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MEMOIRS OF THE CHALLENGER SOCIETY. No. 1.
SCIENTIFIC AND BIOLOGICAL
RESEARCHES IN THE NORTH
ATLANTIC.
CONDUCTED BY THE AUTHOR ON HIS YACHTS
PWiele, WWMENNON|? UND) SASS SINDNASIN: IRIS, 2
BY R. NORRIS WOLFENDEN
B.A.; M.D. Cantab. ; Builbn af fic Linnean Soctety ;
Fellow of the Zoological Society ; Fellow of the Challenger
Society ; Late Member of Council of the British Marine
Biological Association, Sc.; and Member of the Royal
Temple Yacht Club
LONDON : REBMAN LIMITED
129 SHAFTESBURY AVENUE. MCMIX
[ALL RIGHTS RESERVED]
FOREWORD
In the work which is recorded in the following pages, I owe a deep
debt of gratitude to several scientific friends, notably Dr. H. N.
Dickson, of Oxford and Reading, and to Mr. E., W. L. Holt (and
Mr. Byrne) and his associates of the Irish Fishery Board, and to
Professor Pettersson, of Stockholm, for their assistance in working
up some of the results of the observations made over a number
of years on my yachts. I fully recognize the fact that there is
much material brought home from these cruises, which it has been
impossible yet to overlook, in the midst of many occupations. I
am painfully aware of the fact, that if I wait any longer for the
completion of the study of these biological collections, I may have
to defer the publication of such results as have been arrived at
until a time too remote to contemplate. This would be unjust to
my friends who have assisted me, and I must therefore give these
observations to the world in a less complete form than I had originally
contemplated, and hope for the opportunity to extend them at a
future time. Many of them have been contributed to the meetings
of the Challenger Society, which, however, does not publish Trans-
actions. I can only trust that they may prove of interest to
others who, like myself, have been fascinated by the study of things
oceanographical. With all modesty I put this little volume out,
not without the hope that it may stimulate others to assist science,
as I have endeavoured to do, by observations at sea, seriously
undertaken, and accurately recorded.
CONTENTS
PAGE
INTRODUCTORY — - = - = : : = E : 1
EXTRACTS FROM THE LOGS OF THE CRUISES IN THE FARROE CHANNEL, 1899-1902 13
THE CRUISE OF 1903 FROM VALENTIA TO THE FazEROE BANKS AND ORKNEY - 18
EXTRACTS FROM THE LOG OF THE 1904 CRUISE - : - - ee)
THE Log OF THE CRUISE OF 1905-1906 - : : : > a9
Notre oF THE 1907 CRUISE E = S 2 E 4
OBSERVATIONS CONDUCTED ON SAILING-SHIPS — - = = - > BS
HYDROGRAPHICAL OBSERVATIONS :
I. THE FAEROE-SHETLAND CHANNEL - = i 5 = Ae
Il. FROM IRELAND TO THE AZORES, MADEIRA, AND GIBRALTAR - = OF
Ill. FROM USHANT TO GIBRALTAR - = - - - - 107
IV. THE NORTH OF SHETLAND TO NORWAY - - < - - 130
SECTIONS OF TEMPERATURE AND SALINITY - - : 4 5 Sy
BIOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS :
I. FISHES - : - 5 z ‘ = OR
¢ IL. AMPHIPODA AND ISOPODA é és : ; i - 9210
Ill. PYROSOMA : : E u : i i _ 990
CRUISE OF THE ‘SILVER BELLE’ IN JULY AND AUGUST, 1907 - - - 225
Vil
INTRODUCTORY.
Ig J une, 1899, I made a cruise round the Shetland Islands, starting
from Stromness, in Orkney, and returning to the same place, and at
four stations, north, south, east, and west, | took careful temperature
observations, and made collections of plankton with silk nets. This
region and that of the Faeroe-Shetland Channel promising to yield
results of great scientific interest, both from a hydrographical and
faunistic point of view, and, moreover, having been hitherto but im-
perfectly examined, I determined to institute periodic cruises. At that
time this area had not been taken over by the International Comiittee,
the first cruise of the North Sea Fisheries Investigation Committee,
indeed, not being undertaken until 1902 (August 25 to September 1,
which was followed by a second cruise in December of that year),
since which period this area has been under systematic investigation
by the Scotch Fishery Board. The work which I had done in this
region was preliminary to the more extended observations of this
official body, and directly antecedent to it, and is therefore of interest
as giving a picture of the hydrographical conditions of the Faeroe
Shetland Channel for two years and a half previously to the observa-
tions of the Scotch Fishery Board. As the plan of operations of the
latter body did not extend beyond the Faeroe Channel in a westward
direction, I made observations in 1903 from Valentia to the Faeroe
Banks, along the deep-water trough of the Atlantic, not only for the
purpose of making certain observations upon the plankton fauna, but
also with the object, by hydrographical observations, of adding to the
official work, by obtaining physical data of an area which did not come
' ¢Report on Fishery and Hydrographical Investigations in the North Sea and
Adjacent Waters,’ Fishery Board for Scotland, 1902-1903.
2 Introductory
within their scope, though adjacent to the ‘ official ° area. During the
year 1904 my yacht Silver Belle made an extended cruise from
Valentia (Ireland) to the Azores, thence to Madeira and Gibraltar,
and back to England across the Bay of Biscay to Plymouth.
The cruise of 1905, which at the time of writing was being
undertaken, covered much of the same ground, certain stations of the
1904 cruise being revisited, to again examine the conditions of a large
amount of Mediterranean water in the Atlantic, which formed so
striking a feature of the hydrographical results of 1904. Professor
Pettersson having kindly forwarded me one of his current meters, an
attempt was made to use this on all occasions possible, and the
faunistic work was largely devoted to trawling observations.
A private worker cannot hope to be equipped with the same costly
appliances in the shape of steam vessels, etc., which a body expending
Government funds may employ. Possessed only of small sailing-
ships—first, in the Faeroe Channel, of a small cutter yacht of less than
40 tons, subsequently of a ketch yacht of 130 tons—all the work
accomplished has been with comparatively small means. But I have
taken care to have my ships equipped with apparatus of the most
perfect and modern description, and the rest depends only upon
accuracy of observation, and the power and patience to work under
conditions often difficult, and to a landsman even appalling, but
which to a seaman are but everyday incidents. I would with
becoming modesty like to instance the amount of work accomplished
by my yacht, as an example of what may be done by sailing-vessels of
small tonnage, and to suggest that a great deal of very valuable
scientific work might be accomplished by similar vessels, especially in
areas which the International Council does not include within its plan
of operations—work which would greatly contribute to that extended
knowledge of the hydrography and conditions of life in the sea which
it is now the endeavour of combined nations to acquire. I cannot but
think that there are many yachtsmen who would willingly give their
assistance if they were only initiated into the work, and only realized
of what great importance scientific observations of this kind may be
Introductory 3
in helping to solve many problems of oceanography. This, though
a comparatively new science, practically dating only from the
memorable voyage of the Challenger in 1876, has to-day assumed
immense importance.
The scheme of work of international investigations has been well
set out by Mr. D’Arcy Thompson as of three parts—viz., hydro-
graphical researches, biological observations and experiments, and
statistical inquiries. The latter, of course, is not possible for the
independent worker, but the scope of the two former is well described
by Mr. Thompson in the following words: ‘It is laid down as
necessary that we should extend our very scanty knowledge as to the
phenomena of the sea itself, the distribution of its currents, the com-
position of its waters, and the changes that these factors undergo from
season to season, and from one year to another.... It is not merely
matter of surmise, but there is already evidence at hand to prove that
the normal distribution and regular movements of many fishes are
linked with these physical phenomena, and to indicate that hydrography
holds the clue to the wanderings of the shoals. Together with these
hydrographical problems goes the kindred study of the plankton—a
multitudinous floating life that is variously associated with particular
waters, and that serve as food for a variety of fish.’
The scientific yachtsman may contribute much valuable informa-
tion in this and many other directions which it is not necessary to
indicate here, and it is earnestly to be hoped that such may be induced
before long to enter practically into this great scheme of the study of
the sea.t
The great expeditions, such as those of the Challenger, National,
Valdivia, and many others, which have resulted in immense additions to
1 Professor O. Pettersson, Vice-President of the International Council for the
Investigation of the Sea, has suggested to me that an association of yacht-owners,
willing to devote part of their time to assistance in making observations at sea,
might be formed. Such an association should not be impossible, and I should be
willing to give the benefit of my experience to any who should be moved by
scientific enthusiasm to join in the work.
|—2
4 Introductory
our knowledge of oceanography and zoology, have been conducted
over large areas of space. There yet remain problems of vast interest
which ean best be solved by smaller expeditions working over smaller
areas and working continuously. Observations, for instance, which
can be taken month by month over a small selected area must yield
results of very great importance.
On these voyages the objects have been: (1) To take hydro-
graphical observations—i.e., records of the temperature of the water
from the surface to 1,000 fathoms (sometimes to 1,500 and 1,800
fathoms), along with collection of samples of water in a suitable
‘water-bottle’ from these depths. These are at once bottled (in glass
bottles) on board the ship, and at the termination of the cruise the
water is analyzed to determine the salinity. These analyses have
been carried out under the supervision of Dr. H. N. Dickson at
Oxford, and his reports are given below. During 1904, also, a great
many vacuum tubes were filled with water from various depths for
the subsequent analysis of the proportions of oxygen and carbonic
acid. These analyses, which have been made by Professor Pettersson
at Stockholm, have yielded results of great interest and importance.
(2) The collection of the plankton, or minute life of the sea, in fine
silk nets, which gives important results, besides assisting hydro-
graphy in determining the vertical and horizontal distribution of the
smaller animals and of plants, which, though in many cases actively
swimming, are in all cases more or less, and in some entirely, at the
mercy of oceanic currents, and which also results in the discovery of
many new species.
The circulation of the oceanic waters of the North Atlantic Ocean
and the causes of the same, which has been ascribed variously to
physical causes—viz., the heating of surface waters of the tropical
regions, and cooling of water in the Polar regions ; to the influence of
prevailing winds ; shortly and vigorously by Pettersson to the melting
of ice from the Polar regions
are matters for subsequent discussion.
It is thought better for the present merely to record in the pages
following the scientific observations which I have made from the
Introductory 5
Faeroe Islands to Madeira, the Azores, and the Straits of Gibraltar, the
bearing of which upon modern theories of the circulation of Atlantic
waters will be better dealt with later on.
For the purpose of scientific investigations of this kind, a brief
description of the appliances necessary may be given.
1. Water-bottles for the collection of samples of sea-water at
different depths. It matters little what form of bottle is used, pro-
vided only that the apparatus can be guaranteed to collect the sample
of water from a given area without admixture of water from any layer
above or below. On board the Challenger the apparatus im use was
the bottle devised by Buchanan, and which, notwithstanding ‘ improved °
forms of apparatus, is still quite sufficiently accurate for the purpose.
This is the form of ‘bottle’ which has been constantly used on board
the Silver Belle. When the work was first undertaken in the Faeroe
Channel, Mills’ water-bottle was used, and this is sufficiently useful
for moderate depths. Buchanan’s bottle, which is a larger apparatus,
carries a reversing thermometer on a frame attached to the cylinder.
It is lowered and raised on a wire reeled off a drum which carries
2,000 fathoms, and the hauling on board the drum, which is fixed on
a specially-made winch, is actuated by steam, as hand-hauling at such
depths would not be practicable. The water-bottles of Pettersson-
Nansen are much more elaborate, consisting of concentric tubes, with
the thermometer inside the tubes. In a new pattern, the outside
frame carries a reversing thermometer, ‘which may be used instead
of the deep-sea thermometer, or as a check on the results obtained
thereby. That the use of thermometers inside the lid of the water-
bottle is not considered absolutely essential by the International
Council is indicated by the remarks of Helland Hansen in the same
report :7 ‘On account of faults in the manufacture three of them’—
i.e., Nansen-Richter thermometers —‘ were broken during the August
cruise, so that at some stations we were obliged to use good ordinary
thermometers (with milk-glass scale), which were put into the water-
bottle after it had come up ondeck. As the temperature of the air
! Robertson, ‘ North Sea Investigations, p. 54. 2 Ibid., p. 3.
6 Introductory
did not differ very much from that of the water, we may neglect the
errors caused by this method.’
On hoard the Silver Belle we have always employed Miller-Casella
thermometers or Knudsen’s bulbs, and we have been very fortunate in
escaping accidents by breakages. The reversing thermometer is one
suppled by Negretti and Zambra, and this and the Miller-Casella
were found to vary only two or three tenths of a degree. The air
and surface-water temperatures were taken by a thermometer supplied
from the Plymouth Laboratory, made by Miller, Orme and Co., rising
from 9° C. to 36° C., and divided in tenths (compared with thermo-
meter 303 Richter, and verified at Charlottenburg). All our instruments
have been similarly verified. The depth is recorded by a wheelmeter
reading fathoms.
2. For the collection of plankton silk nets (of bolting silk 100 to
170 mesh) were employed, and as the desire was to collect the plankton
at definite depths, closing-nets have been always employed when
working below 100 fathoms. Closing-nets may be made to work
vertically, as in Fowler’s net,! or horizontally, as in Garstang’s and
the author’s nets. Opinions may be divided as to the relative
advantages of these two methods of fishing for plankton, but the
objection that a horizontally-towing net, which has to be towed at a
very gentle pace (with just sufficient way on the ship to keep her
barely moving), is never at the depth imagined loses force when it is
realized that a vertically-hauled net is so raised through a hundred or
more fathoms at each haul between the opening and closing. Besides
which it is probably of little importance in working in deep water
whether the net is, say, at 1,000 or 900 fathoms, and, moreover, the
accuracy of the observations is checked by appending to the net-frame
one or more thermometers. A reversing Negretti thermometer is
invariably attached to our nets when plankton-fishing, and as the
temperatures in the Atlantic at known depths are fairly constant, the
1 Dr. Fowler's net is described in the Proceedings of the Zoological Society. He
was kind enough to superintend the making of one for me, which we used very much
in the Faeroe Channel in 1903.
Introductory 7
reading of the thermometer gives a pretty accurate indication of the
precise depth at which the net has been. The net remains down
usually for fifteen minutes after the opening messenger has been sent
down, and is then closed and hauled up.
There are advantages about the use of a horizontally-towing net as
compared with one vertically actuated, in that the supposed depth is
more accurately located to within a few fathoms ; and again, that as
marine organisms usually move in shoals, a horizontal net is more
likely to capture them than a vertical net, which may pass by a
moving shoal, although it may capture a large amount of material by
passing through a large vertical excursus.
The chief object of these researches is to determine generally
what species are mesoplanktonic and epiplanktonic throughout a
portion or the whole of their existence, and to determine as far as
is possible the horizontal and vertical distribution of various species,
as far as regards their relation to bathymetrical and climatic con-
ditions.
The desideratum of a good and effectively opening and closing net
for deep-water work being great, the author and his skipper, Buchan
Henry, set to work to devise an apparatus of the kind which should
be effective in deep water; and the instrument which is described
briefly has been found to meet all requirements.
The inability to determine with absolute accuracy the depth at
which any net, either of vertical or horizontal pattern is working, of
course renders all real experimental work only approximate in its
results ; but I think it must be conceded that all open nets—i.e., nets
which are not designed to open and close by messengers or other
effective device at the supposed depth—can only be regarded as
inefficient in any problems of vertical distribution.'
1 Professor O. Pettersson attaches a small net to his current meter, so that water
samples, temperature, the velocity of the current, and a sample of the plankton of
the area can be taken at one and the same time. ‘Though very useful, Professor
Pettersson’s statement that this is the only accurate test yet devised for taking
reliable samples of plankton cannot be supported, the net being an open one with
no mechanism for closing.
8 Introductory
The worst of all nets of this kind is that the amount of plankton
captured is often very small, and it is only the smaller animals
which cannot escape, while larger beasts, endowed with great activity,
can avoid the snare ; but as Copepoda form the great bulk of the
plankton in deep water, and their distribution in relation to ocean
currents is perhaps the most important, these little crustacea are
captured in sufficient quantity by the horizontally-towed net.
As it may be of interest to some to describe how these operations
are conducted on a small sailing-vessel, I give a short description of
the disposal of apparatus and method of working on board ship.
A steam boiler is fixed under deck, and supplies motive power to
a capstan amidships, of the type generally employed on the larger
fishing vessels.
In series with this is a strongly-made winch, specially designed for
the purpose by Messrs. Bullivant and Co., which carries two drums,
one for 2,000 fathoms of wire for the closing-net and water-bottle,
ete., the other a smaller reel containing fine sounding-wire. The winch
is fitted with clutch and brake.
Thewire usedis of seven strands, galvanized, 17 gauge, 056” diameter,
each taking 520 pounds of strain, so that the total breaking strain is
about 2,800 pounds. There is a good deal of difference in wire, which
requires to be of the very best manufacture. Ina wire of less perfect
make, which we once had from Birmingham, the strands overrode
the central core, so that the wire was from the first useless, the
messenger refusing to descend beyond the obstruction caused by the
overriding of the wire.
In 1904 we used a wire of 16 gauge, also of seven strands, 2,000
fathoms, weighing 7 ewt., and with a diameter of -064”, and breaking
strain of nearly 4,000 pounds ; but although on one occasion in very
deep water we nearly lost the heavy closing-net through the breaking
of all the strands except one, caused by the riding up and down in an
exceptionally heavy sea, the lighter wire is sufficiently strong for
ordinary purposes. The fact is that heavy closing-nets should not be
used in a heavy sea-way. The risk is great, and the results obtained
Introductory 9
are usually very small; the violent jerking of the wire and net pre-
vents it turning and fishing properly, and throws a terrific strain upon
the whole, which is likely to lead to breaking away. On one occasion
in the Faeroe Channel we thus lost 120 fathoms of fine piano wire,
Garstang’s net, and two thermometers, a sudden strain causing the
wire to snap close to the surface.
All wire made by Messrs. Bullivant and Co. can be guaranteed to
be as near perfection as possible, and to stand any strain to which
such wire ought reasonably to be submitted.
From the winch the wire is led over a gun-metal wheel, to which
is attached an indicator which marks in fathoms the amount of wire
let out. From this wheel the wire is led over a running wheel at the
upper end of a stout spar, which is fixed at the bottom by a hook on
to the mainmast, and by a length of good manilla rope at the upper
end over a pulley again attached to the mast, and so arranged that the
spar can be readily swung out at the desired angle over the bulwarks
of the port or starboard side.
In comparatively shallow water—i.e., down to 500 fathoms—a
sounding is made with ordinary hand-line and sounding-lead, and a
sample of the bottom brought up and preserved ; in deep water the
hand-line is never used, the depth to which the water-bottle or heavy
closing-net is lowered being read off on the fathom-indicating wheel, a
preliminary sounding being generally made with the fine sounding-wire.
While it is impossible to work closing-nets with satisfaction in
rough sea-way, we have never found this an obstacle to the use of the
water-bottle, or temperature observations, and these observations were
therefore made when at sea with regularity daily, and throughout the
cruise from Valentia to the Azores, at distances of about fifty miles
apart.
Description or New Tow-Ner ror Derr Warerr.
During the 1903 and 1904 cruises we have used almost exclusively
the net figured below. With it considerably over 400 hauls were then
made from 50 to 2,000 fathoms, and it only failed to open or shut
at the right time on very few occasions, and then only when used in
2
10 Description of a New Tow-Net
conditions of sea and weather when no tow-net could be guaranteed
to act with satisfaction. On one occasion, at the end of a long cruise
(in 1903), one of the side-springs broke, but this was easily replaced
on board, and once, in 1904, when the net unfortunately had been
bumping against the floor of the sea, the central piston became bent,
and the weakening thus caused led to its breakage shortly afterwards.
This, however, was quickly repaired on board. The net is designed
to tow horizontally. As will be seen from the figure, it consists of
four detachable pieces: (1) The main cylinder, with arrangement at
the bottom for attaching weight, if necessary, and thermometers.
(2) Sliding down it a central piston which runs freely through the top
piece, enlarged at the bottom end that it may, when fully withdrawn,
catch upon the side-springs inserted inside the upper portion of the
main cylinder ; these springs are then pushed through the lateral slots,
and are designed to catch the arms of the net-frame and hold the
lower pair in position when the net is closed ready for lowering. The
upper portion of the central cylinder (detachable with the piston) has
strong lateral steel springs (we have found steel preferable to any
other metal for this purpose, and with proper attention it does not
rust), four in number. (3) A funnel-shaped top piece put on over the
top springs, and which receives the impact of the large closing
messenger. (4) The four arms of the net-frame, attached to short
metal tubes which slide freely over the main cylinder.
When the net is about to be used, the wire is run through the
piston and main cylinder and bent on to the device at the bottom (this
is cast In one piece with the main cylinder); the top piece is screwed
home on the main cylinder, the funnel pushed shghtly down, the arms
raised, and the piston drawn up, so that the lower pair of arms catch
on the smaller pair of side-springs in the main cylinder, which is
insured by raising the piston. By pushing down the funnel the upper
arms are caught on the four strong springs of the top piece, and they
are made secure by withdrawing the funnel a little. The net is then
ready, securely closed, for lowering. To open it under water, a small
messenger is sent down which strikes the top of the piston, drives it
down the cylinder, the lateral springs of which recede inside, and the
6 OLY
12 Description of a New Tow-Net
lower arms are released, fallmg to the bottom of the cylinder. To.
close it, a large messenger, the diameter of the funnel, strikes the
latter, drives it down, and, compressing the upper springs, the upper
arms are also released and fall to the bottom, and the net is securely
closed.
The three positions of the net—(1) ready closed for lowering,
(2) open as in towing, (3) closed ready for raismg—are shown in the
figures on p. 11.
The whole net-frame, from the top of the funnel to the bottom of
the cylinder, is 3 feet 4 inches long when the net is opened, and 3 feet
2 inches when the net has been shut. The outside diameter of the
main cylinder is 2 inches, and its length 2 feet 9$ inches ; the length
of the piston 20 inches ; the top of the funnel 4% inches diameter, and
the lower end, which fits over the main cylinder, 2% inches.
The fine silk (bolting silk) net is 5 feet 6 inches long, stitched on
to a leather border of 52 inches length, which is attached to the frame.
Conical in shape, at the end it is only 6 inches diameter, and in order
to prevent maceration of the captured specimens, which occurs in the
ascent of the net by the friction of the sides falling together, I have
for long used a cane hoop sewn into the net a little way before the
end, which serves to keep the end of the net open, and has proved to
be markedly advantageous to the preservation of the specimens. As
silk nets are apt to get torn, and not unfrequently have burst under
the pressure, we have also for long now used the protective covering
of a duck-bag, inside which the silk net is freely suspended. This has
effected a great saving in silk nets.
This net-frame was made for me by the eminent engineers
Messrs. Bullivant and Co., of London, who expended much time and
experiment in the construction of the models, and produced a net-
frame of perfect workmanship. The simplicity of the apparatus, and
its accuracy in opening and shutting under water, leave nothing to be
desired. I have endeayoured to give a description of the net without
overloading it with technical details, but a more accurate (from an
engineer's point of view) description can be readily obtained from the
specification drawn up by Messrs. Bullivant and Co.
EXTRACTS FROM THE LOGS OF THE CRUISES IN THE
FAEROEK CHANNEL, 1899—1902.
Tur Walwin is a little cutter of thirty-six tons, originally built at
Saleombe, and was first devoted by. me to scientific work in 1899.
Manned by a crew of Shetlanders, than whom there are no finer
seamen in the world, she cruised round Shetland from October, 1899,
to June, 1900, visiting four stations, referred to afterwards as L., II.,
IT., IV., once a month, taking temperatures, collecting water samples
(part of the time), and dredging and collecting plankton. From the
first Buchan Henry has been in charge of the apparatus used on
board the Walwin and on the Si/ver Belle, in the later more extended
cruises ; and probably there are few who have acquired a more
intimate knowledge of the conduct of such observations on board a
sailing-ship than he. In July, 1900, the little Wahvin made her first
trip to Faeroe, revisiting some of the stations in August of that year.
In 1901 she made other cruises to Faeroe, in May and June, and revisited
some stations in the Faeroe Channel in July. In 1902 she crossed the
Faeroe Channel in May, June, and July, and revisited some stations in
August. It would be tedious to reproduce the ship’s log of these
passages ; but all who know this region will admit that pitching about
the Faeroe Channel in a little 56-ton boat is not the pleasantest of
experiences, and it needs determination as well as scientific enthusiasm
to conduct observations under these conditions. The work was
especially arduous, because there was no room for steam to assist
haulage in such a small vessel ; consequently everything had to be
done by willing hands. As an example of the kind of weather some-
times met with round Shetland in the winter-time, the following brief
extract from the log may be taken :
13 2—2
14 The Cruises in the Faeroe Channel, 1899—1902
January 6, 1900.—Strong gale.
January 9.—A storm from the north-west, and very heavy sea, the
steamer from Aberdeen to Scalloway being twenty-four hours overdue.
January 27.—Squalls, with rain and snow.
February 3.—The ship kept several hours in Blue Mull Sound by
snowstorm.
February 5.—Strong gale; both anchors down all night in Culi Voe.
Thermometer 26° F.
February 8.—Snowstorm with frost.
February 11.—Strong breeze and snowstorm ; two anchors down.
February 16.—A storm, with snow, began at 12 last night (the
ship at anchor in Scalloway Bay); at 2 a.m. a hurricane, the ship
dragging both anchors; at 6 a.m. she ceased to drag any farther, but
at 8 a.m. there was a full hurricane, nearly every ship in the harbour
dragging anchors, and three ships ashore ; impossible to see twenty
yards for blinding snow ; force of hurricane increased till 10 a.m., the
small boat towing astern having her bows completely smashed in.
February 17.—6 am. some improvement, but still a whole gale
with snow. The steamer St. Giles, from Aberdeen, came into Sceallo-
way with her deck badly smashed, the bridge and all boats gone.
February 18.—A strong gale.
February 21.—Strong gale from north-east, with snow showers.
March 1.—Snow.
March 2.—A gale from north-north-east.
March 9.—A gale from north-west.
March 19.—A gale from north.
March 25.—Whole gale north-east to north, with snow.
April 6.—Strong gale from south-east.
April 30.—Whole gale from south-west, with sleet.
July 5.—Left for Faeroe, but had to put back again.
July 10,—Double-reefed mainsail and storm-jib.
July 12.—-Split mainsail in two places.
July 14.—Thick mist and almost calm; had to tow the ship to
within one mile of Thorshaven. From 15th to 18th lying at Thorshaven
with thick mist all the time.
The Cruises in the Faeroe Channel, 1899—1902 15
July 20.—Left Thorshaven with light wind and calm sea.
July 21.—Fresh breeze which increased, at night necessitating
double reef in mainsail, and small jib.
July 22.—Wind less and reefs shaken out ; heavy rain.
July 23.—Early on fresh breeze, increasing, so that at 8 p.m. it
was necessary to reef the mainsail.
July 24.—Double reefs.
On August 16 Mr. Hodgson, who had been appointed biologist to
the Antarctic ship Discovery, left Orkney on board the Walwin to
visit some stations in the Faeroe Channel and gain some experience
before leaving for his long Antarctic cruise. After leaving Scalloway
on August 21, the ship was twice put back to Hillswick, but August 24
opened absolutely calm. However, by 2 p.m. the wind was rising, and
at 10 p.m. the mainsail was double-reefed and storm-jib set. For
twenty-four hours the bad weather continued, and the ship was put
back to Hillswick for the third time. The 27th and 28th August
were fine, and station A2 was reached, after which the ship returned
to Scalloway.
During the cruises of 1901, the month of June was marked by
several strong gales, so that from the 18th to the 21st the mainsail
was continuously double-reefed.
In 1901, the Walwin left Scalloway on May 13 for Faeroe; on
May 14 was compelled to return to Snaraness by stress of weather.
Leaving onthe 20th, and for two days under double-reefed mainsail, she
arrived at Thorshaven on May 22. Thenfrom May 23 to 27 was calm
weather, with fog of varying thickness, bright sunshine, and calm
on the 28th. Having left Thorshaven on the 29th, on the 30th double
reefs were required again, and it was necessary to run back for shelter
to Trangasvaag. May 31, strong gales; June 1, terrific squalls, riding
with both anchors out ; June 2, strong gales, at noon the wind dying
away, to a light breeze at 6.30 p.m.; on the 4th and Sth reefed sails
and strong gales, anchoring the same day in Scalloway.
On June 18, again leaving Scalloway, for two days with haze and
strong breeze ; on the 21st was the first day of anything like summer
16 The Cruises in the Faeroe Channel, 1899—1902
weather, and the first time for three days the reefs could be shaken
out of the sails. By evening double reefs were required again! On
the 22nd, while working in a beavy swell, the wire snapped, and the
Garstang closing-net, 2 thermometers and 120 fathoms of wire, went
to the bottom of the Faeroe Channel. There was nothing to do,
therefore, but to return to Scalloway.
Leaving Scalloway on July 3 with a new net, the 4th and 5th were
calm ; the 7th, under reefed sails, Thorshaven was reached in a whole
gale. From the Sth to the 11th with rain, fog and gales, anchored in
Thorshaven. Leaving on the 13th in a light breeze, double reefs were
not shaken out again until entering Scalloway on the 18th.
These brief extracts from the log of the Walwin for 1900 and 1901
show what sort of weather is to be expected in this region even in
summer, and the painfully difficult conditions under which work has
to be conducted. I therefore replaced the little Walwin by a larger
ship, the Silver Belle (130 tons), which, having been built on North
Sea fishing-ketch lines, I refitted as a yacht, putting on board a steam
‘apstan to perform the haulage.
The Silver Belle left Scalloway on May 15 for Thorshaven, the
weather being very much the same as the Walwin experienced the
previous years—viz., strong gales, requiring sails reefed Lying in
Thorshaven Harbour from the 24th, no communication was possible
with the shore for three whole days.
May 27, after leaving Thorshaven, sails had to be reefed again,
and the ship run back for Trangasvaag for shelter, and next day one
trawler, four smacks, and H.M.S. Bellona had sought the same refuge.
On the 29th the whole land was covered with snow. Leaving this
anchorage on May 30, with course set for the Butt of Lewis, double
reefs were required next day. On June 1, sounding on 400 fathoms,
a sharp swell and the riding of the ship caused the line to break, and
400 fathoms and the 28-pound lead were lost. On June 3 the ship
was brought to anchor in Stornoway, for two days previously all sails
close-reeted.
The Cruises in the Faeroe Channel, 1899—1902 17
The second cruise from Scalloway to Faeroe was started on June 18
after a week of continuous gales. For three days after leaving sails
were double-reefed, and it required forty-eight hours of dodging round
Station A2 before it was safe to venture any apparatus out. Faeroe
was reached on June 22, and Scalloway again on the 50th, after three
days at Thorshaven. The third cruise was commenced on July 8,
double reefs again necessary, and on the 10th running back to
St. Magnus Bay for shelter. Thorshaven was reached on the 17th,
and Scalloway again on the 23rd.
The ‘summer’ weather of 1902 was but a repetition of that of
1901. The hydrographical observations made on these cruises are
dealt with later on by Dr. H. N. Dickson.
Station
El.
Station
2.
Station
3.
THE CRUISE OF 1903 FROM VALENTIA TO THE FAEROE
BANKS AND ORKNEY.
On June 10, 1903, the Silver Belle left Valentia with a light breeze
from north-east, overcast sky, and falling barometer, and a swell at
sea growing bigger, with increasing wind. On reaching the station
in Lat. 51° 56’ N., Long. 11° 21’ W., the weather was really too bad for
work. A sounding gave 120 fathoms, with a bottom temperature of
10:2° C. Bad weather continued through the night, but improved
at daylight next day, and settled down into a fine, warm day, and,
sounding in 130 fathoms, the closing-net was put down to 125 and
then 60 fathoms, getting a lot of stuff at each haul. Water samples
were also taken.
Sailing and drifting about thirty-three miles west by north during
the night, as daylight came the wind and sea grew worse. At 4 a.m.,
sounding with wire and a 56-pound lead, bottom was struck at 560
fathoms, the line ‘plumb’ straight, the position being Lat. 51° 467,
Long. 12° 15’. The closing-net was put down, which, with wire
and 56-pound weight attached to the bottom of the frame, weighed
over 2 ewt.; the line stood quite straight, and hauls were made
from 550, 400, 500, 200, and 100 fathoms, and water samples at
every 100 fathoms from 500. The weather completely breaking,
and sea and wind growing gradually worse, work in deep water was
almost out of the question. The ship was therefore put back to
Valentia to wait for an improvement. There she remained until
June 18, when a start was again made for deep water. Twenty
miles west of the Skelligs it came on to blow hard, with a falling
barometer, and this continued all the next day (Friday), but Saturday
fell quite calm, and the consequence of this was that the ship never
18
Cruise of 1903 from Valentia to the Faeroe Banks and Orkney 19
got beyond the 100-fathom line until Sunday, June 21, when the
position Lat. 51° 34’ N., Long. 12° 30’ W., was reached. All day the
wind blew hard from the south, and the vacht dodged all day and
night with sails reefed. At 4 a.m. on Monday, the weather having
considerably moderated, a sounding gave 725 fathoms. The closing-
net was used at 700 fathoms and each 100 fathoms above it. For
the next thirty-six hours the weather was very dirty, but on June 24
the ship was hove to, the wind having dropped, in Lat. 51° 00’ N.,
Long. 11° 32’ W., and a sounding gave 375 fathoms. The closing-net
was used down to 300 fathoms.
After a course of 20 miles west-north-west, the ship was hove to all
night, and at 5 a.m. on June 24 a sounding was taken in Lat. 51° 00,
Long. 12° 00’, giving 980 fathoms. With such a heavy sea the
closing-net, put down to 900 fathoms, though with a perfectly ‘ plumb’
line, captured nothing, and only water samples were taken from
900 fathoms to the surface. Two of the thermometers to-day were
rendered useless, one having the end broken off and the other coming
up with the mereury above the dex. The glass falling, and every-
thing looking as unpromising as possible for work, the ship was put
back to Valentia.
On July 5 another useless attempt was made to work a deep-water 7%
station ; after dodging round for three days with strong gales and
heavy sea, a sounding gave 1,030 fathoms and a bottom temperature
of 4-4° the position, Lat. 50° 56’ N., Long. 12° 6’ W. With a double-
reefed mainsail, storm-jib and reefed foresail and double-reefed mizzen,
the ship pitched about all might with a very heavy swell from the north.
Next morning, July 6, the wind dropped, and in the same position the
closing-net was put down to 1,000 fathoms, bringing up quite a decent
haul, then to 700, 500, 300, 200, and 100, all very successful. The
triangle net, put down with 120 fathoms of rope in front of the net, a
16-pound lead, and 1,000 fathoms of wire, brought up about 2 ewt.
of chalky ooze from the bottom, with nothing in it but a few shells.
The closing-net brought up in the 500-fathom haul a lovely specimen
of Acanthopyra sica (vel Agassizi).
Station
E4.
Station
E5.
Station
oy
Station
Station
E8.
Station
9, 10,
1].
Station
E12.
Station
E13.
20 Cruise of 1903 from Valentia to the Faeroe Banks and Orkney
Running thirty-four miles during the night with a south-south-
west wind, at 4 a.m., July 7, the ship was hove-to in Lat. 51° 30’ N.,
Long. 12° 00’ W. A sounding gave 616 fathoms, bottom stones and
sand; the closing-net was used at 600, 500, 300, 200, and 100 fathoms,
and water samples taken from 600, 300, ete., fathoms.
On July 8, the position being Lat. 52° 00’ N., Long. 12° 00° W.,
depth 255 fathoms, with a bottom of fine grey sand, the closing-net
and water-bottle were used.
On July 9, Lat. 53° 30’ N., Long. 12° 00° W., a sounding
gave 150 fathoms. Stations 10 and 11 were in shallow water
respecting Lat. 53° 00’ N., Long. 11° 56’ W., depth 100 fathoms,
and Lat. 53° 30’ N., Long. 12° 00’ W., depth 150 fathoms. Both
were worked with closing-net and water-bottle, and on the same
day in Lat. 54° 00’ N., Long. 12° 00’ W., a depth of 205 fathoms.
At both stations the closingnet and water-bottle were used as
usual.
At midnight of July 9 the position Lat. 54° 30’ N., Long. 12° 00°
W., was reached, and, double reefing the sails, although the wind was
light, so as to make as little leeway as possible, a sounding gave 1,608
fathoms, with a bottom of grey ooze. A thick fog, with light breeze
from west-south-west, turned to heavy rain. The net was put down
to 1,600 fathoms, and brought some stuff in it, though not very much,
and also at 1,000 fathoms, and at 800 and 600 fathoms good hauls.
At 400 fathoms it contained a very fine specimen of Phronomopsis
sedentaria. The hauls at 300, 200, and 100 fathoms were good. In
all these hauls, the weather being favourable, the sounding- wire was
perfectly ‘plumb,’ and the heavy wire and closing-net almost entirely
so. Water samples were taken at 1,500 fathoms and upwards.
Having drifted somewhat eastwards, the water-bottle struck bottom
at 1,500 fathoms, and in the subsequent haul at 1,300 fathoms it again
struck bottom, bringing up mud and ooze along with the water.
Evidently there was here a very steep bank. During this time the
ship was drifting a quarter of a mile per hour. At 1,100 fathoms
there was no bottom.
Cruise of 1903 from Valentia to the Faeroe Banks and Orkney 21
ee : ‘ : - Stati
A light north-west wind carried the ship to the next station ai
at 8 p.m. on July 11, and at daylight, July 12, the position was Lat.
54° 50° N., Long. 12°00’ W. On this and some subsequent occasions a
Massey’s sounding-machine was used, and compared with the fathom-
counter. The former struck bottom and registered 1,737 fathoms,
the latter only 1,577 fathoms. Massey’s machine was evidently not
reliable in deep water. The closing-net put down to 1,000 fathoms
brought up a small quantity of stuff, and at 700 and 500 fathoms
about the same. From 400 fathoms the net was used at each
100 fathoms to the surface. Towards evening the ship had drifted
about a dozen miles, consequently the night was spent in beating to
windward to get back to the position, and at 4.30 a.m. on July 13 the
ship was hove to, and water samples were taken from 1,500 fathoms
upwards. The work at this station occupied two full days.
Before the next station was reached, on July 16, four days had {tion
been spent with very dirty weather and very bad sea with a heavy
cross swell, impossible to work satisfactorily. The position was
Lat. 55° 17’ N., Long. 12° 28" W., and bottom was struck at 1,561
fathoms. Massey’s machine gave 1,645 fathoms, and the probable
explanation of this discrepancy is that after Massey’s machine touches
the bottom, the ship rolling heavily, and the winch not being quick
enough to stop the lead from sinking a little with every roll, the
machine keeps registering, and the more the number of rolls and the
greater the length of time before the machine is hauled on board, the
greater the amount registered. A very simple device would cause the
machine to lock directly it struck bottom, and then it would be useful
and reliable. The water-bottle was put down to 1,500, 1,300, 1,100, and
every 100 fathoms to the surface. The work occupied fifteen hours.
During the night the ship had sailed about seven miles east-south-east
to make up for the driftage of the day and get back to the position,
and at 6 am. on July 17 she was hove to, and with a very fine
morning, and very light breeze from north-east, and a long, gentle
swell, the closing-net was put down to 1,000 fathoms and towed for
twenty minutes, and brought up a good haul, chiefly Copepoda. The
Station
HIG.
Station
17.
Station
E18.
Station
KL.
Station
2
Station
F3.
Station
4,
Station
BS.
22. Cruise of 1903 from Valentia to the Faeroe Banks and Orkney
hauls at 800, G00, £400, 800, 200, and 100 fathoms were all good. The
day was very favourable for tow-netting, the line standing almost
straight.
On July 19 the position was Lat. 55° 47” N., Long. 10° 12’ W.,
and depth by sounding 1,525 fathoms. Heaving to, the closing-net
was sent down to 1,000, 700, 500, 400, 800, and 100 fathoms, and water
samples were taken.
Sailing all night to north and east with leht wind, the position on
July 20 was Lat, 56° 11’ N., Long. 9° 50’ W., and depth by sounding
875 fathoms. The closing-net was put down to 820, 700, and 600
fathoms. At the latter haul was obtained a fine specimen of Gnatho-
phausia zowa, who with his strong spines had torn the net ito shreds
for about 6 inches in fighting to escape. Hauls were also taken at
500, 400, 800, 200, and 100 fathoms.
On July 21, at 6 am., after a dirty might of wind and rain
from the south, the ship was hove to in position Lat. 56° 37’ N.,
Long. 9° 48’ W., in 912 fathoms by sounding, but there was too
much sea for successful tow-netting though the attempt was made at
800, 600, 500, and 400 fathoms, so a course was set for Stornoway, in
the Hebrides.
On August 4, in Lat. 58° 24° N., Long. 8° 30’ W., the depth was
110 fathoms, and after a vertical haul with the silk net, the vessel
proceeded to the next station, Lat. 58° 45° N., Long. 8° 35’ W., depth
342 fathoms, and the closimg-net and water-bottle were used at 300,
200, and 100 fathoms.
On August 6, in position Lat. 59° 18’ N., Long. 8° 30’ W., the
depth 841 fathoms, closing-net and water-bottle were used from
800 fathoms up, and with afresh wind from north-west, way was made
for the next station, reached at 2 a.m. on August 7, Lat. 59° 54’ N.,
Long. 8° 42’ W., depth 720 fathoms, and closing-net and water-bottle
were used from 700 fathoms upwards.
On August 8, Lat. 60° 29’ N., Long. 8° 30’ W., and depth
194 fathoms, after using closing-net and water-bottle the wind began
to rise very fast, and a dirty sky and rapidly falling barometer
Crise of 1903 from Valentia to the Faeroe Banks and Orkney 23
presaging a ‘duster’ from the east, way was made for the next station,
which was reached at 4a.m. on August 9, The situation was on the
‘aeroe Bank, Lat. 60° 41’ N., Long, 8° 50’ W., depth 75 fathoms, and
while using the water-bottle one of the crew amused himself by
‘atchine two yery laree cod with hand-line, The weather still
stormy and sea very bad, with low barometer, it was thought better to
run into Thorshaven, especially as a few ‘odds and ends’ were required.
This port was reached at 10 p.m. on Aueust 10, leaving the Bank at
4am. the same day,
Leaving Thorshaven on August 12 with a fine and calm day,
which prevented rapid progress, on the 13th, at 8 a.m, the Munk Rocks
were passed, and at 4 p.m. the position Lat. 61° 1’ N,, Long, 7° 42’ W,,
gave a depth by sounding of 475 fathoms, the depth being surprising,
as much shallower water was expected here. However, it proved not
to be a hole, but to continue for at least 6 miles in a northerly direc-
tion, and may have extended farther, but was not explored, ‘The
bottom temperatures showed it to be in the cold area (—0°5° at 460
fathoms, 00° at 420, 2°4° at 300, 66° at 200, 8:1° at 100, 10°7° at
surface ; air temperature 11:0°).
On August 14, in Lat. 60° 30’ N., Long, 7° 47’ W., the depth
547 fathoms, and still in the cold area (bottom temperature —0'8 ; at
400 fathoms 1:0°; 300, 53°; 200, 81°; 100, 86°; surface 11:4°,
air 11°), the closing-net and water-hottle were used as usual, With a
falling barometer, reefed mainsail and mizzen at 10 p.m. it was
blowing a gale and raining in torrents, necessitating double reefs in
mainsail and mizzen and a reef in the foresail, Hove to, the ship
rode it out, lying to, as the skipper expressed it, ‘like a duck.’
Next day, August 17, was fine, though the sea was heavy, and in
Lat, 60° 17 N. and Long. 6° 4’ W., depth 580 fathoms, the temperature
of the bottom was only —1:0° ; at 500 fathoms—0°5° ; at 400,—0°)° ;
Ae00 4 3 at 200, s'3° # at 100, X42 5 Ine AAO)
Hauls were also made with the closing-net, and sail was then made
* surface 11°6°
for Orkney, and on August 20 the ship was brought to her
anchorage in Swanhbister Bay, thus terminating the cruise of 1903.
Station
KG,
Station
V7,
Station
V8,
Station
9,
24 Cruise of 1903 from Valentia to the Faeroe Banks and Orkney
Although the closing-net was used many times, and numerous
water samples were taken on this cruise, the weather could not be
said to have been favourable for work, being frequently very stormy,
and with but few fine days. This, though interfering with work
with the closing-net, did not hinder the collection of a continuous
series of temperature observations or the collection of water samples
from deep water.
EXTRACTS FROM THE LOG OF THE 1904 CRUISE.
Tne first station visited in 1904, on June 20, was situated in Lat. Station 1.
50° 57’ N. and Long. 11° 41’ W., within a few miles of Station K6
of 1903. After leaving Newhaven (Sussex) on June 10, three very
fine and calm days were experienced, and on the fourth day the Lizard
was passed, with a fine breeze from the south-west. When nearing Cape
Clear, on June 14, a very severe storm sprang up, accompanied with
a very heavy sea; at 6 oclock it was necessary to take in a single
reef, and at 9 a double reef, and heave to. On June 16 the sea was
so bad as to necessitate running into Bantry Bay for shelter. This
weather lasted until the 17th. Moderating on the 18th, but with the
wind still fresh, the ship proceeded to sea again at 9 p.m., and after
running by the patent log 133 miles, an attempt was made to work the
station. A sounding gave 858 fathoms, with a bottom of globigerina
ooze. As soon as it was possible to do any work, the closing-net was
put down to 800 fathoms, and a very fair haul was made, followed by
hauls at 600, 400, 200, 100, and 50 fathoms, a fair amount of stuff being
obtamed at each haul, and temperature observations at the same
depth. Leaving this station at 6 p.m., Station 2, Lat. 50° 25’ N., Station 2.
Long. 12° 38’ W., was reached at 4 a.m.on June 21, and the wind and
sea having moderated, though leaving a strong swell, the closing-net
was put down to 1,200 fathoms, 1,000, 700, 300, and 100 fathoms, and
fair hauls obtained. Temperatures were also taken, and samples for
gas analysis.
Here it was found that the new engine, put on board at consider-
able trouble and delay, failed. When 500 fathoms of wire were out,
an experimental trial was made to raise the closing-net. Failure
necessitated hauling on board by hand with such help as could be got
25 4
Station 3.
Station 4.
26 Extracts from the Log of the 1904 Cruase
from the steam-winch. This took four hours to accomplish. Hence-
forth the old steam capstan and winch were therefore employed, and
the net lowered to 1,200 fathoms. The raising on board by this
means only occupied forty minutes. For the rest of the cruise being
compelled to use the old tackle, limited the depth at which it could be
employed to 1,600 fathoms. This was very annoying, as it was con-
fidently hoped before starting that we should be able to make tow-net
observations down to 2,000 fathoms; but it would have delayed the
cruise too long to return to land for repairs and new appliances.
Water and gas samples were also taken at this station.
On June 23, 1904, in position Lat. 49° 50’ N., Long. 13° 31’ W., the
tow-net was used down to 600 fathoms, the lowest depth at which it was
possible to work the net satisfactorily. A fresh breeze having sprung
up, with a falling barometer and a westerly wind, it was a case of beating
to windward all night, and at 4 a.m., on June 24, the next station, in
Lat, 49° 0’ N. and Long. 14° 36’ W., was reached, and the net lowered to
1,000 fathoms. While it was down the wind shifted to south-west, and
the ship rolling hadly in the trough of the sea, the net came up again with
a kink in the wire at 35 fathoms above the frame. This had evidently
occurred after the opening messenger had gone down, as the net was
open, and the closmg messenger was stopped by the kink in the wire.
Taking out the kink, the net was again lowered to 1,000 fathoms, and
this time came up with a kink in the same place, and both messengers
arrested in it. The net had therefore never opened, and it was
necessary to cut off the 35 fathoms below the kink. Incidentally it
furnished evidence of the perfection of the opening and closing
arrangements. From 4 a.m. to 10 a.m. was, therefore, so much
wasted time, but a third attempt to use the net at 1,000 fathoms was
rewarded by success. As there was a good deal of swell in the sea,
not much came up in the net. Put down again to 800 fathoms, this
time on raising it the cod end of the silk net was split, and all the
contents had escaped. After repairing, it was sent down to the same
depth, and this time the haul was successful. Hauls at 600, 400, and
200 fathoms were all that could now be done in deep water, the wind
i)
~~
Extracts from the Log of the 1904 Cruise
having backed to south and freshening, along with rain, which came
down very heavily at last.
After a dirty night of rain and a heavy sea, at 6 a.m. the next Station 5.
station was reached in Lat. 48° 27’ N., Long. 15° 38’ W. It was 8 a.m.
before the wind and sea had moderated enough to allow of work com-
mencing. Then the water-bottle was lowered to 1,570 fathoms, and
seven water samples and fourteen samples for gas analysis were
taken, and the closing-net was put down to 1,400 fathoms. It took
fifty minutes to haul it up again, and it had opened and shut quite
satisfactorily.
Continuing the course through the night, Station 6,in Lat. 48° 12’ N_, Station 6.
Long. 16° 26’ W., was reached, and the ship laid to at 8 a.m., only
30 miles from the last station, and with the sea rather rough and a
long, heavy swell from the west, the closing-net was lowered to
1,500 fathoms. Hauling up occupied an hour, and though the net
appeared to have worked quite properly, there was very little in it. A
second attempt at the same depth was no more successful, the entire
contents being a few Copepoda and a small Medusa. It was then
lowered to 1,200 fathoms and towed for fifteen minutes, with no better
result. At 900 fathoms there was a little more, and at 700 fathoms
a similar result; at 500 fathoms the haul was much better, and at
400 fathoms it was very successful. The unsuccessful results of the
hauls from 500. to 1,500 fathoms were probably due to the heavy
swell, which, causing the net to ride up and down, is unfavourable for
tow-netting. That the net had been at the proper depths was indicated
by the temperatures of the thermometers attached to the frame, viz.,
FO 0prathomensolOn ml 000 moron oO 0NA42 aCe 700 6:42 CO:
HOO, Sra CL 2 ak00), Sezk2 OL 8 OO), Mew Ce LOO, Ope Cae 0, ee (6)
On June 28, 1904, Station 7 was reached at Lat. 47° 28’ N., Long. Station 7.
17° 07’ W., after a long beat to windward, with thick fog and a very
heavy westerly swell ; and after waiting hove-to for some hours in hopes
that wind and sea would go down, an attempt was made to use the
tow-net. After having lowered to 1,500 fathoms, and commencing to
heave up, the flange on the winch, which keeps the wire on the drum,
4.— 2,
Station 8.
Station 9.
28 Extracts from the Log of the 1904 Cruise
suddenly gave way. In danger of losing the whole tackle, the device
was hit upon by Buchan Henry of winding a length of stout rope on
the drum of the winch and driving some long spikes through the rope
into the drum. This saved the situation, which for a few minutes was
serious, the loss of 1,500 fathoms of wire, the heavy closing-net, and a
couple of thermometers being too dreadful to contemplate. However,
the device succeeded admirably, and the net, when hauled up, was
found to contain a good haul ; at 1,000 fathoms the haul was similarly
successful. At 700 fathoms there was not much taken in the net, and
the temperature at this depth was 1° C. colder than at any of the
stations of corresponding depth previously worked; at 500 and
400 fathoms the hauls were very poor—scarcely anything in the net—
and the temperature was also below normal; and at 200 and
100 fathoms the hauls were of no value. This station is 360 miles
and all the time the wind was
from the starting-place—viz., Ireland
right ahead, except for one day. On June 29, after a long beat to
windward, at noon, the position was found to be Lat. 46° 40’ N., Long.
LOS Wis
much too bad for work with the closing-net, but water samples were
collected from 1,200 fathoms upwards. The water-bottle can be used
far enough to the south, but not to the west. The sea was
when it would be fruitless or folly to attempt work with the closing-
nets. The thermometer showed that at this station the cold wedge of
water previously referred to had been left behind, the temperature at
1,200 fathoms being 3°8°C.; at 900, 5:0° C. ; at 600, 9:0° C. ; at 200,
OB? Cy 3 exe OO, lo) Cr
Just after finishing the last station a gale sprang up from west-north-
west, which lasted for three days, and the ship lay close-reefed until
on July 2, in Lat. 45° 6’ N., Long. 18° 14” W., at 4 a.m. the sea had
moderated sufficiently to permit the resumption of work. The closing-
net was therefore put down to 1,500 fathoms, but when hauled up
contained nothing ; at 1,200 fathoms there was a good haul, and at
1,000 fathoms a smaller haul than the last. At $00 fathoms the haul was
very good, although the temperature was very low, over 1° C. less than
at the corresponding depth at any previous station. At 600 fathoms
Extracts from the Log of the 1904 Cruse 29
the haul was good, the temperature being about 2° C. below normal.
At 500 fathoms the temperature had risen 1°5° C. in 100 fathoms.
Before noon rain commenced to fall in torrents, but at noon an
observation showed the ship to be just 100 miles south-west of the
last station (June 29). At 400 and 200 fathoms the hauls were
unsuccessful ; at the former depth the net was found to have turned
inside out.
At 4 a.m. on July 3 Station 10 was reached in Lat. 44° 41’ N.,
Long. 19° 08’ W., after a dirty night of wind and rain, necessitating
reduction of canvas. From 4 a.m. to 8 a.m. it was impossible to do
any work, the ship being simply hove to, but at 8 am., with the
weather a little better, the water-bottle was lowered to 1,500 fathoms,
and samples were taken at that depth, also 1,300, 1,100, 900, 700, 500,
300, and 100 fathoms. Work with the closing-net was impossible.
With the exception of one fine day at Station 2, the sea had
been unfavourable since the commencement of the cruise for tow-
netting.
With a light, fair wind during the night, and the sea gradually
subsiding, a passage of fifty miles was made, and Station 11, in
Lat. 44° 13’ N., Long. 20° 05’ W., was reached, and work commenced
by lowering the closing-net to 1,500 fathoms at 8 a.m. With the most
favourable conditions the net did not capture much plankton at this
depth, nor at 1,200 fathoms, but the haul at 1,000 fathoms was good,
also at 800, 600, 400, 200, and 100 fathoms. The weather on this day
was perfect, a light northerly breeze and gentle swell. With a very light
westerly breeze throughout the night, progress was slow, and at noon
on July 5 the position was only thirty-four miles from the last station.
The weather still being all that could be desired, it was decided to take
serial temperatures down to 2,000 fathoms, and consequently the ship
Station
10.
Station
1
was hove to (Station 12) in Lat. 44° 5’ N., Long. 20° 34’ W. The Seton
observations were as follows:
Station
1G}
Station
14.
30 Extracts from the Log of the 1904 Cruise
Temperature of air=17°6° C,
Temperature at— | Temperature at
Op kathona eee Os Oa @e 900 fathoms MIE
PR) NINOS san IO" CG. | WAOOO 4, 39°C
50) ng tne
: els tae ee ard | Sil Se aie
Gettysburg Bank... ( 2 | W.N.W. 30 WES) TSSOP
Wei BO? BIN, oon 4 30 W.S.W. 34 12:2 144°
Long. 11°55’ W.... |) 50 S.W. 48:2 | 15-4 143°
The surface current over the Gettysburg Bank appears to work
round a circle, running longer south-west and north-east than it does
in any other course.
The Log of the Cruise of 1905—1906 49
Bottom at this spot was at 55 fathoms depth, and rocky. The
Gettysburg Bank is unsuitable for trawling; everywhere under
100 fathoms rocks occur, in which a trawl is certain sooner or later to
be lost. Outside 100 fathoms the water deepens very fast.
March 10,
1906.
Straits of
Gibraltar.
After leaving the Bank, a fine breeze from south-west soon brought
the ship off Cape St. Vincent ; then, veering round to east, a gale
sprang up, lasting that night and all the next day, necessitating three
reefs in the mainsail. Making for the old Station 42 in the mouth of
the Straits, the anchor was dropped in 170 fathoms on March 10, the
day being fine and sea quite smooth ; but the current was altogether
too strong for the current meter, the wire standing away aft, as if the
ship were going before a fair breeze of wind. At 2 fathoms depth,
the time allowed between opening and shutting was six minutes, and
the number of turns 825 per minute, giving a result far beyond any-
thing in Professor Pettersson’s tables. At depths below 2 fathoms
the apparatus could not be made to work at all, and it is evident that
in a current like that passing through the Straits of Gibraltar no good
result can be got out of it as at present devised. It was quite hard
work getting the anchor in again, especially as it had taken a very
strong hold on the bottom.
Leaving Gibraltar on March 17 with a fair wind, by evening it was
blowing very strong, and three reefs were necessary. On the 19th, March 1%
1906.
when off Cape St. Vincent (south-east, twenty miles), the trawl was gi [?°
put down in 300 fathoms, when the wind dropped almost to calm ; con- “"™*
sequently the haul was very poor, containing, however, one perfect
specimen of Chauliodus Sloanii, comparatively rare. Next day,
March 20, the trawl was put out in 280 fathoms, twenty miles south
by east from Cape St. Vincent. The sea was very rough, and, after
towing for an hour, it had to be hauled up in consequence of the strong
wind and sea. The chief captures were Macrurus celorynchus and
M. levis, and a couple of Nephrops norwegicus. March 21 and 22 M2eh?t.
were very stormy, twenty-two miles south-south-east of Lagos Bay, O'S"
but on the 23rd it was possible to put the trawl out again in 400
fathoms, when, after trawling for an hour, the wind freshened so con-
7
50 The Log of the Cruase of 1905—1906
siderably that the trawl had to be hauled up as quickly as possible ; and
with three reefs in the mainsail, double-reefed foresail, and storm-jib,
the ship was put towards land to seek shelter for the night. The fish
captured were Phycis blennioides and Zeugopterus Boscir, along with
two flat fish of the megrim kind.
March 23, On March 23, west-south-west of Cape St. Mary, a sounding gave
1906,
W.S.W.of 7] fathoms where the chart marks 320, evidently a new bank, the
daneistl
ap extent of which, however, must be small, as, after sailing a few miles
to the eastward, the depth was 360 fathoms. The new bank was
situated with Cape St. Mary bearing by compass N. 72 E., distance
twenty-one miles. The trawling result in 400 fathoms included
Pagellus centrodontus, Scorpena dactyloptera, and Macrurus celo-
rynchus, among many other things—crustacea, sponges, and anemones—
one of which was growing on a lump of coal, of which several pieces
came up in the trawl, probably dropped at some time from a passing
steamer.
On March 26, when south-east half south from Cape St. Mary,
Portugal, the trawl was shot in 350 fathoms, when several fish were
captured, including Scorpena dactyloptera, Macrurus levis, Gadus
argenteus, and Lophius budegassa, along with a miscellaneous collee-
tion of crustacea, anemones, and cup-coral. The day, though
satisfactory for trawling, was very unpleasant—squally, with much
rain, hail, and sleet.
On March 28, when twenty-six miles south-east by south from Cape
St. Mary, the trawl was shot in 308 fathoms, and when hauied on
board contained a great shark, Hehinorhinus spinosus, 7 feet 2 inches
long, the skin covered with sharp spies curved at the point, the whole
weighing about 300 pounds. Too big to preserve, it was with difheulty
heaved back into the sea, having first been ripped open to ascertain
if there was anything in the stomach. This, however, contained only
some well-digested food. In the same haul were several Chimera
monstrosa, Spinas niger, Scorpena dactyloptera, Zeugopterus Boscii,
Macrurus levis, Aphoristia sp., Gadus argenteus, Lophius budegassa,
a fine hake, and several crustaceans, cup-coral, ete. On March 29,
The Log of the Cruise of 1905—1906 51
trawling all day in 90 to 200 fathoms produced very poor results,
' beyond capture of long-spined urchins, big holothuria, and three skate
and one small megrim ; and on the 30th, coming out into deeper water
(Cape St. Mary bearing north-west by north eighteen miles), and
trawling in 310 fathoms, again there was little but echinoderms. On
such a bottom it is rare to get fish, but amongst other things, such as
Homola barbata, Pagurus striatus, and coral, was one small sole (Solea
profundicola) and a very small skate.
From March 30 to April 4 was a continuous gale from south-east Aprils
when the ship was lying to, with storm trysail and storm-jib ; but on Sa
April 4, the weather moderating, a sounding was made in 417 fathoms,
forty-six miles west from Cape Spartel. A good number of fishes
were captured, including Mora mediterranea, Scorpena dactyloptera,
Hoplostethus mediterraneus, Conger vulgaris, Pomatomus telescopinus
and three species of Macrurus, along with a large and fine Polycheles
typhiops, echinoderms, and sponges.
On April 5, thirty-one miles west-south-west of Cape Spartel, the
trawl was shot in 187 fathoms, and a number of fish, including
Torpedo nobiliana, Scorpana scrofa, Dentex macropthalmus, Rhombus
Bosc, Merlucius vulgaris, Gadus argenteus, Pristiurus melanostomus,
Scorpena dactyloptera, Macrurus levis, and a number of large and
small crustacea, were taken.
This was the last trawl of the cruise, the ship returning to
Gibraltar, where, after provisioning and a few necessary renewals, she
set sail to England, having completed a fairly successful cruise, con-
sidering the obstacles in the way, such as almost continuous bad
weather, and as regards the trawling outfit, rather unsuitable ap-
paratus. A much heavier trawl-beam, with the trawl-heads made of
broad flat iron, would prevent the trawl sinking so heavily in the mud,
would allow the trawl to move faster and capture more fish. The
depth of the present trawl-heads is only about 20 inches, and when it
sinks in mud it does not allow sufficient room, and probably a depth of
3 feet would not be too much. All the bottom of the net ought to be
double-meshed to prevent the inevitable tearing which results over
7—2
SZ The Log of the Cruise of 1905—1906
some of this ground, which is covered with great branched coral which
would tear anything to pieces.
T am sorry that more use could not be made of Professor
Pettersson’s current meter. Probably in the still water of a Norwegian
fjord it works with satisfaction, but in the locality where the Silver
Belle worked during this cruise it was quite impossible to do much
with the instrument ; and, indeed, as the brief notes recorded show,
the weather was far too stormy for the use of such a. delicate
instrument.
Trawling in a sailing-vessel in deep water is a difficult undertaking.
Whereas with steam a ship can move in calm weather, a sailing-vessel
is obliged to work im sufficient wind, and with a light trawl, directly
there is any way on the trawl rises from the bottom and is lable to
turn upside down. In shallow water, with a great length of wire out,
it appears to keep the bottom well enough. But under the most
favourable conditions for work—namely, calm weather
a sailer will,
of course, scarcely move the trawl ; and, again, when it becomes fast,
as it will sometimes do in rocky bottoms, the sailer is at a considerable
disadvantage, and is liable to lose trawl and everything, for the ship
cannot readily be backed as could be done under steam.
Then, again, from Lisbon to the coast of Morocco the bottom is
really very unsuitable for trawling. Even where the sounding-lead
indicates mud there are great masses of coral and rock sticking up at
short intervals, and even in a steam trawler a hand has to be kept on
the engine telegraph all the time the trawl is down, ready to back
astern at the first indication of bemg caught in the bottom.
Amongst the fishes brought home from this cruise perhaps the
most remarkable was the specimen of LHimantolophus Rheinhardt,
which, strangely enough, was not taken in the trawl at all. Coming
ashore at Gibraltar one morning, Buchan Henry found a great commo-
tion amongst the local fishermen over a strange fish which one of
them had captured among the rocks on the east side of Gibraltar.
Such a fish had never been seen there before ; and, indeed, of the
only two examples ever recorded, both had been captured off the coast
The Log of the Cruise of 1905—1906 53
of Greenland and Iceland. It was still alive when bought by Henry
for ten shillings, about 16 inches long, and jet black, all except the tips
of the tentacular appendage, which were pure white, and about as
repulsive-looking an object as could well be imagined. That this fish
should be taken in Gibraltar Bay, and at a depth of only about
20 fathoms, is extraordinary, as other congeneric angler fish are sup-
posed to be deep-sea habitants. The specimen is such « prize that it is
now in the Natural History Museum of South Kensington.
NOTE OF THE 1907 CRUISE.
Tue intention was to go from Scalloway to the south end of the
Faeroe banks, thence southward to the Butt of Lewis, and from there
out into the deeper water along the shelf of the Atlantic slope, and
continue as far southwards as time and opportunity would permit,
chiefly trawling and dredging. But the weather was anything but
good for this kind of work, and we got no farther south than
St. Kilda. A fair number of fishes and a large number of Crustacea,
and, amongst other things, a very complete collection of Pycnogonide
were obtained ; but as these collections have not yet been reported
on, I defer the discussion of the results. I had the advantage of the
assistance of Mr. Opie, of Cambridge, who remained on board
throughout the greater part of the cruise, and who ably and
energetically gave his attention to the preservation of the specimens
collected.
The latter part of the cruise was continued by a passage from
Shetland to Norway, which I made in response to a request from
Dr. O. Pettersson, who asked me to work hydrographically across a
line which he marked out, and which would connect up the observa-
tions of the Scottish, German, and Scandinavian expeditions. Dr. O.
Pettersson kindly undertook to have the water samples and plankton
examined in the Swedish Laboratory, and these observations are
published here. The full discussion of them is not possible until
the German and Scotch observations are ready for publication. As
Dr. Pettersson remarks, there was an unusual flow of Atlantic water
during September, 1907, into the eastern part of the North Sea,
characterized by southerly plankton forms. Professor dArcy
Thompson has very kindly made some remarks, and provided me
54
Note of the 1907 Cruise
Or
Or
with information of the observations made by the Goldseeker at the
two stations Sec. 6a and Sec. 8, and these are embodied here. The
Stations 7 and 8 of the Goldseeker correspond closely with our
Stations 2 and 3, and, while the Scottish observations were made in
August, 1907, ours were made about three weeks later.
Leaving Sealloway on Tuesday, September 17, rough weather
towards night necessitated shelter in Lerwick Harbour, and for two
days there was a very strong blow from south-west to west. The ship
did not get away until the 20th, and the first station marked by
Professor Pettersson was reached on Saturday, the 21st, This was
Lat. 60° 58’ N., Long. 0° 47’ E., and the depth 80 fathoms, with a
continually rising wind and heavy swell from the north ; by the time
the observations were finished it was really too rough to work any
longer. At 2 p.m. the same day the next station (2),in Lat. 60° 5’ N,,
Long. 2° 0’ E., was reached, the wind still blowing strong from the
north and the barometer very high. The temperature at 50 fathoms
was so extraordinary that it was thought that the observation must be
wrong, but two more observations at this depth proved it to be correct.
The wind was very high and the swell strong, and as night was fast
approaching and further work became impossible, it was decided to run
past the next two stations (3 and 4), and make straight for the Nor-
wegian shore, a distance of sixty-seven miles, so as not to lose the fine
fair wind, and on the return passage to work the stations omitted.
Consequently Station 5 was reached on September 22, the land being
fifteen miles away east, three-quarters south, and covered with snow.
The sounding gave 193 fathoms. Starting work at 5 a.m., it took five
hours to take all the observations and to complete by the use of the
closing-net at 190, 60, and 20 fathoms. During this time the barometer
commenced to fall rapidly, and the wind backed to west-north-west, a
head-wind for the return passage. Station 4, Lat. 61° 32° N. and
Long. 3° 44’ E., was reached in the afternoon, the wind strong and
west by north, and the weather looking very bad. Rain began to fall,
and the rough sea compelled the taking in of two reefs in the mainsail,
and bonneting off the foresail and storm-jib. The barometer having
Or
(op)
Note of the 1907 Cruise
dropped an inch since morning, it gave promise of a very dirty night.
At this station the extraordinary temperature at 60 fathoms suggested
something wrong with the observation, but the thermometer was in
perfect order. The next station (3) was about thirty miles to wind-
ward. The night of September 22 was very stormy, with a wind
backing from west to south-west, and the rain falling in torrents. At
4 a.m. it veered to north, then north-east, and finally dropped very
light, and at 1.30 p.m. the ship was a few miles north-east of the
position intended ; but, considering the weather and the early approach
of darkness, it was decided to work at this spot. The sounding marked
260 fathoms, and when work was finished at 6 p.m. it was getting dark,
and the rain was descending in torrents. With a light wind a course
was set for Flugga (Shetland), 124 miles distant west half south.
While working this station a very large dead whale drifted past the
ship. It was quite fresh, and probably had broken away froma whaler
during the night. The very light wind and heavy swell made progress
slow, and it was not until 11 p.m. on September 25 that Flugga leght
was nade out through a dense fog about one mile south-east during a
momentary lift.
Complete discussion of these results is not at the moment possible,
but I may publish along with them the following letter from Professor
@Arey Thompson, who has been kind enough to provide me with
information as to the observations made by the Goldseeker :
‘Dunver, May 4, 1908.
‘My DEAR WOLFENDEN,
‘The observations you have sent to me seem to be of very
great interest, but it is impossible for me to go into them in detail at
the moment—not only for want of time, but also because our own
observations for last summer are not yet fully worked up. . . .
‘Your section from Shetland to Norway is a very beautiful one,
and shows, in the first place, that we miss much by not running our
own line farther towards the Norwegian coast. The other section
(Section II.) is taken from the Go/dseeker observations for 1906.
‘We did our two Stations 7 and 8, which correspond closely with
Note of the 1907 Cruse 57
your 2 and 3, at the very end of August, 1907, while you did them
rather more than three weeks later. We found a large superficial
body of fresh water at both stations, and especially at Station 8 ;
while this had entirely disappeared from Station 7, and very nearly so
from Station 8, three weeks later.
‘At these stations the alternate pulse of comparatively fresh and
of oceanic water is a well-marked feature, and, on the whole, the flood
of fresh water occurs in summer, and is replaced by the salter water
in winter. But the dates vary very much, and one of the diagrams
which I send you shows the conditions at or about the month of
September in 1905, 1906, and 1907, all at Station 8. You will see that
the fresh water was lacking in 1905, but abundant, according to our
observations, in 1907, and still more so in 1906. Your observations in
1907 correspond very closely with ours in 1905.
‘.... What we have in that region is a very rapid change of
conditions from place to place within a short distance, and you have
got into a body of water more similar to that which we found at
Station 9 to the westward than what we found nearer to your position,
three weeks earlier. I send you a note of our results at Station 9,
and a diagram of the salinities and temperatures found by us at
Stations 8 and 9 and by you in the neighbourhood of the former
station. You will see that your results are, on the whole, intermediate.
Accordingly, if the Silver Belle was a little farther to the west, or
the Goldsecker a little farther to the east of the given positions, or if,
on the other hand, the body of water, especially the surface water, had
moved a very few miles eastward during the three weeks, in either
ease the apparent discrepancies would be very nearly explained, and
the results would not be so very far from correspondence.
‘It would seem, therefore, that while we, no doubt, want more
frequent observations in this region, so we also want more closely
contiguous stations.
‘ Yours very faithfully,
‘D’Arcy THompson.’
8
OBSERVATIONS CONDUCTED ON SAILING-SHIPS.
As the making of scientific observations on board a sailing-ship
requires some appliances and methods which differ from those on
board a steam-vessel, I think it may not be out of place to briefly
describe the most suitable ways and means of conducting these
observations. A steam-vessel must have many advantages over a
sailing-ship ; but to be put against these is cost, both initial and of
upkeep, and for work a long way from land and in deep water, such
as the Atlantic, a steam-vessel of comparatively large size and stout
build is essential, if any degree of comfort and safety is to be looked
for. There is no doubt that a stoutly-built sailing-ship of anything
over 100 tons (y.m.) is a much more comfortable and safe vessel to
ride out a severe gale than a steam-vessel of much greater tonnage
and size. The great disadvantages of a sailing-ship are the loss of
time taken in completing a lengthy cruise, and the days that are wasted
in beating around a ‘station’ and lying to very often, while waiting
for a favourable opportunity to commence and complete the work
involved in the use of towing-nets, etc., in deep water. For the rest,
the same difficulties beset the observer in either steam or sailing
vessel, such as devices to counteract the heavy strain thrown upon
several hundred fathoms of wire with the weight of a heavy towing-
net at the lower end, etc., when the ship is rising and falling or labour-
ing more or less heavily in a strong swell. Where the steam-ship has
the greatest advantage over the sailing-ship is in the ability to go
ahead or astern at will, and to keep over or up to the towing-net or
trawl lowered into deep water, and when dredge or trawl gets caught
in rock at the bottom, which is not of infrequent occurrence, and
occurs often when least expected, in the ability to back quickly
58
Observations Conducted on Sailing--Ships 59
and release the imprisoned apparatus. A sailing-ship is, in fact,
absolutely at the mercy of wind and wave, while a steam-ship has at
least some control over adverse elements.
Having said so much, however, it is necessary to state that a
sailing-vessel of the size of a Grimsby or Brixham trawler can really
do all the work at sea comprised in the ordinary hydrographical and
scientific work of fishery investigation that a much more expensive
and elaborate steamship can do, and at very much less cost. It is
nearly entirely a matter of good seamanship and handling the vessel
in an intelligent manner. My own experience, extending over some
years now, teaches me that the average cost of a three months’ cruise
in a ship of about 130 tons (y.m.) does not amount to more than
£300, whereas in a steam-ship this figure must be doubled. Conse-
quently, for investigations such as those which have for a long time
been undertaken by the International Council and by the various
Fishery Boards, I have always been at a loss to understand why use
was not made of sailing-ships, which in comparatively shallow waters
such as the North Sea and English Channel, and for a distance of
70 to 100 miles round our British and European coasts, could do
most, if not all, of the work of tishery and hydrographic observations
quite as effectively, if not always so rapidly, as steam-vessels, and at
very much less cost. There seems to be a mistaken impression that
steam is essential, which I do not believe to be at all correct. Indeed,
if this were so, the lengthy hydrographic and other observations
recorded in this book would have no value ; and I hope I do not over-
state the case when I say these observations prove not only what a
sailing-ship can do, but that they may have considerable scientific
value. I hope that they may encourage many others to follow on the
same lines, and contribute, according to their ability, to the scientific
study of the sea.
I have frequently, during the last few years, heard of yachtsmen
who have expressed desires to do some work of this kind, but did not
know how to set about it. There is really nothing mysterious about
the handling of deep-sea apparatus ; the only thing necessary is to
4
60 Observations Conducted on Sailing-Ships
conform to the requirements of scientific accuracy, without which
hydrographical observations would, of course, be absolutely useless.
Dredging and trawling may be carried on by anyone, and information
of the most important character obtained as regards fishes and the
distribution of species of marine fauna (and flora). The tedium of
many a weary hour at sea might be relieved by the excitement of
putting out a tow-net or dredge, the contents of which may very
often reveal some prize. Of course, to the ordinary individual, not a
zoologist, the chief difficulty is that he does not know what he has
got ; but a very short practical experience is all that is necessary to
enable him to recognize what is common, and therefore usually of
little value to the scientist, and what is a rare or uncommon, and
therefore worth preserving. Scientists are always willing enough to
assist in the investigation of the marine fauna, and many a museum
might be thus greatly enriched with rare or uncommon specimens.
I cannot but think that to those fond of cruising away from land
a new and profitable delight might be added by undertaking observa-
tions of this kind.
Still, desultory observations of this nature, however gratifying to
the amateur, are of no value to the scientist unless they are carried
out on a definite and continuous plan. For instance, when a yachts-
man is contemplating a cruise, say to the Mediterranean, to the
Azores, or across the Atlantic, or northerly to Iceland or the Faeroes,
etc., observations on hydrography, or tow-nets used at regular intervals
during the cruise, cannot fail to record facts of interest and of great
assistance to marine scientists, especially if the observations are
conducted upon a plan and under the advice of someone who can
acquaint the imtending observer with the essentials for successful
and useful work.
teturning after this digression to the subject-matter of this
chapter—namely, the apparatus and methods suitable for a sailing-
ship—we may first briefly discuss the matter of what such a vessel
may do and the means of accomplishing it.
A sailing-ship may quite well undertake soundings, the use of
Observations Conducted on Sailing-Ships 61
deep-sea tow-nets, the taking of temperatures, the collection of water
samples (for subsequent analysis), dredging, and trawling.
In comparatively shallow waters, such as the North Seas, extended
voyages may be made and effective scientific results recorded with
quite small craft. My small yacht, the Walwin, of only 30 tons
(y.m.), has made frequent cruises from Shetland to the Faeroe Islands,
some of the results of which are recorded in this volume. But as
there is no room on such a vessel for steam apparatus, everything
has to be hauled by hand. Where the depth is not over 100 to
200 fathoms, this is not difficult in willing hands ; but when the depth
reaches 500 fathoms and over, it is too great a tax upon human
endurance, even as exemplified in the Shetland sailorman. Conse-
quently, a larger vessel is desirable, in which is placed a steam
capstan.
The Silver Belle is a ship of 120 to 130 tons (y.m.), sufficiently
large and comfortable to make extended cruises in any direction.
Into this ship I fitted a steam capstan of the type commonly employed
on the fishing-boats of the North of Scotland. The boiler is placed
below deck, rather forward of the middle, between the forecastle and
the chart-room, and steam is led from it to the capstan, which is
placed on deck on the port side, at a distance behind the mainmast
sufficient to permit of the big drum (on which is wound the wire)
being placed forward of it and clear of the boom.
There is nothing about the drums which carry the wire which
any ordinary engineer cannot devise suitably to the vessel for which
they are intended. The ordinary reels used on board ship to carry
short lengths of wire cable are, however, scarcely suitable for deep-
water work, because the strain upon them is too great, and they sooner
or later give way. The user is then lucky if he escapes without the
loss of several hundred fathoms of wire and the apparatus. Some-
thing stronger than these ordinary reels is therefore required. On
board the Silver Belle I have a special winch, made for me by Messrs.
Bullivant and Co., consisting of two stout upright iron plates, bolted
together by cross-pieces, and enclosing a large drum divided into two
meer
62 Observations Conducted on Sailing-Ships
sections—the one to carry several hundred to 2,000 fathoms of wire
(according to size), the other section to carry the fine wire used for
sounding. This winch also carries a clutch and brake, by which the
speed of revolution may be controlled, and externally on the axis of
the revolving drums is affixed a cogged wheel, which, with a similar
one upon the steam capstan, carries a chain band (with movable links,
so that it can be shortened or lengthened). In practice the wire is
reeled off rapidly by its own weight, controlled by the foot-brake,
which allows of immediate arrest of the process. In hauling in, the
capstan through the chain band actuates the drums, revolving them
and coiling up the wire as it comes on board. ‘The ascent can be con-
trolled as easily as the descent.
In order to check effectively the amount of wire paid out and to
ascertain the depth to which the apparatus is lowered, the wire, after
leaving the drum, is led through a pulley, the revolutions of which
are registered on a counter, each revolution marking | fathom of wire
paid out. From this counter the wire is led forward to a pulley, the
method of which differs according as the work to be accomplished is
trawling or tow-netting,
In tow-netting the wire used is necessarily of smaller diameter
than in trawling ; consequently, at considerable depths there is much
more strain upon it ; and if the ship is in a heavy swell, as is frequent
in the open ocean even upon the finest days, she rides up and down
considerably, and sudden jerks are thrown upon the wire, which may
break the strands, or even snap it completely. On one occasion we
were unlucky enough in this way to lose several hundred fathoms of
wire and a closing tow-net attached, along with a couple of deep-sea
thermometers.
To avoid accidents of this kind an ‘accumulator’ is necessary.
Such an apparatus is constructed as follows: Two wooden dises are
prepared—one with a hook which can be attached to the mast; the
other with a hook also, which can be attached to the spar, as seen in
the diagram. Between the two dises are extended six or more
lengths of stout, solid rubber bands (obtainable from any of the
Observations Conducted on Sailing-Ships 63
wholesale rubber manufacturers). The size of the discs and length of
the rubber are matters as to which it is impossible to lay down any
general rule.
The wire used for tow-netting is usually a stranded wire, and one
which we have used successfully was supplied to me by Bullivant
and Co.—a strand of seven wires (21 gauge), + inch diameter, with a
breaking strain of 10 ewt. Five hundred fathoms of this wire weigh
about 60 pounds. Wires of this description vary very considerably,
Mie, 2h,
A, Steam capstan; B, large reel divided so as to carry thick wire and sounding wire; C, counter
marking in fathoms paid out; D, block attached to movable spar /’; EH, wheel over which
wire runs; H, accumulator attached to mainmast at G; K, coil of rope attached to spar.
and some that we have obtained elsewhere have proved quite worthless,
the strands overriding, and thus preventing the descent of messengers.
A ‘soft’ wire should never be selected, for this reason.
A sudden strain is by the accumulator greatly relieved, and though
sometimes extended to a dangerous degree, we have never lost a
tow-net or instrument since using it, now for some years.
The general plan is exhibited in the diagram.
From the steam capstan A the chain passes over the cogged wheel of
the winch B. The wire from this drum is led to the counter C,, thence
over the pulley D, and from that over the pulley H, and carries either
the sounding-lead or the tow-net. To the bottom of the mainmast is
64 Observations Conducted on Sailing-Ships
fixed the spar F, and at a convenient height upon the mainmast is
fixed a hook, G, on to which can be hooked the accumulator, H, which
again is affixed to the spar / by a hook, 7. The spar can thus move
freely in all directions and give full play to the accumulator ; and in
order that it cannot by any accident to the latter break away, a length
of manilla rope, A, is attached to the accumulator and coiled round the
bottom of the mainmast, and at the other end to the spar at J.
This arrangement is suitable for work in deep water—i.e., over
500 fathoms; but the spar can be dispensed with, along with the
accumulator, in shallower water, the wire being led from the counter
over a pulley-wheel affixed to the deck, and thence carried over a
pulley attached to the end of a davit.
With such means we have found no difficulty in using the tow-net
at depths of over 1,000 fathoms, and sounding to 2,000 fathoms. The
depth to which a heavy tow-net may be lowered and raised again must
be regulated by the capacity of the winch to haul it on board. The
haulage must necessarily be slow, for if performed too quickly the
condition of the animals in the bag of the net will be woeful, if they
are not all mashed into pulp.
As an example of the time occupied in such operations in deep
water, I may quote the following data from the log-book of the Si/ver
Belle :
June 26,1904, in Lat. 48°12’ N., Long. 16° 26’ W.
long, heavy swell from the west, with a west wind.
a fine day, with
The ship on the port tack, and the net first put down to 1,500
fathoms, and hauled up again. The result being unsatisfactory, the
net was lowered a second time. This occupied altogether one hour,
the net being towed for fifteen minutes ; then put down successively
to 1,200, 900, 700, 500, 400, and 200 fathoms. On each occasion this
meant, after the net had been received on board, that its contents had
to be carefully removed and washed out, and the net itself carefully
cleaned with fresh water before lowering again. Some considerable
time was thus expended in manipulations on deck, and the whole time
occupied from start to finish was twelve hours.
Observations Conducted on Sailing-Ships 65
On a second occasion—in Lat. 48° 27’, Long. 15° 38’ W.—the
work of collecting samples of water, and filling from the water-bottle
tubes of water for subsequent gas analysis, from depths 1,570, 1,400,
1,000, 700, 500, 300, and 100 fathoms respectively, occupied eight and
a half hours.
On another occasion the time occupied in using the closing-net at
1,400 1,600, 1,000, 700, 500, 500, 100, 50, and 25 fathoms occupied
twelve hours.
These, of course, are operations with the closing-net, which has to
be lowered tightly closed, opened under water by the messenger sent
down the line, and closed again under water by another messenger
before hauling up ; and these successive operations occupy much more
time than would be required for the mere manipulation of nets which
it was not so particularly desired to open and close at specified
depths.
There may be a difference of opinion as to the advantages of
horizontally towing-nets, such as the author’s large closing-net, or
Garstang’s smaller apparatus, or of vertically actuated closing-nets,
such as Fowler’s; but I believe the results are practically the same
with horizontally towed nets.
The drift of the ship of not more than a mile an hour is quite
sufficient, and though the tow-net does not remain long at the depth to
which it is primarily lowered, because by the drift of the vessel it is
constantly rising, it does not rise greatly in the space of fifteen
minutes and, moreover, practice proves that if there is much angle on
the wire, the messengers for opening and closing cannot descend, and
therefore the result is negative. In vertically acting nets the apparatus
is raised through so many fathoms, and the result is the collection of the
fauna between, for example, 500 and 400, or 400 and 300 fathoms, and
soon. The actual quantity captured by either vertically or horizontally
actuated nets is probably very little different. Unfortunately, as we
cannot see what is going on at any considerable depth, we can only
say that the capture has been made approximately at the depth stated.
While the use of closing-nets gives very interesting and sometimes
9
66 Observations Conducted on Saling-Ships
important results as to the character of certain fauna at certain depths,
and the life-history of certain species, it is rendered much more
valuable by the use at the same time of the water-bottle, whereby
samples of water can be taken from the same depth and the salinity
be subsequently determined, and by the simultaneous use of the
thermometer attached to the tow-net. The temperature of the water
at successive depths in the open ocean (e.g., the Atlantic) exhibits
such a fairly regular graduated scale, that the temperature taken by a
thermometer attached to a tow-net at the time of opening and closing
is a pretty accurate guide to the actual depth at which the net has
really been. It has been our habit to attach to the tow-net when
lowered two thermometers—generally a Negretti and Zambra revers-
ing thermometer and a maximum or minimum thermometer.
Sometimes it is desirable to collect samples of sea-water from
various depths for analysis of the contained gases. Such examinations
are of great scientific interest taken in conjunction with the salinity
observations, and were of especial interest in our 1904 cruise in
elucidating the extent of water of Mediterranean origin then occupy-
‘ing patches in the Bay of Biscay.
For the method of preservation of these samples very little extra
apparatus is requisite. When the water-bottle is raised on board,
a sample of its contents is introduced into a glass bulb, which has been
partially exhausted, so as to obtain a partial vacuum; the long, thin
capillary neck being introduced into the nozzle of the water-bottle is
then fractured by a special pair of ‘scissors. The sea-water fills the
bulb, which, with its long neck, is then removed, and sealed by bending
the end in the flame of a spirit-lamp. Put away in special boxes made
so that the bulb and its two prolonged necks can lie in slots specially
made to receive them, the flasks may safely be packed and carried on
board, awaiting transmission to the laboratory for analysis.
As to the apparatus required in ¢rawling in a sailing-vessel,
experience must be the best teacher. This experience may be more
quickly and profitably obtained by having on board, in charge of this
apparatus, a professional trawler. The adventures of a trawl in inex-
Observations Conducted on Sailing-Ships 67
perienced hands are too numerous and exciting to be pleasant, and the
commonest is that, after painstaking manipulations occupying a long
period of time, the trawl is found to have been upside down and the
net empty.
Perhaps the simplest form of trawl and the one least likely to go
wrong is the ‘ Agassiz’ trawl. Its iron frame may bend, but is not
2
5 3 5 aay
& s aE :
A B G
3
Fic. 5.
1. Trawl with muslin net, A, and sprat net, B, attached.
2. Method of placing the nets on the trawl.
3. Dimensions of the sprat net: A, top; B, bottom; C, sides.
easy to break, whereas wooden ‘ beam’ trawls on unsuitable ground
and deep water possess this unfortunate propensity. The ‘ Agassiz’
trawl has the further advantage that it does not matter which side up
it fishes. It is a splendid instrument for the capture of interesting
Crustacea, though it takes a goodly number of fishes too.! Trawlers
1 In one haul with this net we obtained seventeen fish of five different species,
besides a great quantity of Crustacea, starfish, Mollusca, etc.
9—2
68 Observations Conducted on Sailing-Ships
use the ‘beam’ or ‘ otter’ trawl for this purpose. A 25-foot beam
trawl is a very useful appliance. As suggested to me by Mr. Holt, of
the Irish Fishery Board, we have used this trawl, with two additional
nets affixed to the trawl-net.
A being a muslin net; B a net made of sprat mesh, one of
convenient size having dimensions as shown in the accompanying
diagram.
It is laced to the trawl, to fit the meshes of the latter when open.
In order to insure that small fishes do not escape the trawl, the cod-end
is lined with the same netting for the last third of its length.
The position of the net on the trawl is as shown in the diagram.
A beam trawl has the great disadvantage of frequent breakages,
and many is the occasion on board the St/ver Belle, when the beam has
come up broken from dragging over rocky ground. In every expedi-
tion into deep water a spare trawl should be taken.
I believe that the otter trawl is the most useful apparatus for
general use, and the Danes have a form of eel-mesh otter-trawl
(Aaledrevvaad), which appears to be the latest thing devised in otter
trawls, the size of the boards for which is 48 inches long, 29 inches
wide, and having a weight of 110 pounds each. Glass floats are used
instead of corks.
Another device of theirs is the ‘ Yngel’ trawl, a big pelagic canvas
otter-net, with boards 36 inches by 20 inches and a weight each of
40 pounds. Though we ordered these in plenty of time for the 1907
cruise, they were not delivered until the cruise was finished ; therefore
I am unable to state anything as to their practicability.
Besides trawls and tow-nets, dredges of the Plymouth Laboratory
pattern, 3 feet 6 mches wide, should be included in the outfit.
If the object of the cruise be trawling and dredging and the collec-
tion of the larger animals (such as fish, etc.), the equipment should
include a supply of 4 to 6 gallon wide-mouthed jars, with iron screw
clamps and rubber rings ; also air-tight preserving jars ; and for smaller
animals bottles and vials with good tapering corks ; copper labels,
such as gardeners use, which can be written upon with a pencil and
Observations Conducted on Sailing-Ships 69
tied on to the fish by copper wire ; butter muslin to wrap fish, etc., in
when to be stored in a tank or jar ; a supply of cotton-barked netting
of 1-inch mesh, which is used to make bags for the top of the trawl
and to line the cod-end of the same ; and a supply of mosquito netting
to make bags to be attached to the trawl. These, however, are often
filled with such a weight of mud as to be carried away completely.
A tin-lined tank, made like a large box, with lid which can be
closed and fastened down, may be usefully affixed to some corner of
the deck, and in this may be stored fish, etc.
The preservatives in use are methylated spirit and formalin, of
which a plentiful supply should be carried.
Of open tow-nets nothing much need be said. There is no
particular virtue in any kind of net, but a number of such nets may
be clamped at intervals upon the warp, and they are, perhaps, all the
better if they are supplied with tin or aluminium vessels at the bottom,
with a tap. On removing the nets from the water the contents of the
silk net gravitate towards the tin cup, and the inside of the net can be
washed into the cup, and the collection made into bottles through
the tap.
Larger nets, bent on to a framework of wood or ordinary gas-
piping, may be employed to trail behind the ship at the surface or
some distance below, and catch an amazing quantity of plankton ;
and a very useful form of net with a triangular frame of heavy wood
may be usefully employed to drag along the bottom, and many bottom
species which seldom or never leave the mud are collected in this
manner.
Of course open tow-nets give no accurate information as to the
precise locality or depth in which species are captured, and if the
latter be the object of inquiry some form of ‘closing’-net must be
employed.
Very nearly the same disposition of apparatus on deck as was
mentioned for deep-water tow-netting is applicable to trawling. Stout
wire warp is preferable to rope (the wire for closing-nets will not
do), and this is reeled off a drum and taken round the steam capstan,
70 Observations Conducted on Saling-Ships
from which it is led forwards to a pulley, and thence to a lead aftixed
to the bulwark. In this case the ‘ counter’ and the spar or davit are
dispensed with.
The warp after leaving the lead may be brought up aft and secured
by a stopper, as is generally done in sailing-trawlers ; and it is a good
thing to leave the winch free, so that if the trawl catches in a rock the
stopper will break and the warp can run free, instead of being brought
up short, with the loss of apparatus in consequence. It is scarcely
necessary to say that the gear is always shot to windward.
The manipulation of a ship for trawling and tow-netting is not a
thing which can be taught by anything but experience, and experience
only can teach whether the trawl is sliding nicely over the bottom, the
right speed to go, how much sail to carry, and all the details which
make up good seamanship and mean all the difference between success
and failure.
The collecting of water samples we find we can manage even in
bad weather and a heavy sea. Trawling also can be done in weather
when tow-netting is impossible ; but the latter, especially if closing-nets
be used, and the object is to determine the plankton fauna in different
strata, really requires the calmest weather, or light breezes. In bad
weather and a heavy swell the ship rides up and down so greatly as to
throw very heavy strain upon the wire, and it means risking the total
loss of the net, and frequently the silk net comes up torn and all its
contents gone.
We prefer to tow-net under a light breeze, lowering the peak of the
mainsail and swinging out the boom with a ‘tackle’ attached, and
keeping the jib and mizzen standing. By keeping the ship well up to
the wind we can regulate the speed of drift very nicely, and this must
be very little in tow-netting. In trawling or dredging, a little more
sail is required, and the course may be a little off the wind, so as to
keep sufficient way on to move the trawl. The ship can, by careful
handling, be kept fairly stationary for tow-netting, and a false anchor
may even be employed. A very good substitute for this is to put out
aft the big mid-water net, which may be allowed to drift with a good
Observations Conducted on Sailing-Ships
~“
—
length of warp. It soon fills and forms quite an efficient false
anchor.
I purposely here do not go into great detail about the apparatus
necessary on shipboard, or the methods of preserving different animals,
as all this will be fully dealt with in the forthcoming handbook of the
‘Challenger’ Society. The foregoing remarks are little more than hints
of the methods adopted on a sailing-ship, in which the various manipu-
lations cannot be controlled so easily as when steam is available, and
refer, of course, more particularly to our own methods, which we have
had to learn for ourselves.
HYDROGRAPHICAL OBSERVATIONS.
I.—THE FAEROE-SHETLAND CHANNEL.
II.—FROM IRELAND TO THE AZORES, MADEIRA, AND GIBRALTAR.
IlI.—FROM USHANT TO GIBRALTAR.
IV._THE NORTH OF SHETLAND TO NORWAY.
10
I—THE HYDROGRAPHY OF THE FAEROE-SHETLAND
CHANNEL.
By H. N. Dicxson, M.A., D.Sc.
(Reprinted from the ‘ Geographical Journal’ for April, 1903.)
Durine the summer months of 1900, 1901, and 1902, the cutter-yacht
Walwin, belonging to Dr. R. Norris Wolfenden, was engaged in
scientific research, under the owner’s direction, in the channel between
the Shetland and Faeroe Islands. The physical investigations consisted
in (1) observations of temperature, for which Negretti and Zambra’s
reversing thermometers, Knudsen’s modified form of the same, and
the ordinary Miller-Casella instrument, were employed, sometimes
separately, usually together for purposes of control; and (2) the
collection of samples of water by means of Mill’s slip water-bottle.
Dr. Wolfenden has been good enough to entrust the working out of
the observations to me, and I may be permitted at the outset to express
the opinion that the way in which they have been made, in a region
where work of the kind is always difficult and arduous, and under
conditions in many ways unfavourable, reflects the greatest credit on
Captain Buchan Henry and his crew. The labours of the Walwin
have provided a unique series of pictures of the conditions occurring
in the Channel, representing successive stages in the march of exceed-
ingly complex phenomena with sufficient accuracy, and none of the
modern expensive apparatus has been employed in the work, which
was carried on from a small cutter of only 36 tons.!
1 Some of the 1902 observations were made on the owner’s second boat, the S%lver
Belle, a yawl of 130 tons. Dr. Wolfenden states that for all practical purposes the
work is as easy to accomplish from the smaller boat. The larger the tonnage the
greater the amount of wind required to sail the ship, and a good ‘ sailing breeze’ is
often too strong for satisfactory working of the instruments.
15 10—2
76 The Hydrography of the Faeroe-Shetland Channel
Table I. gives the characteristic numbers and the positions of the
stations at which observations were made.
Table II. gives the temperatures observed. Where the observations
were made with more than one instrument, the mean result is given ;
the differences rarely amounted to more than a few tenths of a degree
Fahrenheit. The original readings were made according to the
Walwin Sta? @Al fh
Jackal " /893 &J\6.°
» "19020 HI6
Darbishire & Stanford, Ltd
Fic. 6.—Mar suowrne Posrrions oF Srations anp Line or SEction.
Fahrenheit scale, and their consistency tested in the usual way by
plotting curves. It has been thought best to convert them to the
Centigrade scale, in which all the observations in the region already
published are given, and which is being employed in the International
investigations.
Table III. gives the salinities of the samples collected. The
The Hydrography of the Faeroe-Shetland Channel UG
chlorine titrations were carried out for me by Mr. J. J. Manley,
Magdalen College Laboratory, Oxford, and my best thanks are due to
him for his assistance. The salinities were originally obtained from
the chlorines by the use of the table which I published in the ‘ Report
of the Fishery Board for Scotland’ (No. 12, 1893, p. 381). They have
since been compared with Knudsen’s authoritative tables, issued
recently ; the differences were insignificant.1. I am indebted to my |
friend, Mr. O. J. R. Howarth, for assistance in reducing, tabulating,
and plotting the results.
In arranging the material for discussion and comparison with other
observations, the first pot to be noted was that the most important
series (and the only ones dealt with here) consist of nearly parallel
double lines of soundings, one line starting from near the north end of
the Shetlands, and another from near the south end, and both extending
to the Faeroes. An examination of all the Walwin’s observations, of
the observations made by the Jacka/ in the cruise of 1893, and again by
the Jackal in 1902 (see Helland-Hansen in Nature, vol. Ixvi., p. 654),
indicated that these lines were so close together that they could for
all practical purposes be regarded as one and the same. Two points,
in positions (approximately) Lat. 59° 56’ N., Long. 1° 24’ W., and
Lat. 61° 45’ N., Long. 6° 48’ W., were accordingly selected, and joined
on the chart by a straight line to which perpendiculars were drawn
1 Tn his paper on hydrographical investigations in the Faeroe-Shetland Channel,
etc., in the year 1902 (Report Cd. 2612, 1905), Helland-Hansen says: ‘ Dickson’s
calculations of the salinities are partially based upon Pettersson’s tables. I have
found that these give the salinities higher by almost 0-08 per cent. than Knudsen’s
tables.’ I am unable to understand this, a comparison of my table with Knudsen’s
giving the following results :
SALINITY.
Cl. Knudsen. Dickson. Difference.
175 31°62 31°65 +0:03
18:0 32°52 32°54 +0:02
18°5 33°42 33°44 +0:02
19-0 34-33 34°33 0:00
19°5 35:23 35°23 0:00
20°0 36:13 36°12 - 0:01
20°5 37:03 37°01 — 0:02
78 The Hydrography of the Faeroe-Shetland Channel
from the stations (Fig. 6). All the observations were then plotted
upon vertical sections along that line. The method is no doubt open
to criticism, but the errors introduced cannot exceed the errors incidental
to the observations, and it makes the most of the available material.
In the result, we have from the Walwin’s observations sections for
the following dates :
July, 1900.
May and June, 1901.
June and July, 1901.
May, 1902.
June, 1902.
July, 1902 (temperature only).
To these may be added, completing the existing record :
Jackal, August, 1893.
» (preliminary report only), August, 1902,
making eight more or less complete pictures in all (Figs. 7 to 19).!
In the Faeroe-Shetland Channel we have to deal with the opposing
movements of water from the south and from the north. The
northward-moyving currents are of two kinds, (a) drift currents,
produced at the surface by the winds in the locality ; and (4) a stream
current, which I have (Phil. Trans. A., vol. exevi., p. 113) proposed
to call the Norwegian branch of the European stream. This branch
forms part of a stream-current relieving the water banked up against
the Continental mass by the westerly winds; it varies in strength
from year to year and from season to season, and its salinity also
varies slightly, a high salinity probably indicating a large proportion
of culf-stream water, and a low salinity a large proportion of water
from the Labrador current and the northern area of the Atlantic.
Direct observations in the depth are still wanting, but the range of
salinity may be estimated at from 35-4 per mille to 3577 per mille.
The southward-moving currents are also of two kinds, (c) water from
1 Tn these sections the Shetland end of the line is on the right, the Faeroe end
on the left.
The Hydrography of the Faeroe-Shetland Channel 79
the central and western parts of the Norwegian sea, most of which has
probably originated in the area east and north-east of Newfoundland
and been carried across as a drift, mixing with the ‘ Irminger’ and
‘Greenland’ branches of the European stream. If the European
stream is below its normal strength, it seems likely that this body of
water will attain unusual volume, and part of it will try to make its
way southward. The comparatively cold salt water observed by the
Jackal in 1893 (Station VIII.), and again by Helland-Hansen in the
Jackal in 1902 (Nature, loc. cit.),in the north-western part of the North
Sea, is probably to be identified with it, as Helland-Hansen suggests,
and it seems likely that the importance of this factor has been under-
estimated by the earlier investigators, especially, perhaps, m my report
on the work of the Jackal in 1893. The second body of southward-
moving water (d) is that derived from the melting of ice in the Arctic
regions. This water is probably spread over the surface in summer
and autumn, and makes its way southward to the east of Iceland and
the Faeroe Islands. So far as the region under discussion is concerned,
it may probably be assumed that the water from the centre of the
Norwegian sea (¢) has a salinity of 35 per mille to 35°3 per mille, and
that a salinity of less than 35 per mille indicates a large admixture of
water of Arctic origin (d).
The difficulty of interpreting the sections across the Faeroe-Shetland
Channel in the light of the above is immensely increased by the fact
that the line of section lies just in the region where the waters from
the sources mentioned meet and mix, and that we have no simultaneous
observations in the regions of origin. The difticulty is specially
apparent im studying the distribution of temperature, for, unlike
salmity, temperature may change without movement or mixture of
the waters. ‘The most important point is evidently to note that when
the circulation is active, isothermals and isohalines are crowded
together, showing strong gradients of temperature and saltness, while
weak gradients are an indication of weak circulation, the waters moving
slowly and being very completely mixed.
The general conditions controlling the movement and mixture of
80 The Hydrography of the Faeroe-Shetland Channel
waters are: (1) the Norwegian stream ()) is cut off below by the
Wyville-Thomson ridge at a depth of about 300 fathoms—north of
the ridge its waters are mixed with ice-cold water of slightly lower
salinity drawn up by the ‘undertow’ to an amount depending partly
on the velocity of the stream, and increasing with it (see ‘ Twelfth
Report of the Fishery Board for Scotland, p. 351); (2) the drift
current (a) and the European stream are independent of one another,
but where the former exists—i.e., as a northward-moving current—the
waters of (a) and (4) are likely to be indistinguishable by means of
either temperature or salinity observations ; (3) the southward-moving
waters (c) and (d) may be independent, and they may or may not be
fully mixed before entering the Faeroe-Shetland Channel ; (4) when the
northward-moving currents are strong, they will tend to be surface
currents, because of the relatively high temperature of the waters.
When they are weak, their waters will be cooled by contact and
mixture with the cold underlying waters. The southward-moving
waters will tend to be under-currents because of their low temperature,
and will only rise to the surface when they are exceptionally strong
relatively to the northward-moving currents, or when they contain an
unusually large proportion of, on the one hand, warm Norwegian sea-
water, or, on the other, fresh Arctic water.
Taking now the sections in order, the first is that for August,
1893, based on the Jackal observations. In the report on these
observations I expressed the opinion (p. 352) that the conditions were
there ‘favourable to an increase of the Atlantic current, but at the
same time it was noted (p. 337) that during the observations the
navigating lieutenant of the ship found ‘a southerly drift amounting
to approximately 10 miles in twenty-four hours.’ With the informa-
tion available at the time as to the sources from which the waters
were derived, it was impossible to identify clearly all the factors
involved, or to give a complete explanation of the movements going
on. I had to content myself with an attempt to discuss the mechanism
of the process of mixture of the northward and southward moving
waters, on the assumption that the former (a and /) were one, and the
The Hydrography of the Faeroe-Shetland Channel 81
latter (c and d) one. The difficulties which arose led me to undertake
an investigation of the movements of surface waters in the North
Atlantic, and, as a result, to separate the stream current (4) from the
surface drift (a) ; the resolution of the southward-moving waters into
(c) and (d) is chiefly the result of the observations of the /ngolf
expedition (1896) and of Professor Pettersson’s discussions. In the
light of these more recent conclusions, it appears from the section
Fathoms qe 353353 aso Metres
JACKAL.
AUGUST. 1893.
Vic. 7.—Farror-Surrianp Cuannet. TEMPERATURE AND Satiniry, Aucust, 1893.
H.M.S. ‘ Jaca.’
(Fig. 7) that m August, 1893, the Norwegian stream was running
strongly northward, its main centre lying on the eastern side of the
channel at a depth of about 80 fathoms, while its waters extended
nearly to the Faeroe Islands. The cold bottom water, which shows no
marked tendency to rise towards the surface, was entirely cut off from
a thin layer of relatively fresh surface water (salinity below 35:3),
which covered the whole surface of the channel to a depth of ‘a few
fathoms, and near the Shetlands extended to the bottom. This layer
was probably, as Helland-Hansen has suggested, water from the
il
82 The Hydrography of the Faeroe-Shetland Channel
Norwegian sea (c), rather than a mixture of it with water which had
come from the south through the Faeroe-Shetland Channel, as I supposed
at the time. Its southward movement would account for its appearance
at Station VIII. in the north-west of the North Sea, referred to above,
and for the southerly drift of the Jackal during the observations.
The section for July, 1900 (Fig. 8), shows a state of affairs so
remarkable that if it were possible to doubt the accuracy of the
Metres
fathoms "
6
< Under 354°
are WALWIN.
ace0 JULY 1900.
Fic. 8.— Farror-Sueriranp Cuannet. TEMPERATURE AND Sawiniry, Jury, 1900.
Yacur *‘ Watwin.
observations, one would be almost inclined to take refuge in doing so,
but the complete consistency of four sets of soundings makes the
supposition unreasonable. Salinity is at all depths remarkably high,
scarcely falling anywhere below 35-4. Ata depth of 400 fathoms—z.e.,
100 fathoms below the Wyville-Thomson ridge, is a maximum of
salinity of 35:6, in water having a temperature of melting ice. Above
this is a mass of water of salinity about 35:4, the minimum occurring
with low temperature near the middle of the channel in about
250 fathoms. Above this, again, the saltest (35°6) and warmest water
The Hydrography of the Faeroe-Shetland Channel 83
lies on the east side of the channel, although close to the Shetlands
salinity falls again near the surface. This extraordinary distribution
seems to indicate that at an earlier date than that of the section,
probably in the previous winter, there had been a strong movement of
very salt water from the Norwegian stream and surface drift (a and J),
which from some external cause afterwards failed. Below 300 fathoms
the water, protected by the Wyville-Thomson ridge, remained
Fathoms 356 Metres
4 WALWIN
Cee = — =
Fic. 9.—Farror-SHerLanp Cuannev. TEmprrarureE aNp Saniniry, May anp
June, 1901. Yacur ‘ Wanwi.’
stationary, and was gradually cooled down to 0° C. by contact and
slight mixture with the water lying under it. Above 300 fathoms a
southward movement probably set in, lowering both temperature and
salinity, and this was followed, probably just before the date of the
section, by a re-establishment of the Norwegian stream (4) in full
force, the water being somewhat salter, but the stream in almost the
same position as in 1893 (Fig. 7).
The season 1901 is represented by two sections (Figs. 9 and 10) ;
the observations forming the first were made between May 14 and
11—2
34. The Hydrography of the Faeroe-Shetland Channel
June 4; those forming the second between July 4 and July 16. Thus
the middle dates are May 24 and July 10, and a comparison is of
particular interest, because these are the first sets of observations which
have been made in this area at dates close enough to admit of direct
comparison, or to give any idea of the rate at which changes occur.
In both sections nearly the whole channel is filled with water of
Or
30°) salinity or over, and in the depth temperature is low. The
Fathoms 356 356 356 Métres
WALWIN.
JUNE & JULY 1901
Fie. 10.
Farror-SHerinanp CHannet. TrmMperaTure AND Sauinrry, JuNE
AND Jury, 1901. Yacur ‘ Watwin.’
Or
freshest water (35°3) appears on the east side of the channel at a depth
of 380 fathoms, apparently indicating an intrusion of deep water from
the Norwegian sea into a mass of Atlantic water, which had been
cooled down in the same way as in the previous years. It is to be
observed that this centre of low salinity is also one of low temperature,
the readings at 300 and 400 fathoms rising from east to west. All the
western side of the channel is occupied by water of 35:5 salinity. In
the strata nearer the surface we find the first indication of the features
so strongly marked in 1902, in which the saltest and warmest waters
The Hydrography of the Faeroe-Shetland Channel 85
appear as two branches, one a little to the west of mid-channel, and
another on the east side, close to the land. In the interval between
May 24 and July 10 the distribution in the depth seems to have
become more uniform. In the depth the centre of low temperature
and salinity on the east side has disappeared, and apparently the whole
breadth of the channel is occupied by water of about 35:4 salinity. In
the upper layers the two branches of warm salt water are farther apart
fathoms 7 Métres
WALWIN. sso
MAY 1902.
Fic. 11.—Farror-SHerianp Cuannet. TemPerature AND Sanity, May,
1902. Yacur ‘ Watwine
at the surface, the western member is more strongly marked, while at
intermediate depths (100 to 300 fathoms) salinity has increased slightly
on the east side, and diminished on the west. The differences point
in effect to a strengthening of both the northward and southward
moving streams above 300 fathoms, the latter keeping to the west,
while the former keeps to the east, but sends a narrow branch, 50 to
60 fathoms deep, along the western side. It is noteworthy that there
is no indication of a southward movement of fresher water towards
the Shetlands.
86 The Hydrography of the Faeroe-Shetland Channel
For the year 1902 we have four sections (Figs. 11 to 14), the middle
dates bemg May 24, June 24, J uly 21, and August 29. Some are, of
course, incomplete, and salinity observations are wanting for the
July section, but it seems possible to follow the course of events with
considerable certainty.
In the May section the first point to be noticed is the remarkably
low temperature and salinity in the depth. Up to within 200 fathoms
of the surface the salinity is about 35:2, slightly higher on the east
Fathoms 8: 9° Metres
200 g EP
. 400
350
250, 35 20 4
500
°
00 550
600
SO 1° 60
700
400
750
800
450
WALWIN . Ben
F JUNE 1902. 900
500
950
Bye
ae er
Fic. 12.—Farror-SHETLAND CHANNEL. TEMPERATURE AND SALINiry, JUNE,
1902. Yacur ‘ Watwin.’
side and lower on the west, while at that depth the temperature is
only 2°. Nearer the surface the northward flow of water is apparent,
the salinity rising above 35°6 in warm water on the east side, and
scarcely fallmg helow 35°5 on the west. In June it appears that the
northward movement had ceased altogether, and that a southward set
at all depths has begun, except on the west side of the channel, within
about 100 fathoms of the surface, where the conditions remain
practically unchanged. The surface salinity is now almost uniformly
The Hydrography of the Faeroe-Shetland Channel 87
35°4, and in the depth the isohalines of 35:2 and 35:1 appear to have
moved eastwards. Temperature has fallen at the surface, become
more uniform down to the 100-fathom line, and fallen at 400 and
500 fathoms. The June observations reveal for the first time,
observations being wanting for May, a steep gradient of temperature
on the east side between 100 and 200 fathoms. The 2° reading at
Station A3 at 200 fathoms m May makes it likely that a similar
distribution existed during that month.
Fathomsjg> 9° 10° Metres
8° é
Z 150
72) (o° 200
6° 6° oe :
7
350
2° 4° 400
: fp
0°
5
500
300 550
600
S30 650
700
400
750
° 800
450 U
WALWIN.
\ JULY 1902.
a iS
3 iS
5°
200
2
Fic. 13.
FAEROE-SHETLAND CHANNEL, ‘TEMPERATURE AND SALINITY, JULY,
1902. Yacur ‘ Watwin.’
In the July section the form of the isotherms shows a further
advance of cold water in the depth. Temperature has fallen generally,
and a wedge of cold water near Station AS rises almost to the surface.
On either side of this, warm water, possibly parts of northward-
moving streams, extends down to something like 150 fathoms. In
the August section, drawn from the observations of H.M.S. Jackal
published in Nature, the cold wedge shows still further advance, and
its summit has shifted more into the centre of the channel. The low
88 The Hydrography of the Faeroe-Shetland Channel
salinity at all depths is quite the most remarkable feature of the
section, indicating an unusually large proportion of water of Arctic
origin in the Norwegian sea. This water appears to be moving south-
wards in mid-channel, both at the surface and in the depth, a slight
weakening being apparent between 50 and 100 fathoms, where the
salinity rises above 35:1. On the western side the increase of salinity
is so slight as to make it doubtful if any northward movement is
Fathoms 9° 9° 380351 ; Metres
9 mngs'3mn
Ta SREoeoanaresen ENG ~ oe _ 354
ne
JACKAL.
AUGUST 1902.
Fic. 14.—Farror-SHettanp CHannet. TEMPERATURE AND Sarintry, AucusT,
1902. H.M.S. ‘Jackat.’
taking place ; it seems more likely that the 35°4 water observed there
in June is merely undergoing mixture with the fresher water, a view
supported to some extent by its steady temperature. A northward
movement is, however, apparent on the eastern side, where the
temperature is relatively high, and the salinity rises above 35:4.
We may summarize these results as follows :—
1893.—Both northward and southward moying streams strong.
The Norwegian stream cecupied most of the channel in the inter-
mediate depths ; below it water was moving southwards, and on the
The Hydrography of the Faeroe-Shetland Channel 89
surface a thin layer also moved southward ; this layer became thicker
on both sides, and near the Shetlands extended to the bottom.
1900.—The whole channel is occupied by water from the south,
northward movement having apparently been strong earlier in the
season. At the date of the observations (July) little movement was
in progress, but there are indications of intrusion of water from the
north at a depth of about 300 fathoms, and at the surface on the east
side.
1901.—There are indications of feeble southward movement in the
depth, but most of the channel is occupied by water which has come
from the south. A weak northerly movement is apparent near the
surface, with some tendency to split into two branches, one west of
mid-channel, the other near the east side.
1902.—Unusually cold fresh water filled the channel, at all depths
below 150 fathoms, throughout the season. In May the surface
waters were of southern origin, and were moving northward, but as
the season progressed, southward movement increased both at the
surface and in the depth, especially in mid-channel, the waters mixing
with and driving out those of southern origin on each side. That this
movement extended far to the southward is shown by the fact that an
ice-floe was met with during July off the Treshinish Islands, on the
west side of Mull. The summer of 1902 was one of the worst on
record in the Faeroe-Shetland Channel, and hydrographical work was
exceedingly difficult.
A comparison of the 1902 sections with the admirable charts of
surface temperature published as insets in the British ‘ Pilot Chart of
the North Atlantic ’ shows in the clearest manner the relation between
the surface movements in the open ocean and the currents in the
channel. In May the surface temperature was normal, or shehtly
below it, between the west coast of the British Isles and about Lone.
15° W. Farther west, and to the north-west, there was a narrow band
of water above the normal temperature, obviously supplying the water
which was going northward on the east side of the channel. In June
temperature was apparently below the normal over the whole of the
12
90 The Hydrography of the Faeroe-Shetland Channel
surface of the eastern Atlantic, and in the subsequent months the area
of low temperature gradually narrowed, until in October it had entirely
disappeared.
I hope to obtain data with regard to atmospheric pressure similar
to those embodied in the Pilot Chart for October, for the earlier
months, and to discuss their relation to the observations in the Faeroe-
Shetland Channel in a later paper. The Pilot Charts in their present
form will be an invaluable help in interpreting the observations to be
made under the international scheme, and, as Dr. Wolfenden informs
me that he intends to make simultaneous observations at depths down ~
to 1,000 fathoms to the west of Ireland, the mechanism of the currents
flowing from the central region should be completely and_ finally
determined.
The conclusions arrived at up to the present may be stated thus :
1. Northward movement of water originating as a drift current is
strongest in the Faeroe-Shetland Channel during winter.
2. Northward movement of water originating as a stream current
is strongest in summer, being probably due to the extension of the
‘ Atlantic anticyclone.’
3. The northward movement 2 is the more uncertain, and varies
most in different years.
4, In the transition stages between 1 and 2, or when 2 is abnor-
mally weak, the water in the Faeroe-Shetland Channel may remain
practically motionless for extended periods. If the channel is filled
with water from the south, this water will gradually cool down and
sink, being cooled by, and mixing with, the cold underlying waters.
5. To the north of the Faeroe-Shetland Channel the waters of the
Norwegian sea consist of a mixture of waters of Arctic origin with
those of Atlantic origin, the latter very similar to 1. The mixture is
in most cases fairly complete, but during summer water of Arctic
origin, set free by the melting of ice, may form a surface layer of
considerable thickness.
6. The waters of the Norwegian sea make their way southward,
under favourable conditions, into the Faeroe-Shetland Channel and
The Hydrography of the Faeroe-Shetland Channel 91
the North Sea. The entrance to the North Sea is probably effected
every year, as there is no opposing northerly current on the western
side. In the Faeroe-Shetland Channel the southward movement is
normally prevented by the northerly currents 1 and 2, except at
depths below 300 fathoms, where the northward currents are cut
off by the Wyville-Thomson ridge, and at the surface, where there
may be a southerly drift current. In exceptional cases, as in 1902,
the northerly movement may be in abeyance, and water may move
southward at all depths. It seems likely that the presence of this
water in the North Sea has a special bearing on biological and fishery
questions.
7. The movements of the surface waters of the sea and the tem-
perature of the air near the British Isles do not stand in any direct
relation of cause and effect. Northerly winds bring cold weather, and
by drifting and ‘ banking’ cold water from higher latitudes, bring cold
surface water with them. Southerly winds bring warm weather, and
bring warm water from low latitudes in the same way. ‘The tempera-
ture of the surface water in the open sea influences the distribution of
atmospheric pressure, as Pettersson has shown, and it will therefore
affect the direction of the prevailing winds, but motion has nothing to
do with this influence.
TABLE I}
List oF ‘ WALWIN’ STATIONS.
Station. | Lat. N. | Long. W. Station. | Lat. N. Long. W.
y o 7 onnae | G4 o F
Ai. 60 40 2 50 A10 60 17 35
A2 60 54 3 40 All 60 27 3 50
A3 61 16 4 41 Bl 60 51 6 22
A34 61 28 4 50 B2 60 17 6 22
A4 61 32 5 20 B38 59 46 6 20
Abd 61 45 6 02 B4 60 00 | 5 20
A6 61 34 6 20 III. Off Fitful Head.
AT 61 14 6 08 INV West of Yell sound.
A8 61 00. | 5 80 We | Off Plugsa L. H.
AQ 60 45 | 4 50 Wit | East of Bressay.
1 For numbers and positions of the Jackal stations in 1893 and 1902, see ‘Twelfth Report
of the Fishery Board for Scotland,’ p. 364, and Natwre, vol. lxvi., p. 654.
12.2
a a
92 The Hydrography of the Faeroe-Shetland Channel
TABLE IL.
TEMPERATURE OBSERVATIONS.
| Depth | a Depth
Date. | Position. ama aue| £0 Date. Position.
Fath.) M | a Fath
1899. | | | 1900. |
July 1 |Smilesoff Hoy Hd.) 0 0 | 10°6 | Mar. 1 | Station IV. 0
5 i a RO NBS MOON, Nh os 58 |
5 N. of Westray ...| 0 | 0 | 10°6 » 9& |Station V. 0
Es hates 5 esl 20) 8/1068 |) oy (ame 53
on |S. W. of Sumbureh | | » 4 |Station VI. 0
| Hd. 0) | Oi) Cer 39 #5 59
op Ih es " 65 | 119 | 8-9 » §6 | Station IIT. 0
» 38 |N.W. of Yell sound @ | © | aaa af | 55 70
3 i EY 50| 91/108] ,, 28 | Station IV. 0
” |N.H.ofLambaNess| 0| 0 | 11-7 3 ay 55
beer % 55 | 101 | 9-4 », 24 |Station V. 0
» 4 |B. of Bressay 0; oO | TQM || op e AT
3 (Pere ers 55|101| 81] ., 27 |Station VI. 0
op |E. of Fair Isle 0 0 | 10:0 PA 35 50
i ‘ a ...| 60/110] 86] ,, 30 |Station ITT. 0
E. of Copinshay ... 0; 0O;,10:6) ,, % 64
oF Ae 0 ..| 48 | 79 | 89] Apr. 21 | Station IV. 0
Oct. 14 |8 miles off Hoy Hd. 0 0 | 10°6 5 Aa 53
i i f 40) 73/111 | |, 22 |Station V. 0
», 21 |Station IV. 0 0| 9:4 + a 54
2 if | 59/ 108/106] ,, 24 | Station VI. 0
5, 23 | Station V. 0 0) 97 i Me 65
Pe a | 55 101 10:3 » 2 | Station IIL. 0
» 27 |Station VI. oso) O 0; 94 a 5 65
3 h ..-| 52, 95 | 11:1 | May 24 | Station V. 0
Nov. 10 | Station III. ONT LOM ie2 ny on 54
90 | oD 55 | 101 | 81 », 25 |Station LV. 0
» 25 |Station IV. OQ) ©) GY ot | a 64
0 35 60 | 110 | 9:4 » 26 |Station IIT. 0
» 27 | Station V. 0 0| 83 90 | op soo|| 18)
a 52 | 95 | 9:2] June 9 |17 miles W.N.W.
Dec. 3 | Station VI. 0 0) 72 | of Flugga L. H. )
” ” 50 91} 89 ” | ” ” 66
Oo Station LE 0 0} 67 a '6 miles off Yell
‘ i 55 | 101 | 8-9 sound 0
» 15 |Station IV. 0 0| 69 rs oe 5 5d
96) %0 40 | 73] 86 », 12 |Station LV. 0
, 18 |Station V. 0 QO} 72 ) a soal| 023
56 a 56 | 102) 8:6 », 13/10 miles S.S.W. of
1900. IV. a 0
Jan. 1 | Station VI. 0 0 | 7:2 5 - 45 60
A vs 52) 95) 78 96 | Station ITT. obs 0
BS Station ITT. On ON NES * | a 500 |)
*) ” 59 | 108 | 81] July 11 | Station Al a 0
5, 80 |Station IV. @ | ©} 45 Pr a ...| 900
” ” 53 97 81 90 90 odo 100
Feb. 9 |Station V. Ol} O} G2 ||» 3 ...| 150
» 5 BN 9) |) || on Station AQ soo) 0
. 14 |Station VI. ON NOn Gul - soo || | 10)
o*) 40 46 84 | 6:9 a a ...| LOO
5 Station IIT. ON ON D:8 , 12 |Station A38 es 0
oH | . BL) aa 6-7 99 | 90 ooo |) G0)
DD DRAWDIDAADXAAADAD NMS AAD ADD DP PP DPD DAN
Le ROMONKROORRATRADRDOR MEE EE EE REDO
—
BIS HOWH
aoonre
Hee
a
an
DeAWHOOrWA
EE DOE ROH MOAAON
The Hydrography of the Faeroe-Shetland Channel 93
Taste [].—TEMPERATURE OBSERVATIONS (continwed).
Depth. 3 Depth. 6
Date. Position. 8 C Date. Position. EIS)
Fath.| M. | © Fath.| M. | ©
1900. 1901.
July 13 | Station A4 es 0 0 | 10:3 | May 15 | Station A2 ... | 800 | 549 | 0-1
” ” 50 gl 79 ” ” ... | 400 | 782 | -0°6
a 3 sool| OB BIO] WN a si ...| 500 | 914 | -1:0
“ Station A5 ae @) || © }) ails » 21 |Station A8 Sa 0 0/ 89
” ” 50 | 91 79 ” ” 45 82 Wits)
” 2 soa? O44 | LBS | WO ” 09 100 | 183} 6:8
” 91 | Station A6 sol Ol} OOS ||, i} 200 | 366} 4:7
5 “ ...| 100 | 188 | 81] ,, 5 300 | 549 | 1:2
fh: Station A7 so O |) ©} LOG)! 55 . ... | 400 | 732 | -0-2
s x soo] 60) |) GL] Sal || Station A4 ah O 0; 8-9
» 22 | Station AS soo] ©} _ Oj ates | 5p 00 |] 2153 |) SR | es
” ” 100 183 78 ” ” 200 | 115 210 6:7
» 9 350 | 640) 06] ,, . ...| 120 | 220) 67
» 23 | Station A9 (0) O | 11:7 FA Station A5 ae 0 0| 89g
mp D ...| 100 | 183} 8-9] ,, i ei 90) LG5a\) 6:7
Aug. 28 |10 miles N.E.3 N. » 29 |Station A6 oan 0 O| 92
from Station Al| 0 ) |) WO) Ga 5 45 | 82] 7:5
» » 50| 91) 94) ,, i 100 | 183 | 68
99 op 100 | 183 | 92) ,, i 145 | 265 | 6-7
Pr 5 200 | 366 8:4 a 99 son || a 5x0) 274 67
5 ie ...| 280 | 512 | 7:8 A Station A7 A 0 0| 92
B 20 miles N.N.E. of bp 9p soo || 25 || SB Wes}
Station AL...) ©) O/}122) ,, 2 ...| 80] 146] 6-7
” ” ” 80 146 9-1 ” ” 00 135 247 6-7
Ss on 150 | 274 | 84] June 38 |Station A8 es 0 0 | 10-4
” ” ” 250 457 61 ” ” 45 82 81
” ” ” 350 | 640 | -06 ” ” 100 | 183 6:7
5, 29 |Station A2 soo] © O;ir4] ,, ‘ 200 | 866 | 5:7
.. es soo|| 0) |) Gl | tees i Hi 255 | 467 | 4:2
m i 100 | 183 | 7:4 . Station A9 0 0 | 10°8
” ” 200 366 5:3 ” ” 45 82 75
” . 300 | 549 | 10] ,, 0p 100 | 183 | 6-4
” ” 400 | 732 0:0 99 99 200 | 866 4:7
- a ...| 500 | 914 | -0°7 a 0 300 | 549 | 0:8
Oct. 4 | Station IIT. ae 0 0| 94 . rn ...| 400 | 732 | -0°3
5% $5 ...| 70 | 128 | 10-0 » 4 |Station All a 0 0 | 10°6
», 10 | Station IV. ella. RO 0/100] ,, % a DON enol G39
7) Dp ...| 75 | 104 | 10°6 “ae - ..,| 00 | 183 | 8:4
», 16) Station V. ABR 0 @) HY) oO 30 ... | 200 | 866 | 8-4
if i | 75 | 187/100] |, 19 |Station A1 | Ol Ol Sy
», 19 |Station VI. awa 0) 0 | 10-0 90 oa soo || GO); Gil | Oxo
2) 0p 57 | 104 | 100] _,, 9p ...| 100 | 183 | 8-4
1901. 5p 90 ...| 110} 201 | 84
Jaa. 12 | Station IV. He 0 0; 78 », 20 | Station A2 ae 0 0 | 10-0
8 F soni} 3 Y AGISS || A3}|| 5, - 45 | 82] 9-1
5, 19 |Station V. ae 0 O| 72 30 S 100 | 183 |} 8:5
4 x call GH | OIL |) WHO) 5 a 200 | 366} 4:4
Feb. 2 |Station VI. =. 0 0} 61 x % 300 | 549 | O-1
Es a 60 | 110| 72] ,, pe 400 | 732 | -0:3
a Station III. Bee 0} OO} 56 " i ...| 500 | 914 | -0:7
H Be _..| 62 | 118 | 6:7 | July 27 | Station Al one 0 0) 235
May 14 | Station Al ts 0) @) |) Pe 0 55 ..| 45] 82) 9-4
Fel is ol) Te || SO) HB * | 80] 146 | 89
;, 15 | Station A2 Ss 0 @ | Ow I " ...| 180 | 238 | 8:6
i 2 45| 82| 7-4] ,, Station A2 col ©} Ol aD
5 5 100 | 185 | 61 5 5 pao) oD 82] 9:2
sf a 200 | 366 | 3-0] ,, a | 100 | 183 | 7-8
94 The Hydrography of the Faeroe-Shetland Channel
TasLe I],—TmMPERATURE OBSERVATIONS (continued).
| Depth. 2 Depth. a
Date Position. 5 S Date. Position. aS
Ene mu. | & Fath.| M. | &
—$$—$———— = _—
1901. | | 1902.
ae. a Station A2 500 914 | -0'7 | June 29 |BetweenAlandA10) 120 | 220 | 8:9
2. July 9 |6 miles inside Al... 0 0 | 10-0
May 17 Station Al 0 0 | 10-8 oe a er 80 | 146 | 8-4
” ca 100 183 |} 61 », 15 |Station A2 (0) 0 | 10:0
» 18 Station A2 0 O|) WS)! ¢5 = 50) 91} 78
: : 500 | 914 |-06] 2 200 | 366 | 8
i i 608 [1112 |-1-1| ” Station A3 0| 0| 94
», 20 | Station A8 0; oO| 84] ,, 4 50 | 91 | 7:8
5 S 50 | 91| 7-2) ,, e 100 | 183 | 6:7
5p i 100 | 188 | 61] ,, & 200 | 366 | 3:9
” a 200 366 | 1:9 », 16 |Station A4 (0) 0 9-4
” | mn 300 | 549 | 06 5 ” 120 | 220 78
” BS 400 | 7382 | 0:2 » 17 |Station Ad 0 0} 84
», 21 | Station A4 0 O}) P21 op ms 75 | 187 | 78
a (ferns 50 | 91| 6-7] ,, 20|Station A6 0| 0 | 106
. i 108 | 198| 6-7] ,, i 120 | 220 | 7:8
June 1 | Station B3 @ | O11) GG) 5. Station A7 0 0) 89
a Ne (a 50 | 91| 8-4] ,, a3 ... | 120 | 220 | 69
Ps | 100 | 183 | 7:2 », 21 |8 miles E. of AS ... 0 0 9-7
» 19 | Station Al |) OO} G2) os = * 50} 91) 7:2
i : 110 | 201 | 7:8] ,, 100 | 188 | 5-0
» 21 | Station A2 Ol Ol G4) y o + 200 | 366 | 1:9
” | a 200 | 866 | 3:9 5 260 | 476 V1
», 22) Station A3 Olle Oy ace |iae Station A9 0| 0 | 100
” | Station A4 0 OF ed) aa D 50 91 9°4
‘ 4 110 | 201 | 72] 2 : 200 | 366 | 22
2/3 ” | 7:2 90 9:
. Station A5 O| @| Bul. i 400 | 732 | 1-1
” | op Ys) | ONL We ; ‘ ...| 500 | 914 | -0°6
», 26 | Station A6 0| 0| 86| 5, 22|11milesS.of All| 0| 0/106
is if see || abla) |) ROL | 7) || as i 2 80 | 146 | 8-9
» 27 |BetweenA7andA8| 0 On S:95 iss Station A10 0 0) 94
» “s 155 | 284) 6:7 | *., _ ...| 80] 146 | 8-6
» 28 BetweenA2andA9| 0 0 | 94 | Aug. 1 |17 miles off Foula | 75 | 137 | 8-4
- ‘ = 50 | 91| 78] ,, Station Al O | @ |i5e4
“ i ¢ 100 | 183 | 7-2] ,, yp ..| 110 | 201 | 8-9
” sp 200 | 866 | 2:8 » 3 |10 milesS. of A2... 0 0.| 10°6
% is 300 | 549| 0-6 | ,, a + | 100 | 183 | 6-7
AA f . 400 | 732 |-0°3 | ,, és a 200 | 366 | 3-9
Uo 2 ’ 500 | 914 | —1-1 ” ” ” 300 549 03
” Station A2 o Be ae 5 33 am Ee aoe
” 2) | PS ” ? oO tt
es = 100 |188| 67] . 5 |10milesS. of A9 0! 01|10-7
is YA: 200 | 366) 44], is me 200 | 366 | 8:4
ir Nin ees 300 | 549| 1:4] ,, if - 400 | 732 | 0-0
” | ” 400 | 732 | -0°6 as ; 500 | 914 | -0°6
eS Mi de 500 | 914 |-0-7 | ,, Station B4 ” 0| 0 {117
| 5 ...| 600 |1097 leet - ¥ 150 | 274 | 9:2
» 29 |BetweenAlandAl0) 0 |) GR || a5 5 260 | 476 | 84
|
The Hydrography of the Faeroe-Shetland Channel
95
TABLE III.
SALINITY OBSERVATIONS.
45 | Depth. | pS 0
38 Date. | Position. | Cl. EE cy
Ag | F'th.| M. Ag | 2
1900. |
1 |May 24| Vv. 0|- 0 19:59| 35:40] 53
5 OB ING, 0} 0 19°67|35:54) 54
B | 4) 23!) ToL, 0| 0) 19:66) 35:52| 55
4 |June 3 J0Uf, 0| 0/19-63/35-47] 56
4, TA In 0| 0/19°66| 25°52] 57
BL IB) war, 0| 0) 19°77| 35-72] 58
7 |July 11) Al 0| 0) 19:58] 35-38] 59
Sul ee » |100]/183/ 19-74| 35-66] 60
Onli » | 150/274) 19-67 | 35°54] 61
10 5 A2 | 400|732 19°70/ 35-59] 62
Tile oe ». | 500/914 19-67 | 35:54] 63
12) 4, 1D) AQ 0} 0/19°65|35:50] 64
1B Pg » | 100/183 19-65/35°50] 65
|| > | 200/366 | 19°68) 35°56] 66
165) 55 », |800/549| 19 61/ 35-43] 67
nha ae A3 0| 0) 19°65) 35:50] 68
ial oe » | 100/183 | 19-65 | 35-50
| ;, | 200/366 | 19-63|35-47| 99
1@) | » | 800/549 | 19°58| 35°38
S0iles se e131) Ae 0| 0/19°61| 35-43] 7°
TN epee ec 50| 91|19°63|35:47| 71
| ie 90/165 19°61 | 35-43] 72
OB || A5 | 0] 0|19°61|/35-43| 73
Oa | iS 50| 91/ 19°61|35-43| 74
Oa ees ss 80/146 19°60| 35-41] 75
| 5, BO) Ay 0| 0)|19°67|35-54| 76
Mf || 3, Sil ANG 0| 0) 19°61| 35-43] 77
23| ,, | AT |100/183/ 19-65/35-50] 78
29 | 5, | 4, |150/274| 19:61, 35-431 79
30 | ,, 22] As 0| 0. 19:°65|35:50] so
31| 4, | 4, -|100/183| 19:65 |35-50) 81
32} ,, | 4, |150/274|19:65135-50) 82
83 | 4, | 4, |250)457|19-60| 35-41] 93
3 » | 9». |850|640| 19-61 | 35-431 84
Bball os » |450| 823 | 19-67 | 35-54] 85 |-
36 | ,, 23| AQ 0 0/1967 | 35:54] 86
ST »» | 100 183 19-65 | 35°50}
B34) 4 » {250/457 | 19:58 | 35-38] 87
0h » |850|640| 19:72| 35-63
Ag || 5 5, |440/805 | 19°75 | 35-68] 88
41 |Oct. 4) IIT. | 35| 64|19-65|35:50] 89
2} | s 70/128 19:59| 35-40] 90
AD alert 0} 0/19°67)/ 35-54] 91
44) 5, 10) IV. | 30! 55|19-67/35-54| 92
AB oe rs 57 | 104 | 19-73 | 35-64] 93
Gy een iG . | 70/128) 19-76 | 35-70] 94
Aimee eal oe 35| 64/|19-61| 35-43] 95
48 | ,, 19| VI. | 30| 55|19-60/35-41] 96
AOR Soe lii 57/104 | 19-39| 35-03] 97
0 | fy 20) any, 0| 0| 19-65 | 35-50
1901. we)
51 |Jan. 12| Iv. 0} 0 1959) 35-40] 99
52 | 5, | ,, |115/210/ 19-71) 35:61] 100
Cl.
Salinity
per Mille.
ip le
sp P| A383
» 30
5
June 3
”
(60° 43’ N.)
| 8°22 W. J
| (60° 35''N.)
| 2°25) W. f
”
| (61°37! N.)
| \6° 18’ W.J
| (61°30'N.)
| \6° 37! W.f |
A8
AQ
(60° 56’ N.)
\ 5°18" W.J |
AGiriNa|
100
200
255
0
. 100
200
| 300
400
0
0
”
100
0 | 19°51
205 19°61
0 | 19°63
238 | 19°59
0 | 19°60
19°65
0 19°71
104 | 19°72
209 | 19°67
0 | 19°74
0 19°70
183 19°65
366 | 19°65
549 19°65
7382 19°53
914 19°61
0 | 19°69
0 19°76
0 | 19°69
| 183 | 19°67
366 | 19°65
549 | 19°65
| 7382 | 19°65
0 | 19°66
| 146 | 19°65
210 | 19°63
0 | 19°65
1146 | 19°65
0 | 19°63
183 | 19°65
274 | 19°65
0 | 19°65
146 | 19°65
238 | 19°65
0 | 19°70
0 | 19°81
0 | 19°69
183 19°69
366 | 19°66
| 19°65
0 | 19°67
183 | 19°63
366 | 19°65
549 | 19°61
732 | 19°65
0 | 19°65
0 19°72
183 | 19°78
35°25
eo
SK
aS
i)
35:47
35°40
35:41
35°50
35°61
35°63
35°54
35°66
35°59
35°50
35:50
35°50
35-28
35°43
35°58
35°70
35°58
35°54
35°50
35°50
35°50
35°52
35°50
35°47
35°50
35°50
35°47
35°50
30°50
35°50
35°50
35°50
35°59
35°79
35°58
35°58
35°52
35°50
35°54
BOAT
35°50
35°43
35°50
35°50
35°63
35°73
96 The Hydrography of the Faeroe-Shetland Channel
Taste I1L.—Sanmiry OpsERvaAtions (continued).
oa Depth. ed 9 | Depth. bs
oF Date. Positions |= (Cla) ESI $e Date. | Position. SSO le as
Ag F'th. M. ae Ag | F'th| M cry
| | | |
1901. | 1902. |
101 |June 4| All ZOO Seo see 35°56]133|May 17) Al 0| 0/| 19:74) 35:66
(60° 37’ N.) a een (ayumi 50) 91/ 19°72 | 35-62
102) » \eoaot| OC) OPC eee ies) 5, ” | 100 | 188 | 19°65 | 35°50
103 | ,, 19 Al 0) 0/|19°68|35:56]136| ,, 20| A3 0| 0) 19°69 | 35:57
104} ,, es 50| 91|19:71|85°61)187| 4, | » 100 | 183 | 19°61 | 35-43
105 | _,, ie 100/183 | 19°71) 35°61} 138| _,, 200 | 366 | 19°43 | 35°10
106 |July 4 4 0) 0/19:70|35°59]139| _,, a 300 | 549 19°50 | 35°23
nO? |) ¥ 80 146 | 19-71| 85:61] 140) _,, 400 | 732 19:48 | 35-19
108 | ,, 115 | 210| 19°69|35:58]141) ,, 21) A4 0| 0 19°63 | 35:46
10) | BS AQ Ol) MO) 9:67) 85154] 142) 7s ele 100/188 | 19°60 | 35-41
Tn@ |) 4 ie 100| 183 | 19°67|35°54]143| ,, 80) A6 0) 0 19°63 | 35:46
mit | 5, ‘e 200 | 366 | 19°66 | 35°52] 144 __,, 4 100 | 183 | 19°59 | 35°39
1D |) 5, on 300 549/19°65/35°50]145| ,, 31) BI 0| 0 | 19:65 | 85°50
UGB) |} gp 6p 400 | 732|19°63|35°47|146|\June 1, B2 0! 0) 19°72) 35°62
iE | “ 500 | 914|19-65|35:50|147) ,, | Bs 0) 0) 19°79 | 35°75
mG |} . & AB3z 0 0 /19°65 35:50] 148), 19| Al 0| 0| 19-62) 35:44
116 | ,, ss 100 | 188 | 19°63 |85:47} 149) _,, i 100 | 183 | 19°59 | 35°39
ily | rs 990 | 403|19:66/35°52]150| ,, 21| A2 0| 0/| 19°60) 35:41
Tal) || A4 0| 0[19°67/85:54|151| ,, 22) As 0| 0) 19°60) 35-41
iG) || a 80 146 | 19°65 35°50] 152), ‘ 100| 183 | 19°57 | 35°35
120 6 @ 110 201 19°65 35°50}153),, is 200 | 866 19°59 35°39
1 || 4 Y AD 0| 0/|19°65| 35°50] 154) _,, A4 0| 0 19°61 | 35-43
19) || 3, id! AG 0| 0/19:70)3559)155) ,, | » 100| 188 19°60 | 35-41
198 || - 45| 82\19:65|35°50}156| ,, | Ad 0| 0/|19°63| 35 46
124] ,, 3 100/183|19:68|35:56]157| ,, 26)