body to perihelion. We re-affrm FARA-
DAY’S position; ‘‘ The received idea of gravity appears

459

to me to ignore entirely the principle of the conservation

absolute sense, ‘varying inversely as the square of the
distance’ to be in direct opposition to it.”” But we would
not rest the assertion upon any great name. It is evident
that inertia can “bring back” nothing, that inertia, or
momentum, or centrifugal force, or whatever other ex-
pression is used, may effect only motion ina straight line.
Momentum, (which evidently is what the critic means by
‘inertia,’”) has no tendency towards circular motion. It
is attraction, gravity, centripetal force alone that draws,
or ‘brings back,” and if that force is weakened, how can
it make itself stronger? If once diminished (as the prin-
ciple, ‘‘ gravity acts inversely as the square of the distance”’
necessitates,) then the opposite force has the balance of
power, has destroyed the equilibrium, and except some
favoring force steps in to restore the lost ground, momen-
tum, (“inertia”) must forever send it farther and farther
into space.

Finally, our critic in order to show that the electrical
theory, which makes the inclination of a planet’s axis to
govern the ellipticity of its orbit, is not true to fact,
adduces the instance of Venus. This asserted “ fact” (?)
that Venus’ axis has an inclination of 75°, is wholly un-
founded, Astronomers to-day are not so ready to assert
it. The dazzling brilliancy of this planet prevents any
positive disclosures as to the period of its daily revolution,
to say nothing of the more delicate and difficult deter-
mination of the inclination of its axis.

Our distinguished astronomer NEWCOMB says :—The
latest physical observations on Venus, with which I am
acquainted are those of Dr. VOGEL, “ Bothkamp Obser-
vations, 1873.’’ The result to which these observations
point is that the atmosphere of Venus is filled with clouds
so dense that the solid portion of the planet cannot be
seen, and no time of rotation can be determined.’ HER-
SCHEL said that he was never able to see any permanent
markings on Venus,—but it is only by such markings
that these determinations are made.

H. RAYMOND ROGERS, M, D.

DUNKIRK, N. Y.

= ~~

MEDICAL CONGRESS NOTES.
(London, 188r.)

At the close of Professor Huxley’s address, Mr. Mac-
Cormac followed with a statement, the most important
items of which were that the number of members
amounted to 3,210; that the sections had heid rr meet-
ings, extending over 293 hours ; that there had been de-
livered 464 written papers and 360 oral addresses. The
attendance at the sections had been large, and had not
shown signs of falling off even quite to the close. The
museum was referred to as a great success, and the de-
monstrations of living patients had been attended by
crowds each morning.

ENDORSING VIVISECTION,

Sir James Paget then presented the following resolu-
tion forwarded by Professor M. Foster, from the Physio-
logical Section: ‘‘ That this Congress records its convic-
tion that experiments on living animals have proved of
the utmost service to medicine in the past, and are indis-
pensable for its future progress; that, accordingly, while
strongly deprecating the infliction of unnecessary pain, it
is of opinion that, in the interest of men and animals, it
is not desirable to restrict competent persons in the per-
formance of such experiments.”’ Pointing out that it
was impossible to discuss such a resolution then, the
President asked those who were opposed to it to record
their names and votes at the close of the meeting. The
resolution was then adopted with loud cheers, and no
hand was held up in opposition to it.

460

SCIENCE.

NOTES.

’

i

THE PLANTE AND FAuRE BATTERIES.—Speaking of the
relative merits of the two batteries, M. Faure says in a
letter to ‘‘ Zhe Electrician,’ M. Planté has the merit of
being clear in the exposition of his ideas and researches,
and in his remarkable work, ‘‘ Recherches sur 1’Electric-
ité,” he tells us exactly how his battery is made, how it is
“‘formed,’ and what it does when so made. Referring to
this last point we read that a battery can furnish a con-
stant current through fifty metres of copper wire one mil-
limetre in diameter, say one ohm during one hour. Now,
if we take the electromotive force at 2.20 volts we find for

2.20”
I x 9.81 .5 kilogrammetres per
second during one hour, or an absolute total of 1,800 kilo-
grammetres. And for the sake of comparison we may also
say that the above battery would furnish a current of 2.2
webers for an hour. As Planté batteries may not be in the
hands of everyone of your readers, and as I was fortunate
enough to obtain an assorted supply before the scarcity set
in, I will give a few figures which are the results of my ex-
periments, and somewhat corroborate the above statements.
The best cell that I could procure, and which had been
nearly two years in formation at the makers in Paris, gave
me, when properly charged, a current of twenty webers dur-
ing five minutes. The two lead electrodes are each one
millimetre in thickness and 65 millimetres long, by
20 centimetres deep. The amount of suboxide of
lead which had been formed upon the positive
electrode I found by drying and weighing to be
75 grammes, I will at once here make a comparison.
In some of my round cells, having electrodes of the same
size as the above, that is 65 x 20, [have placed upon the

the work so given out

positive electrode 2,000 grammes of red lead (a similar
quantity being also placed upon the xegative electrode).
The current which this arrangement furnished me was
about equal to 20 webers during two hours and a half, or
nearly proportionate to that furnished by the Planté bat-

Pair <4 2090 j
tery, taking into account the relation ~ of lead oxide

brought into action in both batteries. The least perfect of
my Planté cells, which had been “formed” during three
months only, gave me only about one-fourth of the above
work. I state simply facts, but it is said that the above
mentioned perfect Planté battery might have been made in
three months instead of two years. Let it be so, and let us
suppose that the Faure battery has no greater capacity of
storage than three or four times that of some of the old
Planté batteries in existence, still I beg to say that it exists,
and is perfectly well covered by valid patents, and as such
will be of great value to the electric industry. Upwards
of twenty-five tons of Faure batteries have been made, and
experiments on a commensurate scale carried out during a
year of silence, and from trustworthy experimental work I
have acquired the certitude that there are great things in it.
ny

TESTS FOR COLOR-BLINDNESS.

A resolution received from the Ophthalmological Sec-
tion, on the subject of the tests most applicable to be
employed in working and observing signals by land or
sei, where the lives of others are involved, was similarly
carried unanimously, and the recommendations of the
section ordered to be forwarded by the Hon. Secretary-
General as the opinion of the Congress to the Foreign
Secretary, the first Lord of the Admirality, and the Pres-
ident of the Board of Trade.

(Medical Congress, London, 1881.)

METEOROLOGICAL REPORT FOR NEW YORK CITY FOR THE WEEK ENDING SEPT. 17, 1881.

Latitude 40° 45’ 58” N.; Longitude 73° 57’ 58" W.; height of instruments above the ground, 53 feet ; above the sea, 97
feet ; by self-recording instruments.

BAROMETER.

THERMOMETERS.
gS te) MAXIMUM, MINIMUM. MEAN. MAXIMUM. | MINIMUM. MAXI'M
SEPTEMBER.
Reduced | Reduced Reduced 2 pan
to to Time. to Time, | Dry | Wet | Dry Time. Wet | Time | Dr | Time. Wet Time. InSun.
F F : F Bulb.) Bulb.| Bulb. Bulb Bulb Bulb.
reezing.| Freezing. Freezing. |
a x | - =
Sunday, 11--| 29.891 29.912 | 9 a.m.| 29.848 | 5 p.m.| 71.0) 67.3| 78 |4p.m.) 77 | 6p.m.| 64 | 7a.m.| 63 |7a-m.} 131
Monday, 12--| 29.901 29.958 |12 p.m.| 29838 | 4 a.m.| 67.6| 61.0) 77 | 4p.m.| 63 |4p.m.| 61 6a.m.| 60 | 6a.m.j| 14x.
Tuesday, 13--| 29.979 30.032 |12 p.m.| 29.938 4 P.m.} 70.3 | 63.0 | 79 3 P.m,| 69 | 5 P. m.| 58 6a.m.| 57 6a.m.| 134.
Wednesday, 14 -| 30.113 30.154 |12 p.m.| 30,032 o-a.m.| 66.3 | 61.6 76 3 p.m.| 67 5 p.m.) 58 6) a. Iasi) 57 6a.m.| 132.
Thursday, 15--| 30.179 30.198 | g a.m.| 30.144 | 3 p.m-| 68.3] 65.0| 74 |2p.m.| 69 | 2p.im.| 63 | 4 a.m.| 50 | 4 a.m.| 130
Friday, 16.-| 30.228 30.288 |r0 p.m.|. 30.162 | 4 a.m.| 65.3 | 62.7] 70 |2p.m.| 65 |2p.m.) 6r |12 p.m.) 60 |12 p.m. go.
Saturday, 17--|] 30.275 30.292 | 9 a.m.| 30.228 |12 p.m.| 63.3 | 60.3 | 70 |4 p.m.) 64 | 5 p.m.) 56 |r2 p.m.| 56 |12 p.m.) 131.
| Dry. Wet.
Mean for the week_-_-.-------- eas eee eS 30.080 inches. | Mean for the week_..------------- 67.4 degrees ios eae 62.9 degrees.
Maximum for the week at 9 a. m., Sept. 17th ce Maximum for the week,at 3 pm. 13th 79. e at 6pmrith, 71. e
Minimum oe at 4 a.m., Sept. 12th = Minimum “ ‘““ 2 pm.17th 56. _ ati2pm 17th, 56. 4
Range: 22.25 A oe. 222 jsses$ eee ie Range ‘ Ss ween 23. OM eee ee 15.

WIND HYGROMETER. CLOUDS. RAIN AND SNOW. gi
| : lvetociry| FORCE IN RELATIVE CLEAR, ° DEPTH OF RAIN AND SNow | ©
| LE IN’ MILES,| -~ 2°. == BS /MORCE DF VAEOR) “UMIDITY, OVERCAST. 10 IN INCHES.

SQR. FEET. ai Es

a = = = aa - . Ey |e . . . . : a oh

SEPTEMBER Distance) ,; | = = ACR eS ee 5 eae & Tis ‘Time Dura- | § s

7 a.m.2p.m.g p.m.| for the | = | Time a Qi] ee] ty | ee | ek e | a a Begin-| End- tion. 2 S
Day. | n| a a|n|aloa a a ing ing. <5]

a = ae Te 7 z = | | om ry | ae ] i
Sunday, 1L.|N, n. €.|W.n.w.| Ss. 129 |4%| 0.30am|) .562 | .614 | .693 | 94 | 63 | 85 |10 4cu. 10 rok pm|12 pm 1.30 | .o4| 8
Monday, 12-n.n.e€.W.n.w.| nn. rrr |136| 2.30pm] .505 | .516 | .457 | 94 | 83 | 69 |10 r cir. ° o aml5.30am| 5.30 | .62] 1
Tuesd:y, 13-.n.n.w.|S.s.w| n. e. 82 (1%\11.20pm| .416 | .443 | .586 | 72 | 46 | 80 |o 3cir.cu.jo =| ~---- | ~---- | ----- Sorte)
Wednesday,14-| n.e. | e. ec, 147 [x%| 3.50pm! .426 | .497 | -549 | 2 | 59 | 89 Jo | 1Cir.S. |O = | wane- | ----= | ----- B34) [oy2
Thursday, 15- ¢. Ss. €. e. 252 (8 | 2.30 pM) .516| .641 | .56g | 83 | 76 | 89 jx cir. 2 Cir. cu.) 10 peel es a Foe 6

| | | 1 .00 | .12
Friday, 16. €. je.s.e.). © | 249 [5%]! 1.30pm] .542 | 550] .510 | 94 | 75 | 88 |10 gcu. jg ct. 4/5. amioacpml xcxe | cor | 5
Saturday, 17-n.n.¢.) s.e. |e.s.e. 153 1%! 0.00am| .473 | .495 | 487 | 88 | 70 | 94 7cu. (8cu. |gcu. | ----- [nat | eee Sie
Distance traveled during the week. ---.-.--.--------..---- 1123. miles, | Total amount of water for the week..-.------------------------ -79 inch,
DBAs MSG [ORC 3s) iis one aa Rest oeb ew abs - bee eee ce eeos 8 Se Ducation of rain. « s6. se. pe nosis pace doesent oe 16 hours, 15 minutes.

DANIEL DRAPER, Ph. D.

Director Meteorological Observatory of the Department of Public Parks, New York.

* SCIENCE. 461

Serene E

A WEEK Ly REcorp OF SCIENTIFIC

ProGRESs.

JOHN MICHELS, Editor.

THERMS:
Per YEAR, - ~ - - Four DoLLARS
6 MonTus, - - - Two us
3 73 ‘4 s — = ONE “é
SINGLE CopIES, - - - - TEN CENTS.

PUBLISHED AT

TRIBUNE BUILDING, NEW YORK.
P, O. Box 838838.

SATURDAY, OCTOBER 1, 1881.

TO OUR ENGLISH READERS.

We have received from Messrs. Deacon & Co., of 150
Leadenhall street, London, England, a standing order for
a large supply of “Science,” which will be forwarded
weekly. We shall be obliged if our English readers will
make this fact known to their friends.

(RRS OL
Tue death of President James A. Garfield is re-
gretted by the nation as a great national loss; but all
friends of progress and those who desire to elevate the
indifferent and ignorant to a higher grade of civiliza-
tion, will mourn his sudden death as a calamity; for
he was a living example of the wonderful power of
education to raise a man from a humble position in
society to a post of high honor and usefulness, de-
veloping powers which not only opened up a bright
and brilliant career, but brought a peaceful and hope-
fnl serenity to his mind which was evident to all who
enjoyed his society.
ENT a Ce |
A NEW COMET.

Mr, E. E. Barnard, of Nashville, Tennessee, an-
nounced to the Smithsonian Institute, on the 21st
instant, the discovery of a comet by him on the zoth,
at two o'clock A. M., Washington mean time, in
seven hours forty-six minutes nght ascension, and
thirteen degrees twenty-eight minutes north declen-
sion, with a daily motion of three degrees northeast.

On the 23d instant Professor Lewis Swift, of
Rochester, made the following announcement in re-
gard to this comet:

The position of Barnard’s comet, as telegraphed from
Washington, is so widely erroneous that nobody would be
able to find it. Instead of being in cancer and having been
discovered at two o’clock in the morning, it was near zeta
virginis, low downin the Western horizon, and can be seen
but afew minutes. It was discovered on the evening of
the roth, and at 7h. 46m., Washington mean time, of the
20th, was in right ascension 13h. 28m. 2s., declination north

3 deg. 47 min., with a daily motion of 3 degrees northeast.
In consequence of smoke I have not been able to find it.

We trust in our next issue to offer some explanation
of these contradictory statements.

One of the most interesting and valuable reports
that has been issued by the Board of Education at
Washington, is that recently printed, which describes
the opportunities for instruction in Chemistry and
Physics which at present exists in the United States,
together with statistical tables relating to this sub-
ject

The Department was fortunate in securing the ser-
vices of Professor F. W. Clarke, Professor of Chemis-
try and Physics in the University of Cincinnati, to
draw up this report, based on the mass of facts and
figures bearing on this matter, which had been col-
lected in reply to circulars issued by the Commis-
sioner of Education towards the close of the year
1878. Professor Clarke appears to possess both exe-
cutive and literary ability of a high order, and being
himself a chemist and a teacher of science, was
clearly in a position to do justice to the excellent in-
tentions of Commissioner Eaton. We congratulate
Professor Clarke on his success in compiling the
technical part of his report,and we propose, on this
occasion, to refer to some of his critical remarks
aud suggestions, which, in scientific circles, will be
considered the most valuable result of this investiga-
tion.

Before discussing the condition of scientific instruc-
tion in public schools, it may be well to consider first,
at what age such instruction shall be commenced,
and whether it should be considered as a part of
primary education, or be reserved for high schools and
universities, where special courses of training in the
various branches can be advantageously advanced.

Professor Clarke claims that oral instruction in
chemistry and physics can be made intelligible to
children of ten years of age. He admits, however,
that there is a tendency towards over-cramming the
lower schools with a too great variety of subjects,
which lead to results which are undesirable. He there-
fore suggests a compromise, and proposes, that in
primary schools a taste for science should be culti-
vated among children “through the medium of the
reading books, which might properly contain some
short extracts relating to natural science.” This plan
Professor Clarke considers would be beneficial, and
could not be injurious.

We can find no objection to such a course, pro-
vided a suitable reading book be written for the
purpose, but before any discussion can be made as to
the propriety of teaching the sciences in any form in
the primary schools, a more thorough reform in the

*Circulars of Information of the Bureau of Education
No. 6, 1881,

A report on the teaching of Chemistry and Physics in the
United States, by Frank Wigglesworth Clarke, S. B., Pro-
fessor of Chemistry and Physics in the University of Cin-
cinnati. Washington, 1881.

462

SCIENCE.

whole system of public school education must be
made. It appears superfluous to urge the teaching of
science to children of ten years of age in public
schools, where the elder scholars of fourteen and
fifteen years are unable to read aloud intelligently or
write an ordinary letter legibly. And yet, to our
knowledge, such is the situation of too many of the
scholars in our public schools in regard to these
fundamental branches of education.

Professor Clarke’s report shows that in high schools
and academies the teaching of Chemistry and Physics
‘varies between widely separated limits; in the ma-
jority of cases mere text book work is done, and only
a few experiments performed by the teacher.

In our opinion the report offers excellent advice in
regard to the teaching of Chemistry and Physics to
such classes of students.

The following extract will explain Professor Clarke’s
views :

“That chemistry and physics are desirable branches
to teach in schools of the grade now under discussion is
pretty generally admitted, although a few educators still
hold that such studies are fit only for technological
institutes and colleges. But the greater number of pupils
cannot go out into these higher grades, and must therefore
either study the sciences now or do without them alto-
gether. The latter alternative is clearly the wrong one
to choose; at least, if we admit that education is any-
thing other than a mere system of mental gymnastics.
If subjects are to be learned quite independently of their
relations to active life, then there is no ground for pres-
ent argument; but if culture and utility are both to. be
considered we must recognize that some scientific training
is indispensable. Nearly every pupil goes out of school
into one of the great industries; and, whether he be-
comes a mechanic, manufacturer, railroad man, telegraph
operator, farmer, miner, or tradesman, he is likely to en-
counter practical applications of the two sciences. In
every avocation some knowledge of either physics or
chemistry is almost certain to be directly useful; and this
utility is often so great that the schools can better afford
to err on the side of over-thorough teaching than in the
opposite direction.”

In answer to the inquiry how far these sciences can
be carried in such schools without detriment to other
interests, the report states :

“One high school has three years and another four years
in its total course of study; the latter is plainly able to
give more time to any particular subject than the former,
Every variation in the character of a school must involve
corresponding variations in the treatment of these two
sciences. It may be safe to put half an academic year as
the minimum time assignable to either subject. A year
can usually be given to each without difficulty.”

While as to the detail of such instruction Professor
Clarke says:

“Instruction should be general rather than special.

The attempt is too often made to teach applied science
when there are no foundations of science to apply. Such
foundations should be thoroughly laid in the high schools
and academies, so that the pupil who passes on to a
university or polytechnic course may have a genuine
preparation for advanced work. Fundamental ideas, like
those of the conservation of energy, the correlation of
forces, the conceptions of atoms and molecules, &c.,
ought to be clearly inculeated. The scholar should be
made to realize that each science is a coherent whole
with definite relations to other sciences, that all its parts
are vitally connected, and that certain general principles
are universally applicable in all of its branches. In
chemistry it is better to concentrate all efforts upon the
inorganic portion of the science, leaving the complicated
organic side for more advanced study. Along with the
merely descriptive work should go a solid drill in chemi-
cal problems and chemical notation. Experiments made
before classes ought to bear as far as possible upon main
questions, and unavoidable details should be handled so
as to illustrate clearly the great central ideas. When
these have been fairly grasped, the scholar has gained
something of both practical and intellectual value. His
studies will have brought him not knowledge only, but
also increased power.”

For success, much depends on the teacher.

“He must have a vivid sense of what needs to be ac-
complished and enough special knowledge to render him
in a measure independent of text books.”

Text books, the report says:

“May be useful or injurious, according to circum-
stances. If they have been chosen by an average school
committee, influenced by some publisher more energetic
than his rivals, they are likely to be worthless, and the
teacher must be prepared to make good their omissions
and correct their blunders. No text book can be taken
as sole guide and followed without variation ; but a good
treatise upon either science, prepared, not by a profes-
sional school-book maker, but by a trained specialist,
may be of great help to teacher and pupils.”

Professor Clarke wisely urges the value of laboratory
work :

“Tn addition to classroom drill, laboratory practice
should be an essential and prominent feature of every
chemical or physical course. In the recitation or lecture,
general principles are taught; in the laboratory, the
student becomes familiar with methods and details.
‘Three months of laboratory work will give more réal
insight into any science than a whole year’s study of the
printed page. ‘To study chemistry from books alone is
like learning a language from its grammar only, without
attempting to translate or to write exercises. The pupil
must learn to observe and to experiment for himself, in
order to acquire any clear scientific knowledge.”

One recommendation of the report is strongly in
accord with our own views, and that relates to the
advice to teachers and pupils, to construct as far as is
practicable all apparatus used in the laboratory.

“The apparatus which a teacher contrives for himself

3
4
.

SCIENCE,

with the aid of his scholars is oftentimes the most useful
for purposes of instruction. Many and many a school
has invested in trifling electrical playthings a sum of
money which would have gone far towards the establish-
ment of asimple working laboratory.

“In physics the laboratory practice must needs be some-
what limited. The pupils may handle whatever appa-
ratus happens to be available, learn its manipulation, and
assist the teacher in the construction of simple appli-
ances. The magnetization of needles, the electrolysis of
liquids, the verification of the fixed points upon a ther-
mometer, and rough determinations of specific gravity,
boiling point, and melting point are among the many
experiments which ought always to be possible.

“In the chemical laboratory a much greater variety of
work is easily attainable. There are the ordinary experi-
ments in manipulation, such as the bending of glass
tubes, filtration, precipitation, distillation, &c., the
preparation of the commoner gases, acids, and salts ; the
verification of the more obvious properties of the chemi-
cal elements ; and lastly, the simpler reactions of qualita-
tive analysis. To the last named subject some time may
always be /rofitably assigned. No other class of exer-
cises will do so much towards impressing the average
beginner or towards making him realize the nature of
chemical reasoning. At every step it calls his powers of
judgment into play. It involves the use of no costly
apparatus, and enough can be done for all school pur-
poses with a very moderate supply of the cheaper chemi-
cals. At an expense of a hundred dollars a year a great
deal can be accomplished; and an outlay of only one-
fifth of that sum may yield results which are by no means
to be reckoned as trivial. Again let it be said that suc-
cess depends upon the teacher and not upon the cost of
materials.”

We shall in our next issue continue our notice of

this interesting report.

+o

ON COMETARY APPEARANCES!
By M. JAMIN.
[Translated from the French by the Marchioness CLARA LANZA. ]

The question of comets seems at present to occupy the
attention of all savants, and as M. Faye has prevailed
upon physicists to take up the subject also, I have de-
cided to enter into the discussion, not with the intention
of creating any novel hypothesis, but rather to oppose
that which M. Faye imagines to be the correct one. I[n
the first place, it appears to me unnecessary. It contra-
dicts in my opinion,the theory of the vibration of the ether.
Besides, it deprives the law of gravitation of its general-
ity and simplicity. In his first work, M. Roche deter-
mined, by means of calculation, the form of the horizon-
tal strata of cometary atmospheres subject to the sun’s
attraction, but he omitted to note the variations of tem-
perature occasioned by the solar rays on the two sides of
the comet. In this way he was led to think that the lat-
ter must have two tails, one turned towards the sun, the
other away from it, which supposition is contrary to real-
ity, as it should be, in fact, inasmuch as it overlooks the
cause which manifestly determines the unsymmetrical
forms of the two sides. Ina second paper, however, he
makes a correction, by supposing the existence of a re-

1See Comptes Rendus, August 16, 1881,

463

pulsive force diminishing the solar attraction about
I—to I. ¢, 9, being a force acting unequally upon different
substances, and which is in reverse ratio to their density.
This hypothesis admits of the calculation being achieved
with facility, but ic has no physical actuality. It is con-
fined to replacing the warmth of the cometary atmosphere,
which should be included in the calculations, but which
has been forgotten, with a wholly imaginary action whose
existence no experiments have ever confirmed. I shall
endeavor to re-establish the effect due to the unequal
warmth of the two sides by referring to analogous
conditions which should exist between the Earth and
comets.

Upon the Earth, every day throughout the year, the solar
rays one after the otherin regular succession strike normal-
ly all the points of a circle perpendicular to the axis of rota-
tion and near the equator. These points on all portions
of the globe are those that receive the maximum of heat
at noon. They constitute what is termed the rzzg of
aspiration. The air there really becomes rarified and
ascends, advancing towards the north or the south, as the
case may be, determining two gaseous currents called
trade winds. These currents are permanent and regu-
lar; they come from temperate climates, grow warmed
progressively in their course, carry with them an intense
evaporation, are slightly deviated towards the west in
consequence of the Earth’s rotation, and finally meet
obliquely upon the ring, to rise to the highest atmospheric
limits. There they spread, then taking a contrary course,
return, one towards the north, the other towards the
south. These are the counter trade winds. There are,
therefore, on the two sides of the ring of aspiration, two
closed atmospheric currents completely enveloping the
globe, coming cold from the poles, grazing the Earth,
and then returning warm, by a higher route. There is
no occasion to dwell upon the chief 7é/e played by this
circulation. It is sufficient to merely demonstrate its
necessity, its constancy and its extent, besides recalling
the theory due to the famous Halley, which has never
been contested.

This circulation would still exist although under
changed conditions, if the Earth instead of turning on
its axis always presented the same side to the Sun. The
ring of aspiration would be reduced toa single point, the
trade winds would converge in all directions, while the
counter winds would diverge in the same way. All
points of the Earth would send to this summit cold air
which would grow warm there, rzse zm the form of a cone
toward the Sun, spread, become bent upon the edges like
the chalice of a cyrathtform flower, leave the Sun by
a high route and after a more or less prolonged journey
would return to the point of departure grazing the
Earth’s surface. It is very evident that this double
movement would possess an increase of force propor-
tionate to the Earth’s approach to the Sun; that its at-
mosphere would be more extended, and that there would
be a greater mass of water to be evaporated. This does
not imply any particular repulsive force.

But let us get to the comets. In the long journey
which they perform slowly until they are beyond the
Solar world, they have plenty of time to lose all the heat
received from the Sun, and to efface all traces of pertur-
bation. The tail disappears, the matter is knit together
by its own attraction and assumes a nebulous, spherical
form. Inthe centre are the dense, solid substances, the
nucleus, then the liquids and finally the gases. An
enormous atmosphere and a very small- nucleus. In
Donati’s comet the nucleus measured 1600 km., while the
atmosphere was 20,000 km. The comet of 1881 was
still more extraordinary. Its aureole measured 2,000,000
km., the nucleus was reduced to 680. This is just con-
trary to the Earth whose diameter amounts to 12,000
km., while its atmosphere is merely a thin pellicle of 18
or 20 leagues. Comets are so constituted that the most
tremendous atmospheric movements are developed be-

464

neath the Solar action incomparably more accentuated
than those exhibited by the Earth.

As no rotatory motion has ever been observed in
comets or their atmospheres, we feel authorized in say-
ing that if it does exist it is exceedingly slow, without
taking into account the fact that comets always present
the same side to the Sun. The second method of heating
should therefore be produced. In every plain passing
through the centre of the Sun and the nucleus, there will
be a double atmospheric circulation. On the interior, the
comets advance towards the Sun as though the gravita-
tion there was intensified. On the exterior, they deviate
as if the gravitation was diminished, or rather as though
there existed some repulsive force emanating from the
Sun, affecting the exterior surface of the cometary atmos-
phere, and acting solely upon it. In reality, this repulsive
force does not exist. It seemsas though it did, however,
and under conditions analagous to those inferred by M.
Faye. All the consequences therefore, which he deduced
in order to explain the formation of the tails, are developed
naturally. There is nothing here to be altered.

I do not think, however, that this theory is sufficient to
account for cometary appearances. On the contrary, it
is my opinion that electricity has a great deal to do with
them. But before entering upon this let us first return
to terrestial phenomena.

It has been satisfactorily proved that considerable
electricity exists in atmospheric altitudes, and that it in-
creases according to the height. It is admitted gener-
ally that atmospheric motion results ; that it is developed
by evaporation at the ring of aspiration; that it moves
from the time it leaves this ring until it reaches the poles

under the form of two currents in the rarified air which |

it ilumines. Towards the sun it is the zodiacal light,
invisible when close to this planet, but extending a suffi-
cient distance to be perceived, especially near the equa-
tor. Close to the poles it is the aurora borealis, which
we see obliquely and which appears more luminous than
at the zenith, because it has greater density and is more
concentrated.

Upon a comet the warmth occurs at the point where
the trade winds come together opposite to the sun. But
analogous electric actions should be manifested, illumin-
ate the head and produce the appearance of effluviums
succeeding each other like the stratifications in a Geissler
tube, accompany the counter trade winds to the opposite
side to illumine the tail, and be prolonged to a great dis-
tance like the luminous rays in Mr. Crookes’s appara-
tuses. No doubt, matter would be contained in the tail,
but rarified to an extreme degree and made visible by
both the solar light and the electric current.

M. Flammarion would be quite right then to attribute
this shining to electricity. On the other hand, M. Ber-
thelot’s observation would be justified, and the develop-
ment of this electricity would be due to the phenomena
of evaporation and movement situated in the atmosphere.
We must insist upon this point.

The recent study of cometary spectra has shown us
beyond the possibility of a doubt that the interior aureole
and the tail contain carburetted gases which emit a light
of theirown. Now, they can only become luminous in
two ways; either by combustion or’by an electric efflu-
vium. If by combustion, we have yet to explain how they
take fire and how they continue to burn indefinitely,
which seems very difficult. For in this case, all the
materials of which the comet is composed would be red,
and the spectrum would contain the bright spectral rays
of the metals as we see them in the electric arc burning
n mid air. Nothing of this kind occurs. The light is
absolutely like that of the are when the vaporous carbon
is transported to the torpid gases without burning. It
shows no brilliant metallic bands, any more than this arc.
The light, therefore, cannot be the result of fire, but is due
to illumination made by the currents.

I think that the Sun determines gaseous currents in

SCIENCE.

cometary atmospheres analogous to terrestrial trade
winds and counter trade winds; that this circulation pro-
duces near the Sun effluviums arising from the head of
the nucleus and transports to the opposite side the
substances which are on the exterior, producing upon
these substances the effect of a repulsive force emanating
from the Sun, a force which has absolutely no vazson
tre. Besides this, I think this circulation is accom-
panied by an electric movement which illumines the gases
either towards the head or tail, as the case may be, making
them visible to us notwithstanding the feebleness of their
density, and precisely on account of this feebleness.

rr oo

AMYLOSE: ITS CONSTITUENTS AND METHODS
FOR THEIR ESTIMATION.
By H. W. WILEy, Lafayette, Indiana.

I propose the name AMYLOSE for all the varieties of
sugar and sugar-like substances derived from starch.

These substances are now known by many different
appellations, and often the indiscriminate use of these
terms gives rise to a great deal of misunderstanding and
confusion. Among them I may mention grape sugar,
starch sugar, dextrose, dextrine, glucose, maltose, fruit
sugar, etc. These names do not always have the same
signification in different localities. For instance, glucose
and dextrose, in Europe, signify the same product, while
in this country they embrace many other substances
besides.

If we designate the starch sugar in general by amylose
then the terms glucose, dextrose and maltose can be
used to designate certain definite constituents of amylose.

Amylose is composed of three principal ingredients.

Ist. Dextrine. Pure dextrine is very difficult to obtain.
It is obtained almost pure by the dry roasting of starch.
The temperature during torrefaction must not be carried
too high, 210°-275°. Starch itself has a specific rotatory
power of 214°('). Bondonneau (/oc. czt.), asserts that
there are three dextrines, (a), in which aj (?)=186°; (), in
which aj = 176°; (y), in which aj = 164°. According to
Musculus and Grubber (°), there are five dextrines ; viz. :
(a), soluble starch colored wine red by iodine aj = 218;
(4), Erythro dextrine, red color with iodine; rotating
power not given.

(c), « Achroodextrine, not coiored by iodine, j = 210,

(dz), 8 Achroodextrine, aj = 190.

(e), y Achroodextrine, aj = 150.

Of these varieties the first and second do not reduce
the alkaline copper solutions while the others do. If the
reducing power of dextrose be taken at 100, that of the
third of the above dextrines will be 12; the fourth 12 and
the fifth 28.

O’Sullivan admits the existence ‘of but one dextrine
with a= 214.

Thoms’ n (4) tries to show by history of multiples in
the rotating power of the carbo-hydrates that there are
at least three dextrines in which the value of aj is 186, 176
and 164 respectively. ;

I will not multiply authorities concerning the rotating
power of dextrine. I have quoted enough to show the
highly chaotic state of our knowledge on the subject.

The chemical properties of dextrine are equally as
undeterminable.

Gentele (°) is quite confident that dextrine will reduce
the alkaline copper solutions and on this he bases his
method of separating dextrine from other reducing sub-
stances by ferricyanide of potassium.

Stommer (°), Bondonneau (7) and Rumpff (8), are equally

(1) Bondonneau, Ber. d. Deu. Chem. Gesel., TX, 69.
(2) a= specific rotatory power.

(3) Comptes Rendus, LXXXVI, t459.

(4) Ber, d. Deutsch. Chem, Gesel., 14—2—158.

(5) Ding, Journal, CLII, p. 139.

ee et CLVIII, p. 4o.

(7) Bull. de la Soc, Chim., 1874, XXI, p. 50.

(8) Zeit. fur Anal. Chem., 1870, p. 358,

SCIENCE.

465

positive that dextrin does not reduce the copper solution
except on prolonged boiling.

My own experience is that dextrine does not reduce
Fehling’s solution except on prolonged boiling and then
by the dextrine being slowly converted into dextrose.

To secure the reduction of the dextrose and the re-
ducible portion of maltose it is not necessary to boil the
solution more than two minutes, and during this time the
amount of dextrine reduced is wholly inappreciable.

Color with Iodine. Bondonneau (°) says, dextrine
colors a solution of iodine a dark red, but that it is
without effect on caustic soda. Musculus & Gruber (°),
found that some varieties of dextrine colored iodine
solution red, while others were without action on it.

In general it will be found that most substances pur-
porting to be dextrine give a reddish color with iodine.
For my part I do not know of any method by which
absolutely pure dextrine can be prepared.

Fermentabzlity. Respecting this property the most
contradictory statements are found. The weight of
authority leans to the non-fermentible doctrine. It is
probable that before dextrine ferments it is first converted
into dextrose.

Formation. Jn addition to the method by roasting,
dextrine is always formed when diastase or dilute acids
act on starch,

Some authorities maintain that dextrine in such cases
is always the first transformation product and that the
others are derived from it.

According to Musculus (°), dextrose and dextrin are
formed synchronously by the action of sulphuric acid
on starch and in the proportions of one part of the
former to two of the latter. This proportion is main-
tained until all the starch disappears. The further ac-
tion of the acid then tends to convert the dextrin into
dextrose. O’Sullivan (1!) states that by the action of
diastase, both dextrine and maltose, and nothing else,
are first produced from starch under certain conditions
of temperature (below 63°), and in the proportions of
one part of the former to two of the latter. The pro-
portion, however, only obtains when the specific rotatory
power of the mixed bodies is equal to 171°.

From a careful study of all the data I could obtain
I concluded that very little is yet known of the real
proportions of dextrine which amyloses formed by
heating starch with dilute acids contain.

MALTOSE. Dubranfaut ('*) first pointed out the prob-
able existence of a third transformation product of
starch in addition to the two which had long been
known. But we must accord to O’Sullivan ('%) the merit
of having first isolated and studied the properties of this
body. He has given in the Yournal of the Chemical
Soczety, within the last decade several papers on the prop-
erties of this important saccharide. He gives its specific
rotatory power (a)= 150°. The same value is also given
by Musculus and Gruber, ("4),

Joshida’ found a slightly higher number. For (a)j this
would give 135.936.

Maltose is formed chiefly by the action of diastase on
starch at a temperature not exceeding 75°. But it is also
formed, but in smaller quantities by the action of dilute
acids.

It is well established that maltose has the power of re=
ducing the alkaline copper solution and in the proportion
of 65 to 100 compared with dextrose. We here find an
easy explanation of the fact that so many chemists have af-
firmed that dextrine acted on copper solutions. In all these
cases the dextrine doubtless contained maltose. With-
out citing further from the literature of maltose, which is

(®) Loc. cit.
(0) Annal. de Chem. et Phys., p. 203.
(1) Chemical News, 1876, 861-218.

Loc. cit.

(15). Chem, News, 1881,

all recent, I wish to call your attention again to the
numbers representing its rotating and reducing power,
viz. 150 and 65.

3d. DEXTROSE. This substance is the final product of
a complete saccharification of starch. It has a slightly
bitter taste, which is probably due to the development of
a bitter principle on long boiling with acids. This bitter
taste is not noticed in the products less perfectly con-
verted.

Dextrose possesses in the highest degree the power of
reducing the copper solutions. One gramme reduces
2.205 g. weighed as cupric oxide. Its specific rotatory
power has been the subject of much controversy.

O’Sullivan gives 57°.6 = (a

Tollens 50 a

$ 1 53-27,.— (2) J C2)

The differences in results which the above numbers
show do not indicate so much errors of observation as
they do the impurities which the purest dextrose is likely
to contain, Asa mean of these numbers, we may take
(a) = 56 and (a) j. = 50.5 (by calculation).

Pure dextrose is almost insoluble in absolute alcohol,
while it is very soluble in water. According to Anthon
(11) Ioo parts water dissolve 81.68 parts dextrose. To
dissolve one part, 50 parts of alcohol, .83 sp. gr. are re-
quired. When subjected to fermentation, dextrose affords
48 per cent alcohol ('%), while cane sugar and maltose
each gives 51 per cent and dextrine none at all.

I have thought it useful to give the above brief resume
of the literature of amylose, because the conclusions to be
drawn from it will go far to explain the anomalies of the
numbers which the following analyses and methods of
analysis will show. The whole subject is a matter of
considerable scientific interest on account of the immense
production of amylose in this country and the laws which
some of the States have passed to regulate its sale. In
the present state of our knowledge I am at a loss to see
how the real constitution of an amylose, or mixed sugar,
can be established before a court of justice. To show
this I will give synopses of a few of the

METHODS OF ANALYSIS

which have been proposed.

I shall not attempt to give an out-line of all the
methods which have been proposed for determining the
amount of dextrine and dextrose in amylose. Until with-
in a few years they were all based upon the assumption
that these were the only transformation products of
starch—an assumption which we know to be false. Re-
duced to first principles, all the methods may be com-
prised under three heads.

ist. The reduction of certain metallic salts by the
dextrose, and estimation of dextrine by difference.

2d. Fermentation of dextrose and estimation of dex-
trine by difference.

3rd. Precipitation of the dextrine by strong alcohol and
estimation of the dextrose by difference.

Remembering the facts established in the first part of
this paper, it will not be hard to show the fallacies of these
several methods,

1st. Metallic salts, especially the compounds of cop-
per, mercury and ferro-cyonigen, are all reduced by
maltose as well as by dextrose, and on prolonged boiling
in a slight degree by dextrine also. Thus the total reduc-
ing effect does not measure the amount of dextrose pres-
ent only in case maltose is completely absent. In com-
mercial amyloses this is never the case unless it be in
rare instances of high pressure conversion.

2a. Fermentation not only converts dextrose into
alcohol and carbonic dioxide, but acts in the same man-
ner on maltose. For a given weight maltose gives even

(16). Ber. d. Deutsh Chem. Gesel., 1876, p. 420.
(17). (Ding. Fotrnal; CLY, p. 41),
(18), O’Syllivan loc, cit,

466

SCIENCE.

See

a higher percentage of alcohol than dextrose, and in the
proportion of 51 to 48. Whether dextrine is fermentible
or not has long been a subject of bitter discussion. The
weight of authority seems to be in favor of its fermenta-
bility by a slow conversion into dextrose. Thus by fer-
mentation we are not sure of getting the amount of dex-
trose present even when maltose is absent. From this it
appears that the process of fermentation is likely to give
less reliable results than reduction affords.

3d. Precipitation with alcohol is even less reliable than
the method just given. Alcohol of go per cent ceases to
give a precipitate long before the dextrine is all converted
into dextrose, as every grape sugar maker well knows.
If absolute alcohol is used, dextrose is also precipitated.

Anthon has shown!’ that fifty parts of alcohol of
.83 sp. gr. will only dissolve 1 part of dextrose. Anything
like an accurate separation, therefore, by this method is
impossible.

As an illustration of the variations in the composition
of different specimens of amylose I will cite the following
analyses by Steiner??:

fe Il. 1806 IV.
\WEUGS thetodicoad 090 sdantoos 26 15.50 6.00 13.30 7-60
TENS WE os BO BBR DAARAaOS Yo cae 30 2.50 -40 I.10
TD) GXELOSE YS isjoncnnia seine isiee ee 45.40 26.50 76.00 sy
DGxtrine ss .20.'<).2.ectee cron 9.30 15.90 ee fe 39 80
MMAaltOSe were go ner Re cer 28.00 40.30 5.00 42.60
@aybo-hydratesy..32.,cns-% see I.50 7.00 5.30 8.g0

My own analyses have given results quite as puzzling
as the above, although J have never -been able to satisfy
myself with such exact expressions of percents.

I have heretofore been glad when, by hard work and
liberal guessing, I could come any way near the truth.
The author of the above table leaves us in charming ig-
norance of the methods by which such accurate percents
were obtained; at least, of methods which would stand
the test of criticisms, while the bunching of all the un-
knowables as carbo hydrates is quite worthy of the rea-
soning of the Concord School of Philosophy. I have
given enough, I think, to show the untrustworthiness of
methods now in use, and of the results obtained by them.
I am sorry that I have nothing very much, if any better,
to propose as a substitute. What I have been able to
accomplish I will now briefly describe. :

THE ANALYSIS OF AMYLOSE.

Water. \ have estimated water in a flat platinum dish.
Only two or three grammes should be taken, though in
many of my analyses I have used more. This dish is
placed in a second one, and this in a paraffine bath
heated to 150°-170°. The object of the second dish is
to keep the wax from touching the dish which is to be
weighed. After two hours the weight is sensibly con-
stant, and the whole mass is quite brown. I believe the
method will give the water to within one-halt of one per
cent.

Ash, There is only one method of determining the
ash, z. é., by incineration in a shallow platinum dish in
a muffle. The per cent of ash in a strait amylose is
extremely small. In most cases its quantity may be
neglected as far as practical purposes are concerned.
The determination of the ash is chiefly useful to furnish
a clue to the purity of the sample.

Reducing Matter, 1 determine by Fehling’s solution.
It will be found most convenient to take 10 g. in 1000
c.c. In all cases the volumes of the solutions employed
should be as nearly the same as possible.

Rotating Power is determined by using log. of the
amylose in 100¢.c. If 26,048 g. are taken the weight
of cane sugar, which gives 100 divisions on most
polariscopes, the rotation is so great that the neutral
point is thrown entirely beyond the graduation. In
many cases of high conversion, however, this would not
be the case. If the solution is turbid it must be classi-

20 Zeitsch. f. d. Gesch. Brauwesen, 1879, No. 11, p, 339-
(21). (These proceedings Vol. 28, p. 317.)

fied by blood charcoal, or plumbic acetate. These sub-
stances, as I have shown (21), tend to diminish the
rotating power. The clearer definition, however, of the
neutral point in part compensates for this loss in gyratory
power.

In the light of the foregoing resumé it is possible to
explain the results of my own work, although I am far
from thinking that anything better than approximate per
cents can yet be obtained.

We have seen that an ordinary amylose, whether liquid
or solid, contains about 86 per cent of material not
water. One per cent, nearly, of this is ash and optically
non-active matter. Ten grammes of amylose, therefore,
will contain an average of 8.5 grammes opticaily active
matter, If this were all dextrose it would give in 100 c.c.
an angular rotation of 8°.67. This is obtained by the
f _ exw
ormula @ = ~

AX w.
Here a@;. = sp. rot. power for yellow ray.
© = angular rotation.
V = volume of solution in c.c¢.
2 = length of observation tube.
W = weight of substance in grammes.

In a large number of cases where I heated the amy-
lose with dilute sulphuric acid from 4 to 6 hours, I ob-
tained an average value of (= 8°.85. This shows that
prolonged boiling does not convert all the amylose into
homogeneous dextrose.

If the substance under examination were all maltose
the value of a; would be 135.36 and @ would become
23° nearly. The highest number I ever obtained for an
amylose was 22° .24. This shows that even this speci-
men, with such a high rotating power contained some
matter in a weaker degree of optical activity.

Finally, if all the snbstances present were dextrine, I
would not be able to tell theoretically what its rotating
power would be, since we have just seen that dextrine is
assigned different degrees of activity by different authors.
As a mean of these I think we may place dextrine a;
=176°, although I do not wish to be understood as
stating its real value.

This would give a total angular deflection of 29% nearly.

The problem of analysis is therefore at the present time
in the following status :

1. In every amylose there are present at least three
kinds of optically active matter, viz., dextrose, maltose
and dextrine.

2. There are present in every amylose two kinds of re-
ducing matter, viz., dextrose and maltose.

3. A high reducing power shows a high percentage of
dextrose present.

4. A high rotating power, which is always shown when
the reducing power is low, indicates a large percentage of
maltose and dextrine.

5. From a very extended series of analyses, I will say
that there is no method known which will give reliable,
or rather exact, numbers for the percentage of the differ-
ent constituents.

6. I propose to attempt the accomplishment of this
very desirable result by first polarizing and then reduc-
ing the sample, and then repolarizing the residue. The
difficulties of preserving a standard volume and of getting
a solution sufficiently clear for polarization have prevented
me hitherto from obtaining any results. I hope to over-
come these troubles and to establish thereby a reliable op-
tical method of determining the percentages of dextrose,
maltose and dextrine in amylose.

Prof. Cantoni has been appointed director of the meteor-
ological observatory, to be erected at Pavia. Observations
are to be made on the influences of light, heat, and elec-
tricity upon vegatable growth, in addition to the ordinary
meteorological and magnetical work.

\_ 19 Ding, Jour., CLV., p.t4r.

SCIENCE.

467

A REMARKABLE INVASION OF NORTHERN
NEW YORK, BY A PYRALID INSECT :+*

Crambus vulgzvagellus.
(Abstract. )
By J. A. LINTNER.

About the middle of May, of the present year (1881),
a serious invasion of St. Lawrence county, N. Y., and
several of the adjoining counties, by the “ Army Worm,”
was announced by the newspapers, and by letters ad-
dressed to me. It was stated that many pastures had
been completely ruined, and the entire destruction of the

pastures and meadows was feared. I had never witnessed

the operation of the Army Worm—comparatively rare in
the State of New York—and I at once visited the infested
locality for personal observations.

The reports had not been exaggerated. The ravages
were widespread and serious, already extending over
eight of the northern counties. Hundreds of acres of
grass presented a brown appearance, as if the grass had
been winter-killed. A pasture lot of fifty acres, exam-
ined by me, which ten days before offered good pastur-
age, was now entirely brown from the complete destruc-
tion of the grass—so thorough, that in places not a blade
could be discerned in an area of a square yard, by care-
ful search. Numerous dead caterpillars were adhering
to the dried stems of last year’s grass, which, it is be-
lieved, had fallen victims to starvation.

Several interesting features characterized this attack.
It appeared first on upland pastures, differing in this
respect from the invasions of the Army Worm, Leucanza
unipuncta,

The progress was remarkably rapid. A browned
patch would rapidly extend its area, until it overspread
the entire field in ten or twelve days. It could not be
ascertained if this was by the spread of the larve from
certain points, or from the unequal hatching of the eggs,
uniformly distributed over the field, as influenced by va-
rious conditions. The secresy of the depredation was
unusual. The larvae had seldom been seen and never ob-
served in active feeding. It was believed that they fed
at night, by drawing in the blades of grass to their sub-
terranean retreats.

In two instances the larve were observed in immense
numbers, collected on trunks of trees—so numerous that
they could have been scooped up by handsfull. One of
the reported localities was visited by me where the as-
semblage had been noticed three days before. The tree-
trunk, at its base, was found to be enveloped by a web of
silk, as was also an adjoining stump, of so firm a consist-
ence that it could be lifted up in a sheet, like a piece of
woven silk, The cause of the congregation at this point
could only be conjectured, but it was thought it might
have been for shade, after the complete destruction of
the surrounding pastures. It was not for feeding on the
foliage, for the grasses were alone eaten by the larve.

It was generally accepted throughout the entire region
as an army-worm invasion, and the most disastrous con-
sequences apprehended. The papers abounded with no-
tices of it. Farmers commenced to dispose of their
cattle, in the prospect of their ruined pastures and mead-
ows. It became the one topic of village conversation,
and general alarm prevailed.

The caterpillars observed and collected by me in Mor-
ley and Potsdam, by digging in the soil, and occasionally
finding one on the surface, were slender, cylindrical, six-
teen-footed, of a sordid or obscure greenish color, witha
shiny black head. They were destitute of lines or other
ornamentation than some verrucose spots on the dorsal
portion, The average length was three-fourths of an
inch.

I was unable to identify these with Lwecanza untz-
puncta, for they were quite unlike the mature form of that

*Read before the A, A. A.S,, Cincinnati, 1881,

species which I had alone seen. Yet it was possible that
they had additional moltings to undergo, which might re-
sult in a material change of appearance. Their habits
seemed to be quite different from those of the army-
worm, and it was nearly two months too early for an in-
vasion of that species.

Of the larvae which I had brought from Potsdam for
rearing and ascertaining the species, nearly all died
shortly thereafter, Only a single one developed, giving me
a small Pyralid moth—Crambus exstccatus. Additional
ones were sent me, at my request, from Potsdam. They
were quite different from those previously collected and
observed by me, but it was believed by my correspond-
ent, as the result of observations made, that the molting
through which they had just passed had produced this
change.

I suspected that two species were associated in the at-
tack, but other pressing duties at the time prevented a
decision upon this subject. Some of the examples re-
ceived were submitted to Prof. Riley, who was able to
identify them as the larve of a rather rare Noctuid—
Nephelodes violans, which he had known in Missouri.
The occurrence of the species in such numbers—more
than a dozen in lifting a small piece of a rail—was an in-
teresting discovery. In some communications contrib-
uted by me to some of the newspapers of Albany and
Northern New York, I ascribed the above ravages to
Nephelodes violans. Farther study led me to believe that
I had been hasty in my reference.

Early in July, Mr. J. Q. Adams, of Watertown, N. Y.,
where the ravages of the same insect had also been ob-
served, furnished me with information and material that
convinced me that /V. vzo/ams was only chargeable with
a small portion of the above injuries, and that the prin-
cipal depredator was the smaller larva observed and col-
lected by me, which, from the cocoons forwarded to me
at this time, undoubtedly belonged to the Pyralide. The
cocoons were taken from the infested fields at Watertown,
from just below the surface of the ground, where they
were so numerous that a half dozen could be taken from
a sod the size of a man’s hand. On opening the cocoons,
the larvae were found lying within them, still unchanged,
although they had beef’ made over a month before, and
they were identical with my Potsdam collections. Ad-
ditional cocoons were opened by me early in July, when
the larve were stillin their untransformed state, in which
they had at this time been remaining for from a month
to a month and a half.

The delayed pupation is an interesting item in their
history. It is known to occur in some of the Bombycide,
among the Notodontas for example, when it extends over
the winter, and the pupa state is assumed in the spring,
a short time before the emergence of the perfect insect ;
but it was new to me at this season of the year.

Dr. Hagen, to whom I communicated the fact, was
unable to find any record in the extensive library at Cam-
bridge of such delayed pupation among the Pyralide,
although Prof. Riley informs me that he had known of
its occurrence in some of the species.

On the 6th of August, the first moth from the Water-
town cocoons was disclosed, and it proved to be Crambus
vulgtvagellus. The interesting question as to which of
our insect depredators was chargeable the ravages in
Northern New York—more injurious in the extent of
territory embraced than in an army worm invasion—was
decided. The new enemy, the latest addition to our list
of formidable insect pests, was found to be a modest, in-
conspicuous, hitherto unobtrusive little Crambus. It had
long been known in our cabinets, but had never before
presented itself as an injurious insect.

It is probable that several accounts of injuries to pas-
ture lands, in New England States, during the last three
or four years, which have been ascribed, either to the
army-worm or an unknown depredator, are due to this

468

SCIENCE:

species. In its subsequent appearance, hereafter, it may
now be recognized. ;

The Crambide are small moths with narrow front
wings, often marked with metallic spots and lines, which
are frequently driven up for short staccato flights in our
pastures and meadows during the fall months.

The paper concluded with a resumé of the history of
the species, so far as known at present, which is omitted
as not of general interest.

+ +

CANONS—THEIR CHARACTER AND ORIGIN.*
By Hon. WILLIAM BROSS.

To the professional geologist it may seem an imper-
tinence for a layman to offer any opinions as to the
character and the origin of cafions. He may, however,
it is hoped, use his eyes without offense, and form such
conclusions as the facts which he has observed, may
appear to warrant. If they should not agree with the
recognized principles of the science as now understood,
he will be no worse off than scores of learned Professors
in the past, for in this, as in almost every other science,
nearly every conceivable absurdity was exhausted before
theories were made to agree with acknowledged facts.
And here, at the commencement, the conclusion to which
the observations to be presented somewhat in detail have
led, may as well be stated—viz.: that canons were formed
by some great convulsion of the earth’s surface, or by
the contraction of mountain chains from their igneous
condition in the early history of the planet. Take, for
instance, the cafion of the Saguenay—a vast fissure in
the mountain chain that lies on the north side of and
nearly parallel with the St. Lawrence. The fissure or
cafion is some fifty or sixty miles long and lies nearly at
right angles to the rivers Something like a mile apart,
the perpendicular rocks on the north side are, at some
points, about 1,500 feet high, the water at their base
being several hundred teet deep. No man in his senses,
it seems to me, could possibly conceive that this gorge
through the granite mountain could have been formed by
the action of the insignificant river that empties into Ha-
Ha Bay at the northern end of the canon. The surface
of the water, for the whole distance of sixty miles, ison a
level with the St. Lawrence, in some places it is several
hundred feet deep and the cafion is about a mile wide,
through the solid granite rocks. And here another
general principle may as well be stated, that, with a
single exception, the width of this and the other canons
hereafter to be noticed, is scarcely ever more than a
fraction of a mile; seldom a single mile—a fact that
strongly indicates uniformity in their origin. And be-
sides, the mountains on both sides are generally nearly
of the same height.

TAKE THE CANON OF THE HUDSON,

where it passes through the Blue Ridge, above and below
West Point. The channel is deep, the tide ebbing and
flowing far upwards towards Albany; the mountains on
both sides, though rounded off towards their summits,
doubtless during the glacier period, are about of the
same height, and there is a general correspondence in the
dip and thickness of the vast strata of rocks on both sides
ot the river. With the exception that the canon is far
above tide water, the same general facts are witnessed
in that of the Delaware at the water-gap through the
same spur of the Allegheny Mountains. In this case
there are two well-defined ledges corresponding with
each other on both sides of the river; the water is deep
and sluggish while passing through the gorge, and all
the facts seem to point, with unerring certainty, to some
great convulsion in Nature as the origin of the cafion.
With the exception that the current of the Potomac is
swift at Harper’s Ferry, the break in the mountain there,

* Read before the A, A, A. S., Cincinnati, 188r,

miles.

so graphically described by Jefferson, is very similar to
that of the Delaware. This gorge may not have been
relatively as deep at its formation as those of the Hudson
and the Delaware.

THE CANON OF THE NIAGARA

was confessedly formed by the action of the river; but,
if the structure of the rocks forming the canon between
the falls and Lewistown be considered, the exception in
this case, it is believed, will prove the rule enunciated at
the beginning of this paper. The rocks underlying the
country between Lewistown and Buffalo are nearly hori-
zontal, and are, in round numbers, as indicated by the
gorge below the fails, some 200 feet thick. The upper
strata, for say half the distance, are solid limestone, un-
derlaid for perhaps an unknown depth, by soft sandstone,
scooped out with comparative ease by the great cataract.
Hence, the support of the upper stratum ot lime-rock is
gradually worn away, and it falls into the gulf below.
On the American side of Goat Island, where only a frac-
tion of the river falls over the precipice, the lime-rock lies
below in vast blocks, and a rapid is gradually forming,
while on the Canada side, the immense river scoops out
the sand-rock to a great depth, and the falling sections
of the lime-rock are buried out of sight forever. Below
the railway bridge, for a long distance, there is a terrible
rapid, showing that some other rock at the bottom of the
river was harder than the sandstone, or that the stream
is partially damned up by the lime-rocks thrown down
between the bridge and the present fall, forced to the
position they now occupy by the water, débris, and ice
pressing down from above as the river gradually receded
towards Lake Erie. This recession will doubtless con-
tinue even back to Lake Erie, unless the sandstone dips
deeper down into the earth, and the limestone strata be-
come thicker or some other hard rock fills the entire face
of the cataract. Then the fall would gradually wear
away at the top and become a rapid of gigantic propor-
tions. Now, if the Niagara River, with its vast volume
of water at first falling over a lime-rock ledge, at Lewis-
town, underlaid by a friable sandstone base—a condition
of things found, it is believed, in no other canon upon the
continent—has required untold ages to work its way up
to its present location, how is it possible for the compar-
atively small rivers heretofore named, and those to fol-
low, to wear away a pathway to the sea through great
mountain ledges of the hardest rock? Such a conclusion
would be absurd.

THE CANON OF THE MISSISSIPPI

extending, say from Dubuque to the head of Lake Pepin,
some 200 miles or more, is an exception to the rule above
proposed, mainly in its width, which is some five to seven
The sandstone bluffs on either side are generally
perpendicular from the top downwards from 200 to 300
feet, when the débris slopes down to the bottom lands
or to the majestic river as it sweeps through the alluvium
from one side of this broad canon to the other. There
are doubtless good reasons for the opinion that the
waters which now find their way from Lake Winnipeg to
Hudson’s Bay once flowed south and filled full the broad
space between the beautiful bluffs of the Upper Mis-
sissippl.
THE GORGE OF THE UPPER MISSOURI,

situated about 109 miles below Fort Fenton, is one of
the most marked, as it is one of the most beautiful, can-
ons on the continent. The walls are perpendicular, of
white sandstone, scarcely a mile apart, and some eighty
feet high. On the top of these walls there is a layer of
clay, perhaps of the same thickness, rounded off grace-
fully by the winds and storms, while in some places it
has been all worn away, and the tops of the white
sandstone ledges appear as castellated forms, reminding
one of the Milan Cathedral, or some of the old ruins

SCIENCE.

scattered all over Europe. Between these sandstone
walls the river flows smoothly, without giving the least
suspicion that the canon was formed by it. Only some
great convulsion could have torn apart this immense
* sandstone deposit for some twenty or twenty-five miles.
It will well repay a visit to the Upper Missouri to see it.

THE GRAND CANONS OF THE ARKANSAS,

the South Platte, Clear Creek and the Bowlder strongly
resemble each other, and may, therefore, be disposed of
in the same paragraph. Through the three first, in
spite of the tremenduous obstacles they presented, rail-
ways have been built, and the saucy little locomotive
rings out the echoes from their perpendicular granite
walls on either side some 2000 to 3000 feet high. Small
rivers—for they are small here—rush through them with
angry roar; but it would be worse than idiotic to sup-
pose that thev wore down the vast granite walls through
which they run to the bed they now occupy. Only Na-
ture’s reserved forces, such as the world sees in earth-
quakes, could rend these granite mountains asunder,
and, with perpendicular walls half a mile high, make a
pathway for the tiny streams that surge and brawl be-
tween them.

THE CANON OF THE COLUMBIA

is, in some respects, one of the grandest upon the con-
tinent. From Cape Horn to perhaps some twenty miles
or more above Celilo, at the head of the Dalles, a dis-
tance of sixty or seventy miles, the great river finds its
way to the ocean through a gorge, the walls of which
are from 500 to 4000 feet high. Even a cursory inspec-
tion will convince a practiced eye that for the entire
height, and most of the distance, it is composed of nearly
perpendicular basaltic rocks. No one series of columns
where present reaches from the base to the top of the
mountain; but at the foot of the cascades, on the south
side of the river, their development is truly wonderful.
Suppose before you there is a row of them 500 feet high
and twice as long on the face of the mountain; at either
end of that thousand feet another row, with their bases
on a line with the tops of the first, shoots up another 500
feet, and so on from the base to the top, one row of col-
umns above another, will convince the beholder that the
entire mountain is composed of basalt. From the time
of the Czesars to the present all the world has been won-
dering at, or gazing with admiration at the Giant’s
Causeway, on the coast of Ireland. It, too, is composed
of basaltic columns, and they are actually 300 feet high.
Thus America furnishes to Great Britain a ratio in basalt
of 3300 to 300; figures which I was wicked enough to
write in 1879 would probably represent the influence
of the two nations on the affairs of the world 100 years
hence.

The Cascade Range, in Oregon and Washington Ter-
ritory, corresponds with, and 1s virtually an extension of,
the Sierra Nevada, in California. Near the western end
of the canon of the Columbia the Cascades form a splen-
did rapid, and the river falls thirty-five feet in two miles.
From the head of the Cascades steamers run on the
smoothly-flowing river for forty-five miles through the
splendid cafion to the foot of the Dalles. Here, as the
tourist glides along, Mount Hood, clad in a mantle of
snow old as creation, peers down upon him through the
lateral canons, while the dark, frowning walls of basalt
on either side almost make him shudder and forget for
the moment how he can escape from this gloomy prison
to the cheerful abodes of mankind. These stupendous
basaltic walls, with the river flowing smoothly and
beautifully between them, would never for a moment
suggest the thought that this grand gorge was formed
by the river. Only Nature herself, shaking as a reed
this vast mountain-chain, could have rent it asunder

469

and given us the sublime cafion of the Columbia.
Only one other,
THE YOSEMITE VALLEY,

can be compared with it, and to that, as in some respects
the grandest of them all, let us now turn our attention.
A description of it will be most easily remembered by
saying it is a gorge in one of the spurs of the Sierra
Nevada Mountains, about twelve miles long, a mile wide,
and a mile deep. As many, perhaps most of the mem-
bers, have visited this grandest wonder of the world,
only a brief description of it will be attempted. At El
Capitan —or Tu-toc-a-nu-la, the granite wall—they are,
on both sides, of the same material—is 3,300 feet high
and very nearly perpendicular. At the grand arches, the
height is about the same and the south dome is 6,000 feet
—a very considerable fraction more than a mile—one-
half of which is perpendicular. From either side the
waterfalls are splendid. The Bridal Vail is g00 feet ; the
Yosemite, 2,634, more than half a mile; The Vernal Fall
of the Merced River, at the head of the cafion, is 350
feet ; and Nevada Fallis 700. The question is how was
this vast gorge made through this mountain of granite?
Prof. Whitney, if correctly reported, ascribes it to the
dropping down towards the centre of the earth of a
section of the mountain a mile wide. From this opinion,
of this master of geological science, with all possible re-
spect, I beg leave to differ. The facts of its structure,
in my judgment, warrant the belief that, like all the
other cafions above referred to—that of the Niagara
alone excepted—it was formed by an upheaval of the
mountain, at that particular point, sufficient to break it
apart to the extent of a mile—the more probable cause ;
or the mountain, while intensely heated, contracted
enough to doit. A few of my reasons for this opinion
are as follows:

These solid granite mountains were once torn apart—
on a smaller scale, it is true—for there are immense
seams, perhaps two feet thick, of cream-colored feldspar,
running through the walls of this valley; and it is be-
lieved that a correspondence can be observed in these
seams on both sides of the gorge. If rent asunder to
admit the injection of these seams of feldspar, why not
on a larger scale? When this vast fissure was first
made it was undoubtedly very deep, perhaps half a dozen
miles or more. Where the break was in the line of the
cleavage there the wall stands up perpendicularly, <s at
El] Capitan, and the arches, and a few other points.
Where it was not in the cleavage line, immense masses
of rock were thrown into the abyss, and from this source
and the débris brought down by the Merced river, the
gorge gradually filled up to its present level. At El
Capitan and the arches, the granite wall stands unbroken
to the top, and you can ride right up to it and, from your
saddle, put your hand on that wall rising sheer above you
for more than three-fifths of a mile. Your horse stands
on the fine disintegrated granite, the last contribution of
the snowy range to the eastward. But after the valley
was filled up to its present general level, at points where
the cleavage was not in the line of the upheaval, as in
the rear of Mr. Hutchins’ hotel and some other places,
the frost and perhaps earthquakes continued to throw
down immense blocks, and hence there is at this point, a
gradual slope to the top on the south side of the valley,
with trees growing wherever they can find a ledge or a
crevice to get root in. Another instance, showing how
water, frost-and other causes have broken the symmetry
of the valley, may be seen at the Yosemite Fall. Both
the height and the front of the escarpment, east and west
of the Fall, are in the same line, while the ice and the
stream have worn the wall back at the Fall perhaps a
quarter of a mile from the front line. And yet the first
perpendicular fall is 1,600 feet, or ten times the height of
Niagara.

Such facts might be multiplied almost indefinitely, but

470

enough for this paper. This general remark, however,

should be carefully weighed. The cafion of the Colum-.

bia, the Yosemite Valley, the Charquinez Strait connect-
ing the Suisun and San Pablo Bays, and the Golden Gate
itself, through which the waters of the Sacramento and
the San Joaquin, draining the great Valley of California,
find their way to the ocean, are all about a mile wide.
With the exception of the cafion of the Mississippi, the
same is true, it is here repeated, of all the canons above
referred to in the Rocky Mountains and east of them,
noticed in this paper. It is submitted, therefore, that
the main facts in regard to them, point almost unmistak-
ably to a similar origin for them all. All these canons [|
have myself visited, many of them several times. Several
of them are splendid, even sublime, beyond the power of
the most accomplished pen to describe. I dared not to
attempt it, and have, therefore, simply stated what I have
myself seen and drawn such conclusions as the facts
seemed to warrant.

Let me add a very few words in conclusion upon a
paper on the geological history of the Colorado River
and the plateau of it, read at the St. Louis meeting by
Col. E. C. Dutton, of Washington. This canon, as
described by Maj. Powell, who has the honor of braving
almost incredible dangers to explore it and to give the
world their first knowledge of its wonders, is some 1,500
miles long ; the perpendicular walls are a mile or a frac-
tion of it apart, and are from 1,000 to 5,000 feet high.
They are composed of nearly all the series in the geolog-
ical catalogue, from the granite all the way up to the
highest igneous stratified rocks. Now this, by far the
longest, and in some respects the most wonderful canon
in the world, Col. Dutton described as having been worn
by the Colorado River. In view of the facts herein pre-
sented that conclusions seems supremely fanciful and
absurd. Like all the others, it could only have been
formed by some great convulsion of the earth’s crust,
and through it the drainage of nearly a thousand miles
along the western slopes of the Rocky Mountains finds
its way to the Gulf of California.

GARRICK MALLERY, U. S.
ARMY.

Chairman of the Subsection of Anthropology of the A. A. A. S.
at the Opening of that Subsection.

THE GESTURE SPEECH OF MAN.

ADDRESS OF COL.

Anthropology tells the march of mankind out of
savagery in which different people have advanced in vary-
ing degrees, but all started in progress to civilization from
a point lower than that now occupied by the lowest
of the tribes now found on earth. The marks of their
rude origin, retained by all, are of the same number and
kind, though differing in distinctness, showing a common
origin to all intellectual and social development, notwith-
standing present diversities. The most notable criterion
of difference is in the copiousness and precision of oral
speech, and connected with that, both as to origin and
structure, is the unequal survival of gesture signs, which
it is believed once universally prevailed. Where sign
language survives it is, therefore, an instructive vestige
of the prehistoric epoch, and its study may solve prob-
lems in philology and psychology. That study is best
pursued by comparing the pre-eminent gesture system of
the North American Indians with the more degenerate
or less developed systems of other people.

EXAMINATION OF THE INDIAN SYSTEM.

The conditions and circumstances attending the pre-
valence, and sometimes the disuse, of sign language in
North America were explained. The report of travelers
that among Indians, as well as other tribes of men, some
were unable to converse in the dark, because they could

SCIENCE, \

not gesture, is false. It is the old story of BapBapoc and
ayiacoo5 applied by the Greeks to all who did not speak
Greek, repeated by Isaiah of the ‘‘ stammering’”’ Assyri-
ans, and now appearing in the term s/av (speaker arro-
gated to themselves by a large division of the Aryan
family), as contradistinguished by the Russians from the
Germans, whom they stigmatize as Vjemez (speechless.)

The theory that sign language was the original utter-
ance of mankind does not depend upon such tales or pre-
judices. After the immeasurable period during which
man has been upon the earth it is not probable that any
existing peoples can be found among whom speech has
not obviated the absolute necessity for gesture in commu-
nication between themselves.

The assertions made that the sign language of Indians
originated from one definite tribe or region supposes its
comparatively recent origin, whereas the conditions favor-
able to its development existed very long ago and were
co-extensive with the territory of North America occu-
pied by any of the tribes. Numerous evidences were pre-
sented as to its antiquity and generality. But the signs
are not now, and from the nature of their formation never
were, identical and uniform. The process is the same as
among uninstructed deaf mutes when associated together,
which. was explained.

A comparison sometimes made of the diversities of the
sign language of the Indians with the dialects and provin-
cialisms of the English language is incorrect, as there is
so small a proportion of the sign-using tribes which make
identically the same signs to express the same ideas, and
also because the signs are not absolute and arbitrary as
are the words of English.

ARE SIGNS CONVENTIONAL OR INSTINCTIVE ?

Sign language, as a product of evolution, has been de-
veloped rather than invented, but each of the separate
signs had a definite origin arising out of some appropri-
ate occasion, and the same sign may thus have had many
different origins due to identity in the circumstances.
No signs in common use were at first conventional.
What may appear to be convention largely consists in the
differing forms of abbreviation which have been adopted.
Yet, while all Indians, as well as all gesturing men, have
many signs in common, they use many others which have
become conventional in the sense that their etymology
and conception are not now known or regarded by those
using them. The conventions by which such signs were
established occurred during the Jong periods and under
many differing circumstances. Our Indians, far from
being a homogeneous race and possessing uniformity in
their language, religions and customs, differ from each
other more than do the several nations of Europe, and
their semiotic conceptions have correspondingly differed.

PERMANENCE OF SIGNS.

Instances were presented of the ascertained perma-
nence of some Indian signs, and of those of foreign
peoples and deaf mutes. Though they, as well as words,
animals and plants, have had their growth, development
and change, those which are general among Indian tribes,
and are also found in other parts of the world, must be
of great antiquity. Many signs but little differentiated
were unstable, while others that have proved to be the
best modes of expression have survived as definite and
established.

IS THE INDIAN SYSTEM SPECIAL AND PECULIAR ?

The Indian system as a whole was compared with those
of foreign peoples—the ancientGreeks and Romans, the
modern Italians, the Turks, Armenians and Koords, the
Bushmen of Africa, the Redjangs and Lelongs of Suma-
tra, the Fijians, the Chinese, Japanese, and the Austra-
lians. The result is that the so-called sign language of
Indians is not, properly speaking, one language, but that
it and the gesture systems of deaf-mutes and of all

~ SCIENCE.

471

peoples constitute together one language, the gesture
language of mankind, of which each system is a dialect.
The generic conformity is obvious, while the occasion of
specific varieties can be readily understood.

ARCHEOLOGIC RELATIONS.

The most interesting light in which Indians, as other
lower tribes of men, are to be regarded, is in their pres-
ent representation of the stage of evolution once passed
through by our ancestors. Their signs, as well as their
myths and customs, form a part of the paleontology of
humanity. Their picture writings are now translated by
working on the hypothesis that their rude form of graphic
representation, when at the same time a system of ideo-
graphic gesture signs prevailed, would probably have
been connected with the latter. Traces of the signs now
used by the Indians are also found in the ideographic
pictures of the Egyptian, Chinese and Aztec characters.

HISTORY OF THE GESTURE LANGUAGE,

From the records of the ancient classic authors, and
also from the figures on Etruscan vases and Hercula-
nean bronzes and other forms of Archaic art, it is certain
that a system of gesture language is of great antiquity.
Later, Quintilian gave elaborate rules for gesture, which
are specially noticeable for the significant disposition of
the fingers still prevailing in Naples. The ancient and
modern pantomimes were discussed, and also the ges-
tures of speaking actors in the theatres, the latter being
seldom actually significant or self-interpreting even, in
the expression of strong emotion. The same scenic ges-
ture must apply to many diverse conditions of fact. Its
fitness consists in being the same which the hearer of the
expository words would spontaneously assume, if yield-
ing to the same emotions, and which, therefore, by asso-
ciation, tends to induce sympathetic yielding. But the
communication of the facts themselves depends upon the
words uttered. A true sign language would express the
exact circumstances, with or without any exhibition of
the general emotion appropriate to them.

PRACTICAL APPLICATION OF SIGN LANGUAGE,

This was shown to be in successful use in cases cited
by travelers skilled in it, and its powers were compared
with those of speech. It finds actually in nature an im-
age by which any person can express his thoughts and
wishes on the most needful subjects to any other person.
Merely emotional sounds may correspond with merely
emotional gestures, but whether with or without them
would be useless for the explicit communication of facts
and opinions of which signs themselves are capable.
Notwithstanding frequent denials, they are able to ex-
press abstract ideas. The rapidity of their communica-
tion is very great, and can approach to that of thought.
Oral speech is now conventional, and with the similar de-
velopment of sign language, conventional expressions
could be made with hands and body more quickly than
with the vocal organs, because more organs could be
worked at once.

But such rapidity is only obtained by a system of pre-
concerted abbreviations and by the adoption of absolute
forms, thus sacrificing self-interpretation and natural-
ness, as has been the case with all oral languages in the
degree of their copiousness and precision,

RELATIONS IN PHILOLOGY,.

Signs often gave to spoken words their first signifi-
cance, and many primordial roots of language are tound
in bodily actions. Examples are given of English, In-
dian, Greek and Latin words in connection with gesture
signs for the same meaning, and the structure of the
sign-language was compared with the tongues of this
continent, with reference also to old Asiatic and African

languages, showing similar operations of conditions in
the same psychologic horizon.

ORIGIN OF SPEECH,

It is necessary to be free from the vague popular im-
pression that some oral language of the general character
of that now used by man is ‘‘natural’’ to man. There
is no more necessary connection between ideas and
sounds, the mere signs of words that strike the ear, than
there is between the same ideas and signs for them which
are addressed only to the eye. Early concepts of
thought were of a direct and material character. This
is shown by what has been ascertained of the radicals of
language, and there does not seem to be any difficulty in
expressing by gesture all that could have been expressed
by those radicals.

CONCLUSIONS.

It may be conceded that after man had all his present
faculties, he did not choose between the adoption of voice
and gesture, and never with those faculties, was in a state
where the one was used, to the absolute exclusion of
the other. The epoch, however, to which our specu-
lations relate is that in which he had not reached the
present symmetric development of his intellect and ot his
bodily organs, and the inquiry is: Which mode of com-
munication was earliest adopted to his single wants and
informed intelligence? With the voice he could imitate
distinctively but few sounds of nature, while with gesture
he could exhibit actions, motions, positions, forms, dimen-
sions, directions and distances, with their derivations and
analogues. It would seem from this unequal division of
capacity that oral speech remained rudimentary long
after gesture had become an efficient mode of communi-
cation. With due allowance for all purely imitative
sounds, and for the spontaneous action of vocal organs
under excitement, it appears that the connection between
ideas and words is only to be explained by a compact
between speaker and hearer which supposes the exist-
ence.of a prior mode of communication. This was prob-
ably by gesture. At least we may accept it as a clew lead-
ing out of the labyrinth of philological confusion, and
regulating the immemorial quest of man’s primitive
speech.

TRICHIN4 CYSTS.

The mode of formation of the cyst of trichina has been
studied by M. Chatin and described in a communication to
the Académie de Sciences. It was formerly said to be
formed partly from the contractile tissue, and partly by a
secretion from the nematoid, but this opinion was based
only on some apparent differences in the thickness or aspect
of the cyst wall, and not on any careful study of its forma-
tion, which necessitates the examination of animals dying
or killed in different states of the affection. When it ar-
rives in the muscles the worm forms adhesions with the in-
terfascicular tissue in which rapid changes occur. The
elements increase in size, and during the growth of the pro-
toplasm it assumes the appearance of an amorphous mass,
in which, however, nuclei and vacuoles can be seen, which
seem to indicate that the mass consists really of aggregated
cells. By the growth of this the primitive fbres are com-
pressed. In the new protoplasm fine proteoid granulations
are first observed, and then other granulations which present
all the reactions of glycogen. Then follow important
changes in the periphery of the granular mass, containing
the trichina, now curled up in the interior; the outer sur-
face becomes distinctly thickened and indurated, and may
then become lamellated or present granulations or folds.
The sarcolemma takes no part in the formation of the cyst
except occasionally furnishing it with a purely adventitious
layer. Moreover, when the nematoid coutracts its first ad-
hesions to sarcolemma, and not to the interfascicular tissue.
it rapidly dies without determining a new formation.

472 SCIENCE.

BEFORE leaving New York, King Kalakaua called on Mr..-
Edison. He was accompanied on his visit by the Attor
ney-General of his island kingdom, Mr. Armstrong, and by
an intimate friend residing in this city, whose acquaintance
he made in Vienna. Punctually at nine o’clock in the evening
his majesty alighted from the carriage of his friend in front of
the Fitth-avenue mansion. He was introduced to Mr. Edi-
son, who escorted him through the building, and by means
of models, maps, drawings, and the 55 lamps in operation,
explained the theory of the conversion of steam-power into
electricity and the generation of light in the carbon loop.

Escorting his distinguished visitor to the library, Mr.
Edison first explained the science of the light, and then, by
reference to maps of the district that his engineers are pre-
paring for the experiment, the application of his system to
the practical requirements of a city. The region to be
lighted will require 22,000 lights, all of Which are to be sup-
plied from a central station in Pearl street, where 12 en-
gines of 185 horse power are to be placed. Ten of these
will be in constant operation, the other two being held in
reserve to meet the emergencies of accident. The engines
will be run at a rate of speed equal to that of a locomotive
at 60 miles an hour, and a new feature of the system is that
no belts are employed to transmit the power to the dynamo-
electric generators, and the power is applied directly,
avoiding the irregularity and vibration arising from the
slipping of the belt which seems inseparable from the old
practice. The mains consist of large iron pipes, in which
the crescent-shaped positive and negative conductors are
carried, being insulated from such by means of a non-
conducting material with which the pipes are filled when in
a pasty condition, induced by heat, but which hardens like
a concrete pavement in the process of cooling. These
mains in their passage through the streets are all con-
nected with each other by means of ingenious connection
boxes, the whole forming a subterranean net-work of elec-

trical conductors comparable to the capillary circulation in
the skin of an animal body.

His Majesty listened with intense but almost silent in-
terest, and examined the cross-sections of the electrical
mains and the (interior arrangement of the connection
boxes with critical closeness, now and then asking a ques-
tion in the purest English imaginable, and with a voice that
was strikingly low, mellow, and muscial, and yet so
sharply defined in the articulation of the consonants as to
impress the ear at an unusual distance. He seemed partic-
ularly interested in the statement that after steam power
had been transformed into electricity and carried to a great
distance in that form it could again be converted into mo-
tive power by means of an electrical motor, and sold to
customers for the purpose of running elevators or opera-
ting hoist-ways. His eyes lighted when he was told that one
of the most profitable departments of the business of the
company would be the sale of power to manufactories and
business firms in quantities as small as a single horse-
power, costing, under circumstances of ordinary use, not
more than eight cents a day.

From the library Mr. Edison led the way to the front
parlor, brilliantly lighted. Pressing the toe of his shoe
upon a knob projecting from the floor, every lamp was in-
stantaneously extinguished and as suddenly blazed out
again. The inventor next turned the stop-cock of a single
lamp among the group and extinguished it. The party
then ascended to the upper floor, where more wonders were
in store, and then descended two flights beneath the street
level, where, in a low-ceiled vault, a small engine was
operating, with nearly absolute silence, a generator whose
cylinder performed 1200 revolutions per minute. After
inspecting every detail, his Majesty took leave of the in-
ventor, and repaired to his carriage. One of the points
that appeared to impress him most was the steadiness of
the light, and its freedom from vibration.—/V. Y. Times.

METEOROLOGICAL REPORT FOR NEW YORK CITY FOR THE WEEK ENDING SEPT. 24, 1881.

Latitude 40° 45' 58” N.; Longitude 73° 57’ 58" W.; height of instruments above the ground, 53 feet ; above the sea, 97
feet ; by self-recording instruments.

BAROMETER.

THERMOMETERS.
MEAN FOR oa iP = 2.5 = ’
Ze ee MAXIMUM. MINIMUM. _ MEAN. MAXIMUM. MINIMUM. MAXI'M
SEPTEMBER. Reduced | Reduced | | Reduced | Dry | Wet | Dry | > fet | op Dry | ae Wet | 4 ae
to to Time. to Time. ime ime ime. ime. |InSun,
Fricke Beane Freeing, Bulb.| Bulb. Bulb. Bulb. Bulb. pel
Sunday, 18__| 30.004 30.228 | oa.m.| 29.964 |12 p.m-| 68.3 | 60.6 78 3p-m.| 64 5 p-m.| 53 |6a.m.] 53 |6a.m. 142.
Monday, Ig--| 29.831 29.964 | 0 a. m.|E29 788 | 4 p.m.| 75.0! 65.3| 84 | 3 p.m.| zo |6p.m.| 64 |6a.m.} 60 |6a.mj 140.
Tuesday, 20--| 29.869 29.898 | 9 a.m.| 29.810 | 5 p. m.| 73-3 | 63-3 | 83 | 4p.m,| 69 | 4 p.m 63 |6a.m.] 58 | 7 a.m. 134.
Wednesday, 21--} 29.999 30.068 j12 p.m.| 29.892 | o a.m.| 60.7 | 59.3 73 |4p-m.) 64 |4 p.m.) 62 |12 p.m.) 56 |7a.m.| 130.
Thursday, 22--| 30.069 30.108 |10 a.m.| 30.012 5 p.m.| 66.6 | 62.3 7o 4p.m.| 65 4 p.m.) 60 5 a.m.j 59 5 a.m. 87.
Friday, 23--| 29.040 30.046 | 0 a.m.| 20.882 4 Pp.m.} 74.6 | 67.3 85 4 p.m.| 70 2p.m.| 67 6 a.m.| 64 6a.m.| 139.
Saturday, 24--| 29.985 30.004 | 9 a.m.| 29.942 | 0 a.m.| 77.3 | 68.3 85 4p.m.| 73 | 4 p.m 68 6a.m.| 64 6a.m.| 141.
Dry. Wet.
Mean ‘forthe week-25.° 2. -5no hs we ee ee ee 29.969 inches. | Mean for the week__-------------- 71.7 degrees ------------ 63.7 degrees.
Maximum for the week at oa. m., Sept. 18th -.__.- <2--30/228 = ** Maximum for the week,at 4pm.24th 85.“ at gpmagth, 73.
Minimum at 4p. m., Sept. roth____..- ---. 29.788 ‘* Minimum ‘“* ‘** 6am. 18th 53. _ atoam 18th, 53. Fe
Ranpe = 2. fe 2S ee oe ee eee ji-ag0) 7 Range ‘“ dh See St fee oP a SeStassczcSs 20.
WIND. HYGROMETER. CLOUDS. RAIN AND SNOW. a
Z
Ss 2)
N
| .| FORCE IN , Ss
3 |VELOCITY ss ‘ RELATIVE CLEAR ° DEPTH OF RAIN AND SNOW
DESCTON: INMILES:| oe | PORCE OS varor.| HUMIDITY. OVERCAST. 10 IN INCHES.
| | SQR. FEET. !
! ee ee | am ee z : : : Time | Time
SEPTEMBER | | | Distance} ,; | E E/E. & 5 & B | & E oF of | Dura-
7 a.mM..2 p.m.\9 p.m.) for the | = | Time. < il eed ese eee s | a a Begin-| End- tion.
Day. |= n}loal a} xi] alo ES hale a ing | lange [oes
— a ee te ee } ae en
el | ioe 5
Sunday, 18_n. noe n. n. €. 60 | &%) 9.coam|) .380 | .436 482 | 76 | 48 | 66 !o | 1cir. Se 4Cir,cu.| ~---- | ----- Saeem
Monday, 19-/ n. [inne n, 130 |14/12.0om | .425 | .447 | -628 64 | 39 | 72 |2Clr.cu,2cir.s. 5cu. | ----- | ----- gee
Tuesday, 20-| D. WwW. |jn.n.w.| w. go |134| 2.00 am| .403 | .438 | -519 | 67 | 41 | 60 jo 2 Clr,.Cu.|3Cir. Cit} <--—- if) some | -----
Wednesday,21_| n. e€. |e. s, €.|/s.s.€. 152 |1%| 7.30am]| .356 | .390 | .483 | 62 | 50 | 78 jo | ° 10.9 4 coe tee
Thursday, 22- s.s.e. B.. 5.8.0 153. 12%) 7.20pm| .447 | .529 | -543 | 77 | 74 | 79 |3Cir.Cu.|10_ DC ae fee mie Rae =,
Friday, 23.|W.S.W.| S. W. |W.S. W. 236 |7 1.40 pm| .556 | .558 4 | 84 | 49 | 72 |10_ 6 cir. cu.o =| _----- | ---- A as
Saturday, 24-| w. | s. |s. 5. wW.| 129 | %| 3-30pm| .529 | .383 | .612 975 |'50 | G2 jx cir. {4Cirictjo = | ===) || —- 2) ee
| | | }
Distance traveled during the week....--2- J actt Site =: 950 miles, | Total amount of water for the week...--.---------------------- .0o inch,
Moasimum force_-* << sas Ae ene eed oe ee 7 Ibs. Duration ‘of ram 2-2 --- 2222. oo ee ee eee oe co hours, oo minutes.

DANIEL DRAPER, Ph. D.

Director Meteorological Observatory of the Department of Public Parks, New York.

a, ter

SCIENCE.

473

SSCl ENCE -

A WEEKLy ReEcorp OF SCIENTIFIC

PRoGRESsS.

JOHN MICHELS, Editor.

THRMS:
PER YEAR, - - : - Four DoLLArs
6 Monrus, - se - Two gS
3 “e = = S i ONE ce
SINGLE CopPIrs, - - - - TEN CENTS.

PUBLISHED AT
BUILDING, NEW YORK.
P, O, Box 3838,

TRIBUNE

SATURDAY, OCTOBER 8, 1881.

TEACHING OF CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS IN
THE UNITED STATES.*

II.

In normal schools, the time which can be assigned
to work in chemistry and physics is necessarily lim-
ited ; it becomes then all-important that it should be
of the right sort. As Professor Clarke points out, it
is not the purpose of such schools to train specialists
in any one department of learning, neither should
they attempt to give a broad general education. The
sole function of a normal school is to fit students for
the profession of teaching.

The Bureau of Education has taken pains to enquire
how far the scientific work in normal schools has
complied with the plan which was originally formed to
preserve them within their original functions.

On this point the report states that :

“ An examination of the evidence presented in this re-
port will show a great diversity among the various nor-
mal schools with respect to chemistry and physics. By
far the larger number of them treat these sciences exactly
as they are treated in secondary institutions and the
smaller colleges ; that is, they teach the elements of both
subjects, partly by text books and partly by lectures; a
few experiments are exhibited, and laboratory work on
the part of the students is entirely ignored. In other
words, the practice of these schools with reference to the
sciences does not accord with the theory upon which
they were originally founded.”

A small number of normal schools, however,

“ Adopt a more rational policy. Recognizing the fact
that their students may be called upon to teach chemistry
and physics, they endeavor to train them intelligently in
methods of instruction.”

Respecting instruction in chemistry and physics in

* Circulars of Information of the Bureau of Education No. 6. 1881.

A report on the teaching of Chemistry and Physics in the United
States, by Frank Wigglesworth Clarke, S. B., Professor of Chemistry
and Physics in the University of Cincinnati, Washington, 188z,

universities, colleges and schools of science, much inter-
esting matter is presented, giving in detail the actual
work done in these branches of science at the most
important institutions of this character.

The general conclusion drawn by Professor Clarke
on the character of scientific instruction in universities
and colleges is not favorable to such establishments.
He says:

“Many high schools are actually doing more and _ bet-
ter work with these sciences than is done in a very con-
siderable number of colleges bearing good reputations.”

The low standard of scientific work in universities
and colleges is attributed by the report to persistent
use ‘of the old-fashioned plan of a fix curriculum.”

“Clearly these colleges could, if they would, build
upon the work of the preparatory schools asa foundation,
and, with no more cost of time, carry their pupils much
further than they do now. The present subordinate position
of scientific studies is undoubtedly due to the continuation
in so many localities of the old-fashioned plan of a fixed
curriculum. Given a college in which the latter still
holds its own and in which the classics and mathematics
have been for many years the dominant subjects of study,
and we have an institution wherein but little time can be
given to any one of the sciences. One term, from a third
to half an academic year in length, is all that is usually
allowed to chemistry. This is absurdly inadequate as
one term in Latin or one term in mathematics, with no
previous preparation, would be. By this system the
sciences are not only underrated, but smattering is
directly encouraged. The student trained in it can have
no definite idea of scientific methods, scientific reason-
ing, or the scientific spirit. Even the professor in charge
of the sciences may be himself a smatterer, teaching sev-
eral branches without ever having received a systematic
training in any one of them. Such teachers, who keep
ahead of their classes by only a few lessons, are unfor-
tunately very common, and with them the modern labora-
tory methods are simply impossible.”

Professor Clarke may be correct in these general
conclusions, but it is agreeable to refer to the many
honorable exceptions, colleges where scientific instruc-
tion is offered on the most liberal and enlightened
basis.

It would be difficult to take exception to the courses
of study in Chemistry and Physics at Columbia Col-
lege, New York City, where the collection of physical
apparatus is the finest in the country, and three lab-
oratories provided for the use of students.

The instruction in Physics and Chemistry at the
school of mines of this college is thus described in the
report :—

Physics.—Professor, O. N. Rood ; mechanics is taught
by Professor William G. Peck. The first year students,
in the first term, take up the subject of heat, including the
steam engine, and acoustics. In the second term they
study optics, electricity and magnetism. The courses
are illustrated by experiments and problems and are pre-

474

SCIENCE,

AY

scribed for all students. To the third year class, lectures
are delivered upon electro-statics, the mechanical theory
of heat, mathematical optics, and the undulatory theory
of light. Some of the lectures are accompanied by ex-
perimental demonstrations. This course is required of
all students except those in chemistry, with whom it is
optional.

Mechanics is taught in the third year to the students
in mining engineering, civil engineering, and metallurgy.
The mechanics of solids is studied in the first term and
the mechanics of fluids in the second.

No physical laboratory work is mentioned in the hand-
book of information.

Chemzstry.—Professor, C. F. Chandler; instructors,
Elwyn Waller, Pierre De Peyster Ricketts, Alexis A.
Julien, James S. C. Wells, Henry C. Bowen, Francis N,
Holbrook, and Louis H. Laudy. General inorganic chem-
istry, stoichiometry, qualitative analysis, quantitative
analysis, and blowpiping are required studies in all the
courses. Assaying is taught to students in mining, met-
allurgy, and chemistry. In the geological and chemical
courses, organic chemistry is studied. The chemical
students have also a large amount of work in applied
chemistry. Quantitative blowpipe analysis is an optional
study in all of the courses.

In general chemistry the first year students attend
three exercises a week throughout the year. This course
is preliminary to practical instruction in the laboratory.
The students are drilled upon the lectures, with free use
of the best text books, and take notes which must be sub-
mitted to the professor. At the end of the year there is
a rigid examination. The second class also attend three
times a week during the year, and receive instruction in
theoretical chemistry adapted to the needs of special
scientific students.

For analytical chemistry there are three laboratories,
one for qualitative analysis, one for quantitative analysis,
and a third for assaying. Each of these is thoroughly
equipped and is in the special charge of an instructor
with an assistant. Every student is provided with a con-
venient table containing drawers and cupboards, and is
supplied with a complete outfit of apparatus and
reagents. The laboratories are open daily, except Sat-
urdays, Sundays, holidays, and vacations, from Io A. M.
to 4 P. M.

During the second year, qualitative analysis is taught
by lectures, blackboard exercises, and constant laboratory
practice. The spectroscope is freely used. When the
student shows, by written and experimental examination,
that he is sufficiently familiar with qualitative work, he is
allowed to enter the quantitative laboratory. In the third
and fourth years, quantitative analysis is taught, the labor-
atory exercises being accompanied still by lectures and
blackboard work. The laboratory course is graded after
the usual manner, the student beginning with compara-
tively simple substances of known composition and pass-
ing on by degrees to the analysis of more complex
bodies, such as coals, pig iron, various ores, slags, mat-
tes, and so on. Both volumetric and gravimetric
methods are employed. In the fourth year the student

is admitted to the assay laboratory, where he is furnished
with a suitable table and a set of assaying apparatus.
Here he has access to crucible and muffle furnaces and to
volumetric apparatus for the assay of alloys of gold and
silver. The general principles and special methods of
assaying are described in the lecture-room, and at the
same time the ores of the various metals and their ap-
propriate fluxes are exhibited and described. The student
is then supplied with different ores and is required to
assay each ore in duplicate under the supervision of
the instructor.

Stoichiometry is taught, by lectures and blackboard ex-
ercises, as a part of the course in general chemistry,
through the first and second years ; and its practical ap-
plications are developed in lectures upon quantitative
analysis and assaying. -

In applied chemistry, the instruction extends through
the third and fourth years and consists of lectures illus-
trated by experiments, diagrams, and specimens. The
cabinet of industrial chemistry is very large and com-
plete, containing several thousand specimens and ma-
terials and products.

It will be noticed that the course of study at this
college is thorough, practical and technical, “the de-
sign being to train analysts and technologists.” Pro-
fessor Chandler has brought to bear in this work the
full weight of his well-known administrative abilities,
and the School of Mines of the City of New York
may well be taken as a model for all future establish-
ments of the same class on this continent.

A perusal of this report will make the fact evident,
that in this country ample facilities exist for the most
thorough instruction in both Physics and Chemistry,
and the record shows that since the year 1865 the
course of instruction in these departments of science
has been one of continuous progress.

Of Columbia College, New York, we have spoken,
but it might appear that we made an invidious selec-
tion if we did not refer to other prominent centres ot
physical and chemical research. Among many of
such we may name the Massachusetts Institute of
Technology; the Stevens Institute, Hoboken; the
Universities of Pennsylvania, Virginia and Cincinnati ;
Yale, Harvard and the Johns Hopkins University.
To-day the higher chemistry can be studied in a score
of places where twenty years ago no adequate facili-
ties were offered, and the modern physics, with its
mathematical methods and its laboratories, is rapidly
coming into vogue. .

One other feature of the new movement remains to
be mentioned, namely, the spread of scientific teach-
ing downward into the secondary schools. These,
too, are organizing laboratories, teaching young
scholars to see and experiment for themselves, prepar-
ing the way for higher work, and rendering the latter
more easily possible. The “summer schools” of
chemistry at Harvard and elsewhere, the Woman’s

SCIENCE.

475

Laboratory at the Massachusetts Institute of Techno-
logy, and such-like enterprises are doing much in this
direction. To-day Chemistry and Physics are taught
in-nearly all the academies and high schools of the
land; so that the larger colleges, whenever they see
fit, may easily require from the candidate for admis-
sion a wider knowledge of these sciences than they
themselves taught a dozen years ago. When and in
what manner the present scientific movement shall
culminate, no one can say; but the fact of growth is
evident everywhere. This report is an attempt to
catch the present aspect of affairs and fix it in a per-
manent record.

ON THE SOURCES OF ENERGY IN NATURE
AVAILABLE TO MAN FOR THE PRODUC-
TION OF MECHANICAL EFFECT.*

By Str WILLIAM THOMSON, F. R. S.

During the fifty years’ life of the British Association,
the advancement of Science for which it has lived and
worked so well has not been more marked in any depart-
ment than in one which belongs very decidedly to the
Mathematical and Physical Section—the science of
Energy. The very name energy, though first used in its
present sense by Dr. Thomas Young about the beginning
of this century, has only come into use practically after
the doctrine which defines it had, during the first half of
the British Association’s life, been raised from a mere
formula of mathematical dynamics to the position it now
holds of a principle pervading all nature and guiding the
investigator in every field of science,

A little article communicated to the Royal Society of
Edinburgh a short time before the commencement of the
epoch of energy under the title “ On the Sources Avail-
able to Man for the Production of Mechanical Effect,’’+
contained the following :

“Men can obtain mechanical effect for their own pur-
poses by working mechanically themselves, and directing
other animals to work for them, or by using natural heat,
the gravitation of descending solid masses, the natural
motions of water and air, and the heat, or galvanic cur-
rents, or other mechanical effects produced by chemical
combination, but in no other way at present known.
Hence the stores from which mechanical effect may be
drawn by man belong to one or other of the following
classes :

“I, The food of animals.

“II, Natural heat.

“TIT. Solid matter found in elevated positions.

“IV. The natural motions of water and air.

“V. Natural combustibles (as wood, coal, coal-gas,
oils, marsh-gas, diamond, native sulphur, native metals,
metoric iron.)

“VI. Artificial combustibles (as smelted or electric-
ally-deposited metals, hydrogen, phosphorus).

“In the present communication, known facts in natural
history and physical science, with reference to the sources
from which these stores have derived their mechanical
energies, are adduced to establish the following general
conclusions :

“1. Heatradiated from the sun (sunlight being in—
cluded in this term) zs the principal source of mechanical
effect available to man.t From it is derived the whole

* British Association, 1881.

+ Read at the Royal Society of Edinburgh on February 2, 1852.
(Proceedings of that date.)

$A general conclusion equivalent to this was published by Sir John
Herschel in 1833. See his ‘* Astronomy,” edit. 1849, § (399.)

mechanical effect obtained by means of animals work-
ing, water-wheels worked by rivers, steam-engines, gal-
vanic engines, wind-mills, and the sails of ships.

“2, The motions of the earth, moon, and sun, and
their mutual attractions, constitute an important source
of available mechanical effect. From them all, but
chiefly no doubt from the earth’s motion of rotation, is
derived the mechanical effect of water-wheels driven by
the tides.

“©3, The other known sources of mechanical effect
available to man are either terrestrial—that is, belonging
to the earth, and available without the influence of any
external Lody—or meteoric—-that is, belonging to bodies
deposited on the earth from external space. The terres-
trial sources, including mountain quarries and mines,
the heat of hot springs, and the combustion of native
sulphur, perhaps also the combustion of inorganic native
combustibles, are actually used; but the mechanical ef-
fect obtained from them is very inconsiderable, compared
with that which is obtained from sources belonging to
the two classes mentioned above. Meteoric sources, in-
cluding only the heat of newly-fallen meteoric bodies,
and the combustion of meteoric iron, need not be reck-
oned among those available to man for practical pur-
poses.”

Thus we may summarize the natural sources of en-
ergy as Tides, Food, Fuel, Wind and Rain.

Among the practical sources of energy thus exhaust-
ively enumerated, there is only one not derived from sun-
heat—that is the tides. Consider it first. I have called
it ractzcal, because tide mills exist, but the places where
they can work usefully are very rare, and the whole
amount of work actually done by them is a drop to the
ocean of work done by other motors. A tide of two
meters’ rise and fall, if we imagine it utilized to the ut-
most by means of ideal water wheels doing, with perfect
economy, the whole work of filling and emptying a dock
basin in infinitely short times, at the moments of
high and low water, would give just one metre-ton per
square metre of area. This work done four times in the
twenty-four hours, amounts to 1.1620th of the work of
a horse-power. Parenthetically, in explanation, I er

l

‘say that the French metrical equivalent (to which in a

scientific and practical measurements we are irresistibly
drawn, notwithstanding a dense barrier of insular preju-
dice most detrimental to the islanders),—the French met-
rical equivalent of James Watt’s ‘‘ horse-power ”’ of 550
foot-pounds per second, or 33,000 foot-pounds per min-
ute, or nearly 2,000,000 foot-pounds per hour, is 75
metre-kilogrammes per second, or 4% metre-tons per
minute, or 270 metre-tons per hour. The French ton
of 1000 kilos, used in this reckoning, is 0.984 of the Brit-
ish ton.

Returning to the question of utilizing tidal energy, we
find a dock area of 162,000 square metres (which is little
more than 400 metres square) required for 100-horse
power. This, considering the vast costliness of dock
construction, is obviously prohibitory of every scheme for
economizing tidal energy by means of artificial dock
basins, however near to the ideal perfection might be the
realized tide-mill, and however convenient and non-
wasteful the acumulator—whether Faure’s electric accu-
mulator, or other accumulators of energy hitherto in-
vented, or to be invented,- -which might be used to store
up the energy yielded by the tide mill during its short
harvests about the times of high and low water, and to
give it out when wanted at other times of six hours.
There may, however, be a dozen places possible in the
world where it could be advantageous to build a sea-
wall across the mouth of a natural basin or estuary, and
to utilize the tidal energy of filling it and emptying it by
means of sluices and water-wheels. But if so much could
be done, it would in many cases take only a little more to
keep the water out altogether, and make fertile land of
the whole basin. Thus we are led up to the interest-

476

SCIENCE,

ing economical question, whether is 40 acres (the British
agricultural measure for the area of 162,000 square
metres) or 160 horse-power more valuable? The annual
cost of 100 horse-power night and day for 365 days of
the year, obtained through steam from coals, may be about
ten times the rental of forty acres, at £2 or £3 per acre.
But the value of land is essentially much more than its
rental, and the rental of lan@ is apt to be much more
than £2 or £3 per acre in places where 1oo horse-
power could be taken with advantage from coal through
steam. Thus the question remains unsolved, with the
possibility that in one place the answer may be ome hun-
dred horse power, and in another forty ucres. But, in-
deed, the question is hardly worth answering, consider-
ing the rarity of the cases, it they exist at all, where em-
bankments for the utilization of tidal energy are prac-
ticable.

Turning now to sources of energy derived from sun-
heat, let us take the wind first. When we look at the
register of British shipping, and see 40,000 vessels, of
which about 10,000 are steamers and 30,000 sailing ships,
and when we think how vast an absolute amount of
horse-power is developed by the engines of those steam-
ers, and how considerable a proportion it forms of the
whole horse-power taken from coal annually in the whole
world at the present time, and when we consider the
sailing ships of other nations, which must be reckoned in
the account, and throw in the little item of windmills, we
find that, even in the present days of steam ascendancy,
old-fashioned wind still supplies a large part of all the
energy used by man. But however much we may regret
the time when Hood’s young lady, visiting the fens of
Lincolnshire, at Christmas, and writing to her dearest
friend in London (both sixty years old if they are now
alive), describes the delight of sitting in a bower and
looking over the wintry plain, not desolate, because
‘“windmills lend revolving animation to the scene,” we
cannot shut our eyes to the fact of a lamentable deca-
dence of wind-power. Is this decadence permanent, or
may we hope that it is only temporary? The sub-
terranean coal stores of the world are becoming exhaust-
ed surely, and not slowly, and the price of coal is up-
ward bound—upward bound on the whole, though no
doubt it will have ups and downs in the future as it has
had in the past, and as must be the case in respect to every
marketable commodity. When the coal is ajl burned, or
long before it is all burned—when there is so little of it
left, and thé coal mines. from which that little is to be
excavated are so distant and deep and hot that its price
to the consumer is greatly higher than at present, it is
most probable that wind-mills or wind motors in some
form, will again bein the ascendant, and that wind will
do man’s mechanical work on land at least, in propor-
tion comparable to its present doing of work at sea.

Even now, it is not utterly chimerical to think of wind
superseding coal in some places for a very important
part of its present duty—that of giving light. Indeed,
now that we have dynamos and Faure’s accumulator, the
little want to let the thing be done is cheap windmills.
A Faure cell containing 20 kilos. of lead and minium

charged and employed to excite incandescent vacuum- |

lamps has a light-giving capacity of 60 candle hours (I
have found considerably more in experiments made by

myself ; but I take sixty as a safe estimate). The charg- |

ing may be done uninjuriously, and with good dynamical
economy in any time from six to twelve hours or more,

The drawing off of the charge for use may be done safe- |

ly, but somewhat wastefully, in two hours, and very
economically in any time of from five hours to a week,
or more. Calms do not last often longer than three
or four days at a time. Suppose, then, that a five-days
storage capacity, suffices (there may be a little steam en-

gine ready to set to work at any time after a four days’ |

calm, or the user of the light may have a few candles or cil
lamps in reserve and be satisfied with them when the wind

fails for more then five days.) One of the 20-kilo. cells
charged when the windmill works, for five or six hours
at any time and left with its 60 cdndle-hours’ capacity to be
used six hours a day for five days, gives a 2-candle light
Thus thirty-two such accumulator cells soused would give
as much light as four burners of London 16-candle gas.
The probable cost of dynamo and accumulator does not
seem fatal to the plan, if the windmill could be had for
something comparable with the prime cost of a steam
engine capable of working at the same horse power as
the wind mill when in good action. But wind mills as
hitherto made are very costly machines; and it does not
seem probable that without inventions not yet made,
wind can be economically used to give light in any con-
siderable class of cases, or to put energy into store for
other kinds of work.

Consider, lastly, rain-power. When it is to be had in
places where power is wanted for mills and factories of
any kind, water-power is thoroughly appreciated. From
time immemorial, water-motors have been made in large
variety for utilizing rain-power in the various conditions,
in which it is presented,whether in rapdidly-flowing rivers
in natural waterfalls, or stored at heights in natural lakes
or artificial reservoirs. Improvements and fresh inven-
tions of machines of this class still go on; and some of
the finest principles of mathematical hydrodynamics have,
in the lifetime of the British Association, and, to a con-
siderable degree with its assistance, been put in requisi-
tion for perfecting the theory of hydraulic mechanism and
extending its practical applications.

A first question occurs: Are we necessarily limited to
such natural sources of water-power as are supplied by
rain falling on hill-country, or may we look to the collec-
tion of rain-water in tanks placed artificially at sufficient
heights over flat country to supply motive power econo-
mically by driving water-wheels? To answer it: Sup-
pose a height of 100 metres, which is very large for any
practicable building, or for columns erected to support
tanks; and suppose the annual rainfall to be three-quar-
ters of a metre (30 inches). The annual yield of energy
would be 75 metre-tons per square metre of the tank,
Now one horse-power for 365 times 24 hours is 236,500
foot-tons ; and therefore, dividing this by 75, we find
3153 sq. metres as the area of our supposed tank re-
quired for a continuous supply of one horse-power. The
prime cost of any such structure, not to speak of the
value of the land which it would cover, is utterly prohibi-
rory of any such plan for utilizing the motive power of
rain. We may or may not look forward hopefully to the
time when windmills will again “lend revolving anima-
tion’ to a dull flat country ; but we certainly need not be
afraid that the scene will be marred by forests of iron
columns taking the place of natural trees, and gigantic
tanks overshadowing the fields and blackening the horizon.

To use rain-power economically on any considerable
scale we must look to the natural drainage of hill country,
and take the water where we find it either actually falling
or stored up and ready to fall when a short artificial
channel or pipe can be provided tor it at moderate cost,
The expense of acqueducts, or of underground water-
pipes, to carry water to any great distance—any distance
of more than a few miles or a few hundred yards—is
much too great for economy when the yield to be provided
for is ower ; and such works can only be undertaken
when the wafer ztse/f is what is wanted. Incidentally, in
connection with the water supply of towns, some part of
the energy due to the head at which it is supplied may
be used for power. There are, however, but few cases (I
know of none except Greenock) in which the energy to
spare over and above that devoted to bringing the water
to where it is wanted, and causing it to flow fast enough for
convenience at every opened tap in every house or fac-
tory, is enough to make it worth while to make arrange-
ments for letting the water-power be used without wast-
ing the water-substance. The cases in which water-power

SCIENCE.

477

is taken from a town supply are generally very small, such
as working the bellows of an organ, or “ hair-brushing by
machinery,” and involve simply throwing away the used
water. The cost of energy thus obtained must be some-
thing enormous in proportion to the actual quantity of
the energy, and it is only the smallness of the quantity
that allows the convenience of having it when wanted at
any moment, to be so dearly bought.

For anything of great work by rain-power, the water-
wheels must be in the place where the water supply with
natural fall is found. Such places are generally far from
great towns, and the time is not yet come when great
towns grow by natural selection beside waterfalls for
power ; as they grow beside navigable rivers, for shipping.
Thus hitherto the use of water-power has been confined
chiefly to isolated factories which can be conveniently
placed and economically worked in the neighborhood of
natural waterfalls. But the splendid suggestion made
about three years ago by Mr. Siemens in his presidential
address to the institution of Mechanical Engineers, that
the power of Niagara might be utilized, by transmitting
it electrically to great distances, has given quite a fresh
departure for design in respect to economy of rain-power.
From the time of Joule’s experimental electro-magnetic
engines developing go per cent of the energy of a Voltaic
battery in the form of weights raised, and the theory of
the electro-magnetic transmission of energy completed
thirty years ago on the foundation afforded by the train of
experimental and theoretical investigations by which he
established his dynamical equivalent of heat in mechan-
ical, electric, electro-chemical, chemical, electro-magnetic,
and thermoclastic phenomena, it had been known that
potential energy from any available source can be trans-
mitted electro-magnetically by means of an electric cur-
rent through a wire, and directed to raise weights at a
distance, with unlimitedly perfect economy. The first
large-scale practical application of electro-magnetic
machines was proposed by Holmes in 1854, to produce
the electric tight for lighthouses, and persevered in by
him till he proved the availibility of his machine to the
satisfaction of the Trinity House and the delight of Far-
aday in trials at Blackwall in April, 1857, and it was ap-
plied to light the South Foreland Jighthouse on Decem-
ber 8, 1858. This gave the impulse to invention; by
which the electro-magnetic machine has been brought
from the physical laboratory into the province of engi-
neering, and has sent back to the realm of pure science a
beautiful discovery—that of the fundamental principle of
the dynamo, made triply and independently, and as nearly
as may be simultaneously, in 1867 by Dr. Werner Sie-
mens, Mr. S, A. Varley, and Sir Charles Wheatstone; a
discovery which constitutes an electro-magnetic analogue
to the fundamental electrostatic principle of Nicholson’s
revolving doubler, resuscitated by Mr. C. F. Varley in
his instrument “ for generating electricity ;” patented in
1860 ; and by Holtz in his celebrated electric machine ;
and by myself in my “replenisher” for multiplying and
maintaining charges in Leyden jars for heterostatic elec-
trometers, and in the electrifier for the siphon of my re-
corder for submarine cables.

The dynamos of Gramme and Siemens, invented and
made in the course of these fourteen years since the dis-
covery of the fundamental principle, give now a ready
means of realizing economically on a large scale, for many
important practical applications, the old thermo-dynamics
of Joule in electro-magnetism; and, what particularly
concerns us now in connection with my present subject,
they make it possible to transmit electro-magnetically the
work of waterfalls through long insulated conducting
wires, and use it at distances of fifties or hundreds of
miles from the source, with excellent economy—better
economy, indeed, in respect to proportion of energy used
to energy dissipated than almost anything known in ordi-
nary mechanics and hydraulics for distances of hundreds
of yards instead of hundreds of miles.

In answer to questions put to me in May, 1879,* by the
Parliamentary Committee on Electric Lighting, I gave a
formula for calculating the amount of energy transmitted,
and the amount dissipated by being converted into heat
on the way, through an insulated copper conductor of any
length, with any given electro-motive force applied to pro-
duce the current. Taking Niagara as example, and with
the idea of bringing its energy usefully to Montreal, Bos-
ton, New York, and Philadelphia, I calculated the formula
for the distance of 300 British statute miles (which is
greater than the distance of any of those four cities from
Niagara, and is the radius of a circle covering a large and
very important part of the United States and British North
America), I found almost to my surprise that, even with
so great a distance to be provided for, the conditions are
thoroughly practicable with good economy, all aspects of
the case carefully considered. The formula itself will be
the subject of a technical communication to Section A in
the course of the meeting on which we are now entering.
I therefore at present restrict myself to a slight statement
of results.

1. Apply dynamos driven by Niagara to produce a dif-
ference of potential of 80,000 volts between a good earth
connection. and the near end of a solid copper wire of half
an inch (1.27 centimetre) diameter, and 300 statute miles
(483 kilometres) length.

2. Let resistance by driven dynamos doing work, or
by electric lights, or, as I can now say, by a Faure bat-
tery taking in a charge, be applied to keep the remote end
at a potential differing by 64,000 volts from a good earth-
plate there.

3. The result will be a current of 240 webers through
the wire taking energy from the Niagara end at the rate
of 26,250 horse-power, losing 5250 (or 20 per cent) of
this by the generation and dissipation of heat through the
conductor and 21,000 horse-power (or 80 per cent of the
whole) on the recipients at the far end.

4. The elevation of temperature above the surrounding
atmosphere, to allow the heat generated in it to escape by
radiation and be carried away by convection is only about
20° Centigrade ; the wire being hung freely exposed to air
like an ordinary telegraph wire supported on posts.

5. The striking distance between flat metallic surfaces
with difference of potentials of 80,000 volts (or 75,000
Daniell’s) is (Thomson’s “ Electrostatics and Magnetism.”
§ 340) only 18 millimetres, and therefore there is no diffi-
culty about the insulation.

6. The cost of the copper wire, reckoned at 8d. per ]b.,
is £37,000, the interest on which at 5 per cent is £1900 a
year, If 5250 horse-power at the Niagara end costs more
than £1900 a year, it would be better economy to put more
copper into the conductor ; if less, less. I say no more
on this point at present, as the economy of copper for
electric conduction will be the subject of a special com-
munication to the Section.

I shall only say, in conclusion, that one great difficulty
in the way of economizing the electrical transmitting
power to great distances, or even to moderate distances
of a few kiloms., is now overcome by Faure’s splendid in-
vention. High potential—as Siemens, I believe, first
pointed out—is the essential for good dynamical economy
in the electric transmission of power. But what are we
to do with 80,000 volts when we have them at the civilized
end of the wire? Imagine a domestic servant going to
dust an electric lamp with 80,000 volts on one of its metals?
Nothing above 200 volts ought on any account ever to be
admitted into a house or ship or other place where safe-
guard against accident cannot be made absolutely and
forever trustworthy against all possibility of accident.
In an electric workshop 80,00c volts is np more dangerous
than a circular saw. Till I learned Faure’s invention I
could but think of step-down dynamos, at a main receiv-
ing station to take energy direct from the electic main

* Printed in the Parliamentary Blue-book Report of the Committee on
Electric Lighting, 1879.

478

with its 80,000 volts, and supply it by secondary 200-volt
dynamos or 100-volt dynamos, through proper distributing
wires, to the houses and factories and shops where it is to
be used for electric lighting, and sewing machines, and
lathes, and lifts, or whatever other mechanism wants
driving power. Now the thing is to be done much more
economically, I hope, and certainly with much greater
simplicity and regularity, by keeping a Faure battery of
40,000 cells always being charged direct from the electric
main, and applying a methodical system of removing sets
of 50, and placing them on the town-supply circuits, while
other sets of 50 are being regularly introduced into the
great battery that is being charged, so as to keep its num-
ber always within 50 of the proper number, which would
be about 40,000 if the potential at the emitting end of the
main is 80,000 volts.
——___+<¢_—________.

ON THE ARRESTATION OF INFUSORIAL LIFE.*
By Pror, TYNDALL.

Three years ago I brought with me to the Alps a
number ot flasks charged with animal and vegetable in-
fusions. The flasks had been boiled from three to five
minutes in London, and hermetically sealed during ebul-
lition. Two years ago I had sent to me to Switzerland a
batch of similar flasks containing other infusions. On
my arrival here this year 120 of these flasks lay upon the
shelves in my little library. Though eminently putre-
scible, the animal and vegetable juices had remained as
sweet and clear as when they were prepared in London.
Still an expert taking up one of the flasks containing an
infusion of beef or mutton would infallibly pronounce it
to be charged with organisms. He would find it more
or less turbid throughout, with massive flocculi moving
heavily in the liquid. Exposure of the flask for a minute
or two to lukewarm water would cause both turbitity and
flocculi to disappear, and render the infusion as clear as
the purest distilled water. The turbidity and flocculi
are simply due to the coagulation of the liquid to a jelly,
This fact is some guarantee for the strength of the in-
fusions. I took advantage of the clear weather this year
to investigate the action of solar light on the development
of life in these infusions, being prompted thereto by the
interesting observations brought before the Royal Society
by Dr. Downs and Mr. Blunt, in 1877. The sealed ends
of the flasks being broken off, they were infected in part
by the water of an adjacent brook, and in part by an in-
fusion well charged with organisms. Hung up in rows
upon a board, half the flasks of each row were securely
shaded from the sun, the other half being exposed to the
light. In some cases, moreover, flasks were placed in a
darkened room within the house, while their companions
were exposed in the sunshine outside. The clear result
of these experiments, of which a considerable number
were made, is that by some constituent or constuents of
the solar radiation an influence is exercised inimical to
the development of the lowest infusoria. Twenty-four
hours usually sufficed to cause the shaded flasks to pass
from clearness to turbidity, while thrice this time left the
exposed ones without sensible damage to their transpar-
ency. This result is not due to mere differences of tem-
perature between the infusions. On many occasions the
temperature of the exposed flasks was far more favorable
to the development of life than that of the shaded ones.
The energy which in the cases here referred to prevented
putrefaction was energy in the radiant form. In no case
have I found the flasks sterilized by insolation, for on re-
moving the exposed ones from the open air to a warm
kitchen they infallibly changed from cleaness to turbidity.
Four and twenty hours were in most cases sufficient to pro-
duce this change. Life is, therefore, prevented from devel-
oping itself in the infusions as long as they are exposed to
the solar light, and the paralysis thus produced enables

* British Association, 1881.

SCIENCE.

them to pass through the night time without alteration.
It is, however, a suspension, not a destruction, of the
germinal power, for, as before stated, when placed in a
warm room life was invariably developed. Had I had
the requisite materials I should like to have determined
by means of colored media, or otherwise, the particular
constituents of the solar radiation which are concerned
in this result. The rays, moreover, which thus interfere
with life must be absorbed by the liquid or by its germinal
matter. It would therefore be interesting to ascertain
whether, after transmission through a layer of any in-
fusion, the radiation still possessed the power of arresting
the development of life in the same infusion. It would
also be interesting to examine how far insolation may be
employed in the preservation of meat from putrefaction.
I would not be understood to say that it is impossible to
sterilize an infusion by insolation, but merely to indicate
that I have thus far noticed no case of the kind.

— >

PLANTE’S RHEOSTATIC MACHINE.*
Translated from the French by the Marchioness CLARA LANZA.

Ruhmkorff’s electric induction machine has proved in
the most satisfactory manner that by the intermediary of
inductive action, we can transform voltaic electricity into
electricity of high tension. M. Bichat has likewise
shown that by the same means, currents of high tension
can be changed to currents of quantity, analogous to
voltaic currents. M. Planté, with his secondary piles, has
rendered this demonstration still more emphatic, and as
his experiments demanded a greater tension than he was
able to produce with his batteries, he undertook the man-
ufacture of an apparatus by which he could obtain ver-
itable discharges of static electricity, capable of forming
at will, long thread-like sparks, or short, thick ones.
In this way he was induced to make the battery of which
we are about to speak, and which he calls the rheostatze
machine,

Although this apparatus (fig. 1) was presented to the
Academy of Sciences and exhibited to most of the phy-
sicians who witnessed M., Planté’s fine experiments, it
is as yet, but little known. Why this should be the case
we are at a loss to understand, for it is one of the most
perfect machines that can be employed in experiments of
static electricity. Had the apparatus borne a foreign name,
we are confident it would have attracted considerable at-
tention long ago. It is much to be regretted that we are
so constituted in France, that whatever is invented by an
unknown man, a savant who does not rejoice in an es-
tablished position or who is not a member of some scien-
tific coterie originating from a celebrated school, is
looked upon entirely as a matter of subordinate interest.
“Tt is only an amateur’s work,” we hear on all sides for
awhile and then the subject is dropped forever. In Eng-
land it is quite different. Amateurs such as Grove,
Gassiot, Warren, Delarue, Spottiswoode, Lords, Ross,
Lindsay, Raleigh, Elphinstone and many others, find their
efforts are appreciated as they deserve to be, and no one
ever thinks of inquiring whether they are savam¢s patented
by the government or not.

M. Planté therefore, not being among the last-men-
tioned, was forced to meet with indifference which he
forcibly overcame later by the fine work he performed
with his accumulators. He was not so successful, un-
fortunately, with his rheostatic machine, and for this
reason we shall dwell a little upon the important results
it has afforded us.

M. Planté’s machine consists of a series of condensers
with mica plates, parallel one with the other and capable
of being charged and discharged in a manner similar to
his secondary batteries without any other alimentary
electric source than these latter.

The various pieces composing the apparatus must be

* La Lumicre Electrique, August 6th, 1881.

SCIENCE.

479

taken apart with great care.
of a long cylinder made of hard rubber. It is furnished
with longitudinal metallic bands destined to connect the
surface condensers, and crossed by pieces of copper wire
bent at the ends, the object of the latter being to unite
the condensers of tension. To this end, metallic wires,
fashioned like springs, rest upon the cylinder and are as-
sociated with the two armatures of each condenser by
very fine copper wires covered with gutta-percha, They
are attached to an ebonite plaque !on each side of the
cylinder, and the latter can be made to rotate rapidly
and continuously by means of a set of wheels. The final
springs are separated considerably from those preceding
them, in order to prevent the electric sparks from*dis-

The commutator is formed | hand boundaries, which can be easily distinguished in

the figure, to communicate with the poles of the battery.

When, on the contrary, the cylinder is so turned that
its transversal pins are presented to the springs, all the
charged condensers are connected in a series or in ten-
sion. The armature of the furthest condenser on the
left, communicates with the last spring on the other side
of the cylinder and ends at branch T of the excitant.
The armature of the final condenser on the right com-
municates with the spring next to the last, and this
spring unites with the last metallic pin traversing the
cylinder. The last spring placed in the opposite side of
the cylinder communicates with the other branch T’ of

Fre, 2.

charging between the tension poles of the rheostatic
machine and those of the secondary battery.

The mica plates in the condensers are o™ 18 in length
and o™ 14 in breadth. The armatures are made of tin-
foil. The edges of the condensers are rendered adher-
ent by frames or simple ebonite plaques. These give
them more rigidity and cause them more readily to
maintain a vertical position, one beside the other, with-
out coming in contact.

When the cylinder is so turned that the longitudinal
metallic bands come in juxtaposition with the springs,
the armatures in an even range with all the condensers
unite on one side, while those in an uneven range are
joined on the other, forming a single condenser of large
surfate, The armatures discharge by causing the right

Fic. 3.

the excitant. While the condensers are thus connected,
the pole, or battery, which charges the apparatus, is en-
tirely beyond the circuit.

M. Planté has constructed rheostatic machines of
different sizes. The one here represented is supplied
with eighty condensers. The commutative cylinder is
is one meter long and o™.15 in diameter.

When this cylinder is put in motion and the machine
connected with the battery of 800 secondary couples, we
perceive, as the charge begins to act upon the commu-
tator, long lines of sparks at those points where the me-
tallic contact is effected. It becomes a tube of sparkling
light and the effect is equally apparent when the discharge
in tension occurs, At the same time we obtain a long
spark at the excitant T T’,

480

SCIENCE.

Sparks produced by this machine attain, when fully
exposed to the air, a length of 12 centimetres when in-
fluenced by the secondary battery of 800 couples. With
less powerful machines, however, the length is reduced,
and, according to M. Planté, it will be 2% proportzon to
the number of condensers. When a spark discharges
across metallic filings it sometimes reaches the length of
7O centimetres.

We must remark here that discharges produced in this
way have no alternate positive and negative sense, but
are always the same. The loss of force resulting from
the transformation should, therefore, be Jess than in in-
duction machines; for as the Voltaic circuit is never
closed upon itself for a single instant, no portion of the
current is converted into a calorific effect. The machine,
moreover, can be kept rotating for a long time and it

produces a considerable number of discharges without |

any apparent weakness being visible on the part of the
secondary battery.

The most interesting effects studied by M. Planté, by
means of the sparks of this machine, were obtained by
causing them to pass over pulverized sulphur in a com-
pound of sulphur and minium. Jf these powders are
spread upon a surface composed of resin and paraffine
(1/10) the sparks, while passing over the sulphur, leave a
bluish line distinctly visible, as though traced in black
lead. This gives us an exact autograph, we may say, of
the spark’s course. It is easily effaced, however, by
being rubbed. But if carefully followed and indented
with some sharp pointed instrument it can be rendered
intact. Afterwards we can study it thoroughly by
tracing a drawing of it. The sparks represented by Fig.
2 were produced as above described.

When we come to investigate these sparks, we find, |

according to M. Planté, that when they have not the
maximum of length which they are capable of attaining,

they often display enclosed branches resembling azasto- |

moses, and which are likely to escape while our attention
is fixed upon the luminous track. Their sinuosities are
always rounded, and that angular zig-zag, which is
apparent in most electric sparks, is never seen. It is
true that this form is sometimes indicated by effects of
perspective when the flash is at the horizon.
ous shape, however, predominates, and frequently the
spark resolves itself into two demi-undulations, forming
a sort of S, which is also often seen in flashes of light-
ning that strike the ground. We find there particularly

The sinu- |

a very characteristic hook-shaped form, upon which M. |

Planté has long endeavored to attract attention, and

which is produced at the negative pole in a constantly |

varying manner. M. Pianté thinks the formation of this
hook arises from the collision of two motions opposed to
the ponderable matter drawn from the points of the exci-
tant, an effect which always happens under an angle

more or less pronounced, and with a more rapid move- |
ment on the side of the positive pole than the negative,
doubtless because there is greater electric tension at the |

former. Our readers will probably recollect that I de-

monstrated this tension in several ways with the induced

currents of Rubmkorff’s bobbin.!

It a portion of the sulphur spread upon the plate of the |

excitant is removed by giving the latter a few slight taps,
the sparks change to luminous
which are truly magnificent. Fig. 3 represents one of
these at its natural size, having a luminous track 15
centimetres in length. M. Planté calls these arborescent
sparks, and he thinks they serve to explain those im-
pressions of a vegetable appearance sometimes observed
upon the bodies of persons struck by lightning, and

which merely result from the ramifications of the fiery |

track made by the flash itself. He attributes these im-

pressions to certain pulverulent particles which are in |

1See Vol. Il. of La Lumieré Electrique p. 439, and also a paper on La
nom homogéndité de V étincelle @ induction, p. 89.

branch-like aigrettes |

the course of the discharge, and which, after being pro-
jected into the air, heated or blazing, in various direc-
tions, fall upon the body that has been struck and
produce a kind of cauterization if the particles are merely
heated, and luminous impressions if they are blazing.

These experiments are extremely interesting, for they
clearly show that the pretended reproduction of neigh-
boring objects upon persons struck by lightning is purely
imaginary.

It we neglect to give the taps, before mentioned, to the
sulphur-powdered plate, the spark is displayed as repre-
sented by Fig.4. We observe, in this case, that the size

Fic. 4.

of the track is increased on the side of the positive pole,
and grows contracted as it advances towards the nega-
tive pole. Around the positive pole we see traces cor-
responding to branches or rays in proportion to the
quantity of sulphur removed. On the side of the negative
pole we find circular tracks of an entirely different kind,
representing, probably, the luminous spots, generally
blue, which appear at the negative pole simultaneously

| with the spark of Ruhmkorff’s bobbin.

If the plaque of the excitant belonging to M. Planté’s
apparatus is arranged so as to produce Lichtenberg
figures—that is to say, covered with a compound of pure
powdered resin, pulverized sulphur and minium—magni-
ficent arborescent sparks of yet another kind can be
obtained, the most curious examples of which are shown
by Figs. 5 and 6. Tracings of these sparks are made by
placing a sheet of varnished black paper upon the plate.

The different effects produced by the aigrettes and the
sparks are particularly marked. When the distance be-
tween the points of the excitant is too great to admit of
the spark discharging, and merely an aigrette appears,
the electric movement of ponderable matter which leaves
the negative pole and is manifested by the powdered
r.inium adhering to the resin, does not extend to the
positive pole. The latter presents no traces of red
powder in the sulphur wreath and divergent rays sur-
rounding it, as may be seen in Fig. 5. If the spark has

Vy

tt ah

AA ENE
j

Wap /

AL fa iants
CATA \

Fic, 5.

discharged, however, the wreath is open and the interior
filled with red dust, showing that the electric movement
proceeding from the negative pole, extends to the de-
parting point of the positive electricity, as represented
by Fig. 6.

SCIENCE.

481

——

Fic. 6;

““With the spark,” says M. Planté, “the distribution
of negative electricity presents a curious crab-shaped
appearance (Fig. 6.) With the aigrette, the electric
movement around this same negative pole gives us the
no less bizarre form of a polypus whose tentacles extend
towards the positive pole, but do not reach it.”” (Fig. 5.)

From these results and other experiments quoted by
M. Planté, he concludes that a blending of the two elec-
tricities may exist at each pole. This would infer that
with electric currents ot sufficient tension to obtain a
continued series of discharges of static electricity, we
could have a complete decomposition of the water at
each pole and consequently a miature of hydrogen and
oxygen.

Pushing the study of these sparks still further, we
find that the movement proceeding from the positive
pole, externally, envelopes the negative electric movement
like a bundle of curved sky-rockets. However, we often
see at the Same time an inward flux of positive electricity
around the line of the spark between the positive current
enveloping the exterior, and between both, the negative
electric current which appears as though inhaled by the
positive pole. This led M. Planté to suppose that the
negative electricity, or else the ponderable matter which
it carries with it, moves in an annular space furnished by
the electrified matter proceeding from the positive pole.
According to him, it would follow that the aspiratory or
ascendant effects of the water obtained by electric cur-
rents of high tension might explain the ascension of
water in a cloudy form as seen in water-spouts.

In a forthcoming article we will study other phenomena
no less remarkable, which have been revealed by M.
Planté’s rheostatic machine. Among these are colored
sparks and vibrations determined in a platinum wire
traversed by a current of interrupted quantity, a pheno-
menon which can account for the effects produced in
telephones by a simple wire crossed by a current.

TH. DU MARCEL.
To be continued.

+o

ON A PROCESS FOR UTILIZING WASTE PRO-
DUCTS AND ECONOMIZING FUEL IN THE
EXTRACTION OF COPPER.*

By J. Dixon (ADELAIDE, SOUTH AUSTRALIA.)

This paper contains an account of a process for ex-
tracting copper from sulphurous ores, in which the heat
generated by the combination of the oxygen of the air
with the sulphur of the ore is utilized for the smelting of
the ore. This process is based upon experiments, which,
although the author regards as incomplete, show (1)
that the charge grows visibly hotter by simply blowing
air through it; (2) that the melting of the raw ore or

*British Association, 188z,

regulus and its reduction can be carried on in the same
furnace; (3) that if the ore is in lumps, and fed at the
top whilst the air is admitted by the side, a practically
clean slagg can be obtained; but if added in a coarse
powder, as it is generally found in the market, it either
blows out again or chokes the furnace; (4) that a rough
copper of about 96 per cent pure metal can be obtained
by the successful working of this process.
_—————

ON THE CHEMICAL ACTION BETWEEN
SOLIDS:*

By Pror. THORPE, PH. D., F.R.S.

The author drew attention to the extremely rare in-
stances of such action hitherto observed, showing how
many of these might be explained on the supposition
that combination actually occurred between the bodies
either in solution or in a state of gas. For example, the
formation of cement steel, by the combination of carbon
with iron, which had long been adduced as an example of
such combination between solids, was now explained by
the fact that iron at a high temperature was permeable
to gases, and that in the actual process of cementation
oxides of carbon were formed, which were in reality con-
veyors of carbon to the metal. He then illustrated by
experiments the formation of several compounds by

bringing together the components in _ solid form,
choosing as examples such as would manifest
their formation by characteristic coloring. Thus,

as instances, potassium iodide and mercuric chloride,
potassium iodide and lead nitrate, and silver nitrate and
potassium chromate, were powdered together in a mor-
tar, and in each case evidence of an action was exhibited
by the production of characteristic colors of the product
ot the reaction of these compounds. The author re-
ferred to the memoir of the Belgian phycisist, Prof. Spring,
on the same subject, some of whose experiments he had
repeated and in the main confirmed. One of the most
remarkable results obtained by the Belgian professor was
the formation of coal from peat by subjecting the latter
material to a high pressure. Peat from Holland and
Belgium, when exposed to a pressure of about 6,000 at-
mospheres, was, according to Spring, changed into a
mass which in all physical characters resembled ordinary
coal. Experiments of the same nature made by Dr.
Thorpe with various samples of British peat yielded,
however, a very dissimilar result. These experiments
were made with pressures which were considerably less
and more than those employed by Spring. Although
solid, compact masses, hard and very much changed in
structure, were attained, in no case was any product ob-
tained which could be confounded with bitumious coal.
He said it was highiy improbable, on purely chemical
grounds, that mere pressure had been little more than an
important factor in the transformation of woody matter
into coal.

+09

A NEW DEMONSTRATION OF THE CARBONIC
ACID OF THE BREATH.

ByC. PYCROoss:

Some time since I made the observation that the car-
bonic acid of the breath determines the liberation of iodine
from a mixture of potassium iodide and iodate, and that
the presence of starch renders the decomposition a very
effective lecture-experiment, in demonstration ot the
presence of an active acid body in respired air. A friend
to whom | lately communicated this result, threw doubt
upon my interpretation, and while admitting the
occurrence of the decomposition under the condition of
respiring vigorously into the solution, preferred to at-
tribute it to the action of the air or of acid vapors acci-
dentally present. I therefore repeated the experiments

*British Association, 183.

482

SCIENCE.

with special precautions. viz., washing the respired gases,
and performing parallel experiments, in which, for the
breath I substituted a rapid current ofair, and lastly rais-
ing the latter to a temperature of 40°C. The result was
to prove conclusively my original statement that the de-
composition is brought about by a constituent of the
respired air, and therefore by its carbonic acid. In per-
forming this experiment it is only necessary to secure the
neutrality of the solution; this being done, the develop-
ment of a full purple color occupies from two to three
minutes.

It is evident that this demonstration of the presence of
some acid body precedes the lime-water test in the logical
development of the complete proof of the presence of
carbonic acid.—Chemical News.

SS

THE BEST METHOD OF MOUNTING WHOLE
CHICK EMBRYO.*
By DR. CHARLES S. MINOT.

The blastoderm is removed and cleaned in the usual
manner, and then floated out on a glass slide, where it re-
mains permanently. It is carefully spread out and allowed
to dry until the edges become glued to the slide. It is
then treated with a 0.5 per cent osmic acid solution, until
a slight browning occurs. Stain with picro-carmine. The
next step is particularly important, because it preverts the
further darkening by the osmium, which otherwise injures
or ruins the specimen. Pour Miiller’s fluid, or 0.5 per
cent chromic acid solution, on the slide, and leave it over
night. The next morning the blastoderm is ready for de-
hydration by alcohol, and mounting in the usual manner
in balsam or dammar lac. Embryos prepared in this
manner make particulary beautiful specimens.

tO

ON THE ALLEGED DECOMPOSITION OF THE
ELEMENTS.t+
By Pror. DEWAR, M.A., F.R.S.

In his remarks Prof. Dewar dealt chiefly with the spec-
troscopic work from which Mr. Norman Lockyer had
drawn conclusions very different from those of Professors
Liveing and Dewar, especially concerning the value of
evidence on the subject. Prof. Dewar argued that Mr.
Lockyer’s views regarding the existence of carbon vapor
in the corona of the sun would not bear scientific investi-
gation, and that his views regarding the modification of
the spectrum of magnesium were equally illusory, and
gave no proof of the decomposition of elementary sub-
stances. Finally he discussed Mr. Lockyer’s theory of
“basic lines,’ and addressed himself to a refutation of
the same. The results recorded, he said, strongly con-
firmed Young’s observations, and left little doubt that the
few as yet unresolved coincidences either would yield toa
higher dispersion, or were merely accidental. It would
indeed be strange it amongst all the variety of chemical
elements and the still greater variety of vibrations which
some of them were capable of taking up, there were no
two which could take up vibrations of the same period.
They certainly should have supposed that substances like
iron and titanium, with such a large number of lines,
must each consist of more than one kind of molecule,
and that not single lines, but several lines of each, would
be found repeated with the spectra of some other chemi-
cal elements. The fact that hardly a single coincidence
could be established was a strong argument that the ma-
terials of iron and titanium, even if they be not homo-
geneous, were still different from those of other chemical
elements. The supposition that the different elements
might be resolved into simple constituents and even into
a single substance had long been a favorite speculation

* Read before the A, A. A. S., Cincinnati, 1881,
t British Association, 1881,

with chemists ; but however probable that hypothesis
might appear a Zrzorz, it must be acknowledged, accord-
ing to Prof. Dewar, that the facts derived from the most
powerful method of analytical investigation yet devised,
gave it but scant support.

—\!_<o—____

ASTRONOMY.

ELEMENTS AND EPHEMERIS OF COMET (@), 1881.—
BARNARD.

Mr. S. C. Chandler, Jr., has computed the following
elements and ephemeris of Comet (@), 1881 —Barnard—
which are published, by permission of Prof. E. C. Pick-
ering, of Harvard College Observatory. The observa-
tions upon which the computation is based are the fol-
lowing : Washington Mean Time being given with the
Nashville observation, which was obtained at Vander-
bilt University, by Prof. O. H. Landreth, and Cambridge
Mean Time with the two others:

—-R. ALA ~—Decl.—
hy NE ids hs OH, aS: Oma a
1881. Sept. 20 7 46 Nashville Mey e 7 +3 47
21 7 34 43 Harvard Obs. 13 30 20 Ja or
25 7 17 52 Harvard Obs. 13 36 29.63 9 6 43.7

The observation of the 20th was received by tele-
graph, and that of the 21st depends on only two compar-
isons, taken when the comet was but one degree and
a half above the horizon.

ELEMENTS,

T = 1881, September, 14.785. Washington Mean Time.
o ‘
T= 27% 22
QQ. = 260 43}Mean Eq., 1881. 0.
2 = 107 27 |
log. 7 = 9.7053 ;
EPHEMERIS.
Wash. midnight, —R.A.— -—Decl. -
1881. h. Mm Ss. ° ‘ Log. 7. Log. A. Light
Sept, /292-------- 36 +13 4 9.7894 0.1350 1.00
Oct. 28 16 26 9.8270 0.1467 80
40 % 29 9.8648 0.1569 65
32 22 18 9.9014 0.1628 +52

The light of the comet on September 29 is taken as
unity, and in this scale its light at discovery, on Septem-
ber 17, was 1.85. The orbit does not resemble that of
any known comet.

The comet is circular, not over one minute of arc in
diameter, with a very decided central condensation. Its
collective brightness is not more than equivalent to that
of an8% mag. star. The comet is rapidly decreasing in
light, and the moon is advancing, so that observations of
it at once are very desirable. So far as is known, posi-
tions have been obtained only at Nashville and Cam-
bridge, the early setting of the comet, and ciouds, having
greatly interfered. Under the circumstances, the orbit
cannot be other than a rough one, and considerable lati-
tude for error had better be allowed in searching for it.

MICROSCOPY.

The following method of hardening the spinal cord for
microscopic sections has been highly recommended by
Dr. M. Debove :

Place the cord in a 4 per cent solution of bichromate
of ammonia for three weeks, then in a solution of phenic
gum for three days, and for three days more in alcohol.
Sections may then be cut with great facility. They
should be placed in water to prevent curling. They are
then immersed in a saturated solution of picric acid for
twenty-four hours, and colored with carmine for about
twenty minutes, the picric acid acting as a mordant.—
Archives de Neurologie.

An era of microtomes appears to be approaching, and

numerous are such devices which are advertised by the
opticians. Mr, Thomas Taylor of the Agricultural de-

SCIENCE.

482

vv

partment, Washington, has arranged a new microtome in
which all the parts are reduced to their most simple
form. Mr. Taylor described his invention as consisting
essentially of a thin brass tube about one inch and a half
strength by one inch in diameter. A ¥{ inch brass tube
secured within the large cylinder. This tube enters the
bottom where it is secured, and proceeds to within a
quarter of an inch of the inside surface of the top. To
the outside open end of this tube a rubber tube is attached ;
the other end of the rubber tube is made to communicate
with a freezing mixture composed of finely cut ice and
salt in about equal proportions. The pail containing
this mixture is placed over and about fifteen inches
higher than the section cutter. The object of this ar-
rangement is to fill the brass cylinder with a freezing
liquid drained from the pail, and caused by the liquefying
salt and ice, the temperature of which is about zero, On
filling the cylinder with the liquid any object on the top
of the cylinder becomes frozen in a short period and may
then be cut to any degree of thickness. In order to pre-
serve the low degree of temperature in the cylinder a
second tube is secured in the cylinder to remove air and
keep up a constant current of the freezing liquid. This
tube enters the bottom of the cylinder, where it is fast-
ened. It projects upwards to within an eighth of an inch
of the top and has a diameter of about one-half of the
supply tube. This microtome or freezing cylinder in
other respects is arranged like other microtomes, such as
are used for ether or rhigoline ; and the same mathemat-
ical accuracy attained in cutting sections,

THE editor of the American Monthly Microscopical
Journal devotes an article to the selection of microscopes,
and expresses his belief that the microscope of the future
will be an instrument of quite moderate size, and about
the same dimensions as that of the forms used by the
German student. We believe this to be a correct view
of the microscopist’s requirements, if the instrument is
employed as often as it should be. The colossal instru-
ments which have been recentl¥ constructed show no ad-
vance in the manufacture of microscopes, but rather a
return to the monstrosities of 100 years ago, when their
size was “‘ prodigious,” and the display of ornamentation
profuse. We once saw the microscope “built” for
George III., which was a marvel of the brass finisher’s
art, as elaborate as a Louis XIV. clock, and probably as
useful, as an optical instrument.

We helieve the form of microscope which will be ac-
cepted as a standard by future microscopists will be the
“Stevenson” model. Five years ago we submitted
drawings for an inexpensive instrument on this plan, but
was met by a variety of objections from opticians.

We now find that two London makers are offering
microscopes on this model, the Stevenson form having
been modified, so as to considerably reduce the expense.
The advantages of this model is very great. First, a
horizontal stage. Second, the comfort of sloping tubes.

Third, an erected image.

We notice in the new edition of “Carpenter ” (page
86) that such an instrument (binoculen) can be sold
complete, with objective, for $100, or simplified as a stu-
dent’s microscope (binoculen, with 2 objectives) for $64.

For those who merely practice the refinements of the
microscope, such an instrument would present many ob-
jections, but for biological studies and ordinary micros-
copical work, we strongly advocate its use, and desire to
find it manufactured in its new and cheaper form by
American manufacturers of microscopes.

ProF. ALEXIS A, JULIEN has published a reprint
from the Journal of the Amer. Chemical Society of his
paper “ On the Examination of Carbon Dioxide in the
Fluid Cavities of Topaz.’ He describes two simple
and inexpensive apparatus for the microscopical determi-
nation of carbonic acid in the cavities of minerals; anda
recent study of large numbers of cleavage slices from

fifty pebbles of topaz from Minas Geraes, Brazil, has pre-
sented facts of some interest hitherto not recorded. In
some of the slices many extremely angular, elongated,
branching, and even reticulated forms of considerable
size and novelty abound. Their outlines are at many
points decidedly crystalline, with arms projecting at an
angle of about 135 degrees, which seems to indicate
that Brewster’s generalization, that the cavities were gen-
erally ‘“‘capriciously distributed when the substance of
the crystal was in a soft or plastic state,” may have been
pressed too far. In general, the larger expansions of the
cavities are mostly occupied by brine, while their. attenu-
ated extremities and fine tubular connections are filled
by liquid carbonic acid, occasionally including a bubble
due to contraction.

Mr. C. M. VORCE has forwarded to us a drawing of the
many forms of microscopical life found by him in water
from Lake Erie, and used as a water supply for Cleve-
land City. This appears to be but the first instalment
of the subject. He draws and names nearly two hun-
dred specimens.

PRELIMINARY REMARKS ON THE MICROSCOPIC
STRUCTURE OF COAL FROM EAST SCOTLAND AND
SOUTH WALES, by Prof. Williamson, F. R. S., Owens
College.—This subject will not be worked out until ten
years, but he described layers of vascular tissue which
can be separated layer by layer, while in other cases the
charcoal] layer on the surface of the coal and the organic
structure is not capable of separation, and he stated that
charcoal contains a tubular structure, like tissues of or-
dinary bark. The association of tissues resembles that
of Cycadian plants; and referred to the genus Cordaztes
having been proved to belong to this group by M. Renault ;
the author has made nearly a thousand distinct observa-
tions on the structure of coal. Separates ordinary coal
with large quantities of mineral charcoal, with macros-
pores of Lepidendroid plants filled up with myriads of
microspores which were certainly not floated to the spots,
from the parafine coals which do not contain these large
macrospores. He divides coal into “ Iso-sporous”’ coals
and ‘“Heterosporous ” coals; both abound in Cordaztes,
which form the mineral charcoal,

NOTE ON THE OCCURRENCE OF SELENIUM AND TELLU-
RIUM IN JAPAN, by E. Divers, M. D.—The author draws
attention to the fact that the presence of these two ele-
ments has been observed in Japanese sulphuric acid, and
considers it probable that these substances occur in mate:
rial quantities in Japan.

BREWING IN JAPAN, by R. W. ATKINsSoN, B.Sc. (Lonp.)—
The Japanese brewing process is divided into two parts
comparable with the malting and brewing processes of
beer-making. The mode of preparation and the properties
of the diastatic materials are different in the two cases.
The Japanese equivalent of malt or ‘‘ kdji’”’ hydrates mal-
tose in addition to cane-sugar, dextrin, and starch, and the
ultimate products of its action on starch-paste are dextrose
and dextrin, or perhaps dextrose alone. K6jji differs from
malt in being rendered inactive by heat at a much lower
temperature than malt. Koji is prepared as follows: A
mixture of steamed rice and water is allowed to remain in
shallow tubs at a low temperature (0°-5° C.) until quite
liquid ; itis then heated, fermentation commences, and con-
tinues until nearly all the dextrine first formed is exhaust-
ed, This product is now used like yeast, and is added to
fresh quantities of steamed rice and water, fermentation
proceeding until the percentage of alcohol amounts to
about 13 or 14 per cent by weight. After the greater part
of the rice added has been used up, the mash is filtered
and clarified by standing. The “saké” so produced re-
quires very careful watching, and when summer approaches,
or it exhibits signs of putrefactive fermentation, it is then
heated in iron vessels ; this operation has frequently to be
repeated, Analyses of various specimens, fresh and dis-
eased, are given in the paper.

484

SCIENCE.

BOOKS RECEIVED. ,

A TREATISE ON BRIGHT’S DISEASE AND DIABETES,
WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO PATHOLOGY AND
THERAPEUTICS. By JAMES Tyson, A. M., M.D.,
with Illustrations. Including a section on Retinitis
in Bright’s Disease. By WIILLIAM F. NorrIs,, A.
M,M. D. Lindsay and Blackiston, Philadelphia.
1881.

Dr. Tyson needs no apology for publishing this work,
and we express the hope that it will be extensively read by
the medical profession.

It is true that many excellent treatises exist on this
subject, but a mere glance at Dr. Tyson’s work shows
that in it the subject has been treated in a manner that
is original, presenting all the facts in a concise form, and
yet omitting no detail which is essential for the full com-
prehension of this intricate and difficult subject.

Those who have watched the course of recent liter-
ature relating to Diseases of the Kidneys and Glycosuria,
are aware that we are very far from possessing precise
knowledge in regard to such complications, and that
while we are still ignorant of the precise pathology of
some of these diseases, the very facts bearing on the sub-
ject are in a chaotic condition, and inaccessible to the
majority of those who should be well informed.

The writer of this book is an accomplished writer, and
one who has during the past fifteen years devoted his
thoughts and studies to these subjects, and also engaged
in practical work bearing on them, Surely the result of
such an experience must be useful to both experts and
students, if properly used and appreciated.

The number of calls made upon physicians by patients
suffering from various forms of Bright’s disease and Dia-
betes is daily on the increase, and no one knows better
than the intelligent practitioner, that a large number of
their confréres are miserably ignorant on the subject,
unacquainted with the Pathology of these diseases, and
disgracefully incompetent to treat them. We are not
now speaking of quacks, but holders of medical diplomas.

Cases have come to our knowledge, where patients
have succumbed on account of their physicians being un-
able to make a proper diagnosis of the diseases we refer
to, or even to analyze or report on a sample of urine.

To such Dr. Tyson’s work will probably still be a
sealed book, but the advanced and intelligent physicians
will, under our advice, procure a copy, for, although other
works on this subject may have been studied with profit,
we believe a perusal of the work before us will still con-
tribute to his knowledge of this important and interesting
subject.

———<$—<—___—_.

SOLAR Puysics.—In concluding a series of lectures on
Solar Physics, Professor J. Norman Lockyer said: ‘‘I am
in honor bound to say, as the result of the work on our solar
physics, in that small branch of the inquiry into solar matters
with which I am more personally connected, that my belief
is that the late work has changed the views which were held,
say twenty years ago, to this extent : whereas twenty years
ago, we imagined ourselves to be in full presence in the sun
of chemical forms with which we are familiar here, I think
in this present year, we are bound to consider that that view
may be modified to a certain extent, and that we are justi-
fied in holding the view, that not these chemical forms
with which we are acquainted here, but their germs really,
are revealed to us in the hottest regions of the sun.”

METEOROLOGICAL REPORT FOR NEW YORK CITY FOR THE WEEK ENDING OCT. 1, 1881.

Latitude 40° 45' 58" N.; Longitude 73° 57’ 58" W.; height of instruments above the ground, 53 feet ; above the sea, 97

feet ; by self-recording instruments.

BAROMETER.

THERMOMETERS.
| ’
ee TS ha MAXIMUM. MINIMUM. MEAN, MAXIMUM. MINIMUM, |MAXI'M
SEPT NBER: maces | %: Leek, |
aa Reduced | Reduced Reduced | | |
OGIO BERR ae ee coca a rece ltr oo | time Dry || Wet | Dry, |p. Wet |. | | ae Wet! ren
to Esto} Time to. Time | Bulb.| Bulb.| Bulb. Time. | pup.) Time. | Buip, Time Bulb. Time. InSun,
Freezing.| Freezing. Freezing.| | | | | | |
—————— | a | | — |
Sunday, 25--| 29.936 30.000 7a.m.| 29.892 | 5 p.m-| 79.3 | 70.3 89 | 4P. m.| 73 |4P.m.) 71 | 6a.m.| 67 7 a.m.) 143.
Monday, 26--| 29.943 29.986 |g a.m.| 20,900 | 5 p.m.| 81.6 | 72.0 | 91 9) pam) 275 3 P.m.| 73 | 7 a.m.| 69 | 7 a.m.) 145.
Tuesday, 27--| 29.937 29.094 | 9 a.m.| 29.900 | 9 p.m.) 79.7 | 72.7 86 |3 p.m, 76 | 3p.m.| 75 5 a.m.) 70 |5a.m./ 139
Wednesday, 28 -| 29.933 30.018 |12 p.m.| 29.890 | 3 p.m.| 78.0 | 700 | 88 | 4 p.m.) 73 | 5 p.m.) 7 |12 p.m.; 68 |12 p.m.) 143.
Thursday, 29--| 30.196 30.238 |.9 p.m.| 30.018 | oa. m.| 69.6 | 64.3 75 3 p.m.|| (66 3p: In. 64 '12 p.m.| 62 |12 p.m,| 134.
Friday, 30--| 30.189 30.238 9 a.m.]| 30.108 5 p.m.| 74.0 | 68.6 | 82 3.p.m.| 74 | 3 p.m.) 64 | 0 a. mili 62 | orange a6,
Saturday, deel | EGE No) 30.198 |12 p.m.| 30.100 3 p. “cl 79.0 | 69.6 87 eye ee 3 6 p. m.| 72 4 a.m,| 67 oa, mh 141
Dry. Wet.
Mean forthe weekis-- 2:22 -s-t ot. sone ce enc ee eacee 30.042 inches, Meany for theyweekonesa=s cesses Phe i pico pe oe eae ee 69.6 degrees,
Maximum for the week at ga. m., Sept. 30th ----.------- 30.238 ** Maximum for the week,at 3 pm. 26th 91. is at 3pmaz7th, 76. HE
Minimum 4 dt sgiphin- weptszethaseeeet aeons 29.890 ‘ Minimum ‘* ““ 12pm. 2gth 64. at 12 pm 2oth, 62. -
Ran ge 2.550 s20. Sot oda ee ee ee ee ee Range ‘‘ So ese Geek 27. S 2. teeter ee 14.
WIND HYGROMETER. CLOUDS. RAIN AND SNOW. a
ra
oe SE ee ee = aE 4 a
| | FORCE IN a
| | VELOCITY apes RELATIVE CLEAR, ° DEPTH OF RAIN AND SNOW |O-
SEPTEMBER| pELEaL ON: IN MILES, | coe eae LORE AOD VELOX SUMED LOY OVERCAST. 10 IN INCHES.
AND ; eel ; nol oe aS El | la | SLimew EN 25|_
OCTOBER. | |aoeancel pasa |e ec et Neale eS a of | of | DEIE S| 5
‘ \7 a.m.\2 p.m.|g p.m,| for the 1s Time. a rH a | a Bun mes a a Begin-| End- tion 2 Sie,
Day | S rs) a; &/ fo S | a a ing. ing. h.m <3 he
= | maar s Se > san cont jw |
Sunday, 25.|W.S.Ww.| S. W. | S. Ww. | 233 36! 3.co pm| .595 | .596 | .677 | 76 48 | 66 |o 2cir, a he Peer iennens: Iles ss25 ey, (no
Monday, 26-| w. |S. S.W.| Ss. Ww. 177. 1%) 3.00pm! .655 | .665 | .650 | 8o | 47| 59 |° | i2cu. |O | w---- | ----- | ----- SaailO!
Tuesdsy, 27- S.S.w Sy ESL BY: 145 |3%| 2.30pm) .652 | .733 | -744| 72 | 6x | 77 \2 Cir. 3 cir.cu.|2 cu. Ss. |4.30pm|5.30pm) 1.00 | .o4 | 0
Wednesday,28. w.s.w.) w. | n. 221 |7%)| 5.40pm! .666 | .596 | .618 | 77 48 | 76 |4cir.cu.|4 cu. j2cu. | ----- | ----- |) weenr A vIK:)
Thursday, 29-|e. n.e.| e. je.s.e 174 |3¥%|10.20am| .516 | .545 | .536| 70 | 67 | 84 \2cir.cu.7cir.cu.10 =| ----- | ----- — aS
Friday, q0.| Ti. . Ss. s.W 140 |6%| 7.copm| .569 | .703 | .628 | 89 | 66 | 72 |10_ 2 cu. 10) > Wah Y) weed leas Nan se ees
Saturday, 1-W.S.W..W.S.W.j S. W. 199 |3 7.20am| .631 | .518 | .651 | 80 | 41 66 (scir. lige cu.|0. 9 9) een reeeee aS SS gS We.
| | | aN eae ) é
Distance traveled during ithe weekscss. 42 ose2 se Sees ee ae 1,295 miles, Total amount of water for the week__..---..------------------- .04 inch
Mdximtim force. !, 5200 cw acencnercere nee Pee a eee eee eee 7% Ibs. Duration of pain sale ees eee eee eee x hours, oo minutes

DANIEL DRAPER, Ph. D.

Director Meteorological Observatory of the Department of Public Parks, New York,

SCIENCE.

485

SChENCE

A WEEKLY ReEcorp OF SCIENTIFIC

ProGRESs.

JOHN MICHELS, Editor.

THRMS:
PER. YEAR, - = = - Four DoLLARs
6 MonTus, - ~ - Two 43
“ ES = = e ONE “
SINGLE CopPiEs,- - - = - TEN CENTS.

PUBLISHED AT
TRIBUNE BUILDING, NEW YORK.

P, O, Box 3888,

SATURDAY, OCTOBER 15, 1881.

TO OUR ENGLISH READERS.

We have received from Messrs. Deacon & Co., of 150
Leadenhall street, London, England, a standing order for
a large supply of “Science,” which will be forwarded
weekly. We shall be obliged if our English readers will
make this fact known to their friends.

ILLUSIONS.*

In reality this work might have been styled an

essay on error, for the author deals, in his clear and
masterly way, with other errors of the human judg-
ment than those which are termed illusions in the
narrower sense of that term. His essay loses nothing,
and gains much by thus occupying a much broader
field than the one, furnished by the sensory illusion,
would constitute fer se. Perhaps the most unfortu-
nate part of the work, is the opening passage: ‘ Com-
mon sense, knowing nothing of fine distinctions, is
wont to draw a sharp line between the region of ill-
usion and that of sane intelligence. To be the victim
of an illusion is, in the popular judgment, to be ex-
cluded from the category of rational men. The term
at once calls up images of stunted figures with ill-de-
veloped brains, half-witted creatures, hardly distin-
guishable from the admittedly insane.
The nineteenth century intelligence plumes itself on
having got at the bottom of medieval visions and
church miracles, and it is wont to commiserate the
feeble minds that are still subject to these self-decep-
tions.”

We say this passage is an unfortunate one, and this
particularly because of its position in the opening
chapter of a book which, as we must particularly em-
phasize, is throughout one of the clearest and most
readable psychological treatises that we have found in

* Illusions, a psychological study. By JAMrs SULLY. New
York, D. Appleton and Co.—Volume XXXIII. of the In-
ternational Scientific Series,

the English language ; this passage on the other hand,
is as full of wrong assumptions, misconstructions,
and errors as a single paragraph can well be. The
popular mind fails to contemn the bearer of an illu-
sion, as it does the bearer of a delusion; the medizeval
visions were not, even in popular parlance illusions,
but hallucinations, and indeed the popular sense in
which the term illusion is used, that is, the one em-
ployed by poets and classical writers, 1s anything but
a reflection on the bearer of the illusion. The day-
dream, the poetic illusion, and the constructions of a
sanguine temperament, are the objects associated in
the lay-mind with that term.

On the fourth page is further evidence that the
author has failed to discriminate practically between
delusions, hallucinations, and illusions. After stating
that alienists have good reason to limit the word illu-
sion to illusory perceptions, he adds “such illusions
of the senses are the most palpable and striking evi-
dences of mental disease.” Inasmuch as illusions are
common with the sane, it is incorrect to lay greater
stress on the not very frequent illusions of the insane,
than on the marked and characteristic hallucinations
and the still more universal delusions of that class.

The author defines an illusion as a species of error
which counterfeits the form of immediate, self-evident,
or intuitive knowledge whether as a sense perception
or otherwise. Further on he discriminates between
the illusion and the fallacy, by characterising the
former as a falsification of primary or intuitive know-
ledge, and the latter as a falsification of secondary or
inferential knowledge. It must be admitted that the
author is happier in his discrimination than in his
definition, and an illustration of the difficulty under
which definers labor recurs in the peroration of the
same chapter, where he says that the illusion is seen
to arise through ‘‘some exceptional feature in the sit-
uation or condition of the individual, which, for the
time, breaks the chain of intellectual solidarity which
under ordinary circumstances binds the single member
to the collective body.” The greater portion of this
passage would constitute an excellent nucleus for a
definition of insanity, but at the same time it seems to
us that it fails to cover those common illusions, which
involve the visual apparatus, and of which familiar il-
lustrations are furnished. in most physiological text
books. ‘The dividing line between the delusion, the
hallucination, and the illusion, should have been
strictly drawn at the outset, by our author. We
have offered the following as showing the difference
between the hallucination and the illusion: While a
hallucination is a subjective perception of an object
as a real presence, without a real presence to justify
the perception, and a memory is the subjective per-

486

SCIENCE.

ception of an object not actually present, involving
the recognition of its absence, an illusion is the sub-
jective perception of an object actually present, but
in characters which the object does not really possess.
With appropriate alterations these definitions will
cover the abstract hallucination and phantastic illu-
sion of Wundt as well.

In his second chapter, the author ably, but we be-
lieve unsuccessfully, endeavors to defend his refusal to
recognize the distinction between illusion and _halluc-
ination as the leading principle of classification,
though he admits the necessity of making this dis-
tinction in accordance with the leading alienists.
Wundt, an authority whose teachings in psychological
physiology the author of the present volume has most
successfully assimilated, has drawn attention to the
numerous connecting links existing between illusions
and hallucinations, and yet strongly insists on utilizing
their general differences as a basis of classification.
We find the chief drawback to the otherwise great
value of the work, in its failure to give adequate space to
the anatomical mechanism concerned in false registra-

- tions of the perceptional and conceptional sphere. If it
be bornein mind that while even hallucinations may be
based on actual impressions, the latter are not the de-
termining factor of the hallucination, the difficulty
in discriminating between these perversions is over-
come; this is illustrated by the occasional per-
sistence of dream-images in the waking state, and
the moving of certain hallucinated images conson-
ant with the movements of the eye-ball. If an
actual or subjective impression, say in the shape
of chromatopsia and tinnitus, be granted to exist in a
subject hallucinating the vision and voice of the
Virgin Mary, it will be instantly recognized by every
observant alienist, that the real determining factor is
here centrifugal, while in the illusion, which constructs,
out of a ball rolling in an illlighted apartment, a
mouse, the determining factor takes a centripetal
course. In the former instance, the misinterpretation
lies ready made in the Cortex, and seizes on the slight
external pretext, whose existence we only admit for
the sake of the argument, to incorporate it, in its sub-
stance ; in the latter, it is based upon an imperfect reg-
istration and a gradual constructive interpreting pro-
cess. Nothing could more forcibly illustrate the cor-
rectness of these propositions than the very case cited
from Wundt by Mr. Sully of a forester who saw the
real objects of the outer world, (furniture and tapes-
try, forexample,) through the wood piles which formed
the subjects of his hallucinations.

With these remarks on the propositions of the open-
ing chapters, our criticism ceases to be adverse. In
the last twelve chapters of the book, the author gives

| we act on each other. :
I am addressing you are but the results of complicated

a concise review of the chief theories held by alienists
and metaphysicians on the perceptional illusion, the
introspective illusion, dreams illusions of memory, and
those of belief. We refrain from again pointing out
places where the author encroaches on the fields of
delusion and hallucination, as he has given a wider
scope to his definition of the illusion, than we are in-
clined to consider proper.. It is but just to say that
he gives a just interpretation to the views of alienists,
an interpretation which only occasionally manifests
that tincture of uncertainty which is unavoidable on
the part of one devoid of a practical knowledge of
the insane.

The perusal of this work cannot fail to be profitable
to the student of mental pathology aswell as of met-
aphysics. More reliable in the latter field, than in
the former, it is yet a successful attemptto present the
modern German ideas on the subject, and to combine
the teachings of the practical and the abstract psychol-
ogists. To the general reader we can only repeat,
what we said at the outset, it is the clearest rendition
of a difficult yet fascinating theme, to be found in our
language. E. C. Sprrzxa, M. D.

ON THE DISCOVERIES .OF.THE PAST HALF-
CENTURY RELATING TO ANIMAL MOTION.
By J. BURDON-SANDERSON, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S.

The two great branches of Biology with which we
concern ourselves in this section, Animal Morphology
and Physiology, are most intimately related to each
other. This arises from their having one subject of
study—the living animal organism. The difference be-
tween them lies in this, that whereas the studies of the
anatomist lead him to fix his attention on the organism
itself, to us physiologists it, and the organs of which it is
made up, serve only as vestzgza, by means of which we
investigate the vital processes of which they are alike the
causes and consequences.

To illustrate this I will first ask you to imagine for a
moment that you have before you one of those melan-
choly remainders of what was once an animal—to wit,
a rabbit—which one sees exposed in the shop of poulterers.
We have no hesitation in recognising that remainder as
being in a certain sense a rabbit ; but it is a very miser-
able vestige of what was a few days ago enjoying life in

some wood or warren, or more likely on the sand-hills”

near Ostend. We may call it a rabbit if we like, but it
is only a remainder—not the thing itself.

The anatomical preparation which I have in imagina-
tion placed before you, although it has lost its inside and
its outside, its integument and its viscera, still retains the
parts for which the rest existed The final cause of an
animal, whether human or other, is muscular action, be-
cause it is by means of its muscles that it maintains its
external relations. It is by our muscles exclusively that
The articulate sounds by which

combinaticns of muscular contractions—and so are the
scarcely appreciable changes in your countenances by
which I am able to judge how much, or how little, what
I am saying interests you.

Consequently the main problems of physiology relate
to muscular action, or as I have called it, animal motion.
They may be divided into two—namely (1) in what does
muscular action consist—that is, what is the process of

a

—

;
4
t
.

which it is the effect or outcome? And (2) how are the
motions of our bodies co-ordinated or regulated? It is
unnecessary to occupy time in showing that, excluding
those higher intellectual processes which, as they leave
no traceable marks behind them, are beyond the reach
of our methods of investigation, these two questions
comprise all others concerning animal motion. I will
therefore proceed at once to the first of them—that of
the process of muscular contraction.

The years which immediately followed the origin of
the British Association exceeded any earlier period of
equal length in the number and importance of the new
facts in morphology and physiology which were brought
to light; for it was during that period that Johannes
Miiller, Schwann, Henle, and, in this country, Sharpey,
Bowman, and Marshall Hall, accomplished their produc-
tive labors. But it was introductory to a much greater
epoch. It would give youa true idea of the nature of
the great advance which took place about the middle of
this century if I were to define it as the epoch of the death
of ‘‘vitalism.’’ Before that time, even the greatest
biologist—e. ¢. J. Miiller—recognized that the knowledge
they possessed, both of vital and physical phenomena,
was insufficient to refer both to a common measure. The
method, therefore, was to study the process of life in
relation to each other only. Since that time it has be-
come fundamental in our science not to regard any vital
process as understood at all, unless it can be brought
into relation with physical standards, and the methods of
physiology have been based exclusively on this principle.
Let us inquire for a moment what causes have conduced
to the change.

The most efficient cause was the progress which had
been made in physics and chemistry, and particularly
those investigations which led to the establishment of the
doctrine of the Conservation of Energy. In the applica-
tion of this great principle to physiology, the men to
whom we are “indebted are, first and foremost, J. R.
Mayer, of whom I shall say more immediately; and
secondly to the great physiologists still living and working
among us, who were the pupils of J. Miiller—viz.; Helm-
holtz, Ludwig, Du Bois-Reymond, and Briicke.

As regards the subject which is first to occupy our atten-
tion, that of the process of muscular contraction, J. R.
Mayer occupies so leading a position that a large propor-
tion of the researches which have been done since the new
era, which he had so important a share in establishing, may
be rightly considered as the working out of principles
enunciated in his treatise’ on the relation between or-
ganic motion and exchange of material. The most im-
portant of these were, as expressed in his own words: (1)
“That the chemical force contained in the ingested food
and in the inhaled oxygen is the source of the motion and
heat which are the two products of animal life; and (2)
that these products vary in amount with the chemical
process which produces them.’”’ Whatever may be the
claims of Mayer to be regarded asa great discovery in
- physics, there can be no doubt, that as a physiologist, he
deserves the highest place that we can give him, for at a
time when the notion of the correlation of different modes
of motion was as yet very unfamiliar to the physicist, he
boldly applied it to the phenomena of animal life, and
thus re-united physiology with natural philosophy, from
which it had been rightly, because unavoidably, severed
by the vitalists of an earlier period.

Let me first endeavor shortly to explain how Mayer
himself applied the principle just enunciated, and then
how it has been developed experimentally since his time.

The fundamental notion is this: the animal body re-
sembles, as regards the work it does and the heat it pro-
duces, a steam-engine in which fuel is continually being
used on the one hand, and work is being done and heat

1 J. R. Mayer, ‘‘ Die organische Bewegung in ihrem Zusammen-
hange mit dem Stoffwechsel ; ein Beitrag zur Naturkunde,’ Heilbronn,
4845.

SCIENCE.

487

produced on the other. The using of fuel is the chemical
process, which in the animal body, as in the steam en-
gine, is a process of oxidation. Heat and work are the
useful products, for as, in the higher animals, the body
can only work at a constant temperature of about 100°
F., heat may be so regarded.

Having previously determined the heat and work sev-
erally producible by the combustion of a given weight of
carbon, from his own experiments and from those of
earlier physicists, Mayer calculated that if the oxidation
of carbon is assumed to represent approximately the oxi-
dation process of the body, the quantity of carbon actu-
ally burnt in a day is far more than sufficient to account
for the day’s work, and that of the material expended in
the body not more than one-fifth was used in the doing
of work, the remaining four-fifths being partly used,
partly wasted in heat production.

Having thus shown that the principles of the cor-
relation of process and product hold good, so far as
its truth could then be tested, as regards the whole
organism, Mayer proceeded to inquire into its applicabi-
lity to the particular organ whose tunction it is “to trans-
form chemical difference into mechanical effect ’’—name-
ly muscle. Although, he said, a muscles acts under the
direction of the will, it does not derive its power of act-
ing from the will, any more than a steamboat derives its
power of motion from the helmsman. Again (and this
was of more importance, as being more directly opposed
to the prevalent vitalism), a muscle, like the steamboats
use in the doing of work, not the material of its own
structure, or mechanism, but the fuel—z. e. the nutriment
—which it derives directly from the blood which flows
through its capillaries. ‘The muscle is the instrument
by which the transformation of force is accomplished,
not the material which is itself transformed.” This prin-
ciple he exemplified in several ways, showing that if the
muscles of our bodies worked, as was formerly supposed,
at the expense of their own substance, their whole mater-
ial would be used up ina few weeks, and that in the case
of the heart, a muscle which works at a much greater
rate than any other, it would be expended in as many
days—a result which necessarily involved the absurd hy-
pothesis that the muscular fibres of our hearts are so
frequently disintegrated and reintegrated that we get new
hearts once a week.

On such considerations Mayer founded the prevision,
that, as soon as experimental methods should become
sufficiently perfect to render it possible to determine with
precision the limits of the chemical process, either in the
whole animal body or in a single muscle, during a given
period, and to measure the preduction of heat and the
work done during the same period, the result would show
a quantitative correlation between them.

If the time at our disposal permitted, I should like to
give a short account of the succession of laborious in-
vestigations by which these previsions have been verified.
Begun by Bidder and Schmidt in 1851,! continued by
Pettenkofer and Voit,’ and by the agricultural physiol-
ogists*® with reference to herbivora, they are not by any
means completed. I must content myself with saying
that by these experiments the first and second parts of
this great subject—namely, the limits of the chemical
process of animal life and its relation to animal motion
under different conditions—have been satisfactorily
worked out, but that the quantitative relations of heat
production are as yet only insufficiently determined.

Let me sum up in as few words as _ possible
how far what we have now learnt by experiment
justifies Mayer’s anticipations, and how it falls

short of or exceeds them. First of all, we are

1 Bidder and Schmidt, ‘* Die Verdauungssiifte und der Stoffwechsel,”’
Leipzig, 1852.
2 Pettenkofer and Voit, Zeztschr. f. Biologie, passim, 1866-80.

3 Henneberg and Stohmann, ‘“‘ Beitriige zur Begriindung einer ration-
ellen Futterung der Wiederkiuer,”’ Brunswick and Géttingen, 18€0-7o,

488 SCIENCE.

as certain as of any physical fact that the animal body in
doing work does not use its own material— that, as
Mayer says, the oil to his lamp of life is food; but in ad-
dition to this we know what heis unaware of, that what
is used is not only not the living protoplasm itself, but is
a kind of material which widely differs from it in chemical
properties. In what may be called commercial physiology
—z.e.,in the literature of trade puffs—one still meets
with the assumption that the material basis of muscular
motion is nitrogenous ; but by many methods of proof it
has been shown that the true “Oel in der Flamme des
Lebens”’ is not proteid substance, but sugar, or sugar-
producing material. The discovery of this fundamental
truth we owe first to Bernard (1850-56), who brought to
light the fact that such material plays an important part
in the nutrition of every living tissue; secondly, to Voit
(1866), who’ in elaborate experiments on carnivorous
animals, during periods of rest and exertion, showed
that, in comparing those conditions, no relation whatever
shows itself between the quantity of proteid material
(flesh) consumed, and the amount of work done; and
finally to Frankland, Fick, and his associate Wislicenus,
as to the work-yielding value of different constituents of
food, and as to the actual expenditure of material in man
during severe exertion. The subjects of experiment used
by the two last-mentioned physiologists were themselves;
the work done was the mountain ascent from Interlaken
to the summit of the Faulhorn; the result was to prove
that the quantity of material used was proportional to the
work done, and that that material was such as to yield
water and carbonic acid exclusively.

The investigators to whom I have just referred aimed
_ at proving the correlation of process and product for the
whole animal organism. The other mode of inquiry pro-
posed by Mayer, the verification of his principle in re-
spect of the work-doing mechanism—that is to say, in re-
spect of muscle taken separately—-has been pursued with
equal perseverance during the last twenty years, and with
greater success; for in experimenting on a _ separate
organ, which has no other functions excepting those

which are in question, it is possible to eliminate uncer- .

tainties which are unavoidable when the conditions of
the problem are more complicated. Before I attempt to
sketch the results of these experiments, I must ask your
attention for a moment to the discoveries made since
Mayer’s epoch, concerning a closely related subject, that
of the Process of Respiration.

I wish that I had time to go back to the great discovery
of Priestley (1776), that the essential facts in the process
of respiration are the giving off of fixed air, as he called
it, and the taking in of dephlogisticated air, and to relate
to you the beautiful experiments by which he proved it ;
and then to pass on to Lavoisier (1777), who, on the
other side of the Channel, made independently what
was substantially the same discovery a little after
Priestley, and added others of even greater moment. Ac-
cording to Lavoisier, the chemical process of respiration
is a slow combustion which has its seat in the lungs.
At the time that Mayer wrote, this doctrine still main-
tained its ascendency, although the investigations of
Magnus (1838) had already proved its fallacy. Mayer
himself knew that the blood possessed the property of
conveying oxygen from the lungs to the capillaries, and
of conveying carbonic acid gas from the capillaries to
the lungs, which was sufficient to exclude the doctrine of
Lavoisier. Our present knowledge of the subject was
attained by two methods—viz,, first, the investigation of
the properties of the coloring matter of the blood, since
called ‘“hamoglobin,” the initial step in which was
made by Prof. Stokes in 1862; and secondly, the appli-
cation of the mercurial air-pump as a means of deter-
mining the relations of oxygen and carbonic acid gas to
the living blood and tissues. The last is a matter of
such importance in relation to our subject that I shall
ask your special attention to it. Suppose that I havea

barometer of which the tube, instead of being of the or-
dinary form, is expanded at the top into a large bulb of
one or two litres capacity, and that, by means of some
suitable contrivance, 1 am able to introduce, in such a
way as to lose no time and to preclude the possibility of
contact with air, a fluid ounce of blood from the artery
of a living animal into the vacuous space—what would
happen ?- Instantly the quantity of blood would be con-
verted into froth, which would occupy the whole of the
large bulb. The color of the froth would at first be
scarlet, but would speedily change tocrimson. It would
soon subside, and we should then have the cavity which
was before vacuous occupied by the blood and its
gases—namely, the oxygen, carbonic acid gas, and nitro-
gen previously contained in it. And if we had the
means (which actually exist in the gas-pump) of separ-
ating the gaseous mixture from the liquid, and of renew-
ing the vacuum, we should be able to determine (1) the
total quantity of gases which the blood yields, and (2),
by analysis, the proportion of each gas. -

Now, with reference to the blood, by the application of
the ‘“blocd-pump,” as it is called, we have learned a
great many facts relating to the nature of respiration,
particularly that the difference of venous arterial blood
depends not on the presence of ‘ effete matter,” as used
to be thought, but on the less amount of oxygen held by
its coloring matter, and that the blood which flows back
to the heart from different organs, and at different times,
differs in the amount of oxygen and of carbonic acid gasit
yields, according to the activity of the chemical processes
which have their séat in the living tissues from which it
flows.1 But this is not all that the blood-pump has done
for us. By applying it not merely to the blood, but to
the tissues, we have learned that the doctrine of
Lavoisier was wrong, not merely as regards the place,
but as regards the nature of the essential process in
respiration. The fundamental fact whichis thus brought
to light is this, that although living tissues are constantly
and freely supplied with oxygen, and are in fact con-
stantly tearing it from the hemoglobin which holds it,
yet they themselves yield no oxygen to the vacuum. In
other words, the oxygen which living protoplasm seizes
upon with such energy that the blood which flows by it
is compelled to yield it up, becomes so entirely part of
the living material itself that it cannot be separated even
by the vacuum. It is in this way only that we can un-
derstand the seeming paradox that the oxygen, which is
conveyed in abundance to every recess of our bodies by
the blood-stream, is nowhere to be tound. Notwithstand-
ing that no oxidation-product is formed, it becomes latent
in every bit of living protoplasm; stored up in quant.ty
proportional to its potential activity—z. e., to the work,
internal or external, it has to do.

Thus you see that the process of tissue respiration—in
other words, the relation of living protoplasm to oxygen—
is very different from what Mayer, who localized oxida-
tion in the capillaries, believed it to be. And this differ-

ence has a good deal to do with the relation of Process.

to Product in muscle. Let us now revert to the experi-

ments on this subject which we are to take as exemplifi-.

cation of the truth of Mayer’s forecasts.

If I only desired to convince you that during the last
half-century there has been a greater accession of know-
ledge about the function of the living organism than
during the previous one, I might arrange here a small
heap at one end of the table the physiological works of
the Hunters, Spallanzani, Fontana, Thomas Young, Ben-

jamin Brodie, Charles Bell, and others, and then proceed

to cover the rest of it with the records of original research on
physiological subjects since 1831, I should find that, even if
I included only genuine work, I should have to heap my
table up to the ceiling. But I apprehend this would not give
us a true answer to our question. Although, etymologically,
Science and Knowledge mean the same thing, their real
meaning is different. By science we mean, first of all,

SCIENCE.

that knowledge which enables us to sort the things known
according to their true relations. On this ground we
call Haller the father of physiology, because, regardless
of existing theories, he brought together intoa system all
that was then known by observation or experiment as to
the processes of the living body. But in the ‘‘ Elementa
Physiologie ” we have rather that out of which science
springs than science itself. Science can hardly be said
to begin until we have by experiment acquired such a
knowledge of the relation between events and their ante-
cedents, between processes and their products, that in
our own sphere we are able to forecast the operations of
nature, even when they lie beyond the reach of direct ob-
servation. I would accordingly claim for physiology a
place in the sisterhood of the sciences, not because so
large a number of new facts have been brought to light,
but because she has in her measure acquired that gift of
prevision which has been long enjoyed by the higher
branches of natural philosophy. In illustration of this I
have endeavored to show you that every step of the
laborious investigations undertaken during the last thirty
years as to the process of nutrition, has been inspired by
the provisions of J. R. Mayer, and that what we have
learnt with so much labor by experiments on animals is
but the realization of conceptions which existed two

hundred years ago in the mind of Descartes as to the~

mechanism of the nervous system. If I wanted another
example I might find it in the provisions of Dr. Thomas
Young as to the mechanism of the circulation, which for
thirty years were utterly disregarded, until, at the epoch
to which I have so often adverted, they received their full
justification from the experimental investigations of
Ludwig.

But perhapsit will occur to some one that if physiol-
ogy founds her claim to be regarded as a science on
her power of anticipating the results of her own experi-
ments, it is unnecessary to make experiments at all. Al-
though this objection has been frequently heard lately
from certain persons who call themselves philosophers,
itis not very likely to be made seriously here. The
answer is, that it is contrary to experience. Although we
work in the certainty that every experimental result will
come out in accordance with great principles (such as the
principle that every plant or animal is both, as regards
form and function, the outcome of its past and present
conditions, and that in every vital process the same rela-
tions obtain between expenditure and product as hold out-
side of the organism), these principles do little more for
us than indicate the direction in which we are to proceed.
The history of science teaches us that a general principle
is like a ripe seed, which may remain useless and inactive
for an indefinite period, until the conditions favorable to
its germination come into existence. Thus the conditions
for which the theory of animal automatism of Descartes
had to wait two centuries, were (1) the acquirement of an
adequate knowledge of the structure of the animal organ-
ism, and (2) the development of the sciences of physics
and chemistry; for at no earlier moment were these
sciences competent to furnish either the knowledge or the
methods necessary for its experimental realization ; and
for a reason precisely similar Young’s theory of the circu-
lation was disregarded for thirty years.

I trust that the examples I have placed before you to-
day may have been sufficient to show that the investiga-
tors who are now working with such earnestness in all
parts of the world for the advance of physiology, have be-
fore them a definite and well-understood purpose, that
purpose being to acquire an exact knowledge of the
chemical and physical processes of animal life, and of the
self-acting machinery by which they are regulated for the
general good of the organism. The more singly and
straightforwardly we direct our efforts to these ends, the
sooner we shall attain to the still higher purpose—the ef-
fectual application of our knowledge for the increase of
human happiness,

489

The Science of Physiology has already afforded her aid
to the Art of Medicine in furnishing her with a vast store
of knowledge obtained by the experimental investigation
of the action of remedies and of the causes of diseases.
These investigations are now being carried on in all parts
of the world with great diligence, so that we may confi-
dently anticipate that during the next generation the pro-
gress of pathology will be as rapid as that of physiology
has been in the past, and that as time goes on the practice
of medicine will gradually come more and more under the
influence of scientific knowledge. That this change is
already in progress we have abundant evidence. We need
make no effort to hasten the process, for we may be quite
sure that, as soon as science is competent to dictate, art
will be ready to obey.

METEORIC DUST.
By PRor. SCHUSTER.

A committee of the British Association was appointed
for the double purpose of examining the observations hith-
erto recorded on the subject cf meteoric dust and of dis-
cussing the possibility of future more systematic investi-
gations. With regard to the first point we note that ina
paper presented to the Royal Astronomical Society in
1879, Mr. Ranyard has given what appears to be a pretty
complete account of the known observations as to the
presence of meteoric dust in the atmosphere. It appears
that in the year 1852 Prof. Andrews found native iron
in the basalt .of the Giant’s Causeway. Nordenskjéld
found particles of iron which in all probability had a
cosmic origin in the snows of Finland and in the ice-
fields of the Arctic regions. Dr. T.L. Phipson, and more
recently Tissandier, tound similar particles deposited by
the winds on plates exposed in different localities.
Finally, Mr. John Murray discovered magnetic particles
raised from deposits at the bottom of the sea by H. M.
S. Challenger. These articles were examined by Prof.
Alexander Herschel, who agreed with Mr. Murray in
ascribing a cosmic origin to them. For fuller details
and all references we must refer to Mr. Ranyard’s
paper. There cannot be any doubt that magnetic dust,
which in all probability derives it origin from meteors,
has often been observed, and the question arises, in what
way we can increase our knowledge on these points to an
appreciable extent. A further series of occasional ob-
servations would in all probability lead to no result o1
great value, unless they were carried on for a great length
of time in suitable places. Meteoric dust, we know, does
fall, and observations ought if possible to be directed
rather towards an approximate estimate of the quantity
which falls within a given time. Difficulties very likely
will be found in the determination of the locality in which
the observations should be conducted. The place ought
to be sheltered as much as possible against any ordinary
dust not of meteoric origin. The lonely spots best
fitted for these observations are generally accessible to
occasional experiments only, and do not lend themselves
easily to a regular series of observations. Nevertheless
experiments continued for a few months at some ele-
vated spot in the Alps might lead to valuable results.
The Committee would like to draw attention to an in-
strument which is well fitted for such observations. It
was devised by Dr. Pierre Miquel for the purpose of ex-
amining, not the meteoric particles, but organic and or-
ganized matters floating about in theair. A description,
with illustrations, will be found in the Axzuazre de Mont-
sourzs for 1879. Two forms of the instrument are
given. In the first form, which is only adapted to per-
manent places of observations, an aspirator draws a
quantity of air through a fine hole. The air impinges on
a plate coated with glycerine, which retains all solid mat-
ter. By means of this instrument we may determine the
quantity of solid particles within a given volume of air,

490

SCIENCE.

The second, more portable form, does not allow such an | seen in the occultation of a star by the moon’s bright

accurate quantitative air analysis, The instrument is
attached to a weathercock, and thus is always directed
against the wind, which traverses it, and deposits, as in
the other permanent form, its solid matter on a glycerine
plate. An anemometer placed in the vicinity serves to
give an approximate idea of the quantity of air which has
passed through the apparatus. These instruments have
been called aéroscopes by their inventor. It is likely
that the second form given to the apparatus will be best
fitted for the purpose which the Committee has in view.

Saal

THE NEW ASTRONOMER ROYAL.

Mr. William Henry Mahony Christie, who has suc-
ceeded Sir George Airy in the office of Astronomer Royal
at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich Park, was born on
October 1, 1845, at Woolwich. He is a younger son of
the late Professor S. H. Christie, of the Royal Military
Academy, Woolwich, and formerly Secretary to the
Royal Society. Mr. W.H. M. Christie was educated at
Kings College School, London; and at Trinity College,
Cambridge, which he entered in 1864, having won a
Minor’s Scholarship -of that
College ; he subsequently gain-
ed a Foundation Scholarship
and was afterwards elected a
Fellow of Trinity College. He
took his degree of B.A. in 1868,
as fourth wrangler in the Ma-
thematical Tripos, and in 1871
proceeded to the M. A. degree.
In 1870, Mr. Christie was ap-
pointed Chief Assistant at the
Royal Observatory; and he
has, during the past ten years,
done special good service by
contriving and _ introducing
several valuable improvements
in the scientific apparatus there
in use; a new form of spec-
troscope, an instrument for S
determining the colors and S
brightness of the stars, a re-
cording micrometer, and a pol-
arising solar eye-piece, are to
be mentioned as his inventions.
In the recent address of the
President of the British Asso-
ciation, at York, a passing re-
ference was made to Mr. Chris-
tie’s work in verifying the results obtained by Dr. Huggins,
with regard to the motions of stars, as inferred from
spectroscopic observations. The new Astronomer Royal
has directed particular attention, at the Royal Observa-
tory, both to spectroscopy and to photography, as a means
of recording the observations. He is a fellow of the
Royal Society, and was elected Secretary of the Royal
Astronomical Society last year. He contributed to the
proceedings of the Royal Society, in March, 1877, a paper
“‘on the magnifying power of the half-prism, as a means
of obtaining great dispersion, and on the general theory
of the half-prism spectroscope.’’ To the monthly notices
of the Royal Astronomical Society, he has furnished
these: in June, 1873, a paper on the recording micro-
meter; in January, 1874, on the color and brightness of
stars, as measured with a new photometer; in May, 1875,
on the determination of the scale in photographs of the
Transit of Venus; in 1876, (January) on a new form of
solar eye-piece; (May) on the displacement of lines in the
spectra of stars; (November) on the effect of wear in the
micrometer screws of the Greenwich Transit Circle; same
year (December) on the gradation of light on the disk of
Venus; in 1878 (January) on specular reflection from
Venus; (June) on the existence of bright lines in the
solar spectrum; in 1879 (January) on a phenomeno

S

=
> S

YY

WILLIAM H. M. CHRISTIE.

limb ; in 1880, November, on the spectrum of Hartwig’s
comet of that year ; in 1881 (January) on Mr. Stone’s al-
terations of Bessel’s refractions; (May) on the flexure of ~
the Greenwich transit circle, and some further remarks
on Mr. Stone’s alterations of Bessel’s refractions; besides
various papers on the Greenwich spectroscopic and pho-
tographic observations, communicated by the late As-
tronomer Royal; and a paper which will be found in the
Memoirs of the Royal Astronomical Society, published
in January, 1880, on the systematic errors of the Green-
wich North Polar distances. Mr. Christie is also the
founder and editor of a journal entitled “* 7he Odserva-
zory, a Monthly Review of Astronomy,” which has been
published during the past four years; and he is author
of the “Manual of Elementary Astronomy,” published
in 1875 by the Society for Promoting Christian Knowl-
edge.
—<—<—<$<_@§_<_______

ON THE ELECTRIC CONDUCTIVITY. AND
DICHROIC ABSORPTION OF TOURMALINE.*

By Prof, SILVANUS P. THOMPSON.

The electric conductivity of
tourmaline differs in different
directions ; being, according to
the author’s experiments, a
minimum along the optic axis.
Tourmaline also possesses the
optical property of dichroism,
its absorption being a maxi-
mum for rays parallel to the
axis, and greater for blue rays
than tor red, equal thicknesses
of crystal being considered.
According to the electro-mag-
netic theory of light, bodies
which are good conductors of
electricity should be opaque
to light. The author has in
the August number of the
Philosophical Magazine re-
Z written the equations of Max-
well’s electro-magnetic theory
for the case of crystalline
media possessing different con-
ductivities in different direc-
tions. From these equations
it appears that in tourmaline
and negative uniaxial crystals
electric displacements at right angles to the axis will be
more absorbed than electric displacements parallel to the
axis. This accounts for the well-known greater absorption
of the ordinary ray, provided the views of Stokes and Fres-
nel are correct, that these displacements are at right angles
to the so-called plane of polarization. The difterence
of velocity between the rays of different color ac-
counts for the difference of absorption being greater
in that direction in which the conductivity is a min-
imum. It was also pointed out that in positive un-
iaxial crystals, in which the electric conductivity is a
maximum along the axis, there will be maximum absorp-
tion of the extraordinary ray, and there will be least
opacity along the axis. Smoky quartz and magnesic pla-
tinocyanide fulfil the latter condition. Specimens of
tourmaline cut into cubes to show the colors in different
directions were shown, and also specimens of magnesic pla-
tinocyanide and of herapathite. Mechanico-optical models
were also shown illustrating the theory; a tourmaline
being represented by a cube built up of layers of glass
and wire-gauze. In conclusion it was shown that crystals
in which the electric conductivity differs in three different
directions will exhibit ¢rzchrozsm, and that di- or tri-

chroic absorption is a general property of all colored

crystals other than those of the cubical system.

* British Association, 1881.

491

THE VESSEL AS IT APPEARS AFLOAT

THE HYDROMOTOR SHIP.

We present a drawing of a vessel propelled by
hydraulic reaction, and_ recently
constructed at Kiel by Dr. Emil
Fleischer, of Dresden.

Machines propelled on the reactive
principle are by no means a novelty,
but hitherto have been attended
with indifferent success. Nearly 40
years ago a model-boat, which used
to travel up and down a tank pro-
pelled by such means, was exhibited
m London. But Dr. Fleischer’s
-hydromotor allows of as much as go
per cent. of the indicated steam
power being applied to the produc-
tion of the outflowing water stream,
while not more than 30 per cent. has
been secured with the reaction ma-
chines hitherto constructed. In his
vessel the usual ship’s_ engines,
worked by means of wheel or screw,
are replaced by hydraulic reaction,
by the drawing in and shooting out
of a stream of water. The steam
power acts immediately on the
water, without any loss of such
power in conveyance from steam
engines and pumps.’ The manceuy-
ring capabilities of the vessel are
greatly increased, and the usual
complicated machinery is replaced
by a remarkably simple contrivance.

The professional men who took
part in ashort trip with the hydro-
motor, expressed the most unquali-
fied appreciation of the invention, and of every detail of its
execution. ‘The easy manceuvring of the vessel, its small
consumption of coal, and the practicability of adapting
the system to all rates of speed were clearly shown, and
the simplicity of its construction was regarded as partic-
ularly valuable for war ships. The hydromotor is under-
going further tests in English waters,

HYDRODYNAMIC ANALOGIFS TO ELECTRIC-
ITY AND MAGNET. SM.

From a scientific and purely theo
retical point of view there is no ob
ject in the whole of the Electrica.
Exhibition at Paris of greater interest
than the remarkable collection of ap-
paratus exhibited by Dr. C. A.
Bjerknes, ef Christiania, and in-
tended to show the fundamental
phenomena of electricity and mag-
netism by the analogous ones of
hydrodynamics. I will try to give
a clear account of these experiments
and the apparatus employed ; but no
description can convey any idea of
the wonderful beauty of the actual
experiments, whilst the mechanism
itself is also of most exquisite con-
struction. Every result which is
thus shown by experiment had been
previously predicted by Prof.
Bjerknes as the result of his mathe-
matical investigations.

It has long been known that if a
tuning-fork be struck and held near
to a light object like a balloon it
attracts it. This is an old experi-
ment, and the theory of it has been
worked out more than once. Among
others, Sir William Thomson gave
the theory in the Phzlosophical
Magazine in 1867. In _ general
words the explanation is that the air
in the neighborhood of the tun-
: ing-fork is rarefied by the agitation
which it experiences. Consequently the pressure of the
air is greater as the distance from the tuning-fork in-
creases. Thus the pressure on the far side of the bal-
loon is greater than that on the near side, and the balloon
is attracted.

Dr. Bjerknes has followed out the theory of. this ac-
tion until he has succeeded in illustrating most of the

492

fundamental phenomena of electricity and magnetism.
He causes vibrations to take place in a trough of water
about six inches deep. He uses a pair of cylinders fitted
with pistons which are moved in and out by a gearing
which regulates the length of stroke and also gives great
rapidity. These cylinders simply act alternately as air-
compressers and expanders, and they can be arranged so
that both compress and both expand the air simulta-
neously, or in such a way that the one expands while
the other compresses the air, and vce versa. ‘These cyl-
inders are connected by thin india-rubber tubing and fine
metal pipes to the various instruments. A very simple
experiment consists in communicating pulsations to a
pair of tambours, and observing their mutual actions.
They consist each of a ring of metal faced at both sides
with india-rubber and connected by a tube with the air-
cylinders. One of them is held in the hand; the otheris
mounted in the water in a manner which leaves it free to
move. It is then found that if the pulsations are of the
same kind, z.e. if both expand and both contract simul-
taneously, thereis attraction. But if one expands while
the other contracts, and wzce versa, there is repulsion.
In fact the phenomenon is the opposite of magnetical
and electrical phenomena, for here like poles attract, and
unlike poles repel.

Instead of having the pulsation of a drum we may use
the oscillation of a sphere; and Dr. Bjerknes has mounted
a beautiful piece of apparatus by which the compressions
and expansions of air are used to cause a sphere to
oscillate in the water. Butin this case it must be noticed
that opposite sides of ths sphere are in opposite phases.
In fact the sphere might be expected to act like a mag-
net; and so it does. If two oscillaing spheres be
brought near each other, then, if they are both mov-
ing to and from each other at the same time, there is at-
traction; but if* one of them be turned round, so that
both spheres move in the same direction in their oscilla-
tions, then there is repulsion. If one of these spheres be
mounted so as to be free to move about a vertical axis, it
is found that when a second oscillating sphere is brought
near to it, the one which is free turns round its axis and

sets itself so that both spheres in their oscillations are»

approaching each other or receding simultaneously. Two
oscillating spheres, mounted at the extremities of an arm,
with freedom to move, behave with respect to another
oscillating sphere exactly like a magnet in the neighbor-
hood of another magnetic pole. _I believe that these direc-
tive effects are perfectly new, both theoretically and experi-
mentally. The professor mounts his rod with a sphere
at each end in two ways: (1) so that the oscillations are
along the arm, and (2) so that they are perpendicular.
In all cases they behave as if each sphere was a little
magnet with its axis lying along the direction of oscilla-
lation.

Dr. Bjerknes looks upon the water in his trough as
being the analogue of Faraday’s medium ; and he looks
upon these attractions and repulsions as being due, not
to the action of one body on the other, but to the mutual
action of one body and the water in contact with it.
Viewed in this light, his first experiment is equivalent to
saying that if a vibrating or-oscillating body have its
motions in the same direction as the water, the body
moves away from the centre of disturbance, but if in the
opposite direction, towards it. This idea gives us the
analogy of dia- and paramagnetism. If, in the neigh-
borhood of a vibrating drum, we have acork ball, retained
under the water by a thread, the oscillations of the cork
are greater than those of the water in contact with it,
owing to its small mass, and are consequently ve/atzvely
in the same direction. Accordingly we have repulsion,
corresponding to diamagnetism. It, on the other hand,
we hang in the water a ball which is heavier than water,
its oscillations are not so great as that of the water in its
Vicinity, owing to its mass, and consequently the oscilla-
tions of the ball relatively to the water are in the opposite

SCIENCE.

direction to those of the water itself, and there is attrac-
tion, corresponding to paramagnetism. A rod of cork
and another of metal are suspended horizontally by
threads in the trough. A vibrating drum is brought
near to them; the cork rod sets itself equatorially, and
the metal rod axially.

If a pellet of iron be floated by a cork on water and two
similar poles (e. g. both north) be brought to its vicin-
ity, one above and the other below the pellet, the latter
cannot remain exactly in the centre, but will be repelled
to a certain distance, beyond which, however, there is
the usual attraction. The reason is that when the pellet
is nearly in the line joining the two poles the north pole
of the pellet (according to our supposition) is further from
this line than the south one. The angle of action is less ;
so that although the north pole is further away, the hori-
zontal component of the north pole repulsion may be
greater than that-of the south pole attraction. Dr.
Bjerknes reproduces this experiment by causing two
drums to pulsate in concord, the one above the other.
A pellet fixed to a wire, which is attached-by threads to
two pieces of cork, is brought between the drums, and it
is found impossible to cause it to remain in the centre.

Dr. Bjerkes conceived further the beautiful idea of
tracing out the conditions of the vibrations of the water
when acted upon by-pulsating drums. For this purpose
he mounted a sphere or cylinder on a thin spring and
fixed a fine paint-brush to the top of it. This is put into
the water. The vibrations are in most cases so small that
they could not be detected, but by regulating the pulsa-
tions so as to be isochronous with the vibrations of the
spring, a powerful vibration can be set up. When this is
done a glass plate mounted on four springs is lowered so
as to touch the paint-brush, and the direction of a hydro-
dynamic line of force is depicted. Thus the whole field
is explored and different diagrams are obtained according
to the nature of the pulsations. Using two drums pul-
sating concordantly, we get a figure. exactly like that pro-
duced by iron filings in a field of two similar magnetic
poles. If the pulsations are discordant it is like the fig-
ure with two dissimilar poles. Three pulsating drums
vive a figure identical with that produced by three mag-
netic poles. The professor had previously calculated that
the effects ought to be identical, and I think the same
might have been gathered from the formule in Sir
William Thomson’s “Mathematical Theory of Magne-
tism,” but this only enhances the beauty of the experi-
mental confirmation.

Physicists have been in the habit of looking upon mag-
netism as some kind of molecular rotation. According
to the present view it is a rectilinear motion. Physicists
have been accustomed to look upon the conception of an
isolated magnetic pole as an impossibility, but here, while
the oscillating sphere represents a magnetic molecule
with north and south poles, the pulsating drum represents
an isolated pole. These are new conceptions to the phy-
sicists, let us see whither they lead us. The professor
shows that if a rectilinear oscillation constitutes magnet-
ism, a circular oscillation must signify an electric current,
the axis of oscillation being the direction of the current.
According to this view what would be the action of a
ring through which a current is passing? If the ring
were horizontal the inner parts of the ring would ali rise
together and all fall together, they would vibrate and pro-
duce the same effect as the rectilinear vibrations of a mag-
net. Thisis the analogue of the Amperian currents.

To illustrate the condition of the magnetic field in the
neighborhood of electric currents, Dr. Bjerknes mounted
two wooden cylinders on vertical axes, connecting them
by link-work, which enabled him to vibrate them in the
same or opposite ways. To produce enough friction he
was forced to employ syrup in place of water. The fig-
ures which are produced on the glass plate are in every
case the same as those which are produced by iron filings
in the neighborhood of electric currents, including the

SCIENCE.

493

case of currents going in parallel and in opposite direc-
tions.

The theory is carried out a step further to explain the
attraction and subsequent repulsion after contact of an
electrified and a neutral substance and the passage of a
spark. But it is extremely speculative, and is not as yet
experimentally illustrated, and I think that at present it
is better to pass it by,

I believe that the professor will exhibit his experiments
and give some account of his mathematical investigations,
which have occupied his time for five years, to the Aca-
démie des Sciences this afternoon. His results have not
been published before. GEORGE FORBES.

a oo

THE ELECTRIC DISCHARGE THROUGH
COLZA: OTL.*
By A. MACFARLANE, D.Sc., F. R. S. E.

The electrical properties of colza oil which I have ex-
amined are its dielectric strength and some phenomena
which accompany the passage of the spark. By the di-
electric strength of a substance I mean the ratio of the
difference of potential required to pass a spark through
air under the same conditions. The electrodes used were
two parallel brass plates each four inches in diameter.
When comparing the gases the standard distance of the
plate chosen was 5 mm. _In the case of liquids it is con-
venient to observe for a shorter distance, and reduce the
result by the law which previous experiments of mine
have established, namely, that in the case of the dis-
charge between parallel plates through a liquid dielectric,
the difference of potential required is proportional to the
distance between the plates. (7vamvs. R.S.E., vol. xxix.
p. 563). One set of observations gave the ratio for colza
oil to be 2.7, another gave 2.5. Hence 2.6 may be taken.
I have now obtained the following table of dieiectric
strengths for'liquids (1 being unity).

Substance. Dielectric Strength.
Sea e ONL aye aden 2s aes Ban
Oil of turpentine........... 4.0
Paraffine liquefied.......... 2.4
Okivetoilease.tceeteretick. 3.5
ColzaqOllea ya ei epetsl es ee) 2.6

The specific gravity of the colza oil is .9!. The passage
of the spark was accompanied by the formation of gas
bubbles, but there was no deposition of solid particles.

As the 4-inch plates were placed horizontally in the oil a ~

bubble produced by the discharge was prevented from
escaping by the upper plate. When the upper plate is
again electrified such a bubble behaves in the following
manner. If it is large enough it will extend itself some-
what like an hour-glass between the plates, but if it is
smaller it takes the form of an acorn with a flat base, the
base resting on one or other of the plates. When the
upper plate is charged positively the bubble is repelled
so as to place its base on the lower plate; when the elec-
tricity is changed to negative the bubble remains with its
base on the upper plate. A reversal of the order of
charging did not change the effect. After a few electri-
fications a sufficient number of solid particles collect to
form a chain, and thus interfere with the phenomenon,
the bubbles then being lengthened out in a remarkable
manner, but never repelled to the lower plate. When
the upper plate was charged negatively, gas bubbles ap-
peared to me to rise from the lower plate, as if they had
been formed there. To test this point further I took
some sparks between two smaller disks placed vertically
in the oil. The gas-bubbles were observed to rise up at
the negative surface as if they had been formed at the
positive surface, and had been repelled or carried straight
across, and then rose up at the negative surface. When
the spark was taken between two points bent at right

* British Association, 188z,

angles to two rods dipping into the oil, the bubbles were
observed to shoot out in the direction from the positively
charged point, and to circulate round the earth-rod some
time before rising to the surface. These phenomena in-
dicate that the bubble is positively electrified.

ASTRONOMY.

ON THE POSSIBILITY OF THE EXISTENCE OF INTRA-
MERCURIAL PLANETS.*
By BALFOUR STEWART, LL.D., F.R.S.

It is a somewhat frequent speculation amongst those
who are engaged in sun-spot research to regard the state
of the solar surface as influenced in some way by the
positions of the planets.

In order to verify this hypothesis observers have tried
whether there appear to be solar periods exactly coin-
ciding with certain well-known planetary periods. This
method has been adopted by the Kew observers (Messrs.
De La Rue, Stewart, and Loewy), who had an unusually
large mass of material at their disposal, and they have
obtained from it the following results -—

1. An apparent maximum and minimum of spotted
area approximately corresponding in time to the peri-
helion and aphelion of Mercury.

z. An apparent maximum and minimum of spotted
area approximately corresponding in time to the conjunc-
tion and opposition of Mercury and Jupiter.

3, An apparent maximum and minimum of spotted
area approximately corresponding in time to the conjunc-
tion and opposition of Venus and Jupiter.

4. An apparent maximum and minimum of spotted
area approximately corresponding in time to the conjunc-
tion and opposition of Venus and Mercury.

The Kew observers make the following remarks upon
these results :—

“There appears to be a certain amount of likeness
between the march of the numbers in the four periods
which we have investigated, but we desire to record this
rather as a result brought out by a certain specified
method of treating the material at our disposal than as a
fact from which we are at present prepared to draw con-
clusions. As the investigation of these and similar phen-
omena proceeds, it may be hoped that much light will
be thrown upon the causes of sun-spot periodicity.

The Kew observers have likewise produced evidence
of a different kind in favor of the planetary hypothesis,
for they have detected a periodicity in the behavior of
sun-spots with regard to increase and diminution appar-
ently depending upon the positions of the two nearer
planets, Mercury and Venus. | The law seems to be
that as a portion of the sun’s surface is carried by rota-
tion nearer to one of these two influential planets, there
is a tendency for spots to become less and disappear,
while on the other hand, when it is carried away from
the neighborhood of one of these planets, there is a ten-
dency for spots to break out and increase.

But whatever truth may be in these conclusions, it
appears to be quite certain that periodical relations be-
tween the various £zowz planets will not account for a//
the sun-spot inequalities with which we are acquainted.
They may account for some, but certainly not for ‘all.
For there are solar inequalities of short duration which
presuming them to be real, can only be accounted for on
the planetary hypothesis, by supposing the existence ot
several unknown intra-Mercurial planets.

Indeed these short-period inequalities in sun-spots and
the allied phenomena of terrestrial magnetism and me-
teorology have so augmented in number of late years as
to make some observers inclined to question their reality;
while others again resort to the above-mentioned hypo-
thesis, and attribute them to intra-~Mercurial planetary
agency.

The method to be pursued in detecting the existence

* British Association, 1881,

494

SCIENCE.

of inequalities will be easily understood by an illustration.
Suppose we had in our possession extensive records of the
temperature of the earth’s atmosphere at some one place
in middle latitudes, and that, independently of astronom-
ical knowledge, we were to make use of these for the
purpose of investigating the natural inequalities of terres-
trial temperature. We should begin by grouping the
observations according to various periods taken, say, at
small but definite time-intervals from each other. Now
if our series of observations were sufficiently extensive,
and if some of our various groupings together of this
series should correspond toa real inequality, we should
expect it to exhibit a well-defined and prominent fluctua-
tion, whose departures above and below the mean should
be of considerable amount.

Suppose, for instance, that we have twenty-four points
in our series, and that we groupa long series of
temperature observations in rows of twenty-four each,
the time distance between two contiguous members
of one row being one hour. The series would thus rep-
resent the mean solar day, and we should, without doubt,
obtain from a final summation of our rows a result ex-
hibiting a prominent temperature fluctuation of a well-
defined character, which we might measure (as long as
we keep to twenty-four points) by simply adding together
all the departures of its various points from the mean,
whether these points lie above or below; in fine, by ob-
taining the area of the curve, which is the graphical rep-
resentation of the inequality above and below the line of
abscisse taken to represent tne mean of all the poiuts.
Suppose next that, still keeping to rows of twenty-four,
we should make the time interval between two contigu-
ous members of a row somewhat different from one
hour, whether greater or less, we should now in either
case obtain a result exhibiting, when measured as above,
a much smaller inequality than that given when the inter-
vai was exactly one hour; and it is even possible that, if
our series of observations were sufficiently extensive, we
should obtain hardly any traces of an inequality what-
ever.

In fine, when each row accurately represented a solar
day, the result would be an inequality of large amount;
but when each row represented a period either slightly
less or greater than aday, the result would be an in-
equality of small amount. This process, as far as I have
described it, is not new, inasmuch as something of this
kind must be pursued in all attempts to detect mequal-
ities. In the present instance we should by its means,
after bestowing enormous labor in variously grouping,
in accordance with a great number of periods taken at
small intervals from each other, obtain definite results.
These might be graphically represented in the following
manner :—

The line of abscisse might be taken to denote the
exact values of the various periods, forming a time-scale,
in fact, while the ordinates might represent the areas or
summations obtained as above by employing these
various periods. There would thus be in the case
now used for illustration a very prominent peak, corre-
sponding to twenty-four hours, which would fall off very
rapidly on either side. ’

By means of the process now described we should at
length, after enormous labor, obtain a graphical result,
showing the exact position in the time-scale of the ob-
served maximum inequality. In conjunction with Mr.
William Dodgson, I have devised a method by which
this labor is very greatly reduced, and the process so
modified has been applied by us in order to determine
whether there be inequalities of short period in the ob-
served areas of the sun-spots occurring on the visible hem-
isphere of the sun. We have detected an inequality of this
nature corresponding in period to 24.011 days, which,
when subjected to a certain purifying treatment, appears
to us to exhibit the marks of a true periodicity. But it
has been suggested by Prof. Stokes that a method of this

nature for detecting inequalities might with greater pro-
priety be employed as a crucible for testing the value of
some hypothesis introduced into it from without.

Acting upon this suggestion I have ventured to intro-
duce the planetary hypothesis, and to ask whether the
above sun-spot inequality of short period may not in
reality be caused by an intra-Mercurial planet. It is
quite easy to put this hypothesis toa test, taking for our
guidance the results obtained by the Kew observers.

For what do these results exhibit ? In the first place they ~

exhibit the probability of a sun-spot inequality corre-
sponding to the period of Mercury round the sun; and
in the next they exhibit the probability of similar inequal-
ities corresponding to the synodic period of Mercury and
Venus, and to the synodic period of Mercury and Jupiter.

Now if there be an intra-Mercurial planet of period

24.011 days, it will have the following synodic periods :—
Wiithy Mereurys sees e eee ane 33.025 days.
With Venus..75-.. SARS 45. £ 26 884 days.
Witha)upitense hae ae caeeee 24.145 days.

In conjunction with Mr. Dodgson I have applied the
above method of analysis with the view of ascertaining
whether there be well-marked sun-spot inequalities nearly
corresponding to these periods, and we have obtained
the following results :—

A very prominent inequality of period...... 32.955 days.
A very prominent inequality of period...... 26.871 days.
A less prominent inequality of period... ..24.142 days.

It will thus be noticed that there are prominent sun-
spot inequalities, the periods of which agree very well
with the synodic periods of the supposed planet with
Mercury, Venus, and Jupiter, more especially if we bear
in mind that this is only a first approximation.

The test, however, is not yet complete. Referring
once more to the results of the Kew observers, it will be
noticed that we have approximately maxima of sun-spot
areas when Mercury and Venus, or when Mercury and
Jupiter are in conjunction. Now if we assume that there
is an intra-Mercurial planet of period 24.011 days, we
are as yet unable to assign its exact position in ecliptical
longitude at any moment. We know its period, and-we
may presume that it has considerable eccentricity, but
we know nothing else. We may, however, assume as most
probable that the maximum point of the inequality of
period 32.955 days corresponds to the conjunction of
the planet with Mercury, the maximum point of the in-
equality of period 26.871 days to its conjunction with
Venus, and the maximum point of the inequality of
period 24.142 days to its conjunction with Jupiter. On
this assumption, and knowing the average rate of motion
of the planet in its orbit, we may deduce approximately
its position at a given epoch independently from each of
the three synodic periods above mentioned, and these
positions ought to agree together, if our hypothesis be
correct.

I have done this approximately, but am not able to
bring exact figures before this meeting. The agreement
is as great as can be expected, bearing in mind
that we know only the average rate of motion of the
planet, and not the variations of its rate, inasmuch as we
are iguorant of its eccentricity. J think I may state that
three independent values of its position corresponding to
January 1, 1832, will be obtained, and that the mean
difference of a single value from the mean of the whole
will probably not. be more than twenty degrees. It
would thus appear from this investigation that the evi-
dence is in favor of the sun-spot inequality of 24.011
days being due to an intra-Mercurial planet. Of course
a single research of this nature is insufficient to establish
a theory of this importance, but as there are several
short-period solar inequalities, the same method may be
pursued for each, an operation which demands nothing
but time and labor. It appears to me of great importance
that these short-period solar inequalities should be sys-
tematically examined after this method.

_ SCIENCE.

495

ee aa an

MICROSCOPY.

Mr. C. Henry Kain thus describes in the August num-
ber of Zhe American Journal of Microscopy, his new
mechanical finger for the microscope, which will be found
a useful addition to the instrument.

A glance at the engraving will render the working of it
intelligible to all. It consists essentially of a slotted bar
which may be firmly clamped to the upper (immovable) bar
of the fine adjustment by means of a milled-headed screw.
Through the end of this is fastened a round rod, at such
a distance from the objective that, when lowered, the end
will not strike the stage. Over this rod slips a split tube,
to which is soldered at an angle, a smaller tube. Through
the small tube passes a rod carrying a glass hair at itsex-
tremity. This rod is easily rotated by means of a milled
head. The capillary glass thread is attached to the ex-
tremity by means of beeswax. The arrangement of split
tubes was suggested by Mr. Edward Pennock, to take the
place of abinding screw which I had intended; it is a
very neat and convenient affair, and much less clumsy
than the arrangement I originally proposed. It will be
noticed that the finger has no revolving collar, as it is quite
unnecessary, especially when the microscope is provided
with a revolving stage. By dispensing with the revolving
collar and making all movements depend entirely upon
the adjustments of the microscope, greater stability and
accuracy in working are secured.

To use the finger, the point of the glass thread is first
brought into the focus of the objective, or nearly so, by
sliding the tube on the vertical rod and pushing or pulling
the rod carrying the glass thread until the desired position
is attained. It is not difficult to do this, and, having once
been done by hand, it does not have to be repeated, as all
further movements are made by the adjustments of the
microscope. Supposing now the point of the glass thread

A NEW

MECHANICAL FINGER.

/

to be in focus; by means of the fine adjustment throw
the focus ahead of the point, then, by means of the coarse
adjustment, rack down and search for the cbject you wish
to pick up. Having found the object desired, again bring
the point of the thread into focus by means of the fine
adjustment; then rack down with the coarse adjustment
and pick it up. Now rack back with the coarse adjust-
ment, remove the slip on which the material is spread, and
place your prepared slip or cover upon the stage. Again,
by means of the fine adjustment, throw the focus ahead
of the object, rack down with the coarse adjustment and
search for the spot where you wish to deposit the object,
and, having found it, again focus the object, then rack
down with the coarse adjustment, and, when the object
touches the slide and has been placed in proper position,
fix it by means of a very gentle breath. There are many
other devices by which this useful little instrument may
be used for a variety of purposes, for a description of

which we refer the reader to Professor Phin’s journal.

PENNOCK’S OBLIQUE DIAPHRAGM.—The accompany-
ing engravings show a new form of oblique diaphragm
devised by Mr. E. Pennock, and described by him in 7he
American Journal of Microscopy (August, 1881). It is
designed to-be attached to the under side of the stage for
shutting off all light except a small pencil from the mirror.
Its function is the same as Smith’s >-shaped diaphragm.
It is an adaptation of Mr. Mayall’s spiral diaphragm,
which was originally designed for use with condensers of
wide aperture, and was described in a recent number of
the Journal of the Royal Microscopical Soczety. e

It may be mounted in either of two forms: the one to
fit into the usual tube, which, in the cheaper microscopes,
is attached to the under side of the stage; the other to
screw directly into the stage aperture.

ity

=] i.

im,

A. Tube 1% inch in diameter, fitting into accessory
tube beneath stage.

B. Upper plate (shown as under) having radial slot.

Cc. Under plate, having spinal slot.

D. Screw joining the plates.

The manner of using it to obtain pencils of varying
degrees of obliquity will be sufficiently manifest from the
construction.

Fic. 2—PLAN OF UPPER AND LOWER PLATES MOVING
EACH OTHER,

FULLY ON

CORRESPONDENCE.

[The Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed
by his correspondents. No notice ts taken af anonymous communi-
cations.)

To the Editor of “SCIENCE.”

I do not like to see so great an authority as Faraday
misunderstood, as he evidently is by your correspondent
on page 459 of your journal, and that too, in a way
which he took particular care to caution against—as to
the law of gravitating action. That it acts inversely as
the square of the distance he fully believed and admit-
ted; or, to use his own words, “I know it is so.”

If your correspondent finds difficulty to account by
this law for the return of the earth from aphelion to peri-
helion, let him try to account for the return of a stone to
the earth when thrown up into the air; for precisely the
same explanation applies to both, the highest point of
the stone’s path being ‘“‘aphelion.”” The resistance of
the air need not be regarded, for, though it modifies the
stone’s path, it does not affect the theory of the action of

gravity. GEO. B. MERRIMAN,
RUTGERS COLLEGE.

406 SCIENCE.

To the Editor of “SCIENCE :” : optical capacity of telescopes in private hands that the

I have no desire to make any rejoinder to Dr. Rogers’ | Very title of this treatise would convey an inaccurate im-
reply (see SCIENCE, p. 459), but am willing to leave his | Pression unless its contents were modified in accordance

answer with your readers just as he has given them. with the requirements of the time. ;
I desire, however, to make the following corrections in Without abandoning that elementary character which
my published letter :-— may still make it serviceable to beginners, its compass

On p. 458, next to last paragraph, for “author of above | Must now be greatly extended, if it may hope for ac-
question ”’ read “ author of above quotation.” Same page, | C€ptance as a manual by the more advanced student ;
last paragraph, for “ As to the law of inertia” read “As | and with this object, as the increase of telescopic range
by the law of inertia.” And on p. 459, last line of first chiefly affects the sidereal portion, recourse has been had

paragraph, for “centrifugal” read “centripetal.” for additional Double Stars to the great catalogue of
Drs MoInes, Sept. 26, 1881. J. E. HENDRICKS, Struve I., as wellas in a lesser degree to those of his son
and Burnham, and as regards Nebule to that of

BOOKS RECEIVED. Herschel II., with a total increase of about 1500 objects,

some of which are chosen as tests worthy of the finest

CELESTIAL OBJECTS FOR COMMON TELESCOPES, by instruments, but occasionally, as is well known, within

the Rev. T. W. WEBB, M. A,, F. R. A. S.—Fourth | Teach of those of more moderate dimensions.”

Edition — Revised and greatly enlarged — The In- The present edition of Mr. Webb’s will soon find pur-
dustrial Publication Company, No. 14 Dey street chasers, and we advise all those who desire to possess a
New York. Price $3.00. : * | copy, to be prompt in securing it. The work is an indis-

From. thebnumber pat emaniicaiewetnave recceaee pensable manual to all who possess a telescope, or have

: bee a taste for astronomical studies.
specting the expected issue of a fourth edition, we be-
lieve it will be welcome intelligence to our readers, to
learn that the work can now be obtained. A CORRECTION.—Professor Edward S. Morse desires
As the third edition was an enlargement of its pre- | to withdraw the first part of the last paragraph of the
decessors, so the present and latest edition has been re- | abstract of his paper on ‘ Changes in Mya and Lunatia
written and again enlarged. Mr..Webb thus states his | since the Deposition of the New England Shell Heaps,”
reasons for remodeling his work, and at the same time | and substitute the following :—
indicates many of the improvements that he has intro- ‘A comparison of the common beach cockle (Lunatia)
duced. from the shell heaps of Marblehead, Mass., showed that
“The unprecedented diffusion of a taste for astron- | the present form living on the shore to-day had a more
omical observation during the last seven years has | depressed spire than the ancient form; and this varia-
brought with it such a corresponding increase in the ! tion,” etc., etc.

METEOROLOGICAL REPORT FOR NEW YORK CITY FOR THE WEEK ENDING OCT. 8, 1881.

Latitude 40° 45’ 58" N.; Longitude 73° 57’ 58" W.; height of instruments above the ground, 53 feet ; above the sea, 97
feet ; by self-recording instruments.

BAROMETER. THERMOMETERS.
MEAN EOR - eae ; ; opene ’
Gann THN. MAXIMUM. MINIMUM, MEAN. MAXIMUM. MINIMUM. MAXI'M
OCTOBER, Reduced | Reduced : Reduced _ Dry | Wet | Dry : Wet : ee | eaen Wet :
to. = toy Time. to. Time. | Buib.| Bulb.| Bulb. Time. | pip. Time. | pulp.) Time. | puyp,| Time. |InSun.
Freezing,| Freezing. Freezing. |
Sunday, 2--| 30.293 30.348 | 9 a.m.| 30:196 |12 p.m.| 66.3 | 62.0] 75 |oa.m.) 68 |oa.m.| 63 [11 pim.| 61 |11 p.m. 92.
Monday, 3--| 29.961 30.196 oa.m.| 29.8908 6 p.m.| 74.3 | 68.3 82 4p.m.| 71 4p.m.| 63 oa.m.| 61 oa.m.} 137.
Tuesday, 4--| 29.739 29.902 oa.m,| 29.632 3 Pp: m.| 67.3 | 59:3 77 3Pp.m,| 66 | 3p.m.| 50 |12 p.m.| 45 |12 p.m,| 131.
Wednesday, 5 -| 30.135 30.268 |12 p.m.| 29.788 | o a.m.| 40.0 | 35.6] 46 |4p.m.| 40 | 5 p.m.| 35 | 8a.im.] 31 | 8 a.m! Ito,
Thursday, 6--| 30.246 30.350 g a.m.| 30.196 4p.m.] 49.0 | 43.3 60 4 p.m.| 50 4 pean.) 36. || 6 alm) 96 7a.m.| 118.
Friday, 7--| 30.229 30.298 g a.m.} 30.188 4 p.m.| 60.7 | 53-7 7o 4Pp.m.| 59 3 p.m.) 48 6 a.m.| 46 6 a.m.| 130.
Saturday, 8__| 30.022 30.196 |oa.m.| 29.804 |12 p.m.| 69.6] 61.3 | 80 | 4 p.m.| 67 5p.m.| 59 | 7 a.m.} 55 | 4 a.m) 134.
Dry. Wet.
Mean forithe, week.:--) + 5-222 5-s8ccu eee ee dea ean ase 30.089 inches. Mean for the week_.-------------- Gr,o\depreestese=e=e=—eee 54.5 degrees.
Maximum for the week at g a. m., Oct. 6th wo5090:350 sass Maximum forthe week,at4pm. 3d 82. Bs at 4pm 34d, 71.
Minimum = at 3 p.m., Oct. 4th Ben 2g:03926 one Minimum ‘ SeStambastuies ss ; at 8pm sth, 31. Dy
Range sees bos case eeeent ete eee eee eee 71s) Range ‘“ M, piseee eae 47- S caceeeeoeeeee 40. af
WIND. HYGROMETER. CLOUDS. RAIN AND SNOW gd
i, z ete ae eae g
FORCE IN pies
: VELOCITY RELATIVE CLEAR, ° DEPTH OF RAIN AND SNOW | 9
EUS AcE EeA SD IN/ MILES, || Leow SER s|FORCEOF VALOR: | HUMIDITY, OVERCAST. 10 IN INCHES,
SQR. FEET. pier wre ad ha
7 = = A A : : : : Th; > Tessa
OCTOBER, | Distance} ,; | = 5 A) 8) & E A & 5 Time aes Dura- 55 °
7a,m.|2 p.m.|9 p.m.| forthe |¢| Time. | @ | A | &| ad | al & s a 6 | Begin-| End- | #9 |2 510
Days ke as ON Sie ey = » 2 ing. | ing. h. m. as
Sunday, 2.| 1, e. /& n.e.| €, 184 |5 8.30pm| .495 | .502 | .497| 70 | 78 | 83 |g cu. g cu, TO" Ch SE eR ees o
. 4.30am|g.30am)| 5.00 | .26] 0
Monday, 3-| S. W. w. n, W. 124 |5 | 3.50pm] .577 | .598 | .666 | 84 | 58 | 77 |1x0 |4 cir. cu.|4 cu, { HES Peoeth ae e7l'9
Tuesday, es w. |W.n.W.)n.n. Ww. 201 9 8.co pm| .529 | .490 | .230 | 75 | 53 | 5 |8 cu. 7 cu. QiGUS | When eather ee artnet ibs)
Wednesday, 5-.n.n. w.'n.n.w.|n.n. Ww. 377. +|12| 4.40 am| .142 | .129 | .t90 | 79 | 44 | 74 |O ° O-- 9 ine cca Hee el eas eeilho.
Thursday, 6-) n. w. |W.n.w.| w. 176 |2%| 1.copm| .199 | .179 | .256| go | 40 | 6x |o ovr ° ES es eh hee,
Friday, 7..W.S.W.| S.W. | S.S.W 153 |334| 1.copm! .258 | .290 | .433 | 71 | 42 | 73 |8 cu. }gcir.cu.Jo | ~---= | w---~ | -+--- ai Var
Saturday, 8-|W.S. W. |W. S. W.|W.S. We 212 |3%| 2.30pm! .409 | .422 | .476! &2! 45 | 59 |3 clr. cu.|4 cir, Cu.!4 Cu. useees | -e--- | -----
Distance traveled during the week. ....--...--- -------.--- 1,427 miles, Total amount of water for the week..-...-------.-------------- -33 inch,
Masimum f0rce, 2.2252 ensa= = see aera ae een nena ane ee 12% |bs. Duration/of rains. = 2 cack os eee een eee 5 hours, 20 minutes,

DANIEL DRAPER, Ph. D.
Director Meteorological Observatory of the Department of Public Parks, New York.

SCEENCE.

497

SC ERINGE

A WEEKLY ReEcorp OF SCIENTIFIC

PRoGRESS.

JOHN MICHELS, Editor.

THERMS:
Per YEAR, - - - - Four DoLLArRs
: Monvrus, 2 = - - Two ue
“c = 5 = = ONE “ce
Saher CoplEs, - - - TEN CENTS.

PUBLISHED AT
TRIBUNE BUILDING, NEW YORK.
P, O, Box 8888.

LONDON, ENGLAND, - - - - 150 LEADENHALL ST.

SATURDAY, OCTOBER 22, 1881.

TO OUR ENGLISH READERS.

We have received from Messrs. Deacon & Co., of I50
Leadenhall street, London, England, a standing order for
a large supply of “Science,” which will be forwarded
weekly. We shall be obliged if our English readers will
make this fact known to their friends.

THE REVELATIONS OF THE AUTOPSY HELD
ON THE BODY OF THE LATE PRESIDENT.

Tue Medical Record of October 8th contains an
account by Dr. Bliss, the late President’s attending
surgeon, of the life history of his illustrious patient,
as well as the fost mortem observations recorded at
the time of the autopsy, and also at a later period,
by those who examined the specimens preserved 1 in
the Army Medical Museum.

Inasmuch as the various diagnoses, made during
Mr. Garfield’s life, as to the location of the bullet,
and the injury sustained by various organs, were all
of them erroneous, and as the secular and medical
journals have already discussed those topics ad
nauseam, we shall limit ourselves to a relation of the
leading features in the light of the anatomical
findings.

For similar reasons, we shall give no space to a
discussion of the views expressed by a physician, who,
after incurring considerable ridicule at the hands of
the medical profession, and much obloquy at the
hands of the public, on account of his sensational
experiments on dead bodies, and whose claimed
results no doubt misled the eminent surgeons at the
President’s bed-side, publishes a fost mortem diag-
nosis of the case in the same issue of the Record.
In it he seeks to prove that if the bullet was found
in an entirely different locality from the one his ex-
periments induced him to surmise, it wouwdd, had it

have gone a little further, infallibly have dropped into
a similar situation on the offosize side! One of the
leading medical journals has no other comment to
make on this performance, and, as far as we can learn,
that comment- expresses the general opinion of the
medical profession, than to announce that a leading
circus company has engaged the services of Dr.
Fanueil D. Weisse to repeat his celebrated experi-
ments in the course of the programme.

We subjoin the essential portions of Dr. Bliss’
report :—

The depressed cicatrix of the wound made by the
pistol-bullet was recognized over the tenth intercostal
space, three and one-half inches to the right of the
vertebral spines. A deep linear incision (made in
part by the operation of July 24, and extended by
that of August 8) occupied a position closely corres-
ponding to the upper border of the right twelfth rib.
It commenced posteriorly about two inches from the
vertebral spines, and extended forward a little more
than three inches. At the anterior extremity of this
incision there was a deep, nearly square abraded sur-
face about an inch across.

On inspection of the abdominal viscera in situ, the
transverse colon was observed to lie a little above the
line of the umbilicus. It was firmly adherent to the
anterior edge of the liver. The greater omentum
covered the intestines pretty thoroughly from the
transverse colon almost to the pubes. It was still
quite fat, and was very much blackened by venous
congestion. On both sides its lateral margins were
adherent to the abdominal parietes opposite the
eleventh and twelfth ribs. On the left side the ad-
hesions were numerous, firm, well organized and
probably old.

These adhesions, and the firm ones on the nght
side, as well as those of the spleen, possibly date back
to an attack of chronic dysentery, from which the pa-
tient is said to have suffered during the civil war. On
the right side there were a few similar adhesions, and
a number of more delicate and probably recent ones.

A mass of black, coagulated blood covered and
concealed the spleen and the left margin of the
greater omentum. On raising the omentum it was
found that this blood-mass extended through the left
lumbar and iliac regions and dipped down into the
pelvis, in which there was some clotted blood and
rather more than a pint of bloody fluid. The blood-
coagula having been turned out and collected, meas-
ured very nearly a pint. It was now evident that
secondary hemorrhage had been the immediate cause
of death, but the point from which the blood had
escaped was not at once apparent.

The adhesions between the liver and the transverse
colon proved to bound an aécess-cavizy between the
under-surface of the liver, the transverse colon, and
the transverse mesocolon, which involved the gall-
bladder, and extended to about the same distance on
each side of it, measuring six inches transversely ‘and
four inches from before backward. This cavity was
lined by a thick pyogenic membrane, which completely
replaced the capsule of that part of the undersurface
of the liver occupied by the abscess. It contained

498

SCIENCE.

about two ounces of greenish yellow fluid—a mixture
of pus and biliary matter.
volve any portion of the substance of the liver except
the surface with which it was in contact, and no

This abscess did not in- |

communication could be detected between it and any |

part of the wound.

Some recent peritoneal adhesions existed between
the upper surface of the right lobe of the liver and the
diaphragm.. The Zver was larger than normal, weigh-
ing eighty-four ounces ; its substance was firm, but of

a pale yellowish color on its surface and throughout |

the interior of the organ, from fatty degeneration.

No evidence that it had been penetrated by the |
bullet could be found, nor were there any abscesses |

or infarctions in any part of its tissue.

The sf/een was connected to the diaphragm by
firm, probably old, peritoneal adhesions. ‘There were
several rather deep congenital fissures in its margins,
giving it alobulated appearance. It was abnormally
large, weighing eighteen ounces ; of a very dark lake-
red color both on the surface and on section. Its
parenchyma was soft and flabby, but contained no ab-
scesses or infarctions.

There were some recent peritoneal adhesions be-
tween the posterior wail of the stomach and the pos-
terior abdominal parietes. With this exception no
abnormities were discovered in the stomach or zn-
testines, nor were any other evidences of general or
local peritonitis found besides those already specified.

The right kidney weighed six ounces, the deft kidney
seven. Just beneath the capsule of the left kidney, at
about the middle of its convex border, there was a
little abscess one-third of an inch in diameter, and
there were three small serous cysts on the convex bor-
der of the right kidney, just beneath the capsule; in
other respects the tissue of both kidneys was normal
in appearance and texture.

The urinary bladder was empty.

Behind the right kidney, after the removal of that
organ from the body, the dilated track of the bullet
was dissected into. It was found that from the
point at which it had fractured the right eleventh rib
(three and one-half inches to the nght of the vertebral
spines) that missile had gone to the left, obliquely
forward, passing through the body of the first lumbar
vertebra and lodging in the adipose connective tissue
immediately below the lower border of the pancreas,
about two and one-half inches to the left of the spinal
column, and behind the peritoneum. It had become
completely encysted.

The track of the bullet between the point at which
it had fractured the eleventh rib and that at which it
entered the first lumbar vertebra was considerably di-
lated, and the pus had burrowed downward through
the adipose tissue behind the right kidney, and thence
had found its way between the peritoneum and the
right iliac fascia, making a descending channel which
extended almost to the groin. The adipose tissue be-
hind the right kidney, and thence had found its way
between the peritoneum and the right iliac fascia,
making a descending channel which extended almost
to the groin. The adipose tissue behind the kidney
in the vicinity of this descending channel was much
thickened and condensed by inflammation. In the
channel, which was almost free from pus, lay the flex-
ible catheter introduced into the wound at the com-

mencement of the autopsy; its extremity was found
doubled upon itself, immediately beneath the perito-
neum, reposing upon the iliac fascia, where the chan-
nel was dilated into a pouch of considerable size.
This long descending channel, now clearly seen to be

_ caused by the burrowing of pus from the wound, was

supposed, during life, to have been the track of the

_ bullet.

The last dorsal, together with the first and second
lumbar vertebra and the twelfth rib, were then re-
moved from the body for more thorough examination.

When this examination was made, it was found
that the bullet had penetrated the first lumbar verte-
bra in the upper part of the right side of its body.
The aperture by which it entered involved the inter-
vertebral cartilage next above, and was situated just
below and anterior to the intervertebral foramen, from

_ which its upper: margin was about one-fourth of an

inch distant. Passing obliquely to the left, and for-
ward through the upper part of the body of the first
lumbar vertebra, the bullet emerged by an aperture,
the centre of which was about one-half inch to the
left of the median line, and which also involved the
intervertebral cartilage next above. The cancellated
tissue of the body of the first lumbar vertebra was
very much comminuted and the fragments somewhat
displaced. Several deep fissures extended from the
track of the_bullet into the lower part of the body of
the twelfth dorsal vertebra. Others extended through
the first lumbar vertebra into the intervertebral carti-
lage between it and the second’ lumbar vertebra.
Both this cartilage and that next above were partly
destroyed by ulceration. A number of minute frag-
ments from the fractured lumbar vertebra had been
driven into the adjacent soft parts.

It was further found that the right twelfth rib also
was fractured at a point one and one-fourth inch to
the right of the traverse process of the twelfth dorsal

-vertebra ; this injury had not been recognized during

life.

On sawing through the vertebra, a little to the right
of the median line, it was found that the spinal canal
was not involved by the track of the ball. The spinal
cord, and other contents of this portion of the spinal
canal, presented no abnormal appearances. ‘The rest
of the spinal cord was not examined.

Beyond the first lumbar vertebra, the bullet con-
tinued to go to the left, passing behind the pancreas
to the point where it was found. Here it was en-
veloped in a firm cyst of connective tissue, which
contained, besides the ball, a minute quantity of in-
spissated, somewhat cheesy pus, which formed a thin
layer over a portion of the surface of the lead.
There was also a black shred adherent to a part of
the cyst-wall, which p:oved, on microscopical exam-
ination, to be the remains of a blood-clot. For about
an inch from this cyst the track of the ball behind
the pancreas was completely obliterated by the healing -
process. Thence, as far backward as the body of
the first lumber vertebra, the track was filled with
coagulated blood, which extended on the left into an
irregular space rent in the adjoining adipose tissue
behind the peritoneum and above the pancreas. The
blood had worked its way to the left, bursting finally
through the peritoneum behind the spleen into the
abdominal cavity. The rending of the tissues by the

SCIENCE.

extravasation of this blood was undoubtedly the
cause of the paroxysms of pain which occurred a
short time before death.

This mass of coagulated blood was of irregular
form, and nearly as large as a man’s fist.
distinctly seen from in front through the peritoneum,
after its site behind the greater curvature of the
stomach had been exposed by the dissection of the
greater omentum from the stomach, and especially
after some delicate adhesions between the stomach
and the part of the peritoneum covering the blood-
mass had been broken down by the fingers. From
the relations of the mass as thus seen, it was believed
that the hemorrhage had proceeded from one of the
mesenteric arteries, but as it was clear that a minute
dissection would be required to determine the par-
ticular branch involved, it was agreed that the infil-
trated tissues and the adjoining soft parts should be
preserved for subsequent study.

On the examination and dissection made in ac-
cordance with this agreement, it was found that the
fatal hemorrhage proceeded from a rent, nearly four
tenths of an inch long, in the main trunk of the
splenic artery, two and one-half inches to the left of
the coeliac axis. This rent must have occurred at
least several days before death, since the everted edges
in the slit in the vessel were united by firm adhesions
to the surrounding connective tissue, thus forming an
almost continuous wall bounding the ad-
joining portion of the blood-clot. More-
over, the peripheral portion of the clot in
this vicinity was disposed in pretty firm
concentric layers. It was further found

It could be |

499

between its upper and lower lobes, was congenitally
incomplete. The lower lobe of the night lung was
hypostatically congested, and considerable portions,
especially toward its base, were the seat of broncho
pneumonia. The bronchial tubes contained a consid-
erable quantity of stringy muco-pus; their mucous
surface was reddened by catarrhal bronchitis. The
lung-tissue was oedematous, but contained no abcesses
or infarctions.

On the left side the lower lobe of the lung was
bound behind to the costal pleura, above to the upper
lobe, and below tothe diaphragm, by pretty firm
pleuritic adhesions. The Ze/¢ dung weighed twenty-
seven ounces. The condition of the bronchial tubes
and of the lung-tissue was very nearly the same as on
the right side, the chief difference being that the area
of the broncho-pneumonia in the lower lobe was much
less extensive in the left lung than in the right. In
the lateral part of the lower lobe of the left lung, and
about an inch from its pleural surface, there was a
group of four minute areas of gray hepatization, each
about one-eighth of an inch in diameter. There were
no infractions and no abcesses in any part of the
lung tissue.

The surgeons assisting at the autopsy were unani-
mously of the opinion that, on reviewing the history of
the case in connection with the autopsy, it is quite

that the cyst below the lower margin of
the pancreas, in which the bullet was
found, was situated three and one-half
inches to the left of the coeliac axis.

Besides the mass of coagulated blood
just described, another, about the size of
a walnut, was found in the greater omen-
tum, near the splenic extremity of the
stomach. The communication, if any,
between this and the larger hemorrhage
mass could not be made out.

The examination of the thoracic viscera
resulted as follows :

The feart weighed eleven ounces. All
the cavities were entirely empty except
the right ventricle, in which a few shreds
of soft, reddish, coagulated .blood ad-
hered to the internal surface. On the surface of
the mitral valve there were several spots of fatty
degeneration; with this exception the cardiac valves
were normal. The muscular tissue of the heart was
soft, and tore easily. A few spots of fatty degene-
ration existed in the lining membrane of the aorta
just above the semilunar valves, and a slender clot of
fibrin was found in the aorta, where it was divided,
about two inches from these valves, for the removal
of the heart.

On the right side slight pleuritic adhesions ex-
isted between the convex surface of the lower lobe of
the lung and the costal pleura, and firm adhesions
between the anterior edge of the lower lobe, the peri-
cardium, and the diaphragm. The right dung weighed
thirty-two ounces. The posterior part of the fissure,

DiaGram or A HorizontaL SECTION THROUGH A FROZEN Human CADAVER
AT THE LEVEL OF THE PANCREAS,

evident that the different suppurating surfaces, and es-
pecially the fractured spongy tissue of the vertebra
furnish a sufficient explanation of the septic conditions
which existed during life.

The accompanying diagrams (page 503) from the
Medical Record illustrate the course of the bullet very
aptly. Fig. 6 is, in our opinion, valueless as a diagram,
and it is difficult to harmonize the statements about
the track of the ball, and the figure reference, “ injury
to artery” in the latter illustration. ‘The figure refer-
ence, “ Point of impact of ball and deflection,’ may
be also taken with some allowance.

We have added a schematic drawing taken from a
plate representing a frozen section through the human

500

body, in the horizontal plane (supposing the body
standing), and figured of the life size in Braune’s mag-
nificent “Atlas.” Such a diagram more accurately
represents the course of the bullet topographically,
than the ones selected by Dr. Bliss seem to us to do.
It is a noteworthy fact, that on marking the topo-
graphical projection of the fracture of the r1th mb,
that is the point of impact (XI), the fracture of the
r2th rib (XII), the aperture of entry into the lumbar
vertebra (c’), the aperture of exit (c”), and the termi-
nus of the bullet track, where the bullet was found
encysted, on this frozen section, and connecting all
these points by a line, that line ts found to be perfectly
straight / It will be seen on examining the figures 4
and 5 furnished by the President’s physician, that the
bullet track was as straight as an arrow in its frontal
projection, and as far as it involved the bony struc-

tures.
Now, a line which appears as a straight line in two

projections of space, is a straight line in fact, and
from this point of view, the case merits renewed dis-

cussion.
It must be recollected that our diagram represents

a horizontal plane of the body, and the one where the
bullet was found encysted. The point of impact lies
much higher, thé liver in that higher level occupies a
greater area of the section, and the bullet in passing
the peritoneum seems to have grazed the latter. It
could hardly have done so without “ nicking” the lower
part of the pleural cavity, which descends to this
level as a fine slit. The pleuritic adhesions found at
the lower part of the right lung, sustain this view.

In the light of modern surgery, an examination of
this wound could have presented no difficulties. It is
illustrative of the unfortunate position in which the
President’s physicians find themselves placed, when
attempting to defend their course, that the only exam-
ination of the wound, which they are able to refer to,
is that made by the Surgeon General of the Navy,
who was checked in his examination, and excluded
from the President’s bed-side by those later in charge
of the patient. That the fracture of the nbs was not
recognized by the attendants, untilsuppuration near the
point of impact necessitated the removal of dead and
decaying fragments of bone, is also a remarkable
feature of the case. The course of the bullet from
the point of impact, being a direct one to the lumbar
vertebra, it is difficult to conceive howa thorough digi-
tal and instrumental examination could have failed to

detect the irregularity produced on the vertebral body |

by the entrance of the bullet.

None of the procedures necessary to have deter-
mined the bullet track from the point of impact to the
point of entry into the spinal column, would have
been unwarrantable to the most conservative surgeon,

SCIENCE.

Lone of these procedures would have been more risky
than the one later resorted to in the case, when the false
bullet track was repeatedly probed to a distance of

twelve inches.
At this point criticism must necessarily pause, with

reference to the question of the examination of the
wound. The perforation of the lumbar vertebra
having been detected, a bold surgeon might shrink
from passing his probe further and following up the
bullet-track into the regions beyond, through a per-
forated segment of the spinal column. What now,
in the light of the fost mortem seems perfectly
feasable, during the President's life would have been
considered as “heroic” a surgery, as can well be con-
ceived. That a surgeon endowed with the necessary
amount of daring, and that great essential the actus
eruditus, could have passed a probe through the ver-
tebra and touched the bullet, wzthout injuring any
important organ, must be admitted by every impartial
expert who bears in mind the directness of the bullet

track.
This question, however, represents rather a side-

issue, when it is recollected that it was not the location
of the ball, or its presence in the body, that killed
the President. It is only as an illustration of the
extent to which the public was misled, and we fear
intentionally misled, by some of the President’s phy-
sicians, that it merits being referred to.

One of the consulting surgeons stated in an ironical
way that the bullet could have been removed if its
situation had been known, provided the surgeon had,
as a preliminary, removed several lumbar vertebre,
and groped his way among the great nerves, the
thoracic duct, the Aorta and the Vena Cava. This
assertion is stated by no less a one than Dr. Ham-
mond, to be an intentional deception of the people,
as it was made through the columns of the daily
papers. The reader will see in our diagram that the
Aorta and Vena Cava have absolutely no relations to
the bullet-track or to the seat of the bullet. Had the
situation of the latter been appreciated during life, an
incision on the left side of the spinal column would
have been in order. This incision and the entire
operation would have been the strict counterparts of
certain of the legitimate operations of modern surgery,
namely of nephrotomy and lumbo-colotomy. It is bad
surgery which insists that in every bullet wound, the

bullet has to be extracted through its own track. A

bullet perforating the thigh to within an inch of the
surface on the other side, is to be extracted from the
point where it is nearest the surface.

The reader will find the left kidney indicated at K,
this is operated on in the operation of nephrotomy,
he will find the descending colon at (C.d.), this is
opened into in the operation of lumbo-colotomy; —

SCIENCE.

The same risks would have to be taken in the extrac-
tion of the bullet that are familiar to the surgeon who
performs the latter operation.

_ Leaving aside all speculative issues, let us trace out
the symptoms of the heroic and patient sufferer and
their basis, as inferable from the autopsy.

When first struck by the bullet, the President suf-
fered from Surgical Shock. The wound was so severe
that his death might have taken place in a few hours ;
death so occurs to soldiers on the field of battle, who
receive similar wounds. His treatment, which con-
sisted in the administration of stimulants and opium,
was eminently proper, and doubtless aided by the
powerful constitution, overcame the tendency to a
fatal collapse.

A tendency to such a collapse recurred at a later
period, when Dr. Wales thought the President dying.
The primary hemorrhage from the wound was insig-
nificant, no important blood vessels were injured, and
the hemorrhage seems to have been mainly external.
At a later period an escape of dark venous blood from
the wound seems to us to have indicated necrotic
usure of the large veins running in the substance of
the injured vertebral body.

The painful sensations experienced in the distribu-
tion of all the nerves, originating from the crural and
particularly the sacral plexus, are attributable to the
sudden shock acting on the vertebralcolumn. There
is no evidence that any hemorrhage occurred around
the nerve roots, or any inflammatory disturbance of
the cord or its membranes. The spontaneous disap-
pearance of these nervous symptoms proves conclu-
sively that they were due to the kind of shock, fre-
quently occurring in the practice of military surgeons,
and well described by Mitchell, Morehouse and
Keene in their work on nerve-injuries. That the
nerves on the right side suffered more than those of
the left, is attributable to the greater nearness of the
right vertebral bullet aperture to the inter-vertebral
foramen, where the nerves concerned in the tegumen-
tary supply of the most painful region in this case

emerge.
The main injury done by the bullet in its further

course, consisted in the irritation of important nerve
filaments connected with the Solar Plexus of the
Sympathetic System. Irritation of this Plexus, or its
derivative branches, accounts for the obstinate and
frequently recurring spells of nausea and vomiting, as
well as for the great acceleration of the pulse rate, so
marked a feature of the President’s history. These
same symptoms, through the same mechanism, occur
with peritonitis, and some of our best physicians sus-
pected the existence of this trouble, from these two
symptoms alone. It cannot be said that the imper-
fect and ambiguous post-mortem record quoted,

501

proves them to have been wrong in their surmise.

In view of the great irritability of the alimentary
canal, it is to be considered highly unfortunate that
the President’s dietary was not properly attended to,
At least two of his relapses were due to the undue
massing of food in his stomach, at what were consid-
ered convalescent periods. Though it is denied that
he was allowed improper articles, yet in view of
the fact that much of what occurred in the sick-
chambers, was rigidly ignored or suppressed by the
medical staff, and that on their own confession he was
fed on so injurious a combination as milk and lemon-
juice for the first few days after the injury, we can not
consider that assertion as an invention, until a more
authoritative denial be made, than the one vouch-

safed by Dr. Bliss.
Several days after the injury, when that examina-

tion of the wound was made, which should, in the
opinion of ninety-nine out of a hundred surgeons,
whom we have consulted or heard opinions from, been
made in the first place, a canal was found extending
downward to the pelvis. This is now known as the
fistulous tract represented on the body-diagram. It
was due to burrowing of the pus originating, be it
borne in mind, not from the bullet, not from the per-
forated vertebra, but from the neglected fragments of
the eleventh rib. The surgeons did all in their power
for a long period to oppose Nature’s attempt to close
this passage. Thus the pus-absorbing surfaces were
largely increased, and with it the dangers of pyzemia.

Without entering into the details of the management
of the case, let us conclude with an examination as
to the cause of death, The immediate cause of
death is stated by the attending surgeon to have been
hemorrhage from a dissecting aneurism of the splenic
artery. The evidence offered as to the existence of
such an aneurism is exceedingly feeble. It is founded
on an examination of the specimen after it had lain in
alcohol. Under such circumstances laminated layers,
as well as membranous precipitates are very apt to
form, and on the existence of these the diagnosis ap-
pears to rest. A far more naturalexplanation suggests
itself. Every medical student knows that when the
dead subject is injected for anatomical purposes
masses of blood or of the injecting material are very
apt to be found in the abdominal cavity, having es-
caped through rents in the arteries artificially pro-
duced. The pressure used by the embalmer when
injecting the President’s body was so great that in
several places Dr. Bliss is constrained to speak of
cavities, a large part of the fluid contained in which
had probably transuded from the injecting material of
the embalmer. The existence of other clots in the
omentum, and elsewhere in the peritoneal cavity,
shows that vessels altogether unconnected with the

502 :

SCIENCE.

wound were ruptured by the injecting pressure.
The autopsy should have been made before the
injection, and then we should have known whether
a heart-clot as an accompanying factor of death
from post-pyzemic exhaustion was present or not.
A physician might well blush for a profession, a
member of which could in the face of the criticism
waiting to hang on every expression that fell from his
lips, deliberately state that the President died of
“ Neuralgia of the Heart.”

The primary cause of death was unquestionably
pyemia. The attending surgeons persist in speaking
of septicemia, and their apologist in the Medical
Record, Dr. Shrady, ably shields their diagnosis by
saying that strictly speaking there is no such thing as
pyemia. It should be known, he claims, as metas-
tatic septicemia. The attending surgeons knew and
know what is meant by pyzmia, and deliberately de-
nied, and still deny, that the condition passing under
that name existed. The abscess of the parotid
gland, the abscess in the kidneys, and the foci
in the lungs are stubborn facts; but they do not ap-
pear to exist for those who seem interested in placing
their critics in the wrong.

In the conclusion of the report it is stated :—

“The surgeons assisting at the autopsy were unani-
mously of the opinion that, on reviewing the history
of the case in connection with the autopsy, it is quite
evident that the different suppurating surfaces, and
especially the fractured spongy tissue of the vertebra,
furnish a sufficient explanation of the septic conditions
which existed during life.”

This is admitted to be a correct inference by all
those competent to form an opinion. Probably many
will cavil at the term “especially” as destined to
make light of the responsibility involved in keeping
up that largest suppurating area in the President’s
body, the fistulous tract.

The lessons to be drawn from this surgical case,
and it must be borne in mind that just such a case is
reported as recovered in Dr. Hamilton’s text book,
are the following :—

1st. Experiments with projectiles on the dead body
do not constitute any guide applicable to given living
cases of gun-shot wound.”

2d. Surgeons will sin less by being bold in probing
and examining wounds, even when near the great cav-
ities of the body, than by being over-conservative and
taking chances.

3d. With a constitution like that of Mr. Garfield,
almost any operative procedure would be preferable
to a conservatism which, through its efforts to keep
up a false tract, increases the fatal chances of pyzemia.

Those interested in the mechanism of the impinge-
ment of projectiles, will scarcely credit the claim that

eleventh rib. A bullet which crushes through two
ribs, cuts clean through a vertebra, and penetrates
altogether over eight inches of bony, muscular and
fatty tissue in a straight line, and fired at so short a
range, can scarcely have been deflected by the very
rib it crushed to pieces. The simplest explanation of
its course is, that the assassin fired at the President
in a line directly continuous with the bullet track in
the latter’s body. ‘That is, he fired while the plane of
the President’s back was oblique to the plane of the
mouth of the revolver. With this the account given
by the assassin himself, the coolest and most un-
moved witness of the deed, is in accord throughout.

It should be recollected, what seems_to have been
overlooked by most ‘or all of those who have criticized
this case, that the relations of the parts into which the
bullet was fired, were altogether different at the time
of the assassination than when the autopsy was per-
formed. At that time large, fatty and muscular
masses had to be traversed by the ball, which, in
the course of the wasting process ensuing, had nearly
disappeared.

It is unfortunate that the brain was not examined.
The continual delirious state of the sufferer suggests
some metastatic affection of that organ. Probably
the reason this organ was not examined was the de-
sire to avoid disfigurement, but the brain can be re-
moved in even a bald person without the latter.

It may be here urged that the early performance of
the autopsy should not have interfered with the sub-
sequent embalming. The embalming procedure re-
sorted to in the President’s case was of the most
routine and imperfect character, and not remotely
comparable to the perfected processes employed by
the German and Italian anatomists and embalmers.

REFERENCES TO OuR DIAGRAM. PAGE 499.
PB. Pancreas.

p. p. ~. Peritoneal cavity, the contained intestines and
omental masses omitted.

é Vertebral entry of bullet.

e “s exit of £

Ca. Ascending colon.

Ca. Descending colon.

D. Extraperitoneal part of Duodenum.

dak Aorta.

Va Vena Cava.

K. Kk. Kidneys.

Sas Spinal Cord.

S Spleen.

The thick straight line represents the bullet track.
ry

PROTOPLASM STAINED WHILST Livinc.—Mr. L. F. Hen-
neguy publishes the result of some experiments made on
living infusoria, in which he confirms the observations of
Brandt, made in 1879, that an aqueous solution of aniline
brown, known in commerce as Bismarck brown, will give
an intense brownish-yellow color to the protoplasm of the
infusoria without in any way interfering with their enjoy-
ment of life. The coloration first appears in the vacuoles
of the protoplasm, then this latter is itself stained, the
nucleus being most generally not at first colored, and so
being made more conspicuous. Experiments made on

the bullet was deflected at its impinging point on the | vegetable protoplasm seemed to exhibit the same result.

SCIENCE. .

22t2 @orsae 72th
erleera 226 Dorsal vertebra

Point of fracture.

VETLED QTY
SHOstancKR

Z°Lurmbar
VC7LEGra

Lr te? -vertebyac *
SLHOs Lance --

~~ tye
A"2Llumbar _-s LELumbar
Feréesra vertebra __-
ange
: L£CG.3 Sig. ¢
Zranmatio :
EICUPTLESHTE ~~~. > p

Point of
ZHRPACCY,
C260 & aefle.
Zou
Sunction of _ 24*Lumtar f
WMOSCREEPPEC VEZ 72 VPEICECTA ~ ,
Wéitle spleRrte Ext Of at
) peg NE a
Pee pancreas :
€7itonetum CYST /7 O72 which he bad
thebatl was excised

449-6

L Lumbar on

ae

v .
LIS of
rractures

—- ’
ig mil \
My, ze”

lor

L72trarnce of -
Gale

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NOREEN
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(Ge uth

sATE PRESIDENT GARFIELD.

i

Rliuree cut

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ea |

DRAWINGS ILLUSTRATING AUTOPSY ON THE Bopy or THE I

503

504

SCIENCE.

THE AMERICAN CHEMICAL SOCIETY.

The October meeting of the American Chemical So-
ciety was held Friday evening, the 7th inst., with Dr, A.
R. Leeds in the chair. The following new members were
declared elected: H.C. Heipe, Wm. L. Leman, Dr. H.
Von Bauer, Lewis Habel, Dr. Lauber, Dr. P. Raden-
hauser, and Mr. A. L. Colby. ‘The first paper announced
was by Prof. Leeds ‘On the Comparative Purity of City
Water.” In consideration of the recent litigation in re-
gard to the pollution of the water of the Passaic river,
Prof. Leeds was appointed to investigate the purity of
the water from a chemical standpoint. The water supply
of the cities of Newark, Jersey City and Hoboken is
taken from the above mentioned river. Betore it reaches
Newark, the sewerage of Paterson, a city of 50,000 in-
habitants, is emptied into it: besides this, along the river,
the stream receives the refuse from a number of factories.

A short distance beyond Paterson, at a paper mill
where carbolized paper was manufactured, the entire re-
fuse was dumped into the river. In consequence of the
dissolving of the carbolic acid, its presence was soon de-
tected at Jersey City and Hoboken, and it became so ob-
jectionable that the water could not be used for drinking
purposes. Legal measures were at once adopted, and
the nuisance stopped. Simultaneous collection of speci-
mens of the drinking water of the leading cities of the
United States were collected, and a comparative examin-
ation of the organic matter (estimated according to the
permanganate method) undertaken. Without any other
special reference to the data given by Prof. Leeds, his
results were as follows :—

. The purity of drinking water :—

1, Brooklyn ; 2, Rochester; 3, Philadelphia; 4, Balti-
more; 5, New York; 6, Washington ; 7, Newark, Jersey
City and Hoboken ; 8, Cincinnati; 9, Boston; 10, Oswego;
11, Wilmington, Del.

In answer to questions which arose during the discus-
sion of the paper, it was stated that during the past
summer an excessive amount of chlorine was found in
the analysis of the Passaic river, a fact contrary to all
previous experience, and one which was considered as
due to the extreme drought of the past summer so dimin-
ishing the amount of fresh water that the sea water had
extended quite a ways back up the river. A similar cir-
cumstance was stated in regard to the Hudson river this
year, the salt water being detected higher than usual.
In regard to the statements recently made by Prof.
Huxley in reference to the spread of disease by germs in
the water, a very significant fact was mentioned by Prof.
Leeds, in commenting on the rags used in the paper mills,
who stated that they were imported from the plague
stricken regions of Smyrna, and yet not one case of ana-
logous disease had been observed from those who used
the water, in which these rags were cleansed, for drink-
ing purposes. The desirable property of precipitating
out organic material from water by the use of the basic
chloride of iron was remarked by Dr. E. R. Squibb.
This fact has been used to advantage by one of the large
hotels at Coney Island.

“Upon some new Salts of Thymole Sulpho Acid, and
some new facts concerning the same,” was the title of
the second paper. It was by Mr. James H. Stebbins,
Jr., and was essentially a resumé of some recent salts
prepared by him and description of their important char-
acteristics.

The third paper was by Dr. W. Hempel, who gave in
the German language a descriptive ‘‘ Exhibition of some
new Gas Apparatus.” Not only were they exhibited, but
Dr. Hempel, in the presence of the Society, made analysis
of the illuminating gas (which he considers superior to
that used in Europe) and of the air. To those who are
especially interested in this branch his recently published
book will give the requisite information, and for the aver-
age reader a general description is almost impossible
without cuts. - M, B.

MOUNDBUILDER SKELETONS.*
If

By W. C. HOLBROOK, COLETA, ILL.

The skeletons found in the mounds of Rock River
Valley, although always partially decomposed, present
the following anatomical peculiarities :— =

The cranzum is small, low and broad. The super-
ciliary ridges are very large and cause the forehead to
appear even lower than it really is.

The malar process and the zygoma small and low.

Traces of a frontal suture are sometimes found in
adult skulls. In the skull of a child about six years old, the
suture was well developed. It appears that the two
lateral portions of the frontal bone did not then unite as
early in life as they now do, and that the traces of this
suture remained through life in some persons. In one
adult skull I found ten bones, viz.: two occipital, two
parietal, two frontal, two temporal, sphenoid and eth-
noid. The occipital was divided into two lateral por-
tions by an occzpztal suture.

The frontal suture was also well developed. The
sagittal suture, therefore, extended from the glabella
over the vertex to the foramen magnum.

The sagz/tal suture is usually quite short. In one
skull it measured only 4 67-100 inches, and the frontal
and the occipital bones in this specimen were normal.

The supraorbital foramen is usually large and about
one-eighth of an inch above the orbit. I never saw a
supraorbital notch in a moundbuilder skull. Ossa ¢rz-
guetra are very uncommon and are confined to the
lambdoid suture. This suture, together with traces of
an occipital suture sometimes form one or two large
triangular ossa tr¢guetra in the superior angle of the
occipital bone.

The posterior half of the synamus*suture is often com-
pletely grown up and the adjacent part of the temporal
and parietal bones completely united.

The grooves for the arterze menigea media are very
deep, while the foresee that correspond to the brain are
shallow and indistinct. The frontal sinus large and
triangular in shape. The lower joint was large, massive
and broad. The teeth are usual remarkably sound. I
have never found but two or three “‘ decayed teeth” in
all of my explorations. Toothache was not, therefore,
one of the troubles that beset the moundbuilders.

The humerus presents one marked peculiarity. About
midway between the external and the internal condyloid
ridges, and in the center of the fossa for the coronoid
process of the ulwa, there is sometimes a well developed
foramen.

In some mounds that contained fifteen or twenty per-
sons this foramen was found im more than fifty per cent.
of the humeri. I sometimes found it in both the right
and the left arms. When only present in one arm,
traces of an obliterate or grown up foramen were some-
times found in the opposite arm. Traces of this foramen
are quite frequent, and in all moundbuilder humeri, the
flat portion of bone between the condyloid ridges are
very thin. This foramen is usually small and circular.

Sometimes, however, it is large and triangular in shape,

the base of the triangle parallel with the trochlea and the
sides parallel with the condyloid ridges. A nutritious
foramen sometimes enters the lower end of the shaft of
the humerus at the superior angle of this triangular
foramen. I believe that the moundbuilders were slowly
outgrowing this Simian characteristic, for the humeri
containing the triangular foramens are found in the
oldest mounds, and are associated with the lowest fore-
heads and the smallest crania. In both the right and
the left humerus of the skeleton whose skull contained
ten bones, I found this foramen well developed. In the
more modern mounds this foramen is less frequently
found, and when present, is small and circular. The

* American Association for the Advancement of Science, 1881,

fi

SCIENCE.

505

partition of bone between the two fossz is also thicker.

The elimination of this “degraded affinity” is but one
instance of the general evolution that has shaped or
moulded all of the innumerable forms of animal and
vegetable life. The vertebral column is always so badly
decayed that anatomical comparison isimpossible. The
parts that “resist decay” indicate great physical per-
fection and strength. The Sacrum presents different
forms in respect to curvature. Sometimes it is very
slight, while in other specimens it is considerable. This
curvature of the Sacrum is a more constant sexual char-
acteristic in mound-builder skeletons than in the Cau-
casian or the African races, but I have not examined
specimens enough to tabulate the difference. The only
constant sexual characteristic of the Sacrum among all
races of men is its greater breadth in the female, and this
characteristic is well developed in the mound-builder
skeletons. Comparing portions of almost every one of
the larger bones of the mound-builder skeletons with
several Caucasian and one Negro, and two Indian skele-
tons, it is certain that the primitive people of the Rock
River Valley were strong, broad-shouldered, muscular
men, with broad, round faces, and low receding fore-
heads. Exostosis, or foreign growth of bone, has been
found. One, I remember, was found in one of the
mounds near Sterling, Illinois. The foreign growth of
bone in this specimen was stratified—deposited on the
surface of the bone, in thin layers, like the layers in
stalagmite. Bones exhumed from a mound on the west
bank of Rock River, near Como, were very brittle, of a
light and beautiful purplish color, when recently broken,
and contained no animal matter. They resemble, in every
respect, the bones exhumed from the church-yard of Ste.
Genevieve, Paris, after a burial of over seven hundred
years.—(Orfila Exhumations juridiques, Vol. [., p. 350.)

———————— ee

WHITE CORPUSCLES OF THE BLOOD.

The London Lance? draws attention to an interesting
memoir on the White Corpuscles of the Blood, which
appears in the part just issued of the Archives de
Physiologie, in which M. Renaut describes the different
forms presented by the white corpuscles in different ani-
mals. In the river crayfish, for example, besides the
ordinary lymph-corpuscles, there are many larger bodies
with well defined nuclei, the protoplasm of which con-
tains large highly refracting granules, resembling in
many respects the vitelline granules of the frog and
other batrachia. These corpuscles have a sharply limited
but thin exoplastic pellicle; and if a drop of such lymph
be allowed to fall into a drop of a one per cent. solution
of osmic acid, the white corpuscles are instantly fixed,
with their pseudopodia or protoplasmic processes ex-
tended ; and these processes can then be seen to perfo-
rate the thin membrane, now blackened with the acid.
There are thus two kinds of white corpuscles in the de-
capod crustacea—the lymphoid corpuscles and the amce-
boid corpuscles. Do similar differences exist in the
blood of vertebrata? In reply to this, M. Renaut states
that in the blood of all the vertebrata, from the cyclos-
tome to the saurians, the white corpuscles are of two
kinds ; one, the ordinary white corpuscle, composed of
hyaline protoplasm, presenting many short projecting
points, with a nucleus undergoing gemmation and send-
ing forth branched pseudopodia when placed under favor-
able conditions ; the other containing numerous brilliant
granules embedded in the protoplasm and surrounding
the nucleus. These resemble the second form of cor-
pucle described above as existing in the lymph of the
river crayfish, but differ from them in having no outer
limiting layer of condensed protoplasm, or exoplasm, as
Haeckel has named it. The application of osmic acid
shows that they may be subdivided into two other forms :
one closely analogous to cells undergoing transformation

into fat-cells, which present numerous granules, and
stain black with osmic acid, and another set which con-
tains granules that are not fatty, but which stain red
with eosine. The best mode of demonstrating the ex-
istence of these three forms is to fix the blood in the
rete mirabile of the capillary of the choroid in the pos-
terior segment of the eye of a frog, by removing the
anterior segment and exposing it to the vapor of osmic
acid. At the expiration of twelve hours the eye is re-
moved from the vapor, washed, the chorio-capillaris de-
tached from the retina, and spread on glass ; it is after-
wards colored with, and mounted in, hamatoxylate of
eosine. The corpuscles may then be studied, and the
three forms of ordinary, granular, and fatty corpuscles can
be easily distinguished. M. Renaut finds that the white
corpuscles of mammals generally, and of man in a state
of health, all closely resemble each other, and are of the
ordinary kind; but in disease, as in leucocythemia, the
white corpuscles are not only greatly increased in num-
ber, but vary considerably in size. Moreover, they are
round, and present no pseudopodia. They are hyaline,
and have a smooth, well defined limiting membrane, and
some of them have nuclei which have undergone fission,
just as in a cell that is about to segment. Hence, he is
of the opinion that the white corpuscles multiply and
increase in number whilst floating in the blood; other
corpuscles may be observed, which are charged with
granules of some proteid substance, resembling vitelline
granules, or small masses of hemoglobin ; and, lastly,
there are still other cells, which are charged with fat.
M. Renaut has made some observations on the develop-
ment of the red corpuscles of the lamprey, and gives the
following succession of forms :—White corpuscle with
nucleus proliferating, and protoplasm, not limited by an
exoplasmic layer; corpuscle with nucleus proliferating,
the protoplasm forming an uncolored disc, limited by an
exoplasm ; corpuscle with proliferating nucleus, protop-
Jasm limited by an exoplasm, and forming a disc, more

‘or less charged with hamoglobin; red corpuscle with

proliferating nucleus ; and, finally, circular red corpuscle,
with rounded nucleus.
i

MICROSCOPY.

It has been decided by the Executive Committee of the
American Society of Microscopists to convene the next
annual meeting of the Society at Elmira, N. Y., August
17, 1882, at 10 A.M. It is thought that there will be
papers and discussions enough at Elmira to occupy us
four days ; thus, by adjourning Friday evening, August 20,
or Saturday noon, August 21, there will be ample time—
for those who wish to do so—to reach Montreal in time
for the meeting of the A. A. A. of Science on Tuesday,
August 24.

At the Columbus meeting Mr. E. H. Griffith, of Fair-
port, N. Y.,a member of Executive Committee of this
Society, renewed his generous offer of a prize of a Bausch
& Lomb half-inch objection of 98° air angle (about 0.76
numerical aperture), to be awarded as follows :

“The prize shall be assigned to the author of the best
paper on the adulteration of some important article of
food or medicine. The paper shall be accompanied by
permanently mounted slides, illustrating the various points
under discussion; all papers and slides to become the
property of the Society. The papers and accompanying
studies to be in the possession of the President on .the
first day of the next annual meeting. He shall appoint a
committee of three to examine the same, and report the
name of the successful candidate before the close of the
meeting. The names of the competitors shall not be
made known to any member of the committee until after
the award is made. The award shall not be made unless
there shall be more than one competitor.”

In order to carry out Mr. Griffith’s instructions the fol-
lowing rules are established ;

506

SCIENCE.

1. The papers and slides for the competition should be
forwarded to Elmira in time to reach there before the’ day
of the beginning of the next annual meeting, and should
be addressed :

To the President of
THE AMERICAN SOCIETY OF MICROSCOPISTS,
Care of the Elmira Microscopical Society, Elmira, N. Y.

2. The envelopes should bear in their upper left-hand
corner one of the enclosed labels, with some appropriate
name or device other than the name of the author. The
slides should bear the same label similarly marked (ten
labels are sent with each circular).

3. Each paper should be accompanied by a sealed en-
velope bearing the same label and device, containing a
slip with the name of the author.

4. The committee will be appointed on the first day
of the Elmira meeting, and the papers and slides put into
their hands. When they reach a decision, they will
make a public report, stating the name or device of the
successful paper. The sealed envelope bearing the same
will then be opened by the President, who will announce
the name of the successful author,

Persons not now members, but who shall become so at
the Elmira meeting, are eligible as competitors for this
prize, and can obtain the necessary labels by making ap-
plication to the Secretary.

It is hoped that several papers will be received in com-
petition for this prize which shall be found worthy of
publication in the Transactions, though only one, of
course, can receive the prize. The envelopes containing
the names of unsuccessful competitors will not be opened
except by permission of the authors, but will be des-
troyed by a committee appointed for that purpose.

Dr. George E. Blackham, the present President of the
Society, has issued a stirring address to the members, and
makes some excellent suggestions to those who would by
their personal acting promote the success of the society.

Professor D. S. Kellicott of 119 Fourteenth Street,
Buffalo, N. Y., is the Secretary of the Society.

FOSSIL POLYZOA—NOMENCLATURE.

In the second report of the committee consisting of
Prof. P. M. Duncan and Mr. G. R. Vine, appointed for
the purpose of reporting on Fossil Polyzoa, tor the Brit-
ish Association, the order is divided into three subdi-
visions.—

1. Chezlostoma, Bark. = Celleporzna, Ehrenberg.

2. Cyclostomata, ,, = Tabuliporina, Milne-Ed.,
Hagenow, Johnston.

3. Ctenostomata, ,,

The following terms are used in this Report in descri-
bing the genera :—

ZOARIUM.—“ The composite structure formed by re-
peated gemmation’”’ = Polyzoarium and Polypidom of
authors.

ZOCECIUM or cell.—‘‘ The chamber in which the Poly-
pide is lodged.

C@NG&CIUM.—‘“ The common dermal system of a col-
ony.” Applicable alike to the “ Frond,’’ or “ Polyzoary,”’
of Fenestella, Polypora, Phyllopora, or Synocladia: or to
the associated Zocecia and their connecting “interstitial
tubuli,” of Ceriopora, Hyphasmapora, and Archaopora,
or species allied to these.

FENESTRULES.—The square, oblong, or partially
rounded openings in the zoarium-——connected by non-cel-
lular dissepiments—of Fenestella, Polypora, and species
allied to these.

FENESTR& applied to similar openings, whenever con-
nected by the general substance of the zoarium—as in
Phyllopora, Clathropora, and the Permian Synocladia.

3RANCHES.—The CELL-bearing portions of the zo-
arium of Glauconome, Fenestella, Polypora, or Syno-
cladia; or the offshoots from the main stem of any spe-
cies.

GONACIUM,—“ A modified zozecium or cell, set apart
for the purposes of reproduction,”

Gonocyst.—“ An inflation of the surface of the zo-
arium in which the embryos are developed.” Modern
terms from the Rev. Thos. Hincks.

——<_—_<o______.
“ PRESERVED VEGETABLES.”
By OTTo HEHNER, F.I.C., F.C. S.

When some time ago public attention was forcibly
drawn to the occasional injurious effects of preserved
“canned ”’ goods, I undertook a lengthy series of chemical
and physiological experiments to ascertain the cause cf
such poisonous action. The results having so far only
been communicated to professional chemists (7he An-
alyst., vol. v., No. 57), I hope you will allow me, by way
of affirmation of the paragraph in The Lancet of Sep-
tember 24, to give a short summary of them, as I think
they may be of interest, and of some degree of impor-
tance, to medical readers.

Very frequently the gastric disturbances traceable to
the consumption of preserved articles of food have been
assigned to traces of lead dissolved from the solder with
which the tins are closed, or present as impurity in the
metal with which the can is lined. Now, although the
occasional though very rare presence of lead in such ar-
ticles cannot be denied, the effects should be attributed to
the zz itself. Tin, even perfectly pure, is far more readily
attacked by food matters than is commonly supposed;
it is to be found in comparatively large amounts in an over-
whelming majority of canned goods, irrespective of the
nature of the same. Acid fruits, such as peaches or
cherries, corrode the tins toan appalling extent; but even
meats, nay, condensed milk, dissolve and become con-
taminated with serious quantities of the metal.

I base my observations upon the examination of the
following foods :—Vegetable: French asparagus, Ameri- -
can asparagus, peas, tomatoes, peaches (three different
brands), pine apple (two kinds), white and red cherries,
and marmalade. Animal: Corned beef (five brands), ox
cheek, ox tongue (three kinds), collared head, tripe,
oysters, sardines in oil, salmon, salmon cutlets, lobster,
shrimps, curried fowl (two kinds), boiled rabbit, boiled
mutton, roast chicken, roast turkey, ox cheek soup, gravy
soup, sausages, condensed milk (three brands).

With the exception of the sausages, the whole of the
samples contained more or less tin, many to such an ex-
tent that abundant reactions could be obtained from
two or three grammes of the vegetable substances ;
whilst of the animal foods one of the soups contained
thirty-five milligrammes, one of the condensed milks eight
milligrammes, and oysters forty-five milligrammes of tin
to the pound.

Pure tin is readily attacked even by carbonic acid in
solution, all samples of soda-water or of other aerated
beverages which I have tested giving distinct 22” reac-
tions. Aerated beverages are generally stated to be
liable to lead contamination, but seeing that lead does
not enter into the composition of any of the pipes or ves-
sels of the machines made by modern manufacturers, I
do not doubt but that the black coloration produced by
sulphuretted hydrogen in the beverage in question has
usually been erroneously attributed to lead, and is in
reality due to tin. Tin, in fact, prevents the lead pass-
ing into solution; it completely precipitates the metal
from lead solutions, an equivalent quantity of tin being
taken up.

The question arises, is tin, when taken into the system,
injurious to health or not? Forensic literature does not
furnish a positive or satisfactory reply, but the follow-
ing experiments appear to me completely to settle the
point.

A half-grown guinea-pig took with its ordinary food
seventy-five milligrammes of pure stannous hydrate in

SCIENCE.

507

two doses of twenty-five and fifty milligrammes each.
Death resulted under symptoms of irritant poisoning.
Tin was detected in large amount in the faeces and in the
viscera, notably the liver.

. Another similar animal took within three days, in six

|

doses 450 milligrammes of s¢annzc hydrate, wzthout |

serious effect, tin appearing abundantly in the excre-
ments. _Accustomed in a manner to stannic salts, it

quickly succumbed to fifty milligrammes of stannous |

hydrate.
It plainly follows that while stannic compounds are not

injurious in the doses given, tin in the stannous condition |

is a virulent irritant poison.

These experiments lead me most strongly to support
your demand for a better method of packing preserved
food matters than in tin canisters. Tin invariably dis-
solves in the stannous condition in such solvents as occur
in vegetable or animal substances, and the amount of

oxygen in the sealed canisters -being very minute, oxida- |

tion cannot render the metal comparatively unobjection-
able.

I trust that the medical profession will object, un-
mistakably and strongly, to the administration of tin by
grocers and oilmen to young and old alike, and, whilst
acknowledging the enormous benetits conferred upon
the masses by the introduction of preserved foods, will
insist that the present system of packing be speedily
abandoned.—Lancet,

ee ———

CORRESPONDENCE.
To the Editor of “ SCIENCE.”

DEAR SiR: I have carefully read your article on‘ The
Warner Astronomical Prizes,” published in SCIENCE, of
Sept. 24, wherein myself and Mr. Warner, are severely
and unjustly criticised. In a former number you had
criticised one of the conditions of the prize: viz, that
“the comet must be telescopic and unexpected,’ saying
that a person might discover a comet by the aid of an
opera glass. But what, I ask, is an opera glass but a
telescope. In order to defend myself from even the sem-
blance of crookedness, allow me to state a few facts,
familiarity with which would, doubtless, have kept you
from error. When the great comet (known as comet B)
made its appearance so suddenly, all familiar with the
conditions of the award, conceded that no just demand
on Mr. Warner could be made, as it was neither telescopic
nor unexpected, but very many people, not conversant
with the conditions, and supposing that it applied to all
comets, began to send in claims for discovery. Then
Mr. Warner said, inasmuch as the comet was such a
large and brilliant one, and that so many seemed not to
have understood the conditions imposed, he would offer a
spectal prize of $200 to the one whom I, after an examin-
ation of claims, should decide had first seen it. It isa
point of no little significance, to remember that this in no
sense was to be considered as the Warner-prize proper
to be adjudicated upon by Profs. Hall and Young, zz che
event of a controversy, but was distinctly stated to be
a speczal prize. The conditions of the original prize were
neither in this, nor any other instance, to be deviated
from, From a misconception of this vital point, which,
under the circumstances, was, perhaps, natural, you have
endeavored to make your readers believe that Mr.
Warner took—wrongfully and unjustly—the matter out
of the hands of Prots. Hall and Young, and placed it in
my own, but you are grievously in error. I do not purpose
to burden your columns with the reasons for not award-

ing the prize for comet B. Not an astronomer in the |

world, with all those letters before him, would have
awarded it.
You make the task of deciding the question a very easy

one, and so might J have found it by placing myself in
the position of a judge, who must decide according to the
evidence, true or false. Instead of condensing the letters

| toa half dozen, as you suggest, I could haye reduced

them to a single one, for one of the claimants solemnly
declared that he saw it a year ago last August, and that
he had watched it ever since, while another averred that
he discovered it last January, and several claimed it be-
fore its discovery in South Africa, and some of these
statements were sworn to at that.

Every astronomer knows that the comet (which was
discovered in South Africa on May 21), in its northward
journey, passed the sun, 8° west of it, at noon on the
1gth of June, and, therefore, after its disappearance in
the southern hemisphere, could not have been seen by
any person, in any part part of the world, before the
morning of the 22d of June, and yet not less than 1000
persons claimed (the statements of many being substan-
tiated by affidavits), that they saw the comet at dates
ranging all the way from May I to June 20. Was I to
accept such statements as those, and accord to them the
dignity of evidence, and award the prize for an invisible
comet? The comet first became visible to us near the
time of the summer solstice, when twilight commenced
at about half past two A. M., which rendered even a
bright and expected comet very difficult to see until its
declination north became at least 15° greater than the
sun’s. Your assertion that I have awarded myself the
prize for the discovery of one comet, is erroneous to the
last degree. Where there is but one claimant, as was
the case with Swift’s, with Schaeberle’s, and with Barn-
ard’s comets, Mr. Warner, without consultation with
any one, pays the prize. Should any dispute arise as to
priority of discovery, &c., then, ac¢ording to the condi-
tions, the matter was to be left to Profs. Hall and Young
for a decision,

Again, you do me great injustice in saying that the
essays ought not to be filed with me, because I am both
acompetitor anda judge. 1 am not a competitor for that
prize, nor am I to bea judge. The essays are placed in
my hands for safe keeping, and when the first of Novem-
ber arrives, will three astronomers (if as many can be
found who are not competitors) be appointed as judges,
to whom | shall send the essays for a decision agreeably
to condition. 3d. As to who will appoint the judges, I
am as ignorant as are you.

Trusting you will give this letter in its entirety, to the
public, through the columns of your journal, I remaia,

Yours truly, LEWIS SWIFT.

ROCHESTER, October 10, 1881.

<or

RELATIONS BETWEEN THE CRANIUM AND THE REST OF THE
SKELETON.—These relations form the subject of a paper by
M. Manouvier, read at the last meeting of the French As-
sociation. The following are the author’s conclusions :—
1. The weight of the cranium varies, in a general way, with
the weight of the skeleton, but not proportionally, like the
weight of the brain. 2. The weight of the skeleton, less
the cranium, in a given race, varies nearly in proportion to
the weight of the femur. 3. The weight of the cranium is
greater relatively to that of the femur, the lighter the latter
is. 4. The weight of the cranium is much more consider-

able relatively to that of the femur in woman than in man.
5. This sexual difference is so pronounced that it consti-
tutes one of the best secondary sexual characters. About
82 women in 100 have the cranium heavier than the two
femurs, while 82 men in 100 have it lighter. 6. The lower
jaw is heavier relatively to the cranium in the anthropoids
than in man, is inferior than in civilized races, in man than
in woman, and in the adult than in the child. 7. The
weight of the cranium is smaller relatively to that of the
lower jaw, the heavier the latter is, etc.

508

NOTES AND QUERIES.

ELECTRICITY.—I wish to inquire if it has been deter-
mined whether upon the union of two currents of electri-
city of different electromotive forces, they form one cur-
rent of an intermediate intensity, as two streams of
water of different temperatures would form one of an in-
termediate temperature. Or, whether they each retain
its own E. F. M., and follow the terms of its own intens-
ity. And, if the problem has been determined, where I
can find the particulars.

And, further, if the two retain their separate identities,
whether any instrument has been made to measure the
different quantities and intensities which pass in a
single conductor.

This is a very important question in view of the great
practical problems which we have now to solve in re-
gard to the production and use of electricity. .

SAML. J. WALLACE.
— —— ——————

THE CoLoR CHANGES OF AXOLOTL.—Prof. Semper has
lately examined axolotl with regard to the influence of light
on its color ( Weirzbure Phys. med. Ges). When young axoloti
are reared in darkness they become quite dark ; nearly as
dark in red light; in yellow, on the other hand, pretty bright ;
and brightest in bright daylight. The difference is con-
nected not only with the chromatic function found in vari-
ous degrees in all amphibia, but on pronounced formation of
a peculiar diffuse yellowish green coloring matter, increase
of white, and diminution of dark chromatophores. Further,
when axolotl are exposed to daylight in white dishes cov-
ered with white paper, much less dark pigment forms in
them than when they are kept in white dishes without a
paper cover (other things equal); though in the latter case

SCIENCE.

they are apparently exposed to the most intense light; these
darker axolotl are, however, still much brighter than those
reared in red light or in darkness. Since (as experiment
showed) the white covering paper Jet through much light,
but very little of the chemical rays, it appears that chemical
rays play no part in the formation of pigment. But the
causes of the whitening in bright daylight and the darken-
ing in absence of light remain unknown as before.

——-- +

Tue Bioop or Inszcrs.—Operating with the larva of
Oryctes nasicornis, M. Fredericq has observed (Bull. Bel.
Acad.) that the blood of the animal, drawn off ina small
glass cannula, is a colorless liquid, but on exposure to the
air presently takes a decided brown color, and coagulates.
The coloration he regards as a purely cadaveric pheno-
menon. The substance which becomes brown is probably
formed in the moment of coagulation, and does not serve
in the body as a vehicle between the external air and the
tissues, like Aemoglobin in Vertebrates and many Anne-
lids, hemocyanin in Crustaceans, &c. When the larva

is kept a quarter of an hour in hot water (50° to 55°), the
blood extracted does not coagulate or become brown.
Once the substance which browns is produced, even a
boiling temperature does not prevent its browning. The
brown substance once formed is very stable, not being de-
composed either by acids or alkalies, and not made color-
less by being submitted to vacuum or kept in a closed ves-
sel. The existence of an intermediary in insects corres-
ponding to haemoglobin M. Fredericq thinks very problem-
atical in view of the anatomical system, letting air pene-
trate into the heart of the tissues.

METEOROLOGICAL REPORT FOR NEW YORK CITY FOR THE WEEK ENDING OCT.15, 1881.

Latitude 40° 45' 58” N.; Longitude 73° 57’ 58” W.; height of instruments above the
feet ; by self-recording instruments,

ground, 53 feet ; above the sea, 97

BAROMETER,

THERMOMETERS.
MEAN FOR . 2 ,
seer) MAXIMUM. MINIMUM, MEAN. MAXIMUM. MINIMUM. MAXI’M
OCTOBER. Reduced | Reduced - Reduced : Dr Wet |-Dr Wet Dr : Wet ‘
to to Time. to | Time. | putp.| Bulb.| Bulb.) 2i™e- | Bulp.| Time Bulb Time. | pijh.| Lime. |InSun,
Freezing,| Freezing. Freezing. ‘ : ‘ 4 7
Sunday, g--| 29-899 29.900 | 9 a.m.| 29.862 | 3 a.m-| 63.3 | 59.6] 7x |oa,m.| 64 |10a,m.| 55 |12 p.m.| 55 |12 p.m.| 100,
Monday, 10..| 30.069 30.324 |12 p.m.| 29.900 © a.mM.! 54.6 | 49.3 64 2p.m.| 55 |12m. 4I |12 p.m.| 40 |12 p.m.| 128.
Tuesday, 11--| 30.426 30.478 9 a.m.| 30.324 Oo a.m.| 44.7 | 41.7 5r Bip: Mel) 47) 5 p-m.| 37 5 a.m1.| 37. 7.a.M™.| "r19.
Wednesday, 12.-} 30.179 30.396 O©a.m.| 30.096 |12 p.m.| 54.0 | 52.0 57 2p.m.| 55 3 P-m.| 41 2a.m.| 41 2 a. ™. 92.
Thursday, 13--| 29.968 30.096 | oa.m.| 29.908 4 p.m.} 65.7 | 62.3 73 4 p.m.| 67 4 p-m.| 55 | 6 a.m./" 55 | 6/a. a) exgo,
Friday, 14..| 30.239 30.298 | 9 a.m.| 30.000 | 0 a.m.| 50.0 | 46.6 60 {|| oca. ml) 57. | 0 asm 4s 8 a.m.| 43 | 8 a.m] 20.
Saturday, 15--| 30.035 30.244 © a.m,.} 30.006 |12 p.m.| 62.0 | 58.3 69 3p.m.| 63 4p.m.| 50 |oa.m.} 48 oa.m.| ter,
Dry. Wet.
Meanitonithe weekse= 2) eaten ene aa ea eee Mean for the weeke---=--e--se===— 5653 degrees o-o- eee eee 52.8 degrees,
Maximum for the week at ga. m., Oct. 11th Maximum for the week,at 4 pm. 13th 73. ‘* at 4pm1z3th, 67. e
Minimum *s at 3p.m., Oct. oth Minimum ‘ “5 am.irth 37. o at 7 amurtth, 37. ee
PONE O sae ser Sore St aos cee eee ee aS Range “ i, poea tee = 36. MO eeeasene eee 30. Le
WIND HYGROMETER. CLOUDS. RAIN AND SNOW gj
: - é
FORCE IN
: ; VELOCITY 4 s RELATIVE CLEAR ° DEPTH OF RAIN AND SNow | 2
WUSMEW EDS IN MILES. |pore ees [p ecs ON VEE OR- SrromiDenve OVERCAST. 10 IN INCHES.
SQR. FEET. =
=, os ao . A > : : > . > xe Fy rie
OCTOBER. Distance]; | _ e| #| e@/al|e)]/a| & 8 A. Times Time liajoraal geile
7 a,.m.\2 p.m.|g p.m,| for the |. | Time. a a yal eck tater « a rH Begin-| End- | tion. g = leo
| | Day. |= Led a Ne SS ye GS ib) a ning. | ing. h.m, ey is
Sunday, g-| 1. w. |W. n.W.|W. 1.W. 133 ¥Y%)| 1.00am| .509 | .438 | .449 74 | 68 |100 |8 cu gcu lst OS te ana aie eel coe a TRE
Monday, 10.| n. jn. n. w.|n. n. W. 242 |7 3.40pm] .321 | .285 | .254 | 74 | 48] 84 |o 3 cu ° 0.30pm |s.copm, 4.30 | .1g | 6
Tuesday, 11-| n.e. | n. e. |s.5.¢. 240 |6%| 0.15 am| .207 | .199 | .273 | 90 | 57 | 85 |o ° oe Preset | [ier aie ee | fe)
Wednesday,12-| s. w. | 5. |W.S.W. 158 |4%| 1.50pm| .297 | .378 | .420 | 85 | 81 | 93 |g cu. |10 10% Soe ees | ----- el Nee)
Thursday, 13- W.S.W.|W.S.W.| W. 146 |8%| 9.00pm] .420 | .559 | .599 | 93 | 71 | 84 |6cir. cu. 8 cu 10 O.15pm!4.copm) 3.45 og | 7
Friday, Tile|) tie: e sic: 198 |4 | 9.10am|] .249 | .257 | .308 | 77 | 66 | 79 |o ° 5 CU. fmeawe N) Ce le eee Sema
Saturday, 15-|S. S. W./S. S. W.|S. S. W. 197. |3%|10.20pm| .349 | .457 | .529 | 80 | 69 | 89 |10 rcu.S. jo | ----= | s--=s- | -:--- ava O
| | Lee
Distance traveled during the week. ..--.-------.---------- 1,314 miles, Total amount of water for the week...------.--- ---------------- .28 inch,
Masinanm forcéscut fusbcene car boebe cee eee seer eeee ae eee 8Y lbs. Dikationiof rain 2}. S.A ee eo eee ee ee eee 8 hours, 15 minutes.

DANIEL DRAPER, Ph. D.

Director Meteorological Observatory of the Department of Public Parks, New York.

SCIENCE.

SCTENCE :

AWEEKLY ReEcorp OF SCIENTIFIC

ProGRESs.

JOHN MICHELS, Editor.

THERMS:
PER YEAR, - - - - Four DoLiars |
6 MonrHs, . - - - - Two os
“ee = ~ = = ONE ce
TEN CENTS.

SINGLE CoPIES,~ - - = 2

PUBLISHED AT
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SATURDAY, OCTOBER 29, 1881.

TO OUR ENGLISH READERS.

We have received trom Messrs. Deacon & Co., of 150
Leadenhall street, London, England, a standing order for
a large supply of “Sctence,” which will be forwarded
weekly. We shall be obliged if our English readers will
make this fact known to their friends.

——————

THE WARNER PRIZES.

WE afforded to Professor Swift ample space in our
last week’s issue, to reply to our strictures on his dis-
position of Mr. Warner’s prize for Comet 4, 188r.
Our readers have now the facts before them and can
judge for themselves on the merits of this matter.
For ourselves we would say that, realizing the benefits
that may accrue from Mr. Warner’s gifts, we are not
disposed to be too critical in regard to the benefactor
nor to the dispenser, and we are far from supposing
that either are knowingly walking in the paths of what
Professor Swift calls ‘“crookedness.” But reading
Professor Swift’s reply, we cannot interpret it other-
wise than as a confirmation of our objections to the
course he has taken.

We admitted that, in this instance, under the con-
ditions of the Warner prizes, no claimant could justly
claim the prize. We followed by asserting, that as Mr.

Warner waived the special conditions and told Mr. Swift |

to give the $200 to the man who first saw the Comet,
it was his duty to have carried out his instructions to
the letter.

Professor Swift confirms the position we took on
this subject ; in his letter he says: ‘all conceded that
no just demands could be made on Mr. Warner” in
regard to Comet 4. Then Mr. Warner said, “ inas-

- much as the Comet was such a large and brilliant one,
and as so many people seemed not to have under-

509

prize of $200 TO THE ONE WHO I, after an examina-

tion of claims, should decide HAD FIRST SEEN IT.”
Now comes the muddle. Mr. Warner admits that

under his conditions no one can claim the prize; and

| therefore offers a special prize for THE ONE WHO FIRST

SAW THE Comet. And yet Professor Swift in his let-

_ ter of explanation says: “the conditions of the orig-

inal prize were, neither in this nor in any other, Zo de
deviated from,” and on this account concludes that
“not an astronomer in the world would have awarded
it 2

What can be said or done with men who are so
thoroughly and flagrantly inconsistent? Mr. Warner's
course throughout appears to have been thoroughly
practical; he saw the difficulty in awarding this par-
ticular prize, and met it in a most liberal spirit, and
had his intentions been carried out, the thanks of the
community would have been the unanimous response.

Passing over Professor Swift’s apparent misinter-
pretation of Mr. Warner’s instructions, the question
may be asked: could “the one who had first seen it”
be named? Waiving the claim of the “‘ 1000 persons
with affidavits” who claimed to have seen the Comet
in the United States before its possible appearance,
and the 2000 other clod-hoppers and rustics whose
claims appeared to have clouded the judgment of
Professor Swift, we offer a few simple facts in regard
to the first discoverer of Comet 4, which would have
influenced our judgment if called upon to decide on
this matter:—

We believe that the first person in the United States
who saw the Comet in question, noted its position, and
duly reported the fact to Professor Swift was Mr.
Edgar L. Larkin, of New Windsor, Ill. If Mr. Warner,
however, prefers to award the prize to the frst person
who saw the Comet, irrespective of locality, then we
are advised that the following facts bear on the sub-
ject :—

Dr. Gould’s name was mentioned prominently in
connection with its discovery, but according to his
own statement, his attention was directed to it by his
assistant, Mr. Wilson. But prior to this date it had
been observed by Cruls, in Brazil, and also by several
English astronomers at Melbourne. It now appears
that Mr. John Tebbutt, of Windsor, New South
Wales, is credited as the first astronomer to get an
observation of this Comet; so that if the prize is to be
awarded to the first discoverer, Tebbutt appears to be
the man.

The assertion in Professor Swift’s letter that Mr.
Warner, without consultation with any, pays the prize
in certain cases, causes us some surprise, as we
thought that his previous experiences hardly war-
ranted him to decide on matters astronomical, and

stood the conditions imposed, 4e would offer a special | that he delegated the task to others.

&I0 SCIENCE.

In regard to the prize essay, we would advise Mr.
Warner to postpone the time of entry until January
the rst next, which will give a reasonable time for
some creditable work to be done. We would also
propose’ that the judges be named immediately.
Professor Swift says in his letter, ‘as to who will
appoint the judges I am as ignorant as are you.”
Who does know? Surely Mr. Warner will not pro-
pose to decide this matter.

In making these remarks we are far from desiring
to disparage the value of such prizes as those offered
by Mr. Warner. We understand that Mr. E. E.
Barnard, who secured the last prize, is a young man
under twenty-five years of age, and a self-taught
astronomer. Under very discouraging financial cir-
cumstances he provided himself with a good five-inch
telescope, with which he has done excellent work,
His Warner prize will be turned to good account, as
he writes to inform us that the $200 will enable him
to purchase a plot of ground on which to build a
house for his family ; we need not add that an observ-
atory will be a leading feature in Mr. Barnard’s new
house.

We feel a pleasure in showing the practical good
Mr. Warner is doing by providing these scientific
prizes, and we trust he may continue them during the
following year. Our criticism is of a perfectly friendly
character and made with some regret. We have re-
ceived letters from subscribers confirming our view of
the case, which will remain unpublished, as we desire
to close the discussion.

+o

ON THE DISCOVERIES OF THE PAST HALF-
CENTURY RELATING TO ANIMAL MOTION.
By J. BURDON-SANDERSON, M. D., L.L.D., F.R.S.
[Concluded from Page 486.]

The living muscle of a frog is placed in a closed cham-
ber, which is vacuous—z. ¢. contains only aqueous vapor.
The chamber is so arranged that the muscle can be
made to contract as often as necessary. At the end of a
certain period it is found that the chamber now con-
tains carbonic acid gas in quantity corresponding to the
number of contractions the muscle has performed. The
water which it has also given off cannot of course be
estimated. Where do these two products come from ?
The answer is plain. The muscle has been living all the
time, for it has been doing work, and (as we shall see im-
mediately) producing heat. What has it been living on?
Evidently on stored material. If so, of what nature? If
we look for the answer to the muscle, we shall find that
it contains both proteid and sugar-producing material,
but which is expended in contraction we are not informed.
There is, however, a way out of the difficulty. We have
seen that the only chemical products which are given off
during contraction are carbonic acid gas and water. It
is clear, therefore, that the material on which it feeds
must be something which yields, when oxidized, these
products, and these only. The materials which are stored
in muscle are oxygen and sugar, or something resembling
it in chemical composition.

1 Ludwig's first important research on this subject was published in 1881. |

And now we come to the last point I have to bring be-
foré you in connection with this part of my subject. I
have assumed up to this moment that heat is always pro-
duced when a muscle does work. Most people will be
ready to admit as evidence of this, the familiar fact that
we warm ourselves by exertion. This is in reality no
proof at all.

The proof is obtained when, a muscle being set to con-
tract, it is observed that at each contraction it becomes
warmer. In such an experiment, if the heat capacity of
muscle is known, the weight of the particular muscle,
and the increase of temperature, we have the quantity of
heat produced.

If you determine these data in respect of a series of
contractions, arranging the experiments so that the work
done in each contraction is measured, and immediately
thereupon reconverted into heat, the result gives you the
total product of the oxidation process of heat.

If you repeat the same experiment in-such a way that
the work done in each contraction is not so reconverted,
the result is /ess by the quantity of heat corresponding to
the work done. The results of these two experiments
have been found by Prof. Fick to cover each other very
exactly. I have stated them ina table! in which we have
the realization as regards a single muscle of the following
forecast of Mayer’s as regards the whole animal organ-
ism. ‘Convert into heat,” he said, “by friction or
ctherwise, the mechanical product yielded by an animal
in a given time, add thereto the heat produced in the
body directly during the same period, and you will have
the total quantity of heat which corresponds to the
chemical processes.”’ We have seen that this is real-
izable as regards muscle, but it is not even yet within
reach of experimental verification as regards thé whole
animal.

I now proceed abruptly (for the time at our disposal
does not admit of our spending it on transitions) to the
consideration of the other great question concerning
vital motion, namely, the question how the actions of the
muscles of an animal are so regulated and coordinated
as to determine the combined movements, whether
rhythmical or voluntary, of the whole body.

As every one knows who has read the ‘‘ Lay Ser-
mons,” the nature and meaning of these often uninten-
tional but always adapted motions, which constitute so
large a part of our bodily activity, were understood by
Descartes early in the seventeenth century. Without
saying anything as to his direct influence on his contem-
poraries and successors, there can be no doubt that the
appearance of Descartes was coincident with a great
epoch—an epoch of great men and great achievements
in the acquirement of man’s intellectual mastery over na-
ture. When he interpreted the unconscious closing of
the eyelids on the approach of external objects, the acts
of coughing, sneezing, and the like as mechanical and
reflected processes, he neither knew in what part of the
nervous system the mechanisms concerned were situ-
ated, nor how they acted.2 It was not until a hundred

t RELATION OF PRODUCT AND Process IN MUSCLE.
(Result of one of Fick’s Experiments.)
Mechanical proditct -. -- --s=---.2=-.--=-- 6670 grammemillimetres,
Its heat value--2. 32-22. 3. ee 15-6 milligrammeunits,
Meat produced = =~ See eee 30.0 =
Total product recl:oned as heat-.-.-.-.--54.6 .

2 Descartes’ scheme of the central nervous mechanism comprised all the
parts which we now regard as essential to ‘reflex-action.” Sensory.
nerves were represented by threads (filets) which connected all parts of
the body to the brain (‘* uvres,”’ par V. Cousin, vol. iv., p. 359) ; motor
nerves by tubes which extended from the brain to the muscles ; ‘‘ motor
centres’* by ** pores’? which were arranged on the internal surface of the
ventricular cavity of the brain, and guarded the entrances to the motor
tubes. This cavity was supposed to be kept constantly charged with
‘animal spirits ’’ furnished to it from the heart by arteries especially des-
tined for the purpose. Any “‘incitation”’ of the surface of the body by an
external object which affects the organs of sense does so, according to
Descartes, by producing a »zoffon at the incited part. This is communi-
cated to the pore by the thread and causes it to open, the consequence of
which is that the ‘animal spirit” contained in the ventricular cavity
enters the tube and is conveyed by it to the various muscles with which
it is connected, so as to produce the appropriate motions. The whole system,

SGJ ENCE:

S11

years after that Whytt and Hales made the fundamental
experiments on beheaded frogs, by which they showed
that the involuntary motions which such preparations
execute cease when the whole of the spinal cord is de-
stroyed—that if the back part of the cord is destroyed,
the motions of the hind limbs, if the fore part, those of
the fore limbs cease. It wasin 1751 that Dr. Whytt pub-
lished in Edinburgh his work on theinvoluntary motions
of animals, After this the next great step was made
within the recollection of living physiologists: a period
to which, as it coincided with the event which we are now
commemorating—the origin of the British Association—
I will now ask your special attention.

Exactly forty-nine years ago, Dr. Marshall Hall com-
municated to the Zoological Society of London, the
first account of his experiments on the reflux function of
the spinal cord. The facts which he had observed, and
the conclusions he drew from them, were entirely new to
him, and entirely new to physiologists to whom his com-
munication was addressed. Nor can there be any reason
why the anticipation of his fundamental discovery by Dr.
Whytt should be held to diminish his merit as an original
investigator. In the face of this historical fact it is im-
possible to regard him as the discoverer of the ‘‘ reflex-
function of the spinal cord,’ but we do not the less owe
him gratitude for the application he made of the knowl-
edge he had gained by experiments on animals to the study
of disease. For no one who is acquainted with the de-
velopment of the branch of practical medicine which re-
lates to the disease of the central nervous system will
hesitate in attributing the rapid progress which has been
made in the diagnosis and treatment of these diseases, to
the impulse given by Dr. Marshall Hall to the study of
nervous pathology.

In the mind of Dr. Marshall Hall the word reflex had
a very restricted meaning. The term ‘ excito-motary
function,’ which he also used, stood in his mind for a
group of phenomena of which it was the sole character-
istic that a sensory impression produced a motor re-
sponse. During the thirty years which have elapsed
since his death, the development of meaning of the word
reflex has been comparable to that of a plant from a
seed. The original conception of reflex action has un-
dergone, not only expansion, but also modification, so
that in its wider sense it may be regarded as the empiri-
cal development of the philosophical views of the animal
mechanism promulgated by Descartes. Not that the
work of the past thirty years by which the physiology of
the nervous system has been constituted can be attrib-
uted for a moment to the direct influence of Descartes,
The real epoch-maker here was Johannes Miiller. There
can be no doubt that Descartes’ physiological specula-
tions were well known to him, and that his large ac-
quaintance with the thought and work of his predeces-
sors conduced, with his own powers of observation, to
make him the great man that he was; but to imagine
that his ideas of mechanism of the nervous system were
inspired, or the investigations by which, contempora-
neously with Dr. Marshall Hall, he demonstrated the
fundamental facts of reflex action, were suggested by the
animal automatism of Descartes, seems to me wholly
improbable.

I propose, by way of conclusion, to attempt to illus-
trate the nature of reflex action in the larger sense, or,
as I should prefer so call it, the Automatic Action of
Centres, by a single example—that of the nervous me-
chanism by which the circulation is regulated.

although it was placed under the supervision of the “ éme razsonable”’
which had its office in the pineal gland, was capable of working independ-
ently. As instances of this mechanism Descartes gives the withdrawal of
the foot on the approach of hot objects, the actions of swallowing, yawn-
ing, coughing, etc, As it is necessary that, in the performance of these
complicated motions, the muscles concerned should contract in succes-
sion, provision is made for this in the construction of the system of tubes,
which represent the motor nerves. The weakness of the scheme lies in
the absence of fact basis. Neither threads nor pores nor tubes have any
existence,

The same year that J. R. Mayer published his mem-
orable essay, it was discovered by E. H. Weber that, in
in the vagus nerve, which springs from the medulla ob-
longata and proceeds therefrom to the heart, there exists
channels of influence by which the medulla acts on that
wonderful muscular mechanism. Almost at the same
time with this, a series of discoveries! were made relating
to the circulation, which, taken together, must be
regarded as of equal importance with the original discoy-
ery of Harvey. First, it was found by Henle that the
arterial blood-vessels by which blood is distributed to
brain, nerve, muscle, gland, and other organs, are pro-
vided with muscular walls like those of the heart itself,
by the contraction or dilation of which the supply is in-
creased or diminished according to the requirements of
the particular organ. Secondly, it was discovered simul-
taneously, but independently, by Brown-Séquard and
Augustus Waller, that these arteries are connected by
nervous channels of influence with the brain and spinal
cord, just as the heart is. Thirdly, it was demonstrated
by Bernard that what may be called the heart-managing
channels spring froma smallspot of gray substance in
the medulla oblongata, which we now call the “ heart-cen-
tre; and alittle later by Schiff, that the artery-regula-
ting channels spring froma similar head central office,
also situated in the medulla oblongata, but higher up,
and from subordinate centres in the spinal cord.

If I had the whole day at my disposal, and your pa-
tience were inexhaustible, 1 might attempt to give
an outline of the issues to which these five discoveries
have led. As it is, I must limit myself to a brief dis-
cussion of their relations to each other, in order
that we may learn something from them as to the
nature of automatic action.

Sir Isaac Newton, who, although he knew nothing about
the structure of nerves, made some shrewd forecasts about
their action, attributed to those which are connected with
muscles an alternative function. He thought that by
means of motor nerves the brain could determine either
relaxation or contraction of muscles. Now as regards
ordinary muscles, we know that this is not the case. We
can will only the shortening of a muscle, not its length-
ening. When Brown-Séquard discovered the function
of the motor nerves of the blood-vessels, he assumed that
the same limitation was applicable to it as to that of
muscular nerves in general. It was soon found, how-
ever, that this assumption was not true in all cases—that
there were certain instances in which, when the vascular
nerves were interfered with, dilatation of the blood-ves-
sels, consequent on relaxation of their muscles, took
place ; and that, in fact, the nervous mechanism by which
the circulation is regulated is a highly-complicated one,
of which the best that we can say is that it is perfectly
adapted to its purpose. For while every organ is supplied
with muscular arteries, and every artery with vascular
nerves, the influence which these transmit is here relax-
ing, there constricting, according (1) to the function
which the organ is called upon to discharge; and (2) the
degree of its activity at the time. At the same time the
whole mechanism is controlled by one and the same cen-
tral office, the locality of which we can determine with
exactitude by experiment on the living animal, notwith-
standing that its structure affords no indication what-
ever of its fitness for the function it is destined to fulfill.
To judge of the complicated nature of this function we
need only consider that in no single organ of the body is
the supply of blood required always the same. The brain
is during one hour hard at work, during the next hour

1 The dates of the discoveries relating to this subject here referred to
are as follows :—Muscular Structure of Arteries, Henle, 1841; Function of
Cardaic Vagus, E. H. Weber, 1845; Constricting Nerves of Arteries, BR.
Séquard, 1858; Aug. Waller, 1853 ; Cardiac Centre, Bernard, 1858; Vas-
cular Centre, Schiff, 1858; Dilating Nerves, Schiff, 1854 ; Eckhard, 1864;
Lovén, 1866. Of the more recent researches by which the further eluci-
dation of the mechanism by which the distribution of blood is adapted to
the requirements of each organ, the most important are those of ateie
and his pupils and of Heidenhain.

512

SCIENCE.

asleep ; the muscles are at one moment in severe exercise,
the next in complete repose; the liver, which before a
meal is inactive, during the process of digestion is turgid
with blood, and busily engaged in the chemical work
which belongs to it. For all these vicissitudes the tract
of grey substances which we call the vascular centre has
to provide. Like a skilful steward of the animal house-
hold, it has, so to speak, to exercise perfect and unfailing
foresight, in order that the nutritive material which
serves as the oil of life for the maintenance of each vital
process, may not be wanting. The fact that this won-—
derful function is localized in a particular bit of grey sub-
stance is what is meant by the expression ‘“ automatic
action of a centre.”

But up to this point we have looked at the subject from
one side only.

No state ever existed of which the administration was
exclusively executive—no government which was, if I
may be excused the expression, absolutely absolute. If
in the animal organism we impose ona centre the re-
sponsibility of governing a particular mechanism or pro-
cess, independently of direction from above, we must give
that centre the means of being influenced by what is go-
ing on in all parts of its area of government. In other
words, it is essential that there should be channels of in-
formation passing inwards, as there should be channels
of influence passing outwards. Now what is the nature
of these channels of information? Experiment has taught
us not merely with reference to the regulation of the cir-
culation, but with reference to all other automatic
mechanisms, that they are as various in their adaptation
as the outgoing channels of influence. Thus the vascular
centre in the medulla oblongata ‘s so cognizant of the chem-
ical condition of the blood which flows through it, that if too
much carbonic acid gas is contained in it, the centre acts
on information of the fact, so as to increase the velocity
of the blood-stream, and so promote the arterialization of
the blood. Still more strikingly is this adaptation seen in
the arrangement by which the balance of pressure and
resistance in the blood-vessels is regulated. The heart,
that wonderful muscular machine by which the circula-
tion is maintained, is connected with the centre, as if by
two telegraph wires—one of which is a channel of influ-
ence, the other of information. By the latter the engineer
who has charge of that machine sends information to
headquarters whenever the strain on his machine is ex-
cessive, the certain response to which is relaxation of the
arteries and diminution of pressure. By the former he is
enabled to adapt its rate of working to the work it has to
do.

If Dr. Whytt, instead of cutting off the head of his frog,
had removed its brain—z. ¢., the organ of thought and
consciousness—he would have been more astonished than
he actually was at the result; for a frog so conditioned
exhibits, as regards its bodily movements, as -perfect
adaptiveness as a normal frog. But very little careful
observation is sufficient to show the difference. Being
incapable of the simplest mental acts, this true animal
automaton has no notion of requiring food or of seeking
it, has no motive for moving from the place it happens to
occupy, emits no utterance of pleasure or distress. Its
life processes continue so long as material remains, and
are regulated mechanically.

To understand this all that is necessary is to extend
the considerations which have been suggested to us in
our very cursory study of the nervous mechanism by
which the working of the heart and of arteries is gov-
erned, to those of locomotion and voice. Both of these
we know, on experimental evidence similar to that which
enables us to localize the vascular centre, to be regulated
by a centre of the same kind. If the behavior of the
brainless frog is so natural that even the careful and in-
telligent observer finds it difficult to attribute it to any-
thing less than intelligence, let us ask ourselves whether
the chief reason of the difficulty does not lie in this, that

the motions in question are habitually performed intelli-
gently and consciously. Regarded as mere mechanisms,
those of locomotion are no doubt more complicated than
those of respiration or circulation, but the difference is
one of degree, not of kind. And if the respiratory move-
ments are so controlled and regulated by the automatic
centre which governs them, that they adapt themselves
perfectly to the varying requirements of the organism,
there is no reason why we should hesitate in attributing
to the centres which preside over locomotion powers
which are somewhat more extended.

But perhaps the question has already presented itself
to your minds. What does all this come to? Admitting
that we are able to prove (1) that in the animal body,
Product is always proportional to Process, and (2) as I
have endeavoured to show you in the second part of my
discourse, that Descartes’ dream of animal automatism
has been realized, what have we learnt thereby? Is it
true that the work of the last generation is worth more
than that of preceding ones?

<>

JURASSIC BIRDS AND THEIR ALLIES.*
Bv PROFESSOR O. C. MARSH.

About twenty years ago, two fossil animals of great
interest were found in the lithographic slates of Bavaria.
One was the skeleton of Archwopteryx, now in the
British Museum, and the other was the Compsognathus
preserved in the Royal Museum at Munich. A single
feather, to which the name Archaopteryx was first ap-
plied by Von Meyer, had previously been discovered at
the same locality. More recently, another skeleton has
been brought to light in the same beds, and is now in
the Museum of Berlin. These three specimens of
Archaeopteryx are the only remains of this genus known,
while of Compsognathus the original skeleton is, up to
the present time, the only representative.

When these two animals were first discovered, they
were both considered to be reptiles by Wagner, who de-
scribed Compsognathus, and this view has been held by
various authors down to the present time. The best au-
thorities, however, now agree with Owen that Arch@op-
teryx isa bird, and that Compsognathus,as Gegenbaur
and Huxley have shown, is a Dinosaurian reptile.

Having been engaged for several years in the investi-
gation of American Mesozoic birds, it became important
for me to study the European forms, and I have recently
examined with some care the three known specimens of
Archeopteryx. have also studied in the Continental
Museums various fossil reptiles, including Compsogna-
thus, which promised to throw light on the early forms
of birds. -

During my investigation of Archwopteryx, I observed
several characters of importance not previously deter-
mined, and I have thought it might be appropriate to
present them here. The more important of these char-
acters are as follows :—

The presence of true teeth, in position, in the skull.
Vertebrae biconcave.

A well-ossified, broad sternum.

‘Three digits only in the manus, all with claws.
Pelvic bones separate.

The distal end of fibula in front of tibia.

. Metatarsals separate, or imperfectly united.

These characters, taken in connexion with the free
metacarpals, and long tail, previously described, show
clearly that we have in Archeopteryx a most remark-
able form, which, if a bird, as I believe, is certainly the
most reptilian of birds.

If now we examine these various characters in detail,
their importance will be apparent.

The teeth actually in position in the skull appear to be

WOME Y do

*Read before Section D., British Association for the Advancement of
Science, at York, Sept. 2, 1881.

SCIENCE.

513

in the premaxillary, as they are below or in front of the
‘nasal aperture. The form of the teeth, both crown and
root, is very similar to the teeth of Hesperornis. The
fact that some teeth are scattered about near the jaw
would suggest that they were implanted in a groove,
No teeth are known from the lower jaw, but they were
probably present.

The presacral vertebra are all, or nearly all, biconcave,
resembling those of /chthyornzs in general form, but
without the large lateral foramina. There appear to be
twenty-one presacral vertebrae, and the same, or nearly
the same, number of caudals. The sacral vertebra are
fewer in number than in any known bird, those united
together not exceeding five, and probably less.

The scapular arch strongly resembles that of modern
birds. The articulation of the scapula and coracoid, and
the latter with the sternum is characteristic ; amd the fur-
culum is distinctly avian. The sternum isa single broad
plate, well ossified. It probably supported a keel, but
this is not exposed in the known specimens.

In the wing itself the main interest centres in the
manus and its free metecarpals. In form and position
these three bones are just what may be seen in some
young birds of to-day. This is an important point, as it
has been claimed that the hand of Archeopteryx is not
at all avian, but reptilian. The bones of the reptile are
indeed there, but they have already received the stamp of
the bird.

One of the most interesting points determined during
my investigation of Archaeopteryx was the separate con-
dition of the pelvic bones. In all other known adult
birds, recent and extinct, the three pelvic elements, ilium,
ischium and pubis, are firmly anchylosed. In young
birds these bones are separate, and in all known Dino-
saurian reptiles they are also distinct. This point may
perhaps be made clearer by referring to the two diagrams
before you, which I owe to the kindness of my friend Dr.
Woodward, of the Britism Museum, who also gave me
excellent facilities for examining the Archaeopteryx under
his care. In the first diagram we have represented the
pelvis of an American Jurassic Dinosaur allied to Zewan-
odon, and here the pelvic bones are distinct. The second
diagram is an enlarged view of the pelvis of the Arche-
opteryx in the British Museum, and here too the ilium is
seen separate from the ischium and pubis.

In birds the fibula is usually incomplete’ below, but it
may be coossified with the side of the tibia. In the typical
Dinosaurs, Jeuanodon, for example, the fibula at its distal
end stands in front of the tibia, and this Is exactly its
position in Archeopteryx, an interesting point not before
seen in birds.

The metatarsal bones of Archeopteryx show, on the
outer face at least, deep grooves between the three ele-
ments, which imply that the latter are distinct, or unite
late together. The free metacarpal and separate pelvic
bones would also suggest distinct metatarsals, although
they naturally would be placed closely together, so as to
appear connate.

Among other points of interest in Archaeopteryx may
be mentioned the brain-cast, which shows that the brain,
although comparatively small, was lke that of a bird,
and not that of a Dinosaurian reptile. It resembles in
form the brain-cast of Laofteryx, an American Jurassic
bird, which I have recently described. The brain of both
these birds appears to have been of a somewhat higher
grade than that of Hesferornzs, but this may have been
due to the fact that the latter was an aquatic form, while
the Jurassic species were land birds.

As the Dinosaurza are now generally considered the
nearest allies to Birds, it was interesting to find in those
investigated many points of resemblance to the latter class.
Compsognathus, for example, shows in its extremities a
striking similarity to Arch@opteryx. The three clawed
digits of the manus correspond closely with those of that
genus; although the bones are of different proportions.

The hind feet also have essentially the same structure in
both. The vertebra, however, and the pelvic bones of
Compsognathus differ materially from those of Archeop-
teryx, and the two forms are in reality widely separated.
While examining the Compsognathus skeleton, I detected
in the abdominal cavity the remains of a small reptile
which had not been previously observed. The size and
position of this inclosed skeleton would imply that it was
a foetus; but it may possibly have been the young of the
same species, or an allied form, that had been swallowed.
No similar instance is known among the Dinosaurs.

A point of resemblance of some importance between
Birds and Dinosaurs is the clavicle. All birds have these
bones, but they have been considered wanting in Dino-
saurs. Two specimens of Zeuanodon, in the British Mu-
seum, however, show that these elements of the pectoral
arch were present in that genus, and in a diagram before
you one of these bones is represented. Some other Dz-
nosaurza possess Clavicles, but in several families of this
subclass, as I regard it, they appear to be wanting.

The nearest approach to Birds now known would seem
to be in the very small Dinosaurs from the American Ju-
rassic. In some of these the separate bones of the skel-
eton cannot be distinguished with certainty from those of
Jurassic Birds, if the skull is wanting, and even in this
part the resemblance is striking. Some of these diminu-
tive Dinosaurs were perhaps arboreal in habit, and the
difference between them and the Birds that lived with
them may have been at first mainly one of feathers, as I
have shown in my Memoir on the Odontornithes, pub-
lished during the past year.

It is an interesting fact that all the Jurassic birds
known, both from Europe and America, are land birds,
while all from the Cretaceous are aquatic forms. The
four oldest known birds, moreover, differ more widely
from each other than do any two recent birds. These
facts show that we may hope for most important discov>
eries in the future, especially from the Triassic, which has
as yet furnished no authentic trace of birds, For the
primitive forms of this class we must evidently look to

the Palaeozoic.
—____~9

THE LIMITED BIOLOGICAL IMPORTANCE OF
SYNTHETIC ACHIEVEMENTS IN ORGANIC
CHEMIST Rw.

By PROFESSOR ALBERT B. PRESCOTT,

The solicitude shown for half a century as to the bio-
logical import of chemical synthesis arises from a misap-
prehension of the scope of chemical action. From all
we know of chemism, it must be accepted, (1) that all
the matter of protoplasm and cell is carried strictly in a
state of chemical combination, but (2) it cannot therefore
be accepted that chemical composition supplies the essen-
tial conditions or impulses for organization or other vital
functions. The synthesis of all the chemical compounds
of the living body may or may not be attainable in the
laboratory, but its success would give no whit of promise
for the development of organization. Chemical action is
distinct from cell organization as it is from heat, cohesion,
etc., and its corelations with all these forces have to
await demonstration by experiment. Cell growth ap-
pears to be a necessary factor in the simple splitting of
sugar into alcoho! and carbon dioxide, and it may or may
not be an essential factor in the chemical synthesis of
proteids or of cellulose.

————EEEISSss

A GENTLEMAN of Milan, Signor Lorin, deserves high
credit, for the public spirit of philanthropy he has shown
in offering 20,000 francs to the municipal authorities to
maintain a mortuary and post mortem room wherein the
bodies of all persons dying of unexplained causes shall
be rigidly examined before they are cremated.

* Read before the A. A. A. S., Cincinnati, 188r.

514

SCIENCE. i

THE TERRA DEL FUEGIANS AT THE GAR-
DEN OF ACCLIMATION.

The whole world has heard of the savages, who are at
present exhibited at the Zoological Garden of Acclima-
tion of Bois de Boulogne; many have gone to see them,
and have been well repaid, for they present an interesting
spectacle to the cbserver. They are seen lying or squat-
ting about the fire kindled under the trees of the large
lawn, motionless for whole hours at a time, gazing with
vacant eye at the astonished crowd which presses
against the railings as though they contained remarkable
animals. Do they think? We cannot tell this. Do they
speak? Yes, they do speak, if we can call the gutteral
sounds, the cluckings which at long intervals, they ex-
change with each other, alanguage. They remain ‘there,
indifferent, having no longer in operation the only cause
which can agitate them, hunger ; for they are fed. It is
a curious sight, but also a sad one. A man at this stage
of brutishness is not wholly an animal; but he is no
longer a man. The Fuegians, for that is the name which
Captain Weddel gave them in 1822, and which has been
applied to them since that time, inhabit Terra del Fuego.
When we read in the works of travelers the description
of their country, we are no longer astonished at their pro-
found degradation.

Terra del Fuego is a mountainous archipelago, sepa-
rated from Patagonia by the straits of Magellan, and
formed of enormous masses of steep rocks, which leave
only the coast bordering upon the straits, upon which
man can settle. In the parts where the rock is not abso-
lutely bare, a thick and impenetrable forest of beeches
covers the side of the mountain, and descends as far as
the sea. No animal, with the exception of some foxes
and birds, inhabits this country. The climate here is
horrible. The mean temperature of summer, according
to King and Darwin, is10°C., and that of winter 0.°6C,
Mist is perpetual here, and tempests unceasing. Scarcely
a day passes without the fall of rain, and even of snow.
The habitable portion is only on the rocks of the shore.
In the whole country, but a few acres of plain can be
found.

For a long time these Fuegians have been known, and
many descriptions of them have been given. Sebold, of
Weert, who accompanied Simon, of Cord, made giants
of them, eleven to twelve feet high. We see from the
samples which we have under our eyes, that there is a
certain exaggeration in that statement. We borrow from
Orbigny the description which he gives of them; in our
opinion, there is nothing to be changed in it, it is abso-
lutely applicable to our savages.

Their head, says Orbigny, is tolerably large, their face
is rounded; they have a short nose, a little broadened,
open nostrils, small eyes, black and horizontal; a large
mouth, thick lips, white teeth, well arranged; small ears,
and the cheek bones a little prominent. They have but
little beard, and this they pluck out. Their. hair, like
that of all the Americans, is black, long, and dull. Their
body is massive, their chest large, and their bow-legs are
relatively rather short. The women present the same
characteristics as the men, and they will return with diffi-
culty to the proportions exacted by European esthetics.
Their mean height is from 1.56 m., to 1.68 m.

Their language, as we have before stated, is guttural,
and it has been compared by Cook to the utterance of a
man who is gargling. This comparison expresses well
the impression that is felt on hearing them.

The great naturalist, Charles Darwin, was able,
during the many months which he passed in the country
which they inhabit, to observe their habits, and he has
given us a picture which, in order to be just, is not very
attractive : it is from him that we borrow the particulars
which follow. ‘ Forced continually to move from one
region to another, according as the resources of their set-
tlement are exhausted, the Fuegians have no fixed abode.

They construct a sort of hut by planting several branches
in the ground and covering them with other branches in-
tertwined on the side where the wind blows. Their dress
consists of a piece of skin, which they carry over their
shoulders, and which they pass from one shoulder to the
other, according to the direction of the wind. It was
necessary for ceremony to persuade the Fuegians at the
Garden of Acclimation to put ona pair of drawers. Often
they are completely nude. Their nourishment con-
sists chiefly of shell-fish, and now and then of the
rotten flesh of a seal or of a whale. At low tide,
which may be in winter or in summer, in the night or in
the day, they must get. up to seek the shell-fish on the
rocks; the women dive to obtain the eggs from the sea
or remain patiently seated in their boats for several hours
until they have caught several small fish with lines with-
out hooks, If they happen to kill a seal, or if they
happen to discover the half-rotten carcass of a whale, it
is the signal for an immense feast. They then gorge
themselves with the.horrible food, and, te complete the
feast, they eat several berries or several mushrooms which
have no taste.”’

When the different tribes go to war they become can-
nibals. Besides, when in winter they are strongly pressed
by hunger, they eat the old women before they do the
dogs, because, they say, the latter capture otters, and
the old women cannot. In this regard, it is to be re-
gretted that they did not bring some of their dogs with
them. The only domestic animals of these savages ought
certainly to present a precious subject of observation.

Do these savages believe in another life, have they any
rudimentary religion whatever? We are not abie to pro-
nounce on this, for it is impossible to draw any explana-
tion from the savages themselves; they are incapable of
comprehending an alternative, and we can never surely
know if we understand them ourselves. All that we can
say is, that each tribe or family possesses a magician
whose functions have not yet been exactly defined by
travelers, and that the Fuegians generally bury their dead.

It has been pretended that the family tie does not exist
among them. Yet, we see in the account of Darwin that
York Minster, one of the Fuegians brought back by
Captain Fitz-Roy to his country, took as his wife the
young girl who had accompanied him to Europe, and
that the other returned Fuegian also had his wife when
the expedition returned to the place inhabited by the tribe
with which he had been left. Is not this a proof of the
existence of a family relation, rudimentary if you wish, yet
a real home among these savages.

As regards property, it is an unknown thing among
them. Apart from arms and utensils, no Fuegian pos-
sesses anything of his own. If he kills aseal, it is shared
among all the members of the tribe. If a present is made
to one of them, he breaks it and divides the pieces. It is
communism in all its beauty.

The different tribes have neither government nor chief.
Each of them is, however, surrounded by other hostile
tribes speaking different dialects. They are separated,
the one from the other, by a neutral territory which re-
mains absolutely deserted. The perpetual wars which
these tribes have, seem to have fora cause the difficulty of
obtaining food. The land is so steep that they cannot
change their abode except by water; and necessity has
forced them to become navigators and to build boats.
Those who inhabit the shores of the Straits of Magellan
pass, from time to time, into Patagonia to chase the
guanacos in order to renew their clothes and their provi-
sions. But even there they encounter enemies. The
Patagonians, from whom they are distinguished by race
and language, as well as by habits, pursue them with ar-
dor, and seek to reduce them to slavery. A Fuegian
slave is very highly estimated by the Patagonians, who
value him among themselves, according to the quality, up
to $200.

When we consider the few resources which the archi

SCIENCE.

MIff!

!

If
My,

LM

INHABITANTS OF TERBA DEL FUEGO AT THE GARDEN OF ACCLIMATION IN Paris (AFTER A PHOTOGRAPH BY PIERRE PETIT).

516

pelago of Terra del Fuego offers for the existence of man,
even compared to the neighboring regions on the Amer-
ican continent, we ask what cause has persuaded the
Fuegians to establish themselves there. To-day it is be-
yond doubt that these people are not negroes, as Bory
Saint-Vincent believed, but that they belong toan Ando-
Peruvian race which inhabits the Andes and a part of the
pampas of Chili. They probably occupied, in olden
times, the northern banks of the straits of Magellan, and
are but a remnant of the Aucas and the Araucanos of
Chili. Attacked by the Patagonians of the pampian
race, not as strong and more poorly armed than
their adversaries, they were obliged, at a time more
or less remote, to yield the place to their redoubtable
enemies and to take refuge in the inhospitable regions on
the other side of the strait, where the Patagonians, de-
testable navigators, left them in quiet.

Then little by little have acted the forces of adapta-
tion, which all-powerful habit, in returning their heredi-
tary effects, have adapted the Fuegians to the climate
and productions of their miserable country.

Their industry is modified in the same way, and to-
day it is reduced to the construction of miserable boats,
and to the manufacture of several weapons and utensils
necessary to their sad existence. The boat built of a
mass of shapeless pieces of wood, covered with can-
vas in the shape of the skins which they custom-
arily employ, the boat which -can be seen on the
basin in the neighborhood of their enclosure, makes us
shudder when we think that these savages venture in this
frail machine on the agitated waters which wash their
country. In regard to the collection of arms and utensils
which can be seen in a neighboring shed, it indicates a
cerlain ingenuity, but shows well to what a miserable
condition these poor creatures are reduced. :

These Fuegians, eleven in number, four men, four
women, and three children, have been brought to Europe
by M. Waalen, established for many years at Punta-
Arenas, capital of Patagonia.

M. Waalen, who goes to fish for seals in the waters
of Terra del Fuego, finds himself in connection with
these savages. He was able, by gorging them with
food, by treating them with prudence, for they are not
always tractable and would be able to cause great ob-
structions, to induce them to remain on his ship, from
which they were transshipped on a Hamburg steamer
which makes the passage between Valparaiso and
Europe. It was while the ship touched at Havre that M.
Geoffroy Saint Hilaine, informed by a despatch, saw
them and bronght them here. M. Waalen deposited in
the hands of the Chilian Governor of Punta-Arenas, a
sum of 12 to 15,000 francs, as security, binding himself
to return these savages to their country after they had
made a tour through the principal capitals of Europe.

What impression will they carry back of their sojourn
among civilized people? If we are to judge of this by
the Fuegians that Captain Fitz-Roy returned after a
sojourn of three years in Europe, the impression will
be a very fleeting one. These natives, three in number,
two men, York Minster and Jemmy Button, and a young
girl, Fuégia, seemed almost entirely civilized. Captain
Fitz-Roy landed them in the middle of their tribes, fur-
nished them with implements and tools of all sorts, built
them a house, cleared up a corner of ground, and left
them in the company of amissionary. When he returned,
several months after, he found no trace of their install-
ment, and had to take on board the poor missionary, who
ran the greatest danger. Of his three pioneers, two,
York Minster and Fuégia who became his wife, parted
in plundering their comrade, and the latter, who had
taken a wife in his tribe, became a filthy and disgusting
savage, delighted with his condition, scarcely knowing
how to speak English, and who showed with pride to the
officers of the expedition the implements of bone and of
flint which he had manufactured.

SCIENCE.

It seems, after this experience, that it is impossible to
draw these savages from their debasement, and yet they
liave an intellectual capacity, latent, it is true, which ap-
pears superior to that of Australians. They learn
languages with remarkable facility, and have a spirit of
imitation carried to extremes, which ought to be utilized
in order to teach them things well. The future will tell
us if those who are at present in the Garden of Acclima-
tion, will derive any profit from their sojourn among us.
Our opinion is that they will be delighted at finding
themselves in their own homes, and the remembrance of
all that they will have seen will remain in their minds
as a dream which will not perhaps be wholly agreea-
ble.—( Translated from La Nature.)

a te

ON, AD NEW SYSTEM OF BLOW PIPE
_ ANALYSIS.* «
By LIEUT.-COLONEL W. A. Ross (late R. A.)

(1) THE USE OF ALUMINIUM PLATE FOR VOLATILIZ-.
ING SUBSTANCES.

Volatile metals and sulphur compounds, &c., are, in the
old system, treated before the blowpipe, as is well known,
upon the support of a parallelopiped of charcoal held
horizontally in the direction of the blast from the blow-
pipe, the disadvantages of which are: (a) that d/ack sub-
limates as those now known to be obtainable from arsenic,
antimony, lead, &c., are undistinguishable on the black
charcoal. (6) The greater part of the sublimate from
most volatile metals is blown away by the biast—a seri-
ous objection when, as is often the case, there is only a
trifling proportion of such metals present in a mineral or
compound. (¢) When the charcoal becomes incandes-
cent, the most interesting portion of the sublimate (that
next the assay) is often thus resublimed and lost. (d)
The white charcoal ash is so mixed up with sublimates
as often to conceal them, and, in cases of minute quanti-
ties, to mislead the operator into supposing there isa sub-
limate at all. (e) In the treatment of a compound con-
taining two or more volatile metals, sulphides, or oxides,
the sublimates obtained therefrom are mechanically, and
perhaps sometimes chemica!ly, combined, and then can-
not be separated, so as to be distinguished from each
other, by means of the blowpipe, or in any other way at
the time, on the spot. (/) It is impossible to obtain a
blowpipe sublimate from charcoal free from the silica, &c.,
of the ash, by scraping it off for supplementary examina-
tion. (¢) Most charcoals, after blowpipe treatment for any
length of time, split up in‘o cracks and deep fissures,
into which the sublimate or the assay falls and is lost.

Here are several objections to the use of charcoal as a
blowpipe support; most of them serious, some fatal to a
thorough pyrological examination of volatile substances ;
and yet it has obtained ever since Von Swab invented the
chemical employment of the blowpipe in 1738 (in which
year he thus treated an ore of zinc at Delarne in Sweden),
and is still used at Freiberg.

In 1869 Napoleon rrr had offered, or I understood him ~
to have offered, a premium of £1000 to any one who
could discover an efficient solder for aluminium, and
being then on sick-leave in India, I thought of employing
my leisure in attempting this discovery.t

After investigation, I imagined (from burning my
fingers so often), that the reason an aluminium solder
could not be made, was the enormous heat-conducting
powers of the metal, which transferred the heat from a
blowpipe-flame so quickly away over the entire substance
of a fragment of given bulk, that no one part of it could

*British Association, York, 1881.

t In reply to a question, Col. Ross answered that he had not discovered
a new solder, but that on one occasion last year (1880) he actually did suc-
ceed in soldering two small pieces of aluminium together, and that he has
a description of the process in his notes,

; : “ SCEENCE.

57.

be raised to the fusing-point, so that, although small por-
tions of almost every other metal or alloy could be readily
fused upon it, even the most fusible, such as antimony,
bismuth, &c., could not be made to combine with the
aluminium.

As I had then studied blowpipe analysis on the Frei-
berg system for ten years, it was obvious to me ‘that, al-
though I had no chance of otaining the £1000, the facts
thus ascertained might be utilized so as to make alumin-
num plate or foil remedy in part, at all events, the disad-
vantages above described of charcoal as a blowpipe sup-

ort.

I found that arsenic, antimony, bismuth, &c., the fusion
of the smallest particle of which upon platinum is so fatal
to it, could be treated without the slightest danger before
the blowpipe upon aluminium, which metal also, probably
from the reason above given, withstood heat concentrated
upon any point, in direct proportion to the bulk of the
fragment used as a support.

I found that some volatile metals, as ¢. g., antimony,
would not yield a sublimate when treated before the
blowpipe upon the bare aluminium plate, but readily did
so when a small slip or lozenge of charcoal was placed
between the assay and the aluminium. Here, then, was
a rapid and effectual means of sefaratzng the pyroxides
or sublimates obtainable from a compound, for instance,
of antimony and arsenic; the latter subliming readily
upon the bare aluminium plate; the former only after
treatment upon a charcoal slip.

The horizontal charcoal support was, of course,
changed into a perpendicular one, in direct opposition to
the blast from the blowpipe, so as to catch all sublimates
of every kind; the grey-colored, shining aluminium be-
trayed at once the faintest sublimates, whether black or
white ; these, again, could be readily treated by the ox-
idizing or redueing flame of the blowpipe on the alumin-
ium, where they thus afforded, in most cases, new and
characteristic reactions; the perpendicular aluminium
could be graduated by a scale showing the different spec-
ific gravities of sublimates by their mean ascension on
the plate, unacted upon by the blast as in the case of
charcoal; and finally, any portion of a sublimate could
be easily and cleanly scraped off with a penknife, so as to
be afterwards examined in any way desired.

Another advantage I found, referrable, I presume, to
the same cause (of superior heat-conduction in the sup-
port) is that the alkaline carbonates, so often used in
blowpipe analysis, as in the detection of manganese, for
instance, assume, when treated before the blowpipe on
aluminium, a globular shape, and that the resulting bead
or ball of sodium or potassium carbonate, can be readily
picked, when cool, off the plate with forceps, instead of
lying in a kind of pool and sticking to the metal as they
do in the case of platinum foil.

To other uses of aluminium plates, as in flattening
blowpipe beads and their contents for microscopical pur-
poses, I have not time to allude.

(2) A NEW AIR-RESERVOIR MOUTH BLOWPIPE (CALLED
BY ME A ‘“‘ PYROGENE,’’)

A member of the Royal Geological Survey of England
told me in Jermyn street, that he believed many geolo-
gists and mineralogists were deterred from using this
important little instrument by the trouble if not difficulty
of blowing, and for a long time I tried to discover some
means of obviating this difficulty in vain. At last, one
day, in the Zoological Gardens of London, looking re-
flectively at the antics of some anthropoid types of our
ancestors there, I could not help feeling a kind of regret
that the process of ‘Natural Selection”’ should have
eventually deprived my race of the pouch under the jaw,
no doubt at one time possessed by them, which would
have served so admirably as an air-reservyoir in using the
blowpipe, and it suddenly struck me that I could partially
remedy the defects of specific development in this matter,

by applying an elastic air-reservoir of indiarubber to the
ordinary mouth-blowpipe.

Here is the result. I have made it of a simple tube-
like form, instead of the usual tapering one, as seen in
Black’s blowpipe, because I had to adapt it to be packed
in a cigar-case like this, the only way of effecting which
was to have it in a telescopic arrangement, opening and
shutting thus: and this arrangement had another
advantage, that, namely, of adapting the length of the
instrument to the differing optical focus of differing
vision,

For the jet I took Wollaston’s ingenious idea of pass-
ing the stem of the blowpipe through the arm of the jet ;
only instead of doing that, it suited my purpose better to
pass the jet through the stem of the blowpipe thus. Of
course, in either case, the inserted tube must fit air-tight
—an easy matter to effect. Over the throat of the mouth-
piece is tied a piece. of oiled silk, which acts as a valve,
preventing the return of the breath into the cheeks. In
this manner all difficulty in blowing is entirely removed,
and even a child can use this blowpipe, because all he
has to do is to blow through the valve till the air-bag is
filled; then he can stop until the pressure of the blast
begins to slacken, when a few more breathings will refill
the bag. The blast pressure from the bag may also be
increased by the operator placing it between himself and
the table, and gently pressing the bag with his body,
which he can easily do while using this apparatus.

I have only to add that, as you observe, the jet and
air-bag fit for packing into the tube of the blowpipe it-
self, for which purpose there is no necessity, as in the
one I have here, to make the end screw off, as all one has
todo is to draw the telescopic arrangement out alto-
gether, and, slipping in the jet and bag, to shutit up
again; this, of course, would make the article cheaper.
Griffin makes them (with the screw end) for, I believe,
half a crown, but, of course, any ordinary mechanic
could make such a blowpipe for himself for a few pence.

(3) THE PYROLOGICAL CANDLE,

I begin a brief description of this fuel with the remark
that it is practically impossible for the traveller to use
gas of any kind—not even petroleum gas—as fuel, on
account of the difficulties of carriage. The same re-
mark applies, but in another way, to oil of any descrip-
tion. A bottle of this is no doubt, easily carried, but is
very apt to leak at the cork, and so to spoil any or most
articles near it in a box.

Considerations of this kind led me, in 1871, to look to
the modern composite candle as a substitute for the Ber-
zelius blowpipe lamp, supplied with Plattner’s Freiberg
apparatus, which I had used for twelve years. The can-
dies then used for blow-pipe operations were, indeed, in
no respect different from those used for illuminating pur-
poses. How Von Engestrom, Bergmann, and the more
modern pyrologists who are said to still use common can-
dles for blowpipe work, contrived to do anything useful
with them, I fail to understand. With even a small wick
in the centre of the.candle, which, of course, must be
turned on one side to prevent it from stopping the blast,
the heat radiation from the blowpipe-pyrocone melts the
tallow or wax from that side more rapidly than the re—
mainder of the circumference melts, so that a deep chan-
nel is soon formed, down which the fluid fuel runs,
leaving the wick “high and dry.”” The consequence is
that the pyrocone becomes ‘“thready,” from the burn-
ing of dry carbonaceous particles eliminated from the
wick, and when it is cut down amass of unconsumed
tallow almost covers it at one side.

I therefore adopted the plan of having the candle made
with a thick, and even double, wick, placed at one side
instead of in the middle of the fuel, and in order to sup-
ply more of the latter, I had my candles made a pris-
matic instead of a round shape. I placed a thick collar
of a good conducting metal, such as zinc, round the

518 SCIENCE.

edge cf the candle, just under the wick, in order to con-
duct away and diffuse through itself the vibrations of
heat. At first I had a series of these metallic collars,
and proposed to remove them as the candle burned
down; but I afterwards found that one or two good
thick zinc collars would be sufficient.

Here is a candle from my cigar blow-pipe case which I
am at present using, and another unused one, as made for
me by Price & Co. of Battersea.

(4) CANDLE SCISSORS.

In Plattner’s apparatus scissors are supplied for cut-
ting the Jamp-wick, which of course can also be used for
other purposes, azd also a pair of pliers for squeezing
the wick together, and pressing it in any direction ; these
latter cannot be used, from the dirty state into which
they get, for anything else. I use these two articles com-
bined into one—z. ¢,, a pair of ordinary scissors with
knobs at the end. This also goes into my cigar blow-
pipe-case.

(5) ORDINARY WATCHMAKER’S PLIERS,

with a piece of wire-strapping round them, to enable
them to act as holders of platinum wire supports, and
they also act as the best cleaners of the wire by drawing
the latter from between the pressed flat sides.

(6) TWO AGATE SLABS FOR GRINDING POWDERS.

I have here got instead, a small Freiberg agate mortar,
with a pestle made from an agate pen, as I had no slabs
small enough to pack away in this cigar-case.

(7) REAGENTS. BORIC ACID.

It has always seemed to me as though blow-pipe work-
ers, or, as I call them, “ Pyrologists,” could no more pro-

fess to begin analytical operations by using a sa/¢ as re-.

agent, than the analytical chemist could say he intended
to begin his solution-work by using sodium nitrate in-
stead of nitric acid. By employing boric acid instead of
borax, therefore, in 1869, I at once obtained a series of
new, very pretty, and important reactions, especially in
the case of the alkaline earths, which formerly used to
be the weakest part of blowpipe analysis ; now, they are
one of the easiest. Space and time do not allow me to
describe these reactions here ; and, unfortunately, I have
brought no boric acid with me here in order to illustrate
them ; but here is a little German-silver cigar-light box
in which the acid is kept, as it does not thus deteriorate.
This also goes into the cigar-case.

Phosphoric acted is another of my new reagents (when {[
say “new,” I mean that they are now 12 years old, but
new in the sense that they have not been as yet generally
adopted.) I use it instead of the old reagent ‘‘ microcos-
mic salt.’’ It affords, with several oxides before the
blowpipe, new and interesting colors, as in the case of
cobalt oxide, which imparts to it a very fine and pure
violet instead of the ordinary blue. Of course, when a
sufficient quantity of soda to form metaphosphate of
sodium, or microcosmic salt after the ammonia has been
driven off, has been added, the bead becomes blue, and
this fact enables it to be used as an alkalimeter. Itis the
only reagent which requires to be kept in a stoppered
bottle; and is such a powerful acid before the blowpipe
that gold leaf is rapidly dissolved in it, yielding a brilliant
purple bead. It affords, with iron oxide, a bead the color
of watery blood. This ends the list of things packed in
the cigar-case.

(8) A COMPASS IN WHICH THE NEEDLE POINTS E.
AND W.

This is made by bending an ordinary magnetized needle
in the centre until the points are opposite, like a lady’s
hairpin. It is, in fact, an ordinary horseshoe-magnet
suspended, and such a magnet suspended swings E. and

W. for a very obvious reason. It might prove useful in,
Arctic voyages, as such a needle would probably possess
little or no “dip.” If you bend an ordinarily magnetized
needle at a right or any other angle, and suspend it from
or on its centre of gravity, a line bisecting the angle will
point E. and W., and it was such a needle I first made
in order to find a very delicate test for traces of iron in
ores. The more open or obtuse the angle, the more deli-
cate this test is. I call it the ‘Equatorial Needle.’
With a right-angled equatorial needle you can detect the
mere trace of iron in the ore Wolybdenzte.

(9) AN ALLOY-BUTTON OF GOLD AND SILVER IN WHICH
THESE METALS HAVE BEEN PARTLY SEPARATED
BY THE BLOWPIPE ALONE.

Many years ago I found that, if you heat an alloy of
two or more metals very gently with the blowpipe, so as
not to promote fusion, in which case the ball spins round,
and all the component metals are mixed again—that one
nearly pure metal invariably leaves the Others, and ap-
proaches the source of heat. This is a case of gold and
silver alloy, in which the silver has approached the source
of heat, but the process can be admirably illustrated in
the case of a common bronze pin, in which the tin ap-
proaches the source of heat, while the copper remains in
the background. Such a process might obviously be
found useful in metallurgy on the large scale.

————

ASTRONOMY.
To the Editor of ‘‘ SCYENCE.”

On the early morning of June 30, 1881, the definition
was very good. On no other occasion was Comet B,
1881, seen so clearly. As it appeared in our 8%-inch
refractor, it presented some peculiarities which I have not
noticed in any published drawings, and therefore mail
you the enclosed.

The prominent features were an unsymmetrical pear
shaped coma surrounding the nucleus, two streams on
either side, and one directly opposite the tail, which

blended with the envelope. Around the whole was a
very faint secondary envelope.
Very respectfully,
ISAAC SHARPLESS,
HAVERFORD COLLEGE OBSERVATORY, September I, 1881.

ad.

SCIENCE.

519

CORRESPONDENCE.

The Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed
by his correspondents. No notice ts taken of anonymous communi—
* cations.|

To the Editor of SCIENCE.

The “ Ononid’” meteors were watched this morning
from 12.20 to 3.05 by four observers. The shower seemed
quite abundant, 190 meteors being mapped during the
time of observation. About one-half of these undoubtedly
belonged to a common system. ‘The radiant point as de-
duced from these, and which, considering their number
cannot be greatly in error, was R. A.—86°, Dec. + 169
which brings it just outside tha limits of the constellation
Onon. No stationary meteors were observed and but
very few with short paths near the radiant paint. This
may be due to the fact that they were so faint (mostly
about equal in brightness to a fourth magnitude star) that
the short paths were not sufficiently conspicuous to call
our attention tothem. An auroral light was visible in the
north and east during the early part of the watch.
Chambers gives 85 °,+16as the radiant point, and adds
that Tupman makes it 90° ,+11.

Respectfully,
ISAAC SHARPLESS.

HAVERFORD COLLEGE OBSERVATORY, PA., 10/0, 19th,

1881,
— SSS

DR. H. RAYMOND ROGERS AND HIS CRITICS,
To the Edztor of ‘“‘SCYENCE.”’

Prof. Merriam, in your journal, page 495, writes as
follows: “I do not like to see so great an authority as
Faraday misunderstood, as he evidently is by your cor-
respondent on page 459 of your journal, and that, too, in
a way which he took particular care to caution against—
as to the law of gravitating action. That it acts inversely
as the square of the distance he fully believed and ad-
mitted ; or, to use his own words, ‘I know it is so.’ ”

The quotation objected to was made verbatim from
Faraday’s writings, and the sentiments contained therein
were frequently expressed by him, and with emphasis, In
the work entitled ‘‘ Correlation and Conservation of Force,”
page 363, is an essay by Faraday entitled ‘The Conser-
vation of Force,” in which we read the following, viz.: “1
believe I represent the received idea of the gravitating
force aright in saying that it is a simple attractive force
exerted between any two or all the particles or masses of
matter, at every sensible distance, but with a strength
varying inversely as the square of the distance. The
usual idea of the force implies dzvect action at a distance :
and such a view appears to present little difficulty except
to Newton, and a few, including myself, who in that re-
spect, may be of like mind with him. This idea of grav-
ity appears to me toignore entirely the principle of the con-
servation of force; and by the terms of its definition, if
taken in an absolute sense, ‘varyzmg inversely as the
square of the distance,’ to be in direct opposition to it.”
Again, in the same essay, page 366, “the assumption
which we make for the time with regard to the nature of
a power (as gravity, heat, etc.,) and the form of words in
which we express it, that is, its definition, should be con-
sistent with the fundamental principles of force generally.
The conservation of force is a fundamental principle;
hence the assumption with regard to a particular form of
force ought to imply what becomes of the force when its
action is zzcreased or diminished, or its dyrectzon changed;
or else the assumption should admit that it is deficient on
that point, being only half competent to represent the
force; and, in any case, should not be opposed to the
principle of conservation. The usual definition of gravity
as an attractive force between the particles of matter
varying inversely as the square of the distance, whilst it
stands as a full definztzon of the power, is inconsistent
with the principle of the conservation of force.”

(a

Faraday is here laboring to show the incompetency of
that definition alone. He thinks the natural philosopher
ought to look for effects and conditions as yet unknown;
and so virtually calls aloud for some one to fill up what
to him appears a serious deficiency. He called the old
definition only a Zadf-assumption, and felt the necessity of
some enlargement of it, that it might stand secure. He
says: ‘the half-assumption is, in my view of the mat-
ter, more dogmatic and irrational than the whole, because
it leaves it to be understood that power can be created
and destroyed almost at pleasure.”

Faraday called for, what we believe, the electric theory
amply supplies. Not only so, but he also indicated this
very source of supply. For example, a “ grain of water”
having a given force of gravity has also “electric relations
equivalent to a very powerful flash of lightning.” He
says, “It may, therefore, be supposed that a very large
apparent amount of the force causing the phenomena of
gravitation, may be the equivalent of a very small change
in some unknown condition of the bodies, whose attrac-
ticn is varying by change of distance. For my own part,
many considerations urge my mind toward the idea of a
cause of gravity, which is not resident in the particles of
matter merely, but constantly in them, and all space.”

We have been led to think that it was not impossible
to find such “ cause of gravity, not resident in the par-
ticles of matter merely,” but which by means of a “ very
small change in some [formerly] unknown condition of
the bodies,” shall bring the whole subject of gravitation
out from the shadowy realms of darkness into abiding
sunlight.

In brief, Faraday insists that the totality of the force
of gravity is not expressed by the definition that “ grav-
ity acts directly as the mass and inversely as the square
of the distance.”” Indeed, he says as pithily as when he
uttered your correspondent’s quotation, “I know it is
so.” ‘That the ¢otadzty of a force can be employed ac-
cording to that law Z do not belzeve /”’

It might, by the way, be of interest to learn a little
more definitely as regards what it was that Faraday
knew was so. The following are his words: “ That the
result of one exercise of a power may be inversely as
the square of the distance I believe and admit; and I
know it is so in case of gravity.”” The same sentence,
however, continues: “but that the Zo¢a/zty of a force
can be employed according to that law I do not believe
either in relation to gravitation or electricity or magnet-
ism, etc.”

It may be asked what can be correctly known of the
action of electricity or magnetism where the item Jolarcty
is left out? “ What I object to,” says Faraday, “ is the
pretence of knowledge which the definition sets np when
it assumes to describe, not the partial effects of the force,
but the nature of the force asa whole.”

Satisfied with the old definition as your correspondent
may be, Faraday looked for a “ missing link.”” We may
say that he pointed it out in saying :—‘‘ when we remem-
ber that the earth itself is a magnet, pervaded in every
part by this mighty power, universal and strong as
gravity itself, we cannot doubt that it is exerting an ap-
pointed and essential influence over every particle of
matter, and in every place where it is present. What its
great purpose is seems to be looming up in the distance
before us :—the clouds which obscure our mental sight are
daily thinning, and I cannot doubt that a glorious dis-
covery in natural knowledge and in the wisdom and
power of God in the creation is awaiting our age.”’

I would conclude this part of my reply to your cor=
respondent, with the recommendation that he study Fara-
day, for “I do not like to see so great an authority as
Faraday misunderstood.”’

Again, as regards the earth’s return from aphelion to
perihelion :—

It is admitted that my reply (p. 459) to Mr. Hendricks

520 » , SCIENER.

was left open to objection. This may be accounted for The death of Mr. Charles A. Spencer, of Geneva, N. Y.,

by the fact that there was shown to me his article #zuus | has caused universal regret, and in many respects it may

two paragraphs—the last paragraph on page 458 and : . ; :
first on 459. Therein zeert/e alone was represented as be considered a national loss, for as a representative of

bringing back the planet from aphelion to perihelion. | 4metica’s skilled opticians his position was unique. As
That the planet, traveling its orbit from perihelion to | a pioneer he was the first to manufacture Microscope ob-
aphelion, as it were déagonally agaznst the central at- jectives in the United States, and at once developed a

traction of the sun, would find its velocity and mo- a: .
see Be : Ss ‘
mentum diminished sufficiently to be made to return, I do kill in the manufacture of these minute and delicate

not doubt; but that on the secozd round, it would reach glasses, which he maintained to the last. Spencer was no
the farthest limits of its first round, I do not think there | copyist, his inventive genius and thorough knowledge of

is any reason to believe. The tendency would be to | the optical principles involved in the making of objectives

bring the orbit into a perfect circle very speedily. In the | enabled him to keep in the van of all those who devoted
polarity, which is a factor of magnetism, we find a need- He Sickle ths Saeneoae

ed regulative agency. Do we say that this agent is too : ;
insignificant? Nevertheless may it not be, in the words | The greatest triumph of Spencer was in the enlarge-
of Faraday, the “very small change’in some unknown | ment of the angle of aperture of his objectives, in which

condition of the bodies” involved in the operation, respect he was always in advance of the best European

which is all-sufficient for what is required of it? We tides. tab arian b henry :
recognize the force of Faraday’ s objection to the popu- Makers, DOt ne, Wi always RE Tele ata eee ee

lar definition of gravity, viz.: that a/one it is incompetent, | tious worker, who never permitted an objective to leave

and contradicts the law of conservation—except as we | his hands which was not worthy of the maker.

add to it something more. That something more we ee a

fully believe to be that electrical or magnetic constituent

which Faraday says “exerts an appointed and essential PSOE CBD ND ies

influence over every particle of matter.” WANTED.—Tables of the Parabola for Cash. E. E. Barnard,
Nashville, Tenn.

SECOND-HAND MICROSCOPES wanted, also objectives. Name
price for each. B., office of ‘‘ SCIENCE.”

QueERY.—Is it wise or philosophical to recognize a
cosmical force of incalculable energy, and yet in our
theory of the cosmas make no practical account of it

whatsoever ? For EXCHANGE.—Large English Mahogany Cabinet for mounted
H. RAYMOND ROGERS, slides, apparatus and books, for best 1-8th or 1-roth objectives.
DUNKIRK, N. Y. Address C. R. T., office of ‘‘ SCIENCE.”

METEOROLOGICAL REPORT FOR NEW YORK K CITY FOR THE WEEK ENDING OCT. z 22, Wools

Latitude 40° 45’ 58" N.; Longitude 73° 57’ 58” W:; height of instruments above the ground, 53 feet ; above the sea, 97
feet ; by self-recording instruments.

BAROMETER. THERMOMETERS.
ee ae MAXIMUM, MINIMUM. MEAN, MAXIMUM, MINIMUM, MAXI’M
OCTOBER. fase i | oh i es l ic Semen | |
Reduced | Reduced Reduced | | | fae Prae>
to to | Time. to ) ime. | we | ee a Time. | nies Time. eo Time. ne Time. InSun,
Freezing,| Freezing. Freezing. | lees : ‘\ . zi “i
‘. PL cullt ee: esd | celle Al si | |
| | | | |
Sunday, 16_-|- 30.116 30.218 |10 p.m.| 30.000 | 2a,m.| 68.0| 63.0] 76 | 2p. m.| 67 2p.m.| 62 -|x2 p.m)" 56 z20p. ma.) rad
Monday, I7-<| + 30.104 30.212 oa.m.} 29.918 |12 p.m.| 63.0 | 60.3 66 |12 p.m.) 65 72 p.m. 59 | 4a.m.| 54 4 a.m.) 105.
Tuesday, 18--| 29.760 29.918 oa.m.| 29.678 2 p.m.| 67.0 | 62.6 78 2p.m,| 68 | 2-p;m.)' sx [rz p.m.) 48 ls2pemi)) eas
Wednesday, 19 -| 30.092 30.113 |1% a.m.| 29.908 | 0 a.m.| 50.0 | 45.6 |. 55 2p.m.| 4$ |%2p m:| 45 | Ga.im) (4 7 a.™m,| 120
Thursday, 20.-| 30.031 30,098 oa.m,| 30.000 2 p-™M.| 51.3 | 49.3 56 3 pom.) 32° 4) 3) Ds we 47 Ia.m.| 45 E as Ois|-sene
Friday, 21--| 30.179 30.200 | 9 a.m.| 30.068 | 0 a.m.| 53.7 | 50.3 61 3P-m.| 55 |5P-m. 44 | 7 a.m.| 44 | 7 a.m.) 128
Saturday, 22.-| 30.142 30.208. | 9 a.m.| 30.100 5 P.M.) 57.0 | 52-7 67 4 p.m.) 59 | 5 p.m.| 46 |7 a,m.| 46 7 a.m:.| 122
i Dry. Wet.
Mean»for the! weekit2-2--*- 2-252. 2-2 5. ee | ‘Mean for the week-_..2--.=------- 58.5 degrees oe Fees 54.8 degrees,
Maximum for the week at 10 p. m., Oct. «6th | Maximum for the week,at 2 pm. 18th 78. at 2pm 18th, 68. “
Minimum ie at 2p.m., Uct.18th | Minimum “ Ms 7am. 21st 44. ‘fat 7am 2ist. 44. nt
PAN Co eciS pct omg a= ie can Se eee el ee mes Range ee Meo eee 34. AY Gace Sees 24. Ke
WIND. HYGROMETER. CLOUDS. RAIN AND SNOW 5
| FORCE IN | , . ‘
tea VELOCITY : | RELATIVE CLEAR, ° DEPTH OF RAIN AND SNOW | ©
Ee he MiLzs,| 2S: PER |FORCE OF VAPOR.| sunrprry, OVERCAST. 10 IN INCHES.
SQR. FEET. | _ site Be cs
= : SSS SSS > ; ee ar ; 1 i j ee
OCTOBER. | | Distance) ,; | E a] g | 8 & & led [pi & Tine a | Dura-|5 2) ,
7 a.m./2 p.m. 9 p.m,) for the | & | Time. wo) ea eal ote tel eae no | a A Begin-| End- Lee £2 10
| Day. nie N a | a | nm) a] oa N a ning. |_ing. (por bf) a
Breer lees | linge | | | Por fate t9 |
Sunday, 16-.W.S.W..H.n,W.| n. ¢, | ee 3 4\ 1.50am| .542 | .542 | .45r | O4 | 60 73) |0Nn PO CAY NOU CLL. aml | iterates a seallia eee Bes
Monday, 17-/€. n.e.jé. ne.) s. | 138 |1%| 6.coam| .412|.497 | 562 | 77 | 83 | 94 |8cir.cu.|10 [20> | meena [ptm [en Peele i
Tuesday, 18-)' S.€. |W.n.w.jn.n w,| 240 |12t/11.00pm| .6r2 | .550 | .404 | 89 | 57 | 93 |8 cu. g cu. Ob) oa til) com eeetaag rene tener rere Eee Wits)
Wednesday,1g-n.n.w.| n. €. (€. n. €.) 234 |6%| 5.50am| .262 | .243 | .247 | 84 | 56 | 71 [0 GiCIN CL BUC ie 9 | meee tee ele ~ lie)
Thursday, 20-| n. €. |e. n.e.| Pee 1rr |13| 2.30pm| .284 | .349 | .348 | 85 | 80 | 93 |g cu. SiG CUs}O0 9) | ae trees erm =|)
Friday, 21.| 0. W. | ne. | -W. | 65 %\ 1.15pm) .288 | .297 | .39£ |100 | 55 | 87 0 j2CIY, CUO | nee n Pee | Seen Seo We
Saturday, 22.|W.n.w.| Ss. W. | Ss. Ww. | 134 ae 3-20pm| .311 | .330 | .396 Bacal | 53 | 76 |o ° Oo ©. ll Sesteaten ||P eee So |)
Distance traveled during the week. -----22..-2----- 222-2 1,100 miles, | Total amount of water for the! Weeli.z.o. eles ee .oo inch,
Maximilt f0rC6s cen sas see = seine g apes ae ree eee ee 12% lbs. Duration of rains cso sane oo eee econ e mane o hours, oo minutes.

DANIEL DRAPER, Ph. D.
Director Meteorological Observatory of the Department of Public Parks, New York.

SCIENCE.

feet INC ES:

AWEEKLY ReEcorp OF SCIENTIFIC

ProGREss.

JOHN MICHELS, Editor.
THRMS:

Per Year, = - Four DoLLars
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PUBLISHED AT
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LONDON, ENGLAND, - - - - 150 LEADENHALL Sv,

SATURDAY, NOVEMBER 5, 1881.

SCIENCE AND MEDICINE.

A few words on the relation of the natural sciences
to medicine, as one of the greatest aids for the achieve-
ment of success, should be welcome reading to all
members of the medical profession whose aspirations
are above the dead level of mediocrity.

The physician may at first sight desire to stifle all
discussion on this point by saying, that the require-
ments of study involved in acquiring a knowledge of
medical practice fer se occupy too much of his time to
admit of his taking up outside issues, which he con-
siders mere refinements of practice. There are
others who take the absurd view that, to add a know-
ledge of the natural sciences is to become in the
highest sense of the word a Chemist, a Physicist, or a
Biologist. Seeing that the attainment of a complete
knowledge of either of these sciences, is a work of a
life time, it is argued, that they are to be shunned as
impossibilities.

The path of the would-be scientific medical man is
made clear by the encouraging words of one of his
own profession, Dr. G. Vivian Poore, M.R.C.P., who
says, there is a minimum of knowledge in this respect
which is sufficient to endow the physician with a
scientific grasp of his art. What is really wanted, is
sufficient knowledge to enable a medical man to read
these various sciences with intelligible results for him-
self, when he needs and as often as he desires to con-
sult them, to show him as objectively as possible, those
great principles which have already found application
in his healing art. This will lead him to think and
enable him to act with precision in any great emer-
gency.

Let it be understood that there is no necessity for
cramming the head with a mass of details, and that our

521

object is to enrich and not encumber the mind of the
medical practitioner.

To those who are ignorant of the advantages of
some knowledge of the natural sciences in medical
practices, the following observations of Dr. Poore may
be read with interest.

“ There are those who hold that the student of medicine
has but little need of special training in the natural
sciences, but such a position I believe to be untenable, and’
if I have to say one thing more emphatically than another
to the first year’s students, it is to advise them, not on any
account to neglect their purely scientific studies. They
are the very foundatioa of your professional knowledge,
and without a solid foundation, no firm or worthy super-
structure can be raised.

How can a man hope to rightly comprehend that most
complicated of all machines, the human body, with its
levers, pumps,and elastic canals, unless he be first furnish-
ed with the principles of mechanics and hydraulics? Who
will say that a proper knowledge of the eye, or of the
many optical instruments used in medicine, is attainable
without some acquaintance with the laws of light; or
that the intricacies of the ear, and the art of auscultation
can at all be understood by him, who knows nothing of the
laws of sound. The laws of heat must be studied in order
to appreciate the difficult problems afforded by the animal
temperature, its variations in health and disease, and the
means of influencing it by therapeutic agents. Without
the principles of chemistry we should be intellectually lost
in the human laboratory, and unable to employ chemical
agencies in the treatment of disease ; and electricity is so
correlated with the other physical sciences, and of so
much service both in diagnosis and treatment, that its
separate study has also become essential. Neither can
we altogether neglect geology and meteorology, since con-
ditions of soil and atmosphere are now recognized as im-
portant factors in the causation and relief of suffering.

It is scarcely necessary to insist on a knowledge of
those sciences which are called ‘ biological.” Anatomy
and f7stology, formerly the mere handmaids of medi-
cine, but now recognized as sciences worthy of independ-
ent study, are as necessary to us as is a chart to the nay-
igator; while PAyszo/ogy, which teaches us the use and
mode of action of the anatomical and histological ele-
ments, is the medical practitioner. 1

Zoology and botany are not so absolutely necessary for -
us as are the other sciences, but it is evident that they are
very necessary as preliminary studies for the biologist, to
whom we look for instruction, for without a study of the
simple forms and conditions of life a proper understand-
ing of human anatomy and physiology is not attainable,
and in so far as they teach us the conditions of existence
of the various vegetable and animal parasites which
affect the human body, from micrococci upwards, they
are necessary for us as suxgeons and physiczans. Vhislist
of sciences is truly formidable, but I nevertheless assert
that there can be no true study of medicine without a
knowledge of the principles of all of them ; and, for my
own part, I have never had any difficulty, as a teacher of
clinical medicine, in discriminating easily, by a perusal of
their clinical reports, between those students who have,
and those who have not, had an insight into the principles
of pure science.

Scientific principles are to the physician and surgeon
what the sextant and compass are to the navigator.
Without them he cannot rise above the rank of a light-
erman or a ferryman, but must be content to remain a
mere “ pill-monger,’’ or a chirurgeon of a base mechanic
sort. With them he may fearlessly launch his bark upon
unknown seas, and may have the good fortune to extend
the frontiers of science, or discover, as it were, new conti-
nents, to give a wider scope to the art which he professes,”

522

SCIENCE.

To the medical man who would reap the advan-
tages held out by Dr. Poore, we confidently suggest
the value of this journal as a means of accomplishing
the ends desired, at the least cost, and most conve-
nient form. The impecunious can thus avoid the pur-
chase of the mass of scientific literature with which the
market is flooded, and the overworked practitioner
receiving the journal weekly is not embarrassed by re-
dundancy, and yet can safely rely on passing nothing
of importance, while articles of special interest to the
profession will be constantly brought before his
notice.

In the previous numbers of ‘‘ScrENCE” may be found
valuable articles by Professors Burt G. Wilder and
Sage, of Cornell;- Drs. Hammond and Spitzka, of
New York; Dr. Clemenger, of Chicago; Dr. J. A.
Mason, of Newport, and many other specialists of
equal merit.

Now the value of a knowledge of science, as a
means of “ getting on” as Huxley terms it, is indubit-
able, and while there are few trades in which some
knowledge of sczence may not be profitably applied to
the pursuer of his occupation, we think that the
words of Dr. Poore must carry conviction, that the
student or Physician who would attain the higher
stages of development of his art, must be kept “ aw
courant” with such facts and principles, which are
weekly published in “Science,” for they will probably
find their application in every intelligible diagnosis

and discussion on medical practice.
“SCIENCE,” November 5th, 1881.

WE learn with regret that Dr. Ed. C. Spitzka, who
has been requested to appear in the Guiteau case, by
both the Government prosecutor and counsel for the de-
fence, has declined to attend.

The question of mal-practice is not likely to be seri-
ously entertained at the trial, and the whole issue will
probably rest upon the evidence touching the insanity of
the prisoner.

We should judge from the published papers of Dr.
Spitzka that his evidence would be in favor of the
prisoner’s insanity; it becomes, therefore, the more im-
portant that he should attend, as it would avoid the
suspicion, in case of conviction, that the assassin had not

received a fair trial.
i —_—_—__—_

NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.*
October 3, 1881.
REGULAR BUSINESS MEETING.

Vice-president Dr. B. N. Martin in the Chair,

Twenty-five members present.

After the transaction of business, the members were
invited, in accordance with the usual custom at the first
meeting of the season, to present notes and observations
gathered during the summer, and responses were made
by Mrs. E. A. Smith, Prof. C. A. Seeley, and others.

Mr. W. L. Chamberlain referred to the gold deposits
recently opened in Fulton and Saratoga counties, N. Y.
The ore consists of auriferous pyrites and is contained in
the gneiss of the foothills of the Adirondacks.

* Official Report.

Remarks were made, by a member, on a visit to the
sandstone quarries at Portland, Conn.: by Mr. Todd, on
a peculiar atmospheric phenomenon, a vaporous band
stretching across the sky, apparently not auroral, ob-
served in the Adirondacks: and by Dr. Martin, on a re-
markable atmospheric coloration, luminous brilliance of
the clouds, etc. observed last month at Saratoga, in the
early morning, attributing it to an abundance of a smoky
fog produced by the recent forest fires, and calling atten-
tion to the fact that this phenomenon has been noticed
only in the territory east of the meridian of Saratoga.

Mrs. P. Hanaford described the same appearances as
seen during the “ Yellow Day” Sept. 6, near Boston,
and also on Nantucket: another member, as seen in the
Genesee valley, explaining that the strong West and
Northwest winds prevailing at the time had wafted high
in the air vast volumes of smoke dérived from the abun-
dant forest fires throughout Western N. Y.: Messrs. Todd,
Chamberlain, and others, describing the electric brilliance
of the gas-lights, the strange modification of the green
color of foliage, the absence of smoky odor, etc., as ob-
served at Great Barrington, Mass., and in less degree in
New York city: Mr. N. L. Britton, on the same facts as
observed out at sea, off Fire Island and Montauk Point,
Long Island, N. Y.: Prof. D. S. Martin, as observed be-
tween Saratoga and Catskill, N. Y., and Prof C. A.
Seeley, calling attention to the extremely attenuated
character of the carbon particles, produced by their long
transportation from distant localities.

Mr. Geo. F. Kunz mentioned that Mt. Mica, at Paris,
Maine, the locality so famous for colored Tourmalines for
the last fifty years, had been purchased by a Mining Com-
pany and was being worked for Cassitterite, Mica and
Tourmaline, principally through the efforts of Dr. A. C.
Hamlin of Bangor, Maine.

Dr. Hamlin has the finest known collection of American
Tourmaline, and he recently reported the finding of a
crystal three inches long and one-half inch thick, a trans-
parent gem, of a beautiful blue-green color. This was
taken from the new mine, and many more remarkable
specimens may be expected as the work advances.

Mr. Kunz said that during the last year a German
Agate-hunter returned to his native country after 20 years
collecting in Brazil, taking with him a large suite of fine
colored Tourmalines, some five inches long and not more
than one-eighth of an inch thick, transparent, and of a
green color; also many fine green crystals with red, yellow,
white, and other colored centres, many of these equalling
for variety of color anything yet found, most of which will
cut as gems. There is also in this lot one exceptionally
fine green crystal over one inch square. ‘This collector
brought with him also at least 1oco kilos of transparent
yellow Spodumene, the same as that described by A.
Pisani of Paris some eighteen months ago, and is dissimi-
lar only in color to the new variety of Spodumene found
at Stony Point, North Carolina, described in the February
number of the Amerzcan Journal of Sczence for 1881,
by Dr. J. Lawrence Smith, as Hiddenite. Some of the
specimens which he brought will cut as fine yellow gems.
All these were found in the Minas Geraes district.
Recently a new locality for Chrysoberyl has been found
in Ceylon, where they occur of gem value in an unusual
variety of color. They vary in color from yellow to
brown, and from brown to green. ‘The latter color is the
variety known as Alexandrite. This gem has heretofore
been found but of very inferior size and color, but here it
occurs of remarkable size, having in one case afforded a
gem weighing 26 kts. They are a beautiful green color
by day and a Columbine red, or brownish red, by night.
The Chrysoberyl Cat's Eye is found here of the same
color, and possessing the same dichroic property as the
Alexandrite, viz., changing color, from green to red, and
hence might very properly be called an Alexandrite Cat’s
Eye. Many of the Chrysoberyls are erroneously called and
sold as a variety of sapphire.

SCIENCE.

523

SECTION OF CHEMISTRY.
October Io, 1881.

Vice-president Dr. B. N. Martin in the Chair.

Nineteen members present.

A paper was read by Mr. James H. Stebbins, Jr., of
which the following is an abstract :

ON SOME NEW SALTS OF THYMOLE SULPHO-ACID,
AND SOME NEW FACTS CONCERNING THE SAME,

60 grms. thymole were dissolved in 50 grms. 66° sul-
phuric, at a temperature of 100 C. The pink crystalline
mass so obtained was dissolved in water, and converted
into the lime salt.

This salt crystallizes with two molecules of water, in
rhombic plates, and shows under the polariscope a beau-
tiful effect of circular polarized light.

FORMULA.
a (C, H, (C Hs) (Cs; H:) (O H) (S Os). Ca + 2 H2 O
a. Calcium salt of alpha thymole sulpho-acid.
AMMONIUM SALT.

This salt was obtained by decomposing the lime salt,
with ammonic carbonate. It crystallizes in white rhom-
bic plates, with 2 mols. of water.

FORMULA.

a C,H; (C Hs) (Cs H) (NH, S$ 0;) aH + 2420.

The soda salt has likewise been obtained, and will be
described in a subsequent paper.

Remarks were made by Mr. James D. Warner on the
nature of the corona of the Sun, etc. Mr. Stebbins re-
ported the yellow coloration of the atmosphere in Sep-
tember at the Thousand Islands in the St. Lawrence.

SECTION OF GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY.
October 17, 1881.

The President, Dr. J. S. Newberry, in the Chair.

Fifty-one persons present.

Dr. Newberry exhibited specimens of Native Lead and
Oxide of Lead from a mine in the Wood River country,
Idaho, crystallized gray copper, and fine crystallized
Rhodochrosite from the Ulay mines, Southwest Col-
orado.

Prof. T. Egleston pronounced the crystals of rhodo-
chrosite to be the finest specimens ever yet found. He
further called attention to the discovery of the presence
of tellurium in merchant copper from Lake Superior.
This curious specimen of native copper pig was found
to contain about 0.5 per cent. of that element, which
has never yet been detected in the copper. In the
furnace the pig yields dense white fumes; it is useless
for brass, etc., and only fit for the manufacture of cupric
sulphate for batteries. With the tellurium are associated
a little silver and gold, which are found not to be uni-
formly distributed, as hitherto supposed, but so variably
that the proportion of silver varies widely in portions
taken from the furnace within ten minutes of each other.

Dr. J. S. Newberry then remarked on ‘“ Geological
Facts recently observed in Montana, Idaho, Utah and
Colorado.”

Idaho and Montana.—The famous placers at Helena
and Virginia, which have yielded thirty millions of dol-
lars, are now exhausted, but vein-mining is in suc-
cessful progress and yielding rich results at Butte,
at the Alice, Lexington, Copper Bell, and other mines.
These are true fissure veins, traversing agranite forma-

tion, and the speaker predicted their abundant yield of
silver and copper twenty years hence. These territories
have been simply crossed by two government expeditions
and their resources have not been at all studied. It is
the coming mining region, more discoveries of promising
mines having been recently made here than in any other
portion of the country. Ontheeast of the mountains in
Montana and Wyoming lies a fine agricultural country and .
excellent stock range, the herds ranging freely throughout
the winters, in spite of their severity, with little loss, and
grazing upon a native bunch-grass (Festuca scabrella)
and the buffalo grass (Buchloe dactylotdes). The
climate is salubrious, the country very beautiful in
many parts and very promising for emigration. In the
adjacent Rocky Mountain range there are also many
mining opportunities.

The remarkable lava plain, 400 miles long by 75 miles
wide, in Central Idaho, was then described.

Snake River, one of the chief tributaries of the Colum-
bia, flows along its southern border for several hundred
miles; its northern tributaries sinking under the lava
sheet and flowing in subterranean channels 50 or 60
miles long. The rock is a basalt said to contain every-
where a small quantity of gold and silver. It is gener-
ally covered with an impalpable soil that produces a dust
excessively annoying to the traveler, and sustains a gen-
eral growth of sage brush. In places, however, the
rock is bare and looks like a congealed stormy sea,

Three buttes are set on the surface of this lava plain,
and each has probably been a local volcanic vent ; but
it is probable that most of this eruptive material has been
an overtiow from great fissures of which the position is
not indicated on the surface.

Snake River crosses a portion of this plain in a cafion
at the head of which are the great Shoshone Falls, 208
feet in vertical altitude.

An alluvial plain borders Snake River for 200 miles,
abounding in black sand which contains much gold,
This is, however, extremely fine, having been trans-
ported a long distance from its place or origin, and there-
fore difficult of separation. Newand promising methods
and machines are about to be tried in the exploitation of
these extensive deposits. A wide mountain belt extends
from the north side of the lava plain to and beyond the
British line, and is apparently a good mining country
throughout. Already a great number of productive and
promising mines are opened in the southern portion of
this belt. In the Wood River district the veins are not
large, but numerous, regular and persistent, and the ore
of high grade—mostly argentiferous galena, carrying
$100 to $500 in silver to the ton. Near Challis, further
north, is the celebrated Ram’s Horn mine, located on a
true fissure vein, generally not more than five feet wide,
but continuous for more than five miles. The wall rocks
are slate, the vein stone siderite (carbonate of iron), the
ore gray and yellow copper, yielding $100 to $1200 in
silver to the ton. A few miles west of Challis is the
mining town of Bonanza, where are located the cele-
brated Charles Dickens and Custer mines, carrying both
silver and gold.. Still further west in the Saw-Tooth
range, a high and very picturesque mountain chain run-
ning north and south, recent discoveries of valuable
mines have been made. From this district north to the
Canadian line, a broad mountain belt extends over north-
ern Idaho and northwestern Montana, a country which
abounds in veins of silver, copper and gold. Among
the mines now worked in this region the most celebrated
is the Drum Lomond, in Montana. It is opened on a
large vein of rich quartz and is owned by an old miner who
cannot read, but who is said to have refused a million of
dollars for the property, It is probably worth much
more than this.

Most of the mountainous districts of Idaho and Mon-
tana are covered with coniferous forests, consisting of
the Douglas spruce and the northern nut pine, Pzxus

524

Jfiextlés. The smaller plants form an Alpine ‘fiora of
much interesi, including many beautiful flowering species;
perhaps the most striking being Bryauthus, which has a
fine fir-like foliage and clusters of beautiful purple
flowers. It belongs to the heath family and closely re-
sembles the heather of Scotland.

The streams of this region are clear, cold, and rapid,
and abound in fish, chiefly of the salmon family, and
these have given the name to Salmon River, the principal
water course.

Two species of salmon were running up the Salmon
River, one the large Quinnat or Chinook salmon, compara-
tively rare, and the other the “red fish” (Oncorhynchus
nerka). This isasmall salmon, 15 to 18 inches in length,
and weighing 3 to 5 pounds. As seen in their migration
their bodies are brick red to purple in color, the heads
dark or light green; they were then going up to their
spawning ground, Redfish Lake, one of a half dozen of
small lakes on the head waters of the Columbia, which
are the special breeding places of this interesting fish.
Coming all the way from their abode in the ocean, led by
an infallible but inscrutable instinct, they push on night
and day till they reach their remote birthplaces in these
little lakes far up in the mountains and 1000 miles from
their starting point. Here they accomplish apparently
the great object of their lives, the reproduction of the
species, by depositing the spawn in the shallows of the
rivulets which fall into the lake.

The always attractive coloring of the fish, during this
nuptial season becomes greatly heightened; the body as-
sumes a brilliant, almost luminous red, as bright as that
of the gold fish, and where numbers are dashing through
the water literally in a blaze of excitement, they produce
an exhibition that is strikingly novel and interesting.

When the spawning season is over they probably do
not return, as none are seen descending the rivers. The
young fish start on their migration to the ocean while
yet very small, and within the first year of their lives, re-
maining away it is supposed some three or four years
during which they acquire their full growth when they
return to die where they were born.

An active industry has grown up in the capture of the
red fish in their annual migrations, but it is pushed with
so much energy and unsparing cupidity that their num-
bers are rapidly diminishing and the species will ap-
parently be soon extirpated in these waters unless pro-
tected by legal enactment.

A branch of the Union Pacific Railroad is being con-
structed from Granger, Wyoming, to the mouth of the
Columbia. On this a large amount of traffic is expected,
as it will link together many settlements having a con-
siderable resident population and traverse in different
portions of the route rich agricultural and mining districts.

Dr. Newberry then briefly described a small but re-
markably rich placer gold deposit he visited on the west
flank of Mount Wheeler, the highest mountain in
Nevada, and mentioned the discovery of an outcrop of
lower silurian rocks full of fossils, including several new
trilobites discovered by him in Southwestern Utah, but
deferred ail details till he should make them the subjects
of special remark to the Academy.

Colorado.—Reference was made to the general character
of Southwestern Colorado, the interesting topography of
the region, especially the vast plateau which rises westward
from the base of the Rocky Mountains on to the slopes of
the Wasatch ; the ascent of Marshall’s Pass by the Den-
ver and Rio Grande Railroad, the most remarkable feat of
railroad engineering performed in the country, and the
exceedingly picturesque region about the Pagosa the
greatest hot spring on the continent. Where the San
Juan river issues from the mountains a prairie occurs,
surrounded by picturesque forest-clad hills, and with a
beautiful view of snow-clad mountains in the distance.
In the centre of the prairie lies a basin 4o by 60 feet
across, boiling like a huge caldron, the ebullition being

SCIENCE.

produced by the violent escape of carbonic acid gas. The
banks are lined by the remains of beetles, snakes, etc.,
destroyed by too trustful reliance upon the hot waters,
and by interesting mineral deposits. This is one of the
most beautiful places in the country and likely to be a
famous resort.

Along the route from Pueblo to Gunnison and Lake
City, and thence eastward by Del Norte, there are some
places of resort for invalids and pleasure-seekers, which
are destined to be very well known, being far more beau-
tiful and salubrious than the now celebrated localities at
Manitou and Colorado Springs. One of these is Wagon
Wheel Gap, on the Rio Grande. The river is a rapid,
turbulent stream, and the Gap is seven to ten miles long,
just wide enough to permit a wagon-road. Then a wide,
open space is reached, the basin of an ancient lake, gir-
dled by a wonderfully beautiful amphitheatre of moun-
tains. Here 8500 feet above the sea, the hot springs,
charming rides, fine hunting and fishing, an atmosphere
as pure and clear as crystal, constitute the attractions ot
a resort, which far surpasses any other, and which will
be reached by the railroad now being pushed through the
Gap about January 1, 1882.

From Gunnison, specimens have been recently
brought of magnetite and hematite, which probably rep-
resent inexhaustible masses, and at Crested Butte, within
twenty-five miles of this locality, is found the best cok-
ing coal in the West. The region borders on a volcanic
area, and the coking coal is from that portion of the
basin, which has mostly escaped the alteration by volcanic
heat. It is firm and not affected by the weather, with a
small amount of ash and sulphur.

On Anthracite Creek are found many thousand acres
of Anthracite of better quality than that of Pennsylvania.
Recent analysis made at the School of Mines shows it to
contain less than one per cent. of sulphur, and three per
cent. of ash.

The forest vegetation of Colorado is very simple. The
pifion or nut pine is very common, also the yellow pine
(P. ponderosa), Douglas’ spruce, Menzies’ spruce, etc.
Inthe mountains the general vegetation is picturesque
but not so varied as in the lowlands. The following
plants are among the most characteristic in the lowlands
of Colorado and Utah.

The evening primrose (Gxothera CespPitosa) with its
large beautiful white flowers.

The wild tobacco (Vzcotzana attenuata.)

The sun flower (He/zanthus.)

The bee flower (C/eome integrifol¢z) presenting purple
acres by the roadside, and the yellow species (C. /utea)
less common.

The American primrose (Przmula Parryz.)

The pasque flower (Axemone patens, Var. Nuttal-
liana.)

The Erzogonums, about twenty species, coloring whole
mountain sides yellow.

The Oregon grape (Berberzs aquifolium.)

Phacelta ciycinata in tufts of purple flowers on rocky
slopes.

The lily (Calochortus Gunnison? and C. Nuttall¢) or
‘“‘blackeyed Susan’ (Indian—‘“ Seego,’’) very plenty in
the moister portion of the sage-plains.

The clematis (Anemone alpina) with its purple
flowers.

The penstemons, of which 20 or 30 species are pecu-
liar to that country, deep crimson, pink, and purple and
blue in color, often very showy, and so abundant that
whole acres of ground are colored by them.

The columbine (Aguclegéa canadenszs,) and also a
much larger species (A. ceru/ea,) clothing the mountains
of Colorado and Utah, with blue, cream-colored, and
white flowers. A large number of dried plants were ex-
hibited from a collection of several hundred species just”
brought on from Colorado, with collections procured from
Prof. Marcus Jones of Salt Lake City, and others.

SCIENCE.

525

RETARDED DEVELOPMENT IN INSECTS.*
By C. V. RrLEy, Washington, D. C.

-In this paper the author records several interesting
cases of retarded development in insects, whether as sum-
mer coma or dormancy of a certain portion of a given
brood of caterpillars, the belated issues of certainlimag-
ines from the pupa, or the deferred hatching of eggs.
One of the most remarkable cases of this last to which
he calls attention, is the hatching this year of the eggs of
the Rocky Mountain Locust, or Western Grasshopper

(Culoptemus spretus), that were laid in 1876, around the
Agricultural College at Manhattan, Kansas. These eggs
were buried some ten mches below the surface, in the
Fall of 1876, in grading the ground around the chemical
laboratory. The superincumbent material was clay, old
mortar and bits of stone, and a plank sidewalk was laid
above all, In removing and regrading the soil last spring
Mr. J. D. Graham noticed that the eggs looked sound and
fresh, and they readily hatched upon exposure to normal
influences, the species being determined by Prof. Riley
from specimens submitted by Mr. Graham. Remarkable
as the facts are there can be no question as to their ac-
curacy, so that the eggs actually remained unhatched dur-
ing nearly four years and a half, or four years longer than
is their wont, and this suggests the significant question :
How much longer could the eggs of this species, under
favoring conditions of dryness and reduced temperature,
retain their vitality and power of hatching ?

Putting all the facts together Mr. Riley concludes that
we are as yet absolutely incapable of offering any satis-
factory explanation, based on experiment, of the causes
which induce exceptional retardation in development
among insects. It is a very general rule that a rising
temperature stimulates and accelerates growth, while a
falling temperature retards and torpifies, and experiments
recorded by the author* show that such is the case with
regard to the eggs of Caloptenus spretus. But there are
many exceptions totherule. Theeggsof Crustaceans, as
Apus and Cypres, are known to have the power of re-
sisting drought for six, ten or more years without losing
vitality, while in some cases they seem actually to require
a certain amount of desiccation before they will hatch.
Yet the fact remains that different act differently in this
respect. In short, nothing is more patent to the observing
naturalist than that species, and, even individuals of the
same species, or the progeny of one and the same indi-
vidual, act very differently under like external conditions of
existence; or in other words, that temperature, moisture,
food, etc., influence them differently. _Hence—as has
been shown by Semper to be the case with other animals,
soit is with insects—changes in the external conditions
of existence will not affect the fauna as a whole equally,
but will act on individuals. We can understand how this
great latitude in susceptibility to like conditions may and
does, in the case of exceptional seasons, prove beneficial
to the species by preserving the exceptional individuals
that display the power to resist the unusual change; but
we shall find ourselves baffled when we come to seek a
demonstrable explanation of the cause or causes of such
retardation, while the principles of evolution afford us the
only hypothetical one at all satisfactory. In the innate
property of organism to vary, and in the complex phe-
nomena of heredity, we get a glimpse at the cause—a par-
tial explanation—of the facts of retarded development ;
for the exceptional tendency in the present may be looked
upon as a manifestation through atavism of traits which
in the past had been more commonly possessed and more
essential to the species.

*—Abstract of a paper read before the Entomological Section of the
A.A. A. S., at Cincinnati.

*—oth Rep. Ins. Mo., also rst Rep., U. S. Entomological Commission.

ON THE “LIFE DURATION OF THE HETERO-
CERA (MOTHS *),”
(Abstract.)
By J. A. LINTNER, State Entomologist of New York.

The subject of life duration of our insects, not having
been given special study, so little is known upon it, that
the present contribution would not be warranted, were it
not that the confession of our ignorance upon the point,
may serve as an incentive to its examination.

It is a difficult field of study, for the observations
should be made upon the insects in the natural condi-
tions—not in confinement. Even of the latter state, our
knowledge is quite limited. Entire broods of species
have seldom been reared, except in the Bombycide and
Sphingidz, where the eggs are easily to be obtained. But
in the large family of Noctuidz, I do not know that an
entire oviposition, or even a considerable part of one, has
ever been carried through to the perfect stage, nor have
I any personal knowledge of the time, place, manner or
duration of copulation among them.

In the Attacine of the Bombycida, the lives of most
are brief ; that of the female seldom reaches fifteen days,
while in the male it is still shorter. It is longer in the
Sphingidee.

We may best obtain an approximation to the life
period of the moths, from reference to the dates when
they are observed abroad. The lists published of collec-
tions “at sugar,” furnish us with the best data. From a
list prepared by myself, it appears that a large number
of species of Noctuidz were abroad for about one month.
Deducting one-third of this time for their probable un-
equal emergence from the pupa, there would remain a
term of three weeks for their approximate life duration.

Mr. W. L, Devereaux, of Clyde, N. Y., from his ob-
servations, also infers, ‘‘ that most of the species remain
for about a month.”

As would be expected from so heterogeneous a family
as the Noctuide, the different groups present different
life periods. The genera Xylina, Homoptera and Cato-
cala, are found to have a considerably longer continuance
than that above given. Three species of Xylina were
observed by me for forty-one, forty-seven and fifty-one
days; ten species of Catocala, for an average of forty-five
days; and nine species of the same genus, as reported by
Mr. Devereaux, for fifty-seven days.

In view of the benefits which would result to Ento-
mology, it is suggested, that in future lists published of
our insects, the different dates at which they are observed
throughout the year, be included. It would aid us in de-
termining life duration—would indicate the time when to
guard against the commencement of insect attack—when
to commit our crops to the ground—when to search for
specimens for our cabinets—in short, it would furnish an
essential part of the life histories of our species.

—~or

Mr. G. FASOLDT says, in a letter to the Amerzcan
Journal of Microscopy :—

Ihave ruled plates up to 1,000,000 lines to the inch,
one of which was purchased by the United States Goy-
ernment at Washington.

These plates show lines truly and fairly ruled, as far
as lenses are able to resolve, and above this point the
spectral appearance of the bands in regular succeeding
colors (when examined as an opaque object) shows, be-
yond dovbt, that each band contains fairly ruled lines up
to the 1,000,000 band.

I do not believe that I will ever attempt to rule higher
than 1,000,000 lines per inch, as from my practical ex-
perience and judgment, I have concluded that that is the
limit of ruling.

* Read before the A. A. A, S., Cincinnati, 1881.

526

SCIENCE.

ELECTRIC RAILROADS IN PARIS.

The visitors at the Electrical Exhibition can see a very
fine model in bronze, surmounted by very beautiful de-
signs, which represents an electric elevated railroad. This

model is placed in the large aisle very near the pavilion of |

the City of Paris. Itisin miniature a part of thenew system
of railroads which should be constructed over all the great
streets of the capital in order to lessen the nnmber of en-
cumbrances and to supply the want of locomotive means
of which the whole city justly complains.
Chrétien, the inventor of the new system, proposes its im-
mediate application to all the great boulevards.

Electricity has indisputable advantages over other |

methods of locomotion. It is an economic method which

can produce very slow as well as very rapid motion, which |

causes no noise or smoke, and which only allows the use
of light vehicles and, consequently, the laying of unob-
structive tracks.’ The building of electric railroads in
places where business is most active, will have the
double result of freeing the public roads of obstructions
and of giving to the public sufficient means of trans-
portation.

The following details we borrow from a pamphlet
published by .M. J. Chrétien entitled ‘Chemin de fer
electrique des boulevards.” The electric road isa double-

M. J. |

page at station, the whole length of the road, which is
4500 metres, can be traversed in about 17 or 18 minutes.
This is half the time of an ordinary omnibus.

According to the ideas which we draw from the pamph-
let spoken of, the capacity for transportation of the elec-
tric road is so great, that we with some difficulty accept
the given figures, while it is easy to try the exactness of
them. ‘Thus, every minute a carriage, with places for 50,
passes each station; so that, if the carriages are always
full, there will be 100 persons carried each minute in the
two directions, and if we take account of the additions dur-
ing the journey, we will have about twice as much; that
is about 200 persons every minute, or 12000 per hour. But
it is possible to still increase the carrying capacity, and to
reach the maximum corresponding to the trip of two car-
riages joined together, at intervals of a minute. We will
arrive, in this case, to the colossal figure of 24000 persons
an hour. Although these figures appear more than suffi-
cient, it is certain, for those who know the aetivity at cer-
tain times upon the boulevards, that there are times when
everybody cannot find room without waiting.

From the given estimate, the total expense necessary
for the construction of the road, will only be from eight to
ten millions, according to the greater or less magnificence

| necessary to construct a work of this importance in the

railed viaduct supported

centre of such a city as

|

by a row of columns

Paris.

spaced about forty or
fifty metres from each
other, and placed in the |
middle of the road. A
central hollow beam
rests on the columns and
carries all the load; it
runs the whole length of
the boulevard,at a height
varying from five to
seven metres above the
earth in order to com-
pensate for the irregu-
larities of the ground.
On each side of the beam
the rails are placed, rest-
ing on a metallic plat- |f
form, so that there is one
on the right and another

Assuming an expense
of eight millions, it is
calculated that the price
of a seat can be fixed at
ten centimes, to realize
profits large enough to
pay the city an annual
revenue of a million or a
million and a half, with-
out asking any subsidy
whatever. The electric
road has then asits sev-
eral results, the furnish-
ing the means of an agree-
able, easy and economic
locomotion, the satisfying
the demands of a great
traffic, which is growing
day by day, and the sup-

on the left.

plying of an important

The stations, twelve in

number,are placed about
500 metres from each
other, and we can ascend by a very convenient staircase,
placed either over the sidewalk or over the pavement.
For the station most elevated above the ground, electric
elevators are provided for the use of those who wish to
ascend. It can even be said that it is easier to take the
electric road than to ride in an omnibus.

Two works for the supply of the motive force are
placed under the ground. Each of these works consists
of steam engines to furnish the motive force and Gramme
dynamo-electric machines to produce the electric cur-
rents, when they are set in motion by the steam engines.

The electricity thus produced is transmitted through
the whole length of the road by conducting wires, and
distributed to the various carriages. These are put in
motion by means of electric machines, which each of them
carries, and which receive, through the conducting wires,
the electricity necessary to attain the speed required.

Thanks to very simple means, applications of electricity,
there can be no collisions, no accidents of any kind; the
motions are easier than in the ordinary railroad, and the
carriages can regulate their speed with remarkable pre-
cision.

The speed is about 350 to 400 metres a minute, that is
to say, the speed of a good trotting horse; with this speed,
and reckoning a half minute for the mean time of stop-

Fig. 3.—SECTION OF THE PROPOSED ROAD.

revenue to the city, while
still the price of a seat is
kept at ten centimes.

In regard to the appearance of the road, which has a
great importance in such a city as Paris, where art has
never been too much sacrificed, it will certainly be seen,
after a careful examination of the given designs and the
engravings, that it is possible to give an artistic char-
acter to this work. Such as it is represented, the
elevated road lacks neither strength nor magnificence; it
is in the modern style, which alone is becoming to a work
which our ancestors never dreamed of. It has been sug-
gested besides, that, in order to fully satisfy the artistic
demands, a competition should be opened to all architects
and artists; and this would certainly lead to excellent results.

The utility and advantage of the electric road cannot be
disputed ; that it should exist is obvious, and the proposed
work leaves nothing to be desired. This splendid work
will certainly be accomplished, but perseverance and labor
are necessary in order to vanquish all resistance, routine,
and inertia, against which it would otherwise be fatally in-
jured.— Translated from La Nature.

CHLORAL HYDRATE IN TOOTHACHE.—Dr, Sporer
recommends that three to four lumps of hydrate of chlo-
ral (0.03-0.06 gram), should be inserted into the hollow
and painful tooth, the chloral being allowed to dissolve.—
St. Petersburg, Med. Wochenschrift.

SCIENCE. 527

E HLTA HO TMT

TAG

> ’
Fic. 1. ELECTRIC ELEVATED RAILROAD FOR THE BOULEVARDS OF PARIS. PLAN OF M. CHRETIEN. VIEW OF A STATION.

CORSE
LLL OOS:

Fic. 2, PLAN OF THE ELECTRIC ELEVATED ROAD. VIEW BEFORE THE GRAND OPERA OF PARIS.

528

MECHANICAL SCIENCE*
By Sir W. ARMSTRONG, C.B., D.C.L., LL. D., F.R.S.

The astonishing progress which has been made in the
construction and application of machinery during the
half century which has elapsed since the nativity of the
British Association for the Advancement of Science, is a
theme which I might with much complacency adopt in
this address, but instead of reviewing the past and ex-
ulting in our successes, it will be more profitable to look
to the future and to dwell on our failures. It is but jus-
tice to say that by growing experience, by increasing fa-
cilities of manufacture, and by the exercise of much skill
and ingenuity, we have succeeded in multiplying and ex-
panding the applications of our chief motor, the steam-
engine, to an extent that would have appeared incredible
fifty years ago ; but the gratulation inspired by this suc-
cess is clouded by the reflection that the steam-engine,
even in its best form, remains to this day a most waste-
ful apparatus for converting the energy of heat into mo-
tive power. Our predecessorsof that period had not the
advantage of the knowledge which we possess of the
true nature of heat, and the conditions and limits affect-
ing its utilization. In their time heat was almost uni-
versally regarded as a fluid which, under the name of
caloric, was supposed to lie dormant in the interstices of
matter until forced out by chemical or mechanical means.
Although Bacon, Newton, Cavendish, and Boyle all
maintained that heat was only internal motion, and al-
though Davy and Rumford not only held that view, but
proved its accuracy by experiment, yet the old notion of
caloric continued to hold its ground, until in more recent
times Joule, Meyer, Codling, and others, put an end to all
doubt on the subject, and established the all-important
fact that heat is a mode of motion having, like any other
kind of motion, its exact equivalent in terms of work.
By their reasonings and experiments it has been definitely
proved that the quantity of heat which raises the tem-
perature of a pound of water 1° Fahrenheit, has a me-
chanical value equal to lifting 772 lbs. one foot high, and
that conversely the descent of that weight from that
height is capable of exactly reproducing the heat ex-
pended.

The mechanical theory of heat is now universally ac-
cepted, although a remnant of the old doctrine is dis-
played in the continued use of the misleading term
‘latent heat.’ According to the new theory, heat is an
internal motion of molecules capable of being communi-
cated from the molecules of one body to those of another,
the result of the imparted motion being either an increase
of temperature, or the performance of work. The work
may be either external, as where heat, in expanding a
gas, pushes away a resisting body, or it may be internal,
as where heat pulls asunder the cohering particles of ice
in the process of liquefaction, or it may be partly internal
and partly external, as it is in the steam engine, where the
first effect of the heat is to separate the particles of water
into vapor, and the second to give motion to the piston.
Internal as well as external work may be reconverted into
heat, but until the reconversion takes place, the heat
which did the work does not exist as heat, and it is delu-
sive to call it ‘latent heat.”” All heat problems are com-
prised under the three leading ideas of internal work, ex-
ternal work, and temperature, and no phraseology should
be used that conflicts with those ideas.

The modern theory of heat has thrown new light upon
the theory of the steam-engine. We now know what is the
mechanical value in foot pounds of the heat evolved in the
combustion of one pound of coal. In practice we can
determine how much of that heat is transmitted to the
water in the boiler, and we are taught how to calculate
the quantity which in the process of vaporisation takes
the form of internal work. We can determine how much
disappears in the engine in the shape of external work,

*British Association, 1881.

SCTENCE.

including friction, and the remainder, with the exception of
the trifling quantity saved in the feed-water, we know to
be lost. Taking a good condensing engine as an example,
we may roughly say that, dividing the whole heat energy
into ten equal parts, two escape by the chimney, one is
lost by radiation and friction, six remain unused when the
steam is discharged, and only one is realized in useful
work. It may be fully admitted that the greater part of
the aggregate loss is inevitable; but are we to suppose
that the resources of science, ingenuity, and skill have
been exhausted in the attainment of so miserable a re-
sult? Nothing but radical changes can be expected to
produce any great mitigation of the present monstrous
waste, and without presuming to say what measures are
practicable and what are not, I will briefly point out the
directions in which amelioration is theoretically possible,
and shall afterwards advert to the question whether we
may hope to evade the difficulties of the steam-engine
by resorting to electrical methods of obtaining power.

To begin with the loss which takes place in the appli-
cation of heat to the boiler; why is it that we have to
throw away, at the very outset of our operations, twice as
much heat as we succeed in utilizing inthe engine? The
answer is, that in order to force a transmission of heat
from the fire to the water in the boiler, a certain excess of
temperature over that of the water must exist in the fur-
nace and flues, and the whole of the heat below the re-
quired excess must pass away unused, except the trifling
portion of it which disappears in the production of
draught. Further, that since we cannot avoid admitting
the nitrogen of the air along with the oxygen, we
have to heat a large volume of neutral gas which
has no other effect than to rob the fire. Con-
sidering what efforts have been made to facilitate the
transmission of the heat by augmenting the evaporative
surface, and using thin tubes as flues, it is vain to expect
any great result from further perseverance in that direc-
tion, and unless a method can be devised of burning the
fuel inside instead of outside the apparatus, so as to use
the heated gases conjointly with the steam as a working
medium in the engine, a remedy appears to be hopeless,
We already practice internal combustion in the gas-en-
gine, and it is clear that with gaseous fuel, at all events,
we could associate such a mode of combustion with the
vaporization of water. We may even regard a gun as
an engine with internally-burnt fuel, and here I may re-
mark that the action of heat in a gun is strictly analo-
gous to that of heat ina steam-engine. In both cases
the heat is evolved from chemical combination, and the
resulting pressures differ only in degree. The gun is the
equivalent of the cylinder, and the shot of the piston, and
the diagrams representing the pressure exerted in the
two cases bears a close resemblance to each other.
While the powderis burning in the gun we have a nearly
uniform pressure, just as we have in the cylinder while
the steam is entering, and in both cases the uniform
pressure is followed by a diminishing pressure, repre-
sented by the usual curve of expansion. Ifin the steam-
engine we allowed the piston to be blown out it would
act as a projectile, and if in the gun we oppost mechan-
ical resistance to the shot, we might utilize the effect ina
quieter form of motive power. But it is a remarkable
fact that such is the richness of coal as a store of me-
chanical energy that a pound of coal, even as used in the
steam-engine, produces a dynamic effect about five times
greater than a pound of gunpowder burnt in agun. I
cannot, however, on this account encourage the idea that
steam may be advantageously substituted for gunpowder
in the practice of gunnery.

And now to turn from the fire which is the birthplace
of the motive energy, let us follow it in the steam, to the
condenser, where most of it finds a premature tomb.
From the point at which expansion commences in the
cylinder the temperature and pressure of the steam begin
to run down, and if we could continue to expand indefi-

Te —

“SCIENCE.

529

nitely, the entire heat would be exhausted, and the
energy previously expended in separating the water into
steam would be wholly given up in external effect ; but
this exhaustion would not be complete until the absolute
zero of temperature was reached (viz., 461° below the
zero of Fahrenheit). I do not mean to say that an
ideally perfect engine necessarily involves unlimited
expansion, seeing that if instead of discharging the
steam at the end of a given expansion, we made the
engine itself do work in compressing it, we might,
under the conditions of Carnot’s reversible cycle so
justly celebrated as the foundation of the theory of the
steam-engine, recommence the action with all the unutil-
ized heat in an available form. But an engine upon this
principle could only give an amount of useful effect cor-
responding to the difference between the whole work
done by the engine, and that very large portion of it ex-
pended in the operation of compression, and this differ-
ence viewed in relation to the necessary size of the en-
gine, would be quite insignificant, and would in fact be
wholly swallowed up in friction. Carnot did not intend
to suggest a real engine, and his hypothesis therefore
takes no cognizance of losses incident to the application
of an actual fire to an actual boiler. His ideal engine is
also supposed to be frictionless, and impervious to heat
except at the point where heat has to be transmitted to
the water, and there the condition of perfect conduction
is assumed. In short an engine which would even ap-
proximately conform to the conditions of Carnot’s cycle
is an impossibility, and a perfect steam-engine is alike a
phantom whether it be sought for in the cyclical process
of Carnot, or under the condition of indefinite expansion.
Practically we have to deal with a machine which, like
all other machines, is subject to friction, and in expan-
ding the steam we quickly arrive at a point at which the
reduced pressure on the piston is so little in excess of the
friction of the machine as to render the steam not worth
relaining, and at this point we reject it. In figurative
language we take the cream off:the bowl and throw away
the milk. We do save alittle by heating the feed water,
but this gain is very small in comparison with the whole
loss. What happens in the condenser is, that all the re-
maining energy which has taken the form of internal
work is reconverted into heat, but it is heat of solowa
grade that we cannot apply it to the vaporization of water.
But although the heat is too low to vaporize water it is not
too low to vaporize ether. If instead of condensing by
the external application of water we did so by the similar
application of ether, as proposed and practised by
M. du Trembley twenty-five years ago, the ether would
be vaporized, and we should be able to start afresh with
high tension vapor, which in its turn would be ex-
panded until the frictional limit was again reached. At
that point the ether would have to be condensed by the
outward application of cold water and pumped back, in
the liquid state, to act over again in a similar manner.
This method of working was extensively tried in France
when introduced by M. du Trembley, and the results
were sufficiently encouraging to justify a resumption of
the trials at the present time, when they could be made
under much more favorable conditions. There was no
question as to the economy effected, but in the discus-
sions which took place on the subject it was contended
tbat equally good results might be attained by improved
applications of the steam, without resorting to an addi-
tional medium. The compound engine of the present
day does in fact equal the efficiency of Du Trembley’s
combined steam and ether-engine, but there is no reason
why the ether apparatus should not confer the same ad-
vantage on the modern engine that attended its applica-
tion to the older form, The objections to its use are
purely of a practical nature, and might very possibly
yield to persevering efforts at removal.

I need scarcely notice the advantage to be derived from
increasing the initial pressure of the steam so as to

widen the range of expansion by raising the upper limit
of temperature instead of reducing the lower one. It
must be remembered, however, that an increase of tem-
perature is attended with the serious drawback of in-
creasing the quantity of heat carried off by the gases
from the fire, and also the loss by radiation, so that we
have not so much to gain by increase of pressure as is
commonly imagined.

But even supposing the steam-engine to be improved
to the utmost extent that practical considerations give us
reasons to hope for, we should still have to adjudge it a
wasteful though a valuable servant. Nor does there ap-
pear to be any prospect of substituting with advantage
any other form of thermodynamic engine, and thus we
are led to inquire whether any other kind of energy is
likely to serve us better than heat, for motive power.

Most people, especially those who are least com-
petent to judge, look to electricity as the coming panacea
for all mechanical deficiency, and certainly the astonish-
ing progress of electricity as applied to telegraphy, and
to those marvellous instruments of recent invention
which the British Post Office claims to include in its
monopoly of the electric telegraph, as well as the won-
derful advance which electricity has made as an illumin-
ating agent, does tend to impress us with faith in its
future greatness in the realm of motive power as well.

The difference between heat and electricity in their
modes of mechanical action is very wide. Heat acts by
expansion of volume which we know to be a necessarily
wasteful principle, while electricity operates by attraction
and repulsion, and thus produces motion in a manner
which is subject to no greater loss of effect than attends
the motive action of gravity as exemplified in the ponder-
able application of falling water in hydraulic machines.
If then we could produce electricity with the same facility
and enconomy as heat, the gain would be enormous, but
this, as yet at least, we cannot do, At present by far
the cheapest method of generating electricity is by the
dynamic process. Instead of beginning with electricity
to produce power, we begin with power to produce elec-
tricity. As a secondary motor an electric engine may,
and assuredly will, play an important part in future ap-
plications of power, but our present inquiry relates to a
primary, and not a secondary, employment of electricity.
Thus we are brought to the question, from what source,
other than mechanical action, can we hope to obtain a
supply of electricity sufficiently cheap and abundant to
enable it to take the place of heat asa motive energy ? It
is commonly said that we know so little of the nature ot
electricity that it is impossible to set bounds to the means
of obtaining it ; but ignorance is at least as liable to mis-
lead in the direction of exaggerated expectation as in that
of incredulity. It may be freely admitted that the nature
of electricity is much less understood than that of heat,
but we know that the two are very nearly allied. The
doctrine that heat consists of ititernal motion of molecules
may be accepted with almost absolute certainty of its truth.
The old idea of heat being a separate entity is no longer
held except by those who prefer the fallacious evidence

of their senses to the demonstrations of science.
So also the old idea of electricity having a
separate existence from tangible matter must be

discarded, and we are justified in concluding that it is
merely a strained or teasional condition of the molecules of
matter. Although electricity is more prone to pass into
heat than heat into electricity, yet we know that they are
mutually convertible. In short I need scarcely remind
you, that according to that magnificent generalization of
modern times, so pregnant with great consequences, and
for which we are indebted to many illustrious investiga-
tors, we now know that heat, electricity, and mechanical
action, are all equivalent and transposable forms of en-
ergy, of which motion is the essence.

To take a cursory view of our available sources of en-
ergy, we have, firstly, the direct heating powers of the

530

sun’s rays, which as yet we have not succeeded in apply-
ing to motive purposes. Secondly we have water power,
wind power, and tidal power, all depending upon influ-
ences lying outside of our planet, And thirdly we have
chemical attraction or affinity. Beyond these there is
nothing worth naming. Of the radiant heat of the sun
I shall have to speak hereafter, and bearing in mind that
we are in search of electricity asa cause, and not an
effect, of motive power we may pass over the dynamical
agencies comprised under the second head, and direct
our attention to chemical affinity as the sole remaining
source of energy available for our purpose. At present
we derive motive power, from chemical attraction through
the medium of heat only, and the question is, can we with
advantage draw upon the Same source through the me-
dium of electricity. The process by which we obtain
our supply of heat from the exercise of affinity is that of
combustion, in which the substances used consist, on the
one hand, of those we call fuel, of which coal is the most
important, and on the other, of oxygen, which we derive
from the atmosphere. The oxygen hasan immense ad-
vantage over every other available substance in being
omnipresent and costless. The only money value in-
volved is that of the fuel, and in using coal we employ
the cheapest oxidizable substance to be found in nature.
Moreover the weight of coal used in the combination is
only about one-third of the weight of oxygen, so that we
only pay upon one-fourth of the whole material con-
sumed. Thus we have conditions-of the most favor-
able description for the production of energy, in the form
of heat, and if we could only use the affinities of the same
substances with equal facility to evolve electric energy
instead of heat energy, there would be nothing more to
desire ; but as yet there is no appearance of our being
able to do this. Acccrding to our present practice we
consume zinc, instead of coal, in the voltaic production
of electricity, and not only is zinc thirty or forty times
dearer than coal, but it requires to be used in about
six-fold larger quantity in order to develop an equal
amount of energy. Some people are bold enough to say
that with our present imperfect knowledge of electricity
we have no right to condemn all plentiful substances,
other than coal, as impracticable substitutes for metallic
zinc, but it is manifest that we cannot get energy from
affinity, where affinity has already been satisfied. The
numerous bodies which constitute the mass of our globe,
and which we call earths, are bodies in this inert condi-
tion. They have already, by the union of the two ele-
ments composing them, evolved the energy due to con
bination, and that energy has ages ago been dissipated in
space in the form of heat, never again to be available to
us. As well might we try to make fire with ashes, as to
use such bodies over again as sources of either heat or
electricity. To make them fit for our purpose, we should
first have to annul their state of combination, and this
would require the expenditure of more energy upon them
than we could derive from their recombination. Water,
being oxidized hydrogen, must be placed in the same
category asthe earths. In short, the only abundant sub-
stances in nature possessing strong unsatisfied affini-
ties are those of organic origin, and in the absence of
coal, which is the accumulated product of a past vegeta-
tion, our supply of such substances would be insignifi-
cant. This being the case, until a means be found of
making the combination of coal with oxygen directly
available for the development of electric energy, as it
now is of heat energy, there seems to be no probability of
our obtaining electricity from chemical action at sucha
cost as to supplant heat as a motive agent.

But while still looking to heat as the fountain-head of
our power, we may very possibly learn to transmute it,
economically, into the more available form of electricity.
One method of transformation we already possess, and
we have every reason to believe there are others yet to
be discovered. We know that when dissimilar metals

SCIENGE:

———

are joined at opposite ends, and heated at one set of
junctions while they are cooled at the other, part of the
heat applied disappears in the process, and assumes the
form of an electric current. Each couple of metals
may be treated as the cell of a voltaic battery, and we
may multiply them to any extent, and group them in
series or in parallels, with the same results as are ob-
tained by similar combinations of voltaic cells. The elec-
tricity so produced we term Thermo-electricity, and the
apparatus by which the current is evolved is the thermo-
electric battery. At present this apparatus is even more
wasteful of heat than the steam-engine, but considering
the very recent origin of this branch of electrical science,
and our extremely imperfect knowledge of the actions in-
volved, we may reasonably regard the present thermo-
electric battery as the infant condition of a discovery,
which, if it follow the rule of all previous discoveries in
electricity, only requires time to develop into great prac-
tical importance. Now if we possessed an efficient ap-
paratus of this description we could at one apply it to
the steam-engine for the purpose of converting into elec-
tric energy the heat which now escapes with the re-
jected steam, and the gases from the fire. The vice of
the steam-engine lies in its inability to utilize heat of com-
paratively low grade, but if we could use up the leavings
of the steam-engine by a supplemental machine acting on
thermo-electric principles, the present excessive waste
would be avoided. We may even anticipate that in the
distant future a thermo-electric engine may not only be
used as an auxiliary, but in complete substitution of the
steam-engine. Such an expectation certainly seems to
be countenanced by what we may observe in animated
nature. An animal is a living machine dependent upon
food both tor its formation and its action. That portion
of the food which is not used for growth or structural re-
pair, acts strictly as fuel in the production of heat. Part

‘of that heat goes to the maintenance of the animal tem-

perature, and the remainder gives rise to mechanical ac-
tion. The only analogy between the steam engine and
this living engine is that both are dependent upon the
combustion of fuel, the combustion in the one case being
extremely slow, and in the other very rapid. In the steam-
engine the motion is produced by pressure, but in the
animal machine it is effected by muscular contraction.
The energy which causes that contraction, if not purely
electricai, is so much cf that nature that we can produce
the same effect by electricity. The conductive system of
the nerves is also in harmony with our conception of an
electrical arrangement. In fact a description of the
animal machine so closely coincides with that of an elec-
tro-dynamic machine actuated by thermo-electric ty,
that we may conceive them to be substantially the same
thing. At all events, the animal process begins with
combustion and ends with electrical action, or something
so nearly allied to it as to differ only in kind. And now
observe how superior the result is in nature’s engine to
what it is in ours. Nature oniy uses heat of low grade,
such as we find wholly unavailable. We reject our steam
as useless at a temperature that would cook the animal
substance, while nature works with a heat so mild as not
to hurt the most delicate tissue. And yet, notwithstand-
ing the greater availability of high-grade temperature the
quantity of work performed by the living engine rela-
tively to the fuel consumed, puts the steam-engine to
shame. How all this is done in the animal organization
we do not yet understand, but the result points to the at-
tainability of an efficient means of converting low-grade
heat into electricity, and in striving after a method of
accomplishing that object we shall do well to study na-
ture, and profit by the excellence which is there displayed.

But it is not alone in connection with a better utiliza-
tion of the heat of combustion that thermo-electric ty
bears so important an aspect, for it is only the want of
an efficient apparatus for converting heat into electricity
that prevents our using the direct heating action of the

“SCIENCE.

53%

sun’s rays for motive power. In our climate, it is true,
we shall never be able to depend upon sunshine for power,
nor need we repine on that account so long as we have
the preserved sunbeams which we possess in the con-
densed and portable form of coal, but in regions more
favored with sun and less provided with coal the case
would be different, The actual power of the sun’s rays
is enormous, being computed to be equal to melting a
crust of ice 103 feet thick over the whole earth in a year.
Within the tropics it would be a great deal more, but a
large deduction would everywhere have to be made for
absorption of heat by the atmosphere. Taking all things
into account, however, we shall not be far from the truth
in assuming the solar heat, in that part of the world, to
be capable of melting,annually, at the surface of the
ground, a layer of ice 85 feet thick. Now let us see
what this means in mechanical effect. To melt 1 lb. of
ice requires 142.4 English units of heat, which, multiplied
by 772, gives us 109,932 foot pounds as the mechanical
equivalent of the heat consumed in melting a pound of
ice. Hence we find that the solar heat, operating upon
an area of one acre, in the tropics, and competent to
melt a layer of ice 85 feet thick in a year, would, if fully
utilized, exert the amazing power of 4000 horses acting
for nearly nine hours every day. In dealing with the
sun’s energy we could afford to be wasteful. Waste of
coal means waste of money and premature exhaustion of
coal beds. But the sun’s heat is poured upon the earth
in endless profusion—endless at all events in a practical
sense, for whatever anxiety we may feel as to the dura-
tion of coal, we need have none as to the duration of the
sun. We have therefore only to consider whether we
can divert to our use so much of the sun’s motive energy
as will repay the cost of the necessary apparatus, and
whenever such an apparatus is forthcoming we may ex-
pect to bring into subjection a very considerable propor-
tion of the 4000 invisible horses which science tells us
are to be found within every acre of tropical ground.

But whatever may be the future of electricity as a prime
mover, either in a dominant or subordinate relation to
heat, it is certain to be largely used for mechanical pur-
poses in a secondary capacity, that is to say, as the off-
spring instead of the parent of motive power. The most
distinctive characteristic of electricity is that which we
express by the word “current,” and this gives it great
value in cases where power is required in a transmissible
form. The term may be objected to as implying a motion
of translation analogous to the flow of a liquid through a
pipe, whereas the passage of electricity through a conductor
must be regarded as a wave-like action communicated from
particle to particle. In the case of a fluid current through
a pipe, the resistance to the flow increases as the square
of the velocity, while in the case of an electric current the
resistance through a given conductor is a constant propor-
tion of the energy transmitted. So far therefore as resis-
tance is concerned electricity has a great advantage over
water for the transmission of power. The cost of the
conductor will however be a grave consideration where the
length is great, because its section must be increased in
proportion to the length to keep the resistance the same.
It must also be large enough in section to prevent heat-
ing, which not only represents loss but impairs conductiv-
ity. To work advantageously on this system, a high elec-
tromotive force must be used, and this will involve loss by
imperfect insulation, increasing inamount with the length of
the line. For these reasons there will be a limit to the
distance to which electricity may be profitably conveyed,
but within that limit there will be wide scope for its em-
ployment transmissively.
utilizing the power of great waterfalls the transmission of
power by electricity will become a system of vast impor-
tance. Even now small streams of water inconveniently
situated for direct application may, by the adoption of this
principle, be brought into useful operation.

For locomotive purposes also we find the dynamo-

Whenever the time arrives for.

electric principle to be available, as instanced in the very
interesting example presented in Siemens’ electric rail-
way, which has already attained that degree of success
which generally foreshadows an important future. It
forms a combined fixed engine and locomotive system of
traction, the fixed engine being the generator of the
power and the electric engine representing the locomo-
tive.

Steam power may both be transmitted and distrib-
uted, by the intervention of electricity, but it will labor
under great disadvantage when thus applied, until a thor-
oughly effective electric accumulator be provided, capable
of giving out electric energy with almost unlimited
rapidity. How far the secondary battery of M. Faure
will fulfill the necessary conditions remains to be seen,
and it is to be hoped that the discussions which may be
expected to take place at this meeting of the British As-
sociation will enable a just estimate of its capabilities to
be formed. The introduction of the Faure battery is at
any rate a very important step in electrical progress. It
will enable motors of small power, whatever their nature
may be, to accomplish, by uninterrupted action, the effect
of much larger machines acting for short periods, and by
this means the value of very small streams of water wir
be greatly enhanced. This will be especially the case
where the power of the stream is required for electric
lighting, which, in summer, when the springs are low,
will only be required during the brief hours of darkness,
while in winter the longer nights will be met by a more
abundant supply of water. Even the fitful power of
wind, now so little used, will probably acquire new life
when aided by asystem which will not only collect, but
equalize, the variable and uncertain power exerted by the
air.

It would greatly add tothe utility of the Faure battery
if its weight and size could be considerably reduced, for
in that case it might be applicable to many purposes of
locomotion. We may easily conceive its becoming avail-
able ina lighter form for all sorts of carriages on com-
mon roads, thereby saving to a vast extent the labor of
horses. Even the nobler animal that strides a bicycle, or
the one of fainter courage that prefers the safer seat of a
tricycle, may ere long be spared the labor of propulsion,
and the time may not be distant when an electric horse.
far more amenable to discipline than the living one, may be
added to the bounteous gifts which science has bestowed
on civilized man.

In conclusion I may observe that we can scarcely suffi-
ciently admire the profound investigations which have re-
vealed to us the strict dynamical relation of heat and
electricity to outward mechanical motion. It would bea
delicate task to apportion praise amongst those whose la-
bors have contributed, in various degrees, to our present
knowledge ; but I shall do no injustice in saying that of
those who have expounded the modern doctrine of en-
ergy, in special relation to mechanical practice, the names
of Joule, Clausius, Rankine, and William Thomson, will
always beconspicuous. But up to this time our knowledge
of energy is almost confined to its inorganic aspect. Of
its physiological action we remain in deep ignorance, and
as we may expect to derive much valuable guidance from
a knowledge of Nature’s methods of dealing with en-
ergy in her wondrous mechanisms, it is to be hoped that
future research will be directed to the elucidation of that
branch of science which as yet has not even a name, but
which I may provisionally term ‘“ Animal Energetics.”’

— to

The dark violet fluor-spar of Wélsendorf contains some
strongly odorous substance, the nature of which has not
hitherto been satisfactorily explained. From recent ex-
periments (described to the Berlin Chemical Society,) Herr
Low concludes that the smellis due to presence of fre
fluorine, arising on elevation of temperature through dis«
sociation of a small quantity of flouride, (probably ceric
fluoride).

532

SCIENCE.

CORRESPONDENCE, ;

To the Lditor of “ SCIENCE.”

It seems to me that Pres. Gaines’ objection to the
accepted theory of vision (see SCIENCE of Aug. 6, p. 370)
may easily be answered.

It is universally agreed that vision is a sensation pro-
duced by ethereal undulations, and that these undulations
are induced by molecular motion in a luminous body.
Each point of a luminous body is a radiant point, that
is, emits rays of light in every direction, and it is by
some of these rays of ethereal undulations, either directly
from the luminous point or refracted by, or reflected
from, some non-luminous body, that all impressions of
vision are made. Hence, all non-luminous objects are
manifested to vision by reflected light, but reflected light
is also radzant light; that is, reflected ethereal waves
radiate from every point of non-luminous objects mani-
fested to vision. These waves have fallen upon the
reflecting surface (not necessarily a minimum surface or
front) from various directions, many of them reflected
from other non-luminous objects, and, the angle of re-
fcxion being the same as the angle of incidence, they
necessarily vadzate from the object; and by their differ-
ence of intensity, that is, by the different capacities of
contiguous surfaces to reflect rays in a particular direc-
tion, we receive different impressions from the different
parts of the object, and hence assign to the object pecu-
liarities corresponding to the peculiarities of the sensa-
tions produced. Hence, though I admit that we become
cognizant of objects by radiant light, I contend that in
all cases where the object is not self-luminous, the rays

that impress us are reflected rays produced by some
luminous body of which we learn nothing from these

reflected rays. J. E. HENDRICKS,
DEs MOINEs.

or

ANOTHER CONFIRMATION OF PREDICTION,
By PLiny EARLE CHASE, LL.D.

On the 4th of October, 1878, I presented a communi-
cation to the American Philosophical Society,* in which
I showed that the position of Watson’s first intra-Mer-
curial planet, as computed by Gaillot and Monchez,
represented the third intra~-Mercurial term of my har-
monic series. At the last meeting of the British Asso-
ciation, Professor Balfour Stewart read a paper in which
he gave indications of sun spot disturbances by a planet,
revolving in 24.011 days, and consequently having a
semi-axis major of .163. This confirmation, both of my
own prediction,t and of the calculations of the French
astronomers, is the more interesting, because the first
confirmation of my series was contained in a communi-
cation which was made to the Royal Society by Messrs.
De la Rue, Stewart and Loewy, forty-one days after I
had announced the series to the Philosophical Society,
and published it in the New York ‘Tribune.{ The
accordances are as follows:

PREDICTION. CONFIRMATION.

Ist interior harmonic term .267. De la Rue, S. & L. .267
a es q «6c, § Gaillot & Monchez .164
3 tM: Stewart - - .163

*Proc. A. P.S., xviii,, 34-6.
tIb., xiii., 238.
tIb., P- 470+

METEOROLOGICAL REPORT FOR NEW YORK CITY FOR THE WEEK ENDING OCT. 29, 1881.

Latitude 40° 45’ 58" N.; Longitude 73° 57’ 58" W.; height of instruments above the ground, 53 feet ; above the sea, 97
feet ; by self-recording instruments.

BAROMETER. THERMOMETERS.
MEAN FOR : é ,
ae a MAXIMUM, MINIMUM. MEAN. MAXIMUM, MINIMUM, MAXI’M
OCTOBER rae |
* | Reduced | Reduced Reduced
: . Dry | Wet ry . Wet : Dry . Wet .
~ to. to. Time. to. Time. Buib.| Bulb.| Buib. Time. | pup.| Lime. | Buib. Time. Bulb. Time. |InSun,
reezing.| Freezing. Preeane,
Sunday, 23--| 29.989 30.104 | 0 a.mM.| 29.848 |12 p.m-| 60.6 | 56.3 69 |4p.m.| 60 | 4p.m.) 51 7 a.m.| 51 7 a.m.| 125.
Monday, 24--| 29.640 29.848 oa.m 29.508 |12 p.m.| 57.3 | 56.6 61 oa.m.| 58 oa.m.| 54 |I2 p.m.| 54 |I2 p.m. r
Tuesday, 25--| 29.415 29.503. | oa.m.| 29.338 2p.m.| 57.0] 54.0| 64 |4p.m,] 60 |4p.m.) 52 | 5 a.m.| 52 5 a.m.| 108,
Wednesday, 26.-| 29.810 29.982 |12 p.m.| 29.500 o a.m.| 45.3 | 40.7 55 oa.m.| 50 |oa.m.| 38 |12 p.m.| 37 |12 p.m.| Ito.
Thursday, 27--| 30.015 30.058 | 9 a.m.| 29.982 | 0 a.m.| 48.6] 43.0] 59 | 4p.m.| 49 | 4 p.im.| 34 | 6 a.m.| 34 | 6a.m.| 109.
Friday, 28..| 30.113 30.136 | 9 a. 30.012 | 0 a.m,| 51.7 | 45.3 56 |2p.m.| 48 |2p.m.! 44 | 6a.m.| 4t 8 a.m. 94.
Saturday, 29.-| 30.020 30.112 |oa.m.| 29.910 |r2 p.m.| 59.3 | 57.3 | 62 |12 p.m.| 6r |12 p.m.| 54 |o0a.m.| 48 | 0 a.m. 64.
| Dry. Wet,
Meansfor the. week=25.-=-----2-4.+)-0-2 estes seeeeee 29.857 inches. | Mean for the week_..------------- 54-2 degrees ae a 50.4 degrees.
Maximum for the week at 9 a. m., Oct. 28th -----____-..- BO.230 0 "= Maximum for the week,at 4 pm. 23d 69. 4 at 4pm 23d, 60. *
Minimum we ati) 2)p) mbes Ocryen thi see geese 29.338 1‘ Minimum “6am. 27th 34. ‘at 6amezth, 34. *
TRAN rae ae cect ee te ee eee ee -798 * | Range ‘‘ calamities B50) Seemennceuse 26.
WIND HYGROMETER. CLOUDS. RAIN AND SNOW gd
Zz
= eee. 2 ee sf ie}
| ‘ vELocity| FORCE IN RELATIVE CLEAR, ° DEPTH OF RAIN AND sNow |9
DIRECTION: IN MILES, ete HORCH, OF VAPOR: HUMIDITY: OVERCAST. 10 IN INCHES.
oe wl — : . . . . bey . he a?
OCTOBER. | Distance| a =} =| BCR cialice 8 5 & Cer er | Dura- 53 n
7 a,.m.|2 p.m.|g p.m.| for the | =| Time. a ee tw eS ||aeaca| Piteaee | tess 3 a & | Begin-| End- oa 2 E10
Day. |4 é a eo oe WG é a ® | ning. |_ ing. 7m. las ro
Sunday, 23-|wW.s.w.| 8. w. | s.w 225 |3%| 3 pm| .374 | .380| .447 \100 | 55 | 77 |o Cl.) a|X0'=) ||) aoe S| =5\|50
| | 4.50am)2 pm 9.10 19} 9°
Monday, 24-| w. n, €. e. 124 Y%\10 pm} .482 | .436 | .436 |t00.) 93 | 93 20 10 10 { ropm |1zpm | r.0o |.or| 0
Tuesday, 25-| ¢. |W.S.W.|w.n.w. 116 |4%| 7.15pm| .388 | .443 | .309 |r00 | 82 | 64 |10 7 cu. eo -- |e
Wednesday,26-| n. Ww. | n. w. n. 338 |9%|10.15 am] .228 | .162 | .190 | 76 | 45 | 74 | ° Qe eaten |e see =. | 0
Thursday, 27-.w.n.w.| Ww. |W.S.W. 163 2%! 4 pm| .204] .197 | .234 |100 | 41 | 55 jo | ° OL al ceee= || aeeeoe eee == iO
Friday, 28.| n. € | n. €, e. 93 |1%| 0.10pm] .192 | .230 | .244 | 6x | 5x | 60 |4Cir.cu.o ZO | wenn) [SR Re item a= 0
Saturday, 29-| ¢. (8. 8. €.|5.s.e. 220 |\74\12m_ _| .32r | .505 | .523! 74 | 94 | 94 |10 70s tro, 15. am'r2 pm | 20.45 | .37
Distance traveled during the week. --- 1,279 miles. Total amount of water for the WeCGsae sao. wastes Cena te memiee -57 inch,
Praeimiuin forces oo aoe esan aw anconvens aaa eans see ee ee 9% lbs. Ditration ofiraines. se-e ese eae nn eeer een 1 day, 6 hours, 55 minutes.

DANIEL DRAPER, Ph. D.

Director Meteorological Observatory of the Department of Public Parks, New York.

a

SCIENCE.

533

SCIENCE:

A WeEEKLy ReEcorp oF SCIENTIFIC

ProGRESs.

JOHN MICHELS, Editor.

TEHERMS:
Per YEAR, - - - - Four DoLLars
6 MonTHs, - - - - Two oo
“ec * “2 ‘ ‘4 ? ONE te
SINGLE CoPIES, - = = - TEN CENTS.

PuBLISHED AT
TRIBUNE BUILDING, NEW YORK.
P, O, Box 38388.

LONDON, ENGLAND, - - -

SATURDAY, NOVEMBER iz, 1881.

The distribution of honors at the French Electrical
Exhibition is very gratifying to the pride of the Amer-
ican people, as the American exhibitors have rela-
tively carried off a large share of the prizes.

Edison has maintained the prestige of his country,
and asserted the integrity and value of his wonderful
series of electrical inventions, by a@/one receiving a
“diploma of honor” for the electric light. This
high mark of distinction he shared in other depart-
ments with the United States Signal Office, the
Smithsonian Institution, the United States Patent
Office, and Messrs. Graham & Bell.

Gold medals were awarded to the Anglo-American
and Brush Electric Light Companies, the United
States Electric Lighting Company, Elisha Gray and
Taintor. Silver medals to Bailey & Puskas, Conolly
Brothers & MacTighe, Dolbear, Eccard, Electric
Purifier Company, Hubbard Pond Indicator Com-
pany, Western Electric Manufacturing Company,
Western Electric Light Company and the Electro-
Dynamic Company. Bronze medals to Messrs.
Chavat, Cumming and Dion, the Hoosac Tunnel
Company, the Trinitro Glycerine Works, Partz, Photo-
Relievo Company, Whitehouse, Mills & Williams.

That Mr. Edison, with the whole world competing,
and with every system represented, should receive
from such a critical committee this special recognition
and honor, as the inventor of the most perfect system
of electrical illumination, appears to decide this point
in a decisive manner. The practical application of
this system on a scale which will astonish the world,
is near athand. The immense dynamo machines de-
signed for use to illuminate a district in New York
City with Mr. Edison’s perfected lamps have been
placed in position, and the mass of details connected

with placing wires and fittings are nearing completion.
Soon the word will be given that all is ready, and Mr.
Edison will probably enjoy a triumph to which all his
previous successes will be insignificant.

Mr. Edison must experience some regret that he
was unable to be present at Paris, and in person re-
ceive the congratulations which would have been
showered upon him, but we understand that he was
most worthily represented by Mr. Charles Batcheler
and Mr. Otto Moses, whose courtesy and indefatiga-
ble exertions have been fully recognized in some of
our Parisian exchanges.

aN AN gaa

AN instrument was lately described in a French
journal, which was invented for the purpose of detect-
ing oleomargarine as against pure butter.

This instrument discriminated between the specific
gravities of the two substances. Shortly after the
announcement of the making of this instrument, a
report was spread in the daily papers, that the slight
difference of density between oleomargarine and
butter, was insufficient for this purpose.

A correspondent writes as follows on this subject :
“The report that no difference of density is of any
use in distinguishing oleomargarine from butter, is
very easily disposed of, as the density of oleomargarine
is o.g15 and the density of butter is 0.925. One will
float at 15 C. in alcohol 53? per cent., and the other in
alcohol 59+ per cent. I mean by floating that the
butter or oleomargarine will neither rise nor sink, when
placed in the alcohol. If placed in the middle it will
neither go to the top nor bottom, except very slowly.
Of course there are persons who cannot distinguish
between 0.915 and 0.925 specific gravities, and who
cannot make an observation at a fixed temperature,
but it is unreasonable to expect that any process can
be satisfactory to such persons.”

SCIENTIFIC ASSOCIATIONS IN WASHINGTON.

The three societies at the metropolis, the Philosophical,
the Anthropological, and the Biological, all reorganized
in October under very favorable auspices. A short
account of their proceedings is given below :

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY oF WASHINGTON.—Three
papers were read, one on Geology, by G. K. Gilbert,
which our correspondent did not hear ; acommunication
on Fog-signals, by Prof. Johnson, of the Light-house
Board, and a paper on the Best Methods of Calculating
the Solar Parallax, by Professor Harkness, of the
National Observatory. Mr. Johnson’s remarks were an
account of investigations made the last summer upon the
refractions of sound, in pursuance of the experiments set
on foot by Professor Henry. The inquiries were prose-
cuted mainly in Newport harbor and its vicinity. The
facts set forth were of great interest to scientific men
and of great practical value to the mariner. Professor
Harkness, who is a very ready speaker, gave the Society
an explanation of the various methods employed in cal-
culating the distance of the sun and the planets, inclin-
ing to prefer the transit observations as yielding the best

534

SCIENCE.

results. Professor Harkness has great hopes of shoto-
graphy as an auxiliary in this direction.

THE ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY.—Four papers
were read in October, all of them mythological and all
of permanent value, to wit: the Buffalo Woman: an
Omaha Myth, by the Rev. Owen Dorsey; Myths of the
Wintuns, by Major J. W. Powell; the Stone God of the
Putepemni, by the Rev. S. D. Hurman; and the Dangers
of Symbolic Interpretations, by Col. Gerrick Mallery.
It is impossible to give an abstract of amyth. We can
only say that Major Powell years ago conceived the idea
of studying myths by the Baconian method. He told
the writer of this sketch, ‘there are books and books
on mythology, but very few myths. I will collect a vol-
ume of well authenticated myths, from which mythologic
philosophy can be deduced.’”’ The Major has himself
gathered a great number, and Messrs. Dorsey and Hur-
man were for many years missionaries among the
Dakotas, speaking their language with the greatest free-
dom. Our readers will be pained to hear that Major
Powell has been confined for several weeks by an acute
attack ofiritis. Colonel Mallery’s paper was a thoughtful
treatment of the subject of symbolism, neatly considered in
its threefold aspect of signs, emblems, and symbols. The
North American Indians north of Mexico had not arrived
at that psychologic stage wherein true symbolism mani-
fests itself. :

THE BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON.—The
opening meeting of the Biological occurred on the even-
ing when the city was all excitement over the reception
of our French and German guests. The session of
Friday, October 28th, however, was one of considerable
interest. Professor Lester F. Ward exhibited an exam-
ple from the petrified forests of Wyoming, mimicking the
paw of an animal, which elicited a discussion as to the
formation of agates and other minerals of that character.

Mr. Henry Elliot’s communication on the biology ot
the Sea-Otter was very instructive. Little is known of
the habit of this animal, the stuffed specimens in the
museums conveying a very poor notion of its form. Itis
supposed to breed on the great beds of kelp which float
in the northern seas, having one pup at a birth. Its fur
is a hundred times more valuable than all other fur pro-
ducts combined. The hunting is especially dangerous
and requires great skill.

Professor Thomas Taylor exhibited and described a
freezing microtome, in which the cooling effect of a cur-
rent of water from salt and ice is used to produce the
hardening. The extreme cheapness, simplicity, and
practicability of this apparatus will enable the micro-
scopist to dispense with the more costly and difficult
methods hitherto used for obtaining thin sections of tis-

sues and for examining the brain and other soft parts of

the body in a rigid condition.
—_———_ +

THE EVOLUTION OF FLYING ANIMALS.
By CHARLES MorrIs.

There are some questions in Hiological science which
it will be difficult, if not impossible, to settle by an ap-
peal to facts, and in the investigation of which we are
obliged to employ a degree of speculation. Thus we
have abundant reason to believe that birds are direct
derivatives from reptiles. We know, in fact, that these
animals resemble each other in such essential particulars
as to justify the grouping of them together in a single
vertebrate section, the Sauropside ot Huxley. We can
even trace, by aid of the palzontological record, some of
the steps by which birds arose from their reptilian pro-
genitors. And yet no definite hypothesis has been ad-
vanced as to how the scales of the reptile became the
feathers of the bird, how the quadrupedal habit of the
one became the bipedal habit of the other, or how the
walking changed to the flying method of locomotion.

These questions we cannot now, and perhaps may
never be able to, answer with the argument of facts,
But if some probable mode by which such variations
may have arisen can be suggested, the speculation will
hardly be an empty one. All the great theories of science
have simply the force of highly probable speculations,
based on known facts; and lesser theories, if given the
same basis, may prove equally desirable.

One of the most striking features in animal life is its
tendency to spread outwards, functionally, in every pos-
sible direction, so as to occupy each field of nature in °
every advantageous manner. One-half of the animal
world seeks to feed on the other half, while this second
half seeks to escape being fed upon. This is one of the
main elements of natural selection, Every change in
organization that proves an advantage to the carnivorous
animal in assailing his prey, is apt to be retained. Every
change that aids his prey in escaping is likewise retained.
Through this cause there have been contifiual variations,
since every favorable change in the one class would
prove injurious to the other class, unless met by an equal
counter change.

In this long continued process of adaptation to cir-
cumstances, every advantage offered by water and land
to their animal inhabitants, in overcoming their prey, or
in escaping from their enemies, has been long since
adopted, and an immense variety of animal forms has
arisen in consequence. But the air also presents favor-
able conditions both for escape and pursuit, and the
adaptation of animals to aerial flight is so obviously ad-
vantageous, that it must have arisen as soon as the devel-
oping organization of animal life, and the occurrence of
the necessary terrestrial conditions, rendered it possible.

In considering the problem of how flight originated,
it will be desirable to take up successively the three
questions above given. First, how did scales become
feathers? The three higher classes of vertebrate ani-
mals have each its peculiar dermal covering. The Rep-
tile has its bony plates, or its scales, the Mammal its
hairs, and the Bird its feathers. Scales, hairs, and
feathers are alike in origin, and are but specialized forms
of a similar epithelial outgrowth. Yet these three
classes of animals seldom invade each other’s province.
No reptile has a hairy or feathery coating. If mammals
and birds were evolved from reptilian progenitors, the
change of scales into hairs and feathers forms one of
the processes of this evolution, and should be explicable
under the natural selection hypothesis.

Certainly reptiles never became feathered through the
Lamarckian process. No effort to fly, however vigorous,
could have converted the scale of the reptile into the
feather of the bird. It would be useless for flight until
it had become almost a perfect feather, and therefore
there could be no moulding influence upon its intermed-
iate stages. The rudimentary feather must have arisen
under the pressure of some other influence, and its
adaptation to flight must have been a secondary resultant.

If we ask, what is the rudimentary feather, we seem
to find it in the hair. In the larger land birds, as the
Ostrich, the feathers on some parts of the body are ins
distinguishable from hairs; and in the tails of flying-
squirrels the hairs spread out in a manner that seems
preliminary to a development into the feathery condi-
tion. We may begin by asking, then, through what pro-
cess of natural selection did the scale develop into the
hair?

In seeking to solve this problem we first ask, what
advantage has the hair over the scale as a dermal cov-
ering? The only positive answer we can make to this
is, that it has greater warmth. It enables the haired
animals to endure degrees of cold which would be fatal
to the scaled animals. This difference in covering has a
marked effect on the lives of the two classes of animals.
Through the wide possibilities of increase in length and
thickness of their hairy coat, mammals can endure the

SCIENCE.

535

greatest extremes of winter temperature, while reptiles
are strictly summer animals, those inhabiting the colder
zones being forced to hibernate during the winter.
Existing reptiles, then, have no need of a warmer coy-
ering than they possess. Their localities and life habits
render this sufficient to protect them trom all the changes
of temperature to which they are exposed during their
period of activity. But if the possession of a hairy cov-
ering would have enabled the reptiles of the past to
remain active throughout the whole yéar in cold climates,
why was it not developed? The answer is that it would
have been of no special advantage to them. They are
otherwise unfitted for activity during the season of low
temperature, and to adapt them to this condition, not
only their outer covering needed to be modified, but
their internal organization as well. This change in or-
ganization has taken place in many cases, and with it
the development of a warmer covering than the reptilian
coat. But the reptile, thus modified, has lost its reptil-
ian character. It has, in the one case, with other less
important changes, become a bird; in the other case,
with other more important changes, it has become a
mammal.

The change in internal organization referred to is that
in the circulating system. The imperfect heart, the sack-
like lung, and the half-zerated blood of the repule have
developed into the perfect heart, the unlike but widely-
extended lungs, and the fully erated blood of the mam-
mal and the bird. The varying temperature of the rep-
tile is exchanged for the unvarying temperature of his
successors. ‘The so-called cold-blooded reptile, with its
insufficient oxygenating organs, is at a disadvantage as
compared with the bird and the mammal, with their fully
oxygenated blood.

To bodily activity is necessary an internal temperature
sufficiently high to render the organic chemistry of the
body active. In the \emperature of the tropics, and the
summer temperature of thesextra tropical zones, al! ani-
mals possess this temperature, and none are at a disad-
tage in this particular. But the reptile depends directly
on the solar heat for its temperature, the bird and the
mammal do not. Thus when the temperature falls the
internal temperature of the reptile similarly decreases,
its organic chemical change declines in activity, it be-
comes sluggish in movement, unable to obtain food, and
would perish but for the hibernating habit which is cus-
tomary with it. But the bird and the mammal preserve the
temperature essential to organic chemical activity. They
continue, thereiore, awake and energetic, and in a con-
dition to obtain the necessary food-supply.

The reptile is essentially a tropical animal. Its or-
ganization unfits it for the extremes of extra tropical
temperature, and it is active in the temperate and frigid
zones Only during the tropic heat of their summers, but
conceals itself and continues torpid during the cold of
their winters.

Birds and mammals are essentially adapted to a life in
thecolder zones. They must have originated in regions in
which wintry cold, for some part of the year, replaced the
summer heat. The reptilian circulation sufficed for the
needs of animals bathed in a fixed degree of external
heat, high enough to promote their bodily activity. But
animals exposed to severe cold during any portion of the
year must either hibernate during that period, or must
gain an improved circulation. The heat which tails them
without must be produced within, or their activity must
cease.

This is what we must understand from the systems of
circulation of the bird andthe mammal. ‘Their reptilian
progenitors slowly gained more complex lungs with an
increased erating surface; the blood became more fully
oxygenated ; the arterial and venous blood became more
completely separated in the chambers of the heart; and
as a natural result the internal temperature increased.

augmented unless of advantage. They would have been of
no special advantage to the tropical animal. To the animal
of the temperate zones they were decidedly advantageous,
in enabling it to remain active during a greater portion
of the year, and finally during the whole year, the in-
ternal stores of heat replacing the lost external stores
when winter replaced summer.

But these internal stores must not only be produced, but
must be retained. A heat-retaining covering is necessary
to hinder the chilling effect of the wintry air. The reptilian
scale is obviously not sufficient for this purpose. As the
internal heat of the animal increased, and it was able to
prolong its period of active life more and more into the
cold season, some modification of the scale became nec-
essary, so as to make it more efficient in retaining this
internal heat. The scales may. from their points of origin,
have grown out longitudinally, covering each other in
successive layers, and thus forming a warmer and closer
covering. Such a process of elongation, if accompanied
by a narrowing of the individual points of origin, would,
in time, convert the the scale intoa hair. It is well known
that they are capable of becoming so converted, by such
an elongating outgrowth.

Thus the haired and feathered animals could not have
arisen until the possibly genera) summer of early times
was replaced by a double season of summer and winter
in the extra tropical regions. But though thus of tem-
perate origin, there was nothing to hinder their spreading
both into the frigid and the tropic zones. Their improved
circulation gave them an activity superior to that of the
preceding reptilian rulers of the tropics, and they thus
had an advantage in the life battle, which soon showed
its effects. The giant reptiles disappeared and giant
mammals took their place. Gradually the reptiles re-
treated before the march of the mammals. They sank
to the ground, hid in holes, learned to creep, to squirm,
to swim, while their mammalian successors proudly
stalked over their conquered realm, the lords of the earth,

If this, through the advantage gained by adaptation to
wintry cold, animals were evolved possessed of a_ perfect
circulation, a fixed internal temperature, anda poorly con-
ducting external covering of hair; and if these animals,
through their improved powers, banished their reptilian
predecessors, or forced them to retreat to the waters, the
holes, and the dark recesses of the earth; it remains to
consider the subsequent variations of these hair covered
animals; or, at least, of the flying sections of these crea-
tures.

The next question to be considered is that of the change
from a quadrupedal to a bipedal habit of motion. There
is only one true biped among the whole great class of mam-
mals, namely, man. He is approached in this bipedal
habit by the higher apes, and it is not difficult to under-
stand how the specialization of limbs took place in the
latter. It undoubtedly arose from the climbing habits of
monkeys. The fore limbs became used as grasping or-
gans, the hind limbs as supporting organs. As climbing
monkeys increased in size, they must in many cases have
moved by grasping upper branches with their hands, and
supporting their feet on lower branches. This was an im-
perfect bipedal movement. Eventually some of them be-
came too heavy to render a continual arboreal residence
desirable. ‘These came to spend the most of their lives
upon the earth, as we find in the larger apes of the pres-
ent day. But these apes are neither quadrupeds nor
bipeds. The specialization of their limbs during a long
arboreal residence has unfitted them for either mode of
motion upon the ground, and they move along in an awk-
ward and inefficient compromise between the two modes
of motion. Evidently the method of progression of these
animals is not a desirable one for aland residence. Natu-
ral selection must tend to make them full quadrupeds or
full bipeds. Those of them which have recently changed
their arboreal for a ground habitat, have not had time to

Such slight changes could not have been preserved and | change. Those which earlier descended to the earth have

536

SCIENCE.

evolved improved methods of progression. The most of
them have returned to the quadrupedal condition, if we
may conceive the four-footed baboons to have arisen in
this manner. As to whether any of them have gained the
perfected bipedal condition, it is perhaps best to make no
assertion. Those who hold that man had an ape-like pro-
genitor, must accept this view.

There are other mammais with partially bipedal habits.
These compromise the jumping animals, the kangaroos,
jerboas, etc. But in these cases there has been no speciali-
zation of the fore-limbs. They have simply become partly
aborted. ‘The bear also, through its plantigrade feet, and
perhaps its climbing habit, has gained imperfect bipedal
powers, and a grasping habit with its fore limbs. But
there has been no specialization of these limbs. They
continue true walking organs.

In the reptilian world other instances of bipedal habits
present themselves, developed in still another manner.

The animals thus organized are all creatures of a van-
ished age—the huge Deinosaurian reptiles presented to
us in the geological record. These creatures may have
gained their specialization of form through the same cause,
though not in the same manner, as the giraffe gained its
special formation. Many of them lived by browsing on
the foliage of trees. And these, instead of developing an
elongated neck, like the giraffe, probably obtained their
food by a partially climbing process. Their fore limbs
clasped the tree trunk, while their weight rested on the
hind limbs and the tail. In this manner they were able to
reach the desired food.

A long continuance of such habits would produce,
through selection, a specialization of the fore limbs. To
become efficient organs for grasping tree trunks, they
must have become inefficient walking organs. Through
this specialization the fore limbs seem to have become
small and comparatively weak, the hind limbs large and
powerful. To look at the remains of these creatures now,
as preserved for us in the rock strata, it seems as if a
quadrupedal motion must have been very awkward and in-
efficient ; while their habit of erecting themselves on their
hind legs, may have rendered a bipedal motion easy and
natural. Professor E. D. Cope says of them: ‘‘ some have
chiefly squatted, some leaped on their hind legs like the
kangaroo, some stalked on erect legs like the great birds,
with their small arms hanging uselessly by their sides.”
Yet when we consider the great size of these reptiles,
which comprise the huge Iguanodon and Megalosaurus,
the Hadrosaurus of our New Jersey marl, and other such
gigantic creatures, we may well imagine that they pres-
ented an appearance widely different from that of any ex-
isting creatures. To see animals thirty feet in height and
huge in proportion, to whom our elephant would be -a
mere pigmy, stalking about erect on their hind legs, would
certainly be an astonishing spectacle. Yet such a view
was very probably presented by that bizarre world of the
past which time has swept away.

These Deinosaurian reptiles, with their peculiarities of
structure, their hollow bones, and their three-toed feet,
presented certain strong affinities to the great land birds
of modern times. So close, indeed, that some have con-
jectured that these large wingless birds, such as the
Ostrich, are direct descendants of the Deinosaurs. In
this claim there are no powers of flight to be explained,
yet the possession of feathers by the ostrich seems a fatal
obstacle to the hypothesis. Feathers are a highly spec-
ialized form of dermal covering. They are specially
adapted to purposes of flight, and we can imagine for
them no other use which the less specialized hairs or
scales would not have subserved. We are therefore dis-
posed to conclude that any animals possessed of feathers
must have gained them through powers of flight in them-
selves or their ancestors; and that the resemblances in
organization above mentioned arose from similarity in
modes of progression, and not from hereditary connection.

How, then, was the further step in the process taken ?

The primitive hairy covering being gained, how did hairs
develop into feathers, how were the imperfect bipeds
among land animals succeeded by the perfect bipeds
among flying animals, and how did motion upon the
earth develop into motion through the air? It certainly
did not arise asa result of leaping habits. We cannot
imagine the spring of a kangaroo as so advantageously
aided by an accidental conformation of the fore limbs, as
to produce a natural selection of this conformation. lf
these leaping animals habitually sought to assist their
flight by a motion of the fore limbs, then any membra-
neous expansion or special thickness of hairy covering
would be advantageous. But none of those now existing
have such a habit, and without it their leap could never

become a flight.
(To be continued.)

——————— od

THE NEW COMPRESSED AIR LOCOMOTIVE.

On the 13th ultimo a trial of a new engine built
by the Baldwin Works, Philadelphia, took place on
the Second Avenue Railroad, the result of the trial
being on the whole satisfactory. Compressed air as a
motive power for railway engines has been repeatedly
tried already in this country and in Europe. At
Paris and Nantes the Mekarski Air Engine has at
different times been used with more or less success, at
Glasgow. Mr. Scott Moncrieff has labored perseveringly
to demonstrate the superiority of compressed air over
steam for locomotive purposes, while in June last year
Col. Beaumont produced (in London) an engine which
was thought at the time to have eclipsed its predecessors
in point of efficiency and small working cost. The
“success,” however, of these engines has been so very
undecided, and the advantages they presented in point of
cleanliness, and absence of smoke and noise, have been
so counterbalanced by the cost of compressing and stor-
ing the air, that as yet we have heard of no line of rail-
road or tramway being successfully worked by compress-
ed air.

Comparing the data obtainable from these engines with
the result of the late trial, we find a decided superiority
in the efficiency of the American engine which possesses
several new and important features, and is the result of
long experience and study of the subject by the inventor
and patentee, Mr. Thos, Hardie, the Pneumatic Company’s
Chief Engineer.

A short description of the engine and its trial may not
be uninteresting to our readers. In length and weight
it is as nearly as possible the same as an average Elevated
Railroad engine, the part usually reserved for the boiler
being in this case occupied by the receivers for contain-
ing the air, four in number and of unequal lengths, hav-
ing an aggregate capacity of 460 cubic feet, in which air
is stored at a pressure of 600 Ibs. per square inch. In-
side the cab is a small boiler (the consumption of coal in
which is nominal) through which air from the receivers
is passed before being allowed to enter the cylinders.
An automatic throttle valve on the supply pipe of this
boiler regulates the pressure at which the cold air enters
the boiling water. The air being thus heated expands
and the pressure is of course considerably augmented,
and in this hot, moist condition it passes into the cylin-
ders, having a far larger percentage of efficiency than if it
were allowed to do so in a cold, dry condition. There is
thus by this means a great saving in the quantity of air
consumed. -The system of drawing air from the reser-
voir at a low pressure and expanding it by heat until it
attains a working pressure of from 100 to 130 lbs. per
square inch is, we believe, entirely novel, and in this
respect the engine differs altogether from Col. Beaumont’s
machine, in which air was admitted to the cylinders at
its initial reservoir pressure—tooo lbs., and then quickly
cut off.

In a former engine built by the Pneumatic Company

SCIENCE.

537

the air, instead of being heated by a small boiler, was
made to pass through a tank which was supplied at in-
tervals with boiling water and recharged as soon as the
water cooled. The present arrangement is the result of
experience derived from its predecessor.

The valve gear is simple and is fitted with a variable
expansion valve under the control of the engineer, by
which the cut-off can be varied from I-1oth to 5-Sths of
the stroke. The link is worked by ‘crossed”’ éccentric
rods, the effect of this being to prevent azy opening of
the parts when the reversing lever stands in the middle
notch. By this arrangement the cylinders are, when ne-
cessary, converted into vacuum pumps and are utilized to
operate the vacuum brakes attached to the cars. It has
been found that when using the air expansively while
running, Zz. é., with a quick “cut-off,” the expansion is
sometimes so rapid that towards the end of the stroke the
pressure in the cylinders is less than the external atmos-
phere; to obviate the loss of power which would be
caused by the vacuum thus created, valves are placed in
the exhaust passages, which prevent any vacuum being
formed. Another feature in the engine is the existence
of a suction and delivery valve at each end of both
cylinders, which render it possible when going down hill,
or approaching a station, to convert the cylinders them-
selves into “‘ compressors,”’ by which the pressure in the
reservoirs can be increased, thus utilizing the waste
energy which is usually given off in friction against the
brakes, This arrangement is so successful that no other
brakes are required on the engine. There are several
minor points in the construction of the machine which it
is not necessary to mention here ; we may, however, say
in conclusion that the engine has been carefully studied
in every detail.

At the trial, the engine started from 128th street
with a pressure in the reservoirs of 580 lbs. per inch,
and travelled as far as 42nd street, a distance of 4%
miles or thereabouts, stopping at every station, and
loaded with three cars containing about 50 people.
At 42nd street some switching was done, and the engine
then returned to the starting place, reaching 128th street
with a remaining pressure of 115 lbs.

These figures show that the train would have run from
Harlem to South Ferry, the entire route of the Elevated
Road. But in making any practical calculation, it must be
remembered that four cars are often used instead of
three, and that these four cars would often be loaded
with 600 persons. This probably implies an additional
weight of about thirty tons to that placed behind the
Pheumatic Engine during the recent experiment.

The company must be congratulated on building a
most successful engine.

UNIVERSAL ENERGY OF LIGHT.*

By PLIny EARLE CHASE, LL. D.,
Professor of Philosophy in Haverford College.

Force is generally regarded as a function of mass and
velocity. The greatest known velocities which can be
produced by central forces are wave velocities. The
greatest known wave-velocity which appears to be uni-
versally diffused is the velocity of light.

Let vA = velocity of light ; vo=circular-orbital velocity
at sun’s surface =Vgo7); vs=Earth’s mean orbital
velocity ; v,= velocity of Sun’s equatorial rotation ; #;=
potential velocity of water at O°C. =v 2g x 100 x 1389.6
ft.; #s = potential velocity of water at its maximum
density; #;=potential velocity of water-evaporation =
V 2¢ x 536.37 x 1389.6 ft.; %t0, M3, Ms, Me=masses of
Sun, Earth, Jupiter, Saturn ;_ 4 .=Earth’s semi-axis ma-
jor; 4.=height of mean oscillatory projection due to the

* Read before the American Association for the Advancement of Science,
August, 1881.

combining energy of H:O; ¢,=time of acquiring circu-
lar-orbital velocity at Laplace’s limit of synchronous ro-
tation and revolution = time of rotation +27; 7, = time
of acquiring “nascent” or dissociative velocity at nucleal
surface = % time of rotation =77Z,; 7 =Weber’s electro-
chemical unit; ~=electromagnetic unit; po>=total mag-
netic force; ps—terrestrial magnetic force; ¢):—present
value of ¢, at Sun’s surface ; g»=gravitating acceleration
at sun’s surface.

The simplicity of the relations of the universal velocity

vd to other physical velocities, is shown in the following

equations :
x 2 =
I Ulam ap ilion (ey) Mo gy bn j/ Po
U3 hy Ms t, Ps
2) cZ5 = v J/2 = n Yo
Vo U4 ta v.
vA
3. SS Ss he
§0
AS un = im m, — ota Ve
Us Ms mst, XG
5 3 wae 34m 5 X 3°
us 2s Ms

The velocity of solar atmospheric rotation, at the secu-
lar mean centre of gravity of the solar system, is also
equivalent to zs.

The law of conservation of areas, in an expanding or
contracting nucleus, requires that g» should vary in-
versely as Z. Equation 3 should, therefore, hold good
for all stages of solar existence, past, present and future.

The values which satisfy the above equations are:
y= 328470 M3 ; Ao=9 92476500 miles; v2 = 185760 miles;
UVs=18.412 miles ; 7;,—=2986 ft. ; ~;—6916.2 ft.

The following table shows the accordance between
theoretical and observed values :

Theoretical. Observed.
Boiling point of water........ g9°.18 | 100°
Combining heat of H.O...... 69319 67616 to 69584*
fobecrots ocD0.5 BOA Cc OOCO OCOD 140.65 | 140lb. pr. sq. in.
Maximum density of water.... 4°.19 | 3°.33 to 4°.85
DI x ctah sich ohetetac va wiev eh elie aoslehe| Aaya a: 2 18.31 | 78.41
Latent heat of steam....:..... 536°.374 | 536°.385 ¢
OSS) 48 chop tar OID PERO Ces OSI AOIOe 107.38 | 106.67

The velocity of light is also a factor of electromotive
energy. Weber and Kohlrausch demonstrated this fact
by measuring quantity of electricity; Thomson and Max-
well, by measuring electromotive force; Ayrton and
Perry, by measuring electrostatic capacity.

Perhaps the most interesting of the above indications
is the past, present and future equivalence of Sun’s
“nascent ’”’ velocity to the velocity of light; the sum of
the cyclical reactions of solar superficial gravitation
against the actions of external gravitation, during each
half-rotation, being egucvalent to the velocity of light.

SE EEE

THe Merat Actinium, by J. L. Puipson. — The
author stated that he had been a ble to separate a new
element from the pigment zinc-white. The oxide of the
new element is said to be slightly soluble in caustic soda,
and is soluble in ammonia and ammoniacal salts. Its
color is uninfluenced by exposure to light. The sulphide
of actinium is described as a pale yellow canary-colored
substance ; it is insoluble in ammonium sulphide, is solu-
ble in acetic acid, and becomes darker on exposure to the
air.—British Association, 1881.

* The mean of six estimates, cited by Naumann, is 68886.
t This is the mean of four estimates, viz.: Favre and Silbermann,
535°-77; Andrews, 535°.90,; Regnault, 5369.67; Tyndall, 5379.20,

538

‘SCIENCE.

THE ELECTRIC EXPOSITION.
THE ELECTRIC LIGHT.

THE GENERATORS.

The Palace of Industry offers to the world a unique
collection of apparatus tor producing the electric I ght.

The problem seems to be solved, if we can judge by
the multiplicity of the solutions proposed; we shall see
in the sequel that itis not yet completely solved, but this
same multiplicity sets out well in relief. the incomparable
elasticity of electricity applied to 1 ght, and shows ‘hat it
is possible from this day to introduce the electric light in
all appl cations; by giving to it, in each particular case,
the special quali‘ies which assure its superiority over
other systems, under the limitation of two conditions
which we shall treat separately : economy and the distri-
bution of electricity.

We shall rapidly examine the processes of gen-
erating electriciiy tor the special purpose of light; a fol-
lowing article will be devoted to lights, regulators, and
incandescent lamps.

Three methods are known of generating electricity in
quantity sufficient for the electric lght: hydro-electric
piles, thermo-electric piles, and electro-dynamic
machines.

In this Exposition there is no thermo-electric pile

applied to light. Some vears ago we had hoped that M.
Clamond would have continued his work in thermo-
electricity, but he has, unfortunately, done nothing, and
we can only express our regrets in this respect.

The piles intended for the electric | ght are represented
at the Exposition but by two types: the pile of M. Cloris
Baudet and that of M. Tummasi.

The ple of M. Cloris Baudet is a pile with bichromate
of porash ; with five elements, of which, according to the
inventor, only one a day neecs to be replaced, the pile
can sustain a voltaic arc, wi h carbons of three millime-
tres, whose power 1s about 15 Carcel burners.

The pile of M. Tommasi is a Bunsen pile. The im-
provements which have been applied to it do not appear
furtunate to us, and we do not yet know of an appiication
where it serves ina practical manner for domesuc usage,
as the prospectus pompously announces it. It is only
necessary to approach for a moment the expos tion of
M. Tommasi, on the ground floor, in order to feel—in
the proper and in the figurative sense—that the vapor
of liberated hypoazotic acid makes the pile absolutely in-
applicable to the usage for which it was primitively
intended.

The instalment of this extensive apparatus and the
manipulation which it requires, are. on the other hand,
out of proportion with the r.sult ob:ained.

Leaving aside these two separa e cases, and the elec-
tric accumulators, to which we shall return, we can say
that the electric light ot the Palace is exclusively obtained
from mechanical generators of electricity.

The motors which drive the electric machines demand
a special study. They are of two kinds: steam and gas.

The Exposition contains several interesting types of
motors especially intended to drive the electro-dynamic
machines ; we will cite among others the Brotherhood
motor and the Dolgoronki rotative system motor. In
these systems of motors of great rapidity, the driving
shaft of the electric machine forms the prolongation of
that of the motor; thus all intermediate transmiss.on is
done away with, but simplicity is purchased, it must be
admitted, by a greater expenditure of steam.

The largest part of the motive force is produced by
fixed, half-fixed, or movable machines varying from five
to 150 horse-power. We do not say that the latter are
most economic, because they consume, with equal power,
much less of carbon, and because they have also a more
regular motion—an essential condition for a good electric
light.

We will notice more particularly two types of these
powerful machines: one, exhibited by MM. Carels,
1s an expansion-engine, in a single cylinder; the
other, exhibited by MM. Weyher and Richemond, belongs
to the compound type, that is to say, with a compound
cylinder; the expansion is made successively in the two
cylinders.. Figure 7 represents this motor dnving the
electric generators with alternate currents of Gramme
and Lambotte-Lachaussée. The advantage of expansion-
engines, either with one cylinder or with two conjugate
cylinders, is great, for as soon as 100 horse-power is
reached, less than a kilogramme of carbon is consumed
each hour for every horse-power.

A large number of gas motors are also used to produce
motive force. Most of them belong to the Otto type;
they vary from I to 50 horse-power. The gas motors
are practical enough, and also, up to a certain point,
economical, when they serve to producea light for a few
hours each day, and in an intermittent manner.

For the same quantity of gas consumed, we can obtain
10 or I5 times more light by passing through the medium
of the motor, the electric generator and the lamp, than
by directly burning the gas in the ordinary burners, all
in producing Io0o or 150 times less heat in the light.

It is by an 8 horse-power gas motor that M. Jaspar
drives the three Gramme machines which feed the three
regulators placed in hall XV; a 50 horse-power gas
motor also serves to light a part of the Palace.

We now come to the machines. We can first divide
them, according to the generally admitted classification,
into magneto-electric machines, of which the inductors
are magnets, and into dynamo-electric machines, of
which the inductors are electro-magnets.

The Exposition contains only two kinds of magneto-
electric machines, the old type of Alliance and the ma-
chine of M. de Méritens. These machines are applied
to beacon lights, and they also feed several Brrjot regu-
lators. Without wishiog to condemn the electro-mag-
netic machines, it seems to be established, even by the
Exposition, that their industrial reign has terminated. It
must not be concluded by this that the electro-magnetic
machines are worthless, but only that they are not indus-
trial, in the practical sense of the word; that is to say, the
power being equal, they are heavier, more expensive, and
more encumpering than the electro-dynamic machines
which are almost universally employed to-day.

In light-houses, where the question of capital engaged
plays but a secondary role, the preference has been given
to magneto-electric machines which, in consequence of
the masses put in motion, give a greater relative regu-
larity than electro-dynamic machines.

Magneto-electric machines, applied to light, are all
with alternative currents.

Dynamo-electric machines are divided into two classes,
according as they furnish alternative or continuous cur-
rents. .

Machines with continuous currents—The machines
with continuous currents are suited to illumination by the
voltaic arc and by incandescence. When they supply a
single light they are mounted as represented in figure 1 -

Fic. 1.—Diagram of the ordinary mounting of a dynamo-electric machine
supplying a monophote light.

(A) an zaducted Gramme ring, or Siemens bobbin turn-
ing between the two poles of an inductor II’, sustained

SCIENCE.

ull
a

Tal

MINT

Di

i)

|
asa
at

(After a photograph).

International Exposition of Electricity.

Fic. 7.—The Electric Generators of the Palace of Industry.

540

SCIENCE.

by the currertt from the bobbin, which also traverses the
voltaic arc,

This is the mounting adopted to-day jn most of the
monophote regulators.

On examining this system a little closer, we see that it
presents a serious inconvenience. When the arc is
lengthened, the intensity of the current diminishes, for
two reasons, first, in consequence of the increase of re-
sistance of the current; second, because this enfeeble-
ment corresponds to an enfeeblement in the same way
of the power of the inductors, and, as a result, of the
electro-motive force of the machine, since this electro-
motive force is itself a function of the power of the induc-
tors. If the arc is made shorter, the reverse phenom-
enon results. This is a poor condition of regulation,
since the increase of power of the machine corresponds
to a shortening of the arc, and inversely, the diminution
of the electro-motive force, corresponds to the lengthen-
ing of the arc. The production of the machine 1s, then
in a contrary direction to the needs of the arc, and it is
certainly one of the great reasons for which this mounting
demands, in order to work well, sufficiently sensible reg-
ulators. They avoid this inconvenience by several
methods.

The first consists of arranging the inductors éy derz-
vation; this arrangement, conceived by Wheatstone in
1866, has not yet received many practical applications.
M. Siemens, of London, is studying it at the present time
and we shall find, by and by, an application of it in
Edison’s machine.

The second method, universally employed in the ma-
chines with alternative currents and which is commencing
to spread in somewhat important applications where the
lights have continuous currents, consists of charging
the inductors of a series of machines by a special machine.
Diagram 2 represents this arrangement. The arcs I, 2,

Four machines with

Fic. 2.—Macuines charged by a special machine.
y The

continuous currents supplying four regulators with a voltaic arc.
inductors are supplied by a separate generator.

3, 4 are bound to the brooms of the inducted bobbins A,,
As, As, &c., of the respective machines.

By this means a constant magnetic field is assured,
whose power depends only on the velocity of the genera-
tor; as a result, the electro-motive force is then absolutely
independent of the variations of resistance of the voltaic
arc which it sustains. ‘Thus is found the advantage of
the magneto-electric machines whose magnetic field is
constant, but we gain the additional advantage of having
the most powerful machines, and of being able to vary
the production of these machines by regulating at will
the rapidity of the generator. There is in the French
section a series of machines, arranged according to this
principle.

Such are the arrangements employed with the mono-
pote apparatus.

When a single machine is to supply several lights
the arrangements change, and the lamps can be grouped
in different ways.

When they are all branched over two general conduc-
tors starting from the limits of the machine, the lights
are said to be established in derzvatzon, in multzple or in
quantity (fig. 3). When the lights are arranged, one

Fic. 3.—Mounting in derivation, in multiple arc, or in quantity.

following the other, on one and the same conductor, they
are said to be mounted in Zemszon, in serzes, or in czrcuit
(fig. 4).

The mounting in multiple arc requires volume, that
in circuit requires especially pressure or tension. The
one or the other is applied according to the case.

Sometimes even several derzvations are established,
each carrying two, three, ten, etc., lamps in czveuzt. It
is the.case, for example, of the lamps of the Swan system
of incandescence, fed by Brush machines.

The reasons of these multiple combinations are easy
to comprehend. If the electric source of the machine we
are arranging has more electro-motive force than that
exacted by a single light, it would be an advantage to
group several lights on the same circuit; when, on the
contrary, the volume of current which the machine can
produce is greater than that which is necessitated by a
single light, we arrange them in guan¢zty or in derzva-
tzon. The Edison and Maxim systems of incandescence
are monted in quantity over the source. They differ only,
leaving on one side for a moment the lamp itself, in the
manner of regulating the current.

In the Maxim system, the mounting of which is repre-
sented in figure 5, a separate generator supplies a series

Fic. 5.—Mounting of the Maxim machines.

of machines, whose brooms are set between them in
quantity, that is to say, by poles of the same name. All
the lamps are branched over the conductors in derivation.
The reguiating obtains, by charging automatically the
setting of the brooms of the generator, which reacts on
the power of the current of the generator, and, conse-
quently, on that of the inductor.

In the Edison system, the lamps are also mounted in
derivation, but the inductors II’ (fig. 6) are placed on a
derived circuit led to the brooms of the machine in B and
B!. The power of the inductors is regulated, and con-
sequently that of the machine, by manceuvring by hand a
rheostat which serves to increase or diminish the resist-
ance of the generating current, and consequently the
electro-motive force of the machine. It is the Wheat-
stone mounting.

Machines with Alternative Currents —The employ-
ment of alternative currents steps in with electric candles,
because the two carbons must beequally consumed. Cer-
tain regulators also act with the alternative currents. The
equal consuming of the carbon limits the displacement
of the luminous point, which is often an advantage. All

SCIENCE.

541

qPys0ayy

Fic. 6.—Mounting of the Edison machine.

the lights with alternate currents produce a peculiar hum-
ming owing to the nature of the currents which traverse
them; this humming is often sufficient to forbid their use
in places where itis necessary to have comparative silence.

The ensemble of a system of lighting by dynamo-elec-
tric machines, with alternative currents always includes
two distinct machines: a machine with continuous cur-
rents or gezerator, and a machine with alternate currents,
or azstrzbutor. ‘\his distributor consists of a variable
number of circuits. Figure 8, simplified to show the

~
ee
2

v

-
LC

Fic. $.—Mounting of a machine with alternate currents for candles.

principle, represents the mounting of a Gramme machine
with alternative currents, supplying twenty Jablochkoff
candles, arranged on four circuits of five candles each.
The movable inductor bears eight poles, the successive
ones with contrary names, in place of four. The gen-
erator can be of any system, whatever ; it is only neces-
sary to have a continuous current.

The power is regulated by the reciprocal velocities of
the generator and the distributor. Sometimes the two
machines mounted on the same axis turn with the same
velocity, forming in reality but one. These machines are
self-generators. In this case, we can no longer regulate
the generator by its velocity, since this velocity is con-
jointly acting with the distributor; the regulating is then
effected by the resistances introduced in the generating
circuit. We have supposed the inducted bobbins fixed
and the inductors movadle. It is the case with the
Lontin, Gramme, and Lambotte-Lachaussée machines.
At other times, as in the Wilde and Siemens machines
with alternate currents, the inducted bobbin is movable
and the inductors fixed, but nothing is changed for this in
the general principle. We see from these several examples
that the art of the engineer allied with the science of the
experimentalist, offers some resources to convert me-
chanical energy into electric energy and then to distribute
it to the lights which utilize it.

MICROSCOPISTS.

The first meeting of the State Microscopical Society of
Illinois, for the present season was held at the rooms of
the Society, in the Academy of Sciences, Friday evening
October 14, the President, Dr. Lester Curtis in the
chair.

After the transaction of routine business, Mr. Stuart
described the microscopical] structure of some vegetable
drugs. The subject is not suitable for abstraction, and
requires illustrations to be usetul.

His paper was followed by one by Dr. Curtis, describ-
ing a new stand made for him by Bulloch. This stand
presented some novel features, among the most striking
was a mechanical stage of extreme thinness, admitting
light at an angle of 160°. The movements were effected
by a double pinion above the stage, an arrangement pro-
nounced by those familiar with the operation of the con-
trivance, as exceedingly useful and convenient.

The stand excited considerable interest, as did also a
right angled camera lucida of German manufacture
which was adapted to it, the superiority of which over
the ordinary form was so marked as to be unmistakable
on trying it, even under the disadvantages of a crowded
room and constant jar. After a discussion of the papers,
the meeting adjourned. E. B. STUART.

Secretary pro tem.

PERMANGANATE OF POTASH USED AS AN
ANTIDOTE TO THE POISON OF SERPENTS.

Very interesting experiments have been made in Bra-
zil, by M. de Lacerda, which have established the fact
that permanganate of potash is one of the most energetic
antidotes to the venom of snakes, M. de Lacerda has
addressed a memorial of his important works to the
Academy of Sciences (meeting of the 12th of Septem-
ber, 1881).

The result of these researches is really astonishing; thus
in a series of experiments, frequently renewed, of inject-
ing the active venom of éoshrops, diluted with distilled
water, in the cellular tissues, or the veins of dogs, M. de
Lacerda found that the permanganate of potash was able
to stop completely the manifestation of local injurdes
rom the venom, Yet the same poison, which had served
for these experiments, being injected without antidote
into other dogs, always produced great local tumefac-
tions, with loss of substance and destruction of tissue.

These very remarkable results have been stated on va-
rious occasions, not only by the Emperor of Brazil, who
assisted at these experiments, but also by physicians,
professors of faculties, and members of the diplomatic
corps.

>>

MEANS OF DETECTING THE SOPHISTICATIONS OF OLIVE
OIL WITH OTHER O1Ls.—The oils employed at Marseille for
the adulteration of olive oil are the oils of colza, sesame,
cotton, and earth-nuts, Colza oil is detected by means of
the sulphurwhich it contains; 10 grms. of the sample are
saponified ina glass capsule with an alcoholic solution of
caustic alkali free from sulphides. The mixture is stirred
with a silver spoon, and if this is blackened, colza, or at
least some cruciferous, oil is present. For the detection of
the oil of sesame a little sugar is added to hydrochloric
acid at 30° (Baume?) which is then mixed with an equal
bulk of the oil in question. The mixture is well shaken
up, and the least traces of oil of sesame are indicated by
ared coloration. For the detection ot cotton-seed oil there
is added tothe sample an equal volume of nitricacid at 40°.
On stirring the mixture takes acoffee color. The detection
of oil of earth-nuts is less simple. The sample is saponi-
fied with an alcoholic solution of potash, the soap separated
as completely as possible, heated to expel the alcohol, and
treated with enough hydrochloric acid to neutralize the
alkali. The supernatant fatty acid—arachidic acid—is col-
lected and dissolved in boiling alcohol, from which it sepa-
rates in a characteristic white nacreous form.

542

SCIENCE.

ELECTRIC LIGHTER OF M. DESRUELLES.

This is a small apparatus, simple and practical, which
will certainly be very highly appreciated by smokers and,
in general, by all persons who are often in need of fire
orlight. It is one of the most direct applications of the
drying of piles of all the systems by the process of M.
Desruelles. This process consists of introducing in the
piles, in the place of liquid, a kind of amianthus sponge
that is afterwards filled with acid or some suitable solu-
tion. We thus gain by having a pile dy to some degree,
which can be removed, displaced, or reversed without the
liquid pouring out; this has its advantage for movable
machines, such as portable lamps, piles for bells on board
of ships, railroads, etc. The introduction of this inert
substance diminishes the volume of the liquid ; without
saying that the electromotive force of the pile is not at
all affected, its interior resistance is increased. This is
of no importance in the case which we are now consid-
ing. The lamp consists of a small round box of wood,

in which the pile is placed; over this box is placed a |

small lamp with oil ; a platinum spiral in juxtaposition to
the wick serves to produce the light.

HNN

Te
= — ]

The pile is an element to the bichromate of potash,
in which the liquid is replaced by a kind of amianthus sat-
urated with a bichromatic solution similar to that of the
pile jar.

The zinc is hung from a small lever which it is only
necessary to touch lightly in order to bring the zinc in con-
tact with the sponge; the circuit is then formed, the zinc
is attacked, and the current produced traverses the spiral,
which reddens and inflames the oil. The pile once
charged will serve for several hundred lightings. When
the spiral no longer becomes red hot, the sponge must be
replaced—a very simple operation. When the small lever
is not pressed upon, the zinc is raised and kept thus from
the action of the liquid which the sponge of amianthus
absorbs. M. Desruelles constructed on the same prin-
ciple a lighter to gas burners, in which the pile is placed
at the extremity of an arm which is long or short, accord-
ing to the height of the burner. This small domestic
apparatus can be seen at the Electrical Exposition, where
ts practical working is shown.

INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF ELECTRICIANS.—
Professor G. F. Barker, in a letter to the Amerzcan Jour-
nal of Scrence says:

The exhinition as a whole has been a decided success.
It has brought together an immense mass of highly in-
teresting material. There are in all something over 1500
exhibitors, of which one half are French, 155 Belgian, 115
English, 114 German, 81 Italian, 72 American, 39 Aus-
trian, 32 Russian, 21 Swedish, 13 Swiss, 17 Spanish, 13
Norwegian, 11 Dutch, 5 Danish, and 2Japanese. Of de-
cided novelties, there are more in the United States sec-
tion than in any other. Edison has made a wonderful ex-
hibition of his inventions, and his rooms are thronged
continually. The principle discovered by him that an
electric current varies friction, the so-called motograph
principle, together with the applications of it practically,
are beautifully illustrated. The principle of the varying
resistance of bodies which imperfectly conduct, whenthey
are subjected to pressure, a principle which he was the
first to investigate and to apply, is exhibited in a large
series of instruments, one set of which traces the progress
of development of the carbon telephone. The system of
incandescent lighting which he has perfected is shownin

! all its details, from the unique dynamo machine of lowre-

sistance and high electromotive force, the street conduct-
ors with their connections, safety-catches, expansion-caps,
etc., the ingenious meter and the house conductors with
their incombusuble covering, to the fixtures with double
conductors and safety catches, and lastly to the incan-
descent lamp itself. Dolbear exhibits a new electro-static
telephone which performs admirably and which consists

| simply of two thin metal plates, connected to the secon-

dary wire by an induction coil. They are oppositely
charged by the coil and so attract each other. Gray’s
harmonic multiple telegraph is in successful operation
and Beli’s original photophone is also exhibited. The
most original thing exhibited in the French section is the

| secondary battery: Pianté exhibits several forms of it,

Faure shows the improvement which he made by cover-
ing the plates with minium, and lastly Meritens is work-
ing a still newer form, in which only lead plates are used,
buta large number ot them are put in a small space. In
the historical line the collection in the exhibition is unri-
valed. The pile of Volta, the electroscopes ot Galvani, the
thermopiles of Nobili and Melloni, the electro-magnetic
induction ring of Faraday, the first magneto-machine of
Pixii, the rheostats and telegraphs of Wheatstone, the
telegraphs of Scemmering, of Steinheil and of Gauss and
Weber, the continuous current-machine of Pacimotti, the
electro-thermic and electro-motor apparatus of Becquerel,
the electro-capillary apparatus of Lippmann; all these
and many more are here collected. And as for arc lights,
the exhibition at night is like day. The Brush machine
and light are in great favor. A large lamp of this sort
just put up has carbons two inches in diameter, and is
claimed to give a light of 80,000 candles.

> +

BOOKS RECEIVED.

A TREATISE ON THE METHOD OF GOVERNMENT
SURVEY, with complete Mathematical, Astronomical
and Practical Instructions. By SHOBAL V. CLEVEN-
GER. Second Edition, revised. D. Van Nostrand, 23
Murray street, New York.

This excellent treatise will be found of the greatest value

to all engaged in government land surveying, and appears

| to surpass all its predecessors in its completeness and

adaptability for practical work. Dr. Clevenger is one of
our most esteemed contributors, and our readers are
aware of the thorough nature of all literary productions
which proceed from his pen. The present treatise on
government land survey is exhaustive of the subject, and
has been accepted by the highest authorities as an
authoritive manual.

SCIENCE. 543
SATELLITES OF MARS.
DATA FOR EPHEMERIDES OF THE SATELLITES OF MARS IN THE OPPOSITION OF 1881.
By PROFESSOR ASAPH HALL.
| Phob Dei
; . obos eimos |
in Noon Log / F Log 2 G te, bi Aberr.
nfs} fi) ONO\ HOH eae Cc 9.97946 2906 3.7 9.5099 318 56.7 308.50 234.01 —>5.9
1s0) Jd oer con oe Oe 9.97948 296 2.8 9.50901 318 41.0 | 46.18 84.34 5.8
WACEMA BOVGs ele letel yeti t.- = 9.97942 296 5.3 9.50858 318 22.0 143-86 294 67 5:7
(Ol 3 Hag oe bee Som 9.97928 296 I1.2 9.50865 318 oo 241.54 144 99 Bez
BUG! Vk BOUNOM terclstys) axe , 9:97907 | 296 20.4 9.50923 | 317 34-9 339-22 355.32 5.6
WRRGRR EEF 26.0............. 9.97877 | 296 33,0 g.51037 Bi7. Ue 76.90 205.65 ney
Buiidbwe BBO Ne sti ale vc 9.97839 | 296 49.1 g.51205 .| 316, 36.8 174.58 55.97 5-4
i) BENS ane AndoA meet i 9.97792 297. «8.6 g:5143r°. | 316." “4.3 272.26 266 30 5.4
IDYoree, ee aac n oae aeteic| 9.97738 2907 31.4 9.51715 315 30.0 10.95 116.63 35}
MOB cae MOORS 9.97074 297 57.0 9.52055 314 54.3 107.63 326.95 5.3
(ieee GiOn ne koe att | 9.97603 298 27.1 9.52456 314 17.8 205.31 177.28 5.2
(2 HO Roe AG eos 9 97523 298 59.7 9 52910 31g) 41,0: 302.99 27.61 5.2
EQIO see cee aivio ohh | 9.97435 299 35-4 9.53418 313. 4.3 40.67 237.93 Sen
sii TOM mee Bice 9.97340 300 14.0 9.53976 312 28.5 138.35 38.26 pet
pet SRRACs: acl aeereaaon 9.97230 300 55.3 9.54578 3II 54.0 236.03 298.58 5.0
- TOIO reas Wete fereiecncssncs 9.97125 30I 39.0 9.55218 yin Cee) 333-71 148 QL 5.0
TOIOMem eee lanes 9.97008 302 24.8 9.55890 310 51.0 71.40 359.24 5.0
IO} Ore gece oe 9.96886 | 303 12.4 9 56587 B10) 2372 169.08 209.56 5.0
DEACE DEMO AM cae 5, sbavere 9.96759 Somes a5 9.57298 309 58.4 266.76 | 59.89 5.0
BAC OS th rts hissy) oct 9.96629 | 304 51.6 9.58016 309 636.7 4.44 270,21 5.0
BOO ected o oie)v.c ts 9.96496 305 42.2 9.58733 309 18.1 102.12 120.54 5.0
f DB Oediesiteve «tsi 9.96363 306 33.0 9.59441 3092. 199.80 330.87 3)
ACN oo a.tpno canon 9.96230 307 23.4 9.60131 308 50.6 297.48 181.19 Sat
HG ene lo) tains Sige ‘ 9.96099 308 13.2 9.60800 308 41.3 35-16 | 31.52 5.1
PEO erctayes Si iapatare ais 9.95971 | 309 «1.8 9.61440 308 34.6 132.84 241.84 Bat
SiOearcaeootneon 9.95847 | 309 48.8 9.62047 308 30.5 230.52 92.17 5.2
PMO mac abun’ Date 9.95728 | 310 34.0 9.62618 308 28.5 328.21 302.50 5.2
OC Faison oA oc 9 95614 3II 16.9 9.63149 | 308 285 65.89 152.83 | ae
TERigon decareted 9.95508 3II 57.3 9.63639 | 308 30.0 163 57 3.15 5.4
RGWOM corn costar 9.95410 | 312 34.8 9.64084 308 32.6 261.25 213.47 —5.5

The angle of position and the distance of the satellite,
é ands, will be computed by the formule

s sin p —% fsin (Ff + w)
p”

weOS 7) — * .gsin(G + »),
Q

where pis geocentric distance of Mars. The values ofa,
and of , the mean distances and the mean daily motions
of the satellites are as follows:

Phobos Deimos.
@= 12"9531 @ = 32"3541
fe = 1128°8405 fe = 285°1632
The quantity « for each satellite is given for the cor-

responding dates in the columns w#, and aw. For elonga-

tions the value of « is given by the equation
fi sin2F + gsin2G |
fi cos2Fh+ 9% cos2G

tang 24 = —

Thus for Dec. 20, « = 325°83 at the elongation, and
in the case of Deimos s = 537. Near the conjunc-
tions this satellite passes within 2"5 of the centre of the
planet, and the apparent ellipse will be very eccentric.
Calling the brightness of the satellites unity on October
1, 1877, the brightness of the next opposition will be as
follows :

1881 Novy. 16 brightness = 0.303
Dec. 14 ® = 0.399
1882 Jan. 13 oC = 0.330

The brightness of the satellites on November 16 will
be a little greater than when they were last observed
with the 15-inch refractor of the Harvard College Observa-
tory.

On account of the greater distances of the planet from
the Earth and Sun, these satellites will be faint next
December, but as the planet will be in declination + 26°,
they will be within the reach of several large telescopes,
and it is possible that a good series of observations may
be obtained. The elongation will occur in the angles of
position 68° and 248° nearly, and the satellites should be
looked for carefully at such times.

After the next opposition I hope to unite the observa-
tions of 1877, 1879 and 1881 in a new determination of
the orbtis.

U.S. NAVAL OBSERVATORY, WASHINGTON, Fume 22, 1881.
—<——$_<{_q_______.

THE absorption of ultra-violet rays by certain media is
being investigated by M. De Chardonnet. One method
adopted is to direct a beam through a liquid ina trough
with parallel glass or quartz sides, to Poitevin’s photo-
chromic paper (which indicates by change of tint, the pres-
ence of actinic rays). Inasecond method, a solar beam
from a heliostat is sent through a slit, an objective of quartz
and Iceland spar, and a prism of the spar, to a photo-
graphic plate or fluorescent screen; then a trough half
filled with liquid is put before the slit. The author finds
that the liquid circulating in plants, or impregnating roots
and fruits have all an avidity for chemical rays. Fluores-
cence does not seem to be directly related to intensity of
actinic absorption ; thus decoction of radish absorbs less
than decoction of potatoes, yet the former is without the
property, while the latter is not. White wine is weakly
fluorescent; red wine does not fluoresce. Of the few ani-
mal liquids examined, blood is found a powerful absorb-
ent; but the aqueous humour of a calf’s eye, and the albu-
men of eggs, have no-action on chemical rays, Distilled
water, alcohol, sulphuric ether, collodion, and solution of
cane sugar are also inactive. Gelatine intercepts all the
chemical rays, and it is sensibly fluorescent.

544

SCIENCE.

A PAPER on the“ Electrical Resistance and the Coeffi-
cient of Expansion of Incandescent Platinum,” by E. L.
Nichols, Ph.D., was read at the Cincinnati Meeting of the
American Association for the Advancement of Science,
August, 1881, fully reported in Amer. Jour. Sctence,
November. In his discussion of the subject, the author
after showing the discrepancies in the formule of resist-
ances as obtained by Siemens, Benoit, Matthiesen,
and other physicists, draws the following conclusions : —

Ist. The formule in question are based for the most
part upon unwarrantable suppositions, such as the con-
stancy of the specific heat of copper and of platinum ;
the constancy of the coefficient of expansion of the latter
metal, and upon the accuracy of certain very doubtful
values for the boiling points of zinc, cadmium, etc.

2d. That, aside from the inaccuracy of those data, the
varying resistance of different specimens of platinum
renders any formula for the calculation of temperature of
that metal from its electric resistance applicable only to
the identical wire for which the law of change of resist-
ance with the temperature has been determined.

3d. That from the data at command we are not in posi-
tion to calculate the temperature of an incandescent
platinum wire from its change of resistance, nor from its
length, nor indeed in any other manner, further than to
express the temperature in terms of the length or the re-
sistance of the wire.

4th. That, owing to the great variations shown by dif-
ferent specimens of platinum as regards its resistance, the
determination of the expansion of the wire is to be pre-
ferred, whenever practicable, to the measurement of its
conductivity.

CORRESPONDENCE,

The Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed
by his ieee No notice is taken of anonymous communi-
cations.

To the Editor of “SCIENCE.”

Dr. Rogers seems again to misunderstand. It was not
his quotation from Faraday that, was objected to, but the
use apparently made of it to support his strange ‘“ ques-
tioning of the dogma that ‘gravity acts in versely as the
square of the distance,’ on the ground that if that force
is weakened by the earth’s being removed to aphelion,
it could not again bring back the body to perihelion.”
Any attempt to sustain that position by the authority of
Faraday must certainly be a failure. Yourcorrespondent ,
seems not to: distinguish between the definition of the
force of gravitation, to which Faraday pertinently ob-
jected, and the law of gravitating action to which I par-
ticularly referred, and concerning which Faraday says,
in the sentence immediately preceding that quoted by
your correspondent, “It will not be imagined for a mo-
ment that I am opposed to what may be called the law of
gravitating action, that is, the law by which all the known
effects of gravity are governed :’—the very “dogma”
your correspondent assumed to question !

GEO. B. MERRIMAN,
November 2, 1881.

METEOROLOGICAL REPORT FOR NEW YORK CITY FOR THE WEEK ENDING NOV. 5, 1881.

Latitude 40° 45’ 58" N.; Longitude 73° 57’ 58" W.; height of instruments above the ground, 53 feet ; above the sea, 97
feet ; by self-recording instruments.

BAROMETER. | THERMOMETERS.
pee MAXIMUM. MINIMUM, | MEAN, MAXIMUM, | MINIMUM. MAXI'M
OCTOBER eae | :
ea Reduced | Reduced Reduced
, educe e ) 7,
NOVEMBER. to to Time to Time ee a Dey Time. Bulb | Time se | Time. et Time. InSun,
Freezing.| Freezing.| Freezing.) oa F = i / zs
Sunday, 30--| 29.893 29.910 | 0 a.m.| 29.826 |12 p.m-| 66.7 | 64.0] 7o |12 m. 65 |12 m. | 62 |oa.m]| 6: |oa.m. 125.
Monday, 31--] 29.750 29.826 | 0 a.m.| 29.702 3 P.m.| 67.0} 64.7] 69 | 2p.m.| 66 |2p.m.) 62 (12 p.m.| 62 |12 p.m. 74.
Tuesday, I_-] 29.846 29.918 |12 p.m.| 29.750 | 0 a. m.| 58.3 | 56.6 62 oa.m,| 62 oa.m.| 55 |12 p.m.| 54 |12 p.m. 64.
Wednesday, 2--] 29.949 29-992 9g a.m.| 29.798 |j12 p.m.} 55.6 | 55.3 57 Ip.m.) 57 |9p.m. 53 7 a.m.| 53 7 a.m. 66.
Thursday, 3--] 29.591 29.798 oa.m.| 29.446 |12 p.m.| 56.6 | 56.3 6t jira.m.| 60 [11 a.m. 47 |12 p.m.) 47 |12 p.m. qt.
Friday, 4--| 29-586 29.850 |12 p.m.| 29.446 | 0 a.m.) 41.0] 39.0] 47 | 0 a.m.) 47 oa.m.| 38 |12 p.m.| 37 |12 p.m.} 103.
Saturday, 5--| 29.990 30.062 | 9 a.m.} 29.850 | © a. m.| 48.3 | 45.6 | 56 | 4P-m.| 52 | 4 p.m. 36 | 5 a.m.| 36° | 5 acm:)) zo4.
Dry. Wet.
Meanitor the qweek-— 2202-290 te ce oa op eee ee 29.800 inches, Mean for the week__..-----..----- 56:2 degrees =. aan oes ee ee ~54.5 degrees.
Maximum for the week at g a.m., Nov. 5th---- 22 30:052."" == Maximum for the week,at 12m. 30th 7o. ae at 2pmg3rst, 66. a
Minimum oe atz2p.m., Nov. 3d .--- 2g ago: SY Minimum ‘ © ‘sam: sth 36. “ “at ‘samicthiine.
Ramnpe = seen ao le se ee eee eee ee 4616 Range ‘“ eee ee 34. MS nsdn dsoeeseee 30. “«
}
WIND. HYGROMETER. CLOUDS. RAIN AND SNOW Ps
| A
PP EEL as a = =. s.,.: N
lverociry| FORCE IN RELATIVE CLEAR, ° DEPTH OF RAIN AND SNOW | O°
DIRECTION. lees LBS. PER FORCE OF VAPOR.
OCTOBER | JIN MILES.) .op FEET. | HUMIDITY. | OVERCAST. 10 IN INCHES. fs
y +a . . - . - ~ | 1 - . x - , a be
; eaters | | Distance! ,: | aA B48 }el See a CEMA Wiel een ES],
NOVE *|7 a.m.|2 p.m.|9 p.m.) forthe =| Time. | g |r|) ea eal biped ca eee |e ara r=9 Begin-| End- | ton. os a
} | Day. io nN al a] na oa a a ning. ing. h, m, <s i
Poa | ea bac) eee) fa {loam |4.30am)| 4.30 | .09 |--
Sunday, 30- [W- nw. S. W. |S. S. W 106 (3 | 9.10pm) .512 564 | 577 | 94 | 79 | 84 |g cu. 8 cu, BS 4-45Pm|i2 pm | 7.15 | .o2| 0
| | | | oam (|4.30aM)| 4.30 | .17 |--
Monday, 31-| Ss. Ww. | S. w. je. n.e. 147. |8 |10.15am| .577 +599 |, -562 | 84 | 84 | 94 |10 10 \to gam Rega ees | a =
| | | |
Tuesday, Fo) ME) Tse. se 215 |5%| 7-50am 487 | -422 | .407 | 94 | 87 | 87 |10 jgcu. |6cu. oam (|8 am 8.00 | .07| 5
Wednesday, 2-/n. n. e./e. n. €./e. s.c. 150 |1%|10.00am) .403 | .436 | .466 |100 | 93 |100 |g Cu. 10 20 | wee eon || oeses == bye
P 63 | 466 | .48 late oS { 3am 8am 5.00 | .05 |--
Thursday, 3-| s.¢. w. n. Ww. 104 6%| 9.15pm| .4 .487 | .403 |100 | 94 |100 ig cu. I 8.30am'12 pm | 3.30 | -18 |10
Friday, 4-|W.0D.W.|W.D.wW.| Ww. | 374 |22% 6.40pm) .248 | .195 | «194 |100 | 67 | 8x |8cu. igcu. io oam ae 6.30 | .29]0
Saturday, 5-! w. s. 's. 5. W.l 230 |7 |10.30pm! .220 | .282 | .335 !100 | 67 | 80 ‘3cIir.cu.s'3 cir. ot. ~ Ss eee eee esctllio
Distance traveled during the week......--.--------------- 1,326 miles. | Total amount of water for the week_..-.-.--------------------- 1.01 inch,

Wasi tIlGr Ge sonatas ae eee ene ene ee eee 22% lbs.

Duration Of raln- isc io. ost eee name ee 2 days, 6 hours, 15 minutes.

DANIEL DRAPER, Ph. D.

Director Meteorological Observatory of the Department of Public Parks, New York.

SCIENCE.

545

SCIENCE:

A WEEKLY ReEcorp OF SCIENTIFIC

ProGRESs.

JOHN MICHELS, Editor.

THRMS:
PEROYEAR, - - - - Four DoLLArs
6 Monrus, - - - - Two Me
“se pe s eS = ONE , «
SINGLE CoPIES, - = = - . TEN CENTs.

PuBLISHED AT

TRIBUNE BUILDING, NEW YORK,
P, O, Box 38388.

LONDON, ENGLAND, - - - - 150 LEADENHALL S?.

SATURDAY, NOVEMBER to, 1881.

EDISON’S METHOD OF PRESERVING OR-
GANIC SUBSTANCES.

In a recent number of this JouRNAL,* we published
a report by Mr. Otto Hehner, an official analyist of
London, England, who had endeavored to trace the
cause of the gastric disturbances, which were trace-
able in persons who had consumed preserved articles
of food put up in tin cases. This poisoning had been
attributed by some to traces of lead dissolved from the
solder with which the tins were closed, but Mr. Heh-
ner, although admitting the occasional presence of
lead in such cases, found on a careful analysis of both
vegetable and animal foods thus prepared in tin cases,
that the trouble was caused by tin.

With one exception he found that the whole of the
samples contained more or less tin, many to such an
extent that abundant reactions could be obtained from
two or three grammes of the vegetable substances ;
whilst of the animal foods one of the soups contained
thirty-five milligrammes, one of the condensed milks
eight milligrammes, and oysters forty-five milligram-
mes of tin to the pound.

In reply to the question whether tin when thus
taken up in the system was injurious or not, he states
that as forensic literature does not furnish a positive
and satisfactory reply, he endeavored to settle the
question by making a few experiments.

These experiments which will be found on page 507 of
this JouRNAL, produced results which caused him to
draw the following conclusions: “it plainly follows
that while stannic compounds are not injurious in the
doses given, tin in thestannous condition, is a virulent
irritant poison.”

** SciencE,’’ No, 69, October 22, 188r.

These facts induced Mr. Hehner to demand some
other and improved method of packing preserved food
other than by the use of tin cases,

A remedy appears to hand at a most opportune
moment. Inthe Patent officereports for October 18,
last, we find that Mr. Edison has invented a method
of preserving articles of food in glass vessels from
which the air has been exhausted and a high vacuum
produced. The glass vessel is then hermetically
closed by sealing off the channel to the air pump, the
envelope produced being essentially a homogenous
piece of glass. This invention appears to meet the
difficulty experienced in the use of tin cans and
promises great results in offering a method of preserv-
ing fruits and other organic substances in which ‘their
original purity and freshness is maintained to a great
degree,and the introduction of mineral poisons rendered
an impossibility. The specification, as usual, is very
brief and we hope to present our readers with a more
detailed description of this interesting invention, on a
future occasion.

ALCOHOLIC TRANCE.

At a meeting of the New York Medico-Legal Society,
held at the Hall of the Academy of Medicine, Novem-
ber 2, Dr. Crothers read a paper on ‘ Alcoholic Trance.”
The main point of the paper consisted in an attempt to
establish the existence of a trance-like condition in ine-
briates. In this condition they were supposed to com-
mit all sorts of ridiculous, or injurious, or even criminal
actions, without a subsequent recollection of what they
had done. Dr. Crothers related cases, the like of certain
of which no other physician has yet seen or reported,
and the like of which it may be quite safe to say no
other physician is likely to record in the future. One
was that of an engineer who ran a Mississippi steamer
an entire trip without knowing it; another ot a gentle-
man who regularly woke out of his “trance”’ at a rail-
road station, and was compelled to ask his fellow passen-

| gers where he was; a third, a house-painter, who would

regularly climb to the top of a house, paint a whole
story correctly, come down and “wake up.’ Other
cases were still more complicated, and evidently called
into action the rzsorzws muscles of the Doctor’s audi-
ence. Among the less remarkable instances was one of a
hack-driver who became a confirmed drunkard, and sev-
eral times went to States Prison, finally dying there, after
being convicted of stealing horses; and ot a solicitor,
who had fits of jealousy and suspicion concerning his
wife, and made a number of wills in a trance-like state.

Dr. Spitzka stated that he would like to ask the reader
of the paper two questions. As far as he could gather,
the reports were all ob:ained from third parties. His
first question was whether Dr. Crothers had ever himself
seen patients in this alccholic “trance ?”’

Dr. Crothers replied that he had.

Dr. Spitzka reiterated that in that case the attendant
phenomena had not been described by the Doctor in a
convincing manner. His second question was, whether
the hack-driver referred to had exhibited any inequality
or anomaly of the pupils, the facial folds or tremor of
the tongue and hands?

Dr. Crothers replied that he had manifested none of
these symptoms, after some hesitation.

Dr. Beard took the floor. His remarks were not ot
such a nature as to permit the reporter to follow him, but

546

SCIENCE.

he read an extract from the Journal of Mental Science,
which he claimed showed the awakening interest mani-
fested by Europeans in “unconscious states.” The
Doctor then wandering off to the fall of a Swiss moun-
tain and to Astronomy, was called to order, and sub-
sided.

Dr. Spitzka, without desiring to introduce personalities
into the discussion, remarked that it was a pity the pre-
ceding speaker had not turned back a few pages in the
Journal of Mental Sctence and read the extract relating
to the collapse of Dr. Beard’s demonstration in England,
and how Dr. Beard had failed to come forward with a
paper he had announced before a scientific body. As to
the paper read that evening, he regretted to say that in-
stead of science being behind in its views on the question
of alcoholism, it was the paper which was far from
being up to the science of the day. He would call the
attention of the reader to Magnan’s work, in which he
would find such of his cases as had the strongest sem-
blance to reality, carefully described under the heads of
alcoholic stupor and alcoholic epilepsy. As to the hack-
driver’s case, that was an evident example of a well-
established and well-known form of disease, namely—
alcoholic paralytic dementia. He was surprised to find
such a common manifestation of alcoholism as tremor
reported absent by Dr. Crothers. He was still further
surprised to find such ordinary everyday and character-
istic symptoms of chronic alcoholism as delusions of
marital infidelity, morbid suspicion, inconsistencies of
behavior, stupor and amnesia erected into trance-like
states. Nowhere in the paper did the author give any
evidence that he made that distinction between Dipso-
mania, Chronic Alcoholism and Acute Alcoholic Deli-
rium, which wasthe AB C of our knowledge of the sub-
ject. The speaker concluded by regretting that the first
time in years that so important a matter was brought be-
fore the Society, it was brought forward in so imperfect
a form, and coupled with a term “ trance,’ which in the
past history of the Society had certainly acquired no
good odor.

Dr. Girdner endorsed the preceding speaker’s remarks,
and gave an analysis of the ordinary effects of alcohol
on the mind, which he referred to dynamic interferences.
He concluded by objecting to the acceptation of such
views as Dr. Crothers advanced until they could be better
substantiated, as their acceptation would involve some
remarkable medico-legal consequences. He did not be-
lieve that alcoholism, aside from its effect in producing
chronic insanity, should constitute an excuse forcrime. He
thought that a crime committed in a drunken excess
should be punisheé like any other crime, because the
person, by his own agency, put himself in a proper con-
dition to commit such crime.

Mr. Eller, of the New York Bar, stated that the view
last announced by the preceding speaker was not a sound
one in law ; it was certainly not the one entertained by
lawyers. He alluded to the great injustice done by po-
lice justices in sending persons to the workhouse on the
complaint of any two (possibly) conspiring persons, that
such person was a “habitual drunkard.” He thought
that term required definition. :

Dr. Crothers, in closing the discussion, among other
remarks of a general character, stated that our know-
ledge of alcoholism was not at all perfect, and that his
views were an addition to science, notwithstanding what
had been alleged that evening.

M. PICKET has examined seven varieties of steel
(chiefly from a Sheffield and a Vienna house) with regard
to magnetic power Arch, des Sciences, August 15). This
power he finds to depend on the presence of carbon in
the iron, and the aggregation of these substances. One
of the two steels giving the best results had %th per cent
of carbon. Samples with 1% and 1%th per cent were
inferior.

\

NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.
October 24, 1881.
SECTION OF PHYSICS.

Vice-president, Dr. B. N. Martin, in the Chair.

Thirty-one persons present.

Mr. W. Le Conte Stevens read a paper, of which
the following is an abstract.

WHEATSTONE AND BREWSTER’S THEORY OF BINOCU-
LAR PERSPECTIVE.

For some time after the publication of Sir Charles
Wheatstone’s essay (!) in1838, on the Physiology of Vision,
this subject was studied with much zeal by Sir David
Brewster, whose name is permanently associated with the
lenticular stereoscope, an instrument now familiar in
every household. -Although the theories advanced by
these two physicists to account for the illusion of binoc-
ular relief have since been shown insufficient, their
mode of accounting for the estimate of distance as per-
ceived in the stereoscope has been quite generally ac-
cepted. In 1844, Brewster published an essay (*) “On
the Knowledge of Distance given by Binocular Vision,”
in which he elaborated and abundantly illustrated the idea
that the apparent distance of an object is determined by the
intersection of visual lines. The stereoscope had already
been explained as an instrument by which rays of light
from two slightly dissimilar pictures were made to enter
the eyes, as if coming from a single object into which
they are combined in front, and on each point of which
the visual lines could be made to meet. Thus, in Fig. 1

if rays from the conjugate foreground points, A, and Az,
be deviated by the semi-lenses, they appear to have
come from A. In like manner, the background appears

at B. If 2 = interocular distance RL., and « = optic
angle, then for the distance of A we have .
1D) oy eae pele

From this formula it is obvious that D ceases to have
any positive finite value when the visual lines cease to
converge.

If the semi-lenses be taken away, and A, and A, be

7a Phil. Transactions, 1838, Part II.
Reprinted in Phil. Magazine, s. 4, vol., III., April, 1852.
(2) Edinburgh Transactions, vol. XV., Part LIT-, p. 360.

\SCIENCE.

removed to M, and M: respectively, while the convergence
of visual lines remains unchanged, the images still appear
at A and B. Wheatstone seems to have been the first
to show experimentally that the illusion of apparent
solidity can be obtained in this manner from a pair of
projections representing the same object from slightly
different points of view. If the eyes be properly trained,
the visual lines may be directed to points whose distance
is greater or less than that of the objects regarded at the
same moment, and Brewster described many striking
illusions thus obtained without the aid of the stereoscope.
The principle applied by him, as described in the paper
to which reference has been made, may be briefly given,
and his results can be easily tested by anyone who is
accustomed to analyzing his own visual sensations.
Upon a uniform horizontal surface (Fig. 2) let two lines,
AC and BC, be drawn, forming a small angle, 8, with
its vertex toward the observer. Let the eyes, Reand L,
be placed above this. If they be directed to the point,
C, this appears in its true position. If the right eye be
directed to B and the left to A, the axes meet at P; this
point Brewster calls the binocular centre ; and since the
retinal images of B and A correspond, the visual effect is
that of the union of these two external points at the
binocular centre. Sweeping the glance toward C, the
two lines appear united in theair, and P C isthe apparent
pesition of the combination, intermediate in direction be-
tween two monocular images, which may be disregarded
or hidden from view with screens. lf the convergence
of visual lines be now diminished, the binocular image is
lost until the right eye becomes directed to A and the
left to B. The two points appear united at P’, and the
line P’C now appears in the air on the further side of the
surface. If the convergence be increased till P is again
the binocular centre, and the face be lowered and with-
drawn till the eyes are at R’ and L’, then C P” becomes
the position of the variable external image. And if low-
ered until R’L" coincides with the surface, C P" vanishes
at the moment of. becoming coincident with the prolon-
gation of G C, the median of the triangle A CB.

Fic. 2.

Brewster’s formula for determining the distance
of the binocular centre from G is easily deduced and

applied.
Let z = interocular distance, R L.
“ @ = interval between the corresponding points,

A and B,

547

Let 6 = distance, G E, between card and observer.
“ # = distance G P, or GP’, which is positive when
measured toward the observer, negative in the direction

opposite. Then, observing the usual rule of signs, we
have, by Geometry,
ab
x= + -
~ta

Applying this formula, Brewster constructed a table of
distances for the binocular centre. For negative values
itis seen that « becomes infinite when the visual lines
become parallel ; and, if they be slightly divergent, the
binocular centre is far in the rear of the observer.
Either of these conditions would make binocular vision
impossible if the theory be correct. In testing the ex-
periment with trained eyes, it is found quite possible to
secure binocular fusion of the images of A and B when
the interval between these points equals or slightly ex-
ceeds the interocular distance. It is also found that fu-
sion of the images of the whole line at any given instant
is impossible, especially when the angle is large, or the
lines are viewed very obliquely, as from R” and L’. If
the images of A and B fall on corresponding retinal
points, the resulting sensation is binocular fusion, whether
the visual lines be convergent, parallel or divergent ; and
the images of any two points nearer or farther apart can-
not fall on corresponding retinal points at the same mo-
ment with those of A and B, though small differences are
easily neglected. Whatever may be the importance there-
fore of optic convergence, as a factor ordinarily in de-
termining the binocular judgment of distance, it bas no
such exclusive and measurable value as that attributed
in Brewster’s experiments ; and the apparent distance of
objects viewed through the stereoscope is obviously not
determined by intersection of visual lines, if conditions
are such as to render these parallel or divergent. The
visual effects of optic divergence can be more conyeni-
ently studied by using stereographs than by the method
already described, and a modification of Wheatstone’s
reflecting stereoscope affords the best means of measur-
ing variations of the optic angle. As the lenticular ster-
eoscope, however, is now almost universally employed, it
is important that this instrument, as found in the market,
be examined first.

By diminishing the natural convergence of visual lines,
the stereoscopic effect of binocular relief can be quite easily
obtained, while gazing upon a stereograph, without any
instrument, when the interval between corresponding
points of the two pictures does not exceed that between the
observer's optic centres. This distance does not often
differ very much from 64 mm., which may be taken as an
average value. In Fig. 3 the distance between the two
central dots is 50mm. If the reader will fix his gaze
upon a point ten feet off, just visible below the edge of
the page, and then suddenly raise the visual lines to the
figure without changing their convergence, he will see
three circles instead of two; the central one moreover
will appear as the base of a cone whose vertex is pointed
toward him, but capped with asmall circle. A little at-

| tention then will reveal the fact that when the dots are

seen distinctly and singly, the small circle is double and
slightly indis'inct, and wzce versa.

On stereographs, however, the interval between cor-
responding points is always greater than50mm. As the
result of measurement made upon the foreground inter-
vals of 166 cards, European and American, taken at
random, the mean value I have found to be 72.9 mm., the
maximum being 95 mm. _ If binocular combination is se-
cured without the stereoscope, therefore, optic divergence
is nearly always necessary. To ascertain the extent to
which this is counteracted by the semi-lenses of our best
stereoscopes, 30 pairs of these were kindly loaned me by
Mr. H. Tf. Anthony, of New York.. With very slight va-
riation, their focal length was found to be 18.3 cm., and
their deviating power not sufficient to prevent the neces-

548

sity of optic divergence, when the pictures are binocularly
regarded through them, if the stereographic interval ex-
ceed 80 mm. As this limit is not unfrequently exceeded,
optic divergence is often practiced unconsciously in using
the stereoscope. Every oculist is familiar with the mode
of using prisms to test the power of the muscles of
the eyeballs, for both convergence and divergence of
visual lines, and knows that 4° or 5° of divergence is
not uncommon. Helmholtz (3) refers to the use of ster-
eographs for the same purpose.

But familiar as is the production of optic divergence
by artificial means, little or nothing seems to have been
written in regard to the modification which the possibility
of it imposes upon the theory of binocular perspective
held by both Wheatstone and Brewster, accepted by
most writers on vision since their time, and abundantly
reproduced in our text books on Physics.* Of these I
have not been able to find one that gives any account of
the stereoscope except on the hypothesis that the visual
lines are made to converge by the use of this instrument.
On the uncertainty attached to the judgment of absolute
distance from convergence of visual lines alone, Helmholtz
(*) has written more fully than any one else. It is un-
fortunate that no English. translation of his masterly
work on Physiological Optics has ever been published.
Although he gives no analysis of the visual phenomena
produced in binocular fusion by optic divergence, his dis-
cussion of the judgment of distance would certainly tend
to cast some doubt upon the explanation of vision through
the stereoscope, as found in our text-books. And yet
Helmholtz himself employs Brewster’s theory in his
mathematical discussion (°) of stereoscopic projection.
This discussion, on the data assumed, is a model of
elegance; but it contains no provision for divergence of
visual lines. It is strictly applicable to the conditions
involved in taking photographs with the binocular
camera, and to the projection of images viewed in the
stereoscope when the convergence of visual lines is iden-
tical with that of the camera axes, but not otherwise.
Instead of human eyes we may assume a pair of camera
lenses, an interocular distance apart, and a pair of sensi-
tized plates behind them. Helmholtz’s formulas enable
us to determine the stereoscopic displacements in the
images projected. If proofs from the negatives thus ob-
tained be inverted and placed in front of a pair of eyes
in such manner that the visual lines passing through cor-
responding photograph points shall bear to each other
the exact relation that existed between the secondary
camera axes that terminated in them, these two points
will appear as one, and nearly at the distance of the real
point in space to which the camera axes were converged.
The effect is much the same as if the eyes, with normal
convergence of visual lines, had been substituted for the
cameras. But if the proofs be too near together or too far
apart, increase of convergence makes the whole picture
seem nearer, while divergence makes it farther. The rela-
tion between the different parts having been fixed at the
time the picture was taken, increased convergence makes
the distance from background to foreground seem less, di-
vergence makes it greater. No onecan have failed to notice
the gross exaggeration of perspective often seen in the
stereoscope, when the pictures are so far apart as to make
the visual lines parallel or divergent, while the angle be-
tween the camera axes, when they were taken, was re-

SCIENCE.

latively large. But in no case do these conditions cause
variations of such magnitude as Brewster’s theory of
binocular perspective would demand. This is easily
illustrated with Wheatstone’s reflecting sterescope. (°)
Suppose the stereograph to represent a concave surface
with the opening toward the observer, and that the arms
of the instrument are properly adjusted. If they are
pushed back, so as to make the visual lines divergent, the
cavity apparently recedes and deepens; if pulled forward,
so as to make them strongly convergent, it seems to ap-
proach and grow shallow. The apparent diameter of the
image enlarges in the first case and diminishes in the
second. Wheatstone notices this last variation in the
account which he gave of his invention and its applica-
tions, in 1852, in the Bakerian lecture before the Royal
Society (*) ; but, strange to say, the variation which is
produced in apparent distance and depth under the
same conditions seems to have escaped his notice, and
the possibility of using his instrament to test the pecu-
liarities of binocular vision with divergence of visual
lines, seems not to have occurred to him. For the re-
fracting stereoscope, however, like Brewster, be constructs
a table of apparent distances corresponding to various
optic angles, and applicable in using the binocular
camera for the purpose of taking slightly dissimilar pic
tures of the same object. He adds, (’) “ when the optic
axes are parallel, in strictness there should be no differ-
ence between the pictures presented to each eye, and in
this case there should be no binocular relief; but I find
that an excellent effect is produced, when the axes are
nearly parallel, by pictures taken at an inclination of 7°
or 8°, and even a difference of 16° or 17° hasno de-
cidedly bad effect. There is a peculiarity in such images
worthy of remark; although the optic axes are parallel, °
or nearly so, the image does not appear to be referred to
the distance we should, from this circumstance, suppose
it to be, but it is perceived to be much nearer.” This
would not have seemed anomalous to Wheatstone, had
he supposed binocular vision possible with divergence of
visual lines, and entered into an analysis of the resulting
visual phenomena. This analysis will be given in a
future paper.

THE WATERS OF PARIS.

IN one of the previous numbers, Za ature gives an
account of the work of an English observer, Mr. J. Hogg,
on the waters of London. But since 1850, Mr. Hassalls,
at the request of the inhabitants of London, examined the
degree of purity of the potable waters of that city, and
more recently, Professor Farlow, of Boston, make an anal-
ogous work at the request of the citizens of that city.>
M. A. Gérardin*, however, has studied this question with
a certain authority, by observing the cryptogamic vegeta-
tion in small streams of water which receive the waste
products from the factories and manufactories on their
banks. M. Gérardin observed that such industry favored
the development of certain particular species which were

(8) Helmholtz, Optique Physiologique, pp. 616 and 827.

(4) Ditto, pp. 823, 828.

(5) For description see Phil. Mag., s. 4, vol., III., June, 1852, p. 506.
(®) Phil. Mag. s. 4, vol. III., p. 504.

(7) Ditto, p. 514.

(8) Opt. Phys., p. 842.

* Novy. 1sth. Since the above was put in type, I have received from Prof.
C. F. Himes, of Carlisle, Pa., an article written by him im 1862, in which
he mentions his successful attainment of binocular vision by optic diverg-
ence, and criticises Brewster's theory of distance in relation to the stere-
oscope. Though his observation was independent, as my own was also, I
find that he was preceded by a German, Burckhardt, in 1860 or 1861. I
have already referred to Helmholtz in this connection (Am, Yournal of
Science, Nov. 1881, p. 361) and therefore have claimed no priority in dis-
covering the possibility of this unusual, but still voluntary, employment
of the eyes. 11 is the more remarkable that in our text-books the assump-
tion should be so universal, that convergence of visual lines is a necessity
in binocular vision for the determination of the apparent point of sight.

SCIENCE.

549

replaced by others in places where a different industry was
in operation.

It isin this same order of ideas that the Administrator of
Bridges and Roads of the Seine and Oise sent us lately a
difficult question toanswer. The question was to disinfect
a river on the environs of Beaumont, which, during the
heat of summer, was poisoned by a cryptogam of the
genus Leptothrix. This vegetable is an aquatic and fila-
ceous fungi which thrives and grows on the refuse
of factories. The only answer to make was the well-
known axiom: sa#éblata causa tollitur effectus.

M. Neuville, the author of the memoir of which we are
treating, is astonished that a work similar to that which he
has undertaken, has not yet been.done for the waters of
Paris, whose sources are different, and which, con-
sequently, do not present an equal degree of purity.
Placing himself in a purely utilitarian point of view, he
seeks to enlighten the administrator and the public on one
of the indispensable sources of nourishment, that is to say
the water consumed each day, by making use of his
knowledge of cryptogams, and chiefly those of the family
of Diatoms, for the study of which he had a predilec-
tion.

The complete purity of water is not always on account
of the greater or less number of organic matters that it
contains ; it must be that these matters have a purifying
character in themselves, and this condition obtains only
when they are living vegetable growths, containing chloro-
phylle or green matter, having the property of freeing the
oxygen which is dissolved in the water, on the one hand,
and of absorbing, on the other, the carbonic acid gas which
makes the water unfit to drink. Aquatic plants, then, are
useful to the water which gives them shelter, yet with the
condition that their bodies do not, by their accumulation,
counterbalance the salutary effects.

Another cause very often acts to give water unhealthy
properties. The lime salts which it holds in solution, and
sometimes in-great quantity, cause troublesome and some-
times serious diseases. The carbonate, but above all the
sulphate, of calcium, makes the waters selenitic, as it is
said, and then they become unfit for the cooking of vege-
tables, do not dissolve soap, and are indigestible. It is
possible, however, for water to dissolve soap and never-
theless to cook vegetables ; this occurs when in place of
sulphate of calcium it contains magnesium.* il

The waters of the source are often sought after for
their limpidity and freshness, which does not always imply
that they are really potable; it is even probable that
if the waters of our rivers were taken at their source
they would not have the qualities which they acquire
after a journey of several miles. But when these rivers
pass through an important manufacturing city, the injec-
tions, the impurities of all sorts which they receive will
rapidly change their qualities; stocked, so to speak,
in the passage by the city, they are yet able to
improve themselves somewhat after a new journey in the
country, which permits them to deposit the foreign mat-
ters which contaminate them. There are these elemen-
tary considerations which should always insist that the
waters which supply a city should be taken above and
not below the city.

Borrowing from the interesting works of M. Miquel,
the savant of the Observatory of Montsouris, whatever
they contain of use to his work, M. Neuville, among
other things, reproduces the following table of compari-
son for the use of the reader, and shows what organisms
the waters from the source and of different qualities can
contain, observed with considerable magnifying power:

8 A microscopic exam, of water . . of London, 1850.

> Remarks of some Algz found in the water . of Boston, 1877.

_.° Rapport sur Valtération, la corruption et l’assainissement des riv-
iéres, 1873.

4 Translated from La Nature.

PROPORTION OF LOW ORGANISMS CONTAINED IN DIFFERENT

WATERS.
Microbs by
; hund. cube.
Water of Condensation ices oO: asides oe vies ='ais'sle © 0.2
FRAIN WALGTpoereletecs renee eeieitet et lola! teint cl sfelolele'ar cuore secs 35.0
Weater of) themVanbe wr ardste stars ierercitis eicls <lole <leisielo eras» 62.0
EG ee Seimes tip PablSeearetnrctei«:s 000s «1s, ctor. sh 1200.0
SE wer wateln nen ssonio cela ie rectelstelerela’ ot aie, c'sts eles 20000.0

It is indispensable that analyses of this nature should
be made rapidly, because in a short time the microbes
grow ina great degree, and will no longer give exact
figures.

The method which M. Neuville has followed does not
consist of chemical analyses of the waters of Paris,
which had been done long before by well-known sci-
entists ; it is rather a kind of statistics of the foreign mat-
ters contained in each of them, and which the use of
the microscope reveals.

The waters submitted to his examination are those of
the Marne, taken at Saint-Maur and Charenton; of the
Seine, at the Port-a-l’Anglais, at the bridge of Auster-
litz, taken at Chaillot, Auteuil, and at Saint-Ouen; the
waters of the canal of Ourcq, of the Vanne, of the
Dhuis, of Arcueil, of the sources of the Nord of Paris,
of the artesian wells at Grenelle and Passy, finally that
of a well of the left bank of the Seine.

A constant quantity of five litres of water was taken at
the middle of the above-mentioned streams, or at the
inlet of the waters of the sources; then after a settling of
12 hours, by means of an appropriate siphon, he decanted
until it was reduced to 300 grammes. The contents were
turned into a graduated gauge and after rest, by the use
of a small pipe be gently raised the liquid in order to
leave but a deposit of two to three centimetre cubes. It is
this deposit which is directly submitted to microscopical
observation, after having been put in cellular preparations
before being preserved. Observation was made on
a determined number of preparations, all sketched in a
light room, and the sum of the latter serves to form one
of the plates which accompany this article, which con-
tains seventeen. A diagram, or schematic table, indicates
the result of chemical analyses and of microscopical
observations made for the Seine in its journey through
Paris.

The water of the Marne taken at Saint-Maur, is
relatively rather pure; yet organic matters are found
in great abundance in it; but they are, above all, living
matters, and more purifying than corrupting (Fig. 1.)
They are a part of the Desmids in the green matter and
belong to the genus Pedzastrum (No. 9) or Raphidium
(No. 10) ; or else of filaceous alge (No. 11) of the genus
Ulothrzx. On the other hand, and much more abundant
are the Diatoms with silicious carapace, and, for the most
part, gifted with movements of translation very curious
to observe. Such are the genera Szrurella (No. 1),
Nitzschia (No. 2 and 3), Cymatopleura (No. 4), Cynedra
(No. 5), Déatoma (No. 6), Pleurostgma (No. 7), etc., or
even Intusoria (No. 13), which make prey of several of
these small growths; but, above all, the organic re-
mains. Finally the mineral matters which, in the water
of the Marne river, are always more or less muddy, form
the smail chrystalline groups in the preparation (No. 15).
This water is then very good; but on approaching its
confluence, that is to say, at Charenton, not only the
Diatoms are increased in number, but the Infusoria
abound in it as well as detritus, which probably is due
to the inhabitants of the Marne at this place.

In the water of the Seine taken at the Port-a-l’Anglais
(fig. 2), a very great proportion of organisms is found.
This point of the river, intended at one time to furnish
Paris with a very potable water, has lost its value on ac-
count of the factories and manufactories which are built
on it above the city, and the length of the small streams
of water which it receives in these places. Desmids are
found init the genus Closterzum (No. 1), Scenedesmus

550

SCIENCE.

(No. 2), Raphidium (No. 9), Tetraspora (No. 10), and
other Algae as Chlamydococcus (No. 11) or Ulothrix.
Infusoria equally (Chetonotus [No. 20}, Rrachytous [No.
23], Huglena {No. 12]) and several species of Diatoms
already named or a little different. But that which is
striking is the already notable quantity of organic re-
mains, fragments of plants (No. 24), mycelium of mush-
rooms (No. 18), and an eel’ (No. 17), moving about in
the middle of all this multitude, and, in fig. 2, crossing
a spicule of Spongille (No. 15).

The water taken at the bridge of Austerlitz is more
charged with detritus; the purifying alge disappear and
diatoms are rare. It is infusoria and their bodies which
predominate, then finally there are remains of tissues of
linen or cotton, of vegetables in decomposition, etc.,
which the waters of Bercy, of Rapée and Biévre brought.

If now the water of the pump of Chaillot is examined
(fig. 3), the maximum contamination of the Seine is
attained. (If thisis not, however, the water taken at
Saint-Ouen; but at this placethe stream has received, as
is known, the sewer collector at Asniéres, which is a
serious cause of infection of the water for a long dis-
tance.) The quantity of carbonic acid has already in-
creased, and the oxygen grown less.

In the Chaillot water (fig. 3) there are scarcely any more
alge, here and there remains of conferva (Cladophora
[No. 14] or some rare specimens of more reduced species
(Pandorina [No. 1]), Chlanydococcus |No. 5], Serurella
[No. 2], Stauronezs [No. 3], Epthemdta [No. 4]), yet
most often there is only the silicious carapace, void of
endochrome, of these last diatoms. On the other hand,
the deposit of detritus is dominant in i*: muscular fibres,
(No. 10), vegetable cellules (No. 11). then myceliums of
inferior fungi, and lastly eels (No. 9). Yet there
is still more: some microscopic crustaceans ap-
pear (Daphuza pulex and others [Nos. 7 and 8]), the

whole associated with earthy or indeterminable re-

mains.

M. Neuville disputed the opinion of M. Frankland who
refuses to admit that rivers purify themselves. He main-
tains, which seems to be perfectly demonstrated, that
after a tranquil journey w.thout receiving other impurities,
a river purifies itself, little by little, by deposition, either
on the bottom of the bed, or on the banks, of the sub-
stances which it held in solution. The harmful matters
held in solution are eliminated and they disappear; the
carbonic acid becomes exhausted little by little. and the
oxygen, on the other hand, returns in proportion.

During the war of 1870-71, the forced stopping on the
rivers which habitually received the injections of factories
and of industries polluting these streams, had changed
their conditions. Thus the Biévre, tainted from Arcueil
to its arrival in the Seine at Paris, had again become lim-
pid, and fish had made a home in it, coming from the
parts above Arcueil, although however the bottom of the
bed of the Biévre was at this moment covered by a thick
bed of mud nauseating at ordinary times.

The water of the Seine at Saint-Ouen became again
more impure than any other part; but, as has been said,
this was due to the sewer collector of Asniéres. The car-
bonic acid which, at the bridge of Austerlitz, was repre-
sented by 16,2 by hund. cube, reached here the propor-
tion of 65, that is to say the maximum for the waters of
Paris. Living creatures here are very rare; but the re-
mains of stuffs : linen, yarn, cotton, animal and vegetable
fibres abound here. It 1s no longer a deposit, it is a real
soup. The chlorides, the sulphates, and the sal ammo-
niacs, as well as sulphuretted hydrogen, are largely repre-
sented here. Finally further on, where the Seine passes
by St. Denis and receives from it some quantity of refuse,
vegetation is no longer found in it, and the bottom of the
stream is nothing but a blackish and contaminated mud,
as M. Gérardin observed it.

The canal waters of Ourcq have been for a long tim
the principal source of the supply of Paris. They ar

selenitic ; but yet M. Neuville does not consider them the
worst waters used in the city. A great number of alge
live in them, this being in their favor, and their relative
tranquillity is also one of the causes of this notable growth
of vegetation. The numerous boats which sail on these
waters and the warehouses bordering this canal, where un-
loading is done, must prove sources of pollution of
these waters? Their hydrometric degree is 30° to 31°
while the mean of the waters of the Seine is between 17° and
20°, but this does not constitute in the eyes of M. Neuville
a plausible reason of inferiority for the waters of Ourcq.
It is their stagnation which ought to be the dominant
cause of their depreciation.

Figure 4 represents the composition, in organisms, of
the waters of the Vanne. It is, according to microscopi-
cal observations as well as according to the official reports,
the best of the waters of Paris. M. Belgrand says:
“comparison was not possible between the excellent
waters of the Vanne and those of the Seine and the
Ourcq, which, warm in summer, cold in winter, agitated
and not transparent in all seasons, are besides tainted more
and more by the residue from industrial and human refuse.
After a journey of 176 kilometres by means of closed inlets,
the waters of the Vanne arrive at the reservoirs of Mont-
souris and can furnish 100,000 metres cubes of water in
24 hours. Limpid, fresh, exempt from organic matters, it
unites all perfections, says M. Neuville, it is water that I
wish to see distributed in all Paris.”

Several algae of good quality, such as U/othrzx (No.7),
Melosisa (No. 2), Merzdion (No. 1), Navicula No. 3),
and Sy#edra, are the respectable inhabitants of these
waters ; here and there some vegetable growths and earthy
remains, and finally some crystalsof carbonate or sul-
phate of calcium (No. 1).

The waters of the Dhuis (fig. 5) only arrive at the reser-
voirs of Ménilmontant, asscciated with those of the Sur-
melin. At their point of junction, those of the Dhuis
appear rather pure but never heless they are agitated and
have need of rest. It is a remarkable thing that the
microscope reveals no algz in them; on the other hand,
organisms of another order are met with, some filaments
of Mucorinées (No. 1), mycéliums (No. 2), and some
earthy or organic remains (Nos. 4, 5, 6). According
to all appearances, these waters are not sufficiently
oxygenated, and a journey a little prolonged in the open
air and in the light will make them perfect.

Rivalling with the waters of the Vanne for purity and
freshness, the reputation of the waters of Arcueil has been
known for a long time (fig. 6); they were so named be-
cause they flow through the valley of the Biévre over an
aqueduct at Arcueil. But in truth, they have come from
the village of Rungis since the Roman epoch, for these
are the waters which supplied the baths called baths of
Julius Cesar or thermz of Cluny. To the Roman aque-
duct, of which several traces remain, succeeded that
which can now be seen, built by Desbrossein 1624, which
has to conduct the waters of Rungis to the palace of
Luxembourg and in the Saint-Jacques quarter. Advan-
tage is taken of this monument, solidly constructed, to
build above it the new aqueduct for the waters of the
Vanne, which are conducted to the basin of Montsouris.
M. Neuville says “with difficulty can be seen in them,
several Vorticelles and Oscillaries (Nos. 1, 5, fig, 6), then
several diatoms (Gomphonema | No. 3), Wztzschza | No. 2})
and lastly some salts of calcium, chrystallized and pre-
cipitated from their solution by the loss of a portion of
carbonicacid. It is water of good quality, which can be
improved by means of successive cascades, and it is
unfortunate that we have not more of it.

The sources of the Nord of Paris offer but little in-
terest. Given up to the consumption of the inhabitants
of Paris from the end of the twelfth century, they were
for a long time the only waters which supplied the foun-
tains of the capital. ‘Ihese, with the waters of Arcueil
are the most ancient known, They are furnished by

SCIENCE.

Cary

Fic. 2.—Water of the Seine at Port-a I’

Anglais.

Fic. 4.— Water of the Vanne. Fic. 8.—Water of the Artesian Well of Passy-

THE WATER SUPPLY OF PARIS.

551

552 SCIENCE.

Saint-Gervais and the heights of Belleville. Their quality
leaves much to desire. ,

“Essentially selenitic, their hydrometric degree reaches
enormous proportions : 100 degrees to 150 degrees accord-
ing as the waters of Saint Gervais and of Belleville are
more or less mingled.” They contain very little organic
matters, some rare algae and many calcareous crystals.

The well of Grenelle, become celebrated, was com-
menced in 1833 and only finished in 1841. It was on the
occasion of its boring that the relations of the elevation of
temperature to the depth of the soil observed by Arago
and Walferdin, were stated; that is to say, with every 32
metres the temperature rises one degree.

The water of the well of Grenelle (fig. 7) lacks oxygen
which it can gain in the basins of the Pantheon where it
is conducted. This water is limpid, indicates at its out-
let about 28 degrees, and is very nearly pure from all or-
ganism, since it only contains some traces of mycélium
of mushrooms (No. 2) and, here and there, several Di-
atoms (No.1) probably drawn from the tubes through
which it flows. The traces of sulphuretted hydrogen
which it contains, impairs a little the quality of this water,
but not enough to make it unfit for consumption.

The water of the well of Passy, perforated from 1854
to 1861, can be compared with that of Grenelle (fig. 8).
The results which the piercing of this well caused are
known ; the sale of the water of Grenelle was made con-
siderably less. The carbonate of lime, as well as the
bicarbonate of potash, are abundant in both. All things
equal, moreover, M. Neuville gives his preference for the
waters of Passy rather than for those of Grenelle. Sev-
eral alge are found in them (Calothrzx [No. 8], RAzzoclo-
nium |No. 5], Cosmarzum [No.1], Gloeocystis [No.9]) ;
several encysted infusoria (No, 2),and afew unimportant
organic remains.

Lastly, the waters of ordinary wells are potable only
when they are not found ina great city. The varied in-
filtrations, the connection with the soil, and the indus-
tries which can contaminate them, are considerations
which must be taken into account in deciding the quality
of the waters of wells, and which can render them unfit
for consumption. They contain at Paris much of the
nitrate and sulphate of lime, and they are also very
much charged with organic matters in a state of de-
composition ; but of alge there is no trace and there are,
here and there, several microscopic crustaceans. It is
above all in the neighborhood of cemeteries that the
waters of wells should not be used except for gross pur-
poses. This advice is upheld by the studies of M?
Belgrand, who has observed that, in the environs of
Pére-Lachaise and of the cemetery of Montparnasse,
the waters of wells were stocked, above all during the
heat of summer.

Basing his results on microscopical analyses, M. Neu-
ville arranges the waters of Paris in the following order
to indicate their degree of purity: 1, waters of the Vanne;
2, of the Marne at Saint-Maur ; 3, of the Marne at Char-
enton; 4, of the Seine at Port-a-l’--Anglais; 5, of the
canal of Ourcq; 6, of Arcueil; 7, of the sources of the
Nord; 8, of the wells of Passy; 9, of Grenelle; 10, of
the Dhuis ; 11, of the Seine at the bridge of Austerlitz ;
12, of a well on the left bank; 13, of the Seine at
Saint-Ouen ; 14, at Auteuil; 15, at Chaillot.

Se —————

TIpAL Power AT Brisro_.—At a recent meeting of the
Town Council of Bristol a motion was brought forward,
but uot adopted, that ‘‘instructions be given to the sanitary

authority to cause inquiries to be made into the tidal power .

of the Avon with a view to its being utilized for working
electric lights for the city, the storage of motive power and
other purposes, and that scientific aid be employed for the
purpose,”

THE EVOLUTION OF FLYING ANIMALS.
By CHARLES Morris.
Continued from page 536.

Yet there is one instance of a leaping animal in which
a partial flight has been gained in this manner. We
allude to the flying-fish. Whatever first induced this
creature to spring from the water through the impulse of
its swimming motion—whether the pursuit of enemies,
or some other cause—at any rate its fore limbs were
already developed into wing-like organs, through their
use as fins. The flying-fish does not really fly. But an
increased spread of its supporting fins, which act as
parachutes, would enable it to make longer leaps, and
natural selection has undoubtedly produced this exten-
sion of the fins.

Land animals present us with several instances of this
parachute motion. And significantly it never arises in
earth-leaping, but always in tree-leaping animals. Among
mammals we find three instances of such a habit, in
widely separated families, embracing the Flying Squirrel,
the Flying Phalanger, and the Flying Lemur. Among
reptiles there is one instance, the Flying Dragon. The
three mammalian genera mentioned include a number of
species, and an imperfect flight is gained in the same
manner in every case. During their so-called flight the
limbs are extended almost at right angles to the body,
and the skin of the sides has been developed until it is
expanded into a broad membrane between these limbs,
which, in tlie case of the Flying Lemur, extends from
the nape of the neck to the tail. In their bold leaps from
the branches of trees these creatures are partly supported
by their membraneous wings, so that they descend slowly
and easily. Some of them can even slightly vary the di-
rection of their motion, so as to pursue insects.

The flying reptile, the little Draco Volans, gains its
support in a somewhat different manner. In this case
the extended membrane is supported, not upon the limbs
but upon the false ribs, which grow out horizontally from
their vertebral connection to a considerable distance,
giving the animal a wing-like expansion of its sides.

We may readily conjecture the method in which such
an organization was gained. The smaller tree dwelling
animals are exposed to attacks from foes, the same as all
other animals. Or, if carnivorous, they need to pursue
their prey. In both these cases the power to make long
leaps from branch to branch, or from tree to tree, is so
obvious an advantage, that it is not surprising that many
animals have become very bold and skillful in this’ par-
ticular. Many of these animals have also the habit of
crouching on the branches of trees for concealment, their
legs being extended side-wise, and their bodies flattened.
This position of the legs in rest would most probably be
retained during the leaping motion in which they are not
employed. If, then, in any case, the width of the body
should be increased, as by a chance extra expansion of
the skin of the sides, supported by the outstretched
limbs, the animal would be borne up by the/air, and
could make a longer leap. Such a conformation would
aid it in flight or pursuit, and natural selection must op-
erate to retain any such special advantage of form. It
certainly seems very probable that the supporting mem-
brane of these creatures was thus developed, and that
the Flying Dragon gained its rib expansion through a
similar process,

These cases may seem of little importance in an inves-
tigation of the origin of the flying power in birds; yet
they are, in reality, of considerable importance. They
point significantly to the most probable method of flight
development, namely, as the result of an original leaping
habit, from branch to branch or from tree to tree. Al-
though the above cases are instances of parachute mo-
tion only, not of true flight, yet we have strong reason
to believe that the earliest flying animals gained their
power of flight as a direct extension of the above method.

a

SCIENCE.

553

In the incessant battle for existence among animals the
possession of powers of flight are, in certain directions,
so specially advantageous, that any accident of confor-
mation, aiding animals in any degree to support them-
selves in the air, seems very likely to be preserved and
to be added to. At present, however, when the field of
air is so fully occupied, and there are so many vigorous
carnivorous birds constantly seeking for poorly defended
food animals, the tendency to develop powers of flight
is checked. The aerial motion of the leaping animals
mentioned is not such as to greatly expose them to dan-
ger from this source. But were their powers of flight
increased, so that they could support themselves longer
in the air, and move out from the immediate shelter of
trees, they would be exposed to attacks from carnivorous
birds, and such an imperfect flight must prove a special
disadvantage. Their weak flight would expose them to a
danger from which they could escape neither by rapidity of
motion, nor by a return to the shelter of the forest. Thus
the existence of these strong carnivorous birds operates
as a decided check on the development of any other
form of flight, and it is very unlikely that the leaping
creatures mentioned will ever develop a more efficient
flight.

There is another illustration of the same principle.
The true flying mammals, the bats, perhaps developed
their powers of flight at the same geological age as
birds did. Thus there was no special hindrance to their
evolution. It might seem curious to some, however,
that they have failed to gain the same extensive habitat
as birds; that they are exclusively crepuscular ; or
nocturnal in their habits, while the birds are almost ex-
clusively diurnal. And yet this difference must have
arisen in consequence of a long-continued conflict be-
tween bats and birds, in which birds conquered. If we
consider that the flying organs of birds are more efficient
than those of bats, the whole question is answered. The
birds drove the bats back into a field which they did not
care to occupy. The fight was for the possession of the
air during the day. The birds conquered. The bats
were forced to content themselves with nocturnal flight
and the imperfect food-supplies which the night yields,
while the birds proudly held the dominion of day. It
was a case somewhat sirnilar to that which we have al-
ready considered, of the supremacy of mammals over
reptiles ; and the disappearance of the flying Pterosaurs
of the far past may possibly have been due, both to the
superiority of flying powers and to the more efficient
vascular system of birds over flying reptiles.

But there was a period in which the haired animal had
not yet succeeded the scaled animal, in which hairs had
not been specialized into feathers, and in which the broad
fields of air were free to the first occupant, and contained
no active carnivore ready to check the development of
flight in its incipient stages. Were such the case now,
our Flying Squirrels, etc., might gain more efficient pow-
ers in this respect, and evolve true flight. We may safely
come to this conclusion from the fact that certain lizards
gained powers of flight in the early days of bird evolu-
lution, and apparently by a direct continuation of the
process which we perceive in the Flying Squirrels. The
expanded skin between the legs was merely a thin, naked
membrane in these lizards. It apparently spread wider
and wider, until it extended to the extremities of the toes.
But this condition would only produce a more efficient
parachute motion. For flight to arise a movement of
the fore limbs must be employed, and this may have
originated in the effort to keep the body horizontal and
prevent its anterior extremity from sinking. Such a
movement, with the possession of such a membrane,
would yield an imperfect flight. But for the flight to be-
come perfect, in such an animal, the membrane must be-
come still more extended, and the movement oi the fore
limbs more efficient. This extension was gained by the
gradual outgrowth of the fourth finger, to whose tip the

membrane had already extended. By the preservation of
favorable variations in this direction, it is very likely that
the immensely extended flying finger of the Pterodactyle,
the bird-like conformation of its skeleton, and its proba-
bly more efficient lung action, were gradually gained ;
and that it thus developed from an original tree-leaping
into a flying reptile.

The advantages of an aerial residence, at that early
period when the atmosphere had not yet been preempted
by vertebrate inhabitants, were so many and great, that
the selective principle must have proved of particular
efficiency in this direction. Even a long leap from a
solid support infested by many enemies, through an aerial
field devoid of enemies, was highly advantageous, and
the development of flying powers may have been pre-
ceded by the appearance of many animals possessed of a
parachute motion. Such animals would leave no geo-
logical record, as their motion did not necessarily modify
the osseous framework of the body. There are compara-
tively few of them now, since the advantage to be gained
by such powers is greatly reduced. But it is very obvious
that any extension of this power, assimilating it to true
flight, must have proved far more advantageous. An
animal capable of supporting itself in the air, at this
early period, was exceptionally free from danger, while its
chances to obtain food were greatly increased. The
better flyers were, of course, the more secure, and the
original partial flight must have rapidly developed into
the most perfect flight of which such a membranous wing
extension was capable. Not until, these flying reptiles
began to prey on each other was there any check to their
evolution and diversity of formation. The remains of
some twenty different species have already been discov-
ered, and this is indicative of hundreds, perhaps thou-
sands, of diverse species of these strangely flying Ptero-
saurs,

A somewhat similar instance of early and perhaps
general possession of the atmospheric field is afforded in
the case of insects. Some peculiarity of ormation, per-
haps the remnant of an original dorsal gill, gave thema
structural organ capable of partly aiding them in leaping
and of being modified into a membranous wing. But as
in vertebrates so in insects, the field of air became in
time so fully occupied, and the claimants for its food
supply so numerous, that the less vigorous flyers or those
adapted to specially terrestrial food, descended to the
earth again, and in time lost the power, with the loss of
the desire or need, of flight.

Some such fate seems to have overtaken the Pterosaurs.
For the possession of the field of air was sharply con-
tested by two other classes of animals, both of which
had already stepped beyond the reptilian rank, and be-
come hair-covered and warm-blooded, and one had
gained the still more advanced condition of the mam-
malian organization. The contest between birds, bats,
and Pterosaurs, was not alone a battle of flying car-
nivore, but a struggle for common supplies of food, in
which the most vigorous flyer was most likely to win.
As a probable consequence of this contest the birds have
gained the diurnal possession of the air, the bats have
become adapted to nocturnal food supplies, and the
Pterosaurs have disappeared. They were probably van-
quished in the fight, and gradually resumed terrestrial
habits, or died out.

So far as we are aware the evolution of flyng mam-
mals was much later than that of birds. But the geo-
logical record is so incomplete that bats may have existed
at a much earlier date than their discovered remains seem
to show. They are found in Eocene deposits, and the
bird remains yet found in earlier deposits are very few
in number of instances or species. In considering the
development of bat flight we are in the same line with
those already examined. It is a development of the skin
into a flying membrane. But in this case, in addition to
the extension of this membrane between the fore and

554

SCIENCE.

hind limbs, it is also extended between the fingers of the
fore limbs. Possibly in the early flying efforts of bats
the fingers were extended in such a manner as to render
any accidental growth of skin between them an advan-
tage. Differences in the locomotive habits, and in the
foot development, of the progenitors of flying reptiles and
flying mammals, may account for this greater extension
of the flying membrane in the case of the latter. Nat-
urally such an advantage was seized upon and improved
by natural selection. The membrane extended to the tips
of the fingers, the fingers themselves grew much longer,
and in time the fore limb lost all its powers as a walking
organ, but became developed into an efficient flying or-
gan, Bats, by this specialization of their fore limbs,
ceased to be quadrupeds, though they never became true
bipeds. Sleep and flight constitute the measure of their
existence.

Thus the development of all flying vertebrates other
than birds pursued the same general course. It began
with the extension of the skin of the sides, so as to serve
for parachute motion; and ended with an extension of
the fingers of the fore limbs, an extension of the mem-
brane to the tips of these elongated fingers, and a flying
motion of these limbs. In necessary connection with
these were concomitant internal changes, the whole anat-
omy of the animal becoming adapted to its flying habits.

But in the development of bird flight quite a different
mode of evolution appears. Flight is here attained not
by a special adaptation of the skin, but of the dermal
covering. This covering was probably not the hair in its
full modern sense. Iwas a primitive derivation from the
reptilian scale, which secondarily became the avian feather
and the mammalian hair. The feather of the bird agrees
with the scale of the reptile in being developed in little
hillocks upon the skin. The hair of the mammal devel-
oped in closed follicles within the skin. There thus has
been a specialization in both, with the production of a

change in the terminal character of the feather and in the’

dermal origin of the hair.

The progenitors of birds were either land or tree dwell-
ing reptiles; most probably the latter. We have seen the
extreme improbability that any leaping motion from the
earth developed into a flight. We have also seen how
natural it is for animals to leap from the limbs of trees,
and that, in several modern instances, a degree’of aerial
support has been thus developed. But in such a leaping
motion it is highly probable that some animals would
make other efforts for support in the air besides the hori-
zontal extension of their limbs. The swimming motion
is avery natural one. It is naturally adopted by all
land animals which fall into the water, and the webbed
feet of swimming birds have been produced by it in the
same manner as the webbed fingers of flying bats. Let
us now consider some early animal, so far advanced be-
yond the reptilian ranks as to have become warm blooded,
and covered with the primitive form of hair, arboreal in
its habits, and accustomed to make long leaps from limb
to limb. It is by no means improbable that some such
animals would seek to swim in the air. A rapid motion
of the fore limbs could not but aid in keeping the body
horizontal, and if these limbs were covered with thick
hair this must aid in breaking the fall of the animal.
Any such habit could have but one result. A thicker
hairy covering of the fore limbs, and even of the whole
body, would prove an advantage to the animal, and tkese
thickly matted hairs would tend to spread laterally, pre-
cisely as we find in the tails of Flying Squirrels and
Phalangers. A still further advantage would be gained
were these hairs rough instead of smooth on their edges,
so as to cling together, and prevent the air from passing
between them.

Such a swimming motion, performed by the fore limbs
principally,—the hind limbs being the leaping organs,—
and aided by the lateral outgrowth, and the “ felting” of
rough edged hairs, would, from its inception, be more

than a parachute motion. It would be incipient flight
from the first, a swimming in the air. The essential ad-
vantages gained by longer and longer leaps must tend to
preserve any favorable conditions of the hair, and we
can readily conceive the rough edges of the hairs ex-
tending into interlocking feathery expansicns. In fact it
is not difficult to imagine the slow evolution of true
feathers in this manner, since every incipient approach to
the feather must prove advantageous to the animal in its
aerial motion. :

But every better adapted movement of the fore limbs
must prove similarly advantageous. Not only any varia-
tion from hairs towards feathers would be advantageous,
but also any variation from a swimming towards a flying
movement of the fore limbs. Of course the process
must have been a slow one, It was necessarily slow also
in the case of the bat and the Pterodactyl. But in all
these cases every increment of variation from leaping to-
wards flying was advantageous, so that there was no
ee to a continual evolution towards full powers of

ight. 2

But the development of the fore limbs into feathered
wings unfitted them more and more for walking organs.
The slowly developing bird must have trusted more and
more to its hind limbs for support. Its arboreal habit
developed the toes of these limbs into grasping organs.
The original quadruped in time became a true biped,
with a foot specially adapted to grasp the rounded sur
faces of the limbs of trees, and so changed in position
as to fall under the centre of gravity of the body. Hairs
became feathers, the bones of the fore limbs aborted in
part and became wing bones, and the original tree leap-
ing reptile became a flying bird.

We may close with a very brief further consideration.
In the first place it is highly probable that only quite
small animals first gained this flying habit. Considerable
weight would hinder its development, But after it was.
once gained there would be no special hindrance to in-
crease in size in the newly evolved species. Yet a very
great increase in size would so greatly increase the mus-
cular effort necessary to flight that the larger birds would
most likely spend a considerable portion of their time
upon the earth. And in many cases the increased weight
which is apt to arise from diminution of muscular exer-
cise might render a resumption of the flying habit im-
possible. Such birds would lose their aerial powers, and
become true land bipeds. We may ascribe the land resi-
dence, and the aborted wings, of the Ostrich, Cassowary,
&c., to some such secondary process of evolution. On
the other hand, many virtually Jarid birds have become
so by an adaptation to food in the obtaining of which
flight was no advantage. Organs not used soon lose
their muscular vigor, their size decreases, and gradual
abortion takes place, unless adaptation to some new func-
tion gives them a special development in this new direc-
tion, and checks their tendency to disappear.

Il.
STONE IMPLEMENTS IN THE DRIFT.*
By WATSON C. HOLBROOK.

Many stone implements have been found deeply buried
in the clay and gravel of Whiteside county, Illinois.
Mindful of the many sources of error, and fully conscious
of the many grave and serious questions involved, I have
endeavored to examine with care and attention every one
of the finds. The first is a black chest spear head about
five inches long found incased in a block of granular
stalagmite. This specimen was found in a light-blue
clay. Above this clay was an alluvial deposit about five
feet thick. Some pre-historic man must have left-his
spear head in a cave or hid it ina fissure cf rock, Layer
after layer of stalagmite was found. The spear’s head

= A. A. A. §., Cincinnati, 1881.

SCIENCE.

555

was first covered by this incrustation of limestone, but
in the course of time was completely buried in the
thin, ribbon-like layers of this stalagmite. Then the

floor of the cave was broken up, and the detached piece |
containing this specimen was carried here by water, or |
ice, or both, and here it has remained imbedded in this |

blue clay till all of the alluvium has been deposited.
Several arrow-points have been found buried seven or
eight feet below the surface of the earth. I have care-
fully examined two of these finds. They were buried in
a tough, compact clay. They were found by workmen
while cutting into the hillside and grading the public
roads. A small arrow point was found by a friend of
mine while digging a well. It was twenty-four feet
below the surface of the earth. It is a well-made and
beautiful arrow-point, and my friend will not part with
his valuable specimen.

FRENCH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.
August 8, 1881.

MINERALOGY.—M. Klein presents a communication on
different solutions of very great density, which can be ad-
vantageously utilized in laboratories to separate pulverulent
mineral particles from foreign bodies. The salts em-
ployed by M. Klein are the tungstoborates of cadmium,
nickel and cobalt. The density of the solutions of the
last two salts is 3. 4; yet M. Klein prefers to them the
solution of tungstoborate of cadmium, whose density is
only 3.2, but which is quite transparent, while the others
are very colored. The tungstoborate of cadmium can,
besides, be obtained in crystals ; it melts at a temperature
of 75°, and becomes a transparent liquid, whose density is

6,
5 Puysics.—M. Ancelin described a method of heating
intended to replace foot-warmers of water. His system
is based on the fact that every body which passes from a
hquid to a Solid state gives off its latent heat of fusion.

M. Ancelin encloses some acetate of soda in a metallic
vase, which is then heated to a temperature of about 80°.
Then left to itself, the apparatus cools little by little to
about 59°; the acetate of soda then commences to
solidify, and gives off its latent heat. While the solidifi-
cation continues, the vase remains at the same tempera-
ture, [oilers heated in this way will remain hot four
times as long as by the use of water, about twenty to
twenty-two hours.

EXTRACTION OF SULPHUR.—M. Dubreuil, who has
devised anew method for extracting the sulphur of Sicily,
announces that he has found in the mother waters of the
salt marshes of Palermo, charged with chloride of mag-
nesium and boiling at 120°, a suitable substance to
separate from the sulphur the earthy bodies which ac-
company it.

i

For the unitiés of electric measures there are adopted
the fundamental unities—centimetre, gramme, second,
and this system is briefly designated by the letters C. G.
S. The practical units, the 047 and the vot, will retain
their present definitions; the ohm is a resistance equal to
108 absolute unities (C. G. S.), and the volt is an electro-
motive force equal to 10° absolute unities (C. G. S.).
The practical unit of resistance (ohm) will be represented
by a column of mercury of I square mm. in section at
the temperature of 0° C. An international commission
will be charged with ascertaining for practice, by means
of new experiments, the height of this column of mer-
cury representing the ohm. The name amfére will be
given to the current produced by the electromotor force
of 1 volt in a circuit whose resistanse is 1 ohm. Cozlomb
is the quantity of electricity defined by the condition
that in the current of an ampére the section of the con-
ductor is traversed by a coulomb per second. Farad is
the capacity defined by the condition that a coulomb in
a condenser, whose capacity is a farad, establishes a dif-
ference of potential of a volt between the armatures:

COMET (g) 1881, SWIFT.

At eleven o'clock last evening, Director Lewis Swift,
of Warner Observatory, discovered the seventh comet of
the year in the Constellation of Cassiopeia in a line be-

tween Polaris and the great cluster in Perseus, a trifle
nearer Polaris. It is nearly round, faint, has a slight
central condensation, but no tail is yet visible. Its right
ascension is one hour and fifty minutes, (1 h. 50 m).
Declination north seventy-one (71) degrees, and its mo-
tion slow westward. Estimated diameter, about four min-
utes. As the comet of 1812 is anticipated from this
quarter, it may be the great Pons Comet. This makes
the sixth comet discovered in this country since May Ist,
Swift getting the two hundred dollar Warner prize twice.
The fifteen hundred dollars given in comet prizes during
the past twelve months by Mr. Warner has evidently
given an extraordinary impetus to astronomical study in
this country. Director Swift, of the Warner Observatory,
will visit Egypt, by the generosity of the founder of the
Observatory, in December, 1882, to observe the total
eclipse of the sun and verify his celebrated discovery of
an intra-mercurial planet in 1878, which has been so
much disputed by astronomers. C. S. WHITTLERE,
Sec’y. Roch. Astro. Soctety.
WARNER OBSERVATORY, ROCHESTER,
N. Y., Movember 17, 1881.
————— ems
COPYING INK FOR READILY TRANSCRIBING
LETTERS WITHOUT A PRESS,

A paper on this subject by Professor Attfield, F.R.S.,
&c., was read at the last annual Pharmaceutical Confer-
ence at York, England. ‘The author stated that for the
past thirteen years all letters, reports, &c., that he had
written had been transcribed into an ordinary thin-paper
copying-book with no more effort than was employed in
using apiece of blotting-paper. It had only been neces-
sary to place the page of writing, note size, letter size, or
even foolscap, in the letter-book, and use a leaf of the letter-
book just as one would use a leaf of blotting-paper. The
superfluous ink that would go into blotting-paper went
on to the leaf of the letter-book, and, showing through
the thin paper as usual, gave, on the other side of the
leaf, a perfect transcript of the letter. Any excess of ink
on the page, either of the letter or of tne copying paper,
was removed by placing a sheet of blotting-paper between
them and running one’s hand firmly over the whole in
the ordinary manner.

This ready transcription was accomplished, as would
be anticipated, by using ink which dried slowly. Indeed,
obviously, the ink must dry sufficiently slowly for the
characters at the top of a page of writing to remain wet
when the last line was written, while it must dry suf-
ficiently fast to preclude any chance of the copied page
being smeared while subsequent pages were being coy-
ered. The drying must also be sufficiently rapid to pre-
vent the characters “ setting off,” as printers term it,
from one page on to another after folding.

The author then alluded to some difficulties at'ending
the employment of the ink which had prevented its be-
coming an article of wholesale trade, but, he said, any
chemist and druggist could make it and sell it, giving
directions for use to customers. He himself had used it
from year’s end to year’s end without any trouble what-
ever. It would be part:cularly useful to professional men
and private persons.

The principle of the method of preparat'on consisted
in dissolving a moderately powerful hygroscopic sub-
stance in any ordinary ink. After experimenting on all
such substances known to him, he gave the preference to
glycerin. Reduce, by evaporation, ten volumes of ink to
six; then add four volumes of glycerin. Ormanufacture
some ink of nearly double strength and add to any quan-
tity of it nearly an equal volume of glycerin.

556

SCIENCE.

SECONDARY BATTERIES.—J. Rousse.—In order to
accumulate electricity for the production of light or mo-
tive power, the author has arranged secondary batteries,
which differ from those of M. G. Plant. At the nega-
tive pole he uses a sheet of palladium, which, during the
electrolysis, absorbs more than goo times its volume of
hydrogen. At the positive pole he uses a sheet of lead.
The electrolysed liquid is sulphuric acid at 1-10th. This
element is very powerful, even when of small dimensions.
Another secondary element which has also given good
results, is formed at the negative pole of a slender plate
of sheet-iron. This plate absorbs more than 200 times
its volume of hydrogen when electrolysed in a solution
of ammonium sulphate. The positive pole is formed of a
plate of lead, pure or covered with a stuatum of litharge,
or pure oixide, or all these substances mixed. These me-
tallic plates are immersed in a solution containing 50 per
cent of ammonium sulphate. Another arrangement is at
the negative pole, sheet-iron ; at the positive pole a cylin-
‘ der of ferro-manganese. The electrolysed liquid con-
tains 40 per cent ammonium sulphate.

CONSTITUTION OF THE MILKY WAY.— When the milky
way is regarded with an indifferent eye, it seems that its
brightness is the same in all parts. But it is quite other-
wise when the relative luminous intensity of its different
portions is measured. It is then found that the milky way
is composed of a series of luminous plates separated from
each other by darker portions. . Thirty-three of these
nodules have been counted, the centre of which is more
brilliant than the borders, and it is stated that they are
arranged nearly mathematically along a great circle of
the celestial sphere.

AN EXPLANATION.

To the Editor of “ SCENCE.”

DEAR SIR,—In giving the specific rotatory power in my
article “ Amylose” in SCIENCE of Oct. Ist this year, I
used the expression (a) to designate the specified rotatory
power for the zeznte de passage since that is the usual ray
employed, On the other handI used (a)j to designate
the same property for the, yellow ray, meaning by the
yellow ray the monochromatic sodium flame.

Since, however, it is the usual custom to designate the
“‘rose-purple”’ transition tint by (a)j as if it were a yel-
low ray and the sodium ray by (a) D, I desire to make
this explanation of the symbols used.

Respectfully,
H. Wi. “WILEY,

LAFAYETTE, IND., /Vov. 5, 1881.

or

-_

OBSERVATIONS AND RESEARCHES ON BLOOD-STAINS,
—D.Vitaci—Attention has been recently called to a reac-
tion discovered by Schcebein—the blue coloration pro-
duced by’a mixture of oil of turpentine and alcoholic
tincture of the resin of guiacum, on the additionof a little
blood or a very dilute solution of hemoglobin. It is
said that this reaction is preferable to any other, not ex-
cepting that founded on the formation of crystals of
hamine and on spectroscopic observation, and that none
of the substances capable of simulating blood-spots give
the same opaque blue color. The author, however, shows
that all substances capaisle of acting as direct or indirect
oxidising agents are capable of producing the same re-
action.

“METEOROLOGICAL REPORT FOR NEW YORK CITY FOR THE WEEK ENDING NOV, 12, 1881.

Latitude 40° 45’ 58" N.; Longitude 73° 57’ 58" W.; height'of instruments above the ground, 53 feet ; above the sea, 97
feet ; by self-recording instruments.

BAROMETER. THERMOMETERS,
MEBANE OR ; : ; INIMUM. r
ya BE MAXIMUM. MINIMUM. MEAN. MAXIMUM M MAXI’M
NOVEMBER x ; : l
* | Reduced | Reduced Reduced |
. : Dry | Wet | Dry : Wet | »- Dr . Wet ;
ito) Hato} Time. to. Time Bulb. Bulb.| Bulb Time Bulb.| Time. | pujp.| Lime. Bulb. Time. |InSun,
Freezing.| Freezing. Freezing. |
i i tl| ease ese es cae ot = |
Sunday, Go-|) omsz 30.302 {12 p.m.|- 2y.988 | oa.m.-| 52.3 | 48.3] 60 | 3 p.m.) 52 |3p.m.| 46 |x2 p.m.| 43 |12 p.m.| 112.
Monday, 7--| 30.315 30.400 | 9 a.m.| 30.252 |12 p.m.| 47.6 | 46.0 | 51 5 P-m.| 50 |12 p.m.| 42 | 7 a.m.) 42 | 7 a.m. 56.
Tuesday, 8..] 30.145 30.252 | 0a.m.| 30.100 |12 p.m.| 58.0 | 57.6 62 4p.m.| 61 4p-m.| 50 |oa.m.| 49 |oa.m. 68.
Wednesday, g -| 30.008 30.1'2 |12 p.m.| 29.910 4 p.m.| 62.3 | 60.0 68 3p.m.| 65 3 Pp-m.| 54 |12 p.m.| 49 |x2 p.m, 80,
Thursday, 10--| 30.245 30.296 |12 p.m.| 30.112 | 0 a.m_| 46.7 | 43.3 51 2p.m.| 45 2p.m.| 43 |32 p.m.| 4o |12 p.m.) tro.
Friday, II--] 30.319 30.394 | 9 a.m.| 30.222 |r12 p.m.| 42.3 | 39.0 46 | 3 p.m.) 41 3. p:m.| 39 | 8 a.am.| 37) \novagmM)) ian,
Saturday, 12--] 29.801 30.222 |0a.m.} 29.548 |r2 p.m.| 51.3 | 500] 60 |8p.m.| 59 | 8 p.m.| 42 | 2a.m.| 38 | 2 a.m. 62.
4 — aes 8 U
Dry. Wet.
Mean) forthe. weeks. 2502 ee eee ee eee 30.140 inches. | Mean for the week___.----------.- 51.5 degrees -..-.-----.-- 49.t degree s
Maximum for the week at g a.m., Nov. 7th _-.---.------ 30.400 ** Maximum for the week.at 3pm. gth 68. os at 3pm oth, 65. "
Minimum ee at 12) p,m, INovai2bhe eee nee eee 29.548 ‘* Minimum ** * 8am. 1rth 39. ‘ at 10 am 11th, 37. 4
ANE W0. efE. Sree ore ses Sota a oe ee eee 852 ‘ Range ‘“‘ Sa Ses 20.) ee gy ase ee 28.
WIND HYGROMETER. CLOUDS. RAIN AND SNOW. |g
: veLocity| FORCE IN | RELATIVE CLEAR, ° DEPTH OF RAIN AND SNow | 0
DEE CRON INIMIGHG: || eons RORCES OR AE OE MT MLD UNS OVERCAST, 10 IN INCHES.
| SQR. FEET, 3 : .* ae
7 - Far : ch) haan wan aaa: i ‘ Time | Time | (a3
NOVEMBER, Dice Boe | ge |e pe eeieee E E of | of | Dure=| Be]
7 a.m./2 p.m.|/g p.m.,| for the | & | Time. a || hobapaeile cedal| nleenal| ey « a a Begin-| End- ey 2 Pllc
Day. |4 S al a| sia a i a a ning ing, .m. as te
Sunday, 6-| w. TW al Ln ee 188 5 1.00 am} .310 .269 | .283 | 92 | 54 | 78 jo |o JO | wenn soem) eons a |e
Monday, meals ey ales Es ex mes 155 2t) 5.00pm) .267 | .283 | .321 |100 | 78 | 86 |8 cu. 9 cu, 10 7 pm - pm| 5.00 | .o4] 0
| | | 4am am .00 | .10
Tuesday, 8-| n.e.| s.e. |5.s.e. 107 | 14) 0.15 am) .418 | .505 | .487 |100 | 94 | 94 |10 le ie { 3pm | 5pm Hae .10 |10
8 4am |izram| 7.00 | .13
Wednesday, 9- |S.S.@, |W.S,W.| Mm. W. 154 4410.00 pm] .487 | .577 | .409 | 94 | 84 | 82 |10 ‘ \9 a | se 4pm Sipmillacamleoxtike
Thursday, 10-|w.n.w.| n.w. w. 273 74| 1.30am| .275 | .220! .218| g2 | 59 | 75 |t Cir. 7 Cir. cU.|4 Clr. Cu.| ----- | ----- | ----- 22 Wel
Friday, 11.|n.n. w./ n. w. ec: 177. | 32| 9.00 am| 216 | .173 .195 | 90 | 60 | 08 3Cir, cU.)I Cir. s. |5 Cu. caper | ceene | oe--- = ale
Saturday, 12-/e. s.¢.| S.e. |w.s.w. 134 64) 6,00 pm) .231 -348 | .487 | 83 | 93 | 94 |10 |Zo 10 10; am) Ir pM | 12.30 65/1
Distance traveled during the week...-.-------- *. My EER 1,188 miles, Total amount of water for the week........ 00. ---2--ca0=-0---- 1.04 inch,

Maxims forces 2 ap nen one oe nnns ahaa nnasnnecee nee ate 7% lbs.

Duration ‘ofiraine:22 =.=. <5 -$- 255s anne eee 1 day, 8 hours, 30 minutes.

DANIEL DRAPER, Ph. D.

Director Meteorological Observatory of the Department of Public Parks, New York.

SCIENCE.

SCL FING E :

A WEEKLY Recorp oF SCIENTIFIC
PrRoGRESS.

JOHN MICHELS, Editor.

THRMS:
PER YEAR, - - - - Four DoLLARs
6 MonvrHs, Fi - - - Two ss
3 “se = & - = ONE ce
SINGLE COPIES, - - - - TEN CENTS.

PuBLiSHED AT
TRIBUNE BUILDING, NEW YORK.
P, O, Box 8888,

LONDON, ENGLAND, - - - - 150 LEADENHALL ST.

THE SATELLITES OF MARS.

The outer satellite of Mars was seen here on Nov.
15th, and by an observation of Nov. zoth its position

was
WASHINGTON, M. T.

he Mm. Dp. S.
1881. ING vei 2OpmmliointIS n= 7bue7meedigy.0.

This satellite is therefore nea1 the predicted place.
An hour later Phobos seemed to be visible, also near
the computed position, but the sky had become a
little thick and I could not be certain of seeing this
satellite.

The planet will continue to approach the earth un-
til December 21, and the satellites will become bright-
er. It is possible, therefore, that they may be observed
for nearly two months during the present opposition.

Aw VATE,
WASHINGTON, D. C., Nov. 22, 1881.

THEORY OF THE MOON’S MOTION.*

About a year ago the Vice-President of the Physi-
cal Section of our chief scientific association remarked,
in his farewell address: “there are many subjects in
astronomy that need investigation, but in most cases
the labor required is very great, and the completion
of the work would occupy a long time. * * *
The lunar theory has been a vexed question for the
last two centuries, and may remain so for a long time
to come.” If persistent, painstaking, and conscien-
tious effort have aught to do with such a matter, we
must add to the list of distinguished lunar theorists, in-
cluding Plana, Damoiseau, Hansen, and Delaunay, the
name of Stockwell. We cannot say that his researches
have yet met with that notice to which they are perhaps

rightly entitled. Mr. Stockwell has published a num-

* John N, Stockwell, Ph. D. (Introductory.)

557

ber of monographs on many points connected with the
lunar theory during the last six or seven years; and
his works show great familiarity with, and expertness
in, the involved computations of this sort of astrono-
mical research.

If we may judge from the appearance of the
pamphlet before us, Mr. Stockwell has now quite ter-
minated his lunar investigations, and intends to com-
plete the publication of his finished theory of the
moon’s motion at some early date. In his Introduc-

tion he has sketched the early historic development of
the question with that explicitness which we should
expect rather to have seen in some thorough elemen-
tary text-book ; strangely, he devotes twice as much
space to the ante-Newtonian aspect of the problem as
to the most remarkable developments of the mathe-
matical theory which have occurred since his time.
He makes no mention of Damoiseau, who takes high
rank not only among pure lunar theorists, but among
the constructors of tables of the moon. His tables
are well known to have been the first ever constructed
from pure theory.

Though the age of the great lunar investigators is
now gone, there are some very surprising results of
Mr. Stockwell’s ‘‘new method of analysis” to which the
attention of the few theorists now working at the moon’s
motion might well be directed. He instances several
comparisons of the values of his co-efficients with
those obtained by Delaunay in his very refined devel-
opment; in one case he obtains, by a rapidly-converg-
ing series of four terms, a result identically the same
with that of Delaunay’s series of seven terms; and re-
marks, “the four terms of my development are more
accurate than the seven terms of Delaunay’s, since the
seventh term of the latter series is thirty times greater
than the fourth term of the former.” There is noth-
ing new in the fact that the sum of a very small
number of terms should come out equal to a very
large series, but if theorists can be brought to
acknowledge the essential accuracy of the “new
method,” Mr. Stockwell must no doubt be credited
with effecting an enormous advance in mathematical
astronomy. Mr. Stockwell has shown satisfactorily
to himself the correctness and value of his method,
and the facility of its application—he must now
address himself to the equally difficult task of making
others see it in the same light.

It seems a wholesale assertion on the part of Mr.
Stockwell that there are ‘several terms of considera-
ble magnitude in the theories of La Place, Plana,
Pontécoulant and Delaunay, which are not functions
of the disturbing force ;” and we should, at first blush,
be inclined to place much confidence in his demon-
stration that the general integral assumes the indeter-
minate form in special cases which occur in those
theories. It is certainly a most important oversight,
and leads us to believe that the lunar theorists who
followed La Place would have done much better to
have built up theories of their own with entire inde-
pendence of what anyone else had done. It is a re-
markable fact if this discovery has been left for Mr.
Stockwell to make. He concludes: “if the compu-
tations of the present work are correct, astronomers
have carried their approximations to terms of the //#/,

558

sixth, and seventh orders of magnitude, before those
of the ¢#ird and fourth had been correctly computed.
This seems to be a sufficient reason for the nearly
stationary condition of the lunar theory during the
past three-quarters of a century, notwithstanding the
great efforts which have been made to perfect its solu-
tion. Its advancement has been blocked by the
obstacles thrown in its path by analysis itself; and
we may therefore reasonably hope for substantial im-
provement in the theory and tables when they are no
longer embarrassed with equations which have no
existence in nature.”

We may remark that there are two ways in which
the correctness of Mr. Stockwell’s conclusions may be
tested: first, a mathematical expert competent to pro-
nounce upon his theoretic processes should go over
his work with the most searching criticism in every
detail; and second, his theory should be compared
with observations. But this latter would be a task of
such immensity that no astronomer unassisted would
hope for its completion.

—_—<$ <<.

NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.
Oct. 31, 1881,

The President, Dr. J. S. Newberry, in the Chair.

Twenty persons present.

The following paper was read by Mr. John H.
Furman :

«“ The Geology of the Copper Region of Northern Texas
and the Indian Territory.”

The well-marked cretaceous beds of Parker County,
Texas, extend for 30 miles north of west from Weather-
ford, on the road to Graham. They consist of strata of
shelly limestone, sandstone and shaly clay, the latter gray-
ish or reddish in color. An occasional thin seam of soft
coal is found; and the water is strongly impregnated with
lime. A stratum of sandstone stretches for thirty miles
N. W. from Fort Worth. In this rock springs are found
containing sodic carbonate, similar to the waters of the
artesian wells of Fort Worth, Tarrant County, at a depth
of about 270 feet. Towards Graham, the country as-
sumes a semi-mountainous appearance, and, for twenty-
five miles or more, sandstone ridges alternate with prairies,
the hills being covered with scrub oak. Some of the
ridges attain an elevation of two or three hundred feet
above the prairies. The strata are horizontal, and large
portions of the original surface have been carried away by
erosion. The upper stratum isin many places a conglom-
erate, made up of small pebbles. In this region the
seams of coal met with are generally soft, and the only
workable bed known is one about three feet thick, yielding
a fair quality of bituminous coal, which crops out and has
been traced for several miles near the Clear Fork of the

srazos river in Young County. This supposed coal re-
gion has a general N. E. and S. W. direction.

Approaching Graham the prairies begin to resemble the
plains; and the ridges, capped with sandstone, show
bases of mottled reddish-colured shales, or clay; salt
springs and salt streams are found, indicating the border
of the great alkaline region. From Graham to Fort Grif-
fin in Shackleford County, thence north in Throckmorton
County, the country rises. Every few miles a steppe is
mounted, the face of the escarpments showing horizontal
thin limestone strata. The same features continue, and
then the country slopes towards the Brazos river.

Turning westward through Haskell County, the surface
lowers again towards the Brazos, the river coursing south
to north, and a plain is crossed, the ground differing from
any observed. ‘The soil is mixed and covered with gravel,
in many places several feet deep. The pebbles vary in

SCIENCE.

size from half an inch to an inch and a half in diameter,
and consist of feldspar quartz, porphyry, and basalt. On
the western side of Haskell County the copper bed is
reached not far from the Brazos river; and west of the
copper a great belt of gypsum hills, several miles in width,
extends northward, parallel with the copper bed, into the
Indian Territory. Gypsum occurs there in most of its
forms, including selenite which has been locally mistaken
for mica. :

On reaching a scene of attempted mining operations in
search of supposed veins of copper, a very short examina-
tion convinced me that no vein would ever be discovered.
Denudation has laid the bed bare, sweeping away the
larger portion uncovered and leaving only patches; but
these were sufficient to give a clear conception of the mode
of occurrence. The copper-bearing stratum is an ashy-
colored clay shale, more or less tinged with green, the
upper portion showing the deep green carbonate of cop-
per, usually two or three inches thick? Overlying this
stratum is a cap-rock of gypsiferous sandstone, about
three feet thick, with a layer % to % inch thick, impreg-
nated with carbonate of copper, as though it had soaked
it up from below. Underneath the gray or green bed an
intensely red clay shale is generally found. Nuggets of
copper are scattered over the surface of the red bed, with
pieces of cuprified wood and nuggets of iron pyrites. In
the wood the original structure in many instances is per-
fectly preserved, also appearing cuprified in all stages of
decay, as though it had become half rotten before the pet-
rifaction was effected, The overlying sandstone fre-
quently contains biscuit-like concretions of gypsum. Jun-
iper trees abound and also cover the gypsum hills, the
perfectly preserved cuprified wood, with its knots and
bark, showing a fac-simile of that growth. I found in the
gray bed fragments of wood partially unaltered, as though
it had just commenced to absorb copper; also large
pieces of coal, three or four inches or more in diameter,
the cracks of the same piece being filled with crys-
talline carbonate of copper, or with white gypsum, thus
appearing veined with copper and gypsum. In parts of
the bed remaining the resemblance to piles of ashes and
charcoal is strikingly deceptive; in one shaft, sunk to a
depth of about thirty feet, the horizontal position of the
strata was confirmed, the shaft passing through the cup-
riferous gray bed, and then through a succession of lay-
ers of red shale and soft red sandstone, in which not a
trace of copper was found. The gray stratum extends
seventy-five feet or more undera point of the gypsum
hill. In atunnel traversing this stratum I noticed oc-
casionally pebbles belonging to the gravel drift. ‘This
copper formation has a general north and south course,
usually less than fifty yards in width, and was traced for a
distance of eight or ten miles to the southern boundary of
Haskell County.

At one point the gray bed lies between beds of sand-
stone; the red bed does not appear, and the underlying
sandstone strata are almost white, laminated, and very
hard. The bed is more than two miles distant from the
gypsum hills; the gravel drift is noticeable and even
abundant. Observing the nuggets of copper ore and the
drift pebbles lying about in places on the red bed, the
idea forced itself upon me that there might be a remote
connection between the two. However, the nuggets of
ore are evidently concretions, and no pebbles occur in the
gray bed. The gypsum range extends several miles
across, with a western declivity similar to that on the
eastern side. A plain, a little over one hundred feet be-
low, reaches beyond to the foot of the great Llano Esta-
cado. Onthese hills and on this western plain the
gravel drift is wanting. d

The copper bed: was traced five miles further to the
north; also in Knox county, not far from the Wichita
river, and forty miles or more north of the southern por-
tion of Haskell county, besides learning its supposed oc~
currence north of the Wichita river. The copper band

SCIENCE.

here lies between the sandstone and gray bed, with the
red beds beneath. Eastward, between the Brazos and
Wichita rivers, the gravel drift is abundant, with many
stones of greater diameter. At the “Narrows,” between
the Wichita and Brazos rivers, the width is only suffic-
ient to admit the passage of a single wagon. Continued
caving in of the bluffs of the two rivers has widened an
immense eroded area, rendering a large surface valueless,
and while the channels of the rivers are several miles
apart, their junction is only a question of time. In the
copper region of the little Wichita river, near the centre
of Archer county, the ore occurs under the same general
conditions, with’a different course, N. E. and S. W. and
copper nuggets, coal and cuprified wood are found.

Embedded in the overlying sandstone, in some in-
stances several feet above the gray bed, the sandstone
frequently attains a thickness of more than fifteen feet.
The cuprified wood is altogether different from that of
Haskell county, and resembles the wood of the mesqui'e
tree, which I found scattered about. The gravel drift here
is identical in character with that of the region further west,
and pebbles occurin the gray copper-bearing bed be-
neath the sandstone. The extension of the gravel drift
of Haskell county, beyond the Brazos river system, its
absence west of the gypsum hills, the larger size of the
pebbles in Knox county, bordering the Wichita river, and
the occurrence of the drift only in the vicinity of the cop-
per-bearing lines mentioned, and in Archer county, sug-
gested to mea possible relationship of some kind between
the two, perhaps their origination in the same region,

Between the Wichita and Pease Rivers I crossed sev-
eral copper-bearing beds, having a general northeast and
southwest direction. {In Wilbarger County the gravel
drift is in great quantity, and boulders from three to
seven inches in diameter occur. In places, and having a
northeast and southwest bearing, heavy deposits or lines
of gravel and boulders attract attention, appearing as
though a great flow towards the southeast had met ob-
structions along its course, the great incline of this re-
gion being directed toward the southeast. Beyond Pease
River the gravel drift lessens, but the large boulders are
occasionally seen as far west as the gypsum hills. Not
far north from the centre of Hardeman County I again
found the Haskell County copper bed, the accompanying
sandstones being thin and much mixed with gypsum.
The copper bed reaches higher than the surrounding
country, except the gypsum hills to the west. From
this high locality of the copper, known as Prairie-dog
Mounds, the country inclines on one side northward to a
creek emptying into Red River, and on the other side
southward to the Pease River.

South of these mounds, where only here and there
patches of the bed are preserved in the midst of a gen-
eral erosion, I found the largest mass of copper ore thus
far disccvered, consisting of an aggregation of cuprified
wood, resembling the trunk of a tree, more than one foot
in diameter. Beyond Red River the bed continues to
the vicinity of the Salt Fork of Red River, distant but
little over 20 miles from the Wichita Mountains of the
Indian Territory. The bed probably continues nearly to
the western end of these mountains, and here must be
found the true centre of elevation and the origin of the
gravel drift. The Haskell County copper bed was also
traced south to the Wichita River, thus establishing its
continuity from the southern portion of Haskell County,
through Knox and Hardeman Counties, into the Indian
Territory, a length of more than 1oomiles. Subsequent-
ly, the northern end of the bed was found a short distance
from the western end of the Wichita Mountains, on the
south side of the range. The copper formations of
Archer and Wichita Counties continue through Clay
County to the Red River boundary of the indian Terri-
tory. The gravel drift does not extend to the north of
the Wichita Mountains, but a limestone district occurs
about 20 miles in width, that reaches probably as far out

559

to the north, from the Wichita Range, the course of the
latter being east and west. This limestone area may be
called mountainous, is much disturbed and tilted, and is
similar in appearance to the metalliferous limestone for-
mation of Mexico. The Wichita Mountains are mainly
made up of porphyries, trachytes and basalt, and appear
to be two parallel ranges with transverse ranges and
small valleys between. About 12 miles west of Fort Sill
an extensive body of hornblende slate makes its appear-
ance between the two main ranges. The drift from the
mountains extends to the south and southeast. It is
found as far west as the Haskell County copper bed, and
as far east as the Archer County copper bed is known.
The river channels of that section of the country have
been formed since this drift period. The development of
the Wichita Mountains seems to have marked the close
of a period of uplift and simultaneous erosion.

These mountains have the same general appearance as
the Rocky Mountains, which pass through the western
portion of Texas and the State of Coahuila, Mexico ; and
it has been a matter of much interest to observe that
similar drifts of local origin are frequently met in the lat-
ter regions. The Wichita Mountains appear to be
identical in origin with the Rocky Mountains, and con-
stitute the most eastern spur of that system. In North-
ern Mexico short ranges are encountered, striking east
and west, and of these the Wichita Mountains appear to
be a reproduction. The Wichita Mountains will be
found to contain mineral deposits, possibly of some
value ; veins of copper ores do exist 40 miles west of
Fort Sill, near Otter Creek, in the mountains; but I am
convinced that the copper bed or stratum of Northern
Texas will prove of no commercial importance.

at WY
NT) Ul" Gaga
Yh RO

Saye
\ Wika)
: Sol y

\

SCALE—52 MILES TO 1 INCH.

A, Archer County.

B. Baylor County.

(OS Clay County.

Fil. Haskell County.
Hn. Hardeman County.
Wa. Wichita County.
Wr. Wilbarger County.
c.¢.¢. Copper Bed.

g. g. g. Gravel Drilt.

n. Narrows.

Prof. Newberry remarked that the communication of
Mr. Furman was of great interest, since no accurate
description had before been given of the geological

560

structure of the region where the copper occurs in
northern Texas and the Indian Territory. He had re-
ceived specimens from that region long ago and recog-
nized their similarity to the copper ores of New Mexico,
where in the upper portion of the Triassic formation
copper forming concretions and replacing wood occur in
many localities, and have been more or less mined for.
In one locality near Abiquini very extensive galleries
have been cut in the sandstone in search of copper
which there replaces branches and trunks of trees and
forms concretions which are irregularly scattered through
therock. Here the work was done by the early Spanish
explorers perhaps 200 years ago, and the remains of the
furnaces in which the copper was smelted are still to be
seen at the mouth of the mine. Still further west, in
southern Utah, the same formation carries copper and
considerable silver, at Silver Reef enough to pay well
for mining, but in no locality yet known are the deposits
of copper ore sufficiently concentrated and continuous to
make mining for that material profitable, so it would
doubtless be found in Texas and the Indian Territory.
The copper was deposited with the Triassic rocks from
a shallow sea in which an unusual quantity of copper
was held in solution. This impregnated the sediments
found at the bottom replacing wood and forming as
nodules about some nucleus. The aggregate quantity of
copper in this formation was enormous, but, except where
by the erosion of the beds it accumulated at the surface
and could be picked up without any expense in mining,
it would hardly pay to attempt to obtain it by ordinary
mining processes.

The wood replaced by copper Dr. Newberry said was
undoubtedly all coniferous, and different from any now
living. The beds which contained the cuprified wood
also contained much that was silicified. Of this he had
examined many specimens under the microscope and had
found the peculiar dotted cells which are characteristic of
the conifere, and these grouped in such a way as to
prove the trees to have belonged tothe Araucarian group
of conifers. So far as yet known the angiosperms, or
higher order of plants, did not make their appearance on
the earth’s surface until after the copper bearing rocks of
the southwest had been deposited.

THE AMERICAN CHEMICAL SOCIETY.

The November meeting of this Society was held on Fri-
day evening, November 4th, with Vice-President Leeds in
the Chair.

The following gentlemen were duly elected members: Dr.
C. W. Volney, Dr. Witthaus, Messrs. C. E. Munsell, W.W.
Share, J. D. O'Connor, and Day. The first paper of the
evening was “On some New Salts of Thymole Sulpho-
acid, and some new facts concerning the same,” (a second
paper) by Mr. J. H. Stebbins, Jr., S. B. The sodium salt
having the formula

(GABE (CHs) (C;H;) (NaSQ;) O Na+2}H.0
was described, and also the free sulphur salt had its char-
acteristics enumerated.

Mr. Stebbins followed with a second paper “On the
pee manination of Diazo Compounds with Thymole Sulpho-
Acid.”

In this he described the experiments which he performed
in his work, the results of which were given in the first
paper. Both were technical and not of any popular in-
terest.

The third paper was by Dr. C. W. Volney, and was en-
titled, ‘The Constitution of the Explosive Derivatives of
Glycerine.”

In this communication the author tried to prove that the
nitro-glycerine was composed by the substitution of the
nitrogen trioxide (NOs) instead of the nitrous oxide NOu,,
making the formula C;H, (NOs)s instead of CsH, (NO2) Os,
and secondly, he showed how it was possible to substi-

SCIENCE.

tute chlorine for the nitrogen trioxide and so produce a
new explosive compound.

This paper provoked much discussion on account of the
theoretical arrangement of the atoms necessary to sustain
Dr. Volney’s statement.

Subsequently the Committee on Nominations reported
that the following ticket was recommended to the Society
for their votes at the December meeting.

Corresponding Secretary.— P. Casamajor.

kecording Secretary.—J. H. Stebbins, Jr.

Treasurer.—M. Alsberg.

Librarian.—Geo. A. Prochazka.

Curators.—A. J. Rossi, Wm. Rupp, A. A. Fesquet.

Committee on Publications —Arno Behr, A. R. Ledoux,
H. Endemann.

Committee on Nominations —A. H. Elliott, O. H.
Krause, J. P. Battershall, J. B. F. Herrishoff, T. O’C.
Sloane. >

Board of Directors ——P. Casamajor, J. H, Stebbins, Jr.,
H. Morton, C. F. Chandler, M. Alsberg, E. R. Squibb,
W. H. Nichols, W. H. Habershaw, E. Waller, A. H. Gal-
latin, Geo, A. Prochazka.

ON: THE NATURE OF THE DIPHTHERITIC
CONTAGIUM.

By Dr. H. C. Woop.

The lecturer began by stating that the researches which
formed the basis of the present address had been made
under the auspices, and, indeed, at the suggestion, of the
National Board of Health, by Dr. Henry F. Formad and
himself, who were jointly responsible for the facts and
inductions and jointly deserving of whatever reprobation
or approbation might be due. The full text of the work
is now ia the hands of the National Board, and will be
shortly published by them as an appendix to their annual
report, and the lectufer desired that criticism be withheld
until this was done, as the memoir will contain much
that cannot be spoken of in the present lecture.

In the spring of 1880 work was begun by inoculating
rabbits with diphtheritic membrane taken from the throats
of patients at Philadelphia. An account of the labors of
the following summer has been already published, but it
seems necessary to epitomize them here. It was found
that only in a very few cases was anything like diphtheria
produced in the rabbit by inoculating with the membrane.
The inoculations were practised by putting pieces of the
material sometimes under the skin, sometimes deep in
the muscles. Many rabbits died after some weeks, not
of diphtheria, but of tuberculosis. Ina series of experi-
ments it was shown that this tuberculosis was an indirect
and not a direct result of the inoculation, and that any
apparent relation between the two diseases is only appa~
rent, not real. Next, the tracheas of a series of rabbits
were opened and false membrane inserted. It was
found that under these circumstances a severe trachitis
was frequently produced, and was attended by an abun-
dant formation of pseudo-membrane. Careful studies
made of the false membrane of diphtheria and of this
false membrane showed that the two were identical, both
containing in abundance fibrin fibres, corpuscular ele-
ments, and various forms of micrococci. To determine
whether other inflammations of the trachea than that
caused by diphtheria or its membrane are accompanied
by the formation of false membrane, a number of ex-
periments were made, and it was demonstrated that the
production of false membrane has nothing specific in it,
but that any trachitis of sufficient severity is accompanied
by this product. Careful studies also showed that this
false membrane does not differ in its constitution from
that of true diphtheria, except it be thatthe micrococci
are not so abundant in it. We always found some mi-
crococci, and in some of these traumatic pseudo-mem-

*AN ADDRESS MADE BEFORE THE ACADEMY OF NATURAL SCIENCES,

SCIENCE.

branes they were almost as numerous as in the diphther-
itic exudation.

Last spring we resumed our investigations. Having
heard that there was a very severe epidemic in Luding-
ton, Mich., Dr. Formad was dispatched to examine cases
and collect material. He found a small town situated
upon the shore of Lake Michigan, in the centre of the
lumber region, with inhabitants mostiy engaged in the
lumber trade and in managing very numerous large saw-
mills. The town was all built upon high ground except
the Third Ward. This occupied a low swamp which
had been filled in largely with sawdust. The soil was so
moist that a hole dug in it would fill at once with water,
and but few houses had any attempts at cellars. It was
in this district that the disease had*prevailed. Almost
all the children had had it, and one-third of them were
said to have died. Dr. Formad examined a large number
of cases, obtained a supply of diphtheritic membrane,
and brought home pieces of the internal organs of a
child upon. whom he had made an autopsy. In every
case the blood was found more or less full of micrococci,
some free, others in zoogloea masses, others in the white
blood-corpuscles. The organs brought home also all
contained micrococci, which were especially abundant in
the kidneys, where they formed numerous thrombi, chok-
ing up and distending the blood-vessels. In the summer
of 1880 we examined the blood of several cases of ende-
mic Philadelphia diphtheria, and in no case found any
new elements init. But during the present summer we
have found micrococci in the blood of Philadelphia diph-
theritic patients, showing the differences in the disease
are simply in degree, not in kind.

Experiments were now made with the Ludington
material upon animals. Inoculations were practised un-
der the skin, deep in the muscles, and in the trachea.
In all cases the results were similar. A grayish exuda-
tion appeared at the seat of inoculation, along with much
local inflammation, the animal sickened, and in the
course of a few days death occurred. The local symp-
toms increased and widened. In some cases the false
membrane spread from where the poison had been put in
the trachea up to the mouth. The blood examined dur-
ing life or after death was found to contain micrococci
precisely similar to those found in the Ludington cases,
and in a few instances micrococci were found in abund-
ance in the internal organs. Studies made upon the
blood of these animals, as well as upon the Ludington
cases, show that the micrococci first attack the white
blood-corpuscles, in which they move with a vibratile
motion. Under their influence the corpuscles alter their
appearances, losing their granulations. They finally be-
come fullof the micrococci, which now are quiescent,
and increase until the corpuscle bursts and the contents
escape as an irregular, transparent mass full of micro-
cocci, and form the so-called zoogloea masses. In the
diphtheritic membrane the micrococci exist frequently in
balls, and it is plain that these collections are merely
leucocytes full of the plant. The bone-marrow of the
animals were found full of leucocytes and cells contain-
ing micrococci.

The question now arose, is the disease produced by
diphtheritic inoculation in the rabbit diphtheria? We
concluded that it is, because the poison producing it is
the same, the symptoms manifested during life are the
same, and the post-mortem lesions are identical. The
contagious character of the disease is retained, as we
succeeded in passing it from rabbit to rabbit.

Our next series of experiments were directed to deter-
mining whether the micrococci are or are not the cause
of the affection. The experiments of Curtis and Satter-
thwaite, of New York, have shown that the infectious
character of diphtheria depends upon its solid particles ;
for when they filtered an infusion of the membrane it
became less and less toxic in proportion as the filtration
was more and more perfect; and when the infusion

501

was filtered through clay, the filtrate was harmless.

The urine of patients suffering from malignant diph-
theria is full of micrococci, and may contain no other
solid material. Following the experiments of Letzerich,
we filtered this urine and then dried the filter-paper.
Upon experiment we found this even more deadly in its
effects than is the membrane. The symptoms and lesions
following in the rabbit inoculation with such paper are
precisely those which would have ensued had a piece of
diphtheritic kidney or membrane been employed. This
experiment shows that the solid particles of the mem-
brane, which are the essential poison of malignant diph-
theria, are the micrococci, which must be either the
poison itself or the carriers or producers of the poison.

Leaving for a while this point, I will next direct your
attention to our culture-experiments. These were per-
formed in the manner commenced by Klein and that
recommended by Sternberg. The first method seems to
us the best for the purpose of studying the development
of the micrococcus itself; the second the best for the ob-
taining of it in quantity for experimentation.

We cultivated micrococci from the surface of ordinary
sore throats, from furred tongue, from cases of mild
diphtheria as we commonly see it in Philadelphia and
from Ludington cases. We found, in the first place,
that there were no differences to be detected in the gen-
eral or special appearance of the various micrococci, and
no constant differences in size. We found that they all
formed similar shapes in the culture apparatus; they
had this difference, however,—whilst the Ludington mi-
crococci grew most rapidly and eagerly generation after
generation up to the tenth, those from Philadelphia diph-
theria ceased their growth in the fourth or fifth genera-
tion, whilst those taken from furred tongue never got
beyond the third transplantation. Various culture-fluids
were used, but the results were identical. We conclude,
therefore, that as no difference is detectable between the
micrococci found in ordinary sore throat and those of
diphtheria, save only in their reproductive activity, they
are the same organisms in different states. As the resuit
of some hundreds of cultures, we believe that the vital-
ity of the micrococci under artificial culture is in direct
proportion to the contagious powers of the membrane
from which they have been taken. We have made
many inoculations with cultivated micrococci and have
succeeded in producing diphtheria with the second
generation, but never with any later product. ‘his suc-
cess, taken in conjunction with the urine experiments
already spoken of, seems to us sufficient to establish the
fact that the micrococci are the fons et origo mald of
diphtheria. The experiments of Pasteur and others
have proven that it is possible for an inert organism to
be changed into one possessed of most virulent activity,
or vzce versa, and we believe that we can offer direct
proof that the micrococci of the mouth are really iden-
tical in species with the micrococci of diphtheria, and do
not merely seem to be so. We exposed the Ludington
membrane for some weeks to the air in a dried condi-
tion. There was no putridity or other change detectable
in it; but, whereas formerly it had been most virulent,
now it was inert, and its micrococci not only looked
like those taken from an ordinary angina, but acted like
them. They were not dead, they had still power of
multiplication, but they no longer grew in the culture-
fluid beyond the third or fourth generation. Certainly
they were specifically the same as they had been, and
certainly therefore the power of rapid growth in culture-
fluids and in the body of the rabbit is not a specific
character of the diphtheria micrococcus.

As is well known, Pasteur attributes the change from
an active to an inert organism to the influence of the
oxygen of the air upon the organism. Whether this be
true or not of the diphtheria micrococcus is uncertain,
but the effects of exposure of the dried membrane seem
to point in such direction.

562

SCIENCE.

~

With the facts that are known in regard to the clinical
history of diphtheria and those which we have deter-
mined in our research, it is easy to make out a theory of
the disease which reconciles all existing differences of
opinion and seems to be true.

A child gets a catarrhal angina or trachitis. Under
the stimulation of the inflammation products the inert
micrococci in the mouth begin to grow; and, if the con-
ditions be favorable, the sluggish plant may be finally
transformed into an active organism, and a self-generated
diphtheria results. It may be, however, that by ap-
propriate treatment such a case is arrested before
it fairly passes the bounds of an ordinary sore throat.
Every practitioner knows that such diversity does
exist. Again, conditions outside of the body favor-
ing the passage of inert into active micrococci may exist,
and the air at last become well loaded with organisms,
which, alighting upon the tender throats of children,
may begin to grow and themselves produce violent an-
gina, trachitis, and finally fatal diphtheria.

In the first instance we have endemic diphtheria as we
see it in Philadelphia; in the second, the malignant epi-
demic form of the disease as it existed in Ludington. It
is also apparent that in the endemic cases the plant
whose activity has been developed within the patient
may escape with the breath, and a second case of diph-
theria be produced by contagion. It is also plain that as
the plant gradually in such a case passes from the mild
to the active state, there must be degrees of activity in
the contagium, one case being more apt to give the dis-
ease than is another ; also that the malignant diphtheria
must be more contagious than the mild endemic cases.
We think there is scarcely a practitioner who will not
agree that clinical experience is in accord with these log-
ical deductions from our experimentally determined
premises. : ;

It yet remains for us to investigate as to what are the
conditions outside of the body which will especially
favor the production of active micrococci, and also to
study the effects of agents in killing these organisms ;
for it is very apparent that local treatment of the throat
must often be of the utmost importance, and that it will
be far more effective if it be of such character as to kill
the micrococci, and not simply be anti-phlogistic in its

action.
pete ae MAA oe ce SF

SOLAR PARALLAX,

In an elaborate paper, given in fullin the American
Journal of Sczence, for November, Professor William
Harkness draws the following conclusions :—

For convenience of reference the limiting values of
the solar parallax, found by the various methods de-
scribed in the foregoing pages, are presented here. It
should be remarked, however, that in selecting these
values the results of all discussions made prior to 1857
have been omitted; except in the case of the transit of
1761, and the smaller of the two values from the transit
of 1769.

I.--Triganometrical methods.

Mars, meridian observations ...... 8".84 — 8".96

4 diurnal observations........ 8.60 — 8.7
IAL SEELOIGS wa iare toe ty acts ENE ee oie 8.76 — 8.88
Dyansit ofiVents; 1700. -.ccten es ceer 8.49 — 10.10
mee Fe T7OOs seine 8.55 — 8.91

. of hel Worn pas eee Be 8.76 — 8.85

I].—Gravitational methods.

Mass of the earthy... oo ic).ccreciis ane S toy mee) O07,
Parallactic Inequality.............. 8.78 — 8.91
Lunar Aneqiality., .cemea cil eta 8.66 — 9.07

III.—Photo-tachymetrical methods.

Velocity and light equation......... 8".72 — 8".89
Velocity and Aberration............ 8.73 — 8.90

To obtain a definite value of the solar parallax, it
would now be necessary to form equations of condition
embodying the relations between the various elements in-
volved; to weight these equations; and to solve for it
by the method of least squares. But what is the use?
It is perfectly evident that by adopting suitable weights,
almost any value from 8".8 to 8’.9 could be obtained,
and no matter what the result actually was, it would al-
ways be open to a suspicion of having been cooked in
the weighting. We only know that the parallax seems
to lie between 8’.75 and 8".90, and is probably about
8".85. Attack the problem as we will, the results clus-
ter around this central value. All the methods give a
probable error of about +0"’.06, and no one of them
seems to possess decided superiority~over the others.
We have nearly exhausted the powers of our instru-
ments, and further advance can only be made at the
cost of excessive labor.

In the beginning of the eighteenth century the uncer-
tainty of the solar parallax was fully two seconds ; now
it is only about 0".15. To narrow it still further, we re-
quire a better knowledge of the masses of the earth and
moon, of the moon’s parallactic inequality, of the lunar
equation of the earth, of the constants of nutation and
aberration, of the velocity of light, and of the light
equation. All these investigations can be carried on at
any time, but there are others equally important which
can only be prosecuted when the planets come into the
requisite positions. Among the latter are observations
of Mars when in opposition at its least distance from the
earth, and transits of Venus.

In 1874 all astronomers hoped and believed that the
transit of Venus which occurred in December of that
year would give the solar parallax within o’.or. These
hopes were doomed to disappointment, and now, when
we are approaching the second ‘transit of the pair, there
is less enthusiasm than there was eight years ago. Nev-
ertheless the astronomers of the twentieth century will
not hold us guiltless if we neglect in any respect the
transit of 1882. Observations of contacts will doubt-
less be made in abundance, but our efforts should not
cease with them. We have seen that the probable error
of a contact observation is +0".15, that there may always
be a doubt as to the phase observed, and that a passing
cloud may cause the loss of the transit. On the other
hand, the photographic method cannot be defeated by
passing clouds, is not liable to any uncertainty of inter-
pretation, seems to be free from systematic errors, and is
so accurate that the result from a single negative has a
probable error of only +0".55. If the sun is visible for
so much as fifteen minutes during the whole transit,
thirty-two negatives can be taken, and they will give as
accurate a result as the observation of both internal con-
tacts. In view of these facts, can it be doubted that the
photographic method offers as much accuracy as the
contact method,-and many more chances of success ?

The transit of 1882 will not settle the value of the solar
parallax, but it will contribute to that result, directly asa
trigonometrical method, and indirectly through the grav-
itational methods with which the final solution of the
problem must rest. As our knowledge of the earth’s
mass may be made to depend upon quantities which con-
tinually increase with the time, it will ultimately attain
great exactness, and then the solar parallax will be known
with the same exactness. Long before that happy day
arrives the present generation of astronomers will have
passed over to the silent majority, but not without the
satisfactien of knowing that their labors will contribute
to that fullness of knowledge which shall be the heritage
of their successors,

SCIENCE. 563

EPHEMERIS OF THE SATELLITES OF MARS | _ DEIMos.
FOR THE OPPOSITION OF 1881.* Pie S3
° By H.S. PRITCHETT. Date. er baal lie Dist. |) Dare. Be he eg Dist.
Owing to the greater distance from the Earth and the £8 is Taghaes 28 ee
Sun, the present opposition of Mars will not be so favor- | ees eae ee SEs
able as the two preceding ones ; still these distances will | H, M. \ H. M
be sufficiently small to permit many useful observations pes | ee ie seilitar1@ lek BON
of physical phenomena, and, in the case of large tele- | w ee eicaees || eal Be
scopes, observations of the satellites. In one respect, the BN Vl dg ge || Senne peer 24| E
4 5 : W | 20 14 | 250°.2 | 52”.4 || 25 | W
planet is much more favorably situated than in the Oui ein |e 25 ieee = |e E
former oppositions referred to, since it reaches this year ad ee Nee ee i
a declination of 26° north, and hence will be observed at mu ry | a 47 | ----- ---- - ~
a much higher altitude. Physical observations, either 12| W he 3 ea 29 | W |
measures or drawings, by amateur astronomers with 3) Wy aes 30 W
good glasses, if carefully made and published, will be aM e lee | zs E
useful when finally reduced and compared. alls 2 = Riso eee
- During the last opposition several series of micrometric 17 A pee | 2 ee
measures of the diameter of the planet were made by ob- Su). ot eon ee 1a eae | aE
servers with good telescopes which showed curious dif- ve 2 lesageh eeeaalt ees cee
ferences both between themselves and when compared seal Shad hed state ule oce 5 fr |
with the results obtained from the heliometer. Some of piel A [ACuSAi Roa =| W
these measures seemed to show an appreciable flattening | ~~ = 3
at the poles, while others showed no such flattening. It SEED

will be interesting to have these measures repeated dur- arse
ing the present opposition, with a careful discussion of | Date.) \y°4" fee Dist. || Dare. | yy. ae Dist.
the sources and effects of personal error. eA - es
The satellites were observed last opposition with at H. M. H. M.
least one of the large reflectors, with the great refractor eee eaten Sash aes Nima 325 esc eee
at Washington, with the 15-inch refractor of the Harvard 3 - Be | 2222+ Sa Sra Sade aealhy ea labs ae
; é Vo eee eee I 4 40 |. ------ ==<-5
College Observatory, and with the 12% inch refractor of Ta 3 cae | Jesee ete | Stet ar
the Morrison Observatory, and were seen with other in- BS aE WE oll) at 22 = te Re ete
struments. Before December Ist of this year the satel- Rh ctveg, Wises i soos, | area Range nine
lites will be considerably brighter than when last ob- eccrine | =-+- | elias Sip Sopa ae
i a | en ee --<-5 10.22" ||" sen. <- =<<=8
served in 1879 with the Harvard College refractor, and Leo. wt eee eee TO Al | ese ellie Boe
also brighter than when last observed with the Morrison Hesse ales ees ies lea
a : T2NA ON ||P iea ce a5 fos We eee Agenda
“=. _ Observatory refractor. It seems possible, therefore, that Are | Mai oe erage ry | ene 2 Fas a
they may be seen this year with telescopes even of mod- A SR eal eae DE meccore Na ese
é RSooes 223 “OG, |p Secciae sa24
erate size. Be te al cee 22-9 BAe 34 247-°3 0 2t".4
The following ephemeris (derived from the elements of oar etd eae A mtead ecco na iad
Prof. A. Hall, A. N. No. 2394) has been computed at the 3 “ie lle reas Basie Gate eee (ae
request of several observers, and will be found convenient A Mager ea 33/50. | ossr ree ie era
of ||. Baca === I} rip | ees [eens
for any who may wish to observe these satellites, In Seales 88 ee ---- || Boll pees 3) pene |
connection with the discussion of the relative merits of eee ie ae i || Sse vac
reflectors and refractors, excited by the observations of © liguee Sal Naseer | eaanats| Ba eee ae cane
these satellites, it may be interesting to many to try if eae SAM epee e5= x0)23 Baad
Sate ees 13}
they can see them. 2) 633 See Sistlh, eye evel eee: pe
In the case of Deimos, the outer satellite, the ephem- a sae eile ae wee ee
eris gives the Washington mean times of the east and E34 53h = -=- Ssce 939 | ------ ----
west elongations, together with the position-angle and esaeetacaer? Say ilyascreh 2 ee Biba ae
distance at the time of elongation. In the case of Phobos 14} 328. / ----- | ---- Pe) Se a Ne
ony the times of western elongations are given, as the sare | Cae ay pS | deca Sa
revolution time is very short and the times of eastern TP Eo eee eee eae 2 3 sf Trasae |ihee Sie
elongations may be obtained bya simple interpolation, Spat) lite sa es a aaa | pee) laters sss
The aberration time is not included in the time given, Pe 25 all eager Mea alk a iceMleac rg Lhtares
but it may be taken from the table at the end if desired, to 2 | ------ ---- 1410 | ------ ----
the effect of the aberration being to make the satellites NS ES a aaa | ee el pea cake
about five minutes late at each elongation. The relative ee aes A all ey ant pees |) bere
brightness on different days may be obtained from the 8 ne ae ar aap creat ogearin) aces aa
same table, taking the brightness on Nov. 20 as unity. POMC Pe ule = all =) age 3 Eye WN arc
As was shown by the observations of 1879, Prof. Hall’s EVEL 8 | Peasoee | === J] 19.43, | ----- ----
| elements are very nearly correct, so that the correction to 19 ba Hy erie | eae F erase Sy eee
| this ephemeris will be quite small. (ESE = iSiad j |vakete lf peers
i 22 BE |e Chas 7 yea) Nee ——
* Read before the St. Louis Academy of Sciences. i

SCIENCE.

Date. Brightness. Seu ees Beeeasen

| M.

Weetia.on ee a seme ae Se oe ee 1.15 7-3 exe)
B06 55 es oe 1.21 735 | 5.2

TACOS =e 1.24 7.6 5.0
7.0) Owe Seam Sone oe Sate se 1.26 TET 5.0
Alek asoe a= aoe eae Sener eres 1.24 7-7 5-0
Veins SOes55 ektiossqtisbsoresnase ses 1.18 7-6 — rar

From this it will be seen that Phobos, even on the
most favorable date, will be only about 14" distant from
the limb of the planet. In 1877 this satellite was ob-
served with the 12% equatorial of the Morrison Observa-
tory when only 7" distant. In the present opposition the
satellite will be much fainter, Lut on the other hand the
brightness of the planet will be considerably diminished.
It seems possible, therefore, that this satellite may be seen
with glasses of moderate size.

WASHINGTON UNIVERSITY, Nov., 1881.

ee

ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.*

By A. S. HARpy, Ph. D., Professor of Ma hematics, Dartmouth
College.

The American press may be expected to teem for the
next twenty-five years with elementary treatises on qua-
ternions, and as this work of Professor Hardy’s is, we
believe, the first of the series, it merits on this account
the more attention. The book hasa quite neat and at-
tractive exterior, and the mechanical execution is very

fair, though a few defects in letter press and engraving
are noticeable. The experiment of printing small Alphas

with an oblique line through them seems to be a failure.
See pp. 45 and 60.

We cannot think the title happily chosen. There is an
incongruity, if not positive impropriety, in assigning to a
scant text-book intended for beginners in the class-room
a name associated these fifteen years with the great and
classic work of Hamilton. This however, is a matter of
taste. One of the most important and difficult steps in
the logical development of the calculus of quaternions, to
which their inventor gave no little attention, is that of
assigning a versor power to avector, or of representing
rotation by a symbol that had hitherto been appropriated
exclusively to vection or translation. This, in the book
before us, is disposed of in a few lines, when, even ina
treatise where brevity must be studied, it is well worthy
of as many pages. There is, also, throughout the work,
an unfortunate fondness for the plane, where quaternions
are often at a disadvantage, and where their real power
and usefulness cannot be exhibited. The author may
have intended to thus avail himself of the student’s
greater familiarity with the geometry of the plane, while
introducing him toa new method; but it ought to be
borne in mind that one of the chief claims quaternions
have on the teacher of geometry is that they are specially
fitted to free the student from the too prevalent restric-
tion of his conceptions to two dimensions. A curious ex-
ample of this tendency of the book 1s afforded near the
end in applications to loci. Here the author systemati-
cally interprets equations as relating to the conic sections,
when in reality they frequently relate to quadrics of rev-
olution, the restriction to plane loci having been elimin-
ated in the process of their formation ; and when he comes
‘“‘to transform the proceeding equations into the usual
cartesian forms,” instead of substituting a trinomial for
the variable vector, he imposes a restriction to two dimen-
sions by adopting a binomial, and of course comes out
with a plane section in place of the surface itself. Not-
withstanding these imperfections, Prof. Flardy has evi-

* 8°, pp. VIII, 230. Boston, Ginn, Heath & Co., 1881.

dently studied his subject and written his book with some
care, and with a view to the requirements and opportuni-
ties of those for whom it is intended, and it will doubtless
prove useful as an introduction to quaternions,

ALEX. 8S. CHRISTIE.
U. S.CoAsT & GEODETIC SURVEY,
WASHINGTON, November 11, 1881.

LARGE FELESE€ORES.

PROFESSOR EDWARD C, PICKERING makes the follow-

ing suggestion in regard to mounting a telescope on a new
lan. He says:—‘ The small amount of work accom-

plished with large telescopes has often been the subject of
unfavorable comment, This criticism applies with espe-
cial force in America, where there are nearly a dozen
telescopes having an aperture of a foot or over, besides
two of the largest size now in course of construction, and
two of twenty-six and twenty-four inches aperture which
are unmounted and have been for several years perfectly
useless. Among so many it seems as if one might be
spared for a trial of the following plan, which, if success-
ful, would produce at a small expense far more work than
could be obtained with a mounting of the usual form.

Suppose that the telescope is placed horizontally at
right angles to the meridian, and that a plane reflector in-
clined to its axis by 45° is placed in front of it. This re-
flector may revolve around an axis coinciding with that of
the telescope. Such a mounting has been used in transit
instruments, and gives much satisfaction in the meridian
photometer of the Harvard College Observatory. The
principal difficulty with a large instrument would lie in
the flexure of the reflector. This difficulty has, however,
been overcome in a great measure in reflecting telescopes
by various ingenious devices. Inthe present case, since
the reflector rotates only around one axis instead of two,
the problem is much simplified. A slight motion at right
angles of perhaps 5° would be a great convenience, as
will be shown below, and would probably be insufficient
to materially affect the flexure. It may be said that it is
more difficult to make a plane surface than one that is
curved. But the principal effect of a slight curvature
would be to change the focus of the telescope, the aber-
ration being’ much less than the effect of the varying
flexure. Let us admit, however, that the best definition
cannot be obtained, in considering the purposes to which
such an instrument could be applied without disadvan-
tage.

Many advantages will be apparent on comparing such
a mounting with an equatorial. Great steadiness would
be secured, since the mirror would be the only portion
moved, and this would be placed directly upon a low pier.
Instead of a large and expensive dome which is moved
with difficulty, the mirror would be protected by a small
shed, of which the roof could be easily removed. It
would therefore be opened and ready for use in a very
short time, and would quickly take the temperature of the
surrounding air. The object-glass would be mounted
directly upon a second pier, and, as it would not be
moved, would be in very little danger of accident. The
tube could be made of tin or other inexpensive material,
as its flexure is of no importance. It could easily be pro-
tected from the changes of the temperature so trouble-
some in the tube of a large equatorial. If preferred it
might even be exhausted of air, or filled with hydrogen,
and the effect of the changes of temperature thus greatly
reduced,

The eyepiece could be mounted on a third pier, and
would be so far distant horizontally from the mirror and
object-glass that there 1s no reason that it should not be
inclosed in a room which may be warmed. The comfort»
in winter of working in a warm room will be appreciated
by those who have used a large telescope in a cold cli-
mate. The result is sure to be an increased precision in

SCIENCE.

the observations, and a possibility of prolonging them
over longer irtervals. A similar effect is produced by the
constant direction of the line of sight. No especial ob-
serving chair is needed. There is no limit to the size of
the attachments which may be made to the eyepiece,
since they need not be moved. This is a great advantage
in certain spectroscopic and photometric measurements.
A strong wind interferes seriously with many observa-
tions, as it is impossible to make a telescope so stiff that
it will not be shaken by sudden gusts. In the plan here
proposed the mirror alone is exposed, and its surface is
too small to give trouble.

By means of a long handle the position of the mirror
may be regulated from the eye-end, and the declination
of the object observed read by small telescopes. If the
mirror can be moved at right angles to the meridian 5°
from its central position, an object at the equator may be
followed for forty minutes, and other objects for a longer
period. Without this motion an object may be followed
for three or four minutes by moving the eyepiece alone.
Clockwork may be applied to the mirror, or less easily to
the eyepiece. The focal length may be increased almost
indefinitely if desired, and certain advantages will be thus
attained in the diminution in the defects of the object-
glass, although those of the reflector will not be affected.
If the telescope is to be erected at a great elevation the
advantages of the present plan are at once apparent.
Many nights of observation would be secured which
otherwise would be lost owing to the wind and cold.
The simplicity in the construction of the building would
be a great advantage, as a large dome in so exposed a
situation would be kept free from snow with much diffi-
culty, and might be a source of danger in winter storms.
If found impracticable to observe during the winter, it
would be possible to have a duplicate mounting below,
and remove the lens and mirror from one to the other.

It is evidént that the saving of cost would be very
great, not only in the observatory building aud dome, but
in the tube, observing chair, clockwork, &c.

If a reflector could be constructed whose surface was
the portion of a paraboloid whose abscissa equalled that
of the focus, the instrument could be much simplified.
No object-glass would then be required, the reflector
taking the place both of mirror and lens. All the light
intercepted by the objective would thus be saved, and
but a single surface need be adjusted and corrected.
With the advance in mechanical methods this does not
seem wholly impracticable, especially with a mirror of long
focus. Since the final correction must always be made
by hand, it makes but little difference what is the exact
form of the surface.

In any case it would be a great advantage that the
mirror could be reground, repolished, or resilvered with-
out moving it from its place. It would only be neces-
sary to place it horizontally, and the grinding machinery
could be kept permanently near it. If plane, the perfec-
tion of its form could also be tested at any time by setting
it on edge, and viewing the image it reflected by a colli-
mating eyepiece attached to the large telescope.
method would be to place a heliotrope a few hundred
yards to the north or south of it, and the light from this
would form an excellent artificial star, available whenever
the sun shone.

The greatest advantage is the rapidity with which ob-
servations could be made. No more time would be lost
in identification than with a transit instrument, so that a
large number of objects could be examined in the course
of asingle hour. Any one who has worked with a large
telescope knows how much time is lost in opening and
closing the dome and in finding and identifying minute
objects.

Let us now consider to what purposes a large telescope
mounted as suggested might be applied.

I. Sweeping. For the discovery of new objects this
mounting presents especial advantages. It might be used

Another -

565

for the detection of new double stars, of nebulz, of red
stars, or of objects having singular spectra, as planetary
nebula, banded stars, and variables of long period.
Suppose that the field of view had a diameter of some-
what over one minute of time, and that a small motor
was attached to the mirror which would move it uniformly
over 5° in declination in this time, and then bring it
quickly back to its first position. The observer would
then have presented to him a series of zones 5° long and
one minute wide. The sweeps should overlap by a small
amount, so that the entire region could be covered in a
single evening. The observer could have a few seconds
rest between each zone, while the motion of the mirror
was reversed. If an object of interest was suspected, it
could be located by merely noting the time at which it
was seen. The right ascension would be given directly,
and the declination would be found by interpolation from
the time of beginning and ending the sweep. An exami-
nation of the object and a determination of its exact
location should be made on another evening.

2. Measures of position. For many purposes positions
could be determined with this instrument as in a transit
circle. It would generally be better, however, to make
the measures differential, leaving the mirror at rest and
observing the transits of the object to be determined and
of two or more companion stars. The method of the
ring micrometer might be employed, or some modification
of that with inclined lines. In the latter case the zero of
position could be found by the transit of preceding stars,
by setting the reticule by a divided position circle, cr per-
haps better by keeping it in a fixed position, determining
the direction of the lines once for all, and applying a cor-
rection for the declination of the object observed. Stars
could be compared differing nearly a degree in declination,
as the eyepiece could be moved without danger of dis-
turbing the reticule. For the same reason the star could
be followed for three or four minutes, and its transit over
a great number of wires observed. It is here assumed
that the distortion produced by the mirror is not very
great. A slight distortion would do little harm, as it
would be the-same for all stars of equal brightness. If
the stars differ greatly in brightness, the observer should
determine his personal equation between them in any
case, and the same operation would eliminate the effect of
the distortion. The large aperture of the instrument
would permit the observation of stars quite beyond the
reach of any meridian circle. The faintest asteroids
could thus be readily measured, and could probably be
followed in many cases on successive evenings to their
stationary points. Zones of stars could be observed very
conveniently for the formation of charts or catalogues,
for the discovery of asteroids, stars with large proper
motion, &c,

Probably the definition could not be sufficiently good
for the measurement of the closer double stars, but. if
clockwork was attached, faint companions could be mea-
sured, or approximate positions of the coarser pairs de-
termined very rapidly. The positions of nebule could
also be observed with a view to detecting their proper
motion. Stars having a large proper motion might be
observed, and the observations so arranged that any very
large parallax would be detected. A similar search for a
large parallax of variable stars, short-period binaries,
minute planetary nebul, or stars having singular spectra,
might lead to interesting results. The argument that no
ordinary star is very near does not apply to_such objects.

3. Spectroscopy. The increased dimensions which
could be given to the spectroscope, and its steadiness,
would compensate in a great measure for a defect in
definition. By Zdllner’s reversion spectroscope the slit
might be dispensed with, and also the necessity of clock-
work, So many stars could be observed in a single even-
ing that systematic errors could be in a great measure
eliminated, and as the spectroscope would not be moved,
we should have a great assurance that the deviations were

566

SCIENCE.

real. Of the 6000 nebule hitherto discovered we know
nothing of the spectrum of more than 300 or 400, while
the observation of all the others with a large horizontal
telescope would not be a very formidable undertaking.
It would also be interesting to observe the spectra of all
the clusters. It is possible that some may consist of stars
having singular spectra, or even of disconnected nebulous
masses, in fact forming clusters of planetary nebule.
The interesting discovery by Dr. Copeland that Burn-
ham’s double nebula in Cygnus is gaseous, shows the same
tendency to aggregation in these bodies as in stars. Ob-
servations of the spectra of all the red stars and variables
would also probably lead to interesting results.

4. Photometry. Should the instrument be devoted to
photometry numerous problems suggest themselves.
Variable stars could be observed near their minimum
when too faint to be identified with an equatorial without
great loss of time. Faint stars in zones or faint com-
panions to bright stars could be measured very rapidly.
The relative light of all the asteroids would bean interest-
ing problem. Many coarse clusters appear to consist of
stars of nearly equal brightness. Their light compared
with their distances apart might aid our study of their
formation. Another useful investigation would be to
measure the brightness of all the nebule.

In the application of physics to astronomy doubtless
many other problems will suggest themselves. Thus no
satisfactory results have been obtained in the attempt to
measure the heat of the stars with the tasimeter. The
use of this instrument would be vastly simplified if it was
placed on a solid pier near the ground, was not moved
during the observation, and could be perfectly protected
from other changes of temperature than those which it
was intended to measure.

As either of the problems proposed above would occupy
the time of a telescope for at least one year, it is obvious
that there could be no difficulty in keeping such an instru-
ment occupied indefinitely.

The horizontal mounting is especially adapted to an
elevated position, and would permit the use of a telescope
where an equatorial mounting would be quite impractica-
ble. On the other hand, to an amateur, or for purposes
of instruction, an instrument which could be set quickly
from one object to another, and where the observers need
not be exposed to the cold, would offer many advantages.
The impossibility of observing far from the meridian
would be less important with a large instrument, where
the number of objects to select from is very great.

There are certain purposes to which this mounting
could not be advantageously applied. The study of close
double stars and other objects requiring long examination
and very perfect definition could be better left to other
instruments. The sun, moon, and planets can also
generally be better observed off the meridian. If, how-
ever, the entire time of -an instrument can be employed to
advantage, and it can collect several times as much
material as an instrument of the usual form, it is no
evidence against its trial that there are certain problems
to which it cannot be advantageously applied.

The working force required for such an instrument should
consist of at least one observer, an assistant to record, and
a number of copyists and computers to prepare the work-
ing lists, reduce the observations, prepare them for the
press, and read and check the proof-sheets. A large
volume of valuable observations could thus be produced
every year, which would require at least double the time
and money to produce by the same telescope mounted
equatorially. The difference in the amount of work will
be evident when we compare the number of objects ob-
served with a transit instrument per night, with those
observed with an equatorial. A hundred objects in vari-
ous declinations might be examined in a single evening,
while it is seldom that the same number could be identified
and measured by an equatorial in a week.

ON MAXIMUM SYNCHRONOUS GLACIATION.*
By W. J. McGEE.

In the development of knowledge of the cosmos, the
tendency has ever been to look at first upon all phe-
nomena as mystical and incomprehensible; and only
after repeated observation and much study has it been
decided that any class of phenomena may be the result
of the operation of.the identical laws whose existence is
established by every-day observation. Thus, in geology,
catastrophism prevailed long, but finally yielded to a
rational uniformitarianism; in general biology the idea
of special creation has only given way to that of deriva-
tion within the memory of a child; and in anthropology
the mystical view yet generally prevails. The narrow
domain of glacial physics, as embodied in the glacial
theory, is still in the transitional stage. When that
theory was first acceptably propoundedxby Agassiz, the
details were so vatied, the recognized relations so unique,
and the whole conception so grand and startling, that
even the more conservative of those who early became
its advocates, forgot for the time the necessity for keep-
ing all assumed data within the bounds of actual obser-
vation or legitimate induction; and hence not the least
valuable of the later contributions to the theory are those
which bring out its relation to established laws. Such is
the aim of the memoirs bearing the above title ; the par-
ticular phase of the subject discussed being that known
as the “ice-cap theory.”

The conclusion of Tyndall that such a supply of heat
as may be necessary to produce large quantities of
aqueous vapor, and an area of sufficiently low tempera-
ture to not only condense but congeal the vapor brought
to it, are the first requisites for glaciation, is adopted at
the outset; but it is shown that while the regions which
furnish and those which congeal the vapor may be con-
tiguous, they must be quite distinct. There is no other
substance than water in the solid state which will
abstract heat from the superfluitant vapor with such
facility as to form, when spread over the surface, a con-
denser of sufficient power to meet the requirement of
glaciation; and such a condenser must so far exceed in
capacity any tax that may ever be placed upon it, that it
will zzmmedzately condense and congeal all moisture that
may be brought to it by aérial currents; for if the vapor
is not immediately condensed it will cut off radiation
from the ice below, and thus accelerate melting ; and if
the vapor is only condensed but not congealed it will fall
as rain, and every pound of it will melt 143 pounds of ice
before it is itself frozen. The zntegrity of the condenser
hence depends on tts capacity being far in excess of the
work zt may be called upon to perform. Now if acon-
denser formed of an ice-sheet 1,200 or 1,400 miles in
diameter on any part of the globe be assumed, it is mani-
fest that the tendency of the accumulating ice will be to
form an annular belt of maximum thickness, gradually
attenuating toward the center of the area; for if the
vapor-laden air were not immediately robbed of its mois-
ture in sweeping over the condenser, the marginal por-

tions of the ice would soon be destroyed. But no matter ~~

how perfect the condenser, glaciation can never occur
unless there are ample quantities of vapor supplied to it ;
and the greatest possible accumulation of ice at any lati-
tude may accordingly be regarded as proportional to the
moisture conveyed thither, It follows that the greatest
possible accumulation of ice in polar regions can. never
have been nearly as vast as that at lower latitudes
during the quaternary ; and indeed it was probably never
much greater than at present. Geological evidence, so
far as accessible, corroborates this view.

Similar conclusions are reached by an independent line
of investigation. Within an extensive area covered by
ice or snow, both aérial and aqueous currents would be
either stopped or so modified as to be practically inopera-

* Reprint from Proceedings of the A. A. A. S., Vol. XXIX.

SCIENCE.

367

tive as distributors of heat. The temperature would
hence become approximately proportional to the solar
accession, which has been computed by Much for the
various latitudes, and may be roughly reduced to ther-
mometrical degrees by means of an easily determined
constant. Moreover the presence of the ice would
greatly facilitate both radiation and direct reflection of
solar energy. The general diminution of temperature
produced in this manner is calculated for each latitude ;
and from a comparison of these figures with actual tem-
peratures, as recorded by Dove, the temperature of the
whole hemisphere when the ice-sheet extends to any lati-
tude is also computed. From the several figures ob-
tained it appears that ifthe globe were encrusted with
ice, the crust would probably (and indeed almost cer-
tainly) never be melted unless by proper’terrestrial heat ;
while the temperature in polar regions, as well as over
much of the ice-covered hemisphere, would sink so low
as to practically eliminate all aqueous vapor and effectu-
ally prevent the further accumulation of ice. The annual
variations in solar intensity would not materially affect
the values obtained.

Since the results reached in the manner indicated em-
body values widely different from those of existing tem-
peratures, and are hence @ grzorz improbable, a detailed
investigation of certain meteorological phenomena is un-
dertaken in order to verify these results. The observed
and computed temperatures of the northern hemisphere
are fifst compared, and are found to indicate that the
temperature-equalizing agencies are I.5 times as effective
in summer as in winter. The effect of atmospheric dry-
ness in diminishing the effectiveness of these agencies is
then found to be still greater. The values developed in
the investigation of this subject demonstrate that the
climatal perturbations previously pointed out as the
necessary result of the considerable extension of a polar
ice-sheet do wot differ in kind, but only in degree, from
those whose constant occurrence is a matter of author-
itative record; and analogy with observed phenomena
moreover indicates that the calculated extent of these
vicissitudes is in perfect harmony with the magnitude of
the formulated course.

The figures obtained incidentally demonstrate the
existence of an empirical meteorological law, which may
be stated as follows: <Any cucrease in thermometri-
cal range 7s accompanied by a diminution in mean
temperature, Since the law strongly corroborates the
results reached by the second line of investigation, it
is quite fully considered, especially in its application to
the present eondition of the two hemispheres. That
hemisphere whose winters occur in aphelion experiences
a greater variation in solar accession and consequently
in temperature than the opposite one, and hence, accord-
ing to the law, ought to have a lower mean annual
temperature. The southern hemisphere is so situated
at present; and accordingly, notwithstanding more
favorable geographical and other conditions, its tem-
perature is lower than that of the northern hemisphere.
The bearing of the law on Croll’s celebrated theory of
secular variations in terrestrial climate is manifest.

Since it is developed in both lines of investigation
that the accumulation of glacier ice is dependent upon,
and in a general way proportional with, precipitation,
the maximum accumulation at any latitude may be
roughly computed. The final determination is as follows :

BERETA Oc ret, ic 2iy's, 4 10's Yacines AO 18,594 feet.
Gee re cea te dae een Ye ee ATTA
SEE OO ree, 82m oti gainer na emab ar ot iy A
MN LOM Phe se he hayes) 3 Sasi woke ea a Me amon pete s 7)$219,0) U-
SOM ers terete t WE aes Agta ees AS 1,799 “
ss Marie ayoir=ovre.0) Wisvate'e ols telonennie atatener® 1,440 “

It may accordingly be concluded that a sufficient
accumulation of polar ice to displace seriously the
earth’s center of gravity, or to influence the motion of

middle-latitude glaciers, never can have taken place.

The nature and course of ice motion are discussed
at some length; and the phenomenon is shown to be
analogous to those exhibited by all classes of sub-
stances, though generally in a less striking degree.
The “viscous theory’ of Forbes is adopted with some
modifications ; and the principal objections thereto are
considered. It is also pointed out that ice-streams are
necessarily in tension, and hence that the central mass
of an ice-field can exercise an influence on the motion
of its peripheral portions. The assumption of a vast
polar ice-cap to explain the motion of the quaternary
glaciers accordingly appears to be not only unneces-
sary but incompetent.

——<——$_<9—__—__—___—.

GLUCOSE.
By ALBERT E. EBERT, PEORIA, ILL.

The process of making glucose, or grape sugar, is as
follows: corn, after being shelled, is-placed in large tubs
and soaked in hot water from a day and a halt to five
days, or even longer, the time depending on the hardness
of the grain. If fermentation is not wished, the water is
changed when the substance begins to sour. It is then
ground, while wet, with ordinary burr stones, and with
a stream of water running into the hopper with the corn.
The meal, or “chop,” is then run-on vibrating sieves,
made of fine silk bolting cloth, also fed with streams of
water. By this treatment the starch, which washes
through the sieves, is separated from the gluten and cel-
lular matter, which waste portions go over the tail of the
sieves, and after passing through rollers which squeeze
the mass, and return the water to the sieves, is sold for
feed. The portion which went through the sieves is run
into tanks and settled, the water drawn off and the sedi-
ment again mixed with clean water and treated with
alkali, about one pound of caustic soda, (more or less,
according to the hardness of the water), being used for
each bushelofcorn. This treatment separates any traces
of gluten from the starch, which is then run into metal-
lined troughs or gutters about eight inches deep, from
fifteen to thirty-six inches wide, and usually from one
hundred to one hundred and fifty feet long. These are
inclined slightly, and the water runs off at the lower end,
leaving the starch as a sediment at the bottom. Insome
factories this starch mixture goes direct from the sieves
to the gutters or “tables,” as they are usually called. It
is left to dry somewhat in the tables, and is then shoveled
out. At this stage of the process it is known as “green
starch.” It is quite solid, but moist, containing about
fifty per cent. of water,

Up to this point the process is the same as starch-mak-
ing. Starchmakers take the green starch and wash it,
some several times, by mixing it with clean water and
allowing it to settle, then drawing off the water, and re-
peating the process. It is then sometimes bleached by
chloride of lime or sulphurous acid, and after washing,
settled, made into blocks about eight inches square, when
it is dried in a kiln. For the finer grades, about half an
inch of each side of the cake is shaved off when partially
dry, the rest of the cake being wrapped in paper and put
back into the kiln until it forms into little sticks or pipes.

For glucose, however, the green starch is made quite
thin with water, and run into converters, usually after
several additional washings. The converters are large
wood tanks or tubs, where it is treated with acids, sul-
phuric being usually used, although muriatic, nitric, or
even oxalic may be substituted. Sulphuric is preferred,
as it is cheap and easily gotten rid of in an after stage of
the process, when it has performed its work. The acid
does not combine with the starch, but merely exerts a
catalytic action ; therefore the necessity of providing for
its removal. While under the acid treatment the con-
tents of the converters are heated to the boiling point by

563

SCIENCE’

means of steam pipes coiled inside the tubs, or by steam
jets. Some use pressure converters, which are iron or
copper tanks like a boiler, when the conversion is much
quicker. The operator makes frequent chemical tests
to determine when the starch is entirely converted into
sugar, and when this is accomplished the mixture is
drawn into another vat where the acid is neutralized
with some form of carbonate of lime, as marble dust,
chalk or whiting. The liquid is sometimes bleached by
the use of sulphurous acid at this stage of manufacture.
It is now a very dilute solution of glucose, and besides
incidental impurities, contains sulphate of lime formed
by the action of the sulphuric acid on the carbonate, and
whatever carbonate of lime was used in excess of the
sulphuric acid present. These are separated by straining
through cloth or bag filters and afterward percolating
through columns of bone charcoal, eight or ten feet deep.
When decolorized, it is drawn into the “ vacuum pan,”
which is a large, strong tank of iron or copper, with
steam pipes coiled inside for heating, and from which the
air is partially exhausted by an air pump, and in which
the syrup is boiled down at a temperature of 100° to
to 145°. When concentrated to.a specific gravity of
about 1400 it is drawn off and again strained or filtered,
and is ready for the market as glucose, this being ihe
commercial term for the syrup only. The term grape
sugar is applied to the dry glucose, and this is produced
by carrying the conversion further before neutralization.

The syrup is used, principally, for mixing with dark
colored cane syrup for making light colored table syrups
(nearly all the table syrups now sold contain it, and fre-
quently from 75 per cent. to even a larger quantity), and

also in making wine, ale, beer and vinegar. On a smaller
scale it is used in tobacco manufacture, the adulteration
of honey, fruit preserving, etc. Both the solid and liquid
forms are largely used in candy making, for which it has
several marked advantages. A syrup is prepared expressly
for this use, in which the conversion of the starch into
sugar is only partial, the syrup containing, of its solid mat-
ter,about eighty per cent. of the intermediate product, dex-
trin, and twenty-of glucose. The large consumers of
glucose require slightly different syrups. Wine growers,
tor instance, use a syrup free from dextrin. Brewers de-
sire a very small proportion of it, to give body to the
beer, while vinegar makers use a syrup free from gum.
The dry glucose, or grape sugar, seems, aside from its
legitimate use in candy making, to be most largely in de-
mand for the adulteration of cane sugar. No objections,
save of a moral and financial nature, can be urged against
this, but it is well to remember that for its value asa
sweetener, compared with cane sugar at ten cents per
pound, glucose is worth but fourcents. So much has been
written against the manufacture of glucose, on account of
its use as an adulterant of cane sugar, thatit is, perhaps,
only just to say that it is certainly the least objectionable
of any of the articles used for that purpose. It is
perfectly wholesome, being in fact the physiological
sugar, and has about two-fifths the sweetening power
of cane sugar, which is more than can be said of terra
alba, starch, bone dust, sand, etc., while its most
probable impurity, calcium sulphate, can, from its in-
solubility, be present only in minute quantity, probably
not more largely than in most potable waters, and is
not in any sense noxious.— The Druggést.

METEOROLOGICAL REPORT FOR NEW YORK CITY FOR THE WEEK ENDING NOV, 1g, 1881.

Latitude 40° 45’ 58" N.; Longitude 73° 57’ 58” W.; height of instruments above the ground, 53 feet ; above the sea, 97
feet ; by self-recording instruments.

BAROMETER,

THERMOMETERS.
MEAN FOR | ,
Sa Se. MAXIMUM. MINIMUM. MEAN, ; MAXIMUM. MINIMUM. |MAXI'M
NOVEMBER. ; | | |
Reduced | Reduced Reduced y
mato to. Time. to | Time. aan ee ae Time. | a Time. Le Time. Ms Time. InSun
Freezing.| Freezing. Freezing. | |
Sunday, 13--| 29.636 29.790 |I2 p.M.| 29.542 I a.m-| 51.6! 49.0| 59 |o0 a.m.) 58 loa.m.| 42 |r2 P.m.| 42 |12 p.m.) 115.
Monday, I4--| 29.937 30.002 9 p-m.| 29.790 | o a.m.| 46.3 | 43.6] 53 2p.m.| 48 2p.m./ 40 | 5 a.m.j 40 | 5 a.m,./ £06.
Tuesday, 15--| 30.214 39.442 [12 p.m.| 29.976 Ia.m.] 41.3 | 38.3 406 |4a.m.| 43 3.a, m.|' (36) |S a. mil s¢5 (5S) alam. toss
Wednesday, 16 -| 30.500 30.550 |g a.M.| 30.442 o a.m.| 39.7 | 38.0 | 45 4 p.m.| 41 4pm. 33 6a.m.; 33 | 6a.m.| 10r
Thursday, 17--| 30.327 30.464 oa.m.| 30.138 |12 p.m.| 47.6 | 45.7 55 a) pst sr | aape wei ea7 | 8 a.m 37 8 a.m.) tro
Friday, 18--| 29.869 30.138 | 0 a.m.| 29.690 |12 p.m.| 58.3 | 55.6 61 2p.m.j 58 |r12 p.m.| 52 |oa.m.|] 50 | 0 a.m. 82.
Saturday, 19--| 29.669 20.798 |12 p.m.| 29.600 I p. m,} 50.3 | 49-3 61 oa.m.| 58 |oa.m.} 45 |12 p.m.| 43 {12 p.m. 62.
: | Dry. Wet.
Mean:for the; week="52—- ese eee ae ena --. 30.021 inches. | Mean for the week..-.-.------.--- 47.00 CPV EES oe aa eee 45.6 degrees.
Maximum for the week at g a. m., Nov. 16th_-_.- 830/550 eine Maximum fonthe week,at 2 pm. 18th 61. ‘* at 12pm r8th, 58. Se
Minimum re at 1a.m., Nov. x3th-__-- EtS 29/542. Minimum “ ‘* 6ain. 16th 33. ‘“ at 6am 16th, 33. Ao
ANPOs 3.2 Se sees ceo eee ee ee 1.008 ‘* Range ‘‘ Pie eh SO ng eae a en ee 25. hag
WIND HYGROMETER. CLOUDS. RAIN AND SNOW, i
FORCE IN
: VELOCITY RELATIVE CLEAR, ° DEPTH OF RAIN AND SNOW | °
MIELE INUMILES,|| oe (MO): OF VAFOR:| JUMIDITY. OVERCAST. 10 IN INCHES.
SQR. FEET. So a Gis reo a
—~ 5 | | - . . es | - 7 . |
NOVEMBER, Sees a) a; @fe[eye| 2 | & | & | Tipe) Dam |e
|7 a.M.|2 p. m.|9 p. m. forthe =| Time. a a | os | | ax a | a oF Begin-| End- tion, g =lro
Day. a é a a| nia a NS | Gh a) oa ‘ning. ing. -™, as
| |
Sunday, 13-|W.S. W.|W.1.W,| W. n.w.| 241 | 7 | 3.00pm) .389 | 282 .275| 93 | 62 | 92 lo (Gir rSaelOu ered eee neta! eet | aa
Monday, 14-|W.S.w.| Ww. |e. ne. 197 | 7%) 3.30pm) .235 | .269 .251 | 91 66 | 84 jo \7eircu-lo = 5 Se eee ee fees
Tuesday, 15.|W n.w.|n.n. w.| n. Ww 369 19%) 7.30 am| 190 | «286 | :203 1 74467 182 7CU Nace) | Ons a) ea eres | -- | 2
Wednesday,16_| n. w. |W.S.W w. 143 1 | 2.00pm| .188 | .208 | .231 |100 | 75 | 83 0 jo JO | wnnwe | ----= | ----- ae Aue
Thursday, 17-| Ss. s. Ss. S.W. 170 | 4%) 9.30pm) .229 | .295 | .234 |100 | 73 | 86 0 1s. laCis 2 haan Ieee eee | -- | 2
Friday, 18.| S. W. |W.S.W./S. S. W. 258 5411 15 am| .362 | .412| .456| 86 | 77 | 88 |g cu. ig cu. IQ oe > |) Samer eee eee ase ANE
Saturday, 19-|n.n.e.| n. n. Ww. 118 6}| 8.00 pm! .335 | .374 | -309 | 92 |100 | 85 \9 cu. jgcu. 10 5:15pm, gpm) 3.45 | 03 | 3
| | xl | l se we |
Distance traveled during the week.--...-.--.-.-..-.------ 1,496 miles. Total amount of water for the week--..------------------------ 0.05 inch.
MAaxim Gin LON COs ae ean eee ea ee oe ee 19% lbs. Duration (of tain. == 2.2. 3-2 on eae eee eee 3 hours, 45 minutes

DANIEL DRAPER, Ph. D.

Director Meteorological Observatory of the Department of Public Parks, New York,

~~

SCIENCE.

Poe eE NG E :

A WEEKLy Recorp oF SCIENTIFIC
ProGRESs.

JOHN MICHELS, Editor.

THRMS:
PER YEAR, - Moe - - Four DoLLArs
6 MoNTHs, - - - - Two ie
“ce as = ra ONE “ce
SINGLE CoPIES, - - - - EN CENTS.

PUBLISHED AT
TRIBUNE BUILDING, NEW YORK,
P, O. Box 8888.

LONDON, ENGLAND, - - -. - 150 LEADENHALL SY’.

SATURDAY, DECEMBER 3, 1881.

SUGAR ANALYSIS*

This is an admirable manual of sugar analysis, and
will prove a great boon to everyone engaged in sugar
work. The resumé of the chemistry of the sugars
with which the book opens is of especial value to the
student who wishes to get a clear idea of this compli-
cated subject. Perhaps it had been desirable to have
had the book delayed a little longer in order to have
incorporated the results of the last year’s study in
sugar analysis, but this objection would obtain equally
against any book published at any time. Another
valuable feature of the book is its collection of tables
referring to all conditions of sugar analysis, viz,
specific gravities, solubilities, etc. The author is
careful to cite authorities for his statements, and thus
anyone wishing to pursue any given topic further can
readily do so without being at the trouble of hunting
up each theme for himself.

There is, however, a vast mass of French and
German literature on certain sugar compounds which
might be very appropriately drawn upon in an exhaus-
tive study of the chemistry of sugar, and which is of
no use whatever to the analyst. There is much of
this in the book before us, and while it detracts noth-
ing from its merit as a help to the analyst, it certainly
adds nothing to it.

That portion of the work which is devoted to the
description of the optical examination of sugars is to
be highly recommended. We have, however, used
for three years a Schmidt & Hansch polariscope, and
were therefore a little startled to read “ordinary lamp
light, and not the monochromatic flame, is required.”

We doubt very much whether, in testing the accu-
racy of the scale of a polariscope, quartz plates of vari-

* Manual of Sugar Analysis, by J. H. Tucker, Ph. D,, Van Nostrand,
New York, 1881.

569

ous thicknesses are better than solutions of pure
sugar. First of all, the plates themselves would have
to be tested, and this would require as much work
and trouble as testing the scale directly with sugar
solutions. If quartz plates could be secured which
were absolutely accurate, of course this objection
would not occur.

Among the sources of monochromatic light the
author omitted to mention the new double burner of
Laurent, which leaves nothing to be desired in the
steadiness and intensity of the sodium flame.

There is one statement which the author makes in
a note (p. 137) on Clerget’s method of analysis that
seems calculated to mislead. It is: “it must be re-
membered that the process is entirely inapplicable
when any optically active body is present besides cane
or invert sugar, and also if the invert sugar
itself exists in an inactive condition as regards
polarized light.” In point of fact, any opti-
cally active body may be present without rendering
the process inapplicabie, provided it is not affected by
the process of inversion. Thus, by Clerget’s method
we can accurately determine cane sugar in the pres-
ence of dextrose, maltose and glucose. In polarizing
an inverted cane sugar, too, metal tubes should be
used, since the temperature is more accurately ob-
tained from an external thermometer than in a glass
tube.

The author’s directions for estimation of raw sugar
and syrups are those which are generally recommended
and employed. The description of these methods is
full and admirably arranged. In fact, this praise can
be bestowed on every part of the work. The only
trouble about the methods is that if applied to the
ordinary syrups of commerce they will give the most
alarming errors.

The great fault of the work, in fact, is found in its

failure to give reliable methods for the examination of
the mixed sugars and syrups which are on the market
to-day.

Perhaps, however, we should not say this is a fault
of the book, it is rather a fault of science. To deter-
mine cane sugar, invert cane sugar, dextrose, dextrine,
and maltose exactly, is a great problem which the
author leaves untouched and which demands the care-
ful attention of sugar chemists.

In papers read before the A. A. A. S., at the Boston
and Cincinnati meetings, and published in the pro-
ceedings for the Boston meeting and in this JOURNAL,
Nos. 65 and 66, Prof. Wiley. has shown the relation
between rotating and reducing power in commercial
starch sugars and also a Series of determinations of
cane sugar in mixed sugars.

Since the polariscope has grown to be the chief in-
strument in sugar analysis and starch sugars and
syrups a common article of commerce and consump-
tion the omission of any reference to those papers is
a matter to be regretted.

57°)

NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES,
November 7, 1881.
REGULAR BUSINESS MEETING.

The President, Dr. J. S. Newberry, in the Chair.

Twenty-nine persons present.

A paper by Prof. P. T. Cleve, University of Upsala,
Sweden, was read, by Prof. D. S. Martin, entitled

OUTLINES OF THE GEOLOGY OF THE NORTHEAST-
ERN WEST INDIA ISLANDS.

(Abstract.)

Prof. Cleve’s paper contained a resumé of his obser-
vations made during 1868-9, in and around the Virgin
Islands, and published in the Swedish language in the
Trans, R. Acad. Scz. of Stockholm, in 1871. He re-
gards the whole group as of Cretaceous and Tertiary
age, with the exception of Anegada, which, like the
Bahamas, is post-pliocene.

The strike of the rocks, and the trend of the entire
group, are approximately east and west. The rocks are
various, largely eruptive and metamorphic. Of these,
Prof. Cleve discussed somewhat fully the character and
distribution of the following kinds :—1, Diorite; 2, Fel-
site; 3, ‘‘Blue-beach” (a peculiar volcanic breccia,
locally so-called); 4, Diabase. ~

All these rocks have great thickness, and indicate long-
continued volcanic activity. Asin modern lavas, they
present two types, basic and acidic.

Metamorphic slates are next described; and then a
partly metamorphic limestone, occasionally with recog-
nizable fossils, sufficient to fix the age as certainly Cre-
taceous. ;

Santa Cruz Island is then described, and referred to the
same series as the Virgin group. All these islands thus
indicate, by their east and west strike, and the great up-
turning of their rocks, that they were formed by a north
and south pressure, forcing the Cretaceous and asso-
ciated volcanic beds into a great line of anticlinal and
synclinal folds. This period seems to have, been about
that of the white chalk; but the force continued to act
during the succeeding Eocene time, though with dimin-
ishing intensity, as is shown by the less inclination of the
Eocene beds. The Miocene strata are little disturbed,
and the force would therefore seem to have spent itself
by that period.

Prof. Cleve then refers briefly to the occurrence of
similar metamorphic and volcanic rocks in the interior of
the Great Antilles, and regards the entire series as hav-
ing been formed by the same general movement of
Cretaceous folding, the Virgin Islands forming the east-
ern extension of the line of elevation.

The Eocene strata are then taken up and discussed, as
they occur in the islands of St. Martin and St. Barthol-
omew, just east of the Virgin group. Professor Cleve
regards these islands as wholly of Eocene age, claiming
that the eruptive rocks of which they mainly consist, are
znterstratified with the limestones, which contain fossils
of the age of the Calcaire Grossier, of the Eocene of
Paris. He then traces the occurrence of Eocene strata
in Antigua, Guadaloupe, parts of Trinidad, and largely
in Jamaica; and re-affirms his conclusion that the move-
ment which raised the Great Antilles and the Virgin
islands continued during the early Tertiary, though with
lessening force. ;

The Miocene formation is then considered. It forms
the smallisland of Anguilla, and occurs on several of the
islands, south to Trinidad; but has immense develop-
ment in the Great Antilles. It is chiefly a limestone
series, is generally little altered from a horizontal posi-
tion, and at times may be seen resting uncomformably on
the Eocene. By this time, evidently, the disturbing
movements had ceased to make themselves felt.

The later Tertiary rocks, Pliocene and Post-pliocene,

SCIENCE.

have not been very clearly marked off from each other or
from the Miocene, But to the Post-pliocene period are
referred the Bahamas, Anegada, and the remarkable
series of volcanic outbreaks that characterize the islands
of Saba, St. Eustatius, St. Kitts, Nevis, Monserrat,
Guadaloupe, &c. On‘St. Kitts, Prof. Cleve describes a
limestone with over forty species of fossil shells, all but
one of which are identified with living species of the
Caribbean sea. The same is true of Anegada.

The elevation of the Miocene strata of the Great
Antilles took place apparently by a “continental” up-
lift, whereby large areas of marine deposit were raised
without folding or disturbance. Professor Cleve suggests
that this movement may have been accompanied by a
sinking of part of the sea-bottom in the Caribbean region
to the south-east, and that on the limit between the
areas of rise and of depression, fissures and faults may
have occurred, through which these volcanic outbreaks

of the Leeward islands found exit, in the Post-pliocene .

time. ’
DISCUSSION.

Mr. A. A. Julden confirmed the accuracy of these
petrographical distinctions of the rocks of the Lesser
Antilles, from the results of observation during a resi-
dence of four years on Sombrero and vicinity. The
island of St. Eustatia consists mainly of volcanic ashes ina
thick tabular and horizontal stratum with vertical faces
along its coast. This is flanked on the south end by a
volcanic cone with extinct crater, of which the bottom is
occupied by a plantain plantation, but the sides are bare,
and consist of a dark basaltic rock; and on the north
end by two lower cones, not visited but probably vol-
canic. On the island of Saba the rock is light colored,
rich in crystals of sanidine, and apparently a trachyte,
constituting a remarkably sharp volcanic cone, with its
sides deeply furrowed from top to bottom by eroded
ravines ; certain depressions upon the summit, resem-
bling craters, present in some localities sulphur deposits
which have been found of commercial importance.

However, the conclusion of Prof. Cleve, as to the
recent age and eruptive character of most of the crystal-
line rocks of this region, appeared surprising in view of
their metamorphic associates, and of their similarity to
those of the Archean areas identified by Hartt in Brazil.
It was a question whether a nucleus of Archean, or, at
latest, metamorphic pre-Silurian rocks, in general highly
tilted, does not form the axis of such islands as St. Mar-
tin, St. Barts, etc.

Prof. D. S. Martin questioned whether a correspond-
ing movement of disturbance should not be also found
in the Cretaceous strata of a region no farther removed
than that of the vicinity of our own Gulf coast.

Dr. J. S. Newberry remarked that the importance of
the subject of the age and origin of these crystalline
rocks still demanded their re-examination and a review of
Prof. Cleve’s conclusions by some worker of experience
in this peculiar field. One of the most interesting topo-

axis of elevation marked by the Windward Islands, separat-
ing the deep basin of the Gulf of Mexico on the one side
from the abyss of the Atlantic Ocean on the other. It pre-
sents a prolongation and connection of the mountain
chains which run along the eastern border of the North
and South American continents, in a course imperfectly
parallel to that on the western border of these con-
tunents, with the gulf lying enclosed between these two
great ranges. This axis has been the scene of violent
voleanic action and has been supposed to mark the
place of that mythical area of sunken land, styled
Atlantis by the ancients. The tradition long current,
recorded by Herodotus and others, points toa densely
populated land west of Europe, covered with cities, and
threatening the civilization of the Eastern hemisphere,
which was punished by the gods by being sunk beneath
> thesea. According to the recent observations of an

graphical features on this continent consisted in the line or

ae

SCIENCE.

English geologist, Mr. Thomas Belt, this legend may
have had some foundation in the former existence of a
continent, now submerged beneath the Caribbean sea,
through which the peaks represented by the Lesser Antil-
les, constituted a mountain chain. Local disturbances have
certainly affected this area, but we fail to find any evi-
dence of corresponding disturbance in the Cretaceous
strata of our southern States, except perhaps in con-
tinental elevations and depressions. Messrs. Guppy,
Gabb, and others have studied the rocks of the region,
but, up to this time, no one trained to the examination
of the difficult phenomena and problems under dis-
cussion. ’
Nov. 14, 1881.

The President, Dr. J. S. Newberry, in the chair.
Twenty-four persons present.
A paper was read by Dr. Alexis A. Julien on

THE EXCAVATION OF THE BED OF THE KAATERS-
KILL, N. Y.

(ABSTRACT.)

This paper was supplementary to one read before the
Academy two years ago, concerning the phenomena of
erosion, glaciation, etc., in the Catskill Mountains, in the
vicinity of the Kaaterskill Clove.

Flexure of Strata.—Prof. James Hall has indicated
the existence of four lines of flexure, running from N.E.
to S.W., the synclinals occupying the summits of ranges,
and Prof. Arnold Guyot locates one of these at Slide
Mt. The dips at the entrance of the Clove vary from 8°
to 10° to the W. N.W., becoming only 3° four miles to
the westward, z.¢., more nearly horizontal towards a
shallow synclinal fold supposed to occupy Hunter Mt.

One ot the most interesting discoveries of Guyot was
the linear series of three maxima of altitudes above 4000
feet, Slide Mt.; Hunter Mt. and Black Dome. The gen-
tle flexure of the whole stratum required to produce this
line of maxima may be thus shown in the range running
S.E. and N.W. through Hunter Mt., 35 miles long. To-
ward the S.E., the descent from the crest of Hunter Mt.
(Alt., 4038 feet), to Overlook Mt. (3150 feet), is 888 feet,
in 9% miles, equivalent to I in 56, or about 1°; toward
the N.W., from Hunter Mt. to Utsyanthe Mt. (3203 feet)
the descent is 835 feet in 25 miles, equivalent to 1 in 158,
or less than %°.

Another similar series of maxima, however, occurs fur-
ther to the westward, consisting of Graham Mt. (3886
feet), Bear-pen Mt. (3545 feet), and Ashland Pinnacle
(3420 feet), distant respectively 9, 12, and 15 miles west-
ward of the former series. This southward convergence
of the axes of these two folds may probably account for
the increased protuberance and greater elevations in the
Southern Catskills.

Newly determined altztudes—Many new determina-
tions havegbeen made of points in the vicinity of the
Clove by means of an excellent aneroid, with constant
reference to the numerous stations in the vicinity whose
altitudes have been accurately obtained by Guyot. A
few are here subjoined :

Feet.
Eotel Kaatersiill; on: South. Mt... steiav. onc dese wccecte sees 2466
RPA CNM EM SUUREATIEL Gov diefoceh Pesce nics serch) Wis, teks, oye sheisalt bye ate iens 2565

JETS eg SU FE 1g CG = ATE a A 2874
GERGre LI GMSe rere nee rc enc ek ctw cultetatet acne wes

2101
Newmanis:ledze; on North Mt. 2.20020) .n 2 oe es does ees 2486
Gap between E. and W. peaks, North Mt.................. 3116
‘Toll-gateron Vit. House) road’. 22. jc cece races ee sacecccducts 760

Glaciation of summzts-—All the crests near the Clove
have been now examined. On none above an altitude of
2900 feet have glacial striz been found, in part because
they consist of thinly laminated flags deeply disinte-
grated by frosts. The highest stria discovered were
found on Parker Mt., ‘High ledge” (2874 feet), run-
ning S. 18° W. (magnetic), and under the roots of a large
tree on the SE, slope of Round Top, at an elevation of

571

2871 feet, running S. 35° E. However, in all cases, a
matiked difference exists in the slope of different sides of
a peak, the E .and S.E. sides presenting a precipitous face,
and the other sides more or less of a gentle slope.

The highest striae yet found in the Catskills occur on
Overlook Mt.,-at an elevation of about 3100 feet, imply-
ing a depth of ice in the Hudson river glacier of about or
at least 3200 feet. Within the Kaaterskill basin, several
miles distant from the Hudson valley, the overflowing ice
stream became shallower, having an altitude of about
3000 feet. It thus appears that the surface of the glacier
inclined westward over these mountains, with a slope of
200 feet in 3 miles, 1 in 84, say about 14°,

The ccnclusions of the former paper have been con-
firmed by recent observation, viz., that two glacier streams
have swept over these mountains, the Continental Glacier
from the N. W., submerging and carvinz out the highest
peaks, and the Hudson Valley Glacier from the N., later,
more shallow, bearing along vast quantities of materials
derived from the crystalline and lower Silurian rocks of
the Adirondacks and of the Helderberg Mts., and strew-
ing the whole region with their boulders; and that no
local glaciers have existed in the Catskills after the retreat
of the Hudson Valley Glacier.

Tilting of the Catskill plateau.—In the previous pa-
per an explanation had been given of certain facts which
seemed to indicate that the whole formation had been
gently inclined to the East and then to the South-east,
before assuming its present W. N. W. inclination, at a
period far anterior to the Glacial epoch. A profile sec-
tion of the ancient Kaaterskill valley, was exhibited, reach-
ing from Haines’ Falls nearly to the junction of the N. and
S. branches of Schoharie creek, proving the gentleness of
the slope, the absence of rock, and the existence of a deep
and narrow buried canon, now filled up with moraine ma-
terial and a capping of peat.

A comparison of the altitudes of Prattsville (1164 ft.),
a point on the Western axis, 12 miles distant from the
Kaaterskill Clove, and of the lip of the stratum above
Haines’ Falls, (1857 ft.), at the head of the Clove, shows
that a depression of the latter point below a line connect-
ing these two points, even to the extent of a single de-
gree, would cause a descent of nearly 700 feet from
Prattsville to Haines’ Falls, z. ¢., toward the East. The
excavation of the deep Kaaterskill and Plaaterkill Cloves
could hardly have been effected by the small streams now
occupying their beds. It is more probable that the Scho-
harie creek formerly flowed, at a higher level, to the east
into the Kaaterskill Clove, and afterwards to the south-
east into the Plaaterkill Clove, before the latest tilting of
the plateau to the W. N. W. caused a reversal of the flow
of the stream, in the very opposite direction, through the
greater part of the same valley. An objection to this
theory presented itself in the obstacle which has created
a turn to the S. W. in the North branch of Schoharie
creek, near its junction with the South branch. But on
recent examination this was found to consist not of rock
but of a huge mass of coarse moraine material deposited
during the Glacial period on the southern slope of the
Schoharie valley.

Sculpture of the plateau.—In a terrane consisting of
strata which dip at varying and perhaps very high angles,
the carving out of ranges and production of ravines and
gaps may generally be assigned to the occurrence of
flexures, of dykes or faults, or of beds whose material is
unusually soft, fragile, or rich in minerals of easy decom-
position. But the problem of topographical sculpture is
less easily solved in a stratum like that of the Catskills
consisting of a regular succession of layers which are
horizontally homogeneous and from-which the phenomena
of disruption are absent. The original disintegration
and erosion of the mass which resulted in the produc-
tion of the ranges was perhaps mainly influenced by the
direction of the jointage. With this the trend of the
ranges in the vicinity ot the Kaaterskill Clove appears to

572

SCIENCE.

coincide. The ravines, cloves, and deepest notches and
valleys may be attributed to the streams of the present
hydrographical basins, or to those conaected with the
ancient eastward and south-eastward inclination of the
stratum already considered. But recent observatiors on
the juxtapos tion and coincidence of the highest gaps in
successive parallel ranges may possibly indicate the rem-
nants—in cross-section—of the beds of anc ent streams
at that level (about 3000 feet); this conclusion, if con-
firmed, would siguify an inclination of the plateau to the
N.N E. (or to the S.S.W.?) at a still earlier period, that
immediately succeeding its elevation.

Kames.—In the upper basin of the Kaateiskill, several
isolated hills of gravel, etc., occur at an altitude of 1924
feet, especially on the bank of the stream near the head
of the Clove, which are probably kames; their materials,
though largely angular, show traces of imperfect stratifi-
cation. Near “ Blythewood,” on the North branch of the
Schoharie creek, a curious conical and steep isolated
kame rises 102 feet above the stream, made up of
rounded pebbles of the Catskill! grit, rarely a foot in
length, overlying a layer of coarse moraine. Its elevation
above the sea (1944 feet) exceeds that of any other kame
yet observed, those of the Fintry Hills in England reach-
ing 1280 feet, and those of the Androscoggin Lakes, in
Maine, 1600 feet. A very interesting series of from eight
to twelve very low kames—like paralle] ridges, often
curving, made up of large rounded boulders——was also
found to follow the course of the Kaaterskill near Palen-
ville, in the Hudson Valley, at the mouth of the Clove,
at an elevation of about 700 feet; these probably mark
the course of the sub-glacial stream which issued from
the mouth of the Clove. The paper concluded with
observations on a deposit of Jaminated sand underlying
the ground moraine: on the feeble erosion of the slopes
of the Clove during the period which has elapsed since
the close of the Glacial epoch; and ona new section of
the strata of South Mountain obtained from a new road-
cutting.

DISCUSSION.

Prof. E. C. H, Day observed that one portion of Dr.
Julien’s remarks reminded him of an idea which had
struck him many years ago with regard to the surface
geology of a valley on the south coast of England, near
Charmouth, in Dorsetshire.

The stream in the valley referred to finds its way to
the sea through a narrow pass, which, as attested by the
rapid wearing of the coast line and its present configura-
tion, could only have been of (geologically speaking) very
recent origin. How the valley could have been drained
prior to the existence of this outlet was a question which
might be met by various hypotheses, and one of these
was that there might have been a slight unequal local
change of level, sufficient to have had the effect of tilting
the surface of the valley so that its waters were shed then
in a direction opposite to that which they now take.
This was nothing more than the veriest hypothesis made
many years ago, without any subsequent attempt at veri-
fication. It may suggest, however, the possibility of
such slight local changes occurring, in addition to the
greater movements already distinctly recognized, and the
desirability of careful investigation to discover whether
such may not be traced in the altered direction of streams
and in the existence of ancient and unused water
courses—even in our own neighborhoods. It may be
added that such local tiltings of paris of the earth’s crust
would necessarily influence the course of subterranean as
well as of subzrial waters, thus altering the distribution
and force of springs at the surface.

Dr. J. S. Newberry stated that the Catskills presented
a more complex bit of topography and geology, and one
that had been more discussed than perhaps any other of
similar area in the country. It was once supposed that
these mountains were composed of a single geological for-
mation, which, from this fact, was called the Catskill group;

and it was suppesed to be a detached table land, deeply
carved by erosion. The late Col. Jewett, of Albany, found
strata containing Chemung fossils in the Catskills, and
from this inferred that the mountains were composed of
Chemung strata. Prof. Hall and Prof. Guyot, with their
assistants, then made a careful study, running through
several years, of the topography and geology of all the
surrounding region. Their labors established the fact
that the Catskills are not an isolated mountain group, but
belong to the Alleghany system and are formed by a series
of folds or arches composed of the Chemung and Cats-
kill rocks. Of these folds, the convex arches, as is usually
the case, were cracked and broken and, therefore, yielded
readily to erosion, while the concave arches, protected
and solid, yielded less readily and, in time, by the wear-
ing away of their surroundings, were left in relief, form-
ing ridges with a synclinal structure. Hence it will be
seen that the topography of the Catskill region is chiefly
the resu!t of erosion.

So far as regards the changes of level from subterran-
ean causes, referred to by Mr. Julien, it would certainly
be strange if the foundations of the Catskills were proved
to be stable. The old name, “¢erra firma,” once applied
to the crust of the earth, is a complete misnomer, and it
is really a type of instability. Probably throughout the
globe local subsidence and elevation are constantly in
progress. In the interior of continents we have no evi-
dence or measure of these, but along coast lines the
water line tells us that changes are constantly and every-
where taking place, in the relative level of land and sea.
About New York thecoastis sinking, though very slowly,
while further north, in places, it is rising, and Greenland
is sinking again. Back from the coast there is no such
nilometer, and yet we have no reason to suppose that the
earth is more fixed. Some indication is given by the re-
ports of those who dwell in mountainous regions, of
changes of level, which have shut from their view that
which was before visible or revealed what was before con-
cealed , but these observations have not been made with
accuracy and cannot be depended upon.

In arecent paper before the Academy he had shown
the vast changes which had occurred along the coast in
this vicinity, viz., that the land once stood 600 feet
higher than at present: that the Hudson river had then
flowed by the city through a channel from 300 to 500
feet deep, now in large part silted up: that the Palisades
then stood from 700 to 800 feet above the river: that the
Housatonic then flowed through the East river into New
York Bay: that a sub-tropical climate then prevailed
throughout this region, with a varied and rich fauna and
flora, extending up even to the Arctic Sea: that then a
depression of the temperature and great change in the
climate ensued, with a corresponding alteration of the
fauna and flora; but that these changes were very slow
and progressive—the snows, which at first rested tem-
porarily upon the Catskill Mountain summits, became at
last permanent, and resulted in local glatiers. These
glaciers produced extensive erosion, cutting the channels
along which they moved, deeply. A partial obliteration
of their work then ensued through two agencies. First,
a continental glacier advanced southward, overtopping
all the mountains, grinding down the asperities of the
surface, fillng old valleys, and banking up a great mass
of debris along its margin—-a part of which is now
Long Island. Afterward. the climate becoming milder,
local glaciers were again formed similar to those which
preceded the great Glacier, and partially obliterated or
modified the results of the ancient erosion. It is a com-
plex problem now to distinguish between the phenomena
which have been respectively produced by all these
giaciers in varied succession, by the erosion of streams,
by flexures of the earth’s crust, etc. :

The excavating power of glaciers had been denied by
Prof. Whitney, but ice, hundreds of feet and sometimes
miles in thickness—as it was in the old glaciers—moving

SCIENCE.

with irresistible force, and having sand, gravel and boul-
ders beneath it, or frozen into it, was the most potent
agent of erosion known. The eroding power of the
ancient glaciers, which once reached southward to Tren-
ton and Cincinnati, was attested not only by the planed
down rocks, but by the immense sheet of transported
debris left by the glacier in its retreat.

The glaciated, planed, and polished rocks in the West-
ern States are generally covered by a thick layer of clay,
abounding in glaciated boulders. There are also other
water-worn materials which have been transported, per-
haps thousands of miles, representing the gravel bars,
sand beds, etc.» produced by sub-glacial rivers. A\)-
though the materials are entirely of glacial origin, all
the stones are here usually rounded. We find in these
deposits, called kames or eskers, the’evidences of the
action of running water produced by the melting of ice,
their accumulation in heaps, ridges, etc., having been
effected by local causes, waterfalls, streams upon or un-
der the ice, etc.

The finer material produced by the same grinding ac-
tion has been deposited along our coast in the vast masses
of the Champlain clays, . It is well known that the drain-
age of ali glaciers results in milky streams; e@..¢., those
which descend from the Alps impart an opalescence to
the Lake of Geneva, and the streams from the Cascade
Mountains are clouded with silt derived from the small
glaciers at their heads. So, during the Glacial period all
the fine material was sometimes washed out of the glacial
drift, leaving banks and ridges, kames, hogsbacks, etc., of

gravel and boulders, and carried by streams to the coast.

and there deposited along shore in the Champlain clays.
The fine flour and bran ground by the glaciers have been
sometimes referred to different epochs, but they are pro-
duced simultaneously. The Glacial or Champlain clays
are of great economical importance to the city as they are
the brick clays of Croton Point, Haverstraw Bay, and
other points along the Hudson. ‘Their thickness reaches
100 feet along the lower portion of the Hudson river, 400
feet on Lake Champlain, 500 feet at Montreal, 800 feet at
Labrador, 1000 feet at Davis’ Strait, and 1800 feet at
Polaris Bay. This indicates that the continent was de-
pressed to this extent at each of these points, that the
waters of the ocean extended through these valleys, and
that here was dead water into which the glacier drainage
flowed and was deposited.

In the vicinity of New York City it is evident that the
glaciers everywhere overrode and disregarded the under-
lying topography. All the surface of the island is strewn
with materials derived from the N. N. W., and the rock
’ has been planished and striated with grooves running in
that direction. The hills back of Yonkers are covered by
trap boulders which have been conveyed across the river
from the Palisade range on its western side, and it is plain
that the Glacier completely disregarded the depression of the
Hudson valley, filled it up to a greater or less extent with de-
érzs, and so rode smoothly over it. Afterwards this and the
other valleys were more or less cleared out by the present
streams, but a portion of their contents is generally left
in their beds, the tunnel between this city and Hoboken
being now driven in fact through a part of this clay de-
posit. On the east side of the city a narrow cafion, 300
to 400 feet deep, has been proved to underlie the East
River ; and it would have been a wiser and cheaper plan to
construct a tunnel through the clay bottom, for communi-
cation with Brooklyn, in place of the present costly and
to some extent insecure bridge.

Dr. Newberry finally expressed his interest in the care-
ful study of the erosion and sculpture of the Catskills and
desire for its continuance.

a!

Mrs. J. M. FISKE has left a bequest of $40,000, to es-
tablish a hospital for the use of the students of Cornell
University.

573

RINGING FENCES.*
By Pror. S. W. RoBINson, Ohio State University.

THIS sketch is mainly of a simple fact of observation.
My attention was one day suddenly arrested while walk-
ing ona hard road alongside a picket fence by the pecu-
liarity of the-sound which reached my ear.immediately
following each step. This sound was first noticed to be
very different from that perceived at other parts of the
sidewalk. On instituting an inquiry’ for the cause of this
difference the only one discoverable was.a change in the
construction of the yard fences along the sidewalk.

The peculiarity observed in change of sound was very
marked when passing from a portion of the sidewalk
opposite a board fence to parts opposite a picket fence.
In the former position a quick drop of the foot upon the
walk was accompanied by a simple sound or noise of
short duration. But when opposite the picket fence the
noise following each footstep was prolonged into a
curious musical tone of initial high but rapidly lowering
pitch, and with a duration of perhaps a quarter of a
second.

This singular musical tone following, and due to the
noise of a simple foot step, could only be accounted for
on the supposition that each picket of the fence reflected
the sound reaching it from the foot, the rapid succession
of which, from the several pickets of the fence, resulted
in the sound observed.

The duration of the sound reflected from the pickets at
each step is evidently due to the different distances of the
pickets from the ear of the observer, and the greater
length of time required for the sound to travel to and from
the more distant pickets. For instance, suppose the
observer is walking along a stone or mastic walk at a
a distance of eight feet from the fence, the latter
extending either way some distance along the street.
The sharp noise of the footsteps returns from the nearest
pickets first. Here the differences in distance from the
adjacent pickets is slight, and hence the succession of re-
flected noises is rapid. But from more remote pickets
the difference of distance is greater, and the succession in
reflection less rapid.

In studying the nature of the resulting tone itis at once
seen that the initial pitch is due to an almost infinite
number of reflections or vibrations per second, while at
the end of a quarter, or half, second the lines of advance
and return of the sound are nearly parallel to the fence
and hence the pulsations have an interval of time equal
twice the constant distance between pickets divided by
the velocity of sound. For instance, if the pickets be
four inches apart, or one-third of a foot, the terminal
pitch would be one of about 1500 vibrations per second
The law of retrogression of pitch may be of interest. To
express it as a function of passing time, let

d = distance from observer to fence.

@ = constant distance between pickets.

v = velocity of sound.

m = number of vibrations per second.

¢ = the time following the initiation of the reflected tone

Then by aid of a diagram we easily obtain the follow-
ing relation between the above quantities, viz,:

ire Ties : a?
4a nv (vt +d)?

The curve for this equation is not easily classified
But by computing quantities and constructing a curve it
is found to be very much like a hyperbola referred to its
asymptotes, which indicates that the pitch falls rapidly at
first, and less so subsequently.

Not only is the above described phenomenal reflection
observed in connection with fences, but from any series
of flat surfaces in steps, as, indeed, in the case of stairs
une Beet onsen: Such echoes have been ob-
served from the steps in front of
Gane O: p of the State House, at

*Read at A.A.A.S., Cincinnati,

574

THE AYE-AYE OR CHEIROMYS OF MADA-
GASCAR.

During the present year the Menagerie of the Botanical
Garden has been enriched by the addition of several rare
animals, and among others, by that of three Lemurs of
Madagascar belonging to the strange species commonly
called Aye-Aye, and scientifically Chezromys Madagas-
carzensts. The Museum of Natural History already
possessed in its collection, not only the same species,
obtained more than a century ago, by the explorer
Sonnerat, but also several specimens preserved in alcohol
or reduced to skeletons, which have been presented at
more recent dates by M. de Lastelle, M. A. Grandidier
and M. Meurand. The study of these different specimens
and of those which the British Museum has procured,
has at length led naturalists to the discovery of the true
affinities of the Aye-Aye, and has decided the place it
should occupy in classification, namely in the order of
Lemurs. But, before coming to this conclusion, there
was a great deal of hesitation and groping in the dark.
Sonnerat, who discovered the Aye-Aye in Madagascar,
considered it a squirrel having some connection with the
Makis, soon after, Buffon found in it certain resemblances
to the Tarsier, then Gmelin placed it decidedly in the
genus Sczurus or Squirrel, under the name of Sczurus
Madagascarzens7s ; \ater still, E. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire
made a particular genus for this strange animal, namely
Daubentonza, which G. Cuvier, agreeing with Geoffroy,
afterwards changed to Chezromys ; finally Blainville main-
tained that the Aye-Aye belonged to the order of Lemurs,
and he was successful, though not without difficulty, in
establishing his views.

The Aye-Aye has nearly the height of a cat and re-
sembles in a slight degree the Feline tribe in its short
and globular head, erect and uncovered ears, eyes very
open, nostrils oblique and pierced at the extremity of the
nose, although it resembles a Squirrel in its slender toes,
the color of the hair, and its bushy tail. But it differs
entirely from both of these animals by the arrangement
of its paws. In the Aye-Aye, indeed, the posterior limbs
terminate as in the great majority of the Lemurs, in real
hands, the thumb, however, being a little less developed
than in the latter animals, and the anterior limbs present,
at their extremities, singular anomalies. Here the thumb
is no longer opposable to the other fingers and it carries,
as the latter, a true claw, the middle finger is so slender
that it seems withered, the fourth finger is a little less
slender but still larger than the other, and finally, the
little finger is very extended.

The dentition of the Aye-Aye differs in several respects
from that of the other Lemurs; there are, indeed, two
strong and sharp incisors in each jaw, four molars on
each side of the superior maxillary and three molars only
in the inferior maxillary ; but no trace of canines, super-
ior or inferior, can be seen in the adult, so that a wide
space separates the incisors from the molars, Yet, this
anomaly does not exist to the same degree at all periods
of life, and, in the young, the dental system is least re-
moved from the ordinary type, owing to the presence,
in the superior maxillary, of a pair of small incisors.

Arrived at its full development, the Aye-Aye measures
more than a metre from the end of.the nose to the ex-
tremity of the tail, whose length is about equal to that of
the body. It has smooth and slightly wart-like ears, un-
covered nose, and lips ordinarily half open, exposing to
view the incisors which, meeting two by two ina very
prominent angle, resemble the beak of a parrot. Hair,
bushy and very long, covers the whole of the body, the
limbs and the tail, but does not present in every spot a
uniform color; the hairs of the head and of the back are
often white at their ends, while those of the breast and
of the flanks are of a more or less brown, deepened by a
yellow base. In the young, the whole front is also of a
silvery white, and the dorsal line is marked by a band of
the same color,

SCIENCE.

In Sonnerat’s ‘‘ Voyage aux Indes et 4 la Chine,’”’ some
of the principal characteristics of the Aye-Aye are spoken
of, but the portrait leaves much to be desired, and the
author mentions but a few things on the habits of this
curious representative of the fauna of Madagascar. This
animal, says Sonnerat, appears to burrow, it does not see
in the day, its eye is reddish and fixed like that of a
screech-owl.: It is very lazy and, consequently, very gentle.
I have had the male and female and they lived only
two months. I fed them with boiled rice, and they used
in eating, the two slender toes of the fore-feet as the
Chinese use chop-sticks. They are timid, fearful, like
a great deal of heat, always roll themselves up in sleep-
ing, lie on the side, the head between the fore-limbs.
They were always lying down, and it was only on shak-
ing them several times, that they would move at all.

Although this animal is very slow in movement, and
seems to be torpid during the day, it has no relation to the
Unau and the Az of M. de Buffon. The name of Aye-
Aye, which I have kept for it, is a cry of exclamation and
astonishment among the inhabitants of Madagascar.
This animal has been known to us but for a few years,
because the western side, the part which it inhabits, is
but little frequented ; the inhabitants of the eastern side
assured me that it was the first they had ever:seen.

Fortunately, the successive observations on the
Chetromys at the Zoological Gardens at London and at
Paris have completed the information given by Sonnerat
on the manners and the diet of this species. The Aye-
Aye is essentially a nocturnal animal; in captivity, it
sleeps during the whole day, lying on the side, its body
curled up and entirely covered by the bushy tail. During
the night, on the contrary, it moves about continually,
scratching and gnawing the walls of its prison. Fre-
quently it hangs by its hind claws, and, in this position,
it performs its toilet in the manner of certain Bats.
In this operation it uses the third finger of the fore-feet,
which it bends in the form of a hook in order to comb
the tail and to adroitly wipe its front, the corners of its
eyes, the nose, mouth and ears.

In eating, the Aye-Aye exclusively employs the left
hand ; it thrusts into the semi-liquid food which is given
to it, the fourth finger, the longest of all, holding the
third raised above the others, and the thumb, on the other
hand, very low. The extremity of the anterior limb, thus
arranged, describes a singularly rapid motion to and fro,
and the lateral face of the fourth finger, passing every
moment between the lips of the animal whose head is in-
clined on one side, places the food in the buccal cavity,
over the tongue. At the same time, the cheeks and lips
are in continual motion. ‘The Aye-Aye,” says Mr.
Bartlett, “can also advance its lips and lick in the man-
ner of cats; but it does this but rarely. I have never
heard it utter a single cry, emit any sound, during the
long hours of night, and I never have observed that he
was made uneasy by my presence. This Lemur seeks no
species of insects, but readily feeds ona sort of pap made
of milk, honey and eggs; it appears to love semi-fluid
substances, soft and mucilaginous, while it rejects with
contempt ‘worms, grass-hoppers, and the larva of hymen-
opters. I have then the right to state that, in a state of
nature, the Aye-Aye is not insectivorous. Seeing its
strong and sharp teeth, I am inclined to believe that it
cuts grooves in the bark of trees, in order to make the sap
flow; it receives this in its mouth and it forms its princi-
pal nourishment, In support of this opinion, I state the
fact that the animal frequently returns to the same spot
on the branch or on the trunk, which it first attacked.
It must also be stated that the Aye-Aye pays, so to
speak, no attention to what it carries to its mouth. Hav-
ing on several occasions withdrawn the dish which con-
tained its pap, while it was eating, I saw with astonish-
ment that it continued to direct its hand towards the spot
where its food had been, and that it did not search for
the latter until after having, for a long time, mechani-

SCIENCE. 575

= =
SS

—
SSS

THE AYE-AYE, OR CHEIROMYS OF MADAGASCAR,

576

SCIENCE.

cally executed prehensile motions. Such a stupid man-
ner of acting is in;complete contradiction to that which
is observed among animals that devote themselves to the
pursuit of other animals and feed on living prey; I pre-
sume, therefore, that the Aye-Aye feeds on vegetable
substances. I have often seen it, after having swallowed
a certain quantity of liquid food, devour a piece of bark.’””

The Cheiromys, at the Botanical Garden, given by M.
Humblot and M. Archambault, act exactly like the one
which has been so conscientiously studied by Mr. Bart-
lett, the Superintendent of the Zoological Garden of
London. They sleep during the whole day, which is
very annoying to the visitors desirous of seeing these
strange animals, and, when the keeper tries to arouse them
from their sleep, they show their ill-humor by attempt-
ing to bite and by endeavoring to retreat to the most
obscure corner of their cage.

In Madagascar, the Aye-Aye inhabits the large forests,
and are found jnot only in the western region, as Son-
nerat thought, but also on the southeastern side, where
it has been observed by M. Grandidier. According to
the natives, it builds a real nest, of a spherical form, in
which the female deposits and raises her young. This
assertion without doubt merits belief, since in 1877, M.
Soumage brought to France one of these nests, which
was built ‘on the forked-head of two branches, and
which contained a female and her young. The walls of
this nest were formed of rolled leaves of the Ravenala
or Tree of the Traveler, covering an interweaving of
twigs; it has on,one side a very narrow opening.

The smallest of the other Lemurs—the Chirogales, the
Microcebes and the Lepilemurs—have, it appears, similar
habitats, and falso interweave, with twigs and leaves, a
home for their progeny, while the Makis, and all the
higher orders of Lemurs, build no nests, and carry their
young attached to their back or hung against their
breast.— Z7vamslated from La Nature.

ae

DETECTION OF OLEOMARGARINE.,*
By P. CASAMAJOR.

Inthe Monzteur Sczentzfique for April, 1881, is anarticle
on Butter Analysis, in which are given the processes, used
at the Municipal Laboratory, attached to the Prefecture
of Police in Paris, for the detection of foreign fats in but-
ter. This is followed by an account of an areometric
method, used for the same purpose and based on the
difference of density between butter and the fats with low
melting point, extracted from tallow, which are made to
resemble genuine butter, and which are known under the
commercial name of Oleomargarine.

The sale of Oleomargarine has become so extensive in
this country, that a purchaser of butter is never sure
whether he is getting true butter or its imitation. In
view of this fact, I have thought it useful to give a pro-
cess, based on the difference of specific gravity between
butter and oleomargarine, of such simplicity that it
can be easily applied by any person having rudimentary
ideas of manipulation.

Processes of this character are those which can be used
with greatest efficiency to check adulterations. I have,
in previous communications, given such processes for the
detection of Starch Sugar mixed with Cane Sugar, and
for the detection of starch sugar syrup, mixed with sugar
house syrups, Ree ee ie

Although my concern is principally with the difference
of density between butter and oleomargarine, I propose
to very briefly call attention to the processes used at the
Municipal Laboratory of the Prefecture of Police, as these
show important differences in chemical composition be-
tween true butter and its adulterant, which confirm the
difference in the specific gravity. Such an important
character as the specific gravity would not differ to any

* (Read before the American Chemical Society Sept, 1881. )

marked extent, without a corresponding diversity in the
composition of the two substances.

One process used at the Municipal Laboratory is. the
following: the sample of butter to be tested is melted,
so as to separate water, salt etc., which are deposited,
and a certain amount of scum, which comes to the sur-
face. Of the clear melted fat, under the scum, about 3
or 4 grammes are taken and saponified by 1 or 2 gram-
mes of potassic hydrate. The fat and potassa should be
mixed with 50 C. C. of alcohol. In about 5 minutes the
saponification is complete, and the cautious addition of
water should not produce any turbidity. If any takes
place, the operation must be begun anew. The soap form-
ed is afterwards decomposed with weak sulphuric acid,
and the insoluble fat acids are collected and weighed.
The result of a great number of experiments is that in
butter the percentage of fat acids thus obtained is usually
86.5 to 87.5 per cent., and that sometimes, it is as high as
88 per cent. In animal fats from tallow the percentage
of insoluble fat acids is 9534. The difference 9514 —87%4
=8 per-cent., is attributed to the absence in tallow of vola-
tile and soluble fat acids which exist in butter.

Another process is given in which the result is obtain-
ed volumetrically, by estimating the quantity of potassa
used in saponifying the fat. One gramme of butter re-
quires 225 to 232.4 C. C. of potassa solution, while 1 gram-
me of tallow, or other animal fat of the same nature, re-
quires from 195 to 197 grammes of the same potassa solu-
tion.

Mr. Charles Girard, director of the Municipal Labora-
tory, considers as adulterated any butter requiring, for
saponification, less than 221.5 C.C., of the potassa solu-
tion. In some unfavorable cases this volume may repre-
sent nearly 30 per cent. of foreign fat.

The method for detecting the difference between but-
ter and oleomargarine by the difference of specific gravity,
is one proposed by Messrs. Leune and Harburet. ~

The butter to be tested is first melted so as to separate
the pure fat from water, salt, etc. The clear melted fat
is placed in a cylinder, heated by the vapor escaping from
a water bath, kept boiling, but no part of the cylinder is
to be in the boiling water. I understand that by heating
in this way, the temperature. of the melted fat remains at
about 93° C. To determine the density of this fat an areo-
meter is placed in it. This areometer is graduated in
such a way that, in butter, it will sink to the lowest mark
of the scale, while oleomargarine corresponds to the high-
est point in the graduation. The intervening space is
divided into ten equal parts, each one of which corresponds
to +}; of oleomargarine, mixed with butter. More than
600 experiments made by Messrs Leune and Harburet
with artificial mixtures show that, within an approxima-
tion of ten per cent., the instrument gives correct results.

Soon after this areometric method was published, it was
announced that the difference of the specific gravities of
butter and of oleomargarine, was too slight to distinguish
the one from the other. As Messrs. Leune and Harburet
had not stated what the specific gravity of each was, it
was impossible to judge ot the truth of this’ statement,
and it became interesting to ascertain the facts of the
case. The following process is the result of my attempts
to determine the specific gravities of butter and of oleo-
margarine. I chose in the first place to ascertain the
specific gravity of each at 15° C, which is the usual tem-
perature for such determinations. The process consisted
in finding for each a liquid in which, at 15° C, a portion
of butter or of oleomargarine, freed from impurities by
previous melting and containing no air bubbles, would
remain in equilibrium in any portion of the liquid, with-
out any tendency to rise to the top or sink to the bottom.
The readiest liquid for this purpose was a mixture of al-
cohol and water, as this is easily prepared and it has no
dissolving action on the fats to be tested. As the density
of the liquid in which a body remains in equilibrium is the
density of the body itself, the problem was narrowed down

SCIENCE.

577

to finding the difference of density between two mixtures
of alcohol and water of different strengths. It was found
that pure butter, at 15° C, would remain in equilibrium
in alcohol of 53.7 per cent. This corresponds to specific
gravity 0.926. This butter was obtained from a gentle-
man, at whose country place the butter was made. I
obtained oleomargarine trom melted warm beef suet by
pressure. At a temperature of 25° C, this expressed fat
had the consistency of butter. The alcohol which at 15°
C, would hold it in equilibrium had a strength of 59.2 per
cent., which corresponds to a specific gravity of 0.915.

The question of the possibility of distinguishing butter
from oleomargarine becomes equivalent to the possibility
of distinguishing alcohol of 53.7 per cent., from alcohol of
59. 2 percent. As this difference is 5.5 degrees of Gay
Lussac’s alcohometer, it is very evideat that the specific
gravity is a sufficient character for distinguishing butter
from oleomargarine. This difference may appear more
clearly to persons not familiar with alcohometry by stat-
ing that it is the difference between 0.926 specific gravity
and 0.915.

By means of the tables of Gay Lussac and of Tralles,*
it is a very easy matter to prepare alcohol of the required
strength at any temperature, to be kept in bottles fcr
future use.

As the expansion of fats is different from that of alcohol,
it is advisable to bring the alcohol to 15° C, when making
an observation, which can be easily done by any one pro-
vided with a thermometer.

To deliver the sample of fat on the alcohol, I have found
that the best plan is to melt the fat and let a Jarge drop
of it fall into the liquid. The fat should be melted in a
little spoon or a little scoop, and the drop should be de-
livered by bringing the spoon or scoop close to the surface
of the alcohol. It requires a little practice to do this neat-
ly, so as not to get an air bubble in the ball of melted fat.
When an air bubble becomes imprisoned in the fat, I have
had no difficulty in removing it with a strip of paper,
while it lies on top of the alcohol. Sometimes the globule
of fat only partially sinks in the alcohol ; the top of it be-
comes, flat and remains exposed above the liquid. A
slight tap on the side of the glass is then generally suf-
ficient to form a wave and sink the globule. :

If we take alcohol of 56% per cent., which represents
equal volumes of alcohol of 53.7 per cent., and of 59.2 per
cent., and if we deliver on the surface of this alcohol a
globule of melted butter and one of oleomargarine, the
butter will sink to the bottom and the oleomargarine will
remain at the top, while the two globules are still warm
and liquid, Afterwards, if the alcohol has a temperature
of about 30° C, the butter will become solid, while the
oleomargarine may still remain liquid. Then the butter
will rise to the top of the alcohol, which is due to the ex-
pansion of butter on solidifying. If the alcohol be
then kept for a few minutes, at 15° C, the oleomargarine
will become opaque and remain at the top while the solid
globule of butter will sink to the bottom.

If instead of taking alcohol of 56 per cent. we use alco-
hol of 59.2 per cent., oleomargarine will remain on top and
butter will sink to the bottom at all temperatures above
15°.C. At 15° C., oleomargarine will remain in eqi-
librium in any portion of the liquid in which it may be
placed.

_ If oleomargarine was always sold pure, the foregoing
indications would be sufficient to distinguish it from but-
ter, but the oleomargarine found in the market is always
more or less mixed with true butter to improve its taste
andappearance. This being the case, alcohol of 59 per
cent. is not the proper liquid to detect oleomargarine, We
should use alcohol of 55 per cent. and consider as oleomar-
garine any so called butter which will not sink to the bot-
tom in alcohol of this strength at 15°C. This is founded
on the fact that not more than % of butter is ever mixed
with oleomargarine to improve its taste and appearance.

*See the excellent tables of Prof. Mc, Culloh.

Bearing in mind the experiments of Messrs, Leune and
Harburet, already cited, the proportion of butter and of
oleomargarine in a mixture could be easily detected by
finding what strength of alcohol will hold in equilibrium
at 15° C, a globule of fat under examination. As the dif-
ference of 59.2 and 53.7 is 5. 5, the proportion of oleomar-
garine is the difference between the strength of the alcohol
and 53.7, divided by 5.5, or more conveniently multiplied
byo.18. Ifthe alcohol required to hold a globule of fat in
equilibrium at 15° C, has a strength of 57 per cent., then:
(57 —53-7 ) x 0,183.3 x 0.18=5.95, or say 34; of oleomar-
garine. If the alcohol had a strength of 58, then 58—53.7
x 0.18=4.3 x0.18=7.72, or about 3% of oleomargarine.

The proportions of butter and oleomargarine in a mix-
ture may be also determined without the aid of an alco-
hometer, by using the two solutions of 53.7 per cent. and
of 59.2 per cent. These may be placed in graduated
glasses and poured cautiously into a third glass, until an
alcohol of sufficient strength is obtained to keep in equi-
librium a globule of the fat under examination at 15° C,

The relative volumes of the two solutions used in mak-
ing the mixture, give the proportions of butter and oleo-
margarine.

The accuracy of these calculations rests entirely on the
results obtained by Messrs. Leune and Harburet. Ihave
not verified them by experiment, and I do not clearly see
their utility. When we buy butter it is interesting to
know whether what we buy is pure butter or not. It is
no palliation to the offence of selling oleomargarine for
butter that the oleomargarine contains } or } of real but-

ter.
ee —————

FILARIA OF THE HUMAN BLOOD.

The members of the Pathological Society, of London,
recently enjoyed the rare opportunity (in this country) of
seeing the filaria sanguinis hominis in the living state
from a patient in the London Hospital suffering from
heemato-chyluria, under the care of Dr. Stephen Mac-
kenzie. They were also enabled to hear from Drs.
Cobbold and Vandyke Carter the facts at present known
concerning filarious disease, whilst the observations re-
lated by Dr. Mackenzie, most patiently and carefully
pursued for two months upon the casein question, were
a valuable addition to these facts. In one important
point these observations have resulted in a further dis-
covery, to which we shall refer again. Our present pur-
pose will be simply to gather up briefly the facts as
detailed by these speakers, and to indicate their bearings
upon the pathology of the obscure affections of the
lymphatic system with which they are connected. In
the first place we have now—thanks to the discoveries ot
Bancroft, Lewis, and Manson —a complete knowledge of
the life history of the parasite. Like so many similar
creatures, it presents us with an example of alternation of
generations ; or more correctly speaking, of the need of
two hosts for its full development. The minute almost
structureless worms found in the blood of the human
subject in such vast numbers are the emdryonzc forms of
the filaria which requires the mosquito in which to deve-
lop into the sexually mature worm. The mosquito feed-
ing on the blood at night, when the filariz are generally
alone to be found, becomes gorged with them. Their
growth in the mosquito has been traced by Lewis and
Manson, and it is presumed that they are only liberated
from the body of their host by its death in the water to
which it always finally resorts. The nematoid is thus
set free, and possibly undergoes further development; for
the mature worm measures some three inches in length.
Its passage into the human body is easily explained; and
the analogy in this respect with the larger nematoid—the
guinea-worm—is one which Dr. Vandyke Carter ably
illustrated. Once within the human body, the worm
lodges in the tissues, but as to its migrations, and, in-
deed, its ultimate resting-place, but little is known. It

578

would seem, from its discovery in a lymphatic abscess by
Bancroft, and ina lymph scrotum by Lewis, to have a
peculiar aptitude for selecting the lymph channels for its
habitat; a selective power not more remarkable than that
which urges the trichina to lodge in muscular tissue.
This is further borne out by the fact that its embryos—
the filaria sanguinis hominis—are met with in the blood
and the urine of the subjects of chyluria and nzvoid (or
lymphatic) elephantiasis.

Now, although the various discoveries which have been
made—at the expense of so much patient research and
at such various times that, as Dr. Cobbold remarked at
the meeting, they form each distinct ‘epochs ’’—have
enabled us to form the above complete sketch of the life-
history of the parasite, there are lacunz still to be filled
up. Thus knowledge is wanted upon the growth and
migration of the parent worm after it has gained en-
trance into the human body, also as to its duration of
life, and particularly as to the question whether it can
take on the power of a sexual reproduction, and if so, for
how long atime. The myriads of filarie that are pro-
bably daily reproduced in the body of such a patient as
that under Dr. Mackenzie’s care seem to demand such a
fact as alternate generations, and also to raise the ques-
tion as to the time during which the process of reproduc-
tion can continue. There is no reason to believe that the
embryonic filariz in the blood can undergo further deve-
lopment within the human body; indeed, analogy, as well
as the remarkable discovery of an intermediate host in
the mosquito, are opposed to this notion. Again, filarize
have been found in the blood apart from chyluria or any
outward manifestation of lymphatic derangement; but
this is explicable if it be admitted that the adult worms
may ledge in other parts of the body in communication
with blood vessels alone.
without filaria, and the case mentioned by Dr. Mackenzie,
where the parasite was found in the man’s blood in India,
but could not be found when he came to England, is
explicable on the view that though the parent organism
might have perished, or yielded no more embryos, yet the
change excited by its presence in the lymphatic channels,
and therefore the chyluria, might still have persisted.

The precise mechanism of chyluria still requires to be
explained, and until it is elucidated an important part of
the subject will remain obscure. The question of the
pathology of chyluria was, however, barely touched upon
on Tuesday, Dr. Mackenzie limiting himself to the state-
ment of the facts observed in his case; the most im-
portant in connection with the urine being that besides
having all the chylous characters, it invariably contained
more or less blood,—-that passed by day containing
more blood and filaria, that passed by night being more
milky ; and that filaria were found in it, especially in
connection with blood coagula. The most remarkable
feature of the whole case lay in the periodicity shown by
the filaria in their time of appearance in the blood.
During the whole period of the man’s stay in the hospital
his blood had been examined regularly every three hours,
with the constant result that, by night, the filariz
abounded and by day were entirely absent. From 9g A.
M. tog P.M. they were absent; they appeared at the
latter hour and increased up to midnight, then decreased
till at the first-named hour none were found. These ob-
servations entirely confirmed those of Manson, and par-
ticular stress was laid upon their nocturnal wanderings
and the habits of the mosquito. It is certainly singular
that the time selected by the mosquito should coincide
with the presence of the parasite in the blood stream, and
the connection of these two facts is not the least wonder-
ful chapter in the life-history of the parasite. But what-
ever the explanation of the periodicity—Dr. Vandyke
Carter pointed out that it was not invariable,—a valuable
addition to our knowledge of it has been made by Dr.
Mackenzie. He found that whereas the time of ingestion
of food bears no relation to it, itis otherwise with the

Conversely, chyluria may exist.

SCIENCE.

time of rest and sleep, for when the patient was up during
the night and slept during the day the period of filarial
migration was similarly inverted. Dr. Mackenzie did not
venture to speculate upon these curious points. He
wisely contented himself with laying the facts he had
observed before the Pathological Society.—Lancer.

i

A VERY REMARKABLE METEOR.

On the evening of Wednesday the_16th, while sweeping
the western heavens in search of comets, I was startled
by a brilliant illumination to my right; looking up hastily,
a bright meteor was seen moving rapidly along the north-
eastern heavens. ‘It started from a point about 3° north
of Capella, and, traversing a path of about 10°, passed
some 2° above delta Auriga. The flight of the meteor
did not exceed three seconds, when it burst with a daz-
zling brilliancy, to be compared oniy to the whiteness of
the electric light. At the moment of exploding it must
have been at least five or six times brighter than Venus
at her maximum. There remained in its wake—covering
the full extent of its path—a thin reddish train; this
drifted slowly among the stars towards the north-east,
gradually collecting into a lightish cloud at its N.E. end.
Noting the remarkable permanency of the train, I turned
the telescope (a 5-inch refractor) upon it, and was sur-
prised to see a very brightly glowing mass of pinkish
smoke ; the same material lay stretching out toward the
southwest in a long, straggling strip; this trail was
about one-fourth a degree in thickness, and could plainly
be seen with the telescope for a distance of at least ten
degrees. This mass of smoke drifted northeasterly over
the stars, curling slowly, like a mighty serpent. It was
knotted in several places with cumulous forms which were
due probably to minor explosions in the meteor. The
outlines of this wonderful train of celestial smoke were
well defined ; it did not diffuse itself in the atmosphere, but
faded gradually from view. During the whole of its vis-
ibility it retained its pinkish color. The appearance of
the meteor was at 48m. past 6. The train remained
visible to the naked eye for about six minutes. In the
telescope it was very distinct up to seven o'clock. At
three minutes after seven it was still visible in the instru-
ment. Meanwhile it had drifted about 4° to the north-
east, becoming more crooked each moment as it curled
about in the air. The remarkable duration of the train
of smoke from this meteor—over fifteen minutes—de-
serves being recorded. E. E. BARNARD.
NASHVILLE, Tenn., Voveméber 21, 1881.

————___$_9—____—__—_.
INSTRUCTIONS ISSUED BY THE INTERNA-
TIONAL CONFERENCE FOR THE OBSER-
VATION: OF THE TRANSIT OF VENUS OF
1882.
Contributed by M. BENJAMIN, Ph. D.

ARTICLE J.—It is desirable, from a theoretical stand-
point, that the telescopes used should be of as large ap-
erture as possible. In practice, the difficulty of trans- ~~
portation on the one hand, and the necessity of observers
at different stations having similar instruments, limits the
apertures to from 0.12 metre to 0.15 metre (about 4%
to 6 inches).

In all cases the objectives should be as perfect as pos-
sible. Observers should give an exact description of the
quality and defects of the objective, as also the eye-piece
employed. Towards this end they should determine:

1. The form of the image of a good star in focus, as
also the image of the same star at a point before and
after coming into focus.

2. The separating power of the objective for double
stars. :

It will be useful to know also if the telescope is able to
show the solar granulations on any favorable opportu-

SCIENCE,

nity, and also the degree of visability of these granula-
tions during the transit.

ARTICLE 2.—It will be well to employ a reflecting
prism, or a polariscopic eye piece, to diminish the heat
and consequent danger to the observer’s eyes.

If it be decided to use a silvered objective, a method
which offers the great advantage of eliminating all the
obscure heat rays and doing away with errors from dis-
tortion arising from heating of the interior of the tube,
the excess of light may be absorbed by a neutral tint
glass composed of two glasses of similar thickness, one
being colored ard the other colorless.

ARTICLE 3.—The eye-pieces should be positive, achro-
matic, and ot a power of 150. The observations of con-
tacts should be made in a field sufficieritly clear to show
plainly projected on the solar disc, two wires separated
by a distance of 1”,

Means should be employed to remove as far as possible
the effects of atmospheric dispersion.

The setting point of the reticule should be previously
ascertained on the stars or by means of a collimator
focussed to stars.

In cases of observation by projection, correspondent
means should be employed.

ARTICLE 4.—The times corresponding to internal con-
tacts may be defined as follows:

Ingress. The moment when an evident and, at the
same time, persistant discontinuity in the illumination of
the apparent limb of the sun joining the point of contact
with Venus, disappears.

Legress. The moment of the first appearance of an
evident and, at the same time, persistent discontinuity in
the illumination of the solar limb joining the point of con-
tact.

If the limb of two stars coming into geometrical con-
tact, without obscuration or deformation of the inter-
posed thread of light, the instant previously defined is
that of contact.

If there be produced a black drop or ligament, well
defined and as dark as the body of the planet, the pre-
cedingly defined instants, are for Ingress, that of definite
rupture, and for Egress, that of the first apparition of the
ligament.

Between these two extreme cases, other appearances
may be produced when the instants of contact may be
noted as follows :

If the limbs remaining without deformation, there is
produced an obscuration of the luminous thread, with-
out the shadow, however, being as dark as the body of
the planet, the observer notes the instant of geomet-
rical contact. The moment of the formation or disap-
pearance of this shadow should also be noted.

If the shadow is almost or becomes quite as dark as
the planet, the precedingly defined instant is that when
this equality ceases or is established.

The observer should also note whether there is pro-
duced on the luminous thread, any fringes or any other
distinct phenomena, and shculd note the moment of their
appearance and disappearance.

It is generally desirable to note the time of occurrence
of any distinct phenomena about the time of contact.
Nevertheless it is a grave mistake, and one that should
be guarded against, to multiply the noting of times near
the occurrence of a contact.

The time of appearance of phenomena of a distinct
character, should be mentioned only in such a manner as
to be readily separated from other phenomena observed
about contact,

It will be useful in all cases that the observer should
illustrate his notes with a drawing made immediately
after each complete observation of contact, in order to
show more clearly the interpretation which he attaches
to his description of the phenomena.

ARTICLE 5.—As the limb of Venus falls internally on
the solar disc during internal contact, as has been noted

579

in Article 4, the observer should indicate as closely as
possible whether the moment when the limbs of Venus
and the sun, apparently coinciding, seem to be length-
ened out.

This observation, though rough, is still desirable as a
check to the principal noted phase.

ARTICLE 6.—Notwithstanding the fact that observa-
tions of external contacts are subject to considerable
uncertainty, the conference recommends that they be
observed either by direct vision or by means of the spec-
troscope, and that the point on the solar disc, where the
first contact takes place, be determined in an appropriate

manner.
COMPTES RENDUS, Oct. 17, 1881, t xcili., p. 569.

BACTERIAN NOTES.

So long as the makers of microscopes do not place
at our disposal much higher powers, and as far as _ possi-
ble without immersion, we shall find ourselves in the do-
main of the Bacteria, in the situation of a traveler who
wanders in an unknown country at the hour of twilight,
at the moment when the light of day no longer suffices
to enable him clearly to distinguish objects, and when he
is conscious that, notwithstanding all his precautions, he
is liable to lose his way.—Cohn.

Bacteria were regarded as animals up to the time of
Dujardin (1841 ), a kingdom—the Protzsta—mid way be-
tween the animal and vegetable, being created by Haeckel
for their especial benefit. Duvaine (1859 ) was, however,
among the first to show clearly their alliance with the
alge. Cohn holds them to belong to the alge, although
from want of Chlorophyle, approaching the fungi. Mag-
nin says, “If there are still some differences of opinion
among naturalists as to the place of the Bacteria among
the cryptograms, there is but one opinion of their vege-
table nature.” Sachs, however, solves the difficulty by
uniting the alge and fungi in a single group, the ¢a//o-
phytes, in which he establishes two series exactly parallel
—one comprising the forms with chlorophyle, the other,
the forms which are deprived of it.”

“The Bacteria, then, resemble green plants, in that
they assimilate nitrogen contained in their cells by taking
it from ammonia compounds, which animals cannot do,
They differ irom green plants in that they cannot draw
their carbon from carbonic acid, and only assimilate or-
ganic substances containing carbon, above all the hy-
drates of carbon and their derivatives; and in this re-
spect they resemble animals.”

Ehrenberg was the first to maintain that the motion of
Bacteria depended npon the presence of vibratile cilia
(observed by him in sfzrzllum volutans), but although
the cilia, denied at first by most microscopists, have been
since seen in nearly all the bacteria, recent researches
permit us to say that cilia exist without doubt in all true
bacteria ; the botanist who has best studied them, M.
Walming for example, recognize that it is scarcely pro-
bable that these organs are the cause of their movement,
for one meets some examples in which the body remains
motionless, while the cilia are in violent agitation, and
others in which the body moves, while the cilia remain
inert or dragging behind.

Cohn explains the origin of the gelatinous substance
in which the bacteria are included as being produced by
a thickening or jellification of the cell membrane, but a
more plausible view is that it is produced by a secretion

from their protoplasm.
pe A eg it 8

Mr. A. AGASSIZ has printed in the Proceedings of the
American Academy a biographical sketch of the late
Count Pourtalés, together with a biographical list of his
principal publications. Mr. Agassiz has also written a
Review of Professor Haeckel’s Monograph of the
Acalephs in the August number of the Amerzcan Jour-
nal of Setence.

580

SCIENCE.

ATOMIC PHYLLOTAXY.

Gerber (Chemical News, XLIII, 242-43), says that
“no simple relation exists among ’”’ his divisors, therefore
they ‘‘have no value in themselves.” There is, however,
a relation which he failed to discover, for they are phyllo-
tastic, as will be seen by the following comparison :

Gerber’s Divisors. Phyllotastic Divisors.

H_ .9997 H =0 + 24 .998
Diy 3769 ay xX 2) 9 768
Dz 1.995 2H 1.996
Ds _ 1.559 $x&H 1.559
D, 1.245 $x 2H 1.247

PLiny EARLE CHASE.
HAVERFORD COLLEGE, Wov, Io, 1881.

—

ON September 13, 1881, a red star was noticed at the
Harvard Observatory in R. A. 16th, 31. 5 m, Dec. + 72°
32’. From the similarity of its spectrum to that of several
known variable stars, it was presumed to be variable; and
the suspicion was confirmed both by its absence from the
catalogues, and by subsequent observation, which showed
that its brightness was increasing. Information respect-
ing it was sent by telegraph to Dr. Copeland, at Strass-
burg, by means of the telegraphic cipher devised by
Messrs. Chandler and Ritchie.

THE Museum of Comparative Zodlogy, of Harvard
College, has received a collection of ninety species of
fossil plants from Cannelton, Pa. The species have been
identified by Mr. Lesquereux, who pronounces the series
one of the best made by Mr. Mansfield from that locality.

THE annual report to the government of India on the
progress of the cinchona cultivation and its practical re-
sults is a document not only of great importance, but also
of considerable interest. The success which was chronicled
in previous reports has been well maintained under the
superintendence of Dr. King, who has the responsible
charze of the cinchona cultivation in Bengal. It will be
remembered that the object to which efforts hitherto have
been chiefly directed is the manufacture of a cheap febri-
fuge from the bark of the cinchona succirubra. The plan-

tations of this tree which are now in existence are so exten-
sive as to suffice for present and probable requirements, so
far as the febrifuge is concerned. They contain more than
four millions of trees, and from them 267,335 lbs. of red
bark were obtained during the year. The yield per acre
(1510 lbs.) is not, however, considered to be very good;
9296 Ibs. of the febrifuge were made during the year, and
8653 lbs. were consumed, 5500 lbs. being used in the
Government services and 3150 lbs. sold tothe public. The
demand for the febrifuge steadily increases, a satisfactory
proof. of its value, and the total amount manufactured
from the commencement to March 31, 1881, is 36,639 lbs.

Financially the enterprise, initiated with such pains by
Mr. Markham, must be regarded as a complete success.
The actual profit on the year’s working was eight per cent.
on the capital of the plantation. This does not, however,
represent the whole gain of the year. The price of quinine
was very high, and the cost of the 5550 1bs., which would
have been used by the Government had the febrifuge not
been available, would not have been less than £48,000,
while the cost of the febrifuge was only a sixth of the
amount, representing a saving of at least £40,000,

METEOROLOGICAL REPORT FOR NEW YORK CITY FOR THE WEEK ENDING NOV. 26, 1881.

Latitude 40° 45’ 58" N.; Longitude 73° 57’ 58" W.; height of instruments above the ground, 53 feet ; above the sea, 97
feet ; by self-recording instruments.

BAROMETER, THERMOMETERS.
EAN FOR
nae ge MAXIMUM. MINIMUM. MEAN. MAXIMUM. MINIMUM. MAXI’M
NOVEMBER. Reduced | Reduced Reduced Dry | Wet | D Wet Dry Wet
to to Time. to Time Time. “| Time Time. Time. |InSun
Freezing. Freezing. Freezing. Bulb.| Bulb.) Bulb. Bulb. Bulb. Bulb
Sunday, 20.-| 30.269 30.386 | 9 a.m.| 29.798 | 0 a.m-} 37.0| 36.0] 45 |oa.m.| 43 |oa.m.| 35 |x2 p.m.| 35 |x2 p.m.| roo.
Monday, 2t--| 30.137 30.378 | 0 a.m.| 29.988 |12 p.m.| 40.0 | 39.0] 43 | 3p.m.| 42 | 3 p.m.| 35 | oa.m.| 35 | 0 a.m. 84.
Tuesday, 22--| 30.185 30.206 | 8 p.m.| 2y.982 | 2 a.m.| 34.3 | 33.3| 4r |oa.m.| 40 |oa.m.| 26 |r2 p.m.| 26 |12 p.m.| Qo.
Wednesday, 23 -| 29.941 30.280 | 0 a.m.| 29.548 |12 p.m.| 30.6 | 30.6| 35 |o p.m.) 35 |9pm.| 25 | 3 a.m.| 25 | 3 a.m. 45-
Thursday, 24--| 29.573 29,822 |12 p.m.| 29.496 | 4 a.m.]| 32.0 | 32.0| 38 |r2 m. 37. |\r2 in. 25 |12 p.m.| 25 |12 p.m.| 80.
Friday, 25--| 30-145 30.200 9 p.m.| 29.822 oa.m.| 27.3 | 26.7 30 3 p.m.| 30 3_p. m.|. 23 7a, M923 7 a.m. 92.
Saturday, 26--| 30.036 30.196 | 0 a.m.| 30.000 | 2 p.m.| 33.3 | 33.7 | 43 |3p.m.| 37 |4p.m.) 29 |oa.m.| 28 |oa.m. 97-
5 Dry. Wet.
Meanitor ithe week = sn = nse ase ae a 30.041 inches. Mean for the week__.-_----------- 34.2\degrees|-—--=a-eeeees 33.0 degrees.
Maximum for the week at g a. m., Nov. zoth = 3OG80s Se Maximum for the week,atoam., 2oth 45. ‘sat oam 2oth, 43. et
Minimum at 4a.m., Nov. 24th Bet 20/4 DOs Minimum “ “gam. 25th 23. “at 7 amasth, 23. a
Ange 22 aaa snawan aetna eae ae nae eee 890 * Range “ ae eae 2. Je Eee ee rel ae
WIND HYGROMETER. CLOUDS. RAIN AND *SNOW. | 5
Z
== ie}
veLocity| FORCE IN RELATIV > 3
DIRECTION. i . LBS. PER |FORCE OF VAPOR. ELATIVE CLEP: 2 pe he etc te NPI
N MILES.) (on ERE HUMIDITY. OVERCAST. 10 IN INCHES.
NOVEMBER. Distance| E g g|/elelé 5 8 a Tipe aise Dura- gs a
ant a be ag : . 5 > i ; a .
7 a.m.|2 p.m.|/g p.m ant 3 Time. a a ml ody lleresvealluitess a a a Begin-| End- pea 28 =
Picasa 3 aed iad a fo) ae a fey) id a fo.) ning ing. 4 a ats ce
Sunday, 20-| n. w. | 0D. w./ n.e. 309 )20¢) 1.00am -IQI | .203 | .204 | 90 | 82 /too j6cir.cu.|6cir.cu.)o —|_ ----- See ieee cep IPS
Monday, 21-| W. |W.S.W.| S. W. 135 2}| 1.15 pm| .212 | .231 | .235 |100 | 83 | gx |7 cir. cu.|8 cu TO 45) fh Soewm || eeprom ll (Eanes -- |to
Tuesday, 22-| n.w. |n.n.w.| e. 244 | 6%/11.15am| .216 | .170| .153 | go | 80 |x00 |3 cir, |3Cir.s. | o oam | ram] 1.00 |.or] 5
Wednesday,23-| n. €. |n. n.e.| n. e. 183 3.| 9.00pm) .14r | .174 | .204 |100 |100 |roo |8 cu. 10 10 12m 12 pM | 12.00 | .59 |10
Thursday, 24-|n.n. w.|n, n. w./w.n.w. 275 |13t| 3.10pm| .188 | .204 | .153 |100 |100 |x00 |10 8 cu. ° oam |} 5am] 5.00 | .07 |10
Friday, 25.|W.n.W.| W. |W.S.W. 317 6 | 0.00 am} .123 | .130 | .160 |100 | 78 |100 |o FCIFACU., 0. | || pane a Reem, | meee maz,
Saturday, 26.| s. w. |W.S.W.|w.S. w. 317 | 7%| 9.15pm] .144 | .113 | .147] 79 | 42 | 56 (2 Cir. ACi-CUS|5O5 7 ie oese Ween meee sail] (O
Distance traveled during the week.-.----..-.----.-------- 1,780 miles. | Total amount of water for the week_........--.-.-------------- 0.67 inch,

Maximum force
* Wednesday, 234, slight.

20% lbs,

Duration of rain 2} 2h. Sak) oo ee eae

DANIEL DRAPER, Ph. D.

18 hours, oo minutes,

Director Meteorological Observatory of the Department of Public Parks, New York.

LADADAA A

pe. :
yo CAN M79 84,

LG a

clea sl ah ae

A WEEKLY ReEcorpD oF SCIENTIFIC
PRoGRESS.

JOHN MICHELS, Editor.

. THERMS:

Per YEAR, - - - - Four DoLiars
6 MonTHs, - - - - Two us
(74 - = - 2 ONE “6
iy
SINGLE CoPIES, - - - - TEN CENTS.

PuBLISHED AT

TRIBUNE BUILDING, NEW YORK.
P, O, Box 3888,

LONDON, ENGLAND, - - - - I50 LEADENHALL S17.

SATURDAY, DECEMBER to, 1881.

Str—On the evening of November 24, I noticed
that the spectrum of the star DM.+36° 3987 has a
bright band in the blue. The star, accordingly, be-
longs to the small class of objects which comprises
Rayet’s stars in Cygnus (near this one) and Oeltzen
17681, discovered here in 1880.

On November 25 I found a small planetary nebula,
undistinguishable from a very faint star by the or-
dinary eye-piece, bnt detected by the character of its
spectrum. Its place for 1880 is in R.A. 20" 6™ 26.4,
declination + 37° 3’ 25". It follows W. xx 200 eight
seconds, three minutes of arc farther south, and is
followed respectively 2°. 6 and 2:.3 by two faint stars

north 37” and south 20” of the nebula.

HARVARD COLLEGE OBSERVATORY,
CAMBRIDGE, December 1, 1881.

EDWARD C, PICKERING,
i
SHALER AND DAVIS’ “GLACIERS.”?
By W. J. McGEE.

I. Introduetion.—The extensive superficial modifica-
tion of the globe accomplished through the agency of
water in its three states of agzregation has been rendered
possible by certain properties peculiar to this substance,
chiefly (1) its powers of assuming the several forms of
solid, liquid, and vapor within the narrow range of ter-
restria] temperature, (2) its enormous capacity for heat,
and (3) its power of dissolving other substances.

The temperature of the earth’s surface is indeed large-
ly determined by the aqueous vapor contained in the at-
mosphere ; for if it were not for this vapor the solar
energy falling upon the earth would be radiated away
almost as quickly as received, and could exercise but
little influence upon temperature, The narrow range of
terrestrial temperature since the beginning of the organic

1 “Tilustrations of the earth’s surface. Glaciers ; by Nathaniel South-
gate Shaler, professor of Paliontology, and William Morris Davis, in-
structor in Geology, in Harvard University, Boston. James R. Osgood
& Co,, 1881.”’ Very large 4°, pp. i—vi and 1-198, pl. i—xxv and one un-
numbered, with twenty-five unnumbered leaves discriptive of plates,

581

record attests the enormous capacity and marvelous del-
icacy of this temperature—equalizing agent, for within
the limited bounds of the space separating earth and sun,
the temperature varies from a hundred thousand degrees
above to two hundred and fifty degrees below the
Fahrenheit zero; though accidents in this adjustment
are attested by the traces of successive ice periods
in the geological history of the globe. The influence
of liquid water in producing the various phases as-
sumed by the earth’s surface, during geological time
has long been the subject of study; but it is only within
the last forty years that the newly commensurate influ-
ence of ice has been detected.

Il. The existing glaciers of the earth.—The most
accessible of the existing glaciers are those of the Swiss
Alps; and the best route for the student to pursue in
entering this region is to pass up the valley of the Rhone.

Here, aside from the more obscure evidence of the
former great extension of the glaciers, the various works
of ice-action became constantly fresher in ascending the
river until they disappear beneath the wall of ice consti-
tuting the terminal portion of the glacier. At the foot
of this ice wall is an irregular mass of stones and earth—
the terminal morazne—lying across the valley, cut in
twain by the muddy stream emerging from a cavern in
the basal portion of the glacier ; and the ice itself is gul-
lied by tiny rills and soiled with sand and dirt, and hard-
ened with pebbles and rock fragments, which from time
to time roll down its steep front, to the morainal heap
below. When the glacier shrinks for several successive
seasons, as occurs when the weather is unusually dry and
warm, the stream flowing from it becomes a torrent,
and the moraine may be separated from the ice front by
a belt of striated and polished rock, but sparsely cov-
ered with coarse debrzs ; but when the ice advances for
a number of years the stream dwindles, and the sheet of
earth and stones is pushed forward and crumpled up
into a mighty embankment, rising into a range of irreg-
ular hillocks. Many such ridges attest the various per-
iods of temporary advance in the history of most of the
secularly retreating glaciers. On ascending the ice
stream itself, the superficial rock-fragments, pebbles, and
earth are found to lie mainly in parallel bands, or medial
moraines; and on tracing these to their origin, each is
seen to consist of the two lines of matter constantly
tumbling down the valley sides or dateral moraines
which are brought into contact whenever two glaciers
meet and merge into one. Thus the number of branches
uniting to form any glacier can be determined from the
number of parailel bands on its surface. The ice-stream
occupies a crooked and irregular valley, the rate of its
motion varying with the declivity, regularity, and width
of the channel, just as does that of liquid rivers; though
wherever there are considerable irregularities in the
channel the strain produces cracks and _ fissures
which gradually widen and form crevasses, or even,
where there is a sudden increase in declivity, separates
the ice into a mass of irregular pyramidal blocks, or
seracs; but when a more uniform stretch of gentle slope
is reached the seracs re-unite, and the crevasses close,
transforming the fragmentary mass again into a solid,

582

SCIENCE.

homogeneous whole. The channel is rarely so regular
as to allow the ice to be altogether free from crevasses,
however. Such fissures are invariably at right angles to
the line of greatest tension, and greatly facilitate melting
by increasing the exposed surface; and when the rills
formed by superficial melting flow into them they
may be converted into cylindrical shafts, or moulzns, ex-
tending to the base of the ice. Thus both crevasses
and moulins remain practically stationary, or rather,
when either has passed beyond the obstruction or irreg-
ularity of the channel which produced it, it gradually
closes, and another forms in the same place, with respect
to the valley and not to the moving ice, as that which it
originally occupied. Aside from the longitudinal medial
moraines the surface of the ice is often indistinctly
marked by depressed transverse bands within which
wind-blown sand or dust accumulates (known as dz7?-
bands); which bands curve downward medially more
and more toward the debouchure of the glacier, and thus
attest the differential motion of the various parts of the
ice-stream. There are, moreover, occasional scattered
blocks of stone and small pebbles lying upon the surface
of the ice. The larger blocks prevent superficial melting
of the ice on which they rest, and hence become appar-
_ ently lifted on columns of ice, forming g/laczer-tables,

which sometimes reach a height of some feet; while the
smaller pebbles, on the other hand, facilitate melting,
and thus gradually sink into miniature wells perhaps
several inches in depth.

Glaciers of the alpine type are supplied by the perpet-
ual snows accumulating in the elevated valleys and plains
intervening between the highest peaks. Over these
snowfields—the wévé or firn—the snow is generally
granular and contains much air, especially near the’sur-
face ; though where it is thick its basal portions may ap-
proximate true ice in structure. It is only when the névé
passes over the considerable declivity generally separ-
ating the snow-field from the ice-stream proper, and des-
cends below the snow-line, however, that it becomes
compacted, deprived of its air, and diminished in volume,
so as to constitute a veritable glacier. A glacial area
may accordingly be divided into two distinct regions on
this basis alone ;—the névé, the locality of no melting but
of constant addition; and the glacier proper, the locality
of constant decrease. In polar regions the glacial phe-
nomena are more varied. Thus, in Greenland, the
transition may be observed from glaciers of the charac-
teristic alpine type to those of the characteristic polar
type, in which the snow-line is at the sea level and the
ice is essentially identical with the Swiss névé, though of
vastly greater thickness. It is only slow-moving glaciers
of the polar type that give origin to ice-bergs—the term-
inal portion extending into the sea “until the buoyancy
of the ice causes a mass to break away from its attach-
ments, rise to the surface, and float away, (p. 28,) scat-
tering the debris frozen to its base over the sea-bottom
as it gradually melts ; for the bergs, as the névé of which
they are formed, are generally destitute of superficial ac-
cumulations of earth and stones.

Since in the circumpolar regions the snow-line descends
to the sea-level, the ice of winter may not be melted dur-
ing the succeeding summer, but may remain 2 sztu for
years or ages, as in the paleocrystic sea seen by Nares.
Now such a sea might be itself overspread with snow to
such a depth as to depress the ice to the sea-bottom and
to convert the whole mass into névé similar to that of
northern Greenland, or into a true continental glacier.
Indeed, —‘‘ it seems probable that the so-called antoretic
continent is nothing but an immense sheet of ice such as
this paleocrystic sea would become if it were to increase
in depth until it fastened on the bottom of the sea.”
(p. 31.

Ill. Déstribution of the existing glactery.—In the
Scandinavian mountains there are the large snow-field
in the gostedal highland with many scattered glaciers of

considerable interest, and, in lat. 70°, a vast snow-field
with an immense ice-stream descending to the sea level ;
while on the opposite side of Russia the Ural range is
without glaciers. In the Pyrenees the glaciers are much
shrunken, and mainly confined to moist northern slopes,
though about one hundred in number. In the Alps
there are over a thousand glaciers, occupying, with the
névé, about one-seventh of the mountainous alpine re-
gion. Eastward there are no glaciers until the Cau-
casus is reached, where a considerable snowy range,
with ice-streams on both slopes, is found. A few scat-
tered glaciers are known in Asia Minor, one in Persia
(on the volcano Demarend,) and many on Hindu Kush ;
though these have been but imperfectly described. In
the Himalayas the glaciers are of remarkable size and
extent, though as yet but partially known. In the South-
ern Alps of New Zealand the glaciers are also of con-
siderable extent and of great interest. On the western
hemisphere glaciers occur along the western border of
South America as far north as Upper Chili, where they
mainly disappear, and are but meagerly represented
along the Andes and Cordilleras until Orégon and Wash-
ington Territory are reached. Those occurring within the
United States are of little prominence, however ; but they
increase in size and number northward, until at Mount
St. Elias the ice reaches the sea level. In both Arctic and
Antarctic regions there are also immense bodies of mov-
ing ice or névé, constituting glaciers of the polar type.

It thus appears that glaciers are mainly confined (a)
to regions of great cold and considerable precipitation,
(4) to mountain ranges along western coasts outside of
the trade-wind zones in regions of heavy and frequent
precipitation, and (c) to interior ranges of great height
and considerable snow-fall; while (a) broad arid areas—
even though “the ground is frozen to the depth of sev-
eral hundred feet” (p. 36),—(@) interior ranges of lim-
ited snow-fall, and (c) regions having a hot and d
summer, are generally free from glaciers. The essential
conditions for glaciation are hence, Ist., cold 6f consider-
able intensity; 2nd., considerable snow-fall; and 3rd.,
the absence of a dry season of sufficient length to melt
the winters’ snow.

IV. Daéstribution of ancient glaciers —“ The most
remarkable fact that has been discovered by geologists
during this century is, that at various times in the earth’s
history the glaciers, which now cover but a very small
space on the earth’s surface, certainly not over about one
hundreth of its area of land, have been extended until
they occupied a very large part of land and sea “‘( p. 38).”
The glacial records are, however, so ephemeral that none
save the last ice-period can ever be well known to us.
During this period the accumulation of ice was most ex-
tensive in regions where glaciers yet prevail, or where the
various meteorological conditions at least approach those
which existing ice-fields indicate to be essential for glacia-
tion, as in the Alps, the Pyrenees, and Scandinavia, over
northern Europe, and in the Himalayas and New Zealand,
on the eastern hemisphere ; and over much of the north-
ern portion of North America and a lesser area in the
southern extremity of South America as well as isolated
localities along the Andes and Cordilleras, in the western
hemisphere. Over the plains of Switzerland an ice-sheet
nore than 4,000 feet thick swept its debris to the flanks of
the Jura, a hundred miles away ; but on the northern slope
of the Alps the extension was less. Here the direction
of motion was everywhere determined or at least modified
by local topographical features. In the Pyrenees, the Ap-
penines, the volcanic mountains of central France, and
the Jura, in the Vosges, and in Corsica, the accumulation
of ice was little more than the development of an exten-
sive system of local glaciers ; and north of the Alps there
is little evidence of glaciation within inland Europe. The
most complete testimony concerning European glaciation
in the Quaternary, is furnished by Scandinavia and Great
Britain. ‘Stretching from Scandinavia across the North

SCIENCE.

Sea, which it must have nearly closed, the North Europe
glaciers extended over Scotland, all the north of England,
and probably all of Ireland. On the north its limits were
perhaps the polar ice itself, and in the west the deeper
waters of the Atlantic’ The southern limit of this ice-
sheet was in the south-central part of England” (p. 40).
This was probably “ the southern edge of the polar ice
tops [ice cap?] rather than a local system of glacial
sheets” (p. 40). In North America the accumulation
of ice was stiil more extensive, and of somewhat different

character; ‘here the ice lay as a continuous mass, stretch--

ing down from the polar regions to the central parts of
the continent, overlapping the shores for a great distance
to the south along the Atlantic and Pacific coasts, and
giving a continuous though irregular ice front across the
land from sea to sea’’ (p. 41). The terminus of this
sheet is yet marked by moraines as constituting the Banks
of Newfoundland, George’s Banks, Cape Cod, Martha’s
Vineyard, and Block and Long Islands, and extending
thence across central New Jersey, and south as far as
Washington. The attenuated margin left less distinct
traces of its existence in the hills of southern Virginia,
and thence into the higher Appalachians in North Caro-
lina, whence it returned hugging the western mountain
slope, and extending through West Virginia, crossing the
Ohio river near the mouth of the Kanawha. Thence
the southern edge of the ice skirted the north shore of
the Ohio to Cincinnati, near which place it sent a lobe
across the river a few miles into Kentucky. ‘ West of
Cincinnati the front of the ice sheet inclined rapidly to the
north-west, and becomes hard totrace. It probably pas-
sed somewhat south of Chicago, through lowa, and thence
through Minnesota, following near the line of the Mis-
souri to the Rocky Mountains” (p, 42). In the Cordil-
leras the ice was mainly confined to the higher mountains,
and probably partook of the character of local or alpine
glaciers within. the limits of the United States; while
north of our domain “ we know little of its distribution ”
(p. 42). ‘There can be little doubt that the ice sheet
was continuous from its southern face to the poles during
the depths of the last ice time.*** This glaciated re-
gion of North America includes more than half the conti-
nent ; in fact over two thirds of its surface felt the weight
of the ice during the last geological period, and works
its work in the existing geography ” (p.44). The thick-
ness of the ice is not definitely known except in the vi-
cinity of Mt. Washington, where it exceeded a mile. In
South America it is probable that continental ice never
extended north of the Rio de la Plata over the plains, nor
beyond the Chilian coast on the Andes.

V. The work of the glacial time.—Water, whether
liquid or solid, is a most efficient agent of erosion; but
the mode of action of the two forms is quite different.
Liquid water itself operates in a two-fold manner: Ist,
as a chemical agent, penetrating the earth and disorganiz-
ing its constituents, forming caverns, mineral veins, and
residuary products; and 2nd, as a mechanical agent,
loosening, removing, and comminuting the rocky parti-
cles, and finally bearing them to the sea to form new
lands ; but in the solid form only mechanical activity is
manifested. There is, first, the enormous weight of the
glacier (more than a ton per square inch beneath a gla-
cier a mile in thickness), enough in itself to comminute
rocks not strongly coherent and well supported laterally;
there is then the abrading action of this tremendous
weight dragged slowly forward—the ice being armed
with fragments of rock frozen into its mass; and there is
finally the corroding action of the sub-glacial streams
(sometimes, perhaps, under great hydrostatic pressure)
which constantly bear away the finer detritus and pre-
vent the clogging of the grinding faces of the ‘glacial
mill, The rapidity of operation of these forces must be
almost beyond conception. _ Even in the diminutive
Alpine glaciers the sub-glacial streamlets are so fully
charged with impalpable mud as to carry away more

583

material in a few days than is moved by a sub-zrial
stream of like size in a year, Now, since the erosive
action of the ice is proportional to its thickness, and
since, moreover, this action is most effectively supple-
mented by sub-glacial streams in valleys, it is manifest
that the tendency of glaciation is to increase the depth
of existing depressions, and thus intensify topographical
irregularities. Accordingly, glaciated regions are char-
acterized by deep bays and fords along the coast line, V
shaped valleys intersecting mountainous areas, and
elongated basin-like ponds and lakes dotting more uni-
form surfaces—the longer axes coinciding with the direc-
tion of ice-motion; while at the same time abrupt peaks
and irregular knobs are replaced by gracefully rounded
swells with trains of fragments to the leeward. Since
the average rate of glacial erosion is so high (it was a
foot in a thousand years, or more than seven times as
rapid as sub-zerial erosion in New England) it would ap-
pear that important geographical changes ought to follow
the visitation of an ice-sheet, not only by the carrying
out of anew series of hills and dales, but by heaping up
of piles of earth and stones of such magnitude as to ne-
cessitate the development of a new drainage-system ; and
accordingly just such geographical vicissitudes are
abundantly attested in north-eastern United States and
elsewhere.

The most conspicous evidence of glacial action is the
mantle of drzf¢ occupying areas formerly overspread by
ice. This drift consists of the materials torn up and in-
discriminately intermingled by the glacier, and is gener-
ally a confused, unstratified mass of stones ot all sizes
and shapes, generally much worn, cemented together by
sand and clay. Itis sometimes heaped up in irregular
moraines ; some of which dcubtless mark the lines ot
greatest extension of the ice, while others probably indi-
cate temporary pauses or re-advances in its secular re-
treat. Along the coast this deposit has been re-arranged
superficially by wave and tide, and has afforded material
for immense accumulations of terrace drzfz; the unmodi-
fied basal portion being sometimes left in the form of
gracefully arched /entzewlar Azl/s of elliptical outline, the
longer axis extending in the direction of motion of the ice.
In regions not submerged at the close of the ice-period the
upper portion of the drift has been modified by the action of
running water and of vegetal growth. The moving wa-
ter was rendered effective during the retreat of the ice, not
so much by the increased volume to be borne sea-ward
as by the imperfection of the nascent drainage system,
The valleys were clogged with glacial waste, forming
hosts of pools and lakelets which burst from time to time
and shifted the hetrogeneous mass here and there in a
series of pygmy debacles. The terraces of this period
along the Connecticut river and its tributaries contain
scores of cubic miles of drift thus re-arranged, and indi-
cate by their altitude that much more material than that
now remaining has been removed. Among the minor
drift phenomena are the isolated hills and greatly elonga-
ted ridges of sand, gravel, or stratified clay, denominated
aasar, kames,or eskers. ‘No sufficient explanation has
yet been given of their origin’ (p. 66). In the best in-
stance known the deposit is probably a central terminal
moraine, deposited in a valley of uniform slope, by a re-
treating local glacier. Other examples, however, appear
to be not morainal ; and it may be long before we under-
stand the method of their formation”’ (p. 68).

VI. The origin and nature of glaczal pertods.—The
earliest of the several hypotheses which have been put
forth to explain the cause of the glacial period referred
the phenomenon to the secular refrigeration of the globe ;
but the hypothesis is untenable, since it does not contem-
plate the several successive transitions from warmth to
cold. A second hypothesis is that of Poisson, who sug-
gested that in the proper motion of the solar system it
might from time to time come into such proximity to, or
recede to such a distance from, neighboring stellar bodies

584

as to materially affect the temperature of the planets.
“This seemed a very reasonable view, and, indeed, it can-
not well be questioned that if one-half of the heat that
reaches the earth’s surface comes from the stars, it is
likely to be warmer near an aggregation of three suns
than it is where we are now” (p. 70); but astronomical
considerations show that the hypothesis as a whole is
untenable. Next is the view of Lyell, who attributed
climatal oscillations to changes to the relative position
of sea and land; but the view is open to the sweeping
objection that the formulated cause would produce oppo-
site effects from those which the hypothesis attempts to
explain. The effect. of minor geographical alterations on
climate cannot, however be denied. Tyndall and others
have shown that slight variations in the quantity of
aqueous vapor, carbonic acid, or some other substances
contained in the atmosphere must materially effect terres-

trial temperature; but any such variations which we are |
justified in assuming would probably be inadequate to |

alone explain the phenomena of the glacial period. The
next hypothesis is that of Croll, who, recognizing the fact
that the “orbit of the earth around the sun is not circu-
lar, as it might be if the earth were the only companion
of the sun in the solar system” (p.73), points out (1)
that during periods of high eccentricity in the terres-
trial orbit the precession of the equinoxes may lead to a
considerable variation in the length of the seasons, and
hence to an accumulation of snow and ice in the hemis-
phere having the long winter and the short summer ; and
(2) that when such accumulation was in the northern
hemisphere the effect upon the trade winds would be such
as to deflect the Gulf Stream feeders to the south of Cape
St. Roque and thence into the Antarctic regions, and
thus further refrigerate the northern hemisphere. The
hypothesis is the most important yet enunciated, though
it presents certain difficult.es. Other views are that
changes in the earth’s axis of rotation, or in the obliquity
of the ecliptic may materially affect the temperature of
the globe ; but these views can be mathematically proven
to be inadequate. Yet another hypothesis is that which
attributes the phenomenon to variations in solar emission,
and which “seems a most likely cause of glacial condi-
tions” (p. 90). Less important hypothetical causes are
minor geographical changes affecting aérial or marine
currents—for instance, the comparatively recent elevation
of Sahara, and the probable late Quaternary depression
and subsequent re-elevation of Alaska and Kamchatka ;
but it is clear that no conceivable array of geographical
changes can explain the origin of the last glacial epoch.

(To be continued.)

es

Tue HipporpoTAmMus.—Dr. Henry C. Chapman, of Phila-
delphia, has recently devoted much attention to the anatomy
of the Hippopotamus,and has read an elaborate paper before
the Academy of Natural Sciences, of Philadelphia. We
notice that he draws the following conclusions: ‘‘ begin-
ning with the pig, we pass by an easy transition to the
Piccary, which leads to the Hippopotamus, and thence in
diversing lines to the Ruminantia on the one hand and
the Manatee on the other, Paleontologists have not discov-
ered a form which bridges over the gap between the Hippo-
potamus and the Manatee, but it will beremembered that
certain fossil bones, considered by Cuvier to have belonged
to anextinct species of Hippopotamus, #7. Aedius, are re-
garded by Gervais as the remains of the Halithorerium fos-
sile, an extinct Sirenean of which order the Manatee isa living
representative.” Dr. Chapman adds further on, ‘‘I do not
mean to imply that the Manatee has necessarily descended
from the Hippopotamus,” but he considers that ‘‘there is
some generic connection between them.”

— - <o ——_—_—_———.

Pror. C. V. Ritry believes that the diminished virulency
of Phylloxera in sandy soils is due to its mechanicai action
on the insect, his own experiments showing the difficulty
such insects meet with in soils of a sandy nature.

SCIENCE.

NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.

November 21, 1881.
SECTION OF BIOLOGY.

The President, Dr. J. S. NEWBERRY, in the Chair.

Thirty one persons present.

The following paper was read by Prof. Louis ELs-
BERG, M. D. e

ON THE CELL-DOCTRINE AND THE BIOPLASSON-
DOCTRINE.

Mr. President and Fellows of the Academy, Ladies and
Gentlemen.—Last May, at the meeting of the American
Laryngological Association, I rendered account of some
histological investigations of the cartilages of the larynx,
a report of which is published in the October Number of
the Archives of Laryngology. As the structure of hya-
line cartilage has an important bearing on my subject of
this evening, I crave your attention for a few minutes for
a brief review of those investigations.

You know the larynx or voice-box consists of a frame-
work of cartilage or gristle. This cartilage is called hya-
line or glasslike, because it is opalescent and looks like
milk-glass. Having frequently been examined under the
microscope, it has always been looked upon as one of the
simplest tissues, namely, as being composed of a hard
matrix or basis-substance, in which are imbedded a num-
ber of small softer bodies. These softer bodies, the carti-
lage corpuscles, have since the establishment of the cell-
doctrine been called cartilage cells. As these cells were
known to be alive, the question which scientific men have
had to try to answer was: how can they obtain nutrition,
being isolated and enclosed in the firm, unyielding carti-
lage basis-substance ?

Without going teo much into details, I may say that it
was assumed that nourishing liquid reaches the corpuscle
either by imbibition and diffusion or else through canals
or fissures in the homogeneous basis-substance. The idea
of the existence of “ jurce-channels ” originates with VON
RECKLINGHAUSEN, although others before him had
spoken of “ pores” through which nutrient juices might
pass. BUDGE and others believe in the presence of regu-
lar canals for this purpose, while TILLMANNS and many
with him believe that hyaline basis-substance consists of
fine fibrils so closely held together by a cement-substance
that the mass appears to be homogeneous ; it is supposed
by some that this inter-fibrillar cement-substance is a vis-
cous, soft material which permits the imbibition of nutri-
ent liquid; by some that there are clefts or fissures, and by
others that there are regular channels tunnelled in this
cement-substance. On the other hand, HEITZMANN,
SPINA, FLESCH and others have found that there are ci-
lia-like offshoots or prolongations of the substance of the
corpuscle penetrating into the basis-substance. Such pro-
longations might carry on nutrition. I have had.the op-
portunity 6 or 7 years ago to repeat Heitzmann’s observa-
tions under his own eyes and with his assistance; but
the results as to their correctness at which I arrived, were
to the best of my belief uninfluenced by him.

My own recent investigations have not only confirmed
the existence of such offshoots and shown that they form
an inter-connected reticulum or network throughout the
basis-substance, but I have discovered in several speci-
mens, small lumps in this network which, by all the tests
applied to them, were proved to be lumps of living mat-
ter in various stages of existence! These investigations
are illustated by the accompanying drawings viz. :

Fig. 1. exhibits the appearance of a longitudinal section
of the plate of the thyroid cartilage with an amplification
of 100 diam.

Fig. 2. shows offshoots trom the cartilage corpuscles and
the network in the basis-substance with more or less large
granules interwoven, as it were, in the network.

SCIENCE.

Fig. 3. shows granules of various sizes in the basis-
substance with lower power of the microscope, which
granules are seen with higher powers to be connected
with the network of living matter, as shown by fig. 4.

Doubt as to the interpretation is impossible: instead
of being a mass of basis-substance in which a number of
cartilage corpuscles are imbedded, hyaline cartilage is a
filigree of living matter, in the meshes of which a num-
ber of blocks of basis-substance are imbedded.

Zz =
Se
SSK

AN

=~
was e

Ficure 1.—Plate of the Thyroid Cartilage of Adult.

A. Perichrondrium towards the mucus membrane.
B. Perichrondrium toward the skin.

Now, for our subject proper.
The founder of the Cell-Doctrine, Schwann, has re-
corded in the Introduction to his great work published in

1839 that the doctrine was based to a large extent upon |

investigation of the constitution of cartilage. After
Johannes Miiller had described cartilage-corpuscles that
were hollow,.and Gurlt had spoken of some as vesicles, —
when Schwann had succeeded, as he thought, ‘‘in actually

Ba Qa
i be a Ss
C—* ane

mh if IK
Hi y h\ \ inant) geal

AN Ni cetaiant
NUN SSN os Ree

x ae a ‘ \\ ae os

Ys a Oh ‘ Wesel
i" 05) y \\ \ Ve
Kaet or ae

FiGurRE 2.—Thyroid Cartilage of Adult, ne ih strong Alcohol. Hori-

zontal Section x 12v0.

C. Shrivelled cartilage corpuscle.
O. Longitudinal off-shoots.

R. Reticulum in basis-substance,
G. Granules of living matter.

observing the proper wall of the cartilage corpuscles,
first in the branchial cartilages of the frog’s larve and
subsequently also in the fish,” he was led by these and
other researches to conjecture “ that the cellular formation
might be a widely extended, perhaps a universal, principle
for the formation of organic substances.” And just,\as

585

the study of cartilages has led to the cell-doctrine, which
at the time of its establishment was a great advance in
biological science, so the further study of cartilage has
supplied the basis for a generalization which is a further

| development, and must take the place of the cell-doc-

trine. This is Heitzmann’s doctrine of living matter, or,

as I have named it, the dzoplasson-doctrine.
When the term ‘“ceil’’ was introduced in 1838 and
1839, by Schleiden and Schwann,

it was believed that

———
—

+ —

Longitudinal Section x 100.

F. Fibrous portion of cartilage in the centre.
H. Hyaline portion, on either side, near the perichondrium.

on ultimate morphological analysis every plant and every
animal would be found to consist of a number of minute
vesicles or sacs, enclosing liquid contents in which is
suspended a more solid body, the nucleus. For fully
twenty years this idea has been known to be erroneous.
In fact, Goodszr, nearly forty years ago—only a few years
that is, after Schwann had established the cell-doctrine and
attributed the vital power to the cell-membrane, I say,

edie 4 a LER
a 7 BEN

FIGURE 3. ity roid Cartilage of Aduit. ovsontal Section x 600,

C. Cartilage corpuscle.
F, Fibrous portion of cartilage.
G. Granules of living matter,

nearly forty years ago Goodsir had experimentally deter-
mined that the seat of the vital process of secretion is ot
in the vesicle as such, but in the so-called cell contents ;

Naegeli, in 1845, and Alexander Braun, in 1851, had also
shown the cell-wall to be comparatively unimportant ;
and in 1857 Leydig had declared the ‘cell’ to consist
only of a soft substance enclosing a nucleus. Certainly,
twenty years ago it was proved beyond dispute by Max

586

Schultze, Beale, Heckel, and others, that what was called
a “cell” was not a vesicle, but essentially a jelly-like
lump of living matter characterized by the presence of a
nucleus ; soon after, Robi, Briicke, Kiihne, Stricker,
and others, conclusively showed that not even a nucleus
is an essential constituent of an elementary organism ;
and, biologists were compelled to transfer the power of
manifesting vital properties to ‘‘living matter’’ instead of
restricting this power to any definite torm-element.
As long ago as in 1861, Briicke proposed to discontinue
the use of the word ‘“cell’’ as being a misnomer and
misleading, and offered as a substitute the expression
“elementary organism.” Beale proposed, instead, the
term ‘‘bioplast”’ to designate any definite mass of living
matter, and Heckel the term “plastid.” From the
latter I devised the word “plastidule’’ as synonymous
with ultimate molecule of the substance of living matter.
Elementary living matter is called with Dujardin
“«sarcode,” or with Von Mohl “protoplasm,” or with
Beale “‘ bioplasm,”’ or, still better (because it is a desig-
nation etymologically more nearly meaning living, form-
ing matter), “bioplasson.” Of these four synonymous
terms ‘“‘ protoplasm” is the one best known; but has
been used in other senses, as well as to designate, merely,
elementary living matter. I therefore think that
“‘bioplasson”’ is to be preferred. Of course, dead bio-
plasson is a contradiction in terms: bioplasson deprived
of vitality is no longer bioplasson at all, but merely the
chemical remains of what omce was bioplasson. If this
be remembered, there will be no confusion, even it the
word be used in describing tissues, etc., after death.
According to Drysdale, Dr. John Fletcher of Edinburgh
was the first, who clearly arrived at the conclusion that
“it is only in virtue of a specially living matter,
universally diffused and intimately interwoven with its
texture, that any tissue or part possesses vitality.”

As Fletcher's work was. published in 1835, several
years before even the establishment of the cell-doctrine,
we cannot but agree so far with Drysdale as to say that
Fletcher has framed a ‘‘ hypothesis of the anatomical na-
ture of the living matter which anticipates in a remark-
able manner” its discovery! In 1850, Cohn! recognized
the protoplasm “as the contractile element, and as what
gives to the zodspore the faculty of altering its figure,
without any corresponding change in volume.” He con-
cludes that protoplasm “ must be regarded as the prime
seat of almost all vital activity, but especially of all the
motile phenomena in the interior of the cell.” In 1853
Huxley’ said “vitality, (the faculty, that is, of exhibiting
definite cycles of change in form and composition), is a
property inherent in certain kinds of matter.” In 1856
Lord Osborne discovered carmine staining, and distin-
guished by means of coloring it the living formative mat-
ter from the formed material, a means which has borne
important fruits in the discovery of Cohnheim’s staining
of living matter by gold chloride, and in that of Reck-
linghausen’s staining all except living matter by silver
nitrate.

In 1858, and in a number of later articles? Max
Schultze, by showing that, as had been hypothetically
supposed by Unger, the movements of the pseudopodia
and the granules are really produced by active contractile
movements of the protoplasm, as well as by other ob-
servations, contributed much to the establishment of the
theory of living matter. Hzeckel has also for many years,
and in various publications,‘ labored to maintain and ex-
tend the same theory, of which he thus expresses himself.5
“The protoplasm or sarcode theory, that is the theory

1“ Nachtriige zur Naturgeschichte des Protococcus pluvialis.”
acta Acad. Leop.-Caro/., vol., Xxii., part i., p. 605.

3** Review of the Cell-theory.”’ British and Foreign Medico-chirurg.
Review, Oct., 1853.

8 ““ Ueber innere Bewegungs-Erscheinungen bei Diatomeen,” Mi/ler’s
Archiv, 1858, p. 330; ‘* Ueber Cornuspira,” Archiv (. Naturgesch.,
1860, p. 287 ; ** Ueber Muskelkirperchen und das was man eine Zelle zu
nennen habe,” Reichert und Du Bois-Reymond’s Archiv. 1861, p. 1;
Das Protoplasma der Rhizopoden und der Pflanzenzellen, Leipzig, 1863,

SCIENCE”

that this albuminous material is the original active sub-
stratum of all vital phenomena may, perhaps, be considered
one of the greatest achievements of modern biology, and
one of the richest in results.” And says Drysdale®: “ if
the grand theory of the one true living matter was, as we
have seen, hypothetically advanced by Fletcher, yet the
merit of the discovery of the actual anatomical repre-
sentation of it belongs to Beale, in accordance with the
usual and right award of the title of discoverer to him
alone who demonstrates truths by proof and fact. * * *
The cardinal point in the theory of Dr. Beale is not the
destruction of the completeness of the cell of Schwann as
the elementary unit, for that was already accomplished
by others. * * * But that, from the earliest visible

speck of germ, up to the last mement of life, in every liv-
ing thing, plant, animal, and protist, the attribute of life is
restricted to one anatomical element alone, and this hom-
ogeneous and structureless ; while all the rest of the in-
finite variety of structure and composition, solid and fluid,
which make up living beings, is merely passive and life-
This distinction into only two

less formed material.

=

Ae Seine Cans
ESRay ess

SRA
Ficure 4.—Thyroid Cartilage of Adult.
C. Cartilage corpuscle.

B. Hyaline basis-substance.
G. Granules of living matter.

Horizontal Section x 1200.

radically different kinds of matter, viz., the living or
germinal matter and the formed or lifeless material, gives
the clue whereby he clears up the confusion into which
the cell-doctrine had fallen, and gives the point of depart-
ure for the theory of innate independent life of each part,
which the cell-theory had aimed at, but failed to make
good. The one true and only living matter—called by
Beale germinal matter, or bioplasm—is described as
‘always transparent and colorless, and as far as can be
ascertained by examination with the highest powers, per-
fectly structureless ; and it exhibits those same characters
at every period of its existence. * * *

The name of bioplasm, continues Drysdale, given by
Beale, or protoplasm, as indicating the ideal living matter,
cannot be given to any substance displaying rigidity in
any degree, nor to anything exhibiting a trace of struc-
ture to the finest microscope: nor to any liquid; nor to

4 Monographie der Radiolarien, 1862, pp. 89, 116; ‘‘ Ueber den Sar-
codekirper cer Rhizopoden,” Zettsch. *. Wissensch. Zovlogie, 1865, p.
342; Generelle Morphologie, vol. i, pp. 269, 289.

5 Monographie der Moneren,”’ Yenaische Zeitsch/t f. Medicin und
Naturwissenscha/t, 1868, iv, 1; translation in Quarterly Fournal of
Microscopical Science, London, 1869, vol. ix, p. 223.

®Loc. cit., 42, et seg.

SCIENCE.

587

any substance capable of true solution. Thus, ‘ noth-
ing that lives is alive in every part,’ but as long as any in-
dividual part or tissue is properly called living it is only

|
|
|

so in'virtue of particles of the above-described protoplasm |

freely distributed among, or interwoven with the textures
so closely that there is scarcely any part -1- of an inch
in size but contains its portion of protoplasm. Thus we

see realized the hypothesis of Fletcher, that all /veng
actzon is performed so/e/y by virtue of portions of irrita-—

ble or living matter zz¢erwoven with the otherwise dead
textures.”
Beale is so very pertinent, that it must also find a place
here, but I shall not dwell upon other points on which
Beale differs from the bioplasson doctrine ; such as, that
living matter exhibits the same characters at every period of
its existence ; and that it is always perfectiy structureless.
“It has always appeared to me,” says Bastian,! “to bea
very fundamental objection to Beale’s theory, that so many
of the most characteristically vital phenomena of the
higher animals should take place through the agency of
tissues—muscle and nerye, for instance——by far the great-
er part of the bulk of which would, in accordance with
Dr. Beale’s view, have to be considered as dead and. in-
enitaa

In 1873, the morphological knowledge of living matter
became exact. In that year, Heitzmann discovered the
manner in which bioplasson is arranged throughout the
body, and announced the fact that what had until then
been regarded as separate form-elements in a tissue are
really zwterconnected portzons of living matter; that not
only are there contained zo isolated unit-masses in any
one tissue, but o ¢zssue in the whole body is isolated from
the other tissues; and that the only unconnected parti-
cles of living matter are the corpuscular elements of li-
quids, such as blood, sperm, saliva, pus, etc., and so-call-
ed wandering corpuscles ; so that, to use his own words:
“the animal bedy as a whole is a connected mass of
protoplasma in which, in some part, are imbedded isola-
ted protoplasma-corpuscles and various not-living sub-
stances ( glue-giving and mucin-containing substances in
the widest sense, also fat, pigment-granules, etc.).”’ This
announcement marked the commencement of a new era
in biology. -

Heitzmann discovered that the living matter as seen in
an amceba is zot wzthout structure, as had, before his
accurate investigations, been supposed; and that its
structure, in all cases when developed, is that of a net-
work, in the meshes of which the bioplasson fluid, or the
not-contractile, not-living portion of the organism, exists.
When there is a nucleus, it is connected by delicate threads
with the extranuclear network; nucleoli and nucleolini
inside of the nucleus, as well as granules outside, are
portions of living matter : sometimes in lump, sometimes
mere points of intersection of the threads constituting
the intranuclear and extranuclear living networks, some-
times terminals of section of such threads, as first ex-
plained by Eimer,! and after him by Klein.®

Heitzmann discovered that what is true of the structure
of bioplasson in the amoeba, where a single small unit-
mass of living matter constitutes the entire individual, is
true also of the structure of bioplasson of all, even the
highest, living organisms.

To be sure much had been previously known regard-
ing protoplasm or living matter, but the knowledge was

The Beginnings of Life: being some account of the nature, modes of
origin, and transformations of lower organisms. London, 1872, vol. i., p.
155-

1“ Weitere Nachrichten tiber den Bau des Zellkerns.”’
krosk. Anatomie, xiv, 1877, p. 103.

2““ Observations on the Structure of Cells and Nuclei,” Q@Qzarterly
Fournal of Microscopical Science,Jan., 1879, p. 128. ‘* The intranuclear
as well as the intracellular network having, of course three dimensions,
includes fibrils that lie in the two dimensions of the plane of the field of
the microscope, as well as fibrils placed vertically to it. The former ap-
pear, of course, as fibrils; but, I should like to ask, as what do the latter
appear, 7. e., those situated vertically. Clearly as dots, because they are
seen endwise ; and for obvious reasons most of them lie in the nodes of the
network,” ’

Archiv f. mi-

The objection, however, urged by Bast¢zan to |

|

fragmentary, until Heitzmann demonstrated xof only,
that membrane, nucleus, nucleolus, granules, and threads
are really the living contractile matter, but also, Ist, that
this matter is arranged in a network, containing in its

, meshes the non-contractile matter, which is transformed

into the various kinds of basis-substance, characterizing
the different tissues of the body; and 2d, that the tissue-
masses of bioplasson throughout the whole body are zz-
terconnected by means of fine threads of the same living
matter,

Unless these two facts of Heitzmann’s discovery are
accepted, there cannot be urged much against the continu-
ed use of the word ‘cell,’’ misnomer though it be.
Ranke,' after speaking of the “ cell-wall,” “ cell-nucleus,”
etc.. says: ‘‘of these component parts of the cell, one
or other may be wanting without the totality ceasing to
bea cell. The nucleoli, the cell-wall, or the nucleus
may be wanting, and yet we must designate the micro-
scopic form a cell, or elementary organism.” Drysdale
thus comments upon this quotation, viz.: “if any one
choose to describe a gun-barrel as a stockless gun with-
out a lock, he is free to do so; but what good purpose
can it serve? Or is there even any funinit ? The truth
is, this clinging to the mere name of the cell-theory by
the Germans seems to arise from a kind of perverted idea
of patriotism and of Azefas toward Schwann and Schlei-
den.”” But, | think Tyson? has the better of the argu-
ment, in saying: ‘the word “cell’’ has become so inti-
mately associated with histology, that it 1s doubtful
whether it will ever fall into disuse, nor does it much mat-
ter, so long as correct notions of the elementary part are
obtained.” Now, if there were any separate and distinct
“elementary part,’ it certainly would matter little or noth-
ing whether it were called “cell” or by any other name,
provided the name be properly defined and agreed upon.
It is not against the name but against the idea of any zso-
lated individualized form-element that the objection lies.
Virchow maintains! “that the cell is really the ultimate
morphological unit in which there is any manifestation of
life, and that we must not transfer the seat of real action
to any point beyond the cell.’ Against this statement
nearly every author nowadays protests, and insists that
vital power must be transferred from the ‘‘cell”’ to “liv-
ing matter’’; yet, after all, the disagreement, though
ever so strenuously declared, isa mere verbal one: so long
as both parties hold that ‘‘every higher animal presents
itself as a sum of vital unities’”—no matter what these
unities are called or how defined. Heckel, one of the
most avowed advocates of “the protoplasm or sarcode
theory,” clings to Virchow’s politico-physiological com-
parison, that every higher organism is like an organized
social community or state, in which the individual citizens
are represented by the “cells” [no matter how he may
define these], each having a certain morphological and
physiological autonomy, although on the other hand in-
terdependent and subject to the laws of the whole. Heitz-
mann’s views necessitate the comparison of the body to
a machine, such as a watch or a steam-engine, in which,
though there are single parts, no part is at all autono-
mous, but all combine to make up one individual. Even
Huxley, the popular champion of protoplasm as the physi-
cal basis of life, quite recently delivered an address, be-
fore the International Medical Congress in London, Au-
gust 9, 1881, in which he used the following language:
“in tact, the body is a machine of the nature of an army,
not of that of a watch, or of a hydraulic apparatus. Of
this army, each cell is a soldier,” etc., etc. According to
Heckel and Huxley, the body is composed of colonzes of
amcebe ; according to Heitzmann the body zs ome com-

1 The Cell-Doctrine; its history and present state. Philadelphia,
1878, p. 128.

2 ** Physiologie, 1872,’’ quoted by Drysdale, /oc. ci‘t., p. 104.

1 Die Cellularpathologie in ihrer Begriindung auf physiologische und
pathologische Gewebelehre, Berlin, 1858, p. 3. (Translation by Chance,
London, 1859, p. 3.)

588

.

SCIENCE.

plex ameba, {am very anxious to really make the 4if-
ference between the cell theory and the bioplasson theory
clear to every one of you. ‘The essential point of the cell
theory is, the idea that the body and each tissue of
the body, every plant, and every animal, is made up of
a number of distinct units, and the essential point of
the bioplasson theory is, the idea that all the masses of
living matter of each tissue of plants and animals are un-
interruptedly connected, and that every tissue is connected
with every other tissue by filaments of living matter. To
accept Mr. Huxley’s comparison, we must imagine that
every soldier is indissolubly connected, hand and foot
with every neighboring soldier of the solid army !

There is no detter ¢est of the TRUTH of the bioplasson
doctrine than the structure of hyaline cartilage. If hya-
line cartilage consisted, as ‘“‘is generally believed,” of “a
homogeneous ground substance, in which are closed
cavities harboring the corpuscles,’ ' the bioplasson doc-
trine would certainly be erroneous. If it merely contained
lymph, or juice-channels, no matter what their character,
whether open or closed, whether lined or unlined, whether
in ‘‘ homogeneous basis-substance,’ or ‘‘ between layers of
cells,” or -‘‘in cement-substance,” then, too, the bio-
plasson doctrine would be erroneous.

But the result of my observations, especially those
illustrated in figs. 2, 3, and 4, admit of but one interpre-
tation, and that an interpretation favorable to the bio-
plasson doctrine. It is unnecessary to more than men-
tion that although I have placed on record so few, I have
made many different examinations, under many different
circumstances, and with varying powers of amplification.
I need occupy myself here with only the two fields
drawn in figs. 3 and 4, with an amplification of 600 and
1200 respectively. The remarkable specimens from
which they are taken show more conclusively than it was
ever before shown wha¢ the structure or constitution of
hyaline cartilage ~eally Is. I think I have explacned
this sufficiently, but its full significance appears in its cor-
roboratzon of the dzoplasson doctrine.

To be able to uphold the cell-doctrine, cartilage would
have to be, using a homely comparison, like a cake com-
posed of hard dough with raisins. No matter how
widely we may extend the definition, to remain within
the boundary of the cell-doctrine this metaphor must be
applicable. Innumerable painstaking researches have
led to various modifications of notions entertained re-
garding the structure of the two constituents of the cake
and their relation to each other. It may be seen by the
most recent publications on the subject, that the accep-
tation of the existence in the dough of cleavage in certain
directions, of interlaminary and interfibrillar spaces,
and of offshoots, even ramifying prolongations of the
raisin-substance, or, at all events, of an ingredient of
the raisins, is held to be not incompatible with the cell-
doctrine. If, however, we can represent cartilage as a
filigree or framework of raisin-substance, in the meshes
or interspaces of which framework blocks of dough are
imbedded, certainly the fundamental view of the ultimate
construction of the tissue is changed, and we are no
longer in accord with the cell-doctrine, even though we
be inclined to use that term in the widest possible sense.
Look for a moment at the two illustrations on the black-
board, as well as at figs. 2,3, and 4. The upper figure
represents a section of cartilage stained with gold
chloride. This, as I have already alluded to, stains the
living matter and leaves the basis-substance unstained.
High powers exhibit the appearance, etc., etc. In re-
gardto a NAME as a swudstctute for the term ‘“ ced/,” I
would say that all corpuscular masses may be called,
simply, corpuscles—thus we may speak of blood-cor-

1 This statement of the general belief is quoted from the introductory

paragraph of Thin’s memoir ‘On the Structure of Hyaline Cartilaze”
(Quarterly Ffournal of Microscopical Science, xvi, 1876) in which Thin’s
own views are laid down to the effect ‘* that layers of cells epithelial in
arrangement exist in the substance of cartilage,” ‘* that both the stellate

and the parallel systems of lymph-channels exist,’’ etc.

puscles, pus-corpuscles, etc. For all the accumulations
of Jiving matter within the ordinary fields of basis-sub-
stance, but more especially for those smaller masses
which, having as yet developed neither a network struc-
ture nor much vacuolation, are still homogeneous, or
nearly so—-I am quite willing to adopt either the designa-
tion of “plastids,” proposed by Haeckel, or that of “ bio-
plasts,” proposed by Beale. Perhaps it would be well to
restrict the word ‘‘bioplast” to a small mass of living
matter exhibiting no differentiation, and distinguish from
it as “plastid” the larger. mass showing an interior
structure more or less like the fully developed corpuscle.
Thus, I would always use the term “plastid” in the
place of “cell.”

The result of my investigations as to the structure of
cartilage is that in this tissue, beyond the possibility of a
doubt, the living matter is arranged in the form of a net-
work containing in its meshes the non-contractile matter.
How is it with regard to the other proposition of the
bioplasson doctrine, viz., that the living matter of the
different tissues is interconnected? Examinations with
high powers of such a specimen as that represented in
fig. 1, showing the perichondrium, of horizontal sections
through the larynx, or the neck, with skin and more or
less of other tissues included, enable me to answer this
question to the effect that fine filaments of living matter
pass from one tissue to another in connection with the
network of living matterin each. The details of these ex-
aminations arereserved for another time! Butit has been
suggested to me that I ought not to conclude without say-
ing a few words as to the practzca/ advantages of the Biop-
lasson Doctrine over the Cell-Doctrine. Well, every exact
scientific investigation, even though at first of theoretzcal
value only, sooner or later brings with it some practical
benefit; and this doctrine of living matter, aside from
the satisfaction which the perception of ABSYRACT ¢ruth
grants —lying as it does at the foundation of our know-
ledge of living things—has advanced their physiology,
and pathology at every point! In Pvractécal Medicine
it has already aided us in so many ways that their merest
enumeration would require another hour’s lecture. We
know that the disposition of living matter is different in
different persons, and that in the case of increased sup-
ply of food the veacfzon is different in strong and healthy
people from that in the sick and weak. Upon this
knowledge rests, to-day, the whole doctrine of pulmonary
consumption. Now, the amount of leving matter within
the same bulk varzes greatly, both in normal and morbid
conditions. A smalllump of bioplasson in the urine or ex-
pectoration, taken from an individual of good constitution,
will show a close network with coarse granulations, or
perhaps be almost omogeneous-looking under the
microscope—owing to the darge amount of living matter
in the small bulk: while a plastid from a weak, broken
down or phthisical person will be finely granular and ex-
hibit a xetwork with large meshes on account of the
relatzvely small amount of living matter in it. Some-
times we thus from the examination of a drop of blood
gain an insight into the condition and vital power of the —
whole individual; sometimes, recognize a disease before’
it is sufficiently developed to do much harm, and thus
come a Step nearer to the Azghest azm of the physician :—
the prevention of disease.

DISCUSSION,

Dr. B. N. Martin remarked on the great value and im-
portant bearing of this investigation.

Mr. A. C. Elliot enquired whether the blocks of non-
living matter in the cartilage were entirely separated.

Dr. Elsberg explained that the blocks were separate,
their only connection being the interposed threads of the
reticulum of living matter, and to the former is due the
opalescent character of hyaline cartilage, He further stated
that the condition of health of an individual might be in-
ferred in a degree from a study of the character of the

SCIENCE,

589

network, a thin section of a very minute portion of the
body often showing a difference of network in different
persons, ¢. g., in the thickness of the threads, the size of the
meshes, the character of the points of intersection, etc.
From the uniformity in the size of the meshes, etc., or
from their variability, or from the proportion of corpuscles
presenting a normal and abnormal character in their net-
work, a good or bad prognosis was deduced by the phy-
sician, and even an indication of the progress of disease.

Prof. E. H. Day remarked on the wonderful character
of protoplasm in its wide results in the construction of the
most varying textures in the vegetable and animal king-
doms. The speaker’s observations have brought the
protoplasm of cartilage tissue into correspondence with
that in the tissues of the sponge, of the plant, and all the
lower forms of life. In protoplasm we are brought face
to face with the most astonishing substance in nature.

Mr. J. D. Warner offered objections to the vague views
of Virchow on the soul of the cell and its relation to the
soul of the individual.

Dr. Newberry said that, having been educated as a
physician, and having studied microscopic anatomy under
Dr. Charles Robin, he had followed with great interest
the progress of modern research into the ultimate struc-
ture of organic tissue, and the discussions of the origin
and seat of vitality to which it has given rise; and he re-
garded such investigations as those of Dr. Elsberg as of
the highest scientific interest and practical value. If we
ever learn the causes of malarial and infectious diseases,
or the cure of the morbid growths which are the scourges
of humanity, cancer and tubercle, it will be through such
researches. But he thought that much of the discussion
which had been excited by these investigations had been
irrelevant and confusing, especially that in regard to the
seat and nature of life, into which microscopists and
chemists had entered with great earnestness and some
acrimony, but with no satisfactory result. In this dis-
cussion some writers had made the ultimate cell the seat

_ of life, and had glorified and almost deified it. Others
claimed that the cells were only portions of a general vital-
ized and automatic tissue; while others still contended
that the phenomena of vitality were the mere manifesta-
tions of chemical changes taking place in structure other-
wise lifeless.

With none of these views could he sympathize as there
had really been no approach to an end in the effort to
localize or analyze life. Unless we accept the material-
istic theory of spontaneous generation advocated by Dr.
Bastian, but rejected by most biologists, we must confess
that no more is now known of the origin, nature and seat
of life than was known to Aristotle. All we have done
is to acquire a better knowledge of the machznery by
which the functions of life are accomplished; most im-
portant knowledge truly since it enables us to distinguish
between normal and morbid life action in the tissues
where this action begins, and promises to point the way
for promoting the one, and preventing the other—but
limited to the methods in which the life force acts, not
reaching the inscrutable and intangible force itself.

The work done by a microscopic cell is wonderful and
incomprehensible to us, yet all cells work not as inde-
pendent individuals, but as members of a community, and
fora common end, For example, the terminal cell of the
fibril of a plant root is a delicate vesicle—the cell in its
simplest form, and yet when new born, and having existed
but the fraction of a minute, it begins its special work of
supplying certain food elements to the plant above; and
this it does with a discrimination which is_ infallible.
Water it absorbs by endosmosis, and when deficient be-
gets progeny to send for it. It also appropriates other
things that are necessary to the growth of the plant to
which it belongs, whatever that be; if tobacco, an un-
usual quantity of potash; if grass, of silica. It always
works to a pattern determined by the character of the
plant whose general economy it serves, and is controlled

by the influence which gives to that plant its special
and recognizable leaf, flower and fruit, its noxious or
alimentary qualities. So in all other parts of the struc-
ture the cell is doing its allotted work in a community
of which it forms an integral part. It is therefore in no
sense an independent individual. Our notions of what
constitutes an individual or a community may seem to
us quite clear, but they -are in fact likely to be some-
what confused. Every man recognizes and asserts his
own individuality, but we all know that men -who live
in communities often think and feel as one though many.
A great grief crushes all alike, a great danger rallies all
in defence. The social insects, ants and bees, retain
their corporeal individuality, but are curiously linked
together in a common life that makes each but a
part of a whole. A tree is universally accepted as an
individual, but as all know it may be divided to
form an unlimited number of perfect trees which expand
this individual into a forest and prolong its life indefinitely.
The sponge is said to be a community of amceboid in-
dividuals, but these share a common skeleton, fashioned
for the wants of all, and all unite in the general function
by which the inhalent and exhalent currents are main-
tained, a function on which the life of all depends. In
the corals which live in communities we find the common
skeleton covered with a vitalized gelatinous integument
on which are set here and there the individual polyps.
These live to a great degree each for itself; each throws
out its tentacles and forages for its own support, but at
the same time it shares a life with its neighbors; an in-
jury done to one affects those about it, and a misfortune
involving a sufficient number destroys the life of the
colony. :

The elusive and intangible nature of the life which
pervades plant tissue is well shown in the growth and
decay of a tree. From a microscopic germ a young
Seguoéa springs into existence, and for a thousand years
or morelivesits life. All this time it is inspired by a power
which acts in antagonism to the affinities of inorganic
chemistry, in opposition to the force of gravitation, and
which builds up a mass hundreds of tons in weight,
mostly obtained by the breaking up of one of the strong-
est bonds in chemistry, that of carbonic acid, appropriat-
ing the carbon and setting the oxygen free. Every part
of the huge structure is pervaded by this peculiar crea-
tive and conservative influence ; and every cell of root 01
stem or leaf contributes its part to the harmonious whole.
At length the time arrives when this peculiar influence
which we call life deserts the structure it has created.
The affinities of inorganic chemistry now assert
themselves, all the ephemeral fabric is rapidly dis-
organized, and soon a heap of ashes—the inorganic mat-
ter woven into its composition—alone remains to tell of
its existence. Who can tell us what was the nature of
the enchantment which created this Aladdin’s palace—
whence it came, where it dwelt during its sojourn, and
whither it has gone? We may say it resided in the ter-
minal root cells ; but these are inseparably connected with
the leaves hundreds of feet above. The tie that binds
them is a vital one; neither could live without the other,
nor without the intervening chain which connects them.

By studying the anatomy of plants and animals, we ob-
tain a knowledge of the organs and laws, as we call them,
of animal and plant life; that is, we get a knowledge of
the machinery with which the functions of life are ac-
complished, a knowledge of the order and manner in
which these functions are performed; but the przmum
mobile, the real “power behind the throne,’ remains
as yet unseen and unknown to us.

SLIDES OF MARINE ALG#&.—The Rev. A. B. Hervey, of
Taunton, Mass., author of the very beautiful work on “Sea
Mosses,” will mail to any address for two dollars, a set of
six slides showing the characteristic fruit of the six great
groups into which Professor Agardh divides the Red Alge.

590

‘DR. D. DRAPER’S INSTRUMENT FOR RECORD-
ING THE VELOCITY_OF THE WIND:

On the ends of a cross supported by a vertical shaft
several feet above the roof of the building, are four hem-
ispherical copper cups. These, whatever may be the direc-
tion of the winds, are caused to turn round with a speed,
as has been determined by experiment, of about one-third
the velocity of the wind. This portion of the contrivance
was the invention of Dr. Robinson, of Ireland. It is used
in the foreign observatories, and is knownas Robinson’s
cups.

To the lower end of the shaft thus made to revolve by
the cups is attached an endless screw connecting with a
train of wheels, which move acam. The wheels are so
arranged that one turn of the cam answers to 15 miles
in the movement of the wind. A pencil which rests on
the edge of the cam, and bears lightly against a surface,
is carried from the bottom to the top of the paper by each
revolution of the cam. It should be understood that the
paper is attached toa board drawn aside bya clock at the
rate of half an inch an hour. The number of times that

the pencil moves from the bottom to the top of the paper,
multiplied by 15, gives the number of miles that the wind
has moved in an hour or day.

The four hemispherical cups, aa aa, turned round by
the wind, impart their motion to a vertical shaft, 4 4, at
the bottom of which is the endless screw, c¢, its lower end
resting in a small agate cup filled with oil, connected
with the train of wheelwork turning the cam, dd. Ate,
is the pencil resting on the edge of thecam ; / / isa sheet
of ruled paper attached to the board, ¢ g, by means of
small brass clamps, which is drawn aside at the above
. mentioned rate by the clock, 4.

SCIENCE:

STATISTICS OF THE SUN.

The following S¢a¢zstzcs of the Sun, comprising facts
which can be stated in numbers, are selected from Pro-
fessor C, A. Young’s recent work “The Sun,” being one
of the last additions to Messrs. Appleton’s International
scientific series.

Solar Parallax(equatorial horizontal), 8.80" + 0.02”

Mean distance of the sun from the earth, 92,885,000
miles, 149,480,000 kilometres. 2

Variation of the distance of the sun from the earth be-
tween January and June, 3,100,000 miles, 4,950,000 kilo-
metres,

Linear value of 1” on the sun’s surface, 450.3 miles;
724.7 kilometres.

Mean angular semi-diameter of the sun, 16’ 02.0” +1.0",

Sun’s linear diameter, 866,400 miles; 1,394,300 kilo-
metres. (This may, perhaps, be variable to the extent of
several hundred miles.)

Ratio of the sun’s diameter to the earth’s, 109.3.

Surface of the sun compared with the earth, 11,940.

Volume or cubic contents, of the sun compared with
the earth, 1,305,000.

Mass, or quantity of matter, of the sun compared with
the earth, 330,000 + 3000.

Mean density of the sun compared with the earth,
0.253.

Mean density of the sun compared with water, 1.406. *

Force of gravity on the sun’s surface compared with
that on the earth, 27.6.

Distance a body would fallin one second, 444.4 feet;
135.5 metres.

Inclination of the sun’s axis to the ecliptic, 7° 15’

Longitude of its ascending node, 74.°

Date when the sun is at node, June 4-5.

Mean time of the sun’s rotation (Carrington), 25.38
days.

Time of rotation of the sun’s equator, 25 days,

Time of rotation at latitude, 20,° 25.75 days.

Time, of rotation at latitude, 30.° 26.5 days.

Time of rotation at latitude, 45,° 27.5 days.

(These last four numbers are somewhat doubtful, the
formule of various authorities giving results differing by
several hours in some cases).

Linear velocity of the sun’s rotation at his equator,
2.261 miles per second; 2.028 kilometres per second.

Total quantity of sunlight, 6,300,000,000,000,000,000,-
000,000,000 candles.

Intensity of the sunlight at the surface of the sun,
190,000 times that of a candle flame ; 5300 times that of a
metal in a Bessemer converter; 146 times that of a cal-
cium light, 3.4 times that of an electric arc.

Brightness of a point on the sun’s limb compared with
that of a point near the centre of the disk, 25 per cent.

Heat received per minute from the sun upon a square
metre, perpendicularly exposed tothe solar radiation at
the upper surface of the earth’s atmosphere (the solar
constant), 25 calories.

Heat-radiation at the surface of the sun, per square
metre per minute, 1,117,000 calories.

Thickness of a shell of ice which would be melted from
the surface of the sun per minute, 48% feet; or 1434
metres.

Mechanical equivalent of the solar radiation at the sun’s
surface, continuously acting, 109,000 horse-power per
square metre; 10,000 (nearly) per square foot.

Effective temperature of the solar surface (according to
Rosetti), about 10,000° Cent.; or 18,000° Fahr.

ee —— ——————

WE have to thank our English contemporary the London
“‘Tancet” for its acknowledgement of the interesting na-
ture of the articles published in ‘‘ ScIENCE.,”

TuE Governor of Texas has taken steps to form a per-
manent organization preparatory to the establishment of a
State University.

SCIENCE.

FRENCH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.
Nov. 7, 1881.

Action of cold on the voltaic arc—According to M.
D. Tommasi, the voltaic arc is considerably enfeebled if,
by means of a current of water, the electrodes between
which it is produced, are cooled. Its brilliancy is then
not intense and the least breath extinguishes it. Its tem~
perature also is relatively but little elevated. These facts
are evident @ przorz. The magnet displaces and extin-
guishes it. It is the same on the approach of an inflam-
able body.

Molecular Physics —M. Fizeau sent a communication
relative to the variation in length of a bar of zinc brought to
an even temperature after having undergone different ac-
tions. The application which these facts will receive is
immediately seen in point of view of the construction of
metallic measures. :

The accents of the deaf and dumb,—It is known that
the deaf and dumb can be taught to speak so that we can
converse with them very nearly as well as with men who
have possession of both of these senses. M. Félix Hé-
ment announces the fact that the individuals who can
thus speak, are affected by the particular accent of their
native province. As they have not acquired this accent
by imitation, since they are deaf, the author thinks that
the reason must be sought in the arrangement of the pho-
netic apparatus, special to each race.

Mechanics.—Iit is in a special way that M. Bertrand
announces a memoire by M. Lévy, relative to the trans-
portation of force to a distance by electricity. Itis known
that calculus demonstrates that a 16 horse-power engine
can transmit force to a distance of 10 to 50 kilometres.
M. Lévy states that a much superior result can be ob-
tained.

— EE

INFEGTED PORK.

It is not only Trichinz which is to be dreaded in the
hams exported by the United States; in one of the re-
cent meetings of the Medical Congress, Dr. E. Ballard
and Mr. E. Klein called the attention of the public to an-
other still more dangerous parasite in the same meat. The
Journal of Hygtene makes the following remarks on this
subject :

In 1880, on the estates of the Duke of Portland, at
Welbeck, twenty persons were taken seriously ill, after a
dinner in which boiled ham had been served, with pork
imported from America. Four persons died; others felt
no evil effect. The morbid symptoms showed nothing
very characteristic (choleric diarrhoea, vomiting, pains in
the muscles, great prostration); the autopsy only revealed
pulmonary congestion. In a piece of kidney, examined
under the microscope, there were found traces of inflam-
mation of the eye and in the capillaries of the
Malpighian tufts, incrustations formed by masses of
Bacilli.

In passing over the field of the microscope, particles of
the raw ham and of the boiled ham which was infected,
a species of Bacillus with its spores was found ; the bacil-
lian threads and the spores adhered closely to the muscu-
lar fibres and to the intermuscular tissue.

Experiments were made on animals: 1. By feeding
and by inoculation, or by the two methods combined. 2.
By inoculation after cultivation of the bacillary matter in
the incubator. In every case sickness was caused, and at
the autopsy, lesions of pneumonia or pulmonary hemorr-
hage were established.

A second series of observations was made on fifteen per-
sons who felt serious symptoms after having eaten a leg of
pork, roasted in the oven, bought at a second-class cook-
shop. One of them having died, Bacilli were found, at
the autopsy, in the blood of the heart, in the blood pressed
out of the pulmonary tissue, and in the blood extravasated
around the pulmonary alveoli. The tissues of the

59!

stomach, the ileum, the spleen, and the kidneys, also con-
tained Bacilli.

Experiment by inoculation with different liquids, on
animals, caused morbid and often mortal symptoms.
Bacilli were also’ found in the blood, and in the different
tissues of the animals. Unfortunately, in this:case, the
suspected food could not be examined.

In the face of these facts, Messrs. Ballard and Klein do
not hesitate to admit an acute specific affection, not to
this day defined, and presenting marked characteristics,
in point of view of the morbid phenomena, with the
known cases of poisoning by damaged or trichinated meat.

Dr. Tripe, of London, recalled two febrile maladies
which he had observed in his medical circumscription.
In the first, sixty-six persons showed alarming morbid
symptoms, after a dinner in which sausage containing a
mixture of beef and pork fat, had been served. In the
second it was pork fat alone which was the immediate
cause of the sickness. Dr. Buchanan mentions cases of
diseases, in which beef and mutton constituted the in-
fected substances.—La Nature.

pe ee Sa
THE COMPARATIVE ACTION OF DRY HEAT
AND SULPHUROUS ACID UPON PUTRE-
FACTIVE BACTERIA.*

Pieces of woolen and cotton cloths and wadding were
dipped in a solution of putrefying flesh and slightly dried ;
and after being shown to be infected by causing discolor-
ation and development of bacteria in a Pateur solution, ~
one portion was subjected to dry heat, and the other to
the influence of a definite quantity of sulphurous acid.
When these agents had operated for a certain time, the
substances were brought into a developing liquid and
again observed.

These experiments, which were conducted by Dr.
Wermch, were_as follows :

First. Fragments of the materials above referred to,
treated as mentioned and dried, produced in sixteen ex-
periments an exceptionably rapid disturbance of the test
liquid. In four experiments with wadding this was some-
what retarded. It took place most rapidly in tubes which
had been inoculated with woolen thread.

Second. After inoculation with the material which had
been exposed one or two minutes to a dry heat of 284° to
300° F., clouding took place in four of eight experiments ;
but only after from two to three days. With material
which had been exposed from ten to sixty minutes toa
a heat of 230°-244° F., in five out of six experiments a
development of bacteria took place after the end of
twenty-four hours.

Third. Substances which were exposed five minutes to
a heat of 257° to 302° F. produced no infection whatever
in ten experiments. The test liquid remained clear for
eleven days from the time of inoculation.

Fourth. When the objects were exposed under a bell
glass to the action of a percentage, by volume, of 1.5, 2.2,
and 3.3 of sulphurous acid, in eight out of nine experi-
ments a bacterial clouding was developed in the sulphu-
rized material, whether the application had continued for
one hour or twenty-two.

Fifth. In fifteen experiments, in which sulphurous acid
constituted 4.6 and 7.15 per cent. by volume, of the con-
tents of the bell glass, the introduction of the sulphurized
material produced no cloudiness, when the experiment
continued six hours and more. On the other hand an ex-
posure of 20, 40, 60, and 200 minutes was followed by the
development of bacteria.

In conclusion, the fact was considered especially inter-
esting that the different fabrics gave up the infection con-
cealed in them with different degrees of rapidity, the
woolen fiber the quickest, the linen less easily, and the
wadding with the greatest difficulty of all.

* From the proceedings of United States National Museum.

‘

592

SCIENCE.

NOTES ON THE MORTALITY AMONG FISHES
OF THE GULF OF MEXICO,

Prof. SPENCER F. BAIRD, U.S. Commissioner of Fish
and Fisherzes, Washington, D, C.:

SIR: Noticing in the Forest and Stream of goth instant
some answers to queries as to the cause of mortality
among fishes in the Gulf of Mexico, I make bold to pres-
ent the result of my observations.

After very heavy rains and overflowing of rivers, the
inner bays on the Texas coast suffer a loss of from one-
half to three-fourths of their stock of salt water fish, not
including mullet, which live as well in fresh as salt water.
In fact land-locked mullet in a fresh water pond or tank
grow to a weight of nine or ten pounds.

Last winter, after a heavy rain and a freeze, a// the salt
water fish in the Laguna del Madre (a large sheet of
water lying between Padre Island and the mainland)
were found dead on the banks.

We have two causes for the destruction of fish here,
vis., too much fresh water and too cold weather.

In the lagoon above spoken of, in a long drought, the
water gets too salty for the fish, and they become covered
with sores, and unless relieved by a rain they die from too
much salt.

I have never known any serious mortality among fish
on the Gulf coast where there was a tree flow of water,
except during violent storms, when many fish both small
and large were beached and killed.

Very respectfully,
S. H. JOHNSON.

Corpus CuRISTI, Texas, fune 17, 1881.

| ANGLO-AMERICAN ARCTIC EXPEDITION.

Commander Cheyne’s paper, describing his proposed
Arctic expedition in conjunction with Lieut. Schwatka,
read before the N. Y. Academy of Sciences, on the 28th
ultimo, will be printed in-our next issue, with the regular
proceedings of the Academy. We understand that Com-
mander Cheyne is receiving a strong support from those
interested in the subject, and that there is an early pros-
pect of his plans taking a definite form.

The English Arctic Council for the organization of this
expedition, meet on the 13th instant, and are awaiting a
cablegram, informing them of the prospects of success,
for international co-operation.

eo ee

Apvice To AsTRONOMERS.—In Sir William Herschel’s
work “On the Construction of the Heavens,” the following
line of conduct for astronomers is indicated: “in an in-
vestigation of this delicate nature we ought to avoid two
opposite extremes. If we indulge a fanciful imagination
and build worlds of our own, we must not wonder at our

going wide from the path of truthand nature. On the other
hand, if we add observation to observation, without at-
tempting to draw not only certain conclusions but also con-
jectural views from them, we offend against the very end
for which only observations ought to be made. I will en-
deavor to keep a proper medium, but if I should deviate
from that I could trust not to fall into the latter error.—
See Holden's and Hasting’s Synopsis.

METEOROLOGICAL REPORT FOR NEW YORK CITY FOR THE WEEK ENDING DEC, 3, 1881,

Latitude 40° 45’ 58" N.; Longitude 73° 57’ 58” W.; height of instruments above the ground, 53 feet ; above the sea, 97
feet ; by self-recording instruments.

BAROMETER, THERMOMETERS.
eee Se MAXIMUM. MINIMUM. MEAN, MAXIMUM. MINIMUM. MAXI’M
NOVEMBER Zhe ;
ees Reduced | Reduced Reduced |
DECEMBBR,, | taocs sass goes : ouce : D Wet | Dry | -. Wet | p- Dry | 7: Wet | 7:
to to. Time. to. Time Bulb. Bulb.| Bulb. Time Bulb Time Buib. Time Bulb. Time. |InSun
Freezing.| Freezing. Freezing. =
Sunday, 27--| 29.939 30.016 | 7 a,m.| 29.848 | 6 p.m-| 43.0] 38.3] 50 | 4p.m.| 43 | 7p.m.| 35 | 7 a.m.| 33 | 7a.m.| 103.
Monday, 28.-| 30.345 30.398 9 p.m.} 29.976 © a.m.| 30.0 | 27:3 48 oa.m.| 43 oa.m.| 27 ga.m.| 25 g a.m. 96.
Tuesday, 29--| 30.204 30.374 oa.m.| 30.098 |12 p.m.| 40.0 | 36.6 49 4p.m.| 45 7 p-m.| 28 6a.m.| 27 6 a.m. 95+
Wednesday, 30 -} 30.026 30.098 oa.m.| 2y,908 |12 p.m.| 47.0 | 44.7 54 3 p.m.| 49 3p-m.| 37 9g a.m.| 37 g9 a.m.) 103.
Thursday, 1--| 29.754 30,082 |12 p.m.| 29.518 I p.m.|] 49.3 | 47-3 56. | 4 p.m.) 52) |x2 mn. 43 |12 p.m.} 4o |12 p.m. 69.
Friday, 2.-| 30.284 30.306 g a.m.| 30.082 oa.m.| 39.3 | 35-7 44 3 p.m.| 40 | o-a. m.| 36 7 am.| 34 7 a.m.|} 104.
Saturday, 3--| 30.131 30.272 oa..m.} 30.088 6 p.m.} 38.0 | 36.0 40 3 p.m.| 38 3 p.m.) 35 5 a.m.} 33 5 a.m. 76.
Dry. Wet.
Mean for the weekises t= saenea= =e aaa ae eee 30.097 inches Mean for the week__----------..-.-.---- 40.9 degrees =sesene- ones 37-9 degreese
Maximum for the week at 9 p. m., Nov, 28th___-_.. 30.398 ** Maximum for the week,at 4 pm., Dec. ist_-56. - atizmust, 52. Bs
Minimum “s at) xiprime DecwmsGe amen 29.518 ‘ Minimum ‘“ *“\ gam., Nov. 28th 27. = at gam 28th, 25. 5
Ran gé 2/2025 -ae cease eee eee eee Sols ne Range ‘ Nate ee ae Lona i Sa een. = 27.
WIND HYGROMETER. CLOUDS, RAIN AND SNOW. di
3
2 oe
| FORCE IN
: VELOCITY} RELATIVE CLEAR, ° DEPTH OF RAIN AND SNOW | ©
NOVEMBER DIRECTION: ON SLs! Re eel o coe oe ma eae OVERCAST. 10 IN INCHES.
AND = ae =| ; <= = : = E ; c Time | Time a
DECEMBER eG sea ata Nees) Bek aaa aaa ot A Flot | of | Dues
‘l7 a,m.|2 p.m. p. m.| for the | ¢ | Time. a a | a&| & > a] a S a -& | Begin-| End- eee Ee
Day. |4 é a Car | A |S i] ©) ning ing. Y eAlet Sil
Sunday, 27-|w.s.w.|W.s.w.|w.s. Ww 278 | 8 | 1.30pm| .162 | .r43 | .215 | 80 | 42 | 69 | o ACHE, CU./eSiCUs | | \eaee eet meee Sate dl deat aS
Monday, 28-| n. Mae || Grasse 204 | 9 | 0.50am| .136 | .101| .119 | 88 | 58 | 68 | o ° CT mee pseceo || reoSo eet ee)
Tuesday, 29-\n. n.e€./ Ss, w. w. 31 4| 1.30pm] .124| .£79 | .241 | 77 | 55 | 83 | © 8 cu BCOs) | pense a eemeena meee ep |
Wednesday,30-|w.S. W.|W. S. W.| S.S. e. 58 4| 3.00am| .238 | .245 | .321 |100 | 65 | 86 |10 2 cir. 10 9.30 pM|12 pm 2.30 | .0r] 0
Thursday, 1- =H w. n. W. 184 |184] 7.30pm]| .309 | .362 | .241 | 85 | 87 83 |10_. 10. ° o am | 3pm /15.00 | .51| 6
Friday, 2.| nN. W. | n. e. c. 141 3¢| 3.00am|] .170 | .142 | .173 | 80 | 51 | 72 |1.clr. 5 cir Ce ees. aes |) 5 Rial
Saturday, 3-Je. n.e./n.n.e.|n. n.e. 138 2}/10.40 am| .149 | .203 | .207 | 70 | 82 | go |5 cir, cu.|10 10 8.30pm/12 pm | 3.30 | .or |10
Distance traveled during the week 1,034 miles, Total amount of water for the week... .-aatissemcst. eer e nee eee 53 inch,
Matimunt forcesncs =. esse ek woot obese 18% !bs. Durationi0t taltlu-.: ac. sone nee ene et eee eee 21 hours, oo minutes,

DANIEL DRAPER, Ph. D.

Director Meteorological Observatory of the Department of Public Parks, New York,

SCIENCE:

605

SCIENCE:

A WEEKLy Recorp oF SCIENTIFIC
PrRoGRESS.

JOHN MICHELS, Editor.

THRMS:
PERO YEAR, ==. - - - Four DoLLARs
6 MonrHs, - = - - Two ss
(73 A “ ¥ - ONE “cc
SINGLE CoPIEs, : = = -» TEN CENTS.

PUBLISHED AT
TRIBUNE BUILDING, NEW YORK.
P, O. Box 8888

LONDON, ENGLAND, - =

- 150 LEADENHALL Sr1.

SATURDAY, DECEMBER 24, 1881. -

THE glad tidings of the safety of a large proportion
of the crew of the Jeanette, and the probability that
the missing members of the company will probably be
soon heard from, will be a relief to many aching hearts,
and welcome to the general public who have taken a
great interest in this expedition.

As the success of the expedition has not been re-
ferred to in the despatches, the probability is great,
that the discovery of the North Pole is still a problem
to be solved, but the experience of Captain De Long
will doubtless prove very valuable in making future
plans for Arctic explorations, and we trust that no
time will be lost in obtaining authentic details of the
expedition.

From what we know respecting the voyage of
the Jeannette, and from other information to date,
our opinion is that the route by Smith’s Sound, is the
most practicable for all who attempt to reach the
North Pole, and we still maintain that the plans of
Commander Cheyne present a higher prospect for
success, than any other scheme which has been an-
nounced.

The first step which we advise, is to establish firmly
a small colony at St. Patrick’s Bay, where coal exists
in abundance, and ample protection can be found for
stores and shelter for men. This spot is less than
500 miles from the North Pole, and, with such a base
of operations firmly established, the coveted prize
can surely be won by continued and persistent efforts.

We approve of Commander Cheyne’s proposal to
utilize balloons, on the ground that no facilities which
can be devised by practical scientific men should be
neglected, and it is far from impossible that some
means of aerial navigation may be invented, which
may be at least sufficient for this purpose.

The establishment of the colony at St. Patrick’s
_ Bay, should be the immediate plan which shouid

claim attention, without desiring by a rush to accom-
plish the remaining distance. ‘Time should be given
for traversing the 500 miles which intervene before
reaching thé Pole, and all the devices which science
can suggest should in turn be put to the test.

We cannot conclude these remarks without giving
a due acknowledgement to Mr. James Gordon
Bennett for his liberal outlay in the cause of geographi-
cal exploration. Inspired by his generous hand,
Stanley braved the horrors of tropical climates and
penetrated to the unknown recesses of Africa, and
by Mr. Bennett’s aid De Long has added new laurels
to the American flag, and increased our knowledge of
the Arctic regions.

THE presence of fossil organisms in meteorites al-
leged to have been discovered by Dr. Hahn, was fully
explained in “Science” (No. 50, June 11, 1881) by
Dr. Rachael. Since the appearance of this article
I have discussed the subject with many specialists,
with the result of finding a general distrust of Dr.
Hahn’s discovery.

I, therefore, endeavored to obtain a portion
of the Knyahinya meteorite which fell in Hungary on
the 9th of June, 1866, as many of the most con-
vincing specimens were obtained by Dr. Hahn from
it, and by the aid of Messrs Ward and Howell of the
Natural History Museum, Rochester, N. Y., a small .
fragment of this meteorite recently reached my hands.
From this specimen two sections were cut, and ground
down to a condition of transparency by a gentleman
skilled in such preparations, and are now mounted as
microscopical objects.

An examination which I have since made confirms
in every respect the correctness of Dr. Hahn’s state-
ment, as to what he saw, and it therefore remains
only to decide whether the deductions he made were
correct. The doubtful forms are very clearly defined
and sufficiently large to be examined with precision
by a 1-inch objective ; one prominent object, which to

the uninitiated might be taken for a diminutive
clam shell, is found to measure 1-25 by 1-20 of an
inch. I was disappointed to find that high powers
failed to develop structure which indicated decisively
the nature of these forms, and to show the difficulty
of arriving at a correct solution, I may state that the
two persons to whom I have so far shown the speci-
mens, differed entirely as to.their interpretation; the
one pronounced them veritable fossils, and the second
was equally sure that they were merely interesting
forms of crystallization.

I reserve an opinion until the section has been
studied with more attention, and comparison made
with other specimens now being prepared; in the
mean time I shall be pleased to show the section to
any person who is interested in this subject, or able
by previous study to throw any light on the subject.

JouN MICHELS.

606

THE AMERICAN CHEMICAL SOCIETY.

The annual meeting of the American Chemical So-
ciety was held on Friday evening, December 2nd, with
Vice President Leeds in the chair.

After the reports from the various officers were read,
the society proceeded to the election of officers to serve
during the coming year.

The results were as follows:

Prestdent: J. W. Mallett.

Vice Prestdents: A. R. Leeds, W. M. Habirshaw,
E. Waller, L. A. Goessman, A. B. Prescott, N. P.
Lupton.

Treasurer: T. O'C, Sloane.

The remainder of the ticket, as announced .in the
previous notice, were all elected with the single exception
of the treasurer, whose name was substituted by that cf
Dr. Sloane, whose name on the nominating commit-
tee was replaced by that of Mr. A. P. Hallock.

The board of directors will be as follows:

P. Casamajor, Jas. H. Stebbins, Geo. A. Prochazka,
H. Endeman, H. Morton, P. de P. Ricketts, T. O’C.
~ Sloane, A. R. Leeds, W. M. Habirshaw, E. Waller, C. F.
Chandler, J. B. F. Hernshoff, W. E. Geyer.

The reading of the papers announced for the evening
was postponed until the conversazione, which will take
place on the evening of the 16th inst.

“J. W. Mallett,” says Prof. Silliman, “has for many
years been an industrious worker, publishing original re-
searches in chemical subjects, which form important
contributions to our science.”

Among the very first to work in the then newly isolated
element, Tellurium, was Prof. Mallett. Under the direc-
tion of the celebrated Woehler these researches were
made, and, in recognition of their merit, the university at
Gottingen conferred the doctorate on the youthful scien-
tist. Coming to this country, for Prof. Mallett is an
Englishman by birth, he located himself at Philadelphia
with Mr. J. C. Booth who, at that time, had among his
students and assistants T. H. Garrett, the two Morfits,
McCulloh and others whose names have since become
distinguished.

Later on, in the records of American chemistry, the
subject of our sketch was appointed Professor of Chem-
istry at the University of Alabama, and at present he fills
the same position at the University of Virginia; he also
lectures in applied chemistry before the students at the
Johns Hopkins University. His printed papers are very
numerous, most of the earlier ones may be found in Sz//z-
man’s Journal, while those of a more recent date have
been published in the Amerzcan Chemical Journal. To
this latter periodical he has been a faithful contributor
since its commencement, and its columns have been en-
riched by his very interesting review “ Of the Progress of
Science Among the Industrial Arts During the Last Ten
Years.” Prof. Mallett served as one of the judges in
Group III at the Centennial Exhibition, and furnished for
the governmental reports a very satisfactory resumé of
the sugar industry of the United States.

He is a member of the Royal Society of Great Britain,
of the Chemical Societies of London, Berlin and Paris, as
well as many other learned bodies both at home and
abroad. The American Chemical Society have made a
wise selection, and it is to be hoped that its new presi-
dent will resume that desirable custom of presidential
addresses, which unfortunately has been omitted during
the past few years. Wiig 838

ee eee No Lees

COMMANDER CHEYNE has started on his trip to Canada,
and wili return to New York about the 2oth of January ;
in the interval Mr. Henry Walton Grinnell, who has con-
sented to become Secretary of the committee to be
formed to promote this expedition, will attend to matters

requiring early attention.

SCIENCE.

THE NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.
Dec. 5. 1881. ;
REGULAR Business MEETING.

The President Dr. J. S. NewBerry, in the Chair.

Twenty six persons present.

Dr. Neweerry exhibited an ancient perforated
stone axe from Europe, consisting of dioryte, and re-
marked that the aboriginal tribes of America never
attained to the degree of skill required in the perfora-
tion of stone implements for the insertion of wooden
handles.

The following paper was read by Dr. ALexis A.
JULIEN.

THE VOLCANIC TUFFS OF CHALLIS, IDAHO, AND
OTHER WESTERN LOCALITIES.
( Abstract).

In a paper recently read before the Academy it was
shown that a certain compact white almost structureless
rock, often porcellanous in texture, occuring abundantly
in the Western Territories and variously styled “‘ trachyte,”
“rhyolyte,” “porphyry,” etc., (2. g.,at Leadville, Colorado,
in the Black Hills of Dakota, etc. ), is a sedimentary
form of a highly silicious volcanic tuff, probably derived
from the finest detritus of trachytes, rhyolytes, and quartz-
porphyries. A series of specimens collected by Prof.
NEWBERRY, during the last and previous summers, and
kindly put in the author’s hands for lithological examina-
tion, has furnished the material for the following additional
notes on this interesting but neglected group of wide-
spread American rocks.

1. Coarse pumice-tuff of Challis, Idaho.

The rock is quite compact, chistose, of a gray color
with duli white spots. The latter consists of pumice in
finely fibrous grains, from I to 5 mm.in length. Quartz
and feldspar are seen in small angular flakes, sometimes
reaching 0.5 mm. in length: hornblende commonly in
fibrous black fragments, about I mm. in diameter: and
much biotite, brownish-green, sometimes brownish-black,
with greasy lustre, in hexagonal scales, often up to 2 to 3
mm. in size.

The thin sections present under the microscope numer-
ous grains, generally angular, of several minerals, varying
in size up to 3 or 4mm.: pumicein rounded to sub-angu-
lar fawn-colored fragments lying at all angles, commonly
made up of straight or curved fibres, and often including
glass lenses filled with crystallites: atrichinic feldspar, in
clear grains, sometimes including minute globules of glass,
and possessing fine lamellation, beautifully striated in
polarized light, the remaining traces of crystalline outlines
indicating that these grains are all of fragmentary, never
of indigenous formation: quartz, in water-clear angular
grains,o.2 to 1. 6mm. long, retaining more frequent and per-
fect traces of their crystalline forms, their sides being often
very ragged, curiously and deeply eroded into rounded in-
dentations, while within occur numerous inclusions of the
ground mass and of scales of biotite, long greenish nee-
dles of hornblende, and sub-angular drops of a brownish-
violet glass with one or several fixed bubbles of gas:
biotite in abundant irregular scales, 0.2 to 1.3 mm.
long, brown inclining to maroon or brownish-yellow,
cloudy to opaque, with some dichroism remaining in the
striated sections ; hornblende in brownish-green, strongly
dichroic, fibrous crystalline flakes: opacite, probably
magnetite, and ferrite or iron-oxide, in dusty particles or
groups in the biotite scales and among the pumice fibres.
The fine groundmass is mainly composed of minute frag-
ments, fibres, scales, etc., of all these minerals: also in
large part of solid globules of fawn-colored glass, or of
thin and apparently hollow shells, or of fragments of
quartz or feldspar coated with a glass crust. Many of

Se lLENCE:

607

these forms are found adhering in curious aggregations
or with their sides crushed in.

The general constitution of this rock is similar to that
of the volcanic tuff of the El Dorado Cajion, Cal.

2. Fune green volcanic tuff, of Challis, Icaho.

A very fine compact rock, with almost the texture of
stoneware, with a pale, greenish-gray color, and a very
thin parallel lamination. A few minute scales of biotite
can be distinguished by the loup. The surfaces of fis-
sures are mottled and spotted with bluish-green and
ochreous, brownish-gray films.

The thin sections present the same constitution as that
of the coarse variety of the rock, without the presence of
pumice, the particles of quartz and feldspar varying in
size from 0,06 to 0.25 mm. Biotite is abyndant in scales
0.1 to 0.2 mm. in diameter, often of ochreous shades of
brownish-yellow and maroon, through partial decompo-
sition, and with curved fibres or wrinkles as if crushed in
by pressure. To its abundance are due the fine lamina-
tion of the rock and, in part, its greenish color. The

ground mass largely consists of globules of colorless |

glass, but in less degree than in the preceding variety,
their size varying from 0.006 to 0.01 mm.

3. Fine white pumice-tuff, of Challzs, Idaho.

A very fine compact rock, grayish, with a bronze shade,
with a lamination so decided that it inclines to slaty.
Under the loup the same constituents are visible as in
No. I.

The thin sections show a close relationship to those of
No. 2. A little hornblende is present. Biotite occurs in
distinct scales, sometimes hexagonal, not so minutely
dispersed as in No. 2, generally 0.01 to 0.1 mm. in diam-
eter. The fragments of quartz and feldspar, as a rule,
present their longer axes in the schist plane, varying
trom 0,03 to 0.22 mm. in length. The glass inclusions
in the quartz, ranging from 0.002 to 0.037 mm. The
ground mass appears to be mainly composed of pumice,
more or less altered, in very minute fibres and particles.

This rock strongly resembles the tufa of the lignite
beds near Osarisawa, Akita, Japan.

4. Pumice-tuff, Moore Station, Pancake
Moray, Nevada.

This rock is decidedly ochistose, cream colored, nearly
white, of a fine grain, intermediate between Nos. 1 and
2, most of the constituents being the same as ih No, 1
and less than 0.5 mm. in diameter, though occasional
grains of pumice, gray and red obsidian, and perfect
crystals of quartz may reach from 2 to8 mm. in length.

In the thin section the constituents are found disposed
with great regularity: pumice, with its fibres often
curved, as if crushed while still soft and plastic : quartz :
trichinic feldspar: possibly sanidine : magnetite: ferrite :
biotite, salmon colored, sometimes very cloudy: and vol-
canic glass in cellular network, often full of gas bubbles,
elongated and distorted. In the ground mass, globules
of glass and fibres and threads of pumice largely pre-
dominate.

The pumice in all these tuffs is not perfectly isotrope
between the crossed nicols, but presents innumerable,
though exceedingly minute glittering points, apparently
crystallites formed by incipient devitrification. A few
minute sphercelites were also detected.

5. Stratified Rhyolye-iuff, Tempiute, Nevada.

A snow-white Kaolinic variety, related to the preced-
ing, which appears to consist principally of pumice. A few
grains of black obsidian and red quartzite cccur, the lat-
ter also as a somewhat rounded pebble, 34 mm. in
length.

The thin section, transverse to the schist-plane, pre-
sents an interesting structure, made up of granular layers
alternating with others possessing strong fibration.

The material of the former is mostly like that of No. 4:
feldspar is sparsely scattered : quartz fragments abound,
with the usual glass inclusions, and with sides deeply
eroded and indented : also magnetite, ferrite, and minute

Range,

colorless particles of a polarising mineral, perhaps Augite,
in a predominant groundmass of particles and fibres of
pumice and glass, rich in dark gas-bubbles.

The alternating fibrous lamine consist of a true rhyo-
lyte material, salmon-brown, with a marked fluidal struc-
ture around the few quartz-grains, and displaying in
spots, and especially next the junction, with granular
material, the constituent pumice-fibres whose partial in-
terfusion or cohesion seems ordinarily to have produced
the solid lamin.

The arrangement of the giass fibres in parallel planes
may have been produced by sorting in the air during their
fall, by later superincumbent pressure while still hot and
plastic, or it may be in some instances by the influence
of overflowing lava-sheets. The cohesion produced by
such downward pressure and interfusion has produced a
structure which can hardly be distinguished from that of
many obsidians and rhyolytes.

6. Fine white pumice-tuff, from mouth of Bill Wit-
liams fork of Colorado River,*Arizona,

A compact white schist, with almost the fine texture of
No. 3, traversed in places by brown curved impressions,
apparently produced by rootlets.

The thin section mainly exhiiits a very finely felted
mass of short, straight fibres of pale brownish pumice.
Besides these only a very few black particles of magne-
tite, feldspar, etc., were distinguished.

7. Fine brown7tsh pumice-tuff, from last locality.

A brownish variety of the preceding, with abundant
minute black particles. The slaty lamination is decid-
edly marked, with slight adherence over many planes at
which the rock breaks easily, presenting remarkably flat
surfaces.

The constitution displayed in the thin section is similar
to that of the preceding specimen. Minute glass globules
are abundant, and also more numerous angular particles
of other minerals: colorless feldspar (sanidine ?) showing
cleavage: brownish and greenish augite: brownish and
dichroic fibres of hornblende, and black particles of
magnetite.

8. Stratified pumitce-tuff, from Black Mountazns,
Colorado river, Arizona.

A coarser stratified tuff with brown and white layers,
in which grains of pumice, obsidian, glassy feldspar, and
quartz reach a diameter of I to 5 mm.

The thin section is rich in pumice in all its fibrous,
curving, and reticulated forms, and in minute globules,
threads, and shreds of volcanic glass: angular grains of
finely lamellated plagioclase, water-clear quartz, and
sanidine with well marked cleavage and often zonal
stricture: particles of biotite, hornblende, magnetite and
ferrite: abundant grains of augite, angular to rounded,
sometimes retaining its optical characteristics in spots,
but mostly decomposed and isotrope, colorless, brownish-
yellow, light to deep maroon, etc., finely granular,
thready, or fibrous, and more or less darkened by opacite
even to complete opacity.

9. Basalt-tuff, or peperino, Chenniti Mts., Texas.

A fine-grained olive-green rock, with white streak,
friable to arenaceous, with barely perceptible schist
structure in the specimen. Under the loup, minute
granules of feldspar, quartz, etc., are distinguishable,
rarely I mm. in diameter, embedded in a grayish-green
cement.

In the thin section the constituents are very much the
same as in No. 8, with the exception of hornblende, and
all the grains are in large partrounded. A few elongated
rounded grains of a basaltic lava are also included,
highly micro-crystalline with minute ledge of plagioclase
scattered through a reddish-brown opaque base.

This specimen, and perhaps the preceding, represent
the basic division of the tuffs, being ejections from an
eruption of basaltic lava, though naturally composed of
its more fluid, glassy, and acid scoria.

From these facts it may be concluded that enormous

608

masses of volcanic tuffs of widely varying character are
dispersed throughout these regions in the West to an ex-
tent which could hardly be appreciated from the meagre
references in our present petrographical literature.

In his discussion of the rhyolytes of the fortieth
parallel, Zirkel remarks :*

“The foregoing descriptions show in what abundance those
fibrous bodies in which the fibres are not grouped radially around
a centre, as in sphcerolites, but arranged axially along a longi-
tudinal line, are disseminated through these rhyolites.... These
axiolites usually consist of distinct, uniformly thin fibres, or of |
wedge-like particles.... We see in the arrangement of the fibres
in these rhyolites four difterent types: a, centrally radial: 4, long-
jtudinally axial: c, parallel: d, confused and orderless. The de-
velopment of fibres is, indeed, a phenomencn very charact-ristic cf
rtyolites, etc., etc.’

A comparison of these facts with those presented ia my
examination of these tuffs appear to me significant, not of
the development of fibration, etc., in a fused mass, but of
the fragmental origin of at least many rhyolytes, obsidi-
ans, etc., as suggested in the study of No. 5. The evi-
dences of the hot and plastic condition of the fibres and
drops of volcanic glass, with the occasional exception of a
cooled outer shell, for a long time after their fall, and of a
tendency to the growth of microliths, sphcerolites, etc.,
within them, may offer another mode of crigin for the
formation of axiolites and sphcerolites. The anomalous
presence of augite in a quartzose rock like rhyolyte, to
which Zirkel calls attention in° the same passage, may
also find explanation in the varied intermixture of
minerals which prevails in many tufts, rather than to in-
digenous development within an acid lava. ;

Dr. NEWBERRY said that he had no doubt that Mr.
Julien was quite correct in regard-to the genesis of the
peculiar rocks which he had described. He had collected
the specimens and was able to supply some facts in regard
to their mode of occurrence. They belong to a series of
rocks, plainly volcanic, but of which the history has not
been given by those who have studied the volcanic rocks
of the West. The circumstances of their occurrence are
briefly these: over a great belt not less than one thou-
sand miles wide in some places, viz., from the crest of the
Sierra Nevada to the eastern foothills of the Rocky Mts.,
and with a north and south extension of thousands of
miles in British Columbia, the United States and Mexico,
we have an extraordinary display of the products of vol-
canic action. This is the great silver belt of the world,
and is also rich in mines of gold, copper, lead, etc.
Throughout all the Paleozoic and Mesozoic ages this
country was an unbroken though not entirely unwarped
sub-marine or sub-aerial plateau, where the most coatinu-
ous and extensive series of sedimentary rocks was depos- |
ited of which we have any knowledge. At the close ot the
Jurassic age the western portion of this region was folded
up, to form the great chain of the Sierra Nevada and Cas-
cade Mts., and along this line of fracture numerous vol- |
canic vents were established, Lassen’s Butte, Mt. Shasta,
Mt. Hood, Mt. Baker, etc., which have continued in inter-
mittent activity to the present day. In Tertiary times |
the plateau east of the Sierra Nevada was broken up by |
a series of north and south fractures resulting in the
formation of the remarkable system of meridional moun-
tain ranges which constitute the chief topographical fea-
tures of the district. These mountain ranges are com- |
posed of blocks of Paleozoic limestones and sandstones |
--now converted into marbles and quartzites—set up on
edge or at a high angle, or of volcanic materials which |
have welled up through some of the fissures. Along the |
lines of fractures are great numbers of hot springs, the
representatives of thousands more which existed in former
days, and to which we owe the great system of fissure
veins of this country :—hot water charged with mineral
matter gradually depositing this and filling the channels
through which it flowed. |

The volcanic rocks which have been poured out in so |

* U.S. Geol. Expl, 40th Par., VI, Microsc. Petrog., pp. 201-205.

SCIENCE.

many places exhibit a great variety of physical and chemi-
cal characters, but have been grouped by RICHTHOFEN

‘and ZIRKEL into five species—propylite, rhyolite, trachyte,

andesite and basalt. Capt. DUTTON who has given great
attention to the volcanic rocks of the West, has distin-
guished a larger number of kinds and has adopted a dif-
ferent classification. Aside from these massive rocks there
is another group which constitutes a marked feature both
in the topography and geology, and these are those which
have been made the subject of Mr. JULIEN’S paper. They
are generally soft in composition, often highly colored,—
white, red, blue, green, gray or yellow— more commonly
white, red or gray. They are often quite local and usu-
ally occupy the lowlands, frequently underlying much of
the level surface between the mountain ranges; and their

est exposures are seen in the banks of streams which
have cut these lowlands. There they are shown to be often
horizontally bedded and sometimes interstratified with
lacustrine sediments and sheets of basalt. Typical expo-
sures of these rocks may be seen at Eureka, Nevada,
where houses and cellars are excavated in the soft material
which forms the sides of the valley; at Challis, in the
banks of Salmon River and Garden Creek, whence the
specimens described by Mr. JULIEN came, and in the
canons of the Des Chutes and its tributaries in Oregon.

Economically these rocks have-considerable inportance
as they are extensively used in place of fire brick for lin-
ing lead smelting furnaces, being very refractory, and
easily dressed into shape with an old axe.

See
Des Chutes -Rerer
Oxegen.
Neigh \eco fk.
seie ree
IN (ToT
ENS PIU ritriti iti 7
n
LILI
(oo eee
ee
EN TSUMUAGHMAGG GUN NOANDUOHANGANUTRAL Ey
RE
BETO #7

foe ee ee See

26 i SS Se SS ee Se ee ee

The above section represents the filling of some of the fresh water lakes
which formerly existed in Oregon just east of the great volcanic cones of
the Cascade Mountains. Numbers1 and 11 represent sheets of basalt,

| the even number softer tuffs and bed of diatomaceous earth, the odd num-

bers consolidated conglomerates of volcanic materials called ‘‘ concrete **

in my notes.

The study of a large number of outcrops of this series
of rocks from Southern Arizona to the Columbia River
has convinced me that they are generally volcanic ashes
which have been washed down and more or less per-

_ fectly stratified in bodies of water which formerly occu-
_ pied the intervals between the mountain ranges of the

great basin. On the Des Chutes a section of more than
1000 feet shows 25 alternations of strata, many of which are
examples of the rocks in question. Here they are inter-
stratified with beds of tripoli, composed of fresh water
diatoms, and layers of basalt. Some of the ash beds are
almost entirely composed of lapillae of soft cottony
pumice, others are finer, grey, red, white, etc., and con-
tain the trunks of coniferous trees, and in some instances

————

SCIENCE.

€o9

are pierced with holes which represent the stems of up-
right plants, thickets of which were buried by the descend-
ing showers or rapidly accumulating sediment of volcanic
ash. Here the source of the materials is to be sought in
the line of great volcanic vents which crown the summit
of the Cascade Mountains, and from which, at intervals,
were emitted either floods of lava, poured down on to
the plain along the eastern border of the range, or
showers of ashes which, borne inland by the prevailing
westerly winds, fell on forest, savannah and lake, tem-
porarily destroying animal and vegetable life and form-
ing, when falling or washed into water basins, strata
which alternate with fossil beds, the accumulations of
quieter times. In other places these tufaceous deposits
were washed from all the highlands into the valleys,
forming local masses of considerable thickness without
the intercalated beds mentioned above.

The accompanying section, copied from my report on
the Geology of Northern California and Oregon (Pacific
R. R. Report, Vol VI, Geology, p. 47), will illustrate the
deposition of these tufaceous rocks in the lake basins
where they are inters‘ratified with the fossiliferous beds.

er

THE SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES OF WASHING-
LON; DG.

THE PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY.—During the month
of November three very important papers were read:
’ on the Anomalies of Sound Signals, by President James
C. Welling; on the Storage of Electric Energy, by Mr.
J. C. Koyl; and on Barometric Hypsometry, by Mr. G.
K. Gilbert.

The first named paper was a comprehensive review of
the vexed discussion concerning the anomalies observed
in the transmission of sound, and the summation of the
result in a series of twelve aphorisms. The second paper
was by a fellow of Johns Hopkins College, with reference
to a series of experiments lately made by him in company
with some Washington gentlemen upon an invention for
the storage of electricity. Mr. Gilbert’s communication
had reference to a scheme of measuring altitudes by
means of two barometric stations in the same vicinity,
the one quite elevated, the other as low as convenient.
By this means the influence of the thousand and one local
causes affecting the barometer would be more thoroughly
brought under the knowledge of the observer.

THE BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY.—The following com-
munications have been made during the past month: on
the Philosophy of the Retardation of Development
Among the Lower Animals, by Prof. C. V. Riley; An-
tiquity of Certain Types of North American Non-Marine
Mollusca, and the Extinction of Others, by Dr. C. A.
White; Recent Explorations of the U. S. Fish Com-
mission, by Mr. Richard Rathbun.

Professor Riley drew the attention of the society to a
number of instances where the development of insects
had been retarded in the embryo stage for a very long
time. This did not refer to the well known retardations
of whole broods, but to wholly exceptional cases. The
speaker attributed the phenomena to evolutionary causes,
and showed how a species might be saved from the
wholesale destruction of a very severe winter or other
disaster by this means.

Professor White’s paper had reference to the survival
from very high antiquity of many of the fresh water and
brackish water forms, and to the total disappearance of
others, for which events no adequate causes can be as-
signed,

Mr. Rathbun’s communication was a review of the
work of the Fish Commission from its foundation, illus-
trated by a map locating every dredging station; by a
papier maché model of the Atlantic bottom as far out as
the deep soundings, from the mouth of the St. Lawrence
southward, and by specimens of the apparatus employed

as well as the fauna discovered, The address was neces-
sarily very comprehensive, but exceedingly interesting.
At the same time the attention of the society was called
to a pamphlet by Prof. G. Brown Goode, entitled “‘ The
First Decade of the United States Fish Commission, its
Plan of Work and Accomplished Results, Scientific and
Economical, Salem, Mass.: Selem Press, 1881.”

THE ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY.—Three papers
were also read before this society in November, to wit:
How Shall the Deaf be Educated? by President E. M.
Gallaudet; a Navajo Myth, by Mr. R. L. Packard; the
Regulative System of the Zunis, by Prof. J. Howard
Gore. The education of the deaf must be preceded by a
proper classification of the heterogeneous group com-
monly called deaf mutes. The question of the relative
superiority of the sign language and of visible speech
was discussed with great minuteness. The author also
treated the problem of heredity, of relative intelligence,
and of the power of abstraction, with great ability.

Mr. Packard’s myth was one taken by him last summer
from one of the Navajo tribe and related to the origin of
the Navajos.

Mr. Gore has spent some years upon the evolution of
deliberative assemblies and the conduct of such bodies.
Last summer, being in charge of a surveying party in
New Mexico for the government, he availed himself of
his opportunities to become familiar with the customs of
the Pueblo Indians in such matters. These papers will
be published in the proceedings of the Society.

te

DIAGRAMMATIC REPRESENTATION
REOSCOPIC PHENOMENA.

(Continued from p. 548, Nov. 19th, 1881, im Transactions of N. Y.
Academy of Sciences).

OF STE-

Ina previous article (®) it has been shown that no reliance
can be placed upon the theory of apparent distance in
the stereoscope, elaborated by Wheatstone and Brewster,
and applied in the diagrammatic explanation of stereo-
scopic phenomena in all our text books on Physics. We
may well ask, therefore, to what extent it is possible, by
any diagram, to represent the position of objects as.they
should appear in the stereoscopic field of view. So far
as this is determined by the relation between the visual
lines we may secure an approximation only by the follow-
ing method, in which it must be assumed that we know
also the relation between the camera axes at the time the
photograph was taken. Since the visual lines may be
practically regarded as special secondary axes to the crys-
talline lenses, it will be found convenient to call them
visual axes, and their possible relations, axial convergence,
parallelism, and divergence. It may be well also to re-
state two principles that have been sufficiently demon-
strated elsewhere.

I. A point farther or nearer than the point of sight is
necessarily seen double (*) and with imperfect focaliza-
tion. If farther, the internal rectus muscles of the eye-
balls must be slightly relaxed to make it the point of
sight; if nearer, they must be contracted. Such relaxa-
tion is habitually associated with remoteness, such con-
traction with nearness, of the point fixed.

II. If an external point is imaged upon corresponding
retinal points, the subjective effect is that of union of the
two eyes into a central binocular eye, the nodal point of
which is the point of origin in all estimates of direction
and distance.(!°)

A brief preliminary proof of a geometrical principle
to be applied is also necessary. Let C and C’, fig. 1, be
two fixed points, and E midpoint between them on a
horizontal plane. Let this plane be cut by four vertical
planes, parallel to each other, their traces being marked
I, II, I1l, and IV. Let Band Q beany points of plane I,
from which straight lines are drawn to E, piercing plane
II at A and P respectively. Through C and C’ let pro-

610

jecting lines be drawn from A, B, P and Q to plane IV.
It is required to find what relation exists between the
horizontal displacements of the projections, a from b, p
from q, a’ from b’, p’ from q

Since CC’ is horizontal, the projected horizontal dis-
placements will be the same for all elevations of B and
Q; these may hence be taken as points on the horizontal
trace of plane I.

Since EC=EC’, we have

Pq2=Pq 2=Ab2=Ab's

... PQ=p q'=ab=a'b’.

This equality will not exist if E be not midpoint be-
tween C and C’. It is true for all points in planes I and
II respectively, through which straight lines can be
drawn to E.

Let now C C,, fig. 2, be the distance between’ two
camera lenses, for example 19™; A and B, objects in the
foreground and background of a landscape, on the me-
dian line from E; Aa, Aa’, Bb, Bb’ secondary axes ex-
tending to the sensitized plate.
placements on the photographic negative, a b and a’ b’,
are equal to each other and to those of any other points,
P and Q, related to the midpoint E, as they are in Fig. 1°

a

i ee a

The camera axes to A make a known angle, @, with each
other. Let E be midpoint also between a pair of eyes,
R and L. If proofs from the negative be inverted and
placed in front of R and L in such manner that the vis-
ual axes through a, and a’; shall form with each other an
angle, a, equal to 6, then A, and B, are, as nearly as pos-
sible, the apparent positions of foreground and back-
ground respectively. If a exceed 6, A, will be nearer, if
a be less than 9, A; will be farther; and this will be true if
a@=—0o0,ora<o, Either of these last conditions is at-
tained by simply increasing the distance a,a':. Whether
the visual axes are convergent, parallel, or divergent, the
subjective effect is that of the union of R and L into a
binocular eye which, for the geometrical reasons just
given, can be nowhere else than at the midpoint, E. In
this the dissimilar retinal images are superposed. “If
those of the points a: and a’, coincide, b, appears to the
right eye projected outward on the right, to the left eye
an equal distance outward on the left; to the combined
eye it isa homonymous double image. Let A, be the
external projection of the combined images of a, and a's,
as seen by the binocular eye at E.; if — 0, the distance
E,Az, is equal to RA, or LA,, which differs but little from
EA, unless a be large ; it has been drawn equal to EAx.
Then Bz and B’, will be the external projections of the
uncombined images of bs and b's. If the attention be

The stereoscopic dis- |

SCIENCE.

transferred to the background, the angle between the vis-
ual axes must be diminished by relaxing the internal rec-
tus muscles, and this instantly suggests greater remote-
ness of the point of sight. The retinal images of bs and
b’, coalesce and are projected to the more distant exter-
nal point between Bs and B's, while those of a2 and
a's cross slightly to opposite sides and are projected as a
heteronymous double image at its proper distance. The
ratio of E,A»s to EA, must depend upon the variation in
muscular tension due to the difference between the angles
6 and a. The duplication of the images of the back-
ground points when the foreground is regarded, and w7ce

| versa, is easily perceived if a properly constructed dia-

gram is viewed in the stereoscope, provided the observer
be attentive to his own sensations, examining each point
of the combined picture separately instead of regarding

we ee eee ei

em een ee

Sig, 2

stlepns Sasa Sue oe
the total effect at once. Let Figures 3 and 4 be exam-
ined in the stereoscope, by resting the edge of the page
on the cross-bar of the instrument at the proper distance
in front of the semi-lenses. In each case, when the
foreground circle is seen single, the background dot is
seen double, and vzce versa. When the background cir-
cles of one figure are combined binocularly, those of
the other are seen separately by monocular vision. Ax-
ial convergence is necessary to combine the circles of Fig.
4. The combined image appears nearer, smaller, and
less tall in proportion to its base than the combined im-
age of Fig.°3, which requires axial divergence. The
stereoscopic displacement is the same in both figures,
and is measured by the distance between the centre of
the large circle and that of the small one within it. The
stereographic interval for the background is 90 mm, in

SCIENCE.

611

Fig. 3, and 50mm. in Fig. 4. An average lenticular
stereoscope will fail to produce axial convergence when
Fig. 3 is viewed by a pair of eyes whose centres are 64
mm. apart. These variations in visual effect can be
rendered still more striking by using the reflecting stere-
oscope, after cutting apart the right and left halves of
the stereograph.

It must be remarked that although the perception of
binocular relief is intensified by alternate examination
of foreground, and background it is quite possible to at-
tain it by momentary illumination with the electric spark,
at least with convergence of visual axes, as has been
done by Dove (?!) and others. During such brief illu-
mination, no variation of convergence is possible, and,
if the foreground be distinctly focalized, the background
must be slightly doubled homonymously. The position
of the point of sight is found thus to be almost
as nearly determinate as when the illumination is pro-
longed. Whether binocular relief, and the position of
the binocular image, be perceptible with equal distinct-
ness when the visual lines diverge, has not thus far been
ascertained by experiment, so tar as I am aware. I
hope to test this, and to study certain other points of in-
terest connected with it, at some future time.

Since the apparent distance of the point of sight con-
tinues to increase in a positive direction after axial paral-
lelism passes into divergence, it becomes necessary to
investigate the physiological conditions that interfere
with the results of the mathematical theory hitherto gen-
erally applied.

In looking at any picture constructed in accordance
with the rules of perspective applied by all artists, the
illusion of distance is quickly attained by forming a con-
ception of the reality in space to which the different parts
of the picture are supposed to correspond, or of the object
as the observer has been accustomed to view things of its
kind. With the same degree of axial convergence a
mountain and a piece of statuary will never be judged
equally distant. It is unnecessary here to enumerate the
elements that combine to produce the illusion. If these
be excluded to the utmost, asin mere skeleton diagrams,
there will still be left three to consider in judging the
distance, size, and form of what is represented. These
are—

I. The optic angle between the observer’s visual axes.

II. The focal adjustment of the crystalline lens.

III, The visual angle subtended by the picture.

Of these the first is the only one usually considered as
dist¢nctive of binocular vision. It can never be dissoci-
ated entirely from the others, and its effect may be so
overpowered by them, when distance is to be estimated,
that calculations based upon its value, like those of
Brewster, lose all. claim even as approximations to the
truth. Its true importance is dependent upon the extent

aN

to which the individual, in natural binocular vision, has
been accustomed to associate the sensation of muscular
contraction in the rectus muscles of the eyeballs with the
true distance of objects as learned by other means.
Doubtless this varies with different individuals. -For
distances of more than 240 m. the optic angle becomes
inappreciable, and hence theoretically valueless; its im-
portance is greatest near the lower limit of distinct vis-
ion. Inevery case its effect is appreciated mainly through
the muscular sense and through the retinal perception of
double images from objects farther or nearer than the
point upon which attention is fixed. We are safe in
disregarding the mere fact that a pair of imaginary lines
would make a measurable angle with each other zf con-
structed, though the use of this angle may be convenient
in analyzing the phenomena of vision. It is well to re-
member, however, that its variations imply simply
changes of muscular tension, and these constitute the
most appreciable effects that influence the estimate of
limited distance.

The judgment due to focal adjustment is also an in-
terpretation, based upon personal experience, and sug-
gested by the sense of contraction in the ciliary muscle,
while adapting the crystalline lens to produce a distinct
image, Variations in this are hence inappreciable for
distances of more than 6m., and are most noticeable
near the lower limit of distinct vision. It is near this
limit that the stereograph is held in most cases when
regarded.

The visual angle is important as chiefly determining
the size of the binocular retinal image. Since two eyes
receive more of the light reflected from a given surface
than either eye alone, the binocular image appears
brighter than one that is monocular ; and this is apt to
produce the illusion of slight decrease of distance, if the
focalizationis perfect. But variation due to this cause is
not important in comparison with that due to change in
the visual angle.

The relative importance attached to the separate ele-
ments enumerated depends most frequently upon the
unconscious experience of the individual. The results
which they combine to produce cannot be referred to
any one mathematical formula until the physiology of
sensation is completely brought within the domain of
mathematical law.

In testing the effects of these elements it will be best
to apply a formula for the distance of the optic vertex
from each eye, in terms of the interocular distance, i, and
optic angle, a. | Assuming the optic triangle to be isos-
celes, and calling D the required distance, we have, as
the formula to be tested by experiment,

D = % i cosec. % a,

Considering angles of convergence positive, the possible

values of a, between which I find myself limited, are + 80°

612

and —7%°, my eyes being perfectly healthy. If acurve
be constructed from the formula, the values of a being
taken as abscissas and those of D as ordinates, for par-
allelism of visual lines we have a — 0, D = «, and the
axis of ordinates is hence an asymptote. A vanishing
p oint should therefore be reached by the external binoc-
ularimage. ‘Its apparent distance, however, is still finite,
and vision very easy. In passing to negative values of
a by increasing the stereographic interval, the distance
estimated continues to grow ina positive direction. This
is undoubtedly due to the sense of increasing relaxation
of the internal rectus muscles and contraction of the ex-
ternal rectus ; but the rate of growth bears no recogniz-
able relation to any succession of values given by the
formula.

The explanation just given is based upon experiments,
the description and discussion of which must be with-
held for the present. It may be simply stated that with
binocular fusion of images fromthe same pair of conju-
gate p’ctures, I have tested the visual effect of varying
the optic angle from —5° to +45”, vision becoming indis-
tinct after the last named limit is passed. The value of
the optic angle has been found to be largely, but by no
means exclusively, effective in determining apparent dis-
tance in the stereoscope, especially for convergence of
visual axes. Its-effect is antagonized by the difficulty of
focal adjustment and by the constancy ot the visual angle,
the latter element being particularly important when the
axes diverge.

The variation in apparent magnitude of the combined
image, dependent upon the value of the optic angle, has
been noticed by Wheatstone (!*), Helmholtz ('*), and Mey-
er (14). Helmholtz construc'ed his telestereoscope ('*)
for producing exaggeration of perspective when distant
objects are viewed, but no reference is made, in this con-
nection, to divergence of visual lines. The possibility of
fusion by optic divergence seems to have been first no-
ticed about 1860,by Burckhardt (1°); and Helmholtz notices
the exaggeration of apparent distance thus produced, but
explains it by saying ('%), ‘‘ Infinity does not, in our vis-
ual conceptions, present an impassable limit. When our
eyes occupy a position which is never presented in the
normal observation of real objects, all that we can do,
conforming ourselves to the rule which we ordinarily
follow for the interpretation of abnormal sensations, is to
compare the sensation produced with that which resem-
bles it most, and which is distinguished from it only by
more feeble convergence, that is, with what is given us by
real objects very remote.” Vision in the stereoscope is
always to some extent abnormal. The error into which
Brewster fell, and in which he has been generally followed,
was in supposing that under such conditions no modifica-
tions would be imposed upon the mathematical law found
applicable to normal vision, in which there is perfect coin-
cidence between the impressions traceable to the optic
angle, focal adjustment, and visual angle respectively.

W. LE CONTE STEVENS.
—_— i ————_—_—_

Tue German government is considering the participation
of German men of science in the plan of International Polar
Research. The Reichstag has been asked to grant the
necessary funds $75,000.

REFERENCES,
(*).
(%).

‘* Science,’’ Noy. igth, 1881, and American Journal of Science for
Nov., 1881.
Helmholtz, Opt. Phys., p. 878, e¢ assim. or, Le Conte, Sight,
pp. 90-144. Appleton, 188r.
Hering, Beitriige zur Physiologie, pp. 35-64, 1861 ; or, Le Conte,
Sight. pp. 213-261, 1881.
Helmholtz, Opt. Phys., pp. 935-937, 873-877, 961-964.
Phil. Mag., 1%52, p. 507.
Opt. Phys., pp. 823-828.

(10),

(#2),
(22),
(15).

(4), Pogg. Ann., Ixxxv., p. 198.

(15), Opt. Phys., p. 821.

('°). Verhandl. d, Naturforsch, Gies, zu Basel, 1, 145; or, Opt. Phys.,
p. 827.

SCIENCE.

FOREIGN NOTES ON THE SOURCE OF COMETS’
LIGHT.

Numerous observations have been made abroad upon
comet 4, 1881, to settle the question as to the origin of
the light of these bodies. Messrs. Thuryand Mayer at
Geneva compared the brightness of the comet’s head, as
ascertained by photometric measurements, with the
brightness it would have had if its light had been derived
solely from the sun, by reflection, It was found that the
intensity of the light of the nucleus, as it withdrew from
the sun, diminished at first faster, and after a time slower
than would have been the case, had it shone solely by
reflected light. The decrease in intensity took place, in
fact, as if the nucleus, during its approach to perihelion,
had acquired through the force of the sun’s rays an intrinsic
light,which accompanied violent action of some character ;
this violent action ceasing after the comet had measured
some distance on its return track, its light decreased
speedily in conformity therewith, but the nucleus contin-
ued to glow as if in a state of incandescence, and re-
mained visible, according to the above observers, longer
than could have been expected.

This method seems to be well adapted to an independ-
ent determination of this interesting question. In the
data it is a question, not*of absolute, but of relative
quantities. Ignorance of the physical condition and na-
ture of a comet’s reflecting surface renders it impossible
to compute the intensity ofits light under reflection alone,
with any degree of certainty. As not the absolute light,
however, but the increase or decrease under the circum-
stances, is required, the necessity for such knowledge is
eliminated.

Another conclusion as to the origin of the comet’s
light has been reached by Respighi, trom spectroscopic
evidence. According to him there is no doubt that the
light in part is reflected, as is proved by the appearance
of the Fraunhofer lines in the photographs of the comet’s
spectrum. As to the bright lines or bands, they also
may be caused by reflected light, as will be seen when it
is taken into consideration what changes th:s light must
have undergone after it has passed through the gases
and vapors which form the whole mass of the comet.
“It is certain,” he contizues, “that the largest part of
the light emitted by the comet comes from its interior,
and that it has passed through thick strata of gases and
vapors. It is there subject to the selective absorption
which is peculiar to these vapors and their combinations.
It isaccordingly natural that dark lines and bands should
thence arise, which are different from the Fraunhofer
lines; and withthe weak, but complete, spectrum of the
light that is reflected from the exterior substance of the
comet, another spectrum must appear, which is consid-
erably modified through powerful absorption.”

“The limits of a simple notice do not permit me to
enter in detail into my numerous spectroscopic observa-
tions of the Comet 4, 1881. But I can affirm that it does
not require the supposition of an intrinsic light to explain
the phenomena which they exhibit. For the discontinu-
ity of the spectrum might arise from the same cause as.
the broad, dark bands in the spectrum of the sun near
the horizon, or in those of the planets. In the case of
comets, however, the phenomenon is greatly exaggerated
by the immense thickness of the absorbing strata, the
rich character of their chemical constitution and the weak-
ness of the light which they reflect to us. One must
therefore proceed as in the case of the spectrum of our
atmosphere, and not consider so much the bright bands
as those dark through absorption.”

A COMMITTEE has been formed at Reggio,(Emilia) to collect
funds for establishing a fitting monument to the memory of
the Padre Secchi, in the form of a fine refractor, of which the
objective is to have 70 centimetres diameter. Reggio thus
follows the example ot Arcetri, where a fitting scientific
monument has been erected to the memory of Galileo.

SCIENCE.

613

CORRESPONDENCE.

The Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed
by his correspondents. No notice is taken of anonymous communi-
cations.|

LOUDNESS vs. INTENSITY OF SOUND.

To the Edztor of “SCIENCE.”

Will it seem like firing a blank cartridge at Copenha-
gen to urge that writers on acoustics ought more carefully
to distinguish between the words loudness and intensity
as applied to sound? We think not, so long as state-
ments like the following are found in elementary manu-
als of physics; or so long as the language of even distin-
guished lecturers on Sound is not wholly free from similar
indefinite expressions.

For instance, the law of variation in intensity of a
sound free to move in a homogeneous medium is often
stated in substance thus: the intensity or Jowdness of
sound decreases as the square of the distance. As an
illustration it is sometimes added, a sound at the distance
two will be only one fourth as loud as at the distance one.
While as a triumphant proof or verification of this law,
it is often said: a single bell at the distance of ten yards
will sound as loud as four similar bells at twenty yards.

It is well known that the word sound and several of
the terms used in describing sound have two meanings.
The word loudness primarily refers to the sensation of
hearing. In order to avoid confusion of thought, I es-
teem it important that the use of this word be restricted
to the sensation, and that the word intensity (or volume )
shall refer solely to the external vibrations which are the
cause of the sensation. In other words, loudness ought
always to be used in a subjective, intensity in an objective,
sense.

What is meant by such expressions as those above
quoted? Perhaps they are simply examples of a loose
use of language, but it will certainly be natural fer the
unwary reader to infer from them that loudness and in-
tensity vary according to the same laws, and also that we
can by the ear verify those laws, I have no hesitation in
affirming that this use either purposely or otherwise, of the
word loudness as synonymous with the word intensity,
has been the cause of great confusion of thought, and
has often loaded down the undulatory theory of sound
with that which is really foreign to it. The time has
come when we ought to regard that treatise on sound as
a failure in one important respect which does not leave the
reader thoroughly imbued with the idea that the law of
variation in the intensity of a sound refers to sound vibra-
tions and not to the intensity of the sensation of hearing.

But if those who use such expressions as have been
quoted, really mean to claim that loudness, i. e., relative
intensity of sensation, varies according to the same laws
as the energy of the moving molecules of the sound wave,
or if it is claimed that by the ear we can accurately and
validly verify the law, then it will be in order to demand
the proof.

In order that such physiological laws may be proved
true it must be shown, either, 1, that we can accurately
know when one of our sensations is a multiple of another
(as when one sound is four times as loud to the ear as
another), or, 2, that we can recognize sensations of equal
intensity ; and, 3, it must also be proved that the inten-
sity of the sensation is proportional to the energy of the
blow causing the sensation. These assumptions cannot
be proved.

I. It goes without saying that any one having normal
senses can tell a heavy blow from a light one, and can re-
cognize degrees of intensity among sounds, lights, heats,
tastes, and smells. But if it is claimed that there are quan-
titative relations between sensations of different intensity,
and that we can by consciousness recognize these ratios,
we at once become committed to a remarkable system of
mathematics. Since experience shows that the senses

are easily deceived and that different persons disagree as
to their estimates, who shall decide what are the true ra-
tios? But we can only compare the relative intensities
of two sensations by memory. Here is a fruitful source
of uncertainty, for before we can be sure that one sound
is to our ears four times as loud as another, we must be
certain that we can by memory reproduce the first sensa-
tion and place it beside the second in exactly its true in-
tensity. No one can be sure of this. This reasoning
applies to those who have perfect senses, if there are such.
When we consider the myriad degrees of nerve sensi-
tiveness, partly congenital, partly the result of habit, and
partly the result of disease, the problem becomes still
more difficult, ludicrously so.

2. Can we recognize sensations of equal intensity ?
No doubt we can do so much more exactly than we can
estimate the relation between sensations varying greatly
in intensity. Yet here we meet the same cause of doubt
as before,—the uncertainty of memory. The less is the
time intervening between two distinct and independent
sensations, the more nearly we can estimate their true in-
tensities. In comparing sounds, somewhat more than
one sixteenth of a second must elapse between them.
In the photometer the lights or shadows are shown in con-
trast and are thrown side by side upon the screen, where
we can see them simultaneously or pass from one to the
other very quickly. Probably there is no way whereby we
can compare two sensations more accurately than by the
photometer, yet no one will claim that he can move the
lights so that their intensities shall be exactly equal on
the screen: All he can say is: to the eye they are equal.
If then under the most favorable conditions, there is a
residuum of doubt, the sense of hearing will be still more

-untrustworthy ; I regard it, therefore, as a fallacious me-

thod of research to bring physical laws to be tested by the
uncertainties of sensation. Can feeling demonstrate the
accuracy of a thermometer, or can the laws of energy be
verified by striking ourselves blows with moving bodies ?
All that we can say is that within certain limits the testi-
mony of our senses approximately conforms to the laws
which have been deduced from more accurate observa-
tions and reasoning.

3. Are sensations proportional to the energy of the
impacts producing them? They must be, if loudness and
intensity vary according to the same laws, or if equal sen-
sations are caused by equal blows. The hypothesis is
manifestly absurd as a general law, for we are uncon-
scious of very weak blows, and very violent ones either
destroy the nerves or paralyze them by what is known as
shock. Even within the most favorable limits the rule can
only be approximately true, and if it were true, could not be
proved, for the nerves retain their impressions for a vari-
able length of time, and this marks a limit to the intervals
at which we can repeat impressions of normal intensity
free from the residual effect of previous impressions.
Hence if impressions be repeated too soon they will gen-
erally cause a progressive deadening of the nerve sensi-
tiveness, or sometimes an increased sensitiveness, as in
the case of the punishment of the bastinado. Even if
there were nervous conditions such that the sensation was
proportional to the energy of the impact, it would be dif-
ficult if not impossible to prove that the nerves were in the
proper condition at any given time. Into sucha tangled
maze of uncertainties are we led when we try to pervert
our senses, admirable in their proper sphere, into mechan-
isms for the quantitative estimation of energy !

If it be said that a single bell at the distance one will
sound as loud as four bells at the distance two, it must be
assumed that the ear is equally well adapted for receiving
and transmitting all sounds, irrespective of the shape of
their wave front. I will omit from the following discus-
sion all the complications which spring from differences
in the pitch and timbre of sounds and will premise a per-
fect ear and nerves.

According to the undulatory theory of sound, the wave

614

SCIENCE.

frontin a homogeneous medium is a spherical surface, and
the rays of sound proceed outwards in all directions and
in straight lines ; hence the nearer is the source of sound,
the more convex is the wave front and the more diverging
are the rays. When the nearly parallel rays of sound
proceeding from a distant point, strike the cup-shaped
outer ear, a part is reflected toward the centre and thus
reinforce the rays which directly enter the external open-
ing of the ear. If a sound proceed from a point very
near the ear the rays will be so diverging that all, except
such as directly enter the opening, will be reflected out-
wards and will be lost. Hence it is evident that a far
sound will seem louder than a near one, if their vibrations
are of equalintensity as they come to the outer ear. This
will at once upset the theory that loudness and intensity
vary according to the same laws, unless in some way
the far sound shall lose its advantage after entering the
external meatus; but, as they enter the tube, the diverg-
ing rays of the near sound will strike obliquely outwards
against the walls and will be reflected. Thus a part of
their energy will be lost, a much larger proportionate loss
than will come to the more parallel rays of the far sound.
When at length after various reflections from the walls
of the crooked meatus, the waves are wedged between
one wall and the membrane of the tympanum which is
placed obliquely across the inner end of the tube, the rays
will fall upon the concave outer surface of the membrane,
and a part will be converged. The more parallel rays of
the distant sound will be more converged than those of
the near sound, and hence will reinforce the impulse at the
center of the membrane more than the other; but the
center is the point of greatest leverage against the ham-
mer bone which is fastened to the back of the membrane ;
hence nearly parallel rays of sound would more _ vio-
lently agitate the tympan of the inner ear'than more di-
verging rays, even though both were of the same inten-
sity before striking the concave membrane of the tympa-
num, The comparison by the ear of the intensities of two
sounds would be still more untrustworthy if one of the
sources of sound were within the outer tube of the ear.
Loudness, that is, the intensity of sound sensations,
does not, then, depend upon the energy of the external
sound vibrations, but upon the proportion of the energy
which the mechanism of the ear is able to transmit to the
auditory nerves, which amount is variable. The ear is so
made as to relatively strengthen distant sounds and to
weaken near ones, and it is so much the better an in-
strument because of this, for we are thereby saved from
too violent shocks of the nerves, which are most likely to
come from near sounds, while at the same time we retain
a wide range of hearing. Such illustrations as that of the
bells would not be chargeable with setting up a false test
for the verification of physical laws, if it was not at the
same time explained that the intensity of the sensation of
hearing does not, and in consequence of the peculiar con-
struction of the ear, cannot vary as the energy of the
moving particles of the sound wave; also that at cer-
tain distances the testimony of the ear will approximately
coincide, at other distances it will not coincide with the
laws of intensity of sound which have been established
by mathematical reasoning. The errors involved in the
argument from the bells are very commonly held; it is
not evident that all such arguments ought to be elimin-
ated from treatises on sound, or at least that their true
significance ought to be explained, and that the distinc-
tion should be more clearly defined between the subjec-
tive word loudness and objective word intensity.
GEORGE H. STONE.

COLORADO SPRINGS, December tst., 1881.

NEW YORK, Dec. 19¢h.
To the Editor of *‘ SCIENCE.”
In the official report of my paper read before the N.Y.
Academy of Sciences, published in your last issue (Dec.
16th), I notice the cost of the balloon is given at about

£12,000, whereas the amount should have been £4,000.

The report also states, “the great body of warm
water that flows northward by the peninsula of Norway
and Sweden strikes the lighter currents near the Pole
and goes on as a submarine current, sweeping around
the Pole till it goes out again through Smith’s Sound.”
I desire to say that it is obvious that only a part of the
current passes through Smith’s Sound.

Respectfully,
; JOHN P. CHEYNE, R.N., F.R.G.S.

To the Editor of “ SCIENCE.”

Str,—In No. 12 of this year’s Amerzcan Naturalist 1
notice a short paragraph on ‘fossil organisms in meteor-
ites.’ The subject certainly is interesting and it seems
perfectly proper that the ‘4. /V.’ should at last take notice
of it.

The only objection that I may be allowed to raise on
behalf of “SCIENCE” and perhaps of myself is that the
American Naturalist did not duly give credit for what
had been reprinted from your columns.* I cannot con-
ceive any plausible reason—unless it be an oversight—
why this simple duty of editorial courtesy should be ne-
glected by an American contemporary, while every Eng-
lish scientific journal takes pains to give due credit to
“SCIENCE ”’ for all the various data and notes which are
gleaned from its columns (e. g. Jour. Microsc. Soc., Lan-
cet, Crookes’ Journal, Journal of Sczence.) L

As to the sceptical remarks with which the 4. JV.’s
paragraph concludes, to the effect that “a great deal
more evidence will be required by biologists before
crediting these alleged discoveries,’ I may refer all scep
tics to Mr. Darwin’s opinion, as reported in No. 61 of
your valuable journal and to any (silicious) meteorite on
which they can lay their hands and grind transparent
sections from. This will go far to supply the wanted
evidence.

Very respectfully,
GEO. W. RACHEL, M. D.

To the Editor of ‘‘ SCYENCE.”
NASHVILLE, TENN., /Vov. 30, 1811,

Dear Sir,—\ have to-day received from Mr. H. H.
Warner, of Rochester, N. Y., $200 (two hundred dollars),
the ‘‘ Warner Comet Prize” for the discovery of Comet
E, 1881, on Sept. 17.

Respectfully,
E. E. BARNARD.

——_<9—_—______—

MUSICAL FENCES.

In the abstract of an interesting paper by Prof. S. W.
Robinson, in a recent number of “SCIENCE,” the au-
thor begins with the statement that “ this sketch is mainly
of a simple fact of observation.” He gives then a clear
exposition of the acoustic phenomena observed by him in
walking past picket fences, and the mathematical formula
expressing the law of retrogression ot pitch.

The observation is by no means new. Iam unable to say
at what time it was first published, if at all, but am sure
that it was made nearly as far back as twenty yearsago. On
the crisp, cold morning of December 31st, 1861, while
taking a walk with Prof. Joseph Le Conte, myself being
innocent of mathematics on account of my youth, we
noticed the whistling sound returned by a picket fence
past which we were moving, our feet striking sharply
against the frozen earth. My fondness for music made
me particularly appreciative of a musical fence, and I
have noticed the phenomenon hundreds of times since
that date, knowing its explanation qualitatively, though I
did not deduce the formula. If the fence be long, and
the distance between the wickets considerable, the re-
turning whistle may be much longer in duration than a
quarter of asecond. The stroke of a hammer ona board

*S. my paper on the subject in Science No, 50.

SCIENCE.

615

isa convenient substitute for that of the foot against the
ground. I recently had a beautiful illustration while
riding slowly on the horse-cars in New York. A vehicle
passed rapidly between me and a picket fence, every
stroke of its wheels against each stone of the pavement
being returned as a whistle from the opposite fence. The
acoustic effect was much like that of the trilling of a
canary bird. :

I cheerfully accord to Prof. Robinson the credit of giv-
ing mathematica! expression to this truth. His observa-
tion is nonethe less original even if others have preceded
him, and I am by no means sure that any one has pre-
ceded him in giving it publication.

: W. LE CONTE STEVENS.

4o W. 4oth St., NEW YORK.
Dec. 17th, 1881.

Sanaa

NOTES FROM OUR FOREIGN EXCHANGES.

Phosphorescent Fungi—At the present day, several in-
ferior species of fungi are known, which have the power of
throwing outa phosphorescent light. M. Crié, Professor
of the Faculty of Sciences at Caen, has noticed new species
which spring up on old stumps or between the bark and the
wood of the elder-tree.

Rectification of Inferior Alcohol.—Electricity is now em-
ployed in the rectification of inferior alcohol. The elec-
tricity generated by a voltaic battery and a dynamo-electric
machine is passed through the alcohol so as to disengage
the superfluous hydrogen. By this means, beet-root al-
cohol, which is usually very poor,can be made to yield
eighty per cent. of spirits, equal to that obtained from the
best malt.

A Fapanese Antelope.—Several interesting acquisitions
have recently been made by the Zoological Garden of Lon-
don. Among other rare animals, it has obtained a Jap-
anese antelope which has never before been in any collec-
tion in Europe. The antelope of Japan (Capricornus Cris-
pus) is found only in the highest mountains of the Niphon
and Shikoku islands. Very little is known of its habits
and it has been but incompletely described by Siebold in
his Fauna of Japan.

Phosphorescent Ice —Mt. J. Allen has written to ‘‘ Nature”
an interesting letter, in which he describes a curious phe-
nomenon of phosphorescence of floating ice, observed in the
Polar regions. Every time that the bow of the ship, where
the observer placed himself, shattered the ice during the
night, the ice suddenly shone with a very perceptible light.
It is a light similar to that which is produced on the break-
ing of sugar, the cleavage of sheets of mica, or the striking
together of pieces of flint in the dark.

Electric Fusion of Metals—M. Siemens, in the presence of
the members of the Congress of Electricians, performed the
following curious experiment: ina crucible conveniently
arranged, furnished with a perforated cover, fragments of
steel were placed ; the two currents of an electro-motor ap-
paratus entered the lower and the upper part of the crucible.
In 14 minutes the metallic mass became hot, reddened and
melted. The mass showed no inflation. The expense of
the combustile consumed by the electric apparatus is much
less than that which fusion by direct application of heat
would necessitate.

Electricity produced by Light.—While traveling in Mexico,
M. Lvur, mining engineer, was struck by the fact that the
amalgamation of silver ore, by what is called the American
method, only operates well under the influence of light.
According to him, the action does not take place in the
darkness. He sought the cause of this unexpected effect
and his experiments seemed to him, to show that light, by
acting upon the mixture of sulphide of silver, sulphate of
copper, salt and mercury, develops electricity without which
the amalgamation cannot take place.

M. Boussingault, however, expressed an objection to this
conclusion, which appears decisive; that in Mexico, the
operation is not confined to small quantities, but whole
mountains of ore areacted upon. Now light is only able to
act upon the periphery of the latter, and the largest part of
their mass remains in permanent darkness.

The Telephone in a Storm—A very curious experiment
was made and announced by M. René Thury, of Geneva.
He stretched a metal wire from one roof to another. One
extremity of the wire was in connection with a telephone,
the opposite extremity with the earth, During a storm,
every time there was a lightning stroke, even at a distance
of 20, 30, and even 4okilometres, the telephone gave a very
characteristic sound, This noise, according to M. Fleury,
was due to the peculiar electric currents, called currents of
induction, produced under the influence of the atmospheric
electric discharge. It was a sort of return impact.

The Sulphate of Alumina of Commerce.—For a long time
there has been a tendency to substitute sulphate of alumina
for potash or ammonia alum, since it is richer in alumina.
But the manufacture of pure sulphate of alumina, that is to
say, free from iron, is not easy, at least in an economical
point of view.

During the last twenty years, pure hydrated alumina has
been prepared at a low cost, and by saturating this alumina
by sulphuric acid, a warm liquid is obtained which congeals
into a dry and easily transportable mass of sulphate of
alumina containing about 15 per.cent. of alumina.

The products obtained in this manner are relatively ex-
pensive, and it would be a great advantage to purify the
ferruginous sulphate of alumina furnished by the action of
sulphuric acid upon common clay, if this purification could
be accomplished by an easy and less costly method.

Extraction of Magnesia from Sea Water.— The Moniteur des
produits chimiques contains the following method of abstract-
ing magnesia from sea water: ‘“‘magnesia can be precipi-
tated from sea water by means of ‘calcium, just as from
other more concentrated solutions. After precipitation and
restfora day, acubic metre of sea water gives a precipitate of
gelatinous magnesia, about 80litresin volume. The treat-
ment on a large scale of water whose magnesia is to be de-
posited in large basins, can easily be accomplished, speak-
ing in an industrial point of view; the calcium will be the
greatest expense.

If the magnesian sediment thus obtained is treated with
phosphoric acid, a precipitate of tribassic phosphate is ob-
tained, which, filtered, becomes an’ excellent chemical
agent for the precipitation of ammonia from excrements in
the form of ammoniac-magnesian sulphate, which is a pow-
erful manure.

Spontaneous Combustion of Carbon.—Spontaneous combus-
tion in colliers isa very important question, for, in 1874, 70
cases of this kind occurred. The recent investigations of
M. Haedicke have thrown light upon this subject. These
experiments were conclusive in proving that this combus-
tion is due to the influence of iron pyrites. This substance
becomes oxidized when submitted to moisture and is changed
into ferrous sulphate. During this decomposition, the
carbon bursts and offers a larger surface to the action of
the air. The ferrous salt is then transformed into a ferric salt
which yields up its oxygen'to the carbon. In order to pre
vent spontaneous ignition, all currents of air should be ex
cluded, unless they should be allowed to enter from the be
ginning in great quantities, so that the air acts asa cooling
agent. As moisture prevents ignition and the accumulation
ot oxygen, the introduction of a jet of steam, where the tem-
perature of the carbon has been raised to a high degree, will
also act as a preventive.

Sea-sickness —A correspondent of the “ Paris Medical ”’
has sent a communication to the editor, which will prove
interesting to many persons who suffer sea-sickness in their
travels.

“Tn a recent voyage from Algeria to France,” he writes,
“the sea being very rough, and almost all the passengers
being sick, the offi¢ers of the ship could offer but insuffi-
cient means of relief. Among the passengers there was
one, about thirty years old, who suffered cruelly. He vom-
ited continually for thirty hours, and his sufferings became
so severe that the surgeon had to be called. After hearing
him prescribe lemon juice, I asked him if he had not mor-
phine or chloral. To my astonishment he replied that he
had none. I then offered him one centigram of morphine
and my syringe. This wasaccepted. A solution was made
in 20 drops of water, was injected into the epigastrium, and,
a half hour afterwards the sickness wasallayed. He ceased

616

SCIENCE.

vomiting and remained unmolested during the rest of the
journey. This factappeared remarkable to me.

fithad been immediate.”

The bene-
If this observation can be con-

firmed by other similar cases, it would be very fortunate,
for then the surgeons of the maritime and transatlantic com-
panies would be able to relieve passengers who suffer sea-

sickness.

THE SEPARATION OF WOOL AND SILK

—

Goops.—A. Rémont.—The following method
ciently exact for commercial purposes: the sample is kept
for a quarter of an hour in boiling water containing 5 per
cent. of hydrochloric acid, and is then washed and dried.
The threads of the warp are then separated, if possible,
from those of the weft, and examined separately as fol-

lows : a thread is burnt.

IN WOVEN

is suffi-

There is given off a smell like

burning horn, and a thread heated with a fragment of caus-

tic soda evolves ammonia.
plunged in basic zinc chloride at a boil.

completely the threads are sz/s,
acid there is a plentiful flocculent precipitation, the threads
are silk mixed with wool or with vegetal fibres.
dissolvesin zinc chloride, the threads are plunged in a boil-

ing solution of soda, not too concentrated.
solve completely, wool.

If partially, woo/and cotton.

In this case some threads are
If they dissolve

If on adding hydrochloric

If

If nothing

they dis-
If no

odor of burnt horn is given off, the threads consist entirely

of vegetal fibres.
means of the microscope.

These results may be confirmed by
For the quantative examina-

tion, if the preliminary tests show silk, wool, and cotton,
four swatches weighing each 4 grms. are cut; one is laid
aside and the three others are boiled.— Yournal de Phar-

macie et de Ch

ime.

THE REDUCTION of CoprpER SOLUTION BY GLUCOSE* ap-
pears first to have been utilized by Trémmer. Frommherz
suggested the employment of a citrate to keep the cupric
oxide in solution. Modifications of the ordinary alkaline
tartrate solution have been devised by Barreswil, Poggiale,
Rosenthal, Chevalier, Boussingault, Reveil, Fehling
Strohl, Viollette, Magneshahens, Lowenthal, Joulie, Pos
soz, etc. Loewe employed glycerin instead of a tartrate.
Various treatments of the precipitated cuprous oxide have
been proposed by the following chemists : Mohr dissolves
the oxide in hydrochloric acid, and titrates with perman-
ganate. Brunner dissolves in an acid solution of ferric

chloride, and estimates the reduced iron by bichromate or
permanganate. Champion and Pellet dissolve the precipi-
tate in hydrochloric acid and chlorate of potassium, boil
off free chlorine, and titrate the liquid with stannous chlo-
ride. Girard and Soxhlet reduce the cuprous oxide in hy-
drogen, and weigh the metallic copper. Muter dries the
cuprous oxide at 100° C., and weighs itas Cu20. O’Sulli-
van aad other operators ignite the precipitate strongly, and
weigh as CuO. Ferdinand-Jean dissolves the cuprous
oxide in hydrochloric acid, and weighs the metallic silver
precipitated on adding ammoniacal silver nitrate. Mau-
men? uses an excess of copper solution, filters, adds am-
monia to the filtrate, and estimates the residual copper by
titration with sodium sulphide, for which Perrot substitutes
potassium cyanide. Lastly, Pavy adds ammonia to the al-
kaline cupric solution, and runs in the sugar solution till
the hot liquid is decolorized.

* From an Advance-Shee of Allen’s ‘‘ Commercial Organic Analysis,”
vol. ii.

METEOROLOGICAL REPORT FOR NEW YORK CITY FOR THE WEEK ENDING DEC. 17, 1881.
Latitude 0°45’ 58" N.; Longitude 73° 57’ 58" W.; height of instruments above the ground, 53 feet ; above the sea, 97

feet ; by self-recording instruments.

OZONE.

-—- = = = =
BAROMETER, THERMOMETERS.
)
MEAN FOR Peers: 2 ae | ’
Eyer MAXIMUM. MINIMUM. MEAN. MAXIMUM. MINIMUM. | MAXI'M
DECEMBER. | } | |
Reduced | Reduced Reduced | ane | ov 5
to to Time. to | Time. | ee. | A us @ Time mae | Time pe Time | aid 3s Time, jInSun
Freezing.| Freezing. | Freezing. | | mu z} P|
Sunday, I1_-| 30.452 30.476 2 Pp. m.| 30.362 | oa.m.| 27:0 | 25.7 | 3£ | 4 p.m.| 29 | 4 p.m.) 20 | 7°4.m.) 20 7 a.m. 93.
Monday, 12.-| 30.292 30.476 |0a.m.| 30.110 |12 p.m.| 38.0) 36.0 | 45 | 6p.m.| 43 6 p.m.) 29 | 6a.m.| 29 | 6 a.m. 74-
‘Tuesday, 13--| 30.021 30.110 | 0 a.m.| 29.938 |12 p.m.| 51.3 | 47.5] 59 |12 p.m | 54 12 p.m. 4r 5 a.m.| 40 | 5a.m.| 95.
Wednesday, 14 -| 29.806 29-938 | oa.m.| 2y.688 | 4p.m.| 56.3 27 67 4 a.m.) 60 4pm. 40 12 p.m.) 40 (12 p.m. 69.
Thursday, 15--} 30.177 30.322 |12 p.m.| 29.900 | 0 a.m.| 30.3 29.6) 40 | oO p.m.) 40 0 a. in. 26 12 p.m.) 26 |r2 p.m.| 60.
Friday, 16.-] 30.427 30.492 j1f a.m.| 30.322 oa. m.| 24.0 | 23.0 29 |r1r p.m.| 28 |1r p.m.) 18 q-as a 1% | 7. m.| 92.
Saturday, 17--| 30.232 30.396 | 0 a.m. 30.176 [12 p. a 33-7 | 31.3 |' 40 | o a.m.) 36 | 4 p.m.) 25 | 4a. Ml} = 25) |) saan 88.
| Dry Wet.
Mean for thes weeka-. 822 2sc0 oe ee ee aoe ee 30.198 inches. Mean) for.the weelkc-<5_ = 2.32232 2-42= 37:2 CCRTCeS nee ae 35-1 degreese
Maximum for the week at 11 a. m., Dec. 16th..-.-_- 30.492)5 | Maximum for the week,at 4pm., r4th--_-- 67. a at 4 pm r4th, 60.
Minimum se Bt 4 prey Dec, sathasee oe 29.688 ‘* Minimum “ 7 ain, wrothie-= == 18. ‘at 7am 16th, 18.
Oy ee Oe Se ey ai tne ice eS 80g | Range ‘ Mh au Se eee 49. Dye Aen See st 42.
| |
WIND HYGROMETER, CLOUDS. | RAIN AND *SNOW.
ex serry| FORCE IN |= | ; é | DEPTH OF RAIN AND SNOW
DIRECTION. |VELOCITY) Jas. PER |FORCE OF vapor.| RELATIVE CLEAR od Nani
|IN MILES. on FEET. | HUMIDITY. ov oe a IN IN S: i
? a oe a) z A . ; mall: ares . | 7. an
peer | Distance ,; | d| @| a )alapey2e z | Time (Time | pare-tee
\7 a.m l2 p.m.jo p.m.) forthe = > Time. a o a aol al a& ss a rot Begin-| End- pon 23
| Day. A n a a|nl]a fo & a a ning ing . 2 ies
ee —_ amos | et —_— |——
Sunday, ra n.w.| Ww. S. Ww. 125 1k 4.30pm .108 | .130 .137 |100 78 | 79 © 4cir. Cu. 2Cir,Cu.! -.--- | ----- | ----- e- | @
Monday, 12-| e. 6: Ss. w. | 187 7 | 7.20pm) .149 | 177. .244| 89 | 66 | ot Qcu 10. 10 7 pm |\10 pm | 3.00 | .03] 0
Tuesday, 13-) S. W. |W.S. W.|W.S. w. 274 | 6$) 3 50pm! .244 | .282 .336/ 91 | 67 | 70 |10 AcixeCU|5CUL }ioezca eee em lees al)
Wednesday,14-| s. Ww. | S. W. |n. n.e. 303 6 |to.5soam) .357 | .420. .288 | 71 | 68 |t0oo 8 cu g cu. 10 gam j12 pm 15.00 | .40 |10
Thursday, 15-| n. w. n. |A.n.w. 238 | 44) 3.15am|.18r | .137 | .453 |100 | 79 |f00 |10 8cir.cu.o oam 8.30am 8.30 .40| 9
Friday, 16..n. n.¢./n. n. €.) n. w. 1z8 | 2 | 2.20am| .098 | .106| .136 |100 | 75 | t8 jo | Or ( ifeer- - Sey (ES |e ao
Saturday, 17-.W.S.W.|W.S.W.| Ww. 263 | 32] Sfeer 141 | .344 | «157 |100 | 63 | 71 |r Clr. 2 cir, 0 | tenis 5) ame ellt ame a -- | 0
| - |
| | | |
ied, teal s Lele oed | | Bais eevee a
Distance traveled during the week.--.....--..--.--------« 1,518 miles, | Total amount of water for the week.....-..----.---------------- .83 inch,
Siaximum, forcessss) anon, oun. soee dase ose eee 7 Ibs. Durationoficamy-. 25076 822 a2 ee eee 1 day, 2 hours, 30 minutes,

* Thursday,

1sth, 1%.

Director Meteorological Observatory of the Department of Public Parks, New York.

DANIEL DRAPER, Ph. D.

SCIENCE.

617

Be INCE:

A WEEKLy Recorp oF SCIENTIFIC

PRoGRESS.

JOHN MICHELS, Editor.

TEHERMS:
Per YEAR, - - - - Four DoLiars
6 MonrHs, - - - * Two es
“ee xs 2 oz ONE ae
SINGLE CoPIES, - - - - TEN CENTS.

PUBLISHED AT

TRIBUNE BUILDING, NEW YORK.
P, O. Box 3888,

LONDON, ENGLAND, - - - - 150 LEADENHALL Sv.

SATURDAY, DECEMBER 31, 1881.

As the present number of this journal concludes
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of valuable papers, have assisted in placing it in the
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ee

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i

At the moment of going to press, a copy of Mr.
S. E. Cassino’s International Scientists’ Directory came
to hand. We have, therefore, only time to take a
glance at the book, which is a handsome work of 400
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International Scientists’ Directory to any address in
the United States or within the postal union,

618

SCIENCE.

THE DEVELOPMENT OF HEAT BY MUSCULAR
NECTIVAGENG

By PROFESSOR A. FICK, of Wiirzburg.

It is the object of physical science in the proper sense
of the word, to perceive in all the phenomena of nature
the operations of the same forces, with which any two
material particles always act upon each other, when they
come in contact with each other in the same relations.
This object has never been so clearly seen by the majori-
ty of naturalists, as during the last decade. Since that
time a law already proved in mechanics has been recog-
nized as one applicable to allthe events of nature. It is
called by Helmholtz, who in a treatise which appeared
thirty-one years ago, first demonstrated its universal im-
portance, the ‘law of the preservation of power’ ; re-
cently the designation “law of the preservation of energy”
has also been brought into use by English men of science.
The amazing productiveness of this fundamental law of
the operation of all natural forces essentially consists in
the fact that from it may easily be derived experiments
for testing results even in natural phenomena, in which
in detail the nature of the acting forces is wholly con-
cealed.

Therefore it could not fail to happen, that since this
time individual investigations in the most varied depart-
ments of physical science have principally turned upon
this fundamental principle. It now seems to me that the
results of such individual investigations, which are con-
nected with the most universal points of view, might be
best adapted to secure interest even outside the circle of
the scientists. In this opinion I will venture to claim the
attention of the readers of this publication for some
general observations connected with an experiment made
by mea short time ago, and elsewhere communicated to
persons familiar with such matters.

Each individual can experience in his own body at any
moment, that with the aid of his muscles he can conquer
opposing forces and set masses in motion. The former
happens, for instance, when we lift a burden or throw
the whole weight of the person upward in climbing a
mountain; the latter occurs when we hurl a stone or
swing a hammer. The principle of the preservation of
power now demands that, where we see forces conquered
or masses moved, necessarily powers on the other side
have “acted” or performed labor, that is, that the points
of assault of forces have been displaced. This, for in-
stance, is clearly apparent in the voluntary fall of a heavy
body. Itis the point of attack of a power directed down-
ward, namely weight, and as under the influence of this
power it moves downward, its velocity increases; or when
in a wavering balance one scale with its burden ascends—
its weight is conquered—but the other sinks and its weight
performs a certain amount of work. So if by the medi-—
ation of muscular action we see forces conquered or
masses moved, it must be asked: what powers have
acted or performed the Jabor here, that is, have changed
their points of attack in their action.

Forces which, for instance, like weight, act upon
larger bodies in a similar manner, will not of course be
alluded to here. The point in question can only concern
powers that operate even among the smallest particles of
muscular substance, that is chemical powers of attrac-
tion. Something must take place in the muscle similar
to what occurs in the steam-engine, when in the act of
combustion under the boiler the particles of carbon and
oxygen, obeying their strong reciprocal power of attrac-
tion, rush towards each other, makng violent little move-
ments, and a portion of this energy, by means of a series
of shocks, is applied to the conquest of opposing forces,
or to accelerating the speed of bodies. Soin the muscle,
during its activity, chemical processes evidently take
place, with which powerful kindred forces come into ac-
tion. That this is really the case can be shown by ex-
periments. Singularly enough, it is not only an analog-

ous, but for the most part at any rate precisely the same
chemical power of attraction which performs the work
in the active muscle and in the steam-engine, namely the
power of attraction between the particles of carbon and
the particles of oxygen. The product of the operation of
this power of attraction, carbonic acid, appears in a cer-
tain quantity at every act of muscular motion.

In all the examples, in which, by the mediation of any
arrangements, through whose operation the action of
chemical powers of attraction, taking place even in ex-
traordinarily small distances, accelerates the movement of
bodies, or overcomes mechanical forces, like weight, a
general remark may be made, which has hitherto been
everywhere confirmed by experience. The lines of com-
munication between the particles undergoing a change
by means of a chemical process are usualJly irregularly
distributed in every part of the space. The movements
arising from the individual processes of change are, there-
fore, also irregularly driven in all directions, and thus can
never be applied in their full strength to overcome an
opposing force acting in a fixed direction, or to accelerate
the speed of a body, whose particles are all moving in the
same direction. Only a portion of this collected energy of
motion can appear insuchaform. A fraction, greater or
less, according to circumstances, of the sum of the indi-
vidual processes of change must retain its original form
of the irregularly whirling movement of the tiniest par-
ticles. This conclusion may, therefore, be briefly ex-
pressed thus: wherever in a chemical process the power
of attraction of the smallest particles of different sub-
stances performs labor—no matter under what circum-
stances this may occur—a portion of the labor will al-
ways be employed in the development of eat.

The eat contained in a body is, therefore, nothing else
than the energy of slight invisible irregular whirling
movements, in which the tiniest particles of the body are
included. To increase the temperature of a body, there-
fore, is merely to increase the energy of these irregular
molecular movements of the smallest portions. This
view instantly finds support in the common phenomenon,
that at the increase of the temperature of a body above a
certain degree its particles in consequence of the colossal
energy of motion really pulverize each other—‘ the body
evaporates.”

If this view of heat is correct, a certain degree of heat
can be produced by acertain amount of work. The propor-
tion of work, or the operation of a power is, as is well
known, the product of the intensity of the power and the
distance through which it has acted. Therefore the pro-
duct of the unit of theintensity of the power, the £zlogram,
and the unit of the distance, the zefev, is chosen as the
unit of this power. This unit of the value of the work
is called the £zlogrammeter. As the unit of the quantity
of heat the same degree has been fixed that is required
to be supplied to a kilogram of water, when its temper-
ature is to be raised from o° to 1° of the Centigrade.

Natural philosophy has now succeeded—and it is one
of its most important achievements—in showing, that for
the production of a unit of heat an expenditure of work
of 425 kilogrammeters is requisite. This number is called
the m-chanzcal equivalent of heat, because it is thereby
possible to calculate each quantity of heat in a certain
number of mechanical units of work, which is requisite
for its production. =

The knowledge of the mechanical equivalent of heat
enables us to measure exactly the work performed by any
chemical process of kindred forces operating even at
immeasurably little distances, although we know nothing
at all of the laws of action of these forces in detail. In
fact, we need only direct the process, so that no effect is
produced except the development of heat. If we then
measure the heat developed and multiply the number of
units found by 425, we shall have the labor which the
chemical powers of attraction have performed in the pro-
cess, expressed in kilogrammeters, since according to the

4

SCIENCE.

619

supposition the whole operation of this labor consisted
exclusively in the development of heat. The burning of
one kg. of coal may serve as an example; if no other
effects are accomplished, about 8000 units of heat will be
released. The work which the kindred powers between
the atoms in one kg. of coal and the two-fold number of
atoms of oxygen accomplish in their union into carbonic
acid, thus amounts to 8000 x 425 or 3,400,000 kilogram-
meters. From this an idea may be formed of the prodig-
ious intensity of the chemical power of attraction between
an atom of carbon and an atom of oxygen. The force
with which the particles of carbon, amounting only to
one kg., rush from a very little distance to the corres-
ponding particles of oxygen in burning, is precisely as
great as when a body weighing $,400,000 kilograms falls
from a height of 1 m.

Let us go back with these axioms from natural phi-
losophy in general to muscular action. If, as was shown,
there are chemical powers of attraction, whose operation
or performance of labor produces mechanical effects which
are externally perceptible, besides these, heat must also
proceed from every muscular action. This proposition,
which we here bring forward as a conclusion from the
most universal lessons of the action of powers, has
already long been acknowledged as a principle derived
from experience.

It was by no means easy to prove this proposition. To
be sure, it is rendered extremely probable by the daily ex-
perience, that our bodies are perceptibly heated by great
muscular exertion, and give off more heat than during
the same time with the muscles at rest. But this does
not afford an accurate proof. It might be represented
that the excessive activity of the muscles only afforded
increased opportunity for heat-producing combustion in
other constituent parts of the body, for instance in
the blood. An exact proof can, therefore, only be given
by putting in action a muscle severed from connection
with the rest of the body, and proving that heat is de-
veloped therein. Such experiments can, of course, only
be made on the muscles of cold-blooded animals, because
those of the warm-blooded, when separated from the
body, lose their vital properties too quickly. ;

The first person who made such experiments and has
shown an increase of temperature, that is a development
of heat in zsolated muscles by action, was Helmholtz.
This fundamental fact could not fail to attract great at-
tention,and make people endeavor to ascertain what cir-
cumstances had an influence on the greater or less de-
velopment of heat by muscular action. The most im-
portant labors in this direction proceeded from Hezden-
hain’s laboratory. He has especially much improved the
thermo-electric system, which alone can be used to as-
certain the increase of temperature of the muscles. With
the aid of this system one can distinctly perceive even the
extraordinarily slight increase of temperature, which a
little frog muscle undergoes at a single, by no means en-
ergetic, movement, that scarcely amounts to tdsz of a
Centigrade. In successive experiments it can even be
determined, in which 707e, and in which /ess, heat was
developed, but until now the system has not been
thoroughly adapted to fix the absolute value of the in-
crease of temperature.

Some time ago I succeeded in so changing the thermo-
electric apparatus, that it is possible, by its means, to fix
with some degree of accuracy, the increase of tempera-
ture a muscle experiences in its action. Thereby the
possibility was instantly afforded, of stating in the usual
units the quantity of heat developed by the muscular ac-
tion. This quantity of heat is namely, evidently, the in-
crease of temperature multiplied by the capacity for heat
of the proportion of muscle used, which latter is assumed
to be about equal to 75 of the capacity for heat of a body
of water of equal size.

According to a general observation previously made,
the whole labor performed in the muscular act by chemi-

cal powers of attraction can now be definitely deter-
mined. For this purpose it is only necessary to allow the
muscular action to pass away, so that finally no sort of
mechanical effect remains; then, since every labor of
forces must- leave an effect, a quota of heat will exist that
will be the exact equivalent of the work performed by the
chemical powers. The condition just expressed may be
fulfilled by simply letting the muscle, in its action, raise a
weight; but allowing this to fall again, so that it pulls
the muscle which meantime has relapsed into a state of
rest. In so doing the work performed by the weight of
the falling body will evidently be used for the develop-
ment of heat inthe apparatus. To besure, it might now
be asked, in what portions of the whole machinery used,
this amount of heat is developed. Theoretically it is be-
yond doubt, that a portion of it is set free in the interme-
diate pieces, which connect the weight with the muscle,
especially by the friction at the points of union, but since
these intermediate pieces are practically non-ductile, and
the friction at their points of union can only be very
slight, it may be assumed from the beginning, that the
quota of heat in question is almost entirely released in the
body of the muscle itself, which, by its extreme ductility,
receives, so to speak, almost entirely the shock of the fall-
ing burden. This supposition is so probable, that in the
exact scientific publication of the result of my experi-
ments, 1 have pre-supposed it as a matter of course.
Meantime I have made experiments in my laboratory,
which render this supposition one empirically shown.

The experiments have been made in the following man-
ner. A body of known weight fastened to the muscle
was raised, not by its own action, but by other labor to a
measured height and then allowed to fall. The increase
of temperature experienced by the muscle in consequence
of the jerk was now measured, and by multiplication with
the capacity for heat of the muscle, the quantity of heat
developed in the muscle was ascertained. It usually cor-
responded in a really surprising manner with the thermic
equivalent of the mechanical labor, which was applied to
raise the appended burden. This affords the proof, that
the heat produced by such a jerk is liberated almost en-
tirely in the szsc/e,and only very inconsiderable fractions
are developed in the other portions of the machinery used.
Every such experiment can thus be looked upon as fixing
the mechanical equivalent of heat, which, of course, in
point of accuracy, falls far behind the purely physical
tests, but is worthy of notice because a living tissue is
the means of ascertaining it. To us, however, the in-
terest of these experiments consists in the fact that they
prove the reliability of the system used to fix the heat of
the muscles.

Let us now return to the development of heat by ac-
¢/ve muscular action, and consider more closely the nu-
merical product of an accurateexperiment. That in the
estimates of the quantities of heat, and afterwards the
value of labor too, many ciphers may not appear imme-
diately behind the comma, we will base them upon units
amullion times smaller. So, for the unit of heat, we will
take the quantity of heat necessary to raise the tempera-
ture of 1 mgr. of water from 0° to 1°. As the unit of
labor we will choose instead of the kilogrammeter the
grammillimeter. The equivalent proportion, therefore,
remains unchanged—425. For an experiment a body of
muscle weighing 3114 mgr. had lifted in ten pulls, rapid-
ly succeeding each other, a burden of 500 gr. Io times,
and the latter had fallen again as many times, so that at
last it hung no higher than at first. The temperature of
the mass of muscle was increased. 0,0195° by this act.
Now, since 3114 mgr. of muscular substance possesses
exactly as much capacity for heat as 2803 mgr. of water,
the increase of temperature which followed, required
2803 X0,0195—54, 6 units of heat. But in our experiment
the production of this quantity of heat is the ov/y effect
of the work accomplished by the chemical powers of at-
traction in the muscular action, It must, therefore, ex-

620

SCIENCE.

—_—s

pressed in the measure of labor, have amounted to 54,6X
425, that is 23205 grammillimeters.

The chemical process, which takes place in muscular
action is, it is true, by no means accurately known in the
individual stages of its course; but as a whole, it un-
doubtedly consists in the combustion of a body free from
nitrogen, whether fatty or saccharine, to carbonic acid
and water. The numbers obtained, therefore, afford us
a point, by which to determine what quantities of the
above mentioned materials must be consumed in a mus-
cular contraction. We know, through Frankland’s re-
searches, that in the consumption of 1 mgr. of sugar the
chemical powers of attraction perform as much work a
is necessary to produce 3800 units of heat. Now, since
in the ten contractions of our experiment, 54,6 units of
heat were produced, an expenditure of material of 5,46+
3800—0,014 mgr. would have been necessary, under the
supposition, that the combustible material was a saccha-
rine body. Let us suppose that the combustible ma-
terial isa fatty body, then astill smaller expenditure would
be sufficient, to produce the effect observed, namely,
54,6--g000—0,0067 mgr., because 1 mgr. of fat, accord-
ing to the estimates of the investigator just mentioned,
supplied in its combustion, 9000 units of heat. So; for
one contraction the combustion of 0,o014 mgr. of sugar,
or of 0,00067 mgr. of fat, would have been requisite. If

we divide this number by 3.1 (the weight of the quantity’

of muscle used in grams) the result will show how much
material must be consumed at ove energetic contraction
in a gram of muscular substance, that is 0,00045 mer. of
a saccharine, or 0,00022 of a fatty combination. So it ap-
pears, that for 1000 energetic contractions not quite I mgr.
of combustible material in each gram of muscle is
requisite, and, therefore, itcan no longer surprise us, that
only very small quantities of the actual combustible ma-
terial are ever found in the muscular substance, the greater
portion of which, as is well known, really consists of very
different materials, principally of substances like the white
of an egg.

The results obtained with the new systems can be ap-
plied to the decision of the question, what portion of the
work performed by chemical powers in the active muscle,
can, in the most favorable cases, produce mechanical out-
ward effects. Theclosest interest in this question might
be designated as an “economical” one. In fact, the
real object of the animal subject in muscular activity is
the production of mechanical effects in the surrounding
universe, and one might denote the portion of the work
accomplished by chemical powers, which is applied to the
mere production of heat, as an inevitable loss from the
point of view of animal economy. At any rate, one will
have the more reason to admire the judicious arrangement
of the muscular substance, whichcan apply a larger por-
tion of the chemical labor performed in it to external me-
chanical results.

It is precisely the same as in the steam-engine, whose
construction we also call the more perfect, according to
the larger portion of the work performed by the chemical
powers of attraction in the burning of the coal it allows
to be used to produce mechanical effects. In spite of the
most eager efforts of technics hitherto no attempt has
been successful in making more than +}; ot this labor me-
chanically effectual. Fully ;*; are lost to the objects of the
machine, by being inevitably employed in the production
of heat, which at the utmost can only be used for minor
purposes, such as the heating of rooms and similar ob-
jects.

If it must now be-ascertained, how the muscle is situ-
ated in this respect, it is only necessary to fix, by experi-
ment like the one above described, what mechanical ef-
fect has been accomplished in a given time, and compare
this measured in the proportion of work, with the chemi-
cal labor calculated by the heat produced. It will be ad-
visable to pay special attention to the fact, that the heat
finally developed would be less by a corresponding

amount, if the experiment had been so arranged, that the
mechanical effect, that is the raising of the weight, had
been maintained. The quantity of heat corresponding
with this effect was first released in the muscle by the fall-
ing of the burden again.

By the 10 contractions of the foregoing experiment 500
gr. were raised on an average about 1.3 mm. high. Thus
the mechanical result amounted in the whole to 6,670
grammillimeters. The work performed by chemical pow-
ers of attraction in the 10 contractions we have found
above—23,205 grammillimeters. This number is about

+ times 6,670. Thus, by these contractions, somewhat
over 1 of the whole chemical labor was applied externally
and not quite } to the direct production of heat. That in
the actual experiment this quarter was also finally con-
verted into heat, depended merely on the external arrange-
ments, which permitted the burden raised to fall again
each time.

We see by this, that—as was to be expected—the mus-
cle machine is very superior to even the most perfect
steam-engine, in so far that it caz er ploy the combustible
material twice as frugally for the same main object.

Besides, this relation between mechanical action and de-
velopment of heat is by no means obtained at every mus-
cular contraction. I have intentionally selected from my
experiments as an example, the one in which the mechan-
ical labor amounts to the largest fraction of the whole
chemical labor. To obtain this most favorable propor-
tion, the burden must stand in a certain relation to the
thickness of the muscle. If the burden is larger or smal-
ler, a smaller portion of the chemical work will be used
for mechanical act on, or—-as it might be expressced—the
combustible material will be less economically used. This
proposition may be demonstrated a Zrzorz, tor it is easily
seen, that in the two extreme cases, where the burden is
a cypher or infinitely great, chemical work is performed
and heat developed, but no external mechanical action is .
obtained. :

The solution of the question, in what relation the me-
chanical action for the development of heat can stand,
under the most favorable circumstances, towards the mus-
cular contraction, enables an observation to be made
which throws new light upon the change of substance in
animal bodies. As is well known, the change of sub-
stance in animal forms may be designated in general as a
process of combustion. In reality, a certain quantity of
combustible nutritious matter daily enters into the fluids,
and a corresponding quantity of oxygen is taken in with
the breath. On the other hand, every day on an average,
a precisely similar quantity of substances is withdrawn,
whose combination is to be regarded as the product of an
almost total combustion of the nu'ritious matter. The
condition of the body with this equa! balance between
receipts and expenditures, remains for a long time appar-
ently unchanged.

With the formation of the product of combustion from
the assimilated nutritious matter and the inhaled oxygen,
the colossal power of attraction of this element for the _
elements of the nutritious matter, especially for the carbon ~
and hydrogen gas, now performs a fixed amount of labor,
which is independent of where the combustion takes
place, and whether it occurs at once or in various stages
at various places.

People were formerly inclined to suppose, that the
greater portion of the combustion in question occurs either
in the fluids themselves or in special organs, such as the
liver, the kidneys, etc.

Since the changes occurring in animal bodies have be-
gun to be viewed from the standpoint of the principle of
the preservation of power, it must be looked upon asa
self-evident truth, that at least a certain portion of the as-
similated nutritious matter passes into the muscles, to be
first consumed here, since from the point of view of that
principle, the mechanical performance of the muscles can
only be understood as the action of the labor of the

SCIENCE.

chemical powers of attraction, as we have done in the pre-
ceding discussions. The question may now be raised,
how large a fraction of the whole combustion takes place
in the muscles, and how large a fraction in the other parts
of the body? The distribution of the process of combus-
tion in the different places might, therefore, be accom-
plished in two ways. One part of the material might be
consumed entirely in the muscles, the other entirely else-
where, or certain stages of the combustion of the whole
material might take place in the muscles, and other stages
in other places. However this may be, as it is supposed
that a considerable portion of the combustion takes place
outside of the muscular substance, it must be expected
that, under all the circumstances, far more than # of the
whole heat of the combustion of the assimilated nutri-
tious matter in animal bodies appears as heat, and only
the equivalent of far less than } is available for mechan-
ical labor. For, as we saw, even under the most favora-
éle circumstances, about # of the chemical work performed
in the muscle itself is inevitably used for the production
of heat. But under these most favorable circumstances,
however, probably a// the muscles do not take part in the
labor of the whole body. Therefore, in the acts of living
beings we must assume that more than 4, probably #¢ of
the result of the work performed in the muscles by chem-
ical powers, finally appears as heat. Now, ifthe material
coming into the muscles for combustion should be even
a moderate portion, for instance }of the whole assimilated
nutritious matter, while 4 was consumed elsewhere, then
+4 of the chemical work performed by the whole combus-
tion is used for the mere production of heat, since # of the
labor accomplished outside of the muscles can have only
the result of producing heat, and of the third coming
from the muscle, # will also produce mere heat. So, un-
der this supposition, it must be expected, that at the ut-
most the equivalent of j; of the heat proceeding from
the combustion of the nutritious matter would be availa-
bie for the mechanical effects of the organism, externally.

It is already more than twenty years since Hemholtz,
by very convincing arguments, proved from facts known
at that time, that in seasons of extreme muscular labor,
for instance, climbing a mountain, the measureable-me-
chanical performances of the whole organism are propor-
tionally considerably greater. They are equal to the equiv-
alent of about } of the heat of the consumption of the
material that burns during the time of these performances,
in the whole body. Unless the supposition is now made,
that the muscles of mammalia can work incomparably
more economically than the muscles of the frog—a suppo-
sition wholly unjustified by our knowledge of the proper-
ties of the muscular substance in the different bodies of
animals—we must conclude that, in times of extreme mus-
cular activity, the whole process of combustion takes place
in the muscles and the chemical processes going on in other
parts can only be those in which the chemical powers of at-
traction accomplish no considerable labor. In fact, from
the results of our experiments concerning the heat of the
muscles we have inferred, that by the chemical labor per-
formed in the active muscles themselves in the movements
of living beings, fully 4 is employed in the production of
heat; but if chemical labor was performed in other parts
of the body, whose whole result could be only a purely
thermal one, more than + of the chemical labor performed
in the whole body must go tothe production of heat, and
less than + would remain for mechanical external actions.

If it is once proved, that in times of extreme muscular
action the processes, by which the chemical powers of
attraction perform labor, take place almost exclusively in
the muscles, a similar performance will occur even in
times of comparative muscular rest ; for otherwise it must
be supposed, that the change of substance during the period
of rest takes a totally different direction from that during
the time of muscular activity, which is scarcely conceivable.
Yet it must be supposed, that in animal bodies a certain
kind of combustible material is prepared for the machin-

621

ery of the muscles, for which in other portions the condi-
tions of combustion do not exist, as coke cannot be burned
in astove arranged for wood. We shall, therefore, be
compelled to suppose, that the process of combustion,
which renders muscular labor possible, glimmers continu-
ally in this texture even in times of rest, only with so little
strength, that there is no mechanical action, and only heat
is produced.

There is a very note-worthy harmony between this in-
ference and an assertion made by Pfliger and some of
his pupils on the basis of very different facts, which is,
that in the muscles, even during periods of rest, processes
of combustion occur, which are under the influence of the
nervous system; they can be kindled to considerably
higher degrees of intensity, before attaining the poiat
requisite for the purpose of a visible mechanical action
of the muscle. The :ncrease in the department of these
lower degrees of power would, therefore, lead only to an
increase of the production of heat, and according to the
well-founded hypothesis in question ought to explain the
fact, that the development of heat in animal bodies can
exist under conditions of the loss of heat externally.

From all this one would form the following idea of the
course of the chemical processes, by which the assimilated
nutritious matteris transformed intothe rejected matter.
The nutritious matter enters into the blood, the liver, and
other places only during the chemical processes in which the
chemical powers of attraction either perform no considera-
ble work, or in which as many chemical powers of attrac-
tion are conquered as come into positive action, These may
be partly synthetic performances, partly disunions. Above
all, it must be supposed that the greater portion of the
nutritious albumen undergoes, directly after its reception
into the fluids, a process of this nature, in which a
body containing nitrogen is separated, that soon leaves
the body under the form of urine. The remnant of the
nutritious albumen, free from nitrogen and the other nu-
tritious matter rch in carbon and hydrogen, is then sup-
plied to the muscles as combustible material, perhaps
loosely united with the oxygen received by the breath,
In action, however, the vast powers of attraction between
the atoms of oxygen on one side and the atoms of car-
bon and hydrogen on the other, first enter into the
muscular tissue, whereby in the formation of carbonic
acid and water, partly heat and partly mechanical effects
proceed.

I should consider the object of these lines attained if I
succeeded in showing how a few insignificant thermome-
trical experiments in frogs’ muscles are capable, from the
point of sight of the principle of the preservation of
power, of casting a new light on all the particulars of the
nourishment of the human body.—7Zvamslated from
“ Deutsche Rundschau,” by M. /. S.

Dr. T. S. Copsoip exhibited (at the Linnean Society’s
meeting, November 5) under the microscope about a hun-
dred eggs of Bilharzia hematobia. They were taken froma
gentleman who had just arrived from Egypt, and who was
the victim of hematuria, supposed to have been contracted
during a shooting expedition. By adding water nearly all
the eggs were hatched during the meeting of the society,
and a rare opportunity was thus afforded of witnessing the
behavior of the newly-born ciliated animalcules.

SS

DoNATION TO AID SciENCE. Mr, Charles Crocker has
made the very handsome donation of $20,000 to the Cali-
fornia Academy of Sciences, the income of which is to be
devoted to aid worthy and studious investigators in any
branch of science, who, by their scientific work, have ex-
cluded themselves from acquiring support through the ord-
inary avocations of current industrial life.

eS ge

M. PAut Bert, the new French Minister for Public In-
struction, is said to be a candidate, in the section of Medi-
cine, to fill the place vacated in the Academy of Sciences by
the recent death ot Dr. Bouillaud.

622

SCIENCE.

—

EXPERIMENTS OF M. BJERKNES.

“INVERSE” IMITATION OF ELECTRIC AND MAGNETIC
BY HYDRO-DYNAMIC PHENOMENA,

It must be confessed that absolutely nothing is known
of the real nature of electricity. The principle of the
conservation of energy and that of the unity of physical
forces, which tends to simplify the phenomena and em-
brace them under one common term, for want of a clear
and precise definition lead us to consider electricity or
rather electric phenomena, as a mode of movement. This
conception removes the difficulty, simplifies the question,
but does not resolve it. The mode of movement, once
admitted, forcibly compels the abandonment of the idea
of fluzd, which always accompanied electric phenomena
at the outset of their study.

If we are agreed to-day upon the immateriality of elec-
tricity, we are, on the other hand, far from understanding
the nature of the special mode of movement which char-

M. Bjerknes designates under the general name of
vibration, the movements which take, according to their
nature, the name of Pulsatzon, osczllatzon, etc.

Pulsatzon has reference to the change in volume. It
includes two phases, one, in which the body swells, the
other in which it shrinks. Pulsations are syuchronous
when the phases commence simultaneously.

Oscillatzon has reference to the change in place, it is an
alternative displacement to the right and to the left.

M. Bjerknes mechanically obtains pulsations in water
by the aid of a very ingenious apparatus.

The Audlsatzons are produced by small cylinders stopped
at their ends by flexible walls. A small hand pump which
is partly shown on the right in fig. 1, is employed to ex-
haust and compress alternatively the air in the cylinders
provided with flexible walls, at a great velocity.

In the simplest pulsator, the two walls dilate and con-
tract at the same time under the action of forcing the air
from the pumps, the phrases arejsynchronous (fig, 2. No.
1). In another arrangement, the two drums are sepa-

~- :
S_AASTTS

=

Fig. 1. Apparatus of M. Bjerknes at the Electrical Exposition.

acterises electricity, the word being taken in its most
general acceptation.

In his Recherches sur lélectrictté, M. Gaston Planté
expresses his ideas on this point in the following words:

“ Electricity can be regarded as a movement of fomder-
able matter—movement of transportatzon of a very small
mass of matter incited with very great velocity, if the
question is of the electric discharge, and a very rapid
vibratory movement of the molecules of the matter, if the
question is of its transmission to a distance under the
dynamical form, or of its manifestation under the statical
form at the surface of the body.”

For some, who are much less precise in their definitions,
electricity is produced by molecular movements, without
otherwise determining its nature, characterised by form,
direction, velocity, periodicity, &c.

In the experiments about to be described, M. Bjerknes
proposed to throw light upon the question of the nature
of molecular movements, by reproducing smechanzcally, but
INVERSELY, simple and fundamental electric phenomena

rated by a rigid wall, which forms two chambers each in
connection with a separate pipe conducting the air (fig. 2,
No. 2). We have thus a most complete system, for by
adjusting conveniently the tubes of the air-pump for ex-
hausting and filling, synchronous pulsation can be pro-
duced at will, as in the first case, or pulsation in which
the phases are alternate.

Oscillations are produced by means of small metallic
spheres bound to supports, upon which they oscillate,
under the action of compressed air, in a plane which
varies with the position of the sphere.

Fig. 2 (No. 3) represents two of these oscillators, the
sphere on the right oscillating vertically up and down ;
that on the left, on the other hand, oscillates horizontally
from right to left.

This is the very simple and well constructed apparatus
which M. Bjerknes employs. Now we come to the
phenomena.

First two pulsators are taken and made to vibrate. The
phase of dilation, according to M. Bjerknes, correspo ds

SCIENCE.

623

to the north pole, the phase of compressing to the south
pole. Now bring to one of these pulsators which can
turn freely around a vertical axis which acts as its sup-
port, while allowing the vibration to continue, a second
pulsator held in the hand.

If we put in juxtaposition, in the liquid, the two pulsa-
tors whose phases are of the same kind, synchronous,
poles of the same name will always be in juxtaposition,
there will be aééractzon, the movable pulsator turning on
its axis, will tend to approach the pulsator held in the
hand by the experimenter, and it will follow it if it is
moved. If the phases are changed, so that they are in-
verse, opposite poles will be together, and there will be
vrepulszon. In the one case as in the other, the attractive
or repulsive force is proportionat to the intensity of the
pulsations and inversely proportional to the square of the
distances. In both cases, the hydro-dynamic effect is the
reverse of the magnetic effect: similar phases attract
(poles of the same name repel each other), different
phases repel (opposite poles attract).

The same experiment is repeated with the oscillators
(Fig, 2, No. 3); by presenting to a vibrating sphere, mov-
able on an axis, a second vibrating sphere, attraction or
repulsion is produced according to the synchronism or
the discordance of vibration, which the parts of the sphere
in juxtaposition present at each instant.

Fig. 2. Apparatus for reproducing pulsations and oscillations in a
liquid.

1. Simple drum, 2. Double drum. 3. Sphe es.

For these phenomena, the arrangements for which can
be varied, M. Bjerknes has a collection of apparatus
almost complete, representing inverse analogies to the
phenomena of the reciprocal action of two permanent mag-
nets. A result similar to the action of a magnet ona
piece of soft iron can be obtained. By presenting, in
the water, asmall metallic sphere to a pulsator, or toan
oscillator, the small sphere will be attracted.

The effects of dzamagnetism are shown by means of
a small sphere lighter than the water, maintained at the
middle of the liquid by a thread attached to a weight
which ballasts it. By bringing a pulsator or an oscillator
near this sphere, the latter will be repulsed.

From these experiments, and from others the details of
which cannot be given, M. Bjerknes concludes that the
motion in water of a vibrator (pulsator or oscillator) pro-
duces in this fluid a real magnetic field with its lines of
force, presenting, du¢ always inversely, phenomena sim-
ilar to those of diamagnetism, paramagnetism, magnetic
interference, etc.

M. Bjerknes has even succeeded in tracing the direc-
tions of the lines of force producedin the liquid, by means
of the arrangement shown in fig. 3. For this alight bowl
sustained by an elastic rod is placed in the middle of the

liquid; this bowl having no motion of its own will take
exactly the direction of the oscillation of the ambient
medium. If it is surmounted by asmall brush, the latter
will paint faithfully and automatically on a sheet of glass
the lines of force of the field under the influence of which
it oscillates.

M. Bjerknes commenced by submitting all these ques-
tions to analysis, and the results of his experiments are
only the rigorous confirmation of his calculations. In
that which concerns the analogy between the electric
currents and hydrodynamic action, M. Bjerknes recog-
nized that the question is not as advanced as in magnetic
phenomena.

In order to produce more complex movements, the
vibrators are no longer suitable. M. Bjerknes attempted
to realize them in a viscous liquid, and striking analogies
were found between the lines produced by hydro-dynamic
phenomena under these conditions and the lines obtained
by real currents under corresponding conditions, but the
results obtained are not accurate enough to enable one to
form an opinion.

What now can be concluded from the experiments of
M. Bjerknes? The fact indisputably established is as
follows :

Mechanical vibrations produced in a liquid medium
cause phenomena analogous, but zzverse, to the magnetic

i

i

Fig. 3. Apparatus of M. Bjerknes for tracing automatically the lines of
hydro-dynamic force.
phenomena produced by magnets. From this can be
concluded, by azalogy, but not adsolutely, that mole-
cular vibrations of a different nature can produce dzrect
phenomena.

If this is not a new roof, in the exact meaning of the
word, of the wébratory nature of magnetic and electric
effects, it is at least a powerful argument applied to this
view, accepted at the present time by most physicists.—
Translated from La Nature.

M. PLATEAU describes as ‘‘ un petit amusement” the fol-
lowing experiment :—a flower like a lily, with six petals
each about an inch long, was constructed in outline in thin
iron wire, the wire being first slightly peroxidised by dip-
ping for an instant into nitric acid. This wire frame was
then dipped into a glyceric-soap-solution, which, when it
was withdrawn, left soap-films over the petals. The stalk
was then set upright in a support, and it was covered by a
bell-glass to protect it from air-currents. Inafew moments
the most beautiful colors made their appearance. If the
solution is in good condition the films will last for hours,
giving a perpetual play of color over the flower,

624

SCIENCE.

—

SHALER AND DAVIS’ “GLACIERS.”
By W. J. McGEE.
(Continued from page 584).

VII. Ancient glacial pertods—Since the records of
glacial phenomena are mainly such asare likely to be ob-
literated by succeeding geological mutations, it is need-
less to look for as unequivocal testimony of glacial pe-
riods as that attesting the occurrence of the last ice age.
The principal evidences we can hope to obtain are (1)
tide-washed boulders, gravel, and sand, (2) erratics
dropped from icebergs in the deeper sea deposits, and
(3) paucity or absence of organic remains, or possibly
fossil. forms suggesting low temperature ; and it is to be
expected that such evidence will become constantly less
explicit as the geological record is traced backward.

Anterior to the Quaternary ice period, we first come
upon evidence of a Miocene glacier, well marked in the
hill of Superga, near Turin ; from which evidence it may
be inferred that the European continent underwent a
very severe glaciation in Miocene times. Next follows the
Eocene, in which the Flysch of Eastern Switzerland,
formed of conglomerates containing immense boulders,
supposed to be derived from worn-down mountains of
the Vosges or Black Forest, eloquently attests vigorous
ice-work; while ‘‘in North America we can almost
mark the line of the ice by the limit of the destruction
of the Tertiary beds” (p 95), and are hence without so
characteristic ice deposits. The Cretaceous affords no
evidence of glacial conditions save occasional iceberg-
dropped boulders ; but in the Jurassic are found the con-
glomerates of Northern Scotland and of the Connecticut
Valley, which appear to be of glacial origin. The traces
of Permian glaciers are unmistakable, and of almost
world-wide extent, being found in Central England, in
Scotland, in the Isle of Arron, in Ireland, in South
Africa, and elsewhere. The rocks of Carboniferous age
include conglomerates, probably of glacial origin, from
Southern France to Scotland, from Alabama to New
Brunswick, in India, and in other countries; from which
it appears “that it extended ice action over a wider me-
ridional range than any [periods] that have succeeded it”
(p. 98). There are then no beds certainly attesting ice-
work until the base of the Cambrian is reached, when
the extensive Ocoee conglomerates and Chilhowee sand-
stones, and lesser deposits of like character at Roxbury,
Mass., and elsewhere, are found. In many of the fore-
going cases the associated beds indicate warm or sub-
tropical climate, as should happen according to Croll’s
theory.

VIL. The climatal conditions of the glacial periods.—
There is no reason to believe that ice periods were ever of
particularly low temperature. On the contrary, the Qua-
ternary fauna was characterized by the great size of its indi-
viduals, and clearly proves the contemporaneity of a luxu-
riant flora, such as could not exist in arctic cold. More-
over, there are abundant proofs, that this glacial period
was a time of much greater rainfall than the present. Ac-
cordingly several glacial hypotheses may be summarily
dismissed. That of Poisson is qute untenable. It is
questionable whether that attributing climatal oscillation
to variation in the constitu'ion of the atmosphere should
be admitted to have weight; though effects resulting
from such a cause would be cumulative. © Croll’s theory
is found to harmonize strikingly with the observed facts ;
There is the last period of hizh eccentricity occurring at
the proper date for the Quaternary ice age; there are
the numerous successive inter-glacial periods correspond-
ing with the alternate advances and retreats of the ice;
and there are the brief epochs of warm climate, repre-
sented by luxuriant floras and vigorous faunas. On the
other hand, however, there are the objections that some
minor factors may possibly have been overlooked in fram-
ing the theory ; that there are vast ages without evidence
of glacial action, as should not occur, according to the the-

ory, since “‘ the eccentricity of the earth’s orbit is such a
constantly recurring phenomena”’ (p. 107); that the Ant-
arctic glaciers are not advancing, but that all observations
“lead us to the conclusion that the ice there is as much
in process of retreat as it is in the Northern Hemisphere ”
(p. 107); and that, the hypothesis assumes essentially
the same outline for Cape St. Roque during the glacial
periods as at present. But none of these objections are
fatal to the theory; the only question is as to its being
a sufficient cause of anything so wide-spread as the con-
tinental ice periods. There are also elements of proba-
bility in the hypothesis of Le Coq, that variations in solar
emissivity might produce glaciation ; for augmented tem-
perature would increase precipitation and lead “to an
extension of the fog envelope which in all glaciated regions
does so much to protect the ice from the sun” (p. 108 );
but on the whole, though this hypothes’s has the advant-
age of ndefiniteness, it is entitled to less weight than that
of Croll. Neither must the hypothesis of minor geogra-
phical alterations be overlooked, since it is perhaps possi-
ble that such changes may have occurred in such manner
as to facilitate glaciation. The question, however, re-
mains an open one, “and it is unsafe for the geologist to
commit himself definitely to any of the hypotheses that
have been suggested’ (p.110). There are half a dozen
distinct and powerful causes, together with a number of
minor factors, which co-operate to produce the singular
uniformity of terrestrial temperature; and the only safe
conclusion is that the earth’s secular winters may be due
partly or wholly to any or all these agencies.

IX. Effect of glaciers on the altitude of the lands.—
Throughout northern regions there are evidences of con-
siderable depression of the land during the glacial period ;
which depression in Europe was variable, and ma‘nly con-
fined to the severely glaciated area. “In America this
depression has not been studied except along the Atlan-
tic shore ’’(p. 113), where it increases from twenty feet
near the southern limit of glaciation, to over two thousand
feet in Greenland. The land appears to have remained
below the normal level until after the withdrawal of the
ice. Two hypotheses have been framed to account for
this depress on :—Ist. That of Adhemer, which attributes
the phenomenon to the dislocation of the earth’s centre
of gravity by a polar ice-cap, and which is based on the
assumption of a rigid terrestrial crust. The depressions
at various latitudes were not, however, of the relative
value demanded by this hypothesis. 2nd. That of local
deformation of a flexible terrestrial crust beneath the
weight of the ice. This hypothesis is supported by the
greater part of the evidence thus far collected ; though it
is likely that both classes of agencies co-operated in pro-
ducing the effect. There is reason to believe, also, that
a temporary upheaval of lands sou h of the ice-sheet oc-
curred during the Quaternary; which upheaval was
doubtless a concom'tant of the local depression beneath
the ice.

X. The effect of glaciation on the life of the earth—
During the growth of the ice-sheets there must have been
a widely extending southerly migration of animals and
plants, giving rise to individual and specific variation in
consequence, not only of the change of habitat, but
also of the crowding of individuals over the contracted
habitable area; and the converse movements following
the withdrawal of the ice must have been nearly as im-
portant biologically. The development and extinction ot
the hairy mammoth affords an illustration of the effects
of secular winter on animal life. ‘“ In the closing stages
of the glacial period we find him the most widely dissem-
inated of all the large mammals that are known to us”
(p. 119); his remains occurring alike over Europe, Asia,
and America. ‘“ As we go back into the glacial time, we
have fewer and fewer indications of the existence of this
noble beast, yet we have remains enough to make out
that he or his immediate ancestors existed at the begin-
ning of that epoch, and that in all its stages he was feeding

SCIENCE. . 625

in the rich forests that seemed to have flourished close to
the walls of ice’ (p. 119). In Europe, and perhaps in
Asia and America he was a contemporary of man. In
Asia, he dwelt in vast numbers on the plains of Siberia.
“ When he abounded there, the climate was * * * as cold
as itis at present. The rivers in that country have their
sources farther to the south than their main streams, so
that the springtime sends down a torrrent of water before
the more northern channels are released from their wintry
bonds; the elephants seem to have herded together
along these streams for winter quarters, *** and to have
been swept away to the north by the inundations. These
freshets carried their bodies to latitudes where the cold
was so great that they were frozen in the mud that wrap-
ped them round and covered them to such a depth that
the brief summer-times never melted their icy casing”’
(pp. 119-20). Some of these bodies remained undecom-
posed up to the time of their discovery in recent years;
and their tusks yet occur in such numbers as to be of com-
mercial importance. The low temperature under which
the mammoth existed is attested not only by his hairy
covering, but by the coniferous vegetation upon which he,
with his congeners, appears. to have subsisted. Whether
his final extinction was accomplished by human agency
is a question ; but it is little less than certain that he en-
tered the glacial era with man, was hunted in Europe,
Asia, and America by paleolithic savages, and survived
until the amelioration of the glacial climate.

XI. Helatzon of glaciation to the history of man.—The
evidence concerning man’s relation to the glacial period
is divisible into two categories :—(1) that which connects
him with the closing stages of that epoch ; (2) that which
establishes his existence previous to the advent of the ice.
The evidence belonging to the first category is overwhelm-
ing in quantity ; it mainly consists in the finding of human
bones and products of art associated with the remains ot
glacial animals or imbedded in later glacial deposits.
That belonging to the second class is much more meagre,
and has been obtained satisfactorily in only three locali-
ties, viz,; central France, California, and New Jersey.
In the first of these localities a human cranium was dis-
covered in volcanic tufa beneath a sheet of lava, associa-
ted with a fauna whose general facies is ancient, though
not sufficiently definite to establish the pre-glacial exist-
ence of man paleontologically. The pre-glacial age ot all
these remains may be, however, inferred from the evidence
furnished by the sub-zrial erosion of the valley of Le
Puy and the glacial erosion of the adjacent mountains of
Coutal; though the testimony. can hardly be regarded as
conclusive. The finding of a human cranium in auriferous
gravels overlain by extensive lava-beds probably of pre-
glacial age in California, associated with organic remains
of rather more southern type than those of Le Puy, as
attested by Whitney, affords more satisfactory evidence of
the pre-glacial existence of man. Along the Delaware
river in New Jersey numerous rough-stone implements
have been collected by Abbott from a table drift, or mass
of re-arranged glacial matter, which is destitute of organic
remains. “From arather incomplete study of the ground,
the only view I could take of these remains was that they
were scattered on the surface of the earth to the north-
ward before the last glacial period; that they were thrust
before the glacier during its period of greatest extension,
and deposited in the beds where they now lie by the action
of water, while the above underwent a slight submerg-
ence” (p. 134). These chipped flints of the Delaware,
no less than the Le Puy and Calaveras eronia, indicate
that even at this early day man had attained a social con-
dition similar to that of the European stone age; and
hence that during the vast intervening period, the dura-
tion of which was probably not less than 200,000 years,
or forty times the term of recorded history, there was al-
most no progress in the latterly rapid process of intel-
lectual development.

XII. The movement of glacters,—‘It is to DE SAUSSURE

that we owe the first hypothesis concerning glacial mo-
tion’”’ (p. 140); his view being embraced in the sugges-
tion that the ice slid bodily downward in asolid mass, the
sliding being facilitated by melting of the basal portion
of the ice through the influence of proper terrestrial heat.
The utter inadequacy of this hypothesis must, however,
have been apparent to its talented author ;—indeed—“ we
are forced to believe that this statement does not repre-
sent his conclusions” (p. 140). Charpeutier subsequently
suggested that the motion is due to the nightly freezing
and expansion of the water taken into the interstices of
the ice during the day; but this hypothesis is also inade-
Guate. Still later the solution of the problem was under-
taken by AGASSIZ, who devised a critical series of experi-
ments to determine the empirical laws of motion of the
glaciers. The plan was to plant a line of stakes across
the i¢e-stream, and to measure their absolute and relative
movement at the end of a year. During the first season
the entire series was overthrown by the superficial melt-
ing of the ice; but the stakes were again more firmly
planted. Among the naturalists who visited his camp on
the glacier was J. D. FORBES, whose contributions to gla-
cial physics are well known. “ While the guest of Agas-
siz, Professor Forbes made his first acquaintance with ex-
isting glaciers. Owing to his superior training in the
branches of learning that this peculiar problem called for,
he soon saw that the method that Agassiz was using was,
by a slight modification, capable of a more speedy solution
than his Swiss host could obtain under the conditions of
his experiment. Agassiz planted a row of stakes across
the glacier, but proposed to wait, with the patience that
characterized his mind, until after a winter, to read the
answer he sought. Mr. Forbes saw that with a transit
or theodolite he could, in a few days at most, see how the
stakes were moved, and so anticipate the results his host
was seeking. With this plan in mind he went to the Mer
de Glace, set up a line of stakes in the precise position
devised by Agassiz, and within a month proved that the
ice moves most rapidly in its middle parts, and not, as had
been supposed, more quickly upon the sides of the stream;
this result he hastened to make public’’(p.142). These,
as well as later observations, show the laws of mo-
tion of glaciers correspond to those of moving liquids.
Somewhat previously RENDA had reached a similar con-
clusion. FORBES soon after enunciated the viscous the-
ory of ice-motion, illustrating ‘‘ his conception of glacial
movement by frequent reference to other substances, the
the viscosity of which we recognize in ordinary experi-
ence, such as tar, wax, or molasses” (pp. 143-4). “In
the hands of his followers this theory has sometimes as-
sumed a different shape * * *; it is then made to mean
that the ultimate tangible elements of the glacier, the bits
of ice into which it is divided, slide over each other, as,
for instance a heap of peas when poured on a sloping
surface’ (p. 144): This captivating hypothesis has not,
however, been widely adopted. Next followed the frac-
ture-and-vegetation hypothesis of Tyndall; but neither
has this view commanded general assent. Still later Croll
enunciated the hypothesis of successive melting and
freezing of the molecules of the ice; ‘each molecule, as
it is melted, parting with its heat to its neighbor on the
inward side of the ice, and returning to the solid state,
shortly to be remelted by the heat transmitted by its outer
neighbor” (p.145). There are certain phenomena, how-
ever, which this inherently probable hypothesis fails to
explain. There is then the view in which the motion is re-
ferred to momentary melting, through the influence of
pressure, of the particles of ice from time to time sub-
jected to unusual strain; but, like the last, this hypothe-
sis is alone incompetent to explain all the phenomena of
ice-motion. Finally there is the sliding theory of Hopkins,
which is in conflict with all we know of glacial move-
ment. Examples of glacier motion are furnished by the
annual snows of New England hill-sides ;_ and the energy
of this motion is well illustrated by a phenomenon observed

626

SCIENCE.

on aterrace in acemetery at Augusta, Me. “On this terrace
snow accumulated one winter so as to fill up the re-entrant
angle it formed with the hill-side. When in the spring this
snow melted away, it was found that the upright tomb-
stones and the iron fence that surrounded the graves were
broken off near the surface of the ground, and moved in
the direction of the general slope of the hill” (p. 148).
Summing up the foregoing hypotheses in their application
to glaciers of the alpine type, and viewing them in the
light of the various phenomena recorded, it appears that
all except the sliding and viscous theories are “‘true causes”
of ice-motion; and though neither is alone competent
to explain the various phases of the movement, all must
be recognized in a satisfactory and consistent theory. As
in the theory framed to account for glacial periods, so in
this case also, our theory is sufficiently flexible and indefi-
nite to be sure of coinciding with the truth insome of its
aspects.

“The problem with which we have to deal when we
come to the task of explaining continental glaciers is of
quite a different nature’ (p. 151), since in this case ‘“‘ we
have to leave gravity, as it works in Swiss glaciers, almost
out of account” (p. 154). The ice might move freely for
a score of miles from its sou'hern border; but in the in-
terior little if any motion would probably occur, except
such as might result from pressure-meiting; the excess
of water formed ia this manner escaping in sub-glacial
streams. ‘In this way we may conceive that the ice of
British America may have been carried out, from centre
to periphery, in the form of water, and the waste of its
grinding borne along by the streams that were formed by
the pressure-melted water” (p.159). In other words,
continental glaciers appear not to move as ice, but only
as water, except along their extreme peripheries.

XII. Certain effects of glaczers.—Outside of glaciated
regions the soils and sub-soils are the products of simple
weathering conjoined with vegetal action, and may be de-
nominated soz/s of zmmedzate dertvation: while within
such regions the superficial accumulations are made up
of mechanically comminuted materials brought thither
from numberless localities, some perhaps hundreds of
miles distant, and may be termed soz/s of remote deriva-
tion, Since the soils of the first class vary with the char-
acter of the underlying rocks, it follows that the latter are
more uniform in constitution over considerable areas;
and they are at the same time more durable, for not only
are the materials essentially identical in all parts of the
thickness of the deposit, but they also contain desirable
mineral constituents locked up in the included pebbles to
be gradually liberated by atmospheric and chemico-vege-
tal action. The glacial clays were “laid down in a very
unoxidized state. Generally they are of a bluish hue,
and only attain the ordinary yellowish or reddish color
of decomposed clays as the waters acidulated by vegeta-
tion slowly penetrate into them.” “In North America
this penetration of atmospheric decay is distinctly pro-
portionate to the nearness of the clays to the old glacial
front’ (p. 165); and hence affords a rough measure of
the length of post-glacial time.

The coarser moraine debris constitutes, however, but
a small part of the glacial waste ;—the impalpable glacial
mud must have been formed in scores if not hundreds of
times its volume, and swept for the most part into the sea
to build up azoic shales and clay slates, perhaps interco-
lated with, conglomerates, as in the Roxbury conglome-
rate series near Boston. This fine glacial detritus,
whether accumulated in river-beds, lake-bottoms, or un-
fossiliferous marine formations of any age, may be dis-
tinguished from river salt by its unoxidized state and blue
color. ‘The distribution of both the coarser and the finer
glacial products has been largely accomplished by ma-
rine forces, after they were thrust by the ice into the sea;
as in the case of the Tertiary sands of the southern states,
which were probably originally brought to the ocean
by glaciation along the more northerly Atlantic coast.

ee eee ee eee ee ee eee EE EN

The formation of auriferous gravels and the general
accumulation of gold in drift by glacial action, was ac-
complished by the simple concentration of heavier ma-
terials in depressions or gentle slopes, just as occurs in
miniature in a miner’s pan or rocker; and the result may
be brought about by local as well as general glaciation,
as is well shown in the valley of the Arkansas River at
Twin Lakes.

“Tt isa very important fact that no pre-glacial caverns
have ever been discovered” (p. 170)—a fact which leads
to the inference that the extent of glacial erosion was so
great as to totally remove pre-existing cavern-bearing
limestone strata. The excavation of fiords and lake-
basins, already adverted to, is a farther illustration of the
enormous extent of this erosion. A most interesting,
though indirect, result of this property of glacier ice is
the influence which it has exercised on the social condi-
tion of mankind ; for it is only shores indented by bays,
fords, and inlets, and fringed with islands, that afford
the incentives to and facilities for the development of the
maritime industries which occupy so important a place in
human progress. The far-seeing geologist cannot, how-
ever, avoid speculating on the possibility that a contrary
effect may, inthe distant future, be exerted on mankind,
by the return of glacial conditions to our globe. There
is every probability, indeed, that the earth will again be
enfolded in an icy mouth such as crept over it during the
Quaternary ; though there is no reason to fear that such
an‘ untoward vicissitude is imminent.

A glossary of some fifty terms, a bibliography of nearly
seven hundred entries, and a four-page index with the
plates and descriptions follow.

It has been the aimto present, in the foregoing para-
graphs, a full synoptical resumé of the work considered,
without approval or comment. Several passages which
are regarded as either erroneous or misleading, or open
to serious objection on well-established theoretical
grounds, have, however, been quoted in the words of
the author. A portion of these may be noticed in
their order; reference being made to the pages on which
they occur.

P. 28.—Geikie! regards ice-bergs as the terminal por-
tions of glaciers, broken off by their buoyancy on enter-
ing the sea; Tyndall,? however, supposes that the
masses break downward by their own weight; while
Schwatka® has shown that they are formed in either mode
according to the temperature of the sea—and, he might
have added, other circumstances.

P. 31.—‘‘From information derived from all sources
up to the present time, it may be gathered that the un-
penetrated area of about 4,700,000 square miles sur-
rounding the South Pole is by no means certainly a contin-
uous ‘Antarctic Continent,’ but that it consists much more
probably partly of comparatively low continental land, and
partly ot a congeries of continental (not oceanic) islands,
bridged between and combined, and covered to a depth
of about 1,400 feet, by a continuous ice-cap ; with here
and there somewhat elevated continental chains, such as

the groups of land between 55° and 95° W., including. -

Peter the Great Island and Alexander Land, discovered
by Billingshausen in 1821, Graham Land and Adelaide
Island, discovered by Biscoe in 1832, and Louis Philippe
Land by D’Urville in 1838, and at least one majestic
modern volcanic range discovered by Ross in 1841 and
1842, stretching from Balleny Island to a latitude of 78°
S., and rising to a height of 15,000 feet.’’4

Pp. 38, 98.—Geologists generally do not consider that
the correctness of the views of Ramsey and others as to
the repeated recurrence of glacial periods throughout ge-

1** Great Ice Age,’’ Am. ed., 1877, p. 55.
2** Forms of Water,” 1877, p. 134.

3 Science, vol. ii, No. 30, 1881, p. 31.
4Sir Wyville Thomson, in addresses before the Geographical Section ot

the British Association, Dublin meeting. Brit. Assoc. Rep., 1878, P.
619; Nature, Aug. 22,1878; Am. Four. Sci., vol, xvi., 1878, pp. 355-6.

SCIENCE:

ological time, is fully established ; and they certainly do
not regard the covering by ice of ‘a very large part of
land and sea” asa “fact,” or indeed as more than an
extremely vague hypothesis.

P. 40.—Croll long since suggested® that Caithness and
the Orkneys were glaciated by the Scandinavian ice-sheet,
and Peach and Horne have recently urged® that during
a part of the glacial period the Shetlands were overspread
by the Scandinavian mer de glace, while during another
part they gave origin to a system of local glaciers, though
Milne-Home’ seriously questions these several conclu-
sions; and it has also been suggested by Reid,’ though it
can hardly be regarded as established, that the contortion
of the drift along the Norwich coast was effected by Scan-
dinavian land-ice. ‘As shown by Croll’s’ and Geikie’s,!° as
well as all other reliable maps, however, all the British
highlands were unquestionably independent centers of
glaciation, quite distinct from the Scandinavian ice-sheet ;
—indeed, when Milne-Home characterized the statement
that “the land-ice which glaciated Scotland could only
have come from Scandinavia” as an “astounding declara-
tion,”!! Peach and Horne hastened to explain that the
word Scotland was a mis-print for Shetland. There
are also grave reasons to question whether a polar ice-
cap ever existed in the northern hemisphere, as the writer
has endeavored to prove,!* and it is quite certain that if
such an ice-cap did exist it did not extend to the British
Isles by way of Scandinavia. So long ago as 1845
Murchison showed by means of a map in his “ Geology of
Russia and the Ural Mountains,” that the Scandinavian
drift “ proceeded eccentrically from a common centre ;’"!4
and Geikie (illustrating his remarks by a map) says:
“the direction of the glaciation in the extreme north of
Scandinavia, the peninsula of Kola, and north-eastern
Finland, demonstrates that the great mer de glace
radiated outwards from the high grounds of Norway and
Sweden, flowing north and northeast into the Arctic
Ocean and east into the White Sea, and thus clearly
proving [proves ?] that northern Europe was not over-
flowed by a vast ice-cap creeping outwards from the
North Pole, as some geologists have supposed.’”®

Pp. 41,44.—It is not known that a continuous ice-front
ever stretched across the American continent, since a
portion of the region eastward of the Cordilleras remains
unexplored. Dana remarks, “since evidence of the great
southward moving glacier fail over the region west of a
line passing from a few degrees west of Winnipeg, south-
eastward through Western Minnesota and Iowa, near the
meridians of 98°-100°, and all the way westward to the
borders of California and Oregon if not to the Pacific
coast, the ice thinned out toward the interior of the conti-
nent and was mostly absent except about the higher parts
of the Rocky Mountains.’’® There is moreover no suffi-
cient reason for believing that the American ice-sheet
swept down from polar regions. Hitchcock’s map of
directions of ice-flow, which is reproduced in the work
under consideration (following pl. XX.), indicates that the
principal American center of dispersion was probably in
the northern Laurentian Highlands ;—a view which is
corroborated by more recent observations of the Canadian
Geological Survey.!’ Houghton has also shown that the
boulders of the Arctic archipelago were carried north-
ward.!8

5Geol. Mag. May and June, 1870; ‘Climate and Time,” chap.
XXVII. ¥

®Quar. Fourn. Geol. Soc., vol. XXXV, p. 778; Geol. Mag., II1., vol.
VILL, p. 65; 252d, p. 364.

1Trans. Edin. Geol. Soc. vol. U1. pt. 3, p. 357; Geol. Mag., II., vol.
VIIT., p. 205 ; 267d, p. 449.

8Geol. Mag., U1, vol. VII, p——(A number of the writer’s volumes are
in the bindery at this writing, and a few references accordingly cannot

be given in full.)
9** Climate and Time,” p. 449.
10 Accompanying “‘ Great Ice Age.’
110. F. G. S., XX XV, p. 809.
12Geo/. Mag., VIII, p. 69.

’

627

P. 42,—The quoted remarks describing the southern
limit of ice-action in the Mississippi valley display un-
pardonable disregard of the work of Cox and Collett in
Indiana, of Worthen and his associates in Illinois, of
the several Missouri geologists, of White and St. John in
Iowa, of Aughey in Nebraska, of N. H. Winchell and
Upham in Minnesota, and even of Hitchcock’s map ap-
pearing in the volume. The southern limit of the drift
does not pass through either Iowa or Minnesota, but
through southern Indiana and Illinois, northern-central
Missouri, and Nebraska. The statement possibly origi-
nated in confounding the great Kettle Moraine with the
southern drift-line, though as specifically pointed out by
Upham,’* and hardly less distinctly by Chamberlin,”° these
lines are 300 miles apart.

The glacial phenomena of south-western British Amer-
ica have been carefully and tolerably fully studied by G.
M. Dawson.?!

Pp. 66, 68.—An explanation of the origin of kames
and aasor which is satisfactory to students of glacial phe-
nomena was independently oftered by N. H. Win-
chell,”? Holst,?2 and Upham.** The hypothesis is as defi-
nite and probable as almost any other portion of the gla-
ciz1 theory.

Pp. 70, 90.—Tyndall has shown” that a diminution of
terrestrial temperature could never inaugurate a glacial
epoch; it has never been demonstrated that augmenta-
tion of temperature would be in any degree likely to pro-
duce a similar effect; and, accordingly, Poisson’s and
Le Coq’s hypotheses can hardly be regarded as ‘‘reason-
able” or “likely ” in the present state of knowledge. As
Croll has urged®®, there are grave reasons for questioning
whether anything like half of the heat reaching the earth
comes from the stars.

P. 75.—Loomis, describing the orbital motion of planets
undisturbed by exterior forces, says: ‘‘the curve cannot
be a circle unless the body be projected in a [particular]
direction * * *, and, moreover, unless the velocity
* * * is neither greater or less than one particular
velocity ;’°7 and Stockwell, speaking of the solar system
in its actual condition, says: “the eccentricity of the
earth’s orbit will always be included within the limits of
o and 0,0693888.’”8 -

P. 95.—Sound bases for the assertion do not sppear.
Hilgard says*: “the relations mentioned by Tuomey
(Second Report on the Geology of Alabama, p. 146)
as existing between the shore of the Tertiary sea and the
region of occurrence ef the southern [northern ?] drift on
the Atlantic slope, are not so clearly recognizable in
Mississippi and Alabama ;” and further westward no re-
lation whatever is apparent. Furthermore the “northern
drift’ of Hilgard and Tuomey was deposited far beyond
the southern limit of the ice.

P. 107.—Le Conte shows graphically® that, admitting
the influence of eccentricity, glaciation would only be pos-
sible after protracted secular refrigeration. The period
in which this refrigeration reached such a degree as to
permit of glaciation has not been determined. If in the
Cambrian, Le Conte’s diagram is, of course, incorrect ;
but it is not seriously maintained by working geologists
in America that such was the case. Speaking of the
Quaternary Le Conte, referring to Nordenskjold’s ob-
servations,*?! declares”: ‘that glacial conditions were

13Proc. A A. A. S., vol. XXIX, p—.
14 Cited by Lyell, “ Axtiguity of Man,” 4th revised ed., 1873, p. 275,

note.

15** Great Ice Age,”’ p. 354.

16** Manual of Geology,”’ 3d. ed. 1880, p. 537.

17Geol. Surv. Con. Rep. Prog. for > P—; zérd. tor ,»p——.

18 McClintock’s ‘‘ In the Arctic Seas,” author’s ed., appendix, p. 368.

198th Ann. Rep. Geol. and Nat. Hist. Surv. Minn.,'p. 73.

20Geol. Wis., vol. ii., 1877, pp. 205-15; Trans. Wis. Acad. of Arts,
Sciences, and Letters, vol. —, p. —.

1Quar. Four. Geol. Soc., vol. xxxiv,, pt. 1; Geol, Surv. Con., Rep.
Prog. for—, p. — ; 747d. for —, p. —.

22Pyoc, A. A, A.S., vol. —, p. —

628 SCIENGE,

4.

ever before reached, even in polar regions, seems more
than doubtful.”

The foundation for the second statement quoted does
not appear.

P. 108.—It has not been empirically established that
the effect of fog-banks is to diminish temperature;
and analogy with the known observation of finely dis-
seminated water suggests that a directly opposite result
ought to be produced. Croll’s argument has been con-
sidered by Newcomb *3 and the writer.*4

P. 113.—G. M. Dawson* has investigated the late-Qua-
ternary depression of Vancouver’s Island and British
Columbia, and finds it to have been practically commen-
surate with that of the Atlantic coast.

P. 119.— Geologists are not united as to the age of the
great pachyderms. Thus, Collett®* records observations
indicating that they were recent; while Phillips*? and God-
win- Austen*® regarded them as wholly pre-glacial, and
Hall®? and Belt*” have shown that at least some individu-
als existed before the advent of the ice.

PP. 119-20.—Howorth has recently (mainly since the
publication of ‘‘ Glaciers ’’) examined the evidence relat-
ing to the former existence of the mammoth in Siberia,
and reaches the conclusion (among others). Ist, that
the animals lived where their remains now lie; and 2nd,
that the climate was comparatively mild at that period*',

P. 134 Asubsequent and apparently complete study
of the locality by Lewis leads to the conclusions; Ist,
that the implements are confined to the Trenton River
gravel: and 2nd, that this gravel was deposited “at a
period immediately following the last glacial epoch.” *.
If, as suggested by F. W. Putnam, * the flints were drop-
ped into this gravel while in process of formation by the
paleolithic men who hunted and fished along the old river-
bluffs of New Jersey, it follows that these men were post-
glacial; and even if the correctness of Lewis’s views are
not fully established, as intimated by Dana,” this instance
does not demonstrate, or even indicate, man’s pre-glacial
existence.

P. 140.—Tyndall mentions*® that Scheuchter first pro-
pounded the dilatation theory in 1705, that in 1769, or nearly
forty years in advance of De Saussure, Altman and Grii-
ner enunciated the sliding theory, and that in 1773, or
thirty years before the publication of De Saussure’s
“Voyages dans les Alpes,” the plastic theory was put
forth by Bordier.

P. 142.— The re-opening, not incidentally or even judi-
cially, but in a ludicrously partisan tone, of this now al-
most forgotten though erstwhile bitter controversy, would
be quite unjustifiable even if the statements where not
erroneous. Forbes’ first visit to the alpine glaciers (as
published by himself in that year), was on the gth. of
August, 1841; # during which visit he was in the com-
pany of Agassiz. Throughout this season his observa-
tions, as indicated by his published results, were confined
to superficial phenomena; chiefly ‘‘ ribboned structure”
and “slaty cleavage.”” On the 24th of June, 1842, he
again reached Montannent*? with a set of instru-
ments of precision, avowedly and obviously carried thither
for the express purpose of instituting a series of measure-
ments of the motion of the ice—the necessity for such
measurements having been pointed out in lecturesin De-
cember, 1841, and January, 1842,"* and also in the Zazn-

23 Geol. Firen. Stockholm Firh., Bd. iii.,No. 3, pp. 97-112.

244m. Four. Sci., Lec., 1877 ; Proc. A. A. A. S., vol. xxv., J. 216, e¢
veq.; and vol. iii. of the late New Hampshire reports.

25 Heat as a Mode of Motion,’’ Am. ed., p. 176; ‘‘ Forms of Water,’

Pp. 154. ch
ao Climate and Time,” p. 39. Newcomb says (Am. Yourn, Sci., Vol.

XI.,1876, p. 263)—‘* Practically there is but one source from which the
surface of the earth receives heat, the sun, since the quantity received
from all other sources is quite insignificant in comparison.

27 ** Treatise on Astronomy,’’ 1876, p. 138.

28 *“ Secular Variations of the Orbits of the Eight Principal Planets.’
Smithsonian Contributions, No. 232, 1872, p. XI.

29 Geol, and Agricult. Miss., 1860, p. 28.

30 Flementsof Geolo ”’ 1879, p. 550.

burg Review for April, 184249 ;—and the “ First Letter on
Glaciers,” containing the “account of the first experi-
ments, undertaken in June, 1842, to determine the laws
of motion of the Mer de Glace of Chamouni” (published
in October as already noted ), was dated “ 4th July, 1842”;
on which very day as stated by Dana on Tyndall’s au-
thority,*° Agassiz’ measurements proving the more rapid
flow of the medial portion of the glacier, were published
in the Comptes Rendus. Lyell, speaking of the more
rapid medial than lateral motion of glaciers, says *!;
Mr. Agassiz, at p. 462 [of the “Systeme Glaciere”’],
states that he published in the Deutche Vierteljahrschrift
for 1841, this result as to the central motion being greater
than that of the sides, and was, therefore, the first to cor-
rect his own previous mistake.’ Comment is unneces-
sary.

Pp. 143-4.—Substances not previously regarded as vis-
cous, as for instance Stockholm pitch “so hard as to be
fragile throughout, and present angular fragments witha
conchoidal fractire’’ and a glassy lustre®?, are also re-
ferred to by Forbes.

The “ followers’ who hold the view indicated are not
advocates of the viscous theory proper, which is essenti-
ally molecular. The motion of viscous, as of flyid bodies,
may, however, be very imperfectly z//ustrated by the
movement of a heap of independent spherical masses.

P. 145.—The re-statement of this view, which it is
painful for admirers of Croll’s important labors in other
directions to discuss, is hardly excusable. Readers may
satisfy themselves as to its validity by referring to the
criticisms of Blakie®* and Teal®4, The authors should
have pointed out the differences between solid, liquid, and
gaseous molecules of H2 O.

P. 148.—The motion of the alternately freezing and
thawing snow unquestionably occurred in the manner as-
sumed in the dilatation theory as advocated by Scheuchzer,
Charpeutier, and, especially Mosely ; but it is just as un-
questionably distinct from the true flow of glacier ice.
The recognition of miniature glaciers in the New England
snows, far transcends the peculiar ideas of Muir, which
are so strongly deprecated by King®’.

Pp. 151, 154, 159,—The extraordinary conclusions
reached are perhaps to be attributed to the inadequacy of
the theory of glacier motion adopted. The statements
may be looked upon as representing unduly emphasized
ideas of a purely speculative nature.

P. 165.—-So long as a majority of leading students of
Quaternary phenomena classify the upper and generally
yellowish portion and the lower and generally bluish por-
tion of the drift respectively as Upper Till and Lower
Till, and look upon them as distinct in either time or mode
of formation, as do Newberry, Upham, Hitchcock,
Aughey, N. H. Winchell, Stone, and many others in the
United States, and so long as these deposits are distinctly
separated by a characteristic vegetal stratum, as they are
at least in southern Ohio,®® northeastern Iowa,*" and Ne-
braska,** the first quoted statement must be regarded as
unsupported by facts, notwithstanding the possibility that

atmospheric and vegetal action might, as urged by

Hawes,” Julien, and Van den Brock,*! produce a similar
discoloration of a single homogeneous formation having
the constitution of the Lower Till; and since the bluish
clays quite frequently (and indeed over some considerable

31 Geol. Mag,, Nov., 1875, Pp. 525+

32“ Elements,” p. 549.

33 Am. Four. Scz., vol. Xi, 1876, p. 272.

34 Popular Science Monthly, vol. xvi, 1880, p. 816.

35 Vide, note 2t.

36 Ind. Rep. of the Bureau of Statistics and Geol., 1880, pp. 384-6.

37 ** Geology of Yorkshire,’’ 1829, vol. I, pp. 18, 52. cited by Belt, 7x/ra.

38 Reports British Assn., 1863, p. 68.

39 ost. Regent’s Rep. on N. Y. State Cabinet, 1871, p. 103, ef veg.

10 Popular Science Monthly, vel. X11, 1878, p. 62.

41 In an unfinished series of papers in vols, VII. and VIII, of the Geol.
Mag.

SCIENCE.

629

areas generadly ) approach or even reach the surface to-
ward the southern limit of ice-action, as in southern Indi-
ana,” Illinois,®® Iowa,®4 and Nebraska,® and in northern
Missouri,®* the second statement must be viewed ina sim-
ilar light.

P. 170.— The cave-fauna, especially in Europe, is es-
sentially identical with that commonly regarded as Qua-
ternary or Champlain ; and as already intimated, there is
good reason to suspect that this fauna was at least parti-
ally pre-glacial. Moreover, the same facts relied on by
the elder Buckland to establish the anti-diluvian age of
the ossiferous cave-deposits,“’ must today be considered
equally conclusive of the pre-glacial existence of these
remains, -

On passing to a more general survey of the work there
is found to be less occasion for criticism, and indeed some
grounds for high commendation. Thus, the influence of
aqueous vapor and other substances diffused in the atmos-
phere upon terrestrial temperature is rarely lost sight of,
the existing glaciers are faithfully and accurately described,
and the general character and effects of Quaternary gla-
ciation are fully and clearly dealt with. The teachings
as regards the recurrence of glacial epochs and their
influence upon the successive geological formations of the
globe are, however intensely radical. The evidence relied
on to demonstrate the glacial origin of sandstones and
conglomerates, azoic shales and slates, and unoxidized
argillaceous rocks generally, is quite inadequate. For
instance, the idea that the iron of glacial mud alone is
normally unoxidized while that of river silts is normally
oxidized, appears to be expressly contradicted by the facts
that the iron of the Lérs (which is almost certainly
formed of impalpable glacial debris ), is nearly universally
peroxide, even when the deposit is one or two hundred
feet thick, while that of the post Lors alluvium of the
lower Mississippi is invariably protoxide, even within a few
feet or even inches from the surface; and the opinion
that paleozoic ice-action cannot be proven by the same
evidence as that attesting Quaternary glaciation is directly
opposed by the facts that the Talchir (lowest paleozoic)
beds of Peninsular India contain striated and polished
boulders imbedded in the finest silt, and that the under-
lying Vindhyau (azoic) rocks bear similar markings ;
though even in this case the original observers do not re-
fer the phenomena, with any degreé of certainty, to gla-
cial action. Again, while the discussion of glacial hypo-
theses and theories of glacial movement is tolerably full
and (unless possibly in a single instance ) eminently im-
partial and candid, the ‘‘ composite theories ”’ adopted are
quite valueless, since the detailed investigation given to
the subjects is in almost every case much less searching
and exhaustive than that upon which each hypothesis was
originally based. It may be questioned, indeed, whether
the method of throwing together a number of essentially
distinct and imperfectly weighed hypotheses, and taking
the sum or the mean of all as the only consistent theory,
will ever come into general repute, however strongly it
may be supported by a confusing array of glittering gen-

42 ** Primitive Industry,” Abbott, 1881, pp. 541, 551.

43 r4th Ann. Rep., Peabody Museum, 1881, p. 23.

44 Am. Four. Sci., vol. XXII, 1881, p. 402.

45 ““ Forms of Water,” pp. 155-7.

46 Edin, New Phil, Fourn., Jan. 1842; ** Occasional Papers on the The-
ory of Glaciers,” 1859, p. 3.

47 Edin. N. P. F., Oct., 1842 ; Occ. Papers, p. 9.

48 Occ. Papers, p. 10.

49 ** The solution of this important problem [the theory of glacier mo-
tion ], would be obtained by the correct measurement, at successive peri-
ods, of the spaces between points marked on insulated boulders on the
glacier ; or between the heads of pegs of considerable length, stuck into
the matter of the ice, and by the determination of their annua! progress.”
Op. cit., p. 77; Occ. Papers, p. 10.

50 ‘* Manual of Geology,’’ 1880, p. 694.

51“ Principles of Geology,’’ revised ed., 1854, p. 224, note.

52 Occ. Papers, pp. 03, 269.

53 Geol. Mag., vol. III, p. 493.

eralities. Thus, with regard to the problem of ice-motion;
it is of course true that the dilatation, fracture-and-vege-
tation, and pressure-melting hypotheses are based on the
observed behavior of ice; but it does not necessarily fol-
low that these properties, either individually or collect-
ively, produce the phenomenon of flowing in large bodies
of ice. To illustrate -—solids generally expand and con-
tract with alterations in temperature; they may be frac-
tured by irregular strain or impact; they may be united
into homogeneous bodies by pressure as shown by Spring ;
and those which expand on solidifying may be melted by
pressure ; yet no physicist attributes the flow of solids
( which has been investigated by Tresca, Roberts, Ware,
and others ) to any or all of these properties. Finally,
there are important omissions, notably with respect to
the widespread hipartite structure of the drift in many if
not most glaciated regions, which has led many Euro-
pean and several American geologists to conclude that it
was formed during two distinct periods, separated by a
considerable era of mild climate. The general neglect
of the results of American (and indeed Foreign ) study
has been incidentally noted in preceding paragraphs.

The illustrations, which are of the finest character and
elaborately described, are mainly reproduced from pho-
tographs of existing glaciers and of interesting phases of
glacial phenomena in America and elsewhere. They are
of course open to the objection which may be urged
against all photographs of natural scenery—~. ¢., that the
most instructive and valuable details are often obscured
or concealed ;—though many of the plates are cf remark-
able clearness and beauty. The illustrations are not, how-
ever, superior or even quite equal to many which have al-
ready been published by Agassiz ( for instance, in the at-
las accompanying “tudes sur les Glaczers ;’ Neuchatel,
1840—‘‘ Untersuchungen tiber die Gletcher,’’ Solothurn,
1841 ), and others.

It should be added that the necessity for all the fore-
going criticisms appears to have arisen from the peculiar
design of the work and the circumstances under which
it was prepared. The authors explain in the preface that
in order to meet the agreement with the publishers, it was
necessary to prepare the text with far greater haste than
was desirable; and remark that,—‘if the reader will
consider that the main object in the book 1s not to afford
a complete history of glaciation, but to present a body of
graphic illustrations of glacial phenomena, and that the
text is designedly subordinate to this purpose, he will
then better understand the apparent short-comings of the
work.”

Viewed as a whole, it appears that the work describes
no new phenomena and presents no new theoretical views,
while it exhibits many deficiencies and inaccuracies. It
cannot therefore be regarded as in any sense a valuable
contribution to the subject dealt with, or even as a satis-
factory exposition of the present state of that subject.
To the working student it will accordingly be worse than
useless, since it will impose upon him 2 heavy financial and

54 “* A Criticism of Dr. Croll’s Molecular Theory of Glacier “Motion,”
London, 1880.

55 ** Systematic Geology”’ of the Fortieth Parallel Survey, 1878, pp.

447-8.
66 Geol. Surv. O., vol. ILI, pt. I, 1878, p. 38, ef passim.

57 Am. Four. <ci., vol. XV, 1878, p. 339; Proc. A. A. A. S., vol. XX-
VII, 1878, p. 198; Geo’. Mag., vol. VI, 1879, pp. 353, 412.

58 Phys. Geol. and Geog. of Neb., 1880, p. 259.
59 Geol. N. H., vol. III, 1878, p.333.
60 Proc. A. A. A. S., vol. XXVIII, 1879, p. 350.

8! Mem. Cour. et Mem. des Sar. Entr. of the Acad. Roy. de Belgique,
vol. XLIV, 1881. Noticed in Am. Your. Scz., vol. XXII, 1881, p. 80.

62 Geol. Surv. Ind., 1872, n. 404; 1875, p. 171; and elsewhere.

63 Geo. Surv. Ills., vol. III, 1868, p. 190; IV, 1870, p. 194 and elsewhere,
64 Geol. Iowa, 1870, vol. I, p. 327; II, p. 9; and elsewhere.

5 Geol. Surv. Mo., 1855-71, p. 162 ; 1873-4. p. 245; and elsewhere.

6 Phys., Geog. and Geol. Neb., 1880, p. 254.—In each of the first four
States above mentioned, the occurrence of the clay and its stratigraphical
position has been determined mainly by personal observation,

67 “* Reliquiz Diluriane.”’ 1824, pp. 48-51, 171-84.

630

SCIENCE:

a no less mental tax, without adequate recompense. To
the teacher, however, for whom it is especially designed,
it will doubtless prove quite acceptable as an auxillary to
the more elementary text-books.

Several considerations appeared to demand a rather
full examination from the ‘standpoint of the working-
geologist of Glaciers.’”’ (1.) There is so urgent a demand
for a standard work representing fully the present status

f£ American Surface Geology ( or Kaineontology, as the
writer prefers to term that branch of Geology), that al-
most any book on the subject might be adopted as such
without duly weighing its fitness for the position. (2. )
In its ambitious style and assumptious exsemmbe the work
under review is quite unlike the ordinary text-books. (3. )
It is the initial volume of an extended and costly series
of works which, from their titles and the fact that they
carry with them the prestige of a leading university,
might naturally be regarded as the highest American au-
thorities on the subjects treated. (4.) It was not
deemed just to working geologists to suggest that the
book could well be dispensed with without at the same
time furnishing, as fully as practicable, the means of
forming an independent judgment.

FARLEY, Iowa, WVov. 12, 1881.

i

LIVING OBJECTS FOR THE- MICROSCOPE,

Mr. A. D. Balen, of Plainfield, New Jersey, has under-
taken to collect living organisms suitable for microscopi-
cal investigations, and forward them by mail to those in-
terested in such studies.

This is a oe convenience to those living in cities, or

those who are unacquainted with the localities where
collections of particular forms can be made.

Among the living objects which Mr. Balen has sent out
to his correspondents may be mentioned—

PoLyzoa.—Pectinatella, Plumatella and Fredericella.

INSECTS.—Larva of Dragon Fly and Dyticus (water
tigers).

ENTOMOSTRACA.—Bosmina, Daphnella,
and Sida.

WoRMS.—Nais, Stylaria and Planaria.

ROTIFERS.—Lacinularia, Conachilus, Floscularia, Me-
licerta, Limnias and Noteus.

PoLyps.—Hydra, with the curious parasite Urceolaria
pediculus.

BELL ANIMALCULES.—Vorticella, Carchesium and
Epistylis, Stentor, Vaginicola and Cothurnia.

INFUSORIA.—Spirostomium, Euglena and Dinobryon.

RuHIzopops.—Arcella, Actinophrys and Clathrulina.

SPONGE.—Spongilla.

PLANTS.—-Utricularia, Vallisneria, Anacharis
Nitella, Volvox, Protococcus and Pediastrum.

DIATOMS.—Surirella, Gomphonema and Fragilaria.

DESMIDS.—Scenedesmus, Desmidium and Micraste-
rias.

We hope that microscopists will support Mr. Balen in
this little enterprise, for it will prove of the greatest bene-
fitto them. A specimen package will be sent for 30
cents.

Diaptomus

and

tr

THE giant forces which scientific discovery is putting in
the hands of engineers bid fair to develope a particular form
of the profession.—Zxgineering News.

METEOROLOGICAL _ REPORT FOR NE w YORK

CITy FOR iE Wh EK ENDING DEC. 24, 188i.

Latitude 40° 45’ 58" N.; Longitude 73° 57’ 58" W.; height of instruments above the ground, 53 feet ; above the sea, 97

feet ; by self-recording instruments.
BAROMETER. THERMOMETERS.
|
MEAN FOR ,
Was yen. MAXIMUM. MINIMUM. MEAN, MAXIMUM. MINIMUM. MAXI'M
DECEMBER A
* | Reduced | Reduced Reduced : : X , .
to to. Time to. Time. ape lee ne Time. ee Time. re Time ee Time. |InSun
Freezing.| Freezing. Freezing. ; : |
Sunday, TBE=|) #302097; 30.264 In Pp. ™.} 30.100 7 a. m.| 4073 || 39-3 50 rp.m.| 42 Xp. ms) 193 7 a.m.| 32 7 a.m. 99-
Monday, 19--| 30.309 30.382 |10 a.m.| 30.264 o a.m.} 40.3 | 38.0 45 3 P-m.| 41 | 3 p.m.| 34 8a.m,| 34 8 a.m, 85.
Tuesday, 20--| 30.159 30.288 | oa.m.} 30,112 3 P.m.| 42.6 | 39.0 47 4 p.m.) 42 4p-m.) 38 4a.m.| 36 6 a.m. 6s.
Wednesday, 2t -| 30.276 30.318 |10 a.m.| 30,152 © a mM. 4027 ||| 3701 |= 43 3P-m.| 39 |o a.m.) 38 8 a.im.| 36 | 8 a.m. 78.
Thursday, 22--| 29.864 30,228 | oa.m.} 29.516 |12 p.m.! 49.3] 47-3 53 | 4 Pp. m2" Sr 4p-m.| 39 | 2a.m,} 38 | 2 a.m. 49.
Friday, 23--| 29-405 20.774 |I2 p.m.| 29.268 I p.m.| 42.6 | 42.0 55, |x2m. * 53 7 a.m.| 25 |12 p.m.| 25 |12 p.m.| 100.
Saturday, 24--| 30.188 30.300 |r4 p.m.| 29.774 | 0: a.m.| 27.0 | 26.0 32 3 p-Ms|| 9 3r 3.P.m.) 2t 8 a.m.| 22 8 a.m. 79.
HE , 7 Dry. Wet.
Meanwtor the sweek= =<. 2225-22 ba Ste oten asses 30.048 inches Mean for the week ------.-------------- 40.5 degrees Lene Cee = I degrees.
Maximum for the week at ro a. m., Dec. roth.------ 30.382 Maximum for the week,at 12 m., aadiee 55. pi heey £42 23d, a
Minimum ‘2 at z12p/m:, Dec.23d --=2_=- 29.268 ‘* Minimum +S Siam. 24enesss ats sy ak: 8am 24th, ee
Ray Pel Po aa eae eee ee Re Bee Gye ee Range ‘‘ oo eee 345 eee 32.
WIND HYGROMETER. CLOUDS. RAIN AND *SNOW. |,;
nigh he OIE ie Ae 5
FORCE IN
s VELOCITY| RELATIVE CLEAR, ° DEPTH OF RAIN AND SNOW | 9
DIRECTION TN MILES ee ase ot | NORGE ONS SE OR uM r Dios OVERCAST. 10 IN INCHES.
| SQR. FEET. ye 2 sl
| = 5c z . = = . Ts . >
DECEMBER.| Te g Mr tek = eft ne c= B E E ige tise Dura-|§ 2
7 a.m,|2 p.m.jo p.m.| for the | = | Time. dle al] al @e}] al] a Gx: a ro Begin-| End- tion z 2h
Day. |4 nl} oa | a| nia fo nN a Oo ning ing. b 7 m as ~
Sunday, 18.|W.S. W.|W. N.wW.| n. w. 230 | 2 | 7.coam| .168 | -153', -199 | 89 | 44 | 74 3 cir.cu.|/r cir. O° 3 i eecmanih <=eee ---- “i
Monday, 19-| n. w. s. Ss. Ww. 92 | x |rx.10pm| .183 | .195 | .221 | 90 | 67 | 83 |x cir. |x CIPS los oy ile | eee eee =
Tuesday, 20-|W.S. W.|W.S. W.|w. nw. 182 | zt] 3.15pm! .194 | .169 | .208 | 8x | 54 | 75 8 cir. cu.|10 _ Et RRS ey Sie some, 25
Wednesday,2t-|n.n.¢.| ©. n, e. 119 | 2] 5.50am| .173 | .164 | .181 | 72 | 58 | 73 |2 Cir. 9 cir. 10 To pm |12 pm | 2.00 | .o1r
| 6 o am | 3 pm | 15.00 | .23
Thursday, 22-| €¢. s.s.¢€ Ss. 154 3 | t.t5am| .237 | .334 | 348 | 83 | 86 | 86 |10 10 10 7.45pm\z2 pm | 4.rs_ | .30
| o am am .00 | ,20
Friday, 23-|W.S.W.|N. D. e, n. 265 |12t! 5.00 pm| 376 | .267 | .174.| 87 |100 |100 |ro |g cu. 8 cu. { 5 pm Botti os onlee
Saturday, 24-|n.n.¢.| n. w. | n. w. 178 | 2 | 1.20am| .113 | .113 | .167 |100 | 67 |100 lo to 0 eee ll eee | eee an
Distance traveled during the week 1,220 miles, | Total amount of water for the Bil eee a cocere- — SSeeemee. Sho 5 inch,
MASITATT MOLCC ica os Javan nemo cet ene eae eer ere 12Y% lbs. Duration of rain.... ------------ oneamacennnn- 1 day, 4 hours, 15 ER

Director Meteorological Observatory of the Department of Public Parks, New York.

DANIEL DRAPER, Ph. D.

SCIENCE. I

Be PEIN] EG,’

A WeEEKLy ReEcorpD OF SCIENTIFIC

PrRoGRESSs.

JOHN MICHELS, Editor.

THRMS:
PER YEAR, - - - .: Four DoLLars
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PUBLISHED AT
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LONDON, ENGLAND, - - - - 150 LEADENHALL Sr.

SATURDAY, JANUARY 14, 1882.

We refer our readers to another column of this issue
where a letter written by Professor George S. Morris, A.
M., of the University of Michigan, and Lecturer in
the Johns Hopkins University, may be found. This
letter is a reply to an editorial in the Popular
Science Monthly for January of this year, which
repudiates the assertion that Herbert Spencer is
an atheist, or that his writings have an atheistical
tendency, the writer claiming for Spencer that the
world is under an obligation to him for elevating
man’s conceptions of the character of the Deity,
and that Spencer, so far from being an atheist, has
contributed new and powerful arguments for the
existence .of an ‘Infinite and Eternal Spirit,” and
further that Spencer is ever bringing us to the under-
lying truth-and therefore doing the highest religious
work,

As a masterpiece of special pleading the article in
the Popular Science Monthly to which we refer,
will be read with interest, and if it were possible to
reason or talk an Augean stable into cleanliness, the
editor of the Popular Science Monthly might have
succeeded in the task he had in hand. Professor
Morris has torn off the hypocritical mask of divinity
assumed by the editor of the Popular Science Monthly
for Herbert Spencer, and exposed the real nature of
his teachings. Had the editor of the Popular Science
Monthly merely claimed some mitigating circum-
stances,or some underlying truths in Spencer’s teach-
ings which merited recognition, he might have suc-
ceeded in deceiving his readers, who he evidently
believes are at the mercy of his sophistry, but to
claim for Spencer, the position of a great reli-
gious teacher was proving too much, and gives a

ludicrous aspect to the whole discussion. As Shake-

speare says :

‘Tis too much prov’d,—that with devotion’s visage
And pious action, we do sugar o’er
The devil himself.

Let us calmly examine what Herbert Spencer really
teaches, and to those who desire to follow us, and have
no time to wade through Spencer’s voluminous works,
we advise a perusal of Professor Morris’s valuable work,
“British Thought and Thinkers,” published by S. C.
Griggs & Co. of Chicago. We will now make a few
quotations from this work, and as the author is a
teacher of this subject in two of the leading Univer-
sities in the United States, he may be acceptable as
an authority sufficient for our purpose.

What is the “Infinite and Eternal Spirit” which
Spencer would have us accept as God? Spencer
merely terms it “he unknowable,” a something or a
nothing, which “‘is absolutely beyond our knowledge.”
Whatever it may be “it does not come within the
range of sensitive consciousness.” In plain English
this “ wzknowable” may be a God, a Devil, or it may
be an ether, electricity or anything else. One thing is
certain, that it is not spiritual and is devoid of intelli-
gence.

All that relates to mind or matter is purely mechan-
icalin Mr. Spencer’s estimation. He contemplates
man in common with the whole universe as the sub-
ject and scene only of purely mechanical, automatic,
irresponsible and unreasoning processes, in fact the
whole knowable universe is brought under the one
category of mechanism.

Man is simply “sensitive flesh and blood alone,”
his very individuality denied, for Spencer says that ‘‘ihe
reality of a belief in se/f admits of no justification.”
Mind is a mere bundle of phenomena of a mechani-
cal nature, and consciousness simply ‘ molecular oscil-
lations and the transmission of motion in the nervous
system,” and as if to strike from man the last vestige of
his humanity, moradity is annihilated, for good and evil
are measured by the amount of pleasure or pain
which results. Thus the perfect man, like the perfect
hog, is the one whose nervous organization is perfectly
adapted to surrounding physical conditions, the man
and the brute on one level, soulless and devoid of any
spiritual nature.

Such is the Spencerian theology. Readers, picture
to yourselves such a God, and man as we have
described, and then knowing the real nature of his
teachings, imagine Herbert Spencer elevated to the
rank of a spiritual teacher who ‘is ever bringing us
near to the underlying truth, and therefore doing the
highest religious work,” and the sickening hypocrisy
of this whole business is apparent.

Well did the rugged philosopher Carlyle exclaim,
“There is but one thing without honor; smitten with
eternal barrenness; inability to do or be: Insincerity,
Unbelief. He who believes no¢Aing, who believes
only the show of things, is not in relation with Nature
and Fact at all.” °

Much more could and perhaps should be said on

2

SCIENCE.

this subject, but as we cannot spare eleven columns to
editorial remarks, we will conclude by stating that a
wrong is inflicted upon Science by those who suppose
it is answerable for Mr. Spencer’s debased views of
God and man. In summing up Spencer’s teachings
Professor Morris exclaimed to the students of the Johns
Hopkins University, ‘all this is gratuitous, extra-
scientific absurdity, contradiction and dogmatism.”
Professor Morris does not stand alone in this opin-
ion, and he has at least our hearty endorsement.

It is possible to believe strongly in the theory of
evolution and accept every scientific fact that has
ever been demonstrated, and yet receive no shock to a
belief in a Divine Providence, while the accumulation
of scientific facts in our opinion all tend to confirm
such belief, and to demonstrate scientifically that an
intelligent Creator has designed and pre-arranged the
order of both matter and mind.

In conclusion, we desire to say decisively, that
science is not answerable for the vagaries of Mr.
Herbert Spencer, his editorial supporters, and others
of the same class ; his atheistical dogmas are neither
founded on scientific investigations or in harmony
with scientific discoveries. The mere fact that a
scientific journal is made use of for proselyting such
views even to the extent of attacking editorially, a
President of a university who declined to use a recent
work of Spencer’s as a class-book, should not be con-
sidered evidence that scientific men, as a body, have
any regard for the extreme views of Herbert Spencer.
On the contrary, those engaged in real scientific work,
do not care to interfere with their neighbor's religious
opinions, much less do they desire to force atheistical
views upon them.

Lastly, we say emphatically, that there is no real
conflict between Science and Religion at this present
day. Some persons appear to consider that they have
a mission to stir up discord and contention between
scientific men and their best friends, and the worst
feelings are engendered by continued attacks against
men holding any religious views who form nine-tenths of
the population in all civilized countries.

What better evidence can be given for the correct-
ness of the position we take than the fact, that a large
number of our most esteemed scientific workers are
men in holy orders. We could fill a page by the mere
enumeration of their names. Dallinger, the biologist,
who has carried off the highest scientific honors, is a
Protestant Clergyman. In astronomy we havea Catholic
priest who successfully investigates the mysteries of the
heavenly bodies, for Secchi’s name will always be
classed among eminent astronomers. If there was
any real conflict between science and religion, would
these men have continued their investigations? Of
course not. The conflict at this day is wholly imag-
inary, invented and kept alive for sensational purpose.
If these men would cease their irritating interference,
science would be welcomed in every home and be
considered one of the most convincing evidences of a
divine Providence, instead of being hated and
dreaded, as not in harmony with any religious belief.

We do not deny that there are many who cling to
religious dogmas which have been exploded by facts
revealed by science. For such we have compassion,
but we hold in far higher contempt the bigoted blus-
tering fanatic who has no religious belief whatever.

Hume admitted that he dared not select his own
confidential servant from such as held his own princi-
ples. We believe we are correct in saying that Pro-
fessor Huxley, who holds views somewhat akin to Spen-
cer, is careful in selecting a school for his children
where the Bible istaught. These facts appear to show
conclusively that these advanced thinkers considered
that there was a possibility that they might be wrong,
and that some discretion was necessary in teaching
their atheistical views, at least in their own families.

We apprehend that similar prudence should be
practiced by all who are directly or indirectly answer-
able for now popularizing views and principles which,
if successfully propagated, will be destructive even to a
simple belief in God, and aim to undermine society
itself by denying the intrinsic value of morality.

Finally, we ask that science shall no longer bear the
odium of atheism ; that it be freed from this pernicious
parasite, and that atheism being published in journals
devoted to that subject, shall be supported only by
its own devotees.

WE trust the above remarks may not be interpreted
as an attack on the ‘“‘ Popular Science Monthly” asa
journal, or personally on the editors. The latter are
gentlemen, honored and respected wherever science is
known, and have been pioneers in the good work of
introducing scientific knowledge into the homes of
the people ; their journal has always been conducted
in a manner to defy criticism, and is an honor to the -
house which publishes it. The recent editorial was a
bold demand for criticism on the policy of the journal
teaching doctrines, which appear to lie outside of its
province as a scientific journal. To this we have
responded. :

The root of the question at issue lies in the inter-
pretations of the works of Herbert Spencer. We con-
sider Professor Morris a safe guide in this matter, and
a perusal of his letter will show that Spencer’s writings
have a dual character, they far¢/y confirm the position
taken by the “ Popular Science Monthly,” so far as
showing Spencer believes in a “ something,” but are
fatal to all the deductions drawn by the editors of that
journal, and strictly in accord with the position we
have reluctantly taken in this controversy.

NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.
Dec. 12, 1881.
SECTION OF GEOLOGY.

The President, Dr. J.S. NEwBErrRY, in the Chair. —
Forty one persons present.
Mr. N. L. Britton presented

‘““ AppITIONAL NoTES ON THE GEOLOGY OF
STATEN ISLAND.” *
Two wells have recently been sunk to a considerable

depth on Staten Island, in the vicinity of Stapleton. One
of these is on the property of Mr. J. J. Cisco, near the

summit of the Serpentine hills ; the section as given by
the Superintendent of the Pierce Well-boring Co., who
sank it, is as follows :
Glacialvdnift; oth ¢.< cach a och eee 50 feet.
SOAPSEOMG; 5's, ae mmala nas = ipo eee 150 feet.

* These notes are supplementary to the paper on this subject read by
r. Britton on April 4, 1881. (Ann, N, Y, Ac. Sci., II, 16r.)

SCIENCE. 3

The well is six inches in diameter, and sufficient water

was obtained to make it a success.

The other well is at the pump-house of Bischoff’s
Brewery, some 500 feet east of the most eastern serpen-
tine outcrop at the foot of thehills. This has now ( Dec.
Ist ) reached a total depth of 210 feet, and the boring is
still unfinished. The section thus far has been as follows:

(ZIG R Boh cit Ss ee ar Ean ee 80 feet.

Various kinds of tough hornblende schist,
apparently varying to serpentine,.. ..130 feet.

As yet no gneiss nor granite has been reached.

An outcrop of clay occurs near Clifton, about three-
fourths of a mile south of the Forts, near the southern
edge of the terminal moraine; it has been found, by bor-
ings made by Mr. Charles Townsend, in excavations for
cellars, to be at least ten feet in thickness, and of a light
color.

The clay is probably of Cretaceous age, and if so, this
is the most eastern point at which beds of that age are
known on Staten Island.

Mr. W. T. Davis has recently observed a large fossili-
ferous boulder of Schoharie Grit on the shore at Brighton
Point. The fossils have been submitted to Dr. Newberry,
and the following species identified :—Da/manites anchi-
ops; Orthoceras Pelops, Strophodonta hemispherica ;
Atrypa reticularis ; Strophomena rhomboidalis ; a Fene-
stella; and Zaphrentis prolifera.

Glacial groovings have recently been noticed on the
hornblende-rock, which is exposed at tide-level on
Brighton Point. Some of the grooves are at least one-
quarter of an inch in depth, three inches wide and four
feet long. Their bearing varies from N. 15° W. to N.
17° W.

DISCUSSION.

Prof. D. S. MARTIN considered the specimen of so-
called hornblende schist from the well-boring, not to con-
sist properly of that rock, but to be partly hydrated—
apparently a less altered condition of the rock which
higher up gives us the soft, semi-fibrous serpentine of the
island,

Dr. NEWBERRY regarded the serpentine of Staten
Island as probably a pseudomorphous condition of horn-
blende slate. It differs considerably from the mottled
serpentine of New York Island, which is “ verde antique’”’;
that is, is composed partly of serpentine and partly of
carbonate of lime, and is scarcely distinguishable from
the Moriah marble, which is quarried at Moriah, Thur-
man, etc., in the Adirondack region. It is a peculiar
rock, and one of the connecting links between the rocks
of New York Island and those of northern New York and
Canada. Taken together, these afford strong indications
of the Laurentian age of the New York Island and Staten
Island crystalline rocks.

Dr. Newberry further said that the accurate determina-
tion of the age of the rocks of New York Island, of Staten
Island, and of those underlying the drift of Long Island,
was in the highest degree desirable and important; and
while he was satisfied that the former were Laurentian,
and the latter Cretaceous, it was eminently desirable that
unquestionable proof should be found of this, if it is true.
At present no positive assertions could be made, and the
duty devolves on the geological members of the Academy
to rid the subject of doubt.

The fossils in the boulder referred to by Mr. Britton
prove to have come from the Schoharie Grit. In its orig-
inal condition this was a hard, compact blue limestone,
but is here presented in a leached state, by the passage
of waters containing carbonic acid, with a loss of its lime,
color, and density. It was derived from northern New
Jersey, to which locality a belt of this rock runs down
from Schoharie county. Its transit by ice was effected
-without doubt through the valley of the Hackensack,

which lies east of the Orange Mountains and west of the
Palisades. This glacial movement is indicated by the
direction of the striz observed by Mr. Britton, as well as
by those in the Hackensack valley.

Mr. A.A. JULIEN recalled the results of his lithologi-
cal examination of the serpentines both of Staten Island
and of Hoboken, presented before the Academy two years
ago, in which it was shown that sections of all these
rocks abounded in minute fragments of more or less
altered amphibole. The conclusion then stated, that
these serpentines must be certainly derived from horn-
blende schist, was confirmed by the interesting discovery
of the latter rock, both in well-boring and on Brighton
Point. Serpentines of the same general character and
origin occur frequently throughout New York and West-
chester counties. The mineral serpentine is also found
in small quantity as a vein-deposit, not pseudomorphous,
like the main mass, but presenting an amorphous mate-
rial with banded vein-structure, associated with mag-
nesite, dolomite, etc.; e. g., the marmolite of Staten Island,
a translucent green variety found at Hoboken, and also
at West 6oth street on New York Island, etc. At all
these localities the amphibole survives in a more or less
altered condition; e. g., the tremolitic tale schists and
slaty tremolitic serpentines of Staten Island and Hoboken,
the hydrous anthophyllyte and unaltered tremolyte rock
of West 6oth street, New York, the tremolitic amphibo-
lyte of New Rochelle and Rye, in Westchester county,
etc.

Mr. BRITTON confirmed the last remarks, by the state-
ment that a vein of material, strongly resembling the
hydrous anthophyllyte of New York, had been struck at
the bottom of one of the wells on Staten Island ; also
that veins of mixed serpentine and calcite were observed
at Stapleton, possessing a banded structure parallel to
their walls. At that point the apparent thickness of the
serpentine bed is 150 feet, but the crest of the hill is com-
posed of talcose schist.

Mr. W. LE CONTE STEVENS then read a paper on
“THE MAMMOTH CAVE OF KENTUCKY,”

He also exhibited specimens of the blind fish (AmédLyopszs
spelaeus), and blind crawfish (Camdbarus pelluctdus),
and stereoscopic views of various points in the interior of
the cave.

f (Abstract.)

At the close of the Cincinnati meeting of the American
Association for the Advancement of Science, in August
last, he was one of a party of seventy-five members who
visited the Mammoth Cave, remaining there two days,
during which the greater part of the time was spent in
exploration. He made no claim to new discoveries,
but wished to call the attention of the Academy especially
to recent observations, for the most part by Rev. H. C.
Hovey, of New Haven, in regard to the temperature and
structure of the cave. Mr. Hovey read a paper on this
subject in Cincinnati, only a brief abstract of which has
yet appeared in print, making use of a map, which is the
first of its kind ever exhibited. The strictest precautions
are observed by the authorities controlling the cave
to prevent visitors from taking surveying instruments in
with them: but the present manager, Mr. Francis Klett,
has made a careful survey of the most interesting parts,
and in time this will probably be given to the public,
though possibly the scale of measurement may be with-
held.

The central and right-hand portions of the map ex-
hibited by Mr. Stevens had been enlarged by him from a
copy of Mr. Klett’s map. The left-hand portion was
drawn only from recollection of the localities traversed,
and not to scale, being intended only to illustrate princi-
ples. The same remark applies to the vertical projection,
the lettering of which corresponds with that of the hori-
zontal projection. .

The temperature observations of Mr, Hovey were con-

4 SCIENCE. 7 |

ducted with much care, and the very best instruments
had been confided to him by the Director of the Win-
chester Observatory at New Haven. In August, 1881,
while the external temperature at the neighboring hotel
varied between 90° F. and 100° F., at points farther than
100 yards within the cave, the reading of the thermometer
was never more than 56° nor less than 52%4°, the mean
temperature being 54° for the summer months. At a
point 1,000 yards within, a thermometer had been left for
six months, including the autumn and winter, and daily
visited by Mr. Klett, who reported the variation to be only
from 54° down to 53°. The underground temperature in
this latitude, for points 60 or 70 feet below the surface, is
usually assumed to be constant and about the same as
the mean annual temperature above. According to
Prof. Guyot’s maps, the isotherm of 60° passes about
thirty miles south of the Mammoth Cave, while that of
50° passes about forty miles north of Cincinnati. The
temperature of the Mammoth Cave is fully 6° lower than
has been commonly supposed, and may be taken as a
fair representation of that of the crust of the earth in
the country immediately surrounding it.

Mr. Stevens exhibited a geological map of Kentucky,
showing the area of sub-carboniferous limestone in which
the Mammoth Cave is situated. This is overlaid with a
thin stratum, mostly of sandstone, that is pierced by
thousands of sink-holes, through which the surface drain-
age is carried down into limestone fissures and thus to
the general drainage level of the Green River. This
stream passes at the distance of less than a mile from
the Cave Hotel, the floor of the latter being 312 feet above
the water and 118 feet above the mouth of the cave. He
briefly explained, with a diagram, the general mode of
cave-production in limestone strata, showing that subter-
ranean tunnels must be started by the solvent action of
slightly acidulated rain-water, and subsequently enlarged
by erosion, along the fissures in the limestone. These
agencies are still at work in portions of the cave, and the
whole of this limestone country is thus honey-combed
with caverns. No tunnel can be thus formed at any
point lower than the general drainage level, since there
must be an exit for the saturated water. The production
of the fissures is referable to the general upheaval of this
area at the close of the coal period: but, that there has
been subsidence since the completion of much of the
Mammoth Cave, is indicated by the fact that at its lowest
parts to-day the floor is covered with water to the depth
of thirty feet or more, having subterranean connection
with Green River. The fissures intersect at various an-
gles, but many of them are nearly or quite coincident
with the dip of the strata, which is very gentle. Water
passing through these forms the tunnels, while that pas-
sing through the vertical fissures scores out the pits which
piercethem. The same pit, starting from a sink-hole at
the surface, may have successively lower tunnels as exit
passages. If the visitor encounters it while walking
through the higher, and therefore older, tunnel, the upper
part appears to him as a dome, the lower as a pit.

The rate of erosion in the Mammoth Cave has been
variable. The older parts are perfectly dry, and entirely
free from stalagmitic deposits, indicating rapid erosion,
followed by elevation, so as to deviate the water com-
pletely into other channels. In the newer parts the water
is still dripping from the surface above, and depositing
stalactites and stalagmites; but as a whole the caveis by
no means remarkable for these formations, being much
surpassed in this respect by the neighboring White’s
Cave, of more recent origin. Those which do occur are
moreover deeply colored with iron, which exists in the
soil in the form of both oxide and sulphide. In the dry
parts, the ceiling of the cave is more or less covered with
efflorescent calcic, magnesic and sodic sulphates, which
contrast with the iron-stained limestone, giving rise to the
beautiful effects that have conferred celebrity on the open-

Ee:
> if

ing known as the Star Chamber, and the myriad rock
flowers of Cleveland’s Cabinet.

s]

Ovs I |
uf }
|

| ee

Calo,
aoe ween &

oh ase A
Wir Heut Proge ction.

The structure of the pits and domes was then illus-
trated with the aid of the accompanying map, by describ-
ing a journey through the cave. From the hotel, (a, fig-
ures I and 2,) the visitor walks to its mouth (4), by the
side of a shallow ravine, terminating in what was form-
erly a large sink-hole. The door of this fell through,
about seventy years ago, producing the present mouth of
the cave, and cutting off part of the gallery, now known
as Dixon’s cave (c), which opens out near the Green
river, a half mile distant. A walk of 1000 yards brings
him to the Great Rotunda (@), about 170 feet in diam-
eter and loo feet high. It is immediately under the
hotel, its roof being not more than 40 or 50 feet from the
surface. Besides the gallery, called the Narrows (0), by
which access has just been obtained, another tunnel from
the further side terminates in the Rotunda, to which the
name of Audubon’s avenue (4") has been given. The
large, almost hemispherical opening, seems to have been
cut out by the meeting of nearly opposite streams of
water, which found exit, probably, through the. main
cave (¢). At some distance within Audubon’s avenue,-a
small opening in the floor is found, connecting it with the
roof of the Mammoth Dome, a vast cavern 400 feet long,
100 feet wide and 250 feet high. These figures are of
course only approximate, but it is believed that they are
not exaggerated. Into this cavern the water is still trick-
ling, and stalagmites are forming with sufficient rapidity
to have cemented firmly to the floor a lamp dropped in
1812 and found in 1843. Returning to the Rotunda and

passing through a half mile or more of the main cave, the

visitor reaches, at e’, a large fallen slab of limestone to
which has been assigned the title of ‘The Giant’s
Coffin.””. This makes the entrance to a side passage (¢)
which leads off to the lowest part of the present cave.
The main cave forms an acute angle (/) and may be fol-
lowed for several miles, terminating abruptly in a pile of
rocks, where the roof has fallen in the same manner as
at the terminus of Dixon’s cave. Many of its side pas-
sages and avenues are yet unexplored.

Returning and entering the side passage near the
Giant’s Coffin the visitor passes obliquely beneath the
main cave, starting upon what is known distinctively as
the Long Route. At an expansion (4) are successive de-
posits of gravel, sand and clay, indicating the downward
course of the water which was here partially arrested.

it

SCIENCE. ree, P

Some distance further on, the passage forks (2). Keep-
ing to the right, the dangerous 5 de Saddle Pit (4) is en-
countered, which measures 65 feet in depth and 20 feet
across. It is surmoun ed by Minerva’s Dome, 35 feet
high. The pit yawns across the right half of the floor
of the tunnel, lcaving a narrow path on the left.
A short distance beyond (2), the tunnel again
forks. Keeping to the right as before, Gorin’s Dome
(m ) is reached, and may be viewed with the aid of mag-
nesium lights, from a small opening on the side, ten feet
above the pathway. The abysm extends 117 feet down-
ward, 100 feet upward and 60 feet across. Leaving this
and passing the fork (7), the tunnel is completely inter-
rupted by the so-called Bottomless Pit () across which
a bridge has been laid, resting upon a ledge. Despite
its Ominous name it does not defy measurement, having
been found to be 95 feet deep on one side of the ledge
and 105 feeton the other. Almost immediately overhead
is Shelby’s Dome, 60 feet high. Between the Bottomless
Pit and Side Saddle Pit are a pair of very large pits, dis

covered not a year ago by one of the guides, William
Garvin, and examined for the first time last August by Mr.
Hovey, who gave to them the names Scylla (f) and Cha-
rybdis (@) on account of the narrow, rugged passage
which separates them and the great difficulty and danger
of access. By timing the fall of pebbles inta the water
at the bottom, the depth of each was ascertained to be
about 200 feet. Charybdis was seen to be directly con-
nected with the Bottomless Pit. Indeed the latter may
be regarded as only a part of Charybdis, its depth, 105
feet, being only that of a jutting ledge, or the floor upon
which water ceased to fall after being slightly deviated
into Charybdis, where the sound of its trickling is still
audible. Shelby’s Dome is simply the upward continua-
tion of this combined pit. So narrow, moreover, are the
ridges separating Scylla from Charybdis on the one side
and from the Covered Pit, (¢ ), on the other, and so small
is the distance to the Side Saddle Pit (4), that it seems
in the highest degree probable that this group of pits com-
pose merely the upper branches of a single large pit into
which they are all united, or at least directly connected
before the bottom is reached, and the small relative depth
of the Side Saddle Pit is explicable in the same manner
as that of the Bottomles Pit. Such an extraordinary
group of pits, forming an apparent nucleus of cave drain-
age, might be expected to have its counterpart in an un-
usually large depression, or group of sink-holes, at the
surface. Impressed with this idea Mr. Hovey found in
the woods, scarcely half a mile from the Hotel, in the
known direction of these pits, a depression (# Fig. 2.),
many acres in extent, and so deep that from its edge he
could overlook the tops of the pine trees that rose from
the middle.

Leaving this region of pits and domes, the route leads
still downward, passing again under the main cave through
the narrow tortuous channel known as “ Fat Man’s Mis.
ery” (s) where the distance from floor to roof is in many
places not more than three feet. Through the floor a
winding passage has been worn away, varying in width
and depth from one to three feet. This terminates ina
chamber which has received the appropriate name of
“ Great Relief,’”’ where the succession of pebbles, gravel,
sand and fine clay again records the work of erosion and
deposit. This bed is not more than 50 or 60 feet above
the drainage level, and from here down to the River Styx,
the ground becomes more or lessdamp. A succession of
bodies of water are then encountered, including the tubu-
lar Echo River, which is navigated in boats. It is a part
of the tunnel which has subsided below the water level,
and is in connection with Green River, being filled to
within a few feet of the roof in summer, and completely
‘closed in winter when the Green River rises. The col-
umn of air between the water and the impervious roof,
closed everywhere except at the two ends, which are three-
fourths of a mile apart, serves as a resonator for any note

within the range of the human voice, and multiple echoes
gl ding imperceptibly into each otner, continue to be re-
turoed for many seconds after the voice has been hushed.

Beyond Echo River, the cave may be followed, with
continual ascent, through Silliman’s Avenue, the Pass of
El Ghor and Cleveland’s Cabinet, for about five and a
half miles. A pile of jagged rocks, 109 feet high, is then
surmounted and the wearied climber is confronted with a
large cavern, 100 feet wide and 70 feet deep, where three
short branches have united in one tunnel. Following the
left branch for a few yards, a hall is found, in the floor of
which is a pit 175 feet deep. The corresponding dome
overhead is scarcely noticeable as such, for the surface of
the ground is not more than 30 or 40 feet distant. The
end of the Long Route has been reached.

In returning, the passage through Fat Man’s Misery is
avoided, and nearly two miles of walking are saved by
climbing through a very steep, narrow, winding “ Cork-
screw” pass (¢, Fig. 2), starting from the neighborhood
of Great Relief and terminating at the side of the Great
Rotunda. The vertical ascent is about 140 feet. Toeven
stout-hearted mountaineers, if stout-bodied also, this Cork-
screw is an intensified Fat Man’s Misery, and upon them
it rarely fails to leave strong and deep impressions, which
may be of more kinds than one.

In regard to the animal life of the Mammoth Cave, con-
flicting opinions have been expressed by those who have
made a special study of this subject. The bats, lizards
and rats that have been found cannot be strictly called
cave-dwellers, as they are always at points not so far re-
moved from the outer light as to make this inaccessible,
The cave crickets and blind crawfish have particularly
long antennae and acute powers of hearing. Most of the
crawfish are pale in color, some of them almost white;
and this feature has been attributed to the continued ab-
sence of light. Crawfish, however, with well developed
eyes and of dark color have been often found. These are
without doubt either wanderers from Green River or the
immediate descendants of such; and many generations
of cave-dwelling are required to bring about such changes
as have caused the application of a specific name, Cam-
barus pelluctdus, to the white variety with only rudimen-
tary eyes.

In regard to the blind fish it is a significant fact that
the rudimentary eyes of the young are apparently less
atrophied than those of’ the mature fish. Although to
these cave dwellers also a specific name, Amblyopszs
spelaeus, has been given, they are by no means the only
fish found amid this stygian darkness. The existence of
fish with perfect eyes, apparently prospering where eyes
are useless, shows how much less dependent these crea-
tures are than more highly organized vertebrates upon
approximate uniformity in external conditions. To those
who have already accepted evolution, there is far less diffi-
culty in believing that the colorless blind fish are the
modified descendants of dark-colored ancestors with per-
fect eyes, which have wandered from Green River into
Echo River, than in concluding that they have always con-
stituted a separate species, as held by Prof. L. Agassiz,
and subsequently contended by Prof. F. W. Putnam.*
Nevertheless, Prof. Putnam has shown that the differ-
ences between the blind fish (A. sfelaeus) and their
nearest living congeners are much more than in respect
to mere color of skin and power of vision. Whether the
internal anatomical differences on which he reasonably
lays much stress can be proven to be a natural result of
the external conditions imposed by cave life, is a question
which, if settled at all, must be settled by zoologists alone.
Prof. A. S. Packard, Jr., and Prof. E. D. Cope are as pro-
nounced in their opinion that the blind fish have been
evolved from fresh-water ancestors possessing good
vision, as is Prof. Putnam in the opinion that their ances-
try were denizens of salt or brackish water, with which

* The Mammoth Cave and its Inhabitants. By A. S, Packard, jr.,
and F. W, Putnam, Salem, Mass., 1870,

6 SCIENCE:

he believes that the cave was supplied at a time when this
region was a salt or brackish water estuary. Prof. Put-
nam therefore concludes that the blindness of these fish
aa been in no respect a consequence of subterranean
ife.

DISCUSSION.

Mr. BRITYON inquired whether any flora existed in
the cave.

Mr. STEVENS replied that, so far as he was aware, no
kind of vegetation had ever been found within it.

Dr. NEWBERRY remarked on the geology of the region
adjacent to the Mammoth Cave. The limestone beds of
this high table-land are jointed in the manner common
to rocks, apparently by some sort of polarisation, produc-
ing fissures which run in a north and south, and an east
and west, direction. The plateau is about 500 feet above
the drainage, part of the drainage passing into the Green
River, and part into the Ohio. No streams occur on the
surface and the drainage is quite gradual. At the angle
between these two rivers several streams are seen, burst-
ing out of the cliffs at various heights above the Ohio;
they are, so to speak, subterranean sewers, representing
the underground drainage of the country; at one point
three such streams pouring out of the rock form very
beautiful cascades ; and near Sandusky a full grown river
flows out of the cliff of cavernous limestone. The beds
consist of lower carboniferous limestone, with sandy layers
beneath. Inthe vicinity occur portions of the great ‘“ blue
grass region,” one of the oldest parts of the continent,
once an extensive highland, forming an island in the sea.
Around this, rims of sediments were deposited, consisting
of sandstones and limestones; while on the other hand,
the continuous process of erosion, during the lapse of a
vast period, removed the material of the table-land within,
and converted it into a broad depression or basin, the
“blue grass region,” above which the present plateau of
the encircling sediments now rises to a height of 500 feet.

The erosion of the joints in this plateau has resulted
in the formation of the pits described by Mr. Stevens, but
it is probable that some of these may reach 200 or 300
feet below the Ohio and Green Rivers. There is evidence,
from borings in the Delta of the Mississippi, etc., that
the Continent was formerly more elevated, standing 500
to 600 feet higher at New Orleans than at present; the
drainage was much freer, the Mississippi being a free
flowing stream, as well as the Ohio and other tributaries.
Borings have been sunk in the present trough of the Ohio
river, to a depth of over 100 feet below its present bot-
tom, without reaching the true bottom ot the trough, the
ancient bed of the river, which is perhaps from 100 to 200
feet further down.

Evidences of the same elevation of the continent were
observed in caves on an island in Lake Erie. Long stal-
actites projected from the roof of a gallery whose end
was ordinarily filled with water at the present level of the
lake. At times astrong and steady wind has blown down
the level of the lake and partially drained this gallery ; but
even then a guide, John Brown, resident on the island,
has swum through the gallery and found the stalactites
projecting from the roof as far as he could go.

In regard to the origin of the blind animals, the view of
Prof. Cope is probably correct, that they have been de-
rived from the degeneracy of ancestors who once had
perfect eyes. No fish is formed with poor eyes; but any
organ may be atrophied by disuse, with consequent feeble
flow of blood, decreased nutrition, and inevitable shrinking
of important parts. An analogy is shown in a comparison
of the jaws of prehistoric and modern men. At present
our “wisdom teeth” are useless, there is no room for
them in the shortened under-jaw ; our food being softened
by cooking, cut up, and boneless, requires less vigorous
mastication; and from disuse, and the consequently in-
sufficient development, these teeth often speedily fall

were longer, roomier, supplied with more teeth—the
“wisdom teeth ” being well developed and kept in strength
by constant use on coarse and rough food. The absence
of the well-known stimulation produced by light, from the
dark waters within the Mammoth Cave, has in the same
way resulted in the atrophy of the organs of sight.

CORRESPONDENCE.

The Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed
by his correspondents. No notice is taken of anonymous communi
cations.

To the Editor of ‘‘SCYENCE.”

We can sympathize sincerely with the Editor of The
Popular Science Monthly in his indignation at being held
a promulgator of the views of ‘‘ pronounced atheists,”
because of his publication of “the papers of Herbert
Spencer, and others of his class.” ‘Pronounced
atheism’ finds little place in the history of philosophy
or science, as in the history of inankind and human civil-
ization in general. And Dr. Youmans is certainly in the
right with his emphatic denial that Mr. Herbert Spencer,
in particular, pronounces himself an atheist and seeks to
persuade others to do likewise. He “and others of his
class’ have, indeed, been very out-spoken in questioning
the literal truth of many popular beliefs and sacred tra-
ditions. But that there isin “ religious ideas’ no “vital
element,” that they correspond to no fact and represent
no truth, Mr. Spencer has been far from asserting. On
the contrary, the precise opposite is most strenuously
maintained by him (see especially Spencer’s Fzrst Prizn-
ciples, Part 1.).

And yet, while all this is verbally true, we fear that Dr.

Youmans, in his just zeal to defend himself and his friend,
both goes too far in his statement of the latter’s real posi-
tion, and forgets those grounds which lend color of justi-
fication to the perfectly sincere supposition of many
thoughtful people, that the practical, if not the professed
or intended, tendency of Mr. Spencer’s philosophy, is in
the direction of virtual atheism. .

If it were really true that ‘“‘no man of the present age .
has reasoned out the foundations of man’s belief in the
existence of the ‘Infinite and Eternal Spirit’ with such a
depth of analysis and logical force as Herbert Spencer,”
if, as Dr. Youmans further declares, it were strictly true
that Mr. Spencer ‘‘has sought to show that the ‘ Infinite
and Eternal Spirit,’ of which all the phenomena of the
universe are but manifestations, is the most absolute of
all realities,” then religion would owe to him a debt of
gratitude, which it is inconceivable that the intelligent
defenders of religion should not gladly recognize and
avow. But we are ata loss to know on what grounds
the above assertions are made by the Editor of The
Popular Science Monthly. Perhaps it is in esoteric dis-
coveries, delivered to a select few of his admirers, that
Mr. Spencer has ‘“‘ reasoned out’” the aforesaid ‘“ founda-
tions” and ‘sought to show ” the pre-eminent absolute-
ness and reality of the ‘ Infinite and Eternal Spirit,” and
Dr, Youmans’s statements may have been made on the
basis of what he has personally been privileged to hear of
these discoveries, Thus the writer of these lines was once
informed by an admirer of Mr. Spencer’s, who had recently
come from a personal interview with the philosopher,
that the latter believed in “a God ’—supposzng, not wizh-
out a good deal of reason. that this would be a piece of
news to one who knew of Mr. Spencer and his opinzons
only through his published writings.

It zs in the latter way, only, that Mr. Spencer ts known
to the general public. We, for our part, cannot claim for
ourselves familiarity with every line which Mr.Spencer has -
ever written. But we have studied with great care and
with great interest, what we supposed to be Mr. Spencer’s
of the redistribution of matter and motion. Some of

; ° ‘ : B se Setar ; ”
away. In the prehistoric man, on the contrary, the jaws | these phenomena have indeed a mysterious “ obverse

SCIENCE. 7

most important philosophical works, and we do not re-
member any where to have noticed any evidence of con-
cern on the author’s part to prove the existence of an
“Infinite and Eternal Spirit.” On the contrary, we are
every where forbidden by him to regard the Infinite and
Eternal, or the Absolute, as either Spirit or matter.
Both of these “‘ antithetical conceptions” are held to be
purely finite, relative, phenomenal. The absolute is sim-
ply “the unknown reality which underlies both,” (see
first Principles, last sentence of the book, e¢ passzm.)
The absolute we are constantly reminded is ‘“ wholly
unknowable.” It is neither Infinite and Eternal Spirit,
nor Infinite and Eternal Matter, but simply an altogether
indefinable and incognizable somewhat. “That through
which all things exist” is in Mr. Spencer’s language,
“The Unknowable.”

The Unknowable is further held to manifest itself to
us only as an ‘‘inscrutable force” whose operation is ex-
clusively confined to the evolutionary and mechanical
“redistribution of matter and motion.” Since this opera-
tion takes place under the form of rule or law, it is held
to conflict with, and render impossible, the supposed
“free will,’ and hence the truly sfzrztual nature of man.

The case is therefore as follows: That there is an ab-
Solute reality, we are held to know through “a dim” or
wholly. “indefinite consciousness,’ which is called the
‘yaw material of mind,” but which utterly refuses to be
grasped, defined, or known. The “ Infinite Something,”
which is thus demonstrated for us, is, so far as our defin-
ite knowledge extends, and hence practically, an “ Infin-
ite Nothing.”’ Strictly known to us are only phenomena
aspect, which we term spiritual, ideal, or mental. But no
scientific interpretation of these is possible, no knowledge
proper is possible concerning them, except so far as they
are reducable, directly or proximately, to terms of the re-
distribution.of matter and motion in physiological pro-
cesses. All our definite knowledge, therefore, is both in its
data and its substance, exclusively physical and material-
istic, and even the “indefinite consciousness,” by which
we are held to be assured that an Absolute Something
exists, in as regards both its subject and object, also
physical ; it is certainly not spiritual. ;

Now, if God, provided he exist, is necessarily a spirit ;
if man, as the subject of religious emotions and relations,
must also be a free spirit; and if, as is the case, there is
found in Mr. Spencer’s philosophy #o recognztzon of
either God or man as a spirzt, then it is obvious that
much ground is given by Mr. Spencer for the supposition
that his doctrines—considered er se, or independently
of their author’s intentions—are wrtually athezstic and
anit-relzgzous, and those who honestly entertain this sup-
position are entitled to be met, not simply with a vigorous
assertion that they are in error, but with a dispassionate
and objective demonstration that they are so.

The whole basis of Mr. Spencer’s theory of knowledge
is, as is well known, sensational and physical. From
such a basis it is and has always been tound impossible
to rise to the recognition of the absolute as spirit, or
man as spirit, or to comprehend religion otherwise than
as a necessary historic incident tn the development of
?deas, But the whole basis of human knowledge is not
sensational and physical. Free religion implies this, and
the grander historic forms of philosophy demonstrate it.
The fre-ecnent intention of knowledge in physical
science is indeed sense. The attempt to make this cri-
terion universal leads necessarily to agnosticism with
reference to the non-sensible (the Spiritual, Living and
Powerful). But it is not sczence which dictates this at-
tempt, and so Mr. Spencer's agnosticism zs not to be
charged to sctence. The rather, it is due to a purely
arbitrary determination on his part, supported, it is true,
by the influence of a conspicuous line of predecessors in
the history of British speculation. The fact that many
theologians have been equally—and some of them—z. g.,
William of Ockham—even more absurdly agnostic than

he, is not to Mr. Spencer’s credit, but to the theologians’
discredit. Besides, the agnostic theologians have gener-
ally made vigorous affirmation, on the authority of the
heart, of that which to their heads was inscrutable. They
have, like Kant, practically affirmed that which seems
theoretically incomprehensible. However, all this be-
longs to the sadder side of the history of human thought.
Philosophy and theology have existed and still exist in
larger, more positive, and more fruitful forms, founded
en a completer science of knowledge, which recognizes
the spiritual factor in knowledge, or the knowing agent,
and so, necessarily, the spiritual nature in the absolute
object of knowledge or God.

We say, then, that Mr. Spencer is by no means to be
charged with intentional atheism or irreligion. To the-
ism and religion he gives all the meaning which it 1s possi-
ble for him to give them on the basis of that physico-scien-
tific theory of knowledge, which he sincerely believes to be
the only possible one. But this meaning really falls ab-
solutely short of meeting the actual requirements
of theistic doctrine and living religion. And Mr. Spencer’s
doctrine in this regard is not that of science, whether
“popular” or otherwise, but of a highly artificial and
arbitrary ‘‘philosophy’”’ It has no more necessary rela-
tion to the doctrine of evolution than to the doctrine of
gravitation, both of which have been and are (in some
form) unquestioningly held by many leaders in spiritual-
istic or positive (vs. agnostic) philosophy..

The dissemination of the eminently valuable results of
Mr. Spencer’s scientific labors is certainly in place in a
Popular Science Monthly. But with what special pro-
priety such a periodical should also be made the peculiar
vehicle for the promulgation of his extra-scientific pAz/os-
ophy it is hard to see. It is not that we would have a
line, which Mr. Spencer has written, suppressed or kept
from the knowledge of the world. But regard for the
honor and purity of * science, to mention no other consid-
eration, is enough to make one ardently wish that it should
not be constructively put forward as sponsor for doc-
trines whose basis is only quasi-scientific, and which, in
truth, belong to another domain—the domain of philo-
sophical inquiry—GEORGE S. MORRIS, Professor of
Philosophy, University of Michigan, and Lecturer in
the Johns Hopkins University.

te

THE HOLLAND HYDROGEN FIRE APPARATUS.

No little interest has been excited during the past year,
both in the scientific and practical world, by the remark-
able development of results from the Water Gas Appara-
tus of Dr. Charles Holland, in an ordinary locomotive, as
reported by a careful and disinterested observer, through
the daily press, and subsequently discussed from a scien-
tific point of view in this journal.

A review of the subject, which has lost none of its im-
portance in the light of further experience and delibera-
tion, will be timely and interesting at the present date.

At Flatbush, the apparatus was placed in the fire-box or furnace
of a large ( forty-ton ) passenger locomotive, of the usual coal-
burning pattern, with 16x24 inch cylinders, 5-feet 2-inch driving
wheels, and a boiler 23 feet long. In place of the ordinary grate
bars are laid three hollow bars or pipes the length of the furnace
(8 feet ). and from each side of each pipe rise burner-tips at short
intervals, making 352 in all. On these pipe-bars, as sleepers, is
laid a floor of iron plates studded with open thimbles, through
which the 352 burner tips rise to within half an inch of their open-
ings. Over the first 44 burners, next the door, are set four retorts
—heavy, hollow blocks of iron—in a row. Two of these retorts
receive naphtha, and two water or steam, through separate pipes,
and when heated, unite and discharge their vapors through con-
necting pipes into the pipe bars under the iron floor, and thence
through the 352 burners.

The observations at present available enable us merely
to compare the firing-up of the same locomotive to the
same pressure under substantially equivalent conditions,

* By “ science’? we mean, in accordance with the now prevalent usage,
the mathematico-physical or descriptive science of sensible shenomena.

SCIENCE.

FiriNG APPARATUS OF THE NEW

first with the Holland Hydrogen Process, and afterwards
with coal and wood. This comparison is practically suf-
ficient in a broad sense, yet for more exact purposes it is
to be expected that opportunity will soon be taken to
obtain the result in pounds of water evaporated per
pound of naphtha, and also to exhibit chemically a
specimen of the gas. We learn that the boiler of the
new hydrogen-burning locomotive, since built at Pater-
son, after having been tried with very small flue, has
proved that the highly expansive and volum‘nous
gas produced requires more room for its most ad-
vantageous combustion, and the small flues, are now be-
ing exchanged for larger.

distributed, and the fire so insufficiently vented, through
the small flues as to makeit evident that they were not
adapted to do justice to gaseous fuel as had been ex-
pected. For the present, therefore, we are obliged to
content ourselves with the latest of the series of tables in
which the comparative results of Holland gas and com-
mon fuel have been reported.

Naphtha,| Naphtha,

Time, Naphtha,

STEAM, 5 Total
a Mi 3 + = Per lb. per r

OS pees Gallons. Steam. | Minute. Naphtha.

10. =} 104 9.9 -99 054 9.9
Oa 22 3-21 «32 -146 13.11
30- eee g} 2.14 21 +25 15.25
402-055 8 1.07 +I | -13 16.33

ENGINE Moves Our.
ie SE ———— ee cs
50- Sa be) 1.6 -16 -16 } 17.04
00s nee 5% 1.34 -13 24 19.27
Fe a es 4 1.34 13 34 | 20.61
80- = 3% 8 .08 23 21.41
Pace eas ee ge 34 8 .08 23 22.22
100. - 4 1.07 I 27 23.29
oe eee ae 3 +53 05 18 23.83
120. 3 -53 +05 18 24.37
SArety VaLveE BiowinG Orr.
= a= i _——— s =
lets a eae dee 6 | 1.07 ea | -18 25.44
'
Both VALvEs BLowinc Orr.

This report concludes with a statement of the fuel used
in firing up to 120 lbs pressure in the same locomotive,
as follows, on June 20: Half acord.of hard wood, cost
$3.75; a large quantity of loose pine stuff not measured ;
and twe tons best anthracite steam coal, cost $10; out of
which about half a ton was left after reaching the above
pressure. Allowing half a ton of half-consumed coal left
in the furnace, say one-fourth of a ton in value, the net

The preduction of steam | and the ground beneath, and vied with the increasing din of steam

pressure was still more rapid and economical than in the |

Flatbush experiments, but the heat was so ‘unequally |
' sign, but seemed causeless or supernatural.

HypDROGEN-BURNING LOCOMOTIVE.

cost was over $10, against 73 cents for identical work
with the Holland gas ; 24.37 gallons of naphtha, costing
3 cents per gallon, being consumed. The boiler was
specially adapted for coal, but badly encrusted with
scale, to the equal disadvantage of both fuels. The dif-
ference in direct cost was more than eleven to one in
favor of Dr. Holland. The following description of his
fire gives some data for an explanation of this surprising,
and yet often repeated and verified, result :

The maturer process attained in the experiment of April 29 (and
since usual) gave no light visible by day from without the cavern

where it was peni, dark and stormy as the cave of Zolus. Raging,
roaring, vibrating with a vehemence that shook the iron monster

from the valves above and under, it was a kind of ghostly noise as
well as heat, that to the more habitual organ of perception gave no
In vain we peered
through the mica in the door, or peeped and dodged at the small
orifice from which a scorching heat spurted fully two feet. Smoke
and smell had clean vanished from all parts long before ; no un-
consumec carbon anywhere escaped to lend the faintest lustre ; the
carbonic acid formed in the retorts of course came out transparent
and inodorous, and so did the hydrogen, with the product of its
combustion, the invisible gas called superheated steam ; in short,
there was nothing ot a nature to be seen or smelt in all this melee
of nature's great elements. Even the illuminating eftect of heat
upon iron was lost through the expulsive pressure of gases in the
retorts, which doubtless projected the flame too far to heat the
thimbles that no longer enclosed it, and now stood, like all else, in-
visible. All ended and came to light again (save the carbonic
acid) in a delicate cloud of vapor that rose from the smokestack
scalding hot, but too pure to soil white cambric.

To this description it is pertinent to add the following
remarkable fact since observed in the trial of the new
hydrogen-burning locomofive at the Grant Works, with
the small experimental flues referred to as having been
afterwards condemned. The fire had been turned down
low and the valves set so as to allow the steam gauge
to remain stationary at 120 lbs., which it did with perfect
steadiness, showing the peculiar controllability of the
heat in this process. After about half an hour of this
test, the experiment of turning on double water (steam)
into the two water retorts was tried, and the valves were
set open for this purpose, without restoring the oil feed.
The fire was evidently unchecked, and no further notice
taken fora few moments, the engineer sitting with his
back turned toward the boiler, as the weather was cold ;
when a violent discharge from the safety valve suddenly
caused him to. jump nearly to the middle of the tender
from the unexpected shock. The steam had run up to
132 lbs., with which the valve was loaded, before a
change had been noticed, and so continued blowing off
indefinitely, showing a rate of evaporation many times

SCIENCE:

9

multiplied by no other change than the addition of more
water (steam) from the boiler.

~The phenomena and effects of combustion above cited
seem to justify the following statement of theory :

The Holland locomotive retorts liberate a pure hydrogen fuel
from the mutual decomposition of certain proportions of naptha
and steam. The regular temperature of the furnace keeps the re-
torts hot enough to disengage the oxygen of steam in the presence
of the carbon of naptha, the chemical attraction of these two ele-
ments causing them to unite in the proportions of full combus’io3,
and to form carbonic acid within the retorts. The released hydro-
gen is the only combustible ingredient left to issue at the burners.
All the heat of both of these combustions—that of the carbon with-
in the retorts and that of the hydrogen at the burners—is conserved
and utilized in the same furnace for the making of steam.

The question now arises on the true causes of the
enormous excess of calorific power developed by a given
amount of fuel through the water gas process, as com-
pared with the results of direct combustion of the same
fuel. Assuming that the amount of carbon entering the
retort takes oxygen from the steam with which it min-
gles, to the proportion of full combustion, and thus lib-
erates just sufficient hydrogen to re-engage the same
amount of oxygen; we have first to inquire what propor-
tion exists between the amounts of heat generated by
the union of that or any given quantity of oxygen with
its proper complements of carbon and of hydrogen re-
spectively. A number of authorities have determined
this question experimentally, with results not widely dif-
ferent. According to Grassi, the number of pounds of
wacer raised one degree by the union of one pound of
oxygen with its full combining equivalents of carbon and
hydrogen, respectively were 2,893 and 4,333. The di-
rect gain by exchange, therefore, would be almost ex-
actly fifty per cent. Numerous experiments by Bunsen
and Fyfe are also said to have proved (in indirect accord-
ance with these above referred to). that the fuel (hydro-
gen) obtained by the decomposition of water, yields a
considerable excess of heat above that absorbed in pro-
ducing the decomposition.

We have made a close scrutiny of the Holland appata- | agent than any form of crude fuel, from its unequalled in-

tus and its operation for domestic purposes, as exh b-

ited in this city, at the offices of the Heat, Light and |

Power Company, No. 18 Vesey s reet. An even pres-
sure of both water and naphtha is secured by an ele-
vated tank for each purpose, at the top of the room.
The pipes running from these tanks to the cooking-stove
and range are Jaid in full view, and strict tracing and
examination of their course and connections at every
point showed that there was no other possible source of
supply, of any kind, for the retorts and burners, The
oil tank measured 25% inches in diameter, and was com-
puted to hold nearly 2.22 gallons to the inch in depth.
In running the cooking-stove, with the oven constantly
at a sharp baking heat, the oil was lowered only. 7;
ae in half an hour, or about one quart (3 cent) an
our.

The whole interior of the store, which had been |

used a year last May, was free, not only from ashes and |

soot, but from discoloration, which, obviously, much as-
sisted the effectiveness of the fire, as compared with the
coating of non-conducting material accumulated in using
crude fuel. It was found impossible to obtain a trace of
smoke or odor from the flame upon a white handkerchief ;
so that, of course, the usual free carbon, hydro-carbon,
carbonic oxide, and other gases of crude fuel, could affect
neither the atmosphere nor the flavor of food cooked in
direct contact with the flame. In the large cooking-

and other impurities, requiring only dilution with air.
After burning a scant +4; inch of oil, the time being taken,
the gas-making pipe was opened by simply turning a cock,
and in exactly one half the time enough gas was made
and measured to amount to 12.55 cubic feet, if diluted to
twelve-candle power ; when the total oil out was found
to be exactly 34; inch, showing a barely perceptible differ-
ence from the rate of consumption without making gas,
but too fine to measure with the instruments at hand.
Roughly allowing it to be ; for the gasmaking, the cost
of the 12.55 feet would be .0347 gal., or about 2% gal.
per 1,000 feet. This is { gal. in excess of more exact
measurement previously taken by gas experts.

But the rough experiment with the locomotive evi-
dences a gain of fully one thousand per cent, from the
exchange of carbon for hydrogen, estimating the fuels by
cost, in a practical way; although the liquid fuel is of
course the dearer of the two, and the gain over the in-
trinsic value of the exchanged carbon, if it could be as-
certained, would therefore be still greater. Fifty per cent
from the exchange, then, is at best but five per cent of
the total gain, and the remaining 95 per cent must be
otherwise accounted for. | Nor is there any lack of good
reasons for even this enormous difference. In the first
place, the carbon is consumed in pure oxygen from steam,
no atmospheric air having access to it in the retorts, and
therefore the large absorption of heat by the nitrogen
of the air that feeds the coal fire, is wholly saved in the
water gas process. The consumption is also perfect both
of the direct and the produced fuel, against a semi-con-
sumption in the coal furnace. Thirdly, the combustion
of the carbon, with all its heat antecedent and conse-
quent, is closely confined in the retorts, from which the
heat can escape only by radiation into the boiler, with the
exception of the very restricted vent of the hot gases
through the burners. Fourthly, the hydrogen obtained
issues from the burners at a very high prior temperature,
whereas the coal enters the furnace cold. Finally, the
hydrogen flame is a vastly more advantageous heating

tensity and rapidity of action, and also from its direct
contact with the iron, as-against the slower processes of
radiation and conduction employed by the coal in the fur-
nace. The rapidity with which heat is imparted increases
in a geometrical ratio to the increase of it sintensity, and
since the hydrogen flame is many times hotter than incan-
descent carbon, this concentrated heat must have a
vastly greater effect, unit for unit, in any given time of
passage through the flues. Considering that go per cent
of direct waste is a moderate allowance in the ordinary
firing of a locomotive, it would seem on the whole that
we are justified in expecting yet greater economy from
this process rather than in theoretically distrusting the re-
sults so far reported.

te

PROGRESS IN MIXED METALLURGY.
By WILLIAM C. CONANT.

Of the fundamental mechanic arts substantially devel-
oped before Science or History had a name, Metallurgy
was the beginning and the common parent. When Adam

' was yet in middle life, the genius of Tubal-Cain divined

range, a third pipe is introduced for the distillation of |

illuminating gas, simultaneously with the ordinary use of
the range. The adjustment and operation excited much
admiration. In the progress of the oil through successive
coils of this pipe, within the fire box, the several hydro-
carbon mixtures it contains are converted, by successive
gradations of heat, into a single homogeneous and fixed
gas, which resists the most extreme cold of our climate,
without condensation, and runs free from sulphurous

and explored the capabilities of the workman’s metals,
copper, tin, zine, and iron; fused and mingled them,
wrought from them the tools of every craft, and became
“the instructor of every artificer in brass and iron,” It
were hopeless, therefore, to question subsequent records
of Time for the era or the occasion of any of the more
essential developments in this art of arts. So far as the
native surface metals are concerned, it is probable that
all the more important metallurgical processes were un-
derstood, for substance, long before the flood. Copper and
tin, the principal ingredients of bronze, being found com-
paratively pure at the surface, were naturally the earliest

10

SCIENCE.

metals combined and used for mechanical and military
purposes. The same precedence of these metals con-
tinued, locally at least, and, so far as can be discovered,
down to historic times. The Roman historians record it.
Weapons, armor, and tools of bronze, hard enough for
cutting granite, abound among the remains of primitive
antiquity, and have given to that vague epoch the title of
the age of bronze: the so-called stone age being of no
particular order in time, but rather the universal age of
savageism, from the earliest vagrants of the human race
down to the recent aborigines, so-called, of our own
country.

The disposition to try what will come of mixing
materials may be assumed as a prominent native factor of
invention in all ages, and as especially prominent in the
infancy of knowledge, when every material and every prop-
erty of materials was a mystery only to be experimented
on. Nay, the bare factor of accident would be sufficient
to insure the mixture of various metals, ores and earths
in the very first experiments. Copper and tin coming
out first, as bronze, at once stimulated and assisted an
eager search for further discoveries. They built the
furnaces and quarried the fuel that ultimately brought to
light the treasure concealed in dull brown rocks of iron
ore. The more facile ore of zinc (in the presence of cop-
per) if accidentally at hand, would enter earlier, or, possi-
bly, earliest, into the kaleidoscopic series of the smelter’s
products, with the most exciting brilliancy of effect ;
promising coveted gold without limit, and preparing, per-
haps, the first sad catastrophe of inventive expectation
unrecorded in any patent office or prospectus of incorpor-
ation. Down almost to the 19th century (1781) brass
was made by mixing the zinc ore directly with copper ;
and down to the 16th century this had been done, from
the earliest times, without a suspicion that the magical
stone was anything but one out of hundreds of like
mysterious minerals, among which a potent and supreme
« philosopher’s stone”’ might yet be found. No wonder
that infinite possibilities of metallic splendor and precious-
ness stretched out before the imaginations of the alchem-
ists fn the vast field of unexplored mineral combinations
before zinc was discovered as a metal and the nature and
scope of the alloys were defined.

To these limitations, however, modern philosophy and
discovery have given a new and again undefinable exten-
sion. They have not revived alchemy, but they have re-
vived amore trustworthy probability, and a more philoso-
phical pursuit of radical improvement in the character of
the alloys. In general it may now be stated that the labors
of new experimenters with the new lights and resources
already promise to popularize little less than the beauty
and incorruptibility of the precious metals in the equipage
of common life and arts, and in combination with some of
the qualities hitherto inseparable from a coarse, dull and
corruptible texture, as in iron.

The discovery of nickel and German silver were marked
steps in the direction of the new era, yet failed to ap-
proximate it ; as we see in the fact that nickel has proved
hitherto but a material, and German silver a basis, for the
temporary and unsatisfactory varnish of beauty called
plating. Nickel was found too refractory a metal to be
worked solid for purposes of general utility or even of or-
nament. Qualified by other metals, as in German silver,
the same refractory temper still rendered it impracticable,
except in proportions too small to impart its clear color
and splendor, with its clean, resistant texture and temper-
ature, to the composition formed, Every workable sub-
stitute for silver betrayed, more or less, a constitu-
tional sickliness, of jaundiced tint, sweaty feel, and cor-
rupt odor. No actual progress was possible until the dis-
covery that the refractory quality of nickel was due to its
absorption, when in a molten state, of certain .gases
which might be chemically removed. This discovery was
made and published in Germany. two or three years ago,
with the magnesium method of purifying and reducing

the metal to malleability. In practical results, however,
we know of little to report as yet from the other side of
the Atlantic ; whether it be on account of expensiveness
in the process, or inability to form alloys of this in itself
too expensive metal that are satisfactory at once in cost
and in qualities. One suggestion of possibly great im-
portance comes from the German nickel manufacturers,
in the comparison of the purified metal with Bessemer
steel, With which it is represented to be almost identical
in practical properties ; raising even a suspicion in some
minds whether the two may not be modifications of one
metal, or of some protean metallic element, of unconjec-
tured range. The whole range of metals, indeed, would
not be more extreme, nor, perhaps, more difficult of prac-
tical reconstruction than that of carbon. The speculations
and partial successes of Mr. Lockyer in the direction of a
theory of unity, or rather of duality, and convertibility, in
matter, are here forcibly recalled to mind; suggesting
that all its families may be the progeny of two universal
parent substances, such as hydrogen and oxygen. What
if the truth of Nature, after all, lay, metaphorically, near
to the surface and to the mystical vision of the old child-
like sages, who saw in the “elements”’ all-generative
powers, as Science finds in one of them (fire) a form, and
as represented in the Sun the prime form perhaps, of all
organic energy? What if Science should yet discover
that the alchemists themselves had a true, 1f not practi-
cable, end in view? Man’s dominion in Nature is too
marvellous in its present beginnings, for anything to be
incredible as to its future perfection.

On the American side the modern philosopher’s stone has
beensought of late years, with sanguine ardor. Anumber
of different fortunes of respectable size have been sunk
in the melting-caldrons, out of which have arisen a suc-
cession of bright apparitions, only to prove intractable for
use, or turn the old inevitable sickly cast after brief shin-
ing. None of our practical experimenters, so far as I am
aware, have struck the true lead, the purification of nickel,
with one exception. No other man of our day, probably,
has given so many years of metallurgical labor so hard
and practical, together with study so profound, to the as-
similation of the necessary alloys for gold and silver, to the
appearance and properties of those metals, as Mr.
Charles Wessell of New York. What our chemists may
have accomplished, or seemed to accomplish, with a few
ounces of metal in the laboratory, it is of less importance
to inquire than would be generally supposed. Such
achievements, whatever they might be, would have no
necessary value, or even validity, in practice: none pos-
sible, indeed, unless there were given with them a prac-
tical metal-mixer uniting scientific genius and research
with the technical knack and stalwart physical capacity
for handling metals by the ton in the furnace, to the pur-
pose for which he intends them. Mr. Wessell, indeed,
meets this description; but it would be needless to tell
any manufacturer of brass or German silver, that no other
known counterpart exists. The men they depend on for
this service work solely by blind knack, which they catch
and lose alternately in the most unaccountable manner,
contributing a material percentage to the market cost of
these common compositions by their own inevitable per-
centage of uncertainty, failure, and destruction of ma-
terials.

Charles Wessell, the metallurgist of the Holmes & Wes-
sell Metal Company of New York, came to this city
from Rome, in this State, a modest working man, whom
the future famous discoverer of a genuine popular rival
to the precious metals must make haste to head off, if in-
deed it be not already too late. It is thirteen years since
Mr. Wessell began his metallurgical experiments and in-
ventions, by undertaking successfully to electro-deposit
a combination of three metals which most chemists would
even now pronounce it impossible to hold together under
the battery. A very distinguished chemist to whom the
product was submitted, gave this assurance in absolute

4

SCIENCE. at

terms, before making his analysis. His own analysis con-
founded him ; he frankly certified the three metals found
in the deposit ; and in his subsequent lectures has re-
ferred very pointedly to undiscovered possibilities in the
philosophy of metals. Undiscovered—for it is the good
fortune of the solitary discoverer that the mediating agent
vanishes in his thaumaturgic-metallurgic act into thin air,
leaving no clue by which the scientific detective can
shadow him asyet. Henceitisimpossible forthe metal
worker, or even the chemist as yet, to recast certain of
the Wessell metals ; since it is too much to ask of him to
give away the ‘“‘ combination” that locks his own hard-
earned reward against the rapacity of mankind. Science
itself must be content for the present with the accom-
plished facts shown, and with what their author can afford
to disclose of methods and principles. Thus, it has be-
come possible to give the necessary alloy to silver and gold
with more suitable ingredients than could be used _ here-
tofore ; ingredients which but imperceptibly deteriorate
either the color or the incorruptibility of the precious
metals, and, so far as silver is concerned, effect even a re-
markable improvement. Stranger results have followed
and are still progressively following, from the same dis-
covery, in building up towards gold and silver from the
basis of alloys. All of Mr. Wessell’s novel compositions
-—already sufficient te constitute an era in the history of
the art—have their origin and their constant method of
development in that stroke of genius; for I know not
what else to call it in view of the systematic unfoldings
and correlations of it in the hands of the same master.
The depositing battery, instead of the crucible, is the in-
strument by which the practicability and the effect
of every combination conceived by him is tested
in the first instance. As a consequence, partly of
this scientific certainty in method, partly of practiced
genius in adjusting heat and other delicate conditions ac-
cording to bulk, weather, color, radiance, fumes, and the
hundred unspoken mysteries of his art, Mr. Wessell’s
matured mixtures, from common brass and German sil-
ver upward, come out uniformly and infallibly what they
are intended to be ; astonishing to veteran manufacturers
of metals who have associated him with them in their
affairs, and a fact which I hazard little in opining to be
without precedent in mixed metallurgy.

In the course of his novel processes of research, Mr.
Wessell discovered, probably first, or at least long before
it was promulgated elsewhere, the secret of making nickel
pure and malleable, and not only so, but also of keeping it
pure and malleable, throughout all combinations, pro-
cesses and proportions, in which he chooses to introduce
it. Magnesium was first or independently tried by him;
but discarded for a more practical and economical agency,
incidentally discovered in experimenting on qualifying or
auxiliary mineral ingredients. The means also by which
it turns out that the gases so fatal to nickel are kept out
after being once eliminated, were a part of the general
precautions of an extremely vigilant and, as it were, sen-
sitive operator, rather than preconceived expedients for
that express purpose. The methods and results are no
worse, perhaps all the better, that their theory was
learned from them, rather than they from the theory. It
became a significant observation to Mr. Wessell, that
various metals, malleable in the original smelter’s ingot,
grow unmalleable by remeltings. He reasoned that in
the large smelting furnaces, from which the metal is
drawn off at the bottom, the most of the mass is secluded
from unfriendly influences, whatever these may be, until
it is suddenly poured into close moulds and cooled:
whereas, in the small open furnace or crucible of the
foundry, the metal is poured off from a freely exposed sur-
face; suggesting that to his own closely-covered processes
was due the continued freedom of the metal from the re-
fractory temper once extracted.

With the chronic intractability of the superior metal
has been removed the hitherto insurmountable obstacl,

to its introduction in sufficient force to impart its noble
qualities to a workable composition. It can now be used
in any percentage necessary, and the Wessell process for
malleability, unlike the German, is one that adds no extra
expense. Its remarkable lustre and beauty of color are
now as familiar as those of silver, through extensive use
in electro-plating, and are rapidly approaching equal
favor in the public taste. What is not so familiar to most
minds, is the palpable superiority of nickel, at all points,
for fine utensil service, such as we require of spoons,
forks, knives, &c., for the table. Color is a matter of taste;
but there is no disputing the superior durability of lustre
and polish as well as of form, that belongs to the harder
metal. It yields only to gold in point of resistance to
oxidation and corrosion, and defies the attacks of organic
acids, sulphur, &c., that instantly mar the beauty and
cleanliness of the best silver. Still less commonly under-
stood is the force of character, so to speak, with which
this metal suppresses the meaner colors and weaker sus-
ceptibilities of lower metals united with it, by its own
noble qualities, even when the odds in quantity are largely
against it. To this we already owe solid Wessell-silver
table ware, not noticeably inferior in any respect to pure
nickel, yet at no greater cost than the perishable sham of
plated goods. Manufacturers of the latter may not look
with favor on the substitution of goods that would last
four generations for goods that must be renewed four
times in a generation. But such a revolution as this
comes of its own weight and carries all before it. The
present vast production of plated ware must in a few
years become a mere reminiscence, in all its numerous de-
partments.

To an important class of readers and interests, the
bearing of Mr. Wessell’s discoveries on the metallurgy
of gold and silver will seem most worthy of attention.
Alloys are necessary to these metals, both for mechani-
cal and commercial reasons. It is no longer necessary,
however, to impair their properties or appearance in
making them workable or saleable. All grades of gold
treated with the Wessell alloys are of uniform color and
lustre with eighteen-karat gold, and require more than
usually severe and expert testing to detect any differences
whatever, between them. By way of illustration, it may
be stated that the alloying compositions themselves co
not oxydize perceptibly when exposed to the action of
the atmosphere in cooling from the molten state, nor yet
in the process of granulation. Manufacturing jewellers
pronounce the alloy for gold in all respects equal to eight-
karat gold itself, although there is not a particle of
gold init. The alloy for silver is a specially important
improvement in the non-tarnishing quality. This may
be illustrated by an incident in the experience of a lead-
ing manufacturer of sterling silver ware—the celebrated
Whiting Manufacturing Company. A quantity of sterling
had been made up with Wessell alloy, according to
standard, 925-1oooths fine. Of the goods manufactured
from this lot, a few were wrapped up with others of the
same standard (uniform in all the goods of these manu-
facturers) but made with the usual copper alloy. Atter
lying some twelve months forgotten and undisturbed, the
parcel was met with ir taking account of stock and
opened. The regularly alloyed metal was found coated
with the inevitable black oxide, while the original bril-
liancy of the Wessell-alloyed metal had barely acquired
a warm tint. The writer is indebted for this information
to one of the chief managers of the Whiting Manufac-
turing Company. The alloyed silver, electro-deposited
on aspoon by Mr. Wessell, was declared pure by the
testing chemist of one of our large plating establishments,
who hotly called the metallurgist a fool to his face for in-
sisting that it was or could be otherwise. Being request-
ed to expose the spoon to the action of sulphureited hy-
drogen in company with another of chemically pure elec-
tro-plate, the chemist was non-plussed by finding that
while, of course, the latter was instantly blackened, the

12

‘SCIENCE.

color and brilliancy of the Wessell-alloyed silver remain-
ed unaffected. The same peculiarity has been observed
by the writer personally in Mr. Wessell’s low-priced
nickeline metal, which holds a pure and strong lustre
throughout indefinite exposure to every test that befalls
(and befouls) a silver spoon in domestic use.

nd

“INTEGRAL LUBRICATION.”

Integral lubrication is an expression that has been
selected to describe the effect of a lubricating element
which is itself an zz¢egral part of the surfaces in contact
and relative motion, as distinguished from a foreign or
extraneous lubricant introduced between the surfaces, re-
quiring constant renewal, and subject to displacement,
consumption, waste, deterioration by heating, &c., and
to various other imperfections and inconveniences.

Friction results from the resistance of particles in con-
tact to change of position. Lubrication consists in their
non-resistance to change of position, as in fluids. Within
themselves, therefore, fluids have the property of integral
lubrication. Interposed between solid surfaces, whose
fixed particles resist change of position, fluids serve to
separate such surfaces by a stratum of non-resistant or
mobile particles, and thus supply ex¢vaneous lubrication.

The idea of establishing tne lubricating, non-resistant
or mobile element integrally in the bearings themselves,
rather than extraneously as a distinct intermediate stra-
tum, was the conception of Dr. Stuart Gwynn, the noted
engineer and inventor, of two generations, to whom we
owe the Gwynn pump and numerous other long estab-
lished appliances. This idea is the basis of more than
twenty patents, relating to the series of compositions by
which it is realized under different conditions, all known
under the common designation of METALINE.

The conception of union between the opposite proper-
ties of solidity and non-resistance, and of integrity and
distinctness, in one metallic body, certainly had the bold-
ness, as its realization showed the power, of a stroke of
genius.

The important point to be reached by Dr. Gwynn,
after his discovery of the possibility of “ Integral Lubri-
cation,” to render it of practical value, was to make exact
determinations of the effect produced on metals, their
alloys, oxides, etc. by enormous pressure when they are
put into hardened steel moulds of great strength. These
trials extended over several years ot time and under pres-
sures from five tons or 66674 atmospheres to one hundred
tons or 13,3334 atmospheres per square inch. In these
trials he tound, without doubt, the true law of the “//ow
of Solzds.’ His d2terminations were finished in 1860.

This department of physics has, since then, been ex-
tensively worked by other scienusts, and many of the
results arrived at have been published. One of the latest
of these contributions is an interesting memoir published
in 1881 in the “Revue Sczentifigue,” by Mr. W. Spring,a
German chemist, from which we abstract as follows :

The substances experimented with were taken in the form of
fine powder, and subjected, in a steel mould, to pressures varying
from 2000 to 7ooo atmospheres per square centimeter. Lead
filings under a pressure of 2000 atmospheres were transformed into

a solid block which no longer showed the least grain under the*

micrcscope, and the density of which was 11.5, while that of ordin-
ary lead is 11.3 only. Under 5000 atmospheres the lead became
fluid and ran out through the interstices of the apparatus. Toward
6000 atmospheres, zinc and tin appeared to liquefy. Powders of
zinc and bismuth at 5000 to 6000 became solid bl: cks of a crystalline
fracture. Powcers of soft and of prismatic sulphur were trans-
formed into solid blocks of octahedric sulphur. Red phosphorus
appeared to pass into the denser state of black phosphorus. Bin-
oxide of manganese and the sulphides ot zinc and lead in powder,
weld when compressed, and exhibit the appearance, respecuvely,
of na ural crystallized pyrosulite, blende, and galena. A number
of pulverized salts solidify through pressure and become transpar-
ent, thus proving the umon of the molecules.

The common property in Metaline and the natural
lubricants (fluids) is, of course, mobility or non-resistance
to change of position in the particles. This property or

effect, results, again, from exceeding minuteness, hard-
ness, roundness and polish of particles; obtained
in the artificial instance, by pulverization, attrition,
and extreme sifting of metallic particles. It is obvious
that the particles of soft or brittle substences, such as
flour of wheat or dust of stone, are not capable of the
rounding polish and consequent slipperiness (integral lu-
brication) of metallic particles ; nor yet of a kindly inter-
penetration with the surface particles of solid metal.

Hardness, also, or resistance to change of form, coupled -

with non-resistance to change of position, nay be an essen-
tial requisite to fluidity ; so that possibly the particles of
water or oil may be much harder as well as finer than
those even of metals. The metals, however, are generally
susceptible of a degree of polished and rounded com-
minution that yields a very slippery product. The
fluid-like mobility of small shot is a rough illustration of
this condition.

The next stage of the invention is to penetrate and in-
corporate the solid bearing surfaces with the non-resist-
ant or mobile particles. This is effected by two opera-
tions, one the product and complement of the other. The
prepared particles are in effect compressed into frequent
sockets in the bearing surface, so as in the first place to
occupy directly the larger part of its area, and in the
second place to allow the outer particles (slightly raised)
to attach to the microscopic inequalities of the revolving
journal, and so migrate, filling both surfaces with a fine
permanent ingredient of particles‘non-resistant to change
of position. The particles are forced in with great power, by
running a heavy journal at moderate speed, or a light one
at a swift rate, with the cap screwed tight enough to stop
the machinery or twist off the journal if oil instead of
metaline were,the lubricant. Under such incalculable con-
centration of force, the particles, instead of being worked
out from between the surfaces, are held and incorporated,
forming new surfaces of a permanent but peculiar char-
acter. Thenceforward, the interaction of these surfaces
works infinitesimal movement, or mutual yielding to each
other in their numberless infinitesimal particles, which
nevertheless retain permanent cohesion by the. same law
that unites the more fixed particles of the solid metal ; a
state of movement in stability, foreign to our sensible im-
pression from solids, yet quite as conceivable as the
universal molecular motion supposed to constitute heat.
A mechanical union of metallic substances seems to be
realized, as different in effect as in method—and yet per-
haps not so different in principle—from the results of co-
fusion or amalgamation.

There is nothing in experience to indicate abrasion be-
tween these surfaces, except from the gradual breaking off
of the high points which the microscope reveals on the
surface of the most highly polished journal, projecting
above the metaline surface. In the course of years of
running on heavy bearings, these points (which so rapidly
blacken oil where it is used: as the lubricant), become dis-
lodged in such quantity as to cover the surfaces with
rigid specks looking like emery under the glass. To pre-
vent this, it is fouad advisable, once in two or three years, ac-
cording to circumstances, to replug the bushing or box with
metaline (again projecting a hair's breadth) so as replace
that which is removed. By this means the bearings im-
prove with use and progressively acquire a higher and
higher finish, such, as tested by the microscope, that it
is impossible to approximate it by any other method of fin-
ishing. Running in oil, on the contrary, wears out jour-
nals and misshapes boxes. The longest periods for which
journals have as yet been run in metaline—say ten years
—have developed no heating or wear, if the bushings have
been properly cleaned and replugged once in two or three
years. A “shakeless fit” can be secured with metaline,
which, as before remarked, would render movement im-
possible with any mere interposed lubricant. Journals in
metalined bearings, under the heaviest weight, or ‘at the
highest rate of speed (as in spindles and polishing lathes)

“i

SCIENCE. 3

and even hot, as in the case of calendering and laun-
dering rolls, or coffee-roasters, run perfectly dry, the year
round, without attention, without heating unduly, or being
injured by external heat, without perceptible wear or loos-
ening, and with a usual reduction of power required, as
compared with companion bearings running with oil under
the same conditions. Thus the cost of oil is entirely saved
while the cost of power is materially diminished; the
usual wear of journals and bearings is practically elimi-
nated, while the fit is so close as to exclude dust and pre-
serve or rather improve their round and polish; the labor
of cleaning and oiling, and interruptions and bills for re-
pairing are saved; the greasing of fabrics, goods, build-
ings and machinery is abolished; and the serious danger
of fire from oil and the spontaneous combustion of oily
waste is wholly removed.

The authority for these comprehensive statements
stands in the form of numerous certificates from promi-
nent manufacturing firms, a few of which it will be only
proper to cite in this connection, using their own words.
Thus: Messrs. Bagnall & Loud, the Boston manufactur-
ers of pulley-blocks, certify that their planing machine
was fitted with metaline bearings four and a half years
ago, and is still running on the same at the rate of 5000
revolutions per minute, averaging six or seven hours a day.
No oil has been applied, and the shaft shows as handsome
a polish as could be desired.—Day, Farrington & Co.,
hardware manufacturers, Brooklyn, report that their
emery grinder, with heavy journals running 1600 revolu-
tions per minute, after three and a quarter years without
oil or attention, required new bushings from neglect to re-
plug with metaline, which would have kept them up in-
definitely. ‘The journals are a shakeless fit, and run
cooler than another grinder running in oil.’’—In the ma-
chine shops of the New York & Harlem Railroad, a circu-
lar saw and a Daniels planer had been running on metal-
ine bearings, 1800 and 2000 revolutions a minute, respect-
ively, for three and four years: no lubricants being used,
no care or attention being given them, and no wear per-
ceptible.-—The Inman line of Atlantic steamships, have
used metaline in their wharf machinery for ten years.
Their wharfinger and engineer certify to having used
metaline gibs on a forty-horse wharf-engine for five and
a half years, without lubrication or perceptible wear :
where both gibs and slides running in oil used to cut out
and require replacement every few weeks or months.—
The Excelsior Brick & Stone Company, Philadelphia,
state that the metaline bushings of their loose pulleys—
48 inches diameter, 12-inch face, 2%-inch bore, friction-
clutch, and runing 225 revolutions a minute—are as good
after four years as when first put in, and fit the shaft as
well, having had no lubrication or attention whatever.—
The Washington Steam Laundry, New York, state that
they introduced metaline bearings for the heated rolls of
their ironing-machines about four years ago; resultingin
complete relief from the constant difficulty, disadvantage
and expense caused by such machinery running with oil.—
A number of the most prominent manufacturing jewellers
in New York, give certificates to the same effect with that
of Baldwin, Sexton & Peterson, who say that they have
used metaline bearings for five years without lubrication,
at very high speed on polishing-lathes etc., the ‘iournals
running cold and with less power than others running
with oil—The Windsor Hotel, New York, after using
metalined gibs for passenger elevators for several
years, certifies that they are in good order and save the
d fficulty of keeping the well-way clean and free from the
smell of oil.—One of the most extreme pressures that
could be tried was that to which the leading blocks were
subj-cted in hoisting granite and iron for the New York
& Brooklyn Bridge, frequently causing a s'rain of four
tons on asheave. Before introducing metaline, the bush-
ing and hardened steel rollers of a patent sheave would
be cut completely out (says Engineer Collingwood ) in
four or five days. ‘Since metaline was put in, (over 18

months) we have had no occasion even to take out the pin,
nor can we discover any appreciable wear.”

We learn from /roz (London) the contents of a paper
read by A. H. Bateman, Esq., F. C. S., before the Brit-
ish Association of Foremen Engineers and Draughts-
men. Mr. Bateman stated that, in London, there had
been running, on metaline bearings, for the best part of a
year, various kinds of main and counter shafting trom 14
to 34 inches diameter, and from 150 to 450 revolutions
per minute, loose pulleys as high as 700, and latheheads,
2000 revolutions. Elsewhere in England, there were
five-inch shaftings and calendering rolls, under more than
ten tons pressure; also, spinning frames, circular saws,
planing machines, sewing machines, printing machines,
cranks, bicycles, etc., running on the same material,
without the use of oil. Works have been established on
an ample scale in Dundee, Scotland, for metalining all
kinds of machinery.

On the practical importance of this invention it seems
unnecessary to enlarge, as every practical mind realizes
at once that its value must be as diversified as the uses
of machinery, and its desirable applications would form
a catalogue too long for reading. A few of the lines of
vast extent, in which beginnings or preparations have
been made for applying metaline, may be noted with in-
terest. The value of metaline to the millions of sewing
machines in use suggests itself forcibly enough, from the
repulsiveness of oil to the ladies who use them in contact
with their carpets and clothing, andin making up rich
and costly or delicate fabrics, which a spot of oil from
the machine often ruins. The time taken up in oiling the
machine is a burdensome tax on the operator, and the
destruction of thousands of machines, through forgetful-
ness to oil them, is a still larger loss. Moreover, the
nearly frictionless running of a metalined sewing machine
yields the operator a sense of almost spontaneous mo-
tion in the instrument, and a delightful relief to the usual
fatigue of propelling it ; a strain which has, in fact, re-
sulted in sad consequences to many female constitutions.
No less obvious, too, is the value of integral lubrication,
from its absolute cleanliness, in all machines for making
and dressing fine fabrics of any kind.

Railroad journals running with oil cause daily deten-
tions on every road,and frequent disasters by heating
their boxes until the Babbitt or other metal is melted out
and the train can be moved ne further without great
caution, delay and danger. A tragical train wreck resulted
in Iowa, but a few days since, from the bursting of a wheel
by a hot journal, in consequence of the exhaustion of the oil.
Great numbers of men are constantly employed in exam-
ining, cleaning and oiling, and the expenditure for oil alone
is an enormous amount, as well as that for replacing worn-
out bushings and axles. When once a car or locomotive
is properly fitted up with metaline bearings, these are all
in order for one year at least, without a penny-worth
further of material or labor, and without a possibility of
danger or detention from hot boxes, want of lubrication,
or wearing-out of journals and bushings.

Under the several patents for special applications, such
as these and others, the American Metaline Company
gives exclusive privilege to proper parties wishing to de-
velop a particular use of metaline as a specialty. Met-
alined sewing machines are already the property of a
New York company under the presidency of Madame
Demorest, of fashion and pattern fame. Railway cars
and engines are to be metalined by a close corporation
of capitalists headed by Wm. Jennings Demorest, Esq.,
with a capital of $3,000,000. The application to sheaves,
pulleyblocks, &c., has been taken up very successfully by
Bagnall & Loud, Boston. Samuel S. Webber & Co.,
Manchester, N. H., have the manufacture of metalined
spinning frames, &c., which has been tested thoroughly
for years, and is now going into mills with many thous-
ands of spindles. Metaline packings for steam, water
and gas joints, pumps, &c., &c., are a specialty of Frank

14 SCIENCE. —

Baldwin, 33 South street, New York. The Hopkins and
Dickinson M'f'g Co,, 76 Reade St., N. Y., and Darlington,
N. J., have the exclusive specialty of metalined sliding
door sheaves and builders’ hardware generally. But these
illustrations need not be extended.

—$§_q————_—__—_—_

SHE SUN,
By PROFESSOR C. A. YOUNG.

To the Editor of ‘“ SCIENCE.”

DEAR SIR,—May I avail myself of the columns of your
journal to correct a few serious errors which have come to
light in my recent book on the Sun.

P. 16, near bottom.—The interval from the vernal equi-
nox to the autumnal is 186 days, instead of 184, as
stated. Of course the remaining part of the year is 179
days, not 181.

P. 44.—The earth would fall to the sun in about two
months, not four.

P. 240, 241, and 279.—The candle power of the sun is
given just four times too great. The figures printed
express the number of candles which, distributed over
the surface of an opaque globe, would give the same
amount of light the sun does, each flame being considered
as a small FLAT radiating surface. But this does not
express the true ratio between the sun’s light and that of
a candle radiating freely in all directions.

P. 271.—In the formula for the number of calories of
heat generated by the stoppage of a moving body, the
denominator ought to be 8338 instead of 850. The fac-
tor g (9.81™), having been accidentally omitted. In
consequence, a few lines below, another 850 becomes
8338 also, and 300 © becomes about 30°

There are a number of other minor errors, which it is
hardly worth while to notice here, though they will be
corrected in the second edition. C. A. YOUNG.

ee

To the Edztor of “SCIENCE.”

A friend of mine who is a reliable observer relates an
incident which forcibly illustrates the power of parental
affection to overcome fear. The gentleman found a nest
of young mice and removed them to the ground near by.
The mother mouse made her appearance and carried
away one of her young and while she was gone the gen-
tleman took the remaining mice in his hand. When the
mouse again appeared and could not find her young she
seemed to hesitate a moment and then ran up the gentle-
man’s clothes, took one of the young and carried it away.
This was repeated until all the young were removed to a
place of safety. J. H. PILLSBURY. ~

SPRINGFIELD, MAss., Dec. 27, ‘81.

es

BOOKS RECEIVED.

A TREATISE ON COMPARATIVE EMBRYOLOGY, by
FRANCIS M. BALFouR, LL. D., F. R. S. Vol. II.
Macmillan & Co., New York, 1881.

An extended notice of this admirable work will appear
later, we now simply announce that Messrs. Macmillan
are ready to supply the second volume which completes
the work, and we feel sure that every Biologist and Anat-
omist will avail himself of the mass of information in-
cluded in Professor Balfour’s book, which in competent
hands must prove one of the most valuable aids to
original work in this direction.

ELEMENTARY LESSONS IN ELECTRICITY AND MAG-
NETISM, by SILVANUS P.. THOMPSON, Professor of
Experimental Physics in University College, Bris-
tol. Macmillan & Co., Bond St. New York and
London. Price $1.25.

ELEMENTARY TREATISE ON ELECTRICITY. By
JAMES CLERK MAXWELL, Professor of Experimental

AN

Physics in the University of Cambridge, England.
Clarendon Press Series, Oxford, 1881. Price $1.90.
Imported by Macmillan, Bond Street, New York.

Students, and the many practical men who are now
studying Electricity with a view to its application to the
manufactures and arts, will find that these two books will
exactly meet their requirements, in being comprehensive
thoroughly practical and reliable. Those who can-
not purchase both works, should commence with that by
Professor Thompson, and follow with Professor Maxwell’s
as being more advanced.

The doctrine of the Conservation of Electricity, now
growing into shape, but here first enumerated under that
name, is thoroughly explained in Professor Thompson’s
book, and may be studied with profit by all interested in
the science of electricity. This theory teaches us that
we can neither create nor destroy electricity, though we
may alter its distribution. According to this view all
our electrical machines and batteries are merely instru-
ments for altering the dzstrzbutzon of electricity by run-
ning it from one place to another, or for causing elec-
tricity, when accumulated or heaped together in one
place, to do work in returning to its former level dis-
tribution.

IDEALITY IN THE PHYSICAL SCIENCES,
MIN PEIRCE.
Boston.

This work by the late Professor Benjamin Peirce is an
admirable illustration of the fact, that a man of individu-
ality and sound judgment may pursue the highest sci-
entific work and still find himself in harmony with the
religious sentiments of his fellow man.

A great portion of this work is devoted to a review of
past astronomical research, and will be read with interest
as a reliable exposition written for those who require sci-
entific work explained in simple language.

By BENJA-
Messrs. Little, Brown & Company.

i

PHOTOGRAPHIC EXHIBITION.—The substitution of a film
of dried gelatin for the thin layer of wet collodion, which
the photographer formerly employed as a vehicle to retain
the sensitive salts of silver in a suitable condition on his
glass plate, has involved considerable alterations in the
mechanical appliances used in photography. For out of
doors work, or work away from home, the photographer
no longer requires to carry what was practically a portable
laboratory. Not having to ‘‘develop”’ his pictures on the
spot, he need take with him neither dark tent nor chemi-
cals. On the other hand, he must have some provision by
which his store of dry plates can be placed, one after the
other, in the camera and properly ‘‘exposed” without the risk
of the slightest particle of light reaching their sensitive sur-
face, other than the light properly directed upon them by the
lens. As he wishes to carry an ample supply of plates with
him, and as the glass plates themselves make an appreciable
burden in a long walk, it is essential that the apparatus for
carrying them should be as light as possible ; hence have
arisen considerable improvement in the camera and its
‘*slides.”” Again, the increased sensitiveness of the gelatin -
films makes it possible to give exposures shorter than can
be affected by the hand uncapping and re-capping the lens ;
hence the invention of numerous ‘‘ instantaneous shutters,”
by which exposures of a few hundredths of.a second can
be given, and pictures of moving objects readily secured.
These are but instances of the many novel appliances which
recent progress in photographic science has originated,
and, besides these, there has been, during recent years,
many and important improvements in the application of
photography to the production of permanent illustrations
for books and newspapers. All these varied applications
of the art are to be illustrated by an exhibition of photo-
graphic appliances which the Council of the Society of Arts
announce will be held during January and February next,
in connexion with a course of Cantor lectures to be given
before the Society by Capt. Abney. Full particulars of
this exhibition are given in the Yournal of the Society of
Arts for last week.

SCIENCE. iG

Se lENCE :

A WEEKLy Recorp oF SCIENTIFIC

PRoGRESS.

JOHN MICHELS, Editor.

TEHERMS}

Per YEAR, - - Four DoLLars
6 MontHs, - - - - Two a
2) § - - - ONE sf
SINGLE CopPIEs, - - - - TEN CENTS.

PuBLISHED AT
TRIBUNE BUILDING, NEW YORK.
P, O, Box 3838.

LONDON, ENGLAND, -

- - + 150 LEADENHALL S?.

SATURDAY, JANUARY 21, 1882.

STANDARD TIME.

At present there are said to be more than seventy
distinct “ railroad times” in the United States ; in some
single cities there are as many as four, differing from
each other by amounts varying from five to twenty
minutes. This state of things of course involves con-
fusion and inconvenience to travellers, and all Ameri-
cans travel. In some cases it has been the cause of
serious disasters.

It is beyond doubt, then, that there would be great
advantages in a uniform standard of time for the whole
country. Can they be secured without too much
counterbalancing inconvenience and expense? We
believe they can, and without any very great difficulty.

A single standard for the United States (and still
more, for the whole world), while in many respects
highly desirable, would be exposed to the fatal objec-
tion that it would bear no relation to the true local
time determined by the Sun’s position. Now this
local time is what we must necessarily live by. Na-
ture compels us to work by day and sleep by night ;
to rise in the morning and retire at evening. A time.
standard which does not recognize this cannot be
practically convenient, and will never be adopted.
Suppose, for instance, that Washington time were
made the standard for the country; at San Francisco
every thing would be three hours out of joint ; and
though undoubtedly, such good people as live there,
and always stay at home, could, after a while, become
accustomed to having noon come at 3 o’clock by their
watches, and other things to match; yet there would
probably be some grumbling first. Changes so radi-
cal are always hard to accomplish. But, what is
worse, whenever the San Franciscan journeyed, or

changed his residence, he would have to unlearn all
his time-relations, and begin again.

In fact, if a uniform time-standard were adopted
over the whole world, all allusions to the time of day
in literature now existing, such statements of the hour
as are involved in almost every accurate description
of an event, would become unintelligible except by a
process of translation.

The late Professor Pierce proposed a plan, which,
while securing most of the advantages of the uniform
standard, avoids its worst difficulties. It is to adopt,
not ove standard for the country, but a series of stand-
ard, (four would be needed) agreeing exactly in their
minutes and seconds, but differing by entire hours.
We should then have Atlantic time, Mississippi time,
Mountain time, and Pacific time. Since the minutes
and seconds would be everywhere the same, tele-
graphic signals from a correct clock would be directly
available for regulating the time wherever received;
the difference of one or more entire hours could never
cause confusion. And yet the standard time at any
place need never differ more than thirty minutes from
the true local time. This amount of difference, though
of course in itself undesirable, is not so great as to be
intolerable in view of the attendant advantages. We
hardly notice the discrepancy of fifteen minutes be-
tween sundial and clock, which occurs at certain sea-
sons of the year, in consequence of the Equation of
time.

As to the time to be chosen for the standard of
minutes and seconds, unfortunately there is not yet
an agreement among our astronomers. Naturally
enough many think it should be Washington time,
just as in England, Greenwich time is used. So far
as landsmen are concerned it is really a matter of al-
most no importance what time is selected, but with
the shipping interest it is different. Almost all na-
tions use Greenwich time on the ocean; and for this
reason it would probably be best to lay aside national
prejudice, and make our Atlantic time differ from
Greenwich time by just five hours; this would agree
with the correct local time for a meridian passing be-
tween New York and Philadelphia. The meridian of
Mississippi time (six hours from Greenwich) would
then pass between Chicago and St. Louis, that of
mountain time would run near Denver, and the
Pacific meridian near San Francisco.

The meridian theoretically dividing Atlantic from
Mississippi time would nearly bisect the State of
Ohio. Ina case of this sort the legislature would be
likely to adopt one or the other of the two times as
the standard over the whole State ; so that in practice
the boundaries between the standards would probably
follow State lines,

16 _ SCIENCE.»

The establishment of some such system need not be
very difficult or long delayed.

The Signal Service proposes to receive by telegraph,
from such observatories as choose to co-operate, their
respective time-determinations; to combine them,
and then to transmit the resulting standard-time daily
to every important place in the country ; besides this,
at every port they would drop a time-ball, at some ex-
act hour of Greenwich time, so that navigators would
be able to rate their chronometers.

At present we have a number of more or less ex-
tensive and accurate time-services run by different ob-
servatories. But the signals sent out are more or less
discordant, not unfrequently to the extent of one or
two entire seconds, for the simple reason that no clock
can be depended on for any length of time unchecked
by star observations; and such observations are some-
times prevented by cloudy weather for several days
together. Since it would seldom happen that the ob-
servatories in widely different parts of the country
would all have bad weather at once, the Signal Service
plan would obviate the difficulty. The most serious
objection to the proposal seems really to be that the
observatories which now distribute time would lose the
revenue they derive from the work, unless, indeed, as
would be only fair, the Signal service should continue
to pay them for their observations the same compen-
sation they now receive.

If the Signal Service can obtain from Congress the
small appropriation they ask for ($25,000) to carry
out their plan, and if the railroad, steamboat and tele-
graph companies will adopt the standard time and use
it exclusively in their business advertisements, the thing
is done. The community will follow suit and hardly

notice the change. C. A. YOUNG.
PRINCETON, N. J.

THE NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.
December 19, 188.
SECTION OF PHYSICS.

Vice-president, Dr. B. N. Marry, in the Chair.

Thirty persons present.

A specimen of acicular hornblende in quartz was
exhibited by Mr. W. L. CHAMBERLAIN.

The following paper was read by Prof. W. P.
‘TROWBRIDGE:

ON THE DETERMINATION OF THE HEATING SURFACE
REQUIRED IN STEAM PIPES EMPLOYED TO PRO-
DUCE ANY REQUIRED DISCHARGE OF AIR
THROUGH VENTILATING CHIMNEYS.

To ventilate a room properly requires the frequent re-
moval of vitiated air and the introduction of fresh or pure
air, the quantity, by weight, of the air introduced and
rejected being equal in a given time.

If the process be continuous, and the proper amount

of air be admitted and removed every hour or minute,
the only other requirements are that the entering air
shall be pure, that it shall be properly warmed in cold
weather, either before it enters the room or by the mixture
and diffusion of warm and cold air in the room; and that
the introduction and removal of air shall take place by
gentle or inappreciable currents in such a manner that
the pure air may be thoroughly diffused throughout the
room before it is removed.

These simple rules are easily stated and comprehended.
It is also well understood that to produce a movement of
air requires force in proportion to the mass moved and
the velocity imparted to it.

The problems which arise in ventilation consist mainly
in determining the position, arrangement and sizes of the
passages through which the air enters and leaves, and
the proper adaptation of these passages to the forces
which produce the movement.

On the correct solution of these problems, too often
misapplied or misunderstood, successful ventilation de-
pends.

The various modes of producing the movement of air
for ventilation are:

First.—Ventilating chimneys or flues in which the

movement is caused by the difference in weight between |

the heated air in the flue and the cooler air outside. This
requires that the air before entering the flue shall be
warmed, and the heat necessary may be that due to the
heat of the room when fires are necessary for warmth ;
or the heat may be imparted by stoves in the base of the
flues, by gas jets, or by steam heated pipes.

Second.—The movement may be produced by fans or
blowers or by steam jets—the latter being seldom applied.

The object of this paper is to investigate the laws
which govern the ventilation when the air is heated at
the base of the flues by steam pipes, the air in its passage
to the flue receiving heat by its contact with the exterior
surface of the pipes. As far as I am informed these
laws have not heretofore been developed, and, as this
system is avery simple one, capable of very extended
applications, it is hoped that the following analysis may
at least lead to a full discussion of the subject :

Let it be supposed that the air in a room is to be re-
newed at the rate of (W) lbs per second. Suppose also
that it is to be rejected through a flue whose cross-sec-
tion in square feet is (A), and height in feet (H). And
that it is to be heated by steam coils whose aggregate ex-
terior surface in square feet is (S)

The following notations will be used:

W. Weight of air removed per second (Ibs),

H. Height of flue in feet.

S. Exterior surface of steam pipes (sq. feet).

A. Area of cross-section of flue (or flues).

T,. Absolute temperature of external air (found by
adding to the thermometric temp. Fahr. the number
459.4).

T,. Absolute temperature of air in the flue.

Absolute temperature of steam in the pipes.
. Weight in lbs. of a cubic foot of the external air.
. Weight in lbs. of a cubic foot of the flue air.
. The theoretical velocity of the air in the flue.

V. The actual velocity.

r. The rate in units of heat per hour, per square foot
of the surface (S) (and for each degree difference be-
tween T, and T,) at which the air receives heat from the

ipes.
P 2 A coefficient of loss of velocity such that 2V=V’.

p The unbalanced pressure (upward) due to the dif-
ference of weight between the column of air in the flue
and a corresponding column of external air,

Then,

p=H.D,—-H D, or p=H (D,—D,) (a)

This pressure may be represented by the weight of a
column of flue air of a height—

-o > a

<00yH

iit

SCIENCE. 17

H Oa — DP) .. (2)

and the velocity in the flue will be found from the ex-
pression

f=
D

Ke fT (2. oa D.)

Bee. 2. iy
ee eae

dD.
But from the Mariotte-Guy Lussac law we have—

D T 1f

Sl ee a fa

D, T. Ome D, T. (6)
substituting this value of D, m formula (4) then results—

/ MAS A See")
V = Vos 18h, (oe (7)

a

In this expression the theoretical velocity of flow is
expressed in terms of the height of the flue and the abso-
lute temperatures of the flue air and the external air.
From formula (7) we have—

Vy?

. (8)

The quantity of heat transferred to the air may be rep-
resented by

(IE (TI) . (9)

in which ¢ represents the quantity of heat in units of heat
per second, and ¢ the specific heat of air at constant
pressure (¢ = 0.238.)

All of the above formulas are well known.
lowing are believed to be new:

The quantity of heat imparted to the air may also be
S. 7 (TT) in which is the quantity

3600

of heat imparted per second, and as from the nature of the
problem 9= 9%’ we have

The fol-

represented by ¢’'=

LET gem oe
3600 ) = W.c.(T,— T,) (10)
‘ one)

os Lees | oF aqua rs eee
combining this equation with (8) we have—

pepe el i TPL

PS ihe ame an; Pau! Ae (12)

VW ae Lf ;
and Ss : a,
ce ag H. r.(T,— T,) (13)
3600

This expression gives the total heating surface in
the pipes in terms of the velocity, the height of the
flue, the weight of air discharged per second, and the
absolute temperature of the external air.

If we substitute for V’ its value in terms of V, the
actual velocity, we have—

K? V? Wie. T,

is =" 2 = ° . I
ag H.r.(T, — T,) oe
3600
and since
Mi Payee JO) AS Cale
ee eee ie Ale, ooh
= = of SS 4 (15)

PATE May aM Oo hie A)
3600
another expression for 5S’.

These two expressions exhibit the laws of the move-
ment of the air, giving the quantity of heating surface re-
quired under any special conditions of area and height of
flue, temperature of external air, and velocity of dis-
charge.

The constant (7) may be found approximately from the

experiments of Mr. C. B, Richards, made at Colts Arms | Graphite..................--. 0. ae

Co., of Hartford. The constant A depends upon the
frictiona}] resistance which the air encounters in its
passage into and through the flues. The velocity V may
be assumed,_and should not be greater than four or five
feet per second. The smaller the velocity and the larger
the flues, the less will be the required heating surface, and
the greater the economy of the apparatus for ventilation.

The following paper was read by Prof. H. L. FAIR-
CHILD :

ON A PECULIAR COAL-LIKE TRANSFORMATION OF
PEAT, RECENTLY DISCOVERED AT SCRANTON, PENN.

The material which we shall notice this evening has
naturally been regarded, on account of its associations,
as illustrating in some degree the formation of coal. A
brief description of that alteration of peat which has
resulted in the formation of coal, is therefore desirable.

Peat results from decomposition of vegetable matter
under water. The latter excludes the atmosphere and
largely prevents the oxidation, which removes the vege-
table debris on the upland, and which if rapid we call
combustion, or if slow, decay. In northern regions peat-
swamp vegetation is commonly a sort of moss (Sphagnum)
which grows upward asit dies below. Great peat de-
posits are also produced in lower latitudes from the
debris of forest trees. The great Dismal Swamp is a
fine example, and in the Hackensack and Newark
meadows we have examples of peat-formations of great
depth, produced by the slow subsidence of the region
and the accumulation of salt-marsh vegetation.

In former geological ages, immense peat deposits were
produced in the vast lowlands along the borders of the
continents, or at the deltas of the ancient rivers. These
great swamps were frequently submerged in the sea and
deeply buried beneath mud and sand. This event occur-
red perhaps many times in a single locality. The buried
peat slowly decomposed. Much of the hydrogen and
oxygen of the vegetable tissue, and some of the carbon,
were eliminated. The remainder was consolidated by
the weight of the superincumbent strata, and the result
is bituminous coal. Thus we have the six to twenty coal
beds of Pennsylvania, or the one hundred coal-seams of
Nova Scotia.

The evidence that our coals are primarily formed in
this manner is abundant, clear and incontrovertible.
Few subjects are by our inductive science more definitely
settled than this. We find these buried vegetable depos-
its in every stage of decomposition and _ alteration.
Where the containing rocks are undisturbed, lying in
their original positions, the coal contains a large propor-
tion of volatile matter, and is bituminous. But where
the rocks are dislocated and folded the coal is, by the
pressure and heat, changed to anthracite or perhaps to
graphite. The proportion of fixed carbon, or the degree
of alteration, is always proportionate to the amount of
disturbance which the associated rocks have suffered.
Hence anthracite coal is a metamorphosed coal, just as
marble is metamorphosed limestone, or quartzyte is meta-
morphosed sandstone. The metamorphism of coal is
still going on. The escape of the volatile matter, in
which the change consists, is observed in the mines, in
the production of the explosive “ fire-damp,” and the
poisonous “ choke-damp.”

Running from cellulose through wood, peat, and coals
up to graphite we have a complete series; the difference
being the loss of hydrogen, oxygen and in a less degree
of carbon. This table, after LeConte, exhibits the pro-
portions of the elements dy wezgh?, the carbon being re-
duced to a fixed quantity :

Carbon. Hydrogen. Oxygen.
Pellulosermaneracit soo cinses. Otte « Too 16.66 133.33
INV. GOeae Hiriras a itela set aa sh as 100 12,18 83.07
RA erase rere ie, EP ce alns om aids 100 9.83 55-67
RON EUEIRE Siete Pallett R's sein 2b ie ai\o! ere 100 8.37 42.42
Bituminous Coals... 2... 5... 2. r00 6.12 21.23
Anthracite: Coals vi. <\.qcedep asaces roo 2.84 1.74

9.00 0.00

18 SCIENCE,

Anthracite coal, it will be seen contains a very small
proportion of volatile matter, and graphite none at all.
No two specimens of coal from different beds or areas
are likely to yield upon analysis exactly the same results.
This is due to differences in degree and manner of decom-
position, the varying degree of metamorphism, the vary-
ing impurities, and perhaps a difference in the kind of
vegetation. Anthracite coal naturally contains more ash
than bituminous, because it is more concentrated, and of
course peat has the least proportion of ash, simply de-
rived from the inorganic matter of the plant.

The substance to be’described was found in a peat-bog’

in the city of Scranton during the past summer. It has
received attention from the newspaper and scientific people
of the eastern coal region of Pennsylvania; and has been
recently mentioned in the Am. Jour. of Sczence for Dec.
by a quotation from a letter of,a Scranton gentleman to
the Engcneering and Mining Journal,

Scranton lies in the midst of the Lackawanna anthra-
cite coal-basin, which forms the northern half of the
Wyoming basin. Since the financial panic of 1872 the
city has grown but slowly, and a swamp lying in the midst
of the city had remained unoccupied, except as an old
dumping-ground for cinders from the furnaces. The city
having been lately made the county-seat of the newly
created Lackawanna county, this swamp was selected as
the site for a court-house. In excavating for the founda-
tions there was found a bed of excellent peat, 10 to 14 feet
deep. I visited the excavation and collected specimens
from depths of 3, 5, 8, and 13 feet. These specimens, of
which a series are before you, were, of course, when fresh
and saturated with water, several times their present bulk.

The peat from the greatest depth was highiy decom-
posed, orvery ‘‘ripe.” It was fine-grained, close in tex-
ture, and although soft held its shape well, cutting like
cheese. The color, when freshly cut, was a yellowish-
brown, but changed rapidly to a dark-brown, almost black,
ina few minutes. Upon drying, the color becomes a
lighter or grayish-brown. The rock below the ripe peat
is a clayey sand. This is somewhat impervious to water ;
but it is likely that beneath it is a more clayey bed which
originally held the water and occasioned the swamp.

In the midst of the ripe peat, termed muck in the let-
ter above mentioned, there was found, at various times
and at different places, in excavating for the division walls,
a substance resembling to the eye a bright coal—anthra-
cite if you please. This did not occur in beds or layers, or
in any apparent regular manner, but in irregular scattered
or branching masses. You will observe in these dried
specimens how intimately the coal-like matter and the or-
dinary peat are mingled. The two kinds cannot be separ-
ated, and it is with difficulty that the dried material can be
gotten entirely pure for purposes of analysis. It shrinks
upon drying, to a greater degree than the unchanged peat.
Masses which | thought would afford fair-sized dry sam-
ples have nearly disappeared. The fresh material has
been described as a tough jelly, which is perhaps a fair
description. It was somewhat elastic, like a mass of soft
india-rubber, but would break before bending greatly. I
should compare it to a very firm but brittle jelly. The
fracture had the lustre of a true coal, and in the dried
state the resemblance is perfect. Being found in the
midst of an anthracite basin, unscientific people naturally
supposed from its associations that whatever bearings it
might have upon coal would relate to anthracite coal,
not knowing, or not remembering, that anthracite is a
metamorphic coal.

Mr N. L. BRITTON, Geological assistant at the School
of Mines, New York, has made approximate analyses of
this altered peat, from material which I carefuly selected ;
also of the peat contiguous to the transformed matter
(within the distance of an inch) ; and of the ripe peat from
a depth of 13 feet in another part of the excavation. The
analyses are of thoroughly and equally dried samples, and
afford the following percentages :

Moisture at | Volatile Fixed Ach

115° Cent. Matter. | Carbon, 2h
TRIP Peatisrsctiseer' 6.225 63.875 4.625 25.275
2. Peat adjacent to 3... 3-775 22 125 4.625 69.475
3. Transformed Peat...| 11.350 52.800 | 24.725 II 125
4. Transformed Peat...| 66.758 if 9.826 | 4.012 19.404

Number 4 is by the Pennsylvania State Chemist, as
published in the Amerzcan Journal of Science. The
moisture is taken at 212° Fahr., and the analysis is evi-
dently of the fresh material.

To obtain a fairer comparison, and if not strictly
accurate, yet sufficiently so for our purpose, I have com-
puted the percentages with the moisture eliminated.

Volatile Fixed

Matter. Carbon. Ash.
TD. IRI per eats. terme anv 68.115 4.932 | 26.953 (White)
2, Adjacent. tower cece. er 22 993 4.806 | 72 201 (White)
3. Transformed Peat...... 59.560 27.891 | 12.549 (Pink)
4. “© (State Chemist)! 29.559 12.069 | 58.372
Bituminous Coals......... | 30. tv 60. | 40. to 70. 3 to 6

From this table it will be seen that the composition of
the transformed peat, number three, is about that of a
very “fat” bituminous coal, that is, one containing a
large proportion of volatile combustible matter, such as
are desired for making gas. In number four, the volatile
matter and the fixed carbon have nearly the same propor-
tion to each other.

The very large amount of ash in these samples is to be
expected, on account of the small size of the peat-swamp,
which allowed much inorganic matter to be blown or
washed in over the whole surface. But the varying
amount of ash would indicate that the peculiar physical
character of the peat was not due to the amount of inor-
ganic matter. Theash of numbers oneand two was white,
while that of number three was decidedly pink. This color
probably indicates iron; which may possibly afford a clue
to the cause of the transformation.. The presence of con-
siderable iron either inherent in the mass itself, or derived
from the surrounding mass by something like concretion-
ary action would probably hasten the decomposition ;
bearing upon this point, the large amount of inorganic
matter without iron in the peat contiguous to the trans-
formed peat is remarkable. The physical characteristics
are undoubtedly due to the finely divided state of the car-
bon, mingled with the water and volatile matter. But,
however produced, we have here something that is appar-
ently coal, in the midst of peat that is not yet coal.

Except as this substance illustrates a degree or phase
of peat decomposition, it is not likely to have any bearing
on the formation of coal. The decomposition of a buried
peat, bed under great pressure probably involves the whole
mass at the same time, and does not proceed by the ex- ~
pansion of such centres of decomposition as are here
found.

Samples have been placed in the hands of Mr. Spencer
B. Newberry, of Cornell University, who is making a
full chemical examination.

DISCUSSION.

Dr. L. ELSBERG then said that some 20 years ago he was
engaged in experiments on the subject of converting peat
into coal by a more rapid process than that occuring in
nature. He found that moisture, heat and pressure were,
as he supposed, the elements which, together with time, na-
ture had employed; and these three factors could and can
be used really to makea very good coal. On some future
occasion he would bring specimens of the manufactured
coal and of various kinds of coal to the Academy, and

SCIENCE. 19

give an account of these experiments and the methods.

.For a long time his experiments were futile, because it
was impossible to make a machine of iron or steel strong
enough to withstand the pressure which must be applied
to the prepared pulp to reduce it to coal. By the action
of super-heated steam, peat is converted into a_per-
fectly homogeneous pulp. By passage of this through
any of the ordinary compressing machines used for
making bricks, etc., blocks or cylinders are obtained of a
substance which, so far as its economic uses are con-
cerned, is not inferior to most qualities of bituminous
coal, for gas or fuel. Every effort was made to render
the bore perfectly smooth and polished in the cylinder
from which the peat was finally pressed out, and for this
purpose even glass and porcelain were employed. How-
ever the peat was found to be so impalpable that it was
forced into the microscopic pores of the metal, and even
of porcelain and glass. The peat thus inserted itself in
the finest possible particles which acted lke wedges,
chipping off small pieces from the interior of the cylinder.
No matter how fine and smooth the bore of the cylinder
was made, af:er very beautiful working for a few days,
gradually this material would insert itself in the micros-
copical interstices of the metal, until gradually the work-
ing of the machine was stopped or an explosion ensued.
A great many trials were made and much money spent,
and finally the enterprise was given up.

Mr. A. A, JULIEN remarked upon the voluminous
literature connected with the study of peat, and the
widely varying results, notwithstanding the enormous
amount of labor that has been expended. The study of
this material has been approached by investigators from
two economic points of view; its relations to agriculture,
and itsemploymentas fuel. Ininvestigations of the former
class the larger number of analyses have been ultimate—
z. é., to determine the carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen,
etc., which make up peat and its allied products. This
gives very conflicting results; the slightest possible
change in the amount of water, the oxidation or dissoci-
tion of the material, even while during analysis, yielding
very different results even in the hands of a single investi-
gator. The other method is approximate, simply in-
tended for the estimate of the value of coal or peat as
applied to the purposes of fuel, and is that represented in
the analysis of Mr. Britton. Such analysis, however, can
throw but little light on the origin of the substance ; or-
ganic acid seems to be further indicated by the red ash
derived from the coal-like substance (Analysis No. 3), the
white ash of the enclosing peat showing the residue of
silica and alumina insoluble in the humus acids.

Further, the physical characteristics of the substance
described by Prof. Fairchild, its brittle jelly-like character
while moist, and extreme shrinkage on drying to bright
coal-like brittle flakes, are identical with those of apoc-
renic, humic and other organic acids. These considera-
tions render it highly probable that this substance has
been produced within the peat at Scranton merely by the
leaching out of the upper portions of the bog and the
concentration of soluble salts of organic acids, in part
crenates, along certain planes and in small cavities
within the denser part of the peat toward the bottom of
the bog. Thereisas yet no evidence, however, that these
facts have any important connection with the formation
of bituminous coal, much less with that of anthracite,
represented by these specimens. A third method of the
examination of peat is founded upon the determination of
its proximate constituents or compounds, both those of
amorphous character and various organic acids. From
insufficient knowledge of the exact constitution and nature
of these acids, especially in their various hydrated forms,
the method is very difficult and has thus far had but
limited application. Only such a mode of examination
can throw light upon the character of the bright jelly-like
substance in the Scranton peat.

Some statements by Prof. Fairchild, however, give a

clue to its identity. He has mentioned a rapid change
of color in specimens of the peat taken from a depth of
thirteen feet, the yellowish brown color of the surface
becoming blackish brown in a few moments while being
handled. This seems to indicate not the trifling change
produced by drying, but the characteristic reaction of
crenic acid, well known to chemists by its immediate
oxidation and partial conversion into apocrenic acid.
This affects not only the acid but its ordiuary salts, e. .,
those of iron, and has been observed both in its artificial
product in the laboratory, and in nature, in the deposit
cf iron crenate beneath peat bogs and from the waters
of many springs.

Prof. D. S. MARTIN called attention to the resem-
blance of the lighter colored and solid variety of this
peat to the darker variety of the “turba” of Brazil. In
the latter he had alsq observed thin seams of a black
bituminous substance which was much like that which
occurs in this peat.

The subject was further discussed by Prof. Hubbard
and Mr. Parsons.

—eE—eEeEeEeEEyErE———e—eEeEee—eee

MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY OF ILLINOIS.

The regular meeting of the State Microscopical Society
of Illinois, was held at the Academy of Sciences, No. 263
Wabash avenue, on Friday evening, December 9, 1881,
President Dr. Lester Curtis in the chair. After the read-
ing of minutes and other routine business, the secretary
announced the following donations :

From Dr. Schmidt, of New Orleans, one dozen slides,
consisting of nerve-fibers and other Histological prepar-
ations.

“Botanical Notes” from Prof, E. J. Hill, of Engle-
wood, Ill.

Bulletin of Microscopical Society of Belgium, and the
report of the Microscopical Society, of Liverpool.

Dr. Angier, of St. Madison, Iowa, spoke in reference to
some Acari which he had found under the skin of a
chicken.

Prof. Burrill, of Champaign University, was introduced
and spoke in reference to the poison of the poison ivy. He
took some of the exudation and found it teeming with
bacteria, and he questioned whether the poisoning and the
bacteria come from the plant or otherwise. The speaker
stated that upon examination of the workings of the
leaves, he found the same forms ; the milky fluid which ex-
uded from stem contained numbers of them and the
effect of placing some of this upon his arm had been at-
tended with quite serious results.

The speaker went on to say that he had found the fore-
going facts true with other plants among which he men-
tioned the chicory, buckwheat and dandelion.

Dr. Curtis described a new half-inch objective made by
Gundlach and owned by Dr. J. Hollist. The glass was
claimed by the maker to have an angle of 100°, Its
angle had not been measured since leaving his hands,

It has the society screw and can be used on any ordin-
ary stand. The back lens of the objective is large and
extends beyond the border of the opening in the screw.
This opening, therefore, acts as a diaphragm. In order
to secure the benefit of the full aperture the portion of
the objective can be removed and an adapter furnished
with the Butterfield broad range screw can be substituted.
It has also another screw of about the same diameter as
the Butterfield screw, but provided with a finer thread,
the name and description of this screw was not known.
The front of the objective is ground down to a conical
shape. For ordinary use this front is covered with a
brass cap, having an aperture in the centre to allow the
conical end of the objective to pass through. The cap
can be removed when it is desired to use the objective for
the examination of opaque objects. On removal of the
cap the conical sides of the lens are seen to be covered
with some sort of black varnish to prevent the passage of

20

SCIENCE;

outside light. A lieberkuhn is furnished with the glass
which can be screwed on in place of the cap while exam-
ining opaque objects. Thespeaker had not had the glass
in his hands long enough to become perfectly acquainted
with all its qualities, it certainly is a good one, however.
It resolves angulatum very satisfactory, and bears eye-
piecing extremely well, working admirably on anatomical
structures,

The lieberkuhn seems to be a valuable addition for
some sorts of study as it brings out surface workings with
unusual clearness, even in transparent objects. Mr. E. B.
Stuart exhibited a Hitchcock lamp which he stated com-
mended itself to the use of microscopists. No chimney is
required, it being a blast lamp, the flames of which is
fanned by a passage of air from the bottom, the top of
the lamp driven by a noiseless clockwork.- The oil well
is entirely separate from the outside part of the lamp, and
is kept cool by the cold blast of air constantly surround-
ing it. It gives a light of about a six-foot gas burner and
the flame is steady and more free from flicker than gas or
the ordinary carbon burner. He also showed under the
microscope specimens of the gelatine-bromide plates for
photographic work, that had been submitted by a photo-
grapher as imperfect. An inspection under the micro-
scope showed three kinds of spots. One caused by dust
particles which had settled onthe gelatine while still soft,
and as the emulsion hardened, became: firmly fixed on the
plate. The second kind of spots were caused by, appar-
ently, the solvent action of some substance on the film, as
it could be seen to be less dense at those points,
while the third were thicker and evidently caused
by carelessly spattering the emulsion on partially dried
plates.

The meeting was then declared informal.

WM. HOSKINS, Secretary.
py, Se

THE AMERICAN CHEMICAL SOCIETY.

The papers appointed to be read on the evening of the
December meeting were, owing to the election of officers,
omitted and therefore at the Conversazzone held on Dec.
16 they were again brought up for consideration.

The first and second papers were “ On the Separation
and Estimation of Manganese”’ and “‘Ona Modification
of Mohr’s Burette; adopting it to use in delivering cor-
rosive solution’’ by Nelson H. Barton. Both of these
papers consisted of descriptions of details of manipulation
which the author had been lead to use in his own labora-
tory resulting from his experience and which under favor-
able considerations might be desirable to employ.

The third paper was by Mr. Casamajorand titled “ An-
alysis of Soghum Juice’”’ an enumeration of the results
obtained by him in his laboratory with comments on them.

“A new Laboratory Filter and Aspirator’’ was the
next paper, also by Mr. Casamajor. The apparatus re-
ferred to has recently been patented, and in the above
paper it was thoroughly desciibed and a model exhibited.
The fifth paper was by Dr. A. R. Leeds, entitled “A
Chemical Inquiry into the Self-purifying Power of a Flow-
ing Stream.’”’ In this paper the complete results of the
work done by Dr. Leeds for the New Jersey Board of
Health were presented. It will be reccllected that in a
previous number a synopsis of this paper was given to
the readers of SCIENCE. On the present occasion charts
were exhibited showing the exact relations existing be-
tween the various estimations which were made. These
were peculiarly interesting to chemists although unfor-
tunately the entire subject of water analysis is in such a
state of confusion that it is difficult to make much head-
way in the accumulating and conflicting mass of literature
which is current on this subject. The entire paper of
Prof. Leeds will be published in the N. J. Board of Health
Reports. The final paper of the evening was “A New
Method for the Analysis of Mustard” by the same gentle-
man with the assistance of Mr. Everhart. The ordinary

methods given by Hassall, Blyth and others were so un-
satisfactory in their results that an effort was made to
produce something more definite. After some little study
it was found best to separate the various constituents by
different extractions with various reagents, so that an
addition to the conventional determinations of moisture,
oil and ash (for the mineral adulterants ) extractions of
alcohol and ether are made for the remaining ingredients,
M. B.

—$<—$§—_ << ____

SUICIDE, an Essay on Comparative Moral Statistics.
By HENRY MorsELLI, M. D., Professor of Psycho-
logical Medicine. Royal University, Turin. Being
abridged from the original, as Volume XXXVI of
the International Scientific Series. New York. D.
Appleton & Co.

The present moment seems peculiarly favorable to the
presentation of a work on the subject of suicide. Whether
it be the great accumulation of financial and political crises,
or the increase of mental derangements, or a fundamental
change in the mora/e of the civilized races, it would seem
as if a great suicidal wave was sweeping over our social
horizon. The labors of Buckle, Wallace and Bagshot
have taught the necessity of studying such complicated
problems synthetically. The statistics of no one com-
munity, the analysis of no one cause, will suffice to ex-
plain their phenomena. Professor Morselli, fully recog-
nizing this fact, has undertaken a study of the question
of suicide from a statistical point of view, and one involv-
ing in its analysis the results of Sccial Scientific, Anthro-
pological, and Medico-Psychological inquiries.

The first fact demonstrated by a careful study of statis-
tics is the regularity and the increase of suicide in civil-
ized countries, which finds its expression in the painful
conclusion, that ‘‘ in the aggregate of the civilized States
of Europe and America, the frequency of suicide shows
a growing and uniform increase, so that generally, volun-
tary death since the beginning of the century has increased
and goes on increasing more rapidly than the geometrical
augmentation of the population and of the general mor-
tality.”

Aaoue individual elements serving to explain this
increase of suicide, climate deserves the least prominence
asa direct factor. The only ascertained fact in this direction
is that in the centre of Europe on an area of about 942,
ooo square kilometers comprised between 47-57” of lati-
tude and 20-40° of longitude, are found the people who
manifest the greatest inclination to suicide. The least
amount of suicide is found on the isothermal line of + 17.°
5 C, running through Portugal, Spain, Italy, Corsica and
probably Greece. That the mere feature of temperature
is not a very important one, is shown by the fact that on
the isothermal line of + 10° C, there is the greatest vari-
ation. In the United States for example the suicidal rate
is 35 per million; in Ireland 16, in England 67, in Bel-
gium 55, the Netherlands 35, Hanover 140, Prussian Sax-
ony 228, Galicia 98. A more direct and constant relation
is found with other cosmical influences, thus the regions
of the great rivers are most afflicted by suicide coeterzs
parzbus, while on the contrary marshy or excessively low
lands, like the Landes in France, the low countries about
the Zuyder Zee and Jutland, show a lesser proportion,
That suicide is most frequent in the warm seasons, is con-
firmed by Morselli, this observation is a familiar one to
New Yorkers. In our city a perfect suicide furore occurs
in certain summers, and the direct influence of the heat
has no doubt much to do with this as with the summer
increase in violent crimes similarly the results of insanity
or passion, a fact to which, however, no reference is made
by the author before us. It is certainly a noteworthy
fact, in which he confirms Guerry, that the maximum of
suicide falls under the summer solstice, the minimum un-
der the winter solstice.

SCIENCE. 21

The most interesting portion of the volume, is the one
relating to the influence of race and nationality as deter-
mining the suicidal rate. We have always believed that
a most important contribution to the elucidation of the
problem of suicide could be made ffom this side of the
question. And it is to beregretted that the talented writer
before us has not added to the numerous tables, which
render his volume, a mine of valuable information, one
showing in four columns, the name of the nation, the pro-
portion in same per million, the proportion of each form
of insanity, and the suicidal rate. We believe that a notic-
able parallelism would be observed in these columns.
The Germanic race preponderates over all others, and the
German and Scandinavian branches divide the supremacy.
The Anglo-Saxon stock has, however, gained by its long
separation from the German mother, and its admixture
with other races, for its suicidal tendency is much smaller.
The Celto-Romans, on the whole, show a small suicidal
rate, this increases, however, with the geographical] ap-
proach to the Germanic borders, and the fact is of start-
ling interest, that as keen an analyst as Morselli, attributes
the higher suicidal rate in France and Belgium to the re-
mote, continuous and the in modern times as persistent
invasion of German elements sweeping up the valleys of
the Scheldt, Seine, Somme, Meuse and even that of the
Loire! The lowest suicidal rate is found among the scla-
vonic peoples. Morselli in this part of the work fails to
refer to the fact that the Bohemians, isolated from the
sclavonic parent stocks by an ocean of German States,
have lost the relative immunity of suicide, just as the An-
glo-Saxons have gained in this respect by separation from
the “suicidal” race. The general conclusion, however.
would seem to be flattering to the nations having most
suicides. Savage peoples commit suicide only under the
stress of hunger, but as civilization progresses a thousand
new motives arise, with the mental needs. The reflection
is not made directly by the author, but it can be read be-
tween the lines, that a similar reason accounts for the les-
ser proportion of suicides among Catholics as compared
with Protestants. Judaism has a very favorable
influence; but this is an exceptional instance, it
being the only religion tied up inasingle race. A very
interesting fact, is that other conditions duly considered,
the votaries of that creed which is in a great minority in
a given country, show a lesser number of suicides; the
reason given by Legoyt is that the intolerance of the sur-
rounding population exercises a sort of moral coercion,
making the dissenters desirous to avoid giving any excuse
for harsh criticisms.

As to social influences, it is concluded from the general
parallelism of suicide and criminality that a deterioration
of morals is favorable to suicide. To this there are how-
ever some marked exceptions, especially in southern Italy,
where grave crimes are common and suicide is rare, and
a revision of the question induces Morselli to modify the
conclusion ordinarily held by saying that in those coun-
tries “where crimes. against property predominate, sui-
cides are more frequent than where crimes of blood are
frequent.” Remarkably enough it is found, with regard
to the influence of economical conditions, that it is not the
exact period of economical crisis, but a subsequent one
that shows an increase of suicide. The influence of the
Austrian crisis of 1858-1859 was shown by an increase
of suicides in 1860-1861. The Franco-Prussian war of
1870-71 led to more suicides in 1872-1873.

Without any question the most interesting part of the
volume consists in its appended “ suicidal’? maps. These
are maps of Europe and of the individual European
countries, exhibiting by the intensity ot shading, the pro-
portion of suicides in the population. On glancing over
the map of Europe it is seen in a moment, that the
highest proportion is found in Saxony; in the neighbor-
hood of Paris and .of Vienna. It is not alone race but
also the density of the population which exert an import-
ant influence here, and as the contest for existence natur-

ally culminates in the-destruction of the weak, the only
advice the author is able to give as a preventive against
suicide, is “to develop in man the power of well-ordering
sentiments and ideas by which to reach a certain aim in
life; in short, to give force and energy to the moral
character.”

While we venture to regard this advice as a fruitless
one, believing that in view of the author’s earlier conclu-
sions expressed in the same volume, all the good advice
and training that might be given would not materially
change the suicidal ratio. We can only commend the
perusal of the work to the reader as alone calculated to
furnish an adequate conception of the vast array of use-
ful facts gathered by its author, illustrative of many
profitable lessons in sociology and ethnology. That ina
treatise dealing with the statistics of so many lands and
with authorities who have written in so many tongues,
an occasional error should creep in, is not to be marveled
at, and it is only where such errors are made the basis of
conclusions that the reviewer considers it his duty to call
attention to them.

It is stated, in speaking of the influence of religion on
suicides, that in Saxony half the population are Catholics.
The fact is that Saxony is one of the most intensely
Protestant countries in the world, the stronghold of the
Reformation, and a land in which the slight vestige of
Catholicism (not consisting of one-twentieth of the pop-
ulation among its votaries), is only maintained by the
court which is Catholic since the time of the libertine,
Augustus the Strong. ED: CrsPlniZkear

=e eee
THE SUN: by PROFESSOR C. A. YOUNG, with numer-
ous illustrations. International Scientific Series. D.
Appleton & Co., New York, 1881, pp. 321, 12mo.

It is an extremely fortunate thing when we have a
book on a special subject, written by a man who has
himself made capital discoveries in this subject and who,
at the same time, has a culture wide enough to appre-
ciate the philosophical relations of his special subject to
science in general. .

If at the same time the whole exposition is written in
a graceful style, perfectly plain and easy to follow, and
dignified as well, we have special reason to be grateful.
Professor Young is the descendant of a line of professors,
and lucid exposition is natural to him, as we find from
this work, It is not necessary to say that in the other
degrees mentioned Professor Young 1s precisely the one
person to whom we should first look as authority.

There are certain things which an author can best say
for himself. In Professor Young’s preface we find this:
“T have tried to keep distinct the line between the cer-
tain and the conjectural, and to indicate as far as possi-
ble the degree of confidence to be placed in data and
conclusions.”

Throughout the work we have found this carried out
consistently, not as a task, but as a natural outcome of
the author's method of thought.

The work opens with an introduction which treats of
the sun’s relation to life and activity upon the earth. In
this section (page 18) the accepted beliefs with regard to
the sun’s constitution are laid down. This is a point of
departure.

Chapter I. deals with the distance, dimensions and
mass of the sun. The low density ot the sun
is quoted as showing the strong probability that the sun
is mainly a mass of vapor or gas, powerfully condensed
in the central portions by the superincumbent weight,
but prevented from liquefaction by an exceedingly high
temperature.

Chapter II. deals with the methods of studying the
solar surface.

Chapter III. relates to the Spectroscope and to the solar
spectrum in general. :

On page 87 we have a table of the twenty-two elements

22 SGIENCE.—

which are present in the solar atmosphere. Oxygen is
included. Nitrogen is not. The point is here made that
the elements o/ present in the atmosphere of the sun are
precisely those which are most common on the earth,
and Mr. Lockyer’s dzssoczatzon explanation is given and
avery full and fair s atement of the reasons for and
against it.

We would have been glad to see in this place an ex-
amination of a paper by Dr. Hastings in the first number
of the Amerzcan Journal of Chemzstry, in which the
writer attempts to show that Lockyer’s hypothesis is en-
tirely untenable, and in conflict with received kinetic
theories of gases.

The fourth chapter deals with the sun spots and the
solar surface. In this chapter is quoted a very remark-

_able account of the phenomena attending the growth
and decay of a sun spot, written by that veteran obser-
ver of the sun, Dr. Peters, of Hamilton College. A foot
note to page 137 suggests a most interesting research in
relation to the acceleration or drzf¢ of the spots in long-
itude, and it is in such suggestions as this as well as in
its general views that the book will owe its great value to
the astronomical student.

Chapter V. deals with the periodicity of sun spots and
with the theories as to their cause and nature. “On the
whole,’ Prof. Young says, “it seems probable that the
cause of the periodicity is in the sun itself’’ and is not
due to external causes. The relations of sun spots and
climate are discussed completely, yet briefly. Professor
Young is one of the few English speaking astronomers
who can keep his temper upon this subject.

In giving the various theories asto the cause and nature
of sun spots, the author deserves our thanks for a few
very simple diagrams, for the want of which many of us
have gone astray in reading the sun spot war records in
the Comptes Rendus.

The next chapter deals with the chromosphere and the
prominences, their appearances and the theories of their
formation and causes.

In dealing with the lines of the chromosphere spectrum
we have two lists: First, those always present, and,
second, those readily seen by suitable manipulation
(“on slight provocation’). The catalogue of 273 lines
seen by Prof. Young at Sherman in 1872 is not given
here. The discussion of the causes of the great veloci-
ties observed in prominences on pages 211, 212 is es-
pecially interesting and suggestive.

Chapter VII. is upon the Corona—its phenomena and
the theories of is cause. The figure on page 225, with
its explanation on page 215, appear to the writer to give
too much weight to observations of a streamer in the
direction of the sun’s poles at the solar eclipse in 1878.
It is not impossible that such a streamer existed, but it
seems at any rate very improbable in the light of the
photographs given in the Eclipse Volume of the Naval
Observatory.

Chapter VIII. on the sun’s light and heat is a rapid
survey of the important work which has been done on
these subjects. The light is first considered, and an ex-
pression for the sun’s light in candle power deduced.

Prof. Langley’s interesting comparison of the light of
a Bessemer Converter to the sun’s light is quoted as
showing the brightness of the sun to be over 5,000 times
that of the glowing metal. ‘The positive carbon of the
electric arc 1s from two to four times fainter than the sun.

The light from various portions of the sun’s disc is
next considered, and the absorption of the light near the
limb brings us to the question of a so'ar atmosphere.

This solar atmosphere has usually been considered as
gaseous, but the author quo‘es Hastings’ lately proposed
theory that this absorption is produced by matter in a
pulverulent condition at a lower temperature than the
photospheric clouds and dispersed through the lower
portions of the sun’s true atmosphere.

“If the sun’s atmosphere were removed, its brightness

would be increased several times. It is almost certain
that the amount of light received by the earth would be
doubled ; it is hardly likely that it would be quintupled.”

The data as to the sun’s heat are more precise; and
the results of experiments (fully described) are put in a
striking way. The sun would meet in a single swing of
the pendulum a solid column of ice 2% miles in diameter
and 93,000,000 miles long, prov ded his whole power
would be concentrated upon it. What is the source of
this enormous energy which amounts to something like
one horse power contznuously acting to each thirty square
feet of the earth’s surface? Simple combustion of any
matter which we know would not suffice to keep up the
the sun’s heat for any length of time. The effective
temperature of the sun is next considered, z. ¢., the tem-
perature wnich a uniform surface of lamp black of the
same size as the sun would have to keep, in order to
radiate the same quantity of heat as the sun itself. The
results of Rossetti (18,000° Fahr), are quoted with ap-
proval. The two most important theories as to the way
in which the solar heat is maintained—the meteoric the-
ory—and the contraction theory are next examined.
Both causes are undoubtedly operative. Probably the
contraction of the sun is the most effective agent. If
this theory be accepted then the sun has a limited future
as well as a finite past, so far as we can now see.

Chapter IX. opens with a valuable table of numerical
data relating to the sun—a table of statistics for the solar
globe.

The constitution of the solar nucleus and atmosphere
with an examination of various theories of this constitu-
tion constitutes the main portion of this chapter, which
closes with the statement of some of the more important
and immediate problems of solar physics.

The usually received theory of the constitution of the
photosphere is given (p. 290) and the first authoritative
criticism of the recently proposed theory of Dr. Hastings
is given on pp. 291-294. It seems to the writer, however,
that Prof. Young, in urging as an obvious objection to
this theory, that whatever is precipitated at a lower tem-
perature than is the photosphere element must increase
the depth of the photosphere, has overlooked an essen-
tial point of the argument. The photosphere substance
is supposed to have a much higher vaporization tempera-
ture than those of other elements, ¢. g. iron, therefore
any precipitated iron belongs, not to the photosphere, but
to the over-lying ‘“‘smoke’’ envelope*

This chapter closes the work proper of which we have
been able to give but the barest outline. Its chief char-
acteristics seem to the writer to be: perfectly clear state-
ments of the facts of observation and what is far more
valuable, of the theories to be considered. These are
made definite by every way possible—by lucid statements
and by diagrammatic figures ; candid discussion of these
facts and theories in the light of the best information now
attainable; and lastly the drawing of the most certain
conclusions which are possible from the data, taking care

in each case to give a proper idea of the degree of cer- _

tainty which our present knowledge allows.

These are high excellences and make the book a most
important one. In pointing them out the writer has done
no more than any reader can do for himself.

EDWARD S, HOLDEN.

———_ ++

M. Cocuery intends to spend the surplus of the Elec-
trical Exhibition, which is said to exceed 16,000/., in estab-
lishing a research laboratory for electricity.

i ———————_

PROFESSOR HAECKEL is at present in Ceylon, where he
is to stay for three months making a scientific exploration
of the island.

|

-@

et SCIENCE. 23

a a a eee

STEAM AND HYDRAULIC SAFETY ELE-
VATORS.

In large cities, where every inch of land is precious,
the modern power elevator has virtually effected for
building, what the locomotive engine has effected for
travel and transportat'ion—namely, a revolution. Hotels,
office buildings, apartment houses, and first-class stores,
are now almost invariably carried to a height of eight cr
ten stories, and equipped with elevators; while a ten-
dency is fast growing and will soon become controlling,
to increase the value of third and fourth rate property in
the same way, and even to eliminate the toil of stair-climb-
ing from ordinary housekeeping. This great change in
the condiions of living, together with the progressive
fatality already developed, as elevators without adequate
safeguards begin to wear and weaken, will soon be call-
ing in terrible tones for legislative interference. Fortu-
nately, there are standard safety appliances that have
stood the test of every possible description of breakage
and accident to which elevators are liable, during a quar-
ter of a century past, without a single failure. The sole
reason that we hear from time to time of cruel destruction
to human life from the falling of elevators in our hotels and
apartment houses, etc., is that there are proprietors too
parsimonious, or too ignorant, to provide their buildings
with the perfect and proved safeguards that are every-
where before their eyes in the standard pattern of eleva-
tors used in nearly all of the most valuable buildings.
They ought to be compelled to do so, whoever may
profit or lose by the requirement. Meanwhile, let us see
what individuals can do to protect themselves against
these people by avoidance.

The improved modern safety device, introduced
by Otis Brothers & Co., in their best eleva-
tors, for some years past, is quite outside and in-
dependent of the other mechanism, and acts instanta-
neously by virtue of any acceleration of the standard
rate of motion in the car, from whatever cause. Both
arrangement and action are simplicity itself. There
is an independent sheave at the top and another at the
bottom of the hoist well or shaft, and an endless wire
rope running around the two; the lower sheave being
suspended, to keep the rope taut. The rope is connected

at a proper point with the safety catches on the |

car, in such a manner as to run the rope as the car
moves, and thus to run a pair of governor balls geared
to the top sheave. If the car should commence de-
scending faster than the rate for which the governor is
set — whether by accident, by overloading, or by indiscre-
tion of the operator—the extension of the governor balls
by the accelerated motion (greatly multiplied on the gov-
ernor) instantly operates a clutch on the rope which
pulls out the ca‘ches into the safety ratchets, and
stops and locks the car in its place. It is like an au-
tomatic iron hand, always ready to clutch and pull the
rope that arrests the car, the moment it disobeys the
set restriction on its rate of descent. It is literally im-
possible by any means to move the car downward
faster than the rate prescribed.

HYDRAULIC ELEVATORS,

For the purpose most interesting to the general reader
—that of passenger elevators—the very recently perfected
application of hydraulic power has controlling advantages,
and it is probable that most pasaenger elevators will
hereafter be constructed on this principle. The best
hydraulic elevators are preferred to steam for this .pur-
pose on account of the perfect smoothness of their mo-
tion, their remarkable simplicity of construction and op-
eration, easy management, and reduced opportunities for
breakage, derangement or accident. To these advantages
they add that of reduced expense for motive power to
the extent of the head of water available on the premises.
It is not to be understood, however, that all hydraulic

elevators share in this preference. Most kinds heretofore,
in fact have cost more in wear and tear of ropes and
other parts, and in motive power to overcome extra fric-
tion, weight, &c., than any kind of steam elevators.

We shall make it our object to put the reader in pos-
session of the leading criteria and principles necessary
for a correct judgment among different hydraulic eleva-
tors in the remainder of this article.

Generally the less desirable kinds of hydraulic eleva-
tors are made with a short cylinder of large diameter,
into which the pressure of a heavy column of water is in-
troduced at one end, urging a solid piston like that of a
steam engine from that end to the other. The piston rod
pushes forward a crosshead bearing on each side of it a
block of multiplying sheaves or pulleys around which the
wire rope(from the sheave at the top of the hoist) passes, and
rcturns many times to and from a similar pair of multiplying
blocks in a fixed position at the rear of the cylinder. As
these blocks of sheaves are thus forced farther apart by
the motion of the piston, lengthening each of the twenty
turns (more or less) of the wire rope between them, a
length of rope many times the length of the piston stroke
is obviously thus taken up, and the car is hoisted an equi-
valent distance. It is the same in effect as winding up
the rope on adrum: butitis not so favorable in mode; the
friction and strain being excessively increased. More-
over, the course of the wire rope from sheave to sheave
in the blocks, must necessarily cross the plane of revolu-
tion of each sheave, both in taking and leaving it, so that
the edge of every groove continually and severely rasps
the rope as it runs in‘o it and out of it under a tension
of tons force. In point of fact, these ropes have to be
frequently renewed, not only at considerable expense, but
at much inconvenience from interruption. But a worse
result is their great liability to snap suddenly at some
point, and not only throw the enormous tension out of
balance and the labyrinth of rope and blocks into violent
snarl and wreck, to the des'ruction of everything animate
or inanimate within reach; but at the same time, to cause
the car to fall the whole distance to which it may have
been raised. Ancther objection, of course, is the con-
stant extra cost of power for the ex'reme friction peculiar
to this mode of multiplying motion. The substitution of
a rack of cog teeth on the piston rod, gearing into a pin-
ion wheel, and that into a geared winding drum, does not
mend the matter in point of safety or economy, since it is
not practicable to use abelt from so slow a motor. Some
of this class of machines are made doubly objectionable
by placing the cylinder horizontally. The lift weight of a
vertical piston can be counterbalanced ; but this arrange-
ment makes a nett increase of friction by the dead weight
of the heavy piston to be dragged on the bottom side of the
cylinder. Two other disadvantages are not to be avoided
or counteracted: the constant wear of the cylinder and
piston out of round by dragging the lat er on its under
side, and the accumulation under it of sediment from the
water, to assist in the work of abrasion.

We conclude with a description of the more modern
and matured form of hydraulic elevator, adopted for the
Government buildings, on the unanimous recommendation
of a board of experts appointed by the Secretary of the
Treasury, and composed of Messrs. Frederick Graff, C.
E., of Philadelphia ; Master Machinist Geo. A. Wilson
of the Washington Navy Yard; and Chief Examiner J.
B. Durnall of the Patent Office. Their decision was
made after exhaustive investigation in the principal cities
and manufactories ; and from the fact that out of nine
competing methods only one was considered worthy of
mention in their report, and that in terms of almost en-
thusiastic admiration, the reader may judge that the rela-
tive objections and advantages are fairly stated in this
brief review. Six of these elevators have been running
for three years, uninterupted for repair, in the “Boreel ”
and “ Morse”’ buildings, and similar ones are going up in
other famous piles, such as the “ Vanderbilt,” “ Mills,

24,

SCIENCE.

“ Kelly,” &c. All of the United States buildings having
elevators, and in short, nearly all the most valuable pub-
lic buildings, hotels, fashionable stores, apartment houses,
&c., to the number of thousands, in this and other Ame-
rican cities, contain specimens of hydraulic or steam ele-
vators of the same admirable manufacture.

The new hydraulic elevator is indeed a prodigy of
simplicity and automatic power, with simple gravitation
of air and water for its only law and mode of action, and
with a conspicuous absence of the objections heretofore
observed, as well as of all others conceivable. It consists
of an upright cylinder and piston, only about a foot in
diameter, and half the height of the lift; two pipes and
two valves. That is all, save the car with its hoist ropes
and sheaves, and whatever means, natural or other, may
be used to bring a head of water into connection with
the cylinder. One of the two pipes is a circulating pipe
which connects the two extremities of the cylinder, and
affords a passage for the transfer of water from one end
to the other—-that 1s, from above the piston to below it.
It is also the medium for the pressure of water from the
other or hydraulic pipe; a pressure thus made at all
times continuous and uniform on the top of the piston
head, wherever it may be, in motion or at rest. This
pressure (when not neutralized) forces down the piston,
thereby drawing up the car by the hoist rope attached to
the piston rod. :

Let us first suppose the car at the top of the lift, and
the piston consequently down at the bottom of the cylin-
der; or, the car stationary at any point in the lift, and
the piston at a corresponding point in the cylinder. As
the cylinder is always full of water, and the full head of
pressure always on, wherever the piston may be, the only
possible way for the piston to move in either direction is
for the water to get out of its way through some outlet.
To let the piston rise (pulled up by the weight in the de-
scending car) it is only necessary to open a valve that
closes the lower end of the circulating pipe, thus open-
ing communication from the part of the cylinder above
the piston to the part of the cylinder below it. This
allows the water above the piston to be pressed out be-
fore it, and down and back into the cylinder under it.
The steadiness and ease with which the piston follows up
the receding water—which, in turn, follows it up as
steadily beneath—can not be exceeded by any movement
in art or nature. At the same time, the movement is
graduated perfectly to the will of the operator, whatever
the variation of load, by opening or contracting, more
or less, the valve orifice through which water is transfer-
red from the top to the bottom of the cylinder. No
water is expended.

Finally, to force down the piston and hoist the car, the
circulating valve before mentioned must, of course, be
closed ; but this only renders motion either way impossi-
ble, because an immoveable body of water without vent
fills the cylinder both above and below the piston, and it
might as well be solid iron, for the matter of allowing
the piston to stir. Another of the simplest things in the
world must be done, namely, to open a discharge valve
from the lower part of the cylinder, when the water there,
in flowing out, begins not only to make room for the descent
of the piston, but to make a vacuum beneath it which
brings the atmospheric pressure upon the top of the pis-
ton, in addition to the pressure of the hydraulic column,
which is never withdrawn. The descent is the same per-
fectly balanced, steady, soft and //zd motion previously
noticed in the ascent; graduated likewise to perfection
by controlling the size of the orifice with the valve rope
in the hands of the operator in the car. The symplicity
of the valve motion is also very beautiful. The two valves
are simply two plugs a few inches apart on one stem, fit-
ted inside a pipe, and drawn up or down by an easy motion
of the hand rope. They are so adjusted with the orifices
of circulation and discharge, respectively, that while they

consequently of piston and car, is blocked ; if lifted, they
gradually and simultaneously open the discharge and close
the circulation orifice, as much or little as the operator

-pleases, causing and graduating descent of piston and as-

cent of car; or if lowered, they cut off dicharge abso-
lutely, and open circulation as gradually as desired, caus-
ing ascent of piston and descent of car.

The multiplication of the piston motion two or three
fold in that of the car ( which is all that can be necessary
in the highest buildings with these long-cylinder machines)
is done by single pairs of sheaves, and consequently with-
out making the ropes cross the plane of revolution of their
sheaves, and therefore without special friction, as well as
without special strain and wear. All moves easily, natur-
ally, straightforwardly, imperturbably, like the silent music
of the spheres. The power, unlike that of steam, is as
definitely limited and as invariable under all circumstan-
ces as the weight of so many cubic feet of water, with
which the entire motive apparatus is exactly filled at every
moment, never a drop less or a drop more, or the space
of a drop vacant. The chances of breaking anything are
reduced to a minimum so remote as to be hardly more
than metaphysical; and yet all the standard safety appli-
ances stand on guard against that conceptual possibility, so
that there is probably no other kind of vehicle or mode of
motion on sea or land so safe as that of the new hy-
draulic elevators above described. It is estimated that
thirty millions of passengers are now annually conveyed
to and from the upper stories of buildings in the eleva-
tors recorded on the salesbooks of Otis Brothers & Co.
Up to the present time, this inconceivable amount of
passenger business has been performed without a single
reported instance of injury to life or limb from the failure
of any part of the machinery. The fact is, so far as we
know, without a parallel in the history of machinery, and
may well direct earnest attention not only to the general
qualities, but to the special features, of these remarkable

machines,
—_———__+¢_____.

OXIDIZED OIL.

To welcome a new industry is always an agreeable
task, but special interest is attached to those instances
in which the application of scientific principles have con-
tributed to the results.

We have now to record a few facts relating to a means
of manipulating oils, which result in the formation of a
substance which has many of the advantages and char-
acteristics of Rubber, but which can be manufactured at
a fraction of its cost.

Reduced cost in the manufacture of a staple article,
where a monopoly can be secured, naturally suggests
great profits, and as capitalists are now competing for
the privilege of manufacturing this new material,a few
words respecting its nature and properties may be
acceptable to our readers.

A few years ago a man of studious habits. and inven-
tive genius noticed that around the mouth of a can of oil,
the oil had acquired the property of solidity, and
finding that the effect was due to the oxidation of the oil,
he conceived the idea of turning this property of linseed
oil to practical account for various purposes in the Arts
and Manufactures. ;

Mr. Frederick Walton, (for that was the name of the
gentleman to whom we have referred) occupied several
years in studying this subject, and making practical experi-
ments relating to the behavior of oils under various con-
ditions, and at length arrived at such successful results as
to warrant his reading a paper before the London “ Soci~-
ety of Arts,” entitled “Introduction and Use of Elastic
Gums and Analogous Substances.” In this paper, after
discussing the sources and qualities of india-rubber and
gutta-percha, he described a method which he had in-
vented of manufacturing an artificial product, which not

are at an intermediate position, all motion of water, and | only possessed the principal qualities of Caoutchouc and

SCIENCE.

25

of the gum of the Para tree, but which was considerably

‘cheaper and had a wider application. The principal
feature in the new process was the oxidation and conse-
quent solidification of linseed oil. He found that linseed,
nut, and poppy oil possessed the property of becoming
concrete on exposure to the atmosphere, and that when
spread in a thin layer, on a surface of wood or iron,
they dried or changed into a thin skin.

This change is of course produced by the absorption
of oxygen and the disengagement of carbonic acid. The
power of absorbing oxygen rapidly is inconsiderable
in the crude or raw linseed oil, but is greatly in-
creased by boiling the oil, which is best effected by ex-
posing a large quantity of raw oil to a streng heat in a
cauldron, with a small percentage of metallic oxide of
lead. In this condition it is called varnish, and has a
viscid character. A layer of this oil requires from six to
twenty-four hours to change into a skin-like substance,
according as the state of the atmosphere is more or less
favorable.

One of the first materials placed upon the market by

- Mr. Walton as the practical result of his experiments was
a new floor cloth which he called Linoleum. This
material has for its basis oxidized oil, which is mixed with
a tenacious substance, to which is added finely powdered
cork, The material thus formed is passed between rol-
lers and pressed upon a fibrous texture.

The advantages of Linoleum over the previous oil cloths
was apparent, tor it was waterproof, a non-conductor of
heat, while its natural body color permitted the addition
of an agreable and artistic decoration. The manufacture
of Linoleum has been a great success and has realized
large fortunes to its original promoters, and fifteen years
after its introduction was still paying 60 per cent as a
dividend. .-

Linoleum may described as the first and crude result of
Mr. Walton’s expensive experiments with oxidized oil ; he
had however in reserve a higher development of his ideas,
and at length produced a material which is a refine-
ment of all his previous efforts.

Linerusta~Walton, as its name implies is made from
oxidized linseed oil which is skillfully manipulated with
various substances, forming a material posessing most
valuable properties and its principal characteristics appear
to be unique.

Ualike Linoleum, which is adapted to one purpose alone,
the application of Lincrusta to the Arts and Manufactures
is most varied, and we shall soon find it in every house
under so many forms that its future as a staple commodity
is assured, One of the most valuable properties of Lincrusta
lies in the fact that although originally so soft as to receive
the most delicate impressions, it hardens within a few
hours and permanently remains in that condition. It is
a waterproof material with a natural color of a neutral
shade, which can be changed in manufacturing to almost
any tint. Lastly the manufacturer, by manipulating the
cement, has it in his power to produce many modifications
of the material, and, as we shall presently show, can make
various substances which have a very wide application,
and which will undoubtedly supersede many valuable
monopolies, on account of its being both cheaper, more
permanent, and possessing many advantages over its ri-
vals. -

Perhaps one of the most important adaptations of Lin-
crusta is a new and improved covering to walls, and as
such it appears to us a perfect decoration. For this pur-
pose the Lincrusta is passed through machines which leave
an elegant design zz vedzef upon its upper surface, and at
the same time is pressed upon a thin backing of muslin or
paper. Thus manufactured and hung as a wall paper in
its natural tint, it is the most beautiful mural decoration
known, and when colored or hand-painted the most varied
effects are produced ; it may present the appearance of a
rich old tapestry, or the subdued tones of stamped leather.
Combined with the gilder’s art the brilliant effects of em-

bossed metal in solid relief are obtained. The only limit
to its development in this respect is the art of the de-
signer and the skill of the die sinker. Bearing in mind
that combined with these advantages we have a material
as flexible as leather or even rubber; resilient, standing
blows without injury, enduring and tough, not easily
torn, waterproof and unaffected by temperature, and
withal capable of being produced at a ptice below even
the medium quality of relief papers, and it 1s clear
advantages are combined in Lincrusta that will make it
one of the most valuable products which can be manu-
factured, and one which will be of universal use.

The special use of Lincrusta in the United States as a
wall decoration will be at once recognized, as its warmth
and resistance to damp makes its application almost im-
perative in the case ot frame buildings which form the
majority of dwellings in this country.

Of the other applications of Lincrusta to the Arts and
Manufactures, our reference must be brief, for they ap-
pear endless in their variety, Among other purposes
Lincrusta can be used as an excellent covering for ex-
ternal walls. For bookbinding it takes the place of
carton-pierre and papier-maché, and even excels leather
in its capability of receiving fine and incisive ornament.
Mouldings of Lincrusta can be gilded with facility, and
attain a hardness equal to wood, and can be applied in
this form to picture frames, cornices, panels, mantel-
pieces, or any kind of furniture.

For wall advertisement-placards Lincrusta has many
advantages, the letters are in relief, and neither sun, rain
or damp has any bad effect upon it.

Railway and other traveling cars will in future be dec-
orated with Lincrusta, and its application in steamships
is acknowledged, having been largely used in the new
Cunard ship Sevvza, which recently left our port. In this
instance the builders state that it gave the greatest satis-
faction both to the owners and to those who inspected
the ship.

Lincrusta-Walton may be applied to many other pur-
poses than those already enumerated, but the above are
amongst the most important and offer an almost unlim-
ited field for manufacturing and commercial enterprise.
In short, all decorations executed up to the present time
on flat surfaces, that is to say wzthout relief, can now
when desired be fashioned wz¢# relief, and their ar-
tistic value and appearance may thus be considerably
augmented,

Among the art exbibits now to be seen in New York,
that of the Lincrusta at 41 Union Square, corner of
17th street, is perhaps the most attractive. Specimens
of the material have been imported from London and Paris
and are here shown z7 sz¢z and have elicited the admiration
of all who have visited the rooms. The material is not yet
for sale, and the exhibit has been made merely to show the
public the wonderful effects of this beautiful material, by
Mr. John R. Whitley, a gentlemen who has largely in-
terested himself in this matter, and who is now making ar-
rangements to give the American public the benefit of this
manufacture.

If our description has aroused an interest in this
subject, we would simply state that the exhibit is
open to all who desire to verify the facts here stated
and that those who desire information which is not
given in this description, will there find there ample means
of learning the fullest details.

Ee

PROFESSOR WILLIAM O. Crospy has published an excel-
lent little manual on ‘‘COMMON MINERALS AND Rocks,”
which is sold by Messrs. Ginn, Heath & Co., of Boston, at
35 cents. A complete set of minerals and rocks named in
the work can be had of Professor Crosby for $1, or a more
extended set of larger size, including 75 specimens, for $3.
With both sets 25 cents is charged for packing.

26

SCIENCE.

CORRESPONDENCE,

The Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed
by his correspondents. No notice is taken of anonymous communi~
cations.|

CUMBERLAND UNIVERSITY,
Lebanon, Tenn., Jan. 23, 1882.
To the Editor of ‘‘ SCIENCE.”

DEAR SIR—When experimenting with the so-called
nitrogen iodine a short time ago, I met with an accident
which might have been very serious. I had prepared
about a grain of this compound by the action of am-
monia upon iodine, and it had stood over night in a
watch-glass with a slight excess of ammonia. I pro-
ceeded to wash it with water preparatory to drying it for
use in the lecture-room. When washing it through the
third water and stirring it lightly with a glass-rod to make
the cleansing more thorough, a violent explosion took
place, filling my face and eyes, I washed them as quickly
as I could with water and dilute alcohol, and there fol-
lowed only a slight inflammation of the conjunctiva,
which subsided in a few days.

I have repeated the experiment several times, and in
every case have found that when the compound stands
in an open vessel for twelve hours under ammonia,
it contains a compound which is explosive under water
upon slight causes. What this compound is I have not
ascertained. Atthe same time the greater part of sub-
stance remains undecomposed and is merely scattered
about by the explosion. This when dry presents the phe-
nomena of the ordinary iodine. The subject deserves
further investigation,

Very truly yours,
j-i. D. HINDS;

+o

BOOKS RECEIVED.

THE BRAIN OF THE CAT (Felis domestica), a Prelimi-
nary Account of the Gross Anatomy,with four plates,
by BurT G. WILDER, M. D., Professor of Compar-
ative Anatomy, &c., in Cornell University, &c., &c.

This 1s a reprint from the proceedings of the American
Philosophical Society, July 15th, 1881, and is the first of
a series of contributions to the knowledge of the brain
of the domestic cat. | The present paper is divided into
four parts, the second of which is a continuation of the
paper by Professor Wilder on “A Partial Revision of
Anatomical Nomenclature with especial reference to that
of the Brain,”’ published in SCIENCE on the 19th and 29th
of March, 1881. Part III. relates to a number of points
suggested for study, in which a knowledge of the cat’s
brain is not sufficiently understood. ‘The four plates are
very elaborate and well executed, and describe with
great minuteness all that can be seen by natural vision of
the cat’s brain, both externally and in section. These
valuable papers by Professor Wilder promise to mark an
epoch in the literature of this subject.

THE THIRTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT of the Director
of the Astronomical Observatory of Harvard Col-
lege, by EDWARD C. PICKERING. Cambridge,
1882.

An abstract of the report will be prepared for
“SCIENCE.” ‘The report is a cheering one, speaking of
the enlarged resources of the Observatory, the increased
number of assistants, and efficient work of all engaged
in making observations or their reduction.

THE FORMATION OF VEGETABLE MOULD THROUGH
THE ACTION OF WORMS, with Observations on their
Habits, by CHARLES DARWIN, LL.D., F.R.S., with
illustrations. Messrs. D. Appleton & Company.
New York, 1882.

—

As this interesting work will be reviewed in this jour-
nal the simple announcement of its publication will suf-
fice:

STUDIES IN ASTRONOMY, by ARTHUR K. BARTLETT,
M.D. 2nd edition, revised and rewritten. Pub-
lished by the author. Battle Creek, Michigan. 35
cents.

As an introduction to the science of Astronomy, this
little book presents many advantages, the subject is well
handled and presented in a very attractive form.

BULLETIN No. 1 of the American Museum of Natural
History, December 23, 1881. Three articles by
Professor R. P. Whitfield, illustrated.

This publication has been produced in a form worthy
of the establishment that issued it. It proposes to be one
of the most valuable bulletins published by scientific in-
stitutions.

BUREAU OF EDUCATION. Circulars of Information,
No. 4, 1881 ; Washington, 1881.
This is an exhaustive description of the work of educa-
tion in France.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN SOCIETY OF MICRO-
SCOPISTS. Fourth Annual Meeting held at Colum-
bus, Ohio, August, 1881.

This publication, which does credit to the publication
committee, contains several valuable papers with seven
pages of illustrations, and will be noticed at greater
length on another occasion.

How TO SEE WITH THE MICROSCOPE, by J. EDWARDS
SmitH, M. D.; Duncan Brothers, Chicago.

This book has been severely handled by some critics, but
in our opinion it contains more original writing than any
book onthe subject issued during the last two years, and,
coming from the hands of a thorough expert micro-
scopist, merits attention from all using the instrument.
The work would be useless to a beginner, who should
use Professor J. Phin’s excellent little manual, but to one
who has made some progress with the instrument Pro-
fcssor Smith’s work will prove quite useful.

LUMINOUS INTENSITY OF THE VOLTAIC

ARC.

M. Niaudet, in his excellent work, les Machines élec-
trigues & courants continus, gives quite an exhaustive
treatise on the voltaic arc; he particularly dwells upon the
arc obtained by acontinuous current, the positive pole
above, and the negative below and on the same vertical
line. It is to this case that the following extract has ref-
erence!

“ Relative luminous intensity of the carbons.—it is
very easy to see that the light directed against the lower
pole is very much greater than that carried against the
top. To see this, it is only necessary to place the two
hands, the one above and the other below the arc, and to
observe them. The difference is striking.

M. Fontaine has taken a series of photometric measures
in a vertical plane, and in all planes varying from the hori-
zontal to the vertical above and below the horizontal
plane passing through the arc.

These experiments have proved that the intensity is
maximum between 45° and 60° below the horizontal plane,
and that it is about ten times greater than the intensity
measured at 45° above the horizontal plane. In the
same investigation, M. Fontaine has compared the lumin-
ous intensities of the voltaic arc furnished by a machine
with alternate currents, with those we are now discussing.
The same mechanical work was employed in the produc-
tion of both arcs; the intensity was the same in the hori-
zontal plane; but the mean intensity was much less,

According to M. Fontaine, the mean intensity of the
light given by the first arc is three times that given by the
second,”

—

SCIENCE:

A WeEEKLy Recorp oF SCIENTIFIC

ProGRESs.

JOHN MICHELS, Editor.

TERMS:

Per YEAR, - - - - Four DoLLars
6 MonrHs, - - - - Two ss

3 . - - - ONE “
SINGLE CoPIES, - - - - TEN CENTS.

PUBLISHED AT
TRIBUNE BUILDING, NEW YORK.
P, O. Box 3280,

SATURDAY, MARCH 4, 1882.

JOHN WILLIAM DRAPER, M.D., LL.D.

The death of Dr. John William Draper removes
from the circle of American Scientists a man who
could be least spared, but the great results of his life
of usefulness and devotion to science will, for many
years to comie, remind us of
his familiar presence, and his
memory will be cherished
wherever the physical sciences
are known and appreciated.

Born at St. Helens, near
Liverpool, England, on the
5th of May, 1811, he came to
this country when 22 years of
age and took a medical degree
at the University of Pennsyl-
vania, and shortly afterwards
he received the appointment
of Professor of Chemistry and
Physiology in the University
of New York, where he after-
wards remained until the time
of his death.

Dr. Draper's scientific career
may be studied with profit by
all engaged in similar investi-
gations, as an example of
close application and persistent
work, achieving the highest distinction in his own
line of research, without any of those appeals to
popular sympathy and support, which too many
modern physicists are so eager to receive, and regard
as elements of success,

Pror. JOHN WILLIAM DRAPER, In
(Chemist and Historian) Died January 4, aged 7o.

SCIENCE. ay

For more than 4o years Dr, Draper was quietly en-
gaged in careful experimental researches in physiology
and molecular chemistry ; these researches covered a
very large range of subjects, but were more particu-
larly devoted to a study of the chemical phenomena
of light in both the organic and inorganic world, a de-
scription of which may be found in his work “ Sczen-
tific Memoirs, being Experimental Contributions to a
Knowledge of Radiant Energy.” ‘This volume is de-
scribed by “ Zhe American Journal of Science,’ in its
obituary notice of Dr. Draper as ‘‘a noble monument
to his memory, made of the results of labors which
have greatly advanced the sum of human knowledge.”

In the department of spectrum analysis and photog-
raphy, his original discoveries were of great value.
He doubled the number of the recognized fixed lines
in the spectrum, described those at the red end,
demonstrated that the fixed lines might be pho-
tographed, and brought all these discoveries to bear
on his investigations into the nature of flame and the
conditions of the sun’s surface. In conducting the
long series of experiments which resulted in so many
important discoveries, Dr. Draper drew largely on
his private fortune, and it is asserted that no private
person in America has expended more money ina
purely scientific direction; his generosity kept pace
with his scientific attainments,
for whatever scientific discov-
eries he made—and they were
very numerous—he freely gave
to the world. He never took
out a patent for any of his dis-
coveries, nor sought to make
them a source of personal
profit.

In the “Scientific Memoirs,”
Dr. Draper claimed to have
made “the first photographic
portrait from the life,” and he
further states, ‘‘ I also obtained
the first photograph of the
‘ moon ;” the other claims in
this work to scientific discov-
erles are most remarkable, as
the result of the work of one
man’s investigations in a single
line of research,

1875 the American

Academy of Arts and Sci-
ences awarded the Rumford medals to Dr. Draper
for his “‘ Researches on Radiant Energy.”

Of the literary work of Dr. Draper we would speak
in detail, for the subject has many attractions ; but it
appears unnecessary to describe books which are read

N

\

i

\
\

28

universally, and form part of the education of every
liberal-minded and intelligent man. Dr. Draper's
books show-that he was a deep thinker in the depart-
ment of the philosophy of history and human progress,
and that he aimed to exalt the intellectual develop-
ment of man.

The “ History of the Conflict of Religion and Sci-
ence,’ a work which many readers consider is incor-
rectly represented by the title, proves how broad and
liberal were Dr. Draper’s views, and it may surprise
many to learn, that such opinions were nct considered
by him inconsistent with religious belief. The material-
ists appear to have written and published in vain for
him, as we are told in the “ American Journal of Sci-
ence, that “it is a satisfaction to affirm that he
was a theist and a firm believer in a future state of ex-
istence, for which the present is only a preparation.”

On the 4th of January last, Dr. Draper peacefully
surrendered his life, honored and respected by all na-
tions, for his fame had been diffused throughout the
civilized world by reason of the translation of his
works into both European and Asiatic languages.

Dr. Draper leaves two daughters and three sons,
the latter having already achieved distinction in pur-
suits kindred to the work of their father. As the work
of Herschell was continued by his son, so in Professor
Henry Draper we find all the special qualities for
maintaining the high prestige of the family name ; his
recent success in photographing such difficult celestial
objects as nebulous matter, and the important discov-
ery of the presence of oxygen in the sun, have placed
him in the foremost rank of original scientific work-
ers, and the furthur development of his investigations
are anticipated with keen interest by physicists, both
in this country and abroad.

pn

VEGETABLE PATHOLOGY.
By T. J. BURRILL, Pu. D.

It is not an easy accomplishment to separate physiology
from pathology when, instead of dealing with the defini-
tions of words, we attempt to classify the operations
taking place within a living object, by placing them in the
one or the other category of activities and effects. In-
deed there is no well marked and uniformly acceptable
line of division. Wemay speak of one as normal and
healthful and the other as abnormal and injurious; but
these vary with the standpoint from which our judgment
is made, and with the conditions which modify, this way
and that, the results.

If these things are true as regards the vital processes of
animals, they are much more evidently true concerning
those of plants. In the latter, the standards of health
and disease are not so well agreed upon; less attention
has been given to the life processes and their results; the

SCIENCE.

individuality of the plant has been less recognized, and
its own particular good or injury less regarded. If an
apple-tree produces for ws a crop of good sized, highly
flavored, richly colored fruit, we do not stop to ask
whether these luscious pippins are the results of physiolo-
gical or pathological operations, judged from the stand-
point of the ¢ree. If a cabbage has its terminal bud
enormously developed so as to be called a head, the
monstrosity never calls forth a compassionate word of
sympathy as we enjoy the crisp and savory production,
for a New Year’s dinner. The ink with which we pre-
serve our thoughts, flows no less freely because of a pecu-
liar wound in a particular tree by a particular insect, and
a most wonderful malformation of the growing tissues in
consequence. We have not listened to the masterly dis-
quisition of a learned and betitled oak upon septicemia
or the curiosities of traumatic tumors. We have heard
no complaints from suffering, bleeding grape vines ; no
uneasy groans from plants perishing through the wither-
ing effects of blight and mildew.

But the terms physiology and pathology do have a
meaning answering to the operations and conditions of
health and disease in plants as well as in animals. The
grasses of the fields and meadows may flourish in the
luxuriance of bountiful supply and perfect adaption, their
vital forces being attuned and harmonized into combina-
tions of causes and consequences, all conspiring to the
good of the individual and the welfare of the species; or
these members of the vegetable kingdom, may, through
unfavorable conditions, through privation, through the
attack of enemies, become dwarfed or distorted, weak or
disproportioned, unfruitful or incapable of growth and
self-perpetuation.

Without attempting to give in this place a classification
of the diseases of plants, much less a description of the
many that are now known and more or less clearly under-
stood as to origin and progress, we proceed to give some
account of a few of the more general facts and pheno-
mena connected with our subject.

THE PROCESSES OF PHYSIOLOGY AND PATHOLOGY IN
PLANTS ARE SLOW.

Except in the case of violently disturbing causes, like
fire, frost, caustic chemicals, etc., disease or death never
attacks a plant in the sudden and unheralded manner
frequently known in animals. It is true that what has
been called “blight,” a very indefinite and loosely applied
term, is usually supposed to be the work of a day or a
night, perhaps of an hour; but the facts have not been
known by those who make this supposition. If by
“blight ” is meant the results of a tornado or even of a
sirocco, with which we of Illinois can claim some ac-
quaintance after the last summer’s experience—if these
are meant, we cannot say that “blight’’is not sudden ;
but the effects of such agencies should be classed as in-
juries rather than as diseases, There are really no ex-
ceptions to the rule that true pathological operations in
plants are slow in their progress. The healing of wounds
offers us a good illustration, if we examine the process in
plants compared with that in animals. If froma healthy,
rapidly growing tree, we cut off a limb close to the trunk,
making a wound one inch in diameter, a whole year will
scarcely suffice for complete healing, while in most ani+
mals a clean cut of this kind may be covered with newly
produced tissue in a fortnight. We talk about the czrcu-
fation of the sap; but in plants the fluids do not circu-
late in any proper sense. The slow movement which
does take place is at best a process of soaking. When
water is most rapidly ascending in the stem of a leafy
plant to supply the loss by transpiration, one foot per
hour is more than is commonly gained; and this is
altogether exceptional speed for movements in plants
generally. This feeble distribution of the fluids in living
vegetation is no doubt one of the reasons for the slow
workings of disease. Again the want of sympathetic

SCIENCE. 29

action of one part with another, so common in animal
bodies, is almost or entirely wanting in plants, due prob-
ably to the absence of a well developed nervous system.
Nothing is more common than to find a leaf dotted here
and there with diseased parts, while the intervening tis-
sues remain active and healthy. No organ suffers be-
cause another is affected, unless there is a direct depend-
ence in the way of food supply or other similar reason,
Hence diseased action can not be rapidly communicated
from part to part. The tree never becomes flushed with
fever because some one or more of its members have
met with disaster. In order that disease may spread at
all, it is necessary that the disease producing agent shall
itself spread from its original point of attack.

INHERITANCE, OR CONTINUANCE OF PECULIAR EF-
FECTS.

The protoplasm of the cells is “the physical basis of
life’’ in plants. From this flows the issues of life. Not
only all other material products are secreted by the more
or less plastic, often semifluid, substance known by this
name, but the peculiar and unexplained products of
vitality are due to the same source. Whatever potential
difference exists in the seed of a thistle separating it from
that of a turnip; in a bit of a twig of a Bartlett pear,
used as a scion, from the worthless stock on which it is
set; whatever difference there may be between health
and disease, considered as a constitutional affectation,
resides in this wonderful, ever-present, ever-important
constituent of living plants—protoplasm.

There is nothing more wonderful in the phenomena of
plant life than the peculiar tenacity with which an im-
pression once made is held by living protoplasm, We may
not be able, with all our skill, to introduce or cause a
change to take place ; but when an effect is produced, the
changed cell may by reproduction become tens of thous-
ands of similar cells, all having the same peculiarity of
vital potency and power. It is upon this principle that
horticulturists depend in the propagation of special vari-
ties of plants by grafting, budding, cuttings, etc. It is be-
cause of this mysterious but interesting quality of the
“germinal matter’”’ of the tissues of plants that Baldwins
among apples, Bartletts among pears, Marechal Niel’s
among roses, etc., are possible.

Now any deviation from the normal character of the
plant by which it is rendered less capable of succeeding in
the struggle for existence on its own account, and by its
own forces must be considered a disease. Usually our
highly prized fruits are produced as abnormal growths,
and the trees that produce them are notoriously liable to
seriously suffer from enemies and unfavorable surround-
ings and conditions, which, to their rough, hardy progeni-
tors would have been as the summer shower and the
smiling sun.

So the blotched leaves and variously colored foliage of
many decorative pets of the garden, are but indications
of a protoplasmic impression continuing itself as a disease.
When it happens that these disease changes of the plant
are beneficial to us, or when they in any way please our
fancy, we do not think of them as pathological conditions
and effects; but when through the operations of the same
law the opposite is true, we quickly enough talk of failure
through disease. Our potatoes all goto vines with no
tubers, our strawberries blossom profusely but the
flowers are “ blasted,” our sweet corn becomes too big and
coarse, our melons lose their sugar, etc. How the impres-
sions originally occur we do not usually know, but that they
are made we cannot doubt, nor too clearly see their per-
manence, if we would study the causes of health and dis-
ease, and try to learn how to profit thereby.

Connected with this topic is a most peculiar phe-
nomenon not yet well understood on the botanical side and
perhaps not yet adequately studied. Who can explain
why it is that a certain and regular abnormal growth
takes place on a given plant after the sting of a certain in-

sect forming what is called a gall? Anyone who has seen
the leaves of a jack oak ornamented with “ oak apples,”
especially if he has broken them open and examined the
complexity and regularity of their structure, can hardly
have helped wondering at the peculiar something which
could produce in an abnormal, diseased growth so close
an imitation of a true and proper fruit. What can be
more strange with our knowledge of the constancy of
form and character in plant growth generally, than that a
tiny wound with the injection perhaps of a minute drop of
a special kind of poison by a particular insect, should
entirely modify this growth and produce, not a distorted,
irregular knot, but an uniform, constant and thoroughly
characteristic though abnormal multiplication and shaping
of cells, producing thereby an organic structure so pecu-
liar and so uniformly the same that it may be subjected
to all the procedures of natural classification and of
specific identification! Though the subject has not been
studied from the botanist’s stand-point, especially in its
physiological or pathological bearings as its importance
would seem to justify and demand, it is at least question-
able whether the microscope would reveal anything tend-
ing to explain the marvelous result. The structure is, like
other plant tissues, formed of cells which through inherent
forces and properties, rather than through external agen-
cies, shape themselves, and by their co-ordinated and
united impulses give form and character to the resulting
production. It is also here as elsewhere, the living proto-
plasm that receives and bears the directing impulse. The
cell walls passively bend and swell under its silent and in-
comprehensible, but dominating power. The wonder is
increased when we remember that the growth is not a
continued reproduction of the same thing, but that cer-
tain cells of the new structure are shaped and modified to
form the external wall with its various and inter-differen-
tiated layers, others to form the core or nucleus and still
others widely differing from any of the former to make up
the mediary parts of the gall. What subtle influence,
what magic power is it, that thus toys with the vital-
ized forces and substances of the plant? What invisible
barrier turns the usually inflexible current of life from its
healthful and appropriate course and converts the onward
rush into swelling pools with their own peculiar currents
and eddies and waves, and self-controlled depths and
boundaries? A gall produced by a plant in obedience to
a particular act of an insect is certainly a most remark-
able thing, and merits the closest and most profound
study. Why should not man be able to effect as great a
modification in the growth of a tender plant, as a buzz-
ing insect? If we knew how why should we not gather
grapes from thorns and figs from thistles ?

But we must not lose sight of the fact that so far as
the plant is concerned, a gall is a disease and sometimes
a very serious one. If there is anything whatever, in
plant pathology to support Dr. Lionel Beale’s theory of
«disease germs” being the degraded but still living cells
of the ordinary tissues, it is this of insect galls. Is it not
possible that a careful study of the latter might be of ser-
vice to the specialist in gaining more and better knowl-
edge of the origin and development of cancer in the hu-
man body ?

PLANT DISEASES ARE DUE TO SPECIFIC AGENCIES.

There is no more important item of knowledge con-
nected with vegetable pathology than that each disease
has its own predisposing cause, or, in other words, that
each disease is a specific thing itself, in the same sense
and manner as a particular plant belongs to a species
bearing relations to, but unlike every other species.

There 1s no clearer illustration of the truth of the fore-
going than in the matter just before us of insect galls.
Entomologists have given these structures much atten-
tion, and it is found as easy to recognize the gall as a
species, as it is the insect that causes the growth. A skill-
ful specialist in this matter will give us the name of the

30

‘

SCIENCE,

insect on seeing its domicile, as readily as upon seeing
the winged inhabitant itself. Each one of the hundreds
of these curious structures differs from every other one,
and owes its existence toa different agent from that of
any other one. There are a very few possible excep-
tions to this if we limit the difference in insects to specific
distinctions, for it is known that at least one species pro-
duces several kinds of galls on the same parts of the
same plant, while others make somewhat different galls
on different parts of a given plant, as in the case of the
devastating Piylloxera. But every one knows that the
individuals of a species vary much among themselves, so
that our rule should be strengthened rather than broken
by these apparent exceptions. There are at least one
hundred kinds of galls known upon oaks; hence we may
say there are one hundred specific agents, each working
after its own fashion and producing its own peculiar re-
sults.

Much might also be said of diseases of plants caused
by insects which do not form galls, illustrating the same
thing ; but these are passed without remark to save time
and room for those more particularly falling under my
own observation and the subjects of more personal in-
vestigation, viz: those caused by parasitic fungi.

Though having had a very gooa chance to find out, I
do not know of a single flowering plant in our country
which is not more or less injuriously affected by one or
more fungi, living as parasites-on, or in, its substance.
Sometimes numerous species dwell on (or in) one host
plant ; sometime the same parasite preys on many kinds ;
but very often a particular fungus is found only upon a
particular supporting plant. Nearly all of these myriads
of thieves are so small that they cannot be seen, certainly
are not usually seen by the unaided eye, except as they
occur in masses. Many are at times exceedingly destruc-
tive, as witness the wholesale rotting of potatoes during
certain seasons, while yet in the ground and attached to
the stems of the plants; and the dreaded rust of wheat,
which apparently cuts off the farmer’s returns for a year’s
labor in a week or a day. We pay less attention to the
diseases and death of uncultivated plants, but these, too,
suffer as severely. I have observed great areas of thickly
springing smart weed (Polygonum Pennsylvanicum and
P. hydropiper) destroyed almost as effectually as by fire,
by a vegetable parasite (Helmin thosporium) whose corro-
sive action caused the leaves, long before frost in autumn,
and before the maturity of the plant, to shrivel and die,
after which the entire plants soon succumbed.

Though these mischief-makers are usually invisible
to untrained and unaided eyes, their peculiar effects are
ordinarily recognizable at once, by an expert, even with-
out his magnifier. Each has its own characteristic in-
fluence upon the host—one causing yellowish spots on
the leaves, another a curled and distorted growth, an-
other little cracks on the stems, another swellings like
insect galls, etc., etc. A closer examination brings into
clearer relief the different injuries or modifications of
growth, caused by each different parasite. Each faded
spot, each tumid projection, each rupture of the epi-
dermis, each blister and canker, each puncture and cor-
rosion, has its own more or less clearly marked charac-
teristics ; and each parasite has, as well, its own patho-
logical influences and effects. The grapevine alone has
at least thirty species of parasite fungi peculiar to it and
all more or less injurious, while an entire book of some
hundred and fifty pages has been filled with generic
and specific descriptions of fungi, known to occur on the
cultivated vine. (Thiimen, Die Pilze des Weinstockes,
Wien, 1878.) The list of specific and separate causes of
disease in plants thus immeasurably exceeds that known
to the wisest practitioner of medicine for man, for the
illustration from the grapevine, though a strong example,
is not exceptional. Of fungi, as a class, there are many
more species growing in Illinois than there are flowering
plants, putting the native and introduced together,—at

least double as many. Large numbers of these, how-
ever, never grow on living plants; they are the scaven-
gers of the vegetable world.

Two questions may now be raised. (1.) Areall these
fungous growths really divisible into good specific forms ?
in other words, can the term species be applied to these
various productions in the same sense as it is used for
the higher plants and animals? (2.) Do those kinds
known to inhabit living plants really cause disease, or
are they mere concomitants of pathological conditions,
due to other influences ?

These questions are continually pressing for answer,
founded on careful observation and skillful investigation.
The first one has been, and must be, answered unhesi-
tatingly in the affirmative by every botanist who has
made, or may make, a special study of the plants.
There are curious alternations of generation, as among
the lower animals——a given species presenting itself un-
der two, three, or even four forms. There are also de-
viations from the recognized type, and modifications due
to circumstances and conditions; but it is doubtful
whether these fluctuations are greater than in the species
of higher and better known organisms. It does require,
perhaps, keener perceptions to distinguish allied species
than among those having greater differentiation of parts,
as root and stem and leaf and flower and fruit; but
none of these affect the general question. We admit
the probability of evolution of species in the world, and
should be theoretically disposed to look for greater plas-
ticity in these low forms than in the higher; yet, except
in the particulars cited, observation does not apparently
support the deduction. I am sure that any botanist,
equally familiar with the two, will as positively recognize
Puccinia graminis, the rust, or, rather, one of the. rusts
of wheat, as he will Z7ztzcum vulgare, though the
former is very variable for a fungus. The same may be
said for Ustzlago maydzs, the smut of corn, and Zea mays,
but, in this case, there seems to be no variableness nor
shadow of turning in the characteristics of the parasite.
Hundreds of even better illustrations might be given, all
conspiring to enforce the opinion upon the skeptical, that
these low, mostly microscopical plants, have specific dis-
tinctions as characteristic and rigid as those found among
the higher organized, if not more respectable and reputa-
ble members of the vegetable kingdom. It is yet to be
proved whether or not hybrids ever occur among the
fungi; the very tact that none are positively known, or
even reported as suspected, helps to indicate the good-
ness of the species to botanical eyes. Still there is much
tobe done in the way of experiment, by sowing spores
and watching the development of the plants, before much
confidence should be placed in the slight distinctions
now used in many cases for specific separation.

Passing to our second question, a direct answer can-
not begiven. In the interdependence and complexity of
relations existing among all living organisms, it is ex-
ceedingly difficult to pronounce upon the exact effect of
any one of them, considered in and of itself. Cold water
is not regarded as poisonous to man, yetindividuals have
severely suffered, even died, from the effects of a reason-
able (so far as amount is concerned) draught. Arsenic
is poisonous, yet there are those who swallow what would
ordinarily be deadly doses, with impunity. Poisonous
doses of opium are merely nerve restorers to the habitual
eater of the drug. Shall we then say that water causes
death when taken to allay thirst, and arsenic and opium
are not poisonous? Shall we not rather say that what-
ever proves seriously injurious to man in a normal con-
dition, under the usual circumstances of his life, is the
poisonous thing, and the one which causes death ; while
we assign the peculiar and abnormal condition as the
cause in other cases,—as the over-heating instead of the
water,

Measured by this standard there are many parasitic
fungi which must always be acknowledged as a “ cause’’

SCIENCE. 31

of disease in the higher plants, for they germinate and
grow under the usual conditions of our summer weather,
and penetrate and develope in and at the expense of
otherwise healthy plants. Under these conditions it is
only necessary to place the matured spores on the parts
of the plants inhabited by the fungus to ensure its
growth, and, in consequence, the disease. It is, how-
ever, even in these cases, evident that much must de-
pend upon the peculiarities of the weather, etc., whether
the host or the parasite is specially favored or repressed,
and so whether or not the disease is seriously injurious.

Rust spores on young wheat leaves in spring time are
as certain to germinate and penetrate the tissues as
arsenic is to poison mammals. {In this case development
goes on but slowly however, unless specially favorable
conditions occur for the parasite, when, in the latter case,
it makes its presence easily recognized by the disastrous
results too often witnessed. Smut in wheat is less af-
fected by peculiar states of the climate. The spores send
their germinal tubes into the tissues of the seedling
plants ; the fungus grows with the host, and finally, just
before harvest time, matures its spores again in the
aborted wheat grains. Blight-bacteria, again, need only
to be introduced in few numbers into the living bark celis
of a healthy pear tree, during ordinary Summer weather,
to insure their reproduction and multiplication in myriad
numbers, and the death of the invaded cells in conse-
quence of their deleterious action. It is by on means
true that plants must be in an enfeebled condition that
such parasites may grow upon them. The very vigor of
the host often adds, by furnishing more assimilable food,
to the extreme development of the parasites.

On the other hand there are many fungi that only grow
on the higher plants when these have been injuriously
affected by something else, or when the conditions are
peculiar and altogether unfavorable for their proper de-
velopment or growth. Thus apples become ‘‘scabby ”
by a fungus belonging to the preceding class, but they
often rot while hanging on the trees through the effects of
other fungus never injurious to perfectly sound fruit with
an unbroken skin or epidermis. Peaches rot upon the trees
under the effect of a mould-like fungus which produces
myriads of spores that readily float like dust ina dry
atmosphere, but these do not germinate except in mois-
ture, and, as their duration of vitality is very short, few
succeed in reproducing the plant except during rainy
weather, when one decaying peach may be a source of
contagion for hundreds of others. There are too great
numbers of leaf-dwelling fungi which only grow upon
these organs when from old age or other causes they have
lost their powers of existence through the diminution of
their vital forces, so that the mycologist learns to look
upon old and fading leaves for numerous specimens. In
the descending scale we find vast numbers of still other
fungi which only grow upon really dead organic matter ;
these however have no share in the title parasitic.

It may therefore be concluded that, in the struggle for
existence, many species of fungi have acquired the physi-
ological power of overcoming the defensive forces of cer-
tain higher plants in a state of health under ordinary con-
ditions of plant life and growth, while others, truly para-
sitic in their nature, are obliged to seize upon favorable
chances to take advantage of slight or serious misfor-
tunes happening to their hosts, thus giving the kick to
one already going down hill.

I have thus endeavored to point out some of the general
truths of vegetable pathology as they appear to one who
accounts himself a student but not a master of the subject.
I enter the open gateway of a great field, and make little
incursions here and there, gathering now and again from
the abundance offered, material for many odd hours of
microscopical work, which again furnishes ‘food for
thought ” when the lamp has been extinguished and the
scalpels laid away. There ismuch room for many better
workers, and much interest for those who will work.

CROTON WATER OF NEW YORK.

It is admitted on all sides that an improved supply of
water for New York city, both in regard to quantity and
quality is imperatively demanded by its citizens, and the
subject. in one form, will shortly be discussed by the legis-
lature at Albany.

In regard to quantity, the solution appears a simple
one, as the present supply is adequate for all legitimate
purposes ; in fact, if it were not for the great waste of
water now practised, the supply would exceed all de-
mands of the present population. é

It is claimed by the “ Sanztary Engzneer’’ that this
waste is due to imperfect plumbing, and the facts and
figures given, show that such a supposition is, in part,
correct. Every householder, however, knows that a
wasteful use of the water, due to the whole supply of
the city being at the command of every individual, must
lie at the root of the evil.

Much printers ink has been wasted in printing procla-
mations from the authorities to the people, counselling
economy in the use of the water, but the time has, per-
haps, now arrived when the legislature should decide to
employ some remedy and make radical changes in the
method of distributing the supply.

The method of running the main supply direct into
every house, is certainly the most primitive and least sci-
entific or practical of all means at command. It is an
invitation for waste and extravagance, and has proved an
utter failure, as the means for thus distributing a supply
are so defective that, while one family in a house can
draw on the Croton river at will, others, less fortunate,
on another level endure a constant water famine.

The whole evil of thisimperfect distribution of the water
could be remedied, if the supply were made by cisterns
only. This system has always been in use in London
and answers admirably. Every householder under this
system has one or more cisterns filled twice daily, and
is not restricted either to the number, capacity or location
of the cisterns. Thus each householder pays fro rata
for the actual amount of water he consumes annually,
which, beyond doubt, is the only equitable method of
charging a water rate. In the case of manufacturers a
meter is substituted, if desired.

A natural accompaniment of this system is a universal
high pressure of water throughout the city, which pro-
vides that cisterns in the highest part of every house shall
receive its supply daily. This mitigates the evil under
the present system, of pumping and carrying water above
the first and second stories, now necessary in most
houses in New York city.

The economy of the cistern system is self evident for
no one would call for more water than he could legit-
imately use and increase the annual water tax. Thus
a premium for economy rather than waste is offered. In
a sanitary point of view many advantages are attached to
the use of cisterns, as the large amount of impurities have
time to subside and the water is consumed in an improved
condition. It is usual to construct one of the cisterns
with slate, which is reserved for drinking purposes.

The plea that such a system curtails the proper use of
water has no foundation in fact. The writer lived in a
house in London for many years, under this system of
supplying water, and found he received not only abund-
ance for family use, but sufficient to water a large gar-
den. If the system here described were put in practice in
New York city, and the plumbing perfected, the present
supply of water would be found ample, and part of the
money now proposed to be wasted in making new stor-
age reservoirs might be profitably used in building pump-
ing stations, which would give a high pressure of water
to all the upper rooms in the city, and increase the effic-
iency of the means now at command for extinguishing
fires.

In regard to the quality of the Croton water, we will
give an analysis by Professor C. F. Chandler.

CROTON WATER—GRAINS IN U. S. GALLONS.

(CHANDLER).
Sodaien trast eet eet eee .. 0.326
POtassaterians eto aes nists wlsete = O:097,
sine. SSE a eae scien Fe . 0.988
Magnesia. 225. te ae peree 0.524
Ghilorinest .-2iedie beh eMatec tees 0.243
Sulphunie acid joe, 2 ates or seen: 0,322
Silieay. ditto ale acist.> 3s = tit ete 0.621
Garbonic acids. $..50!3.5 sys Pera 2.604
Organic and volatile matter....... 0.670

Calculating 100,000,000 gallons as the daily average
water supply of New York city, the impurities would be
as follows:

CROTON WATER. (CHANDLER). IMPURITIES IN 100,000,-
000 GALLONS.

TONS
Sodan 34160: tt inp aoe rer Hep ee 2.319
IRotaSsals ais: ek ein ae eee bb 0.692
DIM eyes sized ethin She gata deste tere 7.038
Magnesia? dceies eielettaciee arearr 3.742
Chlorine. ..2: nak ssc oe Salas 1.735
Sulphunicyacide ee: cay 0eere eee 2.300
Sy] iar Ph he Oe AF oh oe pasa 4.429
(Carbonic!aGidse.,- 1042 ae eee 18.600
Organic and volatile matter....... 4.785

We have the same authority for stating that the or-
ganic and volatile matter occasionally reaches 1.14 grains
to the U. S. gallon.

It will thus be seen that
the constituents of Croton
water show it to be excel-
lent as a water supply to a
city, being unusually free
from mineral matter and

Fic. 2.

ss

Hydra magnified.

having no inorganic sub-
stance in excess to make
it objectionable.

In discussing, therefore,
the quality of Croton water
it will be sufficient to confine our attention to the
amount of organic matter it contains, and its nature.

To decide this point correctly a comparison of the an-
alyses made by various chemists is desirable, but the
greatest difficulties are here met, which are due to the
erratic methods of those who have made and recorded
these investigations. No two chemists appear to adopt
similar methods of making analyses of water, and it is
notorious that different methods give quite different re-
sults. On the other hand some chemists record their

icatives | ae poe di

Fic. r.
A parasite from some, bird or animal and foreign to the water.
for two weeks in countless numbers. Zi
surrounded by a jelly-like mass of putrescence.—(Michels.)

|

SCIENCE.

results in United States gallons, some in imperial gal-
lons, and others in parts of 100,000,000, and others in
1,000 gallons.

From necessity rather than choice we will make an
average amount of organic matter in Croton water from
the following calculations:

Tons in 100,000,000 gallons.

Fic. 4.
Whitlock’s Slaughterhouse, showing drainage into Croton water supply.

To determine the nature of this organic and sedi-
mentary matter a microscopical examination is neces-
sary, and, as we have for nearly ten years continuously
made such examinations, an attempt will be made to
explain the results arrived at.

age i

If aglass of Croton water
freshly drawn be held up to
the light, it will be noticed,
that dispersed throughout

SNS

Fic. 3.
Hydrz natural size.

~S /
A

the water are very minute
particles in countless num-
bers, which revolve as the
water circulates round the
glass, while here and there
may be noticed (especially
during the summer and autumn months), larger pieces
having a reddish-brown color. Ifa piece of sponge is tied
over the mouth of a faucet, and the water allowed to run
for a short time, the sponge will be loaded in every
pore with an accumulation of the impurities in the
water. If the sponge is now squeezed in a glass, the
water will be found to be opaque on account of the large
amount of floating matter, it will emit a foul odor, and
the resulting sediment will have the appearence of a foul
blackish-brown slime. If a pipette is now used and some

Seen
They were all dead and

of this deposit placed on a glass slide covered with a
thin glass cover, and examined under a microscope, the
fiéld will be opaque with the dense nature of the impuri-
ties, but if diluted with a little fresh water, objects such
as are drawn in figures—and—will be observed. These
forms, which will be readily recognizable by microscopists,

are composed of unacellu-
lar plants, very beautiful
in form and mostly of a
brilliant emerald green
color. Animallife is also
well represented by forms
usually found in stagnant
ponds, from the purely
microscopical forms to
those visible with the
naked eye; the hydra
(figure ) with its tentacles
ready to grasp as its prey,
the little crustaceans
which are darting about.

It is no part of this
paper to describe these
forms specifically, but the
sanitary effect of their
presence will be referred
to in general terms. To
prevent any misinterpre-
tation I would state that
the forms shown are not
seen at a single view, but
the contents of the circles
represent forms which are
all present in the Croton
water, and may be seen
by making several exami-
nations of the deposit at

different seasons. While such forms may be noticed, ¢he
bulk of the deposit is found to be composed of dead, rot-
ten, and decayed matter (omitted from illustration to

make place for more
interesting forms) from
which the living chloro-
philhas long disappeared ;
the larger fragments are
of a dirty brown color, in
some of which a growth
of fungi may be noticed,
indicating its antiquity.
On an average from six to
eight tons or even more
of such contaminations
mixed with dead, effete
matter. is mingled with
each day’s supply to the
city, and when at its worst
gives the water that fishy,
sickening odor, which in
the height of the sum-
mer is always present in
the Croton water.

With the exception of
the eggs of entozoa I
consider most the living
forms I have noticed in
the Croton water to be
perfectly harmless in their
living state; but they are
continually undergoing a
process of decay, die, and
when dead they are very

offensive in their odor, and when present in such num-
bers as found in Croton water, must contribute to foul

the water.

As I have stated, the bulk of the deposit is dead effete

rn
a,
aU \
g
et

. bat

SCIENCE.

33

Fic. 5.
Living vegetable forms from the Croton water—(Michels.)

Fic. 6.
Animal organisms found in Croton water.—[Michels.)

matter, forming a stinking slime which is repulsive in its
nature, and must be dangerous to use as food. If col-
lected in a spoon no person would swallow such black
putrid slime; are therefore the conditions improved or
changed when it is thinly dispersed in finely divided parti-
cles, so as to make its presence barely visible ?

Where does all this filth
come from which poisons
the water of New York
city? In answer to this
question, a very brief de-
scription of the condition
of the Croton water shed
will be given, showing the
condition of the source of
the supply.

Croton water is the re-
sult of collecting the rain
fall drained from a large
extent of country covering
forty miles, which is event-
ually stored in a series of
reservoirs and lakes for
future use. The borders
of many of these lakes are
very shallow and loaded
with aquatic plants, and
thus brought under the
influence of the sun, which
destroys the vegetation
and converts it into a
putrid deposit, which is
broken up by the action
of the water into fine par-
ticles, and eventually de-
livered at the faucets in
our city.

Not long since the Croton lake and the source of the
supply up to Croton dam was thoroughly surveyed by Mr.
Robert Morris, for the New York Hera/d, whose report

was confirmed later by Mr
J. Y. Culyer, Engineer, of
Prospect Park, Brooklyn,
in a letter to the New York
Tribune, and the Sua,
Times, and World have
all contributed to expose
the state of things we
shall now describe.

The report we refer to,
states that even Croton
Lake wore a green and
stagnant look and_ its
shores were sedgegrown,
marshy, and laved by lit-
tle streams that dripped
down from barns, houses,
hog-pens and farm yards,
Various parts were cov-
ered with slimy grass,
decomposed __ vegetable
matter, and in parts the
water was covered with a
thick scum. Around other
lakes he found stagnant
water, fever and ague
swamps, filthy drains,
wayside sloughs, and on
their banks cattle pens
and dirty yards. In one
place near Mr. Hyde's

house, a hollow was found where every kind of rural filth
had accumulated and decayed.

On pushing his cane

into the mass, a stench was stirred up that made him

glad to give up further exploration in that direction,

ENCE.
34 SCI

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: TS.
Map or Croton WATER SHED. Source OF IMPURITIES MARKED BY Brack Spo

———$—$—————
——————

SCIENCE.

35

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36 SCIENCE.

In another place right across the whole face of the
lake stretched half a dozen islands, affording no foothold
for man or beast, surrounded by stagnant green water
filled with every conceivable vegetable rottenness.

The sewers from farm houses, cottages of laborers
and factories were noticed to draindirectly in the water
supply; in fact the source of water supply of New
York city was found to be a common drain for
about 300 cattle yards, dwelling-houses, factories,
pig-sties, slaughter-houses, and other sources of im-
purities, every one of which are distinctly shown on the
maps we present, the exact location being indicated by a
black spot. Space will not allow us to give futher evi-
dence on this point which it is in our power to offer, but
we present a cut of one of these sources of pollution, show-
ing the direct drainage into the Croton water.

Of the danger of drinking such water full of the vilest
contaminations we will not dwell, each reader can take
his own course, but those who are prudent will both boil
and filter it before using for drinking purposes. Indi-
viduals and journals still claim that the source of the
supply is free from contaminations, and the water pure
and fit for drinking purposes ; to be consistent they have
to say that the water is wholesome.

Professor Leeds of the Stevens Institute recently showed
that the Croton water contained more organic volatile
mattert han the water supply of Newark, whichis taken di-
rect from the Passaic with all the sewage of Paterson and
other towns. He found the organic matter in 100,c00
parts in New York water to be 6,50, Newark 6.00, Hobo-
ken 4.50. At the February meeting of the American
Chemical Society (see page of this number), Dr. E.
Waller, of the New York Board of Health, endeavored
to deny this startling statement, by producing analyses
of his own, showing quite different results. We under-
stand that at the March meeting of the same Society,
_ Professor Leeds asserted to the satisfaction of the Society
that Dr. Waller’s methods were bad and had led him to
error, while the integrity of his own analysis was estab-
lished.

We consider the method of storing the water supply
of a city in shallow, marshy lakes, in fever and malarious
districts, to be wrong in principle, and that a radical
change in the management of the water supply of New
York City, rather than an expensive extension of it, to be
the most prudent course to adopt at the present moment.

OO

ELECTRIC CONDUCTION AND DISCHARGE.
By F. E. UPTON.

The question of the nature and the vehicle of the elec-
trical discharge is an important one, and its determina-
tion will contribute greatly to the solution of many inter-
esting problems in cosmical physics. It is desired in
this article to call attention to some recent advances that
have been made in this direction.

The view that the phenomenon is one of pure conduc-
tion, though it has received the attention of eminent phy-
sicists, can be said to be no longer entertained.

When a conductor is made to connect two poles or
electrodes which are at a different potential, it is well
known that the greater the cross section of the conduc-
tor, or in other words, the more of the conducting ma-
terial is laid bare by a cross section, the /ess resist-
ance will be offered to the union of the electricities of
the two terminals, and the greater will be the ensuing cur-
rent, with a given E. M. F.

Now, in the discharge, the contrary is observed
directly. This characterist'c of conduction is absent when
the discharge takes place; in a tube containing air, the
greater the pressure (above a certain inferior limit), or the
more of the conducting material there is laid bare by across
section, the greater will be the resistance to the passage of
the spark, and the nearer together the terminals will have to

be brought to effect a spark with a given difference of
potential. Sir Wm. Snow Harris, in 1834, made an at-
tempt to grasp at the law governing the relation of the
length of spark to pressure; and he then stated that the
length of spark is in the simple inverse ratio of the pres-
sure. Gordon, in 1878, made a series of experiments to
test this law, (Elec. and Mag. II. 55-62). He found that
from a pressure of about eleven inches to that of the at-
mosphere, Harris’s law held approximately good.
Representing resistance by 7, and matter laid bare by

Y : aa
cross section by s, in the case of conductor r = a a

the case of discharge 92 of ys, approximately. Thus there
is in question two entirely different order of phenomena.

Another distinctive characteristic of conduction will be
recognized in the fact that whenever there is any conduc-
tor at all, however small and however long it may be,
connecting two poles, some degree of current will flow,
as long as there is any difference of potential. With dis-
charge, however, a certain lower limit of distance apart
of poles, and of interposed matter, is requisite for any
current at all, and when that limit is reached the spark
passes, instantaneously, and the discharge commences,

Whether the current passes by conduction or dis-
charge, heat is equally developed; in the conductor in
the one case, and in the interposed matter in the other.
This common development of heat does not in any way
assimilate the two phenomena. The condition of affairs
in the two cases will perhaps become obvious if recourse
is had to the corresponding hydraulic analogy.

Imagine a pond of water held in place by a dam, with
a pipe leading from the bottom of the dam, for the pur-
pose of drawing water from the pond. The smaller that
pipe is in section, the smaller will be the current of water
flowing through it under a given head, and a certain
amount of heat will be developed by friction of the water
against the interior of the pipe; moreover some degree
of current will flow as long as the pipe has any size of
cross section at all. That corresponds to conduction.
Now let the pipe be imagined closed to the exit of water ;
as long as the dam is sufficient, no current at all will
flow; but suppose the dam be diminished in thickness
gradually and’ constantly, a point will be eventually
reached when it will no longer suffice to hold back the
water, which will break through the impediment; the
friction of the water against the fragments of the dam,
and of those fragments against each other will develop
heat as in the first case. That corresponds to the dis-
charge.

By this analogy the difference between conduction and
discharge is clearly apparent. A conductor between
two points at a different potential never offers any 7eszs-
tance to the passage of the current, strictly speaking.
Instead of saying that a slender wire offers more resist-
ance than a thick one, it would give a better understand-
ing of the matter to say of the latter that it offered a freer
passage to the current than the former. In the case of
discharge, on the contrary, the matter interposed between
the points acts always asa bar, or resistance to be over-
come, and the more there is of it the more resistance. It
is never an aid or way.

Mr. E. Goldstein, in the Annalen der Physik, de-
scribes an ingenious experiment bearing upon this point,
which, if not conclusive, is entitled to some considera-
tion. Ina discharge tube which was filled with dry ni-
trogen, he placed a little sodium, which could be vapor-
ized by heating. The positive light hada purplish red
color, but in the vicinity of the sodium it was of a golden
yellow. By careful heating and manipulation, the upper
half of the tube could be kept red and the lower half yel-
low. Now the tube was brought over and near, in a
horizontal and equatorial position, to a powerful magnet.
The discharge light was repelled as a slender thread to
the opposite (upper) side of the tube; but it was a pure
eddish thread, and showed no trace of sodium yellow.

SCIENCE.

32

So the sodium was not displaced or repelled under the
influence of the magnet, as it would have been had it
been a cosductor of electricity.

There has been considered the possibility that metallic
particles thrown off from the electrodes might be the
conductors of the current. To determine if this were the
case, Mr. Goldstein made use of a tube with platinum
electrodes, in which the light from the kathode was de-
flected bya second kathode. The light alone underwent
this deflection, while the minute particles torn off from
the platinum, which lodged on the opposite wall of the
tube and formed a sort of mirror there, went exactly to
the same point after the deflection of the light, as before.
There was thus no connection between the light of dis-
charge and the abraded metallic*particles.

But the most elegant demonstration in this matter has
been furnished by the experiments of De La Rue and
Miiller : they arranged that the discharge of 2,400 chloride
of silver cells should pass through a circuit consisting of
2 vacuum tube and a large variable resistance, X—; now
with different resistances ,, Ms, the resistance of
the vacuum tube formed a varying fraction of the whole
resistance ; and, according to Ohm’s law for the fall of
potential along a conductor, the fall of potential along
the vacuum tube should have been variable, had its
function been that of a conductor. It was found in fact,
however, that the fall of potential along the tube re-
mained constant, no matter what resistance was intro-
duced in the remaining part of the circuit between the
poles of the battery, showing that the discharge was not
acase of true conduction, but that even at the lowest
pressure it was disruptive.

i

THE AMERICAN CHEMICAL SOCIETY.

The February meeting of the American Chemical

Society was held on Friday evening, the 3d inst.
Dr. Orazio Lugo was elected a regular member.

The first paper of the evening was “ On Crystallized
Anhydrous Grape Sugar,” by Dr. Arno Behr.

It was customary in the preparation of the anhydrous
grape sugar to crystallize it out from an alcoholic solution,
particularly from that of methylicalcohol, but Dr. Behr was
lead to believe it possible that a simpler method could be
dévised. After some experimenting, he found that it
could be obtained from the ordinary hydrated solution.
A solution with 12 to 15 per cent of water gave the best
results. In the description of its properties, Dr. Behr
stated that when dried in a current of dry air, the crys-
tallized sugar would not retain more than two or three
per cent moisture, its reaction was neutral, its melting
point is between 141° and 145° C. When tested by the
polariscope it showed birotation. Dr. Behr then briefly
referred to its economic uses, how by its cheapness it
would be largely used by the confectioner, the druggist,
and by those who manufacture wines. He also stated
that as regards its sweetening qualities, instead
of requiring twice as much or more to make it equal
to cane sugar, he had found that one and two-thirds
as much was sufficient. Mr. Nelson H. Darton followed
with a short paper “‘ On the Precipitation of Tannic Acid
as Tannate of Copper.” This paper was a supplementary
description of Mr. Darton’s method, already read before
the Society. It consists in the precipitation of tannic
acid by the ammonia sulphate of copper. ‘Lhe precipi-
tate was tested for ammonia with negative results, and
therefore it was contended by Mr. Darton that the pre-
cipitate was composed of copper tannate and not the
double salt as has been elsewhere claimed.

The final paper of the evening was by Dr. E. Waller,
of the School of Mines, Chemist to the New York Board
of Health, Its title was “On the Water Supply of New
York City. The object of this paper was to contradict
certain statements made by Prof, Leeds in his recent
paper read before the Society and also published in the

Chemical News. Dr. Waller produced the analysis
made by Dr. Booth in 1843, then by Dr. Chilton running
between the years 1843 and 1859, Dr. Chandler’s results
from analysis in 1869-72, and finally his own, which have
been regularly reported since 1872. These latter were
represented by means of curved lines on diagrams which
showed exactly the amount of each constituent for any
time during the past nine years. These we may con-
dense and show by the following table:

PARTS IN 100,000,

ro SP

Maximum. Minimum. Average.
MN erAL MAte Kass. csc cise p= : 8.44 3-20 5,702
Ore: and*volmatter. 20. a. 00. a. 4.40 1.67 0.04
ANOUAMBSOHGS se scat e eat | LTLO7 4.80 7.38
ERARCMESS Hp iioe a tert cisieahe Beas ees 5.40 1.88 3.21
Oxygen by permanganate method. 0.383 0.047 0.180

The results ohtained by Prof. Leeds in comparison
with those showed from the above table were in several
instances quite different. Thus, Prof. Leeds finds the
total solids to be higher than any result obtained by the
New York Board of Health during the past fourteen
years. In other determinations similar discrepances
were shown by Dr. Waller. The statement that the Croton
water was contaminated by tanneries and other factories
was objected to as incorrect, the ‘tanning having long
since ceased on account of thescarcity of trees. A state-
ment from the Chief Engineer of the Water Department
was read, in which he claimed that the water shed of the
Croton River was the cleanest of any from which the
supply of drinking water was obtained, either in this
country or abroad. The population of the country
through which the Croton flows does not exceed 20,000
inhabitants, or about one person to every ten acres. In
comparison with other cities, the number of inhabitants
to the square mile residing along the water shed of
Croton, was stated to be extremely small, thus:

Population
to the

Square Mile
Ifo; (olay) GAG HED COBOL GOUTICED or IC ACER EO TODe ern cicic 270
BGStO ny ey seeticaneinrn seeetaie seis Sve oaelsteletee towne = 229
Ere Sree teehe te osetia citar ctone sera orelels oh siaoelefain thts IIg

chnectady : :
-’ ) Drawing their supply from

oe the Mohawk River. 9 (07007017 103
ING Wie OUK Si Siaopts. chars se cictar- Miatosate) stole aler~ « Pep aestckeicrdsyevece 65
IG ESTETs nes dopebacne sHdLOUN aa Cbass Odes Ie sergcRock 36
J Map N GE JocMACoe BPR COt CG. BEDr SOOO SDE TOSUnREACCe Oe 77
Poughkeepsie, supply from Hudson River........... 86

By arguments suchas the above, Dr. Waller maintained
that the conclusions reached by Professor Leeds were
erroneous. In the discussion that followed certain of
Dr. Waller’s modes of analysis were criticized by Dr.
Endemann, but his remarks were merely ona side issue,
and had no bearing on the results. M. B.

rr

To the Editor of ‘‘ SCIENCE.”

DEAR SIR :—I am sorry to find that I have been mis-
led as to one important fact stated in my paper upon
Standard Time which appeared in “ SCIENCE ”’ for Janu-
ary 21st. The Signal Service has not applied for an appro-
priation of $25,000 for the purpose indicated in the paper,
but a bill introduced in the house by Mr. King of Louisi-
ana, asks this amount to enable the (aval Observatory
to establish and drop time-balls at the principal ports of
entry ; and this was confounded with the Signal Service
bill in the mind of my informant.

I supposed I had good authority for what I wrote, but
as the result shows | ought to have looked into the mat-
ter more closely before trusting the statement to type. I
regret exceedingly to have aided in giving currency to an
erroneous statement. ;

C. A. YOUNG,
PRINCETON.

38 . SCIENCE.

JUPITER.
By Pror. G. W. HouGu, Director Dearborn Observatory.

During the present opposition of Jupiter, the disc ex-
hibits a variety of phenomena of interest to the practical
astronomer.

Although this planet has received a good deal of atten-
tion during the past century, yet, but few new facts have
been added, with regard to its physical aspect, since the
time of Sir Wm. Herschel.

It appears to be the generally accepted idea that its
surface is subject to sudden and extraordinary changes,
sometimes accomplished in a few days or even a few
hours. New belts are alleged to have been formed or to
have disappeared in the course of an hour or two.

We believe conclusions of this kind have been too
hastily drawn from the obstructions.

Owing to the rapid rotation of Jupiter, the various spots
and markings follow each other so closely that one
might readily imagine that what he saw was subject to
change under his eye.

The great red spot, which has been an object of so
much interest since 1879, becomes visible, in the Chicago
telescope, at 2h. 25m. from the meridian of the planet,
when its length is about one second of arc. As the rota-
tion carries it further on the disc, it gradually increases
in size, until, when on the meridian, it subtends an angle
at opposition, of 15 seconds. The smaller spots and
markings, of course, become most conspicuous when
near the meridian of the disc.

The visibility of objects depend, very much, also,
on the condition of the seeing. Sometimes the smaller
spots are invisible for weeks, simply because the
seeing is not good enough with limited optical power,
and not because there has been any radical change on
the surface of the planet. Its distance from the earth is
another important element in modifying the appearance
of phenomena. | After conjunction, the great Equator.al
Belt and Red Spot are first seen and, as the earth ap-
proaches nearer, other markings gradually appear, until
the time of opposition, the greatest variety of phenomena
is noticeable.

From September, 1879, when micometer measurements
were first begun, with the Chicago Refractor, on the
markings of the disc, considerable change has taken
place in its appearance at different times. But all changes,
whether due to the distance of the planet from the earth,
variable seeing, or other causes, have been slow and
gradual.

The most noticeable change has taken place in belt
No. 3 situated 6” north of the equator. This belt, which
was not conspicuous in 1879, gradually increased in
width and distinctness in 1880, until at the present time
its width is about 2".5 of arc, and of the same coloras the
equatorial belt, viz; reddish brown.

The equatorial region situated between the two out-
lines of the equatorial belt has been subject to consider-
able change, but the margins of the belt have not sen-
sibly varied in width or latitude during the past three
oppositions.

The great red spot, aconspicuous object even ina small
telescope, is alleged to have materially changed in length
during 1879, and again in 1880, but numerous micrometer
measurements do not confirm this statement.

The following are the mean results, reduced to the
mean distance.

Length. No.of Breadth. No.of Latitude. No.of

5 Obs. . Obs. Me Obs.
1879... 12.25 9 3.46 8 —6.95 8
TESOs cinisinin ser kaby sy 20 3-54 10 —7.14 I2
KBGDc cia seas II.50 8 3.49 3 —7.41 7

These numbers indicate a small possible displacement
of the center in latitude, but it would be premature to
assume such to be the case.

The color of the spot is reddish-brown ; however, when

—— =

ere is unusually good, it appears almost a light
pink.

The oval-shaped white spots, a number of which were
observed in 1880, are quite numerous at the present time.
They are about one second of arc in length and are gen-
erally difficult objects to observe.

The following spots have been seen on belt No. 6.
Latitude 9". 5 to 12". 6, They pass the meridian of
Jupiter after the great red-spot as follows:

h. h. h. h. h. h. h. h.
+ 2,8 + 3.0 + 3.3 + 4.0 + 4.7 + 5.2 + 5.5 +5.8

There are also two white spots—more easily seen—
near the great red spot in latitude 9’. 63 and longitude
oh. 36m. and +oh, 24m.

The two white spots situated in latitude 3’. 0 south
of the equator, which were observed in 1879 and 1880,
were first seen this year on July 22. They appear to
make a complete revolution around the planet in about
forty-five days, corresponding to a rotation period of gh.
50m. 9 sec.

These spots, which are both occasionally seen at the
same time, appear to be fixed relatively to each other.

The difference of longitude was measured with the
micrometer as follows:

1880.
July 24, +23.5m.
Nov. 8, +22.6m.
1881.
July 22, +27.5m.
Nov. 26, +27.5m.
Dec. 10, +23.0m.

The fact that they have maintained for a year and a
half the same relative position, and at the same time
apparently drifted with a velocity of over 260 miles per
hour, would seem to disprove the old theory that they
are clouds floating in the atmosphere of the planet.

From observations made during the present opposi-
tion, it is probable that all the matter between the two
margins of the equatorial belt, whether in the form of
white spots or dark ones, moves with the same velocity,
viz.: a period of gh. 50m. 9 sec. And it is possible that
the belt itself partakes of this motion.

The rotation period of the planet, deduced from our
observations on the red spot, made in 1879 and 1880,
was gh, 55m., 33.2 Sec. + 0.09 sec. ./, in which ¢ is the

number of days after Sept. 25, 1879. The observations
during 1880 showing that the spot was retrograding
with an accelerated velocity.

This formule is found to be essentially correct for
the present opposition.

The “mean” period for Dec. 14, 1881, comprising
an interval of 811 days, being gh. 55m., 35.80 sec. from
observation and gh. 55m. 35.76 sec. from the formule

Assuming the rotation period as above, the centre of
the spot has retrograded more than fifty degrees since
Sept. 1879, not unitormly, but with an accelerated velocity.
It seems difficult to account for this fact on any known
hypothesis.

os

IMPROVEMENTS OF PLANTE AND FAURE'’S
STORAGE BATTERY.

In a previous number of ‘‘ScteENcE” No. 57, July 3oth,
1881, we gave excellent directions for making Planté and
Faure’s storage batteries—In a recent paper before the
“ Society of Arts, of London, Professor S. P. Thompson
states that almost any oxide or hydrate of lead will answer
for use in the Faure battery—Litharge will answer if suffi-
ciently ‘finely divided for being painted on. Litharge mixed
with a small proportion of binoxide of manganese works
well. The most satisfactory cells I have yet tried were
made by painting the lead plates with a coat of the brown
peroxide itself, which is obtainable in commerce, although
its cost is greater than that of red lead or litharge.

i

— SCIENCE

A WEEKLY RECORD OF SCIENTIFIC PROGRESS

Nf ILLUSTRATED.
ZG V4
6 Y Entered in the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington, D.C.
‘Vol. II—No. 1. 2 January 8, 1881. Price 10 Cents.

LABOR-SAVERS LENGTHEN LIFE.

UR aimis to furnish improved tools and appliances for those who work at the desk or in the study. Many of our articles are unique, and are
() the result of the focalized experience and skill of a large body of literary workers. Thus selecting the best, we reduce the cost to the
minimum by manufacturing in large quantities. Our customers may thus be sure of getting the best devices at the lowest prices.

All interested are cordially invited to visit our stores, without feeling under obligat’ons te purchase. It will repay you to see the many new and
useful improvements we are introducing. They are intended for wide-awake minds who are seeking the best and surest ways of record, arrangement,
and communication, and for those who enjoy comfortable reading and writing in comfortable surroundings.

An Illustrated Catalog and Price List of 4oo articles is free to applicants, and includes every requisite needed for fitting
up a desk, study or library.

THE PERFECTED STYLOGRAFIC PEN;

A. T. Cross’ PATENT.

A PENCIL THAT WRITES INK, NEVER NEEDS SHARPENING, AND NEVER WEARS OUT.

Recent patented improvements have obviated all previous defects, and placed it far ahead of similar pens. Beware of imitations, and get the best
and only Perfect Pen. Warranted to suit or no sale.

three inches long, and holds ink enough for fifty pages of foolscap. May be carried in pocket, or on watch chain or eyeglass cord. Made in great

variety of style and finish.
Price, $2.50 "to. $5.00:

We instance a few of our many Specialties for Literary and Desk Work:

THE ECONOMY Index, Study Table, Reading Desk, Eye Shade, Student Lamp, Book Support, Inkstand, Sloping and Revolving Bookcases,
etc., are each selected by experts as the best to be had for the money.

SLOPING BOOKCASE.—Entirely new—Six I Ig shelves, periodical rack, heavy castors, fine finish, holds more for the money than common
cases, as movable as an easy chair. $15, ash; $1 7,50, walnut.

STUDENT’S FOLDING TABLE.—Handsome, strong enough to hold safely 300 volumes, larger than a writing desk, folds instantly, occupies
only the space of a table leaf, can be carried easily anywhere by achild. Price $3. Inlaid chess board, or black walnut, $4.

SAVE YOUR EYES AND YOUR BACK.—Clark’s Portable Book Rest will do more than anything else to correct the tendency to near-sight~
edness and round shoulders. The highest certificates from eminent physicians and oculists. Five styles, 15 to so cents each. Postage, 2 cents to 13
cents each.

UTILITY SCRAP BOOKS.—No paste, pins, or springs, self-indexed, Of the 35 people who looked at it first, 25 bought copies. Price,
$1.50.

THE BEST ARTIFICIAL LIGHT KNOWN is the Genuine German Student Lamp, made by the original inventor, Kleemann, with improve-
ments suggested by eminent American oculists. Extra large size, $4.50, brass; $5.50, nickel. 12 wicks, packed free for express ; sold as cheap
as inferior imitations.

SAVE YOUR EYES.—The Economy Patent Eye Shade, ventilated, reversible, self-adjusting, fits any head; no rubbers; no strings ; three
widths ; the only perfect device to protect the eyes. Warranted to suit. 20 cents each.

PERFECT PEN-GAGE INKSTANDS.—The only perfect scientific Inkstand yet made. Sold on trial, warranted the best and to save their
costinink. $1.30 to $2.50 each.

HAMBLER POCKET FOR PEN AND PENCIL.—A simple,cheap device that carries pencil or Stylografic pen more conyeniently than acoat or
vest pocket, and from which they cannot. be dost. Men who have lcst several dollars worth of pencils and pens when stooping have tried this, and say
they would not be withov* ** for ten times its cost. Price, 2Oc. for 2 pencils, to 4Oc. for 4 pencils. Russia leather, with safety attachmen for

coat, vest or dress.
READERS AND WRITERS ECONOMY COMPANY,
25-33 FRANKLIN STREET, BOSTON. 4 BonD STREET, NEw YorK- 69 STATE STREET, CHICAGO.

fi SCIENCE.

SCIENCE:

A WEEKLY JOURNAL OF SCIENTIFIC. PROG.

ILLUSTRATED.

To Correspondents.

All communications should be addressed to the Editor—box 3838, P. O., New York—with name and address ot
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Scientific papers and correspondence intended for publication should be written Zegzb/y on one side only of the
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Those engaged in Scientific Research are invited to make this Journal the medium of recording their work, and
facilities will be extended to those desirous of publishing original communications possessing merit.

Proceedings of Scientific Societies will be recorded, bat the abstracts furnished must be signed by the
Secretaries.

Both questions and answers in “ Notes and Queries’ should be made as brief as possible; an answer appearing
tc demand an elaborate reply may be written in the form of an article.

+o

To Subscribers.

Terms of subscriptions for SCIENCE will be $4 a year, payable in advance. Six months, $2.50. Single copies
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Subscriptions forwarded by mail should be addressed to the Editor, Box 3838, P. O., New York, and Post-office
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BOOKS AT TRADE PRICE.

Among the facilities we offer to regular subscribers is the purchase of BoOKS at trade prices, making a reduction
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fuil cost of subscription to “ SCIENCE,”” Send name of Book, Author and Publisher} and in reply a postal card will
he sent, stating amount to be remitted,

— SCIENCE

A WEEKLY RECORD OF SCIENTIFIC PROGRESS.

ILLUSTRATED.

Entered in the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington, D.C.

* No. 29—Vol. II. January 15, 1881. Price 10 Cents.

LABOR-SAVERS LENGTHEN LIFE.

UR aim is to furnish improved tools and appliances for those who work at the desk or in the study. Many of our articles are unique, and are
the result of the focalized experience and skill of a large body of literary workers. Thus selecting the best, we reduce the cost to the

minimum by manufacturing in large quantities. Our customers may thus be sure of getting the best devices at the lowest prices.

All interested are cordially invited to visit our stores, without feeling under obligations to purchase. It will repay you to see the many new and
useful improvements we are introducing. They are intended for wide-awake minds who are seeking the best and surest ways of record, arrangement,
and communication, and for those who enjoy comfortable reading and writing in comfortable surroundings.

An Illustrated Catalog and Price List of 400 articles is free to applicants, and includes every requisite needed for fitting
up a desk, study or library.

THE-PERFECTED STYLOGRAFIC PEN,

A. T. Cross’ PATENT.

A PENCIL THAT WRITES INK, NEVER NEEDS SHARPENING, AND NEVER WEARS OUT.

Recent patented improvements have obviated all previous defects, and placed it far ahead of similar pens. Beware of imitations, and get the best
and only Perfect Pen. Warranted to suit or no sale.

proro ELECTHOTYPE €0.GOsTOr-

Our latest pattern, the LITTLE GIANT, is the most perfect outfit for writing ever made. It is Pen, Holder, and Inkstand, allin one; but
three inches long, and holds ink enough for fifty pages of foolscap. May be carried in pocket, or on watch chain or eyeglass cord. Made in great

variety of style and finish,
PRICE, $2.50 to $5.00.

We instance a few of our many Specialties for Literary and Desk Work:

THE ECONOMY Index, Study Table, Reading Desk, Eye Shade, Student Lamp, Book Support, Inkstand, Sloping and Revolving Bookcases,
etc,. are each selected by experts as the best to be had for the money.

SLOPING BOOKCASE.—Entirely new—Six | ‘g shelves, periodical rack, heavy castors, fine finish, holds more for the money than common
cases, as movable as an easy chair. $15, ash; $17.50, walnut.

STUDENT’S FOLDING TABLE.—Handsome, strong enough to hold safely 300 volumes, larger than a writing desk, folds instantly, occupies
only the space of a table leaf, can be carried easily anywhere by a child. Price $3. Inlaid chess board, or black walnut, $4.

SAVE YOUR EYES AND YOUR BACK.—Clark’s Portable Book Rest will do more than anything else to correct the tendency to near-sight~
edness and round shoulders. The highest certificates from eminent physicians and oculists. Five styles, 15 to so cents each. Postage, 2 cents to 13
cents each,

UTILITY SCRAP BOOKS.—No paste, pins, or springs, self-indexed. Of the 35 people who looked at it first, 25 bought copies. Price,
$1.50.

THE BEST ARTIFICIAL 1IGHT KNOWN is the Genuine German Student Lamp, made by the original inventor, Kleemann, with improve-
ments suggested by eminent American oculists, Extra large size, $4.50, brass; $5.50, nickel. 12 wicks, packed free for express ; sold as cheap
as inferior imitations.

SAVE YOUR EYES.—The Economy Patent Eye Shade, ventilated, reversible, self-adjusting, fits any head; no rubbers; no strings; three
widths ; the only perfect device to protect the eyes. Warranted to suit. 20 cents each.

PERFECT PEN-GAGE INKSTANDS.—The only perfect scientific Inkstand yet made. Sold on trial, warranted the best and to save their
cost inink. $1.30 to $2.50 each.

HAMBLER POCKET FOR PEN AND PENCIL.—A simple,cheap device that carries pencil or Stylografic pen more conveniently than acoat or
vest pocket, and from which they cannot be lost. Men who have lcst several dollars worth of pencils and pens when stooping have tried this, and say
they would not be withov* ** for ten times its cost. Price, 2Oc. for 2 pencils, to 4+Oc. for 4 pencils. Russia eather, with safety attachmen for

, vest or dress,
ir sete READERS AND WRITERS ECONOMY COMPANY,

25-33 FRANKLIN STREET, BOSTON. 4 BOND STREET, NEW YORK. 69 STATE STREET, CHICAGO.

SCIENCE.

SCIENCE:

NM WEEKLY JOURNAL OF SCIENTIFIC PROGEE

war
a

ILLUSTRATED.

To Correspondents.

All communications should be addressed to the Editor—box 3838, P. O., New York—with name and address otf
writer, not necessarily for publication without consent.

Scientific papers and correspondence intended for publication should be written /egzb/y on one side only of the
paper. Articles thus received will be returned when found unsuitable for the Journal.

Those engaged in Scientific Research are invited to make this Journal the medium of recording their work, and
facilities will be extended to those desirous of publishing original communications possessing merit.

Proceedings of Scientific Societies will be recorded, but the abstracts furnished must be signed by the
Secretaries,

Both questions and answers in “ Notes and Queries’ should be made as brief as possible; an answer appearing
tc demand an elaborate reply may be written in the form of an article.

To Subscribers.

Terms of subscriptions for SCIENCE will be $4 a year, payable in advance. Six months, $2.50. Single copies
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Subscriptions forwarded by mail should be addressed to the Editor, Box 3838, P. O., New York, and Post-office
Orders made payable to “ John Michels.”

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be sent, stating amount to be remitted.

SCIENCE

A WEEKLY RECORD OF SCIENTIFIC PROGRESS.

ILLUSTRATED.

Entered in the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington, D.C.

No. 30—Vol. II. January 22, 1881. Price 10 Cents.

LABOR-SAVERS LENGTHEN LIFE.

UR aim is to furnish improved tools and appliances for those who work at the Cesk or in the study. Many of our articles are unique, and are
‘@) the result of the focalized experience and skill of a large body of literary workers. Thus selecting the best, we reduce the cost to the
minimum by manufacturing in large quantities. Our customers may thus be sure of getting the best devices at the lowest prices.

All interested are cordially invited to visit our stores, without feeling under obligations to purchase. It will repay you to see the many new and
useful improvements we are introducing. They are intended for wide-awake minds who are seeking the best and surest ways of record, arrangement,
and communication, and for those who enjoy comfortable reading and writing in comfortable surroundings.

An Illustrated Catalog and Price List of 400 articles is free to applicants, and includes every requisite needed for fitting
up a desk, study or library.

THE PERFECTED STYLOGRAFIC PEN,

A. T. Cross’ PATENT.

A PENCIL THAT WRITES INK, NEVER NEEDS SHARPENING, AND NEVER WEARS OUT.

Recent patented improvements have obviated all previous defects, and placed it far ahead of similar pens. Beware of imitations, and get the best
and only Perfect Pen. Warranted to suit or no sale.

pHoTo ELECTMOTYPL 62. GOSTON-

Our latest pattern, the LITTLE GIANT, is the most perfect outfit for writing ever made. It is Pen, Holder, and Inkstand, allin one; but
three inches long, and holds ink enough for fifty pages of foolscap. May be carried in pocket, or on watch chain or eyeglass cord. Made in great

variety of style and finish.
PRICE, $2.50 to $5.00.

We instance a few of our many Speci ties for Literary and Desk Work:
THE ECONOMY Index, Study Table, Reading Desk, Ey. shade, Student Lamp, Book Support, Inkstand, Sloping and Revolving Bookcases,
etc.. are each selected by experts as the best to be had for the money.

SLOPING BOOKCASE.—Entirely new—Six 1 ‘g shelves, periodical rack, heavy castors, fine finish, holds more for the money than common
cases, as movable as an easy chair. $15, ash; $17.50, walnut.

STUDENT’S FOLDING TABLE.—Handsome, strong enough to hold safely 300 volumes, larger than a writing desk, folds instantly, occupies
only the space of a table leaf, can be carried easily anywhere by a child. Price $3. Inlaid chess board, or black walnut, $4.

SAVE YOUR EYES AND YOUR BACK.—Clark’s Portable Book Rest will do more than anything else to correct the tendency to near-sight~
edness and round shoulders. The highest certificates from eminent physicians and oculists. Five styles, 15 to co cents each. Postage, 2 cents to 13
cents each. .

UTILITY SCRAP BOOKS.—No paste, pins, or springs, self-indexed. Of the 35 people who looked at it first, 25 bought copies. Price,
$1.50.

THE BEST ARTIFICIAL LIGHT KNOWN is the Genuine German Student Lamp, made by the original inventor, Kleemann, with improve-
ments suggested by eminent American oculists. Extra large size, $4.50, brass; $5.50, nickel. 12 wicks, packed free for express ; sold as cheap
as inferior imitations.

SAVE YOUR EYES.—The Economy Patent Eye Shade, ventilated, reversible, self-adjusting, fits any head; no rubbers; no strings ; three
widths ; the only perfect device to protect the eyes. Warranted to suit. 20 cents each.

PERFECT PEN-GAGE INKSTANDS.—The only perfect scientific Inkstand yet made. Sold on trial, warranted the best and to save their
sostinink. $1.30 to $2.50 each. .

HAMBLER POCKET FOR PEN AND PENCIL.—A simple,cheap device that carries pencil or Stylografic pen more conveniently than acoat or
vest pocket, and from which they cannot be lost. Men who have lest several dollars worth of pencils and pens when stooping have tried this, and say
they would not be withov* ** for ten times its cost. Price, 2Oc. for 2 pencils, to 4Oc. for 4 pencils. Russia leather, with safety attachmen for

coat, vest or dress.
READERS AND WRITERS ECONOMY COMPANY,

25-33 FRANKLIN STREET, BOSTON. 4 BOND STREET, NEW YORK. 69 STATE STREET, CHICAGO.

eo
eo

SCIENCE.

SCIENCE

A WEEKLY JOURNAL OF SCIENTIFIC] PROGES oe

ILLUSTRATED.

To Correspondents.

All communications should be addressed to the Editor—box 3838, P. O., New York—with name and address of
writer, not necessarily for publication without consent.

Scientific papers and correspondence intended for publication should be written /egzbly on one side only of the
paper. Articles thus received will be returned when found unsuitable for the Journal.

Those engaged in Scientific Research are invited to make this Journal the medium of recording their work, and
facilities will be extended to those desirous of publishing original communications possessing merit.

Proceedings of Scientific Societies will be recorded, bat the abstracts furnished must be signed by the
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Both questions and answers in “‘ Notes and Queries ” should be made as brief as possible; an answer appearing
te demand an elaborate reply may be written in the form of an article.

To Subscribers.

Terms of subscriptions for SCIENCE will be $4 a year, payable in advance. Six months, $2.50. Single copies
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Subscriptions forwarded by mail should be addressed to the Editor, Box 3838, P. O., New York, and Post-office
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To Advertisers.
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American Monthly Microscopical Journal.__- # 1,00 4.80. || NOY) Medical! Journal. 3.2 _~ os oo enna : 4.00 7,00
American Manufacturer and Iron World____- Jae 4.25 7.00 || New England Journal of Education 3.00 6.40
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Harper’ si Magazines. 2 ew caren sues =a 4.00 7.00 | a £ WITH SUPPLEMENT...-.~-------- 7.00 9.60
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Harper's Bazar_.--....-.---..------- SA “aide giz0. ||| Student sost fae cee ape ee sae eee 1,00 4:75
Harper’s Young Peopje..-.------- 1.50 5.20 St ANidholas cca ssege coer See eee en ee Oe ee 3.00 6.40
HumsBoitpr LiBRARY........------ 3.00 6.25 SCrentistassaxe nse an nese ea neep = oe ae eee +50 4.3°
International Review.............- 5.00 8.00 |}

BOOKS AT TRADE PRICE.

Among the facilities we offer to regular subscrzbers is the purchase of BooOKs at trade prices, making a reduction
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SCIENCE

A WEEKLY RECORD OF SCIENTIFIC PROGRESS.

ILLUSTRATED.

Entered in the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington, D, C.

No. 31—Vol. II. January 29, 1881. Price 10 Cents.

LABOR-SAVERS LENGTHEN LIFE.

UR aim is to furnish improved tools and appliances for those who work at the desk orin the study. Many of our articles are unique, and are
the result of the focalized experience and skill of a large body of literary workers. Thus selecting the best, we reduce the cost to the
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All interested are cordially invited.to visit our stores, without feeling under obligations to purchase. It will repay you to see the many new and
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and communication, and for those who enjoy comfortable reading and writing in comfortable surroundings.

An Illustrated Catalog and Price List of 400 articles is free to applicants, and includes every requisite needed for fitting
up a desk, study or library.

THE. PERFECTED STYLOGRAFIC PEN,

A. T. Cross’ PATENT.

A PENCIL THAT WRITES INK, NEVER NEEDS SHARPENING, AND NEVER WEARS OUT.

Recent patented improvements have obviated all previous defects, and placed it far ahead of similar pens. Beware of imitations, and get the best
and only Perfect Pen, Warranted to suit or no sale.

Our latest pattern, the LI T/T L,.E GUANTI, is the most perfect outfit for writing ever made. It is Pen, Holder, and Inkstand, allin one; but
three inches long, and holds ink enough for fifty pages of foolscap. May be carried in pocket, or on watch chain or eyeglass cord. Made in great

variety of style and finish.
PRICE, $2.50 to $5.00.

We instance a few of our many Speci ties for Literary and Desk Work:

THE ECONOMY Index, Study Table, Reading Desk, Ey. shade, Student Lamp, Book Support, [nkstand, Sloping and Revolving Bookcases,
etc.. are each selected by experts as the best to be had for the money.

SLOPING BOOKCASE.—Entirely new—Six 1 g shelves, periodical rack, heavy castors, fine finish, holds more for the money than common
cases, as movable as an easy chair. $15, ash; $17.50, walnut.

STUDENT’S FOLDING TABLE.—Handsome, strong enough to hold safely 300 volumes, larger than a writing desk, folds instantly, occupies
only the space of a table leaf, can be carried easily anywhere by a child. Price $3. Inlaid chess board, or black walnut, $4.

SAVE YOUR EYES AND YOUR BACK.—Clark’s Portable Book Rest will do more than anything else to correct the tendency to near-sight-
edness and round shoulders. The highest certificates from eminent physicians and oculists. Five styles, 15 to so cents each. Postage, 2 cents to 13
cents each,

UTILITY SCRAP BOOKS.—No paste, pins, or springs, self-indexed. Of the 35 people who looked at it first, 25 bought copies. Price,
$1.50.

THE BEST ARTIFICIAL LIGHT KNOWN is the Genuine German Student Lamp, made by the original inventor, Kleemann, with improve-
ments suggested by eminent American oculists. Extra large size, $4.50, brass; $5.50, nickel. 12 wicks, packed free for express ; sold as cheap
as inferior imitations.

SAVE YOUR EYES.—The Economy Patent Eye Shade, ventilated, reversible, self-adjusting, fits any head; no rubbers; no strings; three
widths ; the only perfect device to protect the eyes. Warranted to suit. 20 cents each.

PERFECT PEN-GAGE INKSTANDS.—The only perfect scientific Inkstand yet made. Sold on trial, warranted the best and to save their
cost inink. $1.30 to $2.50 each. ;

HAMBLER POCKET FOR PEN AND PENCIL.—A simple,cheap device that carries pencil or Stylografic pen more conveniently than acoat or
vest pocket, and from which they cannot be lost. Men who have |cst several dollars worth of pencils and pens when stooping have tried this, and say
they would not be withov* ** for ten times its cost. Price, 2Oc. for 2 pencils, to 4Oc. for 4 pencils. Russia leather, with safety attachmen for

coat, vest or dress,
READERS AND WRITERS ECONOMY COMPANY,

23 33 FRANKLIN STREET, BOSTON. 4 BOND STREET, NEW YORK. 6g STATE STREET, CHICAGO.

il SCIENCE.

SCIENCE:

A WEEKLY JOURNAL OF SCIENTIFIC PROGRESS.

ILLUSTRATED.

To Correspondents.

All communications should be addressed to the Editor—box 3838, P. O., New York—with name and address of
writer, not necessarily for publication without consent.

Scientific papers and correspondence intended for publication should be written Zegzbly on one side only of the
paper. Articles thus received will be returned when found unsuitable for the Journal.

Those engaged in Scientific Research are invited to make this Journal the medium of recording their work, and
facilities will be extended to those desirous of publishing original communications possessing merit.

Proceedings of Scientific Societies will be recorded, but the abstracts furnished must be signed by the
Secretaries.

Both questions and answers in “ Notes and Queries ’’ should be made as brief as possible; an answer appearing
tc demand an elaborate reply may be written in the form of an article.

To Subscribers.

Terms of subscriptions for SCIENCE will be $4 a year, payable in advance. Six months, $2.50. Single copies

Io cents,
Subscriptions forwarded by mail should be addressed to the Editor, Box 3838, P. O., New York, and Post-office
Orders made payable to “ John Michels.”

To Advertisers.
Terms for advertising may be obtained at the office of the Journal, 229 BROADWAY, New York.

CLUB RATES.

Subscrip-| | With Subscrip|_ With
tion. | SCIENCE, tion. |SCIENCE,

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Appleton’s Monthly---.---- 3.00 6.26 Journal/of* the Pelegraph=+--. = -2.-s case omen se aes 2.00 5-50
AMERICAN NATURALIST 4.00 7-20 London lantet..52=2- = eens ean eae cee 5-00 7-50
AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE--- 6.00 8.50 Magazine of American History_---.---.-.------.----- 2.00 5-50
American Journal of Microscopy.-...---------------- 1.00 4.70 MINING AND SCIENTIFIC PRESS_.<..--.2--nesnbcscace=, 4.00 6.49
American iachinist..o20 = es Lt ee es 3.00 6.70 INE tire ne en ee eee eee 6.00 9.15
American Monthly Microscopical Journal_.__.._.--- 1.00 4.80 N. ¥., Medicalifotunal>2-> 2252 5 ee eee 4.00 7.00
American Manufacturer and Iron World_____-____-_- 4.25 7.00 New England Journal of Education_.....-.----....-- 3.00 6.40
Boston Journal of Chemistry 1.00 4-75 North American, Review..<- 2:22 sceceenc anne bnew ence 5.00 7:75
Chicago Medical Review------ 2.00 5.50 Operators -- ee nee ae ee eae eae ee 1.00 4.
Chiteavo wield =~ S- -- 2 oo 5 pore oe ee eee 4.00 7.00 Popular SCIENCE MONTHLY.......-.-----------<--- 5.00 8.00
ripeine 2a 1.60 5.25 | Plumber and Sanitary Engineer---- aS 2.00 5.50
Druggists’ Circular I.5¢ 5.25 Practical Ameriean=.-.-= ~~ 2... -2 zs 1.50 5.00
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Engineering and Mining Journal.__-_....---...--_--- 4.00 7.00 Science Observer.--.-.---.-- 3 “5° 4.40
Widwration =). 2-s222e3.5 sno et A ee eee 4.00 7.00 SCIENTIFIC, A MBRIGAN Se 622 8k ane eee 3-20 6.56
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eee

SCIENCE. iii

JEWETT’S

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m that time having reached upwards of five thousand, and in no instance have we heard of any failure in performing all you claim for them,

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URANIA.

AN INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ASTRONOMY.

Under the above title we intend from January next to publish a Journal for astronomical research, for which
undertaking we are anxious to obtain your co-operation.

What chiefly induces us to increase the number of scientific periodicals by a new one is the circumstance that
every year many astronomical papers and memoirs of great value are published in Transactions or Proceedings of
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preparing reviews or abstracts of all papers of any importance published in places where they seem likely to be over-
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The journal will be printed in Dublin, and will be issued in numbers of from 16 to 24 pages each, demy 4to,
whenever we have material enough for a number. Longer memoirs will not be cut up in several parts, but will be
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The numbers will be sent by post to all subscribers. The subscription for one volume, including postage to all
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Office Orders to be made payable at the General Post Office, Dublin. Intending subscribers are requested to send
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No. I. will be published early in January.

We have already secured the co-operation of eminent men of science both at home and abroad. Thus the two
first numbers will contain contributions from Lord Rosse, Lord Lindsay, Professor Klinkerfues, Professor Schjellerup,
Dr. R. S, Ball, Dr. Borgen, and others. Papers written in French, German, or Italian will be printed in the original

language (German MSS, are requested to be written in Roman characters).

RALPH COPELAND, J: ESE: DREYER;
Observatory, Dunecht, Aberdeen. Observatory, Dunsink, Co. Dublin,

»

1V

BRAIN AND
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Composed of the Vetal or Nerve-giving Prin

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aK F. CROSBY, 664 & 666

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G. S. WOOLMAN, 116 Fulton Street, Sold by Opticians and Jewellers. Made by
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ch.

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Special attention given to
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N. B.—An Illustrated Catalogue will
—— be sent free upon request.

A WHEKLY JOURNAL OF

Vol. Il. No. 31,

SCIENCE:

CONTENTS.

SCIENTIFIC PROGRESS.

January 29, 1881.

The Necessity of a Public Library in New York (Edit.); The Anthropological Society of Washington; The Biological Society of
Washington; American Chemical Society; The Chemical Society of Paris; The German Chemical Society ; The French
Associa'ion for the Advancement of Science; The Unity of Nature, V., by the Duke of Argyll; The Progress of Botanical Science

i1 the United Stites, by J. C. Arthur; The Detection of Starch and Dextrin, by S. U. Pickering;

Socity; A Remarkabl> Meteor, by E. E. Barnard; Jupiter, by

New York Mcroscopical
E. E. Barnard; Relieft» the Jeannette, by F. Schwatka; Dr.

Beard’s Lecture on ‘‘ Mesmeric Trance" by R. Hitche »ck; Cri icisn oa Dr. Spitzk1's ‘‘ Notes on the Anatomy of the Encephalon,
etc.,"’ by B. G. Wilder; Books Received; Notes, Astronomical, Che nical, ete., etc., etc.

SuBSCRIPTION, Four DoLLARs A YEAR.

SincLE Numsers, TEN CENTS.

SCIENCE. iii

JEWETT’S

The Original and Genuine.
Portable Crock Filter.

ALL OTHERS ARE IMITATIONS,

Over 100,000 now in use,

Acknowledged the only complete Filter
ind Cooler in the world.

Et Wi ee eS

POPTABLE CROCK

Pol TER

WITH PORCELAIN-LINED

OXOR OS OM ce ee

This is the only Filter having the Pat-

Pat, Nov. 16, 1869, Oct. 15,,1878.

PaTENT PENDING.

The Latest Improvement

consists in’placing the filter‘ng material

in a separate vessel or crock. The ad-

vantage being this, viz ;

That whenever the filter part gives

ent Removable Filtering Cup attached,
which holds all sediment that would oth

out, a new crock can be obtained, which

will make the whole complete as when

erwise pass into the filter.

firstpurchesed. We, therefore, recom-

mend parties at a distance (instead of at- This celebrated F.lter will take river,

lake, pond, rain or other impure water,

tempting to get the Filter re-packed) that
and render the same of

they should purchase a new filter crock,

Sparkling Transparency

the cost of which is moderate, and no

more than the cost of repacking. and Purity.
ORNAMENTAL STYLE. STAINED OAK,

No. 71, Porcelain Reservoir, 414 quarts---- ---- $7.25 each. | No. 61, Porcelain Reservoir, 4% quarts----------- av tesepese $6:75,each:
“ “ cr 1 ue ts “ - ‘ ws PCO
Reet * TB 4 ane Sea £925) 5 62. 7% “~~~ =~ ~~~ =---~-------- ae
ne ee II 2 ee ee eee DXOo G5 ne ws Il ts :

74, 6 16 hie kee eat 13.00 se Crs “ ws 16 sb ‘
‘ 753 os be 26 De ee mesons Oop “ “ 26 “ ee

READ THE TWO MOST CONVINCING TESTIMONIALS.

Isaac S. Wittiams & Co., 728 Market Street, Philadelphia, Pa.—We have sold your ‘‘ Patent Water Filter’’ for the last six years. Our sales
m that time having reached upwards of five thousand, and in no instance have we heard of any failure in performing all you claim for them.

BOARD OF HEALTH, Washington, D. C., Aug. 27, 1877.

Wess & Pever:oce:—I am just in receipt of your favor of yesterday, requesting my opinion of the ** Jewett Filter’’ purchased of you sev~
etal months ago t'r my personal use, and am pleased to say that it has fully answered your expressed estimate of its value. As a cleanser and
purifier of drinking water it is certainly not excelled by any mechanical arrangement known to me, THE FOREGOING REMARKS APPLY EQUALLY
"Q THE LARGK FILTER OF THE SAME MAKE PURCHASED FOR THE Boarp.or HEALTH.

Very respectfully ycurs, CHRIS. C. COX, M.D.

Manufactured only by JOHN C. JEWETT & SONS, Buffalo, New York.

» €or SaLe 1n New York City sy KING, BRIGGS & CO., 596 Rroadway. J. H. BALDWIN & CO., 21 Murray Street. L. HEYNIGER,
38 Fulto: Street. CHARLES JONES, o20 Broadwav. LEWIS & CONGER, 6or Sixth Avent.

URANIA.

AN INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ASTRONOMY.

Under the above title we intend from January next to publish a Journal for astronomical research, for which
undertaking we are anxious to obtain your co-operation.

What chiefly induces us to increase the number of scientific periodicals by a new one is the circumstance that
every year many astronomical papers and memoirs of great value are published in Transactions or Proceedings of
Learned Societies, and, in consequence, remain unknown to many astronomers. In publishing Uranza it is our aim
to provide a receptacle for papers of this kind, which, we trust, will thereby become more generally-known, and by
preparing reviews or abstracts of all papers of any importance published in places where they seem likely to be over-
looked, we shall endeavor to keep our readers as fully acquainted as possible with the progress of astronomical
research. At the same time observations or ephemerides of planets, comets, etc., will not be excluded, and in
addition to purely astronomical subjects, the essentially cosmical phenomena of magnetism as connected with
Aurorae will also meet with their share of attention.

The journal will be printed in Dublin, and will be issued in numbers of from 16 to 24 pages each, demy 4to,
whenever we have material enough for a number. Longer memoirs will not be cut up in several parts, but will be
printed together in one number, or carried through two numbers without interruption. Shorter numbers will be
issued whenever subjects of more immediate interest shall require it, and in particular ephemerides of comets, etc.,
will be issued on advance sheets, if necessary.. Twelve numbers will contain 240 pages, and will form a volume.

The numbers will be sent by post to all subscribers. The subscription for one volume, including postage to all
countries in the postal union, is Sixteen Shillings, payabie in advance to the undersigned, J. L. E. DREYER. Post
Office Orders to be made payable at the General Post Office, Dublin. Intending subscribers are requested to send
in their subscription as soon as possible, in order that the number of copies to be printed may be known at once.
No. I. will be published early in January.

We have already secured the co-operation of eminent men of science both at home and abroad. Thus the two
first numbers will contain contributions from Lord Rosse, Lord Lindsay, Professor Klinkerfues, Professor Schjellerup,
Dr. R. S. Ball, Dr. Borgen, and others. Papers written in French, German, or Italian will be printed in the original
language (German MSS. are requested to be written in Roman characters),

RALPH COPELAND,
Observatory, Dunecht, Aberdeen.

Jk; Es DREYER;
Osservatory, Dunsink, Co. Dublin,

lv

BRAIN AND

SCIENCE.

NERVE FOOD. VITALIZED PHOS-PHITES,

Composed of the Vital or Nerve-gtving Principles of the Ox-Brain and Wheat-Germ.

IT RESTORES THE ENERGY LOST BY NERVOUSNESS OR INDIGESTION ; RELIEVES LASSITUDE, ERRATIC PAINS AND
NEURALGIA; REFRESHES THE NERVES TIRED BY WORRY, EXCITEMENT, OR EXCESSIVE BRAIN FATIGUE; STRENGTH-
ENS A FAILING MEMORY, AND GIVES RENEWED VIGOR IN ALL DISEASES OF NERVOUS EXHAUSTION OR DEBILITY
IT IS THE ONLY PREVENTIVE OF CONSUMPTION.

IT GIVES VITALITY TO THE INSUFFICIENT BODILY OR MENTAL GROWTH OF CHILDREN, PREVENTS FRETFULNESS

AND GIVES QUIET, REST AND SLEEP.

MOTES GOOD HEALTH TO BRAIN AND BODY.

PHYSICIANS HAVE PRESCRIBED 300,000 PACKAGES,
ae CROSBY, 664 & 666 Sixth Ave., N. Y.—London, 137 A Strand.

DRAWING INSTRUMENTS
And Materials of all kinds.
OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS,
Microscopes, Telescopes, &c.
G. S. WOOLMAN, 116 Fulton Street,
NEW YORK.

Send for Illus. Catalogue, and mention this Journal.

BOOS

RELATING TO m

PRACTICAL SCIENC

Embracing Works on Civil, Mechanical, Military
and Naval Engineering. Descriptive Catalogue
sent free on application.

E, & F. N. SPON, 446 Broome St., N. Y.

IT GIVES A BETTER DISPOSITION TO INFANTS AND CHILDREN, AS IT PRO-

For Sale by Druggists or by Mail, $1.

oise-Shell and Amber.
HANDSOMEST AND STRONGEST known.
Sold by Opticians and Jewellers.

CELLULOID EYE-GLASSES.

Representing the choicest selected Tor-
The LIGHTEST,

Made by
SPENCER OPT. MFG CO,,

13 MAIDEN LANE, NEW YORK,

4 STYLOGRAPHIC PENS
FOR SALE.

Cross’s PaTEnT, best quality, iridium points ;
just selected by expert from stock of manufac-
turers. Price $4 each.

N. B.—As these pens vary much in quality, the
present is a good opportunity to obtain a reliable
instrument. <Affply at Office of ** SC\ENCE,”’ 229
Broadway, Room 53, NV. Y.

TAKE THE BEST.

THE INTERNATIONAL REVIEW.

NEW MONTHLY SEQRIES.
JOHN T. MORSE, Jr., HENRY CABOT LODGE, Editors.

Price so Cents a month ; $5.00 a year. Specimen copies sent post-paid

on receipt of 15 cents.

AGENTS WANTED who understand the character, scope

and value of the REviEw, to solicit subscriptions.

A. S. BARNES

& OO.,

CHART OF

ANIMAL CLASSIFICATION

The Subkingdoms, Classes, Orders and Fam-
ilies, with examples, arranged according to the
principles of classification. Price, 15 cents.

Address,

A. B. GRIFFEN, 641 Broad St., Newark, N. J.

THE ASTRONOMICAL REGISTER.

Published Monthly.

Subscribers in America can send, either by Post Office Order

Present Number 214.

or in notes, $3.50 for one year’s subscription, postage included.
P. O. O. to be made payable to JOHN C. JACKSON, Lowe

Clapton, London, Eng.

111 & 113 William Street, New York. {

—— J. & H. BERGE,——

(Late Hall & Benjamin)

Catalogue.

IMPORTERS & MANUFACTURERS
—oOr—

CHEMICAL and PHYSICAL
APPARATUS

OF ALL KINDS,

191 GREENWICH & 95 JOHN STREETS, NEW YORK,
Send Postal for Descriptive & Illustrated

ADDRESS: 1r Angel Court, Throgmorton Street,

LONDON, ENG.

MEYROWITZ BROTHERS,

OPTICIANS,

297 Fourth Ave., N. Y.,

S. E. COR. 23D ST.

Trial Cases, Opthalmos-
copes, Artifical Eyes, Clinical
Thermometers, Microscopes,
Electric Batteries, ete.

Special attention given to

prescriptions of Oculists,

N. B,—An Illustrated Catalogue will
~ be sent free upon request,

SCIENCE:

A WHEKLY JOURNAL OF SCIENTIFIC PROGRESS.

No. 30, Vol. II.

CONTENTS.

January 22, 1881.

Relief Expedition to the Jeannette (Edit.); The Warner Prize for a New Comet; The Philosophical Society of Washington; The
Roches‘er Microscopical Society; Electric Fish, by the Marchioness Clara Lanza; Observations on Ice and Icebergs in the Polar

Regions, by Lieut. F.

Schwatka; On Heat Conduction in Highly Rarefied Air, by William Crookes; Professor Huxley on

Evolution; Recent Discoveries Relating to the Double Stars of the Dorpat Catalogue, by S. W. Burnham; Swift's Comet (New

Determination by Winslow Upton); Astronomical Memoranda (W. C.

Astronomical, etc., etc., etc.

SUBSCRIPTION, Four DoLLARsS A YEAR.

W.); Announcements; Notes, Physical, Chemical,

SrncLe Numsers, TEN CENTSe

—a

SCIENCE. iit

JEWETYS
Portable Crock Filter.

The Original and Genuine.

Over 100,000 now in use.

Acknowledged the orly complete Filter
ind Cooler in the world.

SEW EEL S

POF TABLE CROCK

Pate BR

WITH PORCELAIN-LINED

COO DARE

This is the only Filter having the Pat-

Put, Nov. 16,1869, Oct. 15, 1578,

Patent PENDING.

The Latest Improvement

consists in placing the filtering material

in a separate vessel or crock. The ad-

vantage being this, viz ;

That whenever the filter part gives

out, a new crock can be obtained, which ert Removable Filtering Cup attached,

which holds all sediment that would oth--

will make the whole complete as when

first purchesed. We, therefore, recom- erwise pass into the filter.

Th’s celebrated Filter will take river,

mend parties at a distance (instead of at-
lake, pond, rain or other impure water,

tempting to get the Filter re-packed) that
and render the same of

NI mn r
Po nS the cost of which is moderate, and no Sparkling Transparency
if — more than the cost of repacking. and Purity.
ORNAMENTAL, STYLE. STAINED OAK,

No. 71, Porc:lain Reservoir, 4% quarts-- $7.25 each. No. 61, Porcelain Reservoir, 414 quarts-----------.._ssaee0s. $6.75 each.
ce ‘ rs igen wee 9.25 * conieen re Pee Reka o, 2255555550 875“
“ 735 “ ue aS ae Py et oa ve us 63, “ “ oh Ci =. Io.s0 *

“ 74, “e “ 16 Cit ee ate | SK re 13.00 ue “ 4, us ue 16 ub res. . 12.50 be
755 a ss 26 Pu eee SE eee eee 15750, * alas SS ae 26 WO pane Oe ee eee DUCoveys ae

READ THE TWO MOST CONVINCING TESTIMONIALS.

Isaac S. Wittiams & Co., 728 Market Street, Philadelphia, Pa.—We have sold your ‘‘ Patent Water Filter’’ for the last six years. Our sales
m that time having reached upwards of five thousand, and in no instance have we heard of any failure in performing all you claim for them.

BOARD OF HEALTH, Washington, D. C., Aug. 27, 1877.
‘ _ ~ ; 5 s <a Ss
Were & Rever:oce:—I am just in receipt of your favor of yesterday, requesting my opinion of the ‘* Jewett Filter’’ purchased of you sev~
eral months ago for my personal use, and am pleased to say that it has fully answered your expressed estimate of its value. Asa cleanser and
purifier of drinking water it is certainly not excelled by any mechanical arrangement known to me, THE FOREGOING REMARKS APPLY EQUALLY

*Q THE LARGE FILTER OF THE SAME MAKE PURCHASED FOR THE BoarD OF HEALTH.
Very respectfully ycurs, CHRISHC, COX Map:

Manufactured only by JOHN C. JEWETT & SONS, ° Buffalo, New York,

for SALE In New York City sy KING, BRIGGS & CO., 596 Broadway. J. H. BALDWIN & CO., 21 Murray Street. L. HEYNIGER,
18 Fulton Street. CHARLES JONES, 020 Broadway. LEWIS & CONGER, 6or Sixth Avenve.

URANIA.

AN INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ASTRONOMY.

Under the above title we intend from January next to publish a Journal for astronomical research, for which
undertaking we are anxious to obtain your co-operation.

What chiefly induces us to increase the number of scientific periodicals by a new one is the circumstance that
every year many astronomical papers and memoirs of great value are published in Transactions or Proceedings of
Learned Societies, and, in consequence, remain unknown to many astronomers. In publishing Uranza it is our aim
to provide a receptacle for papers of this kind, which, we trust, will thereby become more generally known, and by
preparing reviews or abstracts of all papers of any importance published in places where they seem likely to be over-
looked, we shall endeavor to keep our readers as fully acquainted as possible with the progress of astronomical
research, At the same time observations or ephemerides of plane's, comets, etc., will not be excluded, and in
addition to purely astronomical subjects, the essentially cosmical phenomena of magnetism as connected with

_ Aurorae will also meet with their share of attention,

The journal will be printed in Dublin, and will be issued in numbers of from 16 to 24 pages each, demy 4to,
whenever we have material enough for a number. Longer memoirs will not be cut up in several parts, but will be
printed together in one number, or carried through two numbers without interruption. Shorter numbers will be
issued whenever subjects of more immediate interest shall require it, and in particular ephemerides of comets, etc.,
will be issued on advance sheets, if necessary. Twelve numbers will contain 240 pages, and will form a volume. ©

The numbers will be sent by post to all subscribers. The subscription for ore volume, including postage to all
countries in the postal union, is Sixteen Shillings, payabie in advance to the undersigned, J. L. E. DREYER. Post
Office Orders to be made payable at the General Post Office, Dublin. Intending subscribers are requested to send
in their subscription as soon as possible, in order that the number of copies to be printed may be known at once.
No. I. will be published early in January.

We have already secured the co-operation of eminent men of science both at home and abroad. Thus the two
first numbers will contain contributions from Lord Rosse, Lord Lindsay, Professor Klinkerfues, Professor Schjellerup,
Dr. R. S. Ball, Dr. Borgen, and others. Papers written in French, German, or Italian will be printed in the original
language (German MSS. are requested to be written in Roman characters).

RALPH COPELAND, J. L..E.. DREYER,
Observatory, Dunecht, Aberdeen. Observatory, Dunsink, Co. Dublin.

iv SCIENCE.

BRAIN ANP gon, VITALIZED PHOS-PHITES,

Composed of the Vital or Nerve-gtving Principles of the Ox-Brain and Wheat-Germ.

IT RESTORES THE ENERGY LOST BY NERVOUSNESS OR INDIGESTION ; RELIEVES LASSITUDE, ERRATIC PAINS AND
NEURALGIA ; REFRESHES THE NERVES TIRED BY WORRY, EXCITEMENT, OR EXCESSIVE BRAIN FATIGUE; STRENGTH-
ENS A FAILING MEMORY, AND GIVES RENEWED VIGOR IN ALL DISEASES OF NERVOUS EXHAUSTION OR DEBILITY
IT IS THE ONLY PREVENTIVE OF CONSUMPTION.

IT GIVES VITALITY TO THE INSUFFICIENT BODILY OR MENTAL GROWTH OF CHILDREN, PREVENTS FRETFULNESS
AND GIVES QUIET, REST AND SLEEP. IT GIVES A BETTER DISPOSITION TO INFANTS AND CHILDREN, AS IT PRO-
MOTES GOOD HEALTH TO BRAIN AND BODY.

PHYSICIANS HAVE PRESCRIBED 300,000 PACKAGES. For Sale by Druggists or by Mail, $r.

F. CROSBY, 664 & 666 Sixth Ave., N. Y.—London, 137 A Strand.

DRAWING INSTRUMENTS CELLULOID EYE-GLASSES.

pnd Materials Chala: Representing the choicest selected Tor-

OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS, | oise-Shell and Amber. The LIGHTEST,

Microscopes, Telescopes, &c. HANDSOMEST AND STRONGEST known.

G. S. WOOLMAN, 116 Fulton Street, Sold by Opticians and Jewellers. Made by
NEW YORK. | SPENCER OPT. M’F’G CO.,

Send for Illus. Catalogue, and mention this Journal, 13 MAIDEN LANE, NEW YORK

B O.O2KsS | 4. STYLOGRAPHIC PENS | CHART OF

RELATING TO FOR SALE:
es t aaalivy itidium pointe. | ANIMAL CLASSIFICATION
PRACTICAL SCIENCE | fist cele bp pee eee =

turers. Price $4 each. A . i
; ine Work aril i ili “| 2 . ilies, with examples, arranged according to the
Embracing Works on Civil, Mechanical, Military N. B.—As these pens vary much io quality, the principles of classification. Price, 15 cenis.

and Naval Engineering. Descriptive Catalogue 4: é -
sate present is a good opportunity to obtain a reliable | ~ 4 ddyes
Sai es TESTE iatcnient. Aas nt Opes os Cacimen,” 20 AB. GRIPPBN, 6i1 Broad St, Newark, N, J
; was ‘ 0 ., Newark, N, J.

The Subking?oms, Classes, Orders and Fam-

E.& FN. SPON, 446 Broome Sty N.Y, | 2veadway, Room 53, N. 3

TAKE THE BEST.

TER.
THE INTERNATIONAL Review, | [HE ASTRONOMICAL REGIS

NEW MONTHLY SERIES. Published Monthly, Present Number 214.
JOHN T. MORSE, Jr., HENRY CABOT LODGE, Editors. Subscribers in America can send, either by Post Office Order
Price 50 Cents a month ; $5.00 a year. Specimen copies sent post paid or in notes, $3.50 for one year’s subscription, postage included.
Sp ag ea Meee : P. O. O. to be made payable to JOHN ©. JACKSON, Lowe
AGENTS WANTED who understand the character, scope
and value of the REview, to solicit subscriptions. Clapton, London, Eng.
A. S. BARNES & CO., ADDREsSs: 11 Angel Court, Throgmorton Street,
111 & 113 William Street, New York. ‘ LONDON, ENG.
—J. & H. BERGE,—— | MEYROWITZ BROTHERS,
(Late Hall & Benjamin) OPTI CIANS
see IMPORTERS & MANUFACTURERS ’
ea Ore 997 Fourth Ave., N. Y.,
; S. E. COR. 23D ST.
CHEMICAL and PHYSICAL 4
AP PA RATUS Lrial Cases, Optha/mos-

copes, Artifical Eyes, Clinical
Thermometers, Microscopes,
Electric Batteries, etc.
Special attention given to
prescriptions of Oculists.

N. B.—An Illustrated Catalogue will
— be sent free upon request, :

OF ALL KINDS,

191 GREENWICH & 95 JOHN STREETS, NEW YORK,

Send Postal for Descriptive & Illustrated
Catalogue.

se

SCIENCE:

A WEEKLY JOURNAL OF SCIENTIFIC PROGRESS.

No. 29, Vol: Il. =!) - - January 15, 1881.

CONTENTS.

Dr. George F. Beard on Mesmeric Trance (Edit.); New York Academy of Sci:nces; Hunger the Primitive Desire, by S. V. Clevenger ’
Notes on the Anatomy of the Encephal on, Notably of the Great Ganglia, by Edward C. Spitzka; Effect of Pressure on the Fusion
Point; Tne Philosophical Society of Washington; Hypnotism; [Che Hanmond Prize; Chesapeake Zoological Laboratory ; The
Materialistic Origin of the Sexes, by Andrew Dewar; The Mechanics of Bird-Flight; Color Relations of Metals; Detection of
Starch-Sugar Mechanically Mixed with Commercial Canz-Sugar, by P. Casamajor; The Late Partial Eclipse of the Sun, and
Pennule’s Comet, by C. A. Young; Larg Meteors, by W. F. Denning; The Report of the ‘“Kew Committee,” 1880, by W. C. W.;
The Observatories of the Uni'ed States, I. (Carleton Colleg2 Observatory); On the Limit of Planetary Stability, by Daniel Kirk-
wood; Letters to the Editor, Notes, Astronomical, Chemical, Paysicil, etc., ete., etc.

SUBSCRIPTION, Four DoLLaRs A YEAR. SincLe Numsers, TEN CENTSe

SCIENCE. iij

JEWETT'S
Portable Crock Filter.

ALL OTHERS ARE IMITATIONS,
Over 100,000 now in use.

Acknowledged the only complete Filter

Put, Nov. 16, 1869, Oct, 15, 1878. .
k ; : and Cooler in the world.

OE WEE Tres

PORTABLE CROCK

Pali ER

WITH PORCELAIN-LINED

COlvO Bibs

This is the only Filter having the Pat-

PaTENT PENDING.

The Latest Improvement

consists in placing the filtering material
in a separate vessel or crock. The ad-
vantage being this, viz ;

That whenever the filter part gives

out, a new crock can be obtained, which ent Removable Filtering Cup attached,

which holds all sediment that would oth.

will make the whole complete as when

erwise pass into the filter.

first purchesed. We, therefore, recom-

This celebrated Filter will take river,

mend parties at a distance (instead of at-

tempting to get the Filter re-packed) that lake, pond, rain or other impure water,

Ti To

they should purchase a new filter crock, and render the same of

Sparkling Transparency
and Purity.

the cost of which is moderate, and no

more than the cost of repacking.

ORNAMENTAL, STYLE.

No. 71, Porcelain Reservoir, 44% quarts---.----------------- $7.25 each. ~-es. $6.75 each.
os ts cs) L 7 > ee
ollbier ce Tain 2 nan === e------- 9-25 aaa REE

735 2 II OD RE ee ioe. oo. of oa 10-50) as
Ths Bs ae 16 Sint gore eS -13(00) VSS recigey
bay I= Pe Ws 26 CS Se Be ruse 6s os a eee 82: 9: T5LOO} oes

5 =h)
READ TH2 TWO MOST CONVINCING TESTIMONIALS.

Isaac S. Wittiams & Co., 728 Market Street, Philadelphia, Pa.—We have sold your ‘‘ Patent Water Filter’? for the last siz years. Our sales
m that time having reached upwards ot five thousand, and in no instance have we heard of any failure in performing all you claim for them.

: BOARD OF HEALTH, Washington, D. C., Aug. 27, 1877.
Wess & Beverroce:—I am just in receipt of your favor of yesterday, requesting my opinion of the ** Jewett Filter’? purchased of you sev~
eral months ago for my personal use, and am pleased to say that it has fully answered your expressed estimate of its value. As a cleanser and
purifier of drinking water it is certainly not excelled by any mechanical arrangement known to me. THE FOREGOING REMARKS APPLY EQUALLY

*Q THE LARGER FILTER OF THE SAME MAKE PURCHASED FOR THE BoarD oF HEALTH.
Very respectfully ycurs, CHRIS. C. COX, M.D.

Manufactured only by JOHN C. JEWETT & SONS, Buffalo, New York.

for SaLe In New York City sy KING, BRIGGS & CO., 596 Broadway. J. H. BALDWIN & CO., 21 Murray Street. L. HEYNIGER,
18 Fulton Street. CHARLES JONES, o20 Broadway. LEWIS & CONGER, 601 Sixth Aventie.

URANIA.

AN INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ASTRONOMY.

Under the above title we intend from January next to publish a Journal for astronomical research, for which
undertaking we are anxious to obtain your co-operation.

What chiefly induces us to increase the number of scientific periodicals by a new one is the circumstance that
every year many astronomical papers and memoirs of great value are published in Transactions or Proceedings of
Learned Societies, and, in consequence, remain unknown to many astronomers. In publishing Urandza it is our aim
to provide a receptacle for papers of this kind, which, we trust, will thereby become more generally known, and by
preparing reviews or abstracts of all papers of any importance published in places where they seem likely to be over-
looked, we shall endeavor to keep our readers as fully acquainted as possible with the progress of astronomical
research. At the same time observations or ephemerides of planets, comets, etc., will not be excluded, and in
addition to purely astronomical subjects, the essentially cosmical phenomena of magnetism as connected with
Aurorae will also meet with their share of attention.

The journal will be printed in Dublin, and will be issued in numbers of from 16 to 24 pages each, demy 4to,
whenever we have material enough for a number. Longer memoirs will not be cut up in several parts, but will be
printed together in one number, or carried through iwo numbers without interruption. Shorter numbers will be
issued whenever subjects of more immediate interest shall require it, and in particular ephemerides of comets, etc.,
will be issued oa advance sheets, if necessary. Twelve numbers will contain 240 pages, and will form a volume.

The numbers will be sent by post to all subscribers. The subscription for one volume, including postage to all
countries in the postal union, is Sixteen Shillings, payabie in advance to the undersigned, J. L. E. DREYER. Post
Office Orders to be made payable at the General Post Office, Dublin. Intending subscribers are requested to send
in their subscription as soon as possible, in order that the number of copies to be printed may be known at once.
No. I. will be published early in January.

We have already secured the co-operation of eminent men of science both at home and abroad. Thus the two
first numbers will contain contributions from Lord Rosse, Lord Lindsay, Professor Klinkerfues, Professor Schjellerup,
DreRo Se Ball, Dr. Borgen, and others. Papers written in French, German, or Italian will be printed in the original
language (German MSS. are requested to be written in Roman characters).

RALPH COPELAND, J. L. E. DREYER,
Observatory, Dunecht, Aberdeen. Observatory, Dunsink, Co. Dublin.

iv Base SCIENCE .

nani ER On
BRANERVE roop. VI TALIZED PHOS-PHITES,

Composed of the Vital or Nerve-giving Principles of the Ox-Brain and Wheat-Germ.

IT RESTORES THE ENERGY LOST BY NERVOUSNESS OR INDIGESTION ; RELIEVES LASSITUDE, ERRATIC PAINS AND
NEURALGIA ; REFRESHES THE NERVES TIRED BY WORRY, EXCITEMENT, OR EXCESSIVE BRAIN FATIGUE; STRENGTH-
ENS A FAILING MEMORY, AND GIVES RENEWED VIGOR IN ALL DISEASES OF NERVOUS EXHAUSTION OR DEBILITY
IT IS THE ONLY PREVENTIVE OF CONSUMPTION.

IT GIVES VITALITY TO THE INSUFFICIENT BODILY OR MENTAL GROWTH OF CHILDREN, PREVENTS FRETFULNESS
AND GIVES QUIET, REST AND SLEEP. IT GIVES A BETTER DISPOSITION TO INFANTS AND CHILDREN, AS IT PRO-
MOTES GOOD HEALTH TO BRAIN AND BODY.

PHYSICIANS HAVE PRESCRIBED 300,000 PACKAGES, For Sale by Druggists or by Mail, $r.

F. CROSBY, 664 & 666 Sixth Ave.,N. Y.—London, 137 A Strand.

DRAWING INSTRUMENTS | CELLULOID EYE-GLASSES.

and Mater ale Ohana: | Representing the choicest selected Tor-

OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS, oise-Shell and Amber. The LIGHTEST,

Microscopes, Telescopes, &c. HANDSOMEST AND STRONGEST known.

G. S$. WOOLMAN, 116 Fulton Street, Sold by Opticians and Jewellers. Made by
NEW YORK. SPENCER OPT. MFG CO.,

Send for | Illus. Catalogue, and mention this Journal, I3 MAIDEN LANE, NEW YORK

BO O KS | 4 STYLOGRAPHIC PENS | CHART OF

ite rng bet aati diam goss, ANIMAL CLASSIFICATION
PRACTIC A L SCTE N CE: Ree, fiom stocks of manta]

b Vv 1. Mech | turers. Price $4 each ilies, with examples, arranged according to the
Be eee ale ecrae N. B.—As these pens vary much ia quality, the | | principles of classification. Price, 15 cents.

and Naval Engineering. Descriptive Catalogue | present is a d = b li bl
=ss A goo opportunity to obtain a reliable S.
sent free on application. a ar Apply at Office of * SC\ENCE,”’ 229 | eee GRIFFEN. 641 Broad St., Newark, N. J
. Be EN, road St., Newark, N. 7.

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vaxe tue west. | Te AerRONOMICAL REGISTER.
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SCIENCE:

A WEEKLY JOURNAL OF SCIENTIFIC PROGRESS.

Volo; Worl: - ~ - ~ = _ - January 8, 1881.
CONTENTS.

Ihe Report of the United States Fish Commission, 1878 (Edit ); The American Chemical Society ; On a Thermo-Magnetic Thermo-
scope, by Sir William Thomson; Tne Unity of Nature, IV.. by the Duke of Argyll; Elements of Swift's Come’, computed by
Prof. E. Frisby; The Solar Eclipse, by W. C. W.; Ephemeris of Swift's Comet, by. W.C. W.; Eclipse of the Sun, by L. Trouvelot;
Jupi-er, Observations of the Great Red Spot, by E. E. Barnard; The Cambridge Observatory, by W. C. W.; On the Thermal

Balance, by Prof. S. P. Langley; Polydactylism in Man, by Dr. i; Gh Spitzka; The New York Microscopical Society ; Books Re-
ceived. General Notes.

SUBSCRIPTION, Four DoLLars A YEAR. SincLe Numsers, TEN CENTS.

— SCIENCE

A WEEKLY RECORD OF SCIENTIFIC PROGRESS.

ILLUSTRATED.

Entered in the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington, D.C.

No. 32—Vol. II. February 5, 1881. Price 10 Cents.

_ LABOR-SAVERS LENGTHEN LIFE.

UR aim is to furnish improved tools and appliances for those who work at the desk or in the study. Many of our articles are unique, and are
() the result of the focalized experience and skill of a large body of literary workers. Thus selecting the best, we reduce the cost to the
minimum by manufacturing in large quantities. Our customers may thus be sure of getting the best devices at the lowest prices.

All interested are cordially invited to visit our stores, without feeling under obligations to purchase. It will repay you to see the many new and
useful improvements we are introducing. They are intended for wide-awake minds who are seeking the best and surest ways of record, arrangement,
and communication, and for those who enjoy comfortable reading and writing in comfortable surroundings.

An Illustrated Catalog and Price List of 400 articles is free to applicants, and includes every requisite needed for fitting
up a desk, study or library.

THE. PERFECTED STYLOGRAFIC PEN,

A. T. Cross’ PATENT.

A PENCIL THAT WRITES INK, NEVER NEEDS SHARPENING, AND NEVER WEARS OUT.

Recent patented improvements have obviated all previous defects, and placed it far ahead of similar pens. Beware of imitations, and get the best
and only Perfect Pen. Warranted to suit or no sale.

pPHoTo ELECTMOTYPE €0/G0sTO"-

Our latest pattern, the LU ETLE GIANT, is the most perfect outfit for writing ever made. It is Pen, Holder, and Inkstand, allin one; but
three inches long, and holds ink enough for fifty pages of foolscap. May be carried in pocket, or on watch chain or eyeglass cord. Made in great

variety of style and finish.
PRICE, $2.50 to $5.00.

We instance a few of our many Speci ties for Literary and Desk Work:

THE ECONOMY Index, Study Table, Reading Desk, Eye Shade, Student Lamp, Book Support, Inkstand, Sloping and Revolving Bookcases,
etc. are each selected by experts as the best to be had for the money.

SLOPING BOOKCASE,.—Entirely new—Six ] (ig shelves, periodical rack, heavy castors, fine finish, holds more for the money than common
cases, as movable as an easy chair. $15, ash; $17.50, walnut.

STUDENT’S FOLDING TABLE.—Handsome, strong enough to hold safely 300 volumes, larger than a writing desk, folds instantly, occupies
only the space of a table leaf, can be carried easily anywhere by achild. Price $3. Inlaid chess board, or black walnut, $4.

SAVE YOUR EYES AND YOUR BACK.—Clark’s Portable Book Rest will do more than anything else to correct the tendency to near-sight~
edness and round shoulders. The highest certificates from eminent physicians and oculists. Five styles, 15 to so cents each. Postage, 2 cents to 13
cents each,

UTILITY SCRAP BOOKS.—No paste, pins, or springs, self-indexed. Of the 35 people who looked at it first, 25 bought copies. Price,
$1.50.

THE BEST ARTIFICIAL LIGHT KNOWN is the Genuine German Student Lamp, made by the original inventor, Kleemann, with improve-
ments suggested by eminent American oculists. Extra large size, $4.50, brass; $5.50, nickel. 12 wicks, packed free for express ; sold as cheap
as inferior imitations,

SAVE YOUR EYES.—The Economy Patent Eye Shade, ventilated, reversible, self-adjusting, fits any head; no rubbers; no strings; three
widths ; the only perfect device to protect the eyes. Warranted to suit. 20 cents each.

PERFECT PEN-GAGE INKSTANDS.—The only perfect scientific Inkstand yet made. Sold on trial, warranted the best and to save their
costinink. $1.30 to $2.50 each. 5

HAMBLER POCKET FOR PEN AND PENCIL.—A simple,cheap device that carries pencil or Stylografic pen more conveniently than acoat or
vest pocket, and from which ¢hey cannot be lost. Men who have lost several dollars worth of pencils and pens when stooping have tried this, and say
they would not be withov* ** for ten times its cost. Price, 2Oc. for 2 pencils, to 4-Oc. for 4 pencils. Russia Jeather, with safety attachmen for

coat, V r dress. ;
eee READERS AND WRITERS ECONOMY COMPANY,

25-33 FRANKLIN STREET, BOSTON. 4 BonD STREET, NEW YORK. 69 STATE STREET, CHICAGO,

‘SCIENCE.

SCIENCE:

A'WEEKLY JOURNAL. OF SCIENTIFIC PROGRES:

eee
me

ILLUSTRATED.

To Correspondents.

All communications should be addressed to the Editor—box 3838, P. O., New York—with name and address of
writer, not necessarily for publication without consent.

Scientific papers and correspondence intended for publication should be written egzé/y on one side only of the
paper. Articles thus received will be returned when found unsuitable for the Journal.

Those engaged in Scientific Research are invited to make this Journal the medium of recording their work, and
facilities will be extended to those desirous of publishing original communications possessing merit.

Proceedings ‘of Scientific Societies will be recorded, but the abstracts furnished must be signed by the
Secretaries.

Both questions and answers in “Notes and Queries ”’ should be made as brief as possible ; an answer appearing
tc demand an elaborate reply may be written in the form of an article.

To Subscribers.

Terms of subscriptions for SCIENCE will be $4 a year, payable in advance. Six months, $2.50. Single copies

Io cents.
Subscriptions forwarded by mail should be addressed to the Editor, Box 3838, P. O., New York, and Post-office

Orders made payable to “ John Michels.”

To Advertisers.
Terms for advertising may be obtained at the office of the Journal, 229 BROADWAY, New York.

CLUB RATES.

Subscrip-| With Subscrip}_ With
tion. | SCIENCE. tion. |ScIENCE.

Analyst) 2o- sean nema es bee noes oe $2.00 $5.50 Tron. 2 axon awn Ser ee ae eee a eo ee eee 7-50 0.34
Appleton’s Monthly-------- Saerorci|s shes) 6.26 Journal of the Telegraph- 2.00 5.50
AMERICAN NATURALIST. ---.--.-~.---.-2 ------------ 4.00 7-20 Londom'Lancet ss. 0/-= {52% 3 soe teeese ees 5.00 7-50
AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. ..-.---------------- 6.00 8.50 Magazine of American History---.------------ 2.00 5-50
American Journal of Microscopy--------------------- 1.00 4.79 MINING AND SCIENTIFIC PREssS-- 4.00 6.40
American Machinist: << - sade nee one ee ce sae ea 3.00 6.70 Natute 2%. es oe ee ee ee 6.00 9.15
American Monthly Microscopical Journal_-_----.------ 1,00 4.80 IN. Y.sMedicallonumal = Sono soe eee .| 4.00 7.00
American Manufacturer and Iron World----.-------- 4.25 7.00 || New England Journal of Education------------ 3.00 6.40
Boston Journal of (Chemistry---- £5 ease ee £.00 4.75 North American Review---..----------------- 5.00 7.78
Whicago Medical (Reviewer-.--=--csmen-- oe eeee as 2.00 5:50)! Ill Operator. eet. peas ree eee 1.00 4.80
Chicago Wield -- ese eee 4.00 7:09 || PopuLar ScieENCE MONTHLY 5.00 8.00
Drip risten.-= sone 1.60 5.25 Plumber and Sanitary Engineer_-..-....---------- 2.00 5.50
Druggists’ Cireular 1.50 5.25 Practical American-s-2s02so-+ eee eae eee a eee 1.50 5.00
Educational Monthly (Barnes )-------- .------------ 1.50 5720\, ||| “Pacific (Rural #Pressie-ne soe. sees sep eo 4.00 7.00
PACE TE ING WS pee eae = eee eee 3-00 6.25 Scobner’s Monthlys-csec sen ances aeons 4.00 7.20
Engineering and Mining Journal._------------------- 4.00 7,00 <I “Science Observersae. oaeen anno eeee noe ee eee | “50 4.40
GN CACION see ances ae meee me ee eae ea 4.00 7.00 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN? oc teccs ape ot aseeeeeee 3.20 6.56
Engineering Magazine- See ee ee ae ee 5.00 CHAS ® ||) by ye SUPPLEMENT .---.----- £ 5.00 8.00
atpers MapazZinte- eeero ease werner ss 4.00 7-00 ee id WITH SUPPLEMENT. 7.00 9.60
Rlarpers) Weekly aeonce. on == eae nena eae eee 4.00 7.20 || Southern Medical Record 2.00 5.40
Par perk DAZAt nen nk eee ee a eee 4.00 7-20 Stident.:22,0.283.00.2sheeueen 1,00 4.75
Harper's Young Peopje--...-.-.----..-. 1.50 5.20 || St. Nicholas... 3.00 6.40
FAUMBOLDT WUIBRARY a. -alsis<som amen ea arama nee 3.00 6.25 | Young Scientist 50 4.30
International Review.--------- A St See ae eee 5,00 8.00 ||

BOOKS AT TRADE PRICE.

Among the facilities we offer to regular subscrzbers is the purchase of BoOKS at trade prices, making a reduction
ranging from 20 to 40 per cent. on the publishing prices. Buyers of a few books may thus, during a year, save the
fall cost of subscription to ‘‘SCIENCE.”’ Send name of Book, Author and Publisher and in reply a postal card will
be sent, stating amount to be remitted,

oCIENCE

A WEEKLY RECORD OF SCIENTIFIC PROGRESS

ILLUSTRATED.

Entered in the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington, D.C.

No. 33—Vol. Il.

LABOR-SAVERS LENGTHEN LIFE.

February 12, 1881. Price 10 Cents.

the result of the focalized experience and skill of a large body of literary workers. Thus selecting the best, we reduce the cost to the
minimum by manufacturing in large quantities. Our customers may thus be sure of getting the best devices at the lowest prices.

All interested are cordially invited to visit our stores, without feeling under obligations to purchase. It will repay you to see the many new and
useful improvements we are introducing. They are intended for wide-awake minds who are seeking the best and surest ways of record, arrangement,
and communication, and for those who enjoy comfortable reading and writing in comfortable surroundings.

An Illustrated Catalog and Price List of 400 articles is free to applicants, and includes every requisite needed for fitting
up a desk, study or library.

O5 aim is to furnish improved tools and appliances for those who work at the desk or in the study. Many of our articles are unique, and are

LHE PERFECTED STYLOGRAFIC. PEN,

A. T. Cross’ PATENT.

A PENCIL THAT WRITES INK, NEVER NEEDS SHARPENING, AND NEVER WEARS OUT.

Recent patented improvements have obviated all previous defects, and placed it far ahead of similar pens. Beware of imitations, and get the best
and only Perfect Pen. Warranted to suit or no sale.

Our latest pattern, the LITTLE GILANTE, is the most perfect outfit for writing ever made. It is Pen, Holder, and Inkstand, allin one; but
three inches long, and holds ink enough for fifty pages of foolscap. May be carried in pocket, or on watch chain or eyeglass cord. Made in great

variety of style and finish,
PRICE, $2.50 to $5.00.

We instance a few of our many Speci ties for Literary and Desk Work:

THE ECONOMY Index, Study Table, Reading Desk, Ey shade, Student Lamp, Book Support, Inkstand, Sloping and Revolving Bookcases,
etc.. are each selected by experts as the best to be had for the money.

SLOPING BOOKCASE,.—Entirely new—Six | g shelves, periodical rack, heavy castors, fine finish, holds more for the money than common
cases, as movable as an easy chair. $15, ash; $17.50, walnut.

STUDENT’S FOLDING TABLE.—Handsome, strong enough to hold safely 300 volumes, larger than a writing desk, folds instantly, occupies
only the space of a table leaf, can be carried easily anywhere by a child. Price $3. Inlaid chess board, or black walnut, $4.

SAVE YOUR EYES AND YOUR BACK.—Clark’s Portable Book Rest will do more than anything else to correct the tendency to near-sight~
edness and round shoulders. The highest certificates from eminent physicians and oculists. Five styles, 15 to so cents each. Postage, 2 cents to 13
cents each.

UTILITY SCRAP BOOKS.—No paste, pins, or springs, self-indexed. Of the 35 people who looked at it first, 25 bought copies. Price,
$1.50.

THE BEST ARTIFICIAL LIGHT KNOWN is the Genuine German Student Lamp, made by the original inventor, Kleemann, with improve-
ments suggested by eminent American oculists, Extra large size, $4.50, brass; $5.50, nickel. 12 wicks, packed free for express ; sold as cheap
as inferior imitations.

SAVE YOUR EYES.—The Economy Patent Eye Shade, ventilated, reversible, self-adjusting, fits any head; no rubbers; no strings; three
widths ; the only perfect device to protect the eyes. Warranted to suit. 2O cents each.

PERFECT PEN-GAGE INKSTANDS.—The only perfect scientific Inkstand yet made. Sold on trial, warranted the best and to save their
sostinink. $1.30 to $2.50 each.

HAMBLER POCKET FOR PEN AND PENCIL.—A simple,cheap device that carries pencil or Stylografic pen more conveniently thanacoat or
vest pocket, and from which they cannot be lost. Men who have lest several dollars worth of pencils and pens when stooping have tried this, and say
they would not be withov* ** for ten times its cost. Price, 2Oc. for 2 pencils, to 4Oc. for 4 pencils. Russia leather, with safety attachmen for

at, Vv r dress,
ae READERS AND WRITERS ECONOMY COMPANY,

25-33 FRANKLIN STREET, BOSTON, 4 BOND STREET, NEW YORK, 69 STATE STREET, CHICAGO,

ii SCIENCE:

SCIENCE

A WEEKLY JOURNAL OF SCIENTIFIC PROGRESS.

ILLUSTRATED.

To Correspondents.

All communications should be addressed to the Editor—box 3838, P. O., New York—with name and address of
writer, not necessarily for publication without consent.

Scientific papers and correspondence intended for publication should be written /egzb/y on one side only of the
paper. Articles thus received will be returned when found unsuitable for the Journal.

Those engaged in Scientific Research are invited to make this Journal the medium of recording their work, and
facilities will be extended to those desirous of publishing original communications possessing merit.

Proceedings of Scientific Societies will be recorded, b.t the abstracts furnished must be signed by the
Secretaries.

Both questions and answers in “ Notes and Queries ’’ should be made as brief as possible ; an answer appearing
te demand an elaborate reply may be written in the form of an article.

To Subscribers.

Terms of subscriptions for SCIENCE will be $4 a year, payable in advance. Six months, $2.50. Single copies
Io cents.

Subscriptions forwarded by mail should be addressed to the Editor, Box 3838, P. O., New York, and Post-office
Orders made payable to “ John Michels.”

To Advertisers.

Terms for advertising may be obtained at the office of the Journal, 229 BROADWAY, New York.

CLUB RATES.

Subserip-| | With Subscrip| With
tion. | SCIENCE. tion, |ScIENCE.

Atralyst) = --=---s2-> =- ne ccosseRsonscée tse ---| $2.00 $5:507)4lron sce ee ee eee 7-50 9-34
Appice Ei onthly eee -s5e sores eee -| 3.00 6.26 ae of the Telegraph------- 2.00 5-50
AMERICAN NATURALIST? -324- Ss204-252-=525-—— =e 4.00 7.20 London Wancetoes-ao) -eeeeoeees 5.00 7-50
AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE--------------- : 6.00 8.50 Magazine of American History--- 2.00 5.50
American Journal of Microscopy------------- =o 1.00 4.70 MINING AND SCIENTIFIC PRESS---- 4.00 6.40
Auderican Machinist: .7~22 sce ene ee sees == aK 6.70 Wa fire. +. 0 scas eee ee ee 6.00 9.15
American Monthly Microscopical Journal__-_- i 1,00 4.80 N= Y.(Medicallijournal- 525 823: seen eee ; 4.00 7.00
American Manufacturer and Iron World----- al) Aeeeas 7.00 New England Journal of Education 3.00 6.40
Boston Journal of Chemistry e £.00 75 North American Review 5.00 7-75
Chicago Medical Review----- = 2.00 5.50 Operator cae sen ee eee ee 1.00 4.80
Chicago Field-----~------_-- 2 = 88 =e 4.00 7.00 ScieENCE MONTHLY..----------- 5.00 6.00
DD ET GETS Dn ois a a wm lm ee 1.60 5-25 Sanitary Engineer --------------- 3-00 6.50
Druggists’ GtecWar 2 an enue ee ae 1.50 5-25 Practical Americany.--==-5---———— 1.50 5.00
Fducational Monthly (Barnes ).--..--. -..---------- 1.50 5.20 Pacific Rural Press...--.--------- 4.00 7.00
Engineering News. --.------.-----=------------ : 3-00 6.25 Scribner’s Monthly.--.----------- 4.00 7.20
Engineering and Mining Journal._--..-..---_-- = 4.00 7.00 Science Observer--.-----..------- «50 4.49
Education -...--.--------------------------- ae 4.00 7.00 ScrentTiric AMERICAN. ..-..---- 3-20 6.56
E ngineering Magazine = 522322 22s esos = 5.00 8.25 shy - 5.00 8.00
rarpers Magaziné- 2555 2 -2cce .2osn ose eee . 4.00 7.00 sy 7:00 9.60
Harpers Weekly s Sona ae met sete ee eee - 4.00 7.20 Southern Medical Record 2.00 5.49
Harper’ SN AD AD ore Bereta ae Se ee S25 4.00 7.20 = PNGEMT. <3 on eee ee eee ene 1.00 4-75
Harper’s Young People: Se Oe ae . 1.50 5.20 St. Nicholas... 3.00 6.40
HUMBOLDT VLIBRARY s2-- . co east aa shoee pees . 3.00 6.25 Young Scientist 50 4.30
international Review... ss stesenc one Sven eee 5.00 8.00
—EEE

BOOKS AT TRADE PRICE.

Among the facilities we offer to regular subscribers is the purchase of BoOKs at trade prices, making a reduction
ranging from 20 to 4o per cent. on the publishing prices. Buyers of a few books may thus, during a year, save the
fall cost of subscription to ““ SCIENCE.”” Send name of Book, Author and Publisher and in reply a postal card will
be sent, stating amount to be remitted,

A WEEKLY RECORD OF SCIENTIFIC PROGRESS.

ILLUSTRATED.

Entered in the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington, D.C.

Nol SH=Vol ll. February 19, 1881.

_LABOR-SAVERS LENGTHEN LIFE.

UR aim is to furnish improved tools and appliances for those who work at the desk or in the study. Many of our articles are unique, and are
() the result of the focalized experience and skill of a large body of literary workers. Thus selecting the best, we reduce the cost to the
minimum by mauufacturing in large quantities. Our customers may thus be sure of getting the best devices at the lowest prices.

All interested are cordially invited to visit our stores, without feeling under obligations to purchase. It will repay you to see the many new and
useful improvements we are introducing. They are intended for wide-awake minds who are seeking the best and surest ways of record, arrangement,
and communication, and for those who enjoy comfortable reading and writing in comfortable surroundings.

An Illustrated Catalog and Price List of 400 articles is free to applicants, and includes every requisite needed for fitting
up a desk, study or library.

Price 10 Cents.

THE PERFECTED STYLOGRAFIC PEN,

_ A. T. Cross’ Patent.

A PENCIL THAT WRITES INK, NEVER NEEDS SHARPENING, AND NEVER WEARS OUT.

Recent patented improvements have obviated all previous defects, and placed it far ahead of similar pens. Beware of imitations, and get the best
and only Perfect Pen. Warranted to suit or no sale.

Our latest pattern, the LI TELE GIANT, is the most perfect outfit for writing ever made. It is Pen, Holder, and Inkstand, allin one; but
three inches long, and holds ink enough for fifty pages of foolscap. May be carried in pocket, or on watch chain or eyeglass cord. Made in great

variety of style and finish, :
PRICE, $2.50 to $5.00.

We instance a few of our many Specialties for Literary and Desk Work:
THE ECONOMY Index, Study Table, Reading Desk, Eye Shade, Student Lamp, Book Support, Inkstand, Sloping and Revolving Bookcases,
etc,. are each selected by experts as the best to be had for the money.

SLOPING BOOKCASE.—Entirely new—Six long shelves, periodical rack, heavy castors, fine finish, holds more for the money than common
cases, as movable as an easy chair. $15, ash; $17.50, walnut.

STUDENT’S FOLDING TABLE.—Handsome, strong enough to hold safely 300 volumes, larger than a writing desk, folds instantly, occupies
only the space of a table leaf, can be carried easily anywhere by achild. Price $3. Inlaid chess board, or black walnut, $4.

SAVE YOUR EYES AND YOUR BACK.—Clark’s Portable Book Rest will do more than anything else to correct the tendency to near-sight«
edness and round shoulders, The highest certificates from eminent physicians and oculists. Five styles, 15 to so cents each. Postage, 2 cents to 13
cents each.

UTILITY SCRAP BOOKS.—No paste, pins, or springs, self-indexed. Of the 35 people who looked at it first, 25 bought copies. Price,
$1.50.

THE BEST ARTIFICIAL LIGHT KNOWN is the Genuine German Student Lamp, made by the original inventor, Kleemann, with improve-
ments suggested by eminent American oculists. Extra large size, $4.50, brass; $5.50, nickel. 12 wicks, packed free for express ; sold as cheap
as inferior imitations.

SAVE YOUR EYES.—The Economy Patent Eye Shade, ventilated, reversible, self-adjusting, fits any head; no rubbers; no strings; three
widths ; the only perfect device to protect the eyes. Warranted to suit. 20 cents each.

PERFECT PEN-GAGE INKSTANDS.—The only perfect scientific Inkstand yet made, Sold on trial, warranted the best and to save their

ostinink, $1.30 to $2.50 each.

HAMBLER POCKET FOR PEN AND PENCIL.—A simple,cheap device that carries pencil or Stylografic pen more conveniently than acoat or

vest pocket, and from which they cannot be lost. Men who have lost several dollars worth of pencils and pens when stooping have tried this, and say
they would not be withov’ ** for ten times its cost. Price, 2Oc. for 2 pencils, to 4Oc. for 4 pencils. Russia leather, with safety attachmen for

coat, vest or dress.
READERS AND WRITERS ECONOMY COMPANY,

25-33 FRANFLIN STREET, BOSTON. 4 BOND STREET, NEW YORK. 69 STATE STREET, CHICAGO,

i SCIENCE.

SCIENCE:

A WEEKLY JOURNAL-OF SCIENTIFIC 2.0Gr

ILLUSTRATED.

To Correspondents.

All communications should be addressed to the Editor—box 3838, P. O., New York—with name and address of ~

writer, not necessarily for publication without consent.
Scientific papers and correspondence intended for publication should be written /egzé/y on one side only of the

paper. Articles thus received will be returned when found unsuitable for the Journal.

Those engaged in Scientific Research are invited to make this Journal the medium of recording their work, and
facilities will be extended to those desirous of publishing original communications possessing merit.

Proceedings of Scientific Societies will be recorded, bit the abstracts furnished must be signed by the

Secretaries.
Both questions and answers in “ Notes and Queries ’’ should be made as brief as possible ; an answer appearing

te demand an elaborate reply may be written in the form of an article.

To Subscribers.

Terms of subscriptions for SCIENCE will be $4 a year, payable.in advance. Six months, $2.50. Single copies

10 cents.
Subscriptions forwarded by mail should be addressed to the Editor, Box 3838, P. O., New York, and Post-office

Orders made payable to “ John Michels.”

To Advertisers.
Terms for advertising may be obtained at the office of the Journal, 229 BROADWAY, New York.

CLUB RATES.

| ]
Subscrip-| With | Subscrip|_ With
tion, | Science. || | tion. |SciENCE.
|

Analyst’. 222" =: sonata taxon e (seuss eee eee ee $2:00° |} ~$sKo. |) *Troni2ee- Se ee ee 7.50 9.34
Appleton’s Monthly = 2". 2--22--- Seon os eee eae 3-00 6.26 || Journal of the Telegraph---.-------- ae | 2.00 5-50
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American Manufacturer and Iron World---_- aan 4.25 7-00 New England Journal of Education... - a 3.00 6.40
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SCIENCE. - ili

JEWETT'S 3 The Original and Genuine.

Portable Crock Filter. — ALL OTHERS ARE IMITATIONS.
C = Over 100,000 now in use.

Acknowledged the only complete Filter
ind Cooler in the world,

PaTENT PENDING. 4 Id J E W E F F 2 S

PORTABLE CROCK

Put. Nov. 16, 1869, Oct. 15, 1873,

The Latest Improvement ma A F I | : . E R
will
consists in placing the filtering material t Mu Mea WITH. PORCELAIN-LINED
in aseparate vessel or crock. The ad- 0 C oO O 73 ze 123
TARTU .
vantage being this, viz ; Li it i
That whenever the filter part gives pa 2) 5 This is the only Filter having the Pat-
vc BAS he
out, a new crock can be obtained, which i 3 7 i i eo hae ee saee ae
will make the whole complete as when hi i LURE ee ie el Ta ah ;
| i into the filter.
first purchesed. We, therefore, recom- ee h | erwise pass In
mend parties at a distance (instead of at- = ( \ ! This colebresee Filter wt take river,
tempting to get the Filter re-packed) that > 7 = lake, pond, rain or ie impure water,
they should purchase a new filter crock, Ts ‘l = and render the sameo
the cost of which is moderate, and no = Hi il Sparkling Transparency
U4 = GOR :
more than the cost of repacking. = BUEEALONY and Purity.
ORNAMENTAL STYLE. STAINED OAK,
No. 71, Porcelain Reservoir, 4% quarts----.---------------- $7.25 each. No. 61, Porcelain Reservoir, 41% quarts-----------.. peases ei 0:75 each,
ae oe te we Te (8 anew enen een - een === 9.25 * Steal Date Be 3 or B75 nee
« 73 “ 3 u ‘A Ee es 7h Fd Me E Nn EO ik “ 63, rv, ne am A Grains mabe =p ee > Eee: “
Aes 16 Pe pee See Se So se 33:00) es 64, i a 16 ge caeanona geen eaaeaan= E2s5OR res
see wie & OMEN eee see ees oe = 15.50 65, Oe 1 aS se ee} Sa 15.00

READ THE TWO MOST CONVINCING TESTIMONIALS.
Isaac S. Wittiams & Co., 728 Market Street, Philadelphia, Pa.—We have sold your ‘‘ Patent Water Filter’’ for the last six years. Our sales
m that time having reached upwards of five thousand, and in no instance have we heard of any failure in performing all you claim for them,
BOARD OF HEALTH, Washington, D. C., Aug. 27, 1877.
Wess & Beverzoce:—I am just in receipt of your favor of yesterday, requesting my opinion of the ‘* Jewett Filter’’ purchased of you sev~
yral months ago fcr my personal use, and am pleased to say that it has fully answered your expressed estimate of its value. As a cleanser and
purifier of drinking water it is certainly not excelled by any mechanical arrangement known to me, THE FOREGOING REMARKS APPLY EQUALLY

“Q THE LARGER FILTER OF THE SAME MAKE PURCHASED FOR THE BoarRD OF HEALTH.
Very respectfully ycurs, CHRIS. C. COX, M.D.

Manufactured only by JOHN C. JEWETT & SONS, Buffalo, New York,

or SALE it New York City sy KING, BRIGGS & CO., 596 Broadway. J. H. BALDWIN & CO., 21 Murray Street. L. HEYNIGER
18 Fulton Street. CHARLES JONES, 920 Broadway. LEWIS & CONGER, 6or Sixth Avente.

Electrical Batteries for Medical Purposes.
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CHICAGO, ———______- NEW YORK,

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iv

SCIENCE.
BRAIN AND

Composed of the Vital or Nerve-giving Principles of the Ox-Brain and Wheat-Germ.

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ea
IAA

. SCIENCE:

A WEEKLY JOURNAL OF SCIENTIFIC PROGRESS.

Vol. Il. No. 35, - 2 OS ee

February 26, 1881.

CONTENTS.°

The New York Aquarium (Edit.) ; The Smithsonian Institution ;
of Washington ;

The Biological Society of Washington; The Anthropological Society
The American Chemical Society; Organic Healing Powers, Translated from the German of Professor Virchow,

by The Marchioness Clara Lanza; Manufacture of Yeast without Alcoholic Fermentation ; Fluorescent Bodies, by E. R. Hodges ;
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SUBSCRIPTION, Four DoLLars A YEAR.

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SCIENCE, iii

JEWETTS
Portable Crock Filter.

The Original and Genuine.
ALL OTHERS ARE IMITATIONS,
Over 100,000 now in use.

Acknowledged the only complete Filter
ind Cooler in the world.

Pat. Nov. 16, 1869, Oct. 15, 1878,

JEWETT’S

|e Oa ad Bee eed x

WITH PORCELAIN-LINED

CO Orla iE.

This is the only Filter having the Pat-

PATENT PENDING.

The Latest Improvement

consists in placing the filtering material

in a separate vessel or crock. The ad-

vantage being this, viz ;

That whenever the filter part gives
ent Removable Filtering Cup attached,

which holds all sediment that would oth.

S.

St

out, a new crock can be obtained, which

i
———

zs

cs

will make the whole complete as when

erwise pass into the filter.

=>

first purchased. We, therefore, recom-
This celebrated Filter will take river,

—_

mend parties at a distance (instead of at-

lake, pond, rain or other impure water,

tempting to get the Filter re-packed) that
and render the same of

Sparkling Transparency

they should purchase a new filter crock,

the cost of which is moderate, and no

more than the cost of repacking. and Purity.
ORNAMENTAL STYLE. STAINED OAK,
No. 7iy Porcelain Reservoir, 4% quarts. ---~---------------- $7.25 each. No. 61, Porcelain Reservoir, 4% quarts.---.---.--.. swuven. $6.75 each,
72 y Pee tenet ecVesee eas Grane: TGs OY 0 Gly AO Be Re Bee eas ace 32750 ae
bd 73, us It 6 vine Ms SC i 2 2 ag oes 11.00 6“ “ 63, rT) ue Ir Acti eas Wee Se -aet ee 10.50 “
Ca ie ae U. 16 Oe See ee a 5 Es 13.00 ‘* SS Gan se we 16 “pee AN Us RE eet 12.50 ne
* 75, ee oe 26 Ona 2B, arenes em ES Be, 15.50 “ 65, oT oe 26 CO his aes Be ae 3) ee 15.00 ee

READ THE TWO MOST CONVINCING TESTIMONIALS.

Isaac S. Wittiams & Co., 728 Market Street, Philadelphia, Pa.—We have sold your ‘* Patent Water Filter’? for the last six years. Our sales
in that time having reached upwards of five thousand, and in no instance have we heard of any failure in performing all you claim for them.
- BOARD OF HEALTH, Washington, D. C., Aug. 27, 1877.
Wess & Bever:pGe:—I am just in receipt of your favor of yesterday, requesting my opinion of the ‘* Jewett Filter’? purchased of you sev~
ral months ago for my personal use, and am pleased to say that it has fully answered your expressed estimate of its value. As a cleanser and
purifier of drinking water it is certainlv not excelled by any mechanical arrangement known to me, THE FOREGOING REMARKS APPLY EQUALLY

"0 THE LARGE FILTER OF THE SAME MAKE PURCHASED FOR THE BoarD OF HEALTH.
Very respectfully yours, CHRIS. C. COX, M. D.

Manufactured only by JOHN C, JEWETT & SONS, Buffalo, New York.

for SALE In New York City sy KING, BRIGGS & CO., 596 Broadway. J. H. BALDWIN & CO., 21 Murray Street. L, HEYNIGER,
18 Fulton Street. CHARLES JONES, o20 Broadway. LEWIS & CONGER, 6or Sixth Avent,

Electrical Batteries for Medical Purposes.
JHE Western Buectric )MAanuracturing Co.

CHICAGO, - NEW YORK,
MANUFACTURERS OF AND DEALERS IN
STATIONARY GALVANIC BATTERIES, PORTABLE HIGH
ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE BATTERIES, CHLORIDE
OF SILVER BATTERIES, GALVANO-CAUTERY
BATTERIES, FARADAIC BATTERIES, POCKET
BATTERIES, BATH APPARATUS, AND
ELECTRODES.

Dr. Butler's Plumbago Rheostat,
PLIABLE SPONGE ELECTRODES, &c., &c.

CATALOGUES ON APPLICATION.
Address all Orders to

Western Electric Man’f’g Co.

38 Pnion Square,
— NEW YORK —
CITY.

AC,

EDISON’S
Electric Pen & Duplicating Press,

fn Extremely Vseful Jnvention

FOR

DUPLICATING WRITTEN OR PRINTED MATTER,
8,000 Copies from a Single Writing, at the Rate of 400 an Hour.

Avis successfully used by Schools, Colleges, Banks, Commission Houses, Mercantile Firms, Lawyers,
Ministers, Copyists, and every person or firm desiring a number of duplicates of any document.

10,000 Pens now in [Jse and the Demand $teadily Jncreasing!

PRICE: No. 1, $25.00; No. 2, $30.00; No. 3, $35.00.

Full Description and Samples of Work sent on Application.

EDISON’S ELECTRIC PEN AND PRESS,

38 UNION SQUARE, NEW YORK CITY.

iv SCIENCE.

BRAIN AND VIT of i

NERVE FOOD. I ALIZED PHOS-PHI ES:
Composed of the Vital or Nerve-giving Principles of the Cx-Brain and Wheat-Germ.

IT RESTORES THE ENERGY LOST BY NERVOUSNESS OR INDIGESTION ; RELIEVES LASSITUDE, ERRATIC PAINS AND

NEURALGIA ; REFRESHES THE NERVES TIRED BY WORRY, EXCITEMENT, OR EXCESSIVE BRAIN FATIGUE; STRENGTH-

ENS A FAILING MEMORY, AND GIVES RENEWED VIGOR IN ALL DISEASES OF NERVOUS EXHAUSTION OR DEBILITY
IT IS THE ONLY PREVENTIVE OF CONSUMPTION.

IT GIVES VITALITY TO THE INSUFFICIENT BODILY OR MENTAL GROWTH OF CHILDREN, PREVENTS FRETFULNESS
AND GIVES QUIET, REST AND SLEEP. IT GIVES A BETTER DISPOSITION TO INFANTS AND CHILDREN, AS IT PRO-
MOTES GOOD HEALTH TO BRAIN AND BODY.

PHYSICIANS HAVE PRESCRIBED 300,000 PACKAGES. For Sale by Druggists or by Mail, $1.
Sue CROSBY, 664 & 666 Sixth Ave.,N. ¥Y.—London, 137 A Strand.

DRAWING INSTRUMENTS | S CELLULOID EYE-GLASSES,

And Materials of all kinds.
Representing the choicest selected Tor-

OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS, | oise-Shell and Amber. The LIGHTEST,

Microscopes, Telescopes, &c. | HANDSOMEST AND STRONGEST known.
G. S. WOOLMAN, 116 Fulton Street, Sold by Opticians and Jewellers. Made by

NEW YORK. Wy SPENCER OPT. MPG CO, ,
Send for Illus. Catalogue, and mention this Journal. | aj 13 MAIDEN LANE, NEW YORK
coe) ae ay New York & New England R. R. |
B O O K S THROUGH TRAINS Via. N.Y., ea H.R.R, CHART OF

Between Boston and New York.

RELATING TO FROM GRAND CENTRAL DEPOT. AN | MAL CLASSI F| CATION
a Leave New York, 11.00 A.M. Connects at Hartford. Vv
P R A CT EC A Le S ¢ I E N C E «e “ce 4.00 P.M., with klegant Through Car.
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* 5 = . =r Pullman Sl ers. = 2 $ .
Embracing Works on Civil, Mechanical, Military | © “ “ 10.30P.M., Sanvases | ilies, wick ema! arangen -Aaereus, to the
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sent free on application. Leave Boston, 9.00 A.M., week days, with Through Cars to Tess,

| Grand Central Depot. rh Y 2
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leepers.

TAKE ‘THEW BEST: A 0 OMIC .
THE INTERNATIONAL Review, /4E ASTRONOMICAL REGISTER

NEW MONTHLY SERIES. Published Monthly. Present Number 214,
JOHN T. MORSE, Jr., HENRY CABOT LODGE, Editors, Subscribers in America can send, either by Post Office Order

Price 50 Cents a month ; $5.00 a year. Specimen copies sent post-paid or in notes, $3.50 for one year’s subscription, postage included.

on oe P. O. O. to be made payable to JOHN C. JACKSON, Lowe
AGENTS WANTED who understand the character, scope

and value of the Review, to solicit subscriptions. Clapton, London, Eng.

A. S. BARNES & OO, ADDRESS: 11 Angel Court Throgmorton Street,
111 & 113 William Street, New York. LONDON, ENG.

“a Ob oy HioBERGE. =. = MEYROWITZ BROTHERS,

(Late Hail & Benjamin)
IMPORTERS & MANUFACTURERS OPTICIAN S;

aes 297 Fourth Ave., N. Y.,

CHEMICAL and PHYSICAL wpe
APPA RATUS Trial Cases, Opthalmos-

copes, Artifical Eyes, Clinical
Thermometers, Microscopes,
Electric Batteries, etc.
Special attention given to
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N. B.—An Illustrated Catalogue will
be sent free upon request,

OF ALL KINDS.

191 GREENWICH & 95 JOHN STRERTS, NEW YORK.
Send Postal for Descriptive & Illustrated

SCIENCE:

A WEEKLY JOURNAL OF SCIENTIFIC PROGRESS.

Vol: Il: No: S8; - - - ~ February 19,1881.

CONTENTS.

Professor Watson’s Successor, (Edit.); Edison and his Light (Edit.); The American Chemical Society; The German Chemical
Society; The New York Microscopical Society ; The Society of Telegraph Engineers (England); Further Notes on the Brain of
the Iguana and other S.uropsidz, by Edward C. Spitzka; Recent Progress of Scienc>, by Samuel Fleming; Cause of the Blue
Color of Certain Waters, by John Le Conte; On the Importance of Entomological Studies, by J. A. Lin‘ner; Note on Dr.
Henry Draper's Photograph of the Nebulain Orion, by Mr. Ranyard and others; Astronomical Memoranda, by W, C. W.;
Books Received, Dr. Fleming's Classification of Science,by B. D.; Announcements.

SUBSCRIPTION, Four DoL Lars A YEAR. , Since Numpers, TEN CENTS

Se ae os

SCIENGE.

JEWETT’'S
Portable Crock Filter.
Biases 16 Iadasiod, 15) 1518.
PaTenT PENDING.

The Latest Improvement

consists in placing the filter:ng material

in a separate vessel or crock. The ad-

7
—
—_e

The Original and Genuine.

ALL OTHERS ARE IMITATIONS,

Over 100,000 now In use,

Acknowledged the only complete Filter
ind Cooler in the world.

JEWET.ES

POPTABLE CROCK

Pore Bak

WITH PORCELAIN-LINED

CO. 1 Bie.

vantage being this, viz ;

This is the only Filter having the Pat-

That whenever the filter part gives
ent Removable Filtering Cup attached,

out, a new crock can be obtained, which
which holds all sediment that would oth-

will make the whole complete as when

first purchzs:d. We, therefore, recom- erwise pass into the filter.
This celebrated F.lter will take river,

mend parties at a distance (instead cf at-

i ; c i ther impure water
tempting to get the Filter re-packed) that lake, pond, rain or o np 5
and render the same of

they should purchase a new filter crock, i
Sparkling Transparency

the cost of which is moderate, and no

ESI
Cit

mT ~ = more than the cost of repacking. and Purity.
ORNAMENTAL STYLE. STAINED OAK,

No. 71, Porcelain Reservoir, 41% quarts----.---------------- $7.25 each. No. 61, Porcelain Reservoir, 44% quarts_----------._ cesses: $6.75 each
S22, us “ 7% UT ie ty SE ee 9.25 “ sla > re ‘ 7% ‘ iS eis at ene ee oS 8:75 °°
oe 735 ws Ir Copal alee See tg Fe ee nee 11.00 ue a“ 63, ry “a II np a ee ee aes 10.50 Fe
eee Pe = & 16 CO) ak a ee Ses eee 13.00 ‘* se Gas se ws 16 ree Se ee ee Th ae 12.50 a
ea 75, & ss 26 ce eee oer he ie Seed nese st Gr ue ES 26 li: a eR a IS EE oie ee 15.00

READ THE TWO MOST CONVINCING TESTIMONIALS.

Isaac S. Wittiams & Co., 728 Market Street, Philadelphia, Pa.—We have sold your ‘‘ Patent Water Filter’? for the last sx years. Our sales
m that time having reached upwards of five thousand, and in no instance have we heard of any failure in performing all you claim for them,
. BOARD OF HEALTH, Washington, D. C., Aug. 27, 1877.
Wess & Bever:oGe:—I am just in receipt of your favor of yesterday, requesting my opinion of the ‘* Jewett Filter’’ purchased of you sev-
sral months ago for my personal use, and am pleased to say that it has fully answered your expressed estimate of its value. As a cleanser and
purifier of drinking water it is certainly not excellea by any mechanical arrangement known to me, THE FOREGOING REMARKS APPLY EQUALLY

"OQ THE LARGE FILTER OF THE SAME MAKE PURCHASED FOR THE BoaArD Or HEALTH.
Very respectfully ycurs, CHRIS. C. COX, M. D.

Manufactured only by JOHN C. JEWETT & SONS, Buffalo, New York.

for SALE In New York City sy KING, BRIGGS & CO., 596 Rroadway. J. H. BALDWIN & CO., 21 Murray Street. L. HEYNIGER,
18 Fulto: Street. CHARILES JONES, 020 Broadway. LEWIS & CONGFR. 6or Sixth Avene.

Electrical Batteries for Medical Purposes.
Jue WesTERN Exectric MANUFACTURING Co.

CHICAGO, NEW YORK,

MANUFACTURERS OF AND DEALERS IN

STATIONARY GALVANIC BATTERIES, PORTABLE HIGH
ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE BATTERIES, CHLORIDE

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An Extremely Vseful Jnvention

BATTERIES, BATH APPARATUS, AND
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Dr. Butler’s Plumbago Rheostat,
PLIABLE SPONGE ELECTRODES, &c., &c.

CATALOGUES ON APPLICATION.
Address all Orders to

Western Electric Man’f’g Co.

38 Pnion Square,
— NEW YORK —
CITY.

FOR

DUPLICATING WRITTEN OR PRINTED MATTER.
8,000 Copies from a Single Writing, at the Rate of 400 an Hour.

Ai is successfully used by Schools, Colleges, Banks, Commission Houses, Mercantile Firms, Lawyers,
Ministers, Copyists, and every person or firm desiring a number of duplicates of any document.

10,000 Pens now in [se and the Pemand Steadily Jncreasing!

PRICE: No. 1, $25.00; No. 2, $30.00; No. 3, $35.00.

Fuil Description and Samples of Work sent on Application.

EDISON’S ELECTRIC PEN AND PRESS,
38 UNION SQUARE, NEW YORK CITY.

iv -- SCIENCE.

BRAIN AND

NERVE Foon. V1 TALIZED PHOS-PHITES,

Composed of the Vital or Nerue-giving Principles of the Ox-Brain and Wheat-Germ.

1T RESTORES THE ENERGY LOST BY NERVOUSNESS OR INDIGESTION ;

RELIEVES LASSITUDE, ERRATIC PAINS AND

NEURALGIA ; REFRESHES THE NERVES TIRED BY WORRY, EXCITEMENT, OR EXCESSIVE BRAIN FATIGUE; STRENGTH-
ENS A FAILING MEMORY, AND GIVES RENEWED VIGOR IN ALL DISEASES OF NERVOUS EXHAUSTION OR DEBILITY

IT IS THE ONLY PREVENTIVE OF CONSUMPTION.

IT GIVES VITALITY TO THE INSUFFICIENT BODILY OR MENTAL GROWTH OF CHILDREN, PREVENTS FRETFULNESS

AND GIVES QUIET, REST AND SLEEP.
MOTES GOOD HEALTH TO BRAIN AND BODY.

PHYSICIANS HAVE PRESCRIBED 300,000 PACKAGES.

IT GIVES A BETTER DISPOSITION TO INFANTS AND CHILDREN, AS IT PRO-

For Sale by Drugg’sts or by Mail, $1.

ee . CROSBY, 664 oe € 66 Sixth Ave. , N. Y.—London, 137 A Strand.

== = -

DRAWING INSTRUMENTS |

And Materials of all kinds.
OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS,

Microscopes, Telescopes, &c.

CELLULOID EYE-GLASSES.

Representing the choicest selected Tor-
oise-Shell and Amber. The LIGHTEST,
HANDSOMEST AND STRONGEST known.
Made by

13 MAIDEN LANE, NEW YorK.

G. S. WOOLMAN, 116 Fulton Street, Sold by Opticians and Jewellers.
NEW YORK. SPENCER OPT. MFG CO.,
Send for Illus. Catalogue, and mention this Journal.
BO @.K:S |New York & New England R. R. CHART OF

THROUGH TRAINS Via. N.Y., N. H. & H.R. R,

RELATING TO

PRACTICAL SCIENCE

Embracing Works on Civil, echanical, Military
and Naval Engineering. Descriptive Catalogue |
sent free on application,

E. & F. N. SPON, 446 Broome St, N.Y.) « «

| 66 “ “

11.35 P.M.,
Sleepers.
FROM DEPOT, FOOT OF SUMMER ST.
| Leave Boston, 9.00 A.M., with Through Cars to Grand Cen-
tral Depot.
10.00 P M., with elegant new Pullman Sleepers

TAKE THE BEST.

THE INTERNATIONAL REVIEW.

NEW MONTHLY SERIES.
JOHN T. MORSE, Jr., HENRY CABOT LODGE, Editors.

Price 50 Cents a month ; $5.00 a year.
on receipt of 15 cents.

AGENTS WANTED who understand the cheracter, scope
and value of the Review, to solicit subscriptions.

A. S. BARNES & CO.
111 & 113 William Street, New York.

Specimen copies sent post-paid

_Between Boston and New York. “ANIMAL CLASSIFICATION

FROM GRAND CENTRAL DEPOT.
Leave New York, wt 00 A.M. Connects at Hartford.
4.00 P.M., with Elegant Through Car. | The §
with Through New Pullman

Subking’oms, Classes, Orders and Fam-
ilies, with examples, arranged according to the
| principles of classification. Price, 15 cenis.

Address,
A. B. GRIFFEN, 641 B cad 8t., Newark, N J.

THE ASTRONOMICAL REGISTER.

Published Monthly, Present Number 214.
Subscribers in America can send, either by Post Office Order
or in notes, $3.50 for one year’s subscription, postage included.
P. O. O. to be made payable to JOHN C. JACKSON, Lowe
Clapton, London, Eng.

ADDRESS: 11 Angel Court Th-ogmortcn Stre t,

LONDON, ENG.

“J. & H. BERGE,

(Late Hall & Benjamin)
IMPORTERS & MANUFACTURERS

—OFr—

CHEMICAL and PHYSICAL
APPARATUS

OF ALL KINDS,

191 GREENWICH & 95 JOHN STREETS, NEW YORK.

Send Postal for Descriptive & Illustrated
Catalogue.

ad a pl de is ad lk“

MEYROWITZ BROTHERS,
OPTICIANS,

297 Fourth Ave., x. ve

S. E. COR. 23D ST,

Trial Cases, Optha mios-
copes, Artifical Eyes, Clinical
Thermometers, Microscopes,
Electric Batteries, etc.

Special attention given to

prescriptions of Oculists.

N. B.—An Illustrated Catalogue will
be sent free upon request,

SCIENCE:

_A WEEKLY JOURNAL OF SCIENTIFIC PROGRESS.

Vol. Il. No.33, - -

Russell; The Souls of Plants and Animals,
so Dodge s"' in Microscopy ;
Physical, etc., ete., etc.

Announcemen's;

SUBSCRIPTION, Four DoLLaRs A YEAR,

CONTENTS.
The Belgian Award for the Best Method of Improvement of Ports (Edit); New York Chimpanzees ; Trichinae in Pork ; Philosophical

Society of Washington ; Anthropological Society of Washington ; A Sketch of the Geology cf Hudson County, N. a by Israel C,
by Rev. Dr. Thomas Hill;
Books Received;

February 12,1881.

Sir William Thomson's New Depth Gauge ; Special

Notes, Astronomical, Botanical, Chemical, Microscopical,

SincLe Numsers, TEN CENTS.

SCIENCE. ii

JEWETT’'S
Portable Crock Filter.

The Original and Genuine.

ALL OTHERS ARE IMITATIONS,

Over 100,000 now in use.

Acknowledged the only complete Filter
and Cooler in the world,

TEWLEE TES

PORTABLE CROCK

ROPE TER

WITH PORCELAIN-LINED

CO, OF Ev:

This is the only Filter having the Pat-
ent Removable Filtering Cup attached,
which holds all sediment that would othe

Pat, Nov. 16,1869, Oct, 15, 1878,

PATENT PENDING.

The Latest Improvement

consists in placing the filtering material

in a separate vessel or crock, The ad-

© vantage being this, viz ;

That whenever the filter part gives

—=
eS

‘foeS=
=
E

out, a new crock can be obtained, which

will make the whole complete as when

erwise pass into the filter,

This celebrated Filter will take river,

first purchased. We, therefore, recom-

mend parties at a distance (instead of at-

lake, pond, rain or other impure water,

tempting to get the Filter re-packed) that
and render the same of

Sparkling Transparency

they should purchase a new filter crock,

the cost of which is moderate, and no

more than the cost of repacking. and Purity.
RNAMENTAL STYLE. STAINED OAK,

No. 71, Porcelain Rese No. 61, Porcelain Reservoir, 4% quarts-----------.. _ses+e». $6.75 each,
ve 72, oe oe “ 62. ao 6 7% On sii ee Oe Spey SEE he tae 8 ee
oe Fs re ss S63; . II Oe ee es coe nea ae 10.50 i
bd 74, “ “ “ 64, “ Ty 16 Cecgyhe ee 4 9 Sa Ts 0s Be 12.50 :

e 75% US € “6. “ “ 26 (io? aa ee Sein Bae 15.00

Isaac S. Wittiams & Co., 728 Market Street, Philadelphia, Pa.—We have sold your ‘' Patent Water Filter’’ for the last six years. Our sales
m that time having reached upwards of five thousand, and in no instance have we heard of any failure in performing all you claim for them.
x ; BOARD OF HEALTH, Washington, D. C., Aug. 27, 1877.
Wess & Bever:oce:—I am just in receipt of your favor of yesterday, requesting my opinion of the ‘* Jewett Filter’? purchased of you sev-
eral months ago for my personal use, and am pleased to say that it has fully answered your expressed estimate of its value. As a cleanser and
purifier of drinking water it is certainly not excellea by any mechanical arrangement known to me, THE FOREGOING REMARKS APPLY EQUALLY

*Q THE LARGE FILTER OF THE SAMS MAKE PURCHASED FOR THE BoARD OF HEALTH. :
Very respectfully yours, CHRIS. C. COX, M. D.

Manufactured only by JOHN C, JEWETT & SONS, Buffalo, New York.

for Sate In New York City sy KING, BRIGGS & CO., 596 Broadway. J. H. BALDWIN. & CO., 21 Murray Street. L. HEYNIGER,
18 Fulton Street. CHARLES JONES, 920 Broadway. LEWIS & CONGER, 601 Sixth Avenie,

Electrical Batteries for Medical Purposes.
JHE Western Buectric Manuracturing Co.

CHICAGO, ————_-—__-_-- NEW _ YORK,

MANUFACTURERS OF AND DEALERS IN

STATIONARY GALVANIC BATTERIES, PORTABLE HIGH
ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE BATTERIES, CHLORIDE

OF SILVER BATTERIES, GALVANO-CAUTERY
BATTERIES, FARADAIC BATTERIES, POCKET Electric Pen & Duplicating Press,
An Fxtremely Pseful Jnvention

BATTERIES, BATH APPARATUS; AND
ELECTRODES.

Dr. Butler's Plumbago Rheostat,
PLIABLE SPONGE ELECTRODES, &c., &c.

CATALOGUES ON APPLICATION.
Address ali Orders to

Western Electric Man'’f’g Co.

38 Pnion Square,
.— NEW YORK —
Clikv.

FOR

DUPLICATING WRITTEN OR PRINTED MATTER.
8,000 Copies from a Single Writing, at the Rate of 400 an Hour.

1. is successfully used by Schools, Colleges, Banks, Commission Houses, Mercantile Firms, Lawyers,
Ministers, Copyists, and every person or firm desiring a number of duplicates of any document,

10,000 Pens now in [Jse and the Pemand Steadily Jncreasing!

PRICE: No. 1, $25.00; > No. 2; $30.00; “No: 8, $35.00.

Full Description and Samples of Work sent on Application.

EDISON’S ELECTRIC PEN AND PRESS,
38 UNION SQuaARE, NEW YorK City.

lv

BRAIN AND
NERVE FOOD.

SCIENCE.

VUEPALIZED PHOS-Piitas

Composed of the Vital or Nerve-giving Principles of the Ox-Brain and Wheat-Germ.

IT RESTORES THE ENERGY LOST BY NERVOUSNESS OR INDIGESTION ; RELIEVES LASSITUDE, ERRATIC PAINS AND
NEURALGIA ; REFRESHES THE NERVES TIRED BY WORRY, EXCITEMENT, OR EXCESSIVE BRAIN FATIGUE; STRENGTH-
ENS A FAILING MEMORY, AND GIVES RENEWED VIGOR IN ALL DISEASES OF NERVOUS EXHAUSTION OR DEBILITY
IT IS THE ONLY PREVENTIVE OF CONSUMPTION.

IT GIVES VITALITY TO THE INSUFFICIENT BODILY OR MENTAL GROWTH OF CHILDREN, PREVENTS FRETFULNESS

AND GIVES QUIET, REST AND SLEEP.

MOTES GOOD HEALTH TO BRAIN AND BODY.

PHYSICIANS HAVE PRESCRIBED 300,000 PACKAGES.

IT GIVES A BETTER DISPOSITION TO INFANTS AND CHILDREN, AS IT PRO-

For Sale by Druggists or by Mail, $r.

F. CROSBY, 664 & 666 Sixth Ave.,N. Y.—London, 137 A Strand.

DRAWING INSTRUMENTS

And Materials of all kinds.
OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS,

Microscopes, Telescopes, &c.

G. S. WOOLMAN, 116 Fulton Street,
NEW YORK,
Send for Illus, Catalogue, and mention this Journal,
BOOKS

RELATING TO

PRACTICAL SCIENCE

Embracing Works on Civil, Mechanical, Military
and Naval Engineering. Descriptive Catalogue
sent free on application.

E. & F. N. SPON, 446 Broome St, N. Y.

TAKE THE BEST.

THE INTERNATIONAL REVIEW.

NEW MONTHLY SERIES.
JOHN T. MORSE, Jr., HENRY CABOT LODGE, Editors.

Price 50 Cents a month ; $5.00 a year, Specimen copies sent post-paid

on receipt of 15 cents.

AGENTS WANTED who understand the character, scope

and value of the REVIEw, to solicit subscriptions.

A. S. BARNES & CO.

Sold by Opticians and Jewellers.

CELLULOID EYE-GLASSES.

Representing the choicest selected Tor-
oise-Shell and Amber. The LIGHTEST,
HANDSOMEST AND STRONGEST known.
Made by
SPENCER OPT. M’F’G CO.,,

13 MAIDEN LANE, NEW YORK,

4 STYLOGRAPHIC PENS
FOR SALE.

Cross’s PATENT, best quality, iridium points;
just selected by expert from stock of manufac-
turers. Price $4 each.

N. B.—As these pens vary much in quality, the
present is a good opportunity to obtain a reliable
instrument. AZfly at Office of *‘ SCIENCE,’’ 229
Broadway, Room 53, NV. Y.

Published

Clapton, London, E

111 & 113 William Street, New York.

CHART OF

ANIMAL CLASSIFICATION

The Subkingdoms, Classes, Orders and Fam-
ilies, with examples, arranged according to the
principles of classification, Price, 15 cents.

Address,

A. B. GRIFFEN, 641 Broad St., Newark, N. J.

THE ASTRONOMICAL REGISTER.

Monthly. Present Number 214.

Subscribers in America can send, either by Post Office Order
or in notes, $3.50 for one year’s subscription, postage included.
P. O. O. to be made payable to JOHN C. JACKSON, Lowe

ng.

ADDREsSs: 11 Angel Court Throgmorton Street,

LONDON, ENG.

ea. "Obi ie, BERG

(Late Hall & Benjamin)

ee)

Catalogue.

UMPORTERS & MANUFACTURERS
-—OF—

CHEMICAL and PHYSICAL
APPARATUS

OF ALL KINDS,

191 GREENWICH & 95 JOHN STREETS, NEW YORK.
Send Postal for Descriptive & Illustrated

MEYRO

-
ll

WITZ BROTHERS,
OPTICIANS,

297 Fourth Ave., N. Y.,

S. E. COR. 23D ST.

Trial Cases, Opthalmos-
copes, Artifical Eyes, Clinicaé
Thermometers, Microscopes,
Electric Batteries, etc.

Special attention given to
prescriptions of Oculists.

N. B.—An Illustrated Catalogue will
be sent free upon request,

SCIENCE:

A WEEKLY JOURNAL OF SCIENTIFIC PROGRESS.

Vol. II. No. 32,

CONTENTS.

February 5, 1881.

On Matter as a Form of Energy, by Prof. A. E. Dolbear ; Recent Additions to the E. M. Museum at Princeton College, by Henry F.
Osborn; The Classification of Science, II., by Rev. Sanuel Fleming; Tne Rotary Power of Commercial Glucose, by H. W.

Wiley ;

New Portable Microscope; On Chicken Cholera: A Study of the Conditi»ns of Non-Recidivation and of Some Other

Characteristics of this Disease, I., by M. L. Pasteur; On the First Comet of 1861, and the M2teors of April 29, by Prof. Daniel
Kirkwood; Recurring Periods in the Weather, by Janes H. Gardiner; Correspondenc2; Notes, Astronomical, Chemical, etc.,

etc., etc.

SUBSCRIPTION, Four DoLLARS A YEAR.

SincLe Numsers, TEN CENTS.

~ SCIENCE

A WEEKLY RECORD OF SCIENTIFIC PROGRESS.

ILLUSTRATED.

Entered in the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington, D, C.

No. 36—Vol. Il. March 5, 1881. Price 10 Cents.

LABOR-SAVERS LENGTHEN LIFE.

UR aim is to furnish improved tools and appliances for those who work at the desk or in the study. Many of our articles are unique, and are
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THE ECONOMY Index, Study Table, Reading Desk, Eye Shade, Student Lamp, Book Support, Inkstand, Sloping and Revolving Bookcases,
etc.. are each selected by experts as the best to be had for the money.

SLOPING BOOKCASE.—Entirely new—Six long shelves, periodical rack, heavy castors, fine finish, holds more for the money than common
cases, as movable as an easy chair. $15, ash; $17.50, walnut.

STUDENT’S FOLDING TABLE.—Handsome, strong enough to hold safely 300 volumes, larger than a writing desk, folds instantly, occupies
only the space of a table leaf, can be carried easily anywhere by a child. Price $3, Inlaid chess board, or black walnut, $4.

SAVE YOUR EYES AND YOUR BACK.—Clark’s Portable Book Rest will do more than anything else to correct the tendency to near-sight~
edness and round shoulders, The highest certificates from eminent physicians and oculists. Five styles, 15 to ro cents each. Postage, 2 cents to 13
cents each,

UTILITY SCRAP BOOKS.—No paste, pins, or springs, self-indexed. Of the 35 people who looked at it first, 25 bought copies. Price,
$1.50.

THE BEST ARTIFICIAL 1LIGHT KNOWN is the Genuine German Student Lamp, made by the original inventor, Kleemann, with improve-
ments suggested by eminent American oculists. Extra large size, $4.50, brass; $5.50, nickel. 12 wicks, packed free for express ; sold as cheap
as inferior imitations.

SAVE YOUR EYES.—The Economy Patent Eye Shade, ventilated, reversible, self-adjusting, fits any head; no rubbers; no strings; three
widths ; the only perfect device to protect the eyes. Warranted to suit. 2O cents each.

PERFECT PEN-GAGE INKSTANDS.—The only perfect scientific Inkstand yet made, Sold on trial, warranted the best and to save their
costinink, $1.30 to $2.50 each.

HAMBLER POCKET FOR PEN AND PENCIL.—A simple,cheap device that carries pencil or Stylografic pen more conveniently than acoat or
vest pocket, and from which hey cannot be lost. Men who have lost several dollars worth of pencils and pens when stooping have tried this, and say
they would not be without it for ten times its cost. Price, 2Oc. for 2 pencils, to 4Oc. for 4 pencils. Russia jeather, with safety attachmen for

Coat, vest or dress,
READERS AND WRITERS ECONOMY COMPANY, "1

25-33 FRANKLIS STREET, BOSTON. 4 BonD STREET, NEW YORK. 69 STATE STREET, CHICAGO,

ii SCIENCE.

SCIENCE

A WEEKLY JOURNAL OF SCIENTIFIC PROGR ss

ILLUSTRATED.

To Correspondents.

All communications should be addressed to the Editor—box 3838, P. O., New York—with name and address of
writer, not, necessarily for publication without consent.

Scientific papers and correspondence intended for publication should be written legzbly on one side only of the
paper. Articles thus received will be returned when found unsuitable for the Journal.

Those engaged in Scientific Research are invited to make this Journal the medium of recording their work, and
facilities will be extended to those desirous of publishing original communications possessing merit.

Proceedings of Scientific Societies will be recorded, but the abstracts furnished must be signed by the
Secretaries.

Both questions and answers in “ Notes and Queries ’’ should be made as brief as possible; an answer appearing
to demand an elaborate reply may be written in the form of an article.

+r

To Subscribers.

Terms of subscriptions for SCIENCE will be $4 a year, payable in advance. Six months, $2.50. Single copies
Io cents.

Subscriptions forwarded by mail should be addressed to the Editor, Box 3838, P. O., New York, and Post-office
Orders made payable to “ John Michels.”

To Advertisers.
Terms for advertising may be obtained at the office of the Journal, 229 BROADWAY, New York,

CLUB RATES.

| |
Subserip- With Subscrip With
tion. | SCIENCE. tion, |SCIENCE.

(Analyst 22 ee persion | saan ae ee eee $2.00 $ois0. || + Tronietse.02 ees ee eee aon eee eee 7-50 9.34
Appleton’s Monthly-=-. = 22.25. Sea oa a ee ea 3.00 6.26 Ke of the Telegraph 2.00 5-50
AMERICAN UNATURALIST £22 22 Saco eee sen eo eens 4.00 7.20 (London Wancets sea) neat eee ane ee ee ) 5.00 7-50
AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE-.--.-----..--------- 6.00 8.50 Magazine of American History------- -------.------| 2.00 5.50
American Journal of Microscopy--..-.--------------- 1.00 4.70 MINING AND SCIENTIFIC PRESS 4.00 6.40
American(Machinist.-=0osse sa ee ee ae cae 3.00 | 6.70 Naturest222 > ee eee 6.00 9.15
American Monthly Microscopical Journal__-_-.-.---- 1,00 4.80 Nin Wi. Medical) journal ete ee 4.00 7,00
American Manufacturer and Iron World--_--_--__---- 4.25 7.00 New England Journal of Education------..---------- | 3.00 6.40
Boston ourmaliofChemisttyn. -saasae sateen rere £,00 | 4.75 North American Review 5-00 7-75
ChicagorMedical Review. 2-2 ==> ca-= 225 Se nen sees aae 2.00 5-50 Operatorit 22a se | 1.00 4.80
GiticagoNield 32 =o a~= «cee eee ee eee eee 4.00 7.00 ScrENCE MONTHLY.-.-------------- : - 5-00 6,00
Druggist ae tp top oe wl wea te 1,60 5.25 Sanitary Engineer See ee 3-00 6.50
Drugeists we Circulatecassesecs te ane ee nee 1.50 5.25 Practical! American® .°22-\---" 2225-9 -e--e eee e=n~ =e ne 1.50 5.00
Educational Monthly (Barnes ).-....-. ...-..-..-.-.| 1.50 5.20 Pacific\Rural Press. 2-2-2252 -e> "sees-0- S22. <aheeane 4.00 7.00
OO RINeE NOS NEW Sree ene ene ee eee 3.00 6.25 Scribner’s Monthly ..---..----.-------. --------=<-=-- | 4.00 7-20
Engineering and Mining Journal......--....__..___-- 4.00 7.00 Science Observer---.-- =.=. ..-- | +50 4.40
Mdutcation 222-2 2co tr oen see oe cee 4.00 7.00 Screntiric AMERICAN 3:20 6.56
Engineering Magazine rca sear ese acento eee 5.00 8.25 bY * SUPPLEMENT .-.--------------- | 5,00 8.00
Harpet'ss\Magazine-- 2285) SS toe he SS Oe ee 4.00 7.00 OS ‘© wiTH SUPPLEMENT. -.-----.---- | 7.00 9.60
Harpers Weekly -sscsc teen ose ence nea neue eee 4.00 7.20 Southern Medical Record | 2.00 5-49
Harper’s Bazar eee ee OS a ee 4.00 7.20 SEident es -ene > see ee 1.00 4:75
Harper's Young, Peoples sss s.cn. so, see ee 1.50 5.20 Sts Nicholas: oo..n oo aeoee ee eee 3.00 6.40
Humpoupr LIBRARY -5./2> a awee bash Sone aoe ee ete 3.00 6.25 Young Scientist-..--..---------~-------nas2=~-=0=-n | +50 4.30
Intemational Review. 2~ 50 cose ue ae ae 5.00 8.00

é; BOOKS AT TRADE PRICE.

Among the facilities we offer to regular sudscribers is the purchase of BooKS at trade prices, making a reduction
ranging from 20 to 40 per cent. on the publishing prices. Buyers of a few books may thus, during a year, save the
full cost of subscription to “ SCIENCE.” Send name of Book, Author and Publisher and in reply a postal card will
be sent, stating amount to be remitted,

rs
-
-
4
q

SCIENCE

A WEEKLY RECORD OF SCIENTIFIC PROGRESS.

ILLUSTRATED.

Entered in the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington, D.C,

No. 87—Vol. Il. March 12, 1881. Price 10 Cents.

LABOR-SAVERS LENGTHEN LIFE.

UR aimis to furnish improved tools and appliances for those who work at the desk or in the study. Many of our articles are unique, and are
() the result of the focalized experience and skill of a large body of literary workers. Thus selecting the best, we reduce the cost to the
minimum by manufacturing in large quantities. Our customers may thus be sure of getting the best devices at the lowest prices.

All interested are cordially invited to visit our stores, without feeling under obligat‘ons to purchase. It will repay you to see the many new and
useful improvements we are introducing. They are intended for wide-awake minds who are seeking the best and surest ways of record, arrangement,
and communication, and for those who enjoy comfortable reading and writing in comfortable surroundings.

An Illustrated Catalog and Price List of 400 articles is free to applicants, and includes every requisite needed for fitting
up a desk, study or library.

THE PERFECTED STYLOGRAFIC PEN,

A. T. Cross’ Patent.

A PENCIL THAT WRITES INK, NEVER NEEDS SHARPENING, AND NEVER WEARS OUT.

Recent patented improvements have obviated all previous defects, and placed it far ahead of similar pens. Beware of imitations, and get the best
and only Perfect Pen. Warranted to suit or no sale.

PHOTO ELECTHOTYPE €0/G0STOM:

Our latest pattern, the LITTLE GIANT, is the most perfect outfit for writing ever made. It is Pen, Holder, and Inkstand, allin one; but
three inches long, and holds ink enough for fifty pages of foolscap. ‘May be carried in pocket, or on watch chain or eyeglass cord. Made in great

variety of style and finish,
PRICE, $2.50 to $5.00.

We instance a few of our many Specialties for Literary and Desk Work:
THE ECONOMY Index, Study Table, Reading Desk, Eye Shade, Student Lamp, Book Support, Inkstand, Sloping and Revolving Bookcases,
etc,. are each selected by experts as the best to be had for the money.

SLOPING BOOKCASE.—Entirely new—Six long shelves, periodical rack, heavy castors, fine finish, holds more for the money than common
cases, as movable as an easy chair. $15, ash; $17.50, walnut.

STUDENT’S FOLDING TABLE.—Handsome, strong enough to hold safely 300 volumes, larger than a writing desk, folds instantly, occupiés
only the space of a table leaf, can be carried easily anywhere by achild. Price $8. Inlaid chess board, or black walnut, $4.

SAVE YOUR EYES AND YOUR BACK.—Clark’s Portable Book Rest will do more than anything else to correct the tendency to nearssight~
edness and round shoulders. The highest certificates from eminent physicians and oculists. Five styles, ry to so cents each. Postage, 2 cents to 13
cents each.

UTILITY SCRAP BOOKS.—No paste, pins, or springs, self-indexed. Of the 35 people who looked at it first, 25 bought copies. Price,
$1.50.

THE BEST ARTIFICIAL LIGHT KNOWN is the Genuine German Student Lamp, made by the original inventor, Kleemann, with improve-
ments suggested by eminent American oculists. Extra large size, $4.50, brass; $5.50, nickel. 12 wicks, packed free for express ; sold as cheap
as inferior imitations.

SAVE YOUR EYES.—The Economy Patent Eye Shade, ventilated, reversible, self-adjusting, fits any head; no rubbers; no strings ; three
widths ; the only perfect device to protect the eyes. Warranted to suit. 2O cents each.

PERFECT PEN-GAGE INKSTANDS.—The only perfect scientific Inkstand yet made. Sold on trial, warranted the best and to save their
costinink. $1.30 to $2.50 each.

HAMBLER POCKET FOR PEN AND PENCIL.—A simple,cheap device that carries pencil or Stylografic pen more conveniently than acoat or
vest pocket, and from which they cannot be lost. Men who have lost several dollars worth of pencils and pens when stooping have tried this, and say
they would not be without it for ten times its cost. Price, 2Oc. for 2 pencils, to 4Oc. for 4 pencils. Russia jeather, with safety attachmen for

Coat, vest or dress,
READERS AND WRITERS ECONOMY COMPANY,

25-33 FRANKLIN STREET, BOSTON. 4 BOND STREET, NEW YorRK, 69 STATE STREET, CHICAGO,

a SCIENCE.

SCIENCE:

A WEEKLY JOURNAL OF SCIENTIFIC PROGR se

~_

ILLUSTRATED.

To Correspondents.

All communications should be addressed to the Editor—box 3838, P. O., New York—with name and address of
writer, not necessarily for publication without consent.

Scientific papers and correspondence intended for publication should be written /egzb/y on one side only of the
paper. Articles thus received will be returned when found unsuitable for the Journal.

Those engaged in Scientific Research are invited to make this Journal the medium of recording their work, and
facilities will be extended to those desirous of publishing original communications possessing merit.

Proceedings of Scientific Societies will be recorded, but the abstracts furnished must be signed by the.
Secretaries.

Both questions and answers in “ Notes and Queries” should be made as brief as possible; an answer appearing
to demand an elaborate reply may be written in the form of an article.

To Subscribers.

Terms of subscriptions for SCIENCE will be $4 a year, payable in advance. Six months, $2.50. Single copies

Io cents.
Subscriptions forwarded by mail should be addressed to the Editor, Box 3838, P. O., New York, and Post-office
Orders made payable to “ John Michels.”

To Advertisers.
Terms for advertising may be obtained at the office of the Journal, 229 BROADWAY, New York,

CLUB RATES.

Subscrip-| With Subscrip| With
tion. | ScrENcE. tion. |SCIENCE,

Analyst) ai2stesccsscies wasckoseceapueae one soos $2.00 $5.50 * ll) Worl --5-- ose en= sees Seen ee kee an eee 7-50 9-34
Mppleton’s Monthly sen ses aa neces meee eee mee eee 3-00 6.26- |} Journaliof the Telegraph_--.-.._.---...-..---------- 2.00 5-50
AMERICAN NATURALIST. --.---- 4.00 7:20 ||. SLonidonSiancets 22 ooo, ec tere 5.00 75°
AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE 6.00 8.50 || Magazine of American History 2.00 5-50
American Journal of Microscopy = 1.00 4.79 MINING AND SCIENTIFIC PRESS- 4.00 6.40
American Machinist._--- EN Se ee pee ee ead 3.00 6.70 Natures: vos eae -| 6.00 9.15
American Monthly Microscopical Journal__.__..----- 1.00 4.80 N. Y. Medical Journal..---------- 4.00 7.00
American Manufacturer and Iron World____.____-_-- 4.25 7.00 || New England Journal of Education- 3.00 6.40
Boston Joirnaliof ‘Chemistry-o-e-25- cose esos ane eee £,00 4.75 North American Review---.----------- 5.00 7-75
Chicago Medical Review--.:...-.2->--.-----.22-2-- 2.00 5350, alll }Openatorieee cae see a ee 1.00 4.80
(ICA gO REI eaten eta ne ee ee 4,00 7,00 ||| POPULAR SCLENGE WIONTHELY, seen oe see eons eee 5-00 6,00
Druggist--..- ae See Osa ei ad PDO AISI 1.60 5.25 Sanitary. Pmpineer ees. ooo) ape on ace e eae ena 3.00 6.50
Driggists’ Circulars 2472-20 kee ee, et eee 1.50 5.25 Practical American =. <e~sseeer= -=seace aes =a ee 1.50 5.00
Educational Monthly (Barnes )...-.... ...--....---- 1.50 5:20: |||) PacificiRural Press)paascees cosas eee 4.00 7.00
Pnileerane wn CWSies cosas eee teen nee pee oe 3.00 6.25 Scribner’s Monthly..---...------ 4.00 7.20
Engineering and Mining Journal,_-......---.-.------ 4.00 7.00 Science Observer...--.---------- 5° 4-49
Ma@itpations 20: Jgcn204522. test Sao ee ae ee 4.00 7.00 LOSCIBNTIFIC CAMERICANL 2. see ae. stase 3.20 6.56
Hugineenne, Magazine. 2 222-82 ere ee ee 5.00 8.25 MC oS SUPPLEMENT ....---- 5.00 8.00
Harpers apaziné 2 nse eee eeene sees cae 4.00 7:00 ve se WITH SUPPLEMENT-..- -| 7-00 9.60
PT aT pers AV OK) - eons ere ee oe ee see 4.00 7.20 || Southern Medical Record.....-.-.--------- 2.00 5.49
Harpers Gazar 2-25 ue dae eae eel ee ay 4.00 7.20) » | “Strident. 2:5 eee ac ee ie 1,00 4-75
Warpersvoung sPeoples. ances ae ee ee 1.50 5.20 Se Nicholas: coscneee cee aes 3-00 6.40
LU MBOLDD LID RAR saan hse sete See eee ee 3-00 6.25 Young Scientist.--..----.----------------------=---- *5° 4.39
International Review, 3222. See ee. Bees 5.00 8.00 |}

BOOKS AT TRADE PRICE.

Among the facilities we offer to xegular subscrzbers is the purchase of BooOKs at trade prices, making a reduction
ranging from 20 to 40 per cent. on the publishing prices. Buyers of a few books may thus, during a year, save the
full cost of subscription to “ SCIENCE.” Send name of Book, Author and Publisher and in reply a postal card will
be sent, stating amount to be remitted,

SCIENCE

A WEEKLY RECORD OF SCIENTIFIC PROGRESS.

ILLUSTRATED.

Entered in the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington, D.C.

No. 38—Vol. Il. March 19, 1881.

: LABOR-SAVERS LENGTHEN LIFE.

UR aim is to furnish improved tools and appliances for those who work at the desk or in the study. Many of our articles are unique, and are
() the result of the focalized experience and skill of a large body of literary workers. Thus selecting the best, we reduce the cost to the
minimum by manufacturing in large quantities. Our customers may thus be sure of getting the best devices at the lowest prices.

All interested are cordially invited to visit our stores, without feeling under obligations to purchase. It will repay you to see the many new and
useful improvements we are introducing. They are intended for wide-awake minds who are seeking the best and surest ways of record, arrangement,
and communication, and for those who enjoy comfortable reading and writing in comfortable surroundings,

An Illustrated Catalog and Price List of 400 articles is free to applicants, and includes every requisite needed for fitting
up a desk, study or library.

Price 10 Cents.

THE PERFECTED STYLOGRAFIC PEN,

A. T. Cross’ PATENT.

A PENCIL THAT WRITES INK, NEVER NEEDS SHARPENING, AND NEVER WEARS OUT.

Recent patented improvements have obviated all previous defects, and placed it far ahead of similar pens. Beware of imitations, and get the best
and only Perfect Pen. Warranted to suit or no sale.

” proro ELECTHOTYPE 62. B0STON-

Our latest pattern, the LITTLE GIANTS, is the most perfect outfit for writing ever made. It is Pen, Holder, and Inkstand, allin one; but
three inches long, and holds ink enough for fifty pages of foolscap. May be carried in pocket, or on watch chain or eyeglass cord. Made in great

variety of style and finish.
PRICE, $2.50 to $5.00.

We instance a few of our many Specialties for Literary and Desk Work:

THE ECONOMY Index, Study Table, Reading Desk, Eye Shade, Student Lamp, Book Support, Inkstand, Sloping and Revolving Bookcases,
etc,.are each selected by experts as the best to be had for the money.

SLOPING BOOKCASE.—FEntirely new—Six long shelves, periodical rack, heavy castors, fine finish, holds more for the money than common
cases, as movable as an easy chair. $15, ash; $17.50, walnut.

STUDENT’S FOLDING TABLE.—Handsome, strong enough to hold safely 300 volumes, larger than a writing desk, folds instantly, occupies
only the space of a table leaf, can be carried easily anywhere by achild. Price $3. Inlaid chess board, or black walnut, $4.

SAVE YOUR EYES AND YOUR BACK.—Clatk’s Portable Book Rest will do more than anything else to correct the tendency to near-sight~
edness and round shoulders. The highest certificates from eminent physicians and oculists. Five styles, 15 to 50 cents each. Postage, 2 cents to 13
cents each,

UTILITY SCRAP BOOKS.—No paste, pins, or springs, self-indexed. Of the 35 people who looked at it first, 25 bought copies. Price,
$1.50. -

THE BEST ARTIFICIAL LIGHT KNOWN is the Genuine German Student Lamp, made by the original inventor, Kleemann, with improve-
ments suggested by eminent American oculists. Extra large size, $4.50, brass; $5.50, nickel. 12 wicks, packed free for express ; sold as cheap
as inferior imitations.

SAVE YOUR EYES.—The Economy Patent Eye Shade, ventilated, reversible, self-adjusting, fits any head; no rubbers; no strings; three
widths ; the only perfect device to protect the eyes. Warranted to suit. 2O cents each.

PERFECT PEN-GAGE INKSTANDS.—The only perfect scientific Inkstand yet made. Sold on trial, warranted the best and to save their
costinink, $1.30to$2.50 each. ~ ~

HAMBLER POCKET FOR PEN AND PENCIL.—A simple,cheap device that carries pencil or Stylografic pen more conveniently than acoat or
vest pocket, and from which ¢hey cazmnot be lost. Men who have lost several dollars worth of pencils and pens when stooping have tried this, and say
they would not be without it for ten times its cost. Price, 2Oc. for 2 pencils, to 4Oc. for 4 pencils. Russia leather, with safety attachmen for

coat, vest or dress,
READERS AND WRITERS ECONOMY COMPANY,

25-33 FRANKLIN STREET, BOSTON, 4 BonpD STREET, NEW YORK, 69 STATE STREET, CHICAGO,

SCIENCE.

’

SCIENCE:

A WEEKLY JOURNAL OF SCIENTIFIC PROGRESS.

me
me

ILLUSTRATED.

To Correspondents.

All communications should be addressed to the Editor—box 3838, P. O., New York—with name and address of
writer, not necessarily for publication without consent.

Scientific papers and correspondence intended for publication should be written /egzb/y on one side only of the
paper. Articles thus received will be returned when found unsuitable for the Journal.

Those engaged in Scientific Research are invited to make this Journal the medium of recording their work, and
facilities will be extended to those.desirous of publishing original communications possessing merit.

Proceedings of Scientific Societies will be recorded, but the abstracts furnished must be signed by the
Secretaries.

Both questions and answers in “ Notes and Queries’ should be made as brief as possible; an answer appearing
te demand an elaborate reply may be written in the form of an article.

To Subscribers.

Terms of subscriptions for SCIENCE will be $4 a year, payable in advance. Six months, $2.50. Single copies

Io cents.
Subscriptions forwarded by mail should be addressed to the Editor, Box 3838, P. O., New York, and Post-office

Orders made payable to “ John Michels.”

To Advertisers.
Terms for advertising may be obtained at the office of the Journal, 229 BROADWAY, New York.

CLUB RATES.

Subscrip-} With Subscrip}_ With
tion. | SCIENCE. tion. |ScIENCE,

Atialyst .<22=sse-cso'an. ssocus=e epee reee nase nee $2.00 $5i50 ~ |) Tron cosh ieeeas sb cee eek ea See eee ee 7-50 9-34
Appleton’s Monthly---------.----------------------- 3.00 6.26 || Journal of the Telegraph.--.---------------.-------- 2.00 5-50
Awmprican NATURALIST 2 ©. oo secee pee eee eae 4.00 7.20. ||| “London Tuancet:-c-~2e— nen cern en eee e eee eee eee 5.00 7.50
AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE--------.....-------- 6.00 8.50 || Magazine of American History-------.----------.--- 2.00 5-50
American Journal of Microscopy--------------------- 1.00 4.79 MininG AND SCIENTIFIC PRESS.-.-------------------- 4.00 6.40
Amencan Machinist, —<2-= == een eee en aeeee 3.00 | 6.70 Nature... 2) 8 Saas SS ee eee 6.00 9.15
American Monthly Microscopical Journal__.......--- 1.00 4.80 N2-VMedicall Journal 2022 220) See eee eee eee 4.00 7.00
American Manufacturer and Iron World-----..------ 4.25 7.00 New England Journal of Education--..---..--------- 3.00 6.40
Boston Journal of Chemistry 1.00 4-75 North American Review---------------------------- 5.00 7-75
Chicago’ Medical Reviews=.s-2--- 5 -scee= pe eee 2.00 Sicor ||| (Operstor a cesses eee oe nena 1.00 4.80
Chicago Field- ~~ 2-8 8a oo ee ee eee ann 4.00 7.09 Poputar SCIENCE MONTHLY --- 5.00 6.00
Druggist ---.---------- 1.60 5-25 Sanitary Engineer --.----------- 3.00 6.50
Druggists »Ciecular: <2- 2a Soe oo sen re eee enone 1.50 5.25 Practical American-.-- 1.50 5.00
Educational Monthly (Barnes ).--.---. -.----.-.---- 1.50 5.20 Pacific Rural Press.--- 4.00 7.00
Engineering News..--------------- ----=-2_-2-- 2 3.00 6.25 Scribner’s Monthly---- 4.00 7.20
Engineering and Mining Journal.........--.-...----- 4.00 7.00 || Science Observer-------- +50 4.40
Education -...----- poheoee Jets soca. seeeees seoorescs 4.00 7.00 || SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN 3-20 6.56
Engineering Magazine---.--..-...-....--.-------.-- 5.00 8.25 || ny Be SupPLEMENT.<.--s00-2-~-e=-an= 5-00 8.00
Marpers) Magazine = son sae ean aren ee eae 4.00 7.00 “ Be WITH SUPPLEMENT. ------------ 7-00 9.60
STARE NY OLY ec a ee er 4.00 7.20 Southern Medical Record..--.----------------------- 2.00 5.49
Harper’s Bazar_-.---- 4.00 7.20 Stident coche ee ee ee 1.00 4.75
Harper’s Young People 1.50 5.20 St. Nicholas.....-. = 3.00 6.40
FIGMBOLOT WUIBMARY seen see ence ene eee ees nee eee 3.00 6.25 Young Scientist2622~- sae. 2 Se see one ene a +50 4.30
International Review, 52) > - >> oe eee eee anes see eneee 5.00 8.00

BOOKS AT TRADE PRICE,

Among the facilities we offer to regular subscribers is the purchase of BoOKs at trade prices, making a reduction
ranging from 20 to 40 per cent. on the publishing prices. Buyers of a few books may thus, during a year, save the
full cost of subscription to “SCIENCE,” Send name of Book, Author and Publisher and in reply a postal card will
be sent, stating amount to be remitted, }

oCIENCE

A WEEKLY RECORD OF SCIENTIFIC PROGRESS.

ILLUSTRATED.

Entered in the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington, D.C.

No. 39—Vol. Il. March 26, 1881. Price 10 Cents.

THE ACME” MICROSCOPES.

achors

“Acme” No. 2. ** Acme” Lithological.

Monocular, E F $100 A new Stand, after the pat-

Binocular, - , meLLAr tern of the No. 3, for the study
of Rocks; convertible in an
instant into an ordinary mon-

ocular.

* “Acme,” No. 3.
Monocular, . : j $45
Binocular, rnd i. 70 All our Stands
have same size of tubing and
sub-stage fitting, so that eye.

pieces and accessories that fit

one” Stand ‘can be used with

*“ Acme” No. 4. all.

The favorite Laboratory
Siang, wire | (Gast ona, G25

i With r inch and ¥ inch
}.“‘ Congress”? Turn-Table,

objectives, . . e445 <A ae
atented, $6.50.

Gem Turn-Table, $2.50.

Special Terms made with Do. Do. with improved

Colleges.

centering adjustment, $3.25

a= One

a Onn

“ACME” No. 3.
HOLMAN’S COMPRESSOR, THE LATEST AND THE BEST, $4. MECHANICAL FINGER, $5.

JOHN W. SIDLE & CO., Lancaster, Pa.

Send foy Catalogue.

SCIENCE.

SCIENCE:

A WEEKLY JOURNAL ‘OF SCIENTIFIC PROGR |

—s
me

ILLUSTRATED.

To Correspondents.

All communications should be addressed to the Editor—box 3838, P. O., New York—with name and address of
writer, not necessarily for publication without consent.

Scientific papers and correspondence intended for publication should be written /egzé/y on one side only of the
paper. Articles thus received will be returned when found unsuitable for the Journal.

Those engaged in Scientific Research are invited to make this Journal the medium of recording their work, and
facilities will be extended to those desirous of publishing original communications possessing merit.

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ii SCIENCE.

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_e
_e
—e

SCIENCE.

JEWETT'S 3 The Original and Genuine.

Portable Crock Filter. = ieee
SS Over 100,000 now in use.

——— Tm ij 4
Nov. 16, 1869, Oct. 15; 187 Hi Acknowledged the orly complete Filter
Put. Nov. 16, 1869, Oct, 15, 1878, i ul ea Gealon i he earl:
itt Bs ee
iy
@, i 5
Patent PENDING. Ls len io J E W. E id a S
= AN) PORTABLE CROCK
The Latest Improvement il > I 4 . ‘ R
“consists in placing the filtering material MIN i WITH PORCELAIN-LINED
in a separate vessel or crock, The ad- T = >"
core a GCOOLER.
vantage being this, viz ; | tM NGA
That whenever the filter part gives i fant D} le This is the only Filter having the Pat-
out, a new crock can be obtained, which 9) < 2 ent Removable Filtering Cup attached,
will make the whole complete as when i i | which holds all sediment that would oth
Ah , a
first purchased. We, therefore, recom- NI as m0 erwise pass into the filter.
mend parties at a distance (instead of at- | ] il i This celebrated F.lter will take river,
AU. " * 7 ve “
tempting to get the Filter re-packed) that = =n lake, pond, rain or other impure water,
== they should purchase a new filter crock, = In i = and render the same of
the cost of which is moderate, and no _ HH Sparkling Transparency
Hum - - ‘
more than the cost of repacking. OM BUELALENY and Purity.
ORNAMENTAL, STYLE. STAINED OAK.
No. 71, Porcelain Reservoir, 414 quarts--------------------- $7.25 each. | No. 61, Porcelain Reservoir, 4% quarts--------.--. <x» .exe $6.75 each.
1 72, ee oe 7% ea eee eee ee 9.25 be Td Ga a ‘ 7% 4 FG arte ase et SAT 8s OEY 8.75 ae
7 koe ee = II CH oe de cer eepeeeeeeeoses 1T100;_ °° Cerin tM II CONTE (Ss Sie ae ee ree 10.50 *
74, s _ 16 Ce ey 25 8 eee eee Bae 13.00 ‘ Ce ue se 16 CE pepe 35. Speer e tl ab ey eee 12.50 Ee
ese se me 26 Lo i eee ae Oe eRe pe 75/501 Oo Ose “ 26 Ly ene. Gon Se 5,008 ise

READ THE TWO MOST CONVINCING TESTIMONIALS.
Isaac S. Wittiams & Co., 728 Market Street, Philadelphia, Pa.—We have sold your ‘‘ Patent Water Filter’? for the last six years, Our sales
mm that time having reached upwards of five thousand, and in no instance have we heard of any failure in performing all you claim for them,
BOARD OF HEALTH, Washington, D. C., Aug. 27, 1877.
Wess & Bever:oGe:—I am just in receipt of your favor of yesterday, requesting my opimion of the ‘* Jewett Filter’? purchased of you sey~
eral months ago for my personal use, and am pleased to say that it has fully answered your expressed estimate of its value. As a cleanser and
vurifier of drinking water it is certainly not excelled by any mechanical arrangement known to me, THE FOREGOING REMARKS APPLY EQUALLY

*C THE LARGER FILTER OF THE SAME MAKE PURCHASED FOR THE BOARD OF HEALTH.
Very respectfully yours, CHRIS. C. COX, M. D.

Manufactured only by JOHN C, JEWETT & SONS, Buffalo, New York.

for SaLe in New York City spy KING, BRIGGS & CO., 5096 Broadway. J. H. BALDWIN & CO., 21 Murray Street. -L. HEYNIGER,
18 Fulton Street. CHARLES JONES, o20 Broadway, LEWIS & CONGER, 601 Sixth Avenve.

SCIENCE

A WEEKLY JOURNAL OF SCIENTIFIC PROGRESS

Wol, Wil Noe 402 a= eee ee April 2,1881.

CONTENTS.

Life of James Smithson (Edit.); On the Amplitude of Vibration of Atoms, by Prof. A. E, Dolbear; Marsh’s Odontor-
nithes, by Prof. Burt G. Wilder; On the Southern Stars and other Celestial Objects, by J. H. Pope; Scientific
Books ; The Glycerine Barometer ; Books Received ; Notes, Astronomical, Chemical, Microscopical, etc., etc., etc.

SUBSCRIPTION, Four Do.iars A YEAR, SINGLE NuMBERS, TEN CEnTSs.

‘

iv SCIENCE.

BRAIN AND

INAND | VITALIZED PHOS-PHITES,

Composed of the Vital or Nerve-giving Principles of the Ox-Brain and Wheat-Germ.

IT RESTORES THE ENERGY LOST BY NERVOUSNESS OR INDIGESTION ; RELIEVES LASSITUDE, ERRATIC PAINS AND
NEURALGIA ; REFRESHES THE NERVES TIRED BY WORRY, EXCITEMENT, OR EXCESSIVE BRAIN FATIGUE; STRENGTH-
ENS A FAILING MEMORY, AND GIVES RENEWED VIGOR IN ALL DISEASES OF NERVOUS EXHAUSTION OR DEBILITY

IT IS THE ONLY PREVENTIVE OF CONSUMPTION.

IT GIVES VITALITY TO THE INSUFFICIENT BODILY OR MENTAL GROWTH OF CHILDREN, PREVENTS FRETFULNESS

AND GIVES QUIET, REST AND SLEEP.
MOTES GOOD HEALTH TO BRAIN AND BODY.

PHYSICIANS HAVE PRESCRIBED 300,000 PACKAGES.

IT GIVES A BETTER DISPOSITION TO INFANTS AND CHILDREN, AS IT PRO-

For Sale by Druggists or by Mail, $1.

And Materials of all kinds.
OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS, |
Microscopes, Telescopes, &c. |

G. S. WOOLMAN, 116 Fulton Street,
NEW YORK.

Send for Illus. Catalogue, and mention this Journal,

CELLULOID EYE-GLASSES.

Representing the choicest selected Tor-
oise-Shell and Amber. The LIGHTEST,
HANDSOMEST AND STRONGEST known.
Sold by Opticians and Jewellers. Made by

SPENCER OPT. M’P'G CO,,

13 MAIDEN LANE, NEW YORK

American Journal of Science.

FouNDED BY ProF. SILLIMAN IN 1818. |
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i

SCIENCE. iii

The Original and Genuine.

ALL OTHERS ARE IMITATIONS,

Over 100,000 now in use.

Acknowledged the only complete Filter
and Cooler in the world.

JEWETT’S
Portable Crock Filter.

Put, Nov. 16, 1869, Oct. 15, 1878.

JEWETES

PORTABLE CROCK

| ie tel Ibe pes 8

WITH PORCELAIN-LINED

Cer @y ik, BoE.

This is the only Filter having the Pat-

PATENT PENDING.

The Latest Improvement

consists in placing the filtering material
“in a separate vessel or crock. The ad-
vantage being this, viz ;

That whenever the filter part gives
ent Removable Filtering Cup attached,

which holds all sediment that would othe

out, a new crock can be obtained, which

will make the whole complete as when

erwise pass into the filter.

This celebrated Filter will take river,

first purchesed, We, therefore, recom-

mend parties at a distance (instead cf at-

tempting to get the Filter re-packed) that lake, pond, rain or other impure water,
and render the same of

fl Sparkling Transparency
MUM GUCEALanY 5 and Purity.

they should purchase a new filter crock,

the cost of which is moderate, and no

more than the cost of repacking.

ORNAMENTAL STYLE. STAINED OAK,

No. 71, Porcelain Reservoir, 4% quarts No. 6r, Porcelain Reservoir, 4% quarts_.----------. -ceessee $6.75 each.
Ss “6 “ c ea
“ oe) wo ss A te “ eo “ ue 7A he 5 oe
F 745 FA ed 16 “ “ 64, ue u“ 16 “6 of
759 . 26 “ ad 65, a A) 26 w

READ THE TWO MOST CONVINCING TESTIMONIALS.
Isaac S. Wittrams & Co., 728 Market Street, Philadelphia, Pa.—We have sold your ‘‘ Patent Water Filter’? for the last six years. Our sales
a1 that time havjng reached upwards of five thousand, and in no instance have we heard of any failure in performing all you claim for them,
: BOARD OF HEALTH, Washington, D. C., Aug. 27, 1877.
Wess & Bever:pce:—I am just in receipt of your favor of yesterday, requesting my opinion of the ‘* Jewett Filter’? purchased of you sev~
eral months ago for my personal use, and am pleased to say that it has fully answered your expressed estimate of its value. As a cleanser and
purifier of drinking water it is certainly not excelled by any mechanical arrangement known to me, THE FOREGOING REMARKS APPLY EQUALLY

"OQ THE LARGE FILTER OF THE SAME MAKE PURCHASED FOR THE BOARD OF HEALTH.
Very respectfully yours, CHRIS. C. COX, M. D.

Manufactured only by JOHN C, JEWETT & SONS, Buffalo, New York.

or Sate in New York City sy KING, BRIGGS & CO., 506 Broadway. J. H. BALDWIN & CO., 21 Murray Street. L. HEYNIGER,
18 Fulton Street. CHARLES JONES, 920 Broadway. LEWIS & CONGER, 601 Sixth Avenve,

SCIENCE

A WEEKLY JOURNAL OF SCIENTIFIC PROGRESS.

Vol. Il. No. 39, SS ee March 26,1881.

CONTENTS.

Anatomical Nomenclature (Edit,); A Partial Revision of Anatomical Nomenclature, with Especial Reference to that of
the Brain, II., by Prof. Burt G. Wilder; The Basin of the Gulf of Mexico, by J. E. Hilgard ; Scientific Societies of
Washington ; Variable Stars of Short Period, by W. C. W.; Discrepancy in Recent Science, by Edgar L. Larkin ;

Books Received ; Notes, Astronomical, Chemical, Microscopical, etc., etc., etc.

SUBSCRIPTION, FouR DOLLARS A YEAR. ° SINGLE NuMBERS, TEN CENTS.

4 ‘SCIENCE.

BRAIN AND oop. VITALIZED: PHOS-PHI EES,

Composed of the Vital or Nerve-gtving Principles of the Ox-Brain and Wheat-Germ.

IT RESTORES THE ENERGY LOST BY NERVOUSNESS OR INDIGESTION ; RELIEVES LASSITUDE, ERRATIC PAINS AND
NEURALGIA ; REFRESHES THE NERVES TIRED BY WORRY, EXCITEMENT, OR EXCESSIVE BRAIN FATIGUE; STRENGTH-

ENS A FAILING MEMORY, AND GIVES RENEWED VIGOR IN ALL DISEASES OF NERVOUS EXHAUSTION OR DEBILITY
IT IS THE ONLY PREVENTIVE OF CONSUMPTION.

IT GIVES VITALITY TO THE INSUFFICIENT BODILY OR MENTAL GROWTH OF CHILDREN, PREVENTS FRETFULNESS
AND GIVES QUIET, REST AND SLEEP, IT GIVES A BETTER DISPOSITION TO INFANTS AND CHILDREN, AS IT PRO-
MOTES GOOD HEALTH TO BRAIN AND BODY.

PHYSICIANS HAVE PRESCRIBED 300,000 PACKAGES. For Sale by Druggists or by Mail, $r.
F. CROSBY, 664 & 666 Sixth Ave.,N. Y.—London, 137 A Strand.

DRAWING INSTRUMENTS CELLULOID EYE-GLASSES.

And Materials of all kinds.
Representing the choicest selected Tor-

OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS, oise-Shell and Amber. The LIGHTEST,

Microscopes, Telescopes, &c. HANDSOMEST AND STRONGEST known
G. S. WOOLMAN, 116 Fulton Street,’ Sold by Opticians and Jewellers. Made by

NEW YORK. SPENCER OPT. MFG CO.,

Send for Illus. Catalogue, and ree this Journal, | 13 MAIDEN LANE, NEw YORK

American Journal of Science. |New York & New England R. R.

FouNDED BY PROF. SILLIMAN IN 1818. J THROUGH TRAINS Via. N.Y., N. H. & H.R.R. CHART OF
Devoted to Chemistry, Physics, Geology, Physi- | Between Boston and New York.

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Astronomy, and Meteorology, and giving the | Leave New York, 11.00 A.M. Connects at Hartford. uU

latest discoveries in these departments. | Es 4.00 P.M., with Elegant Through Car. A
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few complete sets on sale of the first and second | Leave Boston, 9.00 A.M., be he Through Cars to Address,
series. Address the Proprietors, | 1 Grand Central Depot. A. B. GRIRFEN, 641 Broad St., Newark, N. J
James D.& E.S. Dana, New Haven,Conn. | 10.00 P.M., ig ses elegant new Pullman : , ss yes

TAKE THE BEST. H. M. RAY NOR,
THE INTERNATIONAL REVIEW. No. 25 Bond St.,

NEW MONTHLY SERIES. NEW YORK.
JOHN T. MORSE, Jr., HENRY CABOT LODGE, Editors, 9 |

FOR ALL
(Established
1859).

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AND

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re ee SS
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Spectal attention given to

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N. B.—An Illustrated Catalogue will
~ be sent free upon request.

OF ALL KINDS.

191 GREENWICH & 95 JOHN STREBTS, NEW YORK.

Send Postal for Descriptive & Illustrated
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se a aed el ip"

WHIT
i
i

ACABINEDOF | INVENTORS’ INSTITUTE, SCIENTIFIC AND MEDICAL BOOKS,
ANCIENT COINS for SALE|SorerUMen 2 NN YG ee

For promoting and protecting the interests F le by A. E. FOOTE, M
On Moderate Terms. Pp : . or sale by A. E. i) fay De
y 5, 2 devel and encourag-
OF TCR er eae g {Prof. Min. and Chem., Fellow Am. Ass’n Adv,

ibs Fe. ing i tl alent. se . i
ing inventive ta Science, Life Member Am. Museum Nat. History ;

This is a genuine and valuable collection. Patent cffices, Library and Exhibition rooms. | New York and Philadelphia Acad. Nat. Sci.]

Sample copy of Jadustrial News, giving full 1223 Belmont Avenue, Philadelphia.
particulars of this Institution forwarded on appli-| specimen copy 32 page illus. Naturatists Lersunz Hous
ted. Address L, S., care of Office of “‘ScizNcE.” | cation to the above address. and Monruty Buverin sent free.

Proposals for purchase of whole or part is solic-

SCIENCE.

JEWETT’S
Portable Crock Filter.

Pat, Nov. 16, 1869, Oct. 15, 1878,
PaTENT PENDING,

The Latest Improvement

consists in placing the filtering material

in a separate vessel or crock, The ad-

vantage being this, viz ;

_
ee
_

The Original and Genuine.

ALL OTHERS ARE IMITATIONS,

Over 100,000 now in use.

Acknowledged the only complete Filter
and Cooler in the world.

JEWETT’S

PORTABLE CROCK

Pate {eo

WITH PORCELAIN-LINED

CO Ol BE...

This is the only Filter having the Pat-

That whenever the filter part gives
ent Removable Filtering Cup attached,

out, a new crock can be obtained, which
which holds all sediment that would othe

will make the whole complete as when

erwise pass into the filter.

first purchased. We, therefore, recom-
This celebrated Filter will take river,

mend parties at a distance (instead of at-

lake, pond, rain or other impure water,

tempting to get the Filter re-packed) that
and render the same of

WB Sparkling Transparency
and Purity.

they should purchase a new filter crock,

ROT
IPS 1 l= the cost of which is moderate, and no

Ln

ORNAMENTAL STYLE.

more than the cost of repacking.

No. 71, Porcelain Reservoir, 44% quarts--.------------------ $7.25 each. .75 each,
* ; se oe I Cis fet gee a8 SR a Bayt g.25 ‘ ace
er ae st II Ce See eS SS Tico 8 “
Ths ms be 16 Cif kk a a 13.00 ‘* “
STe7551 1*° WS 26 City Le oS eee 15.50 * “6s te “ 56 PE tp Ban 8 arene | Sea 15,00 *

READ THE TWO MOST CONVINCING TESTIMONIALS.
Isaac S. Wittiams & Co., 728 Market Street, Philadelphia, Pa.—We have sold your ‘* Patent Water Filter” for the last six years. Our sales
im that time having reached upwards of five thousand, and in no instance have we heard of any failure in performing all you claim for them.
i BOARD OF HEALTH, Washington, D. C., Aug. 27, 1877.
Wess & Bever:pGe:—I am just in receipt of your favor of yesterday, requesting my opinion of the ‘* Jewett Filter’’ purchased of you sev-
eval months ago for my personal use, and am pleased to say that it has fully answered your expressed estimate of its value. As a cleanser and
purifier of drinking water it is certainly not excelled by any mechanical arrangement known to me, THE FOREGOING REMARKS APPLY EQUALLY

OQ THE LARGE FILTER OF THE SAME MAKE PURCHASED FOR THE BoarD OF HEALTH.
Very respectfully yours, CHRIS. C. COX, M.D.

Manufactured only by JOHN C. JEWETT & SONS, Buffalo, New York.

or SALE In New York City sy KING, BRIGGS & CO., 506 Broadway. J. H. BALDWIN & CO., 2t Murray Street. L. HEYNIGER,
18 Fulton Street. CHARLES JONES, 920 Broadway. LEWIS & CONGER, 601 Sixth Avent,

SCIENCE:

A WHEEKLY JOURNAL OF SCIENTIFIC PROGRESS.

Mol: Neves, es= = 9 - = F RS om March 19,1881.

CONTENTS.

Swine Plague, (Edit.) ; Academy of Natural Sciences, of Philadelphia; A Partial Revision of Anatomical Nomenclature, with Especial
Reference to that of the Brain, I., by Burt G. Wilder; On Chicken Cholera—A Study of the Conditions of Non-Recidivation and
of Some Other Characteristics of this Disease, II., by M. L. Pasteur; The New Chemistry; American Chemical Society; Improved
Portable Equatorial Stands, by James H. Gardiner; Astronomical Memoranda, by W. C. W.; Correspondence; Books Received;

Announcements; Notes, Astronomical, Chemical, etc., etc., etc.

SUBSCRIPTION, FouR DoLiars A YEAR. SINGLE Numbers, TEN CENTS,

SCIENCE.

BRAIN AND
NERVE FOOD.

VITALIZED PHOS-PHITES,

Composed of the Vital or Neruc-giving Principles of the Ox-Brain and Wheat-Germ.

IT RESTORES THE ENERGY LOST BY NERVOUSNESS OR INDIGESTION ; RELIEVES LASSITUDE, ERRATIC PAINS AND
NEURALGIA ; REFRESHES THE NERVES TIRED BY WORRY, EXCITEMENT, OR EXCESSIVE BRAIN FATIGUE; STRENGTH-

ENS A FAILING MEMORY, AND GIVES RENEWED VIGOR 1N ALL DISEASES OF
IT IS THE ONLY PREVENTIVE OF CONSUMPTION.

NERVOUS EXHAUSTION OR DEBILITY

IT GIVES VITALITY TO THE INSUFFICIENT BODILY OR MENTAL GROWTH OF CHILDREN, PREVENTS FRETFULNESS

AND GIVES QUIET, REST AND SLEEP. IT GIVES A BETTER DISPOSITION TO
MOTES GOOD HEALTH TO BRAIN AND BODY.

PHYSICIANS HAVE PRESCRIBED 300,000 PACKAGES.

INFANTS AND CHILDREN, AS IT PRO-

For Sale by Druggists or by Mail, $1.

F. CROSBY, 664 & 666 Sixth Ave.,N. Y.—London, 187 A Strand.

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NEW YORK.

Send for Illus. Catalogue, and mention this Journal,

oise-Shell and Amber.
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Sold by Opticians and Jewellers.

CELLULOID EYE-GLASSES.

Representing the choicest selected Tor-
The LIGHTEST,

Made by
SPENCER OPT. M’F'G CO.,

13 MAIDEN LANE, NEW YORK

American Journal of Science. | New York & New England R. R.

FounDED By PROF. SILLIMAN IN 1818, THROUGH TRAINS Via. N.Y., N. H. & H.R.R.
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Sleepers.

“

“ cc

TAKE THE BEST.

THE INTERNATIONAL REVIEW.

NEW MONTHLY.-SERIES.
JOHN T. MORSE, Jr., HENRY CABOT LODGE, Editors.

(Established

Price 50 Cents a month ; $5.coa year. Specimen copies sent post-paid 1859).

n receipt of 15 cents.

AGENTS WANTED who understand the chesacter, scope

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A. S. BARNES & CO,

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CHART OF

“ANIMAL CLASSIFICATION

The Subkingdoms, Classes, Orders and Fam-
ilies, with examples, arranged according to the
principles of classification. Price, 15 cents.

Address,

A, B. GRIFFEN, 641 Broad 8t., Newark, N J.

A. Y N@E-

FOR ALL

Laboratory
AND
Manufactory Purposes.
Wholesale and Retail.

Scrap Purchased. Circulars by Mail.

— J. & H. BERGE,

(Late Hall & Benjamin)

IMPORTERS & MANUFACTURERS
==

CHEMICAL and PHYSICAL
APPARATUS

OF ALL KINDS,
191 GREENWICH & 95 JOHN STREETS, NEW YORK.

Send Postal for Descriptive & HMlustrated
Catalogue.

ew ak Ml ih a il i Ul i ai

| MEYROWITZ BR

OTHERS,
OPTICIANS,

297 Fourth Ave., N. Y.,

S. E. COR. 23D ST.

Trial Cases, Opthalmos-
copes, Artifical Eyes, Clinical
Thermometers, Microscopés,
Electric Batteries, etc.

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prescriptions of Oculists.

N. B.—An Illustrated Catalogue will
be sent free upon request.

ay INVENTORS’ INSTITUTE,

A CABINET OF

ANCIENT COINS for SALE Ceerer Union, _. New York

| For promoting and protecting the interests
of Inventors, and developing and encourag-
ing inventive talent.

| Patent cffices, Library and Exhibition rooms.
Sample copy of /udustrial News, giving full

particulars of this Institution forwarded on appli-

Address L, S., care of Office of ‘'Scrmnce.”’ | cation to the above address,

On Moderate Terms.

This is a genuine and valuable collection.
|
Proposals for purchase of whole or part is solic-

ted,

AND MEDICAL BOOKS,

Minerals, Shells, Fossils, Birds, Eggs,
Eyes, Pins, etc., etc.

For sale by A, E. FOOTE, M.D,,

[Prof. Min. and Chem., Fellow Am. Ass’n Ady.

Science, Life Member Am. Museum Nat. History ;

New York and Philadelphia Acad. Nat. Sci.]
4223 Belmont Avenue, Philadelphia.

Specinten copy 82 page illus. Naturaxists Leisure Hous
and MontHiy Binur sent free.

SCIENCE. iii

JEWETT’S.

The Original and Genuine.
Portable Crock Filter. .

ALL OTHERS ARE IMITATIONS,

Over 100,000 now in use,

Acknowledged the only complete Filter
and Cooler in the world,

JEWETE’S

PORTABLE CROCK

| sie OR eh BS Sd a

WITH PORCELAIN-LINED

COG Ti Hee.

This is the only Filter having the Pat-

Pat. Nov. 16, 1869, Oct. 15, 1878,

PaTENT PENDING.

The Latest Improvement

IU
li i consists in placing the filtering material
in a separate vessel or crock. The ad-

vantage being this, viz ;

That whenever the filter part gives
ent Removable Filtering Cup attached,

which holds all sediment that would othe

erwise pass into the filter.

out, a new crock can be obtained, which

will make the whole complete as when

first purchesed. We, therefore, recom-

This celebrated Filter will take river,

mend parties at a distance (instead of at-
lake, pond, rain or other impure water,

tempting to get the Filter re-packed) that
and render the same of

they should purchase a new filter crock,

INU :
Pas the cost of which is moderate, and no Sparkling Transparency
| more than the cost of repacking. and Purity.
* ORNAMENTAL STYLE. STAINED OAK.

No. 71, Porcelain Reservoir, 4% quarts--------------------- $7.25 each. No. 61, Porcelain Reservoir, 4% quarts_--..------e. .c2es00. $6.75 each.
vy 72, “ “ 7% sie A 9.25 * SOrGa3 rr ‘ 7% “ 8.75 se
ow 739 ‘74 “ Ir ow 3 = asEE.00. w“ “ 63, “ “we II “ 10.50 “
Cur 7s “ “ 16 Cow Tick (2 seis ee TZ:00; ‘* SGas se OQ 16 KL waL E2050) ce
6 759 ee oo 26 CR ene ee i Sei eae OS 15.50 ** SS 65. “ “ 26 “ 15.00 ‘

READ THE TWO MOST CONVINCING TESTIMONIALS.
Isaac S, Wittrams & Co., 728 Market Street, Philadelphia, Pa.—We have sold your ‘‘ Patent Water Filter”? for the last six years. Our sales
m that time having reached upwards of five thousand, and in no instance have we heard of any failure in performing all you claim for them,
i BOARD OF HEALTH, Washington, D. C., Aug. 27, 1877.
Wess & Bever:pGe:—I am just in receipt of your favor of yesterday, requesting my opinion of the ‘** Jewett Filter’? purchased of you sev
eral months ago fur my personal use, and am pleased to say that it has fully answered your expressed estimate of its value. As a cleanser and
purifier of drinkirig water it is certainly not excelled by any mechanical arrangement known to me, THE FOREGOING REMARKS APPLY EQUALLY

©Q THE LARGE FILTER OF THE SAME MAKE PURCHASED FOR THE BOARD OF HEALTH.
Very respectfully yours, CHRIS. C. COX, M.D.

Manufactured only by JOHN C, JEWETT & SONS, Buffalo, New York.

for SALE In New York City sy KING, BRIGGS & CO., 596 Broadway. J. H. BALDWIN & CO., 2t Murray Street. L. HEYNIGER,
18 Fulton Street, CHARLES JONES, 920 Broadway. LEWIS & CONGER, 601 Sixth Avene,

SCIENCE:

A WEEKLY JOURNAL OF SCIENTIFIC PROGRESS.

Vol. Il. No. 37, - - - “ = “ - March 12,1881.

CONTENTS.

Insanity versus Civilization (Edit.) ; Scientific Societies in Washington, D, C.; Action of an Intermittent Beam of Radiant
Heat upon Gaseous Matter, John Tyndall; The Unity of Nature: Onthe Moral Character of Man, Considered in
the Light of the Unity of Nature, VI. (Continued), The Duke of Argyll ; The Lick Observatory, W. C. W.; Books

Received ; Correspondence ; Notes.

SusBscripTion. Four DoLiars A YEAR. SincLE Numsers, Ten Cents,

.

1V

SCIENCE.

BRAIN AND
NERVE FOOD.

VITALIZED PHOS-PHITES,

Composed of the Vital or Nerve-giving Principles of the Ox-Brain and Wheat-Germ.

1T RESTORES THE ENERGY LOST BY NERVOUSNESS OR INDIGESTION ; RELIEVES LASSITUDE, ERRATIC PAINS AND
NEURALGIA ; REFRESHES THE NERVES TIRED BY WORRY, EXCITEMENT, OR EXCESSIVE BRAIN FATIGUE; STRENGTH-
ENS A FAILING MEMORY, AND GIVES RENEWED VIGOR 1N ALL DISEASES OF NERVOUS EXHAUSTION OR DEBILITY

IT IS THE ONLY PREVENTIVE OF CONSUMPTION.

IT GIVES VITALITY TO THE INSUFFICIENT BODILY OR MENTAL GROWTH OF CHILDREN, PREVENTS FRETFULNESS
AND GIVES QUIET, REST AND SLEEP. IT GIVES A BETTER DISPOSITION TO INFANTS AND CHILDREN, AS IT PRO-

MOTES GOOD HEALTH TO BRAIN AND BODY.

PHYSICIANS HAVE PRESCRIBED 300,000 PACKAGES.

For Sale by Druggists or by Mail, $1.

And Materials of all kinds.
OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS,

Microscopes, Telescopes, &c.

G. S. WOOLMAN, 116 Fulton Street,
NEW YORK.

Send for Illus. Catalogue, and mention this Journal, |

CELLULOID EYE-GLASSES.

Representing the choicest selected Tor-
oise-Shell and Amber. The LIGHTEST,
HANDSOMEST AND STRONGEST known.
Sold by Opticians and Jewellers. Made by

SPENCER OPT. MPG CO.,

13 MAIDEN LANE, NEW YORK

BO!O-K Ss

RELATING TO

PRACTICAL SCIENCE

Embracing Works on Civil, Mechanical, Military |
and Naval Engineering. Descriptive Catalogue
sent free on application.

E, & F. N. SPON, 446 Broome St., N.Y. |

| Leave New York, 1
| « « “

« “ “

& “ “

“< “

TAKE THE BEST.

THE INTERNATIONAL REVIEW.

NEW MONTHLY SERIES.
JOHN T. MORSE, Jr., HENRY CABOT LODGE, Editors.

Price 50 Cents a month ; $5.00 a year.
n receipt of 15 cents.

AGENTS WANTED who understand the character, scope
and value of the REvIEw, to solicit subscriptions.

A. S. BARNES & CO.
111 & 113 William Street, New York.

Specimen copies sent post-paid

| New York & New England BR. B. |

THROUGH TRAINS Via. N.Y., N. H. & H.R. R,
| Between Boston and New York. |
| FROM, GRAND CENTRAL DEPOT.

1.00 A.M.
4.00 P_M., with Elegant Through Car. |
11.35 P.M., week days, with Through New |
Pullman Sleepers.
10.30 P.M., Sundays.
FROM DEPOT, FOOT OF SUMMER ST.
Leave Boston, 9.00 A.M., week days, with Through Cars to

10.00 P.M., daily, with elegant new Pu

CHART OF

ANIMAL CLASSIFICATION

The Subkingdoms, Classes, Orders and Fam-
| ilies, with examples, arranged according to the
| principles of classification. Price, 15 cents.
Address,

A. B. GRIFFEN, 641 Broad 8t., Newark, N J.

Connects at Hartford.

Grand Central Depot.
Iman |
Sleepers. |

THE ASTRONOMICAL REGISTER.

Published Monthly. Present Number 214,

Subscribers in America can send, either by Post Office Order

or in notes, $3.50 for one year’s subscripticn, postage included.
P. O. O. to be made payable to JOHN C. JACKSON, Lowe
Clapton, London, Eng.

ADDRESS: 11 Angel Court Throgmorton Street,
LONDON, ENG.

—— J. & H. BERGE,—

(Late Hall & Benjamin)

IMPORTERS & MANUFACTURERS
—OF—

APPARATUS

OF ALL KINDS,

191 GREENWICH & 95 JOHN STREETS, NEW YORK,

ae a lg i as i Ma A lh

Catalogue.

CHEMICAL and PHYSICAL

Send Postal for Descriptive & Illustrated

OTHERS,
OPTICIANS,

297 Fourth Ave., N. Y.,

S. E. COR, 23D ST.

MEYROWITZ BR

Trial Cases, Optha’mos-
copes, Artifical Eyes, Clinical
Thermometers, Microscopes,
Electric Batteries, etc.

Spectal attenton given to

prescriptions of Oculists.

N. B.—An Tilustrated Catalogue will

: ae be sent free upon request,

A eC OF | INVENTOR
ANCIENT COINS for SALE Seorer Union,

On Moderate Terms.
ing inventive talent.
This is a genuine and valuable collection.
Proposals for purchase of whole or part is solic-

ited. Address, L, S., care of Office of ‘*Sciznce.’’ | cation to the above ad

For promoting and protecting the interests)
of Inventors, and developing and encuurag-|
Patent cffices, Library and Exhibition rooms,

Sample copy of /zdustrial News, giving full
particulars of this Institution forwarded on appli-

S’ INSTITUTE,
New York.

SCIENTIFIC AND MEDICAL BOOKS,

Minerals, Shells, Fossils, Birds, Eggs,
Eyes, Pins, etc., etc.

For sale by A, E. FOOTE, M.D,,

[Prof. Min. and Chem., Fellow Am. Ass’n Ady,

Science, Life Member Am. Museum Nat. History ;

New York and Philadelphia Acad. Nat. Se:.]
1223 Belmont Avenue, Philsdelphia,

Specimen copy 82 page illus. Naturaxists Leisure Howe
and MontHiy Butverin sent free.

dress,

_e
_e
me

SCIENCE.

JEWETT’S
Portable Crock Filter.

The Original and Genuine.

ALL OTHERS ARE IMITATIONS,

Over 100,000 now in use,

Acknowledged the only complete Filter
and Cooler in the world.

JEWETT’S

ELL: BR

WITH PORCELAIN-LINED

Ce © TE Bask:

This is the only Filter having the Pat-

yom)
Wyn MC | Pat, Nov. 16, 1869, Oct. 15, 1878.
Ba\\) I

PaTEnT PENDING.

The Latest Improvement

consists in placing the filtering material
in a separate vessel or crock. The ad-

vantage being this, viz ;

That whenever the filter part gives
ent Removable Filtering Cup attached,

out, a new crock can be obtained, which
which holds all sediment that would oth»

will make the whole complete as when

erwise pass into the filter.

first purchesed. We, therefore, recom-

mend parties at a distance (instead of at- This celebrated F.lter will take river,

lake, pond, rain or other impure water,

kid me tempting to get the Filter re-packed) that

in|
my

ALT
wl UI

y ISSR
i

nd render the same of

§ Sparkling Transparency
and Purity.

they should purchase a new filter crock,

the cost of which is moderate, and no

ih | more than the cost of repacking.

ORNAMENTAL, STYLE. STAINED OAK.
No. 71, Porcelain Reservoir, 41% quarts $7.25 each No. 61, Porcelain Reservoir, 44% quarts--------.--.
oe u it3 it) oe “ i) ‘ oe
pele ep 7% = - 9.25 62. 7 st EE ae See
739 re II P Zao) 00.00) os 63, = Be II Se Beta ade o-*
& 74, “ “ 16 ws 2 33.00..‘¢ 64, rr 16 aot ee
oF ee 26 6 mE TEON Is 65, & “ AG (he ae eee ae Mee Fee 9

READ THE TWO MOST CONVINCING TESTIMONIALS.
Isaac S. Wittiams & Co., 728 Market Street, Philadelphia, Pa.—We have sold your ‘‘ Patent Water Filter’’ for the last sw years. Our sales
m that time having reached upwards of five thousand, and in no instance have we heard of any failure in performing all you claim for them.
: BOARD OF HEALTH, Washington, D. C., Aug. 27, 1877.
Wess & Bever:oce:—I am just in receipt of your favor of yesterday, requesting my opinion of the ‘* Jewett Filter’? purchased of you sey~
ral months ago for my personal use, and am pleased to say that it has fully answered your expressed estimate of its value. As a cleanser and
purifier of drinking water it is certainly not excelled by any mechanical arrangement known to me, THE FOREGOING REMARKS AIPLY EQUALLY

*Q THE LARGK FILTER OF THE SAME MAKE PURCHASED FOR THE BOARD OF HEALTH.
Very respectfully yours, CHRIS. C. COX, M.D.

Manufactured only by JOHN C. JEWETT & SONS, Buffalo, New York.

€or SALE In New York City sy KING, BRIGGS & CO., 5096 Broadway. J. H. BALDWIN &.CO., 21 Murray Street. L. HEYNIGER,
18 Fulton Street. CHARLES JONES, 920 Broadway, LEWIS & CONGER, 601 Sixth Aventte,

SCIENCE:

A WEEKLY JOURNAL OF SCIENTIFIC PROGRESS.

Vol. Il. No. 36, - - - - - - - March 4,1881.

CONTENTS.

Microscopes and their Objectives (Edit.) ; Walker Prizes in Natural History ; The Odontornithes: Extinct Toothed Birds
of North America, by Prof. O. C. Marsh; The Unity of Nature, VI., by the Duke of Argyll ; Atmospheric Ozone for
January, 1881, by L. P. Gratacap; Note on the Posterior Brain of the Stegosaurus, by Prof. Burt G. Wilder;
Atmospheric Dust, by Dr. T. L. Phipson; The Cordoba Observatory, by W. C. W.; The Davidson Astronomical
Observatory at San Francisco, California; Science in France, by Cosmos; Announcements ; Notes, Astronomical,

Botanical, etc., etc., etc.

SUBSCRIPTION. Four DoLLARs A YEAR. SINGLE NumBErs, TEN CENTs.

iv SCIENCE.

BRAIN AND

RANE oon. VITALIZED PHOS-PHITES,

Composed of the Vital or Nerve-giving Principles of the Ox-Brain and Wheat-Germ.

IT RESTORES THE ENERGY LOST BY NERVOUSNESS OR INDIGESTION ; RELIEVES LASSITUDE, ERRATIC PAINS AND
NEURALGIA ; REFRESHES THE NERVES TIRED BY WORRY, EXCITEMENT, OR EXCESSIVE BRAIN FATIGUE; STRENGTH-
ENS A FAILING MEMORY, AND GIVES RENEWED VIGOR IN ALL DISEASES OF NERVOUS EXHAUSTION OR DEBILITY

IT IS THE ONLY PREVENTIVE OF CONSUMPTION.

IT GIVES VITALITY TO THE INSUFFICIENT BODILY OR MENTAL GROWTH OF CHILDREN, PREVENTS FRETFULNESS
AND GIVES QUIET, REST AND SLEEP. IT GIVES A BETTER DISPOSITION TO INFANTS AND CHILDREN, AS IT PRO-

MOTES GOOD HEALTH TO BRAIN AND BODY.

PHYSICIANS HAVE PRESCRIBED 300,000 PACKAGES.

For Sale by Druggists or by Mail, $r.

F. CROSBY, 664 & 666 Sixth Ave., N. Y.—London, 137 A Strand.

DRAWING INSTRUMENTS
And Materials of all kinds.
OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS,
Microscopes, Telescopes, &c.

G. S. WOOLMAN, 116 Fulton Street,
NEW YORK.

Send for Illus. Catalogue, and mention this Journal,

CELLULOID EYE-GLASSES.

Representing the choicest selected Tor-
oise-Shell and Amber. The LIGHTEST,
HANDSOMEST AND STRONGEST known.
Sold by Opticians and Jewellers. Made by

SPENCER OPT. MPG CO.,

13 MAIDEN LANE, NEW YORK

BOOKS

RELATING TO

Embracing Works on Civil, Mechanical, Military Bo eee ace
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SCIENCE

A WEEKLY RECORD OF SCIENTIFIC PROGRESS.

ILLUSTRATED.

Entered in the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington, D.C.

No. 41—Vol. Il.

April 9, 1881.

Price 10 Cents.

we ACME. MICROSCOPES.

‘Acme”’ No. 2.

Monocular, A ; $100

Binocular, é fi LAr

** Acme,” No. 3.
Monocular, . - P $45

Binocular, a pe fs

“Acme” No. 4.

The favorite Laboratory
Stand, 5 P Fi $25

With 1 inch and ¥ inch

objectives, . ; 3° aS

Special Terms made with
Colleges. ==

ae:

“Eet a

“ACME” No. 3.

Ail
i

‘**Acme” Lithological.
A new Stand, after the pat-
tern of the No. 3, for the study
of Rocks; convertible in an
instant into an ordinary mon-

ocular.

All our Stands
have same size of tubing and
sub-stage fitting, so that eye.
pieces and accessories that fit
one Stand can be used with

all.

**“Congress” Turn-Table,
Patented, $6.50.

Gem Turn-Table, $2.50.
Do. Do. with improved

centering adjustment, $3.25

HOLMAN’S COMPRESSOR, THE LATEST AND THE BEST, $4. MECHANICAL FINGER, $5,
JOHN W. SIDLE & CO., Lancaster, Pa.

Send jor Catalogue,

ii SCIENCE.

SCIENCE:

A WEEKLY JOURNAL .OF SCIENTIFIC PROG.

To Correspondents.

All communications should be addressed to the Editor—box 3838, P. O., New York—with name and address of
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o>

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American Journal of Microscopy 1.00 4.70 MINING AND SCIENTIFIC PRESS....------------------- 4.00 6.40
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- SCIENCE

A WEEKLY RECORD OF SCIENTIFIC PROGRESS.

ILLUSTRATED.
{ntered in the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington, D.C.
No. 42—Vol. Il. April 16, 1881. Price 10 Cents.

Me ACGME “MICROSCOPES.

adore

** Acme”’ Lithological.
A new Stand, after the pat-

‘Acme” No. 2.
Monocular, 5 A $100
Binocular, e . cA tern of the No. 3, for the study
of Rocks; convertible in an
instant into an ordinary mon-

ocular,

“Acme,” No. 3.

Monocular, . : : $45
All our Stands

Binocular, - ‘ no TO
have same size of tubing and
sub-stage fitting, so that eye.
pieces and accessories that fit
one Stand can be used with

* Acme” No. 4. all.

The favorite Laboratory
Stand; ~ -. ‘ z $25

With 1 inch and ¥ inch
ai “Congress” Turn-Table,

objectives, . ; AS
Patented, $6.50.

Gem Turn-Table, $2.50.
reece mee rick Do. Do. with improved

Colleges.

centering adjustment, $3.25

a Oo Oo

“ACME” No. 3.
HOLMAN’S COMPRESSOR, THE LATEST AND THE BEST, $4. MECHANICAL FINGER, $5.

JOHN W. SIDLE & CO., Lancaster, Pa.

Send yor Catalogue,

me
—

SCIENCE.

SCIENCE

A WEEKLY JOURNAL OF SCIENTIFIC PROGHe so]

ILLUSTRATED.

To Correspondents.

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AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE---- 6.00 8.50 Magazine of American History--.-----.-------------
American Journal of Microscopy --------------------- 1.00 4.70 || MINING AND SCIENTIFIC PRESS..---------------------
American ;Machinist, 97-225) 5-2 225-s eee emene aan 3.00 OL76. Bi lliNabares 5) 2 seers es coe se ane Ree ere eee
American Monthly Microscopical Journal____--.-.-.-- 1.00 4.80 Neue Sledicalljourmall==s--eeen sc ee=see== ae
American Manufacturer and Iron World____-_-------- 4.25 7.00 || New England Journal On Education sastnes- caseeee ee
Boston Journal of Chemistry £,00 4-75 || North American Review--------.-.2-.---2---.-2----
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SCIENCE

A WEEKLY RECORD OF SCIENTIFIC PROGRESS.

ILLUSTRATED.

fintered in the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington, D.C.

No. 48—Vol. Il. April 28, 1881.

Price 10 Cents.

Pee ACME MICROSCOPES

x AS y >

aears

“Acme” No. 2. ‘** Acme” Lithological.

Monocular, . . $100 A new Stand, after the pat-
Binocular, : ; op LAE tern of the No. 3, for the study
of Rocks; convertible in an
instant into an ordinary mon-

ocular,

“Acme,” No. 3.

Monocular, . F . $45
All our Stands

nave same size of tubing and

Binocular, i he eG ko"

sub-stage fitting, so that eye.
pieces and accessories that fit
one Stand can be used with

‘“ Acme” No. 4. all.

The favorite Laboratory
Stand, : : , $25

With 1 inch and ¥ inch
j “Congress”? Turn-Table,

objectives, . ; me Ay
Patented, $6.50.

Gem Turn-Table, $2.50.
ee eens made, with Do. Do. with improved

Colleges.

centering adjustment, $3.25

_ ita, =

Pur. Ne Ct. ————
“ACME” No. 3.

HOLMAN’S COMPRESSOR, THE LATEST AND THE BEST, $4 MECHANICAL FINGER, $5.
JOHN W. SIDLE & CO., Lancaster, Pa.

Send yor Catalogue,

. SCIENCE.

SCIENCE:

A-WEEKLY JOURNAL OF SCIENTIFIC PROGRES

to
oe

ILLUSTRATED.

To Correspondents.

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Scientific papers and correspondence intended for publication should be written /egzbly on one side only of the
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Those engaged in Scientific Research are invited to make this Journal the medium ot recording their work, and
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Io cents,
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AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE...-.------..-------- 6.00 8.50 Magazine of American History_--.-------.---------- 2.00 5.50
American Journal of Microscopy---.-------..------- 1,00 4.70 MINING AND’ SCIENTIFIC PRESS o-<+ cee scee aeceeceeaeee 4.00 6.40
‘American ‘Machinist.<: -2.2.. 5 =: 2 ee ee 3.00 6.70 DE Tat) i a a oo eee eee Nee 8 - 6.00 9.15
American Monthly Microscopical Journal.__.---.---- 1,00 4.80 N, WaMedicalijournal.2. 356... 2252 --e- eee Cee 4.00 7-00
American Manufacturer and Iron World-__----------- 4.25 7-00 New England Journal of Education.-..--...--------- 3-00 6.40
Boston Journal of Chemistry--..--.-.---------------- 1,00 4.75 Novth American Review. -- 2. 2ecesmenno eo aeneeeee 5-00 7-75
(Chicago Medical Review.-52225-522-=2-- serene eee 2.00 5.50 Gperator,c coc one Jeon oan tone ee eee eae eee 1.00 4.80
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Harpers Bazarees. oooh ss, 2 eee eee 4.00 7.20 Student 1.00 4-75
Hlarperie- Noung. People.2cc.. ce cas nes seen onee ee 1.50 5.20 St. Nicholas : 3.00 6.40
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Tee

SCIENCE

A WEEKLY RECORD OF SCIENTIFIC PROGRESS.

ILLUSTRATED.

Entered in the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington, D.C.

Price 10 Cents.

No. 44—Vol. Il. April 30, 1881.

mee ACME. MICROSCOPES.

* Acme” No. 2. “Acme” Lithological.

Monocular, : ‘ $100 A new Stand, after the pat-
Binocular, . : 2 WT tern of the No. 3, for the study
of Rocks; convertible in an
instant into an ordinary mon-

ocular.

“Acme,” No. 38.
Monocular, . 2 ; $45
Binocular, ; ; 5 270 All our Stands
; have same size of tubing and
sub-stage fitting, so that eye.
pieces and accessories that fit

one Stand can be used with

* Acme” No. 4. all.

The favorite Laboratory
Stand... 2 $5

With 1 inch and ¥ inch
““Congress”? Turn-Table,

objectives, . - 4s)
Patented, $6.50.

Gem Turn-Table, $2.50.
Special Terms made with Do. Do. with improved

Colleges. centering adjustment, $3.25

ac Cam a) Com

O

" “ACME” No. 3.
~ HOLMAN’S COMPRESSOR, THE LATEST AND THE BEST, $4. MECHANICAL FINGER, $5.

JOHN W. SIDLE &.CO., Lancaster, Pa.

Send for Catalogue.

‘ SCIENCE.

SCIENCE:

A WEEKLY JOURNAL OF SCIENTIFIC PROGRES.

_o
me

—_

ILLUSTRATED:

To Correspondents.

All communications should be addressed to the Editor—box 3838, P. O., New York—with name and address of
writer, not necessarily for publication without consent.

Scientific papers and correspondence intended for publication should be written /egzd/y on one side only of the
paper. Articles thus received will be returned when found unsuitable for the Journal.

Those engaged in Scientific Research are invited to make this Journal the medium of recording their work, and
facilities will be extended to those desirous of publishing original communications possessing merit.

Proceedings of Scientific Societies will be recorded, but the abstracts furnished must be signed by the
Secretaries.

Both questions and answers in “ Notes and Queries ’ should be made as brief as possible; an answer appearing
to demand an elaborate reply may be written in the form of an article.

To Subscribers.

Terms of subscriptions for SCIENCE will be $4 a year, payable in advance. Six months, $2.50. Single copies

Io cents.
Subscriptions forwarded by mail should be addressed to the Editor, Box 3838, P. O., New York, and Post-office

Orders made payable to “ John Michels.”

To Advertisers.
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CLUB RATES. :
Subserip-| With Subscrip| With
tion. | SCIENCE. tion, |ScrENCE

Analyst)-32.cncofoaw ce Tsecboscees oe eee $2.00 $5250) | ||| Mlronpasehe 52 oe oe oe el on ee 7.50 9-34
Appleton’s Monthly==------s=e=-os= =n ee eee eee 3.00 6.26 Journal of the Telegraph 2.00 5-50
AMBRICAN, NATURALIST 2. =<: --caiececin=an ene eee eee 4.00 7.20 | Pondoew Lancet.<- o. 2-2-2 ste. cade cost eee 5.00 7-50
AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE---------.-.--------- 6.00 8.50 || Magazine of American History--.---. -------------- 2.00 5-50
American Journal of Microscopy---.-------..---.---- 1,00 4.70 || MINING AND SCIENTIFIC PRESS......-----+-----=----- 4.00 6.40
Wmerican Machinist.2.<.s2sscassecech eee oL oar ee 3.00 6:70) | WINS lie. 6 oan oe Se a ee ee ee ee 6.00 9.15
American Monthly Microscopical Journal__._-.-.---- 1.00 4.80 IN. Wo Medical’ Jonrnal: . 2252582 oo eae eae eee 4.00 7.00
American Manufacturer and Iron World______--.---- 4.25 7.00 New England Journal of Education-...-------------- 3.00 6.40
Boston Journal of Chemistry. =2- -ce seen aes see ee anes £,00 4:75. 1) NorthiAmerncan Review. 2.scscacecceaeeceeneeeteeee 5.00 7-75
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SCIENCE

A WEEKLY JOURNAL OF SCIENTIFIC PROGRESS

Vol. II. No. 44, - = =

April 30, 1881.

CONTENTS.

Mr. Edison and His Lamp (Edit.) ; Congreso Internacional de Americanistas ; The Unity of Nature, VII., by the Duke
of Argyll; Dolbear on the Nature and Constitution of Matter; A Critique, by William H. Dopp; Intra-Mercurial
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ENS A FAILING MEMORY, AND GIVES RENEWED VIGOR IN ALL DISEASES OF NERVOUS EXHAUSTION OR DEBILITY
IT IS THE ONLY PREVENTIVE OF CONSUMPTION.

IT GIVES VITALITY TO THE INSUFFICIENT BODILY OR MENTAL GROWTH OF CHILDREN, PREVENTS FRETFULNESS

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SCIENCE

A WEEKLY JOURNAL OF SCIENTIFIC PROGRESS

Vol. II. No. 43, - = 2

April 23, 1881.

CONTENTS.

Abstract Science in America ; The Ohio Mechanics’ Institute ; Scientific Societies of Washington ; On the Modern De-
velopment of Faraday’s Conception of Electricity, by Professor Helmholtz; The Yellowstone National Park ; Mean
Temperature at Boston, Mass., from the Report of the Chief Signal Officer, Washington ; Note on the Sensory Tract
of the Brain, by Edward C. Spitzka, M. D.; Intra-Mercurial Planets, by Professor Lewis Swift; Discrepancies in
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IT RESTORES THE ENERGY LOST BY NERVOUSNESS OR INDIGESTION ; RELIEVES LASSITUDE, ERRATIC PAINS AND
NEURALGIA ; REFRESHES THE NERVES TIRED BY WORRY, EXCITEMENT, OR EXCESSIVE BRAIN FATIGUE; STRENGTH-
ENS A FAILING MEMORY, AND GIVES RENEWED VIGOR 1N ALL DISEASES OF NERVOUS EXHAUSTION OR DEBILITY

Iv

IT IS THE ONLY PREVENTIVE OF CONSUMPTION.

IT GIVES VITALITY TO THE INSUFFICIENT BODILY OR MENTAL GROWTH OF CHILDREN, PREVENTS FRETFULNESS

AND GIVES QUIET, REST AND SLEEP.

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MOTES GOOD HEALTH TO BRAIN AND BODY. °

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NEW YORK.

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CELLULOID EYE-GLASSES.

Representing the choicest selected Tor-
oise-Shell and Amber. The LIGHTEST,
HANDSOMEST AND STRONGEST known.
Sold by Opticians and Jewellers. Made by

SPENCER OPT. MFG CO.,

13 MAIDEN LANE, NEW YORK

American Journal of Science.

FouNDED BY PROF. SILLIMAN IN 1818.
Devoted to Chemistry, Physics, Geology, Physi-
cal Geography, Mineralogy, Natural History,
Astronomy, and Meteorology.

Editors: Jas. Dana. Epw. S. Dana and B. Sittiman,.

Associate Nation Professors Asa. Gray, J. P. Cooks, Jr.,
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WILDER, for the use of students in the Ana
tomical L aboratory of Cornell University, and
forming 52 printed octavo pages with two Hekto-
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ELECTRODES.

EDISON’S
Electric Pen & Duplicating Press,

An Fxtremely Yseful Jnvention

Dr. Butler’s Plumbago Rheostat, DUPLICATING WRITTEN OR PRINTED MATTER,
PLIABLE SPONGE ELECTRODES, &c., &c.

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Magnifying Glasses, Microscopes, STAND, and large amount of accessories
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4 Catalog res sens of Peace en List Price $580. Will be sold for $310.

Part 1st, Mathematical Instruments.
‘

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‘** 3d Magic Lanterns and Slides.
“4th Physical Instrument.

SCIENCE

A WEEKLY JOURNAL OF SCIENTIFIC PROGRESS

Vol. Il. No. 42, - - - - = - - April 16,1881.

CONTENTS.
Cosmical Evolution (Edit.) ; The Sea-Side Laboratory ; American Chemical Society ; On some Phenomena presented by -
Vortex-Rings, by Prof. A. E. Dolbear ; The Co-efficient of Safety in Navigation, by Prof. W. A. Rogers; Notes on

Chicken Cholera: On the Action of Bacteria on Various Gases ; A New Cortical Centre, by Graeme M. Hammond ;
The Unity of Nature, VII., by the Duke of Argyll ; Primitive Stages of Cosmical Evolution, by Prof. Alexande1

Winchell ; Books Received ; Correspondence ; Notes, Astronomical, Chemical, &c., &c., &c.

SupscripTion, Four DoLLars A YEAR, SINGLE NumBers, TEN Cents

lv

SCIENCE.

BRAIN AND

IN AND oy, VITALIZED PHOS-PHITES,

Composed of the Vital or Nerve-gtving Principles of the Ox-Brain and Wheat-Germ.

IT RESTORES THE ENERGY LOST BY NERVOUSNESS OR INDIGESTION ; RELIEVES LASSITUDE, ERRATIC PAINS AND
NEURALGIA ; REFRESHES THE NERVES TIRED BY WORRY, EXCITEMENT, OR EXCESSIVE BRAIN FATIGUE; STRENGTH-
ENS A FAILING MEMORY, AND GIVES RENEWED VIGOR IN ALL DISEASES OF NERVOUS EXHAUSTION OR DEBILITY
IT IS THE ONLY PREVENTIVE OF CONSUMPTION.

IT GIVES VITALITY TO THE INSUFFICIENT BODILY OR MENTAL GROWTH OF CHILDREN, PREVENTS FRETFULNESS
AND GIVES QUIET, REST AND SLEEP. IT GIVES A BETTER DISPOSITION TO INFANTS AND CHILDREN, AS IT PRO-
MOTES GOOD HEALTH TO BRAIN AND BODY.

PHYSICIANS HAVE PRESCRIBED 300,000 PACKAGES,

F. CROSBY, 664 & €66 Sixth Ave.,N. Y.—London, 187 A Strand.

CELLULOID EYE-GLASSES,

Representing the choice:t selected Tor-
oise-Shell and Amber. The LIGHTEST,
HANDSOMEST AND STRONGEST known.
Sold by Opticians and Jewel'ers. Made by

SPENCER OPT. M’F’G CO.,

13 MAIDEN LANE, NEW YORK

For Sale by Druggists or by Mail, $1.

DRAWING INSTRUMENTS |

And Materials of all kinds. |

OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS, |

Microscopes, Telescopes, &c.

GS. WOOLMAN, 116 Fulton Street,
NEW YORK.

Send for Illus. Catalogue, and mention this Journal.

American Journal of Science.

FOUNDED BY PROF. SILLIMAN IN 1818.

|

|New York & New England R. R. | CHART OF
| THROUGH TRAINS Via. N.Y., N. H. & H.R. R. |
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Associate Editors: Professors Asa Gnay, J. P. Cooks, Jr., 0a eM Ene | ilies, with examples, arranged according to the

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SCIENCE

A WEEKLY JOURNAL OF SCIENTIFIC PROGRESS

Vol I Nora = = Ct April 9, 1881.

CONTENTS.

Uniform Time (Edit.) ; How to Obtain the Brain of the Cat, by Professor B, G, Wilder; Atoms and Monads, their
Metaphysical Development, by Dr. Diodato Borrelli (Translation by the Marchioness Clara Lanza) ; Letters to the
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th et ts sh el ly is il i

THE MUSCLES of the CAT. | R. & J. BECK, PuBLIsHED To-Day.
| al
sochcs ef the Desshiun at she ayctee «;| MANUFACTURING OPTICIANS |< tk i
opies of the escriptions o 1e uscles o inciples I Ived in th 1 "
Neck and Arm of the Cat, with Directions for | 1016 Chestnut St., Philadelphia. eae Rohanwag aby Pclicebae Ieraeaee 2
their Dissection, prepared by Pror. B. G. | — -- 1
WILDER, for the use of students in the Ana- | MICROSCOPES By THOMAS NOLAN, B.S
tomical Laboratory of Cornell University, and | 4 Forming Van Nostrand’s Science Series, No. 51.
forming 52 printed octavo pages with two Hekto- | And all Accessories of the H1iGHEst GRADES at 18mo. Price 50 cents.
graphed Plates, may be had of F. L. KIL- the Lowgst Pric’s. D. VAN NOSTRAND, Publisher,
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SCIENCE

A WEEKLY RECORD OF SCIENTIFIC PROGRESS.

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May 7, 1881.

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ret

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SCIENCE

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ILLUSTRATED.

Entered in the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington, D, C.

‘May 14, 1881. Price 10 Cents.

No. 46—Vol. II.

THE ACME” MICROSCOPES.

‘“Acme”’ Lithological.

A new Stand, after the pat-

** Acme” No. 2.
Monocular, Z : $100
Binocular, . 7 os TA tern of the No. 3, for the study
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ocular.

*“ Acme,’”’ No. 3.

Monocular, . 2 $45
All our Stands

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* Acme” No. 4. all.

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Gem Turn-Table, $2.50.

Special Terms made with Do. Do. with improved

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“ 5
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ConrTeENTS. *

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A WEEKLY RECORD OF SCIENTIFIC PROGRESS.

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No. 47—Vol. II.

THE ACME” MICROSCOPES.

“Acme” Lithological.

A new Stand, after the pat-

* Acme” No. 2.

Monocular, $100

Binocular, . . . <I41 tern of the No. 3, for the study
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instant into an ordinary mon-

ocular,

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SCIENCE

A WHEEKLY JOURNAL OF SCIENTIFIC PROGRESS

Vol. IJ, No. 48, - - -

May 28,1881.

CONTENTS.

The New Microscopy (Edit.); The Production of Sound by Radiant Energy, by Professor Alexander Graham Bell ;
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Dr. CROSBY'S BRAIN AND NERVE FOOD,
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It is much taken by Clergymen, School Teachers, Lawyers,
Students, and all who over-use the brain.

It cures Nervous Disorders, especially where it exists with Debility

By, curing Debility, it prevents Consumption.

Many who have been great sufferers with Nervousness, Sleep-
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It gives vigor to the mental and bodily growth of children, and
makes a less fretful and happier childhood.

Every Wholesale Druggist in the U.S. buys it in large quantities.

SCIENCE

A WEEKLY JOURNAL OF SCIENTIFIC PROGRESS

Vol. Il. No.47, - = =

May 21,1881.

CONTENTS.

The American Museum of Natural History, Central Park, New York, (Edit.); The Storage of Electricity ; Sensibility
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NEURALGIA ; REFRESHES THE NERVES TIRED BY WORRY, EXCITEMENT, OR EXCESSIVE BRAIN FATIGUE; STRENGTH-
ENS A FAILING MEMORY, AND GIVES RENEWED VIGOR IN ALL DISEASES OF NERVOUS EXHAUSTION OR DEBILITY
IT IS THE ONLY PREVENTIVE OF CONSUMPTION.

IT GIVES VITALITY TO THE INSUFFICIENT BODILY OR MENTAL GROWTH OF CHILDREN, PREVENTS FRETFULNESS
AND GIVES QUIET, REST AND SLEEP. IT GIVES A BETTER DISPOSITION TO INFANTS AND CHILDREN, AS IT PRO-
MOTES GOOD HEALTH TO BRAIN AND BODY.

PHYSICIANS HAVE PRESCRIBED 300,000 PACKAGES, For Sale by Druggists or by Mail, $1.
F. CROSBY, 664 & €66 Sixth Ave., N. Y.—London, 137 A Strand.

DRAWING INSTRUMENTS | Ssecens®_ Novels. CHTTOLOID EYE-GLASSES,

And Materials of all kinds, MR. PERKINS’ DAUGHTER. Representing the choicest selected Tor-
OPTICAL INSTRUM ENTS, By the Marcuioness CLara LANZA.

Norz.—‘‘ It may be well to mention, that the state of | toise-Shell and Amber. The LIGHTEST,

M icroscopes, Telescopes, &c. ‘double consciousness,’ or ‘ Periodical Amnesia,’ described in HANDSOMEST AND STRONGEST known.
one of the principal personages of this story, is not by any |

G. Ss: WOOLMAN, 1 1 6 Fulton Street, means an isolated instance. It is, on the contrary, a pheno- | Sold by Opticians and Jewellers. Made by

menon well known to neurological physicians,” |
NEW YORK. G. P. PUTNAM’S SONS, SPENCER OPT, M’F’G CO.,
Send for Illus. Catalogue, and mention this Journal, 27 West 23rd St., New York. 13 MAIDEN LANE, NEW YORK

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SS ml = VARIG
; V SPE S
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Write for Catalogue of MAGNIFYING It is largely prescribed by Physicians.
ee NUE R eR ern Et HS oly _ It is much taken by Clergymen, School Teachers, Lawyers,
croscopic Opyect GLassEs, Micros- | Students, and all who over-use the brain.
CoPIc pcos Oty ee a It cures Nervous Disorders, especially where it exists with Debility
ete SPE IEE OME IE oFIEES By curing Debility, it reverts Consumption.
g Many who have been great sufferers with Nervousness, Sleep-

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Part as Cee It gives vigor to the mental and bodily growth of children, and
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SCIENCE

A WEEKLY JOURNAL OF SCIENTIFIC PROGRESS

Vol. II. No. 46, ee ee May 14,1881.
CONTENTS.

The ‘‘ Zero Motor,” (Edit.) ; Discovery of Fossil Forms in Meteorites, (Edit.) ; The Venom of Human Saliva ; Scientific
Societies of Washington ; The Ultra-Gaseous or Radiant State of Matter, by Prof. H.S. Carhart ; The Great Astron-
omical Telescope for the Vienna Observatory ; Professor Draper’s Photographs of the Nebulain Orion; The Polari-
zation of Sound, by Prof. S. W. Robinson ; Ona Method of Isolating the Mammalian Heart, by H. Newton Martin ;
Edinburgh Royal Society ; Notes, Astronomical, Chemical, Physical, &c., &c., &c.

SUBSCRIPTION, FouR DOLLARS A YEAR. SINGLE NumBers, TEN CENTs.

{v

BRAIN AND
NERVE FOOD.

, SCIENCE.

VITALIZED PH@S-Parhes,

Composed of the Vital or Nerve-givinge Principles of the Ox-Brain and Wheat-Germ.

IT RESTORES THE ENERGY LOST BY NERVOUSNESS OR INDIGESTION ; RELIEVES LASSITUDE, ERRATIC PAINS AND
NEURALGIA ; REFRESHES THE NERVES TIRED BY WORRY, EXCITEMENT, OR EXCESSIVE BRAIN FATIGUE; STRENGTH-
ENS A FAILING MEMORY, AND GIVES RENEWED VIGOR IN ALL DISEASES OF NERVOUS EXHAUSTION OR DEBILITY
IT IS THE ONLY PREVENTIVE OF CONSUMPTION.

IT GIVES VITALITY TO THE INSUFFICIENT BODILY OR MENTAL GROWTH OF CHILDREN, PREVENTS FRETFULNESS

AND GIVES QUIET, REST AND SLEEP.
MOTES GOOD HEALTH TO BRAIN AND

PHYSICIANS HAVE PRESCRIBED 300,000 PACKAGES,

IT GIVES A BETTER DISPOSITION TO
BODY.

INFANTS AND CHILDREN, AS IT PRO-

For Sale by Druggists or by Mail, $1.

F. CROSBY, 664 & 666 Sixth Ave., N. Y.—London, 137 A Strand.

DRAWING INSTRUMENTS
And Materials of all kinds.
OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS,
Microscopes, Telescopes, &c.

G. S. WOOLMAN, 116 Fulton Street,
NEW YORK.

Send for Illus. Catalogue, and mention this Journal,

| Successful Novels.

| By the Marcuioness Ciara Lanza.
|

| toise-
Note.—‘‘ It may be well to mention, that the state of | toise-Shell and Amber.

MR. PERKINS’ DAUGHTER.

CELLULOID =EYE-GLASSES.

| Representing the choicest selected Tor-
The LIGHTEST,

| ‘double consciousness ’ or ‘ Periodical Amnesia,’ described in } HANDSOMEST AND STRONGEST known.

| one of the principal personages of this story, isnot by any

means an isolated instance. It is, on the contrary, a pheno
| menon well known to neurological physicians.”

G. P. PUTNAM’S SONS,

27 West 23rd St., New York. |

Sold by Opticians and Jewellers. Made by
SPENCER OPT. M’F'G CO.,

13 MAIDEN LANE, NEW YORK.

American Journal of Science.
FOUNDED BY PROF. SILLIMAN IN 1818.
Devoted to Chemistry, Physics, Geology, Physi-
cal Geography, Mineralogy. Natural History,

Astronomy, and Meteorology.

Editors: Jas. D, Dana. Epw. S. Dana and B. Srtimayn.
Associate Editors: Professors Asa Gray, J. P. Cooxe, Jr.,

and Joun TrowsrinGE, of Cambridge; H. A. Newron and |

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ces, Household Neces-

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S. E. COR. 23D ST

Yrial Cases, Opthalmos
copes, Artifical Eyes, Clinical
Thermometers, Microscopes,
Electric Batteries, etc.
Special attention given to
prescriptions of Oculists,

N. B.—An Illustrated Catalogue will
~ be sent free upon request.

OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS.
AROMETERS, THERMOMETERS,
RAIN GAUGES, Erc.,
BENJ. PIKE’S SONS & CO.,
OPTICIANS,
No. 972 Broadway, New York. |

Etc.

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}

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SCIENCE. iii

Electrical Batteries for Medical Purposes.

Jue Western Buectric Manuracturing fo.
NEW YORK,
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STATIONARY GALVANIC BATTERIES, PORTABLE HIGH
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BATH APPARATUS, AND

CHICAGO,

BATTERIES,
ELECTRODES.

Dr. Butler’s Plumbago Rheostat
PLIABLE SPONGE ELECTRODES, &c., &c.

CATALOGUES ON APPLICATION.
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— NEW YORK —

CITY. PRICE: No.

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‘3d Magic Lanterns and Slides.

From our own experience we can eonfaeuti y skeomunend to all
Nervous and Debilitated persons

Dr. CROSBY’S BRAIN AND NERVE FOOD,
THE VITALIZED PHOSPHITES,

BECAUSE
It is largely prescribed by Physicians.

It is much taken by Clergymen, School Teachers, Lawyers,
Students, and all who over-use the brain.

It cures Nervous Disorders, especially where it exists with Debility
By curing Debility, it Arevents Consumption.

Many who have been great sufterers with Nervousness, Sleep-
lessness and Neuralgia, speak of it in the highest praise.

It gives vigor to the mental and bodily growth of children, and
makes a less fretful and happier childhood.

Every Wholesile Druggist in the U.S. buys it in large quantities,

SCIENCE

A WHEKLY JOURNAL OF SCIENTIFIC PROGRESS.

Wolli- NOntOsaee Fy =

May 7,1881.

CONTENTS.

Dr. Detmers on the Swine-Plague (Edit); Mountain Elevation, and Changes of Temperature, in Geology, by Samuel J.

Wallace ;

Remarks on a Pathogenic Schizophyte, by Prof. H. J. Detmers ;

The Kansas City Time Ball, by Prof. H.

S. Pritchett; The Unity of Nature, VII., (continued), by the Duke of Argyll; Books Received ; Notes, Astronomi-

cal, Chemical, &c., &c., &c.

SuBscripTion, Four DoLiars A YEAR.

SINGLE NumBErRS, TEN CENTs.

iv _ SCIENCE.

BRAIN AND

INAND | VITALIZED PHOS-PHITES,

Composed of the Vital or Nerve-giving Principles of the Ox-Brain and Wheat-Germ.

{T RESTORES THE ENERGY LOST BY NERVOUSNESS OR INDIGESTION ; RELIEVES LASSITUDE, ERRATIC PAINS AND
NEURALGIA ; REFRESHES THE NERVES TIRED BY WORRY, EXCITEMENT, OR EXCESSIVE BRAIN FATIGUE; STRENGTH-
ENS A FAILING MEMORY, AND GIVES RENEWED VIGOR IN ALL DISEASES OF NERVOUS EXHAUSTION OR DEBILITY
IT IS THE ONLY PREVENTIVE OF CONSUMPTION. .

IT GIVES VITALITY TO THE INSUFFICIENT BODILY OR MENTAL GROWTH OF CHILDREN, PREVENTS FRETFULNESS
AND GIVES QUIET, REST AND SLEEP. IT GIVES A BETTER DISPOSITION TO INFANTS AND CHILDREN, AS IT PRO-
MOTES GOOD HEALTH TO BRAIN AND BODY.

PHYSICIANS HAVE PRESCRIBED 300,000 PACKAGES. For Sale by Druggists or by Mail, $x.
F. CROSBY, 664 & 666 Sixth Ave., N. Y.—London, 137 A Strand.

DRAWING INSTRUMENTS ee ep OHLLULOID =EYE-GLASSES.

And Materials of all kinds. MR. PERKINS’ DAUGHTER.

Representing the choicest selected Tor-
OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS By the Marcuroness Crara LANzA. ens
. da Norr.— It may be well to mention, that the state of | toise-Shell and Amber. The LIGHTEST,
Microscopes, Telescopes, &c.

“double pore crane or ‘ Perodua described in | HANDSOMEST AND STRONGEST known.
| one of the principal personages of this story, is not by any 23
G. S. WOOLMAN, 1 1 6 Fulton Street, means an isolated instance. It is, on the contrary, a pheno- Sold by Opticians and Jewellers. Made by

menon well known to neurological physicians,”

NEW YORK. G. P. PUTNAM’S SONS, |. SPENCER OPT. M’PG CO.,
Send for Illus. Catalogue, arid mention thts Journal, | 27 West 23rd St., New York. | 13 MAIDEN LANE, NEW YORK.
American Journal of Science. | New York & New England R. R. cukpeea

FounpED By Pror. SILLIMAN IN 1838. | THROUGH TRAINS Via. N.Y., N. H. & H.R.R,

§ : : . |Between Boston and New York.

Devoted to Chemistry, Physics, Geology, Physi- FROM GRAND CENTRAL DEPOT. AN | MAL CLASSI FICATION

cal Geography, Mineralogy, Natural History, | Leave New York, 11.00 A.M. Connects at Hartford.

Astronomy, and Meteorology. Co 4.00 P.M., with Elegant Through Car. é :
Editors: Jas. D. Dana. Epw. 8. Dana and B. Stnumay. 11,35 P.M., week days, with Through New | __ The Subkingdoms, Classes, Orders and Fam-

“ “ “

Associate Editors: Professors Asa Gray, J. P. Cooks, Jr., | Pullman Sleepers. ilies, with examples, arranged according to the
and Joun Trowsrine, of Cambridge ; H. A. Newron and & «10,30 P.M., Sundays. ay les of cen ec ica EPiiee 15 one
A. E. Verritt, of Yale; and G. F. Barker, of the Univer- | FROM DEPOT, FOOT OF SUMMER ST. paper ; ’
sity of Pennsylvania, Phila. Subscription Price $6; 50 Cents | Leave Boston, 9.00 A.M., week days, with Through Cars to Address,
a Number. Address the Proprietors. | Grand Central Depot. A B GRIFFEN GAL B
Te Gs ae : road St., Newark, N. J
James D.& E. S. Dana, New Haven, Conn. 10.00 P.M., iar ack elegant new Pullman . ’ ’ y Ne de

TAKE THE BEST.

HH. M. RAY NOE,
THE INTERNATIONAL REVIEW. No! 26 Bord Sk,

NEW MONTHLY SERIES. NEW YORK.
JOHN T. MORSE, Jr.,. HENRY CABOT LODGE, Editors.

FOR ALL
(Established

Price 50 Cents a month ; $5.00 a year. Specimen copies sent post-paid 1859)
9).

n receipt of 15 cents.

AGENTS WANTED who understand the character, scope

and value of the REview, to solicit subscriptions.
A. S. BARNES & CO,
111 & 113 William Street, New York.

Laboratory

AND

Manufacturing Purposes.
Wholesale and Retail.

Scrap Purchased. Circulars by Mail.
BEST MEDIUM FOR ADVERTISERS. MEYROWITZ BROTHERS,
SCIENCE Te OPTICIANS,

Circulates in EvEry SraTe IN THE Union, also Canada, Australia,
Fapin eee 297 Fourth Ave., N. Y.,
S. E. COR. 23D ST

ALL UNIVERSITIES and COLLEGES.

Subscribers to ‘‘ Science”’ are chiefly among those having few facilities
for purchasing goods, and are buyers of Fancy Artic'es, Household Neces-
sities, Jewelry, Musical Instruments, Dry Goods, Books, Prints, Scien-
tific Instruments and Apparatus; Pure Chemical Substances, Mineral

Waters, Novelties and Specialties of every kind.

Trial’ Cases, Opthalmos
copes, Artifical Eyes, Clinical
Thermometers, Microscopes,
Electric Batteries, etc.

Special attention given to
prescriptions of Oculists,

N. B.—An Illustrated Catalogue will
be sent free upon request.

OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS. | R. & J. BECK, American Naturalist.

BAROMETERS, THERMOMETERS, | MANUFACTURING OPTICIAN S,| Devoted to the Natural Sciences in their

widest sense.
RAIN GAUGES, Erc., Erc. 1016 Chestnut St., Philadelphia. Pusuisnep Monraty.

Terms for Advertising moderate. Smalladvertisements on this page
$50 a year (52 insertions).

BENJ. PIKE’S SONS & CO. Terms, $4.00 a year. Single numbers, 35 cents.
O u MICROSCOPES, Sa REA
PTICIANS, And all Accessories of the Hicuest GRADES at aihisoe dR) Bese Iz add ‘Peotessor
No. 2B . the Lowgsr Prices. Ps. peo
Oo. 97 roadway, New York Illustrated Condensed Price List, 32 pages. Free. E. D. Cors.
, Llustrated Catalogue sent free on mentioning Full Catalogue of 176 Pages. 1s cts. McCatra & STAVELY, Publishers, Nos. 237-9
Science. Mention this Fournal. Dock Street, Philadelphia, Pa.

Re

SCIENCE

A WEEKLY RECORD OF SCIENTIFIC PROGRESS.

ILLUSTRATED.

Entered in the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington, D.C.

No. 50—Vol: Il.

June 11, 1881.

Price 10 Cents.

wer Maa oe BOOKS -——-=

==@ON—

ELECTRICITY AND ELECTRIC LIGHT.

Culley’s Hand Book of Practical Telegraphy, 7th

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Dela Rive’s Treatise on Electricity, 3 vols.......... 30.00
Day’s Exercises on Electrical Measurement........ 1.00
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Preece and Sivewright, Telegraphy..../........ aps, TRO
DuMoncel Applications de LW’ Electricité, 5 vols.,

Cloth. <0: etatal ea etat eae yet lek aac: eaanehete Gievere sia. bee 6 8ue% 25.00

Sawyer’s Electric Lighting by Incandescence, 8vo... 2.50

Gordon’s Electricity and Magnetism. 2 vols., 8vo.. 7.00
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Higg’s Electric Light in its Practical Application, 8vo. 3.50

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HAVE JUST PUBLISHED

ANTHROPOLOGY.

An Introduction to the Study of Man and Civilization. By Edward B. Tylor, D.C.L., F.R.S., author
of “ Primitive Culture,” “The Early History of Mankind.” With 78 illustrations. 12mo, 448 pages,
with index, Cloth, $2.00.

ue

CHAPTER HEADS.

I. Man, Ancient and Modern. VIII, IX., X., XI., Arts of Life.
II. Man and Other Animals. XII. Arts of Pleasure. © ;
III. Races of Mankind. XIII. Science.
IV. V. Language. -7 - XIV. The Spirit World.
VI. Language and Race. XV. History and Mythology.
VII. Writing. XVI. Society.

‘* There could be no better proof of the gradual establishment of real scientific principles in the study of man than that which is afforded by the
growing convergence of all our modern chink as in their views upon anthropological subjects. Not long since the time was when the claims of anthro-
pology to be regarded as a science at all were universally derided, an i when objectors asked, with a not wholly unjustifiable sneer, what single admitted
principle had te anthropologists yet succeeded in establishing with any unanimity among themselves. But Mr. Tylor’s little book shows that a great
deal has now been ascertained with tolerable certainty. The close argument which it keeps up with Mr. Herbert Spencer, with Sir John Lubbock,
and with Professor Boyd Dawkins is extremely noticeable throughout ; and it is an excellent test of the extent to which a firm basis of almost incontro-
vertible fact has now at last been satisfactorily laid down. As a whole, Mr. Tylor’s admirable little book certainly deserves the success with which it

will doubtless meet.—PalZ Mail Gazette.

A TREATISE ow tHe DISEASES OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM.

By William A. Hammond, M. D., Surgeon-General U. S. Army, (retired list); Professor of Diseases of
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Diodato Borrelli, of the Royal University, is now going through the press at Naples.
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SCIENCE

A WEEKLY JOURNAL OF SCIENTIFIC PROGRESS

WOl I; INO Oise e a n=

June 18,1881.

CONTENTS.

Adulteration of Sugar (Edit.) ; The Metric System (Edit.) ; Sir William Herschell (Edit.); The Unity of Nature, by the
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SCIENCE

A WEEKLY JOURNAL OF SCIENTIFIC PROGRESS.

Vol. II, No. 53, = = e

July 2, 1881.5

CONTENTS.

The New Comet (Edit.) ; The President's Address before the Royal Microscopical Society, by Dr. Lionel S. Beale, F.R S.,
(concluded) ; Comet Observations at Princeton ; Letter from A. H. Swinton ; The Blue Color of the Sky ; Professor
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The New $50 Microscope
(See Illustration.)

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~ TERIALS, &c., and mention this
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‘““ 2d Optical Instruments. _

‘* 3d Magic Lanterns and Slides,

‘* 4th Physical Instruments.

From our own experience we can confidently recommend to all
Nervous and Debilitated persons

Dr. CROSBY'S BRAIN AND NERVE FOOD,
THE VITALIZED PHOSPHITES,

BECAUSE

It is largely prescribed by Physicians.

It is much taken by Clergymen, School Teachers, Lawyers,
Students, and all who over-use the brain.

It cures Nervous Disorders, especially where it exists with Debility
By curing Debility, it prevents Consumption.

Many who have been great sufferers with Nervousness, Sleep-
lessness and Neuralgia, speak of it in the highest praise.

It gives vigor to the mental and bodily growth of children, and
makes a less fretful and happier childhood.

Every Wholesale Druggist in the U.S. buys it in large quantities.

SCIENCE

A WEEKLY JOURNAL OF SCIENTIFIC PROGRESS,

Vol, Il,.No..52, 32" ==

June 25,1881.

CONTENTS.

The Discovery of Neptune (Edit.); Vivisection, by Dr. Darwin; Probable Branchial Origin of the Thyroid and Thymus
Glands, by Dr. S. V. Clevenger; The President’s Address before the Royal Microscopical Society (Dr. Lionel S.
Beale, F. R.S.); Trichine in Meat; Trichinosis; Books Reviewed ; Island Life, by Alfred Russel Wallace ; Note in
Regard to ‘‘ Primitive Desires,” by Dr. E. C. Spitzka ; Correspondence; Letters from Dr. G, W. Rachel and Mr.
Edgar Larkin; Reply to Dr. J. J. Mason’s Letter; The Conservation of Electricity, by Sylvanus P. Thompson ;
Description of a Water-Carrying Tortoise; New Inscriptic Apparatus of Movements; Fluorescent Substances ;

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NEURALGIA REFRESHES THE NERVES TIRED BY WORRY, EXCITEMENT, OR EXCESSIVE BRAIN FATIGUE; STRENGTH-
ENS A FAILING MEMORY, AND GIVES RENEWED VIGOR 1N ALL DISEASES OF NERVOUS EXHAUSTION OR DEBILITY
IT IS THE ONLY PREVENTIVE OF CONSUMPTION.

IT GIVES VITALITY TO THE INSUFFICIENT BODILY OR MENTAL GROWTH OF CHILDREN, PREVENTS FRETFULNESS

AND GIVES QUIET, REST AND SLEEP.

MOTES GOOD HEALTH TO BRAIN AND BODY.

PHYSICIANS HAVE PRESCRIBED 300,000 PACKAGES.

IT GIVES A BETTER DISPOSITION TO INFANTS AND CHILDREN, AS IT PRO-

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F. CROSBY, 664 & 666 Sixth Ave.,N. Y.—London, 137 A Strand.

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OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS; |

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Successful Novels.

MR. PERKINS’ DAUGHTER.

By the MarcuHionEess CLaRa LANZA.

* double consciousness,’ or ‘ Periodical Amnesia,’ described in
one of the principal personages of this story, is not by any
means an isolated instance. It is, on the contrary, a pheno-
menon well known to neurological physicians,”

G. P. PUTNAM’S SONS,

Nore.—‘ It may be well to mention, that the state of |

| GLACIERS.

Illustrations of the Earth’s Surface, by
NATHANIEL SOUTHGATE SHALER, Professor of
Paleontology, and Witt1am Morris Davis, In-
structor in Geology in Harvard University, with
Maps and 29 Heliotype Reproductions of Photo-
graphs by Braun of Dornach, and others, of Gla-
ciel Scenes, forming a handsome, large folio vol-
| ume, This important new work will be mailed on

receipt of Yen Dollars forwarded to office of

27 West 23rd St., New York. | ‘* Science.”

American Journal of Science.

FouNDED BY PROF. SILLIMAN IN 1818,

Devoted to Chemistry, Physics, Geology, Physi-
cal Geography, Mineralogy, Natural History,
Astronomy, and Meteorology.

Editors: Jas. D. Dana. Epw. S. Dana and B. Srtumayn.

Associate Editors: Professors Asa Gray, J. P. Cooke, Jr.,
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ae “

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“ “

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GRAY’S HOW PLANTS BEHAVE, HOW THEY MOVE, CLIMB, EMPLOY INSECTS TO WORK FOR
THEM. Beautifully illustrated and printed on fine paper. 4to. 62 cents.

GRAY’S HOW PLANTS GROW. A Simple Introduction to Structural Botany, with a Popular Flora, or an arrangement and
description of Common Plants, both wild and cultivated. Intended for young people and Common Schools. [Illustrated by more
than sooengravings. 232 pages. Small quarto. 95 cents.

This book, in connection with the ‘‘ School and Field Book,” suppliesa complete course in Botany for Common Schools, Academies, and
Seminaries.

GRAY’S LESSONS IN BOTANY AND VEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY, to which is added a copious Glossary or
Dictionary of Botanical Terms. Fully illustrated. Cloth. 8vo. 236 pages. $1.10.

GRAY’S FIELD, FOREST AND GARDEN BOTANY. A simple introduction to the Common Plants of the United
States east of the Mississippi, both wild and Cultivated. Cloth. 8vo. 386 pages. $1.65.

GRAY?’S SCHOOL AND FIELD BOOK OF BOTANY. Comprising the ‘ Lessons in Botany”’ and “ Field, Forest, and
Garden Botany."’ A most popular and comprehensive School Book, adapted to beginners and advanced classes. 1 vol. 8vo
Cloth, 621 pages. $2.10.

This book, in connection with ‘‘ How Plants Grow,” supplies a complete course in Botany for Common Schools, Academies, and Seminaries.

GRAY’S MANUAL OF BOTANY. Arranged according to the natural system, and containing 20 plates, illustrating the
Sedges, Grasses, Ferns, ete. Fifth edition, 1867. Eighthissue, 1868. Cloth. 8vo. 700 pages. $1.86.

THE SAME, bound with ‘‘The Lessons.” $2.50.
This work, in connection with ‘‘ The Lessons,” supplies a complete coursein Botany for Colleges and Scientific Schocls.

GRAY’S NEW STRUCTURAL AND SYSTEMATIC BOTANY. An Introduction to Structural and Systematic Botany
and Vegetable Physiology, being the s¢xth and revised edition of the Botanical Text-book. Illustrated by numerous woodcuts. 1
vol. Cloth. 8vo. 442 pages. $2.30.

The present work is not simply a reissue, but has been entirely rewritten, and its compass greatly extended.

Robinson’s Higher Mathematics, Well’s New Natural Philosophy.
Fasquelle’s French Course. Webster’s Dictionaries,
Woodbury’s German Course. Eliot and Storer’s Chemistry.
L. & M. French and Spanish Grammars. Swinton’s Outlines of History.

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NEw York HERALD, June 29, 1880: =

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advertisements serving as a cover. It counts among its list of contributors Professors Baird and Coues, of the Smithsonian Institution; Holden, of the
Naval Observatory, Washington; Marsh, of Yale; Wilder, of Cornell ; Young, of Princeton; Abbe, of the Signal Office; Morse, of Salem; Drs.
Hammond and Spitzka, of New York, and a considerable number of well-known scientific experts. IT CLAIMS, WIFH TRUTH, TO OCCUPY A
HITHERTO UNOCCUPIED FIELD IN AMERICAN PERIODICAL LITERATURE, AS THE ONLY FIRST-CLASS WEEKLY JOURNAL
IN THE UNITED STATES DEVOTED TO SCIENCE. y

SCIENC

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No. 56 —Vol. Il. July 23, 1881. Price 10 Cents.

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instant into an ordinary mon-

ocular. $92

*« Acme,?’’ No. 3.

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All our Stands

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Binocular, 5 cae MAS

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DANA’S TEXT BOOK. Revised Edition. A Text-Book of Geology, designed for Schools and Academies. By JAMEs D.
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DANA’S MANUAL OF GEOLOGY. Third and Revised Edition, issued in January, 1880. Treating of the Principles of the
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GRAY’S HOW PLANTS BEHAVE, HOW THEY MOVE, CLIMB, EMPLOY INSECTS TO WORK FOR
THEM. Beautifully illustrated and printed on fine paper. 4to. 62 cents.

GRAY’S HOW PLANTS GROW. A Simple Introduction to Structural Botany, with a Popular Flora, or an arrangement and
description of Common Plants, both wild and cultivated. Intended for young people and Common Schools. Illustrated by more
than 500engravings. 232 pages. Small quarto. 95 cents.

This book, in connection with the ‘‘ School and Field Book,” suppliesa complete course in Botany for Common Schools, Academies, and
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GRAY’S LESSONS IN BOTANY AND VEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY, to which is added a copious Glossary or
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GRAY?’S FIELD, FOREST AND GARDEN BOTANY. A simple introduction to the Common Plants of the United
States east of the Mississippi, both wild and Cultivated. Cloth. 8vo. 386 pages. $1.65.

GRAY?’S SCHOOL AND FIELD BOOK OF BOTANY. Comprising the ‘“ Lessons in Botany”"’ and “‘ Field, Forest, and
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Cloth, 621 pages. $2.10.

This book, in connection with ‘‘ How Plants Grow," supplies a complete course in Botany for Common Schools, Academies, and Seminaries.

GRAY’S MANUAL OF BOTANY. Arranged according to the natural system, and containing 20 plates, illustrating the
Sedges, Grasses, Ferns, ete. Fifth edition, 1867. Ejighthissue, 1868. Cloth. 8vo. 7oopages. $1.86.

THE SAME, bound with ‘‘ The Lessons.” $2.50.
This work, in connection with ‘* The Lessons,” supplies a complete course in Botany for Colleges and Scientific Schocls.

GRAY’S NEW STRUCTURAL AND SYSTEMATIC BOTANY. An Introduction to Structural and Systematic Botany
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yol. Cloth. 8vo. 442 pages. $2.30.

The present work is not simply a reissue, but has been entirely rewritten, and its compass greatly extended.

Robinson’s Higher Mathematios, Well’s New Natural Philosophy.
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SCIENCE

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Vol. II, No. 57, a = ee) July SO, 183i.
CONTENTS.

: : : The pictures in Webster under the 12 words,
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studding-sail; 19, maintop-mast studding sail;

Vol. Il, No.56, - - - = July 23, 1881.

a | 20, mizzen-course; 21, mizzen-top sail; 22,
CONTENTS. | mizzen-top-gallant sail; 23, fai erayae 24,
Rules for Claiming Warner's Reward for the Discovery of Comets (Edit.); An Inter- mizzen sky-sail; 25, mizzen-spanker.

pe SO i ie : . oy The pictures in Webster under the 12 words,
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Holden; The Unity of Nature, by the Duke of Argyll; Ancient Planetary Rngs,) New Edition of WEBSTER, has
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NEURALGIA REFRESHES THE NERVES TIRED BY WORRY, EXCITEMENT, OR EXCESSIVE BRAIN FATIGUE; STRENGTH-
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Note.—“‘dt may be well to mention, that the state of
* double consciousness,’ or ‘ Periodical Amnesia,’ described in
one of the principal personages of this story, is not by any
means an isolated instance. It is, on the contrary, a pheno-
menon well known to neurological physicians,”

G. P. PUTNAM’S SONS.
27 West 23rd St., New York.

GLACIERS.

Illustrations of the Earth’s Surface, by
NATHANIEL SOUTHGATE SHALER, Professor of
Palzontology, and Wi1LL1AM Morris Davis, In-
structor in Geology in Harvard University, with
Maps and 29 Heliotype Reproductions of Photo-
graphs by Braun of Dornach, and others, of Gla-
ciel Scenes, forming a handsome, !arge folio vol-
ume. This important new work will be mailed on
receipt of ‘len Dollars forwarded to office of
** SCIENCE.”

American Journal of Science. |

FounDED BY PROF. SILLIMAN IN 1818.

Devoted to Chemistry, Physics, Geology, Physi-
cal Geography, Mineralogy, Natural History,
Astronomy, and Meteorology.

Editors: Jas. D. Dana. Epw. S. Dana and B. Sittman.

Associate Editors: Professors Asa Gray, J. P. Cooxg, Jr.,
and Joun TrowsrincE, of Cambridge; H. A. Newron and
A. E. Verritt, of Yale; and G. F. Barker, of the Univer-
sity of Pennsylvania, Phila. Subscription Price $6; 50 Cents
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“ “

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Office & Manfac’y, 228 E. 34th St., N, Y.

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NEW MONTHLY SERIES.
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The New $50 Microscope — ea

(See Illustration.)

Write for Catalogue of MAGNIFYING
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; “re . : i ky-sail; 25, mizzen-spanker.
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trations); The Tail of Comets, by M. Th. Bredichin; On the Overgrown Teeth| (pages 1164 and 1219) Steam engine, Tim-
of Fiber Wibethicus, by Herman L. Fairchild, (2 illustrations); Fire Balls, by| bers, define 343 words and terms far better
. Dr. R. H. Ward ; Letter from Dr. J. J. Mason; Books Received; Anthropology, by| than they could be defined in words.
Edward B. Tylor; Meteorological Report for New York City for the week, by Dr. New Edition of WEBSTER, has
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IT IS THE ONLY PREVENTIVE OF CONSUMPTION.

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American Journal of Science.

FouNDED BY PROF. SILLIMAN IN 1818.

Devoted to Chemistry, Physics, Geology, Physi-
cal Geography, Mineralogy, Natural History,
Astronomy, and Meteorology.

Editors: Jas. D. Dana, Epw. S. Dana and B, Situman.

Associate Editors: Professors Asa Gray, J. P. Cooxg, Jr.,
and Jonn TrowsripcE, of Cambridge; H. A. Newron and
A, E. Vegritt, of Yale; and G. F. Barker, of the Univer-
sity of Pennsylvania, Phila. Subscription Price $6 ; 50 Cents
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Successful Novels.

MR. PERKINS’ DAUGHTER.

By the MarcuHioness CLARA LANZA.
Norgr.—‘“ It may be well to mention, that the state of |

* double consciousness,’ or * Periodical Amnesia,’ described in |
| one of the principal personages of this story, is not by any |
| means an isolated instance. It is, on the contrary, a pheno- |
| menon well known to neurological physicians,” |

G. P. PUTNAM’S SONS.
27 West 23rd St., New York.

GLACIERS.

Illustrations of the Earth’s Surface, by
NATHANIEL SOUTHGATE SHALER, Professor of

| Palzontology, and WiLL1AM Morris Davis, In-

structor in Geology in Harvard University, with
Maps and 29 Heliotype Reproductions of Photo-
graphs by Braun of Dornach, and others, of Gla-
ciel Scenes, forming a handsome, large folio vol-
ume, This important new work will be mailed on
receipt of Ten Dollars forwarded to office of
“\ SCIENCE.”

New York & New England R. R.

THROUGH TRAINS Via. N.Y., N. H. & H.R. R,

Between Boston and New York.

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FROM DEPOT, FOOT OF SUMMER ST,
Leave Boston, 9.00 A.M., week days, with Through Cars to
Grand Central Depot.
a «10.40 P.M., daily,
sie

be “ “

with elegant new Pullman
epers,

SCHRAUER’S MICROSCOPES.

The new model Physician’s Microscope has
been designed with a viewto combine the most
advanced scientific ideas with first-class workman-
ship and moderate cost.

A printed prospectus, giving full details and
rice of this instrument, forwarded on mention-
ing this Journal.

Office & Manfac’y, 228 E. 34th St., N. Y.

TAKE THE BEST,

THE INTERNATIONAL REVIEW.

NEW MONTHLY SERIES.

JOHN T. MORSE, Jr., HENRY CABOT

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n receipt of 15 cents.

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tific Instruments and Apparatus; Pure Chemical Substances, Mineral

Waters, Novelties and Specialties of every kind.

Terms for Advertising moderate. Small advertisements on this page

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MEYROWITZ BROTHERS,

OPTICIANS,

297 Fourth Ave., N. Y.

S. E, COR, 23D ST

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Spectal attention given to

prescriptions of Ocuilists.

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OPTICIANS,
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OPE.
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Pe

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The New $50 Microscope
(See L/lustration.)

Write for Catalogue of MAGNIFYING
Grasses, Microscopes, MICROSCOPIC
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TERIALS, &c., and mention this
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‘SCIENCE

A WEEKLY JOURNAL OF SCIENTIFIC PROGRESS

Vol. Il, No. 54, aerate Sess

July 9,1881.

CONTENTS.
Observations upon the Ccmet at Princeton, by Prof. C. A. Young; Primordial Cosmic Rings, by Edgar L. Larkin ;

Seismology in Japan; The Use of Wateras a Fuel, by Dr. George W. Rachel ;
Descartes and the Barometric Theory ; Correspondence :

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SCIENCE.

VITALIZED PHOS-PHITES,

Composed of the Vital or Nerve-giving Principles of the Ox-Brain and Wheat-Germ.

IT RESTORES THE ENERGY LOST BY NERVOUSNESS OR INDIGESTION ; RELIEVES LASSITUDE, ERRATIC PAINS AND
NEURALGIA REFRESHES THE NERVES TIRED BY WORRY, EXCITEMENT, OR EXCESSIVE BRAIN FATIGUE; STRENGTH-
ENS A FAILING MEMORY, AND GIVES RENEWED VIGOR 1N ALL DISEASES OF NERVOUS EXHAUSTION OR DEBILITY

IT IS THE ONLY PREVENTIVE OF CONS

UMPTION.

IT GIVES VITALITY TO THE INSUFFICIENT BODILY OR MENTAL GROWTH OF CHILDREN, PREVENTS FRETFULNESS

AND GIVES QUIET, REST AND SLEEP.

MOTES GOOD HEALTH TO BRAIN AND BODY.

PHYSICIANS HAVE PRES

CRIBED 300,000 PACKAGES, For Sale

IT GIVES A BETTER DISPOSITION TO INFANTS AND CHILDREN, AS IT PRO-

by Druggists or by Mail, $1,

F. CROSBY, 664 & 666 Sixth Ave., N. Y.—London, 137 A Strand.

DRAWING INSTRUMENTS |
And Materials of all kinds.
OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS, |
Microscopes, Telescopes, &c.

G. S$. WOOLMAN, 116 Fulton Street,
NEW YORK.

Send for Illus. Catalogue, and mention this Journal, |

Successful Novels.

MR. PERKINS’ DAUGHTER.

By the Marcuioness Ciara LANZA.

Notr.—‘‘ It mav be well to mention, that the state of
£ double consciousness,’ or ‘ Periodical Amnesia,’ described in
one of the principal personages of this story, isnot by any
means an isolated instance. It is, on the contrary, a pheno-
menon well known to neurological physicians,”

G. P. PUTNAM’S SONS,
27 West 23rd St., New York. |

GLACIERS.

Illustrations of the Earth’s Surface, by
NATHANIEL SOUTHGATE SHALER, Professor of
Paleontology, and Wiitt1aM Morris Davis, In-
structor in Geology in Harvard University, with
Maps and 29 Heliotype Reproductions of Photo-
graphs by Braun of Dornach, and others, of Gla-
ciel Scenes, forming a handsome, large folio vol-
ume. This important new work will be mailed on
receipt of ‘len Dollars forwarded to office of
‘* SCIENCE.”

American Journal of Science.

FouNDED BY PROF. SILLIMAN IN 1818.

Devoted to Chemistry, Physics, Geology, Physi-
cal Geography, Mineralogy, Natural History,
Astronomy, and Meteorology.

Editors: Jas. D. Dana. Epw. S. Dana and B. Sittimay.

Associate Editors: Professors Asa Gray, J. P. Cooxg, Jr.,
and Joun TrowsripGE, of Cambridge; H. A. Newton and
A. E. Verritu, of Yale; and G. F. Barxker, of the Univer-
sity of Pennsylvania, Phila. Subscription Price $6; 50 Cents
a Number. Address the Proprietors.

James D.& E.S. Dana, New Haven, Conn.

TAKE THE BEST.

THE INTERNATIONAL

NEW MONTHLY SERI

JOHN T. MORSE, Jr., HENRY CABOT LODGE, Editors.

Price 50 Cents a month ; $5.00 a year.
n receipt of 15 cents.

AGENTS WANTED who understand

and value of the REviEw, to solicit subscriptions.
A. S. BARNES
tir & 113 Will

Specime

Soe On

New York & New England R.R. |

THROUGH TRAINS Via. N.Y., N. H. & H.R. R,
Between Boston and New York.

FROM GRAND CENTRAL DEPOT.
York, 4.00 P.M., with Elegant Through Car.
a 11.35 P.M., week days, with Through New
Pullman Sleepers. |
10.30 P.M., Sundays.
FROM DEPOT, FOOT OF SUMMER ST,
Leave Boston, 9.00 A.M., week days, with Through Cars to |
Grand Central Depot.
x 10.40 P.M., daily, with elegant new Pullman |
Sleepers. |

Leave New
“ “

os “ “

“

SCHRAUER’S MICROSCOPES.

The new model Physician’s Microscope has
been designed with a viewto combine the most

| advanced scientific ideas with first-class workman-

ship and moderate cost.

A printed prospectus, giving full details and
price of this instrument, forwarded on mention-
ing this Journal.

Office & Manfac’y, 228 E. 34th St., N. Y.

H. M. RAYNOR,

No. 25 Bond St.,
NEW YORK.

REVIEW.

ES.

(Established

n copies sent post-paid :
P POsLP 1850).

the character, scope

iam Street, New York.

Scrap Purchased.

FOR ALL

Laboratory

AND

Manufacturing Purposes.
Wholesale and Retail.

Circulars by Mail

BEST MEDIUM FOR ADVERTISERS.
SC ENP Cer

Circulates in EvERY STATE IN THE Union, also Canada, Australia,

Japan and Europe.
ALL UNIVERSITIES and C

?

Subscribers to ‘‘ ScreNcE”’ are chiefly among thos

for purchasing goods, and are buyers of Fancy Arti

sities, Jewelry, Musical Instruments, Dry Goods, Books, Prints, Scien-
Pure Chemical Substances, Mineral

tific Instruments and Apparatus ;
Waters, Novelties and Specialties of every kind.

Terms for Advertising moderate. Smalladvertisements on this page

$50 a year (52 insertions).

OLLEGES.
e having few facilities
cles, Household Neces-

AT

MEYROWITZ BROTHERS,

OPTICIANS,

297 Fourth Ave., N. Y.

S. E. COR, 23D ST

Trial Cases, Opthalmos
copes, Artifical Eyes, Clinical
Thermometers, Microscopes,
Electric Batteries, etc.

Special attention given to

prescriptions of Oculists.

N. B.—An Illustrated Catalogue will

|
n be sent free upon request.

OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS.

BAROMETERS, THERMOMETERS,
RAIN GAUGES, Etc., Erc.
BENJ. PIKE’S SONS & CO.,
OPTICIANS,
No. 928 Broadway, New York.

Illustrated Catalogue sent free on mentioning
** ScrencE.””

| R. & J. BECK,

MANUFACTURING OPTICIANS,

1016 Chestnut St., Philadelphia.
}

MICROSCOPES,

And all Accessories of the HiGHEstT GRADES at
the Lowgsr Pricas.
Illustrated Condensed Price List, 32 pages. Free.

Full Catalogue of 176 Pages. 15 cts,
Mention this Journal,

American Naturalist.

Devoted to the Natural Sciences in their
widest sense.

PusiisHep Monruvy.
Terms, $4.00 a year. Single numbers, 35 cents.

EpiTors:

Professor A, S. PACKARD, JR., and Professor
EK. ‘D; iCopz:

McCatia & STAVELY, Publishers, Nos. 237-9
Dock Street, Philadelphia, Pa.

ol. 2.1 Whole Number 58. AUGUST 6th, I88i. [Price 10 Cents.

= YA =
: Zi aR

Published at ‘‘ Tribune” Building (Room {7), New York.
New York HERALD, June 29, 1880:

**ScIENCE—A Weekly Record of Scientific Progress.”” It is a handsome, well-printed quarto sheet ot 12 pages, with 4 addditional pages for
advertisements serving asacover. It counts among its list of contributors Professors Baird and Coues, of the Smithsonian Institution; Holden, of the
Naval Observatory, Washington; Marsh, of Yale; Wilder, of Cornell; Young, of Princeton; Abbe, of the Signal Office; Morse, >f Salem; Drs.
_ Hammond and Spitzka, of New York, and a considerable number of well-known scientific experts. IT CLAIMS, WITH TRUTH, TO OCCUPY A
_HITHERTO UNOCCUPIED FIELD IN AMERICAN PERIODICAL LITERATURE, AS THE ONLY FIRST-CLASS WEEKLY JOURNAL
IN THE UNITED STATES DEVCTED TO SCIENCE.

A

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AND ALL PAINS AND ACHES ARISING FROM

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OR OF

GEORGE -A. SCOTT, 842: BROAD YAY

—An attempt has been made to put so-called ‘‘ Electro Magnetic” Brushes upon the market, but the Post-Office authorities at Washington
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oCIENCE

A WEEKLY RECORD OF SCIENTIFIC PROGRESS.

ILLUSTRATED.

Entered in the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington, D, C.

No. 58.—Vol. II. August 6, 1881. Price 10 Cents.

THE ACME” MICROSCOPES.

* Acme” No. 2. ““Acme” Lithological.

Monocular, : , $100

A new Stand, after the pat-
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Gem Turn-Table, $2.50,
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| i

i
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AYGt et
“ACME” No. 3.
HOLMAN’S COMPRESSOR, THE LATEST AND THE BEST, $4. MECHANICAL FINGER. $5.
JOHN W. SIDLE & CO., Lancaster, Pa.

Send jor Catalogue.

ii SCIENCE.

=

APPROVED TEXT BOOKS.

FOR COLLEGES, HIGH SCHOOLS, SEMINARIES, ETc.

IVISON, BLAKEMAN, TAYLOR & CO., Pustisuers,

753 & 755 BROADWAY, NEW YORK. 117 & 119 STATE STREET, CHICAGO

** 1, B., T. & Co. will send Descriptive Lists and Prices of their Publications on application.

DANA’S GEOLOGICAL STORY BRIEFLY TOLD. An introduction to Geology for the general reader and for
beginners in the Science. By Prof. JAMES D. DANA, LL. D. 1vol. 12mo, 275 pages. Numerously illustrated and handsomely
bound. $1.35.

DANA’S TEXT BOOK. Revised Edition. A Text-Book of Geology, designed for Schools and Academies. By JAMES D
Dana, LL. D., Silliman Professor of Geology and Natural History, Yale College. Cloth. Fully illustrated. 350 pages. $1.80.

DANA’S MANUAL OF GEOLOGY. Third and Revised Edition, issued in January, 1880. Treating of the Principles of the
Science, with special reference to American Geological History, for the use of Colleges, Academies and Schools of Science
By JAMES D. Dana, LL. D., Silliman Professor of Geology and Natural History, Yale College. Illustrated by a Chart of the
World, and over one thousand figures, mostly from American sources. 1vol. 8vo. 927 pages. $4.45.

GRAY’S HOW PLANTS BEHAVE, HOW THEY MOVE, CLIMB, EMPLOY INSECTS TO WORK FOR
THEM. Beautifully illustrated and printed on fine paper. 4to. 62 cents.

GRAY’S HOW PLANTS GROW. A Simple Introduction to Structural Botany, with a Popular Flora, or an arrangement and
description of Common Plants, both wild and cultivated. Intended for young people and Common Schools. Illustrated by more
than 500engravings. 232 pages. Small quarto. 95 cents.

This book, in connection with the ‘‘ School and Field Book,’’ supplies a complete course in Botany for Common Schools, Academies, and
Seminaries.

GRAY’S LESSONS IN BOTANY AND VEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY, to which is added a copious Glossary of
Dictionary of Botanical Terms. Fully illustrated. Cloth. 8vo. 236 pages. $1.10.

GRAY?’S FIELD, FUREST AND GARDEN BOTANY. A simple introduction to the Common Plants of the United
States east of the Mississippi, both wild and Cultivated. Cloth. 8vo. 386 pages. $1.65.

GRAY’S SCHOOL AND FIELD BOOK OF BOTANY. Comprising the ‘‘ Lessons in Botany” and ‘‘ Field, Forest, and
Garden Botany.’’ A most popular and comprehensive School Book, adapted to beginners and advanced classes. I vol. 8vo
Cloth, 621 pages. 2.10.

This book, in connection with ‘‘ How Plants Grow,'' supplies a complete course in Botany for Common Schools, Academies, and Seminaries.

GRAY’S MANUAL OF BOTANY. Arranged according to the natural system, and containing 20 plates, illustrating the
Sedges, Grasses, Ferns, etc. Fifth edition, 1867. Eighthissue, 1868. Cloth. 8vo. 7oo pages. $1.86.

THE SAME, bound with ‘‘The Lessons.” $2.50.
This work, in connection with ‘‘ The Lessons," supplies a complete course in Botany for Colleges and Scientific Schocls.

GRAY’S NEW STRUCTURAL AND SYSTEMATIC BOTANY. An Introduction to Structural and Systematic Botany
and Vegetable Physiology, being the sév¢h and revised edition of the Botanical Text-book. Illustrated by numerous woodcuts. t
vol. Cloth. 8vo. 442 pages. $2.30.

The present work is not simply a reissue, but has been entirely rewritten, and its compass greatly extended.

Robinson’s Higher Mathematios, Well’s New Natural Philosophy.
Fasquelle’s French Course. Webster's Dictionaries,
Woodbury’s German Course, Eliot and Storer’s Chemistry.
L. & M. French and Spanish Grammars, Swinton’s Outlines of History,

Cathcart’s Literarv Reader, Etc., Etc.

un

- Published at ‘‘ Tribune” Banding iRoows 17), New York.

Lay Yor HexAtp, June 29, 1880:

WCE—A. Weekly. Record of Scien’ gress.’ It is a handsome, well-printed quarto sheet ot 12 pages, with 4 addditional pagea for
n ale as spss It counts pee $s list of Sp ho oid Professors Baird sia Cones, of the Saithsonias Institution ; Holden,-of the
Obset ashington; Marsh, of. Yale; Wilder, of Corsell;, Young,. of Princeton ; “Abbe, of the Signal al-Office; Morse, “of Salem; Drs.
ond and Spitcka, of: New: York, and a considerable number of we’ |-enown scientifié experts. IT:‘CLAIMS, WITH: TRUTH, TO OCCUPY A
RTO UNOCCUPIED FIELD IN AMERICAN PERLODICAL LITERATURE, AS THE ONLY FIRST-CLASS WEEKLY JOC

IM THE UNITED STATES DEVOTED TO SCIENCE.

eee

— —

ee

Se ee ee

Dr. SCOTT'S ELECERE EPS gi Uo

IS WARRANTED TO CURE.

RHEUMATISM, GOUT, SCIA PICA,

AND ALL PAINS AND ACHES ARISING FROM

IMPURE BLOOD AND IMPAIRED CIRCULATION.

OF ALL DEALERS, PRICE, $3.00.
OR OF

GEORGE A..SCOT-T. 842 BROADW AL.

Cc AUT [ 0 N —An. attempt has been made to put so-called ‘‘ Electro Magnetic’’ Brushes upon the market, tut the_Post-Office authorities at pe eae he
t a

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SFE A MARVELLOUS SUCCESS!!
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oO of the American public. It cures by natural means, will always do good, never harm, and is

Lie a remedy lasting for many years. It should be used daily in place of the ordinary Hair
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, combination of substances PRODUCING A PERMANENT ELECTRO-
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r) HAIR GLANDS AND FOLLICLES. This power can always be tested by
. ? a silver compass which accompanies each Brush.
IT IS WARRANTED TO
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Cure Bilious Headuche in 5 Minutes!!
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Pu Mr. Smith is 2 gentleman well known in this City as 2 Law Publisher, and also asa Director in several

blic Institutions of New York.
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Proprietors: The Pall Mall Electaae Association
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Orders, Currency, or Stamps. LIBERAL DISCOUNT TO THE TRADE. Agents Wanted in every Town. : Sates

Send for a. Circular of our Dr. Scatt’s Hlectric Flesh Brushe ,

oCIENCE

A WEEKLY RECORD OF SCIENTIFIC PROGRESS.

ILLUSTRATED.

Entered in the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington, D.C.

No. 59.—Vol. Il. August 13, 1881. Price 10 Cents.

Toe ACME’ MICROSCOPES

22ibex:

<<“ Acme ” No: 2.

2adibee:

“Acme” Lithological.

Monocular, TCO A new Stand, after the pat-

Binocular, A : tas tern of the No. 3, for the study
of Rocks; convertible in an
instant into an ordinary mon-

ocular. $o2

** Acme,” No. 3.

Monocular, . ; F $50

All our Stands

have same size of tubing and

Binocular, Z ang

sub-stage fitting, so that eye-
pieces and accessories that fit
one Stand can be used with

** Acme” No. 4. all.

The favorite Laboratory
Stand, : : . $25

With 1 inch and ¥Y inch NN Or :
\S yp
Kr “Congress” Turn-Table

\ i q

\\ rv Patented, $6.50.

OF
N

objectives, . - sO

Gem Turn-Table, $2.50,
Special Terms made with Do Do. with improved

Colleges, centering adjustment, $3.25

~- i, Me

<2

“ACMB” No. 3.
HOLMAN’S COMPRESSOR, THE LATEST AND THE BEST, $4. MECHANICAL FINGER. $5,

JOHN W. SIDLE & CO., Lancaster, Pa.

Send jor Catalocue.

if SCIENCE.

APPROVED TEXT BOOKS,

FOR COLLEGES, HIGH SCHOOLS, SEMINARIES, ETc.

IVISON, BLAKEMAN, TAYLOR & CO., Pustisuers,

753 & 755 BROADWAY, NEW YORK. 117 & 119 STATE STREET, CHICAGO

** 1, B., T. & Co. will send Descriptive Lists and Prices of their Publications on application.

DANA’S GEOLOGICAL STORY BRIEFLY TOLD. An introduction to Geology for the general reader and for
beginners in the Science. By Prof. JAMES D. DANA, LL. D. ivol. I2mo, 275 pages. Numerously illustrated and handsomely
bound. $1.35.

DANA’S TEXT BOOK. Revised Edition. A Text-Book of Geology, designed for Schools and Academies. By JAMES D
Dana, LL. D., Silliman Professor of Geology and Natural History, Yale College. Cloth. Fully illustrated. 350 pages. $1.80.

DANA’S MANUAL OF GEOLOGY. Third and Revised Edition, issued in January, 1880. Treating of the Principles of the
Science, with special reference to American Geological History, for the use of Colleges, Academies and Schools of Science
By JAMEs D. Dana, LL. D., Silliman Professor of Geology and Natural History, Yale College. Illustrated by a Chart of the
World, and over one thousand figures, mostly from American ¢ources. 1vol. 8vo. 927 pages. $4.45.

GRAY’S HOW PLANTS BEHAVE, HOW THEY MOVE, CLIMB, EMPLOY INSECTS TO WORK FOR
THEM. Beautifully illustrated and printed on fine paper. 4to. 62 cents.

GRAY’S HOW PLANTS GROW. A Simple Introduction to Structural Botany, witha Popular Flora, or an arrangement and
description of Common Plants, both wild and cultivated. Intended for young people and Common Schools. Illustrated by more
than Sooengravings. 232 pages. Small quarto. 95 cents.

Thts book, in connection with the ‘‘ School and Field Book,’ suppliesa complete course in Botany for Common Schools, Academies, and
Seminaries.

GRAY’S LESSONS IN BOTANY AND VEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY, to which is added a-copious Glossary of
Dictionary of Botanical Terms. Fully illustrated. Cloth. 8vo. 236 pages. $x. 10.

GRAY?’S FIELD, FOREST AND GARDEN BOTANY. A simple introduction to the Common Plants ot the United
States east of the Mississippi, both wild and Cultivated. Cloth. 8vo, 386 pages. $1.65.

GRAY’S SCHOOL AND FIELD BOOK OF BOTANY. Comprising the ‘‘ Lessons in Botany"’ and “‘ Field, Forest, and
Garden Botany.’’ A most popular and comprehensive School Book, adapted to beginners and advanced classes. 1 vol. 8vo
Cloth, 621 pages. $2.10.

This book, in connection with ‘‘ How Plants Grow,” supplies a complete course in Botany for Common Schools, Academies, and Seminaries.

GRAY’S MANUAL OF BOTANY. Arranged according to the natural system, and containing 20 plates, illustrating the
Sedges, Grasses, Ferns, etc. Fifth edition, 1867. Eighthissue, 1868. Cloth. 8vo. 700 pages. $1.86.

THE SAME, bound with ‘‘ The Lessons.” $2.50.
This work, in connection with ‘‘ The Lessons,” supplies a complete coursein Botany for Colleges and Scientific Schocls.

GRAY’S NEW STRUCTURAL AND SYSTEMATIC BOTANY. An Introduction to Structural and Systematic Botany
and Vegetable Physiology, being the séxtA and revised edition of the Botanical Text-book. [Illustrated by numérous woodcuts. 1
vol. Cloth. 8vo. 442 pages. $2.30.

The present work is not simply a reissue, but has been entirely rewritten, and its compass greatly extended.

Robinson’s Higher Mathematics, Well’s New Natural Philosophy.
Fasquelle’s French Course. Webster’s Dictionaries,
Woodbury’s German Course. Eliot and Storer’s Chemistry.
L. & M. French and Spanish Grammars. Swinton’s Outlines of History.

Cathoart’s Literary Reader, Etc., Ete.

Vol. 2.1 Whole Number 60. AUGUST 2Oth, (881. [Price 10 Cents.

f . : . YF = — WAP os NPE an
Published at *“‘ Tribune’’ Building (Room 17), New York.

New York HERALD, June 29, 1880:

“SCIENCE—A Weekly Record of Scientific Progress.” It is a handsome, well-printed quarto sheet of 12 pages, with 4 additional pages for

advertisements serving asacaver. It counts among its list of contributors Professors Baird and Coues, of the Smithsonian Institution ; Holden, of the

Naval Observatory, Washington; Marsh, of Yale; Wilder, of Cornell; Young, of Princeton; Abbe, of the Signal Office; Morse, o. Salem; Drs.

} Hammond and Spitzka, of New York, and a considerable number of well-known scientific experts. IT CLAIMS, WITH TRUTH, TO OCCUPY A

‘ HITHERTO UNOCCUPIED FIELD IN AMERICAN PERIODICAL LITERATURE, AS THE ONLY FIRST-CLASS WEEKLY JOURNAL
| yn THE UNITED STATES DEVOTED TO SCIENCE.

-

De. SCOTT'S ELECTRIC HAL Ba een

IS GUARANTEED TO CURE

NERVOUS AND BILIOUS HEADACHE IN 5 MINUTES,
NEURALGIA and TOOTHACHE in 5 MINUTES,

CURES DANDRUFF AND PREVENTS BALDNESS

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GEORGE. A. SCOTT, 872. BROAD 7 ae

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TESTIMONIALS.

ATWOOD’s PHARMACY, Broadway, New York, May 15, 1881.

Dr. Scott: I have sold at retail over my counter, during the
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SCIENCE.

Teo Le READY.

me
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me

Tlusions :

A PSYCHOLOGICAL STUDY. By James SuLty, author of ‘Sensation and

Intuition, ‘Pessimism, etc. International Scientific Series. 12mo, cloth,
price $1.50.

“ The present volume takes a wide survey of the field of error, embracing in its view not only the illusions of
sense, dealt with in treaties on psychological optics, etc., but also other errors familiarly known as illusions, and
resembling the former in their structure and mode of origin.” —/ vom Preface.

“This is not a technical work, but one of wide popular interest, in the principles and results of which every one
is concerned. The illusions of perception of the senses and of dreams are first considered, and then the author
passes to the illusions of introspection, errors of insight, illusions of memory, and illusions of belief. The work is a
noteworthy contribution to the original progress of thought, and may be relied upon as representing the present
state of knowledge on the important subject to which it is devoted.” —Popular Sczence Monthly.

“Mr. Sully’s analysis of his whole subject leaves us at the close impressed with the ability of the writer’s
statement.—Saturday Review,

For sale by all bookseilers, or sent by mail. post-paid, on receipt of price.

D. APPLETON & C O.. Publishers, 1, 3, and 5 Bond Street, New Vork.

JAMES W. QUEEN& CO. WEBSTER.

| The following from Webster, page 1164, shows
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924 Chestnut St., Philadelphia, Pa. | Webster’s Unabridged Dictionary

The New $50 Microscope |
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SCIENCE

A WEEKLY JOURNAL OF SCIENTIFIC PROGRESS.

Vol. Il, No. 59,- = - - - August 13, 1881.

The pictures in Webster under the 12 words,
CONTENTS. Beef, Boiler, Castle, Column, Eye, Horse,

American Association for the Advancement of Science (Edit.); Astronomical Observa- Gacaeniel he aicet ee See ee
tories, by Simon Newcomb; Michigan Flora, by Chas. F. Wheeler and Erwin F.| bers, define 343 words and terms far better
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1V

SCIENCE.

BRAIN AND
NERVE FOOD.

VITALIZED PHOS-PHITES,

Composed of the Vital or Nerve-gtving Principles of the Ox-Brain and Wheat-Germ.

IT RESTORES THE ENERGY LOST BY NERVOUSNESS OR INDIGESTION ; RELIEVES LASSITUDE, ERRATIC PAINS AND
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IT GIVES VITALITY TO THE INSUFFICIENT BODILY OR MENTAL GROWTH OF CHILDREN, PREVENTS FRETFULNESS

AND GIVES QUIET, REST AND SLEEP. IT GIVES A BETTER DISPOSITION TO
MOTES GOOD HEALTH TO BRAIN AND BODY.

PHYSICIANS HAVE PRESCRIBED 300,000 PACKAGES.

INFANTS AND CHILDREN, AS IT PRO-

For Sale by Druggists or by Mail, $r.

F. CROSBY, 664 & 666 Sixth Ave., N. Y—London, 137 A Strand.

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Norr.—“ It may be well to mention, that the state of
* double consciousness,’ or ‘ Periodical Amnesia,’ described in

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Astronomy, and Meteorology.

Editors: Jas. D. Dana. Epw. S. Dana and B, Sittman.

Associate Editors: Professors Asa Gray, J. P. Cooks, Jr., Sc
and Jonn TrowsrinGe, of Cambridge; H. A. Newron and
A. E. Verri tt, of Yale; and G. F. Barxer, of the Univer-
sity of Pennsylvania, Phila. Subscription Price $6; 50 Cents
a Number. Address the Proprietors.

James D.& E. S. Dana, New Haven, Conn.

means an isolated instance. It is, on the contrary, a pheno-
menon well known to neurological physicians,”

G. P. PUTNAM’S SONS.

| New York & New England 8. RB.

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““c “

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"OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS.

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EDITORS:
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E, Core,
McCatra & STAVELY, Publishers, Nos. 237-9
Dock Street, Philadelphia, Pa.

andy tohavein the House. ¢g

:. HUB PUNCH

Warranted to contain only the best of Liquors, Choice Fruit
Juices and Granulated Sugar.

© ‘A Delicious Drink with fresh Milk, Ice, Soda or Hot Water,
| Lemonade or with Fin Ice.

S GOOD AT ALL TIMES /,

Mi)
My |

T

THe

HUS

PUNCH.

“Punch and
the Holidays
are the most in-
timate friends,
going together
as naturally as
man and wife.
Butitis agreat
trouble tomake
Punch, and
many people
who like the
beverage lack
the savoir faire
tobrewit. Hub
Punch is indis-
pensable where
ever its merits
are known,’’—
Spirit of the

dimes, N. Y.

This is pre-
pared from an
original recipe
by an adept for
his friends, but
now given to
the world as a
standard arti-
cle.

AND JUST THE THING FOR USE BY

Families, Hotels, Clubs, Fiemio, Camping, Yachting, Exeur
sion Sleighing and Surprise Parties,

Inyaluable for a little treat when a friend drops in.—
N. Y. Evening Post.

Connoisseurs pronounce it Unrivalled,

Messrs. Acker, Merrall & Condit
and Park & Tilford, the well-known
family grocersand wine merchants
of New York, write as follows
concerning it:

Messrs. C. H. Graves & Sons;
Boston. DEAR Sirs: The increas-~
ed sales of Hub Punch among
our always mosé critical cus-
tomers is evidence of its supe-~
rior merit.

ACKER, MERRALL & ConpDiT.

Hub Punch is growing in
favor among ourcustomers,
and we hear many compli-
mentary opinions on its
merits. e increasing
popularity of the article
is pleasant testimony to
your success in usin;
exclusively the best an
purest components.

PARE & TILFORD.

It is made from
the best imported
Rum and Brandy,
the juice of Lem-
ons, Limes and
other fruits, and
the finest qual-
ity of granu-
lated Sugar.

mb 2

It is a most con-
venient addition to
family stores, and
heads of families,
in making up their
list of supplies,
should not forget
to order it of their
grocer, druggist or
wine merchant.
Added to the good
things of the table
it undeniably en-
ee the pleasures of life,
and encourages good fel-
lowship and good nature
if rightly enjoyed.’? —
Springfield Republican.
Our: success in selling your
Hub Punch has indeed surpris-
ed us, we having sold withiz
the past three months a larger
quantity than we anticipated
selling in twelve. Our large
jobbing trade now call freely
for it,—both here and in Chicago.
We have heard from all sources tha
highest econiums passed upon it. —
Smith & Vanderbeek, New York,
Chicago and Paris.

THE HUB PUNCH is prepared solely by
Messrs. C. H. GRAVES & Sons, 35 Haw-
kins Street, Boston. It is sold in bof-
tles only,is quiteas palatable in winter
with hot water asit is in summer witlz
cold. The manufacturers guarantee
the purity of the liquors ‘of which it is

e, as they are of their own impor-
tation. Every precaution has been taken
against counterfeiting what must inevitably

. become one of the most popular preparations
- of Punch’ among ‘connoisseurs. — Saturday
Evening Gazette.

than any other article of mixed drii CAUTION. —The name and titlk“‘HUB
CH’?—is adopted as a Trade Mark. All

paneer boon = d. Lads be use of this Trade Mark will be
“A sip is like nectar.” —Boston Courier. romptly prosecuted. C. MH. GRAVES & Sons¥
“Delicious beyond description.”—Boston Transcript. mrs LES

te See that you get the Genuine, and take no Substitute offered.

SOLD2BY ALL FIRST-CLASS GROCERS AND WINE 21-5225 -446 S

Ttis, in short,
the perfection of .“iiS
Punches, purer, ‘more -de- /!—'

<< THE FAMOUS

A
el A

Q

“HUB PUNCH.”

Y2
=
O
fal
O
=|
i]
=|
=

OR DYSPEPSIA, MENTAL and PHY-
SICAL EXHAUSTION, NERVOUS-

NESS, DIMINISHED VITALITY,
URINARY DIFFICULTY, etc.

FORMULA:

Each fluid drachm contains

5 1-2 grains free Phosphoric Acid (PO,,)

3 grains Phosphate of Lime (3 CaO PO,.)

1-2 grain Phosphate of Magnesia (3 MgU PO,.)
1-¥ grain Phosphate of Iron (Feg Og PO;.)

1-4 grain Phosphate of Potash (3 KO, PO,.)

Total amount of Phosphoric Acid in one fluid drachm, free and combined, 7 grains.

It contains no pyro-phosphate, or meta-phosphate of any base whatever.

(LIQUID.)
Prepared according to the directions of Prof. FE. N. HORSFORD, of Cambridge, Mass.

There seems to be no difference cf opinion in high medical authority of the value of phosphoric
acid, and no preparation has ever been offered to the public which seems to so happily meet the
general want as this.

It is not nauseous, but agreeable to the taste.
No danger can attend its”use.
Its action will harmonize with such stimulants as are necessary to take.
It makes a delicious drink with water and sugar only.

Prices reasonable. Pamphlet giving further particulars mailed free on application to manufacturers.

Physicians desiring to test it will be furnished a bottle free of expense, except express charges, if they mention “ SC'ENCE.”

RUMFORD CHEMICAL WORKS, PROVIDENCE, R. I.

W. A. HAMMOND, M.D., late Surgeon-General U. S. Army, said | DR. REUBEN A. VANCE, of New York: The preparation on which
that under the use of arsenic and Horsford’s Acid Phosphate, a young _ I place the most reliance is Horsford’s Acid Phosphate.
lady rescued her reasons who had been renderéd insane by a dream. ~ eee oe

The late WINSLOW LEWIS, M.D.., of Boston, said: Having in my

DR. M. H. HENRY, of New York, says: Horsford’s Acid Phosphate own person experienced these ills for which the Acid Phosphate is pre-
possesses claims as a beverage beyond anything I know of 1n the form of scribed, I having found great relief and alleviation by its use, most
medicine, and in nervous diseases I know of no preparation to equal it. | cheerfully attest my appreciation of its excellence.

Milk Co., of Cham, Switzerland, the
Milk in the world, having discover-
milk and cereal foods, have begun
for infants andinvalids. In order that

The Anglo-Swiss Condensed
largest manufacturers of Condensed
ed a superior method of combining
the manufacture of a reliable food
the medical profession and others in- 4 ; terested may. know precisely what
the constituent parts of this prepara- aD § S tion are, a chemical analysis is print-
ed on the lable ofevery can. Persons interested aic vivir uo. , .is articleand compare the results with those
obtained from other foods. The advantages offered by the Anglo-Swiss Company are scientific preparation
upon a large scale, thus assuring superior quality at a reasonable price. The name is

ANGLO-SWISS MILK FOOD.

The Anglo-Swiss brand of Condensed Milk is also a superior article ; 25 millions"of cans sold in 1880.
Ask your Druggist or Grocer for one of the little pamphlets issued by the Anglo-Swiss Company, telling
how Condensed Milk and Milk Food should be prepared for infants. It has saved many lives.

fs The starchy constituents, ordinarily objectionable in Infants’ Food, are changed to Dextrine and,Sugar,
and rendered soluble and easily digestible by heating Anglo-Swiss Milk Food.

THE TRADE SUPPLIED BY H. K. & F. B. THURBER & CO.,

WHO WILL MAIL PAMPHLET IF NOT OBTAINABLE ELSEWHERE.

——

7

SCIENCE. il
Electrical Batteries for Medical Purposes.
Jue WesTERN Exectric 4MANUFACTURING Co.

CHICAGO, —______-___ NEW YORK.
MANUFACTURERS OF AND DEALERS IN
STATIONARY GALVANIC BATTERIES, PORTABLE HIGH
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ELECTRODES.

Dr. Butler’s Plumbago Rheostat,
PLIABLE SPONGE ELECTRODES, &c., &c.

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PRICE: No. 1, $25.00; No. 2, $30.00; No. 3, $35.00.
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WEBSTER.

JAMES W. QUEEN & CO.

The followi fr Webster, page 1164, sh
OPTICIANS, “the value of the Illustrative Definitions in
oat) Chestnut ase, Philaleiphis “Pa. Webster’s Unabridged Dictionary
The New $50 Microscope =I Za

(See Idlustration.)

Write for Catalogue of MAGNIFYING |
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3 ** 2d Optical Instruments,
Is ‘** 3d Magic Lanterns and Slides. ;
=thz ‘4th Physical Instruments. ~SS ESS SS oe =
: 1, flying jib; 2, jib; 3, fore- PRs sail;
S C | E N C E 4, fore-course; 5, foretop sail; 6, foretop-gallant
ous a tore royal; 3 fore peseoall; 9, at
, *RESS. al studding sail; oretop-gallant studding-
A WEEKLY JOURNAL OF SCIENTIFIC Ot sail; 11, foretop-mast studdlng-sail; 12, te
course; maintopsail; maintop-gallant
Vol. ll, No. 58, = — 5 = August 6, 1881. sail; 15, main-royal; 16, main sky-sail; 17,
CONTENTS main royal studding-sail; 18, main top-gallant

studding-sail; 19, maintop-mast studding sail;

The Crime of Guiteau and the Teachings of Modern Alienists (Edit.); The Adultera-) 20, mizzen-course; 21, mizzen-fop sail; 22,
tion of Sugar (Edit.); Amylose (Edit.); Note on Photographs of the Spectrum of| mizzen-top-gallant sail; 23, mizzen-royal; 24,
the Comet of June, 1881, by Professor Henry Draper; Observations on Siredon mizzen sky-sail; 25, mizzen-spanker,
lichenoides, by William E. Carlin; An Analysis of Water Destructive to Fish, by} | The pictures in Webster under the 12 words,
F. M. Endlich; A Microscopical Study of Iron Ore, by M. E. Wadsworth; Pro- Bot, batter, Castle, Coane, Eye, Horse,
fessor Edward S. Holden’s Drawing of Comet (4) 188z (continued); Do we See (pa pa and aga). Bioaan “ent “ae See
Non-Luminous Bodies by Reflected Light, by A. G. Gaines; Correspondence ; hors, Gshne S43 words and fears fax batter
nae ee ieecs) by Ae awe Spas beet - ormet ley eee ey Er clescr ae Bear than they could be defined in words.

stronomical Note, rofessor ward S. Holden; ulteration o gar, a

Professor H. W. Wiley ; Water as Fuel, by Samuel J. Wallace; Books Received ; | 1 Ss eaten of See, has
Observations of Double Stars, etc., by Professor Asaph Hall; Tables for Qualitative 18,000 Words, 3000 Engravings,
Chemical Analysis, by Charles F. Himes: Notes; Trichinze in Rats; Some New, 4600 New Words and Meanings,

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SUBSCRIPTION, FOUR DOLLARS A YEAR. SINGLE NUMBERS, TEN Cents. Published by G. &C. MERRIAM, Springfield, Mast

1V

SCIENCE.

BRAIN AND
NERVE FOOD.

VITALIZED PHOS-PHITES,

Composed of the Vetal or Nerve-giving Principles of the Ox-Brain and Wheat-Germ.

IT RESTORES THE ENERGY LOST BY NERVOUSNESS OR INDIGESTION ; RELIEVES LASSITUDE, ERRATIC PAINS AND
NEURALGIA REFRESHES THE NERVES TIRED BY WORRY, EXCITEMENT, OR EXCESSIVE BRAIN FATIGUE; STRENGTH-

ENS A FAILING MEMORY, AND GIVES RENEWED VIGOR IN ALL DISEASES OF
IT IS THE ONLY PREVENTIVE OF CONSUMPTION.

IT GIVES VITALITY TO THE INSUFFICIENT BODILY OR MENTAL GROWTH O
AND GIVES QUIET, REST AND SLEEP. IT GIVES A BETTER DISPOSITION TO
MOTES GOOD HEALTH TO BRAIN AND BODY.

PHYSICIANS HAVE PRESCRIBED 300,000 PACKAGES,

NERVOUS EXHAUSTION OR DEBILITY

F CHILDREN, PREVENTS FRETFULNESS
INFANTS AND CHILDREN, AS IT PRO-

For Sale by Druggists or by Mail, $r.

F. CROSBY, 664 & 666 Sixth Ave., N. Y.—London, 137 A Strand.

Successful Novels.

DRAWING INSTRUMENTS |
And Materials of all kinds.
OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS,
Microscopes, Telescopes, &c.

G S, WOOLMAN, 116 Fulton Street,
NEW YORK,

Send for Illus. Catalogue, and mention this Journal,

MR. PERKINS’ DAUGHTER.

By the MaRcHIONESS CLARA LANzA,

Notre.—‘ It may be well to mention, that the state of
* double consciousness,’ or ‘ Periodical Amnesia,’ described in
one of the principal personages of this story, isnot by any
means an isolated instance. It is, on the contrary, a pheno
menon well known to neurological physicians,”

G. P. PUTNAM’S SONS.
27 West 23rd St., New York.

New York & New England R. B.

THROUGH TRAINS Via. N.Y., N. H. & H.R. R,
Between Boston and New York.

FROM GRAND CENTRAL DEPOT.
Leave New York, 4.00 P.M., with Elegant Through Car.
LY 4 se 11.35 P.M., week days, with Through New
Pullman Sleepers.
10.30 P.M., Sundays.
FROM DEPOT, FOOT OF SUMMER ST.
Leave Boston, 9.00 A.M., week days, with Through Cars to
Grand Central Depot.
10.40 P.M., daily, with elegant new Pullman
H Sleepers.

American Journal of Science.
FOUNDED BY PROF. SILLIMAN IN 1818,

Devoted to Chemistry, Physics, Geology, Physi-
cal Geography, Mineralogy, Natural History,
Astronomy, and Meteorology.

Editors: Jas. D. Dana. Epw. S. Dana and B. Situiman.

Associate Editors: Professors Asa Gray, J. P. Cooks, Jr.,
and Joun TrowsrinGE, of Cambridge; H. A. Newron and
A. E. Verritt, of Yale; and G. F. Barker, of the Univer-
sity of Pennsylvania, Phila. Subscription Price $6; 50 Cents
a Number. Address the Proprietors.

James D.& E.S. Dana, New Haven, Conn,

& “ “

« “

TAKE THE BEST.

THE INTERNATIONAL REVIEW.

H. M. RAYNOEK:

INSTRUCTION!

Mt. Carroll Seminary,
CARROLL CO., ILLS.

Incorporated 1852, with its

MUSICAL CONSERVATORY,

has ORIGINAL FEATURES PECULIAR and VALUA-
BLE. In THoROUGH, PRACTICAL, COMMON-
SENSE work it acknowledges no superior. THE
OreEaD, giving particulars sent /vee.

No. 25 Bond St.,
NEW MONTHLY SERIES. NEW YORK.
JOHN T. MORSE, Jr., HENRY CABOT LODGE, Editors. IOS GEE)
Racer? Cots ane ; $5.00 a year. Specimen copies sent post-paid Ree beborer ry

AGENTS WANTED who understand the character, scope

and value of the Review, to solicit subscriptions.
A. S. BARNES & CO.
111 & 113 William Street, New York.

BEST MEDIUM FOR ADVERTISERS.
eG EON CARS

Circulates in Every STATE IN THE Union, also Canada, Australia,
Japan and Europe.

ALL UNIVERSITIES and COLLEGES.
Subscribers to ‘‘ ScieNcE”’ are chiefly among those having few facilities
for purchasing goods, and are buyers of Fancy Articles, Household Neces-
sities, Jewelry, Musical Instruments, Dry Goods, Books, Prints, Scien-
tific Instruments and Apparatus; Pure Chemical Substances, Mineral
Waters, Novelties and Specialties of every kind.

Terms for Advertising moderate. Smalladvertisements on this page
$50 a year (52 insertions).

MEYRO

Manufacturing Purposes.
Wholesale and Retail.

Scrap Purchased. Circulars by Mail

WITZ BROTHERS,
OPTICIANS,

997 Fourth Ave., N. Y.

S. E, COR. 23D ST

Trial Cases, Opthalmos
copes, Artifical Eyes, Clinical
Thermometers, Microscopes,
Electric Batteries, etc.
Special attention given to
prescriptions of Oculists.

N. B.—An Illustrated Catalogue wil]
= be sent free upon request,

R. & J. BECK,
MANUFACTURING OPTICIANS,

1016 Chestnut St., Philadelphia.

MICROSCOPES,

And all Accessories of the Hicuest GRADES at
the Lowsst Pricgs.
Illustrated Condensed Price List, 32 pages. Free.
Full Catalogue of 176 Pages. 15 cts.
Mention this FYournal,

OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS.
BAROMETERS, THERMOMETERS,
RAIN GAUGES, LErc., Etc.
BENJ. PIKE’S SONS & CO.,
OPTICIANS,
No. 928 Broadway, New York.

Illustrated Catalogue sent free on mentioning
we ”
SCIENCE,

American Naturalist.
Devoted to the Natural Sciences in their
widest sense.

PusiisHEp MONTHLY.
Terms, $4.00 a year. Single numbers, 35 cents.

EDITORS:
Professor A. S. PACKARD, JR., and Professor
E., D. Cops.
McCata & STAVELY, Publishers, Nos. 237-9
Dock Street, Philadelphia, Pa.

. br :
Soa ae
vires Gath Oi We
© he <u. 0 i #

iA.

OR DYSPEPSIA, MENTAL and PHY-

SICAL EXHAUSTION, NERVOUS-

| cofesss NSE NESS, DIMINISHED VITALITY,
RDS URINARY DIFFICULTY, etc.

FORMULA:

Each fluid drachm contains

5 1-2 grains free Phosphoric Acid (PO,.)”

3 grains Phosphate of Lime (8 CaO PO,.)

1-¥ grain Phosphate of Magnesia (8 MgO PO,.)
1-4 grain Phosphate of Iron (Fe. O, POs.)

1-4 grain Phosphate of Potash @ KO, PO,.)

Total amount of Phosphoric Acid in one fluid drachm, free and combined, 7 grains.

It contains no pyro-phosphate, or meta-phosphate of any base whatever.

(LIQUID.)
Prepared according to the directions of Prof. EF. N. HORSFORD, of Cambridge, Mass.

There seems to be no difference of opinion in high medical authority of the value of phosphoric
acid, and no preparation has ever been offered to the public which seems to so happily meet the

general want as this.

It is not nauseous, but agreeable to the taste.
No danger can attend its use.

Its action will harmonize with such stimulants as are necessary to take.
It makes a delicious drink with water and sugar only.

Prices reasonable. .Pamphlet giving further particulars mailed free on application to manufacturers.

Physicians desiring to test it will be furnished a bottle free of expense, except express charges, if they mention Medical Record.

MANUFACTURED BY THE

RUMFORD CHEMICAL WORKS, PROVIDENCE, R. I.

W. A. HAMMOND, M.D., late Surgeon-General U. S. Army, said | DR. REUBEN A, VANCE, of New York: The preparation on which
that under the use of arsenic and Horsford’s Acid Phosphate, a young | I place the most reliance is Horsford’s Acid Phosphate.
lady rescued her reasons who had been rendered insane by a dream, | es ee eee

i
ee | The late WINSLOW LEWIS, M.D., of Boston, said: Having in my

DR, M. H. HENRY, of New York, says: Horsford’s Acid Phosphate | own person experienced those ills for which the Acid Phosphate is pre-
possesses claims as a beverage beyond anything I know of in the form of | scribed, I having found great relief and alleviation by its use, most
medicine, and in nervous diseases I know of no preparation to equal it. | cheerfully attest my appreciation of its excellence.

—

Milk Co., of Cham, Switzerland, the
Milk in the world, having discover-
milk and cereal foods, have begun

The Anglo-Swiss Condensed
largest manufacturers of Condensed

ed a superior method of combining
the manufacture of a reliable food for infants andinvalids. In order that

the medical profession and others in- 2 = terested may know precisely what
the constituent’parts of this prepara- Z ube tion are, a chemical analysis is print-
ed on the lable of every can. Persons interested are invited to try this articleand compare the results with those
obtained from other foods. The advantages offered by the Anglo-Swiss Company are scientific preparation
upon a large scale, thus assuring superior quality at a reasonable price. The name is

ANGLO-SWISS MILK FOOD.

The Anglo-Swiss brand of Condensed Milk is also a superior article ; 25» s/lions of cans sold in 1880.
Ask your Druggist or Grocer for one of the little pamphlets issued by the Anglo-Swiss Company, telling
how Condensed Milk and Milk Food should be prepared for infants. It has saved many lives.

[=F The starchy constituents, ordinarily objectionable in Infants’ Food, are changed to Dextrine and, Sugar,
and rendered soluble and easily digestible by heating Anglo-Swiss Milk Food.

THE TRADE SUPPLIED BY H. K. & F. B, THURBER & CO,,

WHO WILL MAIL PAMPHLET IF NOT OBTAINABLE BLSEWHERE,

Vol. 2.1 Whole Number 61. AUGUST 27th, (88l. [Price 10 Cents.

i

=

Yttzy iz — Z K <. Sodedee
. Li = : LOCT. 12. KDALLAM

Building (Room 17), New York.

Published at ‘f Tribune ”’

New Yor« HERALD, June 29, 1880:
‘““SCIENCE—A Weekly Record of Scientific Progress." It is a handsome, well-printed quarto sheet of 12 pages, with 4 additional pages for
advertisements Serving asacover, It Counts among its list of contributors Professors Baird and Coues, of the Smithsonian Institution ; Holden, of the

Naval Observatory, Washington; Marsh, of Yale; Wilder, of Cornell; Young, of Princeton; Abbe, of the Signal Office; Morse, of Salem; Drs.
n scientific experts. IT CLAIMS, WITH TRUTH, TO OCCUPY A

Hammond and Spitzka, of New York, and a considerable number of weil-know
HITHERTO UNOCCUPIED FIELD IN AMERICAN PERIODICAL LITERATURE, AS THE ONLY FIRS [-CLASS WEEKLY JOURNAL

IN THE UNITED STATES DEVOTED TO SCIENCE.

Dr. SCOTT S_ ELECTR (Gerace

IS GUARANTEED TO CURE

NERVOUS AND BILIOUS HEADACHE IN 5 MINUTES,
NEURALGIA and TOOTHACHE in 5 MINUTES,

CURES DANDRUFF AND PREVENTS BALDNESS

PRICE, $3.00. Of All Dealers, or of

GEORGE: A. SCOTT, “842 BROADLY 7 Nai

OTT'S ELECTRIC FLESH BRUSH,
ASTONISHING CURES!

Royalty, members of her Majesty’s_ Government, and many professional gentle-
\, men who have tested the power of the brush are unanimous inits praise, and its
\\\ Therapeutic value cannot be disputed, having the approval of numerous medical

Sat ‘

DR. SC

men. Constructed upon scientific principles, the result of twelve years’ study and
practice, it is thoroughly and permanently charged with an ‘‘ Electric ’’ force which
produces remarkable cures. It generally gives relief in five to seven minutes, and
its application is most agreeable and grateful, there being no shock or unpleasant
feeling attending its use. Always doing good, it cannot harm, and aside from
its curative powers is a beautiful flesh brush (wet or dry), elegantly carved and
\\ lasting for years. Its power can always be tested by a silver compass which
accompanies each Brush. Our Dr. Scott’s Electric Hair Brush having met with

the same appreciation here, which its excellent merits secured for it in England,
we now introduce to the American public his Electric Flesh Brush, confident that
it will soon Jind its way into every ehold.

zYT CURES
Rheumatism, Sciatica, Gout, Nervous Debility,
| ! : Lumbago, Neuralgia, Toothache, Malarial
NN \ Vr yale SI Lameness, all Pains and Aches resulting from
=: Colds, Impure Blood, and Impaired Circulation.

It_acts_quickly in Stomach, Liver, and_ Kidney

Troubles, and is a raluable assistant in their

Treatment. It quickly Removes those § Back
Aches” peculiar to L.A DIES.

eo
At keeps the skin healthy, beautifies the complexion, and imparts

vigorand energy to the whole body. People of sedentary habits and

impaired nervous powers will find it a valuable companion.

Proprietors: The Pall Mall Electric Association
of London. New York Branch: 842 Broadway.

TESTIMONIALS.

ATWOOD’s PHARMACY, Broadway, New York, May 15, 1881.

Dr. Scott: I have sold at retail over my counter, during the
last few months, over $3,500 worth of your Hlectric Brushes
at $3.00 each. They give splendid satisfaction, and man
have come back and bought the second, third, and fourt
one. Ihave heard many customers pa them highly, and
from my own personal knowledge, Iknow of most remarke
able cures attending theiruse. 1 cordially recommend them
to the public.” AKEBMON W. ATWOOD,

*T prescribe it for my patients with the happiest results.
A Its Sony unquestionable.’” DR, JOHN GAVETT GIBe
f SON, F.C.S.

We cannot
SURGICAL

# ‘Better than all liniments and embrocations.
too highly recommend it to the afflicted.’’
} GAZEITE.

} ‘For some time past I have suffered from Rheumatism in
my knee, I tried your Brush and the result astonished
me, in less than three minutes the pain disappeared and
Ihave not had it since. Wishing to convince myself still }
| further, I took it to my place of business and cured two }
workmen of Neuralgia and a third of Toothache. I am now §
satisfied with the virtue of your Brush, and do not hesitate
to speak a good word for it to suffering humanity.”
Yours respectfully, JESSE M. HARR.

Space forbids our enc st ng innumerable letters of praise
and gratitude from those using our Brush. Where addresses
are not given they will be furnished with pleasure on

Z Z tp y ZB Ly Ye Y, ZY i “py,
MENTION ; (te Af, Zi oy application. .
ee (2 MONEY RETURNED IF NOT AS REPRESENTED.

As soon as you receive the Brush, if not well satisfied with your bargain, write us, and we will returnthe money. What can be fairer? The Proprietors
of this Publication know Dr. Scott to be respectable and trustworthy.

SCIENCE

A WEEKLY RECORD OF SCIENTIFIC. PROGRESS.

ILLUSTRATED.

Entered in the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington, D.C.

r

No. 61.—Vol. Il. August 27, 1881. Price 10 Cents.

hae ACME MICROSCOPES.

“Acme” No. 2 ‘*Acme”’ Lithological.

Monocular, F ; $100 A new Stand, after the pat-
Binocular, . : 2 E45 tern of the No. 3, for the study
of Rocks; convertible in an
instant into an ordinary mon-

ocular. $92

* Acme,” No. 3.

Monocular, . 4 : $50
All our Stands

have same size of tubing and

Binocular, pe ee i)

sub-stage fitting, so that eye-
pieces and accessories that fit
one Stand can be used with

* Acme’”’ No. 4. all.

The favorite Laboratory
Stand, . : ; $25
With 1 inch and Y inch

t
k

“Congress”? Turn-Table

objectives, . : RO
E Patented, $6.50.

Gem Turn-Table, $2.50.

Special Terms made with Do. Do. with improved

Colleges. centering adjustment, $3.25
tayo eee a Gam

“ACME” No. 3.
HOLMAN’S COMPRESSOR, THE LATEST AND THE BEST, $4. MECHANICAL FINGER. $F.

JOHN W. SIDLE & CO., Lancaster, Pa.

Send jor Catalogue.

ii SCIENCE:

APPROVED TEXT BOOKS,

FOR COLLEGES, HIGH SCHOOLS, SEMINARIES, ETc.

IVISON, BLAKEMAN, TAYLOR & CO., Pustisuers,

753 & 755 BROADWAY, NEW YORK. 117 & 119 STATE STREET, CHICAGO

** 1, B., T. & Co. will send Descriptive Lists and Prices of their Publications on application.

DANA’S GEOLOGICAL STORY BRIEFLY TOLD. An introduction to Geology for the general reader and for
beginners in the Science. By Prof. JAMES D. DANA, LL. D. tvol. I2mo, 275 pages. Numerously illustrated and handsomely
bound. $1.35.

DANA’S TEXT BOOK. Revised Edition. A Text-Book of Geology, designed for Schools and Academies. By JAMES D
Dana, LL. D., Silliman Professor of Geology and Natural History, Yale College. Cloth. Fully illustrated. 350 pages. $1.80.

DANA’S MANUAL OF GEOLOGY. Third and Revised Edition, issued in January, 1880. Treating of the Principles of the
Science, with special reference to American Geological History, for the use of Colleges, Academies and Schools of Science
By JAMEs D. Dana, LL. D., Silliman Professor of Geology and Naturai History, Yale College. Illustrated by a Chart of the
World, and over one thousand figures, mostiy from American sources. Ivol. 8vo. 927 pages. $4.45.

GRAY’S HOW PLANTS BEHAVE, HOW THEY MOVE, CLIMB, EMPLOY INSECTS TO WORK FOR
THEM. Beautifully illustrated and printed on fine paper. to. 62 cents.

GRAY’S HOW PLANTS GROW. A Simple Introduction to Structural Botany, witha Popular Flora, or an arrangement and
description of Common Plants, both wild and cultivated. Intended for young people and Common Schools. Illustrated by more
than 5ooengravings. 232 pages. Small quarto. 95 cents.

This book, in connection with the ‘‘ School and Field Book,” suppliesa complete course in Botany for Common Schools, Academies, and
Seminaries.

GRAY’S LESSONS IN BOTANY AND VEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY, io which is added a copious Glossary of
Dictionary of Botanical Terms. Fully illustrated. Cloth. 8vo. 236 pages. $1.10.

GRAY’S FIELD, FOREST AND GARDEN BOTANY. A simple introduction to the Common Plants ot the United
States east of the Mississippi, both wild and Cultivated. Cloth. 8vo. 386 pages. $1.65.

GRAY’?S SCHOOL AND FIELD BOOK OF BOTANY. Comprising the “‘ Lessons in Botany” and ‘Field, Forest, and
Garden Botany.’’ A most popular and comprehensive School Book, adapted to beginners and advanced classes. 1 vol. 8vo
Cloth, 621 pages. $2.10.

This book, in connection with ‘‘ How Plants Grow,” supplies a complete course in Botany for Common Schools, Academies, and Seminaries.

GRAY’S MANUAL OF BOTANY. Arranged according to the natural system, and containing 20 plates, illustrating the
Sedges, Grasses, Ferns, etc. Fifth edition, 1867. Eighthissue, 1868. Cloth. 8vo. 7oo pages. $1.86.

THE SAME, bound with ‘‘ The Lessons.” $2.50.
This work, in connection with ‘‘ The Lessons,” supplies a complete course in Botany for Colleges and Scientific Schocls.

GRAY’S NEW STRUCTURAL AND SYSTEMATIC BOTANY. An Introduction to Structural and Systematic Botany
and Vegetable Physiology, being the séxth and revised edition of the Botanical Text-book. Illustrated by numerous woodcuts. 1
yol. Cloth. 8vo. 442 pages. $2.30.

The present work is not simply a reissue, but has been entirely rewritten, and its compass greatly extended.

Robinson’s Higher Mathematics, Well’s New Natural Philosophy.

Fasguelle’s French Course. Webster’s Dictionaries,
Woodbury’s German Course. Eliot and Storer’s Chemistry.
L. & M. French and Spanish Grammars. Swinton’s Outlines of History.

Catheart’s Literary Reader, Etc., Ete.

Vol. 2.1 Whole Number 62. SEPTEMBER 3d, (88l. [Price 10 Cents.

f} Congr! r
%

NAM z
v2" An f? M B\ Ses a

Published at ‘‘ Tribune’? Building (Room 17), New York.

| NEw York HERALD, June 29, 1880: ‘ ms
| “ScreENcE—A Weekly Record of Scientific Pragress.’’ It is a Handsome, well-printed quarto sheet of 12 pages, with 4 additional pages for

| advertisements serving asacover. It counts among its list of contributors Professors Baird and Coues, of the Smithsonian Institution ; Hol len, of the

| Naval Observatory, Washington; Marsh, of Yale; Wilder, of Coraell ; Young, of Princeton; Abbe, of the Signal Office ; Morse, of Salem; Drs.
| Hammond and Spitzka, of New York, and a considerable number of we.l-known scientific experts. IT CLAIMS, WITH TRUTH, TO OCCUPY A
| HITHERTO UNOCCUPIED FIELD IN AMERICAN PERIODICAL LITERATURE, AS THE ONLY FIRST-CLASS WEEKLY JOURNAL ]
IN THE UNITED STATES DEVOTED TO SCIENCE. |

.

Dr. SCOT TS ELECTRIC AAT ei ee

IS GUARANTEED TO CURE

NERVOUS AND BILIOUS HEADACHE IN 5 MINU’
NEURALGIA and TOOTHACHE in 5 MINUTES,

CURES DANDRUFF AND PREY ENTS oe

PRICE, $3.00. Of All Dealers, or of

GEORGE A. SCOTT, ‘842° BROAD Ate re

PFN Ee

at

“DR. SCOTT'S ELECTRIC FLESH BRUSH

ee ASTONISHING CURES!

Royalty, members of her Majesty’s_ Government, and many professiona
men who have tested the pore of the brush are unanimous inits praiss
\ Therapeutic value cannot be disputed, having the approval of numerou:
\\, men. Constructed aes scientific principles. the result of twelve years’ :
0 pructice, it is thoroughly and permanently charged with an ‘ Electric "’ fo!

produces remarkable cures. It generally gives relief in five to seven min
its application is most agreeable and grateful, there being no shock or w1
feeling attending its use. Always doing good, it cannot harm, and a:
its curative powers is a beautiful flesh brush (wet or dry), elegantly ca
lasting for years. Its power can always be tested by a_silver_ comp:
accompanies each Brush. Our Dr. Scott’s Electric Hair Brush having
the same appreciation here, which its excellent merits secured for it in
we now introduce to the American public his Electric Flesh Brush, conf
tt will soon find its way into every household.

zT CURES

Rheumatism, Sciatica, Gout, Nervous De
Lumbago, Neuralgia, Toothache, Mal
Lameness, all Pains and Aches resulting
Colds, Impure Blood, and Impaired Circu

It_acts_quickly in Stomach, Liver, and_ 1

Troubles, and is a valuable assistant in
Treatment. It quickly Removes those §
Aches” peeuliar to .A DIES,

it keeps the skin healthy, beautifies the complexion, and
vigorand energy to the whole body. People of sedentary h
impaired nervous powers Will find it a valuable companion.
Proprictors: The Pall Mall Electrie Association
of London, New York Branch: 842 Broadway,

TESTIMONIALS.

ATWOOD’s PHARMACY, Broadway, New York, May 1

Dr. Scott: I have sold at retail over my counter, dur
last few months, over $3,500 worth of your Electric EB
at $3.00 each. They give splendid satisfaction, and
have come back and bought the second, third, and
one. Ihave hea’d many customers praise them high
from my own personal knowledge, Iknow of most r
able cures attending theiruse. 1 cordially recommen
to the public.” AEBMON W. ATWOOD,

“T prescribe it for my patients with the happiest 1
Its cures are ungnestionable.’” DR. JOHN GAVET
SON, F.C.S.

“Better than all liniments and embrocations. We
too highly recommend it to the aftlicted.’’ Sut
GAZEITE.

“ For some time past I have suffered from Rheuma
my knee, I tried your Brush and the result asto
me, in less than three minutes the pain disappear
Ihave not had it since. Wishing to convince Hiyse
further, I took it to my place of business and curt
workmen of Neuralgia and a third of Toothache. I a
satisfied with the virtue of your Brush, and do not h
to speak a good word for it to suffering humanity.”

Yours respectfully, Jussk M. Hu

Space forbids our po innumerable letters of

Ye and gratitude from those using our Brush. Where adc
J J Ze are not given they will be furnished with pleas
MENTION G hdd Z Z Ht H application.
THIS PAPER.
es MONEY RETURNED IF NOT AS REPRESENTED.

As soon as you receive the Brush, if not well satisfied with your bargain, write us, and we will returnthe money. What can be fairer? The Pr
of this Publication know Dr. Scott to be respectable and trustworthy.

A BEAUTIFUL BRUSH, LASTING FOR YEARS.

‘We will send it on trial, postpaid, on receipt of $3.00, which will be returned if not as represented. .

Inclose 10 cents extra and we guarantee safe delivery into your hands; or will send it by express, C. 0. D., at your expense, with privilege of exan
but expressage adds considerably to your cost. Or request your nearest Druggist or Fancy Store to obtain one for you, and be sure Dr. Scott’s nar
the box. Kemittances should be made payable to GEO. A. SCOTT, S42 Broadway, New York. They can be made in Checks, Drafts, Post Office
Currency, or Stamps. LIBERAL DISCOUNT TO Tu TRADE. Agents Wantedinevery town. Send for circular of Dr. Scott’s Flectric Hair Bru

—An, attempt has been made to put so-called ‘* Blectro Magnetic” Brushes upon the market, Lut the Post- Office authorities at Wa
have published the company as afraud. We therefore caution the Public to be careful that ‘Dr. Scot's” name is on the
@ ‘“Lectric”’ on the Brush. Ours is not wire, but a pure bristle Brush.

Sere. Yate: ae - rs :

A i tpnent via id

4

fae ote «be

oF reine

SCIENCE

A WEEKLY RECORD OF SCIENTIFIC PROGRESS.

ILLUSTRATED.

Entered in the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington, D.C.

No. 62.—Vol. Il. September 8, 1881. Price 10 Cents.

fe ACME MICROSCOPES

~2atiGeze

“Wes:
“Acme” No. 2. “Acme” Lithological.
Monocular, F : $100 A new Stand, after the pat-
Binocular, : 7 sis F45 tern of the No. 3, for the study
of Rocks; convertible in an
instant into an ordinary mon-

ocular, $o2

* Acme,” No. 3.

Monocular, . , : $50

All our Stands

have same size of tubing and

Binocular, ; 4 oF 7s

sub-stage fitting, so that eye-
pieces and accessories that fit
one Stand can be used with

** Acme” No. 4. all.

The favorite Laboratory
Stand, : ; ; $25
With 1 inch and ¥ inch

“Congress” Turn-Table

objectives, . c en 5O
Patented, $6.50.

Gem Turn-Table, $2.50,

Specia’ Terms made with Do. Do. with improved

Colleges. centering adjustment, $3.25

Qs

“ACME” No. 3.
HOLMAN’S COMPRESSOR, THE LATEST AND THE BEST, $4. MECHANICAL FINGER. $5.

JOHN W. SIDLE & CO., Lancaster, Ps.

Send jor Catalogue.

ii y SCIENCE,

APPROVED TEXT BOOKS,

FOR COLLEGES, HIGH SCHOOLS, SEMINARIES, ETc.

IVISON, BLAKEMAN, TAYLOR & CO., Pustisuers,

753 & 755 BROADWAY, NEW YORK. 117 & 119 STATE STREET, CHICAGO

*.* 1, B., T. & Co. will send Descriptive Lists and Prices of their Publications on application.

DANA’S GEOLOGICAL STORY BRIEFLY TOLD. An introduction to Geology for the general reader and for
beginners in the Science. By Prof. JAMES D. DANA, LL. D. tIvol. I2mo, 275 pages. Numerously illustrated and handsomely
bound. $1.35.

DANA’S TEXT BOOK. Revised Edition. A Text-Book of Geology, designed for Schools and Academies. By JAMES D
Dana, LL. D., Silliman Professor of Geology and Natural History, Yale College. Cloth. Fully illustrated. 350 pages. $1.80.

DANA’S MANUAL OF GEOLOGY. Third and Revised Edition, issued in January, 1880. Treating of the Principles of the
Science, with special reference ‘to American Geological History, for the use of Colleges, Academies and Schools of Science
By JAMES D. Dana, LL. D., Silliman Professor of Geology and Natural History, Yale College. Illustrated by a Chart of the
World, and over one thousand figures, mostly from American sources, Ivol. 8vo. 927pages. $4.45.

GRAY’S HOW PLANTS BEHAVE, HOW THEY MOVE, CLIMB, EMPLOY INSECTS TO WORK FOR
THEM. Beautifully illustrated and printed on fine paper. ato. 62 cents.

GRAY’S HOW PLANTS GROW. A Simple Introduction to Structural Botany, witha Popular Flora, or an arrangement and
description of Common Plants, both wild and cultivated. Intended for young people and Common Schools. Illustrated by more
than 5ooengravings. 232 pages. Small quarto. 95 cents.

This book, in connection with the ‘' School and Field Book,” suppliesa complete course in Botany for Common Schools, Academies, and
Seminaries.

GRAY’S LESSONS IN BOTANY AND VEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY, to which is added a copious Glossary of
Dictionary of Botanical Terms. Fully illustrated. Cloth. 8vo. 236 pages. $1.10.

GRAY’S FIELD, FOREST AND GARDEN BOTANY. A simple introduction to the Common Plants ot the United
States east of the Mississippi, both wild and Cultivated. Cloth. 8vo. 386 pages. $1.65.

GRAY’S SCHOOL AND FIELD BOOK OF BOTANY. Comprising the ‘‘ Lessons in Botany”’ and ‘‘ Field, Forest, and
Garden Botany."’ A most popular and comprehensive School Book, adapted to beginners and advanced classes. 1 vol. 8vo
Cloth, 621 pages. $2.10.

This book, in connection with ‘‘ How Plants Grow,’ supplies a complete coursein Botany for Common Schools, Academies, and Seminaries.

GRAY?’S MANUAL OF BOTANY. Arranged according to the natural system, and containing 20 plates, illustrating the
Sedges, Grasses, Ferns, etc. Fifth edition, 1867. Eighthissue, 1868. Cloth. 8vo. zoo pages. $1.86.

THE SAME, bound with ‘The Lessons.” $2.50.
This work, in connection with ‘‘ The Lessons,” supplies a complete coursein Botany for Colleges and Scientific Schocls.

GRAY’S NEW STRUCTURAL AND SYSTEMATIC BOTANY. An Introduction to Structural and Systematic Botany
and Vegetable Physiology, being the szx¢z and revised edition of the Botanical Text-book. [Illustrated by numerous woodcuts, 1

vol. Cloth. 8vo. 442 pages. $2.30.

The present work is not simply a reissue, but has been entirely rewritten, and its compass greatly extended.

Robinson’s Higher Mathematics, Well’s New Natural Philosophy.
Fasquelle’s French Course. Webster's Dictionaries,
Woodbury’s German Course. Eliot and Storer’s Chemistry.
L. & M. French and Spanish Grammars, Swinton’s Outlines of History.

Cathcart’s Literary Reader, Etc., Ete.

Vol. 2.1 Whole Number 63. SEPTEMBER (Oth, Isol. LFrice {U Gents.

Published at ‘‘ Tribune’? Building (Room 1[7), New York.

NEw YorK HERALD, June 29, 1880:

“ScIENCE—A Weekly Record of Scientific Progress."’ It is a handsome, well-printed quarto sheet of 12 pages, with 4 additional pages for
advertisements serving as a cover. It counts among its list of contributors Professors Baird and Coues, of the Smithsonian Institution; Holden, of the
Naval Observatory, Washington; Marsh, of Yale; Wilder, of Cornell; Young, of Princeton; Abbe, of the Signal Office; Morse, of Salem; Drs.
Hammond and Spitzka, of New York, and a considerable number of well-known scientific experts. IT CLAIMS, WITH TRUTH, TO OCCUPY A
HITHERTO UNOCCUPIED FIELD IN AMERICAN PERIODICAL LITERATURE, AS THE ONLY FIRST-CLASS WEEKLY JOURNAL
IN THE UNITED STATES DEVOTED TO SCIENCE. ;

Hh : A _N\M \ : F MH \ IT CURES

Se OT ee ee = —_ ae) | ae) ae) eee ae 8 SS ee ee

IS GUARANTEED TO CURE

NERVOUS AND BILIOUS HEADACHE IN 5 MINUTES,
; NEURALGIA and TOOTHACHE in 5 MINUTES,

CURES DANDRUFF AND PREVENTS BALDNESS

PRICE, $3.00. Of All Dealers, or of

| GEORGE A. SCOT, 842° LROADY AD 2 ee

ASTONISHING CURES!

Royalty, members of her Majesty’s_ Government, and many professional gentle-

~ men who have tested the power of the brush are unanimous inits praise, and its

; \\ Therapeutic value cannot be disputed, having the approval of numerous medical

; j \ \ 4 men. Constructed upon scientific principles, the result of twelve years’ study and

' 5 | practice, it is thoroughly and permanently charged with an ‘‘ Electric ’’ force which

if 4 \ produces remarkable cures. It generally gives relief in five to seven minutes, and
;| \ \ its application is most agreeable and grateful, there being no shock or unpleasant

i \ feeling attending its use. Always doing good, it cannot harm, and aside from

\ its curative powers is a beautiful flesh brush (wet or dry), elegantly carved and

| é : $ \ lasting for years. Its power can always be tested by a silver compass which

ti Z “ accompanies each Brush. Our Dr. Scott’s Electric Hair Brush having met with
+} the same appreciation here, which its excellent merits secured for it in England

é

we now introduce to the American public his Electric Flesh Brush, confident thai
it will soon find its way into every household.

ANY Ay SW ii Rheumatism, Sciatica, Gout, Nervons Debilitys

: \N 2 = WSN Lumbago, Neuralgia, Toothache, Malarial

Lameness, all Pains and Aches resulting from |
Colds, Impure Blood, and Impaired Circulation.

\

\

\ AWE GR SEES es (a \a \e | It_acts quickly in Stomach, Liver, and Kidney

Troubles, and is a valuable assistant in their
ZA Va\ hea Sl ae : Treatment. It quickly Removes those 66 Back
Aches” peculiar to L.A DIES,

SS
It keeps the skin healthy, beautifies the complexion, and imparts
vigor and energy to the whole body. People of sedentary habits and
impaired nervous powers will find it a valuable companion.
Proprietors: The Pall Mall Electric Association
of London. New York Branch: 842 Broadway,

TESTIMONIALS.

ATWOOD’s PHARMACY, Broadway, New York, May 15, 1881.
Dr. Scott: I have sold at retail over my counter, during the
last few months, over $3,500 worth of your Electric Brushes
3 : at $3.00 each. They give splendid satisfaction, and man
3 Wi) s/f , > have come back and bought the second, third, and fourt
4 \ : roy lll : ae one. Ihave heard many customers praise them highly, and
5 from my own personal knowledge, Iknow of most remarke
able cures attending theiruse. 1 cordially recommend them Jj
to the public.” HERMON W. ATWOOD.

\

i

i

“T prescribe it for my patients with the happiest results.
Its cures are unquestionable.’’ DR. JOHN GAVETT GIB=
B SON, F.C.S.

“Better than all liniments and embrocations. We cannot
too highly recommend it to the affliicted.’’ SURGICAL
GAZEITE.

** For some time past I have suffered from Rheumatism in
my knee, I tried your Brush and the result astonished
f me, in less than three minutes the pain disappeared and
Ihave not had it since. Wishing to conviice myself still
f further, Il took it to my place of business and cured two
8 workmen of Neuralgia and a third of Toothache. I am now
satisfied with the virtue of your Brush, and do not hesitate
to speak a good word for it to suffering humanity.”
Yours respectfully, JUssE M. HARR.

Space forbids our publishing innumerable letters of praise
and gratitude from those using our Brush. Where addresses §
g Z Z GY, A Z are not given they will be furnished with pleasure on
MENTION Z Z Ge Vj Z, application.
THIS PAPER.
Se ee" MONEY RETURNED IF NOT AS REPRESENTED.

As soon as you receive the Brush, if not well satisfied with your bargain, write us, and we will returnthe money. What can be fairer? The Proprietors
of this Publication know Dr. Scott to be respectable and trustworthy.

A BEAUTIFUZIS BRUSH, LASTING FOR YEARS.

{We will send it on trial, postpaid, on’ receipt of $3.00, which will be returned if not as represented.

Inclose 10 cents extra and we guarantce safe delivery into your hands; or will send it by express, C.O.D.,at your expense, with privilege of examination:
but expressage adds considerably to your cost. Or iest your nearest Druggist or Fancy Store to obtain one for you, and be sure Dr, Scott’s name is on
the box. Remittances should be made payable to G . A. SCOTT, 842 Broadway, New York. They can be made in Checks, Drafts, Post Office Orders,
Currency, or Stamps. LIBERAL DiscouNT TO Tu“ TRADE. Agents Wanted inevery town. Send for circular of Dr. Scott’s Electric Hair Brush.

C J T j 0 —An attempt has Been made to put so-called 6 | Electro Magnet ie” Brushes upon the market, tut the Post-Office authorities at Washington

have published the company as a fraud. We therefore caution the Public to be careful that ‘‘ Dr. Scoti’s” name is on the box and
B ‘‘Llectric” on the Brush. Ours is not wire, but a pure bristle Brush.

SCIENCE —

A WEEKLY RECORD OF SCIENTIFIC.PROGRESS.

ILLUSTRATED.

Entered in the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington, D.C.

No. 63.—Vol. Il. September 10, 1881. Price 10 Cents.

er ——————— ———— —?

22tiee

aes

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cle, handsome in appearance and first-class in every respect. It isnot a metallic
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will manifest themselves by causing the needle of a magnetic compass to vibrate
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vent the hair from falling orturning gray. In support of this claim many testi-
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event result in harm.—Boston Fournal, May 28, 1881.

SCIENCE

A WEEKLY JOURNAL OF SCIENTIFIC PROGRESS,

Vol. II, No. 68, September IO, 1881.

CONTENTS.

Water Supply of Cities (Edit.); The Connection of the Biological Sciences with Medi-
cine, by Professor T. H. Huxley; Notes on Experimental Chemistry, Professor A.
B. Prescott; The Paris Electrical Exhibition, by Dr. F. Glaser; The American
Chemical Society ; The Successful Administration of Nitrous Oxide, Dr. E. How-
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Books Received; The Ancient Bronze Implements, Weapons and Ornaments, by
Dr. John Evans; Meteorological Report for New York for week ending September
3d, 1881; Notes, &c., &c., &e.

WEBSTER.

The following from Webster, page 1164, shows
the value of the Illustrative Definitions in

Webster’s Unabridged Dictionary

—— SSS
1, flying jib; 2, jib; 3, fore-top-mast-stay sail;
4, fore-course; 5, foretop sail; » foretop-gallant
sail; 7, fore-royal; 8, fore sky-sail; 9, fore-roy-
alstudding sail; 10, foretop-gallant studding-
sail; 11, foretop-mast studding-sail; 12, main-
course; 13, maintopsail; 14, maintop-gallant
sail; 16, main-royal; 16, main sky-sail; 17,
main royal studding-sail; 18, main top-gallant
studding-sail; 19, maintop-mast studding sail;
20, mizzen-course; 21, mizzen-top sail; 22,
mizzen-top-gallant sail; 23, mizzen-royal; 24,
mizzen sky-sail; 25, mizzen-spanker.

The pictures in Webster under the 12 words,
Beef, Boiler, Castle, Column, Eye, Horse,
Moldings, Phrenology, Ravelin, Ships,
(pages 1164 and 1219) Steam engine, Tim-

ers, define 343 words and terms far better
than they could be defined in words.

New Edition of WEBSTER, has
118,000 Words, 3000 Engravings,
Bice. New Words and Meanings,

iographical Dictiona

of ee 9700 Names, *e,
Published by G. &C. MERRIAM, Springfield, Mase

‘

1V

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BRAIN AND
NERVE FOOD.

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Composed of the Vital or Nerve-giving Principles of the Ox-Brain and Wheat-Germ.

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NEURALGIA REFRESHES THE NERVES TIRED BY WORRY, EXCITEMENT, OR EXCESSIVE BRAIN FATIGUE; STRENGTH-
ENS A FAILING MEMORY, AND GIVES RENEWED VIGOR 1N ALL DISEASES OF NERVOUS EXHAUSTION OR DEBILITY
IT IS THE ONLY PREVENTIVE OF CONSUMPTION.

IT GIVES VITALITY TO THE INSUFFICIENT BODILY OR MENTAL GROWTH OF CHILDREN, PREVENTS FRETFULNESS
AND GIVES QUIET, REST AND SLEEP. IT GIVES A BETTER DISPOSITION TO INFANTS AND CHILDREN, AS IT PRO
MOTES GOOD HEALTH TO BRAIN AND BODY.

PHYSICIANS HAVE PRESCRIBED 300,000 PACKAGES. For Sale by Druggists or by Mail, $r.

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Dr. Scott’s ELectric Hair Brusu.—A good hair brush cannot be bought for
much less than the sum for which Dr. Scott’s electric brush can be secured.
This brush, aside from the curative properties claimed for it, is a well made arti-
cle, handsome in appearance and first-class in every respect. It isnot a metallic
brush, but is made of pure bristles. Its electrical qualities are very strong, and
will manifest themselves by causing the needle of a magnetic compass to vibrate
even with a thick book on the top of a table intervening. Violent vibrations of
the needle can be caused by passing the brush quickly back and forth within
four or five inches of the compass. It is claimed for this brush that its use will
cure headaches and neuralgia, will remove dandruff, and in most cases will pre-
vent the hair from falling orturning gray. In support of this claim many testi-
monials from responsible persons are adduced. Evidently its use would be of
great benefit wherever electricity would prove beneficial, and could not in any
event result in harm.—JBoston Fournal, May 28, 1881.

SCIENCE

A WEEKLY JOURNAL OF SCIENTIFIC PROGRESS.

Vol.-Il; No. 62; -. =. - = - September 8, 1881.
CONTENTS.

Pneumatic Railway System (Edit.); The State and Higher Education, by Prof. N. H.
Winchell; Magic Mirrors, by M. Bertin (translated from the French by Marchiones: |
Clara Lanza); Recent Surgical Case; On the Germ Theory, by Prof. Pasteur ;
Correspondence, ‘‘ The Use of Water as Fuel,” by George W. Rachel, M. D.;
Meteorological Report; Dr. Daniel Draper; Notes, &c., &c.

SUBSCRIPTION, FouR DOLLARS A YEAR. SINGLE NUMBERS, TEN CENTS.

WEBSTER.

The following from Webster, page 1164, shows
the value of the Illustrative Definitions in

Webster’s Unabridged Dictionary

=

1, flying jib; 2, jib; 3, fore-top-mast-stay sail;
4, fore-course; 5, foretop sail; 6, foretop-gallant
sail; 7, fore-royal; 8, fore sky-sail; 9, fore-roy-
alstudding sail; 10, foretop-gallant studding-
sail; 11, foretop-mast studding-sail; 12, main-
course; 13, maintopsail; 14, maintop-gallant
sail; 15, main-royal; 16, main sky-sail; 17,
main royal studding-sail; 18, main top-gallant
studding-sail; 19, maintop-mast studding sail;
20, mizzen-course; 21, mizzen-top sail; 22,
mizzen-top-gallant sail; 23, mizzen-royal; 24,
mizzen sky-sail; 25, mizzen-spanker.

The pictures in Webster under the 12 words,
Beef, Boiler, Castle, Column, Eye, Horse,
Moldings, Phrenology, Ravelin, Ships,
(pages 1164 and 1219) Steam engine, Tim-
bers, define 343 words and terms far better
than they could be defined in words.

New Edition of WEBSTER, has
118,000 Words, 3000 Engravings,
4600 New Words and Meanings,
Biographical Dictionary
of over 9700 Names,
Published by G, & C. MERRIAM, Springfield, Mas

1V

BRAIN AND

SCIENCE.

NERVE FOOD. VITALIZED PHOS-PHITES,

Composed of the Vital or Nerve-gtving Principles of the Ox-Brain and Wheat-Germ.

IT RESTORES THE ENERGY LOST BY NERVOUSNESS OR INDIGESTION ; RELIEVES LASSITUDE, ERRATIC PAINS AND
NEURALGIA REFRESHES THE NERVES TIRED BY WORRY, EXCITEMENT, OR EXCESSIVE BRAIN FATIGUE; STRENGTH-
ENS A FAILING MEMORY, AND GIVES RENEWED VIGOR 1N ALL DISEASES OF NERVOUS EXHAUSTION OR DEBILITY
IT IS THE ONLY PREVENTIVE OF CONSUMPTION.

IT GIVES VITALITY TO THE INSUFFICIENT BODILY OR MENTAL GROWTH OF CHILDREN, PREVENTS FRETFULNESS

AND GIVES QUIET, REST AND SLEEP.

MOTES GOOD HEALTH TO BRAIN AND BODY.

PHYSICIANS HAVE PRESCRIBED 300,000 PACKAGES.

IT GIVES A BETTER DISPOSITION TO INFANTS AND CHILDREN, AS IT PRO-

For Sale by Druggists or by Mail, $1.

F. CROSBY, 664 & 666 Sixth Ave.,N. Y.—London, 137 A Strand.

DRAWING INSTRUMENTS

And Materials of all kinds.
OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS,
Microscopes, Telescopes, &c.
GS, WOOLMAN, 116 Fulton Street,
NEW YORK.

Send for Illus. Catalogue, and mention this Journal,

Successful Novels.

MR. PERKINS’ DAUGHTER.

By the MarcHioness CLara LANZA.
Norz.— It may be well to mention, that the state of
“double consciousness,’ or ‘ Periodical Amnesia,’ described in
one of the principal personages of this story, isnot by any
means an isolated instance. It is, on the contrary, a pheno-
menon well known to neurological physicians,”

G. P. PUTNAM’S SONS.
27, West o3rd St., New York.

American Journal of Science.

FouNDED BY PROF. SILLIMAN IN 1818,

Devoted to Chemistry, Physics, Geology, Physi-
cal Geography, Mineralogy, Natural History,
Astronomy, and Meteorology.

Editors: Jas. D, Dana. Epw. S. Dana and B. Sittmman.

Associate Editors: Professors Asa Gray, J. P, Cooxg, Jr.,
and Joun TrowsBrRinGE, of Cambridge; H. A. Newton and
A. E. Verritt, of Yale; and G. F. Barker, of the Univer-
sity of Pennsylvania, Phila. Subscription Price $6; 50 Cents
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Between Boston and New York.

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10.30 P.M., Sundays.
FROM DEPOT, FOOT OF SUMMER ST,
Leave Boston, 9.00 A.M., week days, with Through Cars to
Grand Central Depot.
10.40 P.M., oe
Sle:

& “ “

$ “s with elegant new Pullman

epers.

INSTRUCTION!

Mt. Carroll Seminary,
CARROLL CO., ILLS.

Incorporated 1852, with its

MUSICAL CONSERVATORY,

has OriGInAL FEATURES PECULIAR and VALUA-
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SENSE work it acknowledges no superior, THE
OrEAD, giving particulars sent _/vee.

TAKE THE BEST,

THE INTERNATIONAL

NEW MONTHLY SERIES.
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OTHERS,
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be sent free upon request,

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By the DUKE OF ARGYLE.

The publication of the UNITY OF NA-
TURE, by the Duke of Argyll, was completed in
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1881. Those subscribing to ‘‘ScreENcE”’ from its
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cost, a copy of this fine work.
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= xe

99 CA,
eo fe

THE FAMOUS “HUB PUNCH.

TF
Aap

TOKX

Handytohavein the House. ¢9

HUB PUNCH

Warranted to contain only the best of Liquors, Choice Fruit
Juices and Granulated Sugar,

A Delicious Drink with fresh Milk, Tee, Soda or Hot Water,
Cemonade or with Fine Ice.

GOOD AT ALL TIMES

AND JUST THE THING FOR USE BY
Families, Hotels, Clubs, Fionic, Camping, Yachting, Exeurs
sion, Sleighing and Surprise Earttes,

HUB bp

|
“Punch and | Qu
the Holidays

are the most in-
timate friends,
going together
as naturally as
man and wife. |
Butitisagreat |
troubletomake |
Punch, and
many people
who like tne
beverage lack
the savoir faire
tobrewit. Hub
Punch is indis-
pensable where
ever its merits
are known.’? —
Spirit of the
times, N. Y.

This is pre-
pared from an
j{ Original recipe
} by anadept for
his friends, but
now given to
the worldasa |
standard arti- |
cle.

Invaluable for a little treat when a friend drops in.—
N. Y. Evening Post.

Connoisseurs pronounce it Unrivalled,

Messrs. Acker, Merrall & Condit
and Park & Tilford, the well-known
family grocersand wine merchants
of New York, write as follows
concerning it:

Messrs. C. H. Graves & Sons;
Boston. DAR Sirs: The increas~
ed sales of Hub Punch among
our always most critical cus-~
tomers is evidence of its supe-
rior merit. .
ACKER, MERRALL & Conpit.

Hub Punch is growing in
favor among ourcustomers,
and-we hear many compli-
mentary opinions on its
merits. The increasing
popularity of the article
is pleasant testimony to
your success in usin
exclusively the best an
purest components.

PaRk & TILFORD.

It is made from
the best imported
Rum and Brandy,
the juice of Lem-
ons, Limes and

“HUB

It is a most cone
venientadditionte |
family stores, and
heads of families,
in making up their
list of supplies,

other fruits, and should not forget
the finest qual- to order it of their
ity of granu- grocer, druggist or
lated Sugar. wine merchant.

Added to the good

things of the table

it undeniably en~
larges the pleasures of life,
and encourages good fel-
lowship and good nature |
if rightly enjoyed.”— |
Springfield Republican.
Our success in selling your
Hub Punch has indeed surpris-
ed us, we having sold within
the past three months a larger
quantity than _we anticipated
Selling in twelve. Our large
jobbing trade now call freely
for it,—both here and in Chicago.
We have heard from all sources the
highest econiums passed upon it. —
Smith & Vanderbeek, New York,
Chicago and Paris.

THE HUB PUNCH is prepared solely by
Messrs. C. H. GRAVES & Sons, 35 Haw-
kins Street, Boston. It is sold in bof
tles only, is quite as palatable in winter
with hot waterasitisinsummerwith |
cold. The manufacturers guarantee
the purity of the liquorsof whichitis |
made, as they areoft their own impor- |
ees tation. Every precaution has been taken
It is, in short, 2 Tm against counterfeiting what must inevitably
the perfection of lt el! become one of the most popular preparations
Punches, purer, more de- 3 —— i of Punch among connoisseurs. — Saturday

licious, healthful and invigorating Evening Gazette.

than any other article of mixed drink that : CAUTION. —The name and titlk—‘“HUB
has ever been devised, PU NCH??—is adopted as a Trade Mark. “All

DELICIOUS

' Gf
( (co
\
cy

pane 7 unauthorized use of this Trade Mark will be l

‘A sip is like nectar.” —Boston Courier. romptly prosecuted. C. H. GRAVES & Sons! “
% Delicious beyond description.”—Boston Transcript. oston, Mass. 35
>

@- See that you get the Genuine, and take no Substitute offered.
SOLD BY ALI, FIRST-CLASS GROCERS AND WINE]IMERCHANTS.

SICAL EXHAUSTION, NERVOUS-
NESS, DIMINISHED VITALITY,
URINARY DIFFICULTY, etc.

FORMULA:

SEN |

N\

. DYSPEPSIA, MENTAL and PHY-

Rach fluid drachm contains

5 1-2 grains free Phosphoric Acid (PO,.)

3 grains Phosphate of Lime (8 CaO PO..)

1-2 grain Phosphate of Magnesia (3 MgO PO,.)
1-) grain Phosphate of Iron (Fey O3 PO;.)

14 grain Phosphate of Potash (4 KO, PO;.)

Total amount of Phcsphoric Acid in one fluid drachm, free and combined, 7 grains.

It contains no pyro-phosphate, or meta-phosphate of any base whatever.

(LIQUID.)
Prepared according to the directions of Prof. E. N. HORSFORD, of Cambridge, Mass.

There seems to be no difference of opinion in high medical authority of the value of phosphoric
acid, and no preparation has ever been offered to the public which seems to so happily meet the

general want as this.

It is not nauseous, but agreeable to the taste.
No danger can attend its use.

Its action will harmonize with such stimulants as are necessary to take.
it makes a delicious drink with water and sugar only.

Prices reasonable. Pamphlet giving further particulars mailed free on application to manufacturers.

Physicians desiring to test it will be furnished a bottle free of expense, except express charges, if they mention “ SCIENCE.”

MANUFACTURED BY THE

RUMFORD CHEMICAL WORKS, PROVIDENCE, R. I.

W. A. HAMMOND, M.D., late Surgeon-General U. S. Army, said | DR. REUBEN A. VANCE, of New York: The preparation on which
that under the use of arsenic and Horsford’s Acid Phosphate, a young I place the most reliance is Horsford’s Acid Phosphate. -
lady rescued her reasons who had been rendered insane by a dream.
1

The late WINSLOW LEWIS, M.D., of Boston, said: Having in my

DR. M. H. HENRY, of New York, says: Horsford’s Acid Phosphate own person experienced those ills for which the Acid Phosphate is pre-
possesses claims as a beverage beyond anything I know of in the form of | scribed, I having found great relief and alleviation by its use, most
medicine, and in nervous diseases I know of no preparation to equal it. cheerfully attest my appreciation of its excellence.

Milk Co., of Cham, Switzerland, the
Milk in the world, having discover-
milk and cereal foods, have begun
for infantsandinvalids. In order that
terested may know precisely what

The Anglo-Swiss Condensed
largest manufacturers of Condensed
ed a superior method of combining
the manufacture of a reliable food

the medical profession and others in-
the constituent parts of this prepara- 2 tion are, a chemical analysis is print-

ed on the lable of every can. Persons interested are invited to try this articleand compare the results with those
obtained from other foods. The advantages offered by the Anglo-Swiss Company are scientific preparation
upon a large scale, thus assuring superior quality at a reasonable price. The name is

ANGLO-SWISS MILK FOOD.

The Axnglo-Swiss brand of Condensed Milk is also a superior article ; 25 millions of cans sold in 1880.
Ask your Druggist or Grocer for one of the little pamphlets issued by the Anglo-Swiss Company, telling
how Condensed Milk and Milk Food should be prepared for infants. It has saved many lives.
f= The starchy constituents, ordinarily objectionable in Infants’ Food, are changed to Dextrine and Sugar,
and rendered soluble and easily digestible by heating Anglo-Swiss Milk Food.

THE TRADE SUPPLIED BY H. K. & F. B, THURBER & CO,,

WHO WILL MAIL PAMPHLET IF NOT OBTAINABLE ELSEWHERE,

SCIENCE. iii
Sweeny | LS,
Subscrip-| With Subserip| With
2 tion. | SCIENCE. tion, |SCIENCE.

Atal y Steere eesaie= | sade ne wean cae meee ecu toes $2.00 St Ome lees On) aes eee eee es oo ono ieee ene eee 7-50 9-34
Appleton’s Monthly------- 3-00 6.26 Journal of the Telegraph | 2.00 5-50
AMERICAN NaTURALIST 4.00 7-20 || : : 5.00 7.50
AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE----.---------------- 6,00 8.50 Magazine of American History.---.--.----- | 5.00 8.00
American Journal of Microscopy-------------- 1,00 4.70 || MINING AND SCIENTIFIC PRESS 4.00 6.40
American, Wachinist;2.28-2.--=--s0225-222055— 3.00 6.70 Wathre tee yo ste see 6.00 9.15
American Monthly Microscopical Journal____- I.00 4.80 N. Y. Medical Journal__-_------ pomnore sence 3 4.00 7.00
American Manufacturer and Iron World__---- 4.25 7.00 || New England Journal of Education--..---_--- | 3.00 6.40
Boston Journal of Chemistry.....-------...-...----. 1.00 4.75 || North American Review--------------------- 5-00 7.75
@hicago, Wedical, Review 2-2-2 2-5-5 -c2--.4-.5 2.00 5.50 Operatorctessenaee on creaneteenamcsee coe ans 1,00 4.80
@hicapowiield=sc= os == e225 foc Sscses- 4.00 7.00 || PoputaR SCIENCE MONTHLY -~------------_--- 5.00 8.00
Writeeiste+ scecee ks ow see 1.60 5.25 || Sanitary Engineer aes 3-00 6.50
Hin epintsian Circular soa. open cc coke 1.50 5.25 Practical American ae eerc5G 5.00
Educational Monthly (Barnes )_--._-._ -- aS 1.50 5.20 Rac aera Presses: {ona eee see ne 4.00 7.00
Binganeemne News) ee se 6 a5. os senna os nce 3.00 6.25 Senbuaens Monthly... 5 2 2 unease oe oe cece 4.00 7.20
Engineering and Mining Journal.__......._-_- 4.00 7.00 Serence ObSent ion.) oan eee a cease aus «50 4.40
WONCAONP are ae tena clase sae 4.00 7.00 SCIEN MIRIG LAME RIGAN =e en as ane one ae eee one 3-20 6.56
~ Engineering Magazine_-.--_--- 5.00 8.25 cc Oy SUPBUB MENT ac2sse== sone se cnee 5.00 8.00
Harper’s Magazine-_._...-=-.-- 4.00 7.00 || ob es WITH SUPPLEMENT 7.00 9.60
Harpers Weekly---.....----- 4.00 7.20 || Southern Medical Record....---..-------------- | 2.00 5.40
apes Pacts ose nee 4.00 7.20 1,00 4.75
Harper’s Young People----- 1.50 5.20 3.00 6.40
HumpotptT Liprary---..... 3.00 6.25 50 4.30

isttern ations WREVIEW ness oa one caceae eae cael o ne 5.00 8.00

Dr. Scorr’s Etecrric Hair BrusH.—A good hair brush cannot be bought for AT e BB STEER,

much less than the sum for which Dr. Scott’s electric brush can be secured.) The following from Webster, page 1164, shows
This brush, aside from the curative properties claimed for it, is a well made arti-| __ the value of the Illustrative Definitions in
cle, handsome in appearance and first-class in every respect. It isnot 2 metallic. Webster’s Unabridged Dictionary
brush, but is made of pure bristles. Its electrical qualities are very strong, and 4

will manifest themselves by causing the needle of a magnetic compass to vibrate
even with a thick book on the top of a table intervening. Violent vibrations of
the needle can be caused by passing the brush quickly back and forth within
four or five inches of the compass. It is claimed for this brush that its use will
cure headaches and neuralgia, will remove dandruff, and in most cases will pre-
vent the hair from falling orturning gray. In support of this claim many testi-
monials from responsible persons are adduced. Evidently its use would be of
great benefit wherever electricity would prove beneficial, and could not in any|
event result in harm.—Boston Fournal, May 28, 1881.

SCIENCE

A WEEKLY JOURNAL OF SCIENTIFIC PROGRESS.

Wolly No.G1; =<) ~~ -<> =“ August 27, 1881.

CONTENTS.

The pictures in Webster under the 12. words,

The Cincinnati Mee!ing of the American Association for the Advancement of Science ME itee Tee Coa Eye, ee
: : oldings enology, avelin, Shi
(Edit.) ; Report on the Geology and Resources of the Black Hills of Dakota, by L. (pages ee. und 1219) ot sais aie Tin.

P. Gratacap; The Great Primordial Force, by Henry Raymond Rogers, M. D.;| bers, define 343 words and terms far better

5 k : j = .,| than they could be defined in words.
The Tidal Evolution of the Moon; Mr. Darwin on Dr. Hahn's Discovery of Fossil Fae
2 New Edition of WEBSTER, has

Organisms in Meteorites; An Afternoon on Passaic River; Selenographical ; Books| .
Received ; ‘‘Sea Mosses;’’ Sun Spots (War Office Reports) ; Weekly Meteorologi- TA6OO News Words sed aerate
’

cal Report, by Daniel Draper; Notes, &c., &c. Biographical Dictionary

of over 9700 Names,
SUBSCRIPTION, FouR DOLLARS A YEAR. SINGLE NUMBERS, TEN CENTS.| Published by G. &C. MERRIAM, Springfield, Mast

iv , SCIENCE.

BRAIN ANP -oov. VITALIZED PHOS-PHITES,

Composed of the Vital or Nerve-giving Principles of the Ox-Brain and Wheat-Germ.

IT RESTORES THE ENERGY LOST BY NERVOUSNESS OR INDIGESTION ; RELIEVES LASSITUDE, ERRATIC PAINS AND
NEURALGIA REFRESHES THE NERVES TIRED BY WORRY, EXCITEMENT, OR EXCESSIVE BRAIN FATIGUE; STRENGTH-
ENS A FAILING MEMORY, AND GIVES RENEWED VIGOR IN ALL DISEASES OF NERVOUS EXHAUSTION OR DEBILITY
IT IS THE ONLY PREVENTIVE OF CONSUMPTION.

IT GIVES VITALITY TO THE INSUFFICIENT BODILY OR MENTAL GROWTH OF CHILDREN, PREVENTS FRETFULNESS
AND GIVES QUIET, REST AND SLEEP. IT GIVES A BETTER DISPOSITION TO INFANTS AND CHILDREN, AS IT PRO-
MOTES GOOD HEALTH TO BRAIN AND BODY.

PHYSICIANS HAVE PRESCRIBED 300,000 PACKAGES, For Sale by Druggists or by Mail, $r.
F. CROSBY, 664 & 666 Sixth Ave., N. Y.—London, 137 A Strand.

DRAWIN IG INSTRUMENTS adeseias Novels.

Oo re eee ee en

. Norz.— It may be well to mention, that ithe state of
Mic roscopes, Telescopes, &c. © double consciousness,’ or ‘ Periodical Amnesi ‘a,’ described in
one of the principal personages of this

G. S. WOOLMAN, 116 Fulton Street,) means an isolated instance. It is, on ieee, ment.

NEW YORK. Be Se oe ee Mt. Carroll Seminary,

Send for Illus. Sh and mention this Journal. 27 W est 23rd St. , New Y ork. CARROLL co ILLS
American Journal of Science. | New York & New England RB. R. rarporate ge wlt e

Ti N. H. & H.R.R.
FounDED BY PRoF. SILLIMAN IN 1818. DEO UGH Tae maa Nek

7.
Devoted to Chemistry, Physics, Geology, Physi- Between Boston and New York. MU SICAL CONSER VATORY,

cal Geography, Mineralogy, Natural History, FROM GRAND CENTRAL DEPOT. has Ortcinat FEATURES PEcuLIAR and VALUA-

gh C
SUE sect Meteorology. oo aku OLS i pope Te Ee a manginee BLE. In THoROUGH, PRAcTICAL, COMMON-

Editors: Jas. D. Dana. Epw. S. Dana and B. Situman,. Crowe vork it acknowledges no superior. THE
: ssors | Pullman. Sleepers. SENSE WOrk n fea

eae cone caioee of Gaariiens Nick eee a “ «© 10.30 P.M., Sundays. | OREAD, giving particulars sent /vee.

A. E, VEERILL, of Yale; and G. F. Barker, of the Univer- FROM DEPOT, FOOT OF SUMMER ST. ;

sity of Pennsylvania, Phila. Subscription Price $6; 50 Cents | Leave Boston, 9.00 A.M., w eek days, with Through Cars to |

‘f 5 i Grand Central Depot.
SEED AU Eropeietorts a « ~ 10.40 P.M., daily, with elegant new Pullman
James D.& E. S. Dana, New Haven, Conn, | Sleepers.

TAKE THE. BEST. Hi. M. RAY NOR,
THE INTERNATIONAL REVIEW. No. 25 Bond St.,

NEW MONTHLY SERIES. NEW YORK.

JOHN T. MORSE, Jr., HENRY CABOT LODGE, Editors. . =

: = ; (Established
Price 50 Cents a month ; $5.coa year. Specimen copies sent post-paid 8<0)

n receipt of 15 cents. 1859).

AGENTS WANTED who understand the character, scope

and value of the Review, to solicit subscriptions.
A. S. BARNES & CO,
111 & 113 William Street, New York. *

BEST MEDIUM FOR ADVERTISERS. MEYROWITZ BROTHERS,
S GLE RG: OPTICIANS,

Circulates in Every STATE IN THE Union, also Canada, Australia, 997 Fourth Ave., N. Y.
Japan and Europe.

S. E. COR. 23D ST

ALL UNIVERSITIES and COLLEGES.
Subscribers to ‘‘ Science” are chiefly among those having few facilities
for purchasing goods, and are buyers of Fancy Artic'es, Household Neces-
sities, Jewelry, Musical Instruments, Dry Goods, Books, Prints, Scien-
tific Instruments and Apparatus; Pure Chemical Substances, Mineral

Waters, Novelties and Specialties of every kind.

Terms for Advertising moderate. Small advertisements on this page

FOR ALL

Laboratory
AND

Manufacturing Purposes.
Wholesale and Retail.

Scrap Purchased. Circulars by Mail

Trial Cases, Opthalmos
copes, Artifical Eyes, Clinical
Thermometers, Microscopes,
Electric Batteries, etc.

Special attention given to
prescriptions of Oculists.

N. B.—An IIlustrated Catalogue will

$50 a year (52 inse tions).

OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS, | R. & J. BECK, American Naturalist.

BAROMETERS, THERMOMETERS, | MANUFACTURING OPTICIANS,| Devoted to the Natural Stiences sm thelr
RAIN GAUGES, irc., Etc. 1016 Chestnut St., Philadelphia. PusiisHep MontHLy,
BENJ. PIKE’S SONS & CO., WIGROSGOPES, Terms, $4.00 a year. Single numbers, 35 cents.
OPTICIANS, | And all Accessories of the Hicuest GRADES at profesor A.B (iat a and Professon
No: 928 Broadway New Pa oke | I}lustrated Condvamea Bites tage os pages. Free. E. D. Core.
Illustrated Catalogue sent free on mentioning Full Catalogue of 176 Pages. 15 cts. McCattA & STAVELY, Publishers, Nos. 237 .

* SCIENCE.’ Mention this Journal, Dock Street, Philadelphia, Pa.

<>

99 CIR,

“<< THE FAMOUS “HUB PUNCH.

Handy tohavein the House. ¢9,

HUB PUNCH

Warranted to contain only tho best of Liquors, Choice Fruit
Juices and Granulated Sugar,

A Delicious Drink with fresh Milk, Ice, Soda or Hot Water, Sh 77
Lemonade or with Fine Ice. a iy

GOOD AT ALL TIMES

AND JUST THE THING FOR USE BY
Familios, Hotels, Clubs, Fionio, Camping, Yachting, Exeurs
sion, Sleighing and Surprise Parties

HUB
PUNGH.

“Punch and
the Holidays
are the most in-
timate friends,
going together
as naturally as
man and wife.
Butitis agreat
trouble tomake
Punch, and
many people
who like TiGg
beverage lack
the savoir faire
tobrewit. Hub
Punch is indis-
pensable where
ever its merits
are known.’?—
Spirit of the
Times, N. Y.
This is pre-
pared from an
original recipe
by an adept for
his friends, but
now given to
the world as a
standard arti-

cle.
It is a most cone

venient addition to
family stores, and

Invaluable for a little treat when a friend drops in.—
NV. Y. Evening Post.

Connoisseurs pronounce it Unrivalled,

Messrs. Acker, Merrall & Condit
and Park & Tilford, the well-known
family grocersand wine merchants
of New York, write as foliows
concerning it:

Messrs. C. H. Graves & Sons,
Boston. DEAR Sirs: The increas-
ed sales of Hub Punch among
our always most critical cus-~
tomers is evidence of its supe~
rior merit.

ACKER, MERRALL & ConpvirT.

jj
Hy}

ZL,

Hub Punch is growing in
favor among ourcustomers,
and we hear many compli-
mentary opinions on its
merits. he increasing
popularity of the article
is pleasant testimony to
your success in usin
exclusively the besé an
purest components.

PaRk & TILFORD.

It is made from
the best imported

Rumand Brandy, heads of families,
the juice of Lem- in making up their
ons, Limes and list of supplies,
other fruits, and should not forge&
the finest qual- to a of their
Py * Tocer, druggist or
ity of granu win e@ merchant.

lated Sugar.

Pet

Added to the good
things of the table
it undeniably en.
larges the pleasures of life,
and encourages good fel-
lowship and good nature
if rightiy enjoyed.” —
Springfield Republican.
Our success in selling your
Hub Punck has indeed surpris-
ed us, we having sold within
the past three months a larger
quantity than we anticipated
selling in twelve. Our large
jobbing trade now call freely
for is,—both here and in Chicago.
We have heard from all sources the
highest econiums passed upon it. —
Smith & Vanderbeek, New York,
Chicago and Paris.

THE HUB PUNCH is prepared solely by
Messrs. C. H. GRAVES & SONS, 35 Haw-
kins Street, Boston. It is sold in bot-
tles only, is quiteas palatable in winter
with hot water as it is in summer witlr
cold. ‘The manufacturers guarantee
the purity of the liquors of which it is
made, as they are of their own impor-
tation. Every precaution has been taken
against counterfeiting what must inevitably
become one of the most popular preparations
of Punch among connoisseurs. — Saturday

It is, in short,
the perfection of
Punches, purer, more de- °
licious, healthful and invigorating é Evening Gazette.
than any other article of mixed drink that a CAUTION. —The name and _ titlk‘“HUB
has ever been devised, PUNCH’?—is adopted as a Trade Mark. “All

Ty [gf (Es
ST hia
a TT

pat atten - unauthorized use of this Trade Mark will be
“A sip is like nectar.”—Boston Courier. romptly prosecuted. C. H. GRAVES & Sons
Delicious beyond description.”— Boston Transcript. ston, Mass.

ia See that you get the Genuine, and take no Substitute offered.
SOLD BY ALI, FIRST-CLASS GROCERS AND WINE MERCHANTS.

“HUB PUNCH.”

Fp)
bD
O
a
©
=
foal
(xl
=

OR DYSPEPSIA, MENTAL and PHY-

SICAL EXHAUSTION, NERVOUS-
NESS, DIMINISHED VITALITY,
URINARY DIFFICULTY, etc.

FORMULA:

Each fluid drachm contains

5 1-2. grains free Phosphoric Acid (PO;.)

3 grains Phosphate of Lime (8 CaO PO,.)

1-2 grain Phosphate of Magnesia (3 MgO PO,.)
1-5 grain Phosphate of Iron (Feg O3 POs.)

14 grain Phosphate of Potash 3 KO, PO,.)

Total amount of Phosphoric Acid in one fluid drachm, free and combined, 7 grains,

It contains no pyro-phosphate, or meta-phosphate of any base whatever.

(LIQUID.)
Prepared according to the directions of Prof. E. N. HORSFORD, of Cambridge, Mass.

There seems to be no difference of opinion in high medical authority of the value of phosphoric
acid, and no preparation has ever been offered to the public which seems to so happily meet the
general want as this.

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Milk Co., of Cham, Switzerland, the
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The Anglo-Swiss brand of Condensed Milk is also a superior article ; 25 millions “of cans sold in 1880.
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fF The starchy constituents, ordinarily objectionable in Infants’ Food, are changed to Dextrine and, Sugar,
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THE TRADE SUPPLIED BY H. K. & F. B. THURBER & CO,,

WHO WILL MAIL PAMPHLET IF NOT OBTAINABLE ELSEWHERE,

|

a / RASS . i Wiesiaaie
2 es

Vol. 2.| Whole Number 64. SEPTEMBER (7th, (88l. [Price 10 Cents.

7

di - E as LE

%

YP Vie == a ‘ so Vii A pN\\ oe
of = Se a p 4OCT.18.NVILLIAM

Published at “ Tribune” Building (Room 17), New York.

New YorK HERALD, June 29, 1880:
“SCIENCE—A Weekly Record of Scientific Progress.’’ It is a handsome, well-printed quarto sheet of 12 pages, with 4 additional pages for

advertisements serving asa cover. It counts among its list of contributors Professors Baird and Coues, of the Smithsonian Institution; Holden, of the
Morse, of Salem; Drs,

Naval Observatory, Washington; Marsh, of Yale; Wilder, of Cornell; Young, of Princeton; Abbe, of the Signal Office;
Hammond and Spitzki. of New York, and a considerable number of we'l-known scientific experts. IT CLAIMS, WITH TRUTH, TO OCCUPY A
HITHERTO UNOCCUPIED FIELD IN AMERICAN PERIODICAL LITERATURE, AS THE ONLY FIRST-CLASS WEEKLY JOURNAL

IN THE UNITED STATES DEVOTED TO SCIENCE.

Oe

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t

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SCIENCE

A WEEKLY RECORD OF SCIENTIFIC PROGRESS.

Entered in the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington, D.C.

ILLUSTRATED.

No. 64.—Vol. II.

2aitiGee:

“Acme” No. 2.
Monocular, . 5 $100

Binocular, \ : Tee cAS

* Acme,” No. 8.
Monocular, . . 5 $50

Binocular, ‘ ; © 275

“Acme” No. 4.

The favorite Laboratory
Stand, 5 : : $25

With 1 inch and ¥ inch

objectives, . - 2 50)

Special Terms made with
Colleges.

a Onl

September I7, 1881.

Price 10 Cents.

nsabibexe

“Acme” Lithological.
A new Stand, after the pat-
tern of the No. 3, for the study
of Rocks; convertible in an
instant into an ordinary mon-

ocular, $92

All our Stands
have same size of tubing and
sub-stage . fitting, so that eye-
pieces and accessories that fit
one Stand can be used with

all.

““Congress” Turn-Table
Patented, $6.50.
Gem Turn-Table, $2.50

Do. Do. with improved
centering adjustment, $3.25

“Wet

Qo

LITHOLOGICAL MICROSCOPE.

SEND FOR CIRCULAR.

(MONOCULAR.)

JOHN W. SIDLE & CO., Lancaster, Pa.

ii _ SCIENCE,

APPROVED TEXT BOOKS,

FOR COLLEGES, HIGH SCHOOLS, SEMINARIES, ETc.

IVISON, BLAKEMAN, TAYLOR & CO., Pus.isuers,

753 & 755 BROADWAY, NEW YORK. 117 & 119 STATE STREET, CHICAGO

**1., B., T. & Co. will send Descriptive Lists and Prices of their Publications on application.

DANA’S GEOLOGICAL STORY BRIEFLY TOLD. An introduction to Geology for the general reader and for
beginners in the Science. By Prof. JAMES D. DANA, LL.D. tIvol. t2mo, 275 pages. Numerously illustrated and handsomely
bound. $1.35.

DANA’S TEXT BOOK. Revised Edition. A Text-Book of Geology, designed for Schools and Academies. By JAMES D
Dana, LL. D., Silliman Professor of Geology and Natural History, Yale College. Cloth. Fully illustrated. 350 pages. $1.80.

DANA’S MANUAL OF GEOLOGY. Toaird and Revised Edition, issued in January, 1880. Treating,of the Principles of the
Science, with special reference to American Geological History, for the use of Colieges, Academies and Schools of Science
By JAMES D. Dana, LL. D., Silliman Professor of Geology and Natural History, Yale College. Illustrated by a Chart of the
World, and over one thousand figures, mostly from American sources. I vol. 8vo. 927 pages. $4.45.

GRAY’S HOW PLANTS BEHAVE, HOW THEY MOVE, CLIMB, EMPLOY INSECTS TO WORK FOR
THEM. Beautifully illustrated and printed on fine paper. ato. 62 cents.

GRAY’S HOW PLANTS GROW. A Simple Introduction to Structural Botany, with a Popular Flora, or an arrangement and
description of Common Plants, both wild and cultivated. Intended for young people and Common Schools. [Illustrated by more
than 5ooengravings. 232 pages. Small quarto. 95 cents.

This book, in connection with the ‘‘ School and Field Book,” suppliesa complete course in Botany for Common Schools, Academies, and
Seminaries.

GRAY’S LESSONS IN BOTANY AND VEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY, to which is added a copious Glossary of
Dictionary of Botanical Terms. Fully illustrated. Cloth. 8vo. 236 pages. $1.10.

GRAY?’S FIELD, FOREST AND GARDEN BOTANY. A simple introduction to the Common Plants ot the United
States east ofthe Mississippi, both wild and Cultivated. Cloth. 8vo. 386 pages. $1.65.

GRAY’S SCHOOL AND FIELD BOOK OF BOTANY. Comprising the ‘‘ Lessons in Botany’’ and “ Field, Forest, and
Garden Botany.’’ A most popular ard comprehensive School Book, adapted to beginners and advane<d classes. I vol. 8vo
Cloth, 621 pages. $2.10.

This book, in connection with ‘‘ How Plants Grow,” supplies a complete course in Botany for Common Schools, Academies, and Seminaries.

GRAY’S MANUAL OF BOTANY. Arranged according to the natural system, and containing 20 plates, illustrating the
Sedges, Grasses, Ferns, etc. Fifth edition, 1867. Eighthissue, 1868. Cloth. 8vo. 700 pages. $1.86.

THE SAME, bound with ‘‘ The Lessons.” $2.50.
This work, in connection with ‘‘ The Lessons,” supplies a complete course in Botany for Colleges and Scientific Schocls.

GRAY’S NEW STRUCTURAL AND SYSTEMATIC BOTANY. An Introduction to Structural and Systematic Botany
and Vegetable Physiology, being the sixth and revised edition of the Botanical Text-book. [Illustrated by numerous woodcuts. 1
vol. Cloth. 8vo. 442 pages. $2.30. :

The present workis not simply a reissue, but has been entirely rewritten, and its compass greatly extended.

Robinson’s Hisher Mathematics, Well’s New Natural Philosophy. |

Fasguelle’s French Course. Webster’s Dictionaries,
Woodbury’s German Course. Eliot and Storer’s Chemistry.
L, & M. French and Spanish Grammars, Swinton’s Outlines of History.

Cathoart’s Literary Reader, Etc., Ete.

New York HERALD, June 29, 1880:

“SciENCE—A Weekly Record of Scientific Progress.'’ It is a handsome, well-printed quarto sheet of 12 pages, with 4 additional pages for

__ advertisements serving as a cover, It counts among its list of contributors Professors Baird and Coues, of the Smithsonian Institution; Holden, of the

Naval Observatory, Washington; Marsh, of Yale; Wilder, of Cornell; Young, of Princeton; Abbe, of the Siznal Office: Morse, of Salem; Drs.

_ Hammond and Spitzk2, of New York, and a considerable number of well-known scientific experts. IT CLAIMS, WITH TRUTH, TO OCCUPY A

E ITHERTO UNOCCUPIED FIELD IN AMERICAN PERIODICAL LITERATURE, AS THE ONLY FIRS f-CLASS WEEKLY JOURNAL
THE UNITED STATES DEVOTED TO SCIENCE.

Dr. SCOTT'S ELECTRIC ines eee

IS GUARANTEED TO CURE

NEURALGIA and TOOTHACHE in 5 MINUTES,

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GEORGE. A. SCOTT, -S4¢2 BROAD At ae

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y Proprietors: The Pall Mall Electric Association
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TESTIMONIALS.

ATWOOD’s PHARMACY, Broadway, New York, May 15, 1881.
Dr. Scott: I have sold at retail over my counter, during the

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Bpeee forbids our publishing innumerable letters of praise
an

gratitude from those using our Brush. Where addresses
are not given they will be furnished with pleasure on

Bd A LL Lak Z
Hits PAPER. ;
eee = eae ee MONE

A BEAUTIFUL BRUSH, LASTING FOR YEARS.

\We will send it on trial, postpaid, on receipt of $3.00, which will be returned if not as represented.

Inclose 10 cents extra and we guarantee safe delivery into your hands; or will send it by express, C.O.D., at your expense, with privilege of examination:
but expressage adds considerably to your cost. Or request your nearest Druggist or Fancy Store to obtain one for you, and be sure Dr, Scott’s name is on
the box. Remittances should be made payable to GEO. A. SCOTT, S42 Broadway, New York. They can be made in Checks, Drafts, Post Office Orders,
Currency, or Stamps. LIBERAL DISCOUNT TO THE TRADE. Agents Wantedin every town, Send for circular of Dr. Scott’s Electric Hair Brush.

—An attempt has been made to put so-called ‘* Blectro Magnetic” Brushes upon the market, Lut the Post- Office authorities at Washington
have published the company as afraud. We therefore caution the Public to be careful that *‘ Dr. Scott's” name is on the box and
|
s A é

“Hlectrie”? on the Brush. Ovreis not wire, but a pure bristle Brush.

s my knee, I tried your Brush and the result astonished § |

Entered in the Office of the Librarian of Congress,

Nov65:—V ol. Tl. September 24, 1881. Price 10 Cents.

29Gec. sa dieex:

** Acme” No. 2.

Monocular, ; z $100

“Acme” Lithological.
A new Stand, after the pat-
Binocular, . 3 Ly Bae tern of the No. 3, for the study
of Rocks; convertible in an
instant into an ordinary mon-

ocular, $92

* Acme,” No. 8.
Monocular, . : Z $50
All our Stands

have same size of tubing and

Binocular, F F sae RS

sub-stage fitting, so that eye-
pieces and accessories that fit
one Stand can be used with

“ Acme” No. 4. all.

The favorite Laboratory

Stand, ; : 5 $25
With 1 inch and ¥ inch
objectives, . : = &) Congress” Turn-Table

Patented, $6.50.

Gem Turn-Table, $2.50
Special Terms made with
Colleges.

Do. Do. with improved

centering adjustment, $3.25

ENG

Qs

a=) Oem

LITHOLOGICAL MICROSCOPE.

(MONOCULAR.)
SEND FOR CIRCULAR. JOHN W. SIDLE & CO., Lancaster, Pa.

if SCIENCE.

D

APPROVED TEXT BOOKS,

FOR COLLEGES, HIGH SCHOOLS, SEMINARIES, ETC.

IVISON, BLAKEMAN, TAYLOR & CO., Pustisuers,

753 & 755 BROADWAY, NEW YORK. 117 & 119 STATE STREET, CHICAGO

4
** 1, B., T. & Co. will send Descriptive Lists and Prices oj their Publications on application.

DANA’S GEOLOGICAL STORY BRIEFLY TOLD. An introduction to Geology for the general reader and for
beginners in the Science. By Prof. JAMEs D, DANA, LL. D. tvol. t2mo, 275 pages. Numerously illustrated and handsomely
bound. $1.35.

DANA’S TEXT BOOK. Revised Edition. A Text-Book of Geology, designed for Schools and Academies. By JAMES D
DANA, LL. D., Silliman Professor of Geology and Natural History, Yale College. Cloth. Fully illustrated. 350 pages. $1.80.

DANA’S MANUAL OF GEOLOGY. Third and Revised Edition, issued in January, 1880, Treating of the Principles of the
Science, with special reference to American Geological History, for the use of Colleges, Academies and Schools of Science
By JAMES D. Dana, LL. D., Silliman Professor of Geology and Natural History, Yale College. Illustrated by a Chart of the
World, and over one thousand figures, mostly from American sources. 1 vol. 8vo. 927 pages. $4.45.

GRAY’S HOW PLANTS BEHAVE, HOW THEY MOVE, CLIMB, EMPLOY INSECTS TO WORK FOR
THEM. Beauiifully illustrated and printed on fine paper. ato. 62 cents.

GRAY’S HOW PLANTS GROW. A Simple Introduction to Structural Botany, with a Popular Flora, or an arrangement and
description of Common Plants, both wild and cultivated. Intended for young people and Common Schools. [Illustrated by more
than 5ooengravings. 232 pages. Small quarto. 95 cents.

This book, in connection with the ‘‘ School and Field Book,” suppliesa complete course in Botany for Common Schools, Academies, and
Seminaries. :

GRAY’S LESSONS IN BOTANY AND VEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY, to which is added a copious Glossary of
Dictionary of Botanical Terms. Fully illustrated. Cloth. 8vo. 236 pages. $1.10.

GRAY’S FIELD, FOREST AND GARDEN BOTANY. A simple introduction to the Common Plants ot the United
States east of the Mississippi, both wild and Cultivated. Cloth. 8vo. 386 pages. $1.65.

GRAY’S SCHOOL AND FIELD BOOK OF BOTANY. Comprising the ‘‘ Lessons in Botany"’ and “‘ Field, Forest, and
Garden Botany.’ A most popular and comprehensive School Book, adapted to beginners and advanc.d classes. i vol. 8vo
Cloth, 621 pages. $2.10.

This book, in connection with ‘‘ How Plants Grow,” supplies a complete course in Botany for Common Schools, Academies, and Seminaries.

GRAY’S MANUAL OF BOTANY. Arranged according to the natural system, and containing 20 plates, illustrating the
Sedges, Grasses, Ferns, etc. Fifth edition, 1867. Eighthissue, 1868. Cloth. 8vo. 7oopages. $1.86. ;

THE SAME, bound with ‘‘ The Lessons.” $2.50.
This work, in connection with ‘‘ The Lessons,” supplies a complete coursein Botany for Colleges and Scientific Schocis.

GRAY’S NEW STRUCTURAL AND SYSTEMATIC BOTANY. An Introduction to Structural and Systematic Botany
and Vegetable Physiology, being the séx¢h and revised edition of the Botanical Text-book. Illustrated by numerous woodcuts. I
vol. Cloth. 8vo. 442 pages. $2.30.

The present work not simply a reissue, but has been entirely rewritten, and its compass greatly extended.

Robinson’s Higher Mathematics, Well’s New Natural Philosophy.
Fasquelle’s French Course. Webster’s Dictionaries,
Woodbury’s German Course, Eliot and Storer’s Chemistry.
L, & M. French and Spanish Grammars. Swinton’s Outlines of History,

Cathcart’s Literary Reader, Etc., Etc.

5

Vol. 2.] Whole Number 68. © OCTOBER Ist, 1881. sili

8
m=

¢ AN:
NN
LOCT.18. NULLAM

Published at ‘‘ Tribune” Building (Room 17), New York.
NEw York HERALD, June 29, 1880:

“*SCIENCE—A Weekly Record of Scientific Progress.” It is a handsome, well-printed quarto sheet of 12 pages, with 4 additional pages for
advertisements serving as acover, It counts among its list of contributors Professors Baird and Coues, of the Smithsonian Institution; Holden, of the
_ Naval Observatory, Washington; Marsh, of Yale; Wilder, of Cornell; Young, of Princeton; Abbe, of the Signal Office; Morse, of Salem; Drs.
| 4ammond and Spitzka, of New York, and a considerable number of well-known scientific experts. IT CLAIMS, WITH TRUTH, TO OCCUPY A
HITHERTO UNOCCUPIED FIELD IN AMERICAN PERIODICAL LITERATURE, AS THE ONLY FIRST-CLASS WEEKLY JOURNAL

IN THE UNITED STATES DEVOTED TO SCIENCE.

‘'

Dr. SCOTT SELECT RC sis eee te

IS GUARANTEED TO CURE

NERVOUS AND BILIOUS HEADACHE IN 5 MINUTES,
NEURALGIA and TOOTHACHE in 5 MINUTES,

CURES DANDRUFF AND PREVENTS BALDNESS

PRICE, $3.00. Of All Dealers, or of

GEORGE A. SCOTT, 842 BROADYW Aa

K 4 ey EMR WS AONE Ao IOP ‘ 5 ae LN a ve m2 DUPE REET Eee t

ee

E ¢ AUT ON —An attempt has been made to put so-called ‘“ Flectro Magnetic” Brushes upon the market, but the Post-Office authorities at Washington
; 5

have published the company as afraud. We therefore caution the Public to be careful that “Dr. Scott's” name is on the box and }
“Tlectrie”’ on the Brush. Ours is not wire, but a pure bristle Brush. 1m

BDR. SCOTT’S ELECTRIC HAIR BRUSH.

Sy MSs A MARVELLOUS SUCCESS!!! &
; J gisstie) Deo Sees f NOW RECOMMENDED BY OUR BEST PHYSICIANS.) :

Which has won its way to Royal favor in England, been cordially indorsed by the Princeand Prin=
cess of Wales, and written upon by the Rt. Hon. W. E. Gladstone, is now brought to the notice |

of the American public. It cures by natural means, will always do good, never harm, and is |

Q ie aremedy lasting formany years. It should be used daily in place of the ordinary Hair |

. Brush. The Brush Handle is made of a new odorless composition resembling ebony; 2 |
o combination of substances PRODUCING A PERMANENT ELECTRO-

MAGNETIC CURRENT WHICH ACTS IMMEDIATELY UPON THE |
fs) HAIR GLANDS AND FOLLICLES. This power can always be tested by i
a silver compass which accompanies each Brush.

IT IS WARRANTED TO
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SCIENCE

A WEEKLY RECORD OF SCIENTIFIC PROGRESS.

ILLUSTRATED.

Entered in the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington, D.C.

No. 66.—Vol. Il.

October 1, 1881.

Price 10 Cents.

ribo:

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D. APPLETON & C0., Publishers, - - - - 1, 3 & 5 BOND STREET, New York.
Dr. Scort’s ELtectric Harr Brusu.—A good hair brush cannot be bought for Y Y, EB STE ie.

much less than the sum for which Dr. Scott’s electric brush can be secured,| The following from Webster, page 1164, shows
the value of the Illustrative Definitions in

Thi h, aside f h ti ties claimed for it, is 1] made arti-| A *
This brus , aside irom the curative properties claimed for it, 1s a well made arti | Webster’s Unabridged Dictionary
|

cle, handsome in appearance and first-class in every respect. It isnot a metallic
brush, but is made of pure bristles. Its electrical qualities are very strong, and
will manifest themselves by causing the needle of a magnetic compass to vibrate
even with a thick book on the top of a table intervening. Violent vibrations of)
the needle can be caused by passing the brush quickly back and forth within
four or five inches of the compass. It is claimed for this brush that its use will
cure headaches and neuralgia, will remove dandruff, and in most cases will pre-'
vent the hair from falling or turning gray. In support of this claim many testi-
monials from responsible persons are adduced. Evidently its use would be of
great benefit wherever electricity would prove beneficial, and could not in any
event result in harm.—Boston Fournal, May 28, 1881.

—=—= = ——
1, flying jib; 2, jib; 3, fore top-mast-etay sail;
4, fore-course; 5, foretop sail; , foretop-gallant
sail; 7, fore-royal; 8, fore sky-sail; 9, fore-roy-

S C | E N C E alstudding sail; 10, foretop-gallant studding-
sail; 11, foretop-mast studding-sail; 12, main-

course; 13, maintopsail; 14, maintop-gallant
A WEEKLY JOURNAL OF SCIENTIFIC PROGRESS. sail; 15, main-royal; 16, main sky-sail; 17,
main royal studding-sail; 18, main top-gallant
studding-sail; 19, maintop-mast studding sail;
20, mizzen-course; 21, mizzen-top sail; 22,

mizzen-top-gallant sail; 23, mizzen-royal; 24

Vol. Il, No. 66, - - - October 1, 1881. mizzen sky-sail; 25, mizzen-spanker. Ps :
The pictures in Webster under the 12 words,

CONTENTS. Beef, Boiler, Castle, Column, Eye, Horse,

Moldings, Phrenology, Ravelin, Ships,
: _ _, | (pages 1164 and 1219) Steam engine, Tim-
The Late President, James A. Garfield (Edit.) ; The New Comet (Edit.); Instruction in| bers, define 343 words and terms far better

Chemistry and Physics in the United States (Edit.); Qn Cometary Appearances, by te pe i Teena words,
M. Jamin, translated by the Marchioness Clara Lanza ; Amylose, by Prosessor H.| 118 000 Words. 3000 Enprrna.
’ ry &s,

W. Wiley; A remarkable Invasion of Northern New York by a Pyralid Insect, by| 4600 New Words and Meanings

J. A. Lintner; Canons, Their Nature and Origin, by Hon. W. Bross; Address Biographical Dictiowas 9
of Col. G. Mallery ; The Gesture Speech of Man; King Kalakaua’s Visit to Thomas| , of over 9700 Names 3
A. Edison ; Meteorological Report, by Dr. D. Draper; Notes, &c., &c. Published by G. &C. MERRIAM, Springfield, Mast

iv SCIENCE.

BRAIN AND

NERVE FOOD. VITALIZED PHOS-PHITES

Composed of the Vital or Nerve-giving Principles of the Ox-Brain and Wheat-Germ.

IT RESTORES THE ENERGY LOST BY NERVOUSNESS OR INDIGESTION ; RELIEVES LASSITUDE, ERRATIC PAINS AND
NEURALGIA REFRESHES THE NERVES TIRED BY WORRY, EXCITEMENT, OR EXCESSIVE BRAIN FATIGUE; STRENGTH-
ENS A FAILING MEMORY, AND GIVES RENEWED VIGOR 1N ALL DISEASES OF NERVOUS EXHAUSTION OR DEBILITY
IT IS THE ONLY PREVENTIVE OF CONSUMPTION.

IT GIVES VITALITY TO THE INSUFFICIENT BODILY OR MENTAL GROWTH OF CHILDREN, PREVENTS FRETFULNESS
AND GIVES QUIET, REST AND SLEEP. IT GIVES A BETTER DISPOSITION TO INFANTS AND CHILDREN, AS IT PRO
MOTES GOOD HEALTH TO BRAIN AND BODY.

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Dr. Scorr’s ELecrric Harr Brusu.—A good hair brush cannot be bought for
much less than the sum for which Dr. Scott’s electric brush can be secured.
‘This brush, aside from the curative properties claimed for it, is a well made arti-
cle, handsome in appearance and first-class in every respect. It isnot a metallic
brush, but is made of pure bristles. Its electrical qualities are very strong, and
will manifest themselves by causing the needle of a magnetic compass to vibrate
even with a thick book on the top of a table intervening. Violent vibrations of
the needle can be caused by passing the brush quickly back and forth within
four or five inches of the compass. It is claimed for this brush that its use will
cure headaches and neuralgia, will remove dandruff, and in most cases will pre-
vent the hair from falling orturning gray. In support of this claim many testi-
monials from responsible persons are adduced. Evidently its use would be of
great benefit wherever electricity would prove beneficial, and could not in any
event result in harm.— Boston Fournal, May 28, 1881.

SCIENCE

A WEEKLY JOURNAL OF SCIENTIFIC PROGRESS.

Vol. II], No.65,) - - - September 24, 1881.

CONTENTS,

Encke’s Comet (Edit.) ; The Warner Astronomical Prizes (Edit.); Hypernesia or Exal-
tation of Memory, by Th. Ribot (translated by the Marchioness Clara Lanza); The
Excavations of the Grand Canon of the Colorado River, by Captain C. E. Dutton;
Mixed Sugars, by Prof. H. W. Wiley; Coal Dust as an Element of Danger, by H.

WEBSTER.

| The following from Webster, page 1164, shows
the value of the Illustrative Definitions in

| Webster’s Unabridged Dictionary

—= = =

1, flying jib; 2, jib; 3, fore-top-mast-stay sail;
4, fore-course; 5, foretop sail; 6, foretop-gallant
| sail; 7, fore-royal; 8, fore sky-sail; 9, fore-roy-
alstudding sail; 10, foretop-gallant studding-
sail; 11, foretop-mast studding-sail; 12, main-
course; 13, maintopsail; 14, maintop-gallant
sail; 15, main-royal; 16, main sky-sail; 17,
main royal studding-sail; 18, main top-gallant
studding-sail; 19, maintop-mast studding sail;
20, mizzen-course; 21, mizzen-top sail; 22,
mizzen-top-gallant sail; 23, mizzen-royal; 24,
mizzen sky-sail; 25, mizzen-spanker.

The pictures in Webster under the 12 words
Reef, Boiler, Castle, Column, Eye, Horse,
Moldings, Phrenology, Ravelin, Ships,
(pages 1164 and 1219) Steam engine, Tim-
bers, define 343 words and terms far better

C. Hovey; History of Alhazens Pioblem, by Marcus Baker; Rotating of Reduc- than they could be defined in words.

ing Power, &c. (Glucose and Grape Sugar), by Prof. H. W. Wiley ; On the Interior
Condition of the Terrestrial Globe, by M. E. Roche (translated for ‘‘ SCIENCE ;”’)
Books Received—The Microscope and its Relations to Medicine and Pharmacy ;
Correspondence—Letters by Professor J. E. Hendricks, of Des Moines, Ia., and Dr.

New Edition of WEBSTER, has
118,000 Words, 3000 Engravings,
4600 New Words and Meanings,

Biographical Dictionary

H.R. Rogers, of Dunkirk, N. Y.; Meteorological Report, by Dr. D. Draper; Notes, of over 9700 Names,

&c., &c., Ke.

Published by G. &C. MERRIAM, Springfield, Mast

iv SCIENCE.

BRAIN ANP Loop, VITALIZED PHOS-PHITES,

Composed of the Vital or Nerve-giving Principles of the Ox-Brain and Wheat-Germ.

IT RESTORES THE ENERGY LOST BY NERVOUSNESS OR INDIGESTION ; RELIEVES LASSITUDE, ERRATIC PAINS AND
NEURALGIA REFRESHES THE NERVES TIRED BY WORRY, EXCITEMENT, OR EXCESSIVE BRAIN FATIGUE; STRENGTH-
ENS A FAILING MEMORY, AND GIVES RENEWED VIGOR IN ALL DISEASES OF NERVOUS EXHAUSTION OR DEBILITY
IT IS THE ONLY PREVENTIVE OF CONSUMPTION.

IT GIVES VITALITY TO THE INSUFFICIENT BODILY OR MENTAL GROWTH OF CHILDREN, PREVENTS FRETFULNESS
AND GIVES QUIET, REST AND SLEEP. IT GIVES A BETTER DISPOSITION TO INFANTS AND CHILDREN, AS IT PRO
MOTES GOOD HEALTH TO BRAIN AND BODY.

PHYSICIANS HAVE PRESCRIBED 300,000 PACKAGES, For Sale by Druggists or by Mail, $1.
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P Notz.—‘“ It may be well to mention, that the state of|
M icroscopes, Telesc opes, &c. double consciousness,’ or ‘ Periodical Amnesia,’ described in |
one of the principal personages of this story, isnot by any |

G. S$ WOOLMAN, 1 1 6 Fulton Street, means an isolated instance. It is, on the contrary, a pheno- |

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even with a thick book on the top of a table intervening. Violent vibrations of
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monials from responsible persons are adduced. Evidently its use would be o!
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In support of this claim many testi

4, fore-course; 5, foretop sail;

1, flying jib; 2, jib; 3, fore-t

WEES TEHR.

The following from Webster, page 1164, shows
the value of the Illustrative Definitions in

| Webster’s Unabridged Dictionary

op-mast-stay sail;
6, foretop-gallant

sail; 7, fore-royal; $8, fore sky-sail; 9, fore-roy-

SS
SCIENCE |
A WEEKLY JOURNAL OF SCIENTIFIC PROGRESS.

.64, - - - September I7, 1881.
CONTENTS.

Duty on Scientific Apparatus (Edit.) ; Geological Congress; Selection of Edison Lighi

for Paris Opera House; Historic Notes of Cosmic Physiology, by Dr. T. Sterry
Hunt; On the Unification of Geological Nomenclature, by Richard Owen; A New
Material for Stoppers of Bottles, by Professor H. W. Wiley; Phonetics of the
Kayowe Lar guage, by Albert S. Gatschet; Typical Thin Sections of the Capriferous
Rocks, by Professor N. H. Winchell ; Worked Shells in New England Shell Heaps,
by Prof. Ed. S. Morse; A Remarkable Instance of Retention of Heat by the Earth,
by H. C. Hovey: Pilocarpin: Its Action in Changing the Color of the Human Harr,
by D. W. Prentiss; The Constitution of the ‘‘ Atom” of Science, by Mrs. A. B.
Blackwell; Bacteria and their Relation to Plant Culture, by Thomas Taylor ;
Ancient Japenese Brorze Bells, by Prof. Ed. S. Morse; Changes in Mya and
Lunatia since the Deposition of the New England Shell Heaps, by Prof. Ed. S.
Morse; American Coal Fields; Astronomy; Comet C, 1881, by E. E. Barker ;
Jupiter; Comet B, 1881, by Prof. Ed. C. Ptckering; Book Reviews; Elements of
Algebra, by G. A. Wentworth ; Meteorological Report, by Dr. Daniel Draper ;

Notes, &c.

alstudding sail; 10, foretop-gallant studding-
| sail; 21, foretop-mast studding-sail; 12, main-
| course;_ 13, maintopsail; 14, maintop-gallant
| sail; 15, main-royal; 16, main sky-sail; 17,
| main royal studding-sail; 18, main top-gallant
| studding-sail; 19, maintop-mast studding sail;
20, mizzen-course; 21, mizzen-top sail; 22,
mizzen-top-gallant sail; 23, mizzen-royal; 24,
mizzen sky-sail; 25, mizzen-spanker.

The pichares in Webster under the 12 words,
Beef, oiler, Castle, Column, Eye, Horse,
Moldings, Phrenology, Ravelin, Ships,
(pages 1164 and 1219) Steam engine, Tim-
bers, define 343 words and terms far better
than they could be defined in words.

New Edition of WEBSTER, has
118,000 Words, 3000 Engravings,
4600 New Words and Meanings,
Biographical Dictionary
of over 9700 Names,
Published by G. & C. MERRIAM, Springfield, Mast

iv SCIENCE.

,

BRARLAYE roon. WITALIZED PHOS-PHITES,

Composed of the Vital or Nerve-giving Principles of the Ox-Brain and Wheat-Germ.

IT RESTORES THE ENERGY LOST BY NERVOUSNESS OR INDIGESTION ; RELIEVES LASSITUDE, ERRATIC PAINS ANL
NEURALGIA REFRESHES THE NERVES TIRED BY WORRY, EXCITEMENT, OR EXCESSIVE BRAIN FATIGUE; STRENGTH-
ENS A FAILING MEMORY, AND GIVES RENEWED VIGOR IN ALL DISEASES OF NERVOUS EXHAUSTION OR DEBILITY
IT IS THE ONLY PREVENTIVE OF CONSUMPTION.

IT GIVES VITALITY TO THE INSUFFICIENT BODILY OR MENTAL GROWTH OF CHILDREN, PREVENTS FRETFULNESS
AND GIVES QUIET, REST AND SLEEP. IT GIVES A BETTER DISPOSITION TO INFANTS AND CHILDREN, AS IT PRO
MOTES GOOD HEALTH TO BRAIN AND BODY.

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DRAWING INSTRUMENTS pape imams Ache

OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS, | iy ieiranmns Gs eu ENS TEMOCTION |

- Notz.—“ It may be well to mention, that the state of
Microsc opes, Telesc opes, &c. * double consciousness,’ or ‘ Periodical Amnesia,’ described in |

° f th incipal personages of this story, is not by
GS. WOOLMAN, 116 Fulton Street,| Sausaiszincel geome: of this clory, ienct by any
menon well known to neurological physicians,”

NEW YORK. G. P. PUTNAM’S SONS, Mt. Carroll Seminary,
Send for Illus. Catalogue, and mention this Journal, : 27 Wect 23rd St., New York, CARROLL CO ILLS
American Journal of Science. |New York & New England RB. R. ieee es ee

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SCIENCE

A WEEKLY RECORD OF SCIENTIFIC PROGRESS.

ILLUSTRATED.

Entered in the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington, D.C.

No. 67.—Vol. Il. October 8, 1881.

Price 10 Cents.

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Dana, LL. D., Silliman Professor of Geology and Natural History, Yale College. Cloth. Fully illustrated. 350 pages. $1.80.

DANA’S MANUAL OF GEOLOGY. Third and Revised Edition, issued in January, 1880. Treating of the Principles of the
Science, with special reference to American Geological History, for the use of Colleges, Academies and Schools of Science
By JAMEs D. Dana, LL. D., Silliman Professor of Geology and Natural History, Yale College. [Illustrated by a Chart of the
World, and over one thousand figures, mostly from American sources. 1vol. 8vo. 927 pages. $4.45.

GRAY’S HOW PLANTS BEHAVE, HOW THEY MOVE, CLIMB, EMPLOY INSECTS TO WORK FOR
THEM. Beautifully illustrated and printed on fine paper. ato. 62 cents.

GRAY’S HOW PLANTS GROW. A Simple Introduction to Structural Botany, with a Popular Flora, or an arrangement and
description of Common Plants, both wild and cultivated. Intended for young people and Common Schools. Illustrated by more
than 5ooengravings. 232 pages. Small quarto. 95 cents.

Thas book, in connection with the ‘‘ School and Field Book,” suppliesa complete course in Botany for Common Schools, Academies, and

Seminaries.

GRAY’S LESSONS IN BOTANY AND VEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY, to which is added a copious Glossary of
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GRAY’S FIELD, FOREST AND GARDEN BOTANY. A simple introduction to the Common Plants ot the United
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i Sr ht i

GRAY’S MANUAL OF BOTANY. Arranged according to the natural system, and containing 20 plates, illustrating the
Sedges, Grasses, Ferns, ete. Fifth edition, 1867. Eighthissue, 1868. Cloth. 8vo. 700 pages. $1.86.

THE SAME, bound with ‘‘ The Lessons.” $2.50.
This work, in connection with ‘‘ The Lessons,” supplies a complete coursein Botany for Colleges and Scientific Schocls.

GRAY’S NEW STRUCTURAL AND SYSTEMATIC BOTANY. An Introduction to Structural and Systematic Botany
and Vegetable Physiology, being the sixth and revised edition of the Botanical Text-book. [Illustrated by numerous woodcuts. 1
vol. Cloth. 8vo. 442 pages. $2.30. ys

The present work not simply a reissue, but has been entirely rewritten, and its compass greatly extended,

Robinson’s Higher Mathematics, Well’s New Natural Philosophy.
Fasquelle’s French Course, Webster’s Dictionaries,
Woodbury’s German Course, Eliot and Storer’s Chemistry.
L. & M. French and Spanish Grammars. Swinton’s Outlines of History.

Catheart’s Literary Reader, Etc., Etc.

4 Vol. 2.1 Whole Number 68, OCTOBER (5th, 1881. [Price 10 Cents.

bp = aaa RA et i ere

4

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°

SCIENCE

A WEEKLY RECORD OF SCIENTIFIC PROGRESS.

ILLUSTRATED.

Entered in the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington, D, C.

No. 68.—Vol. II. os October 15, 1881. Price 10 Cents.

wa ieee

27itbex

“Acme” No. 2.

Monocular, ; $100 -

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** 1, B., T. & Co. will send Descriptive Lists and Prices 0; their Publications on application.

DANA’S GEOLOGICAL STORY BRIEFLY TOLD. An introduction to Geology for the general reader and for
beginners in the Science. By Prof. JAMEs D. DANA, LL. D. tIvol. t2mo, 275 pages. Numerously illustrated and handsomely
bound. $1.35.

DANA’S TEXT BOOK. Revised Edition. A Text-Book of Geology, designed for Schools and Academies. By JAMES D
Dana, LL. D., Silliman Professor of Geology and Natural History, Yale Coliege. Cloth. Fully illustrated. 350 pages. $1.80.

DANA’S MANUAL OF GEOLOGY. Taird and Revised Edition, issued in January, 1880. Treating of the Principles of the
Science, with special reference to American Geological History, for the use of Colleges, Academies and Schools of Science
By JAMES D. DANA, LL. D., Silliman Professor of Geology and Natural History, Yale College. Illustrated by a Chart of the
World, and over one thousand figures, mostly from American sources. 1 vol. 8vo. 927 pages. $4.45.

GRAY’S HOW PLANTS BEHAVE, HOW THEY MOVE, CLIMB, EMPLOY INSECTS TO WORK FOR
THEM. Beautifully illustrated and printed on fine paper. ato. 62 cents.

GRAY’S HOW PLANTS GROW. A Simple Introduction to Structural Botany, witha Popular Flora, or an arrangement and
description of Common Plants, both wild and cultivated. Intended for young people and Common Schools. Illustrated by more
than sooengravings. 232 pages. Small quarto. 95 cents.

This book, in connection with the ‘‘ School and Field Book,” suppliesa complete course in Botany for Common Schools, Academies, and
Seminaries.

GRAY’S LESSONS IN BOTANY AND VEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY, io which is added a copious Glossary o¢
Dictionary of Botanical Terms. Fully illustrated. Cloth. 8vo. 236 pages. $1.10.

GRAY’S FIELD, FUREST AND GARDEN BOTANY. A simple introduction to the Common Plants ot the United
States east of the Mississippi, both wildand Cultivated. Cloth. 8vo. 386 pages. $1.65.

GRAY’S SCHOOL AND FIELD BOOK OF BOTANY. Comprising the ‘‘ Lessons in Botany’’ and ‘ Field, Forest, and
Garden Botany.”’ A most popular acd comprehensive School Book, adapted to beginners and advanced classes. I vol. 8vo
Cloth, 621 pages. $2.10.

This book, in connection with ‘‘ How Plants Grow,” supplies a complete course in Botany for Common Schools, Academies, and Seminaries.

GRAY’S MANUAL OF BOTANY. Arranged according to the natural sys'em, and containing 20 plates, illustrating the
Sedges, Grasses, Ferns, etc. Fifth edition, 1867. Eighthissue, 1868. Cloth. 8vo. 7oo pages. $1.86.

THE SAME, bound with ‘‘ The Lessons.” $2.50.
This work, in connection with ‘‘ The Lessons,” supplies a complete course in Botany for Colleges and Scientific Schocls,

GRAY’S NEW STRUCTURAL AND SYSTEMATIC BOTANY. An Introduction to Structural and Systematic Botany
and Vegetable Physiology, being the séxr¢h and revised edition of the Botanical Text-book. Illustrated by numerous woodcuts. 1
vol. Cloth. 8vo. 442 pages. $2.30.

The present work not simply a reissue, but has been entirely rewritten, and its compass greatly extended.

Robinson’s Higher Mathematics, Well’s New Natural Philosophy.
Fasquelle’s French Course. Webster’s Dictionaries,
Woodbury’s German Course. Eliot, and Storer’s Chemistry.
L. & M. French and Spanish Grammars. Swinton’s Outlines of History.

Cathcart’s Literary Reader, Etc., Etc.

id

“Vol.

1] Whole Number 69. OCTOBER 22a, (88{.. [Price 10 Cents.

= —— near
sini Sag EI
OE ee OO! F

Published at ‘‘ Tribune” Building (Room 17), New York.

New YORK HERALD, June 29, 1880:
(ae. SCIENCE—A Weekly Record of Scientific Progress.” It is a handsome,

lvertisements serving asacover. It counts among its list of contributors Professors Baird and Coues, of the Smithsonian Institution ; Holden, of the

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mmond and Spiizki. of New York, and a considerable numer of well-known scientific experts. IT CLAIMS, WITH TRUTH, TO OCCUPY A
[THERTO UNOCCUPIED FIELD IN AMERICAN PERIODICAL LITERATURE, AS THE ONLY FIRST-CLASS WEEKLY JOURNAL
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a) | Send for a Circular of our Dr. Scott’s Hlectric Flesh Brush.

had
0 a

t

SCIENCE

A WEEKLY RECORD OF SCIENTIFIC PROGRESS.

ILLUSTRATED.

Entered in the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington, D.C.

No. 69.—Vol. II. October 22, 1881. Price 10 Cents.

5

27Ges:

aed:

** Acme” No. 2.

Monocular, 3 $100

“Acme” Lithological.
A new Stand, after the pat-
Binocular, E é PeLtAs tern of the No. 3, for the study
of Rocks; convertible in an
instant into an ordinary mon-

ocular. : $92

“Acme,” No. 3.
Monocular, . ‘ - $50
All our Stands

have same size of tubing and

Binocular, - ; He By ls

sub-stage fitting, so that eye-—
pieces and accessories that fit
one Stand can be used witn

* Acme” No. 4. all,

The favorite Laboratory
Stand, 4 ws $25

With r inch and ¥ inch
“‘Congress”’ Turn-Table

objectives, . - - 50
Patented, $6.50.

Gem Turn-Table, $2.50
Special Terms made with
Colleges.

Do. Do. with improved

centering adjustment, $3.25

IGS

Cs oy

> om

LITHOLOGICAL « MICROSCOPE.

(MONOCULAR.)
- SEND FOR CIRCULAR. JOHN W. SIDLE & CO., Lancaster, Pa.

ii SCIENCE.

APPROVED TEXT BOOKS.

FOR COLLEGES, HIGH SCHOOLS, SEMINARIES, ETc.

IVISON, BLAKEMAN, TAYLOR & CO., Pustisuers,

753 & 755 BROADWAY, NEW YORK, 117 & 119 STATE STREET, CHICAGO

** 1, B., T. & Co. will send Descriptive Lists and Prices 0) their Publications on application.

DANA’S GEOLOGICAL STORY BRIEFLY TOLD. An introduction to Geology for the general reader and for
beginners in the Science. By Prof. JAMES D. DANA, LL. D. Ivol. I2mo, 275 pages. Numerously illustrated and handsomely
bound. $1.35.

DANA’S TEXT BOOK. Revised Edit'on. A Text-Book of Geology, designed for Schools and Academies. Ry JAMES D
DANA, LL. D., Silliman Professor of Geology and Natural History, Yale College. Cloth. Fully illustrated. 350 pages. $1.80.

DANA’S MANUAL OF GEOLOGY. | Third and Revised Edition, issued in January, 1880, Treating of the Principles of the
Science, with special reference to American Geological History, for the use of Colleges, Academies and Schools of Science
By JAMES D. Dana, LL. D., Silliman Professor of Geology and Natural History, Yale College. Illustrated by a Chart of the
World, and over one thousand figures, mostly from American sources. 1 vol. 8vo. 927 pages. $4.45.

GRAY’S HOW PLANTS BEHAVE, HOW THEY MOVE, CLIMB, EMPLOY INSECTS TO WORK FOR
THEM. Beautifully illustrated and printed on fine paper. ato. 62 cents.

GRAY’S HOW PLANTS GROW. A Simple Introduction to Structural Botany, witha Popular Flora, or an arrangement and
description of Common Plants, both wild and cultivated. Intended for young people and Common Schools. Illustrated by more

than socoengravings. 232 pages. Small quarto. 95 cents.
This book, in connection with the ‘‘ School and Field Book,” suppliesa complete course in Botany for Common Schools, Academies, and
Seminaries.
GRAY’S LESSONS IN BOTANY AND VEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY, to which is added a copious Glossary or
Dictionary of Botanical Terms. Fully illustrated. Cloth. 8vo. 236 pages. $1.10.

GRAY’S FIELD, FOREST AND GARDEN BOTANY. A simple introduction to the Common Plants ot the United
States east of the Mississippi, both wild and Cultivated. Cloth. 8vo. 386 pages. $1.65.

GRAY’S SCHOOL AND FIELD BOOK OF BOTANY. Comprising the ‘‘ Lessons in Botany” and ‘ Field, Forest, and
Garden Botany.’’ A most popular and.comprehensive School Book, adapted to beginners and advanced classes. 1 vol. 8vo
Cloth, 621 pages. $2.10,

This book, in connection with ‘‘ How Plants Grow,” supplies a complete course in Botany for Common Schools, Academies, and Seminaries.

GRAY’S MANUAL OF BOTANY. Arranged according to the natural system, and containing 20 plates, illustrating the
Sedges, Grasses, Ferns, etc. Fifth edition, 1867. Eighthissue, 1868. Cloth. 8vo. 7oopages. $1.86.

THE SAME, bound with ‘‘The Lessons.” $2.50.
This work, in connection with ‘‘ The Lessons,” supplies a complete coursein Botany for Colleges and Scientific Schocls.

GRAY’S NEW STRUCTURAL AND SYSTEMATIC BOTANY. An Introduction to Structural and Systematic Botany
and Vegetable Physiology, being the szv¢# and revised edition of the Botanical Text-book. Illustrated by numerous woodcuts. 1
vol. Cloth. 8vo. 442 pages. $2.30.

The present work not simply a reissue, but has been entirely rewritten, and its compass greatly extended.

Robinson’s Higher Mathematics, Well’s New Natural Philosophy.

Fasquelle’s French Course. Webster's Dictionaries,
Woodbury’s German Course, Eliot and Storer’s Chemistry.
L. & M. French and Spanish Grammars, Swinton’s Outlines of History.

Cathcart’s Literary Reader, Etc,, Eto.

SCIENCE.

CEVUS-RATES

me
te
me

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Dr. Scorr’s ELrecrric Hair BRusH.—A good hair brush cannot be bought for
much less than the sum for which Dr. Scott’s electric brush can be secured,
This brush, aside from the curative properties claimed for it, is a well made arti-
cle, handsome in appearance and first-class in every respect. It isnot 2 metallic
brush, but is made of pure bristles. Its electrical qualities are very strong, and
will manifest themselves by causing the needle of a magnetic compass to vibrate
even with a thick book on the top of a table intervening. Violent vibrations of
the needle can be catsed by passing the brush quickly back and forth within
four or five inches of the compass. It is claimed for this brush that its use will
cure headaches and neuralgia, will remove dandruff, and in most cases will pre-
vent the hair from falling orturning gray. In support of this claim many testi-
monials from responsible persons are adduced. Evidently its use would be of
great benefit wherever electricity would prove beneficial, and could not in any
event result in harm.— Boston Fournal, May 28, 1881.

SCIENCE

A WEEKLY JOURNAL OF SCIENTIFIC PROGRESS.

Vol. Il, No. 69, - - - October 22, 1881.

CONTENTS.

The Revelations of the Autopsy Held on the Body of the Late President (full page illus-
tration), (Edit.); The American Chemical Society; Moundbuilder’s Skeletons, by|
W. C. Holbrook; The White Corpuscles of the Blood; Microscopy ; Fossil
Polyzoa and Nomenclature; Preserved Vegetables, by Otto Hehu; Correspond-)
ence; Letter from Professor Lewis Swift; Relations Between the Cranium and the|
Rest of the Skeleton; Color Changes; The Blood of Insects; Notes and Queries

(Electricity) ; Dr. Draper's Report, &c., &c,, &c.

The following from Webster, page 1164, shows
the value of the Illustrative Definitions in

Webster’s Unabridged Dictionary

iH

Ai
IEA |

—

1, flying jib; 2, jib; 3, fore-top-mast-stay sail;
4, fore-course; 5, foretop sail; 6, foretop-gallant
sail; 7, fore-royal; 8, fore sky-sail; 9, fore-roy-
alstudding sail; 10, foretop-gallant studding-
sail; 11, foretop-mast studding-sail; 12, main-
course; 13, maintopsail; 14, maintop-gallant
sail; 15, main-royal; 16, main sky-sail; 17,
main royal studding-sail; 18, main top-gallant
studding-sail; 19, maintop-mast studding sail;
20, mizzen-course; 21, mizzen-top sail; 22,
mizzen-top-gallant sail; 23, mizzen-royal; 24,
mizzen sky-sail; 25, mizzen-spanker.

The pictures in Webster under the 12 words,
Beef, Boiler, Castle, Column, Eye, Horse,
Moldings, Phrenology, Ravelin, Ships,

|(pages 1164 and 1219) Steam engine, Tim-

bers, define 343 words and terms far better
than they could be defined in words.

New Edition of WEBSTER, has
118,000 Words, 3000 Engravings,
4600 New Words and Meanings,
Biographical Dictionary
of over 9700 Names.
Published by G. & C. MERRIAM, Springfield, Mast

iv SCIENCE.

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NEURALGIA REFRESHES THE NERVES TIRED BY WORRY, EXCITEMENT, OR EXCESSIVE BRAIN FATIGUE; STRENGTH-
ENS A FAILING MEMORY, AND GIVES RENEWED VIGOR 1N ALL DISEASES OF NERVOUS EXHAUSTION OR DEBILITY

IT IS THE ONLY PREVENTIVE OF CONSUMPTION.

IT GIVES VITALITY TO THE INSUFFICIENT BODILY OR MENTAL GROWTH OF CHILDREN

AND GIVES QUIET, REST AND SLEEP.
MOTES GOOD HEALTH TO BRAIN AND BODY.

PHYSICIANS HAVE PRESCRIBED 300,000 PACKAGES.

, PREVENTS FRETFULNESS

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Dr. Scort’s Execrric Hair Brusu.—A good hair brush cannot be bought for V7 EI Bs TE: FR.
much less than the sum for which Dr. Scott’s electric brush can be secured,| The following from Webster, page 1164, shows
This brush, aside from the curative properties claimed for it, is a well made arti- he yalve Pe pea pebnaions ae
cle, handsome in appearance and first-class in every respect. It isnot a metallic Webster s Unabridged Dictionary
brush, but is made of pure bristles, Its electrical qualities are very strong, and : 4
will manifest themselves by causing the needle of a magnetic compass to vibrate
even with a thick book on the top of a table intervening. Violent vibrations of
the needle can be caused by passing the brush quickly back and forth within
four or five inches of the compass. It is claimed for this brush that its use will
cure headaches and neuralgia, will remove dandruff, and in most cases will pre-
vent the hair from falling orturning gray. In support of this claim many testi-
monials from responsible persons are adduced. Evidently its use would be of
great benefit wherever electricity would prove beneficial, and could not in any
event result in harm.— Boston Fournal, May 28, 1881.

Ss

1, flying jib; 2, jib; 3, fore topmast sty, sail;
4, fore-course; 5, foretop sail; 6, foretop-gallant
S Cc | E N C E sail; 7, fore-royal; 8, fore sky-sail; 9, fore-roy-
alstudding sail; 10, foretop-gallant studding-
sail; 11, Pea Fed ne as 12, main-

course; maintopsail; intop-
A WEEKLY JOURNAL OF SCIENTIFIC PROGRESS. sail; 15, main-royal; 16, main aes
main royal studding-sail; 18, main top-gallant
a studding-sail; 19, maintop-mast studding sail;

¥ i of 20, mizzen-course; 21, mizzen-top sail; 22
Vol. Il, No. 68, October 15, 1881. mizzen-top-gallant sail; 23, aieereoeale 24,
CONTENTS. mizzen sky-sail; 25, mizzen-spanker.

The pictures in Webster under the 12 words,
Tilusions (Edit.); On the Discoveries of the Past Half Century Relating to Animal] Beef, Boiler, Castle, Column, Eye, Horse,
a Moldings, Phrenology, Ravelin, Ships,
Motion, by Dr. J. Burdon Sanderson; Meteolic Dust, by Prof. Schuster; The|(pages 1164 and 1219) Ree engine, Tim.
Hydromotor Ship (two illustrations) ; Hydrodynamic Analogies to Eleciricity and] Pers, define 343 words and terms far better

Magnetism, by George Forbes; The Electric Discharge Through Colza Oil, by A. a Se aii, ee Boat h
McFarlane; On the Possibility of the Existence of Intramercurial Planets, by Dr. 118 000 Words. 3000 En San eh:
Balfaur Stewart; Microscopy ; New Mechanical Finger, (illustration) ; Pinnock’s 4600 New Words aud Moantage ?
Oblique Diaphragm, (illustrated) ; Correspondence; Letters from Prof. B. G. Merri- Bio aphical eo 4e 2
man and Prof, J. E. Hendricks; Books Received; Celestial Objects for Commor -. oe mary

Microscopes; Dr. Daniels’ Meteorological Report; Notes, &c., &c, Published by G. & C. MERRIAM, Springfield, Mast

iv SCIENCE.
BRAIN AND

NERVE FOOD. VITALIZED PHOS-PHITES

Composed of the Vital or Nerve-giving Principles of the Ox-Brain and Wheat-Germ.

IT RESTORES THE ENERGY LOST BY NERVOUSNESS OR INDIGESTION ; RELIEVES LASSITUDE, ERRATIC PAINS AND
NEURALGIA REFRESHES THE NERVES TIRED BY WORRY, EXCITEMENT, OR EXCESSIVE BRAIN FATIGUE; STRENGTH-
ENS A FAILING MEMORY, AND GIVES RENEWED VIGOR IN ALL DISEASES OF NERVOUS EXHAUSTION OR DEBILITY
IT IS THE ONLY PREVENTIVE OF CONSUMPTION.

IT GIVES VITALITY TO THE INSUFFICIENT BODILY OR MENTAL GROWTH OF CHILDREN, PREVENTS FRETFULNESS
AND GIVES QUIET, REST AND SLEEP. IT GIVES A BETTER DISPOSITION TO INFANTS AND CHILDREN, AS IT PRO
MOTES GOOD HEALTH TO BRAIN AND BODY.

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Editors: Jas. D. Dana. Epw. S. Dana and B, SIttiman, |

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nor, on the other hand, for the masses, but for that large class in the community who, without being themselves
engaged in scientific pursuits, yet have sufficient education and intelligence to be interested in scientific subjects
when presented in an untechnical manner; who desire, and are perfectly competent, not only to know the results
obtained, but to understand the principles and methods on which they depend, without caring to master all the
details of the investigation.”—Extract from Preface.

D. APPLETON & CO., Publishers, - - - - 4, 3 & 5 BOND STREET, New York.
Dr. Scorr’s ELecrric Hair Brusu—A good hair brush cannot be bought for) Vv Br B STE ER

much less than the sum for which Dr. Scott’s electric brush can be secured. The following from Webster, page 1164, shows
the value of the Illustrative Definitions in

This brush, aside from the curative properties claimed for it, is a well made arti- b 9, oe Den
cle, handsome in appearance and first-class in every respect. It isnot 2 metallic Webster s Unabridged Dictionary

brush, but is made of pure bristles. Its electrical qualities are very strong, and Zl i
will manifest themselves by causing the needle of a magnetic compass to vibrate
even with a thick book on the top of a table intervening. Violent vibrations of
the needle can be caused by passing the brush quickly back and forth within
four or five inches of the compass. It is claimed for this brush that its use will
cure headaches and neuralgia, will remove dandruff, and in most cases will pre-
vent the hair from falling orturning gray. In support of this claim many testi-
monials from responsible persons are adduced. Evidently its use would be of
great benefit wherever electricity would prove beneficial, and could not in any
event result in harm.— Boston Fournal, May 28, 1881.

SA Ae eee SSS OSS
1, flying jib; 2, jib; 3, fore-top-mast-stay sail;

S cS | E N C E 4, fore-course; 5, foretop sail; é, foretop-gallant
sail; 7, fore-royal; 8, fore sky-sail; 9, fore-roy-

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course; 13, maintopsail; 14, maintop-gallant

— sail; 15, main-royal; 16, main sky-sail; 17,

Vol. I 1,No. 67, - - - October 8, 1881. main royal studding-sail; 18, main top-gallant
studding-sail; 19, maintop-mast studding sail;
CONTENTS. 20, mizzen-course; 21, mizzen-top sail; 22,

te f : mizzen-top-gallant sail; 23, mizzen-royal; 24
Teaching of Chemistry and Physics in the United Sta‘es (Edit.) ; On the Sources of| mizzen sky-sail; 25, mizzen-spanker, os 4

Energy in Nature Available for the Production of Mechanical Eftect, by Sir William oe ictures in Webster under the 12 words,
Thomson; On the Arrestation of Infusorial Life, by Professor Tyndall; Planté’s Meidines, cPMCCIe eae ane.
Rheostatic Machine (translated by the Marchioness Clara Lanza), by Th. Du Mar-| (pages 1164 and 1219) Steam engine, Tim.
cel (6 illustrations); Process for Utilizing Waste Products in the Extraction of Cop-| Grits iii ears far better
per, by J. Dixon; A New Demonstration of the Carbonic Acid of the Breath, by C:| New Edition of WEBSTER, has
F. Cross; The Best Method of Mounting Whole Chick Embryo, by Dr. C. S. 118,000 Words, 3000 Engravings,
Minot; On the Alleged Decomposition of the Elements, by Professor Dewar ; | 4600 New Words and Meanings,
Astronomy ; Barnard’s Comet (¢) 1881; Microscopy ; Books Received ; A Treatise Biographical Dictionary
on Bright's Disease, by Dr, James Tyson Meteorological Report, by Dr. Daniel of over 9700 Names,

Draper; Notes, &c., &c. Published by G. & C. MERRIAM, Springfield, Mas%

iv SCIENCE.
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This brush, aside from the curative properties claimed for it, is a well made arti-
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brush, but is made of pure bristles. Its electrical qualities are very strong, and
will manifest themselves by causing the needle of a magnetic compass to vibrate
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event result in harm.—Boston Fournal, May 28, 1881.

SCIENCE

A WEEKLY JOURNAL OF SCIENTIFIC PROGRESS.

Vol. Ii, No. 72, November 12, 1881.

CONTENTS,

The Prizes at the Electric Exhibition (Edit.); Detection of Oleomargerine (Edit.); Report
of Washington Societies; The Evolution of Flying Animals, by Charles Morris,
Esq.; The New Compressed Air Locomotive ; The Universal Energy of Light, by
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BRAIN AND
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VITALIZED PHOS-PHit¥e>

Composed of the Vztal or Nerve-gtving Principles of the Ox-Brain and Wheat-Germ.

IT RESTORES THE ENERGY LOST BY NERVOUSNESS OR INDIGESTION ;

RELIEVES LASSITUDE, ERRATIC PAINS ANC

NEURALGIA REFRESHES THE NERVES TIRED BY WORRY, EXCITEMENT, OR EXCESSIVE BRAIN FATIGUE; STRENGTH-
ENS A FAILING MEMORY, AND GIVES RENEWED VIGOR 1N ALL DISEASES OF NERVOUS EXHAUSTION OR DEBILITY
IT IS THE ONLY PREVENTIVE OF CONSUMPTION.

IT GIVES VITALITY TO THE INSUFFICIENT BODILY OR MENTAL GROWTH OF CHILDREN, PREVENTS FRETFULNESS

AND GIVES QUIET, REST AND SLEEP.

IT GIVES A BETTER DISPOSITION

TO

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Volume one was completed on the 31st of December, 1880, and was provided with an
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a On my return to Washington, a few days ago, I found my file of ‘Scrmnce’ com-
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lasting success which it obviously merits. ‘“ELLIOTT COUES.”

““Wasnineton, Aug. 24th, 1881.

a Iam glad to be able to add my voice to those of others in congratulating you
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‘ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL.”
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CONTENTS.

Science and Medicine (Edit.); Proceedings New York Academy of Sciences, October} SENT C, 0. D. ANYWHERE.
3 and ro, 1881 ; State Microscopical Society of Illinois (Report); Retarded Develop-

ment of Insects, by Prof. C. V. Riley; On the Life Duration of the Heterocera ——
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“SCIENCE:‘” ,
A WEEKLY RECORD OF SCIENTIFIC PROGRESS.
ILLUSTRATED.

SCIENCE AND MEDICINE.

A few words on the relation of the natural sciences
to med cine, as one of the greatest aids for the achieve-
ment of success, should be welcome reading to all
members of the medical profession whose aspirations
are above the dead level of mediocrity.

The physician may at first sight desire to stifle all
discussion on this point by saying, that the require-
ments of study involved in acquiring a knowledge of
medical practice fer se occupy too much of his time to
admit of his taking up outside issues, which he con-
siders mere refinements of practice. There are
others who take the absurd view that, to add a know-
ledge of the natural sciences is to become in the
highest sense of the word a Chemist, a Physicist, or a
Biologist. Seeing that the attainment of a complete
knowledge of either of these sciences, is a work of a
life time, it is argued, that they are to be shunned as
impossibilities.

The path of the would-be scientific medical man is
made clear by the encouraging words of one of his
own profession, Dr. G. Vivian Poore, M.R.C.P., who
says, there is a minimum of knowledge in this respect
which is sufficient to endow the physician with a
scientific grasp of his art. What is really wanted, is
sufficient knowledge to enable a medical man to read
these various sciences with intelligible results for him-
self, zien he needs and as often as he desires to con-
sult them, to show him as objectively as possible, those
great principles which have already found application
in his healing art. This will lead him to think and
enable him to act with precision in any great emer-
gency.

Let it be understood that there is no necessity for
cramming the head witha mass of details, and that our
object is to enrich and not encumber the mind of the
medical practitioner.

To those who are ignorant of the advantages of
some knowledge of the natural sciences in medical
practices, the following observations of Dr. Poore may
be read with interest.

“ There are those who hold that the student of medicine
has but little need of special training in the natural
sciences, but such a position I believe to be untenable, and
if I have to say one thing more emphatically than another
to the first year’s students, it is to advise them, not on any
account to neglect their purely scientific studies. They
are the very foundatioa of your professional knowledge,
and without a solid foundation, no firm or worthy super-
structure can be raised.

How can a man hope to rightly comprehend that most
complicated of all machines, the human body, with its
levers, pumps,and elastic canals, unless he be first furnish-
ed with the principles of mechanics and hydraulics? Who
will say that a proper knowledge of the eye, or of the
many optical instruments used in medicine, is attainable
without some acquaintance with the laws of light; or
that the intricacies of the ear, and the art of auscultation
can at all be understood by him, who knows nothing of the
laws of sound. The laws of heat must be studied in order
to appreciate the difficult problems afforded by the animal
temperature, its variations in health and disease, and the
means of influencing it by therapeutic agents. Without
the principles of chemistry we should be intellectually lost
in the human laboratory, and unable to employ chemical
agencies in the treatment of disease ; and electricity is so
correlated with the other physical sciences, and of so
much service both in diagnosis and treatment, that its

separate study has also become essential. Neither can
we altogether neglect geology and meteorology, since con-
ditions of soil and atmosphere are now recognized as 1m-
portant factors in the causation and relief of suffering.

It is scarcely necessary to insist on a knowledge of
those sciences which are called “ biological.” Anatomy
and Azstology, formerly the mere handmaids of medi-
cine, but now recognized as sciences worthy of independ-
ent study, are as necessary to us as is a chart to the nav-
igator; while Physzology, which teaches us the use and
mode of action of the anatomical and histological ele-
ments, is the medical practitioner.

Zoology and botany are not so absolutely necessary for
us as are the other sciences, but itis evident that they are
very necessary as preliminary studies for the biologist, to
whom we look for instruction, for without a study of the
simple forms and conditions of life a proper understand-
ing of human anatomy and physiology is not attainable,
and in so far as they teach us the conditions of existence
of the various vegetable and animal parasites which
affect the human body, from micrococci upwards, they
are necessary for us as surgeons and physicians. This list
of sciences is truly formidable, but I nevertheless assert
that there can be no true study of medicine without a
knowledge of the principles of all of them; and, for my
own part, I have never had any difficulty, as a teacher of
clinical medicine, in discriminating easily, by a perusal of
their clinical reports, between those students who have,
and those who have not, had an insight into the principles
of pure science.

Scientific principles are to the physician and surgeon
what the sextant and compass are to the navigator.
Without them he cannot rise above the rank of a light-
erman or a ferryman, but must be content to remain a
mere “ pill-monger,” or a chirurgeon of a base mechanic
sort. With them he may fearlessly launch his bark upon
unknown seas, and may have the good fortune to extend
the trontiers of science, or discover, as it were, new conti-
nents, to give a wider scope to the art which he professes.”

To the medical man who would reap the advan-
tages held out by Dr. Poore, we confidently suggest
the value of this journal as a means of accomplishing
the ends desired, at the least cost, and most conve
nient form. The impecunious can thus avoid the pur-
chase of the mass of scientific literature with which the
market is flooded, and the overworked practitioner
receiving the journal weekly is not embarrassed by re-
dundancy, and yet can safely rely on passing nothing
of importance, while articles of special interest to the
profession will be constantly brought before his
notice.

In the previous numbers of ‘‘SctENcE” may be found
valuable articles by Professors Burt G. Wilder and
Sage, of Cornell; Drs. Hammond and Spitzka, of
New York; Dr. Clemenger, of Chicago; Dr. J. A.
Mason, of Newport, and many other specialists of
equal merit.

Now the value of a knowledge of science, as a
means of “ getting on” as Huxley terms it, is indubit-
able, and while there are few trades in which some
knowledge of science may not be profitably applied to
the pursuer of his ‘occupation, we think that the
words of Dr. Poore must carry conviction, that the
student or Physician who would attain the higher
stages of development of his art, must be kept “az
courant” with such facts and principles, which are
weekly published in “Scrence,” for they will probably
find their application in every intelligible diagnosis
and discussion on medical practice.

‘« ScieNCE," November sth, 1881.

PUBLICATION OFFICES: Tribune Building, (Room 17) New York.
EDITOR: Mr. John Michels, assisted by Leading Specialists in all Branches of Science.
TERMS: Four Dollars a year; six mouths, Two Dollars; three months, Three Dollars.

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AMERICAN. JOURNAL OF SCIENCE------- ee 6,00 8.50 || Magazine of American History--.-..-.---------.----- 5.00 8.00
American Journal of Microscopy ---.--- 28 1,00 4.70 | IMUININGSAND SCIENTIFIC PRESSE-..-.=--2.-2..---.---- 4.00 6.40
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International Review lass. 2.2 20a cccan ne ese lene 5.00 8.00 |

Dr. Scotr’s ELEcTRric HAIR BRUSH.—A good hair brush cannot be bought for| BUY THE BEST.

much less than the sum for which Dr. Scott’s electric brush can be secured.|
This brush, aside from the curative properties claimed for it, is a well made arti-

cle, handsome in appearance and first-class in every respect.

brush, but is made of pure bristles.

will manifest themselves by causing the needle of a magnetic compass to vibrate)

even with a thick book on the top of

It isnot a metallic
Its electrical qualities are very strong, and

a table intervening. Violent vibrations of

the needle can be caused by passing the brush quickly back and forth within
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great benefit wherever electricity would prove beneficial, and could not in any
event result in harm.— Boston Fournal, May 28, 1881.

SCIENCE

A WEEKLY JOURNAL OF SCIENTIFIC PROGRESS.

Vol. II], No. 70,

October 29, 1881.

CONTENTS,

The Warner Prizes (Edit.); On the Discoveries of the past Half-Century Relating to
Animal Motion, by Dr. J. Burden-Sanderson ;
Prof. O. C. Marsh; The Limited Biological Importance of Synthetic Achieyements
in Organic Chemistry, by Prof. Albert B. Prescott ;
On a New Sys'em of Blow-pipe Analysis; Astronomy; Drawing of Comet 4, 1881,

Correspondence; Letter°on the Ononid Meteors, by Prof.

Notes; the Late Charles A.

by Prof. Sharpless ;

Sharpless; Dr. H. Raymond Rogers and his Critics ;

Spencer; Dr. Draper’s Meteorological Report, &c., &c.

Jurassic Birds and Their Allies, by

Terra del Fuegians (illustrated);

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This instrument is Binocular, the latter fitting being capable of
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The Stage ts provided with all Mechanical Movements that have
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Vol. 2.7 Whole Number 74. NOVEMBER 26th, (881. [Price 10 Cents.

a cat cia weet

| fl CG)

New YORK HERALD, June 29, 1880:

““ScIENCE—A Weekly Record of Scientific Progress."’ It is a handsome, well-printed quarto sheet of 12 pages, with 4 additional pages for
advertisements serving as a cover. It counts among its list of contributors Professors Baird and Coues, of the Smithsonian Institution; Holden, of the
Naval Observatory, Washington; Marsh, of Yale; Wilder, of Cornell; Young, of Princeton; Abbe, of the Signal Office ; Morse, of Salem; Drs.
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HITHERTO UNOCCUPIED FIELD IN AMERICAN PERIODICAL LITERATURE, AS THE ONLY FIRST-CLASS WEEKLY JOURNAL
IN THE UNITED STATES DEVOTED TO SCIENCE,

ae

A WEEKLY RECORD OF SCIENTIFIC PROGRESS.

ILLUSTRATED.

Entered in the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington, D.C.

No. 74.—Vol. II. November 26, 1881. Price 10 Cents.

** Acme” No. 2.

Monocular, Z $100

“Acme” Lithological.
A new Stand, after the pat-
Binocular, . : - 145 tern of the No. 3, for the study
of Rocks; convertible in an
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ocular, $92

* Acme,’ No. 3.
Monocular, . ; z $50
All our Stands

have same size of tubing and

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sub-stage fitting, so that eye-

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“ Acme” No. 4. al

The favorite Laboratory
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With xr inch and ¥ inch
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objectives, . . - 50
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Gem Turn-Table, $2.50

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thus permitting the most oblique rays of light to be freely used.

°

A second Non Mechanical Stage ts supplied for ordinary micros-
copical work.

This fine, new Binocular Microscope is of the highest work-
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The instrument is ready for delivery, and can be examined on
application at the office of “SCIENCE,” Tribune Building (Room 17).

Terms on which it can be obtained forwarded on application.

|
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|

Vol. 2.) Whole Number 75. DECEMBER 3d, (88l. (Price 10 Cents.

Published at ‘‘ Tribune” Building (Room 17), New York.

NEw YORK HERALD, June 29, 1880:
It is a handsome, well-printed quarto sheet of 12 pages, with 4 additional pages for

*“SCIENCE—A Weekly Record of Scientific Progress.’’
It counts among its list of contributors Professors Baird and Coues, of the Smithsonian Institution; Ho'den, of the
Morse, of Salem; Drs.

| advertisements serving as a cover.
Naval Observatory, Washington; Marsh, of Yale; Wilder, of Cornell; Young, of Princeton; Abbe, of the Signal Office ;
IT CLAIMS, WITH TRUTH, TO OCCUPY A

Hammond and Spitzka, of New York, and a considerable number of well-known scientific experts.
HITHERTO UNOCCUPIED FIELD IN AMERICAN PERIODICAL LITERATURE, AS THE ONLY FIRST-CLASS WEEKLY JOURNAL

IN THE UNITED STATES DEVOTED TO SCIENCE.

4

jew petoeep tes

A WEEKLY RECORD OF SCIENTIFIC PROGRESS.

ILLUSTRATED.

Entered in the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington, D.C.

No. 75.—Vol. II. December 8, 1881. Price 10 Cents.
xg Meee fe

22iGees

waite:

** Acme” No. 2,

Monocular, $100

** Acme” Lithological.
A new Stand, after the pat-
Binocular, ; aoe vas tern of the No. 3, for the study
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instant into an ordinary mon-

ocular, $92

* Acme,” No. 8.
Monocular, . : - $50
All our Stands

have same size of tubing and

Binocular, B : 75

sub-stage fitting, so that eye-
pieces and accessories that fit
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* Acme” No. 4. all,

The favorite Laboratory
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With rt inch and ¥ inch
“Congress” Turn-Table

objectives, . - » 50
J Patented, $6.50.

Gem Turn-Table, $2.50
Special Terms made with

Colleges,

Do. Do. with improved
centering adjustment, $3.25

a Com Poet

ey 5 : es

ELRATOLOGICAL “MICROSCOPE.

(MONOCULAR.)
SEND HOR CIRCULAR, JOHN W. SIDLE & CO., Lancaster, Pa.

SCIENCE.

EQ As Seelam

— TO BE SOLD, —

One of the Finest of Microscopes,

Fresh from the hands of the makers, Messrs. SIDLE & CO.,
of Lancaster, Pa.

This tnstrument is Binocular, the latter fitting being capable of
entire removal, to permit the full aperture of tube for Minocular
vision.

The Stage ts provided with all Mechanical Mevements that have
been invented, after the latest and improved designs by Tolles, of
Boston, and Watson, of England; and has graduated scales for
registering all positions. This stage has at its edge the gonto-
metric scale and ts as thin as an ordinary non-mechanical stage,
thus permitting the most oblique rays of light to be freely used.

A second Non Mechanical Stage 1s supplied for ordinary micros-
copical work.

This fine, new Binocular Microscope ts of the highest work-
manship and finish, and has been fitted with every known and ac-
cepted improvement to date, and wis offered as the perfection of a
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investigations can be performed, and all experiments of which the
microscope ts capable be executed with ease.

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International Scientists’ Directory.

THE INTERNATIONAL SCIENTISTS’ DIRECTORY for
1881-2, contains the names and addresses of from 15,000 to 20,000
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on receipt of price. S. E. CASSINO, Publisher,
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SCIENCE

A WEEKLY JOURNAL OF SCIENTIFIC PROGRESS.

Vol. II, No. 75, - - - December 8, 1881.

CONTENTS.

Sugar Analysis (Edit.); Proceedings of the New York Academy of Sciences, November
7 and November 14; Ringing Fences, by Prof. Robinson; The Aye-Aye or
Cheiromys of Madagascar (illustrated); Detection of Oleomargerine, by P. Casa-
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BRAIN AND
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VITALIZED PHOS-PHItEs

Composed of the Vetal or Nerve-giving Principles of the Ox-Brain and Wheat-Germ.
IT RESTORES THE ENERGY LOST BY NERVOUSNESS OR INDIGESTION ; RELIEVES LASSITUDE, ERRATIC PAINS AND

NEURALGIA REFRESHES THE NERVES TIRED BY WORRY, EXCITEMENT, OR EXCESSIVE BRAIN FATIGUE;

ENS A FAILING MEMORY, AND GIVES RENEWED VIGOR IN ALL DISEASES OF
IT IS THE ONLY PREVENTIVE OF CONSUMPTION.

STRENGTH-
NERVOUS EXHAUSTION OR DEBILITY

IT GIVES VITALITY TO THE INSUFFICIENT BODILY OR MENTAL GROWTH OF CHILDREN, PREVENTS FRETFULNESS

AND GIVES QUIET, REST AND SLEEP. IT GIVES A BETTER DISPOSITION TO
MOTES GOOD HEALTH TO BRAIN AND BODY.

PHYSICIANS HAVE PRESCRIBED 500,000 PACKAGES,

INFANTS AND CHILDREN, AS IT PRO

For Sale by Druggists or by Mail, $1.

MESSRS. F. CROSBY & CO., 664 & 666 Sixth Ave.,N. Y.—London, 137 A Strand.

DRAWING INSTRUMENTS Studies in _in Astronomy.

And Materials of all kinds. |
OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS, |.

Microscopes, Telescopes, &c.

G. S. WOOLMAN, 116 Fulton Street,|
NEW YORK.

Send for Illus. Catalogue, and mention this Journal.

American Journal of Science. | New York & New England R. R.

| THROUGH TRAINS Via. N.Y., N. H. & H.R. R,

| Between Boston and New York.

FROM GRAND CENTRAL DEPOT,
Leave New York, 4.00 P.M., with Elegant Through Car,
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FROM DEPOT, FOOT OF SUMMER ST.
Leave Boston, 9.00 A.M., week days, with Through Cars to
Grand Central Depot.

A lecture on the Science, embracing its sublim-
| ity, history, progress,wonders and utility, together
| with an explanation of Spectrum Analysis, and
| a discourse on the Evolution of the Sky, involv-
ing the growth and decay of worlds, by Arthur
| K. Bartlett. Second Edition revised, re-writ- |
| tenand enlarged. Price, 35 cents. Published
| by the Author, BATTLE CREEK, MICHIGAN,

FounDED BY PROF. SILLIMAN IN 1818.

Devoted to Chemistry, Physics, Geology, Physi-
cal Geography, Mineralogy, Natural History,
Astronomy, and BITC Oro) Oey.
Editors: Jas. D. Dana. Epw. S. Dana and B. Sinuiman,
Associate Editors: Professors Asa Gray, J. P. Cooks, Jr., "5
and Joun TrowsrineE, of Cambridge ; H. A. Newton and |
A. E. Vernitt, of Yale; and G. F. Barker, of the Univer-
sity of Pennsylvania, Phila. Subscription Price $6 ; 50 Cents
a Number. Address the Proprietors. |

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index of 5,000 references. The present volume (II) was commenced on the 1st of January,
1881, and will be completed on the 31st of December. It will be a handsome volume of
seven hundred papers, having index with about 10,000 references.

As a standard work of scientific reference the annual volume of ‘‘ Scrence” will stand
unsurpassed, will be a valuable addition to every library, and as a scientific handbook
should be within the reach of every working scientist and practical man.

The most convenient manner of taking ‘‘ ScreNcE” is to subscribe, but it can be ordered
at your nearest news dealer. It then arrives every week presenting you with the current
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as a work of reference can be handled with ease.

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need not therefore at once purchase the back numbers, as they can complete their sets at
any time.

We have not made a habit of publishing congratulatory letters, as we have trusted to the
merits of the publication to secure support; the following unsolicited indorsements may
however be given, as representing the feeling of the scientific men of this country in regard

to this journal;
““UNITED STATES SENATE CHAMBER,

““WASHINGTON, Sept. 19th, 1881.

a On my return to Washington, a few days ago, I found my file of ‘Screncr’ com-
plete, and have since gone through the numbers with much pleasure. I sincerly trust that
the publication is permanently established, for it has already made a name and place for
itself, as one which no working scientist would wish to be without. It seems to me to be
up to the times, as well as ‘“‘up to the mark,” and can therefore hardly fail to achieve the
lasting success which it obviously merits. *“ELLIOTT Cougs.”

““WasHineton, Aug. 24th, 1881.

‘ Iam glad to be able to add my voice to those of others in congratulating you
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‘* ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL.”
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International Scientists’ Directory.

THE INTERNATIONAL SCIENTISTS’ DIRECTORY for
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SCIENCE

A WEEKLY JOURNAL OF SCIENTIFIC PROGRESS,

Vol. II, No. 74, - - - November 26, 1881.

CONTENTS.

The Satellites of Mars (Edit.); Theory of the Moon’s Motion (Edit.); New York
Academy of Sciences, October 31, 1881; The Ameriean Chemical Society; On
the Nature of the Diphtheritic Contagium; Solar Parallax; Ephemeris of the
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Kditors: Jas. D. Dana. Epw. S. Dana and B. Srruman.

Associate Editors: Professors Asa Gray, J. P. Cooxg, Jr., & “ ‘
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This journal was established on the ist of July, 1880, for the purpose of providing a
first-class weekly scientific journal, and affording a rapid means of communication between
scientific men.

Sixty-eight weekly numbers have been so far issued, and the editor has received letters of
congratulations and offers of support from gentlemen representing all branches of science.

Volume one was completed on the 31st of December, 1880, and was provided with an
index of 5,000 references. The present volume (II) was commenced on the ist of January,
1881, and will be completed on the 31st of December. It will be a handsome volume of
seven hundred papers, having index with about 10,000 references.

As a standard work of scientific reference the annual volume of ‘‘ ScrmncH”’ will stand
unsurpassed, will be a valuable addition to every library, and as a scientific handbook
should be within the reach of every working scientist and practical man.

The most convenient manner of taking ‘‘Sctmncr” is to subscribe, but it can be ordered
at your nearest news dealer. It then arrives every week presenting you with the current
scientific events, a series of original papers of the highest value, and interesting discussions.

“ScIENCE” is of convenient size for binding, being of the same dimensions as NATURE, and
as a work of reference can be handled with ease.

Electro-plates have been taken of every number since the commencement; new subscribers
need not therefore at once purchase the back numbers, as they can complete their sets at
any time.

We have not made a habit of publishing congratulatory letters, as we have trusted to the
merits of the publication to secure support; the following unsolicited indorsements may
however be given, as representing the feeling of the scientific men of this country in regard

to this journal:
‘““UNITED STATES SENATE CHAMBER,

‘WASHINGTON, Sept. 19th, 1881.

ie On my return to Washington, a few days ago, I found my file of ‘Scrmncr’ com-
plete, and have since gone through the numbers with much pleasure. I sincerly trust that
the publication is permanently established, for it has already made a name and place for
itself, as one which no working scientist would wish to be without. It seems to me to be
up to the times, as well as ‘‘up to the mark,” and can therefore hardly fail to achieve the

lasting success which it obviously merits. ‘“ELLIOTT COUES.”
‘““Wasnineton, Aug. 24th, 1881.
f Iam glad to be able to add my voice to those of others in congratulating you

upon the success which has attended Scrmncn. Ihave no doubt that the periodical is
destined to occupy in America the same position held by NAtTuRE in England.
‘* ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL.”

‘UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA.
ee ‘Screncu’ is a credit to all concerned.—GrorGE F. BARKER.”

THe EprrortAL DEPARTMENT is conducted by Mr. Jobn Michels, with the valuable
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SCIENCE.

D. APPLETON & CoO.,

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VOLCANOES, What They Are and What They Teach.

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The Science and Art of Midwifery.

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SCIENCE

A WEEKLY JOURNAL OF SCIENTIFIC PROGRESS,

Vol. Il, No. 73, - - - November 19, 1881.

CONTENTS.

Edison’s Method of Preserving Organic Substances (Edit); Alcoholic Trance (N. Y.
Medico-legal Society, (Edit); New York Academy of Sciences, Official Report for
Oct. 24, 1881; Theory of Binocular Vision, by W. Le Conte Stevens; The Water
Supply of Paris (8 Illustrations); The Evolution of Flying Animals, by Charles
Morris; Stone Implements of the Drift, by Watson C. Holbrook; Report of French
Academy of Sciences; Report of New Comet (g) 1881, Swift; New Copying Ink
for Transcribing Letters Without a Press; Dr. Daniel Draper's Meteorological Re-
port; General Notes, etc., etc.

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lv

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NEURALGIA REFRESHES THE NERVES TIRED BY WORRY, EXCITEMENT, OR EXCESSIVE BRAIN FATIGUE; STRENGTH-
ENS A FAILING MEMORY, AND GIVES RENEWED VIGOR IN ALL DISEASES OF NERVOUS EXHAUSTION OR DEBILITY
IT IS THE ONLY PREVENTIVE OF CONSUMPTION.

IT GIVES VITALITY TO THE INSUFFICIENT BODILY OR MENTAL GROWTH OF CHILDREN, PREVENTS FRETFULNESS
IT GIVES A BETTER DISPOSITION TO INFANTS AND CHILDREN, AS IT PRO

AND GIVES QUIET, REST AND SLEEP.
MOTES GOOD HEALTH TO BRAIN AND

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BODY.

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DRAWING INSTRUMENTS
And Materials of all kinds.
OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS, |
Microscopes, Telescopes, &c.
G. S. WOOLMAN,
NEW YORK.

Send for Illus. Catalogue, and mention this Journal.

116 Fulton Street,| i

A lecture on the Science, embracing its sublim-
| ity, histery, progress, wonders and utility, together
with an explanation of Spectrum Analysis, and
| a discourse on the Evolution of the Sky, involv-
ing the growth and decay of worlds, by Arthur
K. Bartlett. Second Edition revised, re-writ=
tenand enlarged. Price, 35 cents. Publisked |
| by the Author, Batre Creek, Micuican,

American Journal of Science.

FouNDED BY PROF. SILLIMAN IN 1818.

Devoted to Chemistry, Physics, Geology, Physi-
cal Geography, Mineralogy, Natural History,
Astronomy, and Meteorology.

Editors: Jas. D. Dana. Epw. 8. Dana and B. SILtiman,

Associate Editors: Professors Asa Gray, J. P. Cooks, Jr.,
and JoHNn TrowsripGE, of Cambridge ; H. A. NewrTon and
A. E. Veeritu, of Yale; and G. F. Barker, of the Univer-
sity of Pennsylvania, Phila. Subscription Price $6; 50 Cents
a Number. Address the Proprietors.

James D.& E.S. Dana, New Haven, Conn.

New York & New England R. R.

THROUGH TRAINS Via. N.Y., N. H. & H.R. R,
| Between Boston and New York.

FROM GRAND CENTRAL DEPOT,
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“ ‘

3 “

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Studies in Astronomy.

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NEW YORK HERALD, June 29, 1880:

“SCIENCE—A Weekly Record of Scientific Progress.'’ It is a handsome, well-printed quarto sheet of 12 pages, with 4 additional pages for
advertisements serving asa cover. It counts among its list of contributors Professors Baird and Coues, of the Smithsonian Institution; Holden, of the
Naval Observatory, Washington; Marsh, of Yale; Wilder, of Cornell; Young, of Princeton; Abbe, of the Signal Office; Morse, of Salem; Drs.
Hammond and Spiizka, of New York, and a considerable number of well-known scientific experts. IT CLAIMS, WITH TRUTH, TO OCCUPY A
HITHERTO UNOCCUPIED FIELD IN AMERICAN PERIODICAL LITERATURE, AS THE ONLY FIRST-CLASS WEEKLY JOURNAL

IN|THE UNITED STATES DEVOTED TO SCIENCE.

y
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ils

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Entered in the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington, D, C.

No. 76.—Vol. Il. December 10, 1881.. Price 10 Cents.

TMPORTANT NOTICE.

LANCASTER, Movember ist, 1881.
Dear Sir:

We hereby inform you that we have this day constituted

| MESSRS. JAMES W. QUEEN & CO.,
| OPTICIANS

PHILADELPHIA, PA., TO BE OUR BUSINESS AGENTS.

to whom, until further notice, we shall consign the whole product of our factory.

Messrs. QUEEN & CO. will fill all orders and reply to all inquiries for
our Microscopes and Accessory Apparatus, therefore all letters on these subjects
should be addressed to JAMES W. QUEEN & CO,, Agents for JOHN W.
SIDLE & CO., 924 Chestnut Street, Philadelphia.

Truly Yours,
OLIN W-2SIDE Rs CO:

Every “Acme Microscope,” before being issued from the manufactory, will
pass through a careful examination and will be thoroughly tested, and again
undergo a like examination before passing from our hands.

- An Illustrated Circular giving prices and other information in reference to

the “Acme Microscopes” will be forwarded on application.

JAS. W. QUEEN & CO.

924 Chestnut Street, Philadelphia.

SCIENCE.

Ore crers. by",

— TO BE SOLD, —

One of the Finest of Microscopes,

Fresh from the hands of the makers, Messrs. SIDLE & CO.,
of Lancaster, Pa.

This instrument 1s Binocular, the latter fitting being capable of
entire removal, to permit the full aperture of tube for Minocular
VIStONn.

The Stage is provided with all Mechanical Movements that have
been invented, after the latest and improved designs by Tolles, of
Boston, and Watson, of England; and has graduated scales for
registering all positions. This stage has at its edge the gonto-
metric scale and 1s as thin as an ordinary non-mechanical stage,
thus permitting the most oblique rays of light to be freely used.

A second Non Mechanical Stage is supplied for ordinary micros-
copical work.

This fine, new Binocular Microscope ts of the highest work-
manship and finish, and has been fitted with every known and ac-
cepted improvement to date, and is offered as the perfection of a
modern complete instrument. With it the most delicate micrometer
investigations can be performed, and all experiments of which the
microscope 1s capable be executed with ease. ;

The instrument is ready for delivery, and can be examined on
application at the office of “SCIENCE,” Tribune Building (Room 17).

Terms on which tt can be obtained forwarded on application.

Vol. 2.1 Whole Number 78. DECEMBER 24th, (88I. [Price 10 Cents.

Published at ‘‘ Tribune”? Building (Room 17), New York.
New YORK HERALD, June 29, 1880:

‘“ScIENCE—A Weekly Record of Scientific Progress. It is a handsome, well-printed quarto sheet of 12 pages, with 4 additional pages for
advertisements serving as a cover. It counts among its list of contributors Professors Baird and Coues, of the Smithsonian Institution; Holden, of the
Naval Observatory, Washington; Marsh, of Yale; Wilder, of Cornell; Young, of Princeton; Abbe, of the Signal Office ; Morse, of Salem; Drs.
Hammond and Spiizka, of New York, and a considerable number of well-known scientific experts. IT CLAIMS, WITH TRUTH, TO OCCUPY A
HITHERTO UNOCCUPIED FIELD IN AMERICAN PERIODICAL LITERATURE, AS THE ONLY FIRST-CLASS WEEKLY JOURNAL
IN THE UNITED STATES DEVOTED TO SCIENCE.

SCIENCE

A WEEKLY RECORD OF SCIENTIFIC PROGRESS.

ILLUSTRATED.

Entered in the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington, D, C.

No. 78.—Vol. II. December 24, 1881. Price 10 Cents.

IMPORTANT NOTICE.

LANCASTER, Vovember ist, 1881.
Dear Sir:

We hereby inform you that we have this day constituted

MESSRS. JAMES W. QUEEN & CO.,
: OPTICIANS,

PHILADELPHIA, PA., TO BE OUR BUSINESS AGENTS.

to whom, until further notice, we shall consign the whole product of our factory.

Messrs. QUEEN & CO. will fill all orders and reply to all inquiries for
our Microscopes and Accessory Apparatus, therefore all letters on these subjects
should be addressed to JAMES W. QUEEN & CO, Agents for JOHN W.
SIDLE & CO,, 924 Chestnut Street, Philadelphia.

Truly Yours,
OREN We SIME: ~& COs

Every “Acme Microscope,” before being issued from the manufactory, will
pass through a careful examination and will be thoroughly tested, and again

undergo a like examination before passing from our hands.

An Illustrated Circular giving prices and other information in reference to

the “Acme Microscopes” will be forwarded on application.

JAS. W. QUEEN & CO,

924 Chestnut Street, Philadelphia.

oe

il

SCIENCE.

POR 52a

— TO BE SOLD, —

Qne of the Finest of Microscopes,

Fresh from the hands of the makers, Messrs. SIDLE & CO.,
of Lancaster, Pa.

This instrument ts Binocular, the latter fitting being capable of
entire removal, to permit the full aperture of tube for Minocular
vision.

The Stage ts provided with all Mechanical Movements that have
been invented, after the latest and improved designs by Tolles, of
Boston, and Watson, of England; and has graduated scales for
registering all positions. This stage has at its edge the gonto-
metric scale and is as thin as an ordinary non-mechantcal stage,
thus permitting the most oblique rays of light ic be freely used.

A second Non Mechanical Stage is supplied for ordinary micros-
copical work.

This fine, new Binocular Microscope is of the highest work-
manship and finish, and has been fitted with every known and ac-
cepted tmprovement to date, and is offered as the perfection of a
modern complete instrument. With it the most delicate micrometer
envestigations can be performed, and all experiments of which the
microscope 1s capable be executed with ease.

The instrument is ready for delivery, and can be examined on
application at the office of “SCIENCE,” Tribune Building (Room 17).

Terms on which it can be obtained forwarded on application.

Vol. 2.) Whole Number 79. DECEMBER Sist, I88l. [Price 10 Cents.

lis

NEw YORK HERALD, June 29, 1880:

“ScIENCE—A Weekly Record of Scientific Progress." It is a handsome, well-printed quarto sheet of 12 pages, with 4 additional pages for
advertisements serving as a cover. It counts among its list of contributors Professors Baird and Coues, of the Smithsonian Institution; Holden, of the
Naval Observatory, Washington; Marsh, of Yale; Wilder, of Cornell; Young, of Princeton; Abbe, of the Signal Office; Morse, of Salem; Drs.
Hammond and Spitzka, of New York, and a considerable number of well-known scientific experts. IT CLAIMS, WITH TRUTH, TO OCCUPY A
HITHERTO UNOCCUPIED FIELD IN AMERICAN PERIODICAL LITERATURE, AS THE ONLY FIRST-CLASS WEEKLY JOURNAL
IN THE UNITED STATES DEVOTED TO SCIENCE.

ii

SCIENCE.

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AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.--...---------------- 6.00 8.50 Magazine of American History_...-.--.---.---------- 5.00 8.00
American Journal of Microscopy---.--.-------------- 1.00 4.70 MINING AND SCIENTIFIC PRESS.....------------------ 4.00 6.40
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international Review: {225-5252 es 5.00 8.00 |
a

International Scientists’ Directory.

THE INTERNATIONAL SCIENTISTS’ DIRECTORY for
1881-2, contains the names and addresses of from 15,000 to 20,000
Scientific men and amateurs in all parts of the world, together with
their special branches of Science, and other items of interest relating
to collections, duplicates, desiderata, etc. of each.

This is the first work of its kind ever attempted, and it will be
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Science. Price, in paper, $2.00.. In cloth, $2.50. Sent post-paid

on receipt of price. S. E. CASSINO, Publisher,

32 Hawley Street. Boston, Mass.

SCIENCE

A WEEKLY JOURNAL OF SCIENTIFIC PROGRESS. .

Vol. Il, No. 79, 1881.

December 81,

CONTENTS.

Notice to Our Readers (Edit.); A Scientific Journal (Edit.); International Scientists’
Directory (Edit.); The Development of Heat by Muscular Activity, by Prof. A.
Fick, (translated by M. J. S.); Experiments of M. Bjerknes (translated from La
Nature); Shaler and Davis’ by W. J. McGee (concluded) ;
Objects for the Microscope; Dr. Draper's Meteorological Report ;
&e., &e., &e,

‘* Glaciers,” Living

Minor Notes,

BUY THE BEST

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enone STUDENT aba

SC ARARTEER “THE BEST.
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SENT C. 0. D, ANYWHERE.

(3 Send for Illustrated Catalogue.

POST & CO, Cincinnati, Ohio,

oCIENCE

A WEEKLY RECORD OF SCIENTIFIC PROGRESS.

ILLUSTRATED.

Entered in the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington, D.C.

No. 79.—Vol. Il. December 31, 1881. Price 10 Cents.

IMPORTANT NOTICE.

LANCASTER, Vovember ist, 1881.
DeEaR Sir:

We hereby inform you that we have this day constituted

MESSRS. JAMES W. QUEEN & CO.,
PSP riclANS,

PHILADELPHIA, PA., TO BE OUR BUSINESS AGENTS.

to whom, until further notice, we shall consign the whole product of our factory.

Messrs). QUEEN & CO. will fill all orders and reply to all inquiries for
our Microscopes and Accessory Apparatus, therefore all letters on these subjects
should be addressed to JAMES W. QUEEN & CO.,, Agents for JOHN W.
SIDLE & CO,, 924 Chestnut Street, Philadelphia.

Truly Yours,
JOTI W «oI DER & CO.

Every “Acme Microscope,” before being issued from the manufactory, will
pass through a careful examination and will be thoroughly tested, and again

undergo a like examination before passing from our hands.

An Illustrated Circular giving prices and other information in reference to

the “Acme Microscopes” will be forwarded on application.

SAG. W. QUHEN .& -CO.,

924 Chestnut Street, Philadelphia.

ii

SCIENCE;

FOR opis

— TO BE SOLD, —

Qne of the Finest of Microscopes,

Fresh from the hands of the makers, Messrs. SIDLE & CO.,
of Lancaster, Pa.

This instrument 1s Binocular, the latter fitting being capable of
entire removal, to permit the full aperture of tube for Minocular
vision.

The Stage ts provided with all. Mechanical Movements that have
been invented, after the latest and tmproved designs by Tolles, of
Boston, and Watson, of England; and has graduated scales for
registering all positions. This stage has at its edge the gonio-
metric scale and is as thin as an ordinary non-mechanical stage,
thus permitting the most oblique rays of light ic be freely used.

A second Non Mechanical Stage ts supplied for ordinary micros-
copical work.

This fine, new Binocular Microscope ts of the highest work-
manship and finish, and has been fitted with every known and ac-
cepted improvement to date, and is offered as the perfection of a
modern complete instrument. With it the most delicate micrometer
envestigations can be performed, and all experiments of which the
microscope ts capable be executed with ease.

The instrument is ready for delivery, and can be examined on
application at the office of “SCIENCE,” Tribune Building (Room 17).

Terms on which it can be obtained forwarded on application.

A

SCIENCE.

BRAINAND | VITALIZED PHOS-P

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PHYSICIANS HAVE PRESCRIBED 500,000 PACKAGES, For Sale by Druggists

MESSRS. F. CROSBY & CO., 664 & 666 Sixth Ave.,N. Y.—Lo
DRAWING INSTRUMENTS | Studies in Astronomy.

And Materials of all kinds,
OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS, A lecture on the Science, embracing its sublim-

ity, history, progress,wonders and utility, together |

Microscopes, Telescopes, &e. with an anon e pecan DESY ee
a discourse on the Evolution of the Sky, involy-
S; WOOLMAN, 116 Fulton Street, ing the growth and decay of worlds, by Arthur
NEW YORK K. Bartlett. Second Edition revised, re-writ- Mt
‘ tenand enlarged. Price, 35 cents. Published e

Send for Illus. Catalogue, and mention this Journal, | by the Author, BatTLe CrEEK, MICHIGAN.

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completed on the 31st of December, 1880, and was provided with an
ences. The present volume (II) was commenced on the 1st of January,
umpleted on the 31st of December. It will be a handsome volume of
rs, having index with about 10,000 references.
kof scientific reference the annual volume of ‘‘Scrmncx” will stand
e a valuable addition to every library, and as a scientific handbook
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mt manner of taking ‘‘Scr=ncE” is to subscribe, but it can be ordered
‘dealer. It then arrives every week presenting you with the current
ies of original papers of the highest value, and interesting discussions.
‘enient size for binding, being of the same dimensions as NATURE, and
can be handled with ease.
sen taken of every number since the commencement; new subscribers
nee purchase the back numbers, as they can complete their sets at

abit of publishing congratulatory letters, as we have trusted to the
wm to secure support; the following unsolicited indorsements may
«presenting the feeling of the scientific men of this country in regard

“UNITED States SENATE CHAMBER,
: ““WASHINGTON, Sept. 19th, 1881.
1 to Washington, a few days ago, I found my file of ‘Scrmncr’ com-
ye through the numbers with much pleasure. I sincerly trust that
manently esfablished, for it has already made a name and place for
working scientist would wish to be without. It seems to me to be
‘4as “‘up to the mark,” and can therefore hardly fail to achieve the
‘it obviously merits. | ‘‘ELLIOTT Cougs.”
‘“Wasnineton, Aug. 24th, 1881.
so be able to add my voice to those of others in congratulating you
aich has attended Scrmnce. Ihave no doubt that the periodical is
i America the same position held by NAtTurE in England.
‘ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL.”
‘“ UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA.

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CONTENTS.
The Polar Expedition (Edit.) ; Fossil Organisms in Meteorites (Edit.); Report of the SENT C. O° D, ANYWHERE.

American Chemical Society; Proceedings of the New York Academy of Sciences,
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Letters from Commander Cheyne, George W. Rachel, M.D., and E. E. Barnard ;

Musical Fences: Notes F Foreign Exch ; Dr. Deaper’s Meztzorolozical 0 Ci : ‘ 0) :
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ENS A FAILING MEMORY, AND GIVES RENEWED VIGOR IN ALL DISEASES OF NERVOUS EXHAUSTION OR DEBILITY
IT IS THE ONLY PREVENTIVE OF CONSUMPTION.

IT GIVES VITALITY TO THE INSUFFICIENT BODILY OR MENTAL GROWTH OF CHILDREN, PREVENTS FRETFULNESS

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| ing the growth and decay of worlds, by Arthur

K. Bartlett. Second Edition revised, re-writ-
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American Journal of Science.

FounpDED By PRoF. SILLIMAN IN 1818.

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Editors: Jas, D. Dana. Epw. S. Dana and B. Srtimman,

Associate Editors: Professors Asa Gray, J. P. Cooxg, Jr.,
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This journal was established on the 1st of July, 1880, for the purpose of providing a
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Sixty-eight weekly numbers have been so far issued, and the editor has received letters of
congratulations and offers of support from gentlemen representing all branches of science.

Volume one was completed on the 31st of December, 1880, and was provided with an
index of 5,000 references. The present volume (II) was commenced on the 1st of January,
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however be given, as representing the feeling of the scientific men of this country in regard

to this journal:
‘“‘UnirTeD Srates SENATE CHAMBER,

: ' “ WASHINGTON, Sept. 19th, 1881.

He On my return to Washington, a few days ago, I found my file of ‘Scrmncr’ com-
plete, and have since gone through the numbers with much pleasure. I sincerly trust that
the publication is permanently established, for it has already made a name and place for
itself, as one which no working scientist would wish to be without. It seems to me to be
up to the times, as well as ‘‘up to the mark,” and can therefore hardly fail to achieve the

lasting success which it obviously merits. “ELLIOTT COUES.”
““Wasnineton, Aug. 24th, 1881.
a Iam glad to be able to add my voice to those of others in congratulating you

upon the success which has attended Scrancn. Ihave no doubt that the periodical is
destined to occupy in America the same position held by Natrurz in England.
‘‘ ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL.”’

‘‘ UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA,
a ‘ScreNcw’ is a credit to all concerned.—GrorGe F, BARKER.” .

Tue EprrorrAL DePARTMENT is conducted by Mr. John Michels, with the valuabi-
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to collections, duplicates, desiderata, etc. of each. = La ANTS
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CONTENTS.

Letter From Professor Edmund C. Pickering; Shaler & Davis’ ‘‘ Glaciers,” by W. J. SENT C. 0. E D; ANYWHERE.
McGee: New York Academy of Sciences, Novy, 21, 188z (illustrated) ; On the Cell

Doctrine, by Dr. Louis Elsberg; Dr. D. Draper's Instrument for Recording the SSS
Velocity of the Wind; Statistics of the Sun; French Academy of Sciences, Nov. 7,
1881 ; Infected Pork; The Comparative Action ot Dry Heat and Sulphurous Acid 8" Send for Illustrated Catalogue.

Upon Putrefactive Bacteria; Notes onthe Mortality Among Fishes of the Gulf of
Mexico, by S. H. Johnson; Commander Cheyne’s Expedition; Dr. Draper's OST & C0 Cj ] ] 0 1
Meteorological Report ; Minor Notes, &c., &c, P ) incinnati, io,

.

1V

SCIENCE.

BRAIN AND

BRAIN AND VITALIZED PHOS-PHITES

Composed of the Vital or Nerve-gtuing Principles of the Ox-Brain and Wheat-Germ.

{T RESTORES THE ENERGY LOST BY NERVOUSNESS OR INDIGESTION ; RELIEVES LASSITUDE, ERRATIC PAINS AND
NEURALGIA REFRESHES THE NERVES TIRED BY WORRY, EXCITEMENT, OR EXCESSIVE BRAIN FATIGUE; STRENGTH-
ENS A FAILING MEMORY, AND GIVES RENEWED VIGOR IN ALL DISEASES OF NERVOUS EXHAUSTION OR DEBILITY
IT IS THE ONLY PREVENTIVE OF CONSUMPTION.

IT GIVES VITALITY TO THE INSUFFICIENT BODILY OR MENTAL GROWTH OF CHILDREN, PREVENTS FRETFULNESS
AND GIVES QUIET, REST AND SLEEP. IT GIVES A BETTER DISPOSITION TO INFANTS AND CHILDREN, AS IT PRO
MOTES GOOD HEALTH TO BRAIN AND BODY.

PHYSICIANS HAVE PRESCRIBED 500,000 PACKAGES. For Sale by Druggists or by Mail, $r.

MESSRS. F. CROSBY & CO., 664 & 666 Sixth Ave.,N. Y.—London, 137 A Strand.

DRAWING INSTRUMENTS | Studies _in Astr Astronom

And Materials of all kinds.
OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS,
Microscopes, Telescopes, &c.

S. WOOLMAN, 116 Fulton Street,
NEW YORK

Send for Illus, Catalogue, and mention this Journal.

y.

A lecture on the Science, embracing i its sublim-
ity, history, progress, wonders and utility, together
with an explanation of Spectrum Analysis, and
a discourse on the Evolution of the Sky, involy-
ing the growth and decay of worlds, by Arthur
K. Bartlett. Second Edition revised, re-writ-
tenand enlarged. Price, 35 cents. Published
by the Author, BaTrLe CREEK, MICHIGAN,

American Journal of Science.

FouNDED BY PROF. SILLIMAN IN 1818.

Devoted to Chemistry, Physics, Geology, Physi-
cal Geography, Mineralogy, Natural History,
Astronomy, and Meteorology.

Editors: Jas. D. Dana. Epw. 8. Dana and B. Siuumman.

Associate Editors: Professors Asa Gray, J. P. Cooxg, Jr.,
and Joun TrRowsBeincE, of Cambridge; H. A. Newron and
A. E. Veen, of Yale; and G. F. Barxer, of the Univer-
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scope

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