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SCIENTIFIC PROCHKEDINGS

Neat

OF THE

ROYAL DUBLIN SOCIETY.

Hew Series. @

ce kat) MM: eed

218434

DUBLIN:
PUBLISHED BY THE ROYAL DUBLIN SOCIETY.

PRINTED BY ALEX. THOM & CO., 87, 88, & 89, ABBEY-STREET,
THE QUEEN’S PRINTING OFFICE.
FOR HER MAJESTY’S STATIONERY OFFICE,

1880.

THE Society desires it to be understood that they are not answerable
for any opinion, representation of facts, or train of reasoning, that may
appear im this Volume of their Proceedings. The Authors of the several

Memours are alone responsible for their contents.

SOb, ¢/S7

LIST OF THE CONTRIBUTORS
TO VOLUME TWO,

WITH REFERENCES TO THE SEVERAL ARTICLES CONTRIBUTED
BY EACH.

Apams, A. Lerru, M.D., F.R.S. PAGE
On the recent and extinct Irish Mammals (with Plates
1 to 5 and Woodcuts). 45

See also Ussuer, R. J.
ARGALL, P. H.

Notes on the Ancient and Recent Mining Operations in
the East Ovoca District (with Plates 12 and 13), torte

Bai, VALENTINE, M.A., F.G.S.
On Stilbite from Veins im Metamorphic (Gneiss) Rocks

in Western Bengal, . 12]
On Spheroidal Jointing in Metamorphic Rocks in India
and elsewhere producing a structure resembling Glacial
“Roches Moutonnées” (with Plates 21, 22, and 23),. 341
On the Evidence in favour of the belief in the existence
of Floating Ice in India during the Deposition of the
Talchir (Permian or Permio-Triassic) Rocks, : . . 4380
On the Coal Fields and Coal Production of India (with a
Map), 46
On the Mode of Occurrence and Distribution of Gold in
India, 24
On the Mode and Occurrence of Diamonds in India, Dol
See also Reynoups, J. Emerson, M.D.
Bartow, W. H., F.R.S.
On the Articulation of the Human Voice, as Illustrated
153

by the Logograph (with Woodcuts),

iv List of the Contributors.

Barrett, W. F., F.R.S.E.
On an experiment connecting Electro-Motive Force and
Surface Tension (with Woodcuts),

Notes from the Physical Laboratory of the Royal College
of Science for Ireland (with Woodeut),
On the Suppression of Induction Clamour in Telephones
(with Woodcut),
Barrineton, R. M., M.A., LL.B.
On the Introduction of the Squirrel into Ireland (with
a Map),
Cameron, C. A., M.D., F.R.C.S.1.
On the Abnormal Composition of a Crop of Hay,
Preliminary Note on the Absorption of Selenium by Plants,

On the Action of Water upon Mercuric Sulphate, .

CrosE, Rev. Maxwe.t, M.A.

Anniversary Address to the Royal Geological Society of
Treland (1878), .

Anniversary Address to the Royal Geological Society of
Treland (1879), .
Dreyer, J. L. E., M.A.
A Record of the Progress of Astronomy during the year
1879,
Fieitpen, H. W., F.G.8.

Some remarks on Inter-Glacial Epochs in reference to
Fauna and Flora, existing at the present day in the
Northern Hemisphere, between the parallels of 81° and
83° .N.,

FirzGErALp, Grorce F., M.A., F.T.C.D.
On M. Duter’s Experiments on Electric Accumulators,

On the Maximum Tension of Vapours near Curved
Liquid Surfaces,

Note on the Conductivity of Tourmaline Crystals, .
Note on the Construction of Guard-ring Electrometers,

Notes on Fluorescence, .

PAGE

437

42

Inst of the Contributors.

Frazer, W., F.R.C.S.L.

On Hy Brasil, a Traditional Island off the West Coast of
Ireland, Plotted ina MS. Map, written by Sieur Tassin,
Geographer Royal to Louis XIII. (with Plate 9),

Freker, Percy Evans.

A Comparative Catalogue of Birds found in Europe and

Vv

PAGE

173

North America, , : 4 f : Rey eu ap!

Gruss, Howarp, M.E., F.R.A.S.
On anew form of Electrical Contact-maker for Astronomical
and other Clocks (with a Woodcut),
Improvements in the Stereoscope (with Plates 10 and 11),
On the Equatorial Telescope, and on the New Observatory
of the Queen’s College, Cork (with Plates 24 and 25,
and Woodcuts),

Havuenton, Rev. 8., M.D., F.T.C.D., F.R.S.

On the Total Annual Heat received at each point of the
Earth’s Surface from the Sun, and on the amount of the
Loss of that Heat caused by Radiation into Space,
neglecting the effect of the Atmosphere,

Geological Notes on the Structure of Middle and North
Devonshire, made during a Walking Tour in Devonshire
in the Summer of 1878,

Notes on the Annual Water-Discharge of Large Rivers ;
with Indications of Some New Methods of Calculation,

On Rossetti’s Law of Cooling, applied to the consideration
of the relative effects of Sun-heat, Karth-heat, Star-heat,
and Atmospheric Conditions upon Climates during
Geological Time,

Huu, Epwarp, M.A., F.R.S.
On the Occurrence of Crystals of Salt (Chloride of Sodium)
in Chert from the Carboniferous Limestone,

Note on a new Geological Map of Ireland,

AT

129
133

vi List of the Contributors.

Hutt, Epwarp G., B.A.,
On the Radiatine Powers of Shell-lac Films of various

thickness, .

JEFFREYS, J. Gwyn, LL.D., F.R.S.
On some of the Mollusca procured during the Arctic
Expedition of the “‘ Fox” in 1858 and 1859,

Kinanan, Georce H., M.R.1LA.

The Old Red Sandstone (so called) of Ireland in its
relations to the Underlying and Overlying Strata.
[Abridged] (with Plates 6 and 7),

Cambro-Silurian and Silurian Rocks of the Southern and
the Western Parts of Ireland (with Plate 8),

Dingle and Glengarriff Grits (with Plate 14),
Arklow Beach and Rivers (with Plates 16,17, and 18),

Anniversary Address to the Royal Geological Society of
Treland (1880), .

Kirey, W. F.

Catalogue of the Lepidoptera (Rhopalocera, Sphingidee,
Castniide, and Uraniidz) in the Museum of Science and
Art, Dublin, with remarks on new or interesting
Species,
Lasautx, A. Von.
~ On the Tridymite-Quartz-Trachyte of Tardree Mountain,

and on the Olivine-Gabbro of the Carlingford Mountains
(with Woodcuts),

thoy, ES a, CoE.
Voluntary Act of Self-destruction by the Worker Bee,

Moore, Davin, Pu.D.

On a supposed new species of Ceratozamia,

Moss, Epwarp, M.D., R.N.
Notes on Arctic Air, . : ;

On the effect of cold upon the Strength of Iron,

PAGE

90

bo
Lan)
bo

600

34
117

List of the Contributors. Vii

Moss, Ricuarp J., F.C.S. PAGE
On the Oxidation of Iron in the presence of Vartry
Water, . ; ; 5 : , F : s hae
An Improved Method for Determining the Gases Dissolved
in Water (with a Woodcut), , , ; : Dat

iM Cay. W.8., M.A. F-T-C.D.:
On the Method of Charging Holtz’s Electrical Machine, . 209

M‘Donne., A., M.A., M.1.C.E.

On the Transmission of Power to a distance, . , ; 1

M‘Nas, W.R., M.D., F.L.S.

On Branched Hairs from the Stamens ot Tradescantia

virginica (with Plate 20), . A , : : 1) 289
On some Abnormal Flowers of Primula, : : ss 290
Note on the Root-hairs of Azolla pinnata, . : . aol

Ornemiy, J. P.-C.
On the Occurrence of Microcline Feldspar in the Dalkey
Granites (with Plate 15), . : : : : . 246
PLUNKETT, THOMAS.
On Chertin the Limestone of Knockbeg, county Fermanagh
(with Woodeut), : t © pearl
Reaves, T. Metiarp, C.E.
A Problem for Irish Geologists in Post-Glacial Geology
(with Plate 19), ‘ ; : P . ; 255
Reynowps, J. Emerson, M.D., F.R.S., and Babi, V., M.A.
On an Artificial Mineral produced in the Manufacture ot
Basic Bricks at Blaenavon, Monmouthshire, ; ta
Sincuarr, F. W.
Notes on Irish Lepidoptera, . A : : A A eM,

Stoney, G. J., M.A., F.R.S.

Approximate Formule for the Volumes and Weights of

Gases, . ; ¢ ; : : . : . 484
On a Dimerous Form of Pansy (with Woodcut), . . 632

vili Inst of the Contributors.

Ussuer, R. J., and Apams, A. Lerru., M.D., F.R.S.
Notes on the Discovery in Ireland of a Bone Cave,
containing Remains of the Irish Elk, apparently
co-existent with Man (with Woodcut),

WitiiAMs, W.

On an attempt to elucidate the History of the Cervus
megaceros, commonly called the Irish Elk, .

Wynne, N. B., F.G.S.
On some Points in the Physical Geology of the Dingle
and Iveragh Promontories, .

DATES OF THE PUBLICATION OF THE SEVERAL PARTS

OF THIS VOLUME.
Part 1.—Containing pages 1 to 120, October, 1878.
bs » 121 to 178, May, 1879.

bo

3)

3. is » 179 to 242, July, 1879.

See 4 243 to 288, January, 1880.
D: me 5, 289 to 416, April, 1880.
6. ns » 417 to 50, July, 1880.

ff », 951 to 634, November, 1880.

PaGE

105

590

THE

ShIENTIFIC PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

ROYAL DUBLIN SOCIETY.

Vox. II. (New Series). OCTOBER, 1878. — Part I.
CONTENTS.
a Page
I. On the Transmission of Power to a distance. By ALEXANDER
M‘Donnett, M.A., M.I.C.E., x : 1
II. Anniversary Address to the Royal Gstanal Society af gh
Ireland. By the Rev. Maxwert Cross, M. A, ; 5

III. On the Tridymite-Quartz-Trachyte of Tardree Wasi ah on
the Olivine-Gabbro of the Carlingford Mountains. By A. von
Lasavrx, Professor of Mineralogy in the University of Breslau.
(With woodcuts.) : : : 5 : : : : 25

IV. Notes on Arctic Air. By Staff-Surgeon Epwarp L. Moss, : 34

V. Some remarks on Inter-Glacial Epochs in reference to Fauna and
Flora, existing at the present day in the Northern Hemisphere,
between the parallels of 81° and 83° N. By H. W. Fieve,
F.G.S., 42

VI. On the recent ond Seite Trish Me ue hale Ney K Tas paren
F.R.S., Professor of Geology in the Royal College of Science,
Ireland. (With Plates 1 to 5 and woodcuts.) ; 45,

VII. On an experiment connecting Electro-Motive Force and Surface
Tension. By W. F. Barrevr, F.R.S.E. (With woodcuts, ) 87

VII. On the Radiating Powers of Shell-lac Films of various thickness.
By E. G. Hutt, 3 90:

[or continuation sa Contents see last page uh Cover.

The Authors alone are responsible for all opinions expressed in their communications.

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FOUNDED, A.D. 1731. INCORPORATED, 1749,

'

Evening Scientific Meetings. \

The Evening Scientific Meetings of the Society and of the associated
bodies (the Royal Geological Society of Ireland and the Dublin Scientific
Club) are held in Leinster House on the third Monday in each month
during the Session. The hour of meeting is 8 o’clock, p.m. The business
is conducted in the undermentioned sections.

Section I.—PuysIcAL AND EXPERIMENTAL SCIENCES.
Secretary to the Section, R. J. Moss, F.c.s.

Section II.—Naturat Scrences (including Geology and Physical
Geography).
Secretary to the Section, R. M‘Nas, M.D.

Section II17.—Screncr APPLIED TO THE USEFUL ARTS AND INDUSTRIES.
Secretary to the Section, HOWARD GRUBB, M.E., T.C.D.

Authors desiring to read papers before any of the sections of the
‘Society are requested to forward their communications to the Registrar
of the Royal Dublin Society (Mr. R. J. Moss), or to one of the Sectional
Secretaries, at /east ten days prior to each evening meeting, as no paper
can be set down for reading until examined and approved by the Science
Committee.

The copyright of all papers read becomes the property of the Society,
and such as are considered suitable for the purpose will be printed with
the least possible delay. Authors are requested to hand in their MS, in
a complete form and ready for transmission to the printer.

THE

SCIENTIFIC PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

ROYAL DUBLIN SOCIETY.

I.—ON THE TRANSMISSION OF POWER TO A DISTANCE,
py ALEXANDER M‘DONNELL, .a., M.1.¢.5.

[Read February 18, 1878.]

THE most usual way employed for transmitting power is by means
of shafting, and when the distance is not very great it is gene-
rally very convenient. It has been employed in some cotton mills
to transmit as much as 4,000 horse-power. There are many cases,
however, in which it is very inconvenient to use shafting, when the
power has to be transmitted to considerable distances, particularly
through inconvenient places, where access for lubrication and
repairs is difficult, and where the consumption of the power is
very intermittent.

Wire Ropes have been employed with great success for trans-
mitting power to very great distances in particular cases, and is
extremely convenient where several people are the users of the
power. This wire rope system is employed at Schafthausen,
where the hydraulic power of the Rhine is used to drive 3
turbines 94 feet diameter, developing 750 horse-power. The
power is transmitted by a {-inch wire rope running at a speed of
53 miles an hour. © .

The same system is employed at several other places, for in-
stance, at Oberursel, near Frankfort, where 94 horse-power is
transmitted 3,153 feet. At Logelbach, in Alsace, 50 horse-power
is transmitted by a 3-inch rope, running at 31 miles an hour,
768 feet. At Fribourg, 300 horse-power is transmitted 2,516 feet.

‘The tension on the wire rope to transmit 300 horse-power is
Seren. Proc. R.DS., Vou. 11, PT. 1. B

2 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

estimated at 64 tons to a square inch. The loss of power in
transmitting power by wire rope a distance of 150 yards has been
estimated at 24 per cent. There are also several cases on the
Continent where a considerable head of water can be obtained,
where high-pressure pipes are laid, and the water passing through
these work hydraulic engines.

The transmission of power by wire ropes was very convenient,
also working agricultural machinery, such as steam ploughs, &e.

Ropes running at high speed were extremely convenient for
working overhead travelling cranes, and also travelling jib cranes.
The motion in these cases was transmitted by a cotton rope to a
shaft running through the pillar of the crane, and a set of friction
wheels gave the means of lifting or travelling the crane.
- Probably the most beautiful modern means of transmitting
power is by water, by means of the hydraulic machinery intre-
duced by Sir William Armstrong. Although the first idea
occurred to Sir W. Armstrong about ten years before, the first
hydraulic cranes were adopted for railway stations (for which this
kind of power is especially applicable) in 1848, in the Trafalgar
Station in Newcastle by Mr. Harrison. In Sir Wiliam Armstrong’s
hydraulic system, in order to obtain the necessary pressure to
work the machinery, a contrivance called an accumulator is used
(first adopted in 1850 on the M.S. & L. New Holland Station on
the Humber). This consists of a cast-iron cylinder, which is
fitted with a ram or plunger, which is loaded with a considerable
weight to give pressure to the water, which is forced into it by a
steam engine. By this means a head of from 600 to 800 feet of
water can very easily be obtained, and the cranes, &c., are in this
way very much simplified. The hydraulic power is transmitted
through very strong pipes to the various machines which are to
be worked by it. These are extremely various. In railway
goods stations cranes, hoists, capstans, traversing-tables, and turn-
tables are worked in this way. Excellent examples of this
machinery may be seen at the London and North-Western North
Wall Station, and a very large quantity of hydraulic machinery
will be erected in the course of this summer by the Great Southern
and Western Railway at the North Wall. A fine application of
hydraulic machinery is to be seen in the Liverpool corn ware-
houses, where the corn is lifted from the ship and distributed

On the Transmission of Power to a Distance. 3

horizontally in the warehouses by means of broad belts. It is
found that 50 tons of grain can be carried in this way on belts
18 inches wide a distance of 100 feet in an hour, with an expen-
‘diture of 1:02 horse-power. (The same quantity moved by screw
required 18°18 horse-power.) Hydraulic machinery has also been
most successfully applied to work foundry cranes, coal hoists for
loading ships, opening dock-gates, opening drawbridges, working
rivetting machines, forging machines, &c.

Air-pressure machinery is used for working hauling machines
in mines where steam could not be used, and coal-cutting machines
and tunnelling machines.

The pneumatic transmission for telegraph messages was an ap-
plication of pneumatic power. The whole arrangements would
require too long to perfectly explain.

Lately air-pressure machinery had been adopted for applying
brakes to railway trains. There are several methods now being
tried for applying brakes. In Clarke & Webb’s Brake, which is
used by the London and North-Western, and the Heberline
Brake, the power is obtained from the rotation of one of the
wheels by means of friction wheels, and is transmitted to several
carriages by means of a chain, which is wound up on a drum.
The Westinghouse Brake is a pressure brake, that is, the air is
used under pressure. Under each carriage is placed a reservoir
for compressed air, and a cylinder in which a piston works.
When the air is admitted from the reservoir to the cylinder the
piston moves, and, being attached to the brake gear, puts on the
brake. The reservoir is kept filled with compressed air by an air
pump on the engine. There is an arrangement which is very
complicated to explain, even with a diagram, by which this brake
is made automatic, that is, whenever the pressure in the tubes
which connect the carriages and engine is lowered, either inten-
tionally by the guard or driver, or by accident, as by the separat-
ing of the train, the brake goes on itself. This brake is very
powerful and rapid in its action, but certainly has some points
about it which make it complicated.

The Smiths’ Vacuum Brake has the power obtained by pro-
ducing a vacuum by means of a steam jet exhauster on the
engine. There are two tubes run along the train, which are in
connection with a cylindrical bag or sack which is placed under

Scren. Proc, R.D.S., Von, m., Pt. 1. B2

4 Scientifie Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

each carriage. One end of this sack is attached to the frame of
the carriage, and the other, which is attached to a rod in connee-
tion with the brake gear, is free to move. Whenever the air is
exhausted by the steam jet from the sacks, the free ends collapse,
and put the brake on. This brake is extremely simple. It is
not automatic, but, if necessary, could probably be made so.
There is also the Saunders Air Brake, and Barker's Hydraulic
Brake, which are used. All these brakes will stop a train run-
ning at from 40 to 50 miles an hour in from 17 to 23 seconds,
and in about 250 yards, or less, that is,in a fourth of the dis-
tance that a train running at the same speed would be stopped
by the ordinary hand brakes.

Another means of transmitting power is by electric conductors.
A four horse-power engine will produce light in this way equal
to 1,000 candles ; 100 horse-power will equal 25,000 candles, or
1,250 Argand burners, equal to 25,000 cubic feet of gas per hour,
equal, at 4s. 6d., to £5 12s. 6d.

Norre.—The latest experience shows that when the photometer is
placed in the same horizontal plane as the regulator at a distance of
16-4 ft., a light equal to 2,400 candles is given. If the photometer is
lowered 16:4 ft., the same horizontal distance being kept, the photometer
indicates 8,400 candles. If they are on the same level, the distance
being 16-4 ft., and the lower carbon placed a little in advance of the
upper so as not to be immediately below it, the photometer indicates
6,400 candles. In each case the power necessary to drive the machme
being 24 horse-power. The cost of working four Gramme machines, |
allowing 12 per cent. for interest and depreciation, is about 5s. an hour.

[eet

IIl—THE ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS TO THE ROYAL GEO.
LOGICAL SOCIETY OF IRELAND, sy REV. MAXWELL
H. CLOSE, ma.

[Read February 18, 1878.]

As this is the first anniversary meeting of the Royal Geological
Society of Ireland, which has been held in connection with the Royal
Dublin Society, it behoves us, as members of the former, to begin
our proceedings with a reference to the new conditions in which we
find ourselves. We would heartily congratulate ourselves on the
alliance which has been effected between the two Societies; it is
calculated to be beneficial to us in various ways. Our modesty
prevents our congratulating the members of the Royal Dublin
Society, in their presence, on the alliance; but we may express
our desire and hope that the benefit may be mutual. We are not
called upon to confess whether that hope be accompanied with
expectation ; but, judging from the way in which our newly
found allies have favoured us with their presence and countenance,
we venture to surmise that they are not altogether devoid of such
expectation themselves.

The nature of the connexion between the two Societies is, as
you are aware, best indicated by the word which has been chosen
to describe it, viz., “Association.” There is no amalgamation,
incorporation, affiliation, &c; each Society still remains quite
separate and distinct. The Geological Society retains its own
individuality and autonomy just as before. We hope we may be
excused for pointing out on the present occasion, as a matter of
business, yet with an earnest p) yévorro, that should it ever become
necessary, the association of the two Societies can be dissolved as
easily as it was effected.

To turn to our own special concerns—As we have just entered
upon new conditions, though not upon a new stage of existence,
this has been regarded as a suitable opportunity for introducing
a new feature into our operations. We have had, at various
times, field excursions to places in the neighbourhood of special
geological interest. It is now proposed to make this a regular

6 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

annual proceeding, which we hope will lend additional attraction
to our Society. We must turn again to business and point out
that the annual field excursion, so pleasant, not only geologically,
but otherwise, also, is to be only for our own Fellows, and that
our allies of the Royal Dublin Society, in order to partake of the
advantages thereof, must become naturalized as Fellows of our
Society. The precise arrangements have not yet been decided
upon ; but when they are they will be made known.

It is the usual, but not invariable, practice to give in the
Anniversary Address a réswmé of our proceedings during the
past year. I propose to omit this on the present occasion,
there being precedent for so doing, and to invite the attention of
the Society to a matter which is to geologists of the utmost
importance, viz., the physical argument for the restriction of
geological tume. Though this is a question which lies somewhat
cut of the usual line of geological discussion, we cannot
afford to pass it by. When cosmogonical or semi-cosmogonical
arguments are brought against what seem to be in themselves
unavoidable geological conclusions we are compelled to go into
those arguments for ourselves. As the question we have to
consider is by no means a new one, we may enter upon it at once
without any further preface.

Professors Sir William Thomson and Guthrie Tait object, as
physicists, to the geologists, that, for several reasons, the whole
reach of geological time must be very much less than that which is
generally supposed to be necessary for the explanation of various
geological phenomena. We need not now go into the reasons for
believing that the geological changes, operations, and evolutions,
of which we see evidence, must have required an enormous space
of time for their accomplishment. The argument from denudation,
for instance, has been very strongly presented, quite lately, by Dr.
Croll in the Quarterly Journal of Science, July, 1877. Let us,
however, acknowledge that some geologists have been too free in
the assumption that they had practically unlimited time at their
disposal; they were looking at things too exclusively from their
own point of view, and needed to have it pointed out to them
that there were other momenta of the question which they were
altogether neglecting. Let us cheerfully acknowledge our ob-
ligations to the physicists for haying impressed this upon us;

Address to the Royal Geological Society. 7

restriction and limitation is often a positive, and not a mere
negative boon; it is often a partial guidance towards the goal of
truth. Our present object is by no means to escape from whole-
some restriction, but only to relax the intolerable constriction to
which the physicists, in their over-zeal for our welfare, would
subject us.

Sir W. Thomson’s argument was first drawn out in full in a
paper communicated to the Geological Society of Glasgow, in
1868 ; but it had been already partly put forth in former papers,
as in that on the Secular Cooling of the Earth (Trans. Roy. Soc.
Edinb. 1862), and in others.

Professor Huxley replied in his Presidential Address to the
Geological Society of London in 1869, but apparently without
effect, for we find Professor Tait repeating the arguments, with
his own modifications, in some lectures delivered in Edinburgh in
1874. These lectures were published in the early part of 1876,
and in the latter part of the same year Sir William himself
repeated one of them in his Address to the Mathematical and
Physical Section of the British Association, at Glasgow.

We shall not now bring up any of Professor Huxley’s arguments
in reply excepting one.* Of course in the following observations,
as far as they are correct, we shall be only reminding our
opponents of matters which they know better than we do, but
which they have overlooked, while fixing their attention so
strongly upon their own side of the question.

Let us, then, take their three arguments as they are presented
to us again by Professor Tait,t since Professor Huxley’s reply.
The first is drawn from the rate of the earth’s secular cooling ;
the second from the figure of the earth considered in connection
with its present rate of rotation, as retarded by the action of the
tides ; the third from the comparatively short time that the sun
can be imagined to have kept, by its radiation, the earth’s surface
in a state fit for the support of animal and vegetable life.

A.—In our consideration of these arguments, it will be more
suitable to invert their order, and to begin with the last men-
tioned, viz., that drawn from the length of time that the sun
can be imagined to have kept the earth, by its radiation, in a

*;See his Pres. Address in Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., Lond., vol. xxy., 1869.
t Recent Advances in Physical Science, pp. 165 e¢ seg.

8 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

fit state for the habitation of animals and vegetables. Professor
Tait says that this cannot have been more than fifteen or
twenty millions of years. But this question is one that cannot be
settled by calculation, owing to our ignorance of some important
elements of it. Granting the nebular hypothesis of the origin
of the solar system, it is highly probable that the sun must
have been formerly much hotter than it is at present; and if
the earth (though sufficiently cool of itself) were fully exposed
to the strength of his heat, no organic life, such as we know
of, could have existed on the earth until after the sun had
been cooling for a very long time; so that in that way a very
considerable part of the sun’s duration would be lost for geological
time. But, as Professor Tait himself points out, “we can imagine
that one effect of his heat was to throw off from his surface such
enormous clouds of absorbing vapour, which cooled as they left the
surface, that the effective amount of radiation reaching the earth
might not have been greater than at present ;” and, besides, the
greater amount of vapour in the earth’s atmosphere may have
helped to produce this effect. It is utterly impossible to calculate
what the effect of this cloud-sereen may have been on the radiation
of the sun; but Professor Tait states,in p. 175 of the book from
which we are quoting, that if it made the sun to cool even at a
uniform rate, it could not give us more than fifteen or twenty
millions of years for the time of organic life ontheearth. But he
seems to have forgotten another estimate given before, in p. 154 of
the same book. Hesays: “We find by calculations in which there
is no possibility of large error that this [nebular] hypothesis is
thoroughly competent to explain 100 millions of years’ solar
radiation at the present rate, perhaps more.” On comparing p. 152,
it will be seen that this refers to past radiation only. It does not
not apply to the whole, including future radiation. If thesun
should have been losing heat uniformly, and at the present rate, it
would make no difference how that uniformity had been attained,
whether by a cloud-screen or otherwise; the period of cooling
must be the same; and yet we find two such different estimates
given by thesame writer as fifteen or twenty millions onone handand
a hundred millions of years on the other; the latter number being
five or six times greater than the former one, and being, moreover,
the one proposed with the greater appearance of confidence, Of

Address to the Royal Geological Society. 9

course the reason of this discrepancy is that the estimates were
made on different data, or, to use the more correct expression,
assumptions. One assumption that is always made is, that the
original nebula was cold when it began to fall together, and also
that it had nothing but the potential energy of gravitation with
which to accomplish its evolution ; of course some such assump-
tions must be made before any calculation can be applied.
But Dr. Croll well remarks, “It is quite conceivable that the
nebulous mass may have been possessed of an original store of
heat previous to condensation.” As he says, it may have been its
heat that was the very cause of its condition of separation.* If
we ask how the nebula came into its dissociated condition, we
shall only be doing what the physicists themselves would do in
any other physical question, that is, endeavouring to trace back-
wards the steps of physical causation as far as possible. The
moment of rotation possessed by the solar system, as a whole,
shows that the original nebula did not start simply with the
potential energy of the mutual gravitation of its parts. Its
moment of rotation can only have been acquired through its
external relations with other masses, or through the operation
of forces acting from without. This is quantitatively quite
insignificant in itself, comparatively speaking ; and if it were the
full result of the action that produced it, it would be of very
slight importance. But it is very improbable that it is no more than
this: It is an indication that there has been an external action
on the solar system nebula, the nature of which is unknown

and this opens the door to vast possibilities as to the amount
of thermal energy that may have been produced by that action,
and been available for lengthening geological time. Dr. Croll
has suggested that the solar system nebula may have been formed
by the enormous amount of heat that would be produced by the
collision of two sufficient cosmical masses. That such collisions
have frequently occurred to cause the sudden blazing forth of new
stars can hardly be doubted. The spectroscopic indications seem
to show that it was something of this kind, on a small scale, that
caused the sudden temporary increase of the star in Cygnus that
has lately attracted so much attention. Professor Kirkwood has
lately given reasons for believing that Sirius and his principal

A * Climate and Time, p. 530,

10 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

comes may have been originally unconnected bodies whose proper
motions brought them near enough to each other so that they
became, as it were, entangled into one system. He believes that
Sirius may be younger, that is, in a less advanced stage of forma-
tion, than our sun. Is it not quite possible that this may be due
to collision with a companion of his now subject comes? But we
must not indulge further in speculation, though, from the nature
of the present case, it is perfectly legitimate for us to do so.

In concluding this part of our subject, let us note the data
that we must have in order to be able to calculate the amount of
heat that there would be to be radiated by the solar system,
and the power of radiating that heat. We may neglect the
masses of the planets and the chemical energy of separation,
both of which, though telling in our favour, are proportionally
unimportant.

We know, then, the mass of the original nebula pretty nearly ;
it is conceded on all hands that the separation of its parts was
very great—how great it is not necessary to know, because beyond
the magnitude usually contemplated for it, any additional exten-
sion, however great, would make very little difference in its
potential energy. We know the unit of gravitation attraction.
We know the mechanical equivalent of heat. Butthat is all. We
are not in possession of the other essential elements of the ques-
tion. We do not know the mode of distribution of mass in the
original nebula. We do not know what critical points may
intervene between the original and the present states of agerega-
tion of the materials. We do not know what were, and are, the
thermal capacities of the materials under the varying conditions
of aggregation, temperature, and pressure. We do not know
what were their radiating powers under those changing con-
ditions. We do not know what operations may have come into
play to interfere with their radiation ; one has been mentioned
already. We do not know that the mutual gravitation of the
parts of the nebula was the sole bond of union between them, and
was the sole force that was to cause, and to regulate the rate of,
the evolution of that part of the heat that was originally
potential. Prof. Tait, himself, alludes to this, op. cit. p. 153.
Under what are, relatively to our very limited knowledge,
extreme physical conditions, such as those of the original nebula

Address to the Ro youl Geological Society. 11

and of the present sun, physical laws often emerge into view,
and sometimes even into being which before were unsuspected.

The estimates given of the amount of potential heat in the
solar system nebula are exceedingly interesting and suggestive ;
they are very instructive as illustrations of certain ascertained
principles and undeniable mathematical relations; but as demon-
strations of the past and present circumstances and actualities of
the solar system they must be, at any rate, very uncertain, and
may be, for all we can tell, considerably wide of the mark.

B.—The next argument we have to notice is that drawn from
the shape of the earth in connexion with her present rate of
rotation. Our globe is an oblate spheroid in consequence of the
centrifugal force of rotation; and if she were fluid, and the law
of increase of density, in descending towards the centre, were
known, it would be possible to calculate what would be the
spheroidicity due to her rate of rotation. Now the actual sphe-
roidicity of the earth, taken as a whole, agrees pretty nearly
with that calculated on a reasonably assumed law of increase of
density. A few years ago the only conclusion that could be
drawn from this was that the supposed, must agree fairly well with
the actual, variation of density. But two striking discoveries
arrived at in late years have made this agreement very im-
portant in a different way altogether. Delaunay has pointed
out (originally, as regards himself, though it had been already
suggested by Kant) that the earth’s rate of rotation must be di-
minishing, from the action of the ocean tides; and that conse-
quently the amount of her spheroidicity, also, must be lessening,
supposing her to be fluid. But Sir William Thomson has con-
cluded that the earth must be, as a whole, about as rigid as con-
tinuous steel; and ne argues that as the earth’s shape is nearly
that corresponding to her present rate of rotation, she must have
become rigid when her rotation rate was but little higher than it
now is, that is to say, a comparatively short while back. Prof.
Tait believes that this argument, taken along with that which
we have yet to consider, reduces geological time to something
less than ten millions of years.

The following may be urged in reply. In the first place,
granting that the earth is as rigid as steel (when tested as Sir
William tests her), she will still, as he calculates, yield to the

12 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

tidal deforming action one third as much as if composed of water
He has in view equilibrium tide deformation. But the centri-
fugal deformation and the other are similar as regards the
present matter, so that we can now argue from one to the other ;
therefore the earth, though rigid as steel, will yield to the cen-
trifugal force, or to any change of it, one third as much as if she
were all water: so that only two-thirds of our difficulty remains
to be removed. Dr. Croll has doubtless removed part of this
remainder by the suggestion that the denuding agencies would
tend to distribute detrital matter so that its surface would be
everywhere nearly perpendicular to the direction of the result-
ant of gravitation and the centrifugal force, and that in this
way the shape of the earth would always nearly correspond
to the actual amount of its diminishing centrifugal force. He
also points out that the removal of material, from the equatorial
towards the polar regions of the more slowly rotating earth would
further help our cause by tending to delay the retardation of the
earth’s rotation. Though the amount of relief thus afforded us is
probably quite small, still we must not neglect it.

Let us consider more closely this steel rigidity of our globe,
which we do not presume to question, though the evidence
for it,as Sir W. Thomson himself shews, now rests only upon
the lunar fortnightly declinational, and the monthly elliptic,
tides. There are different species of rigidity. Although our
globe be practically as rigid and uncomplying as steel, relatively
to the straining forces by which Sir William has tested her, she
may nevertheless be as compliant as need be, relatively to the
action with which we are now engaged.

The peculiar character of viscous rigidity is well known. Per-
haps the most familiar and most apt illustration of it is afforded
by a stick of sealing-wax at an ordinary mean temperature. If
we subject such a stick for a short time to a considerable trans-
verse pressure, sufficiently below that which would cause frac-
ture, no perceptible impression will be made thereon; and if
that considerable pressure be a reciprocating one of short period,
it may be continued for ever with as little effect. But if the
same stick of sealing-wax be subjected to a very much smaller
pressure, having always the same direction and continued for a
very long time, it will give way thereto as a quite soft body

Address to the Royal Geological Society. 13

might. do, in a short time, under the same small straining force.
If the stick be supported at bcth ends and left so for several
weeks, its own mere weight will be sufficient to make it bend
downwards considerably in the middle. And yet while thus
really a fluid it is all the time exceedingly hard, and if broken
will snap with a conchoidal fracture, which is generally charac-
teristic of hard and close substances. Now we seem to have
good reason to believe that our globe, taken as a whole, is a
viscous body in this sense; and therefore, though she be practi-
cally as rigid as steel, relatively to the cycling, reciprocating,
comparatively short-period tidal forces called the lunar semi-
monthly declinational, and the monthly elliptic or parallactic,
yet she may be very different indeed, relatively to the continued
ever similarly directed decrement of the centrifugal force of
rotation, which, relatively to the present matter, is equivalent to
a positive deforming force.

Let. us, then, see what reasons there are for believing our earth
to be, as a whole, a viscous body. The explanation of viscosity
given by Clerk Maxwell is, very briefly, somewhat as follows.
Even in homogeneous and solid bodies, whose molecules have
thermal agitation, the groups of molecules are not all similarly
conditioned. The agitation of the molecules of particular groups
may accumulate, so that ever and anon the configuration of a
group will break up, and, if the body is under strain, take a new
configuration, which will be adapted to the present relative po-
sitions of the groups and free from strain. The tendency to
do this depends partly on the amplitude of the heat oscillations,
and partly on the amount of strain. If there are a suffi-
cient number of groups disseminated through the body which
are stable under the conditions, the substance will be a solid
with a limited amount of viscosity, which all bodies have; and
if all the groups or only the great majority of them can, one by
one, behave as we have described, the body will be a viscous one.

Let us now, without making others responsible, consider the
probable conditions of a body at a far higher temperature than
that of free uncompressed fusion, and yet kept solid by tremen-
dous pressure. (Sir William still contemplates the concession to
us of about 7000° F. as the temperature of the interior of the
earth.) The amplitude of the oscillations of the molecules is now
vastly greater than was possible under unenforced solidity. But

14 . Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

the strong compression keeps the body still apparently quite
rigid when tested by short-period straining ferces. But as the
two rigidities depend upon very different conditions, they must
be, in all probability, very different in kind. The former
depended alone on the substantive cohesion of the particles and
the (interfering) heat oscillations; the latter on the new strength
of cohesion, to which the compression gives rise, and to the far
more violent heat oscillations.

The compression has probably but little direct effect in pro-
ducing rigidity. Its principal effect is to enable the attraction of
cohesion to have place by the molecules being held together
closely enough ; the cohesive attraction now depends for its oppor-
tunity of acting on the pressure. But that pressure cannot be
absolutely uniform among the groups of molecules; it is so
statistically only (somewhat as in a gas, although the cases are
very different) ; this must be so at any rate, and especially under
the interfering jostling action of the excessively violent oscil-
lations; and therefore the cohesion among the molecules, or
groups of molecules, cannot be uniform; and if the pressure do
not prevail too much over the thermal excitement the variation
of cohesion may well be sufficient to make some of the groups of
molecules at any instant, and all, ora sufficient proportion of them
in turn, unstable under certain amounts of strain—and these are
precisely the supposed molecular conditions of a viscous body.

Now when we consider that the mean density of the whole
alobe is only about double that of its superficial parts, and even
that that small increase of density is doubtless partly due to the
higher specific gravity of the interior parts, and therefore only
partly to the compression, we may conclude that the internal
high temperature is largely able to hold its own, as to its loosening
tendency, against the increased cohesion resulting from the con-
densation under the internal pressure. Sir William himself con-
templates all the interior parts of the earth being somewhat near
the melting points corresponding to the actual pressures. There-
fore the great probability seems to be that the rigidity of our
globe, though as high in degree as supposed by Sir. W. Thom-
son, is, as to species, a viscous rigidity, which will answer our
purpose quite well. That of the crust is not worth mentioning.

But now we come to what seems to be a satisfactory confirm-
ation of this position. I was myself the more struck by it

| Address to the Royal Geological Society. 15

because it did not attract my notice until after the above con-
elusion had been arrived at. Sir William states that though the
lunar semi-monthly declinational and monthly elliptic tides, as
discussed by the Tidal Committee of the British Association, of
which he is a member, indicated either no yielding or more pro-
bably a very small yielding of the body of the earth, yet that the
absence from all the results of any indication of a 18°6—year tide,
connected with the revolution of the moon’s nodes, could not be
easily explained without assuming or admitting a considerable
degree of yielding. If there be no perceptible ocean tide,
answering to the unquestionably existing 18'6-year variation
of tidal force it shews that the body of the earth and tke
ocean go together ; or so nearly together that the difference is not
perceptible. The difference of straining force, connected with the
last-mentioned tide, is far less than those connected with the two
former, and yet the body of the earth recognises it far more
sensibly because of its long period.

Though this fact is to me more striking as a confirmation, in
consequence of the order in which it occurred to me, others might
prefer to make it a substantive argument and say—If our grandly
deliberate globe, which refuses to be hurried and stands sensibly
as obstinate as steel to a fortnightly or a monthly change of
force, will, nevertheless, yield considerably to a much smaller
18-6-year change of force, when she has reasonable time given her,
what may we not expect of her when she an indefinite length of
time in which to accommodate herself to the continued and ever
similarly directed decrement of the centrifugal force of rotation ?

But, besides, it our earth be, as a whole, a viscous body capable of
yielding in this manner there is something to help her to respond,
through her viscosity, to a suitable straining force. Ifa viscous
solid is very slowly giving way to a continued gentle pressure
the movement is promoted if small, reciprocating agitations, or
vibrations, be set up in the yielding mass. Now the semi-diurnal
tidal straining of the earth is an action, which, though small in
amount, is there, quantum valeat, and which is of the kind
required to help our viscous globe, as we shall take leave to call
it, to answer to the continual decrease of the centrifugal force.
Some of the other variations of tidal force which affect our earth
may be equally important in this way, on account of their much
longer periods, and notwithstanding their smaller amount.

16 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

From the nature of the operation, the frequent combination of
two or more of these variations of strain, in similar and favour-
able phases, and their consequent co-operation in producing
helping stresses in the body of the earth, must evidently tend
to promote further the yielding of the viscous mass, notwith-
standing their being accompanied by partial interferences and
unfavourable combinations. Perhaps even the greater changes
of barometric pressure may be of some assistance. The tidal
forces affect our globe to its inmost parts, though of course they
diminish in the proportion of the distance from the centre. To
these agitations we may add the geological disturbances proper,
whatever their cause; though their effect in this respect must
be slight. Their primary effect is, doubtless, the production of
somewhat local irregularities of the surface; but, taken all
together, they must tend to promote the settlement of the globe,
as a whole, into its general mean figure of equilibrium.

C.—The last argument, in our order of discussion, for the
restriction of geological time, is that the present mean rise of
temperature in descending the crust of the earth shows that
“about 10,000,000 or (say at most) 15,000,000 of years” ago the
surface of the earth had just consolidated. Professor Tait clearly
prefers the ten millions; as we see not only from the words
quoted, but from others also. Now, Sir William, in his famous
paper on the Secular Cooling of the Globe, proposed to give us
100,000,000 years and perhaps much more; probably it is owing to
the influence of his sterner coadjutor that he has since cut us
down to 90, or even 50. But observe that he still contemplates
having to concede 90, that is to say, six times as much as
Professor Tait would yield on compulsion, and nine times as
much as he would grant willingly. Now, nine to one is rather
a high proportion in a case of this kind; and when we note
the discrepancy, it is calculated to lessen considerably the
anxiety with which we listen to this argument for the restriction
of geological time. May we not say, with the most profound
respect for these two distinguished coadjutors, that if they had
arrived at some consensus between themselves their opinions
(for such alone they really are) on this point would have been
entitled to greater weight? In a case of so wide divergence it
would be delusive to adopt the mean of the results. The
question is one of mathematical calculation, founded upon

Address to the Royal Geological Society. 17

ascertained physical laws, which, for their applicability to the
matter in question, depend themselves upon hypothetical con-
ditions or assumed data; the a priori validity of the mathematics —
and the @ posteriovi validity of the laws sometimes, in a case of
this kind, dazzle the eyes of the on-looker, and, by irradiation,
spread on his mental retina over the conjoined assumed con-
ditions, and conceal the doubtfulness of their validity. And this
can happen even to the proposer of the conditions, who may have
originally put them forward expressly as only hypothetical, and
even as being an acknowledgedly imperfect representation of
facts ; perhaps, indeed, he is more in danger of this than the
on-looker.

We shall find on examination that Sir W. Thomson himself
originally intended his paper to be only a contribution to the
investigation of the matter founded upon three conditions, which
he assumed for convenience and simplification. The data assumed
are, first, the uniform or approximately uniform temperature of
the body of the earth when it had just solidified ; secondly, the
conductivity and thermal capacity of the materials of the globe ;
and thirdly, a certain low and constant temperature of the surface.
He gives reasons for believing that the first assumption may be
probable ; it is unquestionably quite possible, as far as we know
at present. But he himself admits, or rather warns us, that the
second is a pure assumption ; and the third must be an incorrect
representation of the case. If one of the three factors which go to
produce the result be purely and confessedly hypothetical, it
matters little, as far as the immediate question is concerned
whether the others be right or not.

As to the jirst of the three conditions, Sir William believes that
the materials of the earth nebula may have condensed somewhat
regularly round a cold nucleus. The energy of the later part of
the nebular, or meteoric rain would be much greater than that of
the earlier, and cause a much higher temperature in the outer
parts of the globe, but for the interior pressure which may have
nearly equalized the temperature by raising it in the inner
parts.

We will not now presume to measure swords with Sir William,
and to enter upon counter-speculation as to how the materials
of the earth-nebula fell together; yet it would not be difficult to

Scien, Proc. R.D,S., Vou, u., PT. 1 Cc

18 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

point out various probabilities which would tend in the other
direction. According to one mode suggested as that in which the
materials of the earth finally fell together, there would be two
great reaches of the earth-nebula collapsing obliquely into each
other, giving rise to tumultuous eddyings in the newly collected
and defined mass, which would mingle together to a great extent,
different parts thereof with their different temperatures. Another
circumstance which would promote such mingling is the difference
of specific gravity of the materials after condensation. If this
were so, as is exceedingly probable, the enormous condensation in
the inner parts of the newly-defined globular mass would liberate
a vast amount of heat to raise the temperature of those parts ;
and, as is evident, any heightening of temperature produced in
this way would be unaffected by the remains of the eddyings just
referred to, and by any convection currents (properly so called) ;
it could itself produce no such currents as is evident. It could
only be lowered by what would be really conduction, though
acting under peculiar circumstances. We should thus have,
though not an additional store, yet a more inward disposition or
grouping of high temperature, favourable for rendering slower the
cooling of the exterior parts of the globe beyond what is contem-
plated by our opponents, and available, therefore, for lengthening
the period of geological time.

-If we knew accurately the present law of the increase of
temperature per unit of depth, and the actual conditions of
conductivity within the earth, supposing both to be approximately
uniform round the centre, then the application of Fourier’s
theorems would enable those competent to use such instruments,
to decide whether the internal temperature of the earth at the
commencement of geological operations proper was approximately
uniform, or whether it increased towards the more inward parts.
But the depth to which man has penetrated beneath the surface
is utterly insufficient to shew the true law of increase of
temperature, even independently of the numerous disturbing
conditions at every place of observation. Without such inter-
ferences the rise of temperature would be sensibly uniform down
to a much greater depth than that of less than half a mile; and
that would be so in either case, that is whether the temperature
begins to be nearly uniform at a comparatively small depth of not

Address to the Royal Geological Society. 19

many scores of miles, as Sir William believes, or whether it
continues to increase to a very much greater depth.

To proceed now to the second of the three conditions assumed
by Sir W. Thomson when calculating the rate of the earth’s
cooling; viz., the probable heat-transmitting power of the body of
the globe, or at least of the more outward parts of the body of the
globe. It is our interest to keep this down as much as possible.
A more rapid rise of temperature in descending into the earth, to
the depth of which man has knowledge, might be due to any of
the following circumstances, or to some of them conjointly :—1.
The shortness of the time of cooling of the earth. 2. The lower
conductivity of the rocks to that depth, as compared with surface
rocks. 3. The higher conductivity of the rocks below that depth.
Sir William accounts for the rapid rise of underground tempera-
ture, in depth, by the first of these, the shortness of the earth’s
cooling period. We would submit that the second, also, may ke
concerned ; if it be so, the argument for the first is weakened,
which is all that we desire. It is of relatively small importance
to us whether the third obtain or not.

Sir William, in order to have something to go upon, has assumed
(not that he believes it) the absolute thermal conductivity and
the thermal capacity of the globe to be that of average surface
rocks, At first sight it might seem probable that this may not be
much beside the mark, for there are two principal influences which
tend in opposite directions in their effect on the result. The
tendency of the rise of temperature which obtains as we go down
is, ceteris paribus, to diminish the heat transmitting powers of the
materials below. The tendency of the increase of density is to
increase the heat transmitting powers of those materials. Do
these opposing tendencies probably balance each other approxi-
mately ? or, if not, which of the two more probably prevails
over the other ?

Of course we now move with very great caution, remembering
that in such a question as this, we cannot argue positively from
what has been ascertained merely within the limited range of
conditions accessible to the physicist in his laboratory. As
Sir William himself says “we are very ignorant of the effects
of high temperatures in altering the conductivities and specific
heats of rocks, and as to their latent heat of fusion.” But the

ScieN, Proc. R.D.S. Vou. 11, Pt, 1. C2

$0 Scientisic Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

circumstance just referred to makes it now more than usually
allowable to argue from experiments under limited ranges of
condition. Sir William declares that he believes it likely that
the materials of the globe, though on the whole as rigid as
steel, may be yet, at every depth, not much below the melting
temperature corresponding to the pressure at that depth. Ifthis
should be so it would tend to make the effects of the increasing
temperature and of the increasing pressure to be generally com-
parable with each other. Though the two influences concerned
are each of high intensity, according to our ideas, as they are
opposed, and perhaps somewhat near a balance in a certain respect,
they may produce, as regards this, a mean result which is probably
accordant with physical laws, in forms not very different from
those manifested by them under the nearest laboratory conditions.
To this we may add that the critical point of fusion and the
consideration of its latent heat is happily avoided. But for these
two circumstances it would be hardly worth while to enter on the
following argument.

Within the range of experiment the general law seems to be
that, with rise of temperature, the absolute conductivities of
substances diminish,* and their thermal capacities increase, so that,
for a two-fold reason, when the temperature of a body is raised its
power to transmit diminishing heat becomes lessened. On the
other hand increase of pressure, as a general rule, acts in the opposite
way ; it causes the absolute conductivities of substances to increase,
and their thermal capacities to diminish. But before proceeding
further let us note that, with metals at least, even if the con-
densation due to high pressure be equal to the expansion due
to increased intensity of heat the thermal conductivity will still
be diminished. So that if the density of such substances remains
unaltered, the high temperature, though only just a match for the
high pressure, as far as its effect on density is concerned, is more
than a match for the high pressure in diminishing the heat-trans-
mitting power of such substances.

Now let us note a circumstance that adds to the importance in
the present question of elevation of temperature. The rate of
expansion of heated bodies increases with the rise of temperature;
this goes to promote the diminution of the thermal conductivity

* See note at end.

Address to the Royal Geological Society. 21

of the materials of the earth, considered solely with reference to
their heightened temperature.

Now, on the other hand, there are two circumstances which
tend to lessen further the importance of increase of pressure.
The first is that, although small diminutions of the volume of
solids under pressure and consequent increments of density are
sensibly proportional to the pressures, yet the rate of compression
will fall off with a very great augmentation of pressure. The
second is, that the very increase of density actually helps the
thermal expansion to work against itself; for if the density of a
body has been increased by some means, the general rule is, that
the rate at which it expands with rise of temperature is also in-
creased. So here are two circumstances which go to lessen the
tendency which the pressure at considerable depths has to in-
crease the heat-transmitting powers of the materials of the
cooling globe.

Therefore, then, besides the fact that laboratory experiments
are already encouraging to us, there is the great probability that
the power that the high temperature of the interior of the globe
has to promote our interests as geologists is greater, and the
opposing power of the high pressure is less, than what might be
concluded, on first thoughts, from such experiments, carried out
under necessarily limited variations of condition.

But these considerations, though auxiliary, are only such—
Can we form any rough conjecture, on other grounds, as to the
actual relations of the two contending influences within the
body of the earth? When we consider the enormous pressure
that must exist within the globe, it is surprising to find that the
mean density of the globe is only about double that of the mean
density of its superficial parts (disregarding the thin film of
ocean.) This formerly induced some persons, who were neglect-
ing all other considerations, to believe that the inner part of the
earth must be hollow. The difficulty felt by those persons would
have been greatly increased on being informed by the astrono-
mers, that certain peculiarities in the motion of the moon, both
in latitude and longitude, shew that the attracting spheroidal
earth must be much denser in the central parts than elsewhere.
This is confirmed by other considerations. This goes to keep
down the density of the less inward parts (the mean density being

22 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

given) and to make it highly probable that the increasing tem-
perature is more than able to hold its own against the increasing
pressure, as faras diminishing the conductivity of the less inward
parts is concerned. The above “auxiliary considerations” shew
that is not necessary for our purpose that the increased tempera-
ture should be a match for the increased pressure, as regards the
condensation produced thereby. This it probably is not. And
yet we must not concede too much even on this point. It is a
very reasonable belief that the unquestionable high density of
the more inward parts of our earth is partly due to the greater
specific gravity of the materials there—that is to say, for all
that appears to the contrary, the expansive power of the heat
may, even there, be a match for the condensing power of the
pressure, which, however, we do not wish it to be. However,
as regards the present question we may be indifferent as to the
thermal conductivity of the more inward parts if, as seems so
very probable, we have a sufficient thickness of material of low-
ered conductivity between it and the surface. Its comparatively
small magnitude, also, makes it of little importance.

It would be very interesting to know more than we do on the
thermal expansibilities and the compressibilities of rocks. It
would enable us to form some sort of opinion as to how the con-
ductivity of the geological crust is affected by the conflicting
heat and pressure to which it is subject. It is, however, wart
while to mention that iron, copper, and slate, under the conditions
of heat and pressure which must obtain for a iew miles, at least,
beneath the surface, would be in a more expanded state than at
the surface; that is to say, their thermal conductivities would
decrease with the increase of depth. As slate has been produced
under enormous pressure, the effect of which it still retains in its
high density, its behaviour as regards expansion by heat and
condensation by (further, artificial) pressure is very significant
and important, as regards the present matter. It should be
acknowledged that marble would probably become more con-
densed when subjected to the conditions that exist for some
distance beneath the surface.

We now pass to another consideration which is essentially
unconnected with what we have just been considering, but which
tends in the same direction. Sir William Thomson, in forming

Address to the Royal Geological Society. 23

his estimate of the conductivity of surface rocks, availed himself
of the observations made upon the rocks of Calton Hill, Edin-
burgh. By calculation applied to the results of observation, he
determined the thermal conductivity of those rocks while still
lying im situ, in their natural conditions. Supposing the obser-
vations to be fairly free from disturbing circumstances, this is
probably the best mode of investigating this subject. Another
mode has been followed by the Committee of the British Associa-
tion appointed for this purpose*, which has its own advantages
and peculiar capabilities. They have instituted a valuable series
of laboratory experiments on specimens of various rocks. One
of their results, which could not be otherwise obtained, is that
the conductivity of any particular rock, when thoroughly dry, is
considerably less than its conductivity when moist. Now, acces-
sible rocks, when we have penetrated a very small depth beneath
their surface, are moist ; stone when just quarried is, as the stone-
mason expresses it, “green;’ but the great probability is that at
a sufficient depth the rocks are dry. We are not now ignoring
the water concerned in volcanic eruptions, and that which, doubt-
less, was engaged in metamorphism. It is a common belief that
it is the internal heat of our earth that keeps the water of the
earth at, and comparatively near, the surface, and that when our
earth has cooled down, as the moon evidently has done, that her
water will sink down into the crust, as has most probably hap-
pened already with the moon. Here, then, is another circum-
stance which would make, ceteris paribus, the heated rocks at a
sufficient depth to be worse conductors of heat than those at the
surface.

Thus, then, if we may form an opinion from our limited means
of judging, the great probability seems to be that the decrease of
conductivity, owing to the high temperature, and also to the dry-
ness of the interior rocks, exceeds the increase thereof due to the
greater density produced by pressure, and that, therefore, the
conductivity of the interior, neglecting the more inward, probably
metallic part, is less than that of the superficial parts, which was
assumed for it by Sir William Thomson.

We now come to the third of the three conditions assumed by
Sir William when calculating the rate of the earth’s cooling. The

* Brit. Assoc. Rept., 1877.

24 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

objection pointed out by Professor Huxley seems to be sufficiently
obvious to make it common property. Sir William, in order to
apply his mathematical calculation to the cooling earth, was
obliged, as we have said, to make some assumption as to the
difference of temperature between the interior and the surface of
the globe, and to suppose that of the surface to be constant. But
physical considerations show that there must have been a great
cloud covering round the earth during the time of her own higher
temperature, and caused thereby. (Professor Tait mentions that
such would have been caused by the sun’s greater radiation.)
Geological phenomena lead to the conclusion that there must have
been, formerly, a much greater uniformity of climate over the
globe than what now obtains; this also points to the universal
cloud covering as its easiest explanation. It is unnecessary to
observe what a very great effect this must have had in retarding
radiation from the earth. We constantly have most striking
evidence of this on nights which are at one hour clear, and at
another clouded. Therefore, then we have various and strong
reasons for believing that the rate of cooling of the globe has
been considerably slower than Sir William estimates, and that
therefore the restriction of the length of geological time, on
that ground, is probably very much less than he contemplates ;
how much less it is impossible to conjecture.

May we not, then, venture to maintain with the utmost
deference that the argument for what we regard as the very
inconvenient restriction of geological time is not proved? From
the nature of the case, this is sufficient for our purpose. We
have strong positive reasons for believing in the great extent of
the geological period; and therefore we are not called upon to
absolutely disprove arguments against it which, of necessity, rest
largely upon assumption. We contend that we have a logical
right even to invert the order of ratiocination, and to argue from
the strength of our conclusions, founded upon observation, to the
weakness of largely hypothetical considerations, if they be
opposed to them.

Nore.—On March 8, shortly after this paper was read, Professor Tait communicated a
paper to the Royal Society of Edinburgh, in which he showed that, contrary to the usual
belief no pure metal on which he has experimented (except iron) diminishes in
thermal conductivity with rise of temperature. But our argument from thermal caj.a-
city is quite unaffected by this,

[ 25]

IIL—ON THE TRIDYMITE-QUARTZTRACHYTE OF TAR-
DREE MOUNTAIN anp ON THE OLIVINEGABBRO OF
THE CARLINGFORD MOUNTAINS, sy A. von LASAULX,
PRoFESsOR OF MINERALOGY IN THE UNIVERSITY OF BRESLAU.
CoMMUNICATED BY ProFessor HULL, F.R.S._

[Read April 15, 1878.]

E

One of the most interesting rocks, which I collected during
my visit to Ireland in the autumn of 1876, is the Quartztrachyte,
of Tardree Mountain, Co. Antrim. This remarkable rock has been
well described by Professor E. Hull in the Explanatory Memoir
of the Geological Survey to accompany sheets 21, 28, and 29 of
the maps. It was formerly described by Portlock, who called it
“ porphyry of Sandy Brae,” also by Berger and Bryce, and has
generally been taken for a Quartz-porphyry. It seems un-
necessary to enter into a description of its geological occurrence ay
Professor Hull gives sufficient data to show that this rock is
penetrated at the Scolboa Hill by the more recent) basalt, and
that at other points, for instance the Carnearny Hiil and the
Tardree Mountain, it is always covered by basaltic flows. There-
fore it seems to be the oldest rock of volcanic origin in the
County of Antrim.

The petrological characters are the same at the different places
which I had occasion to visit. Differences are only based on its
colouration and are more or less the consequence of decomposition.
In a light gray, yellowish, or light violet paste, of the characteristic
roughish condition that gives the name of “ Trachyte,” to these
rocks, are enclosed some rather larye crystals of sanidine, more
rarely small prisms of a clinoclase, with visible triclinic stria-
tion; subangular grains of quartz, sometimes exhibiting more
determined dihexaedrons, and rarely minute flakes of a black
mica. The sanidine crystals, when fresh, are colourless and glassy ;
they become white and opaque by decomposition and change
into caolinic matter. The quartzis smoky, often almost black. In
the very numerous little pores of the rock are to be found groups

26 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

of very tine hexagonal tablets of Tridymite,* that volcanic form
of silica first detected by Vom Rath} and then found by many
others in different volcanic rocks. The hexagonal tablets are
partly single, but also occur in groups of two, three and more
individuals. Some tablets show on the border of the hexagons
small faces of the hexagonal pyramids as represented in figure 1].
The tablets are generally covered with a light yellowish crust,
due to decomposition of tridymite, and consisting of opal or
hyalithlike matter. Very few of the tablets are clear and
pellucid.

Fig. 1.

Microscopical Analysis.—The microscopical examination of the
rock yielded Sanidine, Clinoclase, Tridymite, Quartz, Biotite,
Magnetite, Epidote, Apatite and the microcrystalline paste.

The latter, shows under the microscope a very undeterminate
structure, but one can see, principally under crossed Nicols, that it
is a very intimate mixture of minute grains of felspar, of quartz
and of tridymite. The particles of quartz are always visible by
the distinct chromatic polarisation; the tridymite, of which I
shall speak afterwards, is not so easily to be detected, but it is
found everywhere abundantly in the paste. The structure of the
paste is what German petrologists call, with allusion to the paste
of the true prophyries “microfelsitic,” but has become in many
parts already really microcrystalline. I could not find in any part
of it, distinct traces of an amorphous or glassy base, only the inter-
spaces of the quartz and felspar are in part of glassy matter.
The parallel disposition of the little bands and stripes of the paste
give to it here and there a sort of fluidal structure. The sections
of sanidine are very clear and transparent when thin. They con-
tain many empty cavities and glassy interspaces with fixed bubbles.

* Professor E. Hull has published the fact of my discovery of Tridymite in this
rock in the Journal of the Royal Geological Society of Ireland, 1877, vol. xiv. part

page 227.
+ Poggendorff’s Annales cxxxy. 437.

On Tridymite-Quartztrachyte, and on Olivinegabbro. 27

The axis of elasticity, or the direction of the maximum extinc-
tion of the light, seen in slices parallel to the plane of symmetry
(O10; 2 Px) makesan angle of 11° with the edge between (001)
and (010) (the base and the plane of symmetry). The plane of the
optical axis is normal to the plane of symmetry, the angle of the
optical axis seems not to be the same inall crystals. I found it
to be (2 E= 24° 30’)

The clinoclase (triclinic felspar) is likewise clear and pellucid.
In the sections it forms smaller but longer prisms, with a very
beautiful chromatic striation of its twin lamelle. The angle
between the direction of maximum extinction of light and the
limiting line of the lamelle measured in one case 54° on both
sides. In little pieces obtained by cleavage parallel to the base,
I found the angle between the edge (001): (010) and the direction
of maximum extinction=2}°. Therefore, according to the deter-
mination of the optical properties of the different varieties of
felspar by Descloizeaux,* the clinoclase in the present instance
is probably a var iety of andesine.

The tridymite in the thin sections is easiest found in the
places where a little cavity is cut through. In these many of
the little hexagonal tablets or fragments of them appear. In
the paste it is not so easy to find it, because its absolutely
colourless behaviour makes it disappear between the other con-
stituent minerals. ‘There it forms the characteristic tile-like
agoregations, first of all described by Zirkel, and then found in
many rocks. To see it, it seems useful to change the position of
the tube, screwing it higher and deeper, adapting a high magni-
fying power. Examining some of the largest hexagonal tablets of
tridymite in the cavities, under crossed Nicols, I made the obser-
vation that they do not remain, when turning them in the plane
of the object, dark, as should be the case, if they were hexagonal
and uniaxial, but that they show a maximum of light and extine-
tion four times. In the very thin tablets the difference between
lizht and dark is not very great, but always very observable.
Also the tablets show that they have not equal optical
orientation in every part of a tablet; I did not find one of
them of asimple behaviour in that point. Some of them are com-
posed of light and dark places in a somewhat chess-board-like

* Comptes rendus 1875, Ixxx. 364-371 and 1876, Ixxxii. 1017-1022.

28 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

manner, others show distinctly a different orientation of the sex-
tants. The directions of maximum extinction of light make
various angles in the different parts of one tablet. The super-
position of very thin tablets turned one over another about the
vertical axis, causes some uncertainty in the definition of those
angles.

The very thin and partly altered tablets of the Tardree Moun-
tain specimens are not well suited to the precise investigation of
their optical properties, but because it was on these crystals that
I first stated the optical anomalies of tridymite, some further
investigations on the same subject may find place here. The very
clear and relatively great tablets of tridymite of the Trachyte of
the Perlenhardt in the Siebengeberge, near Bonn, on the Rhine,
gave me very precise results, and prove that the tridymite is not
hexagonal and uniaxial, but distinctly biaxial. Iam able to render
the interference figure visible in the polarising microscope with
all the sharpness that can be desired. One can see the two black
hyperbolas marking the poles of the optical axis. The axial
angle must be large as the hyperbolas are far apart. The minute-
ness of the objects have not yet permitted an exact measurement
of the axial angle. The plane of the axis seems to be normal to
the hexagonal base of the tablets; its intersection with it joins
two alternating edges of the base. The direction of maximum
extinction bisects the angle of the edges. In some tablets, com-
bined of different parts, the phenomenon appears almost as
represented in figure 2, which is diagrammatic. As the plane
of the optical axis indicates a pinacoidal plane of the crystal and
the other direction of maximum extinction, the other pinacoidal
plane, normal to the former, the side of the basal hexagon of
Tridymite can only be supposed to be formed by the two pris-
matic sides (110) of two crystals joined with a prismatical plane
(120).. We have then here a somewhat similar growing together
of twin crystals as we know of in aragonite, witherite and millerite,
the latter lately described by Descloizeaux;* all twins of the ortho-
rhombic system, presenting a pseudo-hexagonal form. A further
investigation of the crystals of tridymite will prove whether all
its hexagonal tablets have the same or a similar structure. The

“ Neues Jahrb. fiir Mineralogie 1877, i. p. 42.

On Tridymite-Quurtztrachyte, and on Olivinegabbro. 29

definition of the crossed twins of tridymite naturally becomes
very complicated and cannot be pursued at large in this place,

Fig. 2.

Line of maximum extinction. Line of maximum extinction.

SOxe
‘ydo jo
our[d

Plane
of opt
axes

The quartz appears in the thin slices of the rock in very clear
colourless sections, of a roundish or hexagonal form, often irregu-
lar by the intruding paste. The glassy interspaces often show
di-hexaédrical forms, with a fixed bubble; the glassy matter
filled with needle-like crystallites of a lght brownish colour.
Fluid cavities seem to be entirely absent. Several quartz sections
are surrounded with a very fine granular border only definable
under high magnifying powers as an aggregation of minute grains
of epidote.

The biotite appears only very rarely as flakes in the slices, with
its distinct pleochroism giving light-yellow, brown, and dark-
brown colours. Magnetite, often in regular forms of octahédrons,
is distributed through the paste, in some places partly decom-
posed into a brown oxide of iron, whence the yellow colour of the
paste.

Epidote is distributed through the slices abundantly. It ap-
pears in some as well-formed little crystals, with definable faces.
One crystal has distinctly the form combined by the faces,
m (100), t (001), r (101), z (011), n (111). But mostly it occurs in
the form of grains and little bands, easily discernable by their
light yellow colour and very vivacious chromatic polarisation.
The dense aggregations of little grains, which appear as muddy
clouds in many parts of the paste, are for the most part epidote.
This mineral seems to be everywhere of a secondary orgin.

Crystals of apatite are not very numerous; its long prisms are
sometimes broken, and the single members joined in a pearl-
like string.

30 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society, —

Chemical Analysis.—Mr. E. T. Hardman has already made an
analysis of the rock, which has also been printed by Professor E.
Hull in the Explanation to sheets 21, 28, 29, page 18 of the Irish
Geological Survey. J. Roth in his excellent collection of analysis of
rocks also cites* the analysis of Mr. Hardman, and places the rock
of Tardree among the liparites. He remarks on the small amount
of alumina in the analysis, the proportion of which is shown in
the table. It seemed to me useful (principally with regard to
Mr. Hardman’s opinion, that the felspar—originally a normal
orthoclase—was being gradually transformed into a lime felspar)
to conduct an analysis of the sanidine, of which it is very easy
to obtain sufficient fresh and unaltered material out of the rock.

Tue analysis gave the following results :—
i II.

si0,, 76-961 64:66
JNO) 3 : : 5 101 sigh
OE ee ie oak \ 20:03 Very little iron.
CaO, é é : 7-064 1-21
MgO, . : 0-295 —
K,0, : : : 4-262 8-61
NasO} | : c 1-818 5-44
Loss by ignition, . 2:102 —_
Phosphoric acid, < Trace. —
99-943 99-95

When we consider the mineral constitution of the rock as ob-
tained by the microscopical analysis, we may admit that only 38
per-cent. of free silica (quartz and tridymite) and 62 per-cent. of
sanidine were the proportion of the mixture of those constituents.
We find in the rock 76-052 of silica, agreeing with Mr. Hardman’s
analysis. But the same proportion of mixture requires 12-4 per-
cent. alumina, 5°34 per-cent. potash, and 3°57 scda, all numbers
much higher than those obtained by Mr. Hardman. The pre-
sence of epidote makes the presence of a greater amount of lime
intelligible, but requires an equally higher per centage of alumina.
The great loss by ignition supports the supposition, that the rock
analyzed by Mr. Hardman, was not fresh and unaltered. The
increase of lime, and the decrease in alumina, potash, and soda must
be put to the account of the decomposition.

The high per-centage of silica in Mr. Hardman’s analysis is
only explicable by the presence of tridymite in the paste; the
quartz enclosed in the rock alone is not sufiicient to yield it.

» J. Roth—Beitriige zur Petrographie der plutonischen Gesteine. Lerlin, 1873; p,
XxXxiil.

On Tridymite-Quartztrachyte, and on Olivinegabbro, 31

The sanidine is a very typical one, and as it is quite free from
interstices of a triclinic felspar, it is a very decisive argument
that the orthoclases also really embrace two modifications ; often
appearing in isomorphous mixtures; a kali or potash orthoclase,
and a natron or soda orthoclase. The proportion of mixture in
the sanidine of Tardree Mountain is potash: soda—1: 1.

It seems, therefore, to be fairly proved, that the name chosen
by me for the Rock of Tardree Mountain—“ Tridymite Quartz-
trachyte,” is justly according to its petrological characters.

II.
Olivinegabbro of Carlingford Mountain.

Another remarkable rock, of which I am indebted for specimens
to Professor Hull, is that forming the ridge of the Carlingford
Mountains, rising in the south of the Carlingford Lough, (9. Down.

Mr. Hull in his recently published excellent work—* The Phy-
sical Geology and Geography of Ireland,” gives (pages 143-45) a
description of the geological occurrence of rth rock. He says —
“The whole of this group of hills is formed of felspathic and
pyroxenic rocks of several forms and varieties graduating into
-one another, which the officers of the geological survey are fully
persuaded are the representatives in time of those of the Mourne
Mountains on the opposite side of the Carlingford Lough. Thus
we may classify the two sets as under:

Pyroxenic Group (the more ancient) consisting of micaceous
dolerite of Slieve Gullion, diorite of Trumpet Hill, dolerite and
anorthite hypersthene rock of Barnavene and Slieve Foy.

Felspathic Growp (the more recent) consisting of varieties of
felstone, porphyry and syenite of the Carlingford Mountains, and
representing the granite of Mourne.”

It is the “ anorthite-hypersthene” Rock of Barnavene, that caps
the syenite rock in the rugged ridge of the above named mountain,
of which I will give some petrdlaniend details, the results of my
studies on thin slices of that rock.

The rock is largely crystalline granular, composed of a triclinic
felspar, which Rev. 8. Haughton has justly defined as an anorthite,
with adark green pyroxenic mineral, forming irregular crystalloids
between the better developed felspars, of greenish greasy grains
of altered olivine and metallic-like grains of magnetite,

32 Scientifie Proceedings, Royul Dublin Society,

Under the microscope the anorthite appears very clear and
fresh, offering a very beautiful chromatic striation under crossed
Nicols. The angle between the direction of maximum extinction
and the line of limit of the twinned lamellae was measured to
35.38° on both sides. It varies, but is not mucb greater or
smaller than these numbers. Its optical behaviour accords per-
fectly with the chemical definition as anorthite. The felspar con-
tains but two kinds of interspaces—empty cavities and fluid
cavities, often in long lines one after another. The fluid cavities
contain bubbles, and the very small bubbles are in a very rapid
movement ; the larger ones are immovable. By heating the
preparation to 100°C, the fluid shows no expansion and there-
fore seems to be but a watery solution.

The pyroxenic mineral appears under the microscope to
take all the decisive characters of diallage. Its crystalloids are
sometimes very numerous, but of a very irregular aspect, as they
are mostly squeezed between the anorthite prisms. The observed
optical orientation in the different parts of such a crystalloid proves
it to be but one individual. The colour is pale grey green, without
a trace of dichroism. ‘The optical character is that of pyroxene ;
the angle between the direction of maximum extinction of light,
and the vertical axis of prisms is 39-40 degrees. That is a very
decisive character as against hypersthene, that being an ortho-
rhombic mineral, must offer a parallel orientation of the axes of
elasticity and the crystallographic axis.

The interstices are also very characteristic, Just as we know in
other diallages. Very little black bands and needles, or long
pipe-like cavities are accumulated following the lamellar cleavage
of the diallage and form long dull stripes alternating with zones
free of interstices. The brownish interstices of distinct forms
which we know of in the diallage of Labrador are not entirely
absent, but are not frequent. They seem to be negative forms of
the diallage itself, filled with a secondary reddish matter. Fluid

cavities, with very moveable bubbles and also glassy interstices
with fixed cavities are very numerous. In some places the diallage
alters into a green dichroitic matter, which I am disposed to
take for smaragdite, that amphibolic mineral being associated
with the pyroxene in some Gabbros and the Eklogites.

The oliyine appears clearly only in the thin slices, because it

On Tridymite-Quartztrachyte, and on Olivinegabbro. 33

is always covered by magnetite and therefore is not visible at
the surface of the rock-specimens, It becomes entirely colourless
in the sections, its borders are of a green yellow colour, a com-
plete net-work of magnetite is spread through it and makes it
partly non-pellucid. It contains glassy interstices, and many
very little opaque needles, all disposed in a parallel direction.
But that direction is parallel to the line of maximum extinction
of light, and that is very distinctive as against diallage, where
the direction of maximum extinction is oblique to the position
of the interstices. The olivine appears partly altered to a green
fibrous matter, polarizing like serpentine. After this description
of the mineral constituents of the rock of Carlingford Mountains
there cannot be any doubt of its classification. It is not an
hypersthene rock, because it does not contain the orthorhombic
pyroxene: it is not asyenite because it contains neither amphibol
nor orthoclase, but it is a very typical Gabbro of the group
characterised by the presence of olivine, and is not very different
from the rocks described by Mr. Pettersen* from Store
Bekkafjord,in Norway. From a cursory examination it seems
probable to me also that one or another of the dolerites from
Killala Bay, Co. Mayo, may be placed in the same group of rocks.

* N. Jahrb. f. Min. 1876, p. 174.

ScreN. Proc. R.D.3., Vou. 11., Pr. t. D

34 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

IV.—NOTES ON ARCTIC AIR, sy EDWARD L. MOSS,

STAFF SURGEON, R.N.

[Read May 20, 1878.]

A Paper by Professor Tyndall on Spontaneous Generation in
the January number of the “Nineteenth Century” contains a
record of some experiments strikingly confirming the conclusion
arrived at by Pasteur, that the causes of putrescent infection are
comparatively absent in the air of high altitudes in the Alps.

The air of similar high altitudes has been chemically examined
by Dr. Frankland,* who estimated its three principal gases con-
temporaneously with results corroborative of those obtained by
Messrs. H. and A. Schlagintweit and Dr. Miller, and also by De
Saussuret and Dr. Angus Smith} so that it may be taken as an
ascertained fact that the pure air of high altitudes contains a
larger percentage of carbonic acid than the open air of lower
levels.

High altitudes are in many respects comparable to high
latitudes, and it may be of interest to enquire firstly, whether the
parallelism extends into the biological, and secondly, into the
chemical characters of their atmospheres.

On looking back through Arctic literature I can find no
reference to a search for infective germs or any other microscopic
organisms in polar air. Its antisceptic qualities are notorious,
but have been very naturally attributed solely to low tempera-
ture. The only special references to putrefaction that I know of
in Arctic narratives are the extraordinary instances reported by
Drs. Kane and Hayes. The former details a case§ in which a
reindeer cut up, but left unskinned and apparently uneviscerated,
became in thirty-six hours “nearly uneatable from putrefaction,
the liver and intestines utterly so” although the temperature,
temporarily raised by a warm wind from the interior of Green-

* Journal Chem. Soc. Vol. xiii. p. 22. t Annales de Chimie, Vol. xxxviii.
+ Smith, Air and Rain, p. 59. § Kane’s, Grinnel Expedition, Vol. ii. p. 51.

Notes on Arctic Air. 35

land, had not in that time exceeded nineteen below zero, Fahren-
heit. Dr. Hayes* tells of another reindeer found unfit for use
after an exposure of but one day in a temperature of ten below
zero. These cases may possibly be explained by infection from
within, such as apparently causes the occasional failure of Lister’s
method in surgery, and renders, as every housewife knows, the
deep inguinal glands or “ kernel” of a leg of mutton the first part
to “ go.”

Such experimental contributions to the subject as I have to
offer, were made, I regret to say, in ignorance of the approved
methods of procedure. Professor Tyndall’s observations with
“the mote-less chamber” and on the air of the Oberland moun-
tains were made after our departure. Guided by them, some
future Arctic traveller may well hope to obtain important results
where I can only supply an isolated fact or two.

In 1865, as soon as the autumn sledging was over, an attempt
was made to collect the dust of Arctic air for microscopical exami-
nation by means of a Pouchet’s apparatus constructed for me by
the ship’s armourer.

Its vane was fastened with a check, so that the funnel could
face the wind from every quarter except from across the ship. It
was placed at an elevation of twenty-five feet above the sea, on a
pole fixed in the top of a “floeberg ” ahead of the ship in such a
position that it could only receive the winds from seaward. I
- was anxious to examine the wind from the unknown north, but
unfortunately it rarely blew from that quarter. After we had
experienced the curious warm winds descending from the opposite
direction, | moved the apparatus so as to examine them, but it
was blown away—pole and all—in the very first gale, so that its
results are limited to the northern winds. I had, however,
enough experience with it to prove it unsuitable. It was useless
except in wind, and then both its funnel and the box holding a
glycerized slide became choked with drifting snow, which often
filled the air ever higher than the mast-heads. On 13th December,
after exposure for 40 hours to a north north-west wind of force 1 to
3 and temperature—15° to—22° Fahrenheit the drop of glycerine
on the slide contained a few minute colourless cells which were
not in it when it was placed in the apparatus. They were sooo0

* Hayes, Open Polar Sea, p. 110.

SciEN. Proc. R.D.S,, Vou. 0, Pr. 1. D 2

36 Scientifie Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

inch in diameter, and generally grouped in pairs or triplets. With
them was one cell ;;5> inch diameter containing another half
the size. On 19th December after four days exposure to west and
north-west wind not exceeding force 3, I noted amongst the
usual inorganic particles several cells of a unicellular Alga g¢o55
inch diameter with transparent walls and brilliant crimson con-
tents, the outer wall sometimes so thick that the contents looked
likelittlemorethana crimson nucleus, sometimes, on the other hand,
the red contents filled the whole sphere. With these were opaque
cells of about the same size, setting free on rupture minute gra-
nules, like those found in the slide of 13th December. In
these observations, in order to avoid contamination from air on
board ship, this microscope was used in a snow house on shore
without further inconvenience than the slow destruction of its
mercurial reflector. The contents of the air were afterwards more
readily collected by exposing a clean glass plate to receive the
precipitation of microscopic prisms of ice that fell abundantly even
in the clearest weather. This device was adopted to observe the
inorganic precipitate, described by me in a recent communication
to the Royal Society. It had the opposite disadvantage to the
Pouchet’s filter, because it could only be used in absolute calm, and
it was not suited for the collection of organisms, because the
melted ice dust, or anything else in the shape of water, could only
be examined in the warmth on board the ship, where it was ex-
posed to the risk of receiving and developing adventitious germs.
To a contamination of this sort I attribute certain organisms found
in alr precipitate melted, and examined in my cabin, namely,
growing Torula, cells and groups of Bacterium lineola, setting free
individuals moving by jerks in one direction only. ‘The precipi-
tates collected on a glass plate, frequently, however, yielded forms
unquestionably deposited from the air. These consisted of the
crimson Alga, already mentioned, and tough cells from a phyco-
chromaceous Alga, each cell of which was biscuit shaped 53,5 inch
in diameter, and marked with a central scar or wrinkle, and faint
concentric rings, giving it an appearance ofa starch grain. ‘These
cells were subsequently found both in the ice and in sea water,
tightly packed ina tough capsule. Upon two occasions I founds
fravments of Diatomaceze in the air precipitate thus collected.
Locking at the carcases of musk oxen still hanging in our rig

Notes on Arctic Air. 37

ging, it occurred to me that if active Bacteria existed in the air,
they should be found in recognisable numbers on the surface of
the meat exposed for six months to the weather. A direct
microscopic examination of scraps from the surface of the meat
without taking them between decks could not be satisfactorily
made, but so far as it went, gave negative results. So I resolved
to seal up a piece of meat and see what would happen to it.
Accordingly, on the 15th January I cut, with a clean saw, a wedge
from the surface, including a piece of platysma, darkened by ex-
posure to the air, and put it intoa burnt out glass tube, half an
inch in diameter and five inches long—the largest I had—then
with a spirit lamp and blow pipe, pulled out the open end of the
tube, and sealed it hermetically. The whole operation was per-
formed in a snow house, in a temperature ten below zero. The
meat had been freely exposed to the air since 28th August. In
the interval the temperature had been but once above 32° (F),
and that was during the Fcéhn of 3rd to 5th December, when it
suddenly rose some sixty degrees, and reached four above the
freezing point. The lowest temperature the meat had been ex-
posed to was forty-six below zero (F.) On bringing the sealed
tube into my cabin, the meat, for the first time, thawed, and
became soft enough to stick to the sides of the glass. It was kept
till the return of the expedition in a temperature averaging 49°
and subsequently remained in the Laboratory of this Society to
all appearance completely unchanged. On the anniversary of
the day on which it was sealed up it was shown in this Lecture
Theatre still in perfect condition, although the tube had been
cracked in exhibiting it to some friends a few days before. The
crack was sealed up eight hours after it was made, but the sequel
proved that the meat was neither dried up or in any way in-
capable of putrefaction : for before the end of the month it had
become green and putrid. In spite then of the ascertained
presence of some organisms in Arctic air this experiment proves,
I think, conclusively that active putrefactive infection is absent
from the air to which the meat was exposed, and in which it
was sealed up.

The literature relating to the second part of our enquiry is not
extensive. The only chemical examinations of polar air hitherto
made, have been in sealed samples, necessarily of small amount,

38 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

brought home by two expeditions from the Parry Islands. Obser-
vations made on these extend only to estimations of their oxygen by
explosion. If, however, we may regard the carbonic acid in air as
inversely proportionate to the oxygen*, the percentages of the latter
ascertained to exist in these samples will afford data for comparison
with the estimations of carbonic acid made during our expedition.
Sir Edward Parry, in 1823, collected two specimens of early
spring air at Igloolik. They were taken from inside his observa-
tory, and were enclosed in glass bottles with brass stoppers.
Faraday made two estimations from each sample by Doberiener’s
eudiometrical process, and in every case found the percentage of
oxygen less than in the air of the Royal Institution at the time
of analysisf. The mean difference amounted to no less than 1°374,
a difference due as much to the most unusually high amount in
the air of the laboratory as to the low percentage in the Arctic
air. The latter referred to the generally recognized average 20°98
shows a deficit of °392.

Sir James Ross brought home seventeen samples of air (not
all Arctic) from Baffin’s Sea and Port Leopold—73-52 N. 90-12 W.
They were taken at different seasons in 1848 and 1849, and sealed
in glass tubes by fusion, They were examined by Regnault by
explosion, and the results supply one of the tables in his researches
on the composition of the atmosphere}. He remarks (as Frank-
land does of the air of the Alps) that the percentage of oxygen in
the Arctic air falls within the limits of observed variations, but
an inspection of his table will show that not one of the samples
possessed the normal 20:98 of oxygen ; the lowest shows a deficit
of 13, and the mean of all 074.

My estimations of carbonic acid in Polar air have been pub-
lished in the report of the Parliamentary Committee on the out-
break of scurvy during the Expedition, and Professor De Chaumont
has done me the honour to quote them in his recent edition of
Parke’s classical work on Hygiene. Itherefore bring them before
you solely in their relation to the generalization which they tend
to confirm. I add some particulars because results even in the ©
hands of the most practised investigators are—as has been pointed

o
f=)

x Frankland’s Experimental Researches, p. 476—Angus Smith, Air and Rain, p. 59.
+ Sir E. Parry’s 2nd yoyage—appendix p. 240.
{ Annales de Chimie, 3rd series, vol. xxxvi., p. 404.

N bibs on Arctic Air, 39

out by Thorpe—largely qualified by the methods and mode of
manipulation adopted.

The estimations were made by Pettenkofer’s method, baryta
being used as the absorbent, and decinormal hydrochloric acid for
the titrations. The latter were made in the presence of the pre-
cipitate, and with the whole of the baryta solution used, together
with the rinsings of the bottle. In ascertaining the point of
neutralization it was found necessary to discard litmus, since
by candlelight it somewhat masked the disappearance of the tur-
meric ring.

In ordinary temperatures the process is perfectly simple, but a
little difficulty was experienced in applying it in very low tem-
peratures, because the samples of air had to have their tempera-
ture raised one hundred degrees Fahrenheit before they could be
subjected to the action of the baryta solution in the temperature
of my cabin. It was therefore necessary to make arrangements
which would admit of the escape of the expanding air without
allowing admixture with the air of the ship.

In my first experiment 4735° of air were taken on 10th
December from.two feet over the floe; one hundred yards to
windward of the ship ina N.N.W. wind ; force 3 and temperature
—14'8 degrees (F), pressure 29°52. The expansion was arranged
for by opening the bottle under mercury, and leaving it inverted
with its lips touching the mercurial surface till the escape of
bubbles had ceased. The results corrected for temperature of
pressure showed a percentage of -06417 of carbonic acid.

This plan was not satisfactory, because it required close atten-
tion to prevent regurgitation of air into the bottle from slight
changes of temperature in my cabin, and the air in the bottle had
to be exposed for a moment to contamination while the baryta
was being introduced.

For the next experiment the stopper of the bottle was replaced
_ byavarnished cork perforated by two glass tubes with stop cocks;
the one to admit the air and baryta solution; the other to
‘ allow of expansion through a mercurial valve. But this arrange-
ment interfered with the shaking of the bottle. | With it on the
18th January I examined 9565 of air at a temperature of —40
degrees, and obtained a percentage of ‘0485.

A final improvement in the apparatus was made by substitut-

40 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

ing a small balloon of varnished goldbeaters skin for the mercurial
valve, and cementing a thermometer in a third opening in the
plug. The bottle was filled with the balloon collapsed. On being
brought into the ship the air expanded into the balloon until the
thermometer in the bottle rose to the temperature of my cabin.
The baryta was then introduced and well shaken in the bottom
of the bottle for an hour. Finally, the apparatus was again
taken out on the floes, and when the baryta solution had frozen
perfectly hard, the stop-cocks were opened, and a fresh volume of
air pumped in. On 29th February 19128 of air at a tempera-
ture—63°5 degrees were examined in this way, and gave a per-
centage of (0536 of carbonic acid.

These experiments show amounts of carbonic acid considerably
higher than what is recognised as the average in the air of open
places in Britain, and coupling their results with the deficiency
of oxygen observed in the samples of air brought home by Parry
and Ross, we may, I think, conclude that Polar air resembles the
air of high altitudes in possessing a large percentage of carbonic
acid.

This conclusion is only what is to be expected when we re-
member that the two principal agents by which carbonic acid is
removed from the atmosphere, are both all but absent in high
latitudes.

At Floe-bery Beach, North latitude 82°27, where my estima-
tions were made, there was not a tree or a drop of water within
a thousand miles.

This increase of carbonic acid in Polar air is probably too small
to possess any hygienic significance. In fact, much of the impor-
tance attached to carbonic acid is due to the circumstance that it
is more readily estimated than the far more noxious carbonic oxide
and organic matters with which it is variably associated in atmos-
pheres vitiated by combustion and respiration.

In conclusion, I may add a brief note relating to watery.
vapour in Polar atmosphere. That there was some present even in
the lowest temperatures was shown by the behaviour of cobalt
chloride. On 4th of March a paper tinted with the chloride and
dried to the anhydrous blue, was enclosed in a tube so as to be
exposed to the air but protected from falling ice crystals. After
the lapse of 24 hours, during which the temperature varied be-

Notes on Arctic Air. 41

tween —73° and —57° (F), the blue paper had become distinctly
pink along its edges.

An attempt was made as follows to estimate this watery
vapour.

An india-rubber tube, with a mouth-piece holding a little cotton
wool to catch ice crystals, was led from an elevation of ten feet
over the floes through a ventilator into my cabin, and there con-
nected with an aspirator with the intervention of two U tubes
filled with fresh burnt calcium chloride. By this means 118°2
litres of air were dried. The operation lasted nine hours, and at
the end of the time the U tubes had increased only ‘053 gramme
in weight. During the experiment the temperature of the exter-
nal air was—54°'4 and the pressure 29°75.

42 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

V.—SOME REMARKS ON INTER-GLACIAL EPOCHS, IN RE-
FERENCE TO FAUNA AND FLORA EXISTING AT THE
PRESENT DAY IN THE NORTHERN HEMISPHERE,
BETWEEN THE PARALLELS OF 81° AND 83° N., By
H. W. FEILDEN, F.e.s.

[Read May 20, 1878. ]

In the brief paper that I have the honour of submitting to your
notice, it is my desire to draw your attention to the theory of
intercalation of series of warmer climates during what is called
the Glacial Epoch.

Tnaccordance with the opinions of Professor Oswald Heerand the
late Sir Charles Lyell, the existence of Inter-Glacial Periods has been
indisputably evidenced by the Diirnten beds of Switzerland, and
the Forest bed of our Norfolk coast ; and while Professor Heer
considers that the Diirnten lignite beds represent the existence
of a climate similar to that now existing in Switzerland, Lyell
remarks that the Forest bed of Cromer presents a singular analogy
to that of Diirnten, and that “both of them alike demonstrate that
there were oscillations of temperature in the course of that long
period of cold.”*

Mr. James Geikie in his valuable work, “The Great Ice Age,”
has likewise adopted the theory of the intercalation of warmer
climates to account for the inter-glacial beds of Scotland. In fact,
so many of our greatest modern authorities have given their ad-
hesion to this theory, that it may almost be regarded as an accepted
fact amongst modern geologists. That the so-called inter-glacial
beds of Scotland and England were deposited between the com-
mencement of the Glacial Epoch and its final withdrawal from
Great Britain, is a well-established fact; but the question I am
desirous of presenting to your consideration is, whether the so-
called inter-glacial beds represent what Lyell terms “ oscillations
of temperature,” or merely modifications of temperature due to

* Lyell. Principles of Geology, vol. i. p. 196. Eleventh edition.

On Inter-Glacial Epochs. 43

alteration in the levels of land-masses, and the consequent change
in their character as condensers of moisture, with probably a
change also in the direction of the oceanic currents.

My suggestion, that it may not be necessary to connect the so-
called inter-glacial beds with sudden changes or oscillations of
temperature, is based upon the results of observations in Grinnell
Land during 1875-76.

Having been fortunate enough to pass twelve months in the
most northern portion of the earth that civilised man has yet
visited, a region subjected to as rigorous extremes of cold as any
yet recorded, where the sun remains below the horizon at mid-day
for five months, where the mean annual temperature is—3°-473,
where a minimum of—73°'75 was registered during the month of
March, and where for only three months of the year the mean
temperature rises up to and above the freezing point of fresh
water, viz. +32°455 in June; +88°356 in July; +31°-913 in
August. I was impressed with the fact that this region is.under-
going less glaciation than Greenland, lying twenty degrees of
latitude to the southward in the parallel of Shetland, and differing
remarkably from the northern part of Greenland, lying between
the same parallels, and separated by a narrow water-way not
twenty miles across,

In Grinnell Land, from lat. 81°-40'N. to lat. 85°-6’ N., no glaciers
descend to the sea, no ice-cap buries the land ; valleys from which
the snow is in a great measure thawed during July and part of
August stretch inland for many miles,and the peaked mountains,
snow-clad during the greater portion of the year, in July and
August have great portions of their flanks which rise to an altitude
of 2,000 feet bared of snow.

The opposite coast of Greenland presents a very different aspect
a mer-de-gluce stretches over nearly its entire surtace, its ficrds
are the outlets by which its great glaciers protrude into the sea.
In Petermann Fiord the ice cap with its blue jagged edge lying
flush with the face of the lofty clitis was estimated to be forty
feet thick.

When we turn to the Flora and Fauna of Grinnell Land the
difference is equally astonishing ; some fifty or sixty flowering
plants are found in its valleys,and between latitudes 82° and 83°
N., I have seen tracts of land so profusely decked with the blos-

44 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

soms of Saxifraga oppositifolia that the purple glow of our
heath-clad moors was brought to my recollection.

Musk oxen in considerable numbers frequent its shores; the
Arctic fox, the wolf, and ermine, with thousands of lemmings live
and die there. The bones of these mammals, along with those of
the ringed seal (Phoca hispida), are now being deposited in con-
siderable quantities in the fluvio-marine beds now forming in the
bays and at the outlets of all the streams, or rather summer tor-
rents of Grinnell Land. With these bones will be associated
those of birds, such as geese and sea-gulls. Numerous mollusca
and crustacea, many species of rhizopods, with the remains of
land and sea plants, will there find a resting place.

Supposing that these beds were examined at some future period
under conditions, when the glacial epoch had disappeared from the
surrounding area, it would be difficult to realise that they were
contemporaneous with the beds formed under the Greenland ice
cap in the same parallel of latitude and on the opposite shore of a
channel not twenty miles across.

In the one case, enormous thicknesses of till with ice- sciatebell
stones have in all probability been deposited ; in the other, fluvio-
marine beds containing a comparatively rich assemblage of marine
and ‘land forms, with river-rolled pebbles, would be brought to
light.

In the face of these facts is it incredible to suppose that the
inter-glacial periods of Great Britain are due not so much to
“oscillations of temperature” as to alterations in the amount of
moisture in the atmosphere, and the position of the land-mass re-
garded as a condenser.

It is evident that the glaciation of Greenland and the west
shore of Baffin’s Bay and Ellesmere Land is not a result altogether
of degrees of heat and cold, or in other words, temperature, but
equally the result of geographical position which causes theseregions
to act as mighty condensers, throwing down in the form of snow
the heated vapour of the south, and so effectually eliminating the
moisture from the air that a tract of country like Grinnell Land
lying still further to the north and subjected to an equally rigor-
yus climate, is comparatively exempt from glaciation.

On the Recent and Extinct Irish Mammals. 45

VI—ON THE RECENT AND EXTINCT IRISH MAMMALS.
By A. LEITH ADAMS, F.r.s., F.4.8., PROFESSOR OF ZOOLOGY
IN THE ROYAL COLLEGE OF SCIENCE FOR IRELAND.

WITH PLATES I. TO V.
[Read March 18, 1878.]

DuRING perusals of documentary evidence and examinations
of materials connected with the study of the recent and extinct
Mammals of Ireland, I have become impressed with a belief that
well authenticated data on these heads are desirable for the
following reasons :—

Many of the determinations since Thompson’s works were
published, and other records spread over the Proceedings of
Societies and elsewhere, have been supplemented by new matter
and the views and opinions of observers at all times subject to
correction with advancing science, appear to me in a few cases to
admit of different constructions.

It appears to me also desirable that several of the remains of
the extinct species should be figured for the reason that although
they are plentiful in Great Britain it is seldom that such, for
example, bear’s skulls, are found in such perfect states of preserva-
tion as usually met with in the lacustrine deposits of Ireland, more-
over a good deal of confusion has crept into the subject of the fossil
bears of Ireland owing, in some cases, to misunderstandings in
nomenclature. In this way errors have been copied, and some-
times opinions expressed which will not, as far as I can make
out, admit of confirmation when tested by careful examinations
of the objects.

The following is a list of the Irish Fossil Mammals according
to the views here expressed :—I am well aware that the results
of my investigation of the subject are not in accordance with the
determinations of previous observers, but I have been studious to
establish in every instance my reasons for differing from the
opinions of others, so that there may be no difficulty in compre-
hending the points at issue.

Of the extinct Post-tertiary Mammals, according to the latest
published lists, as many as fifteen so-called species are recorded,

46 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

to wit :—Ursus arctos, U. speleeus, U. maritimus, U. ferox, Canis
lupus, Elephas primigenius, Hippopotamus sp., Sus scrofa, Bos
longifrons, Bos frontosus, Cervus alces Cervus elephas, Megaceros
Hibernicus, Tarandus rangifer, Ovis sp. Cetaceans.*

Eliminating the two bovine quadrupeds and sheep now accepted
as domesticated animals, the Elk or Moose and, indeed, the Hippo-
potamus which I also exclude for reasons detailed in the sequel.
It appears to me also that the Bears are reducible to apparently
one species, so that the extinct mammals of Ireland, as far as I
am enabled to find out are— :

1. Ursus fossilis (Goldfuss), vel U. ferox, fossilis. -
2. Canis lupus.

3. Elephas primigenius.

4, Equus caballus.

5. Sus scrofa.

6. Cervus megaceros.

7. Cervus tarandus.

The extinct Cetacean remains have not been critically examined,
and beyond vertebra and fragments of crania and mandibles in
marine deposits along the coasts, there are no data sufficient to
furnish specific distinctions, nor are their stratagraphical relations
known with accuracy.

A striking feature of the lists of Irish Mammals, both recent
and fossil, will be observed to be the remarkable small number of
species as compared with England. A circumstance which can
scarcely admit of any other interpretation than that Ireland was
only partially united to Great Britain, or that the severance took
place before the fauna of the latter had time to spread over the
country, and it may be that the physical conditions were also
inimical to certain species during the Lake Period when the shell
marl was being deposited. Admitting that the surface deposits
of Ireland and its hmestone caverns have not been so systemati-
cally explored as in England, but even Scotland has produced more

* Catalogue of the Mammalian Fossils which have been discovered in Ireland by
R. H. Scott, F.R.S., ‘*Geological Magazine,” vol. vii. p. 413, Feral species of sheep and
goats are stated by Professor Hull in his late book on the “ Physical Geology and
Geography of Ireland” to have been found in the Island, Of this assertion there is no

proof whatever beyond the rejectamenta of prehistoric, and possibly historic man met with
in caves recently occupied.

On the Recent and Extinct Irish Mammals. 47

extinct and recent mammals than Ireland; and what is significant
of possibly a migration of the mammals of Scotland to Ireland, is
the circumstance that with the solitary exception of the Ursus
fossilis all the Irish recent and extinct species are also found
North of the Tweed.

The only Irish cavern that has hitherto produced any of the
extinct mammals is that of Shandon, near Dungarvan, in the
County of Waterford, successfully explored in the first instance by
Mr. Brenan, and subsequently by Professor Harkness and myself.
This highly suggestive rock cavity has proven the contemporaneity
in Ireland of the Mammoth, Grisley Bear, Wolf, Fox, Horse,
Reindeer, Reddeer, Alpine Hare, and a species of Swan,*
whilst subturbary deposits probably associate the Irish Elk, Rein-
deer, Reddeer, and Grisley Bear, as all of them have left their
remains in the shell marl and clays. Cave explorations, however,
would require to be further extended in Ireland before we can
with certainty arrive at the conclusion that the above list repre-
sent the entire roll of the lost mammals.

CHIROPTERA.

None of the Bats hitherto discovered in Ireland have been
found in fossil states. Of no less than sixteen species recorded
by Dobson and others from England, seven have been identified
in Ireland and only three in Scotland. The Irish species are—
Rhinolophus hipposideros, Vespurgo leisleri, Plecotus auritus,
and Vespertilio pipistrellus, V. mystacinus, V. nattereri, V.
daubentonii.

INSECTIVORA.

The only Irish Insectivora are the Hedgehog and Pygmy
Shrew,t neither of which have occurred in fossil states, whilst
the common and water shrews and mole are absent although
found in Scotland and England.

* Vide Transactions Royal Irish Academy, vol. xxvi., p. 187.

+ Thompson’s Nat. History, vol. i., p. 4, refers to the reputed capture of the Sorex
vulgaris by the Ordnance Survey collectors, but the discovery has not yet been confirmed by
subsequent finds.

48 Scientitic Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

RODENTIA.
Alpine Hare (Lepus variabilis.)

Remains of this hare, including several long bones, a cranium,
and fragments of mandibles, were found by Mr. Brenan and my-
self in Shandon Cave, in connection with the other extinct mam-
mals. There were besides evidences of gnawing by rodents on
the bones of Mammoth, Hare, and Reindeer, but the remains of the
species were not discovered.

The recent and extinct Rodents of Ireland are remarkably few
as compared with England.* The above and the Rabbit,f and
the Long-tailed Field Mouse (Mus sylvaticus). The Squirrel,
as in the north of Scotland is spreading rapidly, and,
although affirmed by Thompson to have been indigenous
before the destruction of the forests, it is said in many in-
stances to have been introduced into districts. The Black and
Brown Rats and House Mouse occur in about the same proportions
as in Great Britain. But of such Scotch and English Rodents, to
wit, the Field Vole (Arvicola agrestis), the Water Rat (A. amvphi-
bius),f the Red Field Vole, and Hare, there is no evidence of
their having been found in Ireland, nor the Dormouse, hitherto
confined to England. Of the extinct species, the Beaver, which
was plentiful in Scotland and England, was not only unknown in
Ireland during historical times, but there is no evidence of its re-
mains having been found in a fossil state in the island, whilst the
Norwegian and Greenland Lemmings (Myodes lemmus and M.
torquatus) of English post Tertiary deposits, the Pouched Marmot
(Spermophilus erythrogenoides) seemingly scarcely separable from
the S. erythrogenys, the Cave Pika (Lagomys spelaeus), the
Champagnol (Arvicola arvalis), and the Scandinavian Vole (A.
vatticeps) have hitherto been discovered only in English caverns.

* JT am indebted to Mr. Altson, F.L.S., for valued information regarding the
distributions of several British rodents.

+ The so-called Irish rat is only a variety of M. rattus, and the same applies to the
Trish hare and L. variabilis.

t Dr. Bryce (British Association Reports 1834, p. 658) includes bones of the Water
Rat, along with other eavvi@ from a cave in the county Antrim, but unless verified by
scrupulously careful comparisons, the exact determinations of Muride are yery
difficult to make out.

On the Recent and Extinct Irish Mammals. 49

CARNIVORA.
Cave Bear (Ursus fossilis vel U. ferox, fossilis.)

Remains of Bears have been met with either in sub-turbary or
cavern deposits in the following counties, viz :—Leitrim, Long-
ford, Westmeath, King’s County, Kildare, Waterford and Lime-
rick.

There is no direct evidence as in England and Scotland to show
that bears were contemporaneous with man in Ireland. Moreover,
the ancient historians either omit any notice of the bear among
the fere of the country, or, as in the case of St. Donatus, assert
that it was not indigenous. Mr, Thompson refers to oral tradi-
tion of its existence in early times,* and the Celtic name for a bear
“Machsgamhuin” occurs often in ancient Irish literature. It may
be the case that the bear became extinct before the advent of man,
or that it may have been overlooked; but at the same time, from
the facts that the cavern bears of England disappeared before the
historical period, and before the Brown Bear, which survived up
to the middle of the 11th Century, consequently if the views
here stated are correct, viz—that there are no proofs of the latter
species having frequented Ireland, and that all the ursine exwviae
hitherto found in Ireland appertain to the Grisley Bear, then the
likelihood of the extinction of the latter in Ireland before the ar-
rival of man is in keeping with the disappearance of that species
in Great Britain.

Various natural historians in their descriptions of the different
discoveries of Irish ursine remains have affixed specific appelations
to the specimens, so that according to the latest List of Irish extinct
Mammals no less than four species are enumerated.}

The specimens on which the above determinations were
founded are still accessible, and nearly all are contained in the
Dublin Museum of Science and Art.

The only recent bears with which the above require to be com-
pared are the Brown, the Grisley, and the Polar Bears, and of the
extinct species the Ursus fossilis of Goldfuss and the Gigantic

* Nat. History of Ireland, vol. iv, page 30.

+ Scott in Geological Magazine, vol. vii., and Hull, Jour. Roy. Geol. Soc. Dublin, vol.

iv. (N.S.) Iomit Mr. Denny’s species (U. planifrons) as being founded or a generic
character, subject to variations according to age.

ScreN. Proc, R.D.S., Vou. 11., PT. I, E

50 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

Cavern Bear (Ursus spelaeus.) The former being now generally
accepted as agreeing osteologically with the Grisley Bear, these two
may be considered as one and the same species. Indeed the Gigantic
Cavern Bear of England and the Continent, although differing in
some points from the Ursus fossilis and chiefly in its greater
dimensions, may only be a large individual of that species
in as much as its osteologicai and dental characters are of
doubtful importance. The fossil Ursus priscus of Goldfuss for
a long time considered distinct from other species when compared
by Mr. Busk with the smaller cavern bear and Ursus ferox was
found not to present sufficient characters to make it a different
species, so that at present all the extinct bears of European pleis-
tocene deposits are osteologically very closely allied to recent
species. Indeed itmay be doubtful whether the gigantic fossil
form is other than an individual variety of the Ursus fossilis vel
ferox, seeing that variability seems to have been the rule in past
times as at present in the case of the Brown Bear (Ursus arctos.)
The very wide distribution of the latter species, and the variabi-
lity to which it is subject as regard dimensions and outward
aspect are very pronounced, especially when the alpine and low-
land denizens are compared. For example the Isabelline coloured,
—a fulvous variety which affects the higher Himalayan Mountains,
through inability to procure subsistence in winter is not only
driven to hibernate for nearly half the year, but from being un-
able to capture the ungulates and other animals is also compelled
to subsist on vegetable food. This change of living, continued for
a length of time, has converted a naturally ferocious animal into
one of the most cowardly creatures in existence as I can vouch
from much personal experience of the habits of the Isabelline
Bear of the Cashmere Mountains. Moreover its molars have very
pronounced tuberculated crowns ; perhaps the result of its herbi-
vorous diet—a condition seemingly characteristic of this as
compared with the more omnivorous forms of the Ursus arctos,
As to the Grisley Bear we may well believe that its far-famed
ferocity has been maintained from the fact that it continues to

prey on the bison, on which it depends to a great extent for sub-
sistence,

On the Recent and Extinct Irish Mammals. 51

I, URSINE REMAINS FROM LEITRIM.

I am indebted to the Earl of Enniskillen for the following infor-
mation relating to the superb cranium of a bear now in his pos-
session. His Lordship writes—“ It was given to me by Surgeon
Young, of Monaghan, who told me that he had received it when in
the County of Leitrim from a navvy who gave it to him out of
gratitude for curing him of a severe illness. The navvy told him
that he found it near to Ballinamore, in that county, when em-
ployed in digging out the Shannon and Erne Canal.”

The specimen, a crown and palate view of which is shown in
Plate ITI, figs. 1 and 2, along with similar views, figs 3 and 4,
of the cranium of Ursus ferox from Montana, United States.

The specimen in question presents the bleached outward
appearance of bones from the shell marl and sub-turbary deposits.
It is the largest cranium of all ursine exuvie hitherto recorded
from Ireland, and evidently belonged to a full-grown male. The
mandible is wanting, and only the canines and ultimate molars
are in place. The length of the former from tip to alveolus is 48
millimetres, and 32 millimetres in the anteroposterior diameter,
the maximum breadth being 19 millimetres.

These teeth are larger than the majority of specimens of Ursus
fossilis of Goldfuss, and greatly exceed any of the canines of
recent species with which I have been enabled to compare them.
But the configuration of canines differs considerably in individuals
of the same species, and, therefore, their form cannot be relied on,
as diagnostic of any one species. The ultimate molar is some-
what compressed posteriorly, the same tooth in the Ursus arctos
and Ursus ferox being not so much contracted, but there is indivi-
dual variability again in the latter particular. Its dimensions
are excessive as compared with the Ursus fossilis and U. ferox, and
U. arctos, being 42 x 22 millimetres, which equal the dimensions
of individuals of the gigantic cave bear, although not so large as
the mean of specimens recorded by Busk.*

Indeed, as regards dimensions, the skull from Leitrim far ex-
ceeds any other Irish crania as seen in the Table, page 64—or indeed
any skulls of Ursus ferox or Ursus arctos with which I have been
enabled to compare it. It equals the generality of crania of the

* Report on the Explorations of Brixham Cave, Phil. Trans., vol. clxiii., p. 532.

Scien. Proc. R.D.S., Vou. u., Pr. 1. B2

D2 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

sinaller sized cave bear, but, of course, cannot compete with the
huge specimens of Ursus speleeus, from German and Pyrenean
caverns as will also appear from the table.

A specimen of the latter selected for comparison with Irish
crania will be observed to differ very much in relative dimensions
of its ridges and regions. But these conditions are dependant on
sex, age, and individual peculiarities. The following two features
by which the skull of Ursus ferox and Ursus arctos may be dis-
tinguished from one another were pointed out to me by Mr. Busk,
and as far as my experience of specimens have hitherto extended
appear to be diagnostic of these two forms, viz:—l. The jugal
arcade is elliptical in Ursus ferox and more circular in Ursus
arctos. 2. The posterior nasal openings are wider in the Ursus
aretos than in Ursus ferox.

Among fossil bears we find the Ursus fossilis or smaller Cave
Bear agrees with Ursus ferox in both of these characters, and
with the gigantic Cavern Bear also, only that the posterior nasal
openings are relatively narrower in the latter than in either
of them. In these respects the Leitrim skull is indistinguishable
from that of Ursus ferox. It might be suggestive to consider how
far the wider nasal openings have to do with the very acute
sense of smell which the recent species possesses, as is well
known to me from observing the animal in its native haunts.*

According to Busk’s anemometer the cubic contents of the
brain cavity in the Leitrim skull is 26 inches, but I have no
sufficient data wherewith to compare the relative sizes in the
extinct and recent species so as to find out whether the earlier
race differed in any ways from recent species in the capacity of
the interior of the cranial cavity.

Il. URSINE REMAINS FROM LONGFORD AND WESTMEATH.

Two crania were discovered in 1846-7 at a depth of seven feet
from the surface in a deposit of marl beneath peat in cutting
away a bog on the borders of the above mentioned counties.

Both specimens are in the museum of Leeds, where they were
deposited by the Jate Mr Denny, who formed an opinion that one

* Wanderings of a Naturalist in India, p. 227.

On the Recent and Extinct Irish Mammals. 53

of them presented characters distinct from any known species,
and for which he proposed a new name (Ursus planifrons).*

The teeth are entirely wanting in both specimens, otherwise
the crania are nearly entire. The second premolar, as usual in
both fossil forms and Ursus ferox,and also Ursus arctosis suppressed
in the above. These fossil skulls differ considerably in relative
dimensions (see Table), and especially as regards the sagittal ridge
and frontal triangle formed by the divergence of the two frontal
ridges. Otherwise in the general contour of the jugal arcade,
posterior nares, and smaller details they seem indistinguishable
from the Leitrim cranium and that of Ursus ferox, whilst a com-
parison as to the dimensions of various portions of the crania
show the variability both relatively and absolutely in individuals,
and consequently the disposition to mutability peculiar to the
members of the genus generally.

Thus, whilst the Leitrim skull is longer a good deal than either
of the above, it is equal to, and even narrower than one of
them at the parietals, and the same obtains in the iength between
the orbit and pre-maxillaries. In the Leitrim skull, the length
of the molar series is 112 millimetres, against 106 millimetres,
and 104 millimetres. The dimensions of the temporal fossz are
pretty equal in the three. Altogether the contrasts as regard
the above and the other crania show that the skull which dis-
plays the greatest length may not necessarily preserve like
proportions in other admeasurements, For example, the snout
may be longer or shorter in proportion, and the breadth of the
forehead may vary very much, as shown in the Table p. 64. I
can see no morphological characters sufficient to separate the
crania from Longford from that of Leitrim and from the skull

of Ursus ferox,
III. URSINE REMAINS FROM KING’S COUNTY.
During the formation of a canal at Clonbourne, near Parsons-
town, the skull of a bear was discovered in 1848 at the depth of
seven feet in alluvial deposit under bog oak trees.t

* Ona supposed new species of Fossil Bear from Ireland, by Henry Denny, A.L.S.
Read April, 1864, at the Geological and Polytechnical Society of West Riding of Yorkshire.

t Cat. Industrial Exhibition, Dublin, 1853, p. 152.

54 Scientifie Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

The specimen is in the British Museum, and is No. 28,906 of the
Paleeontological Catalogue. It is nearly entire, but like the others
the mandible is wanting, and there is a loss of portion of the left
zygoma. The last pre-molar and all the true molars are present
on the left side, also the two canines, and the second true molar
of the right side. The crowns of the grinding teeth are much
worn with indications of decay in certain molars, and also in their
alveolar sockets. The specimen belonged to an aged individual,
either a female or else a small male, as will be apparent on com-
paring it with the other crania in the Table.

The dimensions of themolars are shown in the Odontogram, Fig.1
(page 60) which also affords a graphic representation in accordance
with the method suggested by Professor Busk.* The sagittal and
other coronal sutures are very prominent, and the forehead rises
perpendicularly as in the Leitrim cranium, but neither of the
foregoing are so pronounced.

The parabolic outline of the zygomata, and oblong posterior
nasal openings are also preserved in the skull from King’s County.

The canines are 31 millimetres in length from the alveolar
border to tip, and 23 millimetres in the antero-posterior diameter,
and are consequently much smaller than in the large Leitrim
skull. The distance between the first and last pre-molar is 23
millimetres.

The Jatter tooth shows the bitubercular crown which however,
has been demonstrated by Busk to prevail now and then in the
same member of the dental series of Ursus arctos.f Indeed, as
regards size, the molars are not larger than often obtains in the
latter species, and with reference to the relative size of the
cranium the above and the specimens of Ursus ferox and Ursus
arctos in the table will be found to agree generally, although the
antero posterior lengths vary considerably.

This cranium evidently belongs to the same species as the
preceding Irish crania,

* Proc. Royal Society, vol._ xviii., p. 544,
+ Op. cit p. 543.

On the Recent and Extinct Irish Mammals. - 55

IV. URSINH REMAINS FROM COUNTY KILDARE.

The cranium here referred to, was found in conjunction with
remains of deer in a cutting connected with the river Boyne,
above Leinster Bridge, near Kilrathmurry. The nature of the
deposit however, is not accurately defined. It is stated that the
soil was marshy, and that the exwvie were discovered at a
depth of “four feet in peat and sand” very probably under the
former, however the dark colour of the skull would seem to point
to bog soakage. It is to be regretted that none of the other
bones, which seem to have been plentiful, were preserved. The
cranium in question is figured and referred to by Wilde* and
is preserved in the Museum of Science and Art.

The sagittal and other cranial ridges are not well defined, and
the teeth have their tubercles very little detrited, but the sutures
are all closed. It is evidently the cranium of an adolescent, but
full-srown Bear. The incisors are wanting, also the first and
penultimate premolar of the left, and the latter of the right side.
The first premolar of the right side is suppressed——The ultimate
true molar, right side is wanting, but all the other teeth are in
their sockets.

The sagittal suture is very short, as will appear from the
Table; the post orbital ridges being given off within 23 inches
of the occipital crest. The parietal region is more prominent
than in many of the other Irish crania.f The specimen is
evidently the skull of a female. | Unfortunately the loss of both
jugal arcades prevents comparisons between them and those of the
other crania. The posterior nares are however long and narrow
as compared with Ursus arctos, and therefore more in common with
U. ferox and the U. fossilis.

The dentition is shown in the Odontogram, Fig. 2, page 60.

The last pre-molar is distinctly bitubercular. The last true
molar is less compressed posteriorly than in the Leitrim specimen,
but this is of no great importance ; it is consequently more like
what obtains often in Ursus ferox and Ursus arctos. When

* Proc: Royal Irish Acad. Vol. v. p. 53. Appezdix and Vol. vii. p. 192.

+ Indicating a large brain case, which, as compared with that of the Leitrim skull,
held 24 cubic inches of rape seed, being 2 cubic inches less than the contents of the
latter,

56 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

compared with several crania of Ursus arctos, including the
Himalayan variety (U: Isabellinus) and two crania of Ursus
ferox, together with the other Irish skulls and specimens of
Ursus fossilis, this cranium agrees more closely with the Irish
skulls and U. ferox and U. fossilis than with U. arctos,
especially the above variety from which it differs in many little
details. The more recent age of the specimen, as indicated by its
dark colour and the uncertainty of the Brown Bear having been
a native of Ireland might require this specimen to stand as a
doubtful species; at the same time I think the bulk of the
evidence points to its relation with the other Ivish crania and
with U. fossilis.

V. URSINE REMAINS FROM WATERFORD.

T have enumerated the entire ursine remains from the locality
here referred to* and will only now revert to particulars of
interest in relation to their affinities with the foregoing. Among
the exuvize from Shandon Cave, near Dungarvan, were remains
of bears, including the greater portion of one individual, and the
fragment of a mandible of another. All are contained in the
Museum of Science and Art.

The cranium is very imperfect, retaining only a few measure-
ments of importance. It is represented as well as the portion of
a lower jaw in Dr. Carte’s memoir.

The measurements in the Table show that the cranium was
that of a bear of about the dimensions of the Kildare specimen.
The teeth are very much worn, and seem to indicate that the
owner died of old age, and from their dimensions I suppose it
may have been a female. The ultimate pre-molar of the
maxilla is distinctly bitubercular, the same tooth in the mandible
being represented by stumps or fangs, the crown having been
worn away. The dimensions of the three ultimate teeth of the
maxilla will be seen by their Odontogram, Fig. 3, to come very close
to those of the 1st and 2nd molars of the Ursus ferox,

* Trans. Royal Irish Acad. Vol. xxv i. p. 225.

+ Journal Royal Dublin Society, Vol. ii. Plates xi. and xii.

On the Recent and Extinct Irish Mammals. 57

The mandible indicates a larger individual than the specimen
of Ursus ferox from Montana, in the Dublin Museum of Science
and Art, and one in the Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons
of England, and the same obtains with other parts of the skeleton.

Shandon Ursus ferox.
Mandible. Mandible.

Cinches.) — (Inches.)

Length of the Molar series, . 3 5 4:5
Height of jaw at the Coronoid, . : : c 4:6 4:6
Thickness of remains of the last Molar, 3 : 0:7 0°6
Height of jaw at ditto, : 5 5 21 2°

Ditto in front of the last pre-molar, . : 3 2:2 7

The depression for the masseter muscle is deepest in the fossil.

In contour, especially of the lower border, the two agree in all
particulars, and the condyles are of the same dimensions and are
relatively thicker than in Ursus arctos, as has been pointed out
by Waterhouse and Busk, with reference to Ursus spelzus.* The
humerus and femur will be compared with other specimens at
pages 59 and 61. These and the general dimensions of the bones of
the above individual are also noted in my report on the Shandon
Cave, to which the reader is referred for further data. The
atlas is nearly entire and gives the following dimensions, Height
1.3 inches; Neural canal 1.3 x 1.5 inches; Anterior zygapophysis,
1.7 x linch; Posterior zygapophysis 1.2x linch. Total breadth
between margins of the former 3 inches; and of the latter
2.6 inches.

VI. URSINE REMAINS FROM LOCH GUR, COUNTY LIMERICK.

‘The details in connection with this discovery are fully recorded
in Dr. Carte’s paper, and also his reasons for considering the
remains to have belonged to the Polar Bear,t Ursus maritimus.
All that can be affirmed apparently with reference to the nature
of the deposits are that the bones were found in lake mud
during the progress of a cutting, with the view of draining off the
waters of the Lake. The age and nature of the deposit there-
fore cannot be defined. The specimens include a fragment of the
atlas and axis, anchylosed by disease in a remarkable manner ;

* Phil. Trans., vol. clxiii., p. 539.

+ “On the former existence of the Polar Bear in Ireland, a3 is probably shown to be
the fact by some remains recently discovered at Loch Gur, County of Limerick.”
Journal Geolog. Society, Dublin, Vol. x, p. 114.

58 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

fragments of ribs; a large right humerus, with the loss of its
head and portion of the supinator ridge close to the insertion of the
latter. An entire left femur and right fibula: all probably
belonging to the same individual. The remains are deposited in
the Museum of Science and Art.

T have carefully compared the above humerus, femur, and fibula
with the similar bones of the Ursus spelzeus, U. fossilis, U. ferox,
U. arctos, and U. maritimus, as follows. The dimensions of the
humerus, as compared with that of the bear of Shandon Cave,
indicates a much larger individual, indeed it equals the arm bone
of the generality of the larger cavern bears of England and the
Continent, and shows the owner to have been a very large and
powerful animal.

1, The humerus of the Polar Bear, Plate IV. fig. 7, difters from
that from Loch Gur, fig. 9,and the aforementioned, fig. 8,in being
stouter in proportion to the length. It is broader at the
proximal and distal ends These are well seen, and constantly
defined in upwards of six humeri of the Polar Bear examined
by me.

2. The supinator ridge forms an angle in the Polar Bear; but
it gradually curves in the other species. Unfortunately the point
of juncture of this ridge with the shaft has been recently broken
in the Loch Gur arm bone, and is represented by a gap in fig. 9.

3. The internal condyle is much thicker and stronger where it
bounds the olecranom cavity and extends to a greater distance
from the articular surface in Ursus maritimus than in the Loch
Gur specimen, and the other humeri which are similar to the
latter.

4. The deltoid ridge runs further down the shaft in the Polar
Bear than in any of the above species. See 5, figs. 7, 8, and 9,

5. The antero-posterior diameter of the proximal third of
the shaft of the Polar Bear is relatively much greater thanin the
Loch Gur and other specimens of the living and extinct species.

There are other points in which the Loch Gur humerus differs
from that of the Polar Bear—to wit, in the proximal third of the
shaft being more rounded in the latter; whilst the plateau formed
by the posterior aspect of the supinator ridge is more or less hol-
lowed out in all, excepting the Polar Bear,

On the Recent and Extinct Irish Mammals. 59

These discrepancies isolate the humerus of the latter from all
the others.
The dimension of the humerus from Loch Gur, as compared

with the same bone in the Shandon specimen and Polar Bear, are
as follows :—

Humerus | Humerus |Humerus of

PSs from Loch | from Shan- Ursus
Gur. don Cave. | maritimus,
PL LVafig: 9:| | Big- 8. Fig. 7.

Inches, Inches. Inches.
Length from epiphysial junction of head, : 15° 14°5 10°6
Maximum diameter (antero- pastere?) at Bae
junction of head, 2 : 25 2°3 2°6
Maximum breadth of ditto, . . 2:5 : 2°
Width of the distal extremity (articular surface), = 3°3 28 2-6
‘Greatest thickness of ditto, é 14 ei 11
Entire width of distal extremity, . : 5 5: 42 4:
Antero-posterior diameter at deltoid insertion, . 21 16 15
Greatest thickness of inner condyle, : - dt tI nish

These data show relatively that the humerus of the Polar

‘Bear is a stouter bone altogether than obtains in the two fossil
instances.

J submitted the femur from Loch Gur to a similar comparison
with the same bone in the above species. Professor Owen,* in his
exhaustive differentiations of fossil ursine remains, states in con-
nexion with the Polar Bear, “that the lesser trochanter in U.
maritimus, as in U. ferox, is thrown wholly to the posterior
surface of the bone, the inner margin being continued beyond it.”
In the Ursus fossilis, and in the Gigantic Cave Bear, U. speleeus
the same prominence, though on the posterior surface, projects
somewhat beyond the inner margin, owing to the bone of the
Polar Bear being broader in proportion to its length, and the great —
width of its extremities. This character seems persistent in the
Polar Bear—at all events, in many femora I have examined ;
whilst several femora of Ursus spelzeus, Ursus fossilis, U. ferox,
and U. arctos, were indistinguishable as far as the position of the
lesser trochanter was concerned, having all of them this tubercle
almost on the margin, more or less, as seen at @ Plate IV., fig.
2, of the Shandon, and fig. 3 of the Loch Gur femur, but never so
far back as in Ursus maritimus, fig. 1

* British Fossil Mammals, p. 97,

60 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

ODONTOGRAMS OF BEARS (UPPER MOLARS).

Fig. 1.
Fourth premolar and Ist and 2nd molars of the cranium,
from King’s County.
Fig. 2

LAWS Fourth premolar and 1st and 2nd molars of the cranium,
from County Kildare.

Fourth premolar and 1st and 2nd molars of the
cranium, from County Waterford.

Fig. 4.
Fourth premolar and Ist and 2nd molars of Ursus
| | ferox, Montana (Mus. R. C. S. ngland),
Fig. 5.
Fourth premolar and 1st and 2nd molars of Ursus
walk ferox, Montana (Mus. R. D. Society).
Fig. 6.
dealer he Fourth premolar and 1st and 2nd molars of Ursus arctos,
[evans ae
Fig. 7

Fourth premolar and Ist and 2nd molars of Ursus

IS
Ts spelzus (minor), after Busk.

NIN Fourth premolar and Ist and 2nd molars of
Ursus spelzeus (major), from the Pyrenean
Caverns. (Mus. Royal College of Science,

Dublin.)

On the Recent and Extinct Irish Mammals. 61

The dimensions of these three femora are as follows :—

Femur Femur Femur of
from Loch | from Shan- Ursus
— Gur, don Cave. | maritimus.
Pl. IV., figs.) Figs. a and | Figs. 1 and
3 and 6. 5. 4,
Inches. Inches. Inches.
Length, . : : 18°8 7s 15°
Antero-posterior diameter below trochanter minor, 16 1:2 1-2
Breadth at ditto, : : : : 2°5 2° 2:2
Width of tibial articular surface, : ¢ 3 3°8 3-4 34
Antero -posterior diameter, inner er condyle, 3°6 3° 3-1
Thickness of ditto, ° 18 16 1°6

The above data and figures (Plate IV.), fully confirm Owen’s
descriptions of the humerus and femur of Ursus maritimus, with
reference to their stoutness, as compared with recent and fossil
species.

Theneck ofthe Loch Gur femur, as shown in Pl. IV., fig. 3,ismore
perpendicular than in the other two; but I find that this is a
character occasionally observed in the femur of Ursus arctos. The
trochanteric pit is also small, narrow, and deep (fig. 3); but there
is considerable roughning of the bone all round the part, which
might indicate disease, such as produced the ankylosis of the first
and second cervical vertebree.

The fibula from Loch Gur is 12'5 inches in length. I also com-
pared it with the same bone in Ursus maritimus, Ursus ferox,
and Ursus arctos; (but unfortunately I could not obtain a speci-
men of Ursus fossilis, wherewith to compare it.) But the fibula
of the Polar Bear is very different in several parts of the shaft
from the above. For example, at the outer and distal third, and
anteriorly in the upper third, and in the inner aspect of the shaft
generally, especially towards the head. Again, the relatively
greater thickness of the extremities of the fibula of the polar
species is in keeping with its other long bones. Ail conspire to
show that there is no character in common between the bones
from Loch Gur and the same parts of the Polar Bear, as far as the
data here shown extend; whereas the latter species differs widely
from the former and from the Shandon bones, and equivalent parts
of Ursus ferox, Ursus arctos, and Ursus fossilis. In fact,
the Loch Gur remains are not distinguishable from remains of
Ursus fossilis of Goldfuss, and Ursus ferox, and Ursus arctos, but
are very distinct from the same parts of the Polar Bear.

62 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

I am therefore induced to believe with Professor Boyd
Dawkins* that the Loch Gur remains cannot be affirmed to
belong to the Polar Bear. They represent, however, a very large
bear—as large, probably, as the owner of the Leitrim skull—
and closely allied, if not absolutely identical, with the same parts
of Ursus fossilis and Ursus ferox, which species come nearest
to it in size; although the Ursus arctos does not differ from it
in the general characters, it does so in dimensions.

A study of the osteological characters of these ursine remains
whichrepresentall theauthenticated instances of discoveries hitherto
recorded from Ireland, appears to me to furnish characters referable
only to one species, which, on the score of dimensions and general
features, is inseparable from the so-called Ursus fossilis of Goldfuss
and at all events, from the smaller Spelean Bear, found in English
and other deposits, as distinguished from the larger congener found
also in England, but more plentifully on the Continent of Europe,
Unless the skull from Kildare represents the Ursus.arctos (and
that, I think, is doubtful), all the others seem to me to belong to
the Ursus fossilis, which, as far as osteological and dental charac-
ters are concerned, would appear to have been the progenitor of
the recent Ursus ferox, now repelled to Western North America.
In this latter view I am supported by the distinguished palzeon-
tologist, Mr. Busk, F.R.s., whose differentiations, as regards several
of the Irish crania, were made before I commenced to study them.
It may be said, therefore, that the Ursus ferox, as in England,
belonged to the pre-historic fauna, and was a native of the island
in the days of the Reindeer, Mammoth, Horse, and Wolf, with
which its remains have been found associated, as also with exuvia
of the Red Deer, Fox, and Variable or Alpine Hare ; and although
not found along with the Irish Elk, it has been generally met
with in similar lacustrine beds. It seems to me that, as in the
neighbouring Island, if the Brown Bear had ever been a native
of Ireland, it would, as in Scotland and England, have come down
to the historical period; so that the fact of no notice of its presence,
and the very emphatic assertions or silence of Bede, St. Donatus’
Giraldus Cambriensis, and Pennant, seem to me to bear out the
results of recent disclosures. The probability is, therefore, that
like its congeners, all, excepting the Hare and Red Deer, became

» “British Pleistocene Mammals.” Memoirs of the Palzontographical Society of
Great Britain, 1864.

On the Recent and Extinct lrish Mammals. 63

extinct in the island before man commenced to make records of
the fere of the country ; for it is a remarkable circumstance that
in all the remains of Irish extinct mammals, none present the
fragmentary characters presented by the cavern deposits of the
sister island, thus showing, on the one hand, that they had not
been destroyed by man, nor by the bone-crunching hyena, but
that they met their deaths, for the most part, through natural
causes and accidents.

I give on next page a Table of the dimensions of the
crania just referred to.

[TABLE,

Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

G4

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FL OOT SOT OOL = 16 SOT 901 POL GIL

006 OST nal SST = 8&1 OFT 8gT 9ST FOL
9EX16 | 6IXee | 16X69 | 06 X0¢ = IGX9F | 06X08 | 93XE9 —X09 | t6X69
SIE 0&6 O6T S61 = ‘$s0T | GIG 966 48077 196

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09 SP SP og = 9F Og cg Lg 69

OIL 98 8L 99 = 82 LL 06 88 16

6IL 92 82 92 82 LL 08 98 88 OIL

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S16 GSI 1&1 gé1 a 6&1 961 OFT 6ST §ST

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On the Recent and Extinct Irish Mammals. 65

THE WOLF (Canis lupus).

The. Wolf, which onlv became extinct in Ireland at the com-
mencement of last century survived its brethren of Scotland and
England.

The bone cavern of Shandon has furnished undoubted remains
of the species, in conjunction with the Fox, Horse, Reindeer, Red
Deer, Grisley Bear, Hare, and Mammoth.

With reference to its contemporaniety with the Irish Elk there
ean be little doubt, although the remains of the two have not been
found in the same strata which is not at all likely, seeing that
the majority of the deer were mired. However, the probability
is that many of the Elks were driven into the lakes by packs of
wolves. Moreover, as far as yet known, it was the only large
carnivore in Ireland, and was extremely plentiful in bistoric
times; there is every likelihood, therefore, that it preyed extensively
on the larger ungulates both before and during the recent period.

Archdeacon Maunsell, referring to the magnificent skeleton of
the Irish Elk discovered by him, and now in the Museum of
Science and Art, Dublin,* mentions also “skulls of a dog of a large
kind (or atleast of a carnivorous animal) found close to the cervine
remains.” But as there is no evidence of man having been con-
temporaneous with the Irish Elk, the probability is that these
crania may have belonged to wolves or bears.

The fragment of a left lower jaw, from Shandon Cave, con-
taining the first five molars is represented in Plate I I
compared the above with the same parts in recent species from
Russia and the fossil remains from Kent’s Hole, near Torquay,
and found a very close agreement between all of them. The
Shandon cavern produced remains of several individuals, and was
doubtless a resort of packs of wolves, which either dragged in the
cervine remains or fed on thecarcases of animals which died in that
great shelter shed, It is noteworthy, and at the same time a good
illustration of how an animal once plentiful may disappear, and
leave very few traces behind it, that the above and a few other
bones found by me in the same situation are the only known in-
stances of remains of wolves having been found in Ireland,
although we know from history that the animal was very com-

* Hart on the Skeleton of the Fossil Deer of Ireland. Dublin, 1825.
Scien. PROC, K.D,8., Vou. I, Pr. 1 EF

66 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

mon and very much dreaded by residents in the more secluded
parts of the island, even as late as the latter part of the 17th
Century.

THE FOX (Vulpes vulgaris).

Remains of a small carnivore inseparable from the common fox
were found by me in Shandon Cave, in connexion with bones of the
Mammoth, Hare, Reindeer, Red Deer, Grisley Bear, Wolf, and a
large Anserine Bird.*

The recent Irish Carnivora comprehends the Badger, which is
still not rare in certain districts, the Fox, Ermine, Pine Marten,
and Otter. The Common Seal is met with on the coasts, and
specimens of the Hooded, Greenland, and Grey Seals are reputed
to have been identified, as Iam informed by Mr. More, of the
Museum of Science and Art. Neither the Wild Cat, Weasel, nor
Foumart, which are indigenous to England and Scotland, have
been recognised in Ireland, the wild cat being considered to be
merely domesticated individuals gone wild.

Of the extinct Mammals of Scotland, the Brown Bear is the
only carnivore not apparently represented in the island, whilst
the significant absence in both countries of such as the Great
Cavern Bear, Hyzena, the Lion, Sabre-toothed Lion, Panther,
Lynx, Egyptian Cat, Glutton, and Arctic Fox indicate an early
insulation of Ireland. Perhaps the Irish Elk owed its seeming
prevalence in Ireland to having none of the above nor Man to prey
upon it.

Tue IrntisH Woxtr Doc.

The formidable dog under this name seems to have been used
in Ireland from time immemorial up to the decline and extine-
tion of the wolf. It was evidently the companion of the warrior
in battle. and was used also in hunting the boar, deer, and es-
pecially the wolf. From the evidence furnished in an elaborate
article on this dog,f it would seem that the animal belonged to
the same race as the Scotch rough-haired Deer-hound, and that
view is further supported by skulls discovered in a crannoge

* Trans, Roy. Irish Acad., vol. xxvi. p. 228,
+ Irish Penny Magazine, Vol. I.

On the Recent and Extinct Irish Mammals. 67

near Dunshaughlin, county Meath. The same are figured and
referred to by Sir William Wilde, and enumerated in the Cata-
logue of Antiquities of the Royal Irish Academy.* These crania (6)
are now in the Museum of Science and Art, but the largest recorded
by Wilde is not in the collection. Four of the specimens evidently
belonged to the same breed, whilst the fifth, stained black as if
from bog deposit or charcoal, represents a shorter-muzzled hound,
and possibly of a mixed breed. I have compared the fore-
going with crania of wolves and deer hounds, and also with a
very large skull in the Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons
of England, of a thoroughbred German boar hound, three years
old, whose height was 324 inches at the shoulder.

As regards dimensions, the largest Irish skull (Plate V.) ex-
ceeds that of the German hound as follows:—

Trish, German,

Inches. Inches.
Length of Skull, . . . . 10 9
Breadth of Forehead, . ‘ ° 3.3 3
Length of Snout, 7 . - . 4.5 4.3
Breadth of Palate at the first true molar, : 2.8 2.6

The sagittal and lambdoidal ridges are far more prominent in
the Irish than in the German skull, showing thereby more ex-
‘tensive muscular attachments. The snout is somewhat broader
in the German cranium, and the molars are larger and more wolf-
hike in the Irish, whose canines are robust and very like the
same teeth in the wolf. Indeed the Irish skulls are scarcely to
be differentiated osteologically from those of the wolf: the vari-
ability, however, in size between the adult specimens, is greater
than would ordinarily appear in the latter, and the muzzles are
considerably stouter. Judging, therefore, from the larger speci-
men referred to by Wilde—who gives the length of the cranium
as 11 inches,f which is one inch more than the above, it will appear
that these two crania must have belonged to truly noble hounds,
of a breed similar to the Scotch hound, although much larger than
the ordinary individuals met with now-a-days. ‘Two of the
crania show fractures of the brain case, and, in addition, one dis-
plays, on the muzzle, a partially healed up incisive wound by
some sharp instrument.

* Proc. Roy. Irish Ac., Vol. I. and Vol. VII., and Catalogue page 222.

t Proc. Roy. Irish Ac., vol. VII., page 194.

Scien. Proc. R.D.S., Vou. 11, Pv. 1. F2

68 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

PROBOSCIDEA.
Toe Mammote (Llephas primigenius).

Remains of the Mammoth have been discovered in the counties
of Waterford, Antrim, Galway, and Cavan.

In connexion with the county of Waterford the following
elephantine exuviz have been discovered :—

The valley of Dungarvan is now famous in connection with
Trish extinct mammals. As far back as 1746, Smith, the histo-
rian, refers to a large rib, of which he has figured and given di-
mensions.* From its size and configuration, I believe that this
rib, found near Whitechurch, a few miles west of Shandon cave,
was that of an elephant, possibly the fourth or fifth rib,

About thirty years since another discovery of fossil bones
of large dimensions was made in the immediate vicinity of
Whitechurch, but they fell into the hands of bone collectors, and
were ground up for the purpose of making manure.

1. Referring to the Shandon cave, I have little to add to my
observations in the Report on its Animal Remains.f

The elephantine exuvize of Shandon represent two indivi-
duals, the greater portion of one of them having been found
almost in situ, thus indicating that the animal had to all appear-
ances died where it was found. ‘The entire collection is preserved
in the Museum of Science and Art. It may be worthy of note
that, as in the case of the Cavan specimen, the Shandon elephant
represents an adolescent individual, with molars of the same stage
of growth, 7.¢., the first and second true molars were inwear. The
first true nnglle left side upper jaw is shown in Plate IT.

2. In a paper by the Rev. John Grainger, D.D., read at the
Belfast meeting of the British Association, and published in their
Report for 1874, he announces the discovery of a tooth of the
Mammoth in stratified gravel containing marine shells, of post-
Tertiary species, at Ballyrudder, half way between Larne and
Glenarm, in the county of Antrim. He has since informed me that
he lately discovered another portion of an elephant’s tooth from the
same deposit near Corncastle, and has been good enough to send me
a photograph of the fragment for inspection. It represents seven to

* Ancient and Present State of the County of Waterford, 1746, p. 58, Plate IV., fig. 2.
+ Report on Shandon Cave op. cit., p. 209.

On the Recent and Extinct Irish Mammals. 69

eight laminz, showing the uncrimped enamel and closely-packed
and attenuated plates of the molar of Elephas primigenius, to
which species I have no doubt the specimen belongs. The other
statements of finds recorded in Dr. Grainger’s paper above al-
luded to, I am informed by him are somewhat doubtful, at all
events as regards their connexion with exuvie of elephants.

3. A nearly entire humerus, with the loss of portion of the
greater tuberosity and of the supinator ridge, is preserved in the
British Museum. This specimen is No. 30531 of the Palzonto-
logical Collection, I am assured by the Earl of Enniskillen, in whose
possession it had been formerly, that it was dredged up in
the Bay of Galway. The surface is covered with cirripedia
proving its marine origin. The bone is light and in a good state
of preservation. The length is 34 inches; the smallest transverse
diameter of the shaft is 4.2 inches; and the smallest diameter in
the antero—posterior direction, 32 inches, and least girth 134
inches. The maximum breadth at the distal extremity is 8
inches. The head, measured along the curve in the antero-
posterior direction, is 9 inches by 5 inches transversely. The
nutrient foramen, as usual in the Mammoth, is high, and the
bi-cipital groove is narrow. ‘I'he direction of the supinator
ridge and centre of the trochlear depression are precisely the
same in the Mammoth and Asiatic elephant, which differ in this
character from the African and extinct elephants of Europe.

The discovery of remairs of the Mammoth in Galway Bay is
important as showing the most westerly European distribution
of this proboscidean, and perhaps also a further extension of land
westward.

4, The finding of its remains in Cavan is recorded in the Philo-
sophical Transactions of 1715, in a letter addressed to the Right
Rey. St. George, Lord Bishop of Clogher, S.R.S., by Mr. Francis
Neville ; and is among the first really well authenticated disco-
veries of elephantine remains from British strata. Appended to
the letter are descriptions and plates of the teeth by Thomas
Molyneux, M.D. and 8.R.S., the well-known Irish naturalist.

The discovery, according to the description, was made at
Maghery in sinking the foundation of a mill near the side of a
small brook that parts the counties of Cavan and Monaghan, on
the lands of the Bishop of Killmires,

70 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

The conditions under which the remains were found are thus
narrated. Referring to the stratagraphical question, Mr. Neville
goes on to state*—“The bed whereon it lay had been laid with
ferns, with that sort of rushes here called sprits and with bushes
intermixed.

“Under this was a stiff blue clay, on which the teeth and
bones were found. Above this was, first, a mixture of yellow
clay, and sand much of the same colour; under that, a fine
white sandy clay, which was next to the bed. The bed
was for the most part a foot thick, and. in some places thicker,
with a moisture clean through it. It lay sad+ and close, and cut
much like turf, and would divide into flakes thicker or thinner
as you would, and in every layer the seed of the rushes was as
fresh as if new pulled, so that it was in the height of the seed
time that those bones were laid there. The branches of the fern
in every layer as we opened them were very distinguishable,
as were the seeds of the rushes and the tops of boughs. The
whole matter smelt very sour as it was dug; and, tracing it, I
found it 34 feet long and about 20 to 22 feet broad.”

There were a great many nut shells found about the bed.

From these details it has been inferred by Professor Harkness
that the above description might indicate a lacustrme deposit,t
where the animal, as was so frequently the case with the Irish
Elk, had been buried, and, moreover, that the lake was formed in
post glacial deposits.

The teeth are well represented by Molyneux, and drawn to
scale. They indicate an adolescent individual, when the first
true molars were coming into wear, 2.¢., the ultimate milk teeth
more than half detrited with the successional grinders commencing
to wear.

The last milk molars (right and left) are probably maxillary.

The right tooth is fragmentary, having lost several plates, and
holds 5 ridges. The other contains 7} ridges, with evident indi-
cations of detrition anteriorly and posteriorly. It is 3 by 14 inches
in breadth, with three fangs.

* Vol. XXIX , page 367.

+ The term “sad” refers to a deughy consistence, and is often used in Scotland and,
daresay, in the north of Ireland, with reference to badly baked bread, &e,

t Geological Magazine, vol. vii. p. 2.

~ On the Recent and Extinct Irish Manmals: TL

The first upper true molar is apparently of the left side
there are 7 to 8 disks developed. It iy entire, and contains
11 to 12 plates, besides an anterior and posterior talon, in about 6
inches, with a maximum breadth of crown of nearly 2 inches.

The other molar is from the right maxilla apparently, and holds
11 plates, besides 2 talons, in about 6 by 2 inches, It has 8 disks
in wear.

The thinness of the enamel layers, their parallelism, absence of
crimping of the macheerides, ridge formula, and relative breadth
of crown, as compared with other species, clearly indicate typical
molars of the Mammoth.

Like the Shandon specimen, the above was a young Elephant
The Mammoth was therefore contemporaneous in Ireland with
the Horse, Reindeer, Red Deer, Grisley Bear, Wolf, Fox, and Alpine
Hare, and also in all probability with the Irish Elk.

A Mandible with teeth in situ was found in making the harbour
of Holyhead.

Neither the Ancient nor the Southern Elephants have been
hitherto recognised from Irish strata.

UNGULATA.

THE HORSE (Zquus caballus).

That a species of feral Horse was indigenous to Ireland during
the sojourn of the Mammoth, Reindeer, Bear, Wolf, &c., is demon-
strated by the discoveries made in the Shandon Cave, Co. Water-
ford. Further, on the authority of the late Mr. Thompson, of
Belfast, as quoted by Professor Owen in the British Fossil
Mammals, teeth have turned up from time to time in deep
deposits under bog and in drift gravel near Downpatrick, Newry,
Antrim, and near Broughshane.*

Through the kindness of Dr. Collins of the Anatomical Museum,
Trinity College, I have been enabled to examine a nearly entire
fossilized skull minus the mandible, of a small horse in the
museum of Trinity College. According to Dr. Collins, the
specimen is from Irish deposits, and he is inclined to believe
that it was found near Dungarvan, but unfortunately this
statement wants verification. It presents all the characters of

*British Fossil Mammals, p. 391.

72 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin. Society.

skulls of horses from European post pliocene deposits, and the
teeth show also the peculiar crimping of the enamel, in particular
the biplication of the macheris on the inner aspect of the
crown of the upper molars, a character, I believe, considered by
Mr. Busk to be distinctive of the Equus caballus, and not seen
in molars of any recent species of Asinus. This skull shows the
relatively greater breadth at the middle of the nasals, which are
prominent, and the malar and maxillary bones also protrude,
presenting thereby a proportionally larger and coarser shaped
head than in the domesticated animal, thus approaching the
fossil feral horses. Wherever the locality may have been from
whence this specimen was derived, I have no hesitation in re-
garding it in the light of a veritable fossil, and I therefore append
a few measurements of importance. The pre-maxillaries and
nasals are partly wanting, so that the entire length is not deter-

minable.
1. From the margin of the vertebral foramen to the anterior margin

of the first premolar, : - : . 12°7 inches.
2. Breadth at the glenoid cavities of eanainle, - - Sn fain” 5
3. Breadth of skull at the posterior margins of the orbits, . 00s
4. Greatest breadth of forehead, . 6 . . Spear hte! Top
5. Height of occipital crest, : . - : vs
6. Breadth of occipital condyles, . 2 Remes koner

The apex of the frontal is Se ae and at arly one inch in
front of the anterior margin of the Srbie

The brain cavity is large, with pronounced parietal bulging, as
compared with several skulls of domesticated horses and donkeys
whilst the occipital crest is not so prominent as in the former.

The molar series is 6°5 inches in length.
Millimetres,

Thelp.m, . 5 ‘ : 36 by 25
De pentles | : - . - : 30 by 25
Sigs ee ; : - : - 26 by 25
1m, - : . : : : 24 by 25
2 m., : > F - : : 24 by 22
3 m., - . . 25 by 18

This skull, as pope with crania oe domesticated varieties,
indicates an animal about 12 hands in height. I have shown
elsewhere that the Shandon bones give the relative height of
their owners about 14 hands at the withers.* It would seem

* Report Shandon Cave, Op. Cit. p. 216.

On the Recent and Extinct Irish Mammals. 73

that, osteologically, there was considerable differences in dimen-
sions, although not in morphological characters, between specimens
of European post-pliocene horses and certain drawings on rein-
deer horns found in the Cave of Kesserloch in the Canton of
Schaffhausen.* The drawing from this cave give an assinine
aspect to the animal, at all events as far as the tail is concerned,
with a more elegantly shaped head than is represented by actual
specimens from the caves of Southern France.

The celebrated cave of Oreston, in England, furnished remains
of no less than 12 to 14 individuals of horset The latter agrees
in size with the animal found in Shandon Cave.

As regards other Irish localities, besides the above statements
of Thompson, Mr. Jones, F.G.S., refers to the finding of teeth of
horses near Loch Erne in a cave,§ and similar remains have been
stated by other persons to have been found in similar situations
along with exuviw of domesticated animals, as if it had likewise
entered into the dietary of the early inhabitants of the
eountry.|| At all events the horse was contemporaneous in
Ireland with the Mammoth, Reindeer, Red deer, Grisley Bear,
Wolf, Fox, and Mountain Hare. Remains of no less than
six individuals were found in Shandon Cave. As to further finds
I have just lately examined several crania said to have been
found in gravel. One for which I am indebted to J. Townsend
Trench, Esq., of Kenmare, was found near Monastereven, in
County Kildare, another Mr. William Darragh pointed out to me
in the Belfast Museum from gravel near Islandmagee, Co. Antrim,
and also several equine molars. Although these specimens, as in
the case of the skull in Trinity College, require confirmation in

* Merk. Excavations at the Kesserloch, near Thaynger, Switzerland, Plate xii.

+ Owen, Phil. Trans. vol. clix. p. 555.

t Clift. Phil. Trans. 1823.

§ Journ. Roy. Geol. Soc. Dublin. Knowles, Journ. Anthrop. Institute, 1877 and 1878.

|| I regret to have occasion to notice these and other inaccuracies in Zoological
and Paleontological statements made by Professor Hull in his late work on
the Physical Geology of Ireland. But as he gives them on personal authority I feel
bound in the interests of science to notice them. Although admitting the very cogent
evidence of which I was an eye-witness of the presence of bones of horses with those of the
Mammoth Bear, Reindeer, &c., in Shandon Cave, he thinks after all that it is questionable
if the horse was indigenous to Ireland. If so, how came the other extinct mammals to
sojourn in old Erin? As to man in those days we have yet to establish his presence in
connexion with the lost mammals.

74 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

respect to their stratagraphical relations, still taken in conjunction _
with the Shandon remains, it is not improbable that they
belong to the horse of the Mammoth period, which may, like the
wolf, have survived long after many of its contemporaries
died out.

The Rhinoceroses of English strata seem entirely wanting in
Scotch and Irish deposits.

HIPPOPOTAMUS.

The only relic referable to this ungulate and of reputed Irish
origin is a tooth said to have been discovered near Carrickfergus
in 1837. The details as to the find are given by Dr. Moore,
M.R.1.A., who was in Belfast at the time, and there is, moreover,
a drawing of it in the office of the Geological Survey of Ireland
by the late M. Du Noyer. It is clearly a lower canine of Hippo-
potamus, but, unfortunately, the specimen is lost, and Dr. Moore,
although he recognises the drawing as that of the tooth in ques-
tion, cannot absolutely confirm the statement of the finder. It
is important to notice that Dr. Moore in his letter to Professor
Hull calls it an “elephant’s tooth,” which mistake is copied by
Professor Hull in his Address ;* however, as shown by Dr.
Scouler, it was well known at the time of discovery to belong
to Hippopotamus.t

WILD HOG (Sus scrofa).

Although not hitherto found in a fossil state, or associated with
remains of the extinct mammals, the hog, according to ancient
historians, was very plentiful in the woods and forests of Ireland.
Girald Barry says “they were numerous, small, deformed, and
cowardly.”{ Sir William Wilde in his interesting paper on “The
unmanufactured animal remains belonging to the Academy” §
furnishes a summary of the historical references in connexion
with the animal, which may possibly have been introduced.

* Jour. Roy. Geol. Soc. Dublin, vol. iv., p. 50.

{ Jour. Geol. Soc., Dublin, vol. ii. p. 15, Oldham, Idem, vols. ii, and iii,

This tooth is said to have been found by a son of the late Mr. Doran, who was in the
habit of selling specimens of natural objects to the Palxontological department of the
Geological Survey.

¢ Top, Hibernica.
§ Proc. Roy. Irish Acad., vol. vii., p. 209.

On the Recent and Extinct Irish Matinats: tor

The particular breed, viz.:—The famous greyhound pig, now
nearly, if not altogether, extinct, formed a well marked variety,
and was easily discriminated from the other domesticated races
by its long, narrow, facial aspect, and, as I observed in the actual
specimen figured by Wilde in his paper just alluded to, the
lachrymal has a long malar border, as pointed out by Dr. Rolleston
in his paper on the Pre-historic British Sus.* as being one of the
characteristics of Sus scrofa as compaved with other pigs.

THE IRISH ELK (Cervus Megaceros).

It would not be easy to name a county in Ireland where
remains of this stag have not turned up. It was evidently very
common in the island during the lake period prior to the formation
of peat, 2.¢., at and after the close of the Glacial period. Remains of
this great horned deer have been found in subturbary deposits
associated with those of the Red deer and Reindeer,+ and in the
shell, marl, and clays where relics of the Mammoth, Ursus fossilis
and possibly the horse have also been found. As the wolf sur-
vived up to historical times in Ireland, it also was doubtless
contemporaneous with the Irish Elk, and the same may be said
of the Fox and the other quadrupeds, whose exuvie are recorded
from Shandon Cave. Of this deer’s contemporaneity with Man
in Ireland there is no authentic evidence, and the so-called
mutilated bones have been shown to have been caused by other
influences than his; moreover, neither have its remains been
found in caverns nor in peat. To the preservative influence of
the shell, marl, and clay of these ancient lakes the excellent con-
dition of its bones is to be ascribed, and although, no doubt, its
prevalence in Ireland as compared with Great Britain was owing
in a measure to the absence of Man, and such carnivores as the
Lion, Hyena, Great Cave Bear, and the like, still it must be
understood that. Ireland was then a network of lakes in which
herds of male Elks were being constantly drowned. The rarety
of female crania and the discoveries of remains of herds of males
in certain bogs such as Ballybetagh, in the Dublin Mountains,

* Jour. Linnean Society, vol. xiii.

_ f Oldham, Jour. Geol. Soc., vol. iii, p. 252.°
t Carte, Jour. Roy. Geol. Soc., vol. i., p. 152, Jukes, vol. x., p. 127,

76 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

and at Cappah, in the County of Waterford, are suggestive in
many ways with reference to the causes of the destruction of so
many males, and appear to me to furnish the following suggestive
data :—All the horns out of many hundreds examined by me
were in perfection, and indicate the weathered condition of the
antler during the rutting season, whgn the animal becomes much
excited and takes readily to water in pursuit of the hind or a
rival. Now, these lakes in general presented expanses of shallow
water and muddy shores, where long-legged animals lke deer
were almost certain to get mired. But the stupendous horns of
the male Irish Elk, which even in the dried head, weighs some-
times 90 lbs., must have been a heavy load to carry across a lake
and struggle against when floundering through the soft yielding
mud, and they must also have been greatly to its disadvantage in
the forest, whilst the hind and male after the horns were shed,
unburdened by their weight would in general make their way
with much less difficulty.

After the severance of Ireland from Great Britain an exacerbation
of the glacial period would have doubtless proved fatal to all the
large mammals, and an increase in the forests, by which the range
of the feeding ground of the great horned stag were curtailed
would also have been greatly to its disadvantage, by compelling
it to take to the lakes more frequently either from choice or
compulsion.

The only recent deer with which Cervus megaceros is closely
allied is Cervus dama, as pointed out by Cuvier, Owen, and others.
The discrepancies in relation to the brow antler and positions
of the terminal snags are nearly constant and distinctive, whilst
their osteological and dental affinities are in close accord, and
point towards lost relationships and divergencies during the
Mid-tertiary and Pliocene periods.

THE REINDEER (Cervus tarandus.)

The presence of the Reindeer in Ireland when the Mammoth,
Horse, Grisley Bear, Wolf, and other mammals sojourned in the
island is established by numerous well preserved remains from the
counties of Waterford, Dublin, Limerick, Meath, and Clare.

1. In point of time the first discovery dates as far back as 1741.
On that occasion two heads with their horns entire were dug up

On the Recent and Extinct Irish Mammals. U7

in the bog of Ballyguiry, near Dungarvan, county Waterford, by
Major Quarry, and are now in the possession of one of his family,
F. Quinlan, Esq., of Clonkerdin House, where I have had several
opportunities of examining them. So perfect are the antlers and
crania and so little altered in their characters, that were it not their
origin has been clearly established it might be fairly surmised
that they belonged to recent individuals. The bleached appear-
ance of the remains show that they were derived in all probability
from lacustrine deposits underlying bog. The tips of the antlers
present the rough altered aspect of specimensof deer’shorns usually
from sub-turbary deposits, whilst the rest of the horns have a
weathered and polished aspect, as if they had been either firmly
impacted in clay with the tips protruding above, or had become
bleached from long exposure.

The larger of the two specimens gives a length round the curve
of 3 feet 7 inches, and a span at the tips of 3 feet. The beam is
round and slender. The burr is 8 inches in girth and fully deve-
loped, which is the case also in the other head, showing that both
individuals perished in the autumn or early winter time, when the
horn is in its prime. The beam of the other specimen is some-
what more flattened, and also the tines at their attachments. In
this individual the antler is 3 feet in length round the curve, and
has a span of 2 feet 10 inches. The calvaria have been much in-
jured, evidently with the design of fitting the skulls as wall
ornaments. In the latter specimen the base has not been so much
broken up asin the other, and furnishes a breadth between the
occipital condyles and also of the forehead and between the orbits
of 3:2 inches respectively, indicating dimensions equal to full-sized
skulls of recent species. The brow antlers are fully palmated with
six to seven points on each, whilst in the other specimen the
right is only palmated with five points, and the left brow antler
a mere snag, without any division into points, as will be seen to
be the case in the Ashbourne specimen as represented by Carte,*
only the discrepancies occur in opposite tines. The vagaries,
however, in respect to the branches of the horns of Reindeer are
extremely common, indeed almost universal.

2. The next discovery is of great importance, as it establishes

* Jour. Geol. Soc., Dublin, Vol. x., Plate vii.

78 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

the contemporaniety of the Reindeer and Ivish Elk in the island.
I refer to the finding of the horns (Plate 1, Fig. 1) in the bog
of Ballybetagh, near Kiltiernan, in the Dublin Mountains, in
1847:* on which occasion about thirty heads of the Irish Elk
were also discovered in the same lacustrine clay, marl, and sand
under the peat.

The deposit in which the remains were found underlies bog
and occupies an upland hollow, and the strata are made up of
clay, gravel, and marLt

The horns present the same slender beam as in the foregoing,
and at the maximum girth are 43 inches. The burr is also, as in
the last, prominent; and it may be remarked that the same was
noticed in some thirty to thirty-five heads of the elk from the
above deposit, as if the animals had perished at or about the rutting
season, when the horn is in its prime. Then, as is well known in
the case of recent deer, the stags, maddened by excitement, are
exceedingly bold and venturesome, and likely to rush blindly to
their destruction in pursuit of the hind, or a rival on the opposite
shore.

Each horn in Fig. 1 measures 3 feet 34 inches in length. The left
brow antler is fully developed, and has from six to seven points
directed more or less downwards, whilst its opposite tine is
dwarfed to a mere tubercle.

The specimen is in the Museum of Science and Art.

3. Three horns, two of which are shed antlers, are in the Museum
of Science and Art. They are from the banks of the Shannon,
near Limerick, and are said to have been discovered during ex-
cavations in the bed of that river.

All represent the aforenoticed slender beam rownd and twist-
ing gracefully.

4, There isa shed antler in the Museum of Trinity College
from Loch Gur, county Limerick. It is a good instance of the
typical horn of this variety of Reindeer, being slender and round,
without much disposition to palmation of the beam, which alto-

* 1878. Mr. Williams, Bird Stuffer, Dame-street, Dublin, showed me an antler
of reindeer with a fragment of cranium attached, discovered by him lately in this bog
along with eleven crania of the Irish Elk.

+ Moss, Proc., Royal Irish Academy, Vol. 2, Series 2, p. 547. Oldham, Jour. Geol.
Soc., Dublin, Vol. iii., p. 258.

-On the Recent and Extinct Irish Mammals. 79

gether is fully 3 feet 6 inches round the curve and about 8 feet
in a linear direction.

Another specimen from the same locality in the collection has
a portion of the calvaria attached. It is precisely of the same
configuration as the foregoing. The details of this discovery have
not been preserved, but Dr. Carte asserts that they were found
along with the Irish elks remains.*

5. An entire cranium, including the mandible, was discovered
in 1861 near Ashbourne in county Dublin.

This superb head is admirably illustrated in Dr. Carte’s
memoir.t The stratagraphical conditions under which it
was found are stated by him to the effect that the above, and
other bones, possibly the rest of the skeleton, were found at a
depth of about five feet from the surface below turf and clay,
and that they “lay on marl and blue clay.”

The antlers in this instance appear to have attained to the
largest dimensions of a fine old male reindeer. The beams, as in
the foregoing, are long, round, and slender, with a pronounced
disposition to palmation towards their extremities. The usual
irregularity in the number of points in opposite horns is well
seen.

The left brow antler is palmate with seven points, whilst the
right is a long curving snag like that of the reddeer.t Each
antler is 3 feet 7 inches round the curve, and 2 feet 9 inches in a
linear direction. The greatest span of the horns is 2 feet 11
inches. The burr, as usual in all the extinct deer from Irish
sub-turbary deposits, is here well developed, and what is rarely
observed in fossil crania is that the perishable ethmoid bone is
well preserved.

The skull is almost entire and indicates a full grown male.

The following are a few of its measurements :—From the

* Jour. Geol. Soc., Dublin, vol. x., p. 166.
+ Idem Plate vii.

¢ The left antler would seem both in the Reindeer and Irish Elk, indeed in all antlered
deer, to be generally larger than the right, either in the beam or its branches. This
was pointed out tome by my friend Mr. Davies, r.c.s,, of the British Museum, in the
specimens of C. megaceros in the National Collection, and I find it is of general applica-
tion. Might the enlargement be owing to the left horn being oftenest used to pro-
tect the heart?

80 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

occiput to the extremity of the nasals, 12 inches; length of nasals
5-2 inches; muzzle at the distal extremity of the nasals, 34
inches; breadth of occiput, 3°38 inches between superorbital
foramina 3°4 inches; between occipital condyles, 0:12 inches.
Length of mandible to symphysis is 10°14 inches.

The cranium of the Reindeer is easily differentiated from that
of the red or fallow deers as follows:—By (a.) prominent
bulging at the nasal and maxillary union; (b.) nasals are broad
at the proximal ends and flattened throughout ; (c.) lachrymal pit
deepest superiorly and shallows forward; (d.) the anterior or
orbital border of the malar forms a sharp tectiform boundary
which dividesthelacrymo-malar suture and producesa rapid incline
posteriorly, or rather a hollow very apparent in the live animal,
In this particular the condition is more pronounced than in either
the red or fallow deer, or even in the Irish Elk, more especially
when taken in conjunction with the bulging of the maxille
above stated. There is also a marked depression midway
between the supra-orbital foramina. The pedicles as usually very
short; posterior nasal opening is in a line with the middle of the
first true molar, as in the Red Deer, and not the second true
as in the Fallow and Irish Elk.

The palatal notch is narrower than in the Red Deer and different
from that in the Irish Elk and Fallow, which agree in that
respect as indeed in their osteological characters generally. The
maxillary foramina are very large in comparison with any of the
above, and the angle of the mandible is protuberant as in the Irish
Elk.

As compared with crania of recent reindeer, this specimen
represents a full-grown male, and like all the others, its horns par-
take of the characters of the Norwegian rather than the Siberian
stock or variety.

The dimensions of the upper and lower molars are as follows
(in millimetres) :—

Upper (2), 15 x 14 (3), 15x 15 (4), 19x13 (5) 20x15 (6), 18x 16.

Lower (1), 11x8 (2), 16x11 (3), 17x13 (4), 19x10 (5), 20x13
(6), 25 x 12.

These compared with the dentition of the recent species and
fossil reindeer from English caverns show unimportant differences
as to size and configuration of their odontograms, as indicated by

On the Recent and Extinct Irisk Mammals. 81

Mr. Busk, who kindly furnished me with various diagrams of his
graphic representations of recent and fossil teeth of Cervus
tarandus to compare with the Ivish specimens.

6. The most extensive collection of remains of reindeer made
in Ireland is that recorded in my Report of the explorations of
Shandon Cave, County Waterford.

The question naturally suggests itself in connexion with the dis-
covery of so many eacuvice of reindeer in one cavern, inasmuch as I
surmise the number of individuals to have been between 30 and 40.
How were they conveyed thereinto? The probability is that
Shandon Cave was a large and capacious shelter shed, as was
shown by the finding of remains of nearly an entire mammoth
and a bear. It might also have been a den for such as wolves ;
and although no marks of fierce gnawing appear on any of the
bones, the probability is that the cervine remains were intro-
duced by them, for unless when pressed by hunger it is not the
custom of Canidze such as wolves, jackals, and foxes to gnaw
the bones of their victims, at all events after the manner of
the hyzena, which has not hitherto been found in a fossil state
in Ireland.

I have entered into details with reference to the comparative
osteology of the Shandon’s bones in my Report alluded to, so
need not revert tc the subject further than to state that, as far
as comparisons go, neither in dimensions nor in horn is there
apparently any distinction to be made between the Reindeer of
Ireland and that of Great Britain generally, or indeed of Europe
as far as its latest Tertiary and recent denizens are concerned.
All belonged to a stock or variety characterized by long slender
and rounded antlers in contradistinction to the flattened beam
and more massive horns of the Siberian variety and the great
Caribou or Woodland Reindeer of Eastern Canada and the Rocky
Mountains.

The condition of many of the bones of reindeers found in
Shandon Cave, along with those of red deer and _ horse
indicate a more recent period in the history of the cavern than
is represented by their other remains, met with in the
breccia along with the mammoth and bear. The strata-
graphical arrangement of these remains seems to suggest two

Scren. Proc. R D.S., Vou. 11., PT. 1 G

82 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

distinct periods, the more recent of which might extend down
to the human occupation. This, however, requires stronger
evidence before it can be said that the Reindeer in Ireland, as in
Scotland, was contemporary with man.

Its remains have been therefore found in conjunction with the
Trish elk, the red deer, horse, mammoth, wolf, fox, grisley bear,
hare (Lepus variabilis) and an Anser. It was doubtless plenti-
ful in Ireland as in England where it has been recognised in no
less than twenty-six different localities, and it is said to have
been a native of Scotland in even historical times as late as
WeDo!

THE RED DEER (Cervus elaphus.)

The Red Deer seems to have been not only plentiful but was
widely distributed over the Island. It is the only one of the
wild ungulate contemporaries of the mammoth that has survived
in the Island. Like the Irish Elk its remains are found in de-
posits under bog, and in the latter also where the Irish Elk’s
remains have not been discovered, to the best of my knowledge.
Although individuals of the Red Deer attained to larger dimen-
sions than the present race, on the whole it appears to me trom
comparisons that the Red Deer remains, as met with in the brick
earths of the Thames valley and elsewhere in Englandt and
Scotland, belonged to a larger stock than is represented by the
Irish specimens from turbaries and caverns.

Of numerous specimens preserved in public and private col-
lections, one of the largest heads and horns I have seen is in the
possession of Beverly Kelly, Esq., of Lisfennel, Co. Waterford,
It was found at Killonford Bridge, near Dungarvan, in mud at a
depth of five feet. The cranium is 17 inches in length. The
greatest length of the antler in a straight line is 31 inches: it
has 14 snags on each beam, with a span between the opposing
antlers of 35 inches, and a girth of burr of 63 inches.

The Rev. Professor Haughton, F.R.S., describes remains of Red

® Boyd Dawkins’ “‘ Cave Hunting.”
+ Owen, Brit. Fossil Mammal, p. 472, and British Museum Specimens,

On the Recent and Extinct Irish Mammals. 83

Deer from “marl underlying bog” near Bohoe,* in the county of
Fermanagh, where several skeletons were discovered, but none
of the horns and bones found in that situation attain to the dimen-
sions of the large animal of the caves and later Tertiary beds of
England, although precisely alike in their skeletons. But although
the horns do not appear to attain the massive proportions of
many of the latter, the throstle nest termination of the antler is
often well developed. The Red Deer accompanied all the extinct
Trish mammals with whose remains it has been found in caves
and sub-turbary deposits. It still struggles on in the island, but,
like the Red Indian, it is on its last reservation.

Neither the fallow nor the roe deer, nor the moose or elk, have
any valid claim to be considered Irish mammals. The horn
supposed to have established the presence of the Elk in Ireland,
and referred to by Thompson, I have seen in his collection in
Beifast, but the specimen is clearly not fossil and belongs to a
recent individual. The animal has left its remains both in Scot-
land and England, and, being a forest living deer, it is strange that
it never found its way into Ireland.

No bovine remains referable to feral species have, as far as I
can learn, turned up in Ireland. Historians mention wild cattle,
which may have been only domesticated animals run wild.§—
Remains of the short horn (Bos longifrovs) are plentiful in pre-
historic and ancient Irish dwellings, such as raths and crannoges,
and many skulls found in these situations show their frontals
battered by the poll-axe. There is a fine collection of crania of
this old Celtic ox and one or two of the allied breed (Bos fron-
tosus) in the Museum of Science and Art, mostly from the famous
erannoge of Dunshaughlin already referred to, the contents of
which have been faithfully described by the late Sir William
Wilde.|| Remains of the short horn have been found in abun-
dance in caves along with relics of other domesticated animals

* Observations on the fossil Red Deer of Ireland. Jour. Geol. Soc. Dublin, vol. x.,
ps 12am

t Report British Association 1840, p. 362, Nat. Hist., vol. i, p. 35.

¢ Smith, Proc. Soc. Antiq. Scotland, No. ix., p. 297.

§ Ball, Proc. Roy. Irish Acad., vol. ii, p. 541; and Wilde, vol. iii., p. 183.

|| Proc. Roy. Irish Acad., vol. i., p. 420, and vol. vii., p. 181.

Soren. Proc. B.D.S., Vou. 11., Pr. 1 G2

84 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

and the red deer;* it is also common in bogs and river de-
posits, but in no instance has its exuviee been met with in the
shell marl in conjunction with those of the Irish Elk and other
extinct mammals: indeed it would appear that this ox was in-
troduced into the British islands in early prehistoric times from
the continent of Europe, and was reared by neolithic man.
Neither the urus nor the bison have been found in Irish deposits,
although the former is reported from Scotland.

The living and extinct Irish mammals, according to the views
expressed in the preceding pages may be classified as follows :—t

CHIROPTERA.

Rhinolophus hipposideros.
Plecotus auritus.
Vesperugo Leisleri.
Vespertilio pipistrellus.
Vespertilio mystacinus.
Vespertilio Nattereri.
Vespertilio Daubentonii.

INSECTIVORA.

Erinaceus Europzeus.
Sorex pygmeeus.

RODENTIA.

(Sciurus vulgaris.)
(Mus rattus.)
(Mus decumanus.)
(Mus sylvaticus. )
(Mus musculus.)
Lepus variabilis.
Lepus cuniculus.

* Du Noyer, Jour. Geol. Soc. Dublin, vol.i., p. 248; and Ball, vol. i., p 253.

+ The species within parentheses are considered either ‘“ doubiful” or are believed to
have been ‘‘ introduced.” The ‘‘ extinct” are printed in Italics.

I am indebted to Mr. More, F.L.S., M-R.I.A., of the Dublin Museum of Science and
Art for a list of the recent mammals of Ireland, and my thanks are also due to Mr.
Alston, F.L.S., for a similar list of the distribution of the species in the British
Islan‘s.

LEY ey)

On the Recent and Extinct Irish Mammals. 85

CARNIVORA.

Ursus fossilis.
Meles taxus.
Mustela erminea.
Mustela martes.
Lutra vulgaris.
Canis lupus.
Canis vulpes.
Phoca vitulina.
(Phoca greenlandica.)
(Phoca cristata.)
Phoca gryphus.

PROBOSCIDEA.
Elephas primigenius.

UNGULATA.
Equus caballus.
Cervus megaceros.
Cervus tarandus.
Cervus elaphus.
Sus scrofa.

CETACEA.*

Delphinus Delphis. x
Delphinus tursio (?)
Delphinus albirostris. x
Phoczena communis. x
Phoczena Orca.

Phoczena melas.
Physeter macrocephalus (?)
Baleena mysticetus (?)
Baleenoptera musculus. x
Balzenoptera rostrata. x
Mesoplodon bidens. x
Hyperoodon rostratus. x
Orca gladiator. x
Globiocephalus melas, x

« The Marten is still not uncommon in Ireland, and individuals have been seen of
late years in the county of Dublin. Therefore the statement of Professor Hull (Phy-
sical Geography of Ireland, p. 272), is incorrect that it died out at the end of the 12th
century.

* The species marked Xx have been confirmed by Thompson, Jacob, Ball, Carte,
Macalister, Andrews, Gulliver, More, and others. But no doubt there is some confusion
with regard to the other species, and, as previously observed, absolutely nothing is known
with certainty of the fossil cetacea of Ireland.

86 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

From the foregoing,and comparisons between them and the Post
Tertiary mammals of Great Britain, excluding in both instances
the volant and marine species, it appears that out of 28
living land mammals affecting England and Wales, 26 are like-
wise indigenous to Scotland, and 14 to Ireland, whilst out of 32
extinct species hitherto recorded from England and Wales ten
have been found in Scotland and only seven in Ireland. Now
all the mammals of Ireland and Neotland are found in England,
and, with the single exception of the Ursus fossilis, all the Irish
living and extinct mammals have also been met with in Scotland;
and such as the mammoth, reindeer, Irish elk, and horse, have
been found in strata of the same age in Lanarkshire, Ayrshire,
Renfrewshire, and the bed of the Clyde. A mandible of the
mammoth was dredged up in the harbour of Holyhead, and a
skeleton of the Irish elk is recorded from the Isle of Man. Now
had there been a direct Jand communication between southern
England and Ireland when the lions, hyenas, great cave bears,
rhinoceroses, hippopotami, and many other mammals affected
south-western England, the probability is that they would have
pushed into Ireland. But whilst no trace of them is met with,
remains of such hardy vagrants as the grisley bear, mammoth,
reindeer, horse, wolf, and fox, which had in the first place in-
vaded southern Scotland, are found at various points through-
out the length of Ireland. Thus the evidence indicates a migra-
tion of the Irish fauna from north-western England and south-
western Scotland. Again, the absence of the slow-travelling mole
and other local species, together with the amphibian and repti-
lian evidence furnished by Thowpson,* seem to me to still further
strengthen the belief that the land communication between Great
Britain and Ireland at the close of the Glacial Period was
neither extensive nor probably of long duration.

* Report British Association, 1840.

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[ 87 ]

VIIL—ON AN EXPERIMENT CONNECTING ELECTRO-
MOTIVE FORCE AND SURFACE TENSION, sy W. F.

BARRETT, F.z.5.E.
[Read March 18, 1878.]

THE surface of every liquid is known to be in a state of tension,
similar to that of a membrane stretched equally on all sides.—
This tension arises from the fact that each liquid has a certain
intrinsic energy depending on the extent of its surface, and
hence to increase the area of the surface of a liquid requires the
expenditure of work. The surface of a liquid, therefore, resists
extension and, further, tends to contract. This is seen in the
force required to blow a soap bubble, and in the immediate
shrinkage of the bubble when the blowing ceases.; it is seen in
the breaking up of a liquid jet into elongated fragments and
ultimately into spherical drops: in fine, wherever a liquid surface
exists, this state of surface tension comes into play.

The amount of this superficial tension per unit of surface
varies not only with the nature of the liquid, but also with that
of the medium which adjoins the bounding surface of the liquid.
Every two unmixable liquids in contact with each other have
therefore a special coefficient of surface tension. Now the
value of this coefficient may, among other causes, be made. to
vary in a remarkable degree by the electrification of the liquid
surface. If, for example, mercury—which has the highest surface
tension of any liquid—be in contact with dilute sulphuric acid,
the surface tension of the mercury is increased when an electro-
motive force is directed from the acid to the mercury: on the
other hand it is diminished when the contrary electrification is
set up. Owing to this fact, the following phenomenon, first
noticed by Faraday, occurs. When the positive pole ofa battery is
immersed in a drop of acid resting on a large drop of meréury, to
which the negative pole is connected, the mercury tends to gather
itself up and change its form in a curious way ; the current here
passes from the acid to the mercury : when, however, the direction
of the current is reversed, the mercury becomes dull and fiattened
out.

If, now, we imagine a platinum wire, immersed in the acid
and brought very near to but not touching the mercury, the

88 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

surface tension of the latter will be increased as soon as the
platinum wire is made the positive electrode of a battery:
the convexity of the mercury surface will accordingly
become greater, and thereby it will be brought into contact with
the closely adjacent electrode. But when this occurs the electric
polarization of the liquid surface ceases, as the current now passes
freely through the conducting wetallic circuit of mercury and
wire; the polarization ceasing the augmented surface tension
disappears and the mercury falls back to its original flattened
condition. Contact will thus be broken and electrification again
occur, the mercury will once more increase in convexity, rise, make
contact, lose its convexity, fall away, and hence a rapid oscil-
lation of the mercury ought to occur so long as the electrification
is continued. A new form of contact-breaker is thus suggested.

By enclosing the mercury in a capillary tube with another
liquid over it, and the electrodes arranged as before, a greater
vertical motion of the mercury should take place, and hence a
smaller electromotive force ought to produce the rapid interrup-
tion of the current. This is the principle of the little contact-
breaker shown in the figure, and which an accidental eircum-

py

stance led me first to notice. By enclosing a telephone in the
circuit the rapid make and break is rendered audible, even when

On Electromotive Force and Surface Tension. 89

the electro-motive of a single Leclanché cell is employed. By
using « micrometer screw the distance across which polarization
can occur so as to produce contact can be estimated, and thus a
- ready means of measuring the E.M.F. of a cell suggests itself, after
the manner of Lippman’s delicate capillary electrometer. It is
not impossible that a useful practical application of the simple
arrangement might be made in connexion with telegraphy.
The liquid I have used in contact with the mercury is glycerine
and water, as it is not sufficiently conducting to allow of more
than very slight electrolytic action taking place.

90 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

VIIT.—ON THE RADIATING POWER OF SHELL-LAC FILMS
OF VARIOUS THICKNESS, sy E. G. HULL.

[Read March 18, 1878.]

It seemed to be of some interest and importance to determine the
rate at which radiation increases, for a continued uniform increase
in the thickness of the radiating body, and also the depth below
the surface from which radiation takes place.

With regard to the former point, there have been no experi-
ments yet made as far as I know. With regard to the latter, the
only reference I have seen is a mention ky M. Jamin in his
“Cours de Physique,” that heat is radiated from beneath the
surface of a body. He also states that, in the case of shellac, the
radiation ceases to increase when the thickness of the film becomes
(025™™ This, however, is not the case; and since he makes no
mention of having measured the thicknesses of his films, I conclude
he only guessed at them. The radiation increases up to and
beyond ‘05"™ or twice the thickness which he stated as the limit ;
and since he gives no details, it seemed a matter-of interest to
make some accurate experiments on the subject. .The following
method was adopted, after some trials, and as it is, I think, new,
I venture to lay the results of my determinations before you.

The radiating body chosen was shellac, which, from its high
radiating power, combined with the ease with which it could be
converted into a smooth and easily applied varnish, seemed most
suitable. A solution of known strength of the shellac in alcohol
was made, which, when applied to the polished and heated metal,
left a very uniform film.

The method of caleulation of the thickness was as follows :—
The faces of the cubes being one square cdecimetre in area; the
specific gravity of the shellac and of the spirit being also taken ;
and the percentage of resin in the solution, and the specific gravity
of the solution being known; by weighing the solution, with
suitable precaution, before and after varnishing the face of the
cube, we get the weight of varnish applied to the surface, and
knowing how much of this weight consists of shellac, and dividing
by its specific gravity, the volume is obtained, which volume
being spread over a known area gives the thickness immediately,
In the experiments a compensating cube was used, The whole

On the Radiating Power of Shell-lac Filme. 91

radiation from a clean polished metal surface of the cube being
first determined, this was then exactly neutralised by the com-
pensating cube, which was coated with lamp-black. The first
cube was then turned round, and the additional radiation due to
one known thickness of varnish determined (which, added to the
radiation from the metal, gave the whole radiation); this was
again counterpoised, and a thicker varnished surface substituted
and so on: and then the radiation from lamp-black was determined.
The results were reduced to percentages of the total lamp-black
radiation. From the results a curve was constructed, which
finally appeared to become asymptotic.
The following are some of the determinations :—

Average radiation from polished metal, 3 : 13°3
a + shellac, ‘ 0001™™ thick, 16-1
re FP rf ; COG p rr a oe
- te 5 ’ QUOTE ec
” ” ” . 029": ” 42-6
” ” ” : "0041™™ np 46:1
” ” ” : °0149™-™- ” 71:2
” ” ” . ‘OZ0R 99 91°8
fe vs es : gO hanes eg ey"
se a 3. : 5 51) ates ere a! (oC
« P lamp black, . : : . 100-0

On further increasing the thickness of the shellac, the radiation
from it became equal to and finally swperior to the radiation from
the lamp-black, attaining a maximum of abeut 102 (lamp-black
= 100), after which no further increase of thickness affected the
radiation.

To summarise—

1. The radiation increases rapidly up to ‘05"™, but slightly
beyond that thickness.

2. The radiation increases much more quickly at first than
subsequently,

3. Shellac appears to have a higher radiating power than
lamp-black. *

* I have to express my thanks to Professor Barrett for the opportunity of conducting
part of the foregoing investigation in the Laboratory of the Royal College of Science.

92 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

IxX.—ON THE TOTAL ANNUAL HEAT RECEIVED AT EACH
POINT OF THE EARTH’S SURFACE FROM THE SUN,
AND ON THE AMOUNT OF THE LOSS OF THAT HEAT
CAUSED BY RADIATION INTO SPACE (NEGLECTING
THE EFFECT OF THE ATMOSPHERE), sy THE REV.
SAMUEL HAUGHTON, M.D., DUBL., D.C.L., OXON.

[Read March 18th, 1878.]

THE heat received by a given surface at any instant is

A cos 2 dh,
where
A =a known constant,
z =sun’s zenith distance,
h =sun’s hour angle,
and

unrise

Total heat received in one day = af” cos z dh, (1)

Sunset

Now, we have
cos =sin \ sin 6 + cos A cos 6 cosh,

where .
d = latitude of place,

6 =sun’s declination,
H = hour of sunset.

Equation (1) thus becomes—

+
Total heat received in one day = cos 2 ah
+z +a fom
=f A sin \ sin édh + f A cos d cos 6 cos h dh,
-H -H

=2A {sin \ sin 6 - H+cos) cos 6 sin H}. (2)

But, since
cos H = — tan X tan 6,

the expression (2) may be thus written:
Total heat received in one day = 2 A sind sind {H-—tan H}. (3)

This expression might be expanded by means of Leibnitz’ theorem,

as follows:
Total heat received in one day
an®H tan5H , tan? :
=2 AsinAsind ee)

eee

On Sun-heat and Radiation. 93

But this would not answer for calculation, as H passes through
90°, at the time of the equinoxes, when tanH becomes infinite and
sind vanishes. I therefore expand in terms of cosH as follows:

L cos? 1°3) cos®H 2\3°5 cost

Tv
H=7- | cos H+ 5. aod Be Oe GT + &e. (9)

and,
VY 1—cos?*H
tan? A =) ee
a cos Hf
us 1 cos*H 1 costH 1:3 cos6H 1:3°5 cos8® be. (6
acral TTR TLS) oF Lea? am) Toa oara eee
Therefore,
H—tnH=4——~,—5e0s H— 7, cost H— 00st H 1H &
—tan TOM Come Dae SOT cos _ cos? =o cos Cc.
(7)
But,
tan A sin 6
COS aE a ae

fe sin A sin 6 sin?d 1:3 sintd | 1:3: sin€g 1:3-5-7 sin86 &
MIG. con j 2 12° 2 *123° 8 To34° 98 of
(8)

and
1 ge he C08 x sin? 6 x aa sin4 6 a Tao ing 1:3:5
cos H CTE MS © ere ae br a mcs eae
sin’ 0
Tey (9)

Hence, finally,
The heat received in one day = 24 sin \ sin 6 (H—tan H :
= 2A

wv, ;
3 sin A sin 6
sin?6 1 sin! un) 1:3 sin§ o

ia aac a

+ cos {1 —

sin? X sin? 6 ( sin?§ 1-3 sintd

Sweax. | Borg has as + &e. as
J

sin4 dX sin‘ dé ( Bon

ee esi Ore we,
24 cos® ru (| 2

sin® \ sin® 0 ¢

8&0 cos? X Ve Keng:

94 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

Or, since
sin 6= sin A sin Z,
where
A= obliquity of ecliptic,
? =sun’s longitude,
= 2A Tw : °
= sind sind - sin/
ee m4
+ cosh {18 9 (1 = cos 21) =" A(3 - 4 cos 27 +008 42) ~
6
a (10 — 15 cos 27+ 6 cos 4—cos 61) — ke.
bas a
+ tan) sin A = = (i — cos 20) + Sd — 4 cos2/ + cos4/) + a1)
ino
z aly —4 cos 21+ 6 cos 4/—cos 62) + &e.

sintA
192
( sin’A

(2560

: 3 sinSA : £
+tan?r sin) 4 (3—4 cos 2/ + cos4l) + 9 (10-&e.)+c&e.

5

+tan°A sind

(10 —&e.) + &e.
+ &e.

We must now substitute for 7 the sun’s longitude, on each day
of the year, and add the 365 terms together; this will convert all
the periodic terms of (11) into the sums of sines and cosines of
ares in arithmetical progression taken all round the circumference,
and with a very small common difference.*

The periodic terms, therefore, vanish in the summation, and we
obtain,

The heat received in one year = 2A sin XE sin 6(H —tan Z)

=2A x 365-25 sin2A 68sintA 5sinsA
-|cosA< 1 — = aS = a,
4 64 256
(sin?A 3sintA 15 sin'A

+ &e.

+ tan dr a 7 + aot Re Bl
na | a
+ tan®r sin BP PIAS ee (12)
64 256
SA
tan®A sin X Seg Xe.
+ tan°A sin 256 + We |

+ &e., &e.
Substituting for A its value, 23° 28’, we obtain, finally,

* Equal to 59’ 8” (the daily change in sun’s longitude), or small multiples of that are,

On Sun-heat and Radiation. 95

Total heat received in one year
= 2A x 365:2510:95910 cosd
+0-04187 tandA sind
+ 0:00047 tan®\ sind (13)
+0:000015 tan5d sind
+ &e,

It is evident, from this equation, that when the latitude is
small, the heat received in the year varies as the cosine of the
latitude.

It is to be observed that equation (3), which expresses the heat
received in one day, becomes illusory inside the arctic and antarctic
circles, when the sun does not set; for then H (the hour of sunset)
has an imaginary value. We must, therefore, compute the annual
heat received inside these circles by summing the heat from the
equinox till the time when the sun does not set or does not rise
by equation (12); and adding the heat received during the time
when the sun does not set.

If D denote the sun’s declination, when he ceases to rise or set,
equation (12), with D substituted for A, will give the heat received
during the part of the year when the sun rises and sets, and the
angle H is real.

To this must be added the heat received during the time when
the sun never sets, which may be found as follows :

Referring to equations (1) and (2), we have, when the sun does

not set,
Total heat in one day

2 ar

=4 fl cos zdh (14)
0
9 9

=A fo vom r sin ddh+ Sy A cos 6 cosh dh,
0 0

=2Az7 sind sind=2A7 sind sinA sini.

This value must be summed through the time that the sun does

not set; or, if a be the daily change in sun’s longitude,

The total heat received during the time that the sun never sets
=2Am sind sinA {sin/+sin(/+a)+sin(/+2a)}+é&e. (15)

sin(1+ "5 te sin .
PEED SP Mie ey sae ae y

=2A-z sind sin

- @
sa)

96 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

where
: sin D
sin/= :
nA
and
m=number of days during which the sun does not set,
and
a=59’ 8”,
But it is evident that
q:P- 5
and, therefore, (15) eee i the following expression :—
na
Total heat received during the) aD
om ave Ea Pee ay rer. (ead ae 16
time that the sun never sets; — 2S Uae: 16)

bo

At the Pole itself, since the sun never sets, this expression, summed
for half a year, gives the total heat received.

If we calculate from the Equator to the Arctic and Antarctic
Circles, by equation (13), and from thence to the Poles, by equa-
tions (12) (with D for A) and (14), we obtain the following
Table :-—

TABLE showing the Tota Huat received by various Latitudes from
the Sun in the course of a Year.

r
Latitude. Henaace F See Difference. |
OF 97°8 97°8 0:0
10 96°5 96°3 0-2
20 92°4 91-9 05
PB Oey 86-7 —_— —_
30 85-9 84-7 1107,
40 77:3 74:9 2-4
50 66°8 62-9 3:9
+ 52 30! 61-4 — —
60 Daal 48-9 68
t 66 Bye 46-6 = —
70 46:3 33-4 12:9
80 41-9 17:0 24:9
90 40-5 0:0 | 40°5

The average thickness of ice melted over the entire surface
of the globe (allowing for the greater areas of the lower
latitudes), by the annual sun-heat, as deduced from the
foregoing figures, is exactly 80 feet.

+

* Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn.
+ Mean Latitude of Ireland.
{ Arctic and Antarctic Circles

On Sun-heat and Radiation. 97.

The foregoing Table is constructed on the supposition that equal
quantities of sun-heat are absorbed by the atmosphere at all zenith
distances ; but, although this supposition is only a first approxi-
mation, yet by comparing the total quantities of sun-heat at each
latitude with the following Table of Mean Annual Temperatures,
some valuable conclusions may be drawn relative to the absolute
radiation of heat into space from the earth’s surface regarded as a
whole.

Mean ANNUAL TEMPERATURES. *

sent Temperature. anaes Temperature.

° 3 - ‘

0 80-1 F. 0 eit E
10 18:7 y 10 81-0
20 Ah 3 20 176 ,,
30 66-7 ,, 30 67°6 ,,
40 579 ,, 40 5655 ,
50 478 ,, 50 43-4
60 35°3 ,, 60 29-3 ,,

70 14-4 ,,
80 43 ,,

Let

7 =annual sun-heat at a given latitude measured in feet of ice ;
@= mean annual temperature of a given latitude ;

k=an unknown coefiicient ;

# =unknown radiation into space at that latitude.

Assuming that 6, the mean annual temperature of a given
parallel of latitude, is proportional to the heat retained, we have—
T =total heat received ;

k@ = heat retained ;
fF =heat lost by radiation ;
and, therefore, .
T=k0+R. .

* W. Ferrel, United States Coast Survey. ‘‘ Meteorological Researches,” Part I., 1877.
’ Sc1EN, Proc. R.D.S., Vou.11. Pt, 1. H

98 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

This gives us, in the Southern Hemisphere, the following seven
equations :-—

0. ... 9782801 k+2. (1)
10... . 9652 78:7 k+R. (2)
20. . . 994=74-7h4 RB. (3)
30... 859=66-7h+R. (4)
40...) « Wieoe=bT 9 h+ Re (5)
50. 22, COSA S kr ke (6)
60... SS7=853h+R. (7)

Any two of these equations will determine & and R; and hence
we have 21 combinations for finding their values.

These all give consistent results, and the mean values of & and
R, derived from the 21 combinations, are—

k=0°8995.
R = 22-405 feet of ice.

As the distribution of heat near the equator is disturbed by the
motions of the heated water, so that the parallel of 10° N. is
actually hotter than the equator, I have made another calcula-
tion, throwing out the latitudes 0° and 10°, which reduces the
combinations (from latitudes 20° to 60°) to 10 in number. The
result of this calculation is—

K=0°8512.
RK = 22°60 feet of ice.

The agreement of these results with the former shows that our
formula represents well the whole of the Southern Hemisphere,
whose annual radiation of heat may be represented by 22 feet of
ice melted.

In the Northern Hemisphere we have the following nine
equations—

0. . . 97880142. (1)
10. . . 965=81-044R. (2)
20... . 984=776h4 RP. (3)
30. . . 859=676k4R. (4)
40. . . TT32505k+R. (5)
50. . . 668=43444-2. (6)
60... . 55-7= 29-344 RF. (7)
70... 4632144442. (8)

80... 419= ADK4R, (9)

On Sun-heat and Radiation. 99

These nine equations furnish 36 combinations for finding & and
R, and of these, 33 give consistent results; but three combina-
tions, viz. :—

(0°—10°), (0° 20°), and (10°—20°),

give results inconsistent with the others, in consequence of the
cause already stated. The mean values of k and R deduced from
the remaining 33 combinations are—

k=0°7285.
R= 34-385 feet of ice.

If we throw out altogether the latitudes 0° and 10°, and calculate
from the remaining 21 combinations (from 20° to 80°), we find—

R= 35-475 feet of ice.

The agreement between the results calculated from all latitudes,
and those found by omitting the low latitudes, is not quite so close
in the Northern as in the Southern Hemisphere; but our formula
is fully justified, and we are entitled to conclude that the annual
heat lost by radiation in the Northern Hemisphere may be 35 feet
of ice melted.

It follows, that the mean annual radiation of heat from the
whole earth is equivalent to melt a coating of ice 28°5 feet in
thickness; but as the sun-heat received is equivalent to 80 feet
of ice, we have 51°5 feet of ice representing heat not accounted
for as heat, for the mean temperature of the earth’s surface is not
increased.

This balance of heat is expended in two ways :—

1. It is converted into the Geological work done by rainfall
and rivers.

2. It is converted into Chemical and Vital work done by the
vegetable and animal organisms that clothe the surface
of the earth.

The Geological work done by rainfall and rivers can be shown
to absorb a very small portion of the surplus sun-heat.

The Mechanical work done in crushing to fine powder a cubic
foot of rock can be estimated from the following data, taken from

Scien. Proc. R.D.S., Vou. uu. Pr. 1. H2

100 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

the stamps of Polberro Tin Mine. Each stamp weighs 600 Ibs.
and is lifted and falls through 9 inches 45 times in one minute.
Each stamp crushes into fine powder 28 ewt. of tinstuff in twenty-
four hours.

Hence,

Work done in crushing one ae

cubic foot of rock . = 713°5 ft. cons.

But, we know that the

Work done in melting one \

cubic foot of ice = 2850°5 ft. tons.

The latter number is almost exactly four times the former, from
which I conclude that

The work done wm melting one cubic foot of we would suffice
to crush into powder four cubic feet of rock.

It has been shown that the Geological work done by rain and
rivers takes 3,090 years to crush and carry to the sea one cubic
foot of surface rock ; hence we see that one foot of ice (represent-
ing sun-heat), would account for the present Geological work of
12,360 years!

ae Oy a

X.—ON THE ABNORMAL COMPOSITION OF A CROP OF HAY,
By CHARLES A. CAMERON, m.p.

[Read April 15, 1878.]

Last August, Mr. N. G. Richardson, J.P., of Tyaquin, Monivea,
County of Galway, made an experiment in the saving of hay by
what is termed the Hungarian system.

According to this method the grass is cut and at once buried in
trenches. The pits are filled with grass up to the surface of the
surrounding ground, and then covered over with soil which, slop-
ing from the centre, throws the rain off the trenches. Captain
Burnaby, in his book “A Ride to Khiva,’* page 243, states that
the Tartars bury grass when cut in pits, and dig it up the following
year, when it is found to be “as fresh as the day it was cut.”

Meadow hay grown in Mr. Richardson’s orchard was cut in
August, and whilst green and wet with rain was buried in a pit
dug in a gravel hill. The grass was taken up in November, and
was found to present the appearance of ordinary grass; it was
then air dried and converted into hay. Its composition per 100
parts proved to be as follows :—

Composition of the Hay.

100 parts contain—

Water, . 5 : $ = P 16°45
Fats, 2 5 : 5 - e 2-08
Albuminoids, : ; = 7°05
Non-nitrogenous digestible matters, : ‘ 27:00
Woody fibre, : : - : : 27-00
Mineral matter, . : , S 5 11°65

100-00

The amount of water in this hay was very little above that
found in new hay, the latter generally containing about 15 per
* London: Cassell, Petter, and Galpin, 1877.

+ Substances which dissolved in weak alkaline and acid solutions alternatively applied
to the hay.

102 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

cent. of water. The amount of ash was unusually large, but it
was not derived from the soil of the gravel pit, the sample of hay
analyzed having been carefully spre from the few earthy
particles selceeil through it.

Mr. Richardson also buried ina gravel pit a portion of a crop
of coarse grass, the natural produce of a bog. After three months
the grass was removed from the pit and was found to have under-
gone no decomposition. JI examined a portion of the hay made
from this grass and found it to consist almost wholly of the
coarse grass, termed “purple melic grass’ (Molinia cerulea)
which is usually considered to be of little if any agricultural value.
It is a rather handsome grass, very common in woods, shady
places, and bogs. It is abundant at Killarney. It has a peculiar
but not unpleasant odour. Its composition proved to be as
follows :—

Composition of the Hay of Purple Melic Grass.

100 parts contain—

Water, . . ° - e . 27°95
Albuminoids, . e ° ° : 7°49
Fats, . 2 ° * ° ° 2°70
Non-nitrogenous digestible substances, . : 30:00
Woody fibre, . 5 5 - 5 31°26
Mineral matter, . ° e . ° 0-60

100-00
Containing nitrogen, . Be e : 1:19 7

The ash contained per 100 parts.

Lime, . c . : : 5 28°86
Magnesia, : - : 5 ; 4°76
Potash and Soda, : - 5 42°17
Phosphoric Acid, 5 A : 12°36
Sulphuric Acid, : : 5 . 5°98
Oxide of Iron and alumnine : : 1:00
Chlorine, 6 5 : - 4°32
Silica, . 5 - ° : - 0:55

100-00

The hay though apparently not containing more than the usual
amount of moisture included 27:95 per cent, of that ingredient,
Notwithstanding this it contained larger amounts of fats and

On the Composition of a Crop of Hay. 103

albuminoids—the two most valuable constituents of hay—than the
meadow hay referred to. Ifwe compare the composition of this
melic grass hay, when completely dried, with that of good meadow
hay (also assumed to be free from water) it will be seen that with
the exception of digestible non-nitrogenous substances, it com-
pares favourably with the latter.

Composition of the Hay of Purple Melic Grass (dry weight).
100 parts contained—

Oil, 5 : C : : : 3°75
Albuminoids, . - : 10°40
Non-nitrogenous soluble jabeien de A é 41°64
Woody fibre, . 5 . - - 43°36
Mineral matter (Ash), . ° é - 0°85

100.00

From the published results of a large number of analyses of
meadow hay, the average composition of that article when dried
at 100° centigrade appears to be as follows :—

Composition of dried oi. per 100 parts.

Fats, : ‘ Pete RO 3°30
Albuminoids, , - —s 10:90
Digestible non- rien artstaibens - ° 48°25
Woody fibre, : ° a - 2 30°35
Mineral matter (Ash), . - S c 7°20

100:00

The remarkable points in the composition of the purple melic
grass hay are—firstly, the unprecedentedly small amount of ash
which it contains, and secondly the almost complete absence of
silica from its ash. Silica constitutes a large proportion of the
mineral matter found in the external layers of the stems of the
cereals, and is still more abundant in the mineral matter found in
their leaves. In the grasses of every kind there is also found a
decided amount of silica, usually about one-third of the total
weight of ash.

It is, however, very probable that silica is not an essential
constituent of the ash of the cereals or other grasses. Knop and
Sachs have grown to full development, maize plants in soils des-
titute of silica ;.and similar experiments have been made with oats,

104 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

buck-wheat, and maize, by Nobbe, and Siegert, Stohman, Wolfe
and others. Pierre, too, has shown that the weakness sometimes
observable in the stems of the cereals is not due to a deficiency of
silica.

In the case of the melic grass hay which forms the subject of
this note, we have a whole crop produced naturally without silica,
and with but a very minute amount of ash constituents. Although
the hay is composed nearly altogether of grass not considered of
any value by farmers, it is remarkable that its composition
indicates a high degree of nutritive value. Indeed it appears to
be quite as rich as meadow hay in all its common ingredients,
except digestible non-nitrogenous matters. Its stems are, however,
very coarse.

With respect to the Hungarian method of preserving grass, it is
doubtful whether or not the cost of digging the trenches would
be more than equivalent to the advantage of having fresh
grass for cattle during the winter. When the grass is taken out
of the pit it may be spread out to dry, in the usual manner, or it
may be given green to thecattle. By this system grass may be
cut even in wet weather, and buried until a favourable time for
hay-making arrives.

[ 105 | ‘

XI—ON AN ATTEMPT TO ELUCIDATE THE HISTORY OF
THE CHRVUS MEGACEROS, COMMONLY CALLED THE
IRISH ELK. By W. WILLIAMS.

[Read March 18, 1878.]

In the year 1875 Mr. R. J. Moss made excavations at Ballybetagh
in search of remains of the great horned Deer, Megaceros Hiber-
nicus. He was very successful in his search, the results of which
are recorded in the Proceedings of the Royal Trish Academy (Vol.
11, Second Series, p. 547). Having heard of his success, I en-
gaged in a similar search in the same locality in the summers of
1876 and 1877, with equally successful results, having found
twenty-six heads and three skeletons. While thus engaged, the
following questions were impressed upon my mind :—

1st.—The immediate cause of the death of those animals whose
remains we found.

2nd.—The geological time in which they existed.

- 3rd.—The probable cause of the extinction of the whole race.

As I conceive I discovered evidence that seems to throw light
on these points, I desire to bring the matter before this Society.

The Bog of Ballybetagh is situated in a small valley, lying
between some outlying hills south-east of the Three-Rock
Mountain, about nine miles south-east of Dublin. It is at an
elevation of nearly 800 feet above the sea-level, and is bounded
east and west by low granite hills, the valley itself running northand
south towards the Glencullen river. Two small lakes seem to have
occupied the bottom of this valley. The larger one was seated inthe
northern end; the smaller one at a higher level, lying south of the
larger, but it seems to have been connected with it, and to have
received the flow of water from the larger lake, discharging it
into the Glencullen river. The remains have been found mostly
in what was the bed of the smaller lake. The lakes have been
both silted up, and are now pasture land.

After removing two or three feet of peat, in which occur trees
of oak and alder, we arrive at clay (No. 3). The bed is about
thirty inches thick, and is homogeneous in its character. It is of

106 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

a blueish grey color, and shows scarcely any stratification, except
some thin seams of fine quartz sand, and has hardly a trace of
vegetable matter, unless where the roots of the plants in the peat
had penetrated it and left their remains. Having passed through
it, we come on clay No. 2, which is evidently a true ordinary
lacustrine deposit, stratified, and full of seams of sphagnum and
other aquatic plants. In this we find the remains of the Megaceros,
resting on the bottom of the lake, which is formed of a clay (No. 1)
which is evidently the lower boulder clay. It is exceedingly
tenacious and tough, of a blueish color, and of a lustrous or silvery
appearance, owing to the comminuted fragments of mica with
which it abounds. It is mixed with sub-angular stones, and is
of considerable depth, as we sounded it with an iron rod six feet
long and got no bottom

Having thus briefly described the clays of the locality, and as
we know that about one hundred Megaceros’ heads have been taken
out of the place—the question arises, what caused their death ?
Various theories have been put forward to account for it. It has
been suggested that, pursued by wolves (these being the largest
predatory animals that seem to have existed in the island), they
took to the water to avoid them, and were drowned. Again, it
has been supposed that they took to the water to escape human
enemies; but we have no evidence that man existed here at that
early period, although he seems to have existed then in England.
Others suppose that the animals may have taken shelter in snow-
drifts in similar depressions, and that the weight of the herd broke
the ice, and they were drowned. It is quite possible that any or
all these causes may have conduced to their destruction; but I
agree with Professor Adams that they were likely a courageous
animal, and that they were used to swim rivers and small lakes
when crossing the country. Ballybetagh may have been a drinking
place or crossing place.

As soon as I made a few pits and saw the nature of the ground,
I concluded at once it was a natural trap into which the animal
could easily find his way, but out of which he could not escape.
The difficulty arose—

1st—From the form of the bed of the lake. It sloped from
the margin to the centre at an angle of 45 degrees.

An attempt to Elucidate the History of the Irish Elk. 107

2nd.—The exceedingly adhesive nature of the clay of which it
is composed.

3rd.—lIts great depth—in fact, it might be called bottomless,
considering the length of the legs of the animal.

4th.—The weight of the head and antlers, being nearly 100 lbs.,
would soon put its nose under water when it got mired, and put
an end to the struggle.

Thus we can account for the numbers found, by supposing that
one or two met their death thus each season for say a century or
so, without concluding that they were destroyed in whole herds at
once. Hence, if the nature of the bottom of the lake had so
much to do with their death, I would expect to get no remains
where the lake bed is composed of gravel; for if they had good
solid footing they could easily work their way through the lake
sediment, and escape at the opposite side.

But an objector may say—if this theory be correct, we should
find the legs, at least, of each animal, sticking fast in the clay
where it died. But it is not necessary to come to this conclusion,
We will suppose the animal to have died standing or floating
with its feet embedded in the stiff clay as it died, the body,
with the motion of the waters of the lake, acted on by the wind,
would sway from side to side. The legs and feet by this means
would get loosened, and as decomposition set in, the body would
swell and become more buoyant, while the rains of the following
winter would raise the level of the surface of the lake, and thus
draw the legs out of the clay; and acted on by the storms of
winter, the whole carcase, with the head hanging down, would
drift to the lee side of the lake, upon which the antlers would
ground near the margin, and as it were anchor the body. In
this position I got several heads, with the tines stuck fast in the
bottom clay, and the palate turned up to the sky. As decom-
position proceeded, and the flesh became putrid, the head and
antlers would separate from the axis, the body floating away. As
the gases escaped, the trunk would quietly settle down, as a whole
or piecemeal, in other parts of the water. So we seldom find
whole skeletons in one place, but find the bones scattered broad-
cast over the bottom of the lake.

Having disposed of the first question, the cause of death, we
come to our second.

108 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

What time did the animal live? (When I refer to time, it is
almost unnecessary to say that I refer to geological time, whose
periods are marked by various formations and deposits.)

Among the latter a very marked one is the Lower Boulder clay,
which is spread over a large portion of northern Europe and
America, and is said to cover three-fourths of the surface of
Ireland. I need hardly say its existence is due to intense cold,
and the action of immense glaciers which passed over the country,
scoring the rocks, and, as Miller says, planeing down the surface of
the land, and scooping out hollows, which afterwards became the
beds of lakes. This, I believe, was the origin of the depression
at Ballybetagh. The great ice sheet, which seems to have moved
from the north-west, pushed over a hill lying at that side of the
bog, and no doubt by its pressure coming down the hill excavated
the hollow, sending the matter it had displaced over the next low
hill, moving it onwards towards Enniskerry and the low grounds
in that direction. The depression formed a catchment basin, and
as the hills around it were naked of verdure, it soon began to fill
with fine sediment, forming the stratified clay in which the
Megaceros’ remains are found—in fact, becoming clay marl. The
abundant vegetation seems to indicate a temperate climate, which,
geologists teach us, succeeded the intense cold of the first glacial
period. Hence, from the finding of the Megaceros’ remains in
‘this lake sediment, I infer that the animal lived through this
temperate period, called by Mr. Hull the second stage, or
that of the sands and gravels—in fact, it lived imterglacially,
and was almost the only mammalian inhabitant of the island.
The moisture of these climates must have produced abundant
verdure. It had few enemies. Paleolithic man may have existed
in the country, but of this we have no evidence; but though he
did exist, he could hardly with his rude weapons cope with this
magnificent animal, The lon, tiger, and hyena were absent;
the cave bear could hardly meet him in the field; and the wolf,
almost his only enemy, might find it difficult work when we con-
sider his speed, and the weapons of defence he possessed in his
feet and antlers; while his habit of swimming lakes and rivers
when pressed by his enemies,would contribute greatly to his safety.

The next question now presents itself—the cause of its extine-

An attempt to Elucidate the History of the Ivish Elk. 109

tion. If the animal had abundance of food, few enemies, and
other favorable conditions, how could the whole race vanish from
the earth ? i

A further examination of these interesting clays will, I trust,
enable me to give a probable answer to the question.

Mr. Hull,in his recently published work on the Physical Geology
of Ireland, tells us that the Post Pliocene deposits may be arranged
under three divisions, namely—(1) the Lower Boulder Clay or
Fill; (2) the Middle Sands and Gravels, and (3) the Upper Boulder
Clay—the lower and upper being essentially arctic in character,
the middle being temperate.

I have described the bed of the lake as representing the Lower
Boulder Clay, and consequently arctic in its character; also the
lake sediment in which the bones are found as representing the
second stage, and indicating a temperate climate. I now have
strong reasons for believing that the upper clay, immediately
under the peat, is “decidedly arctic in its character.” In the
year 1876, while engaged in making excavations in it, Mr. Moss
came out one evening, and I mentioned to him what was then
only a conjecture, that the bed of the lake indicated the first
glacial period, and the top bed the second glacial period, the Me-
gaceros bed intervening. As further examinations have con-
firmed me in my first impression, I must here give the reasons
which have led me to this conclusion.

Ist—I have noticed that the lake sediment (No. 2) is full of
vegetable matter; but the top bed of clay is totally different in
character, being quite barren, and destitute of vegetable matter.

2nd.—The lake sediment is stratified, whereas the top bed is
homogeneous and without structure.

3rd.—The lake sediment abounds with a substance called
vivianite, a phosphate of iron; in the top bed this does not occur.
The cause of its absence may be noticed afterwards.

4th.—The strongest evidence that this clay indicates an arctic
climate is the fact that in it I found the antler of a rein deer—
admittedly an arctic animal, and one which cannot live, I believe,
in a temperate climate.

Hence, the conclusion I come to is, that the Megaceros lived

110 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

through the time of the deposit of the lake sediment, or the
second stage of the glacial period, called that of the “sands and
gravels;” and that the rigours of the climate of the second
glacial period or Upper Boulder clay, by preventing vegetation, and
consequently destroying its supply of food, effected its total ex-
tinction, at least in this island; and being insular (as likely our
connexion with England had ceased, so that it could not migrate),
it perished. We can thus account for the absence of vivianite in
the top clay—the animal having become extict, the supply of
phosphoric acid from the bones of the drowned animals had
ceased.

And now a few words about the deposit of these clays. The
smallness of the catchment basin, and its elevation, caused the
operation to be carried on in a state of perfect quiet—hence, all
is well defined. There was no extensive mountain slope down
which a glacier could move—hence, none of those disturbances
of the beds which so often puzzle geologists—hence, the appear-
ances are more reliable. The snows of the long winters covered
the low hills which surround the valley; the severe frosts split
and disintegrated the granite; in the short summers the thaws
brought down the debris into the larger lake, where we find it
covering up the true lake sediment; the waters became turbid
and flowed into the smaller lake, and there deposited, forming the
beds we have been considering. We owe the good state of
preservation in which the remains are obtained to the bed of
arctic clay which covered up the contents of the lake.

While contemplating the effects which the Arctic climate pro-
duced in this locality, we must remember that similar influences
were at work over the whole world. Hence, the severity of that
climate which (if our theory be correct) destroyed the Megaceros
may have been the means of the extinction of the Siberian mam-
moth, the mastodon of North America, the megatherium and mylo-
don of South America, the great kangaroos of Australia, the moa
of New Zealand, the mammoth, rhinoceros, hippopotamus, the
cave bear, lion and hyenas of England. Dr. Geikie said to me
some short time ago, “there cannot be a doubt of it that the Ice
Age killed off the great Mammalia.” In short, these former ten-
ants of our planet seem to have been evicted by the frost; and

An attempt to Elucidate the History of the Irish Elk. 111

a new set of tenants, of whom ourselves form a portion, occupy
their places.*

To sum up—

1st.—The animals whose remains we find seem to have perished
by miring, not in the lake mud or sediment, but by sticking fast
in the bed of Lower Boulder clay, whose depressions were occupied
by similar lakes.

2nd.—That they lived during the deposit of the sands and
gravels, or what is called the second stage of the glacial period,
which possessed a temperate climate, and they consequently were
interglacial ; and considering the extent of this deposit, the
period must have been one of considerable duration. The clay
marls seem to be of this age.

3rd.—The top bed of clay, which I consider to be the Upper
Boulder clay, seems arctic in its character. Hence, it is highly
probable that the severe climate, by destroying the supply of food,
killed off these animals, as well as others of the large Mammalia.
It is also probable that the water-worn bones of these large
animals found in the clays of England were individuals that had
perished on the land, and whose remains were afterwards covered
up by the clays and gravels.

To my mind, Ballybetagh seems to be one of Nature’s note-
books, where she jotted down in diminutive characters a record of
the operations which she had been carrying on on a grander scale
throughout the world.

*

* “We live in a Zoologically impoverished world, from which all the hugest and fiercest
and strangest forms have disappeared; yet it is a marvellous fact, and one that has hardly
been sufficiently dwelt upon, this suddenly dying out of so many large Mammalia, not in
one place only, but over half the land surface of the globe. We cannot but believe that
there must have been some physical cause for this great change; and it must have been
a cause capable of actirg simultaneously over large portions of the earth’s surface, and one
which, as far as the Tertiary period is concerned, was of an exceptional character. Such
a cause exists in the great and recent physical change known as the glacial epoch. We
have proof in both Europe and North America, that just about the time these large
animals were disappearing all the northern parts of these continents were wrapped in a
mantle of ice.” Wallace’s Geographical Distribution of Animals, vol. 1, page 150.

112 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

XIL—ON A SUPPOSED NEW SPECIES OF CERATOZAMIA,
sy DAVID MOORE, pu.D., F.L.s.

[Read March 18, 1878.]

Dr. Moore exhibited three species of cycadaceous plants, all
in fruit, one of which he believed to have been hitherto
undescribed, and concerning which he read the following
notes :—

This species of Ceratozamia was brought direct to Ireland from
Havanna, and is said to be a native of Cuba; but I cannot find
that it has been noticed among the plants of that island. It may
probably have been imported to Cuba from Mexico. It has been
in the collection of plants at Glasnevin about thirty years, and
during that time has only once previously produced cones before
the present. The plant is a female one, and, so far as I can learn, is
the only one to be found in British collections at the present time.
I lately sent as much of it as could be conveyed by post, in an
envelope, to the Director of the Imperial Botanical Garden at
St. Petersburg, Dr. Regel, who has one of the best collections of
Cycadaceous plants in Kurope under his management, and who, in
1876, published a “ Revision” of the genera and species. He
is, therefore, considered a good authority on this subject. He
has replied to my queries, and considers the plant may be the true
Macrozamia longifolia (Miquel), Ceratozamia longifolia (Regel),
It is, however, very difficult to judge accurately from small pieces
of the leaves of a plant of this sort. There is no reference given
to any figure published of Ceratozamia longifolia, and the plant
is not in the Kew collection. We have, therefore, only Dr. Regel’s
doubtfully expressed opinion, and his description of that species
in his “‘ Revision,” to guide us. In the latter it is stated of Cera-
tozamia longifolia—* Truncus initio globosus, demum cylindricus
flexuosus,” which does not well suit our plant, the trunk of which
remains globose, and certainly has no inclination to become cylin-

On a Supposed New Species of Ceratozamia. 113

drical and flexuose! Again, in the description of the leaves it is
stated, “folia patentissime, apicem versus graciliter recurvata,’
1-2 metres long. ° The leaves of our plant are much recurved
towards the apex, and are three metres long, or more. The leaflets
are described as being from “22-35 c. m. longa, utrinque lete
viridia.” Now, this last observation is quite at variance with the
colour of the leaflets of our plant, which are fuscous brown on
their under sides, and dull green on the upper sides.

De Candolle, in his Prodromus (vol. 16, p. 547), describes the
leaves of C. longifolia as being “ circa 35 pedalia, foliolis utrinque
15-16, pedalibus vel paulo longioribus, pollice paulo latioribus
instructa.” The leaves of our plant are 8-10 feet long, with
30-40 pairs of leaflets.

Finding that the plant on the table disagrees so materially in
these instances from the descriptions of Regel and De Candolle,
I incline to think it may prove to be a distinct species from C.
longifolia (Miquel) ; and if so, I propose to name it, ora
Ceratozamia fusca-vridis.

The following description is applicable to it, viz. :—

Trunk globose, dark brown, more or less clothed with fuscous
hairs and the bases of old leaves, dividing occasionally from apex
to base into secondary trunks; bases of the leaves broadly ovate,
and adhering closely to the trunk, mixed with perules, ovate at
the base, tapering gradually from base to apex into a sharp point,
which is slightly reflexed and spreading, clothed with silky fuscous
down. Leaves rather slender, erect at first, ultimately spreading
and recurved at their points; from eight to ten feet long. Petiole
roundish, clothed with dark fuscous pubescense, and beset with
numerous short, sharp, strong prickles, more especially near the
base; rachis, with two rather deep channels, one on each side of
the upper surface, and more or less covered with scattered prickles.
Leaflets alternate or opposite, sessile, with slightly decurrent bases
at point of attachment—from thirty to forty pairs, eight to ten
inches long, two-thirds of an inch wide in the central portion,
where the margins are slightly raised, entire, fuscous on the under
side, dull green on the upper side, subfalcate, tapering to a sharp
point, which is slightly reflexed, nerved with eighteen to twenty
obscure nerves. Female cones on brown scurfy stalks, two or

SciEN. Proc., R.D.S., Vou. u., Pr 1. i

114 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

more inches long; cone six to eight inches long from base to apex,
with protruding furcate horny scales, in ten to twelve spiral series,
furcate points, acute and widely spreading, the whole cone covered
with short brown fuscous hairs.

The other plants exhibited were Encephalartos villosus
(Lemaire). The five cones on it were female cones, but the male
cone-bearing plant is also in the Glasnevin collection, and the
third plant is Stangeria paradoxa (Moore), and the cone on it is
also a female cone.

[ 115 ]

XIII.—ON A NEW FORM OF ELECTRICAL CONTACT-
MAKER, FOR ASTRONOMICAL AND OTHER CLOCKS,
BY HOWARD GRUBB, w.r., F.z.a8., WC.

[Read February 18th, 1878.]

THE object of a series of experiments was to obtain a system of
electrical contacts (suitable for attachment to a delicate clock),
free from the well-known existing defects.

The conditions desirable to be obtained, are :—

1st.—Certainty of contact.

2nd.—Precision of contact, as regards duration.

3rd.—F reedom from possibility of causing any irregularity
in rate of clock to which it is attached.

4th.—Permanence in—i.e., freedom from possibility of
requiring any repairs or adjustments for a considerable
period of years.

The author submits that, with exceptionof the system now about
to be described, he has met none thoroughly satisfactory. He
has found that any mechanical contact possessing the first quali-
fication must have some slight “ rubbing,” as well as “ touching ”
or “contact action,” to keep off the slight film of oxide which
inevitably forms on the surface of the platinum or gold; and this,
no matter how slight, at once introduces a variable friction into
the clock, and destroys qualification No. 3.

On the other hand, mercurial contacts, though very precise and
satisfactory on the first start, soon deteriorate, from the oxidation
which takes place so rapidly on the surface.

This being the case, it occurred to the author that clearly the
proper course to take would be to use a mercurial contact, an
vacuo, or at least with absence of all oxygen, and this has been
for so far attended with complete success. The author has tried
many forms of such contacts, with the kind assistance of Mr. C.
H. Gimmingham, to whom he is indebted for many useful sugges-
tions and modifications.

Fig. 1 represents a section of one of the contact-makers, blown
in glass by Mr. Gimmingham. A, B, C, are the three platinum
terminals, A is always in contact with the mercury ; and if this

116° Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

apparatus be attached to a pendulum or pallet arbor, the ter-
yinals B and C are alternately brought into contact with the
mercury as the pendulum swings.

Fig. 2 represents one bored out of a solid piece of glass, the
action being quite similar. Practicably, by proportioning the
size of the apparatus, the mercury in immediate contact with the
glass does not flow at all; but the surface getting more or less
convex at each side as the pendulum swings, causes the platinum
point to touch.

As there is no oxygen in any case, there can of course
be no oxidation ; and the chance of any variable friction seem to
be reduced to a minimum.

New Form of Electric Clock Contacts.
Mercury in Vacuo,

Fig. 1.

ry

ea ae

XIV.—ON THE EFFECT OF COLD UPON THE STRENGTH
OF IRON, sy EDWARD L. MOSS, u.p., Srarr-Surcron, R.N.

[Read June 17th, 1878.]

Ir is said that iron becomes brittle in extreme cold. In support
of this popular belief it is customary to appeal to the general
experience of engineers, iron-founders and others practically
conversant with the properties of iron. It has received further
countenance from the statements of those who have had the fullest
opportunities of making observations in extreme low temperature ;
Dr. Kane says “in this intense cold iron snaps like glass,”* Sir
Edward Belcher reports that his shovels and picks were easily
broken in cold weather, and attributes the bursting of a fowling-
piece to the temperature.t And Lieutenant Payer tells us that
the hammers of his guns became brittle and snapped off; and his
table knives grew so fragile in the cold that they broke in attempt-
ing to cut frozen cheese.{ In the winter of 1870 certain disas-
terous railway accidents, in which the breaking of the tires was
attributed to sharp frost, drew public attention to this alleged
action of cold, and in the following January Mr. William
Brockbank communicated a paper on the subject to the Manchester
Literary and Philosophie Society. He concluded from his
experiments that in low temperatures iron became brittle under
sudden impact. But at the same time he records a number of
experiments in which the strength of the iron tested by both
tension and torsion was found to be unchanged or increased. His
paper was followed by one from Sir William Fairbairn, embodying
the results of many experiments between zero, Fah., and red heat,
indicating that the resistance to a tensile strain was at least as
great at zero as at 60.°

The next contribution was from Dr. J. P. Joule, who detailed
experiments by both tension and impact, and summed up with
the decisicn that “frost does not make cast or wrought iron brittle.”

* Kane’s Grinnell Expedition, vol. 2, p. 20.

+ Belcher’s Last of the Arctic Voyages, vol. 1, p. 225, and vol. 2, p. 182.

+ Austrian Arctic Voyage, 1872-74, vol. 1, p. 210, vol. 2, p. 23.

§ Proceedings Manchester Literary and Philosophie Society, vol. x. p. 77, e¢ seq.

118 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society,

And, finally, at a subsequent meeting of the Society, Mr. Peter
Spence brought forward a series of tension experiments showing
an increase of 3°5 per cent. in the strength of iron co-incident with
a reduction in temperature from 60° to zero, Fah.

A few days before the late Arctic Expedition sailed from Eng-
land Mr. Draper drew my attention to abstracts of the two last
sets of experiments published in the Chemical News. The cold of
a polar winter would afford decided facilities for such experiments,
and, moreover, they demanded no special skill on the part of the
experimenter. There was, however, very little time to make pre-
parations, but on mentioning the subject to Sir Leopold M‘Clin-
tock, Admiral-Superintendent of Portsmouth Dockyard, I at once
obtained every facility, and before the ships sailed a small num-
ber of cast iron bars were prepared for me, together with a suitable
weight to test them with, and a little guillotine to drop it from.

The bars were of first-class mixed metal, cast from the same
ladle. They were cut to as nearly as possible the same size,
namely, ‘95 centimetre square, and 15:2 centimetres long. There
were eighteen of them. They averaged 1046 oms., the extremes
being 103°5 and 1050. They were packed away in my cabin
in a temperature never below 40°, and in “winter quarters,”
when the cold became intense, experiments were begun.

In testing each bar it was supported on two knife-edges at the
base of the guillotine 12°7 centimetres apart, and subjected to a
blow from a falling weight of 1082'14 gms., so arranged as to strike
with an edge of 100° evenly across the centre of the bar. The
weight fell altogether free, and the height of the drop was regu-
lated by means of a centimetre scale.

It was first necessary to ascertain the strength of the bars at
ordinary temperatures. Bars were therefore tested in and at tem-
peratures of 65° and 40°, with the following results :—

Temperature 55° (Fah.) No. : bore ap broke with 30°5 centimetres fall.

” ” ” ” 1) ” ” ”?

” ” ” 3 » oO ” ” ’ ”
” ” » & » 32 ” » 80°5 ” %
” ” He 2 tp ” » 33 ” ”
’ ” Sy ey Ze) ” ” ” ”
” ” » 5 , 3805 ” », 33 ” ”
” ” 2 Bo ay 182 ” » 33 ” ”
» ” 53: tildes, O20 ” » 33 ” ”
” ” een Oo ” » 92°5 » ”
” 40° ” 4 ” oe ” ” 80 ” ”
” ” ” ” ” ” ” ”

fy LOR LO ” » 29 ”n ”

eh) ”

On the Effect of Cold upon the Strength of Iron. 119

Four bars were then suspended for six hours in the outer air
in a temperature of — 40° Fah. There was some wind, so it was
found convenient to test them in the shelter of a snow-house, tem-
perature — 26, They were carried in one by one on loops of thread,
and each tested within a minute, with the following result :—

No. 11 bore 0 broke with 33°3 centimetres fall.
2

+B 99 th) th}

ede 06-5 Care

These figures appeared to indicate a loss of strength, and were
the reverse of what I had expected; butit occurred to me that the
bars when I tested them were undergoing a change of temperature,
and the power of unequal temperature to produce brittleness is un-
disputed. Thesame objection applied to experiments made by others,
since freezing mixtures used to produce the cold are rarely, if ever,
of the same temperature throughout,andin impact experiments the
metal had to be removed from the oxygen into a warmer medium
before it was submitted to the blow. In neglecting to test the
bars in the open air I had stupidly discarded the one special ad-
vantage offered to an arctic experimenter. This was the more
annoying since the number of bars was unavoidably limited ; but
I decided to test the remainder under conditions that would ex-
clude any risk of unequal temperature.

I accordingly waited till the 25rd of January for favourable
weather, The bars, with loops attached to them to admit of ready
manipulation, and the guillotine were then exposed for twelve
hours to a steady temperature of from — 51° to — 54° Fah. At
the time of the experiment the temperature was — 58° Fah., and
the utmost care was taken to avoid any transference of warmth
to the bars either from the lantern or from my hands.

” ” ” ” ” 29 ” 30 ”
” ” Hye LO wissen ” ”
” ” » » 9 286 ” 30 ”
” ” ska On) n 285 ”
” ” » 18 , 27° ” ”
” ” » 9 9 285 ” 295 ”

The experiments are not numerous enough to warrant gene-
ralization, and it would be difficult to condense their results into
any fair statement of averages. But the figures admit of reduc-

120 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

tion into the general statements that the brittleness of the bars
at + 65° and + 40° was little, if at all, increased at — 53°.

I hoped to extend the experiments by operating on the frag-
ments of the bars, but the alteration of the apparatus delayed me
till the sledging work began.

The little stock of cast iron bars was supplemented by cast
steel and brass bars of the same size. These were tested with
similar precautions at temperatures of + 50° and — 55° Fah.
The bars bent but did not break at either temperature, and there
was no appreciable difference in the amount of flexion at + 50°
and — 55° Fah.

Beene ii
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CONTENTS—continued.

IX. On the Total Annual Heat received at each point of the Earth’s
Surface from the Sun, and on the amount of the Loss of that Heat
caused by Radiation into Space, neglecting the effect of the
Atmosphere. By the Rev. Samuer Haveuroy, M.D., Dublin,

D.C.L., Oxon,
X. On the orca Gemniion of a Crop of Hay. By Gxsuen
A. Cameron, M.D., F

XI. On an attempt to. Siete the Peston of the Gent megaceros
commonly called the Irish Elk. By W. Witt1aMs, :

XII. Ona supposed new species of Ceratozamia. a: Dayip Moony,

Pu.D., F.L.S., 5 : a :

XIII. On a new form of Electrical Contact-maker for Asiaeuueeeal

and other Clocks. By Howarp pare M.E., F.R.A.S.

(With a woodcut.) ‘ 3 : =

XIV. On the effect of cold upon ihe. Geregeth of Tren By Staff-

Surgeon Epwarp L. Moss, M.D., R. N., - - . F

Minutes of Proceedings from February 18, 1878, to June 17, 1878,

PUBLICATIONS OF THE ROYAL DUBLIN SOCIETY.

TRANSACTIONS : Quarto, in parts, stitched.
Vol. I. (new series). [Already published. ]

Page

92

101

105

112

115

117

i to vi

Part 1.—On Great Telescopes of the Future. By Howarp GRUBB,

F.R.A.S. (November, 1877.)

Part 2.—On the Penetration of Heat across Layers of Gas.

G. J. Stonry, M.A., F.R.S. (November, 1877.)

By

Part 3. On the iSppollites of Mars. By Wentworta Ercx,

LL.D. (May, 1878.)

Part 4.—On the Mechanical Theory of Crookes’s, or Polarization
Stress in Gases. By G. J. Sronzy, M.A., F.R.S. (October, 1878.)
Part 5.—On the Mechanical Theory of Crookes’s Force. By G.

F. Frrzceratp, M. A., F.T.C.D. (October, 1878.)

Part 6. ieee on aN Physical Appearance of the Planet Mars.

By J. L. E. Dreyer, M.A. a 1 and 2. (October, 1878.)

PROCEEDINGS: 8vo., in parts, stitched.

Vol. I. (new series), already published.
Part 1.—Pages 1 to 52. (November, 1877.)
by 2.—Pages 53 to 132. (May, 1878.)

gat a, Concluding Volume I. With Title Page and Table of

Contents. (To be published i in November, 1878.)

Vol. II. (new series.)
Part 1.—Pages 1 to. 120. (October, 1878.)

?
J

)

THE

SCIENTIFIC PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

ROYAL DUBLIN SOCIETY. .

Vou. Il. (New Series). © MAY, 1879. Part IT,

CONTENTS.

XV. On Stilbite from Veins in Metamorphic (Gneiss) Rocks in
Western Bengal. By V. Batt, M.A., F.G.S., of the Geo-

. logical Survey of India, . 121
XVI. On an Artificial Mineral produced in wie Mantfontoe of en
Bricks at Blaenavon, Monmouthshire. By J. Emerson
Reyrnoips, M.D., F. eS S., Professor of Chemistry, Dublin
University, and V. Baty, M.A., F.G.S., of the Geological

Survey of India, . : 123
XVII. On some of the Mollusca wiser aueas the ree apeninan
of the ‘Fox’ in 1858 and 1859. By J. Gwyn stage ike

WEED. RSs. +. ; 125
XVIII On the Geureies of Cry. stale of Salt (Chloride of Bodin) in
Chert from the Carboniferous Limestone. By Epwarp
Horr, M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Geology in the Royal
College of Science for Treland ; Director of the Geological

Page

Survey of Ireland, . é 129
XIX. Note on a new Gentociosl Map of Tales By peaiesaen Fike
F.R.S., Director of the Geological Survey of Ireland, . bide

XX. The Old Red Sandstone (so called) of Iréland in its relations
to the Underlying and Overlying Strata. By G. H. Kaya- i
win, M.R.ILA., Ge. [Abridged.] With Plates6and7, . 135

>. .41 B uabie: Silurian Ae: Silurian Rocks of the Southern and the
Western Parts of Ireland.. By G. H. Kin ee MR LAS
&c. With Plate 8, . 143

*XXIT. On the Oxidation of Iron in the mresbave of Wi alia Water.
By Ricuarp J. Moss, F.C.S., ; - mig Nae

[or continuation of Contents see lost page of ( over. |

The Authors alone are responsible for all opinions expressed in their communications.

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Evening Scientific Meetings.

The Evening Scientific Meetings of the Society and of the associated
bodies (the Royal Geological Society of Ireland and the Dublin Scientific
Club) are held in Leister House on the third Monday in each month
during the Session. The hour of meeting is 8 o’clock, p.m. The business
is conducted in the undermentioned sections.

Section I.— PHysicaL AND EXPERIMENTAL SCIENCES.
- Secretary to the Section, R. J. Moss, F.c.s.

Section IJ.— Natura Sciences (including Geology and Physical
Geography).
Secretary to the Section, R. M‘Nas, u.p.

Section I1].—Scizmnce APPLIED TO THE USEFUL ARTS AND INDUSTRIES.
Secretary to the Section, Howard GRUBB, M.E., T.C.D.

Authors desiring to read papers before any of the sections of the

Society are requested to forward their communications to the Registrar
of the Royal Dublin Society (Mr. R. J. Moss), or to one of the Sectional
Secretaries, atleast ten days prior to each evening meeting, as no paper
can be set down for reading until examined and approved by the Science *
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The copyright of all papers read becomes the property of the Society,
and such as are considered suitable for the purpose will be printed with
the least possible delay. Authors are requested to hand in their MS. in
a complete form and ready for transmission to the printer.

oie ee he

XV.—ON STILBITE FROM VEINS IN METAMORPHIC
(GNEISS) ROCKS IN WESTERN BENGAL, sy V. BALL,
M.A., F.G.8S., OF THE GEOLOGICAL SuRVEY oF INpIA.

[Read November 18, 1878. ]

THE occurrence of stilbite in metamorphic rocks, though by no
means a new discovery, is still of sufficient rarity to be worthy
of record. To the best of my belief there is no published account
of this mineral: having been previously found in this association
in India; and so far as I have been able to ascertain, it has not very
often been met with under similar circumstances either in Europe
or America. Imay mention that during the recent meeting of the
British Association several of the mineralogists to whom I showed
the specimens seemed to regard the discovery as being one of
interest, and without a parallel in their own personal experience.

The Cretaceous Basalts of India, otherwise known as the Dekan
trap, include, in certain places, remarkably fine crystals and
erystalline masses of various zeolites—including stilbite ; but the
mineral about to be described, though possibly of secondary, if
not of intrusive origin, does not occur in contact with any demon-
strably voleanic materials. It was found in the vicinity of a small
coal-field*—one of a series of basins of coal measures which I
surveyed in the early part of the present year. Three distinct
veins of the mineral were observed. The principal one is from
half an inch to ten inches wide, with a vertical underlie and
strike of about 20° North of West to 20° South of East. Though
for the most part the vein lies parallel to the planes of foliation
of the pink porphyritic gneiss which encloses it, it does not
invariably do so, as it cuts across them obliquely at several points.
A second vein close by, is in places one foot wide, but thins out
to nothing within a short distance. A third vein of inconsiderable
dimensions was also discovered. Leys regularly in reference to

* The precise locality where it was found may be thus indicated. It is just inside the
mouth of a stream from the Bijka peak which joins the Atee river, south of the village of
Manjuri, about 16 miles 8.W. of Daltonganj, in the Palamow Subdivision (vide Mem.
Geol. Surv., India, Vol. xv., p. 37.)

Scien. Proc. R.D.S., Vou. u., Pr. 1. K

122 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

the strike of the foliation of the gneiss, veins of pegmatite and
epidote occur in the vicinity in some abundance.

The stilbite has a laminated somewhat hackly structure, and
is of a bright salmon colour with a pearly lustre. Under the
blowpipe it acts in the characteristic manner of stilbite, but it has
not yet been submitted to regular chemical analysis.

Associated with it there are plates of quartz, which appear to
be pseudomorphic after micaceous iron. Such pseudomorphs
together with those of barytes and gypsum occur very commonly
in India with infiltrated and occasionally brecciated matter along
lines of fault and fracture. The few small specimens of these
pseudomorphs which I exhibit, will serve to convey some idea
of the general appearance of this fault-rock which often from its
hardness, forms strongly marked ridges at the surface. The pseudo-
morphs after micaceous iron not unfrequently shew the very deli-
cate superficial etching which is characteristic of that mineral.
Occasionally portions of the original ore are found included in the
quartz. From these facts, it seems probable that the stilbite
occurs rather as a vein or lode than asa part of an intrusive
dyke.

The specimens I exhibit I propose to present to the Museum
of Science and Art, Dublin and to the Museum of the University
of Dublin.

XVI—ON AN ARTIFICIAL MINERAL PRODUCED IN THE
MANUFACTURE OF BASIC BRICKS AT BLAENAVON,
MONMOUTHSHIRE, sy J. EMERSON REYNOLDS, op,
F.G.s., PROFESSOR OF CHEMISTRY, DUBLIN UNIVERSITY, AND V.
BALL, M.A., F.G.S., OF THE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA.

[Read November 18, 1878.]

IN a paper read before the Iron and Steel Institute, Messrs.
S. G. Thomas, F.cs., and P. C. Gilchrist, a.R.s.m, F.c.S., have
recently detailed their experiments and investigations in connec-
tion with a process invented by them for the elimination
of phosphorus in the Bessemer converter. The discovery of a
method by which this most important object may be attained
cannot fail to have a marked influence on the manufacture of steel.
The process, which has been patented in several other countries
besides England, is now undergoing practical trial, and should it
prove to be as successful as the inventors’ experiments seem to
promise, there can be little doubt that it will be possible to
manufacture steel of good quality from phosphoretic pig, such as
that made from the Cleveland Iron Ores, which has hitherto been
rejected as unsuited to the purpose.

In the present communication it is not intended to describe
this process ; it will be sufficient to state merely, that the inventors
have succeeded in producing a durable and refractory brick for
the lining of the converters, by means of which without excessive
waste of, or injury to the lining and metal, a basic condition of the
slag, hitherto unattainable, has been secured. The result is that
oxygen has been found not to be so “ inert as regards phosphorus
at the intense temperature which accompanies the Bessemer
process” as had previously been supposed ; but that in fact, under
the conditions afforded by this new method of lining, oxygenation
of the phosphorus does take place and the phosphoric oxides com-
bining with the bases form phosphates in the slag, thus render-
ing it possible to draw off the steel with but an unimportant trace
of phosphorus remaining.

In the preparation of these basic bricks, which are made of an
aluminous magnesian limestone—an oven lined with ordinary

Scien. Proc. R.D.S., Vou. 1., Pr. 11. kK 2

124 Scientific Proceedings, Royul Dublin Society.

siliceous fire-bricks was employed, and the basic bricks were
piled on the floor in direct contact with this lining. An intense
white heat having been obtained, it was observed that the pile
or stack of basic bricks had subsided, and on the oven being
broken down after cooling, it was found that the lower layers of
the pile had actually passed through the flooring, and that the
siliceous bricks exhibited sharply cut moulds of the angles of the
basic bricks where they had cut down through them.

The resultant fused mass occurred partly in a stalactitic form
with a minutely crystalline structure, and partly as an assemblage
of semi-transparent crystals.

With the permission of Mr. Gilchrist we propose to describe
this adventitious result of his experiments.

The crystallized mineral occurs in long prisms, apparently
belonging to the monoclinic system. Some of the crystals were
nearly colourless or grayish, while others were more or less
strongly tinged with green. The hardness was slightly greater
than 5, and the specific gravity proved to be = 2:934.

Some of the best crystals were picked out, and afforded the
following results on analysis :—

Silica, . a ‘ : 5 ; 55°35
Lime (CaQ), 3 a ; ; 2 23:24
Magnesia (MgO), . . : ; 16:20
Alumina and Ferrie Oxide 5 : : 4:20
Water, loss, &., . : : : : 1:01

100-00

The alumina and iron are so evidently accidental constituents
that their weights may be excluded from consideration in
deducing the formula for this mineral. Neglecting these chance
constituents then, we obtain the following formula on discussing
the analytical data in the usual way :-—

MgSiO, + CaSiO,
Or, its formula may be written,
( Mg + 3 Ca) SiO,.

The mineral is therefore a Bisilicate, and is a true Pyroxene.
Its composition indicates that it is a member of the group
of Pyroxenes that includes Malacolite and Diopside. Messrs,
Thomas and Gilchrist have therefore effected, accidentally, and
under novel conditions, the synthesis of an interesting member of
a most important group of minerals of natural occurrence.

Rare

XVII.—ON SOME OF THE MOLLUSCA PROCURED DURING
THE ARCTIC EXPEDITION OF THE ‘FOX’ IN 1858
AND 1859, sy J. GWYN JEFFREYS, u.p., rns.

[Read November 18, 1878.1

When I attended the last Meeting of the British Association at
Dublin I took the opportunity of examining a collection of Arctic
shells which had been made by Dr. David Walker, the Surgeon
and Naturalist to the ‘Fox’ Expedition, and deposited in the
Museum of Science and Art. This list was published in the
Journal of the Royal Dublin Society, Volume 8, pages 70 to 72.
Dr. Carte, the excellent Director of the Museum, kindly assisted
me in the examination.

Having had some experience, personal and otherwise, in the
collection and investigation of Arctic Mollusca, I thought a few
notes might be useful with respect to the identification of the
species named in Dr. Walker’s list. Without such identification
conchologists might be misled by some of the recorded names, and
our knowledge of geographical distribution would be perplexed.

I hope on some future occasion to examine the remainder of
the collection, which is in the Queen’s College, Belfast.

The names of species, localities, and depths, which follow within
inverted commas, are extracted from Dr. Walker’s list of specimens
deposited in the Dublin Museum of Science and Art.

“ BucciNnuM HyDROPHANUM (Hancock), 15 fathoms, Port Kennedy.”

There is no specimen thus named ; but one marked “Buccinum
cyanewm, Crimson Cliffs,” is the young of B. hydrophanum,
Hane.

“‘ BuccINUM TENEBROSUM (Hancock). Godhavn, 10 to 20 fathoms.”

No specimen thus named. JB. tenebroswm, Hane.,is B. Gren-
landicum, Chemnitz.

“ Buccrnum cruiaTum (Hancock). Port Kennedy, 10 fathoms.”

Hancock never described nor named any such species. The
specimen thus marked is B. Grenlandicum, var sericata, which
latter name is that of Hancock’s species.

“ Buccinum piicosum (Hancock), Melyille Bay, 100 fathoms.”

No such species ; nor did Hancock describe or name B. plicoswm.
There is a young specimen of B. tenue, Gray, without name,
which may have been intended.

126 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Socicty.

“‘TROPHON CLATHRATUS (Linn.). Godhavn, 20 fathoms.”

With the specimen is a fragment of Buccinum Granlandicum.
T. clathratus, and Fusus scalariformis of Gould, are the same
species.

“¢ MANGELIA TURRICULA (Mont.), Godhavn, 20 fathoms. Melville
Bay, 80 to 140 fathoms.”

No specimen in the collection. One named “ Mangelia twrri-
cula, var., Melville Bay,” is Pleurotoma Trevelyana, Turton.

“ MANGELIA TREVILLIANA (Turton). Port Kennedy, 15 fathoms.”

No specimen thus named. See last remark.

“ MANGELIA RUFA (Mont.). Godhavn, 15 fathoms, and Port Kennedy,
10 fathoms.”

Pleurotoma pyramidalis, Strém, and P. bicarinata, Couthouy.

““ NATICA PUSILLA (Say? Gould). Godhayn, Fiskernaes, and Port
Kennedy, ranging from 5 to 20 fathoms.”

The Port Kennedy specimen is NV. ajfinis, Gmelin; and the
Fiskernaes specimen is Littorina obtusata, L., var. littoralis,
palliata, or limata. The latter encloses a specimen of Rissou
globulus, Moller. No specimen from Godhavn, where NV. afjinis
is common.

“TURITELLA LACTEA (MOll.). Melville Bay, 80 to 100 fathoms.”

Turritella erosa, Couth. Not ZT. lactea, MOlL, which is 7.
reticulata, Mighels and Adams.

“ LITTORINA TENEBROSA (Mont.). Godhavn, 20 fathoms.”

LL. rudis, Maton, var.

“ ScALARIA GRaNLANDICA (Sow.). Godhavn, 20 fathoms.”

Turritella reticulata, Migh. and Ad.

“Marcarira arctica (Leach). Port Kennedy, 10 fathoms, very
abundant.”

Mostly Trochus wmbilicalis, Broderip and Sowerby ; with speci-
mens of 7. olivaceus, Brown, and T. helicinus, Fabricius.

“MARGARITA UMBILICALIS (Sow.). Cape York, 10 fathoms, and
Port Kennedy.”

Trochus olivaceus, Brown.

_ “ LoTTIa TESTUDINALIS (Gray). * Godhavn, Fiskernaes, and Melville
aa
Tectura testudinalis, Miiller.

‘‘CHITON MARMOREUS (Fab.). Port Kennedy and Godhavn, 10 to 20
fathoms.”

Same.

On the Mollusca procured during the “ Fox” Expedition. 127

‘** CYLICHNA UMBILICATA (Mont.). Port Kennedy, 15 fathoms.”

C. striata, Brown.

* Saxicava ARcTICA (L.). Godhavn, Melville Bay, Cape York, and
Fiskernaes, from 5 to 140 fathoms,”

S. rugosa, L., var.
“ Saxtcava RUGOSA (L.). Reefcol and Godhavn, 10 to 25 fathoms.”
Same.

“Mya ARENARIA (L.). Godhavn, and Melville Bay, 10 to 120
fathoms.”

M. truncata, L.; var. Uddevallensis, young.

“ Mya truncata (L.). Reefcol, Fiskernaes, and Godhavn.”

M. truncata, L.; var. Uddevallensis, young.

““MyA TRUNCATA, var. UDDEVALLENSIS, Reefcol, Fiskernaes, and
Godhavyn.”

Same.

- “'TELLINA PROXIMA (Brown). Godhavn, and Melville Bay, at various
depths.” :
' T. calearia, Chemn.

“* ASTARTE COMPRESSA (Mont.). Reefcol, Godhavn, Melville Bay, and
Port Kennedy, from 10 to 140 fathoms.”

The Melville Bay specimens are A. crenata, Gray=<A. (Cras-
sina) depressa, Brown=A. crebricostata, Forbes=probably A.
crebrilirata, 8S. V. Wood=A. Warhami, Hane.=A. Richardsoni,
Reeve. The other specimens are A. compressa, Mont.

“ ASTARTE ARCTICA (Gray). Melville Bay and Port Kennedy.”

The Melville Bay specimen is A. sulcata, Da Costa; var.
elliptica. No specimen from Port Kennedy.

“‘ ASTARTE ELLIPTICA (Br.). Melville Bay and Port Kennedy.”

The Melville Bay specimens are A. crenata, Gray, and A.
compressa, Mon. The Port Kennedy specimen is A. borealis, Chem.

« AsTARTE SULCATA (Da Costa). Godhavn.”

Same; var. elluptica.

“ Carpium Gra@NLANDICUM (Chemn.). Godhavn, and Melville Bay ;
all at the latter place were young specimens.”

Same.

“‘ CARDIUM ISLANDICUM (Chemn.). Godhavn, and Melville Bay.”

Same.

“Myrtitus EDULIS (L.). Fiskernaes, Godhavn, and Melville Bay.”

Same.

128 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

““ MYTILUS EDULIS, var. ELEGANS. Melville Bay.”

Same ; var. pellucida.

*‘ VELUTINA LEVIGATA. Melville Bay, 100 fathoms.”

Not in the collection.

*« NUCULA TENUIS (Mont.). Godhayn, Melville Bay, 10 to 20 fathoms.”

Same.

“ NucuLa TrRuNcATA (Br.). Port Kennedy, 15 fathoms.”

Leda arctica, Gray=Nucula truncata, Brown=N. Portlan-
dica, Hitchcock.

“*‘ NUCULA NITIDA (Sow.). Godhavn.”

NV. tenuis, Mont.

“ LEDA CAUDATA (Don.). Godhavn, and Melville Bay.”

The Godhayn specimens are L. minuta, Mill. The Melville
Bay specimen is L. pernula, Miill.

“ LepA pyGmM&A (Munst.). Godhavn.”

Not in the collection.

A shell named “ARCA LACTEA” is Lyonsia arenosa Moll.

“* MoproLa NIGRA (Gray). Cape York and Port Kennedy.”

Modiolaria corrugata, Stimpson.

‘“‘ CRENELLA Discors (L.). Crimson Cliffs.”

Modiolaria discors, L.; var. levigata.

“6 CRENELLA DECUSSATA (Mont,). Melville Bay.”

C. faba, Fabr.

A shell in the collection named “ LIMNOPsIS PELLUCIDA, Mel-
ville Bay,” is Crenella decussata, Mont.

“‘ PECTEN ISLANDICUs (Miill.). Godhavn, Reefcol, and Melville Bay.”

Same.

“‘ PEcTEN GRENLANDICUuS (Sow.). Cape York and Melville Bay.”

Same. A specimen from Crimson Cliffs is named “PECTEN
VITREUS.”

“ HyYyporHyRis PSITTACEA (Chemn.). Reefcol, Godhayn, and Melville
Bay. They were numerous at 140 fathoms in Melville Bay.”

Rhynchonella psittacea (rostrum-psittact), Chemn.

The collection contains also a few post-tertiary shells from
Port Kennedy, in Bellot Strait, which it may be as well to mention.

At 100 feet over sea-level: Cardiwm Islandicum, Chemn.,
Tellina calearia, Chemn., Saxicava rugosa, L., Mya truncata, L.,
Tectura (Erginus) rubella, Fabr., and Buccinum Gronl andicum,
Chemn.

And at 50-500 feet: Astarte borealis, Chemn. (as “CypRINA
IsLANDICA ”), Saxicava rugosa, L.. and Mya truncata, L.

[429.0]

XVIII.—ON THE OCCURRENCE OF CRYSTALS OF SALT
(CHLORIDE OF SODIUM) IN CHERT FROM THE
CARBONIFEROUS LIMESTONE, sy EDWARD HULL,
M.A., F.R.S., PROFESSOR OF GEOLOGY IN THE RoyAL COLLEGE OF
SCIENCE FOR IRELAND; DIRECTOR OF THE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF

JTRELAND.
[Read December 16, 1878. ]

THE occurrence of salt crystals in the fluid cavities of granitic
and plutonic rocks has been brought to light by several petro-
logists. Professor Zirkel has noticed them in the granite of
Goatfell in Arran in Scotland ;* Mr. Sorby in the quartz of the
granite of Trevalgan near St. Ives,f and the Abbé Reynard in
the quartziferous diorite of Quenast.} Other examples might be
cited. These objects are amongst the most curious and beautiful
which the study of the rocks under the microscope has revealed.
During my investigations of the structure of the chert-beds of
the Carboniferous Limestone of Ireland I had on several oc-
casions noticed cubical forms, often black, but sometimes slightly
translucent ; these I generally supposed to be crystals of pyrites or
the cavities left by them, the darkness of the sides being due
partly toa coating of probably carbonaceous dust, and partly to
the absorption of the light when the walls of the crystal are
placed in certain directions with reference to the incident rays.
A short time since, my friend Professor A. Reynard, of Louvain
when kindly sending me a thin section of the “ Diorite quartzi-
fere” of Quenast, which he and M. Chevalier de la Vallée Poussin
have made the subject of special examination, accompanied this
specimen by another of black chert from Ballymote, Co, Sligo,
which, on examination under the microscope, I observed to con-
tain numerous small, but beautifully perfect cubes, generally with
darkened sides, but with translucent centres. I could not doubt
the nature of these little cubes, after comparing them with those
contained in the fluid cavities of the quartziferous diorite of
Quenast, and with figures and descriptions given by Dr. Ferd.
Zirkel in his valuable handbook§. My colleague, Professor
O'Reilly, M.R.I.A., has been also kind enough to examine the
specimen, and admits the high probability that the cubical

* Zirkel. Die mikroscopische Beschaffenheit der Mineralien, p. 55, Teipsig (1878).

t Ibid, p. 57.

¢ “Memoire sur les caractéres minéralogiques des roches de la Belgique, &c.,” par
M. M. Ch. dela Vallée Poussin et A. Reynard, S.I., Bruxelles (1876).

§ Die Mineralien und Gesteine, p. 55.

130 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

forms are those of sodium chloride; he has also made drawings
for me of one of the sections from Ballymote (see Fig. 1).

Fig. 1.
Chert Slice. Ballymote, Co. Sligo.
Magnifying power used, " (scale approximate).

{n order to observe the forms in most instances a rather high
power is necessary. I finda one-inch objective with No. 2 eye-
piece, magnifying 100 diameters, generally the most serviceable.
With this power the crystals are distinct, but in cases where the
crystals are very minute, the quarter-inch objective and No. 2
eye-piece, magnifying 350 diameters, is necessary.

The general appearance of the crystals is variable. Where the
siliceous paste of the chert is clear and colourless, the crys-
tals generally occur also colourless and slightly glistening, the
edges and angles alone of the planes being apparent as fine, sharp
slightly darkened lines or points, as the transmitted light is in-
terrupted. On the other hand, where the enclosing siliceous paste
is darkened, the crystals are also often darkened along the edges
and angles. In many cases it seems to me probable that the
actual sodium chloride crystal is absent, has, in fact, disappeared,
its cavity only being left, and that the walls of the cavity are
darkened by iron oxide, or by carbonaceous dust. The presence
of sodium in minute quantities is indicated in some of the speci-
mens analyzed by Mr. Hardman, F.C.S., the analyses of which
are given in our joint paper on the “ Nature and Origin of Chert.”*

* Hull and Hardman ‘‘ On the Nature and Origin of Beds of Chert, &e. ” Scientific
Transactions, Royal Dublin Society, Vol. I. (New Series), Part VII. (1877).

On the Occurrence of Crystals of Salt im Chert. 131

As I have found examples of these crystals in the chert sections
taken from places in Kilkenny at the extreme 8.E., and Fermanagh
and Sligo on the extreme N.W., of the central plain, it may
fairly be assumed that they are widely distributed wherever the
chert-beds of the upper Carboniferous Limestone are to be found.
Whether they may not also be found in the limestone itself is a
point which as yet I have had no opportunity of determining.

I now proceed to state some of the instances referred to.

1. Co. Kilkenny, Bonnet’s Rath Quarry. White laminated chert
with organic structure, containing clear colourless cubes of sodium
chloride in large numbers and very minute, together with some
rhombic crystals of calcite. (2. Specimens from same quarry.)

3. Co. Kilkenny, Kilmagar. Dark chert with laminated struc-
ture, taken just below the Yoredale shales. Cubes with darkened
sides and translucent centres. Mr. Hardman’s analysis (No. XI.)
indicates the presence of sodium in this rock.

4. Co. Fermanagh, Benachlan, above Florence Court. Grey
chert with organic structure. Contains great numbers of very
small cubical crystals, clear and colourless.

5. Co. Sligo, Ballymote. Banded chert with organic structure.
Numerous clear and colourless very small cubes; others with
darkened sides (see Figs. 1, 2).

Fig. 2.
From another portion of the same section.

Mr. Hardman’s analysis (No. I) indicates the presence of sodium.

132 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

6. Co. Sligo, Knock-na-Rea. Dark coralline chert containing a
few large translucent cubes apparently of sodium chloride.

The figures do not sufficiently represent some of the
translucent cubes described above. Crystals of calcite are also

present.

yee SS a

XIX.—NOTE ON A NEW GEOLOGICAL MAP OF IRELAND,
By PROFESSOR HULL, r.r.s., Drrector oF THE GEOLOGICAL
SurvEY oF IRELAND.

[Read May 20, 1878.]

IN presenting a copy of his new Geological Map of Iveland,
Professor Hull stated that although on the same scale as that of
the late Professor Jukes (about eight miles to the inch), and in
many respects resembling it, the new map had been entirely re-
engraved. Owing to the progress of the Geological Survey since
Professor Jukes’ map was published (1867), and an advance in
our knowledge in some respects, several alterations (which the
author hoped would be considered improvements) had been intro-
duced. The following were the more important :—

1st. In the metamorphic districts of Donegal, Mayo, and
Galway, the great beds of quartzite, which form many of the
higher elevations, and some of the beds of limestone had been in-
troduced. In this respect the new map resembled that of Sir
Richard Griffith, to which the author was indebted for being able
to insert the quartzites and limestones of Donegal.

2nd. The next point of importance was the colouring of the
mountainous districts of Iveragh and Dunkerron, lying to the
south of Dingle Bay, and of the promontory between Kenmare
Bay and Bantry Bay. The former included the Reeks and Kil-
larney Mountains; the latter those of Caha and Sheve Minish.
On Griffith’s map, the rocks composing these ranges (except near
their margins where they pass below the Lower Carboniferous
beds) are coloured in the same way as “the Dingle Beds” of the
promontory of Dingle, being considered identical in age. On the
maps of the Geological Survey, and of Professor Jukes, on the
other hand, the highlands of Kerry are coloured Old Red Sand-
stone. In the Dingle promontory, as is well known, this formation
rests on “the Dingle Beds” in a highly discordant manner; while
in the districts south of Dingle Bay, no apparent unconformity
exists, according to the observations of the Geological Surveyors ;

13k Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

and as it was found impossible to draw a boundary between these
beds and the Old Red Sandstone, the whole of the beds were
massed under the colour of this latter formation. In both dis-
tricts, however, viz, those north and south of Dingle Bay, a
separation has been made on the map of Sir R. Griffith; and as
the author concurs with the view adopted by so eminent an au-
thority, and can have no doubt but that the greenish grits and
green and red slates of the Reeks and Killarney Mountains are the
actual representatives of the “ Dingle beds,” he has followed Sir
R. Griffith’s map in this instance also. The author does not offer
any opinion on the age of “the Dingle beds,” though inclining to
the view that they are Upper Silurian; nor does he think that
much reliance can be placed on thé divisional line between these
beds and those of the Old Red Sandstone in the promontories
north and south of Kenmare Bay.*

3rd. The third alteration refers to the Carboniferous districts.
On Jukes’ map the whole of the beds above the Carboniferous
limestone are represented under one dark colour, as “coal-
measures.” On the new map an attempt has been made to re-
present at least three divisions in this group—1l. The “ Yoredale
shales ;’ 2. “Millstone grit ;’ and 3. Lower and middle Coal-
measures. The progress of the Government survey has rendered
this possible in all the Carboniferous districts but those of the
S.W. of Ireland, where the details are not yet worked out, and
where consequently the divisions are only tentative.

Ath, Lastly, in representing the trap rocks, whether contempora-
neous or intrusive, an attempt has been made to separate, and
show by distinct colours, the pyroxenic from the felspathic—the
former including diorite (“greenstone”), dolerite, basalt, &c., the
latter including quartziferous porphyry, felstone porphyry, feistone,
trachyte, &c. Many of the principal faults are shown by white

lines.

* Since the above was written, the author, having visited these districts, has come t
the conclusion that the Old Red Sandstone is absent in some places.

estan |

XX.—THE OLD RED SANDSTONE (so cattep) OF IRELAND
IN ITS RELATIONS TO THE ONDHRLYING AND OVER-
LYING STRATA; sey G. H. KINAHAN,. m.p.it.a,. &e.
[ABRIDGED.]| Witra PLATES 6 anp 7.

[Read November 18, 1878. j

A QUARTER of a century ago it was a disputed question whether
the “ Old Red Sandstone” was a separate formation or not ; about
that time, or a few years later, the subject engaged the attention
of the Geological Section of the British Association. It would
seem that, as far at least as the Irish Old Red Sandstone is con-
cerned, a decidedly negative answer must be given to the
question.

The argument consists of two divisions, viz. :—

(1). There is a wide unconformability between what have been
regarded by some as the lower and the upper portions of this
supposed formation; while the lower is joined conformably to
the underlying Silurian,* and the upper is similarly connected
with the overlying Carboniferous strata. The lower part is,
in fact, Silurian and the upper is Carboniferous.

(2). The “Old Red Sandstone” beds, though usually below
the base of the Carboniferous strata, are not always so, but are,
in various places, on the horizons of different parts, sometimes
upper parts of the Carboniferous Limestone, and are sometimes
actually interstratified therewith.

(1). The former of these arguments involves the necessity of a
short historical sketch of the controversy respecting the age of
- the rocks in certain districts of Ireland.

When I joined the Geological Survey, Sir R. Griffith had
mapped the older rocks in West Cork as of Silurian age; while
Jukes was inclined to class them as “Old Red Sandstone.”
Plant remains were found in rocks of the same series in the Kil-
larney district, in the summer of 1855, and farther westward near
Valencia, in the following year, by the fossil collector, C. Galvan.

* It should be borne in mind that ‘‘ Cambro-Silurian ” and ‘Silurian ” mean respec-
tively, in this paper, the formations usually called Lower Silurian and Upper Silurian.

136 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

When theplants were pronounced by Salter to be of Carboni-
ferous types* Jukes considered the question to be finally
settled. Griffith, however, said “ Wait untilthe Dingle district is
examined and you will find that although the plants may be of
Carboniferous types the rocks are Silurians.”

When the Dingle peninsula was examined by Du Noyer, Foot,
and Wynne, it was found that, while there was a great uncon-
formability between the lower and upper divisions of the strata
called Old Red Sandstone, a complete conformability extended
from the lower division downwards into fossiliferous Silurians,
and from the upper division, upwards, into the Carboniferous
Limestone, and thence into the Coal Measures. In the Lower
division, however, no fossilsf could be found ; and those strata
were called “ Dingle Beds,” a title which involved no assumption
as to their age. To this lower division according to both Griffith
and Jukes, the first mentioned rocks near Killarney, near Val-
encia, and in West Cork belong.

Subsequently these rocks were examined by Griffith, Murchi-
son and Jukes conjointly ; and some of the party visited not only
Cork and Kerry but also Galway and Mayo. After this explo-
ration Murchison was inclined to side with Griffith, notwith-
standing the difficulty presented by the plant remains.

But on the other hand, the late Mr. John Kelly showed that
the Dingle Beds have the same stratigraphical position as the
rocks mapped as Old Red Sandstone in the Curlew and Fintona
mountains; while the latter are lithologically similar to the Old
Red Sandstones of the Commeragh and Knockmealdown Moun-
tains, and the Galtees. The classification of the just mentioned
Cork and Kerry rocks was therefore left an open question, until
the rocks in Mayo, Roscommon, Sligo, Fermanagh, and Tyrone,
suggested by Griffith to be of the same age as the Dingle Beds,
were examined.

Jukes, as a believer in the “Old Red Sandstone” formation,
could scarcely act otherwise ; for, as he said at the time, “If you
make the Dingle Beds Silurian you do away with the Old Red
Sandstone.”

* Baily agrees in this opinion.

+ I have since learned from Mr. O'Kelly that fossils like plant stems were subsequently
found in the Dingle beds.

A

On the Old Red Sandstone of Ireland. 137

The question remained in abeyance while the officers of the
Geological Survey were examining the rocks of north-east Mun-
ster ; until about 1864, when Foot declared that he suspected the
rocks of the Curlew Mountains to be “ Dingle Beds.” The fol-
lowing year Jukes examined these rocks for himself, and subse-
quently announced his belief that the lower portion of the so-
styled Old Red Sandstone near Ballaghaderreen, a dozen miles
or more W.S.W. of the Curlew Mountains was probably of the
same age as the Dingle Beds; since it seemed to lie conformably
on similar fossiliferous Silurians, as previously stated by Kelly,
while it was similarly capped unconformably by what all would
regard as true Old Red Sandstone [Carboniferous].

Still it was premature to say what itsage might be, until it and
all the tracts mentioned by Griffith had been systematically ex-
amined.

At thistime I began the work in West Galway and Mayo;
and after seven years careful examination I came to the conclusion
that the oldest rocks there are Cambrians.

These are partially covered, as it would seem, conformably, by
Cambro-Silurians. 1 found that resting unconformably on both of
these are newer rocks; some of which, years ago, were proved by
their fossils to be Silurians, but others of which for atime were con-
sidered to be Old Red Sandstone. All of these are capped uncon-
formably by the acknowledged Old Red Sandstone [Carboniferous].

The rocks extending from Loughs Corrib and Mask, by Maum,
to the Atlantic, on the south of Killary Harbour, had for years
been known co be Silurians ; but the rocks between Toormakeady,
on Lough Mask, and Mweelrea, north of the mouth of Killary
Harbour, as also an isolated tract farther north near Louisburgh,
were at one time supposed, on account of their lithological cha-
racter, to be Old Red Sandstone. Griffith, however, found Silu-
rian fossils at Toormakeady, while subsequently I found such, in
somewhat similar rocks, in the Mweelrea Mountains. It was
either during the exploration in which Griffith found the fossils at
Toormakeady, or on a subsequent occasion, that he came to the
conclusion that all were of Silurian age; the Louisburgh beds being
the newest, and representatives of a portion of the Dingle Beds.”

To the northward of Toormakeady, in the neighbourhood of
Croaghmoyle, there is a large tract of rocks that Jukes, Symes

Scren. Proc. R.D.S., Vou. 11., Pt. 1. TL

138 Scientific Proceedings, Royul Dublin Society.

and myself were convinced must be of about the same age as the
Toormakeady conglomerates, although it was marked in Griffith’s
map as Old Red Sandstone. This led me to seek for an expla-
nation; and when my maps and sections were so far complete as
to be intelligible they were carefully examined and considered
by Griffith. Subsequently I waited on him by appointment, and
in our conversation | learned that the marking of that district, as
also of others on his map, as Old Red Sandstone, was done in com-
pliance rather with received opinion than with his own convic-
tion. That in the so-called “ Old Red Sandstone” formation in
Treland there is amarked unconformability, while part of it ex-
tends downwards conformably into the Silurians, and part of it
upwards similarly into the overlying Carboniferous rocks, That
the rocks of West Cork and adjoining portion of Kerry, of Dingle,
of Toormakeady, of Mweelrea, of Louisburgh, of Croaghmoyle, of
the Curlew and Fintona Mountains were as he believed of nearly
similar Silurian age. That those in West Cork and South Kerry,
Dingle, Toormakeady, Mweelrea and Louisburgh he had had time
to examine properly and had mapped them as Silurians; that
the rest had not been so carefully examined by him, but that in
deference to Portlock’s authority and also because they were
lithologically more or less similar to the Old Red Sandstone [Car-
boniferous] of the Knockmealdowns, the Galtees, and the Comme-
ragh Mountains, he had left them as Old Red Sandstone. But
at the same time he pointed out “ the Toormakeady conglomerates
are also similar, yet I found Silurian fossils in them.”*

In this conversation he also stated “None of my work is guess-
work ; all my conclusions are from personal examination. I can-
not now work these rocks out, and my map must remain as it is ;
the Geological Survey must finish the examination,” or words to
that effect.

After this interview I paid more special attention to this sub-
ject,f and an epitome of the results of my researches (except in
respect to the equivalents of the Dingle Beds) appears in the
recently published “ Manual of the Geology of Ireland.” In that

* Strictly these fossils are not in the conglomerates, but in the beds below them. As
yet, in no place above the Toormakeady conglomerate, have fossils been found; except,
perhaps, in the Greentuff at Mount Party—its position however is uncertain.

+ Previously Foot and myself, in about 1864, had written a paper to show that the
Munster Old Red Sandstone was in part Silurian, andin part Carboniferous. This paper,
however, was not published as Jukes considered it premature.

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On the Old Red Sandstone of Ireland. 139

book I only hint at the age of the equivalents of the Dingle Beds,
because at the time it was being written, more than a year ago,
I was aware that: some of my colleagues were engaged working
out the disputed rocks in the Curlew and Fintona Mountains, and
I supposed they would have given attention to the controversy
concerning theirage. It was not until the book was in print
that I learned that that dispute had been ignored; although Mr.
Berdoe-Wilkinson’s work proved that Jukes’ and Foot’s sur-
mises in respect to the classification of the rocks of the Curlew
Mountains were correct. Then when I felt at liberty to express
my opinion, it was too late to do so, except in the preface of the
book.

Hitherto I have only given a short sketch of the contro-
versy respecting the rocks in the various districts mentioned.
I shall now give a recapitulation of the results which are re-
presented diagrammatically in Plate 6.

Section IL—In West Cork, and Kerry south of Dingle Bay the
“Old Red Sandstone” (Carboniferous) rests conformably on the
“ Glengariff Grits,’ which, as already mentioned, were considered
by Griffithand Jukes to be the equivalents of the “ Dingle Beds,”
(the opinion of such geologists on such a point is scarcely to be
questioned) and by Griffith to be Silurians. The conformability
and continuity in this section are quite exceptional and very. re-
markable. Hither there has been an interesting difference in the
geological histories of this district and of the neighbouring
Dingle Promontory, the relations between the respective phe-
nomena being partially caused by an intervening line of weak-
ness afterwards marked by the great post-Carboniferous fault
that extends along the south side of Dingle Bay and the valleys
of the Flesk and Blackwater, and partially concealed by that
fault ; or the continuity may possibly (though not probably) be
only apparent.

Section I].—This shows the relations of the strata in the
Dingle Promontory and its neighbourhood, The wide unconfor-
mity between the “ Dingle Beds” and the “ Old Red Sandstone ”
(Carboniferous) is indicated at U; a similar break is shown in
the corresponding place in all the following sections.

Section IT].—At Toormakeady, Co. Mayo, are conglomerates
that probably represent the lower portion of the Dingle Beds ;

ScrEn. Proc. R.D.S., Vou. 11., Pa. 11. in

4 io!

140 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

they are, indeed, lithologically somewhat similar to the Comme-

ragh Old Red Sandstone conglomerate ; but in the beds at the base
of the Toor makeady conglomerate oe are Silurian fossils.
Silurian fossils occur also a the very similar rocks of the Mweel-
rea Mountains, north of Killary Harbour. These rocks are
covered unconformably by the Carboniferous strata.

Section IV.—North of Mweelrea, at Clew Bay, are the Louis-
burgh and Clare Island beds representing in part the Dingle
Beds. In these no typical Silurian fossils have been found; but
lithologically they are similar, in part to the Mweelrea pebbly
grits, and in part to the “Salrock Slates ;” the latter being the
highest group in the Galway Silurians.

Section V.—EKast and north-east of the head of Clew Bay are
the Croaghmoyle conglomerates representing in part the Dingle
Beds. No typical fossils have been found in them ; but lithologi-
cally they are similar to the Toormakeady rocks and also to those
in the Curlew Mountains, Cos. Sligo and Roscommon, next to be
mentioned ; while they are capped unconformably by the Carboni-
ferous rocks.

Section VI.—The rocks near Ballaghaderreen and those of the
Curlew Mountains are lithologically more or less similar to those
already mentioned as representing the “Dingle Beds.” They
extend downwards conformably into Silurians which contain
fossils similar to those in the Silurians which, in the Co. Kerry,
underlie the “ Dingle Beds ;” while above, as is the case with the
“Dingle Beds,” they are cut off and are capped unconformably by
the Carboniferous rocks.

Section VII.—The rocks of the Fintona district, Cos. Ferma-
nagh and Tyrone, are lithologically similar to those of the Curlew
Mountains, and they likewise are capped unconformably by the
Carboniferous rocks. They doubtless represent the Dingle Beds.
Of these Portlock states that, in one place, they seem to lie confor-
mably on the Cambro-Silurians. Griffith, however, mentioned to
me in conversation that from information he had received, he
suspected that in this district, as at Toormakeady, there would
eventually be found at or near the base of the Fintona rocks a
bed containing Silurian fossils. This supposition rests solely
upon information supplied to him, which I have not had an
opportunity of verifying.

On the Old Red Sandstone of Ireland. 141

Let it be clearly understood that in no place in the above
discussed rocks of Cork, Dingle, Toormakeady, Louisburgh,
Croaghmoyle, Curlew Mountains, or the Fintona district, have
fossils been found to prove distinctly that they are of Silurian
age. The only indirect evidence of that kind which can be pro-
duced being the fossils in the Mweelrea beds, which may, per-
haps, be on the same geological horizon as the unfossiliferous
rocks of Toormakeady, Louisburgh, Croaghmoyle, the Curlew and
the Fintona Mountains. While on the other hand it must be
admitted that there are the already mentioned plants of Carboni-
ferous type in the Dingle and Glengariff beds. Therefore it is no
doubt possible, that if there really be such a distinct formation as
the “ Old Red Sandstone” those rocks may belong thereto. It is
evident, however, that they are all of similar age ;* and it is surely
inconsistent that if the Dingle and Glengaritf beds with their Car-
boniferous type plantsf are classed with the Silurians, the Curlew
and Fintona rocks should be put in a separate formation and
classed as “ Old Red Sandstone.”

It would appear, then, that the lower and the upper parts of
what has been spoken of as the “ Old Red Sandstone” do not
belong to each other as parts of the same formation, but strati-
graphically are to be classed, respectively, with the strata immedi-
ately below and above them.

(2.) We now come to the second division of our argument
which is that the so-called “Old Red Sandstone” beds may be
sometimes older than the Carboniferous Limestone and sometimes
of the same age as various beds thereof, which beds may be even
at a considerable height in that formation.

In the Co. Kilkenny, to the N.E., of Thomastown, the “ Old Red
Sandstone” comes in as a distinct subdivision at the base of the
Carboniferous Limestone and increases in thickness as it is
followed to the 8.W., still retaining this relative stratigraphical
position.

But N. of the line joining Dublin and Galway the small ex-
posures of so-called “ Old Red Sandstone” appearing through the

* In the Glengariff Grits, the Dingle Beds, the Toormakeady Conglomerates, the
Mweelrea beds, the Curlew rocks and the Fintona rocks, there are peculiar and charac-
teristic felstones and traps that seem to be all of nearly the same age.

+ As the Continental and American Geologists find plants apparently of Carboniferous
typesin the typical Silurians, this evidence against the Silurian age of the Dingle and
Glengariff beds is, at least in part, done away with.

142 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

Limestone in the central plain and in the Cos. Galway and Mayo
(except near Ballaghaderreen) graduate horizontally into lime-
stones, sometimes of Burren or Upper Limestone type, and, are in
reality but shore beds formed by the Carboniferous sea, as ex-
plained in my book already referred to. Moreover in the N.
part of the Co. Dublin conglomerates oceur close under the base
of the Coal Measures; while in the rest of Dublin, Kildare, and
Carlow small patches of red conglomerate have been discovered
seemingly on different geological horizons. These likewise
appear to have been only “shore-beds” margining ancient lands,

And, even more than this, in the Ballycastle Coal-field, in the
N.E. of Antrim, “Old Red Sandstone” (shore beds) occur inter-
stratified with the Coal-bearing Calp.

This is also the case near Draperstown, Co. Derry, where the
Calp is very similar to that of Antrim, except that no workable
coal has been found therein. In Armagh the “Old Red Sand-
stone” is interstratified with the Burren limestone. The last
three localities correspond in this respect that in the rocks associ-
ated with their Old Red Sandstone are found fish remains more
or less similar among themselves, as also to the fish remains in the
Burdie House limestone, Scotland. The sections in Plate 7 show
the relations of the different limestones to their “ Old Red Sand-
stones’ in various places in Ireland.

We have probably now said enough to show that, certainly in
Ireland at least the title “Old Red Sandstone” should not be
applied to any series of rocks, as. indicative that they constitute
a distinct formation. I am glad to be able to state that this con-
clusion is fortified by the opinion of Dr. Haughton, who so far
back as the year 1863, stigmatized the Old Red Sandstone as a
“phantom formation.”

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XXI.—_CAMBRO-SILURIAN AND SILURIAN ROCKS OF
THE SOUTHERN AND THE WESTERN PARTS OF
IRELAND. sy. G. H. KINAHAN, wm.p.a, &e. wir
PLATE 8.

[Read December 16, 1878. |

In this paper it is proposed to give very briefly a general view
of the Cambro-Silurian and Silurian formations, and their rela-
tions to each other, as exhibited in the southward and westward
parts of Ireland.

Cambro-Silurians.—In the “Manual of the Geology of Ireland,”
the Cambro-Silurians are separated into two divisions. This
arrangement, perhaps, might be improved, by adding a third
division, so as to classify the rocks as

3. Upper Series.
2. Ballymoney Series.
1. Dark Shale Series.

In the Slevenaman district, as also in the Galtees, there are
purplish and greenish rocks somewhat like Cambrians in appear-
ance, which Jukesregarded as possibly belonging to that formation.
Until this autumn, I had not seen these rocks for a long time,
some of them not for twenty-five years. I was aware that they
had an aspect somewhat like Cambrians, and was inclined to sus-
pect that they might be of that age. But last year Mr. James
Budd, one of the Council of the Waterford Literary and Scientific
Society, showed that the rocks at the Victoria Slate Quarries, in
the vicinity of those just mentioned, in the Slievenaman district,
contained Cambro-Silurian fossils ; and besides this, when I was
comparing, last autumn, the Cambro-Silurians of Wexford with
those of Munster, it seemed to me that those purplish and
greenish rocks of Slievenaman, the Galtees, and Slieve-na-muck
are higher in stratigraphical order even than the rocks of the
Ballymoney series.

The following appears to be a correct outline sketch of the
rocks which form the subject of this paper. The Cambro-
Silurians of southward and westward Ireland, lie in four about

144 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

E.N.E. and W.S.W. synclinal and anticlinal curves as indicated in
the accompanying section which is only intended to represent
their general position and relations.

In south-east Wexford lying unconformably on the Cambrian,
are rocks of the Dark Shale series, and over the latter are rocks of
the Ballymoney series. But to the N.W. in the Shevenaman
district, county Tipperary, and further westward in the Galtees,
county Limerick, there is also an Upper series. This is the case
also in Slieve Phelim, northward of the last and in Slieve Arra ;
as also in the east portion of Slieve Bernagh, and in the Cratloe
Hills on the other side of the Shannon, in the last of which at
Ballycar there is a colony of Silurian (Upper Llandovery) fossils
—north of the last in the west portion of Slieve Bernagh the
Dark Shales and Ballymoney series are represented, while still
farther north in Slieve Aughta, there seems to be in addition a
slight thickness of rocks belonging to the Upper series.

To the N.W. of Slieve Aughta in west Galway, and8.W. Mayo,
the representatives of the Dark Shale series (Doolough beds) and
Ballymoney series (Croagh Patrick beds) lie, as it would appear
conformably, on an anticlinal of the Cambrian rocks. The age
of the latter can scarcely be disputed; they constitute a series of
strata at least 8,000 feet in thickness, which underlie the Doolough
beds. The Doolough beds both lithologically and in their fossils
represent the Dark Shale series, which, elsewhere in Ireland, occurs
at the base of the Cambro-Silurians; they seem to be equivalents of
the Llandeilos of England which are taken by Dr. Ramsay to be
the base of the English Cambro-Silurians.* Farther N.W. in
Erris or N.W. Mayo, similar rocks lie as it would seem uncon-
formably on Cambrians. Between the Cambrian exposures of
Erris and of West Galway, the district of Cambro-Silurians dis-
plays a great thickness of those rocks, and it is quite possible that
the Upper series is there partly represented; butas all the Cam-
brian and Cambro-Silurian, and indeed a considerable area of
Silurian, are more or less metamorphosed, it is difficult to separate
the rocks into the different groups. If the suggestions in refer-
ence to Erris are correct, it is probable that in N.W. Donegal,
Cambrians crop out somewhere from under the Cambro-Silurians,

It will be seen then from the above, that rocks of the Upper

* Sir Charles Lyell would make the base lower down.

On Cambro-Silurian and Silurian Rocks. 145

series or highest part of the Cambro-Silurian may be seen in the
following places, viz.: in the upland valley east of Slievenaman,
in the Vale of Aherloe (Galtees), in Slieve-na-muck, in Slieve
Phelim, in Slieve Arra, in the Cratloe Hills, in Slieve Bernagh,
and perhaps in Slieve Aughta, and in West Mayo.

Silwrvans.— In a former paper, certain rocks supposed to belong
to this formation are discussed ; (On the Old Red Sandstone—
so called—of Ireland, ante, page 135). The unquestionable
Silurian strata in Ireland always lie with a strongly marked
unconformability upon the Cambro-Silurians.

The oldest rocks of Ireland in which fossils, regarded as indic-
ative of Silurian age, have been found, are those of Ballycar, in
the Cratloe Hills, county Clare, a few miles north of the city of
Limerick. But as these rocks of Ballycar appear to be in and not
on the associated Cambro-Silurians, it seems to me that the
Ballycar rocks are really Cambro-Silurians, and that the just
mentioned fossils of Silurian type occur therein only as a colony.
The probability of this is increased by the occurrence of the
inverse phenomenon elsewhere, to be mentioned presently.

There are three hitherto recognised tracts of fossiliferous
Silurians, namely—lIst, in the Dingle promontory, county Kerry;
2nd, at the junction of Galway and Mayo; and 35rd, at Ballagh-
aderreen in north-east Mayo. Of these the second is the largest,
it is also the one where there is the greatest thickness of strata
exposed. The rocks in this area are both peculiar and interesting,
but as they are fully described in the “Manual of the Geology
of Ireland,” I will not dwell upon them now. I must, however,
mention here these two remarkable circumstances, namcly, that
the characteristic fossil of the highest group (Salrock slates) is
considered by that eminent Palzontologist, Mr. T. Davidson, to be
of Upper Llandovery type ; while here, as also in the Dingle pro-
montory is a zone carrying fossils of a Cambro-Silurian (Caradoc)
type, having above and below it, especially in N.W. Galway, a
considerable thickness of rocks in which are found fossils of Upper
Llandovery types.

The groups of fossils indicative of the age of the English Siluri-
ans, are to some extent mixed up together in the Irish rocks ; on
which account they are not in Ireland a reliable test of the age of
the rocks. Still it would appear that the Irish Silurians probably

146 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

range from the base of the formation upwards; as in all the lowest
rocks fossils of Upper Llandovery and Caradoc types occur. I
may also suggest that in Munster there cannot be a great thick-
ness of strata absent between the Silurians and the Cambro-
Silurians ; because at Ballycar in the Cratloe Hills there are in
the latter the above mentioned colony of Upper Llandovery
(Silurian type) fossils.

I have not examined to any great extent the rocks of these two
formations in Ulster, and therefore cannot add anything from
my own knowledge to what has been ascertained of them by

others.

fold]

XXII.—_ON THE OXIDATION OF IRON IN THE PRESENCE
OF VARTRY WATER. By RICHARD J. MOSS, F.C.S.

[Read December 16, 1878.]

Ir is alleged* that the nitrates and nitrites contained in the
water of the River Vartry, with which Dublin is supplied, are
decomposed in the presence of iron, at a temperature correspond-
ing with that of a steam boiler showing a pressure of 30 lbs. to
the square inch, and that the corrosion of the steam boilers in
which this water is used is mainly due to this reaction. Theore-
tically, such a reduction of nitrogen salts appears most improbable,
and for this reason J have considered it desirable to further in-
vestigate the matter.

It was shown many years ago by Wetzlart that in a saturated
solution of potassium nitrate iron rusts more slowly than in pure
water, pure water being a better solvent for atmospheric oxygen
than the potassium nitrate solution. It would appear then that
in the absence of free oxygen, and at ordinary temperatures,
potassium nitrate in solution is without action oniron. This, I
found, to be the case, by placing bright iron in water containing
various quantities of the salt, in hermetically sealed flasks, the
air and dissolved gases being expelled by ebullition. Ina similar
manner, it was found that iron did not rust in potassium nitrite
solution. In the course of these experiments I observed that,
unless the solutions were boiled for at least thirty mimuies before
the iron was introduced, and for a few minutes after it was intro-
duced, the iron soon tarnished, and in some cases a considerable
quantity of rust was produced. Also, that when bright iron is
placed in cold distilled water containing the normal quantity of
dissolved atmospheric gases, and the water then slowly heated, the
iron becomes highly tarnished before the water has reached the
boiling point.

I next proceeded to examine the behaviour of iron with potas-
sium nitrate and nitrite in solution, at higher temperatures, for
which purpose the following experiments were made :—

1. A solution of potassium nitrate, thoroughly boiled, was

* Chemical News, vol. xxxviii., p. 191, + Gmelin’s Handbook, vol. y., p. 185.

148 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

transferred to a strong tuve of hard glass closed at one end and
contracted at the other; bright piano wire was now introduced,
the liquid again boiled, and while it was boiling the tube was
hermetically sealed. The tube was then exposed in an air bath,
to a temperature of 150° C., for five hours. After this treatment
the liquid contained a quantity of hydrated ferric oxide.

2. This experiment was repeated with great care, the result
being that a much smaller quantity of oxide was produced.

From these results I conclude that a trace of oxygen, which
does not reveal its presence by its action on iron at ordinary tem-
peratures, produces a very decided effect at higher temperatures ;
and it is also evident that sealing tubes in the way described is a
most uncertain method, as it affords no guarantee that atmospheric
oxygen is completely excluded. I, therefore, had recourse to a
modification of the plan described by Bunsen* for obtaining air-
free water. This method is most satisfactory ; even tubes of small
diameter may be filled and sealed without allowing the smallest
trace of air to enter. In this manner I prepared tubes of hard
glass containing bright piano wire in (@.) a solution of 1 per cent.
of potassium nitrite and 1 per cent. of potassium nitrate in dis-
tilled water; (b.) a solution of 1 per cent. of potassium nitrite ;
(c.) a solution of 1 per cent. of potassium nitrate; (d.) Vartry
water concentrated on the water bath to one-quarter of its original
volume.

These tubes were placed in an air-bath provided with an auto-
matic arrangement for maintaining a constant temperature, and
for five consecutive days they were kept for five hours each day
at a temperature of 150° C.; they were examined after each suc-
cessive heating, but in no case could I detect any indication ot
oxidation of the iron. As the experiment proceeded, the glass of
the tubes became slightly corroded, and simultaneously small
quantities of colourless floculent matter, resembling silica, appeared
in the solutions. The action on the glass, and the consequent
alteration in the composition of the solutions, would render
negative results of little value, if previous experiments had not
shown that with similar solutions oxidation of the iron invariably
ensues if atmospheric oxygen has not been completely expelled
from the experimental tubes.

* Bunsen’s Gasometry, p. 142.

Oxidation of Iron in the presence of Vartry Water. 149

It seemed worth ascertaining whether the presence of already-
formed rust determined a further production of oxide under the
conditions of the last described experiments. Accordingly, I sub-
stituted for the bright piano wire, pieces which had been allowed
to rust by exposure to moist air, and of which one half was sub-
sequently cleaned. When these were placed in solutions of nitrate
and nitrite, and submitted to a temperature of 156° C., no further
production of oxide could be detected.

I have also investigated the behaviour of iron in these solutions
at higher temperatures, and I have ascertained that at tempera-
tures not exceeding 270° C. (the highest temperature I could
conveniently command) iron is not oxidized in air-free solutions
of potassium nitrate or nitrite. This temperature greatly exceeds
that of steam boilers, as it corresponds to a pressure of nearly 700
lps. on the square inch.

These results fully justify the conclusion that iron does not
reduce potassium nitrate or nitrite in solution at temperatures
below 270° C. That a contrary opinion could have been arrived
at is only explicable on the supposition that the method employed
for excluding atmospheric oxygen from the experimental tubes
was not effectual. When water containing a small quantity of
saline matter is used in steam boilers no scale is produced, conse-
quently the plates are quite unprotected from the action of the
oxygen with which they come in contact, under circumstances
highly favourable to oxidation. Boilers that are in constant use
are proportionately less injured than those that are frequently
allowed to cool; for, in the latter case, the dissolved oxygen is
renewed by the exposure of the water to the air which enters the
boiler, Vartry water taken from the service tap in the Laboratory
of the Royal Dublin Society in December, at a temperature of
4° C., contained per litre 26°46 cc. of dissolved gases, having the
following composition :—

Nitrogen, : : 5 . 5 . 2 67-46
Oxygen, : : : : - : : 30°50
Carbon dioxide, . ‘ F : ; a 2-04

100-00

It would take nearly 4,000 gallons of this water to yield enough
dissolved oxygen for the conversion of 1 Ib. of iron into rust; but

150 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

if the water is employed in a boiler to which air has frequent
access, it would, of course, be impossible to assign any limit to the
oxidation that may take place. The corrosion produced by the
dissolved gases alone might be a long time in operation without
doing much harm, if it were evenly distributed ; this, however, is
not the case, the corrosive action being for the most part confined
to a few spots, and thus serious injury often results from a com-
paratively small amount of oxidation. The most convenient re-
medy is one that has been for many years employed in soft water
districts—viz., the addition of a small quantity of sodium or
potassium carbonate to the water. I have found that the smallest
proportion of the alkaline salt that can be employed with success
is one part by weight to two hundred of water. A piece of bright
iron partly immersed two years ago in water, containing 0°5 per
cent. of sodium carbonate, is still quite bright, and even that part
of the iron which was not immersed, but freely exposed to the
air, is perfectly free from rust.

——

Tes hee

XXITI.—GEOLOGICAL NOTES ON THE STRUCTURE OF
MIDDLE AND NORTH DEVONSHIRE, MADE DURING
A WALKING TOUR IN DEVONSHIRE IN THE SUM-
MER OF 1878, sy tHe Rev. Dr. HAUGHTON, F.1.0.p., F.R.s.

[Read 20th January, 1879.]

DurinG the course of last summer I had an opportunity of

visiting in a walking tour those portions of central and northern

Devonshire with which I was not previously acquainted, and I

propose to bring under your notice such general results as can be

obtained by a geologist on such an excursion.

It has been proposed to explain the structure of the Devonian
rocks by the aid of a “fault,” but, in my opinion, such an attempt
is not justifiable, unless very clear evidence is obtained of the
existence of a “fault.” I visited Devonshire last summer for the
second time, after an interval of about five and twenty years, and
believe that its geological structure may be represented, without
any hypothesis as to a “fault,” in the following manner :—

The uppermost of the Devonian rocks form a synclinal axis
half-way between Hartland, Clovelly, Bideford, Appledore,
Barnstaple, and South Molton on the north, and Tintagel Head,
Launceston, and Okehampton on the south; on the northern
and southern edges of the synclinal beds above indicated a broad
band of calcareous flinty slate and flagstone crops out, which I
had an opportunity of examining at Okehampton on the south,
and at Barnstaple on the north.

On the southern outerop, near Okehampton, the calcareous slate
beds overlie beds of white and yellow sandstone, and these, in
their turn, lie upon the granites of Ys Tor, which is the northern
edge of the granitic outburst of Dartmoor forest.

The calcareous slates west of Okehampton dip to the north-
west at an angle of about 35°, but in consequence of their impurity
have long since ceased to be used as a source of lime for manure,
as is evidenced by the line of abandoned quarries and limekilns
along their outcrop.

On the northern edge of the synclinal beds south of Barnstaple
I found the same calcareous flinty slate beds as at Okehampton,
dipping due south, and believe I am justified in regarding the
whole of the Devonshire rocks between Barnstaple and
Okehampton as forming an east and west synclinal basin,

152 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

The rocks in many places on the northern part of this synclinal
show signs of violent horizontal pressure along the north Devon-
shire cliffs, more particularly near Hartland Point, E. of Hartland
Point and W. of “ Gallantry Bower,” Clovelly Point, and further
east near Clovelly.

To the north of Barnstaple are found the celebrated beds of
Cucullea sandstone, and the sandstones containing plant remains,
of Baggy Point and Marwocd; which are now generally regarded
as lower carboniferous, and comparable with similar beds well
developed in the south of Ireland.*

Still further to the north occurs the well-known band of
marine limestone, passing from Ilfracombe, through Berry Narbor,
and running east towards Exmoor forest.

This band of limestone, as well as the superincumbent slate rocks
to the westward at Bull and Morte Points, dips to the south. To
the N. of this calcareous band, at Lynmouth and Lynton, the rocks
consist of horizontal flaggy sandstones, forming the summit of
an anticlinal axis half-way between Ilfracombe and Minehead, in
Somersetshire. These sandstones are the lowest and oldest rocks
in north Devonshire.

At Minehead the rocks are formed of highly contorted strata,
of red sandstone at the base, covered by thick beds of yellow
sandstone, with a general dip to the E. of N.

The following is a rough estimate of the thicknesses of the
several parts of the Devonian rocks :—

Devonian Proper.
1°. From the lowest beds at Lynmouth, occupying the summit
of the great anticlinal (flaggy horizontal beds) to the Ilfracombe
marine limestones, 4,400 feet.
2°. From the Ilfracombe limestones to the Cucullea and plant
beds of Baggy Point and Marwood, 5,200 feet.

Carboniferous Proper.
3°. From the Cucullwa and plant beds to the flinty calcareous
slates of Barnstaple, 2,200 feet.
4°, The synclinal trough lying between the flinty Barnstaple beds
and the impure limestone beds of Okehampton, 4,600 feet.

_* This view was put forward by me ina paper read before the Geological Society of
Dubdlinin January, 1855. Journal, Geol. Soc, Dublin, Vol. VI., pp. (227-241). ’

[1530]

XXIV.—ON THE ARTICULATION OF THE HUMAN VOICE,
AS ILLUSTRATED BY THE LOGOGRAPH... By. W... H.
BARLOW, F.z.8., v.P. INsTITUTE OF Cly1L ENGINEERS.

[Read March 18, 1878.]

The instrument called the Logograph was described in a Paper
read before the Royal Society in April, 1874.

It is constructed so as to exhibit, diagrammatically, the effects
of those pneumatic actions which accompany the production of
articulated sounds.

It is also capable of showing the presence and duration of
vowel sounds, or of the vibratory action which accompanies them.

The pneumatic effect is shown by the movement of the marker
from its normal position.

The vowel sound is made apparent by a rapid vibratory
movement of the marker, occasioned by the vibratory action of
those organs which operate in the production of sound.

The instrument consists uf a small speaking-trumpet, about
four inches long, fastened into a wooden frame which will stand
on an ordinary table, in a convenient position to be spoken into
by a person sitting at the table. The mouthpiece of the trumpet
may be of the ordinary form and material, or made elastic by
Indian rubber.

The other end of the trumpet is widened out to an aperture of
about 21 inches diameter,

The accompanying figure shows the working part of tue instru-
ment in plan,

a, a, », b, is the speaking-trumpet of which 6, b, is the mouth-
piece.

Scien. Proc. R.D.S, Vou. 1, Pt. 11. M

154 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

The aperture @ a is covered with a thin membrane of Indian
rubber, such as is used for toy balloons, and is strengthened round
its edges by a narrow strip of gold-beaters skin.

A very light arm of aluminium J /, fixed by the screws s s, and
having the small stud d upon it, is made to press lightly against
the membrane, and carries at its end the marker m, which consists
of a small and very fine sable brush.

A continuous strip of paper is made to pass beneath the marker
in the same manner as is employed in telegraphy.

To provide for the escape of the air, a small orifice f is made
in the tube of the mouthpiece.

The pneumatic pressure exerted on the membrane is that due
to the difference between the quantity of air forced into the
trumpet in speaking, and that which can be delivered through
the orifice in a given time.

The strength of the spring of the aluminium arm and the
size of the orifice in the tube require to be adjusted, so that,
while the lightest pressures can be recorded, the movement due
to the greatest pressures shall not exceed certain limits.

When the object is to record whispering, or speaking, without
recording the vowel sounds, it is sufficient to allow the small
stud on the arm to press against the membrane. In this
adjustment the instrument is very sensitive; so that in a long
sustained action of breath the pulsations of the heart are shown.

In order to record vowel sounds, the stud must be fastened
to the membrane by gum or glue, and for the greatest development
of this action, it is best to dispense with the aluminium arm
altogether, and to glue a small marker directly on to the
membrane.

This arrangement is, however, not so good in other respects; in
consequence of a lateral action which arises when the line of
motion of the marker is not controlled by the arm.

Some consonant actions, such as K and the hard G, have a
negative pneumatic action, that is, the marker is first drawn
towards the mouthpiece and then projected from it.

If the marker is made to move in the plane of the paper it
records all the movements. If the plane of the marker is inclined
slightly downwards the connecting line at the bottom does not
appear, and the syllables stand separate. In doing this, however,

On the Articulation of the Human Voice. 155

some of the effects are lost. The quantity of air which passes
through the trumpet averages about 14 cubic inches for a syllable,
but varies greatly in different syllables.

Action of the Logograph.

The simplest sounds which can be uttered are vowel sounds.

They are made by the expulsion of air from the mouth when
the larynx and other organs of articulation are in certain states
and conformations.

When the instrument is adjusted to exhibit them they appear
in the form shown in the Diagrams on page 172.

The term consonant indicates some defined manner of com-
mencing or ending a syllable.

A sonorous* syllable may be of four different constructions, viz. :

1. A vowel sound alone.
. A vowel sound commenced by consonant action.
A. vowel sound terminated by consonant action.
. A vowel sound commenced and terminated by consonant
action.

bo

um

When the Logograph is adjusted to show the consonant action
the following effects arise.
If the sound be is made, the diagram produced is

Sa

and if it is preceded by breathing or any vowel sound, it becomes

ecm ee

2

In this diagram, 1 shows the preparatory action of closing the
lips; 2 is a pause, during which pneumatic pressure accumulates
within the mouth; 3 is the consonant action, in this case positive,
made by opening the lips suddenly; 4 is the discharge of air
accompanied by the vowel sound; and the remainder of the figure
shows the manner in which the pneumatic pressure subsides to
zero.

* The word sonorous is used because it will be seen that there are other syllabic actions
besides those accompanied by vowel sounds.

bo

Scien. Proc. R.D.S., Vou. 1, Pr. m1. M

156 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

The diagram obtained from eb is

SE Varia yen

6
In this case 4’ shows the vowel sound; 5 the consonant action,
in this case negative, made by closing the lips; 6 is a pause,
during which the mouth is left charged with air; and 7 is pro-
duced by releasing the lips and discharging the confined air,
which causes a re-action similar to the consonant be, but smaller
in amount, and without a vowel sound.
ab.
Spa iak Si le Noe
In the diagram of eb-—ab, and in many of the diagrams of
syllables commencing with a vowel sound, the first action shows
a short and nearly vertical line, and then the slope or curve of
the vowel sound. ‘This short line is probably due to the
“ sniritus lenis” described by Max Miiller.
In the syllable beb the whole of these actions arise
A
NOE) EPC
2 6
and for the purpose of distinction they may be called by the
following names :—
(1) the preparation,
(2) the pre-pause,
(3) the positive (consonant) action,
(4) the vowel sound,
(5) the negative (consonant) action,
(6) the sub-pause,
(7) the re-action.
If we take the double syllable eb—be

the NS ere
the sub-pause of the first syllable coincides with the pre-pause
ofthe second; and the reaction of the first syllable combines
with, and assists to form, the consonant action of the second.
It is necessary to be exact in what may be termed the anatomy
of syllabic action; because the pauses and actions of one class of
consonants do msi accord with those of another class; in con-

Z

On the Articulation of the Human Voice 157

sequence of the different organs and mechanism employed to
produce them.
For if, instead of eb—be, we say eb—te, the diagram becomes
Lace shih
in which the sub-pause and re-action of eb stands separate from

the pre-pause and positive action of the following t.

The effects above described are formed in all the sudden con-
sonant actions P, B, T, D, K, G (hard), and also in the nasals
M and N, in the sounding of which letters some of the pneumatic
pressure passes off through the nose, and the diagrams are less in
height.

In the letters which may be termed “ Pnewmonics,” such as
F, V,S, Z, &c., the same pauses occur in the vowel sound; but
the escape of air during the pauses, which is the characteristic of
these letters, renders the action less evident in the Logograph.

The first three classes of consonant action which attract atten-
tion are :—

1st. Those made or controlled by the lips, called labials.

2nd. Those made by the front part of the tongue, called lin-
guals.

3rd. Those made by the back part of the tongue, called gut-
turals.

They may be put in the following order :—

Labials. Linguals. Gutturals.
Percussive | Elap ms i ie
. Flat. B D G (hard)
aren ic. { Sharp F Th (as in think)
Flat V Th (as in this)
Nasal M N Ng or nasal g

The rough R is a vibratory movement of the tongue, produced
not by muscular action, but by passing a current of air past the
tongue in such a manner as to cause it to vibrate like the reed of
a clarionette.

This action can be kept up as long as a current of sufficient
force can be maintained, and it operates as strongly in whisper-
ing as in speaking,

* The letters wanting to complete this list are the pneumonic linguals L and R, which
are considered separately below, and the pneumonic gutturals, which are absent from the
English language, though heard in the German, modern Greck, Keltic, and other lan-
guages.

158 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

The diagram formed by it is

‘hangatwatayeAnrngcsneel roman eae agg OUR

The smooth R is always preceded by a vowel, and appears to
have the characteristics of a vowel. This letter will be referred
to again under the head of vowel sounds.

The letter Lis of the class of linguals, and, like R, is a con-
tinuous pneumic; that is, a continuous stream of air must be
kept up while the action is made.

The parts of the tongue employed appear to be the same as for
the rough R, but the movement is controlled by the muscles. The
action of this consonant will be seen in the diagram of the words
“the lilies of the valley,” page 172.

There are four simple sibilants, or hissing consonants (pneu-
monics»,

S, Z, Sh, and Zh,
the latter two not having any proper single alphabetical signs
allotted to them in English, although as perfectly simple as the
former two. G soft and J are compound sibilants phonetically
identical. Ch soft is another. The hissing sound of these con-
sonants is equally heard in whispering and in speaking aloud.

The diagram of the syllable ses

et en te Ne

The pre-pause 2 is a hiss which is stopped by the vowel sound,
and repeated in the sub-pause 6 and re-action 7.

The aspirate H is not accompanied by the movement of any
parts of the mouth; it is in effect a sudden commencement of
vowel action, preceded by, and made during, the expulsion of air
from the mouth.

The diagrams of ah and hah become

ah. ah. hah. hah.

asa Se fe eu we ey ENO fe

The letters Q, or rather Qu, as it occurs in English, and X are
compounds; the one being KW with the vowel sound following ;
the other KS with the vowel sound preceding.

W and Y partake of the character of vowels as much as of
consonants.

Their action as consonants appears to be limited to the com-

On the Articulation of the Human Voice. 159

mencement of syllables; and even in this action nearly similar
effects can be produced by vowel sounds.

It will be observed in the several diagrams of words and sen-
tences that in syllables commencing with the labials P, B, and M
there is a tendency to a slight rise in the pre-pause just before
the consonant action begins, and that the diagrams of T, D, and N
show a slight fall, or negative action, in the pre-pause, and that
in K and G (hard) there is a strong negative action.

The diagrams of M and N are of much less vertical height than
those of other consonants, in consequence of a considerable quan-
tity of the air passing through the nose.

In the diagrams of the pneumonic letters F, V,S, Sh, Th sharp,
and Th flat there is considerable variation of form depending on
the quickness with which they are pronounced; but the general
form of the diagrams of F, V, 8, and Sh is curved. That of Th
is nearly vertical.

COMBINED AND COMPOUND CONSONANTS.

The mechanism of the mouth permits of some consonant actions
being combined with others ; in some cases, however, the conjoined
consonants form compounds rather than combinations ; but the
actions follow each other so quickly that they sound to the ear
as if combined.

They may be divided into three classes :—

1. Those which can only be used positively—that is, with a
vowel sound following, as br, bl, gr, kl, &e.

2. Those which can only be used negatively—that is, with
a vowel sound preceding, as mp, nt, kt, pt, &e.

3. Those which can be used either positively or negatively,
as sp, st, sk, &e.

In class 1 the presence of both actions is plainly visible in the
diagrams. 7

In class 2 the re-actions are those of the last consonant, but
generally rendered with greater force than the reactions of tho
same consonants when preceded by a vowel sound only.

In class 3, if the vowel sound precedes, as in esp, est, esk.

est, esp, esk,

x

the combination is complete, and the re-action strong.
* The mark * signifies the re-action.

160 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.
But if a vowel follows, the combination is imperfect, and the s
becomes separated by the pre-pause of the hard consonant, as in

spe; ste, ske.

Li Sa OS FO

When combinations are made by placing hard consonants be-
fore s, the action last mentioned is reversed ; thus

pst, ksi, tshi or chi,

BOSON

form combinations.
But in ips, its, tks,

pS, its, tks,

the result shows the negative action of the hard consonant with
the positive action of s combined to some extent with the pre-
ceding consonant re-action.

There are also triple compounds, as U.fth in twelfth; to which
may be added the plural s, making a quadruple compound.
Twelfths is a difficult word to pronounce clearly, and the dia-

gram indicates a division, showing /f as the negative action, and
ths in the re-action.

Twelf-ths. Twelfths.

The word strengths, which has nominally eight consonants and
one vowel, is phonetically

str. -e- ng.th.s.

that is—two triple compound consonants, one beginning and the
other ending with s.
The diagram of this word is

PAGING

s treng ths.

showing s separate at the beginning and ths as the re-action at
the end, and “treng” forming a central syllable.

On the Articulution of the Human Voree, 161

DOUBLE RE-ACTION.

When a syllable terminates with a compound formed of two
hard, or percussive, consonants, there is a double re-action—as, for
example, in the words

apt, helped,
Bema AS PS lw ke ee
Fhe: Te
abrupt.
pea gp al ola Sa

In these and similar cases it is obvious that the vowel action
must terminate in the negative action of the first consonant,
which in these examples is p ; and the presence of the ¢ or d is only
made known by the re-action, which is without any vowel
sound.

In some French words, such as étre, métre, &c., the silent re-
action is very strongly developed; probably from the force necessary
to produce the consonantal compounds in such words. In these
and many similar cases the re-action assumes the form of a
whispered syllable.

These re-actions without vowel sound give rise to the con-
sideration that the sensation of percussion operates independently
of any vowel sound, and that we know what is spoken, not only
by vowel sounds and the manner in which these sounds are
begun and ended, but also by the pneumatic percussions or
pressures which accompany them, and which, though not heard
may be felt.

etre, etre, metre. metre.
= e Aa He
et. et. meet. met,

VOWEL SOUNDS.

All the vowel sounds produce a vibratory action on the mem-
brane of the Logograph sufficient to show the duration of the
sound and its position in the diagram; but the scale of the

diagram is too small, and the arrangement of the instrument is
~ not adapted, to show those changes which distinguish one vowel
sound from another, with which we are already acquainted,

162 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

through the discoveries of Helmholtz and the investigations of
Léon, Scott, Konig, and others.

The vibratory action in the Logograph appears to depend
mainly on the pitch of the fundamental note, and to be but little
aftected by those harmonics and their compounds which have
been shown by Helmholtz to govern the differences in vowel
sounds.

If the gamut be sung into the mouth-piece, although more
than one note will produce vibration, yet its greatest develop-
ment is found at some one note, which may be assumed that
corresponding with the vibration rate of the membrane in its then
state of tension; and the best exhibition of vowel action is
obtained by speaking in a monotone upon such note when dis-
covered by trial.

The diphthongs appear to indicate some check in the action
when the sound changes ; but it is difficult to determine.

The long, simple vowel sounds, used in English, which can be
made without any alteration of the organs during their action,
appear to be—

00 (as in COO), 0, ad, ee, ev, ah, awe.

The three latter are not generally given as vowels, but they
appear to be so.
The sound of er is that heard in the French de, ce, que, &e.
The French also use two vowel sounds, ew and ewr, not found in
English. The sound of the French eur is given by Max Miiller
as a diphthong.
In addition to the simple long vowels, we have the diphthongs
formed by their combinations, and another series derived from
pronouncing the vowel sounds short, as in pit, pat, pet, &e.
Besides the great variety thus produced in vowel sounds,
there appears also to be the fundamental note itself. The sound
referred to is that heard between the syllables
el—tlee,

in which case it comes from the mouth, and
em—me,

in which it comes from the nose.

It is heard when words are spoken by people at such a distance
that the fact, only, of conversation is sensible to the ear, the articu-

On the Articulution of the Human Voice. 163

lation not being distinguishable ; as in the case of conversation in
an adjoining room. It is the sound uttered by a hesitating speaker
when at a loss for an idea; and it enters into language in certain
unaccented syllables, such as the final ones in broken, seven,
bottle, &c.

In Walker’s Dictionary, and to some extent in others, the pro-
nunciation of such syllables is represented without any vowel
sound; butthere is evidently vowel sound of some kind; and it
is suggested that the sound heard may be the fundamental note
without any of those harmonics which constitute and distinguish
vowels proper.

It is to be observed that in these cases the consonant action,
also, as shown by the Logograph, is in a subdued state. For
example, in the word battle, and others in the diagrams, the second
¢t is imperfect, or else a different consonant, and the operation of
the organs of the mouth used in producing it, is different from
that appropriate to the true consonant t.

The description of the ¢ now referred to appears to correspond
to the ¢ No. 2 mentioned by Max Miiller as occurring in Sanskrit.

The same author says, “ All consonants fall under the category of
noises” due to the working of the mechanism employed in produc-
ing them; but he considers the class termed “medize” or soft
checks (our flat percussives) to be accompanied by the tone of the
voice.

In examining the diagrams of the Logograph it will be seen that,
under certain circumstances, the consonant actions appear as dotted
lines. This is an indication that sound accompanies them ;—a
curious confirmation of the views set forth by Max Miiller.

JOINTING SYLLABLES TO ForM WORDS.

The syllables of words may be jointed by simple consonants in
two ways.

1, by simple re-action of the consonant.

2, by a change of consonant action.

In the first case the consonant actions can be brought closer
together and pronounced more clearly and quickly than when
jointed in any other way.

164 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

The following are examples :—
Trigonometrical. Incompatibility.

Perpendicularity.

pie aw) AG NA eee
Tn the second class of words, that is when the consonant action
changes, the position of the organs of the mouth at the end of
one syllable is not suited to commence the next, and a change of
action has to take place which requires more time,
As in ob-tain, sub-tend, sack-but, cap-tain.

ob-tain. sub-tend.
i Se
sack-but. cap-tain.

In this jointing there is in effect a suppressed syllable, which,
if inserted by making the words
ob-bit-tain, sub-bet-tend, sack-keb-but, cap-pet-tain,
or 0b-i-tain, sub-e-tend, sack-e-but, cap-e-tain,
makes very little difference in the length of the word.

There are many words in which this broken joint in the sylla-
bication is bridged over by the introduction of the letter s, as in
“ extinct,” “abstain,” &c., in which cases the ‘s’ takes the place
of the missing syllable, and appears as a syllable in the diagrams,

abstain.

BI WARNS

oy x:
It also appears that although change of consonant action during

the pauses occupies more time than when making the joint by
repeating the consonant, yet that changes of consonant action
made during a vowel sound expedite and facilitate articulation ;
so that syllables commenced with one consonant and ended with
another are more easily pronounced than when begun and ended
with the same consonant.

thus pittip pittip is easier to pronounce

than pip pip pip pip,

or tet tat tit tit.

extinct,

On the Articulation of the Human Voice. 165

If with sylables beginning and ending with the same consonant
change of consonant action is made in the pauses, the difficulty of
pronouncing is further increased, as is felt in pronouncing pip tit
kik, as compared with pittikkip, so that the form of word most
readily pronounced is that which changes its consonant action
during the vowel sounds, and repeats it, or re-acts upon the con-
sonant in the pauses between the syllables,

pip tit sik pittikkip.

When one syllable ends with a vowel and the next begins with

a consonant, as in

o-bey,
the pneumatic action of the consonant is doubled ; and whether
it is doubled also in the sound conveyed to the hearer depends
on whether the preparation for the consonant action is made by
the speaker at, or after, the time that the vowel sound ceases.

Effects of a corresponding character arise when the first syl-
lable ends with a consonant and the second begins with a vowel,
as in

um-ert.

Jointing by change of vowel sound, as in vial, duel, flour, or
flower, &c., is the least distinct of any mode of syllabication.
The indistinctness arises from the gradual manner in which
vowel sounds (except when aspirated) commence and terminate.

The last mode of jointing is by compound consonants.

The tendency of articulation in this case is to select one of the
consonant actions which can be doubled consistently with the
phonetic result, and to make the joint by doubling that con-
sonant,

Thus paliry has a tendency to become palt-try,

sundry % 5 sund-dry,
ante 7 of ant-te,
helpless 7 help-pless.

And this tendency to re-acting upon one consonant is so great
as to bring about compounds which we are not accustomed to
consider as such.

The diagrams of the words wninterruptedly, nightly, gallantly,

166 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

prove the action to be uninterrupted-dly, night-tly, gallant-tly,
unin ter rup ted ly. sepia

oF uaa dS ae uel Ny yeaa

gallantly.

e————___

showing the compound of “ dly” and “tly” in the last syllables.

ACCENTUATION.

The function of accent is to regulate the relative amounts of
force, and the relative intervals of time with which the syllables
composing a word aré uttered.

The time required for the utterance of the syllables themselves,
when spoken separately, depends on the nature of the consonants
and vowels employed in them.

The space occupied by one syllable formed of compound con-
sonants and a long vowel is sometimes more than that required
for two syllables formed of simple consonants and short vowels
including the pause between them.

Tn short syllables accent operates on the duration of the pauses,
In long syllables it operates on the duration of the vere sound
as well as on the pauses.

Whether the effect which accent produces on the intervals of
time is a consequence of the variations of force, or a separate
action, is not clear; but there is an apparent spmpathy between
them.

Comparing the diagrams of the words at’titude, at’tribute,
majesty, with atten’tion, attri’ bute, majestic, it will be seen that the
effect of changing the accent from the first to the second syllable
is to increase the interval of time between them, and to change the
position of the second syllable with regard to the first and third.

a ttitude. attribute. majesty.
atten'tion. attri bute. majestic.

On the Articulation of the Human Voice. 167

Changes of time arise, also, by changes of accent in two-syllable
words, as shown by the following examples. But it is remarkable
that the change of accent from the second to the first syllable in
the words “conduct” and “contract,” increases the distance be-
tween the syllables; whereas in “ produce” and “object” it
shortens the distance :—

con-du'ct. co'n-duct.
ic alee
con-tra'ct. co'n-tract.
pro-du'ce. pro'-duce.
ob-je'ct. ob' ject.

a ar

In these and similar cases the meaning of the words and the
parts of speech to which they Lelong become changed by the sole
action of the change of accent.

In long words, and particularly in words built up of other
words, there may be sub-dominant accents, as well as a general
dominant of the whole word.

The general effect of accent is to impart a particular character
and individuality to groups of syllables. It is not entirely limited
to distinguishing one syllable aniong the others of a single word.
When several words of one syllable come in succession the Logo-
graph shows that they are spoken almost, if not quite, as quickly
as the syllables comprising a word ; and in these cases the effect
of accent is distinctly traceable among them, causing them to
group themselves in certain ways. This action, though almost
insensibly given by the speaker, has, no doubt, the effect of ren-
dering the words more distinct to the hearer.

The absence of any indication of accent in our written language
renders it impossible to arrive at the pronunciation of new words
without oral communication of their sound.

A writer named Clavigero, referring to the language of the
Mexican Indians, gives, as a specimen of their mode of com-
bination, the word notlazomahuit:teopixcatalzin ; the meaning

168 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

of which is said to be “my very worthy father,” or “my very
reverend Priest ” ; but from the absence of accentuation the letters
fail to convey any idea of the pronunciation.

Punch thus describes a similar difficulty with the word
« Langalibalele” ; and the manner in which he puts it is a forcible
example cf the difficulty resulting from the absence of accent.

“ Some men may praise and some denounce you,
« But tell me—how shall I pronounce you ?
“There’s something of a southern sea

“Tn soft Lan-gali-bale-le.

“Thus spoken,—Langa-liba-lele,

“ You'd rhyme, not reason, with Kenealy

“But if in dactyls, Langali-balele ;

“ Oh, what a wonderful rhyme to Galilee!”

Emphasis has the effect of bringing certain words into
prominence as compared with others.

Its effect, as it appears in the Logograph, is to create changes
in the force and in the intervals of time with which words are
uttered.

It is, however, only an adjunct of speaking, which may, or may
not, be employed.

‘Or it may be varied in degree, or changed from one word to
another in a sentence, according to the impression intended to
be conveyed to the hearer.

In this respect it differs entirely from accent, which is a fixed
property of words and an integral part of their pronunciation.

Conclusion.

It will be seen that the Logograph enables the processes of
articulation to be examined in considerable detail.

Even in the comparatively rough treatment here given to the
subject we are enabled, toa certain extent, to trace up articulation
through its various stages, from the most simple forms to the
more complex structures which form words of several syllables.
We obtain some insight into its three principal elementary actions,
namely, vowel sounds, consonant action, and accentuation, and
it becomes evident that articulated language is subject to certain
laws or modes of action, of which the languages spoken by different
nations are only special illustrations.

169

EXPLANATION OF DIAGRAMS ON PaGeEs 170=172.

All the whispered words are marked with W. Those marked with 8
are spoken. The whispered diagrams are generally more perfect than
those which are spoken. The difference appears to arise from the dis-
turbing influence of the vibratory action of the vowel sounds, even in
those cases where, from the adjustment of the instrument, the full
vibratory action is not visible.

Tn all the diagrams the silent re-actions are marked with a *.

In many of the diagrams words are repeated to show the degree of
exactness which can be attained.

Page 170.—All the words here represented are spoken, and are in-
tended to show the effect of compound consonants or double re-action.

Page 171.—Shows the effect of different adjustments of the instru-
ment and different speeds.

Page 172.—Examples of vowel sounds and whispering.

Soren. Proc. R.D.S., Vou. 11, Pa. it. x

170

ae NA

"J9D.64D/) JOUI0A T

we

an ' * wae ——— oe
e&

podung ‘gdulos J

‘SNOILOV-AY]s GTANOG ENV SLN¥NOSNO{) aNhodnoy

“pada yy

“bof aururbay qns sUDqnoast ayngod my auhquy

‘burhins

eS mala Ne

‘pepwoap haa mou sr uoyon haoywaqua OUT ‘papwoap fwaa mow sr WOUND h.LoWLgQra BY 7,

‘Kayoa ayy fo sayvy ey ‘haywa ayy fo soyry OUT,

smn ppm «ay? au IY NM ‘buahins saanm pm ay? am

‘doap 04} UO 82 amoy wary ‘2anm umzunoU U2 WO Sy Youn way ‘daags ay) Buow s.1amoz ox ‘SYADNING OU SpoaU DIUDIWUET

“worn ndvun pr "Uounjsafiun pyr ‘S007 Wourgadaar "S701 wouryadaar

[ #73 ]

XXV.—ON HY BRASIL, A TRADITIONAL ISLAND OFF
THE WEST COAST OF IRELAND, PLOTTED IN A MS.
MAP, WRITTEN BY SIEUR TASSIN, GEOGRAPHER
ROYAL TO LOUIS XIII., sy W. FRAZER, F.x.c38.1., with
PLATE 9.

[Read January 20, 1879. ]

THE French maps of the Geographer Royal, Le Sieur Tassin, in
which he gives the different districts and fortified towns of France,
with interesting views of the towns themselves, were published in
1634 ; they were re-issued more than once, the last time being in
1652, The copy which I obtained was made additionally interest-
ing by its containing beautiful plans, drawn by Tassin himself, of
several royal fortresses, which were strengthened by Cardinal
Richelieu, and also bird’s-eye views of Cazal and Evreux.

In the commencement of the volume laid down to scale is a MS.
map of the opposite coasts of France and Britain, which I believe
to be of scrupulous avcuracy, even in rather minute details, and
evidently the work of a man who knew the coast thoroughly.
Following this is the special map I wish to direct attention to at
present. It is entitled a “Chart of the Islands and Maritime
Coasts of Europe, in which we see the Route and Navigation of
the Hollanders by the North of Ireland and Scotland during the
wars with the English for the German Ocean.”

This course is laid down from Holland along the N orwegian
coasts, whence two diverging paths are described—one round the
north of Shetland, or “Hetland,”’ and carried to the south of
the Ferro Islands; the other, a fair-weather course, passes be-
tween Fair Island and Fula or Foula, joins the other line, and then
passes inside of Rockall, or, as it is written, Rookal; it then con-
tinues along the western coast of Ireland, and Brasil is laid down
in its proper place, much in the position now ascertained to be
occupied by the “ Porcupine Bank ;” hence the course continues
direct to Rochelle.

The map is evidently not designed as a fanciful sketch. Every
sailing point and headland has been laid down by a skilful Geo-
grapher, who either passed over the track himself, or compiled it

174 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

from the observations of persons who knew it thoroughly, and
this at a time when no British ship appears to have sailed these
western seas, though Dutch and French sailors must have made
it a daily thoroughfare for their commerce.

Let me call attention to another curious matter. Rockall is
represented in this map as consisting of two adjacent islands—a
larger and smaller one. Well, in the cruise of H.M.S. Porcupine
two similar banks are represented, one of large size, as occupying
the place where now only one comparatively small rock remains
above the waters.

In Surgeon Alex. Fisher’s History of the Voyage of the Hecla
and Griper in 1821, we have a description of Rockall and of a
search made, of course unsuccessfully, for another phantom land,
“The Sunken Land of Busse.” ‘“ Monday, 24th—We had a distant
view of that remarkable insulated rock, called Rockall. It looked
at the distance we were from it (between four and five leagues)
exactly like a ship under sail; it was reported indeed by the
person who first saw it to be a strange vessel. If we estimated
our distance from it at all correctly, its situation, as determined
by H. M. Ship, Endymion, is very accurately laid down (lat.
57° 39’ 30” N., and long. 13° 13’ W.) In the course of the afternoon,
when at least forty miles from this rock, we found soundings in
150 fathoms water, so that it may be regarded as the summit
of a very extensive submarine mountain, whose sides, at least the
western one, declined very gradually. Thursday, 27th—Tried
for soundings on the supposed sunken land of Busse, according to
its situation by Lieutenant Pickersgill, who, in his passage to
Davis’ Strait, in 1776, struek soundings with a line of 320 fathoms
in this very place, 57° N., 24° 24’ W.; but with 1,220 fathoms
of line out we found no bottom.”

In the year 1576 this land of “Busse” is described as having
been met by one of Frobisher’s ships. It was a long island
covered with wood, in lat. 57° 30’, along which they sailed for three
days. So far as I can discover this “Busse” was the ship Zm-
manuel of Bridgewater; but it is needless to follow the subject
further.

At numerous places round our Irish coasts, in particular along
the south and west, there occur submerged bogs bordering along
the coast-line, which form a conspicuous feature of our geologic

On Hy Brasil. 175

record ; these every where yield remains of large forest trees that
appear to have grown and decayed in the localities they are found
in, and point to a time that cannot have been very remote when
the land now sunken must have risen well above the water level.

There is also the traditional story told in O’Flaherty’s “ Ogygia,”
published in 1685. He says—“ Lough Lurgan is an inlet of the
sea, between Tuam and West Connaught, at the mouth of Galway,
stretching into the land, which was formerly dry land, until the
Western Ocean broke over it. The remains of the barrier are the
three Isles of Aran.” This traditional name of Lough Lurgan is
still used for Galway Bay ; and margining the Bay itself below
low water mark of spring tides there are numerous bogs with
oak corkers im situ at their base, being in places over twelve feet
deep.

Nor is this the only evidence of recent subsidence, for in Mr.
Kinahan’s “ Geology of Ireland ” he records the fact that the Rev.W.
Kilbride, Vicar of Aran, has discovered at Tramore, on the largest
of these islands, even human habitations and other structures that
he has traced down below low water of spring tides.

The legends of a buried Atlantis, larger than Lybia and Asia,
described in Plato’s “' Timezeus,” of course, is one of the earliest re-
cords of this land subsidence. So universal was this belief that
the first discoverers of Brazil fancied they had discovered the
long-lost continent, and named it accordingly after the vanished
land. It is with the last traces of such a subsidence I wish to
deal. What I venture to lay before the Geological Society in
support of the idea that this little island off our western coast
did really exist at no very distant period, is a map in which it is
drawn in its proper alleged position, made about the year 1640;
that this map is the heretofore unpublished and unknown work
of a competent man, a Geographer Royal of France, and in his
own handwriting; that it occurs in a volume distinguished by
the accuracy of its delineations, and which, so far as I can dis-
cover, is conspicuous for its freedom from errors,

This last summer I saw the cliffs of the Isle of Wight; they were
disappearing at a rate of upwards of a yard each year, under the
comparatively quiet waves cf the ocean. Close to Bray, during last
winter's storms, no inconsiderable portion of shore was removed ;
and if, in addition to the strong breakers of the Atlantic, we con-

176 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

sider that a process of subsidence has been taking place, submerg-
ing not only bogs, but the work of man’s hands, as on the Aran
Isles, surely it might happen that far less than 250 years of cease-
less surge is capable of removing more clay and rock than this
little speck upon the waters must have had. It is hopeless to look
for information to English sources; the navigators of their ships
appear never to have sailed our western waters, and their maps,
so far as I can ascertain, are unreliable; indeed, you may look
in the present day over numerous English maps and fail to
discover Rockall itself, So far as their evidence goes it would be
conclusive that there was no such place in existence.

TITLE OF Map, PLATE 9.

Carte de Des Isles et Costes maritimes de L, EUROPE, ot lon
voist La Routte et navigation des hollandois at nord d’irlande et
d’escosse durant La querelle des anglois par L’ocean germaniyue.

XXVI—ON M. DUTER’S EXPERIMENTS ON ELECTRIC AC-
CUMULATORS, sy GEORGE F. FITZGERALD, m.a., F.7.c.p.

[Read February 17, 1879.]

M. Duter has shown by his experiments, as published in the
Comptes rendu, November, 1878, Vol. 87, p. 828, that when
an electric accumulator is charged there is an increase in volume
of the dielectric.

I propose to show that a portion, at least, of this effect must be
due to the known laws of electric action, but a number of quanti-
tative experiments would be required in order to prove that the
whole effect was due to the cause I am about to mention.

In order to simplify the treatment I will take the case of a
spherical accumulator of internal radius a, and external 6.
For the equilibrium of this shell the pressures inside and out
must bear a certain proportion to one another if it is to remain
undeformed. If we consider the equilibrium of the semi-shell
supporting inside a pressure P, and outside p, while along the
edge there is a tension T, we must have—

Pa?= pb?4-T (6?—a?),
showing that unless P and p are to one another inversely as the
areas on which they act, there must be either enlargement or
contraction of the shell, as its surface must be either in tension
or compression.

Now, the superficial pressures produced when the shell is made
into an electric accumulator are by no means inversely pro-
portional to the areas. If the external surface be at potential
zero, we have the following expression for the potential at any
point in the dielectric at a distance 7 from the centre when the
quantity of electricity on the inside is Q :—

| alas |
v=@ (7-3):

Hence the electric force F= 2, and this produces a pressure
on the inside—

See Q?

te) tas

178 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

and on the outside—
F2 Q?

oer ag on K

Hence Pat=pb',
or the pressures vary inversely as the squares of the areas on
which they act.
From this it is easy to calculate the tension in the shell—
a?
T= PS .
Now, if we call 6=b—a the thickness of the shell, we get—
Qa, and consequently

v3
=a

So that when charged to a given potential, the tension of the
shell varies inversely as the square of its thickness. M. Duter
observed (see Comptes rendu, Vol. 87, p.1036) that the enlargement
varied inversely as the square of the thickness of the accumulator,
and as the extension of the shell would be generally proportional
to its tension, it is reasonable to conclude that the effect M. Duter
observed is due to the cause I mention.

Part of the effect in actual] accumulators may be due to defor-
mations of the surface, which tend to make it more spherical.
In the case, however, of an ellipsoidal surface, the tensions on the
ends are so very much greater than elsewhere that it does not
seem likely that it would tend to become more spherical.

T

Nortst.— M. D. J. Korteweg, in the Comptes rendu, No. 7, 17th
February, 1879 (the same day as the above communication was read),
gives the same explanation as I have given, and, besides, he mentions
that he has made experiments showing that it is quantatively a sufli-
cient one. ‘

CONTENTS—continued.

XxXUI. Geological Notes on the Structure of Middle and North Dev on-
shire, m made during a Walking Tour in Devonshire in the

Summer of 1878. By tev. Dr. Havanroy, ¥,T.C.Dy,,ER.S:,, aot
XXIV. On the Articulation of the Human Voice, as Tinstrated by the
_ Logograph. By W. H. Barrow, F.R.S., V.P., Institute of

Civil Engineers, . 153
XXV. On Hy Brasil, a Traditional Teland off the West Coast of ive!
land, Plotted in a MS. Map, written by Sieur Tassin, Geo-
erapher Royal to Louis XIII. By W. Frazer, F.R.C.S.1.

Page

With Plate’9, . 173
XXVI. On M. Duter’s Bapemental< on Ele ctric Aceumul ators, By
Gzorce FI. Firrzerraxp, M.A., F.T.C.D., en

Minutes of Proceedings from November 18, 1878, to March 17, 1879.

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THE

SCIENTIFIC PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

ROYAL DUBLIN SOCIRTY.

Vou. II. (NEw Series). JULY, 1879. Panw are,

CONTENTS.

XXYVI. Improvements in the Stereoseope. By Howarp Gruss,
M.E., F.R.A.S. With Plates 10 and Il, . : : a aS

XXVIII. Anniversary Address to the Royal Geological Society of
Ireland. By the Rey. Maxwen. H. Cross, M.A., Presi-

dent, - 191
X XIX. On the Method of Pacing Holtz’s Electrical Machine it
WS. MGar MAC BITE 209

XXX. Notes on the Ancient and Recent Mining one in the
East Ovoca District. ne P. H. Arcaty. With Plates 12

and 13, . 5 ‘ ‘ : oe
XXXI. Dingle and Glengariff Grits. “ ae Ee ea M.R.LA.
With Plate 14, 2 E 226

XXXII. Preliminary Note on the Pacer of Selinium ee Plants.
By Cuarzes A. Cameron, M.D, _. 231

XXXII. Notes on the Discovery in Ireland of a Bone Cave, contain-
ing Remains of the Irish Elk, apparently co-existent with

Alan. By R. J. Ussuer and Professor Lerrn Apams, . 234
XXXIV. Notes on Irish vache By F. W. Srvcrair, Trinity
College, Dublin, . d : ‘ ; f Lia aon

Minutes of Proceedings from April 21, 1879, to June 16, 1879.

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Proc. R.D.S, n. s. Vol. II. ' Plate r1.

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Plate 10.

Proc. R.D.S. n. s. Vol. II.

Forster & C21tth, Dublin.

XX VIIL—IMPROVEMENTS IN THE STEREOSCOPE, sy
HOWARD GRUBB, m.£., F.R.A.s. Puates 10 and 11.

[Read January 20th, 1879.]

WHEN we possess a pair of properly taken stereoscopic pictures, all
that is necessary to utilize these in producing that effect which
we call “stereoscopic” is some optical contrivance which will
enable us to view one picture with one eye simultaneously with,
and under the same conditions as, the other picture, viewed was
the other eye.

This seems simple enough, and yet since the first invention of
the first instrument, in 1838, only one other has come into general
use,

Of these two instruments, the first was invented by Sir Chas.
Wheatstone in 1838, and is generally known as the Reflecting
Stereoscope of Wheatstone ; the second was invented by Sir David
Brewster in 1849, and is generally known as the Lenticular
Stereoscope of Brewster.

The first, or Reflecting Stereoscope of Wheatstone, is the most
perfect instrument ; but the second, or Lenticular Stereoscope of
Brewster, though inferior in many respects, completely beat its
rival out of the field by reason of its compactness, convenience,
and cheapness. In fact, now-a-days the Wheatstone Stereoscope
is hardly known. Before describing the various forms of stereo-
scopes brought before the public at various times, and some new
forms, I now, for the first time, venture to bring forward, it may
be desirable to consider a little the theory of the stereoscope, and
thus, perhaps, arrive at a more correct idea of what conditions
we require to fulfil.

To go thoroughly into the theory of the stereoscope, we should
consider the various theories of binocular vision, in which there
are still some points which physicists find it hard to come to an
agreement about. While some have shown that we can really only
direct our attention to, and see distinctly, one single point of a
subject at one time, and have argued therefrom that our general
impression of a subject is derived from an enormously rapid sur-'
vey taken of each point seriatim, Prof. Tyndall has, it appears

ScrEN. Proc. R.D.S., Vou. 1, Pr. 111. oO

180 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

to me, shown conclusively that a general idea of the relative
positions and distances of all the salient features of the scene can
be appreciated without actually directing the eye in succession to
every individual point. Jn his own words :—

‘«‘« When the optic axes are converged upon a certain point of an object
the other points produce a certain determinate effect on the retina, and
are in some measure the objects of our attention. There is thus estab-
lished an association between a certain convergence of the optic axes and
certain incidental impressions, and this association may, I think, become
so refined by habit as to enable us to infer the solidity of a body, or the
relative distances of objects; while the optic axes are kept immovably
fixed on a single point.”

We shall probably have to refer to a somewhat similar matter
as we proceed ; for our present purpose, however, it will not be
necessary to touch further on these debated points.

In order to understand the principles of the stereoscope, it will
only be necessary to assume that the nearer an object is to us the
greater convergence we must give to the optic axes, in order to
view this object with both eyes; and, as a consequent upon this
last, that if, to see any point in a subject, we are obliged to give a
greater convergence to the optic axes than for the other points, we
intuitively assume that point to be nearest to us. We need hardly
stop to prove this ; a moment’s consideration will show how im-
possible it is it could be otherwise. Now, this being so, if we place
a stereoscopic diagram of a truncated hexagon in an ordinary stereo-
scope (Fig. 1, Plate 10), we appear to be looking into a hollow pyra-
mid ; if we place it in a pseudoscope—z.e., an instrument which en-
ables us to view the right picture with the left eye, and the left
with the right—it stands up like a solid body, just the reverse of
the effect in the stereoscope. The reason is very simple. Take the
first case. Here the optical arrangement is such that we are en-
abled to view the right picture with the right, and the left with the
left eye. Now, when we direct our attention to the point aq’,
we have to give a certain convergence to our eyes to make that
point a as seen by the right eye in the right picture coincide with
the point a’ as seen by the left eye in the left picture. Now,
suppose we direct our attention to points 6 b'; these are actually
further asunder on the diagram ; consequently our eyes require
less convergence, and we at once assume that point to be more
distant. In the second instance, of course, the reverse is just the

Improvements in the Stereoscope. 181

case ; so that in the first case the point b b' appears to be far below
the point a a’, and in the second as much above.

Besides this power we have of judging of the distances of
objects by the convergence of the optic axes, we have evidently
other, though much less delicate means, of doing so.

If we shut one eye we can still appreciate, to a slight extent,
relative distances. How very much reduced, however, our power
is in this respect will be evident from a trial of the old experiment,
of walking up to a candle with one eye shut and trying to snuff
the wick.

Much of this remaining power is probably due to the diameter
of the pupil of the eye. If this be reduced by diaphragms, our
sense of relief or perception of form in three dimensions is much
reduced, just as a photograph taken with a small aperture of
lens has none of that roundness and relief that is admired so
much in photographs taken with large aperture lenses, This
was pointed out by my father about twenty years since.

There still remains even after shutting one eyeand diaphragming
the other down, some slight appreciation of distance, quite
apart from intuitive ideas of perspective light and shade, or
such matters. This may partly be due to differences of focus,
and also (to a larger extent, perhaps, than we would imagine)
to the fact that we are familiarized with most of the surrounding
objects and their actual size, and are therefore in a position to
judge of their distance from their angular size. Some of these
points may be useful further on in considering some forms of
stereoscope.

Wheatstone Stereoscope-—The principle of the Wheatstone
Reflecting Stereoscope is easily understood.

The pictures are placed (Fig. 2, Plate 10) opposite and facing
one another, at about double the distance at which it is desired to
view them. Midway between the pictures are placed a pair of
reflectors, so inclined that the right eye sees the right picture, and
the left eye sees the left picture, superposed on the image cf the
other. There is a difference of opinion about the best position of
the virtual images, whether they should be superposed or side by
side, but this I will refer to further on.

The Wheatstone Stereoscope is theoretically and practically a
more perfect instrument than that in ordinary use, but the

SciEN, Proc. R.DS., Vou. m, Pr. 111. 0?

182 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

disadvantage of having to mount the two pictures on separate
cardbourds, and (consequently on this) the necessity of adjusting
each pair of pictures carefully, caused this stereoscope to be com-
pletely rejected for the more convenient, more portable, and
handier, though by no means so perfect instrument, the Brewster
Lenticular Stereoscope, as that in general use is termed—(Fig. 3,
Plate 1).

In this stereoscope the pictures are mounted side by side on
one piece of cardboard, and the optical arrangement consists in a
pair of half convex lenses, or what is equivalent to the same, whole
lenses, mounted at a greater distance apart than the eyes of an
ordinarily constituted being. This arrangement (too well known
to need description) enables the observer, without trouble or
strain, to cause the images to coalesce, and produces the stereo-
scopic effect, provided the instrument be well adopted to the
observer's eyes.

This may, perhaps, be the best place to say a few words on a
matter about which there was some considerable amount of dis-
pute some five or six years ago. As two of those who took part
in the dispute have since been called away, I do not propose to
say more than is necessary to set the matter right should anyone
have doubts.

It was argued very plausibly by one, whose profuse and con-
tinual writings on such subjects gave his dicta on these matters
considerable and just weight, that no prism power at all was
necessary or even desirable in the Brewster Stereoscope, and that,
inasmuch as the axes of our eyes were parallel, or nearly so, in
looking at some distant object in the landscape, so a truer repre-
sentation of the object would be obtained if the axes of our eyes
were parallel when looking at the photos. In fact, if they were
so, we would havea true representation of the object while, if we
used such optical contrivances as would render the axes of the
eyes convergent when looking through the stereoscope, we would
have a representation, not of the object, but of a small model of
the object.

It may be quite true that this arrangement would, in one
sense, give a true and accurate representation of the object, but in,
another sense, it gives quite the reverse, for while, to an inex-
perienced eye, the view of the object itself is pleasant, and free

Improvements in the Steveoscope. ; 183

from all idea of strain, the view of the images seen this way in
the stereoscope is most painful to ordinary uneducated eyes.
The reason is obvious, when we take up a book and proceed to read,
having immediately before had our attention fixed on a distant
object (in which case our optic axes had been parallel), we imme-
diately, and without effort, see the type distinctly, the axes of our
eyes have been instinctively adjusted before they had time to
change from the landscape to the book. It was not that our eyes
were adjusted after, and in consequence of, our glancing at the
book ; but the action of our will in causing our eyes to change
their direction from the landscape to the book simultaneously
caused a change in the relative direction of their axes. Probably
the convergence of the axes of our eyes is influenced by two
causes—firstly, by an association between the necessary focusing
action cf the eyes, and the muscles which regulate their conver-
gence (for in almost all cases the focusing and the convergence are
simultaneous actions) ; and, secondly, by an instinctive knowledge
of the distance of the object apart from actual ocular demonstra-
tion. It may be argued that by supplying a sufficient amount
of magnifying power the pencils entering the eye will be parallel,
and, therefore, the eyes having to focus on parallel rays should
assume that convergence suitable to parallel rays, viz., parallelism ;
but for all that when we take a stereoscope in our hands we have
an instinctive idea that the object that is in our hands and
which we are about to examine is not at an infinite distance, and,
therefore, our eyes naturally and involuntarily converge; it is easy
to see, then, why, under these circumstances, a view through a
stereoscope which involves a parallel condition of the axes is not
the pleasantest.

No doubt, the old stereoscopes were made with a ridiculously
large amount of prism power, but I consider that some of the
modern ones are just as bad the other way, and the consequence is
that I have found very many persons who have never seen at all
with astereoscope properly, or if the pictures appeared after great
exertion to coalesce it was only by a painful effort.

The reason of this wide diversity of opinion as to the necessary
convergence probably arises from the fact that it is a personal mat-
ter, and some persons have much more control over the muscles
of their eyes than others, this is partly, too, the result of educa-

184 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

tion of the eyes, and hence it is, probably, that stereoscopes are
made generally with too little divergent power, the makers have
got so accustomed to diverging their eyes, that, probably, they
require little or no divergent power at all.

I can, myself, without almost wishing it or thinking of it take
two stereoscopic pictures large or small and diverging my eyes look
at the left picture with the left eye, and right with the right, and
now instantaneously change, and converging my eyes look at the
right picture with tke left eye, and the left picture with the right
eye. I can (probably by long practice) converge and diverge
my optic axes twenty times a minute, but because I can do this
and thus do without a stereoscope at all or with a bad one, this
is no reason why we should not give the best possible help to
those who are not so practised in the matter.

Now, I may here briefly mention a few of the disadvantages
these stereoscopes labour under.

The disadvantages of the Wheatstone need hardly be touched
upon. Some of them have already been mentioned, and its use has
been long since practically discontinued.

The disadvantages of the Brewster Stereoscope are :—

1. Distortion of images to a certain extent.

2. Chromatic fringes on lateral objects.

3. Limit of its application to pictures whose breadth is not
greater than the distance between the human eyes.

4. As a consequence of the last, the pictures are almost always
made a most unartistic shape (viz., square).

5. Many persons have a great difficulty in combining the images
as seen in the Brewster Stereoscope.

This probably arises from the fact that different individuals re-
quire different adjustments of the instrument, not only for focus
(to suit long and short sight), but also in the amount of apparent
displacement of the images necessary to make them overlap and
combine, and also that persons differing from one another in the
distances asunder of their eyes will, in the ordinary form of the
Brewster Stereoscope, have, of course, a different amount of dis-
placing power supplied to them by the same instrument according
to whether they be looking more nearly through the centre of
edge of the lenses. Consequently, if we wish to construct a stereo-
scope which shall be the best possible for any one individual, due

Improvements in the Stereoscope. 185

regard must be paid to the particular angle of convergence that
will best suit that individual, and the distances asunder of his eyes.

Again, the human eyes have a wonderful facility for altering
the relative direction of their axes in a horizontal plane (by a mere
effort of will) ; hence many people can see with a stereoscope not
at all suited to their sight or without a stereoscope at all; but if
they do, it is with an effort which, if long continued, becomes
painful.

Glancing back over this list of disadvantages we can, I think,
easily pick out that one which has caused this instrument to de-
cline in favour so much as to be now considered almost old-
fashioned. It is evidently No. 3—that of the limit of its adapti-
bility to pictures no larger than the ordinary little 2? stereoscopes
of which people are so sick and tired.

I shall now just mention, as far as possible, in this chronological
order, a few of the modifications proposed in these forms of in-
struments.

About the year 1856 my father (the late Thomas Grubb, F.R.s.),
finding great difficulty in lighting the two pictures of the Wheat-
stone Stereoscope, altered the position of the pictures and angles
of the reflectors till they assumed the form shown in Fig. 4, Plate
10; this did not impair the perfection of the result, and had some
considerable advantages as to lighting, &e.

In 1860, and again in 1873, Mr. Thomas Sutton brought out a
stereoscope, shown in Fig. 5, Plate 10, which appears to be just
a carrying out of the same idea to a still greater extent.

In 1873 I mentioned to one of the editors of the British Journal
of Photography a plan I had used for viewing large pictures
stereoscopically by revising the prisms of an ordinary Brewster
stereoscope (see Fig. 6, Plate 10) ; this was published in the Photo-
graphic Journals, and caused much discussion.

It was, however, objected to on the ground that the high con-
veyance of the optic axes caused the picture to assume too much
the appearance of a model. I had never put this forward as a
perfect instrument ; but as soon as this discussion opened I pub-
lished another form, Fig. 7, Plate 10, which appeared to me, ex-
cepting in the matter of expense, very unexceptionable indeed.

The form I have to consider further on, however, seems to
possess some advantages over this,

186 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

Two other forms of stereoscopes were introduced since the in-
vention of the Brewster, but I have not been able to find any
description of them,

One was introduced by M. Claudet many years ago, but more,
I believe, as a curious experiment than as a practical instrument.

The other was called, | believe, “Swan’s Crystal Cube,” in which
the observer, looking into a cube of glass, saw the object in relief.
This was effected by attaching two stereoscopic pictures respec-
tively to the back and one side of the cube, which was formed
by two right angled prisms laid together. In this way one pic-
ture (the back) was seen by transmission with one eye, and the
other picture was totally reflected by the base of one of the prisms
and seen by the other eye. This was, of course, more a scientific
toy than a practical form of the instrument.

The first experiments I made were for the purpose of investi-
gating the cause of the apparently wonderful stereoscopic effect
which we get in looking at some of those coloured photographs
of flowers ordinarily sold in the shops, when viewed with both
eyes through a single magnifying lens, such as is supplied with
the graphoscope. That it is a true stereoscopic effect is evident
from the fact that the moment you shut one eye the effect is lost ;
but how a stereoscopic effect could be obtained from a single
picture was more than I could at first understand. One single
experiment, however, resolved it. Instead of one single large
lens I took two, each equal in focus to the lens of the grapho-
scope. On looking at the coloured photograph through these,
keeping the eyes in the centres of each lens, no effect of relief was
visible at all. On drawing the lenses closer together, so that the
eyes looked through the outer edges of the lens, the red flowers
stood up. On drawing the lenses asunder, so that the eyes looked
through the inner edges of the lens, the reverse effect took place,
and the red flowers appeared to sink below the paper.

The explanation is, therefore, quite clear. The edges of the
lens act as prisms as well as lenses, and fringe everything with
red on one side and blue on the other; in other words, the out-
line of the red flower is a little extended on one side to the right
eye, and on the other side to the left eye. Thus the two pictures
we see are really dissimilar, and dissimilar just in such a manner
as to cause the appearance of relief. I afterwards found that

Improvements in the Stereoscope. 187

coloured children’s picture-books are most admirably adapted for
the experiment; the blues and the reds can be made to appear to
rise and fall alternately at pleasure according to the manner they
are looked at. If viewed by monochromatic light the effect will,
of course, not take place.

The next experiment tried was a kind of phoenakistoscope
arrangement for the magic lantern, with a view to getting a
stereoscopic effect on the screen (Fig. 8, Plate 10). One-half of an
ordinary stereoscopic picture was placed in one lantern and the
other half in the other; both images were then thrown simul-
taneously on the screen superposed. They could, of course, be
made to coincide in the centre but not at the edge. Now two
revolving discs were arranged, one in front of the lantern and one
ina convenient position for an observer to stand behind. The
two were arranged so that one picture only was visible on the
screen at once, but as the disc was rotated the images appeared
alternately at any desired rate; the second disc, driven mecha-
nically at an equal rate to the first, only allowed one eye ata time
to view the screen. The result is that one eye sees, of course, one
picture, and the other the other picture. When the dises are
slowly revolved up to (say) four revolutions a second a jerking
action is visible; but when the speed is increased to eight or ten
a second the image is seen perfectly steady and in full relief. I
mention this more as an interesting experiment than as of any
practical utility, thougn it is quite possible to conceive an
arrangement by which this might be adapted for a number of
spectators.

The next experiment had reference to using larger pictures than
usual for the stereoscope. I found this could be done by employ-
ing a pair of reflecting prisms, such as Professor Zéllner proposed
for reversing one-half the spectrum in his spectroscope (Fig. 9,
Plate 10). Using a pair of these prisms and mounting the
pictures side by side on one piece of cardboard, jointed in the
middle, so that the pictures could be laid as in the diagram, this
form answered fairly. The field, however, was limited in the
horizontal direction, which is a decided objection.

The arrangement next tried was that of the two doubly-reflecting
prisms, as proposed in 1873 (Fig. 7, Plate 10).

The next arrangement tried was altogether novel. In making

188 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

various experiments it occurred to me that much of the difficulty
in joining the pictures arose from that facility we have for
altering the convergence of our optic axes in a horizontal direc-
tion; in fact, that there is no determinate angle of convergence,
and, consequently, we generally hear persons who cannot join the
pictures easily, describe them as floating backwards and forwards
over one another. It appeared to me, therefore, that if instead of
attempting to displace the pictures horizontally we displaced
them vertically by some simple optical contrivance, we should
get rid of much of this difficulty. The result has justified my
anticipations most fully, and is a stereoscope which I find can be
made use of by persons who have the greatest difficulty in seeing
with the ordinary construction. It has the great advantage of
being practically unlimited in its application. It can be used for
paper prints or transparencies, any size, up to even views thrown
on the screen by the magic lantern. It can be made ofan infinite
variety of forms, and from the principles of its construction it is
evident that when once adjusted it will be right for all persons,
no matter what the distance between their eyes may be.

As to convergence of the axes, the necessary convergence, if the
pictures be mounted exactly one over the other, is, of course,
precisely the same as the convergence of the eyes would be
looking at any object at the same distance without a stereoscope
at all, and I am strongly of opinion that these are the easiest
possible conditions for the majority of persons. However, anyone
can easily try this crucially for himself in this instrument.*

As to the various forms this stereoscope can be made in their
name is legion, but I will point out a few :—1. It may be made
as a pair of prisms or reflectors attached to an ordinary grapho-
scope, and looked into at a convenient angle somewhat similar to
that usually adopted by microscopists, as Fig. 1, Plate 11. 2. It
may be made somewhat of the form of the old optical pillar, the
photographs being placed horizontally on their backs, and the

* While there is no doubt that this stereoscope completely mects the difficulty of the
difference in distance between the eyes of various individuals, it may be argued that it
does not meet the difficulty of the difference in convergence of the optic axes desirable to
suit all sights; but the fact remains that people who have never seen properly with the
ordinary stereoscope have no difficulty in seeing with this. The last instrument, however,
completely meets the matter of convergence of the axes, as both pictures are (without
optical means) seen superposed on one another.

Improvements in the Stereoscope. 189

images viewed by looking in horizontally (Fig. 2, Plate 11). 3. It
may be made with a pair of prisms, achromatic by preference,
turned, of course, though 90° as respects the Brewster stereo-
scope, and this form can be made of the shape and character of
any of the Brewster type. 4. If it be thought a disadvantage
that the pictures should be reversed, as they must be in this or
any single reflecting stereoscope, a pair of prisms or reflectors can
be used that will reflect the light twice, and thus erect the pic-
tures again (fig. 3, Plate 11).

Now, as to the objections that will be urged against this stereo-
scope, it is as well to anticipate them. It will be said that if the
pictures be mounted on the one card each picture cannot be
viewed from its proper point of sight, and, therefore, we will not
receive a correct impression of the subject. Well, my answer to
this is, first, as to the vertical direction, that nothing is easier
than to mount the pictures on two pieces of cardboard jointed to-
gether, and have the table of the stereoscope not flat, but of such
form as will cause the folded cardboard to lie not quite open, just
so much as will bring matters right in that direction (as in Fig. 1,
Plate 11); though I would remark that for views of such a pro-
portion as I consider best suited to this stereoscope this is almost
unnecessary.

As regards the other direction, viz., horizontally, the right eye
is, of course not opposite to, but about one and a-quarter inches
to the right of, the centre of the picture it views, and the left
about one and a-quarter inch to the left of the centre of the picture
it views. This would be running matters to extremities to com-
plain of, except in very small pictures ; but I am of opinion, from
careful trial, that it is easier on the eyes that it should be so, for
our optical axes are then exactly in the condition they would be
in looking without the stereoscope at an object at same distance.

One great charm of this stereoscope to the experimentalist is
that all these experiments can be tried in it so readily. Another
objection—that the pictures will be reversed—can be met by the
adoption of the fourth form mentioned above; but Iam by no
means sure that this is an objection at all, for it would appear
that in some of the more favoured carbon processes in vogue now
trouble is found in transferring a second time, so as not to have
the picture reversed. If this be so it will only be necessary to

190 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

omit this last re-transfer to make the pictures right for. this
stereoscope.

The last form of stereoscope I have to bring before your notice
is one peculiarly suited for transparent photographs. It will be
easily understood from Fig. 4, Plate 11. By a combination of
prisms and lenses images of the right and left pictures of an
ordinary stereoscopic slide (S) are formed superposed on the
surface of a concave mirror (C). When the observer stands
opposite the mirror at a certain distance, the pencils of light
which form the right picture are reflected by the mirror into his
left. eye, and those which form the left picture are reflected into
his right eye. The result is apparently an acrial image of the
object in beautiful relief.

For transparencies of almost all subjects, but especially statuary,
this form of stereoscope is most admirably suited ; and the fact
of not having to look through two apertures—combined with that
of the pictures as seen with both eyes being actually superposed
and not side by side, and, therefore, that there can, by no possi-
bility, be any difficulty of causing the images to coalesce—
renders this form of instrument a great favourite with most ob-
servers.

P14

XXVIIL—ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS TO THE ROYAL
GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF IRELAND, sy Rev. MAXWELL
H. Cios&, M.A., PRESIDENT.

[Read February 17th, 1879.]

our anniversary meeting, we naturally
look back at some of the more interesting events in connexion
with our Society which have occurred during the past year. It
very seldom happens that we have to record the removal from us
by death, within a single year, of so many distinguished Fellows
of the Society. We shall not now follow chronological order in
our notices of them.

Thomas Oldham, LL.D., F.R.S., Superintendent of the Geological
Survey of India, was born in 1816; he died July 17, 1878.
Having graduated in the University of Dublin in 1836, he went
to Edinburgh to study civil engineering ; he there learned geology
and mineralogy under Professor Jameson. In 1839 he became
Chief Assistant to Captain Portlock, Director of the Geological
Department of the Ordnance Survey of Ireland, with sitions he

worked in the geological examination of Derry, with parts of
Tyrone and Antrim, and in the drawing up of the Report on that
district, which was published in 1843. He was already a member
of our Society, and in 1843 was appointed Curator of its
Museum. The Council, in one of its reports, speaks of the ability,
zeal, and industry of the Curator in words which seem almost
like an echo of the similar testimony of Portlock to the qualities
of his Chief Assistant. Oldham became, in 1844, Assistant to'the
Professor of Engineering in the University of Dublin, Sir John
MacNeill; and in 1845, Professor of Geology in the University.
In 1846 he was appointed Local Director for Ireland of the
Geological Survey of the United Kingdom. It was under hig
directorship that the Cambrian rocks, on the east of Ireland, were
ascertained to be such. The Cambrian fossil, Oldhamia, first
found by him at Bray Head, was so named after him by Edward
Forbes. He was admitted a F.R.S.in June, 1848. During the time
that he was President of our Society, viz, from 1848 to 1850,

192 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

inclusive, he gave three very elaborate and valuable anniversary
addresses on the progress of geological science. Our Journal
contains besides several other contributions of his. Towards the
end of 1850 he was appointed Superintendent of the Geological
Survey of India, which post he held until the early part of 1876.
The important work accomplished by that survey under his
superintendence is too wide a subject for us to give evena sketch
of on the present occasion. Oldham was wisely averse to the
direct correlation with each other of Indian and European forma-
tions which are admitted to be comparable homotaxially. In 1875
he received from the Royal Society a “Royal Medal” “for his
long and important services in the science of geology.” His death
took place at Rugby, where he had lived since his return from
India.

Robert Harkness, Professor of Geology in Queen’s College,
Cork, was born in 1816, and died Oct. 4, 1878. He was a native
of Cumberland. He obtained the Professorship in Cork in 1853,
and in the same year joined this Society. He came to this country
with an already made reputation as a geologist, having begun to
write ten years before, and having contributed various papers to
the Journal of the Geological Society of London, the Reports of
the British Association, &c. He was admitted a F.RS. in
June, 1856. During his sojourn in this country he wrote several
papers on various subjects of Irish geology. He it was who first
pointed out the connexion between the metamorphic rocks of
Donegal and those of the west of Scotland. Latterly he had
investigated a good deal the geology of his native Lake District.
On account of ill-health he had resigned his professorship shortly
before his death, which event deprived our Society of one of its
Vice- Presidents.

Walter L. Willson died March 27, 1878. He joined the Irish
Geological Survey in 1845, and our Society in the following year.
Our Journal contains some papers contributed by him. His survey
work lay in the south-eastern and southern parts of the country.
He was engaged on the first map (that of Wicklow) issued by
the Irish Geological Survey after it had become a distinct depart-
ment from the Ordnance Survey. This map is dated July 26, 1848.
After remaining on the Irish Survey for twelve years, Willson, in
the early part of 1857, joined the Indian Geological Survey, in

Anniversary Address to the Royal Geological Society. 193

which he remained until his death, which took place in Calcutta
at the date above mentioned.

We now come to a name which we have reserved to the last
just because it is with us the reverse of least, the name of one
whose birth and whose death both occurred in Dublin, those
events being separated by the long interval of ninety-four years,
whose residence, since he was old enough to have one of his own,
was in Dublin, and whose wonderful and long extended geological
labours were entirely directed to the elucidation of the geology of
this country, and who was the constructor of the remarkable first
geological map of Ireland, Sir Richard John Griffith, Bart., LL.p.
He was removed from us on September 22, 1878, after having just
entered upon his 95th year.

At the mention of Sir Richard Griffith, we perceive that the
connexion between the Geological and the Royal Dublin Societies
does not depend merely upon the arbitrary “ association” that was
effected a little more than a year ago. We feel on the present
occasion that there is a further bond of union between the two.
In the first place, they are equally concerned to join together in
the commemoration of one and the same individual who was an
eminent member of both Societies. For many years, in the earlier
part of his long connexion with the Royal Dublin Society, he was
a most active, useful, and prominent officer of that Society, and
for the last ten years he wasa Vice-President of the same. Onthe
other hand, he was an original member of the Geological Society
of Dublin, and at the formal opening of the Society in February,
1833, he was Vice-President thereof and afterwards President
twice. At the time of his death he was still Vice-President.
But, further, his long continued labours in connexion with the
Royal Dublin Society, which added so much to the usefulness and
prestige thereof, were all in the region of geology and mining
surveying, the very province of the Geological Society ; so that
the two Societies are equally interested not only in the man per-
sonally, but also in his scientific work. He was the oldest sur-
viving member of the Royal Dublin Society, having joined it in
1808, the same year in which he joined the Royal Society of
Edinburgh and the Geological Society of London. If he could
not be called the oldest member of the Geological Society of
Dublin, it is because it was not organized until the beginning of

194 Scientifie Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

1833, so that several original members still survive; but he was
the Nestor of Irish geology. We have spoken of our common
purpose on the present occasion; it is not to join together in a
lament, in an elegiac celebration of him who belonged to us both;
that were surely most inappropriate. How dare we repine at
the removal of him who was spared to us for a quarter of a cen-
tury beyond the proverbial three score years and ten? In his
95th year he was moving among the third generation of his
contemporaries

To 8 Hen ctw pev yeveat pepoTwr ayOpwrwr

"Ep bial’, ot 6c rpdaber ipa reaper HO eyévorrTo

"How év iyaben, pera Ce TpiTarowoly civaccer®
Yes dvaccey, for his career was assuredly one of masterful activity
and triumphant accomplishment.

We cannot now go into the general history of his long life and
important labours ; this can be found elsewhere; we shall confine
ourselves to a sketch of his geological work, and this will best
be made in connexion with the history of his Geological Map of
Treland.

This is a subject not only interesting in itself to us as
Irish geologists, but it is profitable in various ways. It must
always be instructive to know something of the progress of the
work of such a man, and of his own corrections and improvements
of his work. Moreover, it is good to ke reminded that our present
knowledge of the general geological structure of our island is by
no means intuitive. When it is laid out before us on a map so
that we can take it in almost at a glance, and it bas become so
familiar that we can hardly imagine it otherwise, we are apt to
forget the toil that has been undergone, and the difficulties and
obscurities that have been encountered by those who have prepared
the way for us. Itis good to beaz in mind that only last September
one was still with us who was the first geologist who ever explored
certain districts of our island. It is salutary to be reminded that
the Muse of geology (like, indeed, all her sisters of the natural
and physical sciences) is, notwithstanding her great progress and
acquirements, still only an “ dipa®ye,”’ one who has but lately
come to her learning, and that it behoves her to take heed that
she be not as “ imsolens” as persons in her condition are sometimes
tempted to be.

er dd aa

XXX.—NOTES ON THE ANCIENT AND RECENT MINING
OPERATIONS IN THE EAST OVOCA DISTRICT, sy P. H.
ARGALL. Puates 12 and 13.

(Communicated by G. H. Kinanay.)
[Read March 17th, 1879.]

Introduction.

Ir is proposed to describe in this communication the mineral
lodes and mines in the country east of the Ovoca river, but with-
out giving more than a short sketch of the geology of the dis-
trict.

Many years ago the geology of this area was described in a
paper read by Mr. Thomas Weaver before the Geological Society
of London (vol. v., 1st series). Other early writers have also
written on it; while in later years it has been examined more in
detail by the officers of the Geological Survey (Profs. Oldham,
Smyth, and Jukes, and Messrs. Wyley, Du N oyer, and Kinahan).

From the researches of these gentlemen we learn that the rocks
in which the mineral lodes occur belong to the Cambro-Silurian
or Lower Silurian formation.

Formerly it was supposed that the minerals occurred in beds
which were deposited contemporaneously with the existing rocks ;
but recent researches have shown, that although in gencral the
direction of the lodes is more or less close to that of the strike of
the rocks, yet the lodes always cross the beds, though sometimes
at a very small angle; in depth the lodes always underlie at a
greater angle than the rocks.

The rocks of the country are principally killas (slates and shales)
which are all slightly metamorphosed ; but associated with them
are felspathic and pyroxenic rocks. All the pyroxenic rocks are
supposed to be intrusive, some being very granitic (Granitone) ;
There are some remarkable peculiarities connected with the
felspathic rocks. Weaver, in his writings, calls some of them
hornstones, others quartz rocks, while more recent writers have
elassed them as siliceo-felspathic rocks and felstones. They were
supposed at one time to run parallel with the mineral channel ;
but Professor Smyth has pointed out that in some places they

SciEN. Proc., R.D.S., Vou. u., PT. 111, Q

212 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

cross from the south to the north side thereof; and lately I have
learned from Mr. Kinahan’s work that they are most irregular,
occurring in isolated masses more or less surrounded by killas,
they being situated in general to the south of the mineral channel,
but not always; as tothe East they are found northward of the
main lode. Mr. Kinahan has also proved that, although some of
the felspathic rocks are intrusive felstones, the majority (the
hornstones and quartz rocks of Weaver) are metamorphic rocks ;
the felspathic tufts, the slates and shales, in places having been
altered into rocks like hornstone, felstone, and other igneous rocks.

The felspathic rocks (felstones and hornstones) are most im-
portant, as a careful mapping of them has proved the existence of
great disturbances in the country older than the formaticn of
the mineral veins ; other breaks seem to have been produced con-
temporaneously with the vein fissures, and some are evidently
newer, as has been proved by the subterranean operations.*

We may expect further details of the geology of the district
when the examination of it is complete, and the new maps and
report of the officers of the Survey are published.

General Description of the Mineral Lodes.

The lodes upon which mining operations have been carried on
east of the Ovoca occur, as previously stated, principally in killas
(slates and shales), in a length of country extending from the
Ovoca river for about six miles in the direction of N.50° E+ The
lodes are not, however, continuous for this distance, as they are
broken and displaced by numerous faults, and in places interven-
ing tracts of “ Dead Ground ” occur, in which the regular lodes
have not been found. The ground will be described beginning to
the west.

Tigroney and West Cronebane.

In the Ovoca valley there is a large and very well-displayed
fault, known as the Great Flucan, which, together with the east
head in Ballygahan Mine to the west, causes a left-hand displace-

* Mr. Kinahan’s work I more especially mention, as I have had the advantage of ac-
companying him on numerous occasions during his examinations of the districts, and am
consequently more or less familiar with his conclusions.

+ All bearings are magnetic, 22°5 W. of true,

y

OVW \ X\ (AA R

/\\ \ \ AVARESON :

a \)\ NY YAY 8
S

=

S

Plate 12.

CON NARY

a
~ =
o hempsons shatt A

—

~ S | i
SS S Hil
x 8 }
oe |

x” wi
XQ N210

hempsor’s Shatt

54 een
Sea Level
Asano ea a Hee Se Ver |. a

Scale 96 firs =) tach.

Plate 12,

Proc. R.D.S. n. s. Vol. I.

. calor g
PLANS AND SECTIONS orth ee judi e
var c G/
OF HE ae CRONEBANE x CONNARY
EASTERN OVOCA MINES 4 ae Za 5
HH | : a s a @ Stone
a Hh TIGRONEY BS _ Wesr Cronen x we foud Shatt
COUNTY of WICKLOW, I Baronds\ Shas /
||
IRELAND. | 5
} |
By PaHVARGALL, i i
2 el |
eae) ai
: Hh I
Xi i Ry
BALLYGAHAN Hil 6S
< ||| =
O}ii I) :
1 Blue Shalt Si) /) “i
“a HEAD S fii 3S SS ue :
| Dix 50. east 9 j/ i] 5 ASS y S y N
am : all Shalt y) Y| SS N eS A S Ss s :
tiers <a ip SB 8 8 S g v
Engun® Shalt Ca Ea $ aN NS 2 Nes if g
Vm Y § 82 S Naas 7
“e Ss Q8 5 al. £
4 Up Nu : " ; S vibe
: '
Sea Level WY E § 5
Kt) Sa ¢ “ey “8 S ba
§ N SS
: ae rel
NS

MN
——
| '
Hs
He

x |

Lamas Shatt

ea
= Shallow Level or 5S |
[r=

See Level a

ja_| ieee one Wi larigenus Breve WEN Gossan
B fon Pyrites Gi Caleopyiite "\ Kilnacoo
Brlpathic lay GD Steatiue Clay i Cal Gro
Felstone : (9 Grantte Any ah

Scale I6 frais inch.

hinster &dith, Dublen.

Proce. Ss. nerss) Vole Die Plate 13
Section | |
of
Main Pyrites Lode
Showing the
Ancient § Recent
Workings
Over Lee’s Level
in
West Cronebane.

I WEN A/)))
Hf WINE IIE IIE
/ oh) f

Wf |

Iron Pyrites

vg = Cupreows Pyrites
J ca Deads (waste)
ea “1 Open Spaces

cee eee ie bay Z A Horizontal Joints
ee \ 3 Ms o
eee) Be B “Old Men’s’’ “‘Stulls

or Ancient workings on theCupreous Pyrites(Stoped underhand)

C Recent workings by which the whole breadth of the lode ts
taken away and the place filled by running down the deads
from the Old Men’s Stulls; by this means dangerous falls
are prevented. (Stoped overhand)

D “Trap Hole’ used for throwing down the ore to the level.

E Level communicating with shaft. (Lee’s Level)

P. H. Argall, Del.

Mining Operations in the Kast Ovoca District. 213

ment of the lode in the Ovoca valley of 384 fms. ; this flucan is
best seen in the Tigroney mines, where all the principal levels
have been driven on it for a considerable distance, some of them for
more than 100 fms. Most of the old levels which were driven in
the lode were taken down in the great fall which occurred in this
mine about 15 years ago, and consequently new levels (“safety
levels”) had to be driven in the north ground, or foot-wall of the
lode. The flucan, which principally consists of tender, decompos-
ing clay slate and soft, white, unctuous clay, offered considerable
facilities for the driving of the new levels, the surrounding coun-
try being of a very hard nature. The parts of these which have
been driven in the flucan can be easily seen in the plan of Tigroney
Mine on the accompanying map (Plate 12). The Deep Adit (A)
is driven in from the river, until it intersects the flucan, along
which it is then driven for 64 fms., from which point a cross-cut
southward of 11 fms. cuts the lode. The deeper levels are driven
up in a similar manner from Williams’s shaft to under this point
in the Deep Adit, where they turn off from the flucan, and are
driven in the lode. This flucan averages two fms. wide, bears
N. 28° E, and dips eastward at 70°. One hundred and twenty
fms. eastward there is a reversed fault, which, in the vicinity of
the Baronet’s shaft, heaves the lode 13 fms. to the right hand; it
underlies eastward at 45°, coming to the surface on Tigroney
brow. This fault is well shown in cross section No. 3. Further
eastward, at the boundary between Tigroney and Cronebane, the
lode is shifted by a N. 40° E. left hand displacement of 20 fms. ;
from the plan it will be seen that the reversed fault lengthens the
lode as much as it loses by the N. 40° E. left-hand heave.

Still further eastward the lode is cut off by the western boun-
dary of the “ Dead Ground,” which underlies west at 50°. The
great sulphur lode varies in width from a few inches to 11 fms.,
and averages about 5 fms.; it is more or less wedge-shaped, the
hanging wall being more perpendicular than the foot-wall.

In West Cronebane there is, on an average, a depth of 6 fis. of
drift over the lode, under this is found a ferruginous breccia
(angular pieces of the country rock cemented by iron) resting on
the gossan, which here is limonite, nearly all of which was taken
out during the demand for iron ore a few years ago. The gossan
and breccia thins out, going westward, until, eventually, on

Scien. Proc., R.D.S., Vou. 11., Pt, It. Q 9

_

214 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

Tigroney brow, both have been removed by denudation, and the
iron pyrites (sulphur ore) comes up to the surface. The gossan
in West Cronebane is found in places to rest on beds of ferrugi-
nous clay; and in one place I have found black carbonaceous
clay, resembling the “coal ground” of the Magpie, at the foot-
wall; generally, however, the gossan is found to rest upon soft
steatitic slaty clay, containing strings and bunches of melaconite
and fahlerz, with small leaves of iron pyrites, and occasional veins
of the same in a granular state, composed entirely of small loose
crystals of pyrites; but in depth this “sand ore” loses these char-
acters and becomes compact. In depth the thin leaves of pyrites
rapidly increase in number and thickness, cutting out the inter-
vening leaves of killas, until, eventually, the entire width of the
lode is filled with more or less fissile iron pyrites. Still deeper
the iron pyrites becomes more compact and interlaminated with
hard killas ; under the latter circumstances the hardest ribs gen-
erally contain 2 per cent. of copper.

Previous writers have not drawn attention to the smooth hori-
zontal joints (“beds” or “floors”) in the lode which occur at
intervals of 1 to 1:5 fms. in depth, some of them being continu-
ous for 8 fms. in length, and always being the entire width of the
lode, but in no case are they known to extend into the adjoin-
ing country. These “beds” divide the ore into tabular masses,
which are crossed in places by two systems of obliquely standing
joints which subdivide the mass, and occasionally form triangles.
These are of great importance to the miner, as when one of these
triangles is cut away a large fall of ore is obtained, especially
when there are clayey partings on the walls.

At the Copse shaft the sulphur Jode is cut out in depth by the
westward underlie of the “Dead Ground ” (cross section No. 5) ;
but elsewhere it has not been proved to its full depth.

Seventy fms. east of Williams’s shaft the lode is 8 fms. wide at
surface (cross section No. 2), decreasing to 6 fms. at the 77-fm. level,
below which it is suddenly cut off by a slide underlying south
at 45°. This slide was sunk on for 13 fms., and a well-defined
vein of cupreous sulphur ore, 2 fms. wide, found, the walls of
which are opening in depth. This sulphur ore has not been
proved below the 90-fm. level, which is the deepest point reached
in any of the eastern Ovoca mines; this remarkable displace-

Mining Operations in the East Ovoca District. 215

ment, shown in cross section No, 2, has been called a “splice in the
lode.”

Yellow Copper Ore Lodes.

The country rock for a considerable distance north and south of
the main pyrites lode, in Tigroney and West Cronebane, is mine-
ralized, containing finely disseminated particles of iron and cop-
per pyrites, which on the surface have become oxidized, giving
the decomposing rocks a burnt aspect; these rocks also bear
evidence of metamorphic action. In these mineralized rocks, fora
width of 25 fms. to the south of the main lode, the yellow copper
ore lodes occur. As pointed out by Mr. Weaver, there are in these
rocks horizontal joints (“beds or floors”) apparently unlimited in
extent, some of which are open fissures two inches wide, others,
again, are so close you could not insert the blade of a knife between
the joints ; these “beds” generally occur at intervals of about 5
fms. in depth, and are crossed nearly, but not quite, at right angles
by a system of almost perpendicular joints, dividing the country
rocks into huge rectangular masses. None of the copper ore lodes
have gossan backs, but when one of these horizontal floors occurs
at or near a copper lode, its back is filled with a sort of gossan
made up of small fragments of the country rock cemented by
oxide of iron and stained with copper.

‘fhe yellow copper ore lodes are in general lenticular masses or
cakes of ore apparently lying with the strike and dip of the
“country rocks ;” these cake-like masses thin out in depth and
length, and in places break suddenly into strings, some of which
lead to other cakes. Sometimes, however, two or more cakes
may be partly in contact, thus enclosing “horses” of the country
rock, which have been cut away with the ore, thus leaving in
the old workings spaces up to 10 fms. wide. In connexion with
these cake lodes are caunter lodes; some of these occupy lines of
fault which cross the country rocks nearly at right angles; a good
example of this kind can be seen in the “ Grass level,” where the
country rocks have a general strike of E. and W., and are
crossed by a fault bearing N. 20° W. This fault in the “Grass
level” is the western boundary of the dead ground between
East and West Cronebane, and contains a 2-feet wide vein of
rich chalcopyrite with a little quartz. Oftener, however, these

216 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

caunter lodes occur in the almost perpendicular joints which
traverse the country rocks; when they join into the cake-like
masses they form T shaped veins, which contain copper ore of a
higher per-centage than the true lodes. All these lodes afford
fissile chalcopyrite associated with quartz and killas. The killas
always occurs in laminz, while the quartz often forms a sort of
gangue,

Dead Ground.

The great sulphur lode in West Cronebane is cut off towards
the east by the “ Dead Ground,” as previously stated, and is not
again found profitable until East Cronebane is reached, at a dis-
tance of 300fms. In the strike of the lode, however, in both
mines, extending respectively eastward and westward, for a con-
siderable distance after they become unprofitable, are veins of
soft ground with strings of the ore; so that the actual width of
ground supposed to be without the sulphur lode is about 200 fms.
In this ground (Cronebane Hill), dead as regards the sulphur lode,
occurs the previously mentioned “Grass level” lodes.

In the south-eastern flank of this hill, a mineral channel extends
for 150 fms. west from Yellow Bottoms shaft, and in it four or
five E. and W. lodes occur. J. To the westward is the Raddle
lode ; this is perpendicular and 2 fms. wide at surface, narrowing
to 1 fm. at the old 33 or Cronebane level; near the surface, or
forming a back for 15 fms. im depth, is a very arenaceous Raddle,
the sandy matter predominating; below which the vein is filled
with whitish felspathic clay, locally called “ white ground,” and
occasional strings of chalcopyrite. JJ. Blue Burrows lode—
This is 2°5 fms. wide at surface, narrowing to 2 fms. at the old
33 level; it has a gossan or back of limonite extending for 5 fms.
in depth, under which is found blue steatitic clay (“soft ground,”)
with strings of melaconite and fahlerz, and at a depth of 12 fms.
iron pyrites in connexion with chalcopyrite, and sphalerite; but
at the old 33-fm. level pyrites appear to predominate. This lode
dips south at 70°, and has not been proved below the old 33
level, but evidently in depth it will make a sulphur ore lode. Recent
explorations would go to prove that this lode and the Discovery
lode, on which there are “ old men’s’ workings, may be part of
the same lode. It also seems not improbabie that this lode may

Mining Operations vn the Eust Ovocu District. 217

represent the main sulphur channel in the supposed dead
ground between East and West Cronebane. If this supposition
is correct, hereabouts the main sulphur lode is heaved south ;
but nothing positive can be stated until the Blue Burrows lode
is proved in depth. Its gossan and gossan ore are very similar
to those inthe Magpie Mine. JII. Discovery lode—tThis possibly
is part of the Blue Burrow lode as just mentioned. IV. Morgan's
lode.—There are “old men’s” workings on this lode, but very
little is known about it at present, except that it is a nearly per-
pendicular E. and W. vein. It is said to have been worked for
copper ore before Weaver’s time. V. Yellow Bottoms lode—
This was a massive shoot of chalcopyrite which continued in
depth for 53 fms., with an average breadth of 1:5 fms., and
dipped south at 70°. Six fms. west of Yellow Bottoms shaft it is
crossed by a fault bearing N. 50° E., which displaces the lode its
own breadth. This lode seems to die out east and west in the
country rock.

The mineral channel in which these five lodes occur is separated
from that of the Magpie or East Cronebane by a N. 45° W. fault,
which displaces the rocks of the country to the north and south.
Formerly it was supposed that the mineral channel of the Yellow
Bottoms contained a sulphur lode, which was a continuation
westward of the main sulphur lode of the Magpie, next to be
described. Recent explorations, however, have shown that such
is not the case, but that the latter lode towards the W. splits at
the Quaker’s shaft, and that both branches in a short distance
become unprofitable, and eventually die out in the hard killas of
the faulty ground ; so that no connexion whatever can be traced
between this lode and those in the Yellow Bottoms. The latter
have E. and W. bearings, while the Magpie has a bearing of N.
60° E.

East Cronebane and Connary Mines.

East Cronebane ordinarily includes the Magpie Mine and ad-
joining veins, also the Yellow Bottoms lodes ; the latter, however,
we have found more convenient to describe in connexion with the
_ “ Dead Ground,” with which they are more immediately connected,

Magpie Mine—Here the north or main lode, as just now
stated, branches going westward from the Quaker’s shaft north-

218 Neientifie Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

eastward it is continuous for 112 fms. (until we nearly reach the
Butts shaft), where it again branches; the north branch being
only 32 fms. long, and being cut out by the hard country rock ;
while the south branch continues eastward to the “N, 32° E.
head,” and along the latter into Connary.

Along the N. 32° E. head into Connary the lode averages 3
fms. wide, while from this head westward to the Magpie shaft it
averages 10 fms. wide, with a bearing of N. 60° E., and dip of
60° towards the south.

At the Magpie shaft the lode continued productive for a depth
of 75 fms. from the surface (cross section No. 7), below which
point it is suddenly cut out at the 83-fm. level by the descent of
the hanging wall, in connexion with a protrusion of felsitic
eranite, at the foot-wall. Seventy fms. north-eastward, at the Old
Whim shaft, the lode is 13 fms. wide at the surface (cross section
No. 8), narrowing te 6 fms. at the 75-fm, level, where it becomes
unprofitable. At the 23-fm. level the foot-wall makes a sudden
bend southward, forming a step or “ warp,” and narrowing the
lode from 10 fms. to 5 fms. in width. The foot-wall of the main
lode is more or less irregular, forming a considerable number of
such “ warps,” and at these all the rich bunches of copper ore
were found ; while in the more perpendicular parts of the lode
the copper ore veins were generally very thin and poor. At the
Butt’s shaft (cross section No. 9) the lode is 15 fms. wide at sur-
face, which width it carries down to the 23-fm. level, where the
foot-wall makes a warp, narrowing the lode to 6fms. At this
shaft the lode was found to be profitable for a depth of 65 fms.
from surface.

The gossan of this lode is principally lmonite with a little
ochre ; it occurs in bunches in ferruginous clay; these bunches of
gossan are generally about 5 fms. in length, 1°5 fms. wide, and 6
fms. in depth ; sometimes they are connected by a string of
ochre; but in those places where they are almost in contact a
small vein of limonite invariably connects them. This gossan
contains some auriferous silver, which is said to have been ex-
tracted by the old men. Under the gossan there is in general
1:5 fms. of “ gossan ore,’ principally melaconite and fahlerz with
a little argentiferous galena. This “gossan ore” rests upon “soft
ground ” (blue steatitic clay) containing interlaminated strings

Mining Operations in the Last Ovoca District. 219

and partings of melaconite, fahlerz, iron pyrites, marcasite, argen-
tiferous galena, and occasionally chalcopyrite, and native copper ;
in depth the other ores gradually give place to the sulphur ores ;
the copper ores are seldom found at a greater depth than 40 fimms.;
while the argentiferous galena generally disappears at 30 fms.
from surface.

In connexion with these ores large masses of black carbona-
ceous killas (“ coaly ground,” so called from the resemblance to
coal) occur, generally as the foot-wall of a copper ore seam or vein.
The native copper is mostly found in the “coal ground ” under
the copper ores. I have found that this “coal ground ” contains
about 12 percent. of graphite, and that a piece of it when in con-
tact with a piece of metallic iron has the property of receiving a
deposit of metallic copper, if both are immersed in the mine
water, which is a solution of copper and iron sulphates.

At the Magpie shaft the main lode is entirely in the killas;
while 20 fms. to the south of it, also in the killas, is the “south
lode,” which here is 10 fms. wide, and is composed of whitish
felspathic clay, with a little kilmacooite and copper ore. Farther
eastward, at the Old Whim shaft, a south lode similar in com-
position to that just mentioned has also been found. It, however,
has a different position, inasmuch as the first occurs in killas, and
lies 20 fms. south of the main lode, while that at the Old Whim
shaft is only 6 fms. south of the main lode, and has the felstone
forming ts hanging wall, thereby becoming a “ contact deposit”
(a lode separating rocks, geologically different). It is, however,
possible that these lodes may be portions of the same lode, which
was broken and displaced by a fault. Here there is a large mass
of intrusive felstone which suddenly cuts of the killas to the
east of the Magpie shaft.

Madam Butlers.

The Lodge level (the only south adit, and probably the first
driven) cuts the main sulphur lode of the Magpie at the Old
Whim shaft, at a depth of 25 fms. In it three small veins of chal-
copyrite and two sulphur veins were discovered, as follows :—
The first towards the south is a vein of chalcopyrite in a gangue
of kilmacooite (blue stone). This vein was driver. on for 4 fms.
towards the west, and at the end a winze was sunk 5 fms., the

220 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

ore in depth increasing in size and quality. The second is 6 fms.
farther north, and in the south shaft (Madam Butler’s) it was 2 feet
wide, yielding chalcopyrite in a gangue of quartz with chlorite.
Five fms. still farther north is the third, or Madam Butler’s vein,
and in the north shaft it was 2 feet wide, yielding chalcopyrite with
a gangcue of kilmacooite. This vein was worked for copper by the
“old men;” but on account of the kilmacooite it is doubtful if
they were able to dress the ore to a profit. Two fathoms north of
Madam Butler’s shaft the fourth lode occurs, where it is 2 fms.
wide, and composed of soft dark killas with specks and strings
of iron pyrites ; while 8 fms. to the north of the latter there is a
second vein of soft killas containing iron pyrites and a little
chalcopyrite. This vein was driven on in search of copper by
the “old men,” but was not found profitable.

These five lodes occur in the felspathic country rocks (ash or
tuffs), while immediately north of the fifth or north lode, hornstone
comes in, and a little farther north a protrusion of felstone ; but
about sixteen fms. westward of the Lodge level there is a fault
bearing about N. 25° W., which cuts out the hornstone and fel-
stone, and brings in the country rock. The effect of this fault
on these five lodes is unknown ; but probably it cuts off the pre-
viously mentioned Magpie south lode.

This felstone contains a very large per-centage of iron pyrites,
while there is scarcely any in the hornstone. The latter has a
similar underlie to the country rock, and southward seems to
graduate into it.

The south lode of the Magpie, at the Old Whim shaft, as seen
in the Lodge level, is nearly entirely filled with whitish felspathic
clay. It is lke decomposed felstone, and occurs in every
stage from a hard stone to fine clay. As this lode is followed
eastward it separates from the main lode, and at the N. 32° E.
head there is a thickness of 32 fms. of killas between them. The N.
32° K. head cuts off the south lode, but the north lode, as pre-
viously mentioned, turns along it towards the N.E, for about 100
fms., when it again turns and takes its normal bearing, N. 60° E.

In this head (N. 32° E.) the felstone forms the hanging wall of
the lode, while its filling stuff is nearly entirely white felspathic
clay, instead of the “blue steatitic clay,” which up to this place
formed the principal filling stuff The chief ore in this part of

Mining Operations in the East Ovoca District. 221

the lode is fahlerz, which occurs in large quantities, and of a high
per-centage ; associated with it is a little melaconite, and large
rounded lumps of galena. No iron pyrites is found, except a
few strings, until east of the N. 32° E. headin the Connary Mine.
Here the north lode is just the same as that described at the
Magpie, with the exception that in depth a quartzose rib (Rattle
Box) forms the hanging wall. This has disseminated in it specks
and strings of copper and chalcopyrite. In the Connary Engine
shaft the lode was followed down fora depth of 76 fms. from surface,
and 15 fms. east of this shaft a winze was put down 20 fms. deeper,
in which the lode was found to be productive for a few fms. below
the 84-fin. level, at which place the walls were almost in contact
(see cross section No. 10.), while in length the lode was cut out
by slides coming in from the east and west. Still deeper the
walls came together, completely cutting out the lode, at a depth
of 94 fms. from surface, or 24 fms. above sea level. Elsewhere the
main lode in this mine has not been proved to its full depth. In
length it has not been proved farther eastward than Kempson’s
shaft, although its gossan has been followed for some distance into
Kilmacoo.

South of the Connary main lode, in the townland of Sroughmore,
there is a second lode (“ Wall’s lode ”), with a similar bearing and
underlie, which for a short distance produces iron pyrites, with a
little chalcopyrite. Wall’s lode to the east breaks into strings,
while westward it is cut off by a mass of felspathic rock. South
of Wall’s lode on the felstone a quartz lode, similar to the “ Rattle
Box,” with strings of chalcopyrite was proved in the Kilmacoo
level.

Farther north-east in Kilmacoo there is a south lode (Kilmacoo
lode) principally made up of “soft ground,” which contains bunches
and veins of “ Kilmacooite,” which is a peculiar combination of
sphalerite, argentiferous galena, iron and copper pyrites, and
antimony glance, with a trace of gold. Large quantities of Kil-
macooite have been raised from this lode.

The great sulphur lode in these mines (Kast Cronebane and
Connary) is more or less wedge-shaped, gradually narrowing in
depth ; it has a general bearing of N. 60° E., with a southerly dip
of 60°. As previously mentioned, it has been proved to its full
depth in the Magpie shaft, and a little east of Connary Engine

222

Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

shaft. It is generally supposed to be a continuation of the main
sulphur lode in Tigroney and West Cronebane ; but as they differ
from each other so much in character and composition I am led
to believe that the lode in the upper mines (Hast Cronebane and
Connary) is quite distinct from that in the lower mines (Tigroney
and West Cronebane). The following are the principal differ-

ences -—
Upper Mines.
The gossan* occurs in bunches
in masses of ferruginous clay, and
never occupies the full width of

the lode. It contains auriferous
silver.

“ Coal ground” occurs in large
masses.

The iron pyrites never fills the
lode, but occurs in cakes or lenti-
cular masses in the filling stuff.
The iron pyrites does not become
coppery in depth. The clays or
“soft ground” that forms the fill-

Lower MINEs.

The gossan in mass occupies the
the full width and length of the
lode. No trace of auriferous silver
can be found in it.

No “coal ground” occurs, ex-
cept in minute quantities.

The iron pyrites nearly invari-
ably occupies the full width and
length of the lode ; in depth it
becomes coppery. Near the sur-
face there is a little soft ground,
but none is found in depth.

ing stuff of the lode continues soft
down to its full depth.

The country on the north and
south of the lode, except the fel-
stone in the Lodge level, is very
little mineralized.

The country on the north and
south of the lode is more or less
mineralized, especially the latter,
in which occur copper lodes for a
width of 25 fms. from the hanging
wall.

The associated country rocks of the lodes in the two places are
also different; the bearings of the lode are also different, as fol-
lows :—Tigroney Mine, from the great flucan to the reversed
fault, N. 65° E. ; from the reversed fault to the boundary fault, N.
70° E. Cronebane West, from the boundary fault to the “ Dead
Ground,” N. 85° EK. Magpie Mine to the N. 32° E. head, N. 60°
E.; along the head to Connary Mine, N. 32° E.; from the N,
32° E. head to Kilmacoo, N. 60° E.

The mineral channel at Kilmacco is possibly heaved northward
about 1,000 fms. by the Kilmacoo east head, for at that distance
northward to the east of the head, in the townland of Rockstown,
are “shode stones” and lodey indications; they, however, as yet

* This gossan could not be shown in detail in the cross sections owing to the smallness
of the scale; therefore the gossan and ferruginous clays are shown as gossan.

Mining Operations in the East Ovoca District. 293

have not been explored. The country to the east is also heaved
northward by this head.

Tn the hollow occupied by the road from Kilmacoo to Kilma-
crea Pass there is a N. 75° E. course of flucany killas with thin
veins of iron pyrites; on it trials have been made without finding
any profitable lode. The tract of country east of Kilmacoo East
head is very much broken up; many more or less isolated masses of
felspathic rock (felstones, hornstones, and tuffs) occurring therein.

The Kilmacrea cross course is an irregular dyke of black
(coaly) and gray killas with hard gritty ribs running with the
bearing of the course; at the north end of the course there are
“old men’s workings” consisting of a nearly E. and W. level and
different shafts. Some trials were also made about seventeen
years ago without any practical results. The level is evidently
very ancient, and little is known about it. Close to the Cross-
roads is Brady’s shaft in which broken sulphur ore was found in
a “lodge,” while a little farther south is Foley’s shaft where
yellow ore is said to have been raised ; here, also, the site of the
old “cobbing” floor is pointed out. This ore may possibly be
a rib associated with the “coal.” About 83 fms. farther south,
in a small trial at the road, there is a sparry string carrying
some sphalerite ; while about 90 fms. still farther south there are
blocks of coppery quartz that seem to belong to nearly a EK. and
W. lode in the wood.

From Kilmacrea cross course to the N. 10° W. fault in Bally-
eapple Hill, a distance of 1,000 fms., the country is also much dis-
placed, and no mineral indications are known therein except a
few iron springs and some quartz tumblers containing chalco-
pyrite—which are found in Ballykean at a considerable distance
south of the bearing of the mineral channel of Connary.

Ballycapple and Ballard Mines.

In the eastern side of Ballycapple Hill several pits were put
down, and open casts made to reach the gossan of the lode,
which is a powdery, blaekish-brown ochre containing pyrolusite.
The lode as seen in these pits runs E. and W., and is 16 feet
wide, witha southerly dip of 90°; the best gossan is found on the
foot-wall, and is about 6 feet wide, resting on which is 2 feet
of a hard grit rib, south of which there is 8 feet of gossan. The

to

24 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

lode has been proved for 135 fms. from the brow of Ballycapple
Hill eastward, where it is heaved southward by a left-hand dis-
placement of afew fms.; while 20 fms. east of this displacement
the lode is cut by a N. 10° W. head that underlies to the east.
East of the N. 10° W. head the lode is continuous for about 50
fms., where it meets with a right-hand displacement (reversed
fault), which lengthens the lode. From the “reversed head” the
lode is continuous for 135 fms., at which point it is displaced by
the “ middle head,” a distance of 200 fms.

Between the N. 10° W. head and the middle head the lode
was in places extensively worked by the “old men;” their work-
ings, that are known, being four large circular pits called the
Clash pits,* and an adit level driven in from the south capable
of unwatering them to a depth of 12 fms. The works seem to
have been stopped abruptly, as this level although within a few
fms. of the pits never holed them.

Within the last three years two shafts were sunk west of the
“yeversed head,” proving a standing lode 4 fms. wide for a depth
of 7 fms.; these two shafts were connected by a level, and 800
tons of ore extracted. Sixty-six fms. east of the “reversed head” a
shaft was also sunk for 6 fms.; in it the lode was vertical for
4 fms., and 3 fms. wide, after which it dipped south at 70°, and
the ore increased in width and quality. In Ballard lower to the
east of the middle head the lode seems to extend E. for 100
fms. Here iron ore was also extracted; there being the remains
of four circular pits; but no mining has been carried on during
later years, and nothing further is known about the lode.

The bearing of the portions of the lode in Ballycapple and
Ballard is about E. and W. The gossan, as far as known,
is a powdery, dark-brown ochre in which large tumblers of chaly-
bite occur; the ore itself contains a large per-centage of mag-
netite, and gives about 56 per cent. metallic iron, and 4 per cent.
manganese.

* The Clash pits were worked for iron ore over 200 years ago; there is a tradition in the
country that copper ore was also found. They probably received their name from Bally-
naclash, generally, called Clash (in the Glenmalure valley), where there was an iron furnace
and works, and to which place the ore was carried on horseback.

Mining Operations in the East Ovoca District. 225

NOTE ADDED IN THE PREss.

The following analysis of “ Kilmacooite,” or Blue Stone, will show the
general composition of this interesting mineral :—

—— A B | C D | E

Lead, . P « |15:90* | 15:52 | + 7-60] 15-42°| 26-10
Copper, . : .| 358 | 2:77| 317] 0-20] 00-55
Iron, : é 16:45 4:40 | 27-40 2°50 | 11°56
Antimony, . ° a) O10 - - ~ -
Arsenic, . - a Os - - - -
Zine, . - - | 26:18 24-00 8:16 | 49:08 | 20-00
Sulphur, . - | 32°65 20°18 | 37:12 | 28°56 | 24:60
Silica, ; 7 -| 0°82 30:90 | 12-00 2°50 | 16°70
Earthy Matrix, . -| 3°65 - - - ~
Oxygen, . : -| 0-50 = = = =
Gold, C 5 -| O-00L a o — | Trace
Silver, : . -| 0:012 - ~ | 740z. | 6 oz.
Loss, ° 4 & || UE ~ - - =
Ore from Pary’s mountain Mine.

Ore from Madam Butler's lode, Cronebane.

Ore from main lode at Butts shaft, Se

Ore from south lode at Old Whim shaft, ,,
Ore from Kilmacoo lode (Connary mine),

HOOD

The iron pyrites in the main lode at the Magpie mine contains more
or less lead, and in places zinc, and so graduates into ‘“ Kilmacooite.”
C is an analysis of iron pyrites changing into Kilmacooite.

The Chalcopyrite found in the Eastern Ovoca mines contain froin 8
to 12 per cent. of copper.

The iron pyrites contain from 33 to 36 per cent. of sulphur. About
one-sixth of the pyrites is cupreous, and contains 38 per cent. sulphur
and 21 per cent. copper. Nearly all the pyrites contains gold, silver,
nickel, and cobalt, in small quantities.

B, C, D, and E were not tested for antimony or arsenic ; they, how-
ever, are probably present in B, D, and E.

B and C were not tested for silver or gold.

XXXI.—DINGLE AND GLENGARIFF GRITS, sy G. H.
KINAHAN, ».n.1.4., &c. Puate 14.

[Read 21st April, 1879. ]

From the comments that have been made on my representation
of the relation between the Dingle Beds and the Glengariff Grits,
with the accompanying diagrammatic section in Chap. IV. of my
book on the Geology of Ireland, it would appear that some further
explanation of the subject is necessary, and this I now propose
to give.

But first I would refer to the recently published paper on “ The
Old Red Sandstone of Western Europe,” by Dr. A. Geikie (rans.
Roy. Soc., Edin., vol. xaviit., p. 345), as his statements in reference
to the “Old Red Sandstone ” of Scotland have particular bearing
upon the present question. In p. 347 of that paper he states :—

1.) “My own work in the centre and south of Scotland had proved
the Old Red Sandstone to consist of two great divisions—a lower pass-
ing down conformably into the Upper Silurian shales, and an upper
graduating upwards into the Lower Carboniferous.”

And at page 353 he affirms, when contrasting the uniformity of
the stratified rocks of Silurian age with the Old Red Sandstone :—

(2.) “No such general uniformity of stratification presents itself in
the Old Red Sandstone. On the contrary, with the accumulation of the
deposits in limited basins, come local and often peculiar features, whereby
even contiguous tracts are distinguished from each other. It is still
possible roughly to make out with more or less clearness the limits of

the basins, &ec.”

These remarks, as I have shown in a former paper, are very
applicable to the corresponding Irish rocks ; as everywhere, ex-
cept in 8.W. Ireland, the Irish rocks, similar to those called by
Dr. Geikie “Upper” and “Lower Old Red Sandstone,” are dis-
cordant with each other; while everywhere the Upper graduates
into the Carboniferous, and in different places the Lowe into the
Silurians. Wealso find great lithological differences in the rocks
of the different areas or basins. Geikie at page 354 divides the
rocks classed by him as the “Lower Old Red Sandstone” of Britain
into five great “ Basins of Deposit.” Of these, No. 4 he calls the

Proc. RD.8.ns. Vol 11. Plate 14.

Diagrammatic section showiurg the relations beluween the rocks
North and Scath of Dingle Bay.

Dingle Ba
No uy at Kenmare. liwer SOUTH
oh = ey age Bantry B
a oe Re a OP Oe a a ek pera bie
setae Re ee Ue Ce SS Padi yaae ce
ee 2, 1 pean ena sin oT ATU Orage OTS '
TM IMs eo. | fo CVT OP” ete eee eee ee oa ae Noa Ore ere ee

SS

Coal. Measures.
LS«C8| Carbonitérous limestone or Shale.
0RS.|2 1.1 :| Old Red Sandstone or Lower Corboratercus
Mw | Joper beds, Glengurdl? Cris
We, Dingle Beds and de. do.
+4+++| Varne Stlarians.

GH Kinahan, De. Forster & C2 Lith Dablin

Anniversary Address to the Royal Geological Society. 195

Griffith turned his attention to geology and mining engineer-
ing in the year 1800, or immediately after. Having studied chemis-
try, mineralogy, and geology in London for two years, under the
well-known William Nicholson, and having become acquainted
with practical mining in various parts of England and of Scotland,
and having studied in Edinburgh under Sir James Hall, Playfair,
Jameson, &c., he returned to Ireland in 1808, and immediately
joined the Dublin Society. It was in the very next year that he
undertook the first of his numerous surveys and investigations
for that Society ; this was a Geological and Mineralogical Survey
of the county Dublin. In the same year he was appointed by
the Commissioners as one of the engineers to examine and report
on the bogs of Ireland ; this gave opportunity for examining geo-
logically various parts of the country. In 1812 he was appointed
Professor of Geology and Mining Engineer to the Royal Dublin
Society. It was in this year, perhaps even in the preceding, that
he commenced his map at the suggestion of his friend, G. B.
Greenough, afterwards the well-known author of the early Geo-
logical Map of England. About this time he surveyed the
Leinster coal district, his Geological and Mining Report on which
was published in 1814. In that year he made for the Dublin
Society a general mining survey through Leitrim, Roscommon,
Galway, Clare, Kerry, Limerick, and Cork, the length of the tour
being nearly 1,000 miles ; the results were afterwards detailed in
his mining lecturesin connexion with theSociety. Inconsequence of
the information he had already collected, combined with what little
there was to be obtained from other sources, he was enabled to pre-
sent in public, at his lectures in 1815, what we shall call the first
edition of his Geological Map of Ireland. This was never printed.
It is a curious coincidence that it was in this same year, 1815,
that the first Geological Map of England, by William Smith, was
published. His continued employment in carrying out similar
works for the Society enabled him to be always adding to and
improving the details of his map, until 1822, when his appoint-
ment as Engineer of Public Works in- Cork, Kerry, and Limerick,
gave him further facilities for obtaining information. Then in
1825 he was appointed by the Lord Lieutenant (Marquis of
Wellesley) to carry out the Boundary Survey, the duties of which
involved his visiting, sometimes more than once, nearly every

SciEN, Proc. R.D.S., Vou, 1, PT. 111 P

196 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

parish in Ireland. He still continued his work in connexion
with the Dublin Society. He writes, in 1826, that he had never
lost sight of his intention to make a perfect Geological Map of
Treland, and that he never misses an opportunity of making
accurate geological observations. By the year 1828 he had made
extensive additional surveys, and had presented numerous addi-
tional geological and mining reports to the Royal Dublin Society,
so that he could then say, “ There is no part of Ireland in the geo-
logical examination of which I have not made considerable pro-
gress,’ and he hopes at no distant period to complete his map. It
is desirable to mention this here to show that his map in its
inception, and the earlier part of its progress, was quite unconnected
with the Valuation Survey, which we have now to mention,
although it afterwards proved so useful in connexion with that
Survey. Its purpose was, in the first place, scientific; the practi-
cal objects to which it might subserve would, of course, not be
despised, but they were regarded as of secondary rank.

In 1829 he was appointed Commissioner of the Valuation Sur-
vey of Ireland, the Bill for which had been passed three years
before. He eagerly embraced the great opportunities afforded by
this work for the completion of his map. What made the last
two appointments so specially to be prized was the fact, not only
that they involved his visiting every part of Ireland, but, also,
that as the surveys were quite distinct, and their objects quite
unconnected, and as they together extended over more than a
quarter of a century, his repeated visits to different districts
would occur at times separated by considerable intervals. Thus
he had means of verifying or correcting former observations or
conclusions, not only in the light of his own increased knowledge
of the general facts, but also in that of progressing geological
science. He himself tells us that for the improvement and com-
pletion of his map he found it necessary to revisit every district
and nearly every parish in Ireland at least three times; and he
tells us elsewhere that much exertion was used by him to keep
pace with modern discoveries and views. Seldom has there been
such a remarkable concurrence of a recognised want, the eminently
suitable agent for supplying that want, and ample opportunity
for the effectual working of that agent. He was now obliged to
resign his office of Professor of Geology and Mining Engineer to

Anniversary Address to the Royal Geological Society. 197

the Royal Dublin Society, which he had held for just twenty
years.

Though he was still continually adding to his store of facts,
yet no material changes were made in his map until the early
part of 1835, at which date we enter upon the second period in
the history of the map. It is interesting to note this point, be-
cause it shows his prudence in contenting himself during the first
period with a copious induction of facts before doing anything
but what was sufficiently obvious at once as to the correlation, dis-
cussion, and interpretation of those facts. The second period in
the history of the map was one of rapid change, improvement,
and scientific development. Probably the reason why the second
edition of the map was constructed at this time was that it might
be ready for the meeting ot the British Association in Dublin in
August, 1835 ; at any rate, it was then exhibited to the Associa-
tion, of the Geological Section of which Griffith was President.

In drawing up this map of 1835 he was assisted by the publi-
cations of Weaver, Conybeare, Buckland, Berger, Nimmo, Bald,
Bryce, &c. But, except some detached hills of quartz-rock, whose
outlines were adopted from Weaver, and the small granite ex-
posure of Cavan, whose limits were taken from Lieut. Stothard, the
boundary lines on his map were the result of the observations of
himself or of persons acting under his direction. The most im-
portant of these observations by the officers acting under him
were those of Mr. John Kelly (at his death one of our Vice-Pre-
sidents) in different parts of Ireland, of Mr. Samuel Nicholson in
the north part of Antrim, and of Mr. Patrick Knight in Mayo.
The only printed representation of this map of 1835 is that in
John Phillips’ “Index Geological Map of the British Islands,”
edition of 1838 (but undated). The geology of Ireland in that
map is taken “ by permission” from “ Griffith’s large unpublished
map ” (but see Vote, infra). It is on the small scale of one inch
to twenty-five miles, and doubtless many minor details are omitted.

In the map of 1835 the leading outlines of the formations are
given with considerable accuracy ; though in some cases the for-
mations themselves were to be afterwards changed or left doubt-
ful. We shall now refer only to the following particulars, which,
for various reasons, are the most interesting. We find the Dingle
Promontory and the whole of the country south of the line joining
Dingle and Dungarvan Bays marked as Transition. A great change

Scien. Proc. R.D.S., Vou, 1, Pv. m1. p 2

198 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

wasafterwardsmadeinthis. The Knockmealdown and Commeragh
Mountains in Tipperary and Waterford are O.R.S. These were
soon to be altered to Transition, and afterwards back again to
O.R.S. What we name below the Fintona district, extending
from Lough Erne to Pomeroy, is marked O. R. 8.,and so remains to
the last, though Griffith doubted the propriety of this afterwards.
Griffith mentions in February, 1836, that one desideratum in that
map is a subdivision of the Tr ansition, or Greywacke, slates, which
the Welsh ones had received from Murchison. No rocks decidedly
belonging to the Silurian system had been observed by himself, or
described by others, as occurring in Ireland. Another desideratum,
he says, is some division of the Conglomerate and Old Red Sand-
stone. It will be necessary to distinguish between the Old Red
Sandstone and the sandstone connected with the lowest part of
the Carboniferous Limestone. Another desideratum, he says, is a
subdivision of the Carboniferous Limestone. On that map there
were only two colours for the whole Carboniferous system: blue
for the Limestone and the connected rocks, and black for the Coal
formation.* At that time he supposed that the Calp of Kirwan
was lowest in the Limestone division. In his paper to the British
Association he speaks of the coal fields, and mentions that bitu-
minous coal is confined to the north; he speaks of the New Red
Sandstone and the Lias, &c., of the N.E. He mentions that the
Wexford marls contain shells to be compared with those of the
Crag. He speaks also of the Eskers. This map was ordered by
Government to be reconstructed and engraved under the Board of
Ordnance. This was not completed until 1838.

In 1837 the map was exhibited to the British Association at
Liverpool. The Yellow Sandstone was now separated from the
Old Red, and put at the base of the Carboniferous system, and
his triple division of the Carboniferous Limestone into Lower,
Middle or Calp, and Upper, was now first published.

In 1838 was published for the Railway Commissioners, of whom
he was himself one, his “ Outline of the Geology of Ireland,” with
his map on the reduced scale of one inch to ten miles, the date on
which is April 28. The value to the Commissioners of the infor-
mation thus supplied to them is obvious.

* We here perceive that Phillips’ small map above mentioned contains one of Griftith’s

improvements on his map of 1835. The Millstone Grit of Leitrim and Fermanagh is in-
dicated, as in Griffith's small map of 1838.

Anniversary Address to the Royal Geological Society. 199

Small details are omitted in this map. The leading boundary
lines are already nearly the same asnow. The Primary rocks are
the mica slate, &c., of Donegal, the Ox Mountains, West Mayo and
Achill, Croagh Patrick, and the stretch of country reaching from
Lough Corrib to the north side of Clifden. The Transition divi-
sion is Cambrian and Silurian; that of Wicklow, which is Older
Transition, includes both. This, however, is still only conjecture.
The Greywacke Slates, as he calls them, of South Cork are Older
Transition. This erratum was to be almost immediately after-
wards corrected. Indeed he had already made what we may call
a step towards the truth, for the limestone of the Lee, Bride, Black-
water, &c., valleys, which was supposed to be interstratified with
the slates, and to be therefore Transition limestone, he declares
to be Carboniferous, notwithstanding its questionable position.
What we now call the Dingle Beds and Glengariff Grits are Newer
Transition—that is to say, he had already assigned them the posi-
tion which further investigation more strongly convinced him
was the right one for these somewnat obscure rocks. But the
Transition colour still extended over what he very soon found to
be the Old Red Sandstone area of Middle and East Cork, the
Galtee Mountains, Waterford, and Kilkenny. He had made, how-
ever, a step inthe right direction by colouring this as Newer Transi-
tion, whereas before it was simply Transition. But, on the other
hand, he now carried the Newer Transition colour over the Com-
meragh and Knockmealdown Mountains; a step in the wrong
direction, which was, however, to be almost immediately retraced.
The Secondary division extends from the Old Red Sandstone to
the Chalk, both inclusive. Some of his Old Red Sandstone, such
as that of Slieve Bloom, the Curlew Mountains, &c., he now made
Yellow Sandstone ; which was with him a greater change than it
would have been with others, since he was transferring the rocks
in question from the Old Red to the Carboniferous.

His division of the Carboniferous System was now nearly com-
plete. It was as follows in ascending order :—Yellow Sandstone,*
Lower, Middle or Calp, and Upper Limestone, Millstone Grit, and
Coal Measures. But one member remained to be added ; which

-* Jukes agreed with Griffith that the Yellow Sandstone of the N. of Ireland formed
the base of the Carb. System, but considered that that of the S. is more probably lower.
Griffith, however, adhered to his opinion while aware of Jukes doubts.

200 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

deficiency was very soon to be filled up. His Upper Secondary is
Magnesian Limestone, New Red Sandstone, Black Shale, Lias,
Greensand, and Chalk. Griffith knew of the Silurian fossils that
Portlock had obtained in the small slate area on the N.E. side
of Pomeroy, in Tyrone; but Portlock’s memoir was not yet out, and
Griffith not wishing to ignore Portlock’s discovery, but still
afraid of being too hasty, left the small space uncoloured.

The map of which we have been speaking was dated April
28, 1838. Very shortly after that, in the same year, the large map,
which had been ordered by the Government, in 1836, to be re-
constructed and engraved, was brought out; though, for some
reason which does not appear, it was not regularly published, so
as to be accessible to all, until March 28, 1839, the date which is
inscribed upon it. A copy of this was exhibited to the British
Association, at Neweastle, in August, 1838, after hanging for
some time in the rooms of the Geological Society of Dublin. We
must guard against confusing these two maps of 1838 together ;
a mistake which was made by some contemporaries, and gave rise
to great misunderstandings. The large map must have appeared
very shortly, indeed, after the one we have just been considering ;
and yet it contained two very important changes, one of them
apparently of a very daring character. It gave the Old Red
Sandstone of Middle and East Cork, Waterford, and Kilkenny, as
such, instead of what it had been supposed to be, viz., Newer
Transition (Upper Silurian). And the Carboniferous Slate within
the root of the Dingle Promontory and that of South Cork was
now first made such, instead of what it had been supposed to be,
Older Transition (Lower Silurian, or Cambrian). These changes
were contrary to the opinions of Portlock, John Phillips, and
other geologists, and they were strongly epposed by the admir-
able and veteran Weaver. They have since, however, been amply
justified by the Geological Survey. We ought to mention here
that in 1836 Mr. Charles W. Hamilton, sometime Secretary and
afterwards President of our Society, pointed out to Griffith that
the rooting slates which they together saw quarried at Ringa-
bella, a little outside the entrance to Cork Harbour, were newer
than the O.R.S. Before any fossils were discovered in the sup-
posed Greywacke of South Cork the mistake that had been made
by all the authorities, Griffith himself included, respecting those

Anniversary Addyess to the Royal Geological Society. 201

rocks was most natural. The tremendous horizontal compres-
sion, in a nearly N. and 8. direction, to which those rocks have
been subjected, has produced in them a slaty cleavage which
makes them resemble very much older rocks; and then the vio-
lent nearly E. and W. folds into which they have been thrown,
doubtless by the same compressing force, combined with the fact
that the outlines of the Carboniferous Slate areas are parallel with
those folds, make it very difficult to know, without well dis-
played contacts, whether those South Cork rocks lie above or
below those to the north of them ; their stratigraphical relations,
being thus rendered obscure, do not obviously correct the decep-
tive effect of their petrological character. The discovery of
fossils in them set the matter right. The addition of the Car-
boniferous Slate (just above the Yellow Sandstone) completed
Griffith’s seven-fold division of the Carboniferous System, on
which he laid much stress. In this map the small clay-slate
district on the N. E. side of Pomeroy, which we have mentioned
as being left blank, was now coloured as Silurian; and this was the
only patch of Silurian colour on this map. But Griffith knew of
the existence of Silurian fossils at Ferriter’s Cove and Dunquin,
near the end of the Dingle Promontory, and also at Knockmahon,
on the coast of county Waterford. He believed that the base of
Waterford, Cork, and Kerry is Silurian ; but the country was not
then sufficiently examined. He thought that the Silurian might
be only an upper member of the Greywacke, rather than a dis-
tinct series. He expected that the greater part of the schistose
rocks of Kerry and Cork, coloured on the map as Greywacke
Slate, would prove to be Silurian, except a band of black slates
in the Dingle Promontory, and running 8. W. from Caherconree;
these last rocks are the lowest. This last map was presented to
the Geological Society of London, on May 22, with a paper, and
to the Geological Society of Dublin, on June 13, also with a
paper.

In June, 1840, only fifteen months after the last-mentioned
edition had become accessible to the public, a new issue appeared
which was exhibited to the British Association, at Manchester,
in August of that year. In the short time mentioned changes
had been made in the map in no less than forty places. Portrane
and Lambay, county Dublin, are now made Silurian. Griffith knew

202 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

of Silurian (Caradoc) fossils at Grangegeeth, near Slane, co.
Meath, and at Tramore, besides Knockmahon, co. Waterford.
But as those districts had not been yet sufficiently examined for
fossils he had not marked them as Silurian ; he thought it unwise
yet to attempt to separate them from the Greywacke. But the
Dingle Beds and Glengariff Grits, with as nearly as possible their
present outlines, are made Silurian, instead of mere Newer Transi-
tion. The Yellow Sandstone which had been supposed to form
the chief mass of Slieve Baun, co. Roscommon, Slieve Moray, co.
Galway, the Devil's Bit, and Keeper Mountains, the mountains
N. and §. of the schistose range of Carn Clonhugh, co. West-
meath, &., is now made O.R.S. Various other changes were
made besides these. This map was presented to the Geological
Society of Dublin, the former being withdrawn at the same
time.

In Angust, 1843, the map was exhibited to the British Asso-
ciation, at Cork. It does not appear that any changes had been
introduced since 1840, except that the Silurian fossil localities,
already mentioned, on the coast of Waterford were marked ; but
in his paper accompanying the map he says that the boundary
of the Silurian there must be enlarged. He had lately dis-
covered Silurian fossils at the Chair of Kildare. In the same
paper he speaks of a change which probably ought to be made,
but which, in deference to the opinions of certain others, he did
not make. The rocks of the district on the N.E. side of Lough
Erne, the centre of which is near Fintona, those of the Curlew
Mountains, at the northern end of Roscommon, and those of
Croagh Moyle, &c., near the N. E. angle of Clew Bay, are appar-
ently of similar though somewhat doubtful age. The Fintona
rocks had been hitherto classed and coloured as O.R.S., but
they are apparently conformable with the Silurian at Pomeroy
and Lisbellaw; and the base of the Carboniferous, consisting of
red and grey sandstones, lies unconformably upon the Fintona
rocks. Therefore, those rocks are probably Silurian. The Cur-
lew Mountain rocks are exactly similar to the Fintona rocks in
geological position, and in composition and character (in the
small map of April, 1838, these were coloured as Yellow Sandstone).
The reddish-brown sandstones and conglomerates at Newport
(Croagh Moyle district) are similar to the foregoing, and are

Anniversary Address to the Royal Geological Society. 2038

covered unconformably by the Carboniferous Limestone at Castle-
bar. He seems, in the paper now referred to, to speak somewhat
uncertainly of the position of the Glengariff Grits.

In 1844 Griffith read a paper to the British Association, at
York, “On certain Silurian districts in Ireland.” There is a
tract of fossiliferous Silurians N. and S. of Killary Harbour,
bounded on the N. by Croagh Patrick, on the 8. by the Twelve
Pins. He speaks of the fossiliferous Silurians of Waterford,
Wexford, and Wicklow. These were all examined by him since
August, 1843. We find that Oldham was working out these
rocks, and obtaining fossils from them simultaneously. The
large slate district of Down, Armagh, Monaghan, Cavan, and
Louth is Silurian, probably all Lower Silurian, though no fossils
have been obtained thence, except at its south border, at Grange-
geeth, near Slane.

He had concluded, by January, 1846, that the Transition rocks
of the Galtees and of Slieve-na-muck are Lower Silurian.

In August, 1853, the year of the Exhibition in Dublin, a small
edition of the map on the scale of 1 inch to 16 miles was published to
accompany the Instructions to the Valuators. A knowledge of the
surface extent of the geological formations of the country was
calculated to be of great use to the Valuation Survey; since the
composition of the rocks, as a general, though not invariable, rule,
affects so largely the character and value of the soil of a district.
The correspondence of the boundaries of better and worse land
with the geological outlines of a region is often most remarkable.
A reissue of this map came out about a year afterwards which
contained some slight additions. This map contained, as far as
its scale would allow, all the improvements of which we have
been speaking, together with some introduced by the Geological
Survey, as the Cambrian areas of N. Wicklow and of S.E. Wexford.

In February, 1854, Griffith received the Wollaston Medal from
the Geological Society of London, “for the valuable services
rendered by him to geological science, and particularly for
his Geological Map of Ireland, the result of his own labours
and judicious researches.” The President, Edward Forbes, in
presenting the medal spoke of the map as “one of the most re-
markable geological maps ever produced by a single geologist.”

In 1855 a revised, and the last, edition of Griffith’s large map

204 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

was engraved, by order of the Lords of the Treasury, and pub-
lished. No change has been made in it since then.

In January, 1856, a copy of this map was presented to the
Geological Society of France, and was demonstrated to the
meeting by M. Elie de Beaumont.

In 1857 the new edition of the map was exhibited to the British
Association in Dublin, and Griffith gave then a paper, and sub-
sequently another to the Geological Society of Dublin, in which he
considered certain rocks below the base of the Carboniferous sys-
tem—that is to say, the Dingle Beds and Glengariff Grits, in the
South, and the Croagh Moyle, Curlew Mountain, and Fintona
rocks in the north, all of which he believed to be ef somewhat
similar age. His opinion regarding the Dingle Beds and Glen-
gariff Grits hadnearly always been substantially the same from the
first; he made them Upper Silurian. As the question of the age
of those rocks was under consideration by the Geological Survey
he took that opportunity of bringing up the subject. He had
examined those rocks again in the preceding year in company
with Jukes, Murchison, and Salter. We all know that Jukes
finally concluded that there was least difficulty involved in making
those rocks Old Red Sandstone, and that he coloured the Glen-
gariff Grits as such on the Survey maps, though he left the Dingle
Beds provisionally with an indecisive colour. We are told that on
the occasion just mentioned Murchison was inclined to side with
Griffith, although Murchison and Phillips, after visiting together
the Dingle Promontory in 1843, immediately after the meeting of
the British Association in Cork, had concluded that those rocks
were Old Red Sandstone.

Griffith, then, observes that, as he expresses it, the Glengariff
Grits in the Dingle Promontory lie conformably on fossiliferous
Upper Silurians, and are covered unconformably by the O. B.S.
Stratigraphically, therefore, they are more closely connected with
the Upper Silurian. Besides this there is the occurrence of simi-
lar felstones and ashes in the Silurians and in the Glengariff Grits
of Dingle. There is, therefore, a double probability in favour of
those Grits being Silurian rather than “Devonian.” But the
Glengariff Grits N. and 8. of Dingle Bay are identical in character,
and seem to belong decidedly to the same series of rocks. It is
true, indeed, that on the 8. side of Dingle Bay the O. R. S. lies

Anniversary Address to the Royal Geological Society. 205

conformably on the Glengariff Grits, and this is unquestionably a
considerable difficulty. But the difficulty is somewhat lessened
by taking the Grits on the S. side as being higher in the series
than those on the N. side of Dingle Bay; he only offers this for
as much as it is worth. There is another difficulty, though not a
serious one—viz., that the Glengariff Grits of the Dingle Promon-
tory are derived from Silurian rocks, They can, however, very
well be Silurian for all that.

Although, then, Griffith, in bringing out the later editions of
his map, availed himself of the determinations of the Geological
Survey when they recommended themselves to him, yet in the
matter of the rocks now in question he maintained his opinion in
opposition thereto. And it would appear now that the arrange-
ment advocated by him will be introduced into future editions of
the Survey maps. I understand that there is a contribution to
the controversy to be presented to another Society almost imme-
diately. As we have not this before us we shall not now go into
the question.

In the papers just mentioned Griffith speaks again of the
Fintona, Curlew Mountain, and Croagh Moyle rocks, characterized
by brown and reddish brown grits and conglomerates. There is,
he says, a sufficient similarity to justify comparison between these
and the Dingle and Glengariff strata. These were, from the first,
coloured by him on his map as Old Red Sandstone (except that
for a short time the Curlew Mountain rocks were marked as
Yellow Sandstone). However, as we have seen, by the year 1843,
he saw reason for doubting this arrangement, and he now repeats
the arguments for connecting those rocks with the Upper Silu-
rian; but whilst unacquainted with the real relations of the De-
vonian he allows them to remain provisionally in this latter for-
mation in deference to others, but distinguishes them in a note
on his map. The Geological Survey have since taken these rocks
in hand; but I do not know whether they have yet come to their
final decision upon them.

To the last we find certain districts, the largest of which is in
Donegal and Londonderry, marked on the map as “ Primary.”
Doubtless this was done at first in accordance with the views of
the time ; and probably the title was afterwards continued for
convenience, it not being intended to mean thereby more than

206 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

relatively oldest, or belonging to the oldest division. It seems to

me that this name, which is a relic of archeic geology, though

standing on the map with a modernized meaning, is a very in-

teresting indication of the far back time when the map was com-

menced ; and I for one should have regretted very much if this,

the only remaining indication, had been expunged. As a provi-

sional name, consisting for convenience of a single word, probably

“ Primary” is as good as any for those unquestionably ancient

metamorphic, and therefore disguised, rocks. If they were simply

marked as metamorphic, that would not necessarily exclude their

being as late as of Ooliticage. Very likely it may never be possible

to determine the age of some of those rocks. Jukes thought it

probable that some of them in the N.W. might be Pre-Cambrian ;

it is supposed by some, as Prof. King and Mr. Kinahan, that some

of those in the W. so marked are Cambrian ; and the fossil evi-°
dence obtained by Prof. King only last year shows that some of
the Donegal “ primary” rocks are Lower Silurian. Let us hope

that the investigations of the Geological Survey may result in

the determination of these points.

We find in more than one place in Griffith’s writings that he
was projecting “an extended work explanatory of the details of
his Geological Map,” but that he was prevented from beginning
it by his various public employments. I am informed that he
did begin to write such a work after his retirement from the
Valuation Survey, but that it is to be feared that it never was
finished. It is earnestly to be wished that whatever writings on
the subject of the Geology of Ireland he shall have left behind
him may soon become accessible to us. If it be said that we
surely ought to be content with his map, we reply that it is the
very excellence and completeness of that map that makes us so
desirous of possessing whatever else may have come from the
same hand.

As we have been dwelling upon the first Geological Map of
Ireland, and have incidentally mentioned that of England, it is
appropriate that we should record, and it is a curious coincidence
that we should have to record, the death of Alexandre Felix Gus-
tave Achille Leymarie, which took place within a fortnight of
the departure of Sir Richard Griffith. He is reported to have
constructed the first geological map of France. He was Professor

Anniversary Address to the Royal Geological Society. 207

of Mineralogy and Geology of the Faculty of Science in Toulouse,
and died October 5, 1878, at the age of 78 years.

But now we must return to ourselves for a time. Within the
last year no less than two books on the Geology of Ireland have
been brought out by Fellows of this Society. I say Fellows of
this Society, for though both the gentlemen referred to belong to
the Geological Survey, those books are not official manifestos ;
they do not simply embody the official geological creed of either
of their authors; they are far more interesting and valuable to
us than if they did so. I mean Professor Hull’s Physical Geology
and Geography of Iveland, and Mr. G. H. Kinahan’s Manual of
the Geology of Ireland. Fortunately for us each work was un-
dertaken, and all but compieted, before it. was known that the
other was in hands; if it had been otherwise we might, perhaps,
have had only one of the two. But though this was so, we might
almost have imagined that there had been a mutual arrangement
whereby the two books might not interfere. The general plan
and object of each are different, and though, of course, to some
extent, the same material is common to both, yet it is generally
introduced in a different way, and regarded from a different point
of view. So that there is ample room for both books, and neither
can be spared because we have the other. It so happens that
these two books correspond respectively to two similar books de-
voted to the geology of England. It is expressly mentioned in
one of those books that I do not agree with all the positions
therein taken up. If either had come out singly, perhaps I might
have ventured to give some review of its contents; but if I were
rash enough to criticise both, the authors would doubtless com-
bine together at once to annihilate me. But this I can do with
safety to myself, and also with cordiality and a clear conscience,
viz— congratulate the Society on the emanation from within itself
of two so useful and valuable works on the geology of our island,
supplying a want which had long been keenly felt, and on the
removal of the stigma which the existence of that unsupplied
want was calculated to cast upon us.

There are various other subjects on which we might dwell, such
as the meeting of the British Association in Dublin in August last,
with more special reference to the proceedings of the Geological

208 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

Section of the Association; but I must not occupy your attention
for too long. 1 now beg to thank you for the honour you. did me
in putting me into this Presidential chair, and for allowing me to
remain there for two years, and to ask your indulgence for any
shortcomings that you may have perceived in my occupancy
thereof.

F 209 ]

XXIX.—ON THE METHOD OF CHARGING HOLTZ’S ELEC-
TRICAL MACHINE, sy W. 8S. M‘CAY, m.a., F.1T.c.p.

[Read March 17th, 1879. ]

Everysopy knows that Holtz’s Electrical Machine produces
surprising results when it has once been started, but nearly
everyone knows that it is very hard to be sure of starting it
when required.

The method of starting the machine I am about to put forward
is probably not new, but as all the text-books say that it should
be started in the originally described manner, and none of them,
as far as I am aware, mention any other mode of doing it, I
thought it might be worth while to bring before the Society the
method devised by myself, and found uniformly successful in
Trinity College. I am bringing it forward in the hope that
Dublin Physicists, at least, may not waste their precious time in
vain attempts to follow the directions of the books.

The method of starting Holtz’s Machine, originally described,
consists in charging the paper armatures, by bringing an excited
plate of ebonite near one of them. I have never known this
method succeed, and on account of the induction acting through
the plates on the combs, I am sure that it would very generally
be uncertain in practice. I have known the machine to be suc-
cessfully started by charging one of the armatures by means of
another electrical machine, but even this frequently failed.

The method I am about to describe of starting Holtz’s Machine
occurred to me from the very simple consideration that when
the machine has been started, and the knobs separated, one of
the conductors is highly charged with (say positive) electricity,
and the other with negative if insulated, or none if put to earth ;
and so it appeared to me that if before the Machine was started
I could get up and maintain, by external means, such a state of
electrification on the conductors, and then work the Machine,
that the armatures would become properly charged by a process
precisely the inverse of that by which they are supposed to
charge the prime conductors in the original method.

Accordingly I separated the knobs of the two prime conduc-
tors, and connected one by a brass chain with the prime conduc-
tor of any other Electric Machine, and the other with the ground.

210 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

Both Machines were then worked, and after a few turns the
characteristic “sizzling” of the Holtz was heard showing that it
was charged. The other Machine was then removed, and the
Holtz continued in full action. This is the method now adopted
in Trinity College, and it has not been known to fail even under
the trying circumstances of lecturing to a large class.

The theory of this method of charging is as follows :—Suppos-
ing that the comb in connexion with the Charging Machine is
positively electrified, then positive electricity flows from it to
the surface of the revolving plate to be neutralized when it
reaches the second comb by negative flowing from the ground, so
that one half the revolving plate is charged with positive electri-
city. :
Consider its action on the armatures. In the proper position
of the armatures the general body of any armature is opposite
the conductor, and the “tongue” pointing in a direction opposite
to the rotation of the revolving plate, and the action of the posi-
tive electricity on the first armature is to drive off positive elec-
tricity from the tongue, through the window in the fixed plate,
on the back of the revolving plate, leaving the armature itself
negatively electrified. But the state of things is different at the
second armature, for as the positive electricity on the revolving
plate approaches the second armature it meets the tongue first,
draws out negative electricitity (more than enough to neutralize
the positive electricity on the back of revolving plate got from
first armature), leaves the second armature positively electrified,
and passes on to be immediately neutralized at second unin-
sulated comb. Thus the armatures go on getting increasing
charges of opposite electricities until the point is reached when
the Machine can keep itself going. This is exactly the inverse
process of the case in which the armatures are supposed charged
first.

The great advantage of this method is that in practice it
effects, with ease and certainty, what was before difficult and
uncertain.

Dingle and Glengariff Grits. 227

deposit of the Welsh lake” basin; and on looking at a Geolo-
gical map of Great Britain and Ireland, it is evident that the rocks
which form the subject of this paper are part of those accumulated
in the north-west portion of this basin.

Let us now return to the Dingle and Glengariff rocks. Although
Griffith classed them with the Silurians, while Jukes would class
them with the Old Red Sandstone, yet both would seem to agree*
that the Dingle Beds are equivalents of the older portion of the
Glengarift Grits, or, as Griffith affirmed before the Society, the
- visible Glengariff Grits as a niass are higher up than the visible
Dingle Beds as a mass.

These observers also agreed that while the Dingle Beds are
capped unconformably by the “Old Red Sandstone,”t the Glen-
gariff Grits extend upwards conformably into that group, and
thence up to the Coal Measures.

The Dingie Beds at the westward of the Dingle Promontory,
as indicated in the accompanying diagrammatic section, are at least
10,000 feet thick, but eastward higher beds come in, The Glen-
gariff Grits south of Dingle Bay, as far as seen, are of somewhat
similar thickness; though they are doubtless complete, yet the
lower 3,000 or 4,000 feet, which rest on the Marine Silurians, are
not exposed.

It is evident that an early E. and W. fault, having a down-throw
to the northward, extends along the valley of Dingle Bay; and
that it has a considerable throw, of at least 5,000 feet, is proved by
the position of the Coal Measures near Killorglin, which probably
are in juxtaposition with the Glengariff Grits that underlie the
tract of “ Old Red Sandstone” on the south of the fault.

The place in about which this fault (Dingle Bay fault) occurs
is indicated in the diagram. There are also other lines of fault
that extend from the Lakes of Killarney to Dingle Bay; but in
the diagram, these and others that occur farther southward, as
also the undulations and minor breaks, are not represented ; the
horizontal distances, however, are correct—that is, the distance
from the centre of Dingle Bay to the centre of Kenmare river (24

* Memoir Geo. Survey, Ex-sheet 182, fn. page 10.

{ Here and elsewhere in this paper the Upper or Carboniferous Old Red Sandstone will
be mentioned under the title of ‘‘Old Red Sandstone,” while the Lower will be called
either “‘Glengariff Grits” or ‘“‘ Dingle Beds.”

Scien. Proc., R.D.S. Vou. 11., Pt. 11. R

228 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

miles), and from the latter to the centre of Bantry Bay (14 miles).
There is a distance of about sixteen miles from the outcrop of the
“Old Red Sandstone” south of Dingle Bay to the outcrop of the
“Old Red Sandstone” on the north of the Kenmare river.

In the diagram it is shown that near Ding!e there is a thickness
of “Dingle Beds” represented by the strata a, b, c, and d, which are
also repeated in the country to the south; but to the south, in
addition to these, are the strata marked e, on which the “Old
Red Sandstone” Jies conformably. We have therefore now to
account for the fact, that while the strata e were accumulating in
the country south of Dingle Bay, no contemporaneous beds were
laid down on the other side of that bay in the western portion
of the Dingle Promontory.

It would appear that, for a time after the deposition of the
marine or typical Silurians, there were successive accumulations
of matter, represented by the strata a, b, c, d, over the whole of
this portion of §.W. Ireland ; but that after the beds d were de-
posited a great disturbance took place in the region N. of Dingle
Bay, the southward boundary of which ran along what is now
the valley of Dingle Bay, or there may have been a fault along
that line, with an upthrow to the north.* This would cause the
rocks in said region to be upraised, and brought under the in-
fluence of the denuding agencies; but whilst this was taking
place on the northward side of what is now Dingle Bay, rocks
were still being continuously deposited on the southward side,
and the strata represented by e were accumulating.

But after the rocks e were deposited in the south country, the
denudation of the strata in the north country ceased, and then
the “Old Red Sandstones” began to be deposited and gradually
spread over the whole region, and upon it again were laid down,
ever conformable deposits, up to the coal measures. In support
of this hypothesis we find in the sections published by Jukes, that
the “Old Red Sandstone” to the south is thicker than that to the
north ; also that on the Silurian and Dingle Beds the “Old Red
Sandstone ” is of unequal thickness, while still farther northward
it gradually thins away.

At the beginning of this communication attention was directed

to Geikie’s observations as to the different basins of the Scotch
* See note in Press,

Dingle and Glengavriff Grits. 229

rocks, having marked lithological differences. This is also
applicable to the “Old Red Sandstone” of Cork and Kerry;
but at the same time in these counties there seems to be no
very sudden change, as almost invariably the rocks of one
type graduate into those of the others, while certain peculiarities
are very constant. The most constant character seems to be the
“ Metalliferous Beds” in the upper portions of the “Old Red
Sandstone.” These are best developed in the country south-east
of Bantry Bay, but they are also well marked in the country
north and south of Kenmare River, and can be traced eastward
from Cork into Waterford and Kilkenny ; while northward they
are found in the Tralee district, and farther north margining
the Kerry Head tract of “Old Red Sandstone;” and to the east
of the co. Kerry, traces of them can be observed in the “Old Red
Sandstone” of the cos. Limerick, Clare, and Tipperary.

On the north side of Dingle Bay the lower portion of the “ Old
Red Sandstone” is more or less conglomeritic, and the same
character is found on the south side in Iveragh, immediately
adjoining Dingle Bay. In the latter country the most typical
conglomerates occur to the west, at Doulus Head, while eastward
the rocks gradually lose this character, and at Killarney they
have assumed many of the West Cork types. When, however, we
proceed eastward from Cork into Waterford the conglomeritic
rocks again appear; as, however, I have elsewhere fully entered
into this subject, it is unnecessary to follow it further.

Subsequently to the close of the Carboniferous Period, a rupture
took place along the line of the Valley of Dingle Bay, ex-
tending eastward along the Flesk and Blackwater Valley, which
was evidently a downthrow to the northward.* It is along this
same line that we have contemplated a great antecedent fiex-
ure, or a fault with an upthrow to the northward. However
it is readily conceivable that here, as elsewhere, along great lines
of successive faults, this newer displacement along the same line of
weakness need not by any means have necessarily the same hori-
zontal extent, any more than it must have the same amount of ver-
tical throw. The downthrow to the north of this newer fault varies

* Associated with this were branch faults, one conspicuous one, extending from the
Killarney Lakes to Glenbehy, on Dingle Bay; it is, however, unnecessary to go into
these now.

Scren. Proc., R.D.S. Vou, 11, Pv. m1. R 2

230 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

in magnitude in different places. Near Millstreet it seems to bring
down the Coal Measures against the Glengariff Grits; but east-
ward of this the throw is much less; and a little westward it
is also less, but it increases again as we proceed farther west to
Killorglin, where there is a patch of Coal Measures, which have
possibly been brought down against the Glengariff Grits, which
are there covered by the “OJd Red Sandstone;” still farther west-
ward it again decreases.

In conclusion, I should point out that in the Dingle Beds the
fossils, as yet found, are more or less obscure markings, that may
belong either to land plants or fucoids. South of the bay at
Valencia Lighthouse there are tracks suggested by Baily to be
those of crustacea; they are, however, very similar in aspect
to the tracks made by the grey gurnet on a sandy bottom.
The most important fossils, however, are the plants found in
Glanroe, which are distinctly similar to Sagnaria Veltheimiana
from Tallow Bridge, co. Waterford, and Knorria Bailyana from
Kiltorean, both of which localities are in the Upper or Carboni-
ferous “ Old Red Sandstones.”

NoTE ADDED IN Press— Vide page 228.—Those who have studied the
writings of Le Conte and others, on the lowering and upheaval of strata,
can readily understand that, althoughit is probable a fault orfaults occurred
at this time in the area of Dingle Bay, yet it or they are not absolutely
necessary, aS the rocks to the northward may have been crumpled and
raised up, so as to come under the influence of denudation without a
break having taken place.

feest |

XXXII.—PRELIMINARY NOTE ON THE ABSORPTION OF
SELENIUM BY PLANTS, sy CHARLES A. CAMERON,
M.D.

[Read 19th May, 1879. |

THE subject of the possibility of replacing some of the elements
found in plants by other elements of the same atomicity has not
engaged the attention of British chemists; but on the Continent
a few attempts in this direction have been made, generally with
but little success. For example, Birner and Lucanus vainly at-
tempted to replace ferric oxide (Fe,O,)in plants by the manganese
analogue of that compound (M,O,;). Experiments made with the
view of substituting sodium for potassium in plants have invari-
ably given negative results. The possibility of completely re-
placing an element in plants by another was, however, proved by
me in a paper read before this Society in 1863. I found that
rubidium was capable of taking the place of potassium. It may
be that certain bodies, though not capable of completely replacing
other substances in vegetables, may be partially substituted
therefor, The varying proportions of sodium and potassium found
in the ashes of plants would seem to indicate such a partial re-
placement. As a rule, whenever potassium is sparely present in
the ashes of a plant, sodium abounds therein, and vice versa.

The analogy between sulphur and selenium suggests the possi-
bility of the latter wholly or partly replacing the former as a
constituent of vegetables. Sulphur exists in plants in two con-
ditions—namely, asa constituent of sulphuric acid, and as an
ingredient of albuminous and certain oily bodies. Sulphur is
only taken up into the mechanisms of plants in the form of sul-
phates, such as, for example, calcium and sodium sulphates. By
the partial deoxidation of these sulphates sulphur is procured by
the plant, and employed in the elaboration of its albumin, casein,
and other albuminoids. The results of the interesting experi-
ments of Arendt render it probable that sulphur is both oxidized
and deoxidized in the plant at different periods of its development.
Thus, after blossoming, the oat was found to contain more sulphur

232 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

trioxide than before the ears of the plants had formed, and whilst
the sulphur trioxide disappeared altogether from the lower part
of the stem, it increased largely in the leaves and in the plant at
large.

Now, there are two problems to be solved in relation to the
substitution of selenium for sulphur in plants. First.—Can selen-
ium in the form of selenic acid replace sulphuric acid? Second.
—Can selenium replace sulphur as a constituent of albuminous
bodies? If it were possible, through the agency of the organs of
plants, to effect the replacement of an element, not merely in an
organic but in an organized body, the achievement would be one
of the very greatest importance. Absolutely nothing has been
done in the way of effecting the synthesis of new bodies by means
of those wonderful combining powers which are exerted in the
vegetable mechanism.

The difficulty with which compounds of selenium analogous to
the organic bodies containing sulphur are prepared, and the in-
stability of so many of them, are facts which deter one from feel-
ing sanguine as to the possibility of affecting the synthesis of or-
ganized selenium bodies by means of plants; still the attempt is
worth making. Much more hopeful is the chance of replacing
sulphuric acid by selenic acid. Iam of this opinion from the
results of an experiment which I made several years ago upon
a very small scale, and which I never published up to the present,
every year intending to repeat it upon a larger scale. The ex-
periment was as follows :—

A sod was taken from a field in which a crop of the so-called
artificial grasses (which are chiefly leguminous plants, and not
grasses at all) was just peeping over the ground. The sod was
two feet in depth, three feet in length, and one foot wide. It
was placed in a box, and one half of the plants were watered twice
a week, with a weak solution of potassium selenate (K,SeO,).
During four weeks the total quantity of potassium selenate ap-
plied to the plants amounted to twenty grammes, which comprised
my whole stock of the article.

Now, this experiment was merely a tentative one. Firstly, to
ascertain whether or not selenic acid would act injuriously upon
plants ; secondly, to discover whether or not the selenic acid could
partly replace the sulphuric acid, or rather could be taken up into

Absorption of Selenium by Plants. 233

and permanently retained by the plant. With respect to the
action of the selenate, I could not perceive any difference between
the plants to which the latter had been applied and those to which
it had not. I came to the conclusion, therefore, that selenic acid
applied, at least in small quantities, did not injure plants.

The next step was to ascertain whether or not the selenic acid
had been partially absorbed. The plants were accordingly par-
tially dried, and boiled in strong nitric acid until thoroughly de-
stroyed. The solution was evaporated to dryness, and the residue
was treated with dilute hydrochloric acid, which dissolved it
nearly completely. This solution was concentrated and mixed
with a saturated solution of sulphurous acid, whereupon the liquid
assumed at once a deep blood-red colour from the separation of
seleniunn.

Before the plants were partially dried they were carefully
washed, in order to separate any traces of selenate which might
have adhered to their surface. The application of the selenate
solution was discontinued for a fortnight before the plants were
taken up.

I think this experiment proves that selenic acid is not injuri-
ous to plants when used in small quantity, and that the acid is
taken up and retained by plants, or at least by certain varieties of
plants. The experiment, however, did not prove whether or not
a partial replacement of sulphur trioxide by selenium trioxide
had taken place. Having lately become possessed of a large
quantity of selenium compounds, I hope soon to make experiments
by growing plants in soil or water free from sulphur, but supplied
with selenium salts.

[ 284 ]

XXXIII.—_ NOTES ON THE DISCOVERY IN IRELAND OF A
BONE CAVE, CONTAINING REMAINS OF THE IRISH
ELK, APPARENTLY CO-EXISTENT WITH MAN, sy R. J.
USSHER anp PROFESSOR LEITH ADAMS.

[Read May 19th, 1879.]

Note FrRoM Proressor LEITH ADAMS.

I HAVE much pleasure in being enabled to announce the dis-
covery of a new bone cavern in the south of Ireland, regarding
which I have no doubt that the Fellows of the Society will be
interested to know afew particulars. During the Easter holidays,
when on a visit to my friend, Mr. Ussher of Cappagh, he directed
my attention to a cave in the neighbourhood, about seven miles
distant from the famous Shandon Cave, which I explored some
years ago.

Mr. Ussher’s researches in the above cave, although prosecuted
during a few days only, have eventuated in the finding of stone
implements of the Neolithic period, accompanied by bone im-
plements, rubbers, &e., and the remains of the Ivish elk, bear,
deer, &e.

The evidences of man associated with undoubted remains of the
Trish elk, whose bones he had smashed and formed into imple-
ments, is fully confirmed by this discovery, of which I was an
eye-witness. The cavern in question is of large size, and appears
to have been occupied at one time by man, and previously by
bears, as entire jaws and portions of skeletons of the latter are
met with in the lower deposits of the floor.

Mr. Ussher proposes continuing his explorations, and will report
the results to the British Association for the Advancement of
Science, with the view of obtaining a grant to enable him to clear
out the contents of the cave. I mention this discovery, as I have
no doubt that the Fellows of the Royal Geological Society of
Treland will welcome Mr. Ussher’s most praiseworthy exertions.

May 5, 1879.

Votes on the Discovery in Ireland of a Bone Cave, 235

Nore FroM Mr. R. J. USSHER, OF CAPPAGH.

I have just spent three days at the cave, excavating outside it.

Monday was almost entirely consumed in removing the heap
of rubbish we had thrown out last month. In doing this we found
some bones that were then overlooked, among them a very large
phalang, and a terminal toe point or talon of bear. Yesterday
and to-day we have been digging the deposits outside the en-
trance. There are continuations of the side walls of the cave
running outwards for some distance.

The upper stratum is dark earth, under which comes a lighter
layer. Under that, huge blocks of stalagmite, extending at least
ten feet outwards from the entrance of the cave. They were dis-
connected, and coated with the pale sort of earth, No: 3 (?), in
which they lay. One block measured three feet six inches by
three feet, and was over a foot thick. At places near the sides
on this level were deposits of gravel and pebbles. We have re-
moved all these great blocks, and are now working downwards
into the cave, out of which you can now walk on the level. We
found bones in all the layers, chiefly at the sides and in crevices
of the flanking walls.

I got a bear’s canine yesterday in the upper horizon of the
second (grey) stratum outside the cave.

There are various teeth of ox and pig, numerous bits of bones
of Irish elk, some of the latter split.

I got a very ancient-looking bone (probably bear) among the
blocks of stalagmite to-day, eleven feet outside entrance, very
deep down.

Charcoal iscon tinually occurring, even among blocks of stalag-
mite, at four and a half feet below the surface.

The most interesting find was a large flattened bead, of some
transparent substance of the colour of brown sherry. It was
found in the upper stratum, close to where we got the celt, an
outline of which latter is given on the next page.

A little farther in, at four or five feet deep, we got (with
bones of Megaceros and charcoal) a number of lumps of rounded
limestone, with pits like the eyes of a potato, One resembled a

236 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

potato exactly in form. One of these has two groups of inden-
tations, three in each plainly made by man, I hope to continue
working inwards on Friday, if fine.

May 14, 1879.

Greenstone celt foundin the cave at Cappagh, with bones and pieces of horn
of the Irish Elk (natural size).

[ 237 ]

XXXIV.—NOTES ON IRISH LEPIDOPTERA, sy F. W.
SINCLAIR, Triyiry CoLtece, DUBLIN.

[Read May 19th, 1879.]

Many years having elapsed since the last publication of a list
of Irish Lepidoptera, I offer this as a list of recent additions.

DIURNI.

Leucophasia sinapis. I captured two specimens of this insect
in the end of May, 1875, near Enniskillen, In England this
insect is double brooded ; in Ireland, only the early brood has been
observed.

Colias edusa. In June, 1876, I noticed a number of battered
females of this insect, which seemed to have hybernated. In the
end of August of the same year this insect came out in great
numbers. I have one specimen of its variety, C. helice, which
was taken at Kingstown.

Satyrus tithonus. This species seems to occur everywhere in
county Cork ; it does not appear to occur at all in the North of
Treland.

Lycaena alsus, Abundant at Sutton, Blanchardstown, and
Enniskillen.

Argynnis selene. Onespecimen by Mr. Henn atEdenderry. This
is the first occurrence of this very common European species in
Treland.

Thanaos tages. I have taken this insect in some numbers at
Enniskillen, but it is very local.

NocTuRNI.
Sphine convolvult. This species seems to me to be generally
distributed, and not very rare.
Deilephila ewphorbie. One specimen of the larva of this species
was taken last year by Dr. Macalister at Palmerston. Where

238 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

this insect was found its food plant (Huphorbia paralias) was
absent. It is probable that in Ireland it will be found to feed on
Li. helioscopia.

Sesia bembiciformis. One specimen at Drumcondra,

Zeuzera ceesculi. Londonderry.

Cossus ligniperda, The larvee at Leixlip.

Hepialus hectus. Cork.

Lithosia complana. Howth.

Arctia mendica. One at Finglas,

GEOMETRAE.

Epione apiciaria. Enniskillen, Drumecondra, Cork.

Ellopia fasciaria. I have taken this insect commonly at Bray
and Killiney.

Ennomos tiliarva. Common at Enniskillen.

Nemoria viridata. Rathowen.

Hemithea thymiaria. Cork.

Acidaria rotundaria. Mayo.

Selidosema plumaria. Kinsale, common.

Oporabia filigrammaria. Limerick.

ELupithecia pulchellata. Cork.

EL. inariata. Howth.

EL. pvmpinellata. Cork (Mr. Holt).

Lobophora heaapterata. Limerick.

L. lobulata. Do.

Coremia munitaria. Dublin (Mr. Holt).

Phibalapteryx lignata. Cork.

P. lapidata. Mayo.

Noctué.

Cymatophora ridens. Rathowen.
Bryophila glandifera. Cork.
Acronycta menyanthidis. Letterkenny.
Nonagria typhae. Cork.

Calamia lutosa, Rathowen.

Chortodes arcuosa. Londonderry.

A porophyla australis, Waterford.

Notes on Irish Lepidoptera. 239

Apamea ophiogramma. Common on the canal at Drumcondra
and at Johnstown, county Kilkenny ; but it is always very local.

A. fibrosa. I saw this species rather plentiful on the ragweed
flowers at Ballycotton, county Cork.

Caradrina morpheus. Powerscourt.

C. alsines. Londonderry.

Agrotis saucia. Galway.

Teniocampa opima. Limerick.

Orthosia suspecta. Londonderry.

Cirrhoedia xerampelina. Dundalk, Enniskillen. This species
seems to come freely to light.

Dianthaecia conspersa. Enniskillen,

D. barrettii. This species was discovered in 1861 by Mr. Barrett
at Howth. Some numbers have been taken the last two years.
This insect is unknown elsewhere; it is probable that it will turn
out to be a melanic form of Luperina luteago, a rather rare
German insect.

Hadena glauca. Belfast.

Cucullia absinthit. Rathowen.

Heliothis armigera. Howth, by Mr. Holt, and Glengariff.

H, arbuti. Killarney.

Plusia interrogationis. Londonderry, Rathowen.

P. bractea. Johnstown, county Kilkenny.

PYRALIDINA.

Crambus geniculeus. Cork.
Chilo forficellus. Cork, Mayo.
Ephestia interpunctella. )
E. ficella. r Dublin.
E. semirufella. J
Gymnancyla canella, Malahide.
Pempelia palumbella. Howth.
Scoparia truncicolalis. Mayo.
Hypenodes costaestrigalis. Cork.
Pyralis glaucinalis. Wicklow.
Ennychia anguinalis,
E. cingulalis. j Seah
Acentropus niveus. I took one specimen at Lough Erne, at
Enniskillen.

240 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

Scopula alpinalis. Giants’ Causeway.
Botys verticals. Cork ; very common.

TORTRICINA.

Halias quercana. Queen’s County.
Sarusothrip revayana. Limerick.
Peronea maccana.

P. hastiana. Latayo

P. potentillana.

Penthina gentianana. )

P. ochrolewcana. Killarney.
P. fuligana. i)
Euchromia flanmeana. Mayo.
Grapholitha campoliliana.
G. argyrand.
Ephippiphora bimaculana. \ Mayo
EL. tetragonana.
Coccyx splendidulana.) _. :
C. hercyniana. ij bane
Hupecilia nana. Powerscourt.
Conchylis nopiana. Mayo.

\ Killarney.

TINEINA.
Talaeporia pubicornis. ]
Solenobia triquetrella. |
Tinea grannella. + Howth.

Elachista collitella.
E.. consortella. J
Nepticula acetosella. Bray.

PTEROPHORINA.

Pierophorus loewti. Howth; Portmarnock Sand Hills.
P. plagiodactylus. Crosshaven, county Cork.

P. ochrodactylus. Cork ; Kingstown.

P. trigonodactylus. Finglas ; Killester,

P. fuscodactylus. Cork ; Killiney.

P. pentadactylus. Sutton.

Notes on Irish Lepidoptera, (241,

It is very remarkable that of the large number of fen and marsh
insects which occur in England hardly one-third have been found
in Ireland; for instance, in the Leucanidae, out of thirty-one
English species only thirteen are Irish.

This seems a proper place to notice some insects included in a
catalogue lately published in the “ British Association Guide to
Dublin,” none of which the present writer would be inclined to
accept as Irish unless on more full and satisfactory information
than has been ascertained up to this.

It is to be regretted that special localities have not been given
for the rarest and local species, so as to enable subsequent ob-
servers to verify the localities.

It is also singular that a large number of these insects are in-
serted on the authority of one collector, who must have been
especially fortunate to obtain so many rarities in a limited local-
ity, viz. :—

Gonepteryx rhamni.

Vanessa polychloros.

Sesia apiformis.

Lithosia quadra.

Eurymene dolabraria.

Trachea piniperda.

Tueniocampa miniosa.

A few other species in the “Guide Book” list require a few
words of comment.

Argynnis selene was taken by Mr. Henn at Edenderry, in
Queen’s County, not at Templeogue.

Vanessa C.-album. The insect seen by Mr. Crewe was on the
wing, and at a considerable distance, so that it seems probable it
was some Fritillary, perhaps a male Argynnis paphia with broken
hind wings, such as I have often met with, may have deceived
even the experienced eye of the Rev. Mr. Crewe.

Deilephila ewphorbiae. This insect has been put down in the
“Guide Book” list as occurring frequently at Killiney. It has
only been observed there by the late Mr. Hely some fifty years
ago. A boy last year got a larvee, which he thought was this
species. I would be inclined to refer it to D. galii.

242, Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

Cherocampa celerio. As the larva is now referred to C. elpinor
this insect must be struck off the list. ;

Zygaena lonicerae. Never taken either by Mr. Holt or myself.

Eupithecia pimpinellata. Taken by Mr. Holt only in Cork.

Pieris crataegi. This insect has only been inserted on the late
My. Hely’s authority. He is supposed to have captured it fifty
years ago. It has not been observed since. It seems probably it
was an error.

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THE

ee PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

ROYAL DUBLIN SOCIETY.

Vou. II. (New Series). JANUARY, 1880. Parr Divi

CONTENTS. :
Page
XXXV. On the Maximum Tension of Vapours near Curved Liquid
Surfaces. By Gro. Fras, Fitzcuranp, M.A., F.T.C.D., 243

XXXVI. On the Occurrence of Microcline Feldspar in the Dalkey
Granites. By J.P. O'Remuzy, C.E.,M.R.LA. With

Plate 15, s : . 246
XXXVII. Arklow Beach and Rivers. By G. H. Kin seers M.R.LA,,
&e. With Plates 16, 17, and 18, x 250

XXXVIII. A Problem for Irish Geologists in Post-Glacial Feet
By T. Meriarp Reape, C.E., F.G.S., F.R.LB.A.
With Plate ]9, . Maes ee 255

XXXIX. Notes on the Annual atau of aan Rivers ;
‘with Indications of Some New Methods of Calculation.
By Rev. Samuren Haveuron, M.D., D.C.L., F.BS,, . 259

XL. Notes from the Physical Laboratory of the Royal College
of Science for Ireland. By W. F. Barrer, Professor
of Physics, Royal College of arses Ireland, F.R.S.E.
(Woodcut Illustrations), > aed |

XLI. On the Suppression of Induction Clamour in BENE
By W. F. Barrert, Professor of Physics, Royal College
of Science, Ireland, F.R.S.E. (Woodent illustrations), 277

The Authors alone are responsible for all opinions expressed in thei communications.

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[ 243 J

XXXV.—ON THE MAXIMUM TENSION OF VAPOURS
NEAR CURVED LIQUID SURFACES, sy GEO. FRAS.
FITZGERALD, m.a., F.t.¢.D.

°

[Read June 16th, 1879. ]

In the year 1870 Sir Wm. Thomson pointed out in the Pro-
ceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, that the maximum
tension of vapour near a curved liquid surface must be different
from that near a flat one.

I have not come across any reference to an explanation of this
fact, and propose the present one, though it is so obvious that I
fear it must have been proposed before.

It is generally received that the tension of vapour in contact
with its liquid attains equilibrium when the number of molecules
emitted by the liquid per unit of time per unit of surface is equal
to the number of those admitted similarly. Hence, any cause
which tends to increase the former and decrease the latter must
increase the tension.

In estimating the numbers of molecules emitted from a
spherical drop I shall assume that they are emitted from all
points of a stratum, of a very small depth, and that the number -
of those emitted in a particular direction from a point is a
function of the distance they have to travel inside the stratum.

Let a be the radius of the drop, and 6 the length of the radius
to the emitting point, which is less than @ by the very small
quantity t, which is the depth of the emitting point below the
surface of the drop. Let v be the distance from the end of b to
any point on the surface, and let f(v) represent the proportion
emitted, which traverse a length v in the stratum, then the
number emitted from the depth ¢, in the direction between v and
v + dv, may be written

; ora - 1
ons, uf (v)dv . dt

Scien. Proc., R.D.S. VOL. 11, PT-1Vv. S

244 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

If we integrate this all round the point we have calling

fate ie

Qari

oN =) dt

when of course 7, is a function of ¢t. It is to be observed that
f(v) must be of such a nature as to vanish for all values of v which
exceed a very small amount.

Even though f(v) were a function of the angle vy makes with
the normal to the surface, it is evident that it might be expanded

: Que : ‘
in powers of =, since v is very small compared with a, and hence

the final form of N would be unaltered.
t
Now @-b=?. Fe = Las Tah: since @ is very large indeed

compared with ¢, so that calling

Nee frat
and Nob = 2 frtat

both these integrals being taken between ¢=0 and ¢=that small
value for which », must vanish, we get

N— NG + >)
Ch

Similarly, for the particles entering from a small distance out-

peas,

Now, N, and N,’ are obviously the numbers leaving and enter-
ing the surface when it isplane. Hence, we get that the number
of molecules leaving is greater, and of those entering less, than in
the case of a plane Sis

This is obvious geometrically, because to a path of given length
in the emitting stratum there corresponds a greater angular
aperture for emission in the case of the spherical cue EY: in
that of the plane.

If we now suppose that the number entering the plane surface

side,

On the Maximum Tension of Vapours. 245

is proportional to the tension w, of the vapour in contact with
it, so that

| NY =Kwu, .
we have N’=Ko,=K.o, (1 os iy ee KC = )

so that if the tension near the bent surface becomes » the number
‘ : 5 a teak
entering from it becomes Ko=K,o(1 - a)
This must be equal to N when there is equilibrium, and N,=
N,’ if w, be the tension corresponding to the flat surface, so that

we get
“(1-7 =#. (141)

Hence, we see that the maximum tension near a curved sur-
face exceeds that near a plane by a quantity which varies vn-
versely as the radius of curvature of the surface: and this is the
same law as Sir Wm. Thomson arrived at.

In order to utilize this formula for measurements of surface
tension it would be necessary to know something about the law
of emission and rates of evaporation. It might be possible to de-
termine something about the latter by observing under a micro-
scope the rates of evaporation of drops of various sizes, and by
that means estimating k,

NCIEN EkOG., h.DS. VOL, i, Pt, 1:

wm
bo

246 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Seciety.

XXXVIL—ON THE OCCURRENCE OF MICROCLINE FELD-
SPAR IN THE DALKEY GRANITES, sy J. P. O'REILLY,
C.E.,M.R.1A. PLATE 15.

[Read June 16th, 1879. ]

WHILE engaged last summer in taking the directions of the main
lines of jointing which traverse the Granites of Dalkey Island,
my attention was attracted to the peculiar manner in which
the Feldspar crystals have withstood the action of the weather,
standing out from the rock mass in strong relief, while the ac-
companying quartz seems to have been eaten away with relative
facility, contrary to what might be expected to occur, considering
the composition of these constituent minerals, their relative hard-
nesses and resistances to solvents.

On examining some of those crystals of Feldspar, of which
the faces were sufficiently complete and even, 1 was unable to
recognise the usual physical characteristics indicative of an orthose
erystal.

Furthermore, I was able to recognise in the erystal, when cut
transversely, a peculiar transversely banded chequered structure
which led me to imagine that the crystals might possibly be twin
forms, according to the Baveno law.

Asthis form is not usual, at least in the Granites of this country,
T thought it might prove interesting’ to further examine the
erystals under the microscope, 1 accordingly had these slices
prepared from the two crystals, by Mr. Emile Bertrand, of Paris,
whose skill as a mineralogist, and whose experience in mineral
preparations, is well established.

He returned me the samples prepared, declaring them to be
very fine specimens of Microcline Feldspar, the properties of which
mineral they markedly present under polarized light.

T have since had occasion toexamine crystals from the Graniteson
Killiney Hill, and in the quarried stones now being furnished to the

On the Microcline Feldspur in the Dalkey Granites, 247

contractor of the Rathmines and Pembroke Main Drainage Works,
and which are being piled along the wall between the Pigeon-house
Fort and the Poolbeg Lighthouse, coming, I presume, from Bullock ;
and judging from the similarity of the appearances presented by
the basal cleavage faces of these crystals, as compared with those
recognisable on the similar cleavage face of the sliced crystals of
microcline, I am disposed to conclude that the granites of Dalkey
are largely made up of this Feldspar—the physical and chemi-
eal characteristics of which were so thoroughly determined by
Descloiseaux, in the original memoir, published in 1876, in the
“Comptes Rendus,” Vol. 82, No. 12, p. 885, and in the “ Annales de
Physique et Chimie,” 5™ Série, T, LX., 1876.

This latter notice is the more extended and complete, contain-

ing photographic illustrations which render comparison with
specimens under examination relatively easy and satisfactory.
_ One of the most remarkable optical characteristics of this
mineral is’ the chequered transverse banded structure (structure
quadrillée) presented by the thin sections made parallel to the
basal cleavage, and which is so markedly apparent in the sections
from the Dalkey Feldspars (vide Plate 15). The Fig. No. 10,
p. 436, of the memoir in the Ann. de Phy. et Chim., comes so
very near in appearance to that of my drawiny, that both
illustrations might be taken as having been made from the same
crystal.

The essential conclusions arrived at by Descloiseaux in his |
masterly memoir, are :— First, that Microcline Felespar is a dimor-
phic form of Orthose Feldspar, and triclinic in system. Second,
that while up to the present Orthose Feldspar has been regarded
and taken as the essentially potash Feldspar, it is the microcline
variety which really holds that position, since the highest per-
centage of soda in the microclines analyzed by Damour and
Pisani, and selected by Descloiseaux, as published by him in his
Memoir, had not exceeded 3:95, with a minimum in potash of
10°95%. On the other hand, it is a well-established fact, that
certain varieties of orthose contain as much soda as potash, so
that the limits between the orthose and the albite, as regards
composition, are much less broadly marked than between the
microcline and the orthose.

248 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

Descloiseaux further points out the resistance which the micro-
cline opposes to decomposition, an observation which quite agrees
with the state in which the crystals present themselves in the
Granites of Dalkey Island.

From the point of view of Geology, this dimorphism of the
potash Feldspar merits consideration, since it is well established
that dimorphism in a mineral implies distinct conditions of for-
mation for the one and the other form. It may be asked is there
not a distinction to be made between granites rich in Microcline
Feldspar and those in which either eamere or albite are more
prominent as a constituent, and may not such a distinction assist
in better characterizing the granites in general relatively to their
conditions of formation.

That the Granites of Dalkey are Microcline Granites would
seem to result directly from the comparison of the table of ana-
ee of the Feldspars of the Dublin and Wicklow Granite, made

y Galbraith, in 1856, with that of the Microclines analyzed by
eae and Pisani, and published in Descloiseaux’s Memoir; and
this comparison will also help to prove how important is the de-
termination of the physical and optical properties of minerals
relatively to the interpretation of their chemical analysis. The
comparison of these tables seems, therefore, both interesting and
even a necessary compliment to this paper, and I accor diaely
annex it.

Tables referred to—

DAMOUR AND PISANI.

Ann. de-Phy. et Chim, Tom. IX., December 1876.

fiat Te) fei | TLS |e Ve CV obis: (ABV Neva en eval va. IX | 2 | xy

ee sy ae | |
Silica, . . «| 64°30] 64°08) 64°80 .65°75| 65°17) 65°55] 64-97] 64°80 65-43, 65-43] 64°70] 64:90
‘Alumina, . | 19°70| 20°70) 19°60} 20°90) 17-70] 20°30) 21-47] 19°90, 19°58 19°58] 19°50) 20-92
Ferric Oxyde, .| 074| - = = 0:50; = = - |. 0-85} O85] = 0-28
Potash,. . «| 15°50| 13:75] 13°50] 1320] 13:86] 43°90] 1220) 12°11) 12-45) 12-45) 12°90] 10-95
Soda, .. . «| 0-48| 4-27] 1-56] 1:60| 1-64] i-60| 41-78) 2-10, 2-31) 2:31] S-40l age
Times fst pfeil = - - - 56) = - - | - - - =
Magnesia, . = = = py coe 0:25) —- Os) sae = = = =
Loss by ignition, .| 0°35] 0-20) 0-20 0-20) 0°65 - 0:81/ 0°30 0°30] “ x 0-20
| | | — ———_ |__|
101°17| 100-0! 99°66 101°65| 100-33 101°41|101'55! 99-21 100-12 100-12] 100-50] 101°30
| ' [a a ee ee eee eee
Sp. Gravitie, .| 2°54 2S 2 2:54, — | 2:576| 2°47| Jos 2°584| 2:543| 2°58] 2°57

On the Microcline Feldspar in the Dalkey Granites. 249

GALBRAITH.

Journal Geological Society, Dublin, 1856, p. 226.

Dalke Three Lough Lough Glenma- | Glenda- Glen-
ut Rock. Bray. Dan. calass. lough, malure.
|
Silica, . . : 64'00 65°40 65°44 65°05 64:19 63°60 64 48
Alumina, = - 18 11 nly Gif bs 18°36 17-72 18°39 18°84 19°04
Ferric Oxyde, : - = = = - - -

Potash, . ° . 12 73 10°68 12°34 13°42 11°39 14°33 10°74
. Soda, . e . 3 00 3°26 2°73 | - 2°75 2°95 1°92 2°64
Lime, a - -| trace. trace. 0°80 0°23 070 trace. trace.
Magnesia, J - 0 57 me de - trace. 0:34 0-40 1:02
Loss by ignition, . 0°55 0°69 0°52 0°36 0°58 0°60 0°78
98°96 | 99°51 100719 99°53 98°54 99°69 98°70
Sp. Gravities, . . | 2°54 | 2°562 2°554 2°559 2°553 2°453 2°560

Taking into consideration the difference of time and general
conditions represented by these two series of analyses, it must be
admitted that they singularly approach one another, so much so,
that it may be assumed, chemically, that the Feldspars analyzed
by Galbraith, were Microclines, and characteristic of the granites
containing them.

250 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

XXXVII—ON THE ARKLOW BEACH AND RIVERS,
By G. H. KINAHAN, m.r.1a., &c. PLATES 16, 17, anp 18.

[Read June 16th, 1879.j

IN connexion with the travelling of Beaches, places of no mean
interest are the beaches north and south of the present mouth of
the Ovoca River, county Wicklow, or as it is more generally
known, Arklow Harbour.

On the coast between Arklow and Mizen Heads the “ flow tide ”
current runs northward drifting the beach with it, and this north-
ward driftage of the beach with the land driftage of the sand in
a similar direction are the causes of the Arklow Harbour, in spite
of the great sums of money spent on it, not being as commodious
a haven as had been expected.

On account of the northward travelling of the beach the river
mouth is also inclined to move northward ;* while from the ap-
pearance of the ground it is evident that in olden time it extended
as far north as the Seabank Cliff. In the olden times, however,
it is. probable that the outlet shifted considerably, changing accord-
ing to wind and tide, from one place to another between the present
site and Seabank Cliffs. The reasons for this are easily explained.
If the only agent acting on the beach was the “ flow tide ” current
its movement would be more or less regular, faster during spring
than neap tides, but forming an even beach ; for as the materials
were carried north they would be replaced by more from the
south. But the winds, have also, considerable influence ; their in-
fluences have been fully discussed elsewhere,t but it is necessary to
refer shortly to them here. Winds from the south and south-east
more or less accelerate the travelling of the beach, and if they are
extreme it travels so rapidly northward that “ fulls ” of the beach
form at the north, while the south portion is left empty. Strong

* The travelling of beaches has already been discussed in papers read before the Royal
Trish Academy ; Institutions of Civil Engineers, England and Ireland; and the Geol. Soe.
Lond.—Proceedings Roy. Irish Academy, 1878 and 1879 ; Tran. Inst. C.E. Lond., 1878 and

1879; Tran. Inst. C.E. Dublin, 1878 and 1879 ; and Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc. Lond., 1877.
} Proceedings Royal Irish Academy, 1879.

Aiklow Beach and Rivers. 251

and continuous winds from the eastward stop the travelling of the
beach, pile it up, and form fulls ; while “ ground swells ” and winds
from the N.E. and N., meeting the tidal current, generate “ dancing
waves” that churn up the sand and cut out the beach. From
these data the changes in the position of the river mouth can be
easily understood. Naturally it ought to be at the north end of
the strand, but after heavy gales or continuous winds either from
the southward or the eastward, this mouth may be banked up, and
the waters thereby impounded ; after which they will rise until
in some place they overflow; when in a few hours the outflow
will cut a deep and wide channel.* Such new channels, if they
were only effected by the tidal driftage, would cut back gradually
to the north end of the strand; but as they are liable at any time
to be banked up by southeast or east winds, new channels form in
various places ; as the pounded water cuts outlets whenever the
banks may be lowest and they are able to overflow easiest.

Of the actual course of the ancient river there are no reliable
records ;—Speed’s and Pelly’s maps being too general to afford in-
formation ; the oldest reliable map is that of Lieut.-Colonel
Hardy (Pl. 16), made in December, 1821. From this survey we
learn that the mouth of the river at this time was more than half
a mile further north than at present ; and that it was from 3 to 4
feet deep, while the water on the bar ranged from 18 inches to
4 feet in depth. We also learn that pricr to this date the old
course of the river which ran northward from the bridge had
been cut off by a stone wall and sod embankment, thus con-
fining the river to the channel on the east of the island; and
it was proposed to extend a wall across this channel between
the Island and the Sandbank, while through the latter a direct one
to the sea was to be cut, 45 perches long, 60 feet wide, and 7 feet
deep. This proposed cut seems to have been subsequently made,
but not the wall, for in the next Survey (Plate 17) (which un-
fortunately has no date, but evidently was constructed between
the years 1821 and 1835), there seem to have been two channels,
one near the present one and a second a little to the north. The
southern of these, however, is only marked “ Proposed outlet” and
a structure like a pier is indicated along its north margin. Some

* A small artificial cut, only a few feet wide during one tide will have the same
effect.

252 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

such permanent outlet must have been made, as in 1835, at the
time of the Ordnance Survey, the main channel oceupied nearly the
pvesent position, but it was more or less shoaled, rarely over 4 feet
in depth, while there was a second channel to the north of the
present Chemical works, and farther north there were passages
through the sand-hills covered at very high tides. On the map
(Plate 18) the margins of the sea and the estuary are marked in
black, while the new works and present marginsare indicated in red.
On examining this map it will be seen the old sea margin was much
more regular than the present one, and that since the present piers

‘have been erected, the south beach has considerably increased

while the land to the north has been encroached on. A remark-
able feature in the 1835 map is a channel outside the sand-hills
but separated from the sea by a shoal bank, that extends north-
ward to the Seabank Cliff.

In 1847 the first early permanent improvement was made in
the erection of two quays with parallel north and south piers.
During their erection it was found that, as long as the south pier
was carried straight out, the strand followed it ; while during
storms a shoal collected to the north of it. - It was also found
that the wind driftage, due to gales from the southward, swept
a vast amount of sand into the river, to be carried down to
auginent the bar.* About the year 1860 under Barton the piers
were extended further seaward, they being curved northward,
following the trend the river course seemed inclined to follow ; the
entrance was also narrowed to cause a sweep alongside the south
pier, and thus prevent a shoal accumulating on the north of it.
Also, the amount and current of the water in the estuary
were increased, thus generating a greater scour on the bar,
This was accomplished by extending the poundage room in the
estuary, by deepening the river’s channel, and by regulating the
latter by systems of “ piling, interwoven by watling.” Further-
more, it was proposed to stop the northward travelling of the
beach by groynes, and thewind driftage, from the 8., by a palisade,
“a line of timber piles driven by hand and woven between with
wattles.” Neither the groynes or the palisade were erected, but

* During the erection of the south pier a bank of sand of about 500 tons was carted

away for filling stuff, and this bank was filled in again during a twenty-four hour gale
from the southward.

¥

ee ae el ee

a

co

i

-

Arklow Beach and Rivers. 953

the results of the other works, was a channel over ten feet deep
at the time of a four-feet rise of tide. Since then, these works
have gradually fallen more or less out of repair; this, combined
with the beach and the land driftage, has madethe bar and channel
unsatisfactory. .

This short resumé of the history of Arklow harbour shows
that, although the moneys expended on it have given results far
short of those that were expected, yet the port has been vastly
improved ; for while in older times the fishing boats drew only

three or four feet of water, now most of them draw eight, nine,

and ten feet, or even more.

When we take into consideration the travelling of the beach
and sand, it would appear ; that at the first the mouth of the
harbour ought to have been made as far north as possible, instead
of having opened a direct cut. This, however, seems to have been
a very universal mistake with the “ old men,” as nearly invariably
we find, rivers similarly circumstanced, thus treated. It may
even now be a question, if it would not be cheaper to make the
permanent entrance to the harbour to the northward, at the Sea-
bank Cliff The advantages of such an entrance would be—
First, it would only be necessary to build one short pier on the
south side of the channel ; Second, the formation of a channel from
the Chemical works to this pier would cost very little, as a freshet
turned into a small cut along the site of the proposed channel
might be made to do all the excavation ; Third, there would be
a wide entrance to the harbour, approachable by boats in all
winds; and Fourth, in the channel between the Chemical works
and the new pier there would be a harbour, safe from gales from
every quarter.

The present entrance is defective; First, on account of its
narrowness, which makes it unapproachable in gales or when
there is a sea on ; and Second, on account of the bar which is due
to the northward travelling of the beach, and the land driftage
of sand into the river. These latter objections must be remedied
before anything else is done. For while the beach and sands travel
north, if the south pier is extended straight out the strand will fol-
low it, while if curved the sand willrun round it into the harbour ;* -

* When Barton made his report in 1859, he was assured by the “ Authorities” that
the beach would not follow further than it had; yet, results proved that it did.

254 Scicitific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

while the land driftage will still be carried down by the river to
‘augment the bar.

Also if either a straight or curved extension of the south pier
was made under present circumstances it would be necessary that
the north pier would also be elongated, as otherwise a shoal
would accumulate to the north of the south pier; such an ex-
tension of the north pier would cause a similar narrow entrance
to that which exists at present, and is one of the great cra
backs to the port, ever being a harbour of refuge.

The northward driftage of the south beach ould easily be
stopped by the erection of a system of groynes along the south
beach, while the land driftage from the south might be prevented
by a palisade similar to that proposed by Barton.

It would, however, be also necessary to erect a palisade at the
Chemical works to prevent driftage southward of the sand-bank
that has in recent years accumulated north of the north pier. I
would also suggest that in addition to the palisade on the south,
that a strip of the sand-hills should be planted with firs. These,
besides preventing the sand from travelling, would hereafter be a
source of profit, while at the same time ne ought to purify the
air, and be apreventative of the epidemics that so often break
out in the low lying portions of Arklow.

ROK XK: WEEE A PROBLEM FOR IRISH GEOLOGISTS IN POST.
GLACIAL GEOLOGY, sy T. MELLARD READE, GE, F.G.8.,
F.R.I.B.A. PLATE 19,

[Read June 16th, 1879.]

A VERY careful examination of the Post-Glacial Beds on the coasts
of Lancashire*and Cheshire in 1871,* led me to the conclusion
that there are remains of two land surfaces which are Se than
the laying down of the Marine Glacial Drift.

Subsequent observations have tended to confirm this opinion ;
the excavations at the Garston Dock, on the east sideof the Mersey,
five niles above Liverpool, and at the new Bootle Docks at the
entrance of the Mersey, having thrown considerable light on the
subject.

Shortly stated, the surface of the Boulder-clay near the margin
of the River Mersey is, in various places, cut into gullies reaching,
in some cases, to a greater depth than the level of low water, and
these again are filled in with marine silts and sands belonging to
a system I have named the Formby and Leasowe Marine Beds,
represented by a large extension of Scrobicularia clays and silts
below the 25-feet contour on the coasts of Lancashire and Cheshire,
and usually covered by a bed of peat containing stools of trees in
situ.t .

The annexed series of sections (vide Plate 19), taken across
one of these gullies where it intersected the Garston Dock, will
illustrate my meaning.

No. 1. Triassic rock. (Bunter Sandstone.)

la. Red Sand, debris of the above (probably ground
moraine). Glacial.
2. Marine Boulder-clay containing striated boulders
and pebbles of foreign rocks,

* Post-Glacial Geology of Lancashire and Cheshire. Proceedings of Liverpool Geol.
Society. —Session 1871-2
¢ Quarterly Journal of Geol. Soc. Vol. xxxiy., pp. 147-8.

256 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

( Formby and

. Coarse flesh-coloured sand, ee :
-~ Leasowe Marine

3
4. Yellow Sand,

Beds. |
5. Peat with stools of trees ¢2| Superior peat- |
situ, § and-forest-bed. | Post-Glacial

6. Recent silt containing Scrobicularia piperata im

situ (showed interesting examples of cross
laminations at all angles, with partings of |
comminuted peat). J

. Sand containing Tellina, Turritella, &c., forming shore of the

-1

River Mersey.

Nos. 3 and 4 were divided from each other in places by a bed of peaty
matter a few inches in thickness, which I consider of no
geological importance.

It is quite evident that the gulley, as shown in these sections,
could not have been excavated by the stream under present con- ~
ditions of level of land and water. The inference from this and
numerous other examples which it is not necessary to detail here,
is that when the gulley was excavated in the Boulder-clay the
land stood higher than at present. At Dove Point, Cheshire, was
to be seen, and probably still is, a land surface corresponding to
this period (see section M to N, Detail sheet of Sections in Post-
Glacial Geology of Lancashire and Cheshire), with the Scrobicularia
clays (Formby and Leasowe Marine Beds) lying upon it, and above
that another land surface representing the Main beds of peat with
stools of trees 17 situ.

If we follow out the chain of events of which these remains are
the consequences we shall find that the gullies in the Boulder-clay
and rock and the Lower or Inferior peat represent a period of
elevation of the land (of undetermined extent), the Marine silts a
period of depression, and the Main or Superior peat bed’ another
period of comparative elevation, as proved by the Submarine
forests on the coasts of Lancashire and Cheshire, and the recent
silts a snbsequent and final depression.

All these former land movements IJ consider are clearly estab-
lished by the evidences of various sections I have had the oppor-
tunity from time to time of personally inspecting. Of the limits
ot their horizontal extension it is impossible to speak with so
much certainty, but, from the numerous examples of peat beds

A Problem for Ivish Geologists in Post-Glacial Geology. 257

and stools of trees found at almost évery estuary in Great Britain,
from the Land’s End to the Orkney Islands, and from similar
examples to be found in Ireland and on the coast of France, two of
the movements must have heen very widespread.

The problem I would wish to place before Irish Geologists is this
—Are there evidences of land movements, similar to those [have
described on the West Coast of England, to be found in Ireland ?
and if so, to what extent?

No very detailed account of the Post-Glacial deposits of the
estuaries of Ireland has come under my notice ; but I trust that
when attention has been called to this subject it may be worked
in amore systematic manner ; as it is probable much light would
thereby be thrown on the period of time subsequent to the
Glacial era.

’ Mr. Kinahan, in his Manual of the Geology of Ireland, in a
chapter on “ Submerged land and forests,” mentions various ex-
amples of peat with tree-stools ti si/w occurring below high-water
mark, and states that on the East Coast different beaches of this
age (the 12ft. beach) lie on the submerged peat, proving that
the twelve-feet beach was formed more recently than the sub-
mergence.” As Professor Hull and Mr. Kinahan adopt a different
classification of the raised beaches, it is not always easy to
identify them, but I presume the “ twelve-feet beach ” of Kinahan
is “the continuation of the twenty-five-feet beach of Scotland” of
Hull.* Mr. Kinahan also refers to a submerged bog, “discovered
by Dr. C. Farran at Clonca, near Dungarvan, after one of the
highest tides known in the country.” “ Here are the remains of an
ancient pine forest, miles in length, now usually covered with
many fathoms of water.”

I think it extremely probable that these submerged forests of
Treland are synchronous with the Main or Superior peat-and-
forest-bed -of Lancashire and Cheshire. This often has, as in
Wallasey Pool, the site of the present Birkenhead Docks, a con-
siderable depth of recent marine silt lying upon it, in which we
find horns of the red deer, bones of cetaceans, and other mam-
malian remains. The surface of this silt is so little raised above
ordinary high-water level that it must have been laid down ap-
proximately at the present levels of land and water. As we go

* Physical Geology and Geography of Ireland.

258 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

further north there does, however, appear to be evidences of the
land having been lower than at present. There is the raised
beach, or rather shell-bank, on the shores of Morecambe Bay, a
few feet above high water; and at St. Bees, further north, I found
in 1872 what I consider Post-Glacial deposits, corresponding to
the Formby and Leasowe Marine Beds, at an elevation of from
eight to nine feet above high water. All these facts point to a
gradual elevation northwards; and in the estuary of the Tay and
other Scotch rivers the “links” consist of sand and silts overlying
peat, containing remains of trees.* Itis, therefore, not improbable
that this may be the result of one earth movement. If my sup-
position be correct the raised estuarine deposits of Scotland are
subsequent to the Superior peat-and-forest-bed of the North-West
of England, and synchronous with the last of the raised beaches
(containing worked flints) of the east coast of Ireland; and the
more recent of the marine silts, such as those of Wallasey Pool,
overlying the Supericr peat-and-forest-bed, are of the same
age,
Should these suppositions prove correct it now remains to dis-
cover if there exist in Ireland the equivalents of the Formby and
Leasowe Marine Beds, which underlie the Superior peat, and also
the remains of the land surface upon which I have shown they
rest.

If these few observations should induce any of the Irish
geologists to turn their attention to the subject, I shall be very
glad, and I am quite sure it is well worth investigating.

* The Last Geological Changes in Scotland (Jameson), Quarterly Journal of Geo. Soe.
for August, 1865, pp. 188-190.

XXXIX.—NOTES ON THE ANNUAL WATER-DISCHARGE
OF LARGE RIVERS; WITH INDICATIONS OF SOME NEW
METHODS OF CALCULATION, sy REV. SAMUEL
HAUGHTON, m.p., D.c.1., F.R.S.

[Read May 19th, and June 16th, 1879.]
Nore I.

On the Annual Water-discharge of the Ganges, Brahmapitra,
and Irawady.

The Rev. Mr. Everest, in 1831-32, instituted a series of obser-
vations and experiments on the Ganges, at Ghazipir, a little
below Benares, and 500 miles from the mouth of the river, at the
Hoogly.

From these experiments, the following facts were obtained :—

Water-discharge.
Cubic feet per second.
Rain (4 months), . : p - 494,208
Winter (5 months), . - . a 2115200
Hot weather (3 months), . ~ 36,330

The arithmetical mean of these figures for the whole year is,
obviously, 203,485 cubie feet per second; which gives us an
annual water-discharge of 43°625 cubic miles,

Now, the total length of the Himalayan ridge drained by the
Ganges is 670 miles, and the rainfall increases from west to east:
but the Ganges, at Ghaziptr, has received the drainage of only
150 miles of the western end of the ridge. Sir Charles Lyell,
following Colonel Strachey, proposed to estimate the discharge
of the Ganges into the sea by increasing the Ghazipir discharge,
in the proportion of 670 to 150, or to nearly 43 times the Ghaziptr
discharge.*

As this appears to me a very rude method of calculation, I
have recomputed the areas of the rain-basins of the Ganges,
above and below Ghaziptr ; and of the Brahmapitra, using for
the purpose Mr. Stanford’s newest Orographical Map of Asia.

I traced carefully, for this purpose, the three areas mentioned,

* Principles of Geology (Lyell), vol. i., p. 480; London (1875).
Scien. PRoc., R.D.S.. Vou. 11., Pr. 1v. p

26) Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.
g y y

and also the area on the map lying between 20° and 30° latitude,
and within 10° longitude.
The tracings were then carefully cut out and weighed, with

the following results :—
(1.) Rain-basin of Ganges above Ghazipur

(weight of tracing) é = 0°2265 grm.
(2.) Rain-basin of Ganges below Ghazipir

(weight of tracing) .. = 02780 5,
(3.) Rain-basin of Brahmapitra leat ght a

tracing) ‘ ‘ = 0°4620 ,,
(4.) Standard area taseighe BP easing) .=0°5150 ,,

I ecaleulated the standard area at 325,660 sq. geo. miles.*
From the above we readily find.
Ganges.
Rain-basin above Ghaziptr — 145,220 geo. miles.
Rain-basin below Ghaziptr = 175,790 ,, =

Total, . . 319,010 geo. miles.
Brah maptitra.
Total Rain-basin, , . , . 292,140 geo. miles.
This result gives a total discharge for the Ganges somewhat more
than Toile the Ghaziptr aaecanee (instead oF feur or five times),
or, exactly—
Annual Discharge = 97-170 cubie miles (statute).

The dry season discharge of the Brahmapttra, at Gwalpara,
near the head of its delta, is given by Major Wilcox,t as 150,000
cubic feet of water per second ; and I have calculated (by reduc-

ing Everest’s discharge of 36,330 cubic feet per second, of the
Ganges, at Ghaziptr) the Gangetic dry-season discharge at a
point corresponding with Gwalpara, on the Brahmapititra, toe
amount to 76,000 cubic feet per second. —

If we adopt this ratio, we find, for the ya

Annual Water discharge of the 97- Bia
Brahmapitra, re
=191-78 cubic Sats (statute).

* By integrating the expression 7? sin 0 d@ dd between the ears named, where

r=radius of earth in geogr. miles=3958 x Gor OT’

north polar distance
¢=longitude.

} Asiatic Researches, vol. vii., p. 466.

On the Annual Water-discharge of Large Rivers. 261

The total annual water-discharge of the Ganges-Brahmapttra
system may be estimated, therefore, at 288°95 cubic miles.*

Sir John Herschel; states (without quoting his authority) that
the Irawady delivers, on the average of the whole year, into the
sea 35,000 cubic feet per second ; of which gspooth part by weight
is silt. This amounts to an

Annual Water

Discharge of > =75:038 cubic miles (statute).
Trawady,

Mr. Everest found that, during the rainy season, the mud held
in suspension by the water of the Ganges at Ghazipir amounted,
on the average, to ;3,th part by weight of the water-discharge.

If we neglect the mud carried down by the the river during
the other eight months of the year, we can find a limit to the
rate at which the rain-basin of the Ganges is being reduced by
the action of the rainfall.

During the four rainy months the quantity of water passing
Ghazipitr is

494208 x 60 x 60 x 24 x 30 x 4 cubic feet.
Reducing to cubic fathoms, and multiplying by 6, to reduce to
tons,t and dividing by 428, to find the weight of mud, we find
494208 x 60 x 60 x 24x 30xK4x6__
63 x 428
332,550,000 tons of mud.§

We can now estimate the number of years required to scrape
off one foot from the whole surface of the Gangetic-rain-basiu
above Ghaziptr, by means of the formula

2,660,000 x A
a= ice ae.

* This is much greater than the discharge of the Mississipi-Missouri system.
t+ Physical Geography, p. 207: Edinburgh (1869).
{ A cubic fathom of water is six tons q. p.
§ Sir John Herschel (without quoting his authorily) gives 534,600,000 tons as the
sea-discharge of the Ganges.
|| This formula is readily deduced from the following facts :—
1. The mean specific gravity of surface rock is 2°66,
2. A cubic fathom of water weighs 6 tons.
3. A geographical square mile contains 1,000,000 square fathoms.

Scien. Proc., R.D.S. Vou. 1., Pr. tv. T 2

262 Scientific Procecdings, Reyal Dublin Society.

where gz = number of years,
A = area of rain basin in sq. geo. miles,
7 = annual weight of silt discharged, in tons.
Writing in this formula—
At 2a) ag 996:
T = 332,550,000,
we find, for the upper basin of the Ganges,
x = 1,146 years.
Or, that the rainfall of the Upper Ganges scrapes off one foot
of rock from the whole surface of vts rain-basin im 1,146 years.
This result is about half that given for the Ganges by Prof.
Geikie,* who estimates it at 2,358 years. In all probability
Prof, Geikie compared the discharge of mud at Ghaziptr with
the whole rain-basin of the Ganges, and so got a doubled result.
If my result be altered in the proportion of the ram-basin
above Ghaziptr to the whole rain-basin, we find
1146 x 319
143
which does not differ much from Prof. Geikie’s estimate.
Whatever may be the explanation of the discrepancy, I feel
great confidence in the data from which I have obtained my
result ; which is important in its bearing on the duration of geo-
logical time, which it obviously tends to diminish.

= 2556 years,

“Note IT.
The Annual Water-discharge of the River Plate.

Mr. Bateman’s estimate of the December low-water discharge of
the Rio dela Plata is given in the following extract from a Report
drawn up by him for the Government of Buenos Ayres, 9th
January, 1871 :—

“The Rio de la Plata, formed by ae Junction of the rivers
Parana and Uruguay, is the widest fresh-water river in the world.
Assuming it to terminate in a line drawn from Monte Video on the
north to Piedras point on the south (though it is generally de-
scribed as extending much further), it .is 60 miles in width at its
mouth. At 60 miles further up itis still 40 miles wide. At
Colonia, the narrowest part, and 80 miles from the sea, it is 23

* Geological Magazine, vol. ¥., p. 250.

On the Annual Water-discharge of Large Rivers. 263

tales wide. At Buenos Ayres, 100 miles from the sea, 30 miles
wide ; and just below the junction of the various mouths of the
Parana with the Uruguay, 120 miles from the sea, it is 26 miles
wide. The volume of fresh water it conveys to the sea is proba-
bly exceeded only by the Amazon.

“The total area of the basin has been estimated at 1,250,000
square miles*. The Parana, its chief feeder, takes its rise in
Brazil, within the tropics, and is swollen by the tropical rains of
that region, At about 27° S. latitude it is joined by its most.
_ important tributary, the Paraguay. Some of the branches of this
river extend to within 12° of the equator, and are also fed by
tropical rains; while. others issue from the Cordilleros de los
Andes, and are periodically swollen by the melting of the snows
which rest on the high points of that range of mountains. For
700 or 800 miles, these mountains shed the waters which fall on
their eastern slopes to the Paraguay or the Parana, and some
smaller streams from the lower lands of the province of
Buenos Ayres enter the Plate near the embouchure of the
Parana.

“The Uruguay, the other great tributary of the Plate, descends
from the central part of South America, draining a vast area, and
swollen periodically by tropical rains.

“The detritus, or suspended matter, brought down by these
streams, has formed the delta of the Parana, the islands which
are clustered about its various mouths, and the shoals of the
River Plate.

“Tt was considered a matter of great importance, as bearing
directly upon the question of the practicability of improving the
harbour accommodation of Buenos Ayres, to ascertain the volume
of these streams, and the quantity of matter which they carried
in suspension.

“For this purpose careful measurements have been made
during the month of December, 1870.

“The Parana was in its lowest state—a continuous drought of
six or seven months having diminished the ordinary sources of
- supply, and the periodical rise resulting from the melting of the
- snows of the Andes not haying yet commenced. This river is

* This is equivalent to 968,000 sq. geo. miles.

264 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

stated to be generally lowest in the month of December, from
which time it begins to rise: itis said to attain its greatest
height in March, at to continue at nearly its maximum level,
with little variation, for several months. At Las Hermanas,
between Obligado and San Nicolas, the flood level was distinctly
visible at 16 feet + inches above the level of the water at the
time of my visit, 17th of December, 1870. The river was stated to
have remained at this flood level for eight months. Measurements
of the river were made at Obligado, and of the various branches
lower down, including the Ibucuy, so as to ascertain the actual
quantity of water which was flowing into the Plate. It amounted
to 520,000 cubic feet of water per second, and this may be con-
sidered as the minimum volume of the river. I hope to get further
measurements when the river is in a state of flood. ~

“The Uruguay we have not yet had an opportunity of measure-
ing; but from some particulars of depth and velocity, given by
Captain Page in his survey of the river for the United States
Government in the spring of 1855, and by computations from the
chart prepared for the British Admiralty by Captain Sulivan and
others, I venture to calculate that it may approximately be rated
at about 150,000 cubic feet per second in its lowest state, making
thé total minimum volume of water poured into the River Plate,
if the condition of low water occur in both rivers at the same
time, about 670,000 cubic feet per second—a quantity equal to
the mean volume of thirty-three years passing down the
Mississippi.” : .

Mr. J. J. Revy, an Austrian engineer, was employed by Mr.
Bateman as his assistant in the survey of the River Plate; and he
subsequently published (without any authority from Mr.
Bateman) a work* containing results deduced from the observa-
tions made under Mr. Bateman’s directions, without any suitable
acknowledgement of Mr. Bateman’s rights of ownership,

If Mr. Revy’s observations can be relied on, they lead to con-
clusions of considerable consequence—the most important of
which is, that the mean velocity of the water-discharge at any
point of the cross section of a large rwer is simply proportional
to the depth of the river at that povnt.

* Hydraulics of Great Rivers. London and New York (1874),

On the Annual Water-discharge of Large Rivers. 265

This proposition may be illustrated by the following observa-
tions made on the Parana and on the Uruguay :—

I—Cross Section of the Parana, made near Rosario, on the
25th January, 1871.
Let v = the mean velocity from surface to bottom at any point, ex-
pressed in feet per minute.
d = the depth at any point, expressed in feet..

The mean velocities and depths were taken at nine stations
across the river, with the following results :-—

Station. ‘o | d oi
1° 108-4 ft. per minute. 24-4 feet. 4-44
2 2538 5 ete o, 371
3 255°3 a4 DS'Di 5; 4:37
4 241°0 ~ Doin ss 4:49
5 215°3 5, 49:00 5 4:39
6 195-0 ? 42:0 ,, 4-64
7 172-2 7 400 ,, 4°33
8 129-2 7 33:0, 3:92
9 89°5 v ZO 49 4-44

Mean ratio, . ; . . “ 43033

IlL—Cross Section of the Uruguay, made near Salto, on the
3rd February, 1871 :—

Station. v | d | 5
19 79°6 ft. per minute. 13:1 feet. 7-45
2 234-2 a 22°0 ,, 10°64
3 261-4 “p 25:0 ,, 10°45
4 281°7 + 29:0 ,, 9-71
5 3013 7; 298 ,, 10°11.
6 329°8 ~ 33:0 ,, 9-99
di 3175 fe 300 ,, 10°25
8 319°5 os SlsOe.; 10:03
9 333°1 5 OU 11:19

Mean ratio,

“266 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

If we assume that the mean velocity of the discharge at any
point is proportional to the depth at that point, we may calculate
the total water-discharge of the river as follows :—

Let y denote the depth of the river, and « the corresponding
distance from the bank of the river; then we shall have, to ex-
press the curve of the river-bed,

. y=$(x) 5
also, we have
vky ;
where i is the coefficient expressed in the last column of the
preceding Tables:

The cross section of any elementary slice of the river is ydz,
and the corresponding discharge is

vx ydx,
or
ky*dex.
Hence,
!
Q=k f yx ydx (1)
12

where Q is the total water-discharge ; or, finally
3 Q=2kxy, XA; (2)

where y, is the depth of the centre of gravity of the cross section
of the river, and A is the area of the cross section. Both these
quantities may be found, without calculation, by experiments
made upon a zinc templet, drawn to scale, representing the cross:
section of the river.

It is well known that 4d x y, is the volume of water, whose
weight denotes the hydrostatic pressure upon the river section,
regarded as a boundary wall; hence we have the proposition—

The quantity of water discharged by a river in a given time is
proportional to the hydrostatic pressure on the river section,
multiplied by a coefficient which varies with the river basin.

We may now apply the foregoing to calculate the discharge ce
_the Parana at Rosario, on the o5th January, 1871.

The cross section of the river may be divided into six parts,
according to the varying slope of the bottom, as follows :—

On the Annual Water-discharge of Large Rivers. 267

Horizontal Distance

poate Depth. from last Station.
0° 0-00 feet. 0 feet.

1 12:33 ,, tge0- 2

2 24:42 ,, Sines,

3 73:10- 110. 2

4 59-10 750 ,,

5 37°75 ,, 1980 ,,

6 O00 5; 960 ,,

The first and last of these sections are triangles, and the others
are trapezia. The areas and hydrostatic pressures of the several
sections are given in the following Table :—

Section. Area. Product, Ayl.
O2stonle 5303 sq. feet. 21,790 cub. ft.
17. 2 1782 +0 16,994 ,,

ae Le ae 141,626 ,,

y € 69575 ,, 1,269,760 ,,
5-5 95880, 2,357,550 4,
5 6 18120 ,, 228,015 ,,
WIS 82) F3, 4,035,735 yy

In order to find the discharge, we must multiply the total
hydrostatic pressure by 2k, from equation (2), and divide by 60, -
to reduce to cubic feet per second. This gives us

4,035,735 x 8-6067
eres G0) ae
=078,910 cubic feet per second,

which agrees with Mr. Bateman’s minimum result for December,
viz., 520,000 cubic feet per second. |

The water-discharge of the Uruguay on the 3rd February,
1871, may be thus found :—

(TABLE,

Horizontal Distance
from last Station.

Station. Depth.

0° 0-00 feet. 0 feet,
1 18:25 ,, 220 4
2 34:50), 1560 ,,
3 24:33 =, 710 5,
4 31:00 ,, 160 ,,
5 0-00 ,, 107

From this we calculate the following Table of hydrostatic
pressures :— |

Station. Hydrostatic Pressure, Ay.

0° to 19° 12,215 cubic feet.

es ake 559,250 ”

PY on) 310,790 5

Be os a! 61,627 ”

4, 5 14,415 ie
958,297 “5

This result, multiplied by twice the Uruguay basin coefficient
for 3rd February, 1871, and divided by 60, gives us
__ 958,297 x 19-940

@ 60
=318,470 cubic feet per second.
Norte III. |
New Method of calculating the Annual Water-discharge of the
Nile.

1 propose, in this note, to calculate the annual water-discharge
of the Nile from the following data :—

1°. The actual measured maximum and mininvum discharge.
2°. The actual measurments of depth taken from day to day on the
: Nilometer.

Various hydraulic theories lead up to the idea that, in large

On the Annual Water-discharge of Large Rivers. 269

rivers, the water-discharge varies simply as the cube of the
linear dimensions of the river. This may be readily deduced
from the hydraulic theory of the preceding note; where we
have

Q@=2 xy, xd, | (2)

gh eae be a constant depending on the configuration of the river
basin only, and if the river section remain similar to itself at the
place of observation, then A will vary as the square of the linear
dimension, and y, will vary as the simple linear dimension; and
therefore
Qa hs (3)
where h is a linear dimension of the river section.*
The French expedition to Egypt, in 1799-1801, obtained the

following results :—
Cubic Meters per Second.
1°, Maximum discharge in September, - 10247

Minimum discharge in June, P . 678

2°. The average of the two years’ measurements on the Nil-
ometer at: Cairo give the following depths, measured from an
arbitrary zero, to which I have added an unknown quantity, x
to be found from theory and observation :—

The Nilometer at Cairo, 1799-1801.

,

1. September, a EDA ae ¢. March,’ <, - 48 + 2.
2. October, . yy RD ae a & April, . = dob e
3. November, - 10h + m% 9. May, ; . 25 4+ 9,
4, December, ee Pinas 10. June, - a Ae aera:
5. January, . Ae Milf ssore ae ll. July, : 40 + a.
6. February, » “O86 + x 12. August, . Sind + x.

Let x be the unknown line, to be added to the depths measured
from the arbitrary zero, to convert them into h (the hydraulia
mean depth, or standard linear dimension of the river bed),

If equation (3) be true, we have from the foregoing data—

152423. 10247 | (4)
94+aJ - 678 ’

from which we find

x=63. q.p.

* This quantity & may be regarded as the Hydraulic Mean Depth of writers on
Hydraulics.

270

Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

Substituting for a its value, we obtain the following Table :—

Linear Dimension of Nile, at Cairo, ir 1799-1801,

. September,
October,

November,
December,
. January, .

. Febuary, .

DOP oo bo

ls
12.

h.
. Marek, 7. Pe
. April, 102
. May, 88
. June, 87
July, 103
August, . 174

Form (3), and the preceding Table, we find

h~N3
Q=678(

Calculating by this formula, I find

(9)

Water-discharge of Nile, at Cairo, in 1799-1801, expressed vn
Cubic Meters per Second.

. September, .
. October, i
. November, .
December,
January, .
. February,

Or SUS 99 bo

Total mean discharge =

—>

* Talabot’s elaborate estimate, which was adopted by Sir John

cubic feet per second.

oe:
| 02c

7

7,062 8

4,882 9

3,406 | 10.

Dope Bies if = Tih

1,824 | 12
40,411

12

Q.
. March, - 1,408
ve Apraltys . 1,093
. May, . 702
. June, . - 678
. July, . . S26
. August, . . 5,424

3,367 cubic meters per secon

4,404:108 cubic yards per second

* 118,900 cubic feet per second*

25-49 cubic miles per annum.

Herschel, is 101,000

XL.—NOTES FROM THE PHYSICAL LABORATORY OF
THE ROYAL COLLEGE OF SCIENCE FOR IRELAND:
By W. F. BARRETT, Proressor or Puysics, Royan CoLLEGE
OF SCIENCE, IRELAND,

[Read February 17th, 1879. ]

ON THE USE OF THE TELEPHONE AS AN INSTRUMENT
OF PRECISION.

It is well known that the Bell telephone forms a very sensitive
galvanoscope. Ina paper read before the Royal Dublin Society, -
on November 19, 1877, the present writer remarked :—“ The
telephone reveals the existence of very feeble electric currents by
the audible vibration of its iron disc. So prompt and sensitive
is it to the slightest fluctuation in the strength of the currents
traversing its coil, that it is not unlikely it may be of use in
searching out rapid and feeble variations in a current that may
escape detection by a galvanometer, owing to the inertia of even
a light magnetic needle.”

This application of the telephone is so obvious that it has,
doubtless, occurred tovery many ; but Professor George Forbes was,
I believe, the first practically to apply the telephone as an instru-
ment of research. In a note published in “ Nature” (February 28,
1878), entitled the “Telephone as an Instrument of Precision,”
Professor Forbes points out that the feeblest thermo-electric cur-
rents can be detected by the telephone. Drawing a hot copper
wire along a rasp a hoarse croaking noise was heard in the at-
tached telephone, proving the thermo currents set up. Next, using
“a rasp-simply as an interruptor of the current, and employing a
thermo-electric pile, Professor Forbes showed that a current which
gave ‘a scarcely perceptible indication on a delicate mirror
galvanometer was easily detected by the sound created in the
telephone. Professor Forbes suggests that the telephone may be
.of use in rapid signalling through submarine cables, by using
interrupted currents at one end and a telephone at the other.

Quite recently another inquirer, Mr. Blythe, writing in evident
ignorance of Professor Forbes’s note, has brought under the

272 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Socrety.

notice of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, the sound heard in a
telephone when a file and wire were rubbed together, and others
have pointed out similar facts. The experiments I am about to
describe were likewise made before I had read Forbes's note, but
as | have noticed some additional facts it may be of sufficient
interest to bring them before the Society.
Interruptor.—A steady current in one direction has no audible
effect on the telephone after the first contact, hence to use the
telephone as an electric re-agent, the current must be interrupted.
For this purpose I find it convenient tomakeuse of a rapidly revolvy-
ing wheel, W, Fig. 1, the periphery of which is nicked, and the

nicks filled with shell-lac, so that a smooth continuous surface is
presented to the springs which bears on the edge of the wheel.
The wheel is driven by clockwork, and makes about 100 inter-
ruptions ‘per second. Binding screws attached to the frame of
the clockwork enable the interruptor to be thrown into circuit

The Telephone as an Instrwment of Precision. 273

with the telephone, and by means of a friction break, B B, the
interruptions can, at pleasure, be reduced in rapidity.

Determination of the “meridian” and “ dip.”—A coil of wire,
capable of rotation on an axis passing through the centre of the
coil, was joined in circuit with the telephone ; on rotating the
coil, without the interruptor, a sound was, of course, heard in the
telephone at each semi-revolution, from ‘the alternating currents
set up by the motion of the coil through the terrestrial magnetic
field. Inserting the interruptor, the clicks in the telephone were
made continuous and much more audible. Placing the axis of the
coil vertical, and turning the supports of the coil in azimuth, the
positions of maximum and minimum action were easily ascer-
tained, corresponding to directions, the former at right angles to,
and the latter in the plane of, the magnetic meridian. By care-
ful listening, the magnetic meridian could be found with a con-
siderable degree of accuracy. In like manner, by inclining the
axis of the rotating coil, the plane of the dip could be found from
the marked alteration in the loudness of the sound. By using
the points of minima a fair approximation (within a degree or
two) to the angle of the dip was obtained. Obviously, the
minimum number of lines of force were cut when the axis of the
coil coincided with the plane of the dip, and the straight line
bisecting the two supports of the coil coincided with the magnetic
meridian. Although ‘this experiment could have been as well
performed with a reflecting galvanometer, it is a good class
illustration of the use of the telephone, which, moreover, is a far
cheaper and more easily used instrument than a delicate galvano-
meter.

It is well known that to obtain the maximum energy from a
magneto-electric machine, the commutator must be properly
adjusted ; the telephone inserted in a derived circuit from such a
machine, could enable workmen to adjust the commutator
accurately and speedily; furthermore, a ready experimental
method is furnished of testing any projected improvements in the
working parts of a magneto-electric machine.

Detection of flaws im vron.—Encircling a bar of iron with a coil
of wire, with the telephone and interruptor in circuit, the exist-
ence of magnetic poles in the bar could be detected by moving the
eoil to and fro. When the bar was cracked, and magnetized,

274 Scientific Procecdings, Royal. Dublin Society.

either by placing it in the line of dip or by an adjacent magnet
the existence of the crack gave rise to a secondary magnetic pole,
which was at once revealed by the telephone. The magnetic
method of discovering flaws in iron was some time ago suggested
by Mr. Saxby, and the foregoing experiment shows that the tele-
phone may, with considerable advantage, replace the magnetic
needle. It is obvious that to engineers this is a point of much
importance, and, I hope, the experiment will be tried on some
large iron forging or casting. During the magnetization of the
bar it is interesting to notice the kind of breathing sound which
is heard in the telephone, suggesting that possibly the telephone
may be of some use in investigating the molecular changes that
accompany the act of magnetization.
Fig. 2.

Measurement of resistance—By using the telephone and in-
terruptor instead of the galvanometer in a Wheatstone’s bridge,
the resistance of wires may be measured with great ease and
accuracy. The sensitiveness of the telephone is shown in the
following arrangement, Fig 2:—The interruptor J and telephone

-
#

The Telephone as an Instrument of Precision. 275

T being included in a closed circuit, one pole of a small battery
was joined to the interruptor at @, and the other slid along the
naked copper wire at b, a difference of resistance between the
interruptor and the telephone (the former being the greater)
caused the least motion of the wire at b to be revealed. Thus the
difference of resistance between a quarter and half an inch of
No. 20 copper wire was readily detected, by the difference in the
loudness of the sounds heard when the wire was at 6 or c.

Thermo-electric inversion—A copper wire drawn over a file
yields audible sounds in the telephone, when the difference of
temperature simply results from the heat of the hand holding the
wire. In this way a thermo-electric series of metals can be
quickly found and arranged in order of electromotive force using,
say, the steel of the file as the standard of reference.

The phenomenon of so-called thermo-electric inversion may
readily be perceived by means of the telephone and interruptor.
A piece of thin iron wire was twisted round a piece of copper bell

Scien. Proc., R.D.9. Vou. 11., Pr. 1v. U

276 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

wire, and the pair included in the circuit of the telephone, Fig. 3.
Upon heating the junction of the iron and copper wire at A to in-
candescence, and then allowing it to cool, the following phenomena
were observed:—With the wire white-hot, the humming of the
contact breaker was heard loudly, indicating a powerful current.
At ared-heat, the sound was feebler, and at a dull red-heat, no
sound at all was heard, indicating the “neutral point.” Allow-
ing the wire to cool still further, an inverse current is set up, and
accordingly the sound was heard again, growing quite loud at a
still lower temperature, and then fading away till the junction
was at the temperature of the air. When this had occurred the
reverse action was, of course, noticed on heating instead of cool-
ing the wire. Tinned copper wire and iron gave similar results.
T failed, however, in the telephone, to detect the neutral point,
when cobalt or nickel was substituted for the iron. With the
copper and iron pair, remarkably easy and useful class experi-
ments can be shown.

XLI._ON THE SUPPRESSION OF INDUCTION CLAMOUR
IN TELEPHONES, sy W. F. BARRETT, r.rs.n,

[Read June 16th, 1879.]

THE main obstacle to the wide use of Telephonic communi-
cation is the disturbance caused by the induction from neigh-
bouring wives through which powerful currents are passing.
This, as is well known, gives rise to a crackling sound, which
becomes a tumultuous uproar when the induction is very powerful.
The feeble Telephonic currents are completely swamped by the
intrusion of a more powerful foreign element, and Telephonic
communication becomes either difficult or impossible.

Hence, to suppress the induction disturbance becomes a problem
of high practical interest. Moreover, not only is Telephonic
communication subject to this evil, but some of the more delicate
Telegraphic arrangements now in use are seriously crippled from
the same cause. Before referring to my own experiments, it is
necessary briefly to explain the nature of this induction.

Induction disturbances are of two kinds, either electro-static
or electro-dynamic. In the former the conducting wire, the non-
conducting air, and the neighbouring wires together, resemble a
Leyden jar, or condensing arrangement. In the latter, or electro-
dynamic induction, the juxtaposition of two or more wires having
closed circuits, through one of which a current is flowing, re-
sembles an ordinary induction coil, and it is the secondary
currents set up in the Telephonic line by the strong currents
employed in telegraphy on the other line, which is the chief cause
of Telephonic disturbance.

Tf the conductor be coiled on itself “extra” currents come into
play, which increase the induction disturbance, so that “ whilst
it is possible to speak through a cable 100 miles long straight in
the sea, it is impossible to speak through 20 miles when coiled in

a tank.”*

* Preece. Proc. Physical Society, January, 1878.

Scien. Proc.,R.D.S. Vou, 11, Pr. 1v. ee,

278 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Socicty.

Further, if a rod of iron be enclosed within the coil, still further
disturbance is produced by the electro-magnetic action of the
current. When a current of electricity passes ronnd the coil of
an electro-magnet its first effect is to magnetize the iron core,
but by this act a momentary counter-current 1s generated in the
wire, the effect of which is to retard and weaken the primary
current. When many electro-magnets are in circuit, as, for in-
stance, the call bells in a long line, the opposing induced magueto-
currents become a most serious obstacle, and when the electric
impulses succeed each other with great rapidity, as is the case
with telephonic communication, the electro-magnets in the circuit
will either totally absorb or greatly diminish the strength of the
swiftly recurring telephonic currents. To suppress or absorb this
magneto-electric induction, a condenser consisting of alternate
sheets of some insulating material and tinfoil is employed; this
remedy is found to be completely effectual, and hence is in general
use.

The retarding effect of electro-static induction on submarine
lines does not appear to interfere with Telephonic communication
up to 100 miles. Between Guernsey and Dartmouth, 60 miles
apart, conversation was easily carried on; so it was between
Holyhead and Dublin, 67 miles. Beyond this, Mr. Preece, in the
paper before quoted, states, that up to 150 miles it was like
speaking through a respirator, and beyond 200 miles speaking
could not be heard, though singing was heard through an artificial
cable 3,000 miles long.

Current induction is, however, more difficult to surmount. Mr.
Wilson, of Chicago, was, | believe, the first to suggest a method
of overcoming this defect, a necessary preliminary to the proper
working of the quadruplex telegraph. The principle of Mr.
Wilson’s plan was to establish, in the disturbed line, a counter
current at the same moment and of the same strength and
duration as that of the induced current generated on it by the
changes of potential occuring in the neighbouring wire. His
arrangement was as follows, Fig. 1 :—Two coils, P and S, from the
disturbing line A and the disturbed line B, are so wound that
currents are induced in them in a direction opposite to those
occurring in the straight parts of the circuit. The coils P and S

On the Suppression of Induction Clamour in Telephones. 279

have numerous convolutions and are closely juxtaposed, so that
the secondary current generated in S may be as powerful as the

Fig. 1.

secondary current produced by the whole line, to the length of
which the number of convolutions in S must bear some relation.
Electro-magnets, « a and b Db’, are inserted for retarding the
effect on the neutralizing currents generated in Pand 8S. Ido
not know the date of Wilson’s patent, but it must be prior to
1878, as it is described in Prescott’s work of that date ; it was
as stated, devised for use in quadruplex telegraphy.

In February, 1878, Mr. Edison took out a patent for a similar
object, applied to the suppression of induction clamour in tele-
phones. One method proposed was as follows :—An induction
coil, connected with the telephonic circuit, is so arranged that the
disturbing line induces within the coil an equal, but opposite
current to that giving rise to the disturbance, thus neutralizing its
action. Fig. 2 shows the arrangement. Cand C’ are the induction

coils in the telephone circuit ; k and I’ iron cores, which can be
made to approach the electro-magnets f and f’, until the current
induced in the coils ¢ c' is equal to the induced current from the
disturbing line No.1. Each disturbing line has a similar arrange-
ment, each electro-magnet being placed at a distance from the
iron core corresponding to the strength of the disturbance.

280 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

Another arrangement given in Edison’s patent was proposed
when the disturbances arose from the employment of very power-
ful currents. It is shownin Fig. 3. Coil 3 is in connexion
with the telephonic circuit, and so wound that the currents in-
duced in it by the coils 1 and 2 are opposite in direction to those
induced in the line by the disturbing wires 1 and 2. To augment
the corrective induction an iron core g passes through all the coils.

Fig. 3.

Mr. Edison has also employed condensers to correct static
induction, and hence this remarkable man may really be said to
have done what others were subsequently groping after.

English electricians appear to have been unaware of what had
been already accomplished in America; for in April, 1878, Mr.
Preece read an interesting paper before the Physical Society,
wherein he gave an account of some experiments he had made
with the object of overcoming this induction disturbance. Mr.
Preece proposed to surround the Telephone line with an earth-
connected sheath of iron to neutralize both static and magnetic
disturbance, anticipating that the lines of both electric and mag-
netic force would be cut off by this means. But even were this
idea successful, it would be obviously impracticable under ordi-
nary circumstances.

Mr. Preece also proposed to use a return wire, and states that
Mr. Graham Bell had excellent results from this arrangement.
When, last autumn (1878), Professor Graham Bell announced this
double-wire arrangement for overcoming current induction in
Telephones, Mr. D. Brooks, of Philadelphia, claimed to have
already patented this invention. Mr. Graham Bell’s or Mr.
Brook’s plan involves, as we have said, the use of a return wire
to the Telephone in place of the earth-connexion, as shown in
Vig. 4.

On the Suppression of Induction Clamour in Telephones. 281

Fig. 4.

OD

B

A is the disturbing or telegraphic circuit, and B the telephonic
circuit. It will be obvious that the secondary currents set up in the
latter by the former will have equal and opposite effects upon the
terminal Telephones, and this irrespective of how many inducing
wires there may be juxtaposed. This, unquestionably, is a
perfect correction, but the expense and increased resistance of
the return line are serious obstacles to its general use, though it
is, I believe, extensively adopted in United States telephonic lines,

It was at this stage that Professor Hughes published an
account of his induction balance, wherein he proposed to over-
come the induction clamour by a compensating induction coil,
very similar to the manner which we have seen Wilson and Edison
had already invented. Hughes’ paper was read before the
Society of Telegraph Engineers on March 12th, 1879.

Fig. 5.

Fig. 5 shows one of Hughes’ plans. A and B are two neigh-
bouring lines; between each line and its receiving instrument R a
coil of wire C C’' is inserted, the length of the wire in each coil
being proportioned to the length of the line, and the distance of
the coils apart being adjusted to the relative distance of the lines.
By winding the wire in coil C in the opposite direction to that
in C’ a contrary induction to that produced between the two
straight lines is set up, and thus the line disturbance produced
by A upon B may be effectually neutralized ; iron cores may

282 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

be inserted in the coiis to increase their efficiency. This arrange-
ment, it is obvious, is similar to those already described, but there
can be no doubt Professor Hughes was independently led to its
adoption in the course of his extended and admirable experi-
ments on the microphone.*

Another plan proposed by Hughes is the following modifica-
tion of the double line arrangement, Fig. 6. The battery is put to
earth in the middle, and signals are sent along the two lines, A and
B, in opposite directions by simultaneously transmitting positive
and negative currents along the line. The receiver R R’ is
wound differentially, hence the currents flowing in opposite direc-
tions conspire to actuate the instrument, but the induction cur-
rents being in the same direction neutralize each other's effect.

Fig. 6.

Earth
: Earth

Unaware of what had been done elsewhere, I myself, during the
past nine months, have been experimenting in spare moments in
the endeavour to surmount induction disturbance in Telephones,
and in a letter to The Times newspaper last autumn I mentioned
one arrangement I had made, which seemed to promise success,
This arrangement was an Electro-magnet, with two coils wound in
opposite directions, which was made for me last October (1878), and
which on an artificially disturbed line completely suppressed all
induction. It is, however, essential for the success of the plan
that the disturbing and the disturbed line, that is, the telegraphic
and the telephonic line, be joined up one to each coil of the
Electro-magnet, the former line then passing to its own instru-
ment, the latter going to a Telephone, and thence to earth.

This arrangement, in fact, is similar to Edison’s or Hughes’ com-
pensating coil, but as it involved access to other lines besides the
telephonic line, my thoughts were turned to suppress the induction

* Telegraphic Journal, November, 1878.

ane eat

On the Suppression of Induction Clamour in Telephones. 283

clamour without interfering in any way with neighbouring
lines.

Here, of course, the differential coil is useless, as whatever
destroys the effect of induction will, in like manner, destroy the
effect of Telephonic currents. Equal and opposite motions being
simultaneously imparted to the iron diaphragm it remains motion-
less and silent.

But the question arises, is it not possible to eliminate the dis-
turbing induced currents from the Telephonic currents by the
differences in electrical character that exist between them? Here
no second wire, nor any access to the disturbing line, is necessary,
There are three methods by which this may possibly be accom-
plished :—

1. By increasing the intensity of the telephone currents
that they overpower the effects produced by induction disturb-
ance,

This is done in the Edison carbon telephone, by which I have
been enabled to carry on conversation over lines when the in-
duction clamour was so loud that no articulation whatever could
be heard when a magneto-transmitter was used.

2, By diminishing the sensitiveness of the receiving apparatus
so that it shall not respond to induction currents, though
sensitive to telephonic currents. This either involves the use of
more powerful telephonic currents, as in No. 1, or some electric
or mechanical contrivance, which, while preserving the sensitive-
ness to telephonic currents, shall lessen the sensitiveness to in-
duced currents. Efforts have been made in two directions to
accomplish this: (a.) By inserting artificial resistances in the
circuit, whereby the induced currents may be largely destroyed,
but the telephonic currents are thereby so much weakened that
not much is gained. (b.) By damping the vibration of the diaph-
ragm, either by loading it with a weight, or pressing on it gently
with the finger; this lessens induction disturbance, but, necessarily,
enfeebles the articulation: something, however, is gained.

3. By sifting out the induced currents through their difference
in character from the telephonic currents. There is here also a
threefold difference :—

(a.) The induced currents are alternating, the currents from the
telephone may be in one direction only. At the moment of clos-

284 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

ing the primary circuit of any telegraphic transmitter an induced
wave is generated in the adjoining line opposite in direction to
the primary; at the moment of opening the primary circuit, an
induced wave moving in the same direction as the primary is
started. In the magneto-telephone, it is true, alternating cur-
rents are transmitted, but in the carbon telephone and its con-
geners the currents are in one direction. This difference in
character between the induced and certain telephonic currents
presents, therefore, one mode of attacking the subject. I have
not, however, done anything in this direction, though it is con-
ceivable the telephone receiver may be made to respond only to
currents in one direction, and hence much of the induction clam-
our could then be suppressed. Again (b.), a difference may exist
between the electric potential of the induced and that of the
telephonic current, and (c.) as Mr. Fitzgerald, F.7.¢.D., has sug-
gested to me,a notable difference exists between the period of the
two classes of electric waves. .The waves induced by telegraphic
currents are of comparatively long duration, whereas the tele-
phonic waves are of extremely short duration.

These two considerations, b and ¢, led me to make the following
experiments, Jirst,as regards the possible elimination of the
induced currents through any sensible difference of potential.
For this purpose the line wire was led through a sort of lightning
discharging arrangement connected with the earth, whereby, if
the potential of the induced currents were sensibly great, it was
hoped that some of the disturbance would be got rid of. A group
of some hundred fine needle points was fixed to the line wire, and
these were surrounded by another group of needle points closely
juxtaposed, but not touching, the outer group being joined to
earth. But though the points were brought close to each other
no beneficial effect was noticed.

The arrangement was then enclosed in a wide glass tube, which
could be exhausted, as shown in Fig. 7, but even at a high rare-
faction no sensible diminution of the disturbance was noticed.

On the Suppression of Induction Clamour in Telephones. 285

Telephone. Fig. 7. Line,

LEarth.

The next plan tried was to raise a portion of the line wire to a
bright incandescence, whilst enclosed within a conducting tube T
joined to earth (Fig. 8). It is well known that when a conductor
is at a bright white-heat “it is unable to retain a charge of
either + or — electricity ; on cooling down, but while still of a
red-heat, it acquires the power of receiving a — but not a +
charge, and this distinction is maintained through a considerable
range of temperature; at a lower temperature yet, but still at a
dull red-heat, the conductor begins to be able to receive + electri-
city, and shortly after, as it coils, it accepts both kinds with
nearly equal readiness.”* Hence, I hoped, by raising the conduc-

Fig. 8.

Line

Earth.
Earth.

* Guthrie’s Electricity, p. 81.

286 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

tor to the proper temperature, to dissipate the induced currents
but the experiments were unsuccessful so far as I was able to
carry them.

The next attempts were made in the direction indicated by
(c.), viz.—to eliminate the disturbing currents by their difference
of period. Ifa medium existed which bore the same relation to
electricity that, say, water does to radiant heat, we should be able
to transmit through it waves of short period, but suppress waves
of long period. But, as in electricity there is no phenomenon
analogous to relative absorption in heat, the question must be
attacked indirectly. This I endeavoured to do, in the first place,
by splitting up the long waves into a series of waves of equal
period ; these, if sufficiently rapid, would give rise to a musical
note in the telephone which in its time might be got rid of by the
principle of acoustic interference, A rapid current interruptor was
made, consisting of a wheel driven by clock-work, and furnished
with a break, so that various speeds could be obtained. Cuts
were made in the periphery of the wheel, at equal intervals, and
the cuts filled with an insulating substance ; against the edge of
the wheel a spring pressed, through which the current from the
line that entered the clock-work could pass to the telephone ; thus,
after a momentary interruption, the current pressed for a longer
period, followed by another momentary interruption. In this way
from 10 to some 300 interruptions, per second, could be made, and
it was hoped that, as the entire duration of contact far exceeded the
duration of the interruption, the perception of the words spoken
in the telephone would not be seriously interfered with, whilst
the induced currents would be broken up into a series of currents
of equal period. This was the case, and upon trying this arrange-
ment, a rough musical note was heard in the telephone, the pitch
depending, of course, on the current interruption. I hoped to
suppress this note by using an interference apparatus I devised
some time ago.* It consists merely of two brass tubes (Fig. 9),
bent into a circular form, one sliding over the other; into each a
straight mouth-piece opens; by turning one of the tubes round,
the two mouth-pieces could be adjusted to any given distance
from each other. A sound-wave entering the mouthpiece A can
thus be made to travel over unequal distances in the two seg-

* Philosophical Magazine, August, 1874.

On the Suppression of Induction clamour in Telephones. 287

A Fig. 9.

B

ments, and the two portions made to arrive at the opposite
mouthpiece B a semi-undulation apart, so that interference occurs,
and the sound is extinguished. One mouthpiece was fitted to the
telephone, and the ear placed at the other, but, though by proper
adjustment the musical note was almost obliterated, yet there
remained a multitude of noises which were as bad as the original
disturbance. The same objection applied to another arrangement
I tried, in which inclination of a musical note is produced on the

principle described by Lord Rayleigh.* Here (Fig. 10) the

Fig. 10.

length of the tube C is adjusted by a piston till it responds to a
note entering at A, whereupon the ear placed at B hears no
sound, energy of the sound-wave being wholly expended in set-
ting the air at C into motion.

Although, so far, these latter experiments are more or less un-
successful, their publication may stimulate others to work, and it
is quite possible that greater success may be obtained by ex-
periments with the new loud-speaking telephone which has lately
been devised, but which has not yet reached this country (June,
1879).

The hope expressed in the last paragraph has already received
some fulfilment, for in a letter received to-day (June 16th), from

* Sound, p. 196.

288 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

my friend, Professor M‘Leod, he informs me that, after hearing of
my experiments, he tried to get rid of the induced currents by
another plan, and met with some success. Professor M‘Leod
writes -—

“A cell of dilute sulphuric acid allows currents of high potential
to flow through, but stops those of low, so I thought a cell used as
a shunt would take off to earth all the induced currents on the
line, allowing some, at least, of the magneto-electric currents to
pass to the Telephone. I tried it on a short line, using, at first,
a beaker, containing sulphuric acid and water, in the proportion
of about one to twenty, and two platinum plates of Grove’s bat-
tery ; this entirely removed the induced currents, and also the
Telephone currents. By making the acid very dilute, and using
wires instead of plates, a regulation could be obtained by dipping
the wires to different distances in the liquid when the induced
currents were entirely removed ; the voice was still audible, but
only feebly.”

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5

PUBLICATIONS OF THE ROYAI, DUBLIN SOCIETY.

TRANSACTIONS : Quarto, in parts, stitched.
Vol. I. (new series).

Part 1.—On Great Telescopes of the Future. By Howarp Gruss,
F.R.A.S. (November, 1877.)

Part 2.—On the Penetration of Heat across Layers of Gas. By
G. J. Sronny, M.A., F.R.S. (November, 1877.)

Part 3.—On the Satellites of Mars. By Wentworta ERrck,
LL.D. (May, 1878.)

Part 4.-On the Mechanical Theory of Crookes’s, or Polarization
Stress in Gases. By G. J. Sronzy, M.A., F.R.S. (October, 1878.)

Part 5.—On the Mechanical Theory of Crookes’s Force. By G.
F. Firzceraup, M.A., F.T.C.D. (October, 1878.) .

Part 6._-Notes on the Physical Appearance of the Planet Mars.
By J. L. E. Dreyer, M.A. With Plates 1 and 2. (October, 1878.)

Part 7.—Section 1.—On the Nature and Origin of the Beds of
Chert in the Upper Carboniferous Limestone of Ireland. By
E. Hout, M.A., F.R.S. Section II.—On the Chemical Composition
of Chert, and on the Chemistry of the Process by which it is formed.
By E. Harpman, F.C.8. With Plate 3. (November, 1878).

Part 8.—On a Superficial Tension of Fluids and its Possible Re-
lation to Muscular Contractions. By G. F.- Firzceraup, M.A.,
F.L.C.D. (December, 1878.)

Part 9.—Places of One Thousand Stars observed at the Armagh
Observatory. By the Rev. Dr. Romney Ropiyson. (February, 1879.)

Part 10.—On the Possibility of Originating Wave Disturbances in
the Ether by means of Electric Forces. By G. F. Fivzerrarp, M.A.,
E.T.C.D. (January, 1880.)

Vol. II. (new series).

Part 1.—Observations of Nebule and Clusters of Stars made with
the Six-foot and Three-foot Reflectors at Birr Castle, from the year
1848 up to about the year 1878. Nos.1 and 2. By the Right Hon.
the Earl of Rossz, D.C.L. With Plates I. to TV. (August, 1879.)

PROCEEDINGS : 8vo., in parts, stitched.
Vol. I. (new series). (1877-78).
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Part 1.—Page 1 to 120. (October, 1878.)
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Part 3.—Pages 179 to 242. (July, 1879.)
Part 4.—Pages 243 to 288. (January, 1880.)

Toe WA Fiptstin
AUS
oe ae

1
\

pe Wh

THE

SCIENTIFIC PROCHEDINGS

OF THE

ROYAL DUBLIN SOCIETY,

Vou. II. (NEw Series). APRIL, 1880. Part Y.

CONTENTS.

: Page

XLIL On Branched Hairs from the Stamens of Tradescantia
Virginica. By Professor M‘Nas, M.D., F.L.S., Plate 20, 289

XLII. On some Abnormal Flowers of Primula. By Professor

MNase VOD BES: (5 " : ; : st 290
XLIV. Note on the Hao: hairs of Azolla pinnata, BY Professor
bak Hosa Oe DAM eh i «ea : 291

XLV. atin of the Lepidoptera ( (iihiapatoodea, Spbanetae!
Castniide, and Uraniidz) in the Museum of Science and
Art, Dublin, with remarks on new or interesting Species.
By W. F. Kirsy, late Assistant-Naturalist in the] Museum, 292
XLVI. On Spheroidal Jointing in Metamorphic Rocks in India and
elsewhere, producing a_ structure resembling Glacial
‘¢ Roches Moutonnées.” By V. Bart, M.A., F.G.S., of the
Geological Survey of India. Plates 21, 22, and 23) 34]

XLVII. On the Pay Telescope, and on the New Ohsceeutany

of the Queen’s College, Cork. By Howarp Gruss, M.E.,

i F.R.A.S. With Plates 24 and 25, and Woodcuts, . Ok >t eeeg

: XLVIII. Note on the Conductivity of’ Tourmaline Crystals. By
GerorcE Francis Firzcrraxp, M.A., ¥F.T.C.D., : 2 ye e@

: XLIX. Note on the Construction of Guard-ring Electrometers. By

on _ Groner Francis Firzaerarp, M.A., F.T.C.D., 5 ee SED

Mi, L. A Comparative Catalogue of Birds found in Europe and

North America. By Percy Evans Frexe, ) : pam Wes.)

'

The Authors alone are responsible for all opinions expressed in their communications.

DUBLIN:
PUBLISHED BY THE ROYAL DUBLIN SOCIETY.

arabia se BY ALEX. THOM & Co., 87, 88, & 89, ABBEY-STREET,
THE QUEEN’S PRINTING OFFICE.
FOR HER MAJESTY’S STATIONERY OFFICE.

pr
py \

HRopal Dublin Society.
FOUNDED, A.D. 1731. INCORPORATED, 1749.

Evening Scientific Meetings.

The Evening Scientific Meetings of the Society and of the associated
bodies (the Royal Geological Society of Ireland and the Dublin Scientific
Club) are held in Leinster House on the third Monday in each month
during the Session. The hour of meeting is 8 o’clock, p.m. The business
is conducted in the undermentioned sections.

Section I.—PuysicaL AND EXPERIMENTAL SCIENCES.
Secretary to the Section, R. J. Moss, F.c.s.

Section IJ.—Naturat Sciences (including Geology and Physical
Geography).
Secretary to the Section, R. M‘Nas, m.p.

Section I1].—Science APPLIED TO THE USEFUL ARTS AND INDUSTRIES.
Secretary to the Section, HowARD GRUBB, M.E., T.C.D.

Authors desiring to read papers before any of the sections of the
Society are requested to forward their communications to the Registrar
of the Royal Dublin Society (Mr. R. J. Moss), or to one of the Sectional
Secretaries, atleast ten days prior to each evening meeting, as no paper
can be set down for reading until examined and approved by the Science
* Committee.

The copyright of all papers read becomes the property of the Society,
and such as are considered suitable for the purpose will be printed with
the least possible delay. Authors are requested to hand in their MS, in
a complete form and ready for transmission to the printer.

nal

XLIT.—ON BRANCHED HAIRS FROM THE STAMENS OF
TRADESCANTIA VIRGINICA, sy Proressor M‘NAB, ».p.,
F.L8. Pate 20.

[Read November 17th, 1879.]

WHILE examining the hairs of Tradescantia in the Laboratory
at Glasnevin, a flower-stalk was kept for sometime in water.
The buds very slowly opened, and some of them remained per-
sistently closed. On examining the hairs of one of the latter
after the cut-stem had been in water for a fortnight, some of the
hairs on the stamens were found to be abnormal. Four of these
abnormal hairs were observed, three on one stamen, one on a
second, and all in the same bud.

Strasburger mentions :—“Zellbildung und Zelltheilung,” p.
119, that the upper three cells of the filamentous hairs are capable
of dividing, the round nucleus disappearing and two new ones
forming. He does not mention having noticed branching hairs.
As all the examples of branching differ one from the other, it is
certain that under the abnormal condition in which the plant was
placed, abnormal growth was the result.

In No. 1 (Plate 20, Fig. 1) the second cell from the apex has
pushed a new cell from the lower part. This has in turn divided,
and a branch, having an entirely different axis of growth has
been produced. From a careful examination of the specimen there
can be little doubt that the side branch is the new axis, and not
the main axis pushed aside.

In No. 2 (Plate 20, Fig. 2) the third cell from the apex has
produced a side cell, and thus assumed a somewhat triangular
form. In No. 3 (Plate 20, Fig. 3) the sixth cell from the
top pushes a new cell from the upper end; and in No. 4
(Plate 20, Fig. 4) the second cell from the apex has formed a
new side-cell at the upper part, pushing the true apical cell to
one side.

The moniliform hairs of Tradescantia are so very uniform in
their mode of growth that these abnormal ones seem worth

recording.
ScriEN. Proc., R.D.S. Vou. 11, Pt. v. X

[ 290 ]

XLIIL —ON SOME ABNORMAL FLOWERS OF PRIMULA,
BY Proressor M‘NAB, M.D., F.L.S.

[Read November 17th, 1879.]

WirHIn the last year or two I have obtained at different times
abnormal flowers of Primula, and a brief record of their pecu-
liarities may not be uninteresting.

The first was a fasciated example of Primula vulgaris, given to
me by Mrs. Hull, in April 1874. It has a flat enlarged peduncle
and two corollas at the top within one calyx. The large calyx con-
sists of 15 parts, united for about the normal distance, the teeth
above being all quite distinct. Inside this are the two corollas, one
to the right normal, the other to the left monstrous. The normal
corolla consists of five parts, with five superposed stamens, and an
apparently normal macrostylous stigma, with five united carpels.
The second flower to the left has ten parts of the corolla, all
nearly uniform in size, so arranged that three of them have both
margins down ; two have both margins up, the remaining five
have the left margin down and the right margin up, and over-
lapping the neighbouring lobe of the corolla. The ovary is double,
of ten carpels; the style is double with the parts completely
adherent, and having a two lobed stigma at the apex. The
fasciation has thus resulted in the production of two flowers within
one calyx, but evidently the whole is made up of three flowers
joined.

The second specimen also of Primula vulgaris was gathered
at Howth, in April 1878, and the whole of the flower is perfectly
normal, except that the stigma is markedly bilobed. The ovary
does not seem to consist of more carpels than usual, to judge by
the number of the fibro-vascular bundles. This flower is
macrostylous. |

The third specimens are of Primula elatior. Jacq. and were
gathered in Glasnevin Gardens in August 1879. The plant pro-
duced only two flowers in the umbel, and both were abnormal,
exhibiting typical miomery of parts :—viz. four parts of calyx,
four of corolla, four stamens, and as far as can be judged by the
fibro-vascular bundles, four carpels. In one of these flowers one
of the parts of the calyx is bilobed, but so slightly as to preclude
the idea of its being a perfect fifth part of the calyx.

"209. |

XLIV. —NOTE ON THE ROOT-HAIRS OF AZOLLA PINNATA,
BY Proressor M‘NAB, M.D., F.L.S.

{ Read November 17th, 1879.}

During the past summer the very interesting little Rhizo-
carpous plant, Azolla pinnata* has been growing in abund-
ance at the Botanical Gardens, Glasnevin. An opportunity was
thus afforded of studying the plant in a living state, and I now
wish to record one observation made on the roots in the small
Physiological Laboratory at Glasnevin. Strasburger in his
splendid memoir, “ Ueber Azolla,” figures in Fig. 67, a root of
A. filiculoides Lam. showing the outer and inner layer of the root
sheath, but representing no root-hairs Indeed he does not describe
any root-hairs occurring in these plants at all,and in describing the
trichomes produced by this plant mentions only those in the back
of the punctum vegetationis in the hollows containing Nostoc
filaments. At page 51 of his memoir he states that in the old
roots of Azolla pinnata, the sheath dissolves itself into its indi-
vidual fibres, and thus gives to the root a plumose appearance.
Surely some mistake has been committed here, because in all the
roots of Azolla pinnata examined the sheath and hairs could be
distinctly seen, and the connexion of the latter with the epidermal
cells readily traced. Moreover the root-hairs are produced inside
the sheath, and are at first held down, with their apices pointing to
the apex of the root, until by the elongation vf the root and
withdrawal of the sheath they are liberated. Another point of
importance is that the root-hairs are produced in regular verticils
or whorls, apparently from each cell of the epidermis. As the
root elongates the cells of the epidermis divide, and the root-
hairs become more and more widely separated from each other,
and their original regular arrangement becomes lost

On older roots, or those that have been injured, every trace of
root-cap is lost, and a number of root-hairs are visible at the apex.

The old roots are readily detached from the stem, and leave
peculiar rounded cavities, with the central mark of the fibro-
vascular bundle, a condition not unlike that occurring in some
fossil plants, distantly allied to Rhizocarpee.

* The plant is probably"4. Caroliniana, but as yet no ripe fruit has been observed.
Scien Proc., R.D.S. Vou. u., Pr. v. x 2

XLV.—CATALOGUE OF THE LEPIDOPTERA (RHOPA-
LOCERA, SPHINGIDA, CASTNIIDA, AND URA-
NIID) IN THE MUSEUM OF SCIENCE AND ART,
DUBLIN, WITH REMARKS ON NEW OR INTERESTING
SPECIES, sy W. F. KIRBY, tate Assistant-NATURALIST IN

THE MUSEUM.

[Read June 16th, 1879. ]

DurRING the twelve years of my residence in Dublin, I paid
special attention to the order Lepidoptera, and think the collection
in the Museum of Science and Art, over which I had charge,
will now compare favourably with that of any other public
museum in the kingdom, except that of the British Museum, and
of the Hope Museum at Oxford.

When my transfer to London was decided upon, I was anxious
to put on record a complete catalogue of the contents of the col-
lection, and therefore prepared the present oue ; but owing to the
delay caused by the drawers of the cabinets not being inter-
changeable, the time at my disposal did not permit me to extend
it beyond the first eight cabinets (six of Butterflies and two of
Moths), comprising the four groups indicated above.

There are four other cabinets of Lepidoptera (two of Bombyces,
one of Noctue, and one of Geometrze, &c.), besides the British
collection.

In the following catalogue, all the specimens from which original
descriptions have been made are marked with an_ asterisk,
Synonyms are only quoted when of special importance.

Notes on various species, and descriptions of a few new ones
will be found appended to the paper.

A full account of the Entomological collections of the Dublin
Museum will be found in the “ Entomologists’ Monthly Magazine,”
for May, 1877 (Vol. 13, p. 283). Since that time, the most im-
portant addition has been the valuable collection of Lepidoptera,
formed by Sir W. G. Gregory in Ceylon, including many of Mr,
F. Moore’s types,

Catalogue of Lepidoptera. 293

CATALOGUE of LEPIDOPTERA IN THE SCIENCE AND ART MUSEUM,

DUBLIN.
No. of No. of
Specimens. Specimens.
NYMPHALID. Danaus, Linn.—continued.
DANAINA philene, Cram. 3
° conspicua, Butl. 1
Hestia, Hiibn. hegesippus, Cram. 4
idea, Clerck. 1 aftinis, Fabr. 2g
see Boisd. 1 lotis, Cram. 1
blanchardi, March. 1 chrysippus, Linn. 9
Vurvillei, Boisd. i var, dorippus, Klug. 9
leuconoe, Erichs. ! var. alcippus, Cram. 4
belia, Westw. 2 petilia, Stoll. y)
lasonia, Westw. . 2 erippus, Cram. 9
lynceus, Dru. 3 gilippus, Cram. 3
Iprorsis, Horsf. berenice, Cram. . 5
gaura, Horsf. 1 jamaicensis, Bates, 5
daos, Boisd. 2 eresimus, Cram. . 8
on 3
Ree rca. ? | Amavnis, Hin.
pheedon, Fabr. i
Danaus, Linn. echeria, Stoll. 2
pumila, Boisd. 1 egialea, Cram. 1
cleona, Cram. t damocles, Beauv. 1
philomela, Zink. 2 inferna, Butl. adie,
aspasia, Fabr. 1 vashti, Butl. 4 ake
gloriola, Butl. 1 hecate, Butl. 2 AA
vitrina, Feld. 1 ochlea, Boisd. wel ald |
albata, Zink. 1 niavius, Linn. . 2 a ol
tytia, Gray, 1
melaneus, Cram. 1 | Euptaa, Fabr.
fumata, Butl, 4 elisa, Butl. 1
aglea, Cram. 5 ochsenheimeri, Luc. Ast
var. ceylanica, F eld. 2 chloe, Guer. 2
var. eryx, Fabr. 1 superba, Herbst. 4
limniace, Cram. at 6 splendens, Butl. . 1
var. petiverana, Doubl. callithoe, Boisd. 1
and Hew. : 1 klugii, Moore, 1
var. hamata, Macl. . 2 aleathoe, Godt. 5
var. septentrionis, Butl. 1 frauenfeldii, Feld. 1
juventa, Cram. 2 asela, Moore, 3
similis, Linn. 2 lankana, Moore, l
sobrina, Boisd. 2 godartii, Lue. 9
ishma, Butl. 2 core, Cram. , 5
ismare, Cram. 1 vermiculata, Butl. 2
plexippus, Linn. ‘ ff egyptus, Butl. . : aed

294 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

Euriaa, Fabr.—continued.

crameri, Luc.
layardi, Druce.
bremeri, Feld.

johanna, W. F. Kirb.

swainsonil, Godt.
gamelia, Hubn.
wallacei, Feld.
climena, Cram.
morosa, Butl.
leucostictos, Gmel.
polita, Erichs.
tulliolus, Fabr.
hyems, Butl.
diocletia, Hiibn. .
midamus, Linn. .
viola, Butl. '
hyacinthus, Butl.
rhadamanthus, Fabvr.
alcidice, Godt.
diocletianus, Fabr.

badours War Karb)

diana, Butl.
orope, Boisd.
eleutho, Quoy.
helcita, Boisd.
melpomene, Butl.
euphon, Fabr.

Hamapryas, Boisd.
assarica, Cram.

Lycorra, Doubl.
cleobzea, Godt.

No. of
Specimens.

ee de Oe ee ee

bo

Lo

var. atergatis, Doubl. and

Hew.
ceres, Cram.
halia, Hiibn.

pasinuntia, Cram.

Atuesis, Doubl.

eS he ee

clearista, Doubl. and Hew. i

acrisione, Hew.

Iruna, Doubl.
lamirus, Latr.
ilione, Cram.

TuyripiA, Hiibn.
psidu, Linn.
confusa, Butl. .
themisto, Hiibn.

No. of
Specimens.

Aprotopus, W. F. Kirb.
zedesia, Doubl. and Hew.
melantho, Bates,

Dircenna, Doubl.
klugii, Hiibn.
| jemima, Hiibn.
phagesia, Hew.
xenos, Bates,
olyras, Feld.
dero, Hiibn.
euchytma, Feld.
lenea, Cram.
var. epidero, Bates,

CALLITHOMIA, Bates,
hezia, Hew.

CERATINIA, Hiibn.
ninonia, Hiibn.
antonia, Hew.
fenestella, Hew.
mergelena, Hew.
laphria, Doubl.
coeno, Doubl. and Hew.
norella, Hew.
eupompe, Hiibn.

| Sars, Hiibn.
rosala, Cram. . ‘ :
mosella, Hew.
espriella, Hew.
zitella, Hew.

Scapa, W. F. Kirb.
ethica, Hew. |

Mecuanitis, Fabr.
polymnia, Linn.
lysimnia, Fabr,
mantineus, Hew.
methone, Hew.

NaAPEOGENES, Bates.
cyrianassa, Doubl. and Hew.
inachia, Hew.

var. pharo, Feld.

yanetta, Hew. . ‘ é
duessa, Hew. . ‘ :
peridia, Hew. . , ‘

Cie bo ee lo Ot

Lo

Oe

ret bS = GO

— eH et

Catalogue of Lepidoptera. 295

No. of No. of
Specimens. Specimens.
ItHomia, Hiibn. Iruomia, Hiibn.—continued.
avella, Hew. ; : 2 esula, is ‘ 22
terra, Hew. 3 ‘ 1 dercetis, Doubl. and Flew a it
adelphina, Bates, 1 bs
virginiana, Hew. | | Mera, Hubn. a
ilerdina, Hew, . 1 egina, Cram. . . 2
illinissa, Hew. . : Ee Gul mneme, Linn. , 6
susiana, Feld. . 2 fed lihs, Doubl. and Hew. 2
flora, Cram. pod var. imitata, Bates, 4
hippodamia, Fabr. . ih tt messatis, Hew. 2
janarilla, Hew. l pardalis, Bates, : :
phemonoe, Doubl. and Hew. ethra, Godt. : 5 ies
var. makrena, Hew. 1 zaneka, Butl. : aoe
Pee ete ; TirHorEA, Doubl.
nise, Cram. : 6 ee enna canes ; abs
obscuratus, Fabr. 3 eee. es sapere legs 5
rid, ace ) tarricina, Hew. F beta
cantina 1 harmonia, Cram. : : 2
patilla, Hew. Nag var. megara, Godt. ta
pheno, Hiibn. . : ee ‘
cotytto, Guer. 1 | SATYRIN AL.
zerlina, Hew. . 1 | Crrn arias, Hiibn.
arinia, Herr. Schiff. l menander, Dru. ; es
linzera, Herr. Schiff. 1 piveta, Cram. ; ae
zavaleta, Hew. : l
aletta, Hew. 3 | Harera, R abr.
artena, Hew. 1 plera, Linn. . : a
gedera, Hew... : 1 hypesia, Hew. . ; ad
agnosit Z 2
eee me l PIERELLA, Westw. 3
lila, Hew. ; art nereis, Dru. ‘ . ae
karschina, Herbst. 1 hyceta, Hew. ; :
eurimedia, Cram. 2 thea, Fabr. : : 5
elara, Hew. ; a8 luna, Fabr. eas cD
utilla, Hew. 1 var. pallida, Salv. and a
tmna, Hew. . . : bog ak Godm. : : 3
gonussa, Hew. 2 astyoche, Erichs. ; : :
var. sosunga, Reak. 2 helvina, Hew. . ; Bes
ocalea, Doubl. and Hew. 3 lena, Linn. : : 3
gephira, Hew. 1 hyalinus, Gmel. : :
vanilia, Herr. Schiff. 1 hortona, Hew. . ; ;
orolina, Hew. . ‘ ae Antirenxa, Hiibn.
oriana, Hew. : hela, Feld. P ; v7 Ne |
nero, Hew. ; = philoctetes, Linn. : ek
oto, Hew. K : ’ => 2 philaretes, Feld. : Le
morgane, Hitbn. ; fase miltiades, Fabr. vee
annetta, Guer. : oy el
andromica, Hew. : . 5 | Carois, Hubn.
duillia, Hew. . : eo chorineus, Fabr. ; _ oi

296
No. of
Specimens.
ZOPHESSA, Westw.
sura, Doubl. and Hew. 2
yama, Moore, 1

Letrue, Hiibn.
europa, Fabr.
drypetis, Hew.
neelgherriensis, Guer. .
rohria, Fabr.
verma, Koll.
sidonis, Hew.
dinarbas, Hew. :
sicelis, Hew. :
mekara, Moore,
chandica, Moore,
dendrophilus, Trim. .

Neope, Buil.
bhadra, Moore,
pulaha, Moore,
goschkevitschu, Men.
var. moorei, Butl.

PrycuanprRa, Feld.
lorquinu, Feld.

GNOPHODES, Westw.
parmeno, Doubl. and Hew.

Metanitis, Fabr.
leda, Linn. :
var. ismene, Cran.
var. vamana, Moore,
var. solandra, Fabr.
var. bankia, Fabr.
var. phedima, Cram.
var. bela, Moore, .
var. varaha, Moore,

Ca.ites, Westw.
euptypchioides, Feld.

Ortnoma, Gray.
damaris, Gray,

ZETHERA, Feld.
pimplea, Erichs.
musa, Feld. ; :

Neorina, Westw.
hilda, Doubl. and Hew.
crishna, Westw. Z
lowii, Doubl. and Hew.

BD BO bo DO ee Ee bb GO OULD ©

bo eR OS Gs

WR RR bobo

LS)

bo

—

Scientific Proceedings, Royul Dublin Society.

No. of
Specimens

ANADEBIS, Butl.

himachala, Moore, . 3
TisipHone, Hiibn.

hercyna, Hiibn. sigh
ORESSINOMA, Westw.

typhla, Doubl. and Hew. . 3
Kuprycuia, Hiibn.

hesione, Sulz. aa

ocypete, Fabr.

var. helle, Cram.
myneea, Cram.
palladia, Butl.
penelope, Fabr. ;
usitata, Butl. . :
pieria, Butl.
divergens, Butl.
eurytus, Fabr. .
renata, Cram. :
marmorata, Butl. :
sosybius, Fabr.
hermes, Fabr.
acmenis, Hibn. :
phineus, Butl.. :

vesta, Butl. : :
enyo, Butl. : :
mollina, Hiibn. ‘
cephus, Fabr. . .
junia, Cram. : :
libye, Linn. : -
cluena, Dru. : :
arnea, Fabr. : :
byses, Godt. : :
chloris, Cram. . A
herse, Cram. :

hewitsonii, Butl.
agatha, Butl.
batesil, Butl.
gera, Hew.
itonis, Hew.

phocion, Fabr.. :
portlaudia, Fabr. :
Canthus, Linn. -
cornelius, Fabr. .
erichtho, Butl. :

RaGcapia, Westw.
Crises hiijoreaan

DWH RE NWNE KEWL WD ENW ON WR RIE DAWN DHNE Orr

io

Catalogue of Lepidoptera. 297

No of No. of
Specimens. Specimens.
LeproneurA, Wallengr. CALLEREBIA, Butl.
clytus, Linn. i scanda, Koll. . ; 2
annada, Moore, . : 1
Manion, Schrank. Ciners, Hiibn.
eo jutta, Hubn. 2
hippia, Cram. 1 wello, Esp. 2
sabacus. Trim. 3 celimene, Cram. 1
hyperbius, Linn. 2 norna, Thunb. . ora |
cassius, Godt. | 3 var. fulla, Eversm. . eyed
tamatavee, Boisd. 1 uhlert: Beak, toler. 9
pharte, Hiibn. ! taygete, Hubn. . 1
arete, Fabr. 1 ap ae
mnestra, Esp. » | AreyropHorus, Blanch.
melampus, Fuessly. 4 leucothea, Molina. : 3
var. sudetica, Staud. il (aryenteus, Blanch.)
turanica, Ersch. 1 | Meanarcia, Meig.
pyrrha, Wien. Verz. - galathea, Linn, 2. 2s) 7) 4
ceto, Ochs. 2 var. procida, Herbst. 3
cme, Esp. _ 1 var. lencomelas, Esp. il
medusa, Wien. Verz. 3 lachesis, Hiibn. ; 1
pen Esp. 3 var. titea, Klug. 1
nerine, Li reyoe: 1 var. teneates, Mén. 2
evias, Let. : » & larissa, Hibn. 1
nelo, Hiibn. an 2 var. herta, Hubn. . I
morio, Giorna. var. hylata, Mén. . 2
var. glacialis, Esp. Lat russie, Esp. ; . 2
alecto, Hibn. 2 thetis, Hiibn. . . 1
scipio, Boisd. 1 occitanica, Esp. 4
stygne, Hubn. i arge, Sulz.
afer, Esp. 1 var. pherusa, Boisd. 1
parmenio, Boeb. 1
cyclopius, Eversm. | | RHAPHICERA, Butl.
manto, Wien. Verz. 5 satricus, Doubl. and Hew. 1
ocnus, Eversm. 2 Saryrus, Latr.
tyndarus, Esp. 4 egeria, Linn. 1
var. nevadensis, Ramb. 1 var, meone, Cram. . 9
vesagus, Doubl. and Hew. 2 var. xiphia, Fabr. . 1
gorge, Esp. 2 epimenides, Men. 1
var. triopes, Spey. 1 dejanira, Linn. 3
arachne, Fabr. maackii, Brem. 2
var. pitho, Htbn. 1 voxelana, Cram. 2
pronoe, Esp. 4 5 clymene, Esp. ay |
Sedakovil, Herr. Schiff, UAE meera, Linn. ‘ -410
niphonica, Jans. 2 var. adrasta, Hibn. ao
medea, Wien. Verz. 5 schakra, Koll. . ; 1
ligea, Linn. 5 hiera, Fabr. 4
euryale, Esp... 5 awe megera, Linn. . ‘ . 4
embla, Thunk i tigelius, Bon. - ; 2

298 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

No. of
Specimens.
XENICA, Westw.
achanta, Don. . : a4

EPINEPHILE, Hiibn.

abeona, Don.

lycaon, Kiihn.

narica, Hiibn.

dysdora, Led.

wagnerl1, Herr. Schiff.

jurtina, Linn. . :
var. hispulla, Esp. .
var. telmessia, Zell,

amardza, Led. . : j
janiroides, Herr. Schiiff.
coctei, Guér. : A :

servilia, Wallengv.
tithonus, Linn.

ida, Esp. . : ;
pasiphaé, Esp. . ‘

HeTEeRoONYMPHA, Wallengr.
merope, Fabr. .
banksii, Leach.

Eina, Blanch.
lefebvrei, Guér. . : :

Hipparcuia, Fabr.
hyperanthus, Linn. . ;
sylvestris, Edw. .
bodpis, Behr.
alope, Fabr. :

leptoneuroides, Feld. . :
(Letraphiebia ? plumbeola,
Buitl.)
chiliensis, Guer. j
pheedra, Linn. . j é

var. bipunctanus, Motsch .

acteea, Esp. : 3
proserpina, Cyr.
var. cordula, Fabr.

var. bryce, Htibn. . ;
var. parthica, Led. .
fidia, Linn. : : é

statilinus, Hufn.
var. allionia, Fabr.
var, fatua, Freyer.
arethusa, Wien. Verz.

fem Wonlbetlly Roady
neomiris, Godt. ‘ :

mW eH OO eH Re he oo oh Ll i i

bo Ot

ob Ww He

Re bo e DR eRe RR Lb

No. of
Specimens.

Hipparcuia, Fabr.—continwed

geyerl, Herr. Schaff. .
beroe, Herr. Schiff. .

var. aurantiaca, Staud.

agave, Esp. :
pelopea, Klug. . .

var. moniszechii. Herr.

Schaff.

var.mamurra, Herr. Schiff.

var. obscura, Staud.
thelephassa, Hiibn. .
var. anthelea, Hiibn.
var. amalthea, Friv.
bischoftii, Herr. Schitt.
semele, Linn. . ;
var. mersina, Staud.
persephone, Hiibn.

.

.

var. hanifa, Herr. Schatff.

heydenreichu, Led...
briseis, Linn.
parisatis, Koll.
hermione, Linn.
aleyone, Wien. Verz.

circe, Fabr. 5 ,
brahminus, Blanch. .
saraswati, Koll. .

padman dolly 5 a

Mycatesis, Hibn.

nebulosa, Feld. :
($ MW. saga, Butl.)
eusirus, Hopff.

var. caffra, Wallengr.
vulgaris, Butl.

angulosa, Butl.
asochis, Hew.
eliasis, Hew. : 5
macrones, Hew. :

dorothea, Cram.
var. reesaces, Hew.
perseus, Fabr. . :
var. francisea, Cram.
var. visala, Moore,

drusia, Cram. . :
gotama, Moore, A
mineus, Linn. . :
Justina, Cram.

orseis, Hew. ‘ :

megamede, Hew. .

Rh bh

yy Feet Ue neg EN mt

«
~

Cth Oo COR Re eR DDe LL

2

bo bs

es CO a CG)

bet et OT BS SU

Catalogue of Lepidoptera. 299

No, of No.of
Specimens, Specimens.

Mycatesis, Hiibn.—continued. CanonympHa, Hiibn.—conti,ued.

blasius, Fabr. . 3 philea, Hiibn. . 2
var. samba, Moore, . 1 leander, Esp... 2
var. cepheus, Butl. 3 corinna, Hiibn. ]

ostrea, Westw. . 1 dorus, Esp. 2

perdiccas, Hew. 2 symphita, Led. 1

medus, Fabr. . 1 pamphilus, Linn. : 6
var. hesione, Cram. 3 var. lyllus, Esp... l
var. runeka, Moore, 1 galactinus, Boisd. : ar ok

mandata, Moore, 4 california, Doubl. and Hew. 5

martius, Fabr. 1 ochracea, Edw. 3

anaxias, Hew. 3 saadi, Koll. 1

duponchelii, Guer. 1 sunbecca, Eversm. , eae!

dexamenus, Hew. i

messene, Hew. 3 | Tripnysa, Zell.

tagala, Feld. 5 phryne, Pall. . A age"

remulia, Cram. 2

fuscum, Feld. . ; . 2 | Hypocysta, Westw.

ita, Feld. 1 osyris, Boisd. 1

narcissus, F'abr. | inius, Fabr. 1

fraterna, Butl. . 1 antirius, Butl. ; Sol

patnia, Moore, . : 2 euphemia, Doubl. and Hew. 1

oe How. ETEONA, Westw.
; 9 tisiphone, Boisd. : “tate
sesara, Hew. : : se
Lymanopopa, Westw.

Yrruima, Hiibn. = obsoleta, Doubl. and Hew. . 1
asterope, Klug. ; aie ferruginosa, Butl. |
nareda, Koll. ; - 2 albocincta, Hew. ‘ ya
motschulskyi, Brem. and albomaculata, Hew. . 2.

Grey, -. 1 f

pandocus, Moore, i CALISTO, Hiibn.

sakra, Moore, 1 zangis, Fabr. P ; wrt

methora, Hew. : : 2 - Zrpartis, Hew.

philomela, Joh. ; og saitis, Hew. . : cap ey
var. lisandra, Cram. eee: | :

argus, Butl. ; . 4 | Sreroma, Westw.

stellera, Esch. 1 bega, Doubl. and Hew. 6

fasciata, Hew. 1

arctous, Fabr. ; i PEDALIODES, Butl.

hiibneri, W. F. Kirb. 2 poesia, Hew. 1

ceylonica, Hew. 9) pisonia, Hew. 2

*doleta, W. F. Kirb. 3 perperna, Hew. 1

phyllalia, Hew. ; 1

CanonympHa, Hiibn. piletha, Hew. . ‘ il
cedipus, Fabr. _. : ay el prytanis, Hew. : ays,
hero, Linn. : : py I peucestas, Hew. : ey
iphis, Wien. Verzi\ . n 2 plotina, Hew. . : shee
arcania, Linn. . ‘ e 6 phea, Hew. : ‘ 2

300 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

PEDALIODES, Butl.—continued.

pelinna, Hew.
alusana, Hew.
phedra, Hew.
panyasis, Hew.

OxxroscHistus, Butl.

puerta, Westw.
simplex, Butl.

immina, Doubl. and Hew.

LasiopuHia, Feld.
cirta, Feld.
orbifera, Butl.

Dapaima, Hew.
dorinda, Feld.

phoronea, Doubl. and Hew.

PRoNOPHILA, Westw.
thelebe, Doubl. and Hew.

orcus, Latr.

porsenna, Hew. .

obscura, Butl.

cordillera, Westw.

TayGETIs, Hubn.

mermeria, Cram. .

excavata, Butl.
virgilia, Cram.

var. rebecca, Fabr. .

erubesceus, Butl.

chrysogone, Doubl. and Hew.

echo, Cram.

andromeda, Cram.

uzza, Butl. .
peuelea, Cram.

marpessa, Hew. .

incerta, Butl.

CorabeEs, Doubl. and Hew.

chelonis, Hew.
enyo, Hew.

.

pannonia, Hew. .

sareba, Hew.
medeba, Hew.
cistene, Hew.

Bia, Hibn.

actorion, [ann.

No. of
Specimens.

a a

me LS Fart

— pt

H bo bo e bo

Robb NOW eee

rm bo O29 Co et

No. of
Specimens.

ELYMNIIN &.
Exymnias, Hiibn.

undularis, Dru. . ec:

fraterna, Butl. . : 5

phegea, Fabr. . : 1

bammakoo, Westw. . 1

panthera, Fabr. . : 1

singhala, Moore, . . @

lais, Cram. . 3

patna, Westw. i

malelas, Hew. . wae
MORPHIN At.
Amatuusia, Fabr.

phidippus, Linn. . ae |

westwoodii, Butl. 1
ZevuxiptiA, Hiibn.

luxerii, Hiibn. . : sw
DiscopHora, Boisd,

celinde, Stoll. 4

zal, Westw. ‘ 1
Enispr, Westw.

euthymius, Doubl. : ae)
TENARIS, Hiibn.

urania, Linn. Re!

selene, Westw. . : »
CLEROME, Westw.

arcesilaus, Fabr. . : ee

eumeus, Diu... ; 1

besa, Hew. . : : oe
THaumantis, Hiibn.

odana, Godt. F 3 Five

diores, Doubl. Beh!

lucipor, Westw. : anak

noureddin, Westw. . te Ree:

camadeva, Westw. , soy
Moreno, Fabr.

metellus, Cram. . 2 ou

perseus, Crain. : ote

crameri, W. F. Kirb. me ak

laertes, Dru. ; : 3

polyphemus, Donbl. and Hew. 1

Catalogue of Lepidoptera.

Moreno, Fabr.—continued.

epistrophis, Hiibn.

sega, Hiibn. :
sulkowskyi, Koll.
cypris, Westw. . :

menelaus, Linn.

var. nestira, Hiibn. .
godarti, Guer.
achilles, Linn.

var. helenor, Cram. .

var. archillena, Hiibn.

var. peleides, Koll.
var. deidamia, Hiibn.
var. octavia, Bates,

BRASSOLIN /h.

Brassouis, Fabr.
astyra, Godt.
sophore, Linn.

OPpsIPHANES, Westw.
syme, Hiibn.
batea, Hiibn.

No. of
Specimens.

heinduvali. Doubl. dnaeElew.

berecynthus, Cram.
tamarindi, Feld.
cassie, Linn.
quiteria, Cram.
crameri, Feld.
invire, Hiibn.

Dynastor, Westw.
darius, Fabr.

Cauico, Hiibn.
eurylochus, Cram.
teucer, Linn.
oberon, Butl.
prometheus, Koll.
atreus, Koll.
beltrao, Ill.

ErRYPHANIS, Boisd.
polyxena, Meerb. :

DasyYorTHTHALMA, Westw.
rusina, Godt...
creusa, Hiibn. . ;

me bo OO r bo bo bo

eso

SU SS) oes eS

mr bh Oe Cor bb Ot

Sr

ACRAIN.
AcrA, Fabr.
horta, Linn.
quirina, Fabr..
ranavalona, Boisd.
manandaza, Ward,
masamba, Ward,
peneleos, Ward,
mahela, Boisd.
var. neobule,
Hew. .
andromacha, Fabr.
circeis, Dru.
lycia, Fabr.
cecilia, Fabr.
zetes, Linn.
natalica, Boisd.
anemosa, Hew. .
serena, Fabr. ‘ :
do. (pupa-cases), .
yar. manjaca, Boisd.
bonasia, Fabr.
eponina, Cram.
punctatissima, Boisd.
rakeli, Boisd.
nohara, Boisd.
violarum, Boisd.
viol, Fabr.
petirzea, Boisd.
lycoa, Godt.
gea, Fabr. .
cydonia, Ward,
euryta, Linn.
excisa, Butl.
elongata, Butl.
aganice, Hew.
esebria, Hew.
egina, Cram.
pseudegina, Westw.

Doubl.

301

No. of

Specimens.

perenna, Doubl. and Hew.

alciope, Hew. ‘
vesta, Fabr. ‘ ‘
thalia, Linn.

pellenea, Hiibn. .

anteas, Doubl. and Hew.

acipha, Hew.
callianira, Hiibn.
amida, Hew. : é
callianthe, Feld. . ‘

bbe wh

H bo bo A171 DO SUT bo MT DO OO

—_

TU pet OS

—

OS Stk Oo FTL

Se Re bo bo

5290

~ oO

bet SH PO MT LOLS Go

302 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

No. of
Specimens.

Acraa, Fabr.—continued.
hylonome, Doubl.
neleus, Latr.
ozomene, Godt. .

nox, Bates, ; L :

leucomelas, Bates, ; ;

abana, Hew. : : ‘
HELICONIN A.

Heticontius, Linn.
zuleika, Hew.
eucrate, Htibn. . :
telchinia, Doubl. and Hew.
antiochus, Linn. .
diotrephes, Hew.
alithea, Hew. .
cydno, Doubl. and Hew.
eleuchia, Hew.
rhea, Cram.
sara, Fabr.
apseudes, Hiibn. .
eyrbia, Godt.
chestertonil, Hew.
clysonymus, Latr.
pachinus, Salv.
atthis, Doubl. and Hew.
eogceindhea, Feld.
charithonia, Linn.
erato, Linn.
melpomene, Linn.
var. callycopis, Cram.
var. erythrea, Cram.
var. andremona, Cram.
euryas, Boisd.
thelxiope, Hiibn.
var. vicina, Mén.
vesta, Cram.
petiverana, Doubl.
phyllis, Fabr.
amaryllis, Feld.
rosina, Boisd.
telesiphe, Doubl. and Hew.
anderida, Hew.
ismenius, Latr.
ricini, Linn.

Everes, Hiibn.
thales, Cram. . : :
eanes, Hew. . : ;

ee

jn
Co BD OO BS 09 DS OUR 19 RM LD I eS ED KAD SH SBE DO NMWD DDH RH eS bb bt

No. of
Specimens.
Kueipes, Hiibn.—continued.
mereaui, Hiibn. l
lybia, Fabr. 2
olympia, Fabr. l
aliphera, Godt. 5
isabella, Cram. 4
cleobzea, Hiibn. 3
hiibneri, Men. . : ate
NYMPHALIN /.
CoLa&Nis, Hiibn.
dido, Linn. : ; Sy!
euchroia, Doubl. and Hew, 2
telesiphe, Hew. . ose
pherusa, Linn. . : oe
julia, Fabr. : : »
delila, Fabr. 8
Dione, Hiibn.
juno, Cram. 7
vanille, Linn. . : ae
moneta, Hiibn. |
glycera, Feld. 2
Cernosta, Fabr.
biblis, Dru. 3
eyane, Dru. 5
var. peuthesilea, Cram, 2
var. hypsea, Doubl. and
Hew. . : ‘ 2
var. hypsina, Feld. . 3
nietneri, Feld. . 5
mahratta, Moore, 2
eydippe, Linn. . : 2
var. cydalima, Feld. 2
myrina, Feld. ]
CrLoTHILpA, Blanch.
numida, Hiibn. 1
TERINOS, Boisd.
clarissa, Boisd. i
robertsia, Butl. 1
teuthras, Hew. l
atlita, Fabr. l
tethys, Hew. l
CrrrocHxoa, Doubl.
aoris, Doubl. and Hew. se.
thais, Fabr. 3 F see

Catalogue of Lepidoptera. 303
a No. of No. of
Specimens. Specimens.
CrrrocHRoA, Doubl.—continued. | ARGYNNIS, Fabr.—continued.
bajadeta, Moore, ‘ 2 | elisa, Godt. : : oll
faciata, Feld. . : 1 adippe, linn: . ete
ravana, Moore, i | var. cleodaxa, Ochs. 2
orissa, Feld. : : 1 | var. chlorodippe, DeVill.
and Guén. Sam
CYNTHIA, Fabr. nerippe, Feld. . 1
arsinoé, Cram. + | callippe, Boisd. . 2
asela, Moore, 2 coronis, Behr. . rel
Lacunoprera, Doubl. nevadensis, Edw. : ai
iole, Fabr. : l wremneril, Edw. ; 5
atlantis, Edw. 2
Messaras, Doubl. zerene, Boisd. 3
erymanthis, Dru. 6 monticola, Behr. . sp fF
madestes, Hew. 2 hesperis, Edw. . md Mel
meeonides, Hew. 1 niobe, Linn. 5
ATELLA, Doubl. lnbhonss ea °
. | 1sseea, Moore, l
phalanta, Dru. : & XO sie, Dele A
var. eurytis, Doubl. and ; cytheris, Dru. 9
: Hew. ; = thore, Hiibn. ne”
egista, Cram. . | epithore, Edw. . j 6
Evuproreta, Doubl. frigga, Thunb. I
claudia, Cram. 6 amathusia, Esp. 4
hegesia, Cram. 4 dia, Linn. 4
hortensia, Blanch. 1 lapponica, Esp. l
polaris, Boisd. 2
ArGyYNNIS, Fabr. euphrosyne, Linn. 4
sagana, Doubl. and Hew. 2 var. fingal, Herbst. . |
diana, Cram. 5] selene, Wien. Verz. if
childreni, Gray, . 2 var. hela, Staud. |
paphia, Linn. 4 myrina, Cram. 4
var. valesina, Esp. 1 selenis, Eversm. 2
maia, Cram. 1 aphirape, Hiibn. 1
pallescens, Butl. i pales, Wien. Verz. 3
kamala, Moore, 1 var. isis, Hiibn. i
daphne, Wien. Verz. 3 var. arsilache, Esp. 1
laodice, Pall. : 2 ino, Rott. . ; 5
var. Japonica, Mén. 1 hecate, Wien. Verz. 3
ella, Brem. eo)
niphe, Linn. 6 | Meurrma, Fabr.
inconstans, Butl. 1 phaéton, Dru... : 5
idalia, Dru. 3 chaleedona, Doubl. and Hew. 2
adiante, Boisd. 1 cooper, Behr. ‘ “al!
cybele, Fabr. 4 anicia, Doubl. and Hew. . 2
aphrodite, Fabr. . 5 var. editha, Boisd. 3
leto, Behr. : 1 cynthia, Wien. Verz. 2
nokomis, Edw. Pe iduna, Dalm. s 1
aglaia, Linn, : : SEO maturne, Linn. . ; Sap) at

304

Me it#a, Fabr.—continued.

aurinia, Rott. .

var. merope, De Prunn.
var. provincialis, Boisd.

var. desfontainii, Godt.
cinxia, Linn.
athalia, Rott.

var. etherie, Hiibn.
didyma, Esp.
trivia, Wien. Verz.

var. fascelis, Esp.
leucippe, Schneid.
deione, Hiibn. .
parthenie, Borkh.
parthenoides, Kef.
asteria, Frey.
dictynna, Esp. .
whitneyi, Behr.
harrisii, Seudd.
palla, Boisd.
leanira, Feld.
ulrica, Edw.

Puyctopes, Hubn.

liriepe, Cram. 4
var. claudina, Esch.

thymetus, Fabr.

tharos, Dru.

batesii, Reak.

theona, Mén.

ezra, Hew.

montana, Behr.

mylitta, Edw.

pratensis, Behr.

nycteis, Doubl. and flew:

texana, Edw. .

proclea, Doubl. and Elese

leucodesma, Feld.
myia, Hew.

lansdorfi, Godt.
philyra, Hew.

letitia, Hew.

eunice, Hiibn.
eranites, Hew.

castilla, Feld.

acreeina, Hew.
nauplia, Linn. . :
clara, Bates, : ;
esora, Hew. : ;

No. of
Specimens.

6

mm bo

5
~

—
Ol OS) Roe BS OS CS

YS

Doe Gor bo whe

Nr rh bO Lb OO COR DR OR WK PbS Ww PL

~

NR LOR ee

Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

Microria, Bates.
elva, Bates, :

GNATHOTRICHE, Feld.
exclamationis, Koll,

CuiLosyneg, Butl.
saundersil, Doubl.
lacinia, Hiibn. .

var. tellias, Bates,
janais, Dru. :
hippodrome, Hiibn.
erodyle, Bates.
peecile, Feld.
narva, Fabr.
gaudialis, Bates,

AnEMECA, W. F. Kirb.

ehrenbergu, Hiibn.

ARASCHNIA, Hiibn.

levana, Linn. .
var. porima, Ochs.
var. prorsa, Linn.

SYMBRENTHIA, Hiibn.
hyppoclus, Cram.
hypselis, Godt.

HypanartiA, Hiibn.
zabulina, Godt.

lethe, Fabr.
godmanu, Bates,

kefersteinu,
Hew.
dione, Latr. :

hippomene, Hiibn.

Vanessa, Fabr.
ec. aureum, Linn.
fabricii, Edw.

interrogationis, Fabr.

c. album, Linn.
faunus, Edw.
zephyrus, Edw.
silenus, Edw.
comma, Harr.
satyrus, Edw.
progne, Cram.
egea, Cram,

Doubl.

No. of
Specimens.

i)

a

and Hew. 1

ioe

bo eo bo

and

mr Lo

SiS bo O98 — bo Or St bo

a

Scren. Proc., R.D.S.

VOL, U., PT. Vy

vi

Catalogue of Lepidoptera. 305
. No. of No. of
Specimens. Specimens.

VANESSA, Fabr.—continiued. Precis, Hiibn.—continued.
canace, Linn. . 6 zonara, Butl. 1
(charonia, Dru.) amestris, Dru. 4
no-japonicum, Sieb. 1 archesia, Cram. 3
(glauconia, Motsch.) rhadama, Boisd. ; 6
antiopa, Linn. : 6 terea, Dru. 2 : 4
io, Linn. . : : ae: elgiva, Hew. . 1
milberti, Godt. : . oO sophia, Fabr. . 5
urtice, Linn. . as: chorimene, Guér. : 5

var. turcica, Sind 1 natalica, Feld. . : 2
var.ichnusa, Bon. . be goudotii, Boisd. ; 1
var. kaschmirensis, Koll. 1 galami, Boisd. . : 4
var. polaris, Staud. a ok pelarga, Fabr. . 9)
xanthomelas, Wien. Verz. 5 kowara, Ward, 1
polychloros, Linn. 3 pelasgis, Godt. . 2
vau-album, Wien. Verz. 2 andremiaja, Boisd. . 3
var. j.album, Boisd.& Lec. 1 ethyra, Feisth. . : 2

; cuama, Hew. . 7 1

NyYMPHALIS, Linn. zelima, Fabr. 2
atalanta, Linn. . 6 ida, Cram. : 3
oo S var. iphita, Cram. 7
on , Fabr. 2 : 9
a Bash ; 9 cloantha, Cram. ; 2
cardui, Linn. 5 | PsrupERGOoLIs, Feld.
virginiensis, Dru. + veda, Koll. 2
cm Sat oa ie : Tuaueroris, Staud.

ionia, Eversm. 2

JUNONIA, Hinbrt RuINOPALPA, Feld.
lemonias, Linn. 6 waite he
ea 1 polynice, Cram. 1
aonis, Linn. cee =
4 Fe alan 5 sabina, Cram. 3
aomedia,
clelia, Cram. , 9 | Saamuts, Boisd.
enone, Linn. . 6 anteva, Ward. 2

var. cebrene, Trim. 5) eacta, Fabr. ; : ]
orithya, Linn. . 0 anacardiu, Linn. 5
var. ocyale, Hiibn. l duprei, Vins. 1
westermanni, Westw. 3
ees | Cram: 9 NAPEOCLES, Bates,
avinia, j
ceenia, Hiibn. 4 jucunda, Hiibn. ? 1
genoveva, Cram. 2 | Katuma, Westw.
vellida, Fabr. 2 inachis, Boisd. 7
vestina, Feld. 1 philarchus, Westw. 2
asterie, Linn. . : cere rumia, Westw. 5
Re ages eat : a5” Do.escHALLiA, Feld.

Precis, Hiibn. eurodoce, Westw. 2
octavia, Cram. . : aie bisaltide, Cram. |
ceryne, Boisd. } ee var. polibete, Cram. 3
tukuoa, Wallengr. : mT australis, Feld. 1

306
No. of
Specimens.
AwnartiA, Hiibn.
jatrophee, Linn. 15
fatima, Fabr. 3
amalthea, Linn. 4
EurytTeEt.a, Boisd.
dryope, Cram. 3
hiarbas, Dru. Z
ophione, Cram. 2
Ercotis, Boisd.
enotrea, Cram. 3
ariadne, Linn. 6
var. merione, Cram. 1
var. taprobana, Westw. 4
Hypanis, Boisd.
ilithyia, Dru. 5
var. polinice, Cram. 4
var. anvatara, Boisd. 2
CyBpDELIs, Boisd.
mnasylus, Doubl.and Hew. 1
CycirogramMA, Doubl.
pandama, Doubl. and Hew. 2
Crenis, Boisd.
madagascariensis, Boisd. 1
Sarai, Fabr. 2
2

sinnlin, Cram.

Evnica, Hiibn.
tatila, Herr. Schaff. .
empyrea, Herr. Schiff.
maia, Fabr. :
anna, Cram.
malvina, Bates,
mygdonia, Godt.
celina, Godt.
cinara, Hew.
bechina, Hew.
caresa, Hew.
carias, Hew.
veronica, Bates,
modesta, Bates,
margarita, Godt.
orphise, Cram.
viola, Bates,

alemena, Doubl. and ieee

olympias, Feld, :

ee DO SR Ee

Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

No. of
Specimens.

Eunica, Hiibn.—continued.
pomona, Feld.
eurota, Cram.
norica, Hew.

EprpHIze, Doubl.
orea, Hiibn.
epimenes, Hew.
epicaste, Hew.

Myscetra, Doubl.
orsis, Dra.
eyaniris, Doubl.
campaspe, Hew.

ai ‘Hew

CATONEPHELE, Hiibn.
obrinus, Linn.
numilia, Cram.
esite, Feld.
antinoe, Godt.
acontius, Linn.
salacia, Hew.
nyctimus, Westw.

TeMENIS, Hiibn.
laothoe, Cram.

Nica, Hiibn.
canthara, Doubl.
sylvestris, Bates,

Peria, W. F. Kirb.

lamis, Cram.

DyNaAmMIneE, Hiibn.
agacles, Dalm.
theseus, Feld.
athemon, Linn.
racidula, Hew.
tithia, Hiibn.
salpensa, Feld.
artimesia, Fabr.
mylitta, Cram.

CALLICORE, Hiibn.
clymena, Cram.
aurelia, Guén.
bourcieri, Guén.
serofa, Guén.
anna, Guer.
euclides, Latr. . :
cornelia, Herr. Schiff, :

ee ee oe) re bo Lo

— eR CO

Hr bo DD ee OO

—

CO eK WwW ee bb

_

mam OFS Re RH eR OO

Catalogue of Lepidoptera.

No. of
Specimens.

CaLLicorE, Hiihn.—continaed.

celinula, Guén.

dodone, Guén. .
gabaza, Hew.

pavira, Guén.

eupepla, Salv. and Godm.

Perisama, Doubl.
bonplandu, Guér.
equatorialis, Guén.
albipennis, Butl.
vaninka, Hew.
humboldtii, Guér.
chaseba, Hew.
oppelu, Latr.
tryphena, Hew.

CATAGRAMMA, Boisd.
brome, Boisd.
atacama, Hew.
denina, Hew.
mionina, Hew.
tolima, Hew.
hydaspes, Dru.
kolyma, Hew.
peristera, Hew.
texa, Hew.
aretas, Hew. :
cyllene, Doubl. and Hew.
maimuna, Hew.
hesperis, Guér.
codomannus, Fabr.
(2. sinamara, Hew.)
pitheas, Latr.

cynosura, Doubl. and Hew.

Hamatera, Doubl.
pyramus, Fabr.
thysbe, Doubl. and eliesa:

CALLITHEA, Boisd.
sapphira, Hiibn.
marku, Hew.
lepricuril, Feisth.

GynactA, Doubl.

dirce, Linn.

Ectima, Doubl.
liria, Fabr.
rectifascia, Butl.

me re CO Re k= DS = bo

m ho bo

Ste SO Ob — WD

Ww ©

ws

a

1

Scren. Proc., R.D.S. Vou. 11, Pt. y.

307

No. of
Specimens.

Baresta, Feld.
prola, Doubl. and Hew.
chalcothea, Bates,
divalis, Bates,
hypochlora, Feld.

AGErRonIA, Hiibn.
chloé, Stoll.
ferentina, Godt.
fornax, Hiibn.
feronia, Linn. ;
var. guatemalena, Dates,
amphinome, Linn.
arethusa, Cram.
velutina, Bates,

Driponis, Hiibn.
biblis, Fabr.
aganisa, Boisd.
pasira, Doubl. and Hew.

Vita, W. F. Kirb.
emilia, Cram.
var. cecilia, Feld.

CysTINEURA, Boisd.
dorceas, Fabr.
hypermnestra, Hiibn.
bogotana, Feld.

Pyrruoeyra, Doubl.
typheeus, Feld.
nezrea, Linn.
otolais, Bates,
edocla, Doubl. and Hew.

AmnosiA, Westw.
decora, Doubl. and Hew.

Cyristis, Boisd.
meenalis, Erichs.
nivea, Zink.
thydamas, Boisd.
thyonneus, Cram.
elegans, Boisd.
paulinus, Feld.
acilia, Godt.
risa, Doubl. and Hew.
rahria, Westw.
camillus, Fabr.

y2

a ee

mm co OY 08 G bSD OO bb

me oo

bo bo bo bo

> et eet OO ODO

©
~

bo bt

308 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

Mecatura, Blanch.
coresia, Godt.

themistocles, Fabr.

chiron, Fabr.
merops, Boisd.
tutelina, Hew.
berania, Hew.
erethon, Fabr.
orsilochus, Fabr.
corinna, uote

var. merce lley Feld.

corita, Westw.
iole, Dru. :
heraldicus, Bates,
peleus, Sulz.
eleucha, Hiibn.

Victorina, Blanch.
steneles, Linn.

var. lavinia, Fabr.

epaphus, Latr.
sulpitia, Cram.
superba, Bates,

STIBOCHIONA, Butl.
nicea, Gray,
coresia, Hiibn.

Hypotimnas, Hiibn.
bolina, Tank,

var. iphigenia, Cram.
var. jacintha, Dru.

misippus, Linn.

var. inaria, Cram.

alimena, Linn.
pandarus, Linn.
antilope, Cram.
anomala, Wall.
salmacis, Dru.
dexithea, Hew.
dubius, Beauv.
dinarcha, Hew.
anthedon, Doubl.
imerina, Hew.

Hestina, Westw.
assimilis, Linn.

persunilis, Westw.

nama, Doubl. .

No. of
Specimens.

bobo DK DR DK bw — DY OF bl

Co eH o>

Lo ©

1S)

RW DS FOP Wor DWH O

— =! bo

No. of
Specimens.

Herona, Westw.
marathus, Doubl. and Hew. 1

Eurrpus, Westw.

halitherses, Doubl. and Hew. 2
consimilis, Westw. . AP
japonica, Feld. . : 7:
charonda, Hew. : 1
PENTHEMA, Westw.
lisarda, Doubl. ; at
EuxantHe, Hiibn.
eurinome, Cram. ! i.
madagascaricusis, Luc. ie
trojanus, Ward, : fe
AMPHIDEMA, Feld.
beckeri, Herr. Schiff. he
PsEUDACR#HA, Westw.
semire, Cram. . : aL
lucretia, Cram. ; eal
apaturoides, Feld. . ti
boisduvalii, Doubl. ee |
PaRTHENOS, Hiibn.
gambrisius, Fabr. 2
cyaneus, Moore, 2
sylvia, Cram. 2
nodrica, Boisd. ut
LepabeEa, Feld.
ismene, Doubl. and Hew. . 2
alaukara, Horsf. 1
paduka, Moore, 1
ADELPHA, Hiibn.
basilea, Cram. ye
var. ephesa, Mén. it
serpa, Boisd. 1
var. celerio, Bates, 1
erotia, Hew. 2) ae
thesprotia, Feld. ca ee
olynthia, Feld. he
cytherea, Linn. : 7
justina, Feld. : eee
irmina, Doubl. and Hew. . 1
plesaure, Hiibn. 2
cocala, Cram. . : if
oberthurii, Boisd. 1
lara, Hew. : 2
mesentina, Cram, : uc!

Catalogue of Lepidoptera. 309

No. of No. of
Specimens. Specimens.
AvELPHA, Hiibn.—continued. Neptis, Fabr.—continued.
californica, Butl. F iD matuta, Hiibn. i 2
lorquini, Boisd. : ¥h 5 melicerta, Dru. ; pli
agatha, Cram. . : 4
Linenttis, Fabr. kikideli, Boisd. mete 2
populi, Linn... : el A:
camilla, Wien. Verz. . 6 | ATHyma, Westw.
sibylla, Linn. . ‘ ei leucothoé, Linn. P 3
sydyi, Led. : ' oT opalina, Koll. . ; 1
weldemeyerl, Edw. ay ck kresna, Moore, 1
proserpina, Edw. il nefte, Cram. : : 2
astyanax, Fabr. 5 inara, Doubl. and Hew. . 3
artemis, Dru. . ; ye oh cama, Moore, . : 4
archippus, Cram. : 3 selenophora, Koll. weal
procris, Cram. 2 idita, Moore, L : “a2
trivena, Moore, 2 kanwa, Moore, ‘ ate
zulema, Doubl. and Elewe 2 kasa, Moore, : ; |
calidasa, Moore, : 2 venilia, Linn. . : en Wal
do. pupa-case, , 1
eee Doubl. and Hew. g | Asrora, Moore.
zayla, Doubl. and Hew. 3 ganga, Moore, : ; 2
danava, Moore, ‘ 2 var. bontnis) Feld. 1
dudu, Westw. . 2 | Ru RYPHENE, Boisd.
lycone, Hew. 4 iat senegalensis, Herr. Schiff. 1
libnites, Hew. . : 2 theognis, Hew. 2
tentyris, Hew. 2
PANDITA, Moore. A auchien Feisth. . 3
BER: Moore, es mandinga, Feld. : tale.
var. sinoria, Feld. I calabarensis, Feld. . Wer
Catuna, W. F. Kirb. doriclea, Dra. . ; 2
crithea, Dru... : re, cocalia, Fabr. . ; 2
angustatum, Feld. : a 2 phranza, Hew. ; ti
ceenobita, Fabr. ; ape! ae Hew. . : l
doralice, Hew. ; . |
XanrTHorenta, Westw. lesbonax, Hew. a Me
busiris, Westw. 2 milnei, Hew. . . hae
phantasia, Hew. , haa!
Neptis, Fabr. plautilla, Hew. : an
tiga, Moore, 3 carshena, Hew. ‘ a
hordonia, Stoll. 3 camarensis, Ward, . hilt
antara, Moore, 1 porphyrion, Ward, . ee
miah, Moore, 1
sappho, Pall. . é . 2 | Eupnapra, Hiibn.
var. ludmilla, Herr. Schiff. 1 eleus, Dru. : “ bg dae
jumba, Moore, . ; 6 ruspina, Hew. : cael
shepherdi, Moore, 2 rezia, Hew. . : rea |
aceris, Lep. : x 2 ravola, Hew. . ; he |
varmona, Moore, : A ceres, Fabr. ; : ats! i
intermedia, Pryer. . Sone zeuxis, Westw. . : rae

310

No. of

Specimens.

Eupyuapra, Hiibn.—continued.

janassa, Linn.
campaspe, Feld. .
crockeri, Butl.
francina, Godt.
cyparissa, Cram.
harpalyce, Cram.
eupalus, Fabr.
lakuma, Butl.
medon, Linn.
agnes, Butl. :
neophron, Hopff.
xypete, Hew.

Hamanumipa, Hiibn.
deedalus, Fabr.

AtgERIcA, Boisd.
veronica, Cran.
afer, Dru.
cupavia, Cram.
rabena, Boisd.
amaxia, Hew.
atossa, Hew.

CymotHor, Hubn.

theodota, Hew.
zmilius, Doum. -
sheainene, Doubl. and ew
fumana, Westw.
hesiodus, Hew.
lurida, Butl.
egesta, Cram.
sangaris, Godt.
coccinata, Hew.
cenis, Dru.
capella, Ward,
ciceronis, Ward,

Evuruaria, Hibn.

adonia, Cram:
lubentina, Cram.
evelina, Stoll. .
teuta, mManie and ie,
francie, Gray,
durga, Moore,
doubledayii, Gray,
vasanta, Moore,

do., _ pupa case,

WreWo WWW Frew

me rR re OL EL

Rebbe wr WR wd Wwe bw

MH oo bD ee bo Oo He EO

Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

No. of

Specimens.

Kurwaria, Hiibn.—continued.
garuda, Moore,
aconthea, Cram.

phemius, Doubl. and “Hew.

anosia, Moore,
kesava, Moore,
salia, Moore,
japis, Godt.
asoka, Feld.
cocytus, Fabr.
cocytina, Horsf.
sananda, Moore,

appiades, Mén.

TanaeciA, Butl.
valmikis, Feld.
varuna, Voll.
pelea, Fabr.
pulasara, Moore,

SyMPH#@DRA, Hiibn.
dirtea, Fabr.
cyanipardus, Butl.
eeropus, Linn.
nais, Forst.
(thyelia, Fabr.)

APATURA, Fabr.
iris, Ta

‘lia, Wien. views

var. clytie, Wien. Verz.

namouna, Doubl.
chevana, Moore,
osteria, Westw.
parisatis, Westw.
parvata, Moore,

cyane, Latr.

pavoni, Latr.
agathina, Cram.

elis, Feld.

laure, Dru.

laureutia, Godt.
mileta, Boisd.

linda, Feld.

druryi, Hiibn. :
clyton, Boisd. and Lec.
celtis,- Boisd. and Lec.
dichroa, Koli.
chandra, Moore,

me bO OO RD OURS 09 OF OH a Ot

MDNR RR ee RO

oe Se

rm bo bo Oo

Catalogue of Lepidoptera. 311

No. of No. of
Specimens. Specimens.

DicuorractA, Butl.

CHARAXES, Ochs.—continued.

nesimachus, Boisd. 1 jahlusa, "Trim. 1
3 eupale, Dru. 2
oe g | ingha, Cram. 1
acheronta, Fabr. 6 | Paz. A, Hiibn.
Prepona, Boisd. decius, Cram. l
laertes, Hiibn. l ussheri, pits :
; o. 9 varanes, Cram.
eon : Fabr. 9 lichas, Doubl. and Flew: 1
demophon, Linn. 2 falcata, Butl. l
antimache, Hiibn. 5 Rinersranie | Wiest
Smyrna, Hiibn. beeotus, Doubl. and Hew. 2
blomfildia, Fabr. 3 deucalion, Feld. 2
karwinskii, Hiibn. 2
ProtHogr, Hiibn.
MeEnenris, Westw. franckii, Godt. 3
tulbaghia, Linn. 2
Hypna, Hiibn.
CHARAXES, Ochs. clytemnestra, Cram. 4
jasius, Linn. 3
pollux, Cram. 2 | Anawa, Hiibn.
pelias, Cram. ji troglodyta, Fabr. 9)
saturnus, Butl. 3 andria, Scudd. 2
brutus, Cram. 2 halice, Godt. 1
lucretius, Cram. 3 phidile, Hiibn. 3
anticlea, Dru. 1 chrysophana, Bates, 1
candiope, Godt. i (pyrrhothea, Feld.)
fabius, Fabr. 3 nesea, Godt. ; By
achzemenes, Feld. 4 glycerium, Doubl.and Hew. 3
ephyra, Godt. 3 electra, Westw. 1
tiridates, Cram. 3 xenocrates, Westw. 1
numenes, Hew. 1 eribotes, Fabr. 1
nesiope, Hew. . 1 porphyrio, Bates, 1
smaragdalis, Butl. 2 morvus, Fabr. ; . 1
sempronius, Fabr. Yaar philumena, Doubl.and Hew. 3
athamas, Dru. oat appias, Hiibn. 2
hebe, Butl. 3 | Siprronz, Hubn.
eudamippus, Doubl. 3 marthesia, Cram. 2
dolon, Westw. galanthis, Cram. ]
delphis, Doubl. Z isidora, Cram. 4
analava, Ward, 1 syene, Hew. 1
polyxena, Cram. y)
pleistoanax, Feld. 1 | Proroconius, Hiibn.
khimalara, Butl. 2 albinotatus, Butl. 1
hipponax, Feld. 4 ochraceus, Butl. 3
psaphon, Westw. 2 hippona, Fabr. 2
marmax, Westw. 4 cecrops, Doubl. and Hew. 1

312 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

No. of No. of

Specimens. Specimens.

LEMONIID. MesosemiA, Hiibn.
= TE eumene, Cram. 4
LIBYTH AINE. ulrica, Cram. a
LipyTuea, Fabr. cippus, Hew. 3
myrrha, Godt. . 5) metope, Hew. 2
lepita, Moore, 1 methion, Hew. 2
rama, Moore, 2 minos, Hew. 1
narina, Godt. 2 traga, Hew. 2
labdaca, Westw. l melpia, Hew. 2
carinenta, Cram. 5 idotea, Westw. 2
celtis, Fuessly, l lagora, Herr. Schiff. 2
terena, Godt. 2 hyphea, Cram. 1
motya, Boisd. and Lec. 1 geminus, Fabr. 1
creesus, Fabr. 2
NEMEOBIIN &. meana, Hew. 3
ie tenera, Westw. 4
N EMEOBIUS, Steph. vanessa, Fabr. 3

iwema eb inna) jer : 7

Cremna, Westw.

Dopona, Hew. p
? eucharila, Bates, : ge

durga, Koll. : ; Tao

Ce core, : Hypuitaria, Hiibn.
Zemunos, Boisd. parthenis, Doubl. and Hew. 3
flegyas, Cram. 2
EUSELASIINA.
ABISARA, Feld.
fylla, Doubl. and Hew. 3 | Evusexasta, Hiibn.
echerius, Stoll. 5 euriteus, Cram. 1
prunosa, Moore, + euryone, Hew. rT
neophron, Hew. 1 melaphea, Hiibn. 1
: euoras, Hew. . 1
Taxita, Westw. 1 mys, Herr. Schiff. 3
haquinus, Fabr. ; i labdacus, Cram. 2
orphna, Boisd. . : a nL srmagiin, ley. 1
m West eubeea, Hew. 2
LN ees thucydides, Fabr. 1
amosis, Cram. . : SOWNAE ~
Eurysis, Hiibn. METHONELLA, Westw.
carolina, Godt. 1 cecilia, Cram. . : ey |
niczeus, Fabr. 2
dardus, Fabr. . ; 2 | LEMONIINZ
lycisca, Doubl. and Hew. 1 z j
halimede, Hitbn. 2 THEMONE, Westw.
persona, Staud. 1 pais, Hubn 5
? — ~
Eunoeyra, Westw.
satyrus, Westw. 1 | Panara, Westw.
curupira, Bates, 3 phereclus, Linn. 2 ete

Catalogue of Lepidoptera. 313

No of No of
Specimeus. Specimens.

Lynas, Blanch.

Parnes, Westw.

unxia, Hew. 1 nycteis, Doubl. and Hew. 1
xarifa, Hew. 2 philotes, Westw. ]
melander, Cram. 6
bryaxis Hew 2 EMESIS, Fabr.
é lucinda, Cram. 5)
Pinses Weesiny fastidiosa, Mén. 3
tals rete 1 godartil, Boisd. 2
: i ocypore, Hiibn. 3
fatimella, Westw. 2
Necyria, Westw.
bellona, Westw. 2 | Symmacuia, Hiibn.
manco, Saund. 1 argiope, Godt. 2
trochilus, Erichs. 1
setae on < ; MEsENE, Westw.
i cane cece 6 erope, Doubl. and Hew. 1
» Ne : : xypete, Hew. . . 1
ocollo, Saund. l hya, Doubl. and Hew. 1
thelephus, Cram. 2
Diornina, Mor. sagaris, Cram. 3
periander, Cram. 2
butes, Linn. : 2 | Catypna, Westw.
thersander, Cram. 3
Isaris, Westw. hiria, Godt. 2
agyrtus, Cram. 3 candace, Hew. 1
charila, Hew. 1
Barsicornis, Latr. catcta, Hew. }
facilis) Godt. 1 punctata, Feld. 1
CHaris, Hiibn.
Carte, W. F. Kirb. avius, Cram. l
vitula, Hew. 2 cadytis, Hew. 2
ceneus, Linn. 6
ae piesnt. Crocozona, Feld.
sprucei, Bates, 1 cee Feld
caudalis, Bates, 1 ee I
Botts, Hiibn.
Riopina, Westw. hisbon, Cram. 1
lysippus, Linn. 3 creusis, Hew. i
Piarrcors. Babe Merscuaris, Butl.
Sen Babe ; 4 lucius, Fabr. 3
: :
cupido, Linn. ab re A, Bates.
ein (Hebs meris, Cram. . ° 2
; .
carausius, Westw. 1 | TxHarops, Hiibn.
formosus, Cram. 3 menander, Cram. F 1

314 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

Specimens.
Lemonias, Westw.
prendocrispus, Westw. 1
emylius, Cram. 8
ApopemiA, Feld.
epulus, Cram. 3
erostratus, Doubl. sing Hew. 2
chilensis, Feld. 1
albinus, Feld. 1
mormo, Feld. 1
EcHenats, Hiibn.
alector, Hiibn. 2
penthea, Cram. 2
aristus, Stoll. 2
var. leucocyana, Hiibn. 2
ANATOLE, Hiibn.
zygia, Hiibn. 2
TuisBe, Hiibn.
irenea, Cram. 5
molela, Hew. 1

Nympuipium, Fabr.
orestes, Cram.
chaonia, Hew.
pelops, Cram.
agle, Hew.
gela, Hew.

calyce, Feld.

molpe, Hiibn. :

azan, Doubl. and Hew.

lamis, Cram.

oneum, Hew.

phliasus Clerck.

lycorias, Hew.

carice, Linn.

menalcus, Cram.

cachrus, Fabr.
mantus, Cram.
leucosia, Hiibn.

TueEoreE, Westw.

eudocia, Doubl. and Hew.

lyceenina, Bates,
simplicia, Bates,

Aricoris, Westw.
cepha, Fabr.
lagus, Cram.

bo GO Rt Oo Ht bb SUD HE Ob bt OT bb

Ce Or

ho

Specimens.

ARICcORIS, Westw.—continued.

jansoni, Butl.
flammula, Bates,

STALACHTIS, Hiibn.
phlegia, Cram.
susanna, Fabr. . :
calliope, Linn.
enterpe, Linn.
pheedusa, Hiibn.

LYCAINID As.

PENTILA. Westw.
tropicalis, Boisd.

LiptenA, Doubl. and Hew.

acrzea, Doub]. and Hew.
milca, Hew.

D’Urgantia, Trim.
amakosa, Trim.

Mitetus, Hiibn.
symethus, Cram.
leos, Guer.

AL.otinus, Feld.
fallax, Feld.

Lyca@na, Fabr.
virgaureze, Linn.
var. oranula, Frey. .

var. zermattensis, Fall.

ottomanus, Lef. . :
ochimus, Herr. Schiiff.
thersamon, Esp. .
casplus, Lek wae
asabinus, Herr. Schiff.
dispar, Haw.

var. hippothoe, Wien. Verz.

hippothoe, Linn.

var. euryhia, Ochs. .
pheenicurus, Led.
lampon, Led. :
alciphron, Rott. . e
helloides, Boisd. .
gordius, Sulz.
dorilas, Hiibn.
thoé, Gray,

epixanthe, Boisd. and Sec.

xanthoides, Boisd. ‘

1
1

bo Oo Re Oo

nore

Lo

—

bo bo bo bo bb bo

Oo bo HR AT bo He bt be LO

Catalogue of Lepidoptera.

No. of
Specimens.

Lycana, Fabr.—contiinued.

arota, Boisd.
ianthe, Edw.
phleas, Linn.

var. americana, D’ Urb:

var. timeus, Cram.
helle, Wien. Verz.
orus, Cram.
salustius, Fabr.
virginiensis, Edw.

Lucia, Swains.
lucanus, Fabr.
epius, Westw.

AxtocercEs, Hiibn.
thysbe, Linn.
perion, Cram.
thyra, Linn.
protumnus, Linn.

FrenisEca, Grote.
porsenna, Scudd.

THEstTor, Hiibn.
ballus, Fabr.

callimachus, Eversm. .

nogelii, Herr. Schiff.

PLeBeivs, Linn.
hylax, Fabr.
elorea, Fabr.
danis, Cram.
taygetus, Feld.

oe Feld. .

isis, Dru.

nyseus, Gueér.
roxus, Godt.
malaya, Horsf.
rosimon, Fabr.
diogenes, Blanch.
cissus, Godt.
thius, Hiibn.
hanno, Stoll.
cassius, Cram.
numerius, Stoll. .
asopus, Hopff.
plinius, Fabr. .
kandarpa, Horsf.
nora, Feild. :
plato, Fabr.

WED Wh A Or

bo Oo

bo bo e Ot

bo bo Lo

—
“IE bD © 09 DD OO OO OF DD DS A FT we 0 Oo be

315

No. of

Specimens.

parsimon, Fabr. . :
ethion, Doubl. and Hew.
zlianus, Fabr.

elpis, Godt.
prominens, Moore,
coruscans, Moore,
celeno, Cram.

cnejns, Fabr.
parrhasius, Fabr.
pandava, Horsf. .
beeticus, Linn.
telicanus, Hiibn.
theophrastus, Fabr.
balkanica, Frey. .
argiades, Pall.

var. polysperchon, Bere:

comyntas, Godt.
var. amyntula, Boisd.
trochilus, Frey. .
argus, Linn.
anteegon, Boisd. .
hellotia, Mén.
argyrognomon, Bergstr.
eurypilus, Frey.
zephyrus, Friv.
micylus, Cram.
optilete, Knoch. .
argia, Mén.
pylaon, Fisch.
bavius, Eversm. .
battus, Wien. Verz::
hylas, Wien. Verz.
tespis, Linn. E
cytis, Christoph.
lysimon, Hiibn. .
diluta, Feld.
gaika, Trim.
sangra, Moore,
atys, Hiibn. :
anisophthalma, Koll.
ardates, Moore,
putli, Koll.
pheres, Boisd.
piasus, Boisd.
orbitulus, Esp.
podarce, Feld.
alexis, Scop.
anleros, Frey.

PiLeBElus, Linn.—continued.

—

De HK OReWWee EoeWe —“WEWHE RE WHE WNHPRWe RTD DE NFO R Er LEY oa

316 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

No of
Specimens

Puiesetus, Linn.—continued.
tithonus, Hiibn. : é
candalus, Herr. Schiff.
icarus, Rott. ‘

var. icarinus, Scriba.

var. greca, Staud. .
chiron, Rott. ; :
icarius, Hsp.
eegagrus, Christoph.
agestor, Godt.
dorylas, Wien. Verz.
thetis, Rott.

var. ceronus, Esp.
phyllis, Staud. .
corydon, Scop. .

var. syngrapha, Kee.

var. corydonius, Herr. Schiff.
morgiana, W. F. Kirb.
erschoftii, Feld. . :
endymion, Wien. Verz.
admetus, Esp.
riparti, Frey.
menalcas, Frey.
hopfferi, Herr. Se.
damon, Wien. Verz.
damone, Eversm.

var. poseidon, Led. .
iphigenia, Herr. Schiatt.

_actis, Herr. Schiff. . :

“ar siolus, inns ee
var. singaleusis, I sli
ladonides, De l’Ovza.
pseudargiolus, Boisd. and Lee.
neglecta, Edw. . : é

alsus, Wien. Verz. : 4
sebrus, Hiibn. . ‘ :
semiargus, Rott. j ;
var. bellis, Frey. . :
seepiolus, Boisd. . : ,
antiacis, Boisd. . :

ceelestina, Eversm. . :
cyllarus, Rott. . : 4
melanops, Boisd. ; E
iolas, Ochs. : :

alcon, Wien. Verz. :
diomedes, Rott. . : ;
arion, Linn. : ‘ F
arcas, Rott. : 5 :
varunana, Moore, : '

MD NWWWWW DWP K RE ENE EWE OD WWD NER HE We DW WNW RF WW OWE DW De bo

puspa, Horsf,
cagaya, Feld.
duponchelii, Godt.
laius, Cram.
erinus, Fabr.

xanthospilos, Hiibn.

ananga, Feld.
ennomia, Edw.
carana, Hew.
decidia, Hew. .
christophi, Staud.
couperi, Grote.
glaucon, Edw. .
pryeri, Murr.
chilensis, Blanch.

Laosopis, Ramb.

roboris, Esp.

Hypocurysoprs, Feld.

elegans, Druce.

Tuecta, Fabr.

regalis, Cram. .
pholeus, Cram. .
selina, Hew. :
satyroides, Hew.
mavors, Hiibn.
triquetra, Hew. .
hemon, Cram. .
laudonia, Hew. .
viridicans, Feld.
marsyas, Linn.

aufidena, Hew.

bathildis, Feld. .
phydela, Hew. .
chiton, Fabr. ,
zetolus, Sulz.
palegon, Cram.
sito, Boisd.

ellida, Hew.
albata, Feld.
basalides, Hiibn.
crolus, Cram.
endymion, Fabr.
celmus, Cram. .
aunus, Cram. .
sista, Hew. :
athymbra, Hew.

No. of
Specimens.

Puiesetus, Linn.—continued.

Hm bo OO 09 to Co rt LO DD tt et

bo

LS a ell OS cel OT CSO 2 cel ell NS ll ce PO OS ee CS

Catalogue of Lepidoptera.

Specimens.

THECLA, Fabr.—continued.
janthina, Hew.
mecrida, Hew.
damon, Cram.
malvania, Hew. .
strephon, Fabr.
pelion, Cram.
boreas, Feld.
eyllarus, Cram.
temesa, Hew.
spurina, Hew.
tephreus, Hiibn.
leucopheeus, Hiibn.
dindymus, Cram.
syneellus, Cram.
punctum, Herr. Schiff,
orcynia, Hew.
thoria, Hew.
lebena, Hew.
temesa, Hew.
sangala, Hew.
eurytulus, Hiibn.
pan, Dru.

beon, Cram.

poeas, Hiibn.
augustinus, Westw.
melinus, Hiibn.
humuli, Harr.
calanus, Hiibn.
acadica, Edw.
lorata, Grote

spini, Wien. Verz.
ilicis, Esp. .

pruni, Linn.
w-album, Knoch.
acaciz, Fabr.

cis, Dra.
martialis, Herr. Schiff.
frivaldskyi, Led.
rubi, Linn.

var. dumetorum, Baad.

simaethis, Dru.
moesites, Herr. Sunae
cecina, Hew.

amyntor, Cram.
herodotus, Fabr.
iroides, Boisd.

niphon, Hiibn. :
titus, Fabr. : :

No. of

BSD GO RS OD SB DD bb OO OU BD LO ATS tt WDD SOR DW RHE DP ONW DN ND KE NWO rR OWN WR Re

317

No. of
Specimens.

THEcLA. Fabr.—continued.
americensis, Blanch.
ceglusa, Hew.
davara, Hew.
dryope, Edw.
cygnus, Edw.
una, Hew.
zilda, Hew.
argiva, Hew.
bactra, Hew.
calena, Hew.
cerata, Hew.
galliena, Hew.
nipona, Hew.
vibulena, Hew.
xeneta, Hew.

ZEPHYRUS, Dalm.
syla, Koll.
ataxus, Doubl. aa lew
quercus, Linn.
betulz, Linn.
grunus, Boisd.
lutea, Hew.
sepestriata, Hew.
taxila, Brem.
japonica, Murr.

APHN&US, Hiibn.
vulcanus, Fabr.
lohita, Horsf.
ictis, Hew.

var. ceylonica, Feld.
acamas, Klug.

Capys, Hew.
alphzeus, Cram.

InerpA, Doubl.
tamu, Koll.
brahma, Moore,
epicles, Godt.
sena, Koll.

TALMENvs, Hiibn.
evagoras, Don.
ictinus, Hew.
dzemeli, Semp.
chrysomallus, Hiibn.

myrsilus, Doubl. and Hew.

bo
DR eK RK ww ORF Www Ree ee

LO ee 0 to

eR rR Co Or

bo

to) at

bo RF bo Co

318 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

No. of

Specimens.

Psreupopipsas, Feld.
digglesi, Hew.

Lyc@®NESTHES, Moore.
moncus, Fabr.
pythagoras, Fabr.

Hypotycana, Feld.
erylus, Godt.
phorbas, Fabr. .
thecloides, Feld.
sipylus, Feld. .
philppus, Fabr. .
etolus, Fabr.
lebona, Hew.
hatita, Hew.
faunus, Dru.

fotaus, Hiibn.
silas, Westw.
vidura, Horsf.
ister, Hew. ;
longinus, Fabr. . : :
var. pseudolonginus,
Doubl.
cyteis, Hew.

SitHon, Hiibn.
amrita, Feld.
orpheus, Feld.
freja, Fabr.
acte, Moore,
tharis, Hiibn.
chitra, Horsf.
hymen, Fabr.
ciniata, Hew.
amor, Fabr.
lefebvrei, Feld.
phoeides, Fabr.

var. sugriva, Horsf.
nedymond, Cram.
jangala, Horsf.
orsolina, Hew.
nomenia, Hew.

Myrina, Fabr.
silenus, Fabr.
var. surya, Moore, .
atymnus, Cram. . : .

1

— |

te

eo

ae

me SO RS bt bb

SN)

oy

| DeEuporix, Hew.

epijarbas, Moore,
diovis, Hew.
xenophon, Fabr.
petosiris, Hew.
melampus, Cram.
sphinx, Fabr.
manea, Hew.
isocrates, Fabr.
antalus, Hopff.
anta, Trim.
timoleon, Stoll.
meecenas, Fabr. .

Curetis, Hiibn.
thetys, Dru.
var. tagalica, Feld.

var. celebensis, Feld.
bulis, Doub]. and Hew.
var. malayica, Feld.

AmB.LypoptiA, Horsf.
centaurus, Fabr. .
micale, Blanch.
amantes, Hew.
anarte, Hew.
camdeo, Moore, .
helius, Cram.
edias, Hew.
eumolphus, Cram.
atrax, Hew.
ganesa, Moore,
rama, Koll.
japonica, Murr.
ameria, Hew. .
amphimuta, Feld.
lycenaria, Feld. .
narada, Horsf.
anita, Hew.

Eumzus, Hiibn.
debora, Hiibn,
minyas, Hiibn.
atala, Poey.

PAPILIONID.

PIERIN &.

PEREUTE, Herr. Schiff.
antodyca, Boisd. .
swainsonu, Gray,

Specimens.

bok bob PD RK FDR eR oS

RH Coe ee Ow

en el ee ee coe ce OO oe ee eS ed RO)

—

Catalogue of Lepidoptera.

PEREUTE, Herr.Schiift.—-continued.

charops, Boisd.
leucodrosime, Koll.
callinice, Feld.

ArcHontias, Hiibn.
critias, Feld.
tereas, Godt.
eurytele, Hew.
pieridoides, Feld.
teutila, Doubl.
toca, Doubl.
tomyris, Feld.
hebra, Luc.
nimbice, Boisd.
philais, Feld.
potamea, Feld.
sisamnus, Fabr. .
uriceeches, Feld.

HesPEROCHARIS, Feld.
nera, Hew.

Eucuerra, Westw.
socialis, Westw. .

DismorPHIA, Hiibn.
eumelia, Cram.
astynome, Dalm.
amphione, Cram.

var. beroe, Luc.
melia, Godt.
spio, Godt. .
fortunata, Luc.
nemesis, Latr.
zathoe, Hew.

var. core, Feld.
thermesia, Godt.
medora, Doubl. .
nehemia, Boisd. .

LEUCOPHASIA, Steph.
sinapis, Linn. :
var. erysimi, Borkh.

var. diniensis, Boisd.

lathyri, Dup.

Pontta, Fabr.
xiphia, Fabr.
alcesta, Cram.

var. nupta, Butl.

yar. sylvicola, Boisd.

No. of
Specimens.

ee bo

See LOW DRE bb

bo bo Lo bo

ws Or

—

Levucipra, Doubl.
leucoma, Bates,

Eopina, Feld.
egnatia, Godt.
angulipennis, Lue.
parthia, Hew.

Pseupopontta, Plotz.
paradoxa, Feld.

Eurema, Hiibn.
nicippe, Cram.
proterpia, Fabr. .
gundlachia, Poey.
damaris, Feld.
bogotana, Feld.
gaugamela, Feld.
theona, Feld.

gratiosa, Doubl. and Hew.

deva, Doubl.
flavilla, Bates,
tenella, Boisd.
neda, Godt.
leuce, Boisd.
venusta, Boisd.
stygma, Boisd.
lisa, Boisd. and Lec.
elathea, Cram.

var. vitellina, Feld.
dina, Poey.
westwoodii, Boisd.
messalina, Fabr. .
gnathene, Boisd. .
agave, Cram.
albula, Cram.

var. sinoé, Godt.
leeta, Boisd.
drona, Horsf.
pulchella, Boisd. .
hecabe, Linn.

var. suava, Boisd.

var. senegalensis, Boisd. .

var. floricola, Boisd.

brenda, Doubl. and Hew.

senegalensis, Hiibn.

mandarina, Del’Orza. .

sari, Horsf.
candida, Cram.

319

No. of
Specimens.

me hoe

DWH EEE RYT WWeEN OTR WE NAN ANY NNN WYNN NNN Ww

320 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

No. of No. of
Specimens. Specimens.
Pieris, Schrank. Preris, Schrank.—continued.

menapia, Feld. crateegi, Linn. 7
autodice, Hiibn. . soracta, Moore, 3
theodice, Boisd. : : hippia, Brem. ; 1
callidice, Esp. . ‘ : agathon, Gray, ; oe
peoidenealis Reak. : monuste, Linn. : Peay |
protodice, Boisd. and ite. var. orseis, Godt. . ae.
chloridice, Hiibn. var. suasa, Boisd. . so
daplidice, Linn. var. cleomes, Boisd. acy
var. bellidice, Brahm. joppe, Boisd. ; cue
lencodice, Eversm. vallei, Boisd. : ae
hellica, Linn. : virginia, Godt. : ae
eleone, Doubl. and Hew. locusta, Feld. ; we
pinara, Feld. ; teutonia, Fabr. : = ee
tovaria, Feld. clytie, Don. 2
eleusis, Luc. ; . java, Sparrm. . - eo
tenuicornis, Butl.and Demes, peristhene, Boisd. : ee
penthica, Koll. judith, Fabr. : : eee
cinerea, Hew. aspasia, Stoll. . : oe
pylotis, Godt. var. olga, Esch. ‘ pts
buniz, Hiibn. lea, Doubl. 2
amaryllis, Fabr. nerissa, Fabr. 3
napi, Linn. : : : var. phryne, Fabr. +
var. bryonize, Ochs. zeuxippe, Cram. 1

nadina, Lue.
var. nama, Moore,
remba, Moore,

var. napeeee, Hsp.
venosa, Scudd.
oleracea, Harr.
virginiensis, Edw.
frigida, Seudd.
castoria, Reak.
rapee, Linn.
ergane, Hiibn.

var. mannil, Mayer.
brassicee, Linn.
canidia, Sparrm.
krueperi, Staud.
melete, Mén.
larima, Boisd.
charina, Boisd.
helcida, Boisd.
eriphia, Godt.
mesentina, Cram.
taprobana, Moore,
severina, Cran. :
agrippina, Feld.
ernestius, Lap.
gidica, Godt.
calypso, Dru. ; :
theora, Doubl. : :

Lo

Mytorueis, Hiibn.
chloris, Fabr. . :
saba, Fabr.
phileris, Boisd.
rhodope, Fabr.
sabina, Feld.
bernice, Hew.
sylvia, Fabr.
orbona, Geyer.
phaola, Doubl.
agathina, Cram. : :
thysa, Hopff. . ; :
capricornus, Ward. . :
trimenia, Butl.

me 0 OR Ot DO OL

Tacuyris, Wall.
lyncida, Cram.
ar. hippo, Cram.
var. vacans, Butl.
enarete, Boisd. ‘
scyllara, Macl. :

me BD 0S OU 09 DD OF DD BS BS © DD Ft EF 89 BS DO FE DDS BS Db DD DDD Ft DD Ow tO BO Orb eS bb Ot
Coby bo

Catalogue of Lepidoptera.

panda, Godt.
nathalia, Feld.
paulina, Cram.
neombo, Boisd.
albina, Boisd.

var. rouxii, Boisd.
darada, Feld.
ega, Boisd.
leptis, Feld.
athama, Lue.
nero, Fabr.

var. domitia, Feld.
figulina, Butl.
zarinda, Boisd.
nephele, Hew.
lucasu, Wall,
indra, Moore,
lalage, Doubl.

Daptonura, Butl.

lycimnia, Cram.

var. polyhymnia, Feld.

florinda, Butl.
pantoporia, Hiibn.
peruviana, Lue.
laria, Feld.
salacia, Godt.
albunea, Dalm.
isandra, Boisd.
ilaire, Godt.
molpadia, Hiibn.

Deis, Hiibn.

pasithoe, Linn.

var. henningia, Esch.

var. pandemia, Wall.
crithoe, Boisd.
thyshe, Cram.

var. pyramus, Wall.
parthenope, Wall.

var. ninus, Wall.
belladonna, Fabr.
ithiela, Buti.
aganippe, Don.
belisama, Cram.
descombesi, Boisd.
zebuda, Hew.
harpalyce, Don.
nigrina, Fabr.

Scren. Proc., R.D.S.

No. of
Specimens.

Tacuyris, Wall.—continwer/.

ee Lo lL

et eT

s
~

wh bk

[i (Sep [tex

bo

milo eS toe bt CS

Von. e nt. Vv.

Se Re Bree bo 09

321

No of
Specimens.

Dettas, Hiibn.—continued.

eucharis, Dru.
stolli, Butl.
hierte, Hiibn.
hyparete, Linn.
mysis, Fabr.
argenthona, Fabr.
ceneus, Linn.
isse, Cram.
dorimene, Cram.

nysa, Fabr.

PrioneEris, Wall.
autothisbe, Hiibn.
thestylis, Doubl.
watsonii, Hew.
clemanthe, Doubl.
vollenhovii, Wall.

PERRHYBRIS, Hiibn.
lorena, Hew.
leptalina, Bates,
lypera, Koll.
malenka, Hew.
pyrrha, Fabr.
viardi, Boisd.
demophile, Linn.

var. calydonia, Boisd.

Eronta, Hiibn.
avatar, Moore,
sollte Cram.

var. ceylanica, Feld.

var. philomela, Fabr.

tritea, Feld.
phocea, Feld.
cleodora, Hiibn.
erxia, Hew.
poppea, Don.

var. idotea, Boisd.
pharis, Boisd.

var. chione, Doubl.

leda, Doubl.
thalassina, Boisd.
argia, Fabr.

CaTopsILia, Hiibn.
florella, Fabr.
pyrene, Swains.
philippina, Cram.

bo oP bh bo Go bo row we bor bo bo bk bo & bO We NDE WW PD

or

bo Cor

— o> bo

oon

Specimens,

No. of

CaTopsILiA,-Hiibn.—continwed.

chryseis, Dru.
pyranthe, Linn.
ilea, Fabr. . :
nephte, Fabr. . 3
eubule, Linn.
var. senne, Linn.
var. marcellina, Cram.
drya, Boisd. s
menippe, Hiibn. :
philea, Linn.
trite, Linn.
argante, Fabr. .
var. agarithe, Boisd.
var. minuscula, Butl.
cipris, Fabr.
pomona, Fabr.
crocale, Cram.
flava, Butl.
statira, Cram.
thauruma, Reak.
gorgophone, Boisd.
seylla, Linn. : ;

Kricogonia, Reak.
lyside, Godt. .
terissa, Luc. :

AMYNTHTA, Swains-
clorinde, Godt.
merula, Fabr. . :
gueneeana, Boisd.

GonEPTERYX, Leach.
rhamni, Linn. .

var. nepalensis, Doubl.

var. aspasia, Men. .
cleopatra, Linn.

Dercas, Boisd.
verhuellii, Hoev.

Mecanostoma, Reak.
cesonia, Stoll. :
cerbera, Feld. . .
eurydice, Boisd. ;

Coxias, Fabr.
hyale, Linn. e
(edusa, Fabr.)
electra, Joh, ; :

—a
GO ~ITR bo COLOR bw oO

—

wo bS bo bD bo OC GO OO Fr Ors)

bo rt te wo GO OK >

eo LS CO

~y

Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

No. of

Specimens.
Coxtas, Fabr.—continued.

myrmidone, Esp. 2
thisoa, Mén. «ee
keewaydin, Edw. . 3. ae
aurorina, Herr. Schiff. 1
var. libanotica, Led. Pie,
lesbia, Fabr. ; ar
vautierl, Guér. : ei
dimera, Doubl. and Hew. . 1
hecla, Lef. bares |
eurytheme, Boisd. 3

chrysotheme, Esp.
pelidne, Boisd. .
interior, Scudd. :
paleno, Linn. . :

var. werdandi, Herr. Schiff,

alexandra, Edw.

philodice, Godt. .

phicomone, Esp.

nastes, Boisd.

sagartia, Led.

erate, Esp. :
var. hyale, Godt.

simoda, De |’Orza.

Hesomotia, Hiibn.
glaucippe, Linn.
leucippe, Cram. .

Ixtas, Hiibn.
marianne, Cram. é
pyrene, Linn.
var. rhexia, Fabr.
var. evippe, Dru.
var. pirenassa, Wall.
var. ceylonica, Moore,

Ipmais, Boisd.
vesta, Reiche,
amelia, Luc.
fausta, Oliv. ;
fulvia, Wall. ;
phisadia, Godt. .
amata, Fabr.
modestus, Butt.
ealais, Cram.
cyprea, Fabr.
dynamene, Klug.
eris, Klug. 2

($ abyssinicus, Butl. a

— a
mM b> Oo LO DS bO be 9 Oo bo bt

Dom oe eT he CO

fh J} ts af) vf I

i or)

Catalogue of Lepidoptera. 323

No. of No. of
k : Specimens. Specimens.
IpMAts, Boisd.—continued. Mipea, Herr. Schiff.
*maiuna, W.F. Kirb. . ‘2 genutia, Fabr. : te
(eris, auct.) scolymus, Butl. . : Shee”)
pleione, Klug... : ey od
I Deane PAPILIONIDA.
TERACOLUS, Swains. PAPILIONIN A.
subfasciatus, Swains. . eal apes Mé
protomedia, Klug. I ps oimaseesieemer tt i ae
. helios, Nick. : 2 Et |
CALLOSUNE, Doubl. Dorrtis, Fabr.
Jobina, Butl : aK apollinus, Herbst. —. te |
= 1
ione, Godt. ; : 2
evanthe, Boisd. . : . 1 | Parwyasstus, Latr.
evarne, Klug. . ; me apollo, Linn. : F Poa
danaé, Fabr. 3 nomion, Fisch. . : ay |
eupompe, Klug. 2 pheebus, OT is ; 9
achine, Cram. 9 var. smintheus, Doubl. and
var. antevippe, Baisd: 1 Hew. . : ; ay al
evippe, Linn. . : sain actius, Eversm. . ‘ eal
omphale, Godt. . ; mee; delphius, Eversm. : 1
arethusa, Dru. . : Mees jacquemontii, Boisd. . Saka!
hardwickii, Gray. : ee
NaTuHAtis, Boisd. var. charino, Gray. . Hae
iole, Bosid. : : 4 nordmanni, Mén. ar bercat el
plauta, Doubl. and Hew. ] clodius, Mén. : we
corybas, Fisch. . i gem
ZEGRIs, Ramb. mnemosyne, Linn. . apie
eupheme, Esp. . : Sees stubbendorfii, Mén. . Bes!
fausti, Christoph. d
1 P Tats, Fabr.
ti cerisyl, Godt... Le Sere gC
Eucuior, Hiibn. Ms ;
f var. caucasica, Led. . 1
belemia, Esp... : aap . 9
polyxena, Wien. Verz. 2 2
ausonia, Hiibn. . 4 1 s
var. cassandra, Hiibn. 4
var. esperi, W. F. Kirh. 3 9
rumina, Linn. 2
var. crameri, Butl. 4 . 9
5 i is var. medesicaste, Tl. 2
ayeonides, Luc. - _ var. honnoratii, Boisd 2
creusa, Doubl. and Hew. . 1 " ’ ‘
tagis, Hiibn. Euryeus, Boisd.
var. bellezina, Boisd. . . cressida, Fabr. . ne
eupheno, Esp. :
Meer as TEINOPALPUS, Hope.
levaillantii, Lue. . : ; PRATER a rele 1
belia, Linn. BE. fed. ereacatie of 1p ; ;
damone, Boisd. . ; : Papitio, Linn.
cardamines, Linn. ' l priamus, Linn.

gruneri, Herr. Schiff. .
pyrothoe, Eversm.
julia, Edw. .

var. richmondia, Gray. . 2
var. cassandra, Scott. ey Vs
var. pronomus, Gray. :
sara, Luc. . Y : : var. poseidon, Doubl.
reakirtii, Edw. . ‘ : var, creesus, Wall. .
ScreEN. Proc., RD.S. Vou. 11, Pr. v, Var

CO HH bS bo 09 OO DD + OD

me ho

324

Papryio, Linn.—continued.

darsius, Gray. :
rhadamanthus, Boisd. .
pompeus, Cram.
cerberus, Feld.
miranda, Butl.
amphrysus, Cram.
ridleyanus, White.
leonidas, Fabr.

var. anthemeues, Wallonen ;

philenor, Linn.
eee Linn. ;
bias, Roger.
(ar alien Boisd. Fee
hyperion, Hiibn.
protodamas, Godt.
lycidas, Cram. . :
latinus, Feld.
belus, Cram.
laodamas, Feld.
crassus, Cram.
hippason, Cram. .
ariarathes, Esp.
var. cyamon, Gray.
branchus, Doubl.
thymbreus, Boisd.
harmodius, Doubl.
euryleon, Hew.
xeniades, Hew.
phaon, Boisd.
pausanias, Hew.
lysithous, Hiibn.
asins, Fabr.
sesostris, Cram.
childrene, Gray.
vertumnus. Cram. :
var. erithalion, Boisd.
var. alyattes, Feld.
var. zeuxis, Luce.
eymochles, Doubl.
(2 idalion, Feld.)
serapis, Boisd.
var. osyris, Feld. .
lycimenes, Boisd.
polyzelus, Feld. .
nephalion, Godt.
telmosis, Bates. .
erlaces, Gray. , 3

No. of
Specimens.

> ST rR 09 eb bb HH bb OL

. .
—
[=

He Ht Ob bb bb bb be Ol RO

ae De bo

Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

chabrias, Hew.
panthonus, Cram.
anaximander, Feld.
anchises, Linn.

var. parsodes, Gray.
echelus, Hiiln.

var. ergeteles, Gray.
eurimedes, Cram.
zeneides, Esp.

var. neophilus, Hiibn.

dardanus, Fabr.
cyrnus, Boisd.
latreillianus, Godt.
adamastor, Boisd.
agamedes, Westw.
delessertii, Guér.
macareus, Godt. .
xenocles, Doubl.
clytia, ‘ihe :
var. dissimilis, isa.
pollux, Westw.
panope, Linn.
palephates, Westw.

*abrisa, W. F. Kirb.

slateri, Hew.
agestor, Gray.
govindra, Moore.
epycides, Hew.
antenor, Dru.
hector, Linn. :
anne, Feld. ? : :
antiphus, Fabr.

var. jophon, Gray.
aristolochiz, Fabr.
polydorus, Linn.
coon, Fabr.
rhodifer, Butt.
neptunus, Guer.
agavus, Dru.
proneus, Hiibn.
ascanius, Cram.
montezuma, Westw.
cacicus, Lue.
grayi, Boisd.
victorinus, Doubl.

var. helleri, Feld.
lycortas, Feld, . :

No. of
Specimons,

Papiiio, Linn.—continued.

ee RR

-
~

SS OS OS OS DOH ODDS RE RE DOR OR RK PWR Ll RR Lor ek

id
ae

Catalogue of Lepidoptera. 325
No. of No. of
Specimens. Specimens.

Papixio, Linn.—continued. Paritio, Linn.—continued.

cleotas, Gray... : ate! anactus, Macl. .
bitias, Godt. ulysses, Linn. .
var. ctesias, Feld. 1 var. telegonus, F eld.

anchisiades, Hsp.
var. idzeus, Fabr.
var. theramenes, Feld.
var. pandion, Feld.
var. isidorus, Doubl.
androgeos, Cram.

3
+
a)
2
{
thersites, Fabr. . : ee paris, Linn. :
lycophron, Hiibn. : Paint! krishna, Moore. .
mentor, Boisd. . 1 arcturus, Westw. :
hectorides, Esp. 1 ganesa, Doubl. . : :
erostratus, Westw. i! polyctor, Boisd.
torquatus, Cram. : Be bianor, Cram... :
thoas, Linn. 8 dehaanii, Feld. . :
var. cinyras, Méu. | ascalaphus, Boisd.
var. cresphontes, Cram. 2 deiphobus, Linn. ‘
peon, Roger. 1 var. deiphontes, Feld.
andrzemon, Hiibn. 1 emalthion, Hiibn. ,
9

pelaus, Fabr.
palamedes, Dru.
menestheus Dru.
var. ophidocephalus,
Oberth. :
demoleus, Linn.
erithonius, Cram.

var. sthenelus, Macl. rhetenor, Westw. : ,
demolion, Cram. ; astorion, Westw. ; :
polytes, Linn. . : : nox, Swains. ‘ : ;

var. cyrus, Fabr. . : erebus, Wall... -

var. ceylanicus, Feld. priapus, Boisd. . d ;

var. romulus, Cram.
alphenor, Cram.

Qo veo

DDK LF DDE eK Obl RE A ee

pericles, Wall. .
adamantius, Feld. F
crino, Fabr. :
brama, Guér. .
arjuna, Horsf. .

var. karna, Feld.

polymnestor, Cram.
memnon, Linn.
var. achates, Cram.
agenor, Linn. . ;
var. alcanor, Cram.
protenor, Cram. .
demetrius, Cram.

janaka, Moore. .
dasarada, Moore.

Dom eS DOH SH wb Eww OOOH RE HE PR WR PN RPE eee eb

uicanor, Feld. . ; , latreillii, Don.
sanopus, Westw. var. philoxenus, Gray. . 1
eapaneus, Westw. : : var. polyeuctes, Doubl. . 2
severus, Cram. . ; var. ravana, Moore. 2
var. pertinax, Wall. alcinous, Klug. 2
helenus, Linn. . 6 columbus, Hew. . 1
var. hystaspes, F eld. 1 dolicaon, Cram.
var. iswara, White. 2 var. deicoon, Feld. . ee
chaon, Westw. . 1 servillei, Godt. . : aa
nephelus, Boisd. : 2 var. hippodamus, Feld. 1
castor, Westw. . F 2 leucaspis, Godt. Rae se
egeus, Don. i ; es) dioxippus, Hew.
tydeus, Feld... 5 ear var. lacandones, Bates. . 1

antiphates, Cram.
nomius, Esp...
parmatus, Gray. 5
hermocrates, Feld. : j
rhesus,*Boisd.. :
arcesilaus, Luc. .
philolaus, Boisd.
zonaria, Butl.
sinon, Fabr. 5
ajax, ‘Linn.
_ var. telamonides, Feld.
leosthenes, Doubl.
podalirius, Linn.
var. feisthameli, Dup.

policenes, Cram. 5
antheus, Cram.
evombar, Boisd. :

cloanthus, Westw.
sarpedon, Linn. .
var. teredon, Feld.
jason, Linn.
var. doson, Feld.

var. telephus, Feld. :
var. evemon, Boisd. :
eurypylus, Linn. :
var. lycaon, Westw. 5

var. pamphylus, Feld.
bathycles, Zink. : :
chiron, Wall. . ; :
agamemnon, Linn.

var. plisthenes, Feld.
arycles, Boisd. . ; ;
codrus, Cram.
empedocles, Fabr.

macleayanus, Leach. . :
evan, Doubl. ‘ ; :
angolanus, Goeze. : 5

var. morania, Angas. 5

326
No. of

Specimens.

Papiuio, Linn.—continued.
calliste, Bates. . ; 1
marchandii, Boisd. 2
thyastes, Dru. 1
salvini, Bates. . 1
agesilaus, Boisd. 3
protesilaus, Linn. 2
var. telesilaus, eld. 1
glycerion, Gray. 2
agetes, Westw. |
5

SIO Hebb bd OE 08 Oo BH We et

bor bb Ob bw Fe

TO 2 el el cee

Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

No, of
Specimens.
Papiyio, Linn.—continued.

pylades, Fabr. «ae
endochus, Boisd. cet
bromius, Doubl. ae
nireus, Linn. 3
var. erinus, Gray. tae

phorbanta, Linn.
epiphorbas, Boisd.
disparilis, Boisd. 3
oribazus, Boisd.
phoreas, Cram.
constantinus, Ward. .
delalandu, Godt.
hesperus, Westw.
meriones, Feld.
merope, Cram. . :

var. trophonius, Westw.

var. brutus, Fabr. .

* var. tibullus, W. F. fir.

cynorta, Fabr.
cypreafila, Butl.
ucalegon, Hew.
zenobia, Fabr.
zalmoxis, Hew.
pilumnus, Boisd.
daunus, Boisd. . 4
eurymedon, Boisd.
rutulus, Boisd.
glaucus, Linn... :
alexanor, Esp.
xuthus, Linn. . 3
var. xuthulus, Brem.
hospiton, Géné. . s
machaon, Linn. . ;
do. (pupa.) .
var, asiatica, Mén.
var. hippocrates, Feld.
zolicaon, Boisd.
americus, Koll.
polyxenes, Fabr.
brevicauda, Saund.
ilioneus, Smith & Abb,
troilus, Linn.

Leprocircus, Swains.

eurius, Fabr. :
meges, Zink. . -

.
~

WKH WORF THEW HEH OHNE DERE ORP HE NDP RE ED WR WD Wer Wr

m— bo

Catalogue of Lepidoptera.

HESPERITD 4.

THYMELE, Fabr.

simplicius, Stoll. :
dorantes, Hiibn.
brachius, Hiibn. .
chalco, Hiibn.

athesis, Hew.
undulatus, Hew.
tarchon, Hiibn. .
proteus, Linn. .
albofasciatus, Hew.
ccelus, Cram.

lycidas, Smith and Abb.
tityrus, Fabr. :
antzeus, Hew.

aurunce, Hew. .
exadeus, Cram. .
zilpa, Butl.

TELEGONUS, Hiibn.
fulgerator, Walch.
alector, Feld.
creteus, Cram. . j
alardus, Stoll.
parmenides, Cram.
phocus, Cram.
hesus, Doubl. and sie
midas, Cram.

Casyapa, W. F. Kirb.
thrax, Linn.
thyrsis, Fabr.
divodasa, Moore.
AfrHILia, Hew.
bryaxis, Hew. . ;
pylades, Scudd.
SPATHILEPIA, Butl.

clonius, Cram. . ;

THRACIDES, Hiibn.

aristoteles, Doubl.
salius, Cram. : :

Entuevs, Hiibn.
vitreus, Cram. .
* marshalli, W. F. Kirb.

and Hew.

No. of
Specimens.

ee cee ce I OO ee ee a

bo bo Ge

~
we

me bm Re eR DS We —

a Qo St bo

—

¢ il

ee

327
No.
Specimens.
Entueus, Hiibn.—continued.
talaus, Linn. : sf ul
gentius, Cram. oe oil
crinisus, Cram. . : ae
IsMENE, Swains.
exclamationis, Fabr. . 3
do. (pupa case.) 1
var. ladon, Cram. 3
pisistratus, Fabr. 5
benjaminil, Guer. 2
cedipodea, Swains. 2
* subfasciata, Moore. - 1
iphis, Dru. . 2
bixe, Linn. 2
alexis, Fabr. ‘ me
chromus, Cram. . ‘ a 4
kumara, Moore. |
PyrRHOPYGE, Hiibn.
zeleucus, Fabr. . 2
charybdis, Doubl. and Hew. 2
phidias, Linn. 1
amyclas, Cram. . 1
acastus, Cram. +
galgula, Hew. i
kelita, Hew. : roe |
pionia, Hew. Ae
zereda, Hew. ae!
patrobas, Hew. . 2
gnetus, Fabr. so ake
pityusa, Hew. eo
versicolor, Latr. . z Pe |
iphinous, Latr. . 1
machaon, Doubl. and Hew.. 1
Mysceuvus, Hiibn.
santhilarius, Latr. F |
Eryciprs, Hiibn.
pygmalion, Cram. : ee §
palemon, Cram. . : a Ae
Carystus, Hiibn.
phyllus, Cram. . : Se
psecas, Cram. . : eal
sergestus, Cram. . Sal
corydon, Fabr. . 2 40
attina, Hew. : Se!

328 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

No. of No. of
Specimens. Specimens.

PROTEIDES, Hiibn. THYME Licus, Hiibn.

idas, Cram. ; : 2 thaumas, Hufn. . ; 7

helops, Dru. ; : ae) lineola, Ochs. 5

dolopia, Hew. . ; ei | acteeon, Rott. 2

ophiusa, Hew. . 2 numitor, Fabr. :
Paupura, Fabr. camertes, Hew. . : eal

ius, Cram. . ; xiv

ethliu ‘ ’ | Dario, Murr.

nero, Fabr. At : :

(sylvicola, Herr. Schiff ) tethys, Men. 4

borbonica, Boisd. Erynnis, Schrank.

mathias, Fabr. ; E :

guttatus, Brem. and Gray. ares ee ; ‘ve

pellucida, Murr. . : thee, = : ; oy

varia, Murr. ; ; : MEMOS JENS” ‘ te

leonardus, Harr.

ss Hesperia, Fabr.
varna, Edw.

Rice 7,
mystic, Scudd. proto SD nig
metacomet, Harr Wessel im Ellon,

> c . bey a
ahaton, Harr. ee fe rs
wamsutta, Harr. a a ae : ;
ini, ule cartham, Hii bl.

alveus, Hiibn. . ; ;

phyleus, Dru.
var. vitellius, Fabr.
augias, Linn.
augiades, Feld.
comma, Linn. é
var. cattena, Meyer- Ditr ;

serratule, Ramb.
cacalie, Ramb.
andromede, Wallengr.
centauree, Ramb. ;
malve, ibe

var. Selina, Wiens Va

bo OF Re Ot SUH H © GY Or G9 DO BO LS DS et

Hee HLS hb Or Oo OL be bs

sylvanus, Hsp. 5)
aes A. 1 a 9 phlomidis, ieee Schafvae
’ 1 4 Loe. ‘

agricola, Boisd. . bal orbifera, Latr. . : E

hobomok, Harr. . A 5 G sao, Bergstr. . . .

dara, Koll. ; 3 1 galba, Fabr. . . .

(mesa, Moore.) (superna, Moore.)

dln. MEnaP. ' E bebe syrichtus, Fabr. . ; aE

Sees Feld. ) ees americanus, Blanch. . oy

epictetus ID. - , l notatus, Blanch. : 1

relia, Elem, Sanit 1 tessellata, Seudd. 3

remus, Fabr. 1 | Levcocurronza, Wallener.

amyntas, Fabr. 4 ee : "

conspicua, Edw. . 3} arsalte, pare lin : ae

fulva, Blanch. . ; ee petrus, Hiibn. . F a2

massosoib, Scudd. . - 3 | Ograrricut a, Butl.

metea, Scudd. . : | :

viator, Edw. Woe phocion, Fabr. . , |
APAUSTUS, he. PLESIONEURA, Feld.

menes, Cram. . 3 1 folus, Cram. : ; ts

saturnus, Fabr. . 4 ama! ambareesa, Moore. . apa

Catalogue of Lepidoptera.

leucocera, Koll. .
alysos, Moore. .
praba, Moore. .
infernus, Feld. .

HEspPERILLA, Hew.
sex-guttata, Herr.

Heteroprerus, Duin.

morpheus, Pall.
palemon, Pall.
sylvius, Knoch.

TsoTeINoNn, Feld.

lamprospilus, Feld.
vittatus, Feld.

PaRDALEODES, Butl.

edipus, Cram.
galenus, Fabr. .

TaracrrocerA, Butl.

meevius, Fabr.
coras, Cram.

Pyruonrpes, Hiibn.
tryxus, Cram. . :
cerialis, Cram.
lagia, Hew. :
gladiatus, Butl. . :
ioxus, Doubl. and Hew.
jovianus, Cram. . ;
fabricii, W. F. Kirb. .
scurra, Hiibn.
hemes, Cram.

NisonraDEs, Hiibn.

tages, Linn. ;
marloyi, Boisd. .
rusticanus, Butl.
salsala, Moore, . :
brizo, Boisd. and Lee.

martialis, Scudd. and Burg.

juvenalis, Fabr. .
persius, Scudd. .

lucilius, Scudd. and Burg.

Schiff.

Specimens.
PiestoneurA, Feld.—continued.

me bo bo

t

~~

ee

eb ho ee bor ®

Nisoniaves, Hiibn.—continved.

icelus, Seudd. and Burg.

propertius, Seudd. and Burg.
=

zephodes, Hiibn. :
catullus, Fabr. . P
daunus, Cram.

Acutyopes, Hiibn.
pallida, Feld... :
gesta, Herr. Schiff. .
thraso, Hiibn.
busirus, Cram. .
trifasciata, Hew.

melander, Cram. P
asychis, Cram. . -
bromius, Stoll. . ‘
corbulo, Cram. . :

Anticonus. Hiibn.
erosus, Hiibn.
nearchus, Latr. . E

pausus, Doubl. and Hew.

potiphera, Hew. .

Hettas, Fabr.
phalenoides, Hiibn. .

No. of

Specimens.

CrecroprTerus, Herr. Schiff.

zarex, Hiibn ‘
bipunctatus, Gmel.
itylus, Hiibn. .. :

Pexuicta, Herr. Schaff.
ephora, Herr. Schaff.
TaGiabEs, Hiibn.

gana, Moore. : .
japetus, Cram.

flesus, Fabr.

minuta, Moore.
sambara, Moore.
dasahara, Moore. :

Euscuemon, Doubl.
rafflesie, Macl. . :

Mecatuymus, Seudd.
yuece, Boisd and Lec.

ws re bo Gs H= Ooo bo re bo Go Fr bo

Ge

Clo eRe lor

) Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

No, of No. of
Specimens. Specin
FE pecimens.
SPHINGID. Ax.uopus, Hiibn.
MACROGLOSSIN A. tantalus, Linn. . ’ ae
4 fadus, Cram. : : nF <
SATASPES, Moore. Ries
infernalis, Westw. ; Pa) UPYRRHOGLOssUM, Grote.
sagra, Poey. ‘ 5 vie
ceculus, Cram. . : vis

Hemaris, Dahn.

. . Dp 1 + z ‘
bombyliformis, Ochs. . _ 11 | Periconta, Herr. Schaff.
ditinis, Boisd. . : Biheg) ulus, Boisd. E : ie
sieboldi, Boisd. . : eis lusea, Fabr. : ; 2 NS
tityus, Linn. : ; SRM
i ee Himantorpes, Butl.

(fuciformis, Linn.)

Se mieBrent 1 undata, Walk. 2
<estnl “ote 2
marginalis, Grote. ~ | Hypapaea, Butl.
thysbe, Fabr. 3 racine:
aneoonniy, ChE 2 “insignis, Butl. . ; eae
gracilis, Grote. 1 | Ruoposoma, Butl.
saundersi, Walk. 2 triopus, Westw. . Ries
kingii, Macl. 2
hylas, Linn. 15 | Marepus, W. F. Kirb.
do. (pupa-case.) ] ae:
ia Cuce 1 CORO E aus aes: nom. preoce.)
croatica, Esp. 3 abbottii, Swains. . - vee

at Ampuion, Hiibn.
util.
RHOPALOPSYCHE, Du nessus, Cram. . eo 22!
nycteris, Koll. . F ao
Derpamta, Clem.

MacrociossuM, Scop. gorgoniades, Hiibn. . snk
stellatarum, Linn. : aula
affictitia, Butl. . 9 | Unzera, Walk.
vialis, Butl. ; 1 japyx, Cram. - 2
te : 9 ;
eee Wee 3 3 | Prerocoy, Boisd.
5) ‘ . . e .) .
bombylans, Boisd. ; eet proserpina, Pall. . sg
trochilus, Hiibn.. - . _ 7 | Teaco a, Walk.
, lai »)
Oe eat 1 l excisa, Walk. . ‘ al
; 5
luteata, Butl. 2 Guretoa, W. F., Kirb.
roxima, Butl. 2 &
aan, Butl. . 3 | (Lophura, Herr Schaft. nom.
passalus, Dru. 5 preoce. )
sitiene, Walk, = sardrnus, Walk. : Pahl
pyrrhosticta, Butl. 1 oui, Walk 1
. . . 9) c ra tee .
insipida, Butl. , 2 hyas, Walk. Zi
gilia, Herr. Schiff. 4 pylas, Cram. 3
* taxicolor, Moore. bs aero i ; ; ;
errans, Walk. . 5 | Catiiomma, Walk.
5 nomius, Walk. . : wi he

micacea, Walk. . : A

Catalogue of Lepidoptera. 331

No. of
Specimens.

CatitiommMa, Walk.—continwed.

licastus, Stoll... 3
parce, Fabr. : 2
galianna, Burm. 3
pluto, Fabr. : 5
(thorates, Hiibn.)
Epistor, Boisd.
lugubris, Linn. - (
2
camertus, Cram. 4
7)
danum, Cram. ay
gorgon, Cram. i
x 2
lyetus, Cram. =
ALEURON, Boisd.
chloroptera, Perty. 4
iphis, Walk. : : BP
*butleri, W. F. Kirb. . orl!
GoneEny >, Butl.
carinata, Walk. 3
HEMEROPLANES, Hiibn.
triptolemus, Cram. il
CHGSROCAMPIN &.
AcosMERYX, Boisd.
naga, Moore, 2
cinerea, Butl. E 5
sericeus, Walk. 5
anceus, Stoll. 2
Darapsa, Walk.
cherilus, Cram. 3
syriaca, Led. ‘ 2
myron, Cram. 5
versicolor, Harr. 1
AMPELOPHAGA, Brem.
rubiginosa, Brem. 1
Evrsia, Walk.
dolichus, Westw. 2
Prercesa, Walk.
porcellus, Linn. Be nh
acteus, Cram. pee
olivacca, Moore, . Rene

No. of
Specimens.

PerGesa, Walk.—continued.

mongoliana, Butl. : oy

*castanea, Moore, : he
Panacra, Walk.

ella, Butl. ; ‘ ae

vigil, Guér. : . 4

lignaria, Walk. . : a 6
Cizara, Walk.

ardeniz, Lewin, ‘ cell

Bastotuta, Walk.
medea, Fabr. : : He

Dioposipa, Walk.

fumosa Walk. ‘ m2
THERETRA, Hiibn.
elpenor, Linn. . ; 7
lewisil, Butl. : : 1
alecto, Linn. : : 5
suffusa, Walk. 3
capensis, Linn. 5
eson, Cram. : : 5
gracilis, Butl. . ‘ 1
elegans, Butl. . : 3
thyelia, Linn. . 2 16
rafflesii, Butl. . 2
drancus, Cram. 2
neoptolemas, Stoll. 1
trilineata, Walk. 1
schenckii, Méschl. )
charis, Walk. 3
celerio, Linn. . : l
osyris, Dalm. 2
geryon, Boisd. . -
gordius, Stoll. .
oldenlandiz, Fabr. ; vel

*margarita, W. F. Kirb.
firmata, Walk.
rosina, Butl. P
intersecta, Butl. , :
silhetensis. Walk. , :

japonica, Boisd. . 2 :
balsamine, Walk. ‘
saclavorum, Boisd. . ;

OONINWOWwWWwWEE DWH OOH

Ineasi; Walk, 7. 5 :

332

No. of
Specimens,

TuHeretrA, Hiibn.—continued.

latreillii, Macl.
inornata, Walk.
Rees. Westw. .
*aspersata, W. F. Teal
clotho, Dru.
major, Butl.
lineosa, Walk.
alcides, Boisd.
tersa, Linn.
isaon, Boisd.
tyndarus, Boisd.
maculator, Boisd.
nechus, Cram. :
ceratomioides, Grote. .
nessus, Dru.
scrofa, Boisd.
ignea, Butl.
* johanna, Werk Kirb.
pallicosta, Walk.
erotus, Cram.
var. erotoides, Wallener.
*var. andamaneusis, W. F.

Kirb. .

DEILEPHILA, Ochs.

livornica, Esp.
lineata, Fabr.
opheltes, Cram.
galii, Rott. .
chamenerii, Harr.
dahli, Geyer. .
zygophylli, Ochs.
euphorbie, Linn.
do. (Pupa-cases. )
lathyrus, Walk. .
nicea, De Prunn.
hippophaes, Esp.
vespertilio, Esp. .

Dapunis, Hiibn.

neril, Linn. :
do. (pupa-case. )
hypothous, Cram.
do. (pupa-case.)
angustans, Feld.

—
—

oe GY CO

H> Oo OF r+

5)

bo WH RK bh Ob Ww OD Oe

bor Or bo

Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

| No. of
| Specimens.
| Puoxus, Hiibn.
vitis, Linn. 3
linmei, Grote. . 3
*hesper idum, Westw. (M. S. ) 1
achemon, Dru. 4 4
posticatus, Grote ! 3
pandorus, Hiibn. 2
satellitia, Linn. 2
anchemolus, Cram. 4
| megera, Linn. 5
lacordairei, Boisd. hare
| labrusce, Linn. . Se
Pacuyiia, Walk.
ficus, Linn. 7
lyncea, Clem. 3
syces, Hiibn. 6
resumens, Walk. 6
Orysa, Walk.
robusta, Walk. l
AMBULICIN As.
AMBULYX, Westw.
strigilis, Linn. : 8
eurycles, Herr. Schaff. 5)
substrigilis, Westw. 5)
turbata, Butl. 1
*auripennis, Moore. 1
lycidas, Boisd. 2
gannascus, Stoll. 2
crethon, Boisd. 1
marginata, Butl. 2
AMBLYPTERUS, Hiibn.
panopus, Stoll. 3
SMERINTHIN 4.
Metamimas, Butl.
australasiz, Don. 1
banksize, Boisd. 2
Mimas, Hiibn.
quereus, Wien. Verz. . 3
tilize, Linn. 9
Potyrrycuus, Hiibn.
timesius, Stoll. 3
grayi, Walk, 1

Catalogue of Lepidoptera.

TRIPTOGON, Brem.

piceipennis, Butl.
dyras, Walk.
ceylanica, Butl. .
silhetensis, But.
fuscescens, Butl.
*rectilinea, Moore.
complacens, Walk.
modesta, Harr.

AmorPHa, Hiibn.
populi, Linn.

Cressona, Grote.

juglandis, Smith & Abb.

Paontas, Hiibn.
excecata, Smith & Abb.

CALASYMBOLUS, Grote.
astylus, Dru.

EUSMERINTHUS, Grote.

= \
geminatus, Say. .

Smerintuvs, Latr.
ocellatus, Linn. .
planus, Walk.
tatarinovil, Brem.

LrucopHLesBia, Westw.
bicolor, Butl.

Basrana, Walk.
exusta, Butl.
cervina, Walk.

Cazquosa, Walk.
triangularis, Don.

ACHERONTIIN 2.
Manpuca, Hiibn.

styx, Westw.
medusa, Butl. .
*sculda, W. F. Kirb.
atropos, Linn.
do. (Pupz.)
lachesis, Fabr,

No of

Specimens.

A ed

SS en pan

pelt)

bo

me bo

—

bo

= —
onNNwNrF NO

- .
—

333

No. of

Specimens.

SPHINGIN A.

TaTocLossum, Buti.
earice, Linn.

Cocytius, Hiibn.
antzeus, Dru.
rivularis, Butl.
medor, Stoll.
cluentius, Cram.

ANCERYX, Walk.
alope, Dru.

Tsoanatuus, Feld.
fumosa, Butl.

metascyron, Butl.
menechus, Boisd.

DiLopHonota, Burm.

ello, Linn. .
merianz, Grote.
cenotrus, Stoll.
obscura, Fabr.

Puryxus, Hiibn.
caicus, Cram.

Macrosina, Walk.
lefebvrei, Guér. .

PHLEGETHONTIUS, Hiibn.

rustica, Fabr. .
fulvinotata, Butl.
*dalica, W. F. Kirb.
quinquemaculatus, Haw.
sexta, Joh.
jamaicensis, Butl.
lucetius, Stoll.
hannibal, Stoll.
cingulata, Fabr.
convolvuli, Linn. :
vseudoconvolvuli, Schauf.
orientalis, Butl.
roseofasciata, Koch.
(distans, Butl.)
abadonna, Fabr.
nyctiphanes, Walk.

PsEUDOSPHINX, Burm.
tetrio, Linn,

orbs © ©

ere bho

A ie |

bo

o>

—
ore WOoONWonwdtdpr

—

# it

334

Darema, Walk.
undulosa, Walk.
Dolba, Walk.

fo, Walk.
hyleus, Dru.

Dituptia, Grote.

brontes, Dru. ;
pamphilius, Stoll.
florestan, Stoll.
lichenea, Walk.
albiplaga, Walk.
casuarine, Walk.
nebulosa, Butl. .
*bethia, W. F. Kirb.
rubescens, Butl.
melanomera, Butt.
discistriga, Walk.
vates, Butl.
abietina, Boisd.
chromapteris, Butl.

Hytorcus, Hiibn.

pinastri, Linn.
‘do. (Eggs.)
juniperi, Boisd.
plebeia, Fabr.
eremitus, Hiibn.

SpHrnx, Linn.

chersis, Hiibn.
lugens, Walk.
gordius, Stoll.
luscitiosa, Clem.
justicie, Walk.
kalmize, Smith & ND
ligustri, Linn.

drupiferarum, Smith & SANbIN

CEeRATOMIA, Harr.
amyntor, Geyer.

NeEpPHELE, Hiibn.

cnopion, Hiibn.
densoi, Kef,

No. of

Specimens;

el

bo mH OO be OL EOF

bo Go He

bo OF Wr be bo

bor

Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

*charoba, W. F.
*charoba, Var.!
argentifera, Walk.
variegata, Butl.
accentifera, Beauv.
Senees Cram. :

*infernalis, W. F. Kirb.
vir idescens, Walk.
funebris, Fabr.
didyma, Fabr.

do. (Pupa.)
vau, Walk. :
subvaria, Walk.
metapyrrha, Walk.

Kirb.

CASTNITDAE.

CastNIA, Fabr.

schreibersui, Mikan,
zerynthia, Gray,
icarus, Cram.
dalmannii, Gray,
pallasia, Esch.
syphax, Fabr.
atynnius, Dalm.
licus, Dru.

Thesiee eimai Walk.
orestes, Walk.
ilronecet. Latr.
fonscolombei, Latr.
mygdon, Dalm.
salasia, Boisd.
evalthe, Fabr.
amycus, Stoll.
thais, Dru.
ecuadoria, Westw.
linus, Stoll.

Synemon, Doubl.

theresa, Doubl.
vagans, Westw.

URANIIDA.
CurysiRipIA Hiibn.

madagascariensis, Lesson,

No. of
Specimens.

| Ne PHELE, Hiibn.—continued.

bo tw bo Oe bo bo

ee eee OSE nl el ne OO OO le ed RO OO
-

me KS

lo

Remarks on New or Interesting Lepidoptera. BB hy

No of | No. of
Specimens | Specimens.
Urania, Fabr. SEMATURA, Dalm.

leilus, Linn.

lunus, Linn.

sloanus, Cram. 3 spiune Cac j ‘ 9
sae rT . n. : : ‘
brasiliensis, Swains. . ar phebe, Guén. hog

fulgens, Walk. 1

Aucipes, Hiibn.
? | Coronts, Latr.

orontes, Linn. . : ink Le ie
metaurus, Hopff. : ed | leachii, Godt. . , oy
japet, Boisd. : , =p al
Lyssa, Hiibn. egina, Boisd. f ; welsh

bo

patroclus, Linn.

REMARKS ON NEW OR INTERESTING SPECIES.

Amauris infernu, Butl—One of our specimens agrees with
Butler’s figure ; but the other differs in the hind wings. The
white basal portion of the wing extends beyond the cell, and
there is a sub-marginal row of comparatively large white spots.

Ithomia gazoria, Godt. (Karschina, Herbst), is erroneously
placed in Melinwa in my Catalogue of Diurnal Lepidoptera, p. 34.
I now place it provisionally in Jthomia.

Tisiphone hercyna, Hiibn.—This specimen, like most of those
in collections is referable to 7. maculata, Hopff, which is believed
to be the male of Hiibner’s insect.

Mycalesis asochis, Hew.—The female is larger than the male ;
the dark border is narrower, and the eyes of the under surface
are more or less visible above, especially that nearest to the
anal angle of the hind wings.

Ypthima Ceylonica, Hew.—We have this species from Madras
as well as from Ceylon [Y. corynetes, Boisd. from Natal, ought
to be erased from our catalogues, as it is only a manuscript
species. |

Y. doleta, W. ¥F. Kirb, sp. n.—Exp.al. 14-13 inches.— Allied to Y.
asterope, Klug., but much larger. Brown, fore wings with a very
large black eye, with two blue or white pupils, enclosed in a
yellow ring, and placed on a grayish ground, bordered by an
ill-defined dark ring, which iikewise marks off the greyish hind-
marginal portion. Hind wings brown with the outer half
grayish, crossed by two ill-defined dark lines, one within and
one without the large eye, near the anal angle. This is single-

336 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

pupilled, but there is a smaller one below it, nearer the angle,
with two pupils, and a third small one, with the pupil and ring
both indistinct, near the tip of the hind wings. Under side reti-
culated with brown and gray, the eyes nearly as above, that at
the tip of the fore-wings more or less surrounded by a brown
ring, and that at the tip of the hind wings more distinct than
above. Sierra Leone. (Collected by Foxcroft.)

Heliconius erato, Linn.—Three of our specimens from New
Granada have the hind wings rayed and spotted on the margins
with yellowish green instead of with blue or red.

H. eleuchia, telesiphe, cydno, &e—In all these species the
bands may be indifferently white or yellow; and some Entomo-
logists regard the representative forms as distinct species.

Argynnis cytheris, Dru——We have a pair of this species,
Hiibner’s figure of A. siga, and Reed’s of A. anna represent the ¢
exactly ; Drury’s figure is too dark. The species which Reed (and
probably Gay), describe as A. cytheris, Drury, is distinct, and
must retain the name of montana, under which Reed originally
figured it.

Nymphalis carye, Hiibn.—One of our specimens is labelled
“China,” but this is probably an error.

Kallima rumia, Westw.—One female has a buff band on the
fore-wings instead of a white one, but does not differ in any other
important character.

Cymothoe fumana, Westw.—Notwithstanding Mr. Hewitson’s
remarks on his Harma hypatha (Kx. Butl. U1., Hara, t. 2),
I have no doubt that the latter insect is the true female of jum«ana.

Anea andria, Scudd.—lI cannot agree with Strecker in placing
this species as a synonym of A. troglodyta, Fabr. It is much
smaller, less heavily marked, and the wings are scarcely dentated.
But I believe that O. ops, Druce, is probably identical with
andria.

Lymnas melander, Cram.—One of our specimens is a variety
without the orange edging to the hind wings.

Plebeius parsimon, Cram.—Felder’s Lycena negus is identical
with Cramer’s species.

P. hellotia, Mén.—P. praxiteles, Feld, is the male of this species.

P. gaika, Trim.—From Ceylon, a new locality.

Pieris ernestius, Lap.—I have entered these specimens under

Remarks on New or Interesting Lepidoptera. 337

this name, as I am not convinced of their identity with P. creona,
Cram.

Mylothris sabina, Feld—The insect which I consider to be
the true sabina, was sent us as a new species. It is as large as
the largest specimens of MM. rhodope, which it considerably re-
sembles, but is more washed with brown on the borders above, and
is much yellower at the base beneath. I fancy that this insect
is frequently represented in collections by some of the smaller
species, as I have sometimes received specimens of M. orbona
and phaola, ticketed sabina.

Idmais eris, Klug.—Two species have always been confounded
under this name ; and the female of the true J. evis of Klug, whose
figure of the male is unmistakable, appears to be the species
recently described as Teracolus abyssinicus, Butl. The Dublin
Museum of Science and Art possesses both sexes of both species.

I. wis, Klug.—Expands two inches or a little more. Male
fore-wings creamy white to beyond and helow the cell, forming
five teeth outwardly, the middle one the longest, and the two
above shorter than those below ; on the middle of the lower side
a sight angular indentation. Costa dusted with black towards
the base ; the whole of the hind margin and inner margin broadly
black, the apical half of the hind margin strongly shot with
violet, and marked with a series of six dull orange spots, the
uppermost long, the others round, the sixth often yellow. Hind
margin with cream-coloured fringes, broader at the hinder angle.
Hind wings cream-colour, the costa black, and produced in a lobe
below the tip into the light ground colour of the wing; the ex-
tremities of the nervures blackish. Underside white, fore-wings
with three large black spots towards the hinder angle; hind-
wings yellower than above, the costa bordered with rich
orange. Female like the male, but with a black discoidal spot
on each wing, small and scarcely visible above on the hind wing ;
the black portion of the fore-wings is duller, the apical half has
no violet reflection, and is marked with a series of five yellowish
white spots. Hind-wings yellowish white, the borders with large
black spots ; costa black; and from the projection runs an inner
row of rather indistinct and partly connected brown spots.
Wings beneath nearly as in the male, but the orange border to

the costa less extended. Our specimens are from Abyssinia;
Scien, Proc, R.D.S. Vou. 1, Pr. v. pig

338 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

and I presume that those recorded from Arabia and Kordofan like-
wise belong to this species.

T. maimuna, W. F. Kirb.— Male resembles I. evis, but the white
markings are more extended, and only form two conspicuous
projections, one towards the middle of the hind margin, and the
other at the point nearest to the hinder angle ; the violet suffusion
covers the whole apex of the wing, andismarkedtowardsthe tip with
three or four dull orange spots ; the inner margin is less broadly
black, and is paler towards the base. Hind-wings as in ervs, but
the extremity of the dark costal portion running downwards is
more angular and does not extend below the subcostal nervure ;
a row of small marginal markings between the nervures. Under
side as in eris, but the spots of the fore-wings smaller, and the
costa of the hind-wings less broadly orange. Female, fore-wings
white, with discoidal dots as in eris $; the projections still less
angular than in the male ; hind margin broadly brown, witha row
of four yellow spots, below which is a larger round white one, and
a great square white spot fills up the hinder angle; the black
edging of the inner margin does not extend beyond the sub-
inedial nervure, except along the edge of the square spot at the
hinder angle. Hind-wings white, with larger black marginal
spots, and a row of decreasing spots running across the wing,
from near the tip, of which only the first three are distinct.

Under side of fore-wings white, crossed by a row of seven dark
spots; tip yellowish. The first four spots are rusty; the fifth
and sixth large and black, the latter nearer the hind-wing than
the others ; the seventh black, but smaller than the fifth or sixth.
Hind-wings yellowish, crossed by a row of about seven rusty
spots. This species, especially the female, shows a remarkable
affinity to many speciesof Callosune; indeed Butler unites Jdmais,
and Callosune with Teracolus, considering the three genera
identical. J. maimuna, probably inhabits a great part of Africa.
The specimens in the Dublin Museum, are without locality ; those

in the British Museum are from Angola, and include a yellow’

variety of the female.

Papilio philenor, Linn.—One of our specimens is from Cali-
fornia, and barely expands 24 inches, but does not differ from
ordinary specimens in any other respect.

P. abrisa, W. F. Kirb,—Expands 4 inches, allied to P. pollux,

g)

Remarks on New or Interesting Lepidoptera. 339

Westw., and to P. mahadeva, Moore. Rich brown, showing
scattered gold spangles under a iens. Fore-wings with a white
spot, scarcely visible above, at the end of the cell; hind margins
spotted with white or cream-colour, and with a sub-marginal row
of conical spots of the same colour, nearly as in pollua, towards the
hinder angle, sometimes shading into buff. Hind-wings with the
incisions white, an outer row of five white, greenish white, or
buff angles, preceded by an incomplete one at the tip, and a small
one at the anal angle. Within this is a row of six large conical
greenish white spots, about twice as long as broad, and more or
less excavated at the base; preceeded towards the costa by two
smaller and somewhat irregular spots, one above another. Under
side similar but pale, and the outer row of spots rather larger.
This species cannot be confounded with polluaw, which it resembles
in the fore-wings, because the markings of the hind-wings are so dis-
similar. From P. palephates and P. mahadeva, which it resembles
on the hind-wings, the markings of the fore-wings will at once
separate it. It was received in a collection from Madras, but Mr. F.
Moore supposes that the real locality is probably British Burmah.

P. tibullus, W. F. Kirb. or merope, Cram., var. ?—Male like that
of merope ; but hind-wings with a broad continuous black band
across the centre, instead of a row of spots, connected with the
black hind margin (the incisions are cream-colour), by short
black bands and streaks, leaving only a series of long cream-
coloured spots on the outside. Female like that of P. brutus
(hippocoon, Fabr.), but with no white spot at the tip of the
fore- wings, and with much narrower dark borders, more distinctly
spotted with white to the hind-wings. A pair from Zanzibar.
I have seen several specimens of the male, but only one female.

Entheus Marshalli, W. F. Kirb—Expands two inches, or a
little less; allied to vitrews, Cram., but with rather longer and
more pointed wings. Wings dark brown, yellowish green at the
base, with vitreous longitudinal stripes and spots. Fore-wings
with three stripes running nearly from the base three-quarters
across the wing, followed by a transverse row of six spots across
the tip of the wing, of which the three lower ones are smaller
than the others. The first stripe is simple, and almost connected
with the second at the base; the second is shorter, but is con-

nected with a small one above it, which extends as far as the
Scien. Proc., R.D.S. Vou. 1, Pt, v. DB IND:

340 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

first, and it is followed on the lower side by two shorter ones,
connected at the base. The third is double, being divided in two
at half its length ; below it are two rather irregular ones, nearer
the inner margin, the lowest nearest the base. Hind-wings with
a vitreous spot filling up the cell, beyond which are two rows of
rather large vitreous spots. Two specimens from Trinidad.
I have named this species after the Rev. T. A. Marshall, who is
now in Trinidad, where I hope he will be able to do good service
to Entomology.

Thymelicus thawmas, Hiibn.—Our specimens are from Ger-
many and the Crimea; the latter are larger and brighter coloured
than the others.

Macroglossum bombylans, Boisd.—One specimen is from
Madagascar, a new locality for this species.

Darapsa? Syriaca, Led.—I can find no better place than the
American genus Darapsa for this insect. It very closely resembles
D. cherilus, although its denticulated wings will probably lead to
its being ultimately placed in a genus by itself.

Cherocampa Margarita, W. F. Kirb—Since describing this
species, I have received a second specimen from Mr. Miskin of
Brisbane, under the name of C. phenyx ; but I do not know if
any one has described it.

Pholus hesperidum, Westw.—This species has not yet been
described ; but I abstain from doing so as my friend, Professor
Westwood is about to publish a figure of it. I will therefore
only say that itis a beautiful species from Jamaica, closely
allied to P. Linnet, but with only two instead of three white
veins intersecting the hind margin.

Sematura lunus and selene-—These species are very closely
allied, especially the females, but may be distinguished by the
pale inner sub-marginal line of the fore-wings being more den-
tated in S. selene.

Aigocera tripartita, W. F. Kirb.—Closely allied to venulia,
but in place of the irregular pale yellow stripe of the fore-wings,
there are three well separated spots or stripes in a straight line;
the first isa basal stripe, narrow at the base, but widening out at
its extremity ; the second nearly square, and the third forming a
short broad cone, the apex outwards. “India,” Dublin Museum ;
Mr. Moore has received it from Burmah,

{ 9341. J

XLVI.—ON SPHEROIDAL JOINTING IN METAMORPHIC
ROCKS IN INDIA AND ELSEWHERE, PRODUCING
A STRUCTURE RESEMBLING GLACIAL “ROCHES
MOUTONNEES,” sy V. BALL, ma., F.G.8., oF THE GEOLOGICAL
Survey oF Inpia. Puates 21, 22, and 23.

[Read December 15th, 1879. ]

Some years ago, when engaged in the geological examination
of a portion of Western Bengal, where metamorphic rocks
exclusively prevail, I frequently met with zones or narrow tracts
wherein a particular form of rock prevailed, which formed rounded
boss-like or dome-shaped hills, of a character which I had never
encountered elsewhere, and of the origin of which I had not then,
as I have not since, met with any published explanation. Since
that time I have frequently seen similar and similarly formed
hills, not only in various other parts of India, but, quite
recently, I have found the same structure occurring in rocks
possessing the same lithological characters in Switzerland. It is
in consequence of this last observation, and because I believe
the structure has in that country not been duly recognised, that
I now enumerate the following facts, and venture to account for
them by a theory which is, however, as yet, confessedly somewhat
imperfect.

The dome-shaped masses in India, which I have alluded to,
rise abruptly from the surrounding soil or rocky surface, as the
case may be, sometimes singly and sometimes in groups—the
individual domes being only occasionally in very close juxta-
position to one another.

At first sight they appear to be perfectly solid masses of rock,
with symmetrical rounded or rather ellipsoidal contours. In
many, if not in most cases the surfaces are so smooth and steep
that under the influence of tropical rains they are incapable of
retaining any covering of soil, and consequently, besides a small
fern which manages to obtain a footing in cracks and fissures,
vegetation is seldom found upon them. The size of these domes
varies, but the height rarely exceeds 100 feet, and is generally

342 Scientinic Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

less than fifty, while the length of the greater diameter may run
to 1,000 feet, or even a quarter of a mile in exceptional cases.
The accompanying sketches, Plates 21, 22, and 23, will serve to
convey an idea of two types of contour assumed by these domes ;
one may be called normal, while the other is a somewhat excep-
tional conical or sugar-loaf form.

A good idea of the normal forms may be suggested by com-
paring them to what would be the appearance presented by
keel-less ironclad vessels if inverted on Jand.

Generally the rock of which these domes are composed is a
coarsely porphyritic granite,* containing twin crystals of ortho-
clase felspar from one to two inches long. Sometimes, however,
the rock is a fine-grained granite with a large proportion of
amorphous, or more correctly, perhaps, not distinctly crystalline
felspar.

Occasionally, in the first-mentioned variety, we find the mica
either locally or throughout replaced by hornblende, the rock thus
assuming the characters of a syenite.

Foliation and bedding structures are not generally present, and
from the absence of these and the relations which the rocks bear
to the schists and gneisses surrounding them, it might be thought
perhaps that they were really intruded masses of plutonic origin.
Since, however, in some cases both structures are present, and
there is nothing lithologically to distinguish these larger masses
from some which occur in thin beds, alternating with ordinary
well-defined gneisses and schists, it is probable that they are
likewise of metamorphic origin.

It should be added that, in some cases where there is no
foliation, properly so called, there is to be observed a general
parallelism of the large crystals of felspar.

Although, in the majority of instances, these large spheroidal
masses may appear to be solid throughout, it is not long before

* An analysis of a specimen of it is given by the late M. H. Ormsby, L1.p., in a

former number of the Journal of this Society. (New Series, Vol., iii., 26.)
Silica, ‘ . 65:04
Alumina, . L960
Lime, : 5) (OMS
Magnesia, - 2°48
Potash, . - 12:60

On Spheroidal Jointing im Metamorphic Rocks. 343

the observer meets with cases where the upper surface has been
broken into, and the fact is then revealed that the domes consist of
concentric shells, having a structure similar to that seen on the
small scale, for example, in certain iron ores and in urinary
calculi. (Plates 21 and 22.)

As is represented, where the outer shell has been broken into by
weathering or other causes, its fragments rest upon a smooth
surface below. In some cases several successive shells are dis-
closed, the planes of jointing separating ‘which, preserve a
uniform distance from one another throughout, and cut through
the crystals of felspar sharply, and at all angles as they follow
the curves.

The shells vary in thickness from about three to ten inches,
but in any individual dome the thickness appears to be tolerably
constant throughout each layer. If what has been above said is
sufficiently clear, it will have been understood that the shells rest
upon the surfaces of one another successively, like the shells of
some nuts on their kernels. Supposing an outer shell to be
removed, a perfectly smooth surface, which will soon receive a
high polish from atmospheric agencies, is disclosed, and when in
this condition the resemblance of the domes to veritable voches
moutonnées is indeed striking.

Now, what is the origin of this structure? It is unnecessary
here to discuss the evidence for or against glacial actions having
taken place in India, at a former period of the world’s history.
Pretty complete evidence of floating ice having deposited its load
of stones and mud in the Talchir (Permian ?) period is found in
the peninsula ; but in the case at present before us, it is manifest
that though a glacier is undoubtedly competent to chisel rocks
into a dome-shaped contour, it does not possess the power of
inducing a concentric shell structure in the mass of a rock.

If other evidence were wanting, the conical shaped (Plate 23)
hills, which are clearly due to a variety of the same structure,
would dispose of the possibility of a glacial origin.

Some local observers in India, struck with the phenomenon,
have suggested that the splitting off of the successive shells
might be due to sudden shrinkage, caused by showers of rain
falling on the rock when highly heated by the sun; but I am
not aware that this view has been adopted by anyone having a
knowledge either of physics or geology sufficient to enable him

344 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

to realize the nature of the phenomena, which it is thought may
in this manner be so simply explained. I believe, however, that
all who do possess a knowledge of these subjects will agree
that such an explanation cannot be seriously entertained with
reference to the splitting off of shells of rock averaging six
inches in thickness.

Although I am unable to state positively that such is the case,
it seems to be highly probable that these domes are really por-
tions of complete spheroidal masses, which have become isolated
from their original surroundings by the erosion of softer, more
readily decomposable, parts of the rock. On the small scale, in
the case of both volcanic and plutonic rocks (basalts and
granites), most geologists are familiar with the pseudo-boulders,
which are the result of local hardness and the removal of softer
more easily decomposed, portions. Such pseudo-boulders fre-
quently have a concentric ex-foliating structure, but this is
generally accompanied by much decomposition of the layers and
alteration of the mineral components, which is not found to be
the case with the shells in the domes, as the rock is always firm
aud sound, yielding a metallic rg on being struck, or even
when 77 situ it is trodden under foot. Its fracture, moreover, is
sharp and angular.

On the whole, it seems probable that the spheroidal jointing
may have been produced by shrinkage on cooling after erystalliza-
tion had taken place.*

As I said above, this theory of origin is imperfect, but I
venture to think the main object of this paper has been attained,
namely: It has been demonstrated that dome-shaped hills and
surfaces, resembling roches moutonnées, may be produced by a
cause other than the action of glaciers. This fact being admitted,
I shall now apply it to a locality in Switzerland, where, in the
midst of glaciers, the same structure occurs, largely developed,
and where, so far as I have been able to refer to authorities, the
rounded surfaces are described as being produced by glaciers,
without any suggestion as to the possibility of the form being
in part due to other causes.

When crossing the Grimsel Pass last October, I first met in

* Another explanation has been suggested by the Rev. Professor Haughton, in

reference to the Swiss rocks, namely, that these planes may be due to a form of cleavage
produced under great pressure during upheaval of the mountain ranges.

On Spheroidal Jointing in Metamorphic Rocks. 345

Switzerland gneiss-rock of similar porphyritic character to that
which I have above described. In the neighbourhood of the
Todten-see, to the east of the sources of the Unter-ar-Glacier,
and between it and the Grimsel Hospice, and again below the
Handeck, on the road to Guttannen, there are extensive rounded
surfaces, which, in many cases, proved on examination to be pre-
cisely similar in character to those above described in India.
There was the same concentric shell structure, and, in places
where the outer layers were broken into, there were to be seen
disclosed underneath new surfaces, which only required the action
of rain and the fan-like streams which spread over these rounded
slopes to produce a high degree of polish. Owing to the fact
that, at the time when I crossed, the weather was foggy and
threatening, and a foot or so of fresh snow lay on the ground, my
examination was hurried and incomplete, and I am unable to be
more exactly specific in my references, but of this I am fully
satistied, that while minor tracks of glaciers, such as striz, and
possibly true roches moutonnées do occur in this neighbourhood,
the major features are not due to glaciers, but are to be attributed
to the concentric shell structure of the rock itself.

In none of the authorities to whose writings I have been able
to refer can I find any hint of this, but, on the contrary, the
rounded slopes are referred to as a proof of the former extent and
size of the glaciers. Thus, Mr. J. Ball, in his Alpine Guide,*
has written :—

“ The geologist will observe with interest the traces of glacial action
that are not only apparent in the neighbourhood of the Hospice and on
the rocks surrounding the lakes, but even up to and above the summit
of the Pass, indicating by the direction of the furrows that the vast mass
of ice that once filled the head of the Valley of Hasli must have flowed
over the Grimsel Pass towards the Valais. Neither will he fail to
remark the contrast between the rough and jagged outlines of the upper
ridges, that have never undergone the planing action of the glacier, with
the condition of those parts which lay below the level of the ancient ice
streams.”

Here there is no recognition of the existence of any innate
structure to account for the rounded outlines, all being set down
as the work of ancient glaciers.

I believe it possible that some of the “domes arrondis polis et
* Central Alps, 1866, p. 81.

346 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

stries au dessus de la Handeck,” figured by Agassiz in his classic
work on glaciers, may owe their form in part to this structure,
which seems to be almost a proper characteristic of this form of
granitic gneiss wherever it occurs. But in making this last
suggestion, I do so with some hesitation, as I am not sure of the
exact locality of the particular domes referred to.

Baedeker,* too, speaks of the granite rocks in this area being
rounded and polished by glacier friction.

It would probably be easy to multiply such references, but I
have not yet succeeded in finding any allusion to the concentric
shell structure of the gneiss itself as being, to say the least, an
important factor in the production of the surfaces which have

attracted so much notice on the northern slopes of the Grimsel.
* Guide to Switzerland.

EXPLANATION OF PLATES.

Puate 21.—Boss of Porphyritic Gneiss with outer shell partly broken
up and fallen. North of Parulia in the District of
Manbhum, Bengal.

22,—Portion of Boss with accompanying “ tor” of Porphyritic
Gneiss. District of Manbhum, Bengal.

23.—Conical-shaped Boss of Porphyritic Gneiss. Near Jhulda,
District of Manbhum, Bengal.

)

NotE ADDED IN THE Press. I am indebted to Professor O'Reilly for calling my
attention to Professor Whitney’s Geology of California, where in the description of
the Sierra Nevada, domes of precisely similar character to those in India are alluded to,
and regarding which Professor Whitney remarks, “That this structure is not the result of
the original stratification of the rock is evident from a study of the phenomena, which do
not indicate anything like anticlinal or synclinal axes, or any irregular folding. The
curves are arranged strictly with reference to the surface of the masses of rock, showing
clearly that they must have been produced by the contraction of the material while cooling
or solidifying.” His explanation of the structure, therefore, is identical with mine—near
the San Joaquin a remarkable dome which rises to the height of 1,800 feet “ presents
exactly the appearance of the upper part of a sphere, or as Professor Brewer says, of the
top of a gigantic balloon struggling to get up through the rock.” The same description,
except as regards the height, might be applied to many of the domes which I have seen
in India.

[ 347 J

XLVII—ON THE EQUATORIAL TELESCOPE AND ON
THE NEW OBSERVATORY OF THE QUEEN’S COLLEGE,
CORK, sy HOWARD GRUBB, .z., F.p.a.s. Paves 24 and
25, AND Woovcuts.

[Read April 21st, 1879. ]

Part I,

PE OU ATOR PAL.

Kquatorial telescope mountings have undergone considerable
modifications and improvements within the last ten years.

These modifications and improvements represent to a large
extent the efforts of the optician to keep pace with the modified
ideas of astronomical observers; for, while the old idea of render-
ing an equatorial an instrument of precision is pretty nearly
exploded, the numerous branches of research into which Physical
Astronomy can now be divided, have, while increasing the num-
ber of its votaries, also increased the demand for instruments
more comprehensive in their character, and in which the labour
of manipulation may be reduced to a minimum. Hence the
demand of the astronomers for “ labour saving ” contrivances, and
I propose in this paper to bring forward some of the various con-
trivances and modifications which I have introduced for this
purpose. In the first instance, I would direct attention to the
general form of the instrument. It will be seen that in this
respect I have endeavoured to steer a middle course between two
extremes, for, while in some instances, the centre of motion of
the instrument, 7.¢., the point at which the polar and declination
axes cross (D) is placed over the centre of the pier, and thus the
instrument has almost always to be reversed when it reaches the
meridian (as the telescope tube comes into contact with the
mounting immediately at, or a very little beyond that position),
in other forms the polar pillar, as I call it, P. (that is, the pillar
in which the polar axis revolves), is prolonged until it reaches
through the floor, the framework and stay (S) being dispensed

348 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

with, and thus circumpolar motion is obtained for any object
above the horizon.

It appears to me, however, that this advantage (as, no doubt,
it is), is gained at a disproportionate sacrifice, for even in the
case of a small instrument the polar pillar becomes a stupendous
size, for having no strut or support of any kind above the
floor line it must entirely depend on its own stability, as a pil-
lar placed out of the vertical, and there is clearly no mechanical
means of increasing its strength, except by adding to the weight
of metal in the casting. It appears also to me that if we can
obtain cireumpolar motion for all objects below and to south of
the zenith (for such latitudes as Great Britain), that we should
have obtained our objects for at least 2ths of the objects usually
coming under the observation of the astronomer. hus, I arrived
at the present general form of the mounting in which the above
conditions are obtained without any sacrifice to stability, for
it is absurd to suppose that if an instrument can be made (as it
has been) with its polar pillar projecting downwards and through
the floor without any support and found to be sufficiently stable,
that this form of instrument in which the polar pillar is compara-
tively quite short (and supported too right under its neck) cannot
be capable of being made with a maximum of stability.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF INSTRUMENT.—Plate 24.
A.A. Lower base casting bolted firmly to stone pier.
B.B. Second base casting bolted to AA, but capable of azimuthal
adjustment on same by screw 0.

C.C. Upper base casting bolted to B, but capable of vertical ad-
justment on same by means of levelling screws inside frame
not visible in woodcut.

Polar pillar, inside which revolves the polar axis.

Stay or strut under polar pillar, giving direct support under
the principal bearing of polar axis.

D.D. Cross head, a hollow casting bolted to polar axis, and in

which the declination axis revolves. On one end of this

wn rd

cross head is

d.d. the declination circle eighteen inches diameter, and divided on
gold alloy, and

ee. the declination clamp, into which gears

ff. a slow motion screw, worked from eye end by

On the Cork Equatorial Telescope, ce. 349

g-g. pair of bevel wheels and handle which give the slow motion
in declination.

hh. Is the clamping handle in declination.

iz. Are the cords and lever for A clamping.

k.k. The cords for the slow motion in A.

(1. The lunar change wheels, for changing rate of clock from
siderial to lunar, which wheels are geared and ungeared by

m. the clutch.

The handle for winding the M sector back after its run of two

hours.

ZR toothed sector.

Handle for setting in ®M while reading.

Lower circle, read through window in pillar P.

Is the upper &€ circle, read from eye-end of telescope by

=

yA Os eS

the telescopic reader, which is also available for reading both
verniers of declination circle, by rotating with the handle at

its side.
T.T’. Two lamps—T illuminating both verniers of declination circle
oo)

—bright and dark fields of micrometric and position circle,
and T” illuminating 7 the upper R circle.

R: Clockwork inside of middle frame casting B.

W. Pendulum of control apparatus.

The following points being peculiar to the instrument, I desire
to draw particular attention to—

The eye-end and “breach-piece” arrangements—The eye-
end is made to revolve and carry a position circle. The position
circle instead of being metallic (in which case it requires a hand
lamp) is of glass, with etched divisions illuminated from back by
a beam of light from the lamp T. By pressing a key like a flute
key on one side of body of tube of eye-end, the whole breach-
piece is free to revolve quickly. On this key being let go it is
instantly clamped, but can be finely set by a slow-motion screw
at side.

Reading of MR and declination circles by one single reader
from eye-end of telescope. (Vide Figure 1.)

Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

Fig. 1

i

In Fig. 1. a.a. Is the declination circle.
6.6. Is the upper A circle, which is stationary, the vernier
being carried by the polar axis.
rr. Isa telescope with a right angle prism on end inserted in
the great telescope tube at one side, parallel to its axis.

On the Cork Equatorial Telescope, de. 351

In the position sketched the reader points through the decli-
nation axis to a prism at end r”, from this to another prism 7”
(both of these prisms being attached to a plate hung out from
upper end of polar axis), from r” the line of sight points to a
prism 7” close to A circle 6, which is divided on its lower face.
Though so many reflections take pace the reading at eye-piece
of reader is most convenient and easy.

This reading is available no matter what position of telescope
be in A or declination.

If the reader 77” be revolved through 90° on its own axis, the
prism 7” at end points out through a hole in the tube, and by
means of one single prism is available for reading the declination
circle.

If, now, the reader be again revolved 180° on its axis, that is
to say, 90° from original position it points to, and is available for,
reading the other vernier of declination circle, both verniers of
which declination circle are illuminated by a lamp either on end
of declination axis, or hanging some little distance out from centre
of tube of telescope, as in the present instrument.

New form of clamps for A and declination movement of
equatorial telescopes. (Vide Figures 2 and 3.)

The ordinary clamps in use for clamping the telescope axis
to the clock or slow motion arrangements are considered highly
unsatisfactory. They are generally more or less of the same form
and character as the eccentric strap of a steam engine, that is to
say, they consist of a metallic ring split in two pieces, and fit-
ting on a grooved circular plate to which they can be rigidly
clamped by tightening one or other of the screws, which hold
the two half rings together, or round which they can be allowed
to play freely, if the screws be left loose.

The faults of this construction are :—

Istly. That it requires several turns of the screw to affect
the clamping.

This is inconvenient and renders it impossible or very diffi-
cult for the observer at the eye-end of telescope to affect the
clamping in A.

2ndly. That the action is such as most surely to disturb the
direction of the telescope during the process of clamping.

352 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

The new construction consists of a metallic ring of a V
section, fitting into a correspording groove in the plate to which
it is required to be clamped (see Figure 3), and the clamping
is affected by the forcing of a V shaped tooth (V) into the groove
by the screw and lever (SS), to which lever cords are attached
by which the observer at eye-end of telescope has complete
control of the apparatus. In this new clamp + of a turn clamps
or unclamps the instrument, and the action being radial no
shifting of the instrument can take place.

Fig. 2.

On the Cork Equatorial Telescope, &e. 353

Fig. 3.

New slow motion for MR movement.—Vide Figures 4 and 5.

Fig. 4.

Scien. Proc., R.D.S. Vt. u., Vou. y. 2

354 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

The ordinary slow motion arrangements employed for the
purpose are subject to some disadvantages.

If they be of the forms of tangent screws they are lable to loss
or “back lash,” and their action is limited. If they be of the
form of epicyclic wheels they necessitate the introduction of
several additional wheels into the clock train, and thus injure
the perfection of uniformity of motion.

The new form (Figs. 4 and 5) is free from all these defects.
Any portion of the shaft ss’ connecting clock to endless screw,
which drives A sector, is cut across, one portion being let into
the other for steadiness, and on the extreme inner ends of each
of the shafts ss’ are keyed or fastened toothed wheels WW’, one of
these wheels having fifty-four and the other fifty-six teeth, or any
other convenient numbers (these are preferred as being propor-
tioned to the siderial and lunar time, which is convenient for
obvious reasons). A pulley wheel P, with groove on its edge,
plays freely round one of the axis in juata position to the two
toothed wheels—on this pulley wheel is fixed a stud or pin (@),
on which is strung a pinion, the teeth of which pinion gear
into both the fifty-four and fifty-six wheels.

On the Cork Equatorial Telescope, kc. 355

Now, it is evident, that if this apparatus remain as described
it will act simply as a clamp or coupling between the two axes.
If, however, it be required to produce a slight motion in the
instrument, or (supposing the clock to be going, and carrying
the instrument at its normal rate) a slight acceleration or re-
tardation of the clock speed, it is only necessary to revolve the
grooved disc in one direction or another, and the result is a
differential movement between the two ends of the shaft.

This movement of pulley P is affected by a cord passing round
grooved pulley, and carried to observer at eye-end of telescope.

Electrically controlled clock movement (Fig. 6 and 7). The
driving clockwork of these equatorials may be described as con-
sisting of two parts.

Ist. A uniform motion clock which is controlled by a frictional
governor, and which, used by itself, has been found to give re-
sults equal to any other form of uniform motion clock, but
which when very great accuracy for long periods is required is
supplemented by

2nd. A system of electric control, which the following figure
and description will explain :—

Fig. 6.

Scien. Proc., R.D.S. Fr. 3, Vou, v. Z2B2

|

356 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society

Fig. 7.

) =
TTT TTR Te TTT TT

KS €

i L]
ZILA
(Of SHES)

[|
MUTT T PT Tiree TT

c oe SSS )
A. Is a portion of one of the uniform motion clock spindles, or |

any shaft coupled thereto. |

B.B.B. Are the three wheels of an ordinary mitre remontoire train
driving by weight W the scape-wheel ¢ into the teeth
of which gear the pallets dd, which pallets are driven by
the electric pendulum P.

This electric pendulum is connected to, and driven by a cur-
rent from any independent clock.

To the weight carrying arm of the remontoire is attached a
small chain or wire, which communicates any motion it
may have to the lever L, from the other end of which |
lever hangs a weight w, smaller than W, which weight is
therefore raised when the remontoire arm is lowered, and
lowered when the remontoire arm is raised.

@} Is a dise of metal on a vertical spindle of uniform motion
clock and revolving rapidly (say 300 per minute).

When the weight w is below its mean position it is in con-
tact with the disk Q, and (the lower end of it being
coated with leather) produces a considerable amount of
friction, and therefore tends to retard speed of clock, when
the weight w is above its mean position it is altogether |
out of contact with the dise Q. |

On the Cork Equatorial Telescope, kc. 357

The action is as follows :—

Supposing the shaft A to be revolving exactly 1 per minute,
and the pendulum to be vibrating exactly 60 per minute, and that
there are 30 teeth in scape-wheel, it is evident that the Remon-
toire arm, and therefore the weights W and w, will vibrate
backwards and forwards the same distance each second, and
that the mean position of all will be the same each second. Under
these circumstances, the weight w will be alternately 0°5 second
in contact with disc Q,and 0°5 second out of contact, and the
uniform motion clock is rated ev se, just so much fast that the
resting of the weight w for 0°5 second in each second will bring
the rate right.

Now, suppose an error of acceleration to arise in uniform
motion clock, the mean position of remontoire arm will rise;
therefore w will fall, and, instead of rubbing in contact with Q
for 0°5 second, it will rub for 0°6 or 0:7 second according to the
extent of the error. This will tend to check the rate, and this
check will continue till the relative position of the uniform motion
shaft and of the intermittent or scape-shaft becomes as it was
when clock was going correctly.

If a retardation occur, the reverse effect will take place, and the
weight w will rub for only 0:4 or 0°3 second instead of 0°5 until
the error be corrected.

So far as described, I do not claim any particular novelty, as I
believe that most of this arrangement im principle has been tried
before, the failure that resulted being owing to the fact that it
was found impossible to prevent the pendulum being influenced
by the difference of force on the pallets under varying circum-
stances, the pendulum being in the former case driven by the
scapement, not by electricity, as in this case.

I believe I have completely got rid of this difficulty by—

Ist. Making the pallets (as they are not required to drive the
pendulum) of such form that the teeth of scape-wheel impinge
upon them nearly at the angle of repose; and

2nd. By driving the pendulum by electric current from
another clock—thus virtually rendering the pendulum, not a
pendulum at all, but a lever, worked backward and forward by
electricity, and not subject to alteration in its rate by slightly
varying force on the pallets.

An arrangement is also attached (but not shown in figure to

358 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

avoid confusion), by which if either portion of clock fail to do its
duty from want of winding, want of electric current, or other
cause, the connection between the two systems is instantly severed
automatically. )

Various small parts might be mentioned, in which the wants of
the astronomer have been carefully considered.

The lamps are the result of long and careful trials. All the steel
parts are coated with nickel, to arrest oxidation as far as possible.
Lunar wheels are applied to facilitate the changing from siderial
to lunar rate. Sliding and screwing counterpoise weights are
arranged, with special reference to physical work, &c.

PART 2.
THE BUILDING AND MINOR INSTRUMENTS.
| Read December 15th, 1879.]

I proceed now to describe a few of the general features of the
Observatory and its instrumental equipment.

The Building (Plate 25), which being in Cork is, of course, built
of Cork limestone, consists of an octagonal tower of two stories in
height, with two wings, E. and W., of a single story in height. The
lower story of the tower is used partly as an ante-chamber or
entrance to the Transit and Physical Research Rooms, which con-
stitute respectively the E. and W. wings, and is partly divided into
two or three smaller rooms round the equatorial pier, which
it is intended to utilize for certain arrangements connected with
the clock system of the observatory and also for chemical room,
battery room, &e. The wpper story contains the 8-inch equa-
torial, which I had the pleasure of exhibiting and explaining
here last session. This upper room is covered by a hemispherical
dome of fifteen feet diameter.

The Staircase, by which access is obtained to the upper story,
is circular, and is contained in the small tower attached to the
north side of the equatorial tower.

The East Wing is the transit room, for which | am now preparing
a 5-inch transit circle, and which is supplied with a transit shutter
of novel construction. See below.

The West Wing is intended for physical research and experi-
ments, and will contain a siderostatic telescope, of peculiar
construction, which I have the pleasure of exhibiting this evening
and various appliances of spectroscopic and general researches.

On the Cork Equatorial Telescope, &c. 359

The Dome is of fifteen feet diameter, constructed of wrought

iron ribs and purlins, covered with—

Ist. A network of wire, interlaced.

2nd. A thickness of sailcloth or canvas.

ord. A layer of felting ; and

4th. A second covering of sailcloth or canvas, well painted.

The Dome (Fig. 8.) has a cast-iron sole plate, planed truly

flat on the lower side, and the wall is capped with a cast-iron
wall plate, having ribs cast in it, and accurately planed, and
between the wall plate and sole plate roll eight rollers carefully
turned to a conical form. ‘This set of wheels or rollers, coupled
together by a wrought-iron framework, constitute what is tech-
nically called a live ving; and as all the friction is of that
character called rolling friction, and not sliding, the tractive
force necessary to drive the dome round is extremely small.
Lateral rollers are applied to prevent the Dome getting out of
centre. One important feature of this system of mounting
revolving Domes is, that as there are no bearings or pivots
there is nothing to clog or get stiff, and the Dome works as well
(if only kept moderately clean) after ten years as when first
erected. The Great Domes for Vienna Observatory I mounted on

this principle. Three of these were of 27 feet diameter, and one
of 45, v.¢., the largest revolving Dome in existence ; and even this
Dome, that weighed sixteen tons, required only a traction force of
70 lbs, to drive it without any gearing, 7.¢.,st¢ of its own weight.

360 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

The chase or opening in the Dome is segmental, and revolves

on the finial with rollers also below, and when fully open exposes
60° at the horizon.

Fig. 9.

The Transit Shutter is peculiar in its construction, and the first
of its kind erected, excepting only a small one at my own works.

On the Cork Equatorial Telescope, kc. 361

The Roof of the Transit Room is segmental, concealed by a
battlemented wall, and the shutter follows the same general
form. Theshutter is all in one piece, about twenty feet long and
two feet wide, and is supported at each end by two levers, which,
linked together, form a parallel motion. (See Fig. 9.) These levers
carry counterpoises at their lower ends, and the shafts on which
these levers or parallel bars revolve pass across the Transit Room
a few inches below the level of the wall plate, and to one of these
shatts inside the building a lever is attached for opening and
shutting. The shutter weighs about 5 ewt., but when perfectly
balanced a weight of 2 Ibs. or a lever 3 feet long is sufficient to
open or close it. In practice, however, it is found better not to
have the shutter quite balanced, but to have a little overplus of
weight tending to close it. A lock or bolt is also necessary other-
wise the wind, even when very slight, is sufficient to open it.
The shutter can be completely opened in two seconds.

One good feature in this shutter is, that as in the latter portion
of its journey the direction of its motion is nearly vertical, it 1s
evident that it can be very efficiently flashed, i.¢., snow and rain
guards can be applied of the most efficient construction.

The Siderostatic Telescope (Fig. 10).—This instrument is unique
+n its construction, so far as I know, but after having designed it
for the Cork Observatory, I mentioned the principle of its con-
struction to Dr. Draper, of New York, whose recent researches
on the physical constitution of the sun have attracted such atten-
tion; and it would appear that he has hit on the same idea, and
was having one made in fact when he wrote to me. I have not
as yet heard whether it is a success or not.

This instrument, though obviously useful in many ways, 1s
principally intended for solar spectroscopic investigation. It
occurred to me that while in observing faint objects, such as
nebule, faint companion stars, &c., observers are always most
careful to keep their eyes protected from even the faintest light—
that in observing the faint portion of the extreme end of the
solar spectrum, observers are under the very worst possible condi-
tions, for they must needs be in a room blazing with sunlight if
they use a spectroscope attached to an ordinary equatorial
mounting. I leave it to any observer to say what chance he
would have of seeing faint objects in a telescope for ten minutes

362 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

or a quarter of an hour after leaving a room in which he had been
exposed to the electric or other bright light.

Fig. 10.

nn of

Of course, when it is desired to concentrate on the slit the
general light of the sun for examination, a hole in a shutter can
be used and a siderostat outside. But I refer to these observa-
tions where it is necessary to form an image of the sun on the
slit of the spectroscope, and examine each part seriatim, and this
at present can only be done with an equatorially mounted tele-
scope, and spectroscope attached thereto.

On the Cork Equatorial Telescope, &c. 363

The Instrument consists of a cast iron frame supporting a
4-inch achromatic telescope pointing directly at the south pole of
the earth. Below the objective, and in line with it is supported
a mirror polished with the greatest care to an optically plane
surface, and silvered with a coating of chemically deposited silver.

The telescope revolves on its own axis either by hand or by
clockwork as required, and this motion corresponds to the ®
movement of an equatorial. The mirror has a motion on its axis,
and this corresponds to the declination movements of an equa-
torial.

The whole framing is carried, when not vi use, on four rollers,
rolling on a pair of iron rails let into the floor. When required
for use the instrument is rolled over to a window specially pre-
pared for it in the south wall of the Physical Wing, the lower
part of this window opens, and the instrument is rolled out until
the mirror, objective and a certain portion of the tube projects
outside the building, while the eye-piece remains in a conveni-
ent position inside. The wheel (W), see Fig. 10, is now turned,
and the whole frame is lowered down until three levelling screws
come to bear on three cushions of iron specially prepared for
them, and let into a solid stone pier just projecting through, but
quite disconnected from, the floor of the room. The instrument is
now in a condition for observing, supported on a solid stone pier,
and with its object glass in the open air under most favourable
conditions for observation, while the observer is situated most
comfortably, and perfectly sheltered inside the observatory. It
‘should be borne in mind that as there is in this case no open
window, or, indeed, any opening in the wall (as the frame is so
so constructed as practically to keep out draughts), the telescope
is not under the unfavourable condition that it would be if
simply placed at an open window where the currents of differing
temperatures just meet and mix. All objects from zenith to
south horizon, and from E. to W. are now available for observa-
tion.

For setting the instrument there is a A circle divided to 2 m.,
and reading to 10 sec., at the upper end of the tube, and there is
a declination are on the mirror frame read by the microscope
from the eye-piece end, and by a peculiar arrangement this micro-
scope also serves for illuminating the declination are.

364 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

The whole eye-piece also with its rack and pinion turns aside
and the same motion bringing into the field a low power lens,
which virtually constitutes the whole telescope a finder with a
field of 22°.

The A quick motion is obtained by drawing the A screw out
of gear by the handle, and turning the telescope on its own axis
by hand.

The A slow motion is obtained by the milled head working
into differential gearing.

The declination movements are obtained by the button head
(not visible in the Figure), which is geared by a long rod and
pinion to a toothed are on the mirror frame.

Now, this instrument being once got into adjustment, and
set on, say, the sun, the image will remain in the field for any
amount of time perfectly stationary. Obviously, the attach-
ment of spectroscopes to such an instrument is an easy problem.
It should be remembered that as the cushions into which the
screws drop when placed in position have certain hollows in them,
the instrument, if once adjusted, will always come into adjust-
ment when lowered into position.

The Spectroscope (See Fig. 11), or at least the primecipal instru-
ment, for it is intended to have other smaller instruments for
less delicate operations, is similar to one which I have had
the honour of exhibiting before the Society, and the first
instrument of its class was made for Prof. Young of America.
Its peculiarity consists in having the observing and collimat-
ing telescopes side by side parallel to one another, and the
one focussing screw actuates the sliding tubes of both tele-
scopes, thus affecting automatically what ought to be done in
every spectroscope, but which owing to the trouble is rarely if
ever practised—I mean simultaneous focussing. The power of
this spectroscope is variable from 2 to 4 or 6 or 8 or 10 prisms,
each of 60° heavy flint glass. The motion is automatic, that is
movement of the one button head actuates the whole number of
prisms, and in their proper proportions,

oe

On the Cork Equatorial Telescope, €e. 365

The Micrometeis.—It is intended to have two micrometers for
use with the equatorial.

The Bi-filar Micrometer is of the ordinary construction. Two
screws each of fifty threads to the inch, carry one or more spider
lines each. These wires can be made to traverse the whole
breadth of the field, so that measures can be taken in both
directions. Whole turns of the screw are read off through the
windows in front, and zo parts of a turn on the micrometer
heads.

The Duplex Micrometer (Fig. 12),is an instrument of novel
construction, only one other being in existence. This one other is
an instrument which I made about ten months since for the
Savillian Observatory in Oxford, and it has been in constant use
there, and has given the most satisfactory results,

The object or special use for the Duplex Micrometer is that of
measuring the distances and positions of stars which are too
far asunder to allow them to be brought into the field of an
ordinary micrometer.

For this purpose up to the present the instrument called the
Heliometer has been used, but this involves the use of a special

366 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

telescope with a divided object glass, and most complicated and
costly arrangements. Prof. Pritchard of Oxford, however, has
found that this little instrument (which is only a special form
of micrometer capable of attachment to any equatorial telescope
at a cost of about 25th that of a Heliometer) can be utilized, and
indeed, I may now say has been utilized to do work which will
in every way compete with the best work done by its costly
rival.

The construction of this instrument is very simple, and will
be easily understood by reference to the annexed Figure, which
is a perspective view of the instrument.

A plate of glass about 24 inches square is ruled with 21 lines in
one direction ;4 inch apart, and 2 lines in the other direction 2
inches apart. The extreme lines of the set therefore form a per-
fect square of 2 inches.

These lines are ruled with exceeding accuracy and care, but
provision is left for ascertaining any errors that remain either as
to distance or want of perfect squareness.

Along one side of the square is mounted a micrometer frame
in the ordinary way, actuated by a screw of 100 threads to the
inch, this micrometer frame carries eleven lines corresponding
exactly to each alternate line in the glass reticule, so that when
the first spider line is made coincident with the first diamond
line on the glass, the last spider line will be coincident with the
last line on the glass, and each of the spider lines will be
coincident with all the odd numbers of diamond lines 1, 3, 5, 7, 9,
11, 18, 15, 17, 19, 21. Over this glass plate is placed a brass cap

On the Cork Equatorial Telescope, ée. 367

in which two eye-pieces are mounted, one sliding in a groove at
right angles to the other, so that while one has its journey back-
wards and forwards on the horizontal line, the other has its
journey on the vertical line, according to how the cap is placed,
for this cap is capable of rotation to meet various circumstances.

How to use the Instrument.

Istly. The two stars are brought on the horizontal line, and the
distance measured from centre to centre along that line. This dis-
tance is measured by counting the number of spaces on the glass,
adding the residue as measured by the micrometer screw. Thus
the screw is never used for larger measures than 5 inch, and
therefore errors of screw and temperature errors are much reduced.
In bisecting; one star is brought into the field of the eye-piece, and
a bisection is made with one of the diamond lines by moving the
micrometer by one or other of its slipping piece screws. Then
the other eye-piece is moved till the second star is seen, and a
bisection is made with the nearest spider line by moving the micro-
meter head. Then the eye can be moved back to eye-piece, and
the bisection checked, and again back to first eye-piece. When
it is seen that both are satisfactory the measure can be read off.

2ndly. The micrometer is turned round till the horizontal line
becomes parallel to the path of apparent motion of the star. This
is easily found by stopping the clock and allowing the star to
run along the horizontal wire. Now the other star will be found
to cross the vertical line somewhere, while the first star is on the
horizontal line. This second star is then bisected on the vertical
line, while the first star is bisected by one of the spider lines; thus
the difference in M is found. We then have two sides of a right
angle triangle, and, of course, all the elements are known.*

To ascertain the errors (if any) of the distance of the lines of
course, the usual plan of taking transits can be adopted, and to
ascertain if the line be perfectly at right angles a special additional
eye-piece is provided, so that transits can be taken across each
diagonal of the square.

So far I have spoken of instruments, which are either com-
pleted or nearly so. I now proceed to say afew words concerning
matters that are as yet only projected or in progress. On these

* The words horizontal and vertical are here only used in relative terms, and for the
sake of explanation.

368 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

points I will not attempt any description, but merely mention a
few points in which these instruments will be unique.

The Transit Circle—A transit circle of 5 inches in diameter is
now in preparation. The peculiarities of this instrument will
consist iIn—

Ist. An important modification in its mechanical construction,
by which it is confidently hoped greater stability will be
obtained, and exemption from some annoying and troublesome
effects of flexure, which are at present in almost all large imstru-
ments of this class; and

2nd. The adoption of glass as a material for the circles, instead
of brass and other metal.

This last modification will be a very serious one, and I look
anxiously for the result, but have every confidence of success.
My reasons for making this radical change in the most important
part of the most conservative of all astronomical instruments are
twofold.

Ist. Because the perfection and permanence of such circles
depends much on the state of internal strains and molecular con-
dition of the material of which it is composed, and these strains
can all be ascertained and corrected if need be in the glass, but in
the metal there is no possibility of detecting them.

2nd. Because the reading of divisions on glass is capable
of much greater accuracy than in metal. Metal circles must be
viewed by reflected light, and all observers know that even the
flickering of the lamp causes an apparent change of position
of the lines, but in transparent circles, illuminated properly from
behind, this does not take place.

In support of this view, I quote a passage from a paper by Mr.
Rutherford, who, I suppose, may now be considered the greatest
living authority on instruments of precision. This paper was
sent to me some time after I had made my proposals for glass
circles to the Cork instrument, and I was much pleased at such a
remarkable corroboration of what I almost feared was too bold
an innovation.

Mr. Rutherford says :—

‘¢T am convinced from the ease with which one second is read on my
instrument, with microscopes only 4$ inches long, including objectives
and eye-pieces, that upon a circle of 15 inches, provided with powerful

On the Cork Equatorial Telescope, ke. 369

microscopes, greater precision could be attained in the reading of angles
than with the largest metallic circles now in use.”

I may mention also that I have taken the opinion of many of
our great astronomers on the question, and among them I have
had only one doubtful opinion—no unfavourable opinion—and all
the rest highly favouratle.

Clock Arrangements.—It is proposed that there should be a
normal pendulum shut up in an air-tight case, and kept at a
constant temperature and pressure and by which all the clocks in
the Observatory shall be controlled. The details of the arrange-
ment, however, are suspended just at present, waiting the result
of the report of the British Association Committee on the subject
of Normal Pendulums. Of that committee, Mr. Gill, Prof.
Forbes, Mr. Ginningham, and myself have the honour to be
members, and we hope, in our report, to be able to indicate some
promising lines to work upon.

In the foregoing description, I have endeavoured, as far as
possible, to avoid ordinary details, but to give prominence to
those points which may be considered special. It will be
evident, I think, to any one who has followed me that the new
observatory for the Queen’s College, Cork, will be remarkable at
least for the unique nature of its instruments and the number of
innovations introduced into the most of them. It is the hope of
the authorities of the College, as well as myself, that in some
cases at least these instruments may form models for those of the
future ; and I desire to take this opportunity of recording
my thanks to the College authorities for their kindness in
permitting me to carry out in every instance my own individual
views and embodying them in these instruments.

Scien. Proc., R.D.S. Vou. m., Pt. v 2¢

bi StON]

XLVIIIL—NOTE ON THE CONDUCTIVITY OF TOURMA-
LINE CRYSTALS, sy GEORGE FRANCIS FITZGERALD,
M.A., F.T.C.D.

{Read January 19th, 1880. ]

In the Philosophical Magazine for July, 1879, Professor Sylvanus
Thompson and Dr. Oliver Lodge give the results of some very
interesting experiments upon the unilateral conductivity of tour-
maline erystals for heat and electricity. Dr. Lodge had shown
that an explanation of pyro-electricity might be given if such
crystals possessed a unilateral conductivity for electricity. A
body is said to possess unilateral conductivity for anything if it
conducts better in one direction than in the opposite one ; as, for
example, a tube with a series of funnels in it all turned the same
way for fluids, and apparently in the case of Geissler’s tubes for
electricity also. The result of their experiments was that tour-
maline crystals do possess a unilateral conductivity for heat as
long as their temperature is variable and similarly for electricity
as long as the temperature varies. The first of these facts is an
important and valuable increase of our knowledge, but the latter
as they point out is of course only due to the already known
electromotive force which constitutes their pyro-electric properties.
They seem to have been dissatisfied with these results, for they
had hoped to discover unilateral electric conductivity inde-
pendently of changes of temperature. They do not seem to have
noticed that what analogy should have led them to look for was
unilateral conductivity during changes of intensity of the
current. It is to be hoped that, as they possess a very fine
specimen of tourmaline, they will continue their investigations
into this point. In the meanwhile it may be worth noticing a
mechanical illustration of how this might be connected with
pyro-electricity. Suppose a wire carrying a current, surrounded
by a number of magnets, and that a majority of them pointed
in one direction round the wire, and that each was kept in its
_place by a spring. On passing a current through the wire,
all the magnets that did not point round it in a particular
direction would tend to set themselves in this direction, and

Conductivity of Tourmaline Crystals. 371

during changes of intensity of the current, work would be done
against or by the springs. If the current passed in such a
direction that the majority of the magnets were set so as to
remain unchanged, there would be less work done by changes of
intensity than if the current were in the opposite direction, and
this would give rise to an apparent unilateral conductivity. I
say “apparent” because the weakening of the current is due to
an inverse electromotive force, and not to a true increase of the
resistance. The same effect would be produced by supposing a
majority of the magnets turned in the same direction along the
magnet, and kept in position by two springs, one on each side,
but one stronger than the other, when of course a current would
have to do more work in turning them to one side than to the
other, so that in this case also there would be apparent unilateral
conductivity during variations of the current.

Now, suppose that the proportion of polarised magnets or their
strength depended on the temperature of the system. It is then
evident that during changes of temperature there would be
changes in the numbers or strengths of the polarised magnets ;
either would produce an electromotive force in the wire during
the change. Hence the phenomena of pyro-electricity would be
manifested by such a system. I put these forward merely as
illustrations, not supposing that the structure of tourmaline is
necessarily at all like either of them, but there are generally
great analogies between different systems exhibiting the same
phenomena, and an illustration gives us a concrete stepping-stone
to found our conceptions on during the difficult transit to the
abstract.

The passage of a current through an iron wire is accompanied
by the production of a series of magnetic elements round it, and
the effect of this has been noticed as causing an apparent change
of resistance during changes of the current, but as there is no
want of symmetry in the wire there is no apparent unilateral
conductivity.

Scien. Proc., R.D.S. Vou. 1, Pr. v. 2c2

[372.4

XLIX.—NOTE ON THE CONSTRUCTION OF GUARD-RING
ELECTROMETERS, sy GEORGE FRANCIS FITZGERALD,
M.A., F.T.C.D.

[Read January 19th, 1880.]

GUARD-RING electrometers have usually been constructed with an
aluminium disk, for the sake of lightness, surrounded by a guard-
ring of brass. It is essential for the accuracy of the calculation
of the absolute values of capacity and quantity made with them
that the electricity should be as uniformly distributed as possible
on the surface of the disk and guard. It is for the sake of pro-
ducing a uniform distribution on the disk that the guard is added
Hence any arrangement which disturbs this uniformity of distri-
bution is to be avoided. Now, whether the contact of dissimilar
metals in itself produces an appreciable difference of potential
between them, or whether it is the air near different metals that
is at different potentials, there is no doubt that when the plates
of an accumulator are of different metals there is an appreciable
accummulation of electricity upon them. Consequently in the
guard-ring electrometer the distribution of electricity on the
aluminium disk cannot be the same as on the brass guard con-
nected with it. It might seem as if the other plate should be of
the same material, but as it is generally easy to apply the
differential method of measurement, a constant even though un-
known difference of potential between the plates is of no con-
sequence.

[ 373 ]

L.—A COMPARATIVE CATALOGUE OF BIRDS FOUND IN
EUROPE AND NORTH AMERICA, sy PERCY EVANS
FREKE.

[Read December 15th, 1879. ]

In Ireland, from its position as an outlier on the western side of
Europe, we might naturally expect to find a large per-centage of
those birds which occur on both sides of the Atlantic, and of which
I have endeavoured to treat in the following paper. Along our
western coast, especially, might be looked for many of the ocean
birds or water-fowl which occur in Europe as visitors from time
to time.

But from want of interest in the subject among our sportsmen
generally, or from some other cause, the number of such visitors
noted is far less than that which has been recorded from England.

Probably many rare birds are annually shot and then thrown
away, unidentified and unrecorded.

To the best of my ability I have endeavoured to enumerate all
the species of whose occurrence we have sufficient evidence, and
to give a short epitome of the geographical distribution of each.

Any additions and corrections will be gladly received.

TURDID.
America. Europe.
Turdus fuscescens.* Steph. (Wilson’s Turdus fuscescens.
Thrush.) According to Homeyer, it has been taken
Eastern North America to the Missis- in Pomerania. (Degland and Gerbe,
sippi, and north to the fur countries. Vol. I., p. 425.)

(Baird, Brewer, and Ridgway.)
Panama, andCuba. (Sclaterand Salvin.)

Turdus swainsoni.* Cab. (Olive-backed Twurdus swainsoni.

Thrush.) It has been taken in Belgium, France,
Eastern North America to the Humbold Italy, and Germany. In 1848 a
Mountains, and Upper Columbia; specimen was found near Namur.
perhaps occasionally straggling as far (Degland and Gerbe, Vol. I., p. 428.)

as California. North to Great Slave
Lake, and Fort Yukon. South to Equa-
dor, Brazil, Cuba, and Costa Rica.
(Baird, Brewer, and Ridgway.)

Turdus pallasi.* Cab. (Hermit Thrush.) T'urdus pallasi.

Eastern North America, to the Missis- One was taken alive near Kleinzerbst,
sippi. (Baird, Brewer, and Ridgway.) 22 December, 1825. (Naumann, Isis
Mexico, and Guatemala. (Sclater and 1826, p. 520.)
Salvin. ) Another was killed in Switzerland, and

is in the Museum at Strasbourg. (Deg-
land and Gerbe, Vol. I., p. 427.)

* All names with an asterisk are those of residents, probably breeders.

374

Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

TuRDID.«: —continued.

America.
Turdus iliacus.
It has been twice found in Greenland.
(Reinhardt.)

Turdus migratorius.* Linn. American
Robin.)

All North America to Mexico.
Brewer, and Ridgway.)

Mexico, Guatemala, and Cuba. (Sclater

and Salvin.)

(Baird,

Harporhynchus rufus.* Cab. (Brown
Thrasher. )

Eastern North America, to the Missis~
sippi, and perhaps in the high centre ]

planes. (Baird, Brewer, and Ridgway. }

Galeoscoptes carolinensis.* Linn. (Catbird.)
The United States. North to Lake
Winnipeg; west to head of Columbia,

and Cascade Mountains; south to
Panama; Cuba; Bahamas; Bermuda
(breeds); oceurringin Oaxaca, Cordova

and Guatemala, the Musquito Coast,
Orizaba (in winter) Sumichrast, and
Yukatan. (Baird, Brewer, and Ridg-

way.)

Europe.
Turdus iliacus.* Linn. (Redwing.)
Northern Europe, migrating south in
winter all over the Continent.

Turdus migratorius.

One was taken at Dover, England. (J.
E. Harting, the ‘Field,’ 23 Decem-
ber, 1876.)

According to Temminck, it has several
times been observed in Germany ; and
Naumann says it has been seen near
Vienna. (Degland and Gerbe, Vol. L.,
p. 407.)

Harporhynchus rufus.
It has occurred in Heligoland. (Gethe.)

Galeoscoptes carolimensis.
Has occurred in Heligoland and in Ger-
many. (D’Hamonville, Cat. des
Oiseaux d’Europe, p. 28.)

SYLVIIDA.

Cyanecula suecica.

Mr. Adams met with several of these
birds, and obtained one, on the 5th of
June, 1851, at Michalaski, Norton
Sound. (Ibis, 1878, p. 422.)

Sazicola enanthe.* Linn.

Abundant in Greenland. Occurs in
Norton Sound near Bhering Straits.
Dr. Storer found it breeding in Labra-
dor as early as 1848. Others also
have found it there in immature plum-
age. It probably occurs as an
autumnal migrant in Labrador, Cana-
da, Nova Scotia, Bermuda, &c. It
is rarely found in the Eastern United
States. Has occurred on Long Island.
Norton Sound birds are perhaps a
little smaller than those from Labrador
and Greenland. (Baird, Brewer, and
Ridgway. )

Cyanecula suecica.*
Warbler.)
Eastern and North-Eastern Eurupe, and
eastwards through Central Asia to
Siberia and China. It breeds in
northern latitudes, and passes the
wiuter in the south, being met with in
North Africa, asfar south as Abyssinia.
Now and then it occurs in England as
arare straggler. In Western Europe
it is replaced by the white-spotted
bluethroat; C. Wolfii (Dresser).

Linn. (Blue-throated

Saxicola wnanthe.* Linn. (Wheatear.)
Found throughout Europe; south to
Africa; and in Asia, through Siberia
and Northern China. (Dresser. )

Catalogue of Birds found in Europe and America. 375

SyLviIp #Z—continued.

America.
Phyllopneuste borealis. Blas.
Willow Warbler.)
One was found at Norton Sound, Alaska,
by Mr. Pease in 1866. (Baird, Brewer,
and Ridgway.)

(Alaska

Regulus satrapa * Licht. (American Gold
crest )

Found from the Atlantic to the Pacific,
and throughout the British provinces,
south to Texas and New Mexico.

It is closely allied to R. cristatus of
Europe. (Baird, Brewer, and

Ridgway.)

Regulus calerdulus.* Wicht. (Ruby crest.)
North America from the Atlantic to the
Pacific, and from the Arctic Ocean to
Mexico, and south to Guatemala.
(Baird, Brewer, and Ridgway.)

Europe.
Phyllopneuste borealis.
Once found in Heligoland (Dr. Blasius.)
It is a native of Siberia and China.

Regulus cristatus.* Koch. (Gold crest.)

Found throughout Europe, to North

West Africa, and in Asia eastward to
Japan. (Dresser.)

The wings are shorter, and the bill
longer, than in the American bird.
The flame colour on the head also is
more extended, with the black border
almost wanting anteriorly, and the
back and rump are more yellow.
(Baird, Brewer, and Ridgway.)

Regulus calendulus.

One occurred at Loch Lomond in the
summer of 1852. (Dr Bree, Birds of
Europe, Vol. ii., p. 109.) One is
reported in the same year at Brampeth

Woods. (Dr. Bree, l.c., p. 114.)
PARID.
Lophophanes wollweberi.* Bp. (Striped Lophophanes cristatus.* Kaup. (Crested
headed Tit. ) Tit.) All temperate Europe; rare in
Found in New Mexico, the table land England.
of Mexico, and Western Texas.
Closely resembles L. cristatus of
Europe. (Baird, Brewer, and
Ridgway).
CERTHIADA.

Certhia familiaris.* Linn.

The whole of North America,

The American bird has been separated
from the European, as Var. Americana
(Bp.), having the crissum yellow,
shorter bill and tail, with the rectrices
less acute, and the underparts not
ashy as in the European bird; and
Var. Mexicana, ashy beneath, but with
the rufus of the rump castaneus
instead of yellowish, and the crissum
ochraceus. It is found on the upper
zone of Volean de Fuego and Chilasco,
Vera Paz. (Baird, Brewer, and
Ridgway.)

Certhia familiaris.* Linn. (Tree Creeper.)

Europe generally, and across. Northern
Asia to Japan.

Dresser says he can find no difference
between the European bird and the two
so-called American varieties, and that
in a series of specimens some of the
European birds have the crissum just
as yellow as the American.

TROGLODYTID.©.

Troglodytes parvulus var. hyemalis.* Vieill.

(Winter Wren.)

The whole of North America, but no
where very abundant.

It is so closely allied to 7. parvulus of
Europe that sometimes specimens are
indistinguishable. Asa rule, in Var.
hyemalis the shading is less uniform.

Troglodytes parvulus* Koch. (Wren).
All Europe, south to Algeria and east to
Central Asia. (Dresser.)

376

Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

TROGLODYTID&—continued.

America.
Beneath anteriorly it is brownish
ocraceus, with minute specks, instead
of the very pale yellowish ash of

Europe.

T. parvulus. (Baird, Brewer, and
Ridgway.)
Troglodytes borealis.* Fischer.
Found in Iceland and the Faroe Isles.
Professor Newton considers it inter-
mediate between 7. parvulus of
Europe and TZ. aédon of America
(Dresser. )
MOoraciLLipD&.

Motacilla alba.
Two specimens have been taken in
Greenland. (Newton.)

Motacilla flava.* Linn.
Observed by H, M. Bannister in Norton’s
Sound, June, 18€6, where it was quite

abundant. (Baird, Brewer, and
Ridgway.)
Very numerous at St. Michael’s,

Alaska; nest and eggs taken by Mr.

Motacilla alba.* Linn. (White Wagtail.)

Europe generally except the extreme

north, and in winter south, even to
Senegal in Africa.

Motacilla flava.* Linn.
Wagtail.)

Common in Central Europe, Norway,
and Sweden. Found in Lapland
(Linn.) North-east Africa, Himalayas
(Gould). Japan (Temminck).

Rare in England.

(Gray-headed

Turner. (Ridgway, Bull. Nutt. Orn.
Club, January, 1878, p. 38.)
ATHINA.
Anthus ludovicianus.* Licht, (American Anthus ludovicianus.

Tit-lark.)

Found throughout the whole of North
America, and in Greenland ; and south
to Guatemala and even Peru, but not

noticed in the West Indies. (Baird,
Brewer, and Ridgway.)
Anthus pratensis.
One was received from Greenland, 1845.
(Newton. )

One occurred at St. Michael’s, Alaska.
(Mr. W. H. Dall.)

It has been twice taken in Heligoland.
(Giitke.)

Five in England, several in Scotland,
and two in Ireland have been recorded,
but some of these may have been A.
spinoletia. (Harding’s Hand-Book,
p: 109.)

Anthus pratensis.* (L.) Bechst. (Meadow

Pipit.)

Europe generally. Asia Minor (Canon
Tristram) ; India (Mr. Hume); North
East Africa (Captain Clark Ken-
nedy); North West Africa.

SYLVICOLID®.

Dendroica virens.* Baird, (Black-throated
Green Warbler.)

Greenland; Eastern United States, to
Texas and Mexico (numerous in
winter); and south to the Parana
river; and in Cuba. (Baird, Brewer,
and Ridgway.)

Dendroica virens.
One was taken in Heligoland, 19
October, 1858. (Baird, Brewer, and
Ridgway, Vol. i., p. 263.)

HIRUNDINID&.

Baird. (Purple Martin).

The whole of North America; Breeds
from Florida to the north. Found
also in Bermuda and all tropical South
America, (Baird, Brewer, and Ridg-

way.)

Progne subis.*

Progne subis.
Accidental in Europe.
One was taken at Kingstown, Ireland,
1840. (Yarrell, Brit. Birds, Vol. ii.
p- 267). One at Huddersfield, 1854.
(Hobkirk, Huddersfield, its Hist. and
Nat. Hist., 1868, p. 218.)

Catalogue of Birds found in Europe and America.

377

HiIRuUNDINID @—continued.

America.
Hirundo horreorum.* Barton. (American
Barn Swallow.)

According to Baird, Brewer, and Ridg-
way it is found from Greenland to the
Southern United States, and the West
Indies; Parana (Lawler); breeds on
the Plateau of Mexico (Sumichrast) ;
Veragua and Chirique (Salvin).

It is closely allied to the European H.
rustica, which, however, has longer
outer tail feathers; a broad collar of
steel blue across the jugulum ; and the
abdomen white instead of reddish.

Hirundo bicolor.* Vieill.
Swallow.)

Found throughout the whole of the
United States ; north to Slave Lake,
and south to Mexico and Guatemala;
Bermuda and Cuba. (Baird, Brewer,
and Ridgway).

(White-bellied

Cotyle riparia.* (1.) Boie.

Found throughout the whole of North
America; the Berinudas; Greater
Antilles; Costa Rica; Western Brazil
and Guatemala. (Baird, Brewer, and
Ridgway.)

Indistinguishable from the European
bird.

Europe.
Hivundo rustica.* Linn. (Barn Swallow.)
Throughout Europe, Africa, and Asia;
but is replaced to some extent in
Eastern Asia by H. horreorum
(Dresser).

Hirundo bicolor.

One was taken near Derby, 1850.
(Wolley, Zool. 1853, p. 3806; and
Newton, P.Z.S.,1860, p.131; and Zool.
1860, p. 7145.)

Cotyle riparia.* (L.) Boie. (Sand Martin.)
Throughout Europe, Asia, and North
Africa. (Dresser.)

VIREONID&.

Vireosylvia olivaceus.* Bp. (Red-eyed
Greenlet.)

Eastern North America (once in Green-
land) from Nova Scotia to Florida,
and west to Lake Winnepeg, and the
Rocky Mountains. South in winter
to Parana, and Bogota, and rarely in
Cuba. (Baird, Brewer, and Ridgway.)

Vireosylvia olivaceus.
Once taken in England. (Baird, Brewer,
and Ridgway, Voli., p. 364.)

AMPELID&.

Ampelis garrulus.* Linn.

According to Baird, Brewer, and Ridg-
way, it is common at Great Bear
Lake (Ross); Suskatchewan (Sir J.
Richardson). Rarer in the United
States, where it is chiefly found in the
Rocky Mountains and plains as far
south as Fort Massachusetts and Fort
Riley. A regular visitor at Lake Erie.
Several specimens have been taken at
Worcester ; and Boston ; and also at
Hartford, Connecticut; at Phila-
delphia and Long Island. Once found
breeding on the Yukon, 1861
(Kennicut), and once on the Anderson
River. (M‘Farlane.)

Ampelis garrulus.* Linn. (Waxwing.)
Found in the northern parts of North
Europe, and south in winter to Britain,
Holland, Belgium, and Southern
Germany ; Upper Italy; rarely in
France, Siberia and China. (Dresser.)

378 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.
LANUD.
America. Europe.
Lanius ludovicianus* var. excubitoroides. Lanius excubitor.* Linn. (Great Gray
Baird. Shrike.)

Western North America, to a little east
of the Mississippi river; south to
Texas, and nearly all Mexico.

The wings are shorter, and the tarsus
longer, than in ZL. excuditor, and the
nasal tufts are bordered with hoary
white. (Baird, Brewer, and Ridgway.)

Northern Europe. The British Isles,
Holland, Scandinavia, Germany,
Russia, Northern France; more rarely,
according to Lord Lilford, in Spain ;
and in Switzerland and Northern
Italy. (Dresser.)

FRINGILLID.©.

Pinicola enucleator.* (L.) Cab.

British North America, and south to the
United States, even sometimes as far
as Philadelphia where it occasionally
occurs in some numbers.

It can hardly be separated from the
European bird especially the western
specimens ; there is a slight difference
in size, and the plumage of the
Americans is perhaps a little brighter.

Pyrrhula cassini.* Baird.

One found at Nulato, Alaska, 10 Januy.,
1876 (Dall), and several flocks met
with by Capt. Everett Smith near
Ulukuk. Closely allied to P. major of
Europe. (Baird, Brewer, and Ridg-
way-)

Loxia curvirostra.* Linn.

Var. Americana. North America gene-
rally. Var. Mexicana. Mountainous
regions of the Southern United States,
Mexico, and south to Guatemala.

Both varieties very closely resemble the
European bird; the chief difference is
in the bill, which in Var. Mexicana,
isstouter, especially the lower mandible.

In Var. Americana, especially eastern birds,
it is much slighter than in either of
the others. (Baird, Brewer, and
Ridgway.)

Lowia leucoptera.* Gm. (American white-
winged Crossbill. )

British North America and Greenland.
In the east it comes as far south as the
United States, even to Philadelphia.
(Baird, Brewer, and Ridgway.)

Pinicola enucleator.* (L.) Cab. (Pine Gros-
beak.)

According to Mr, Dresser it is found in
Northern Europe, southwards rarely
to France (Degland and Gerbe) ;
Southern Germany, Bohemia (Fritsch).
Northern Asia, migrating southwards
in winter. Mr. Harting, in his hand-
book, records several as occurring in
England and Scotland, and one in
Ireland, near Belfast. (Thompson,
Nat. Hist. Irel. Birds, Vol. i., p. 275.

Pyrrhula major.* C. L. Brehm. (Northern
Bullfinch.

Northern and Fastern Europe. Norway,
Sweden, Russia, &c., and south im
winter to Germany, Holland, Belgium,
Southern Russia, and even Greece.
(Dresser.)

Loxia curvirostra.* Linn. (Crossbill.)
Northern Europe. South in winter to
the southern limits of the continent.
Majorca, abundant, (Saunders.) Malta,
(Wright.) Northern Asia, Afganistan,
(Hutton.) Japan, (Siebold.)

Loxia leucoptera.

According to Newton's Yarrell it has
been occasionally taken in Britain,
viz.: one at Belfast, 1802 (noted by
the Linnean Society); one killed near
Worcester, 1836 (H. E. Strickland) ;
one killed froma flock by Mr. Seaman,
of Ipswich (7: Mr. Hoy); one at
Exmouth, 1845 (Fritton) ; one at Great
Yarmouth, 1870 (Gurney); one at
Jedborough, 1841 (R. Gray.) <A
flock seen near Banff, 1859 (CT.
Edward. )

oo

Catalogue of Birds found in Europe and America, 379

FRINGILLIDZ—continued.

America.

Linota linavia.® (L.)
Fringilla linaria. Linn.
L. borealis. Vieill and Bp.
Greenland, British North America, and
south as far as Philadelphia. (Baird,
Brewer, and Ridgway.)

Linota hornemanni.* Holboll.
L. canescens, Bp.
Greenland.

Linota exilipes.* Coues.
Continental Arctic America. South in
winter as far as Mount Carroll, Illinois.
(Baird, Brewer, and Ridgway.)

Europe.
Lozxia bifasciata.* C. L. Brehm. (European
White-winged Crossbill.)
North-Eastern Europe and Siberia. It
has several times been taken in Great
Britain and twice in Ireland, viz.:
once at Belfast, January, 1802
(Thompson, Nat. Hist. Ir. Birds, Vol.
i. p. 283.) Once in the county of
Dublin, July or August, 1868 (Blake
Knox, Zool. 1868, p. 1876.) It is
closely allied to L. leucoptera, but is
rather larger with a more powerful
bill; the scapulars and central back
feathers are more broadly edged with
brown or red in the males, and the tail
is less forked, its feathers seldom losing
the light margins as in L. leucoptera
(Newton’s Yarrell.)

Linota linaria.* Linn. (Mealy Redpole.)
Of the genus Linota Mr. Dresser says,
“Few groups present more difficulty
= working out than do the Redpoles.
* * * J was at first inclined to
treat them all as one species, for they
certainly do run into each other in a
most perplexing manner; but I am
now convinced that Professor Newton
is correct in keeping them separate,
for they certainly do range into four
races or forms which it is most con-
venient to treat as distinct species.”’
(Birds of Europe.) I have here fol-
lowed this arrangement.

The present species is found throughout
all Northern Europe, from Great
Britain to Siberia, straggling as far
south as the shores of the Mediterranean.
(Dresser. )

Linota rufescens.* Vieill. (Lesser Redpole.)
L. linaria, Bp.
Great Britain, Holland, Belgium, France,
and Spain. Its range is thus very
limited. (Newton’s Yarrell.)

Linota hornemanni.* Holbéll. (Arctic Red-
pole.)

According to Newton’s Yarrell (Part X.,
p. 144), it has occurred in Iceland,
(Hancock) ; Spitzbergen (Eaton) ; one
taken at Abbeyville (Degland); and
one at Whitburn, 1855. (J. Hancock.)

Linota exilipes.* Coues. (Stone Redpole.)
North-Eastern Europe. Norway and
Russia (Dresser.) Archangel (Alston
and Beown.) Lower Petchora (Brown

and Secbohm.)

380

Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

FRINGILLID A—continued.

America.
Linota flavirostris var. brewstert
A single specimen was shot from a flock
L. linaria, which, from its close resem-
blance to JZ. flavirostris, has been
named as above. (Baird, Brewer,
and Ridgway, vol. i, p. 493.)

Plectrophanes nivalis.* (.) Meyer.
Northern North America from the At-
lantic to the Pacific, and southwards
into the United States. (Baird,
Brewer, and Ridgway.)

Plectrophanes lapponicus.* (L.) Selby.
Greenland and Arctic North America
generally, migrating south as far as
New York. Has even been found at
Fort Garland, New Mexico. (Baird,
Brewer, and Ridgway.)

Passer domesticus.* Linn.
It appears to have been first introduced
into North America in 1858, at Port-
land, Maine, and is now common in

many Cities of the Continent. (Baird,
Brewer, and Ridgway.)
Zonotrichia albicollis.* Bp. (White-

throated Sparrow.)

Eastern North America, British posses-
sions and United States; west to the
Missouri, and south in winter to
Louisiana. (Baird, Brewer, and Ridg-

way.)

Europe.

Linota flavivostris.* Linn. (‘Twite.)
Europe generally, except Iceland ; breed-
ing in the north and wintering further
south. Siberia and China (Swinhoe.)
Japan (Schlegel.) Palestine (Canon
Tristram.) North Africa, Algeria.

Plectrophanes nivalis.* (L.) Meyer. (Snow
Bunting.)

It inhabits the north of Northern Europe
and Asia, migrating southwards to the
central parts in winter. British Isles
Belgium, Holland, and Northern
France; rare in the south of France.
(Dresser.)

Plectrophanes lapponicus.*
(Lapland Bunting.)
According to Mr. Dresser it is found in
the Arctic regions generally, Iceland;
Spitzbergen ; Scandinavia; North Ger-
many, (Broggreve.) Rare in Central
and Southern Russia (Sabanaéff); Eng-
land; Holland; Belgium; France
(Degland and Gerbe); and has occur-
red even as far south as Italy.

(L.) Selby.

Passer domesticus.* Linn. (House Spar-
row. )
Europe; Northern Africa, and into Asia.
(Dresser.)

Zonotrichia albicollis.
It occurred once in Aberdeenshire, 17
August, 1867, (Newton, P.Z.S. 1870,
p-. 52), and once at Brighton (P.Z.S.
4 June, 1872).

ALAUDID.

Alauda arvensis.
Occasionally visits Greenland, and has
been met with in the Bermudas.

(Dresser. )

Eremophila alpestris.* (L.) Boie.

From the Atlantic to the Pacific, breeding
in the Arctic regions and found south
to Illinois, Wisconsin, &c. Once
found in Greenland according to
Reinhardt.

Var. chrysolema is found in Middle North
America, and south to Mexico.
(Baird, Brewer, and Ridgway.)

Alauda arvensis.* Linn.

Europe generally. Siberia; Russia;

Western Asia; the Morea and the

shores of the Black Sea; Smyrna;
and North Africa. (Yarrell.)

(Skylark.)

Evremophila alpestris.* (L.) Boie. (Shore-
Lark.)

Northern Europe; rare in Belgium and
France; but has been taken even as
far south as Naples, according to
Professor Achille Costa. Northern
Asia. (Dresser.)

Catalogue of Birds found in Europe and America. 381
IcTERID&.
America. Europe.
Agelaius pheniceus.* V.inn, (Red-winged Agelaius pheniceus.
Blackbird. ) Its occurrence in England is given in

North America from the Atlantic to the
Pacific, and from Great Slave Lake,
&¢., south to Guatemala (Sclater) ;
Costa Rica (Lawrence) ; Bahamas
(Bryant), and Texas (Dresser).

Sturnella magna.* ‘Swain. (American
Meadow- Lark.)

It ranges over North America, from the
Atlantic to the Pacific, and from
south of the British Provinces, to Cuba
and Brazil. Five varieties are recog-

nised. (Baird, Brewer, and Ridgway.)

Newton’s Yarrell as,

At Barton Broad, Norfolk, 2 June,
1843.

At Shepherd’s Bush, near London,
1844,

At Sidlesham, Sussex, December, 25,
1863 (Jeffery, Zool. p. 8951).

At Romney, Kent (J. H. Gurney,
1864 or 1865).

At Liphook, Hampshire, May, 1865
(Jesse, Zool. p. 9782).

At Brighton 21 March, 1866 (Zool.
8s. p. 229),

Near Banff, June, 1866 (Edward,
Zool. s.s. p. 310).

In East Lothian (seen by Mr. Scot
Skirving).

At Adwick-le-Street, Yorkshire, March,
1877 (Mosley, Zool. 1877, p. 257).

Sturnella magna.

The eastern variety has been found in
England; viz.: one at Thrandeston,
Suffolk, and one seen at South Wal-
sham, Norfolk (Sclater, Ibis, 1861,
p. 176), one near Cheltenham (re-
ported in the “Field,” 11 March,
1871).

STURNID&.

Sturnus vulgarise
Once found

in Greenland in 185],
(Holbill.) .

Sturnus vulgaris.* Linn. (Starling. )
Europe generally ; the Azores; Northern
Africa; and in Asia, east to Eastern
Siberia. (Dresser. )

Corvip=

Corvus corax.* Linn.

Scattered over nearly the whole con-
tinent ; rarer in the United States east
of the Mississippi.

The variety carnivorus is claimed for
the American bird, as having the bill
longer, and less deep, and the plumage
brighter than the European, especially
in specimens from Southern North
America. (Baird, Brewer, and Ridg-

way.)

Pica caudata var. hudsonica.* Bp.
Northern North America, and from the
Missouri river to the Pacific; in winter
south to Illinois.
It differs from the European bird in being
rather larger, with a comparatively
longer tail, and the voice is said to be

Corvus coraz.* Linn. (Raven.)

Northern Europe, and Asia, becoming
rarer towards the south.

Dresser considers this bird identical with
the American; he says, he ‘cannot
find that these differences hold good,
for in the series I have examined, I
find some European and Asiatic
specimens with the plumage fully as
brightly burnished, and not differing
in the least shade of colour from
American examples.”

Pica caudata.* (L.) Flem. (Magpie.)
According to Mr. Dresser it is pretty
generally distributed over Europe.

Common in Cyprus; once found in
Malta (Wright.) Siberia; Persia;
the Himalyas; China, and Japan.

He says, “the range of the common

IQs
382

Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

Corvipa—continued.

America.
different. (Baird, Brewer, and Ridg-

way.)

Europe.
Magpie may be given as extending
over the entire Palearctic region, and
a local race which I consider identical,

being found in Western North
America.” British specimens are

found marked like the American, and
also specimens from Eastern Siberia,
with white on the throat like
American birds. The differences in
the tail of the American bird are not
constant. (Birds of Europe.)

ALCEDINIDZE.

Ceryle alcyon.* Boie. (Belted Kingfisher.)

All North America; south to Panama,

and in the West Indies. (Baird,
Brewer, and Ridgway. )

Ceryle alcyon.

_It has occurred once in the county
Meath, October, 1845. (Thompson,
Nat. Hist. Ir. Birds, Vol. I., p. 373.)

And once at Luggelaw, county Wicklow,
1845. (Thompson, op. cit.)

CucuLip”.

Coccyzus americanus.* (1...) Bp. (Yellow-
billed Cuccoo.)
The whole of North America, and has
been once found in Greenland in 1874.
(F. Benzon. Dresser.)

Coceyzus erythrophthalmus.* (W.) Bp.
(Black-billed Cuccoo. )
Eastern North America.

Coccyzus americanus.
One was found at Youghal, Ireland,

1825. (Yarrell.)
One at Bray, Ireland. (Yarrell.)
One in Cornwall. (Yarrell.)

One in Pembrokeshire, 1832. (Yarrell.)

One near Aberystwith, 1870. (Cousens,
The Field, 5 November, 1870.)

And one at Hainault, Belgium, 1874.
(Dubois. )

Coccyzus erythrophthalmus.
One occurred at Lucca, Italy, 1857.
(Dr. Carle Bolle.)
One was killed in the county Antrim,
Ireland, 1871. (Lord Claremont,
Zool., 1872, p. 8022.)

Picipz.

Picus villosus.* Linn. (Hairy Wood-
pecker. )

Eastern North America to the Rocky
Mountains; south to Texas, and west
along the 49th parl. to British

Columbia. (Baird, Brewer, and Ridg-
way.)

Picus pubescens.* Linn. (Downy Wood-
pecker. )

From British Columbia to Labrador;
and in the United States, east of the
Rocky Mountains, and south to Texas.
(Baird, Brewer, and Ridgway.)

Picus villosus.
A pair occurred at Halifax, Yorkshire.
(Latham, Gen. Syn., Vol. II., p. 578.)
And one at Whitby, Yorkshire, 1849.
(Higgins, Zool., 1849, p. 2496.)

Picus pubescens.

One occurred at Bloxworth, near Bland-
ford, Dorsetshire, December, 1836.
(Rev. O. P. Cambridge, Zool., 1859
p. 6444.)

Catalogue of Birds found in Europe and America.

383

Prcrpaz—continued.

America.

Picoides tridactylus var. americanus.*
Brehm.

Arctic North America; south in the
tocky Mountains to Fort Buchanan,
Rarely in Massachusetts.

It has the three outer rectrices white,
the others black where exposed; the
crissum white, and unbanded, and the
supra-occular white stripe very narrow.

(Baird, Brewer, and Ridgway.)

Colaptes auratus.* (L.) Swainson, (Golden-

winged Woodpecker. )

Eastern United States to the Rocky
Mountains, and south to Texas.
( Dresser.)

Once in Greenland, according to Herr

_ Méschler. (Newton.)

Canada west to Nulato. (Baird, Brewer,
and Ridgway.)

Europe.

Picoides tridactylus.* Lecep. (Three-toed
Woodpecker. )

Northern Europe from Norway eastward,
and the mountains of Central Europe;
occasional in France and Lower
Germany. (Dresser.)

It has the two outer rectrices on each
side white, banded with black; the
crissum banded with black, and the
supra-occular white stripe almost as
broad as the infra-occular. (Baird,
Brewer, and Ridgway.)

Colaptes auratus.
It occurred at Amesbury Park, Wilts,
1836. (Marsh, Zool., 1859, p. 6327.)

STRIGIDA,

Strix flammea var. pratincola.* Bp.

Mexico, Texas, New Mexico, Southern
California, and Southern Atlantic
States. Very rare as farnorth as New
York. It differs from the European
bird in being rather larger, and of a
lighter colour. (Baird, Brewer, and
Ridgway.)

Asio otus var. wilsonianus.* Ridgway.

All temperate North America, and has
been found from the shores of Hudson’s
Bay to the Rio Grande.

The longitudinal stripes are absent above,
and the transverse markings much
more uniform than in the European
bird. The lower parts also of the
under surface are white. As a rule
the American owls are darker than
their European relations. (Baird,
Brewer, and Ridgway.)

Asio accipitrinus.* Pall.

Most part of North America; and in
Greenland, Newfoundland, aud the
Fur countries in summery, and south
to Guatemala and Cuba. In South
America, from the Rio de la Plata, to
the Straits of Magellen. (Newton’s
Yarrell.)

Strix fammea.* Linn. (Barn Owl.)
British Isles and Temperate Europe
generally ; east to Mesopotamia, and
south to Quilimani, East Africa; and
Angola, West Africa. Rare in Den-
mark ; not found in Norway or Sweden.
(Newton’s Yarrell.)

Asio otus.* (L.) Leach.
Owl.)
Europe generally ; winters as far south
as North Africa.
In Asia it is found in China and Japan,
and south to North-West India,
(Dresser. )

(Long-eared

Asio accipitrinus.* Pall. (Short-eared Owl.)
The whole of Europe, except perhaps
Iceland, and in Asia to Japan, being
found in China, India, Assam, and
British Burma, Bochara, Mesopotamia,
and Palestine, but apparently not in
Ceylon. A winter visitant to Egypt,
the Islands of the Mediterranean,
Algeria and Morocco; south to Abys-
sinia, and has been found at Natal.
(Newton’s Yarrell.)

384

Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

STrRIGID e—continued.

America.

Syrnium cinerium.* Audubon. (Great Gray
Owl.)

Arctic America, and south in winter to
the Northern United States.

It is closely allied to S. /apponicum, but
is darker in colour, with the longi-
tudinal dorsal stripes less marked. The
markings of the American bird may be
described as white on a brown ground,
the latter colour predominating ; and
those of the European bird, as brown
on a white ground, the latter colour
predominating, with a white patch on
the under surface of the base the pri-
maries. (Dresser.)

Syrnium lapponicum.

One was taken at the Yukon delta,
Alaska, 15 April, 1876, by L. M.
Turner. (Ridgway, Bull. Nutt. Orn.
Club, January, 1878, p. 37.)

Nyctala tengmalmi var. richardsoni.*

Arctic America, south in winter to the
United States.

It differs from the European bird in its
darker plumage; legs ochraceus and
thickly spotted with white, and the
lower tail coverts being broadly striped
with brown, instead of shaft streaks.
(Baird, Brewer, and Ridgway.)

Nyctala acadica.* Gm. (Saw-whet Owl.)
According to Baird, Brewer, and Ridg-
way, it inhabits North America gener-
ally; the cold temperate portions in
the breeding season, migrating south-
wards in winter, when only it is found
south of Pennsylvania. Mexico
(Oaxaca, Sclater, P.Z.S., 1858, p. 295);
California (Dr. Cooper) ; Cantonment
Buregwyn, New Mexico(Dr. Anderson) ;
Washington territory (Dr. Kennerly).

Scops asio.* Bp. (Mottled Owl.)
It inhabits temperate North America,
from the Northern United States to
Texas, and West to Oregon.

Nyctea scandiaca var. arctica.* Gray.
Arctic America, south in winter to the
Northern United States, and even,
though rarely, to South Carolina and
Bermuda

Europe.

Syrnium lapponicum.* Retz. (Lap Owl.)
Northern Europe; Lapland; Northern
Russia; Norway ; Sweden (Collett),
and rarely further south as in Prussia.
(Gloger. )

Nyctala tengmalmi.* Gm.
Owl.)

Northern Europe ; east to the Ural range,
and even to Nepaul; and south some-
times to Southern Europe, and as far
as North East Africa. (Dresser.)

(Tengmalm’s

Nyctala acadica.

One near Beverly, Yorkshire (Sir Wm.
Milner, Zool. 1860, p. 7104); but Mr.
Harting in his (handbook (p. 96) con-
siders its occurrence doubtful.

Scops asio.

One at Kirkstall Abbey, Yorkshire,
1852 (Dr. Hobson), reported in the
“Naturalist,” 1855, p. 169.

One near Yarmouth, Norfolk. (Stephen-
son, Birds of Norfolk, Vol. I., p. 44.)

Mr. Harting considers these occurrences
doubtful.

Nyctea scandiaca.* Linn. (Snowy Owl.)
Northern Europe, south to Germany,
rarely in Bohemia, Holland, Belgium,

and France. (Dresser. )
Has occurred in Britain in every month

Cataloque of Birds found in Europe and America,

STRIGIDEZ

America.
It is darker than the European bird, the
dark lines being also broader. (Baird,
Brewer, and Ridgway.)

Surnia ulula.

It was observed by Mr. Turner at St.
Michael’s, Alaska. (Ridgway, Bull.
Nutt. Orn. Club, January, 1878,
p- 38.)

Surnia ulula var. hudsonica.* (Gm.) Ridg-
way. (American Hawk Owl.)
Arctic America; southward in Winter to
the Northern United States. (Baird,
Brewer, and Ridgway.)

Glaucidium passerinum var. gnoma.* Ridg-
way.

Western North America from Puget’s
sound to Arizona. Colorado (C. FE.
Aiken). Vancouver’s Island (Sharpe).
Table lands of Mexico (Lawrence).
Guatemala (Sharpe).

“T find it to differ from its European
analogue in just the same respects that
Surnia hudsonica,” &c., “‘ do from their
old world representatives S. Ulula,”
&e., “ viz., in darker shade and greater
area of the dark tints.” (Ridgway,
Ibis, 1876.) '

385

continued.
Europe.

in the year, but does not breed there
at liberty. (Newton’s Yarrell.)

Siberia and south, even to the mountains
of Afganistan. (H. O. Hume.)

The toes are much more thickly feathered
than in the American bird. (R. B.
Sharpe. )

Surnia ulula.* Gray. (Hawk Owl.)

Found in Norway, Sweden, Lapland,
and Finmark (F. and P. Godman) ;
North Germany (Borggreve). Rarer
south.

Migratory in Central Russia. (Sabanaéff.)

Migrates southward in winter, but not as
far as the Mediterranean. The Hawk
Owl taken in Shetland, may, possibly
have been of this species. (Dresser. )

Surnia ulula var. hudsonica.
It has been taken off the coast of Corn-

wall. (Thompson.)
At Yatton, Summersetshire. (Higgins.)
At Maryhill, Glasgow. (Gray.)

At Greenock. (Gray.)

The Hawk Owl taken in Shetland may
have been of this species or S. Ulula.

In Europe it has been found nowhere
but in Britain. (Dresser.)

Glaucidium passerinum.* (1.) Boie. (Spar-
row Owl.)
Northern Palearctic region from Norway

to Siberia. Rarer in Germany; has
been taken in the mountains of Silesia,
Bohemia, Austria, and Styria.
(Dresser. )

It has the toes more thickly feathered
than the American form; and the tail
bands fewer and more continuous.
(Ridgway, Ibis, 1876.)

FALCONID®.

Falco gyrfalco.* Linn.

Continental Arctic America.

The American bird has been separated as
Var. sacer, but Mr. Dresser says that,
after comparing a large series, he can
find no sufficient difference in them to
uphold the variety.

Falco gyrfalco var. candicans.* Gm.
(Greenland Falcon.)
Greenland, straggling into North Eastern

America.

Falco gyrfalco var. islandus.
Sometimes westward from Iceland into
North Eastern America.

ScrEN. Proc., R.D.S. Vou. 11., Pt, v.

Falea gyxfaleo.* Linn. (Jerfalcon.)
Northern Scandinavia, Northern Russia,
and all Northern Asia.

Falco gyrfalco var. candicans.
It sometimes comes eastward from
Greenland into Northern Europe.

Falco gyrfalco var. islandus.* Gm. (Ice-
land Falcon.)
Iceland, and North Western Europe.

2D

386

Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

FALCONID &—continued.

America.
Faleo gyrfalco var. labradorus.*
(Labrador Falcon.)
Labrador, and the shores of Hudson's
Bay, migrating southwards. (Baird,
Brewer, and Ridgway.)

Aud.

Falco feldeggii var. polyagrus.* Cass.

Western North America, east to Illinois,
California, and Texas.

The American bird is darker than the
European, with the mustache more
distinet, but with the tail bands less
so. The southern form Var. mexicanus
is almost identical with Var. jugger of
Asia, (Baird, Brewer, and Ridgway.)

Falco peregrinus var. anatum.*
Falco anatum. Bp.

Greenland and the whole of North
America—from Hudson’s Bay south-
ward to the Argentine Republic in
South America. Differs from the
European bird by the stripes on the
jugulum being faint or absent.
(Baird, Brewer, and Ridgway.)

Pandion haliaétus.* (.) Lesson.

The whole of North America.

The American bird is said to be slightly
larger than the European, and lighter
on the breast; and the variety
carolinensis has been claimed for it.
(Baird, Brewer, and Ridgway.)

The whole of South America. (Sclater
and Salvin.)

Nauclerus furcatus.* Linn. (Swallow-
tailed Kite.)

Southern North America, extending

north along the Mississippi valley to
Minnessota and Wisconsin. (Baird,
Brewer, and Ridgway.)

Circus cyaneus var. hudsonius.*

Ridgway.

All North America.

Mexico, Central America, and Panama.
(Sclater and Salvin.)

Compared to the European bird this
variety has ‘the upper parts darker
and more of a brownish ashy gray,

(L.)

Europe.

Falco feldeggii.* Schlegel. (Lanner Falcon.)
Southern Europe, east to Asia Minor ;
breedsin Spain. Not found in France,
Germany, or Holland.
North Africa, where the Arabs use it as
a falcon. (Dresser.)

Falco peregrinus.* Gm. (Peregrine Falcon.)
Throughout Europe, except Iceland and
Spitzbergen ; across Siberia to Japan,
and southward through China to
Manilla. Borneo, Sumatra, Java,
North-western India, Persia, and
Palestine. Egypt to Abyssinia ;
Mozambique, South Africa. The
Canaries. (Newton's Yarrell.)

Pandion haliaétus.* (L.) Lesson. (Osprey)
Europe generally, and south in Africa as
far as the forest extends. Asia gener-
ally. New Zealand, and some of

the Pacific Islands. (Dresser. )

Nauclerus furcalus.

According to Mr. Hasting’s handbook,
one occurred at Ballachulich, Argyle-
shire, 1772. (Yarrell, Hist. Brit.
Birds, Vol. I., p. 85.)

One at Shaw Gill, near Hawes, Wens-
leydale, 6th Sept., 1805. (Yarrell, l.c.)

One at Farnham, Surrey, summer of
1833. (Holme, Zool., 1856, p. 5042.)

One in Eskdale, Cumberland, April,
1853. (Robson, Zool., 1854, pp. 4166
and 4406.)

One on the Mersey, June, 18438. (The
Field, 22 June, 1861.)

Circus cyaneus.* Linn. (Hen Harrier.)

Europe generally. From Finmark and
Lapland southward into North Africa,
and eastward to China and Japan.

Schlegel refers the Japanese birds to
Var. hudsonius, but there is a specimen
of C. cyaneus in the Norwich museum
from Japan. (Dresser.)

Catalogue of Birds found in Hurope and America, 387

FALCONID &—continued.

America.

the gray on the breast extends further
down, and the under parts of the
body, especially the flanks and under
wing coverts, are barred with pale
rufus.” (Dresser. )

Tail and secondaries with sub-terminal
bar of dusky, which is absent in the
European bird. (Baird, Brown, and
tidgway.)

The tarsus is said to be considerably
longer = 2°90 to 3:25 (B.B.R.) = 3:2
(D.), but I have not found this
constant, some of the Americans hav-
ing the tarsus just as short as the
average Huropeans.

It seems to be intermediate between C.
cyaneus and C. cinereus.

Astur palumbarius var. atricapillus.* Will.
(American Goshawk.)

British America and Northern United
States.

The male above is blueish slate colour;
top of the head black; the bars on the
breast are blueish slate coloured
irregular lines. Throat not barred.
(Baird, Brewer, and Ridgway.)

Buteo vulgaris.
A single specimen was taken at Pau-pau,
Michegan, 1873, by Mr. J. D. Allen.
(C. J. Maynard, Bull. Nutt. Orm.
Club, Vol. I., Nos. 1 and 2.)

Buteo lineatus.* Gm. (Red-shouldered
Buzzard. )
North America, east of the Rocky

mountains, from Texas to Canada.
Scien. Proc., R.D.S. Vou. 11, PT. v.

Europe.

Tarsus = 2°70 to 2:85. (Baird, Brewer,
and Ridgway.)
2-62, (Dresser. )

Astur palumbarius var. atricapillus.

According to Mr Harting’s handbook
one occurred at Schehallion, Perth-
shire, Spring, 1869. (R. Gray, Ibis,
1870, p. 292.)

One at the Galtee mountains, Ireland,
Feb., 1870. (Sir Victor Brooke, Ibis,
1870, p. 538.)

One near Parsonstown, King’s County,
Ireland. (A. B. Brooke, Zool., 1871,
p. 2524.)

Astur palumbarius.
(Goshawk.)

Europe generally, rare in England.

Northern and Central Asia, straggling

(L.) C. L. Brehm.

to the plains of India. (Dresser.)
Rarely in Africa.
The male above is umber brown;

top of the head dull dusky; bars on
the breast brown, and well defined.
Throat barred. (Baird, Brewer, and
Ridgway.)

Buteo vulgaris.* Leach. (Common Buz-
zard.)

Europe generally ; replaced in the
eastern part of the continent by B.
desertorum.

Von Middendorff found it in Eastern
Siberia. Menetries says it is common
in the Caucasus; and Canon Tristram
found it in Palestine. It is found also
in Egypt, Algeria, Canaries, Madeira,
and Azores.

Buteo lineatus.
One occurred at Kingussie, Invernesshire,
26 Feb., 1863. (Newcome, Ibis,

1865, p. 549.)
2p 2

388

Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

FALCONID E—continued.

America.
Archibuteo lagopus var. sancti-johannis.*
Penn.

North America generally.

The American variety differs from the
European bird, in the jugular spots
being scattered, instead of confluent
into a patch; and in being so fre-
quently found in melanistic plumage.
(Baird, Brewer, and Ridgway.)

Aquila chrysaétus.* Linn.

Thinly scattered over the Northern and
mountainous parts of North America.

The American bird is generally darker,
and perhaps a little larger than the
European, for it has been proposed the
variety canadensis. (Baird, Brewer,
and Ridgway.)

Haliaétus albicilla.* (L.) Leach.
Common in Greenland. (Dresser.)

Europe.

Archibuteo lagopus.* Gm. (Rough-legged

Buzzard.)

Northern Europe, and Northern Asia ;
migrating to the central, and some-
times even southern parts. (Dresser.)

Aquila chrysaétus.* Linn. (Golden Eagle.)

The whole of Europe, and Northern Asia,

extending into India, and Northern
China. (Sharpe.)

Haliaétus albicilla.* (L.) Leach. (White-
tailed Eagle.)

From Northern Europe, as far south as
the northern half of Africa; and from
the north of Asia, south to China and
India. (Dresser.)

CoLUMBID&,

Ectopistes migratorius.* Swainson. (Pas-
senger Pigeon.)

According to Baird, Brewer, and
Ridgway, it is found from Hudson’s
Bay to the Southern United States ;
-and west to the Great Central Plains.
Nevada (Ridgway). Cuba (Gundl).

Ectopistes migratorius.
One occurred in Fifeshire in 1825.
(Fleming, Hist. Brit. An., p. 145.)
One at Royston, Hertfordshire, July,

1844. (Yarrell, Hist. Birds, Vol. II.
p- 317.)

One seen near Tring, Hertfordshire.
(Yarrell, op. cit.)

One near Mellerstain, Berwickshire.

(Turnbull, Birds of East Lothian, p. £1.)
Degland and Gerbe (Vol IL., p. 13) state

that Temminck speaks of its having

been taken in Norway and Russia.

TETRAONID,

Lagopus albus.* Vieill.

Newfoundland, and Arctic North
America. Rarely in the United
States. (Dresser.)

Lagopus albus.* Vieill. (Willow Grouse.)
Northern Europe; not in _ Britain.
Northern Asia. (Dresser.)

Lagopus scoticus.* Lath. (Red Grouse.)
Only in the British Isles.
Closely allied to L. albus.

Lagopus mutus.* Leach. (Common
Ptarmigan.)
Found in the mountains of Northern

Europe, the highlands of Scotland,
the high mountain ranges of more
Southern Europe, and the mountains
of Asia. (Dresser.)

The black feathers on the breast in
summer, and the gray in autumn, of L.
mutus distinguish it from the variety
rupestris. (Baird, Brewer, and
Ridgway.)

Catalogue of Birds found in Europe and America.

389

TETRAONIDZ-—continued.

America. Europe.
Lagopus mutus var. rupestris.* Leach. Lagopus mutus var. rupestris.* Leach.
(Rock Ptarmigan.) Iceland.
Greenland, and Northern North America, :
descending in the Rocky Mountains as
far south as 55°. N. lat. Dresser.)
CHARADRIAD&.

Charadrius pluvialis.
East Greenland; Dr. Finsch believes it
breeds there. (Newton.)

Charadrius virginicus.* Borck. (American
Golden Plover.)
All North America.
Lawrence.)
Greenland. (Newton.)-
The whole of South America.
and Salvin.)

(Baird, Cassin, and
(Sclater

AB gialitis hiaticula.* (L.) Boie.
Breeds in Greenland. (Newton.)
Found building on 4th August, 1875, at
Buchanan Strait. (H. W. Feilden,
Brit. Arctic Exp.)

Zigialitis vociferus.* Linn. (Kildeer.)
Throughout North America to the Arctic

regions. (Baird, Cassin, and
Lawrence). Mexico and Central
America to Peru. (Sclater and
Salvin.)

Squatarola helvetica.* Linn.
The whole of North America (Baird,
Cassin, and Lawrence).
Greenland (Newton).
The whole of South America (Sclater
and Salvin).

Charadrius pluvialis.* Linn. (Golden
Plover.)

Europe generally. North Africa, and
perhaps South Africa. Asia Minor.

(Dresser. )

Charadrius virginicus.
Occasional in Europe and Northern
Asia. (Baird, Cassin, and Lawrence,
p- 690.)
Heligoland. (Gray.)

Hgialitis hiaticula.* (L.) Boie. (Ringed
Plover.)

Throughout Europe, breeding in the
north. Novaya Zemlya (breeds).
Common in summer in Northern
Russia and Baltic coasts, Denmark
and North Germany. It is a winter,
visitant to North Africa. Found at
Walwich Bay (Anderson), and South
Africa (Captain Shelley). One
specimen from Australia (Gould).
Breeds in Turkestan (Dr. Severtzoff),
and on the Taimyr (Von Mid-
dendorff). (Dresser.)

Hgialitis vociferus.
One occurred near Christchurch, Haste,
April, 1857. (Sclater, Ibis, 1862,
p. 275.)

Squatarola helvetica.* Linn. (Gray
Plover).

Northern and Western Europe ; Germany,
British Isles, Spain, Italy, Egypt,
and South Africa. Siberia, Japan,
China, and Australia. (Dresser.)

Breeds on the Lower Pechora, (Harvie,

Brown, and Seebohm. )

H&MATOPODID,

Strepsilas interpres.* Linn.
The whole ot the East coast of North
and South America. The West Indies.
On the Pacific coast it is found south
to Chili. (Dresser. )

Strepsilas interpres.* Linn. (Turnstone.)
Coast of Europe generally, more rarely
inland. Very common in North-
Eastern Africa, and found down the
East coast to Madagascar. North-

390

Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

HA&MATOPODID.&——continued.

America.

Greenland (Newton.)

Hematopus ostralequs.
Has been three times taken in Greenland.
(Newton.)

Hematopus palliatus * Temm. (American
Oyster Catcher.)
Atlantic coasts of North America, and
possibly the Pacifie also.
Florida.
Very closely resembles the European
bird. (Baird, Cassin, and Lawrence.)

Europe.
West Africa, and down the West coast
to the Cape. The Azores, Canaries,
Madeira.

Through Asia, chiefly on the coast,
though Jerdon has obtained it two
hundred miles inland, in the Deccan.
Java, New Guinea, and neighbouring
islands, Australia, Tasmania, and New
Zealand. (Dresser.)

Hematopus _ ostralegus.*
(Oyster Catcher.)
The whole Palearctic region, south to

(L.) Blyth

Ceylon. North Africa, as far as
Mozambique. (Dresser.)

ARDEID&.

Ardea cinerea.

In Greenland one is said to have been
seen in August, 1765, and one found
dead in 1856 (Newton, Arct. Exp.
Inst.) It is represented in North
America by Ardea herodias.

Nycticorax gardeni.* Gm. (American
Night heron.)

Found generally throughout the United
States. Larger than N. griseus, bill
stouter, young birds have the quills
with an avical white spot, not found
in the European. (Baird, Cassin, and
Lawrence, p. 678.)

Found from Mexico and Central America

to Brazil. (Sclater and Salvin.)

Botaurus lentiginosus.* Mout. (American
Bittern.)

The entire Continent of North America.
(Baird, Cassin, and Lawrence.) Found
once in Greenland in 1869. (Newton.)
Mexico, Central America, and Guate-
mala. (Sclater and Salvin.)

Ardea cinerea.* Linn. (Common heron.)

Occurs in Scandinavia in summer; ac-
cidental as far north as the Faroe Is-
lands. Found in Russia and Siberia,
and southward over Europe, being
most abundant in Holland. Occurs in
North Africa and Madeira, and is
said to visit the Cape of Good Hope.
India, Japan, and according to Dr.
Horsfield in Java. (Yarrell.)

Nycticoraz griseus.* Linn. (Night heron.)
Most common in the warmer parts of
the Old World. Found in the British
Isles, France, Spain, Portugal, Pro-
vence and Italy. Erzeroom and (by
Menetries) near the Caspian Sea.
Also at the Cape of Good Hope, India,
China, and Japan. (Yarrell.)
Australia. (Gray. )

Botaurus lentiginosus.

Several have been taken in England and
Scotland, and three in Ireland, viz.,
one near Armagh, 12 Nov., 1845,
Thomp. Nat. Hist. Irel. (Birds) Vol.
ii, p. 168. One near Dundalk, 18
Nov., 1868, Lord Clermont, Zool.
1869, p. 1517. One at Carlisle, Gal-
way, 31 Oct., 1870, Blake-Knox,
Zool. 1870, p. 2408. It has also oc-
curred near Leipsic. (Degland and
Gerbe, Vol. ii., p. 310.

Catalogue of Birds found in Europe and America. 391

TANTALID&,

America.
Ibis faleinellus.* (L.) Vieill.
Ibis ordii. Bp.

Found singly and at intervals over the
whole United States. (Baird, Cassin,
and Lawrence.)

Mexico. (Gray.)

Ibis faleinellus.*

Europe.

(L.) Vieill. (Glossy

Ibis. ) :

Central and Southern Europe. North
Africa, Zanzibar, Gaboon, Madagascar,
Natal. In Asia as far east as Cochin
China, and sometimes to Australia.
(Dresser.)

Rare in England, formerly more common ;
still rarer in Scotland, but has been
met with as far north as Shetland
(Gray, Birds of West of Scotland, p.
286.)

SCOLOPACIDA.
Gallinago media. Gallinayo media.* Leach. (Common
Greenland, and perhaps breeds there. Snipe.)

(Newton. )

Gallinago wilsoni.* Temm. (Wilson's
Snipe.)

Entire temperate North America. (Baird,
Cassin, and Lawrence.)

Mexico, Central America, Venezuela, and

Guiana. (Sclater and Salvin.)

Macrorhamphus griseus.* (Gm.) Teach.
(Red-breasted Snipe.)
Entiretemperate North America. (Baird,
Cassin, and Lawrence.)
Has occurred once in Greenland (Newton. )
From Panama to Brazil (Sclater and
Salvin. )

Tringa canutus.* Linn.
The whole of North America.
Cassin, and Lawrence.)
Northern Greenland. Rare in Southern

(Baird,

Greenland. (Newton.)
Coast of Guina and Brazil. (Sclater and
Salvin.)

Tringa striata.* Linn. (Purple Sand-

piper.)
North America; south
States. (Dr. Coues.)

to the middle

Throughout Europe, breeding most nume-
rously in the northern parts. Sir
Humphry Davy says it breeds in
great quantities in the marshes of Hun-
gary and Illyria, and Mr. Strickland,
that it is common in winter in Smyrna.

Also found in the Faroe Islands and
Iceland, and Pennant says it is found
in all parts of Russia and Siberia.
(Yarrell. )

Gallinago wilsoni.
One was taken in Buckinghamshire,
England, 1st August, 1863. (Harting,
Hand-book Brit. Birds, p. 143.)

Macrorhampus griseus.

About thirteen have been taken in Eng-
land, three in Scotland, one in the
Isle of Man, and one in Scilly.
(Harting, Hand-book Brit. Birds, p.
144.) Has occurred in France (Degland
and Gerbe.)

According to Taczonowski it occurs in
North-East Siberia. (Dresser.)

Tringa canutus.* Linn. (Knot.)

A spring and autumn visitor to Britain.
Northern Europe migrating along the
west coast of the continent, and found
sparingly down the west coast of
Africa; Walwich Bay; Damara Land.
Met with sparingly in Asia north of the
Uda. The Amoor, Kultuk, Shanghai, &e.
Australia and New Zealand. (Dresser.)

Tringa striata.* Linn. (Purple Sand-
piper.)

According to Dresser it inhabits Northern
and Western Europe, Novaya Zemlya.

392

Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

ScoLopacip.:—continued.

America.
Greenland. (Newton.)

Tringa subarquata.
Atlantic coast of North America. “A
straggler from the Old World.” (Baird,
~ Cassin, and Lawrence )

Tringa alpina.* Linn.

Arctic America on both coasts, and nearly
to the limits of the United States.
Not observed in Texas, but occurs in
Cuba. (Dresser.)

Breeds in Greenland. (Newton.)

The European and Asiatic birds are said
to be smaller, and with a comparati-
vely shorter bill than the American, to
which the variety Americana (Cass),
has been applied.

Tryngites rufescens.* (Vieill.) Cab, (Butf-
breasted Sandpiper. )

Scattered throughout the whole of North
America, breeding in the high north.
Rather numerous in Texas in autumn.
Found in Mexico, and through South
America to La Plata. (Dresser. )

South America, Brazil. (Sclater and
Salvin.)

Calidris arenaria.* (L.) Leach.
The whole coast of temperate North

America, straggling to Ohio. (Dres-
ser.)

Rare in Greenland. (Newton.)

The whole of South America. (Sclater

and Salvin.)

Symphemia semipalmata.* Gm. (Willet.)
The entire temperate regions of North
America. (Baird, Cassin, and Law-
rence. )
Mexico, Guatemala, and Brazil. (Sclater
and Salvin.)

Europe.
(Dr. Von Heuglin); Spitzbergen (Pro-
fessor Von Malmgren); Iceland; rare
in Italy (Salvadori), and in Greece (Dr.
Kriiper.) The Azores (Mr. F. Du
Cane Godman), Cape of Good Hope
(Dr. Finsch), and Northern Asia.

Tringa subarquata.* Tem. (Curlew Sand-
piper.)
Northern, western, and southern coast of
Europe, North-East Africa, Egypt, the
Red Sea, Zanzibar, Madagascar, North-
Western Africa, Walwich Bay, South-
ern Africa. Siberia, Asia Minor, and
across the continent to India and
China. Java, &e., and Australia.
(Dresser. )

Tringa alpina.* Linn. (Dunlin.)

In summer it is found in Northern and
Central Europe and Asia, wintering
there and southward. Breeds in the
Orkneys and Shetlands, leaving in the
winter, but remaining on the Irish
coast during that season, although it is
then found as far south as North
Africa. Lapland, Novaya Zemlya, and
Siberia in summer; China, Japan,
India, Palastine, Borneo, and Jaya.
(Dresser. )

Tryngites rufescens.

According to Mr. Harting’s Hand-book,
p- 158, eleven have been taken in
England, one in Scilly, and four in
Ireland, viz., two in the People’s Park,
Belfast, October, 1864. (Saunders,
Zool., 1866, p. 389.) One near Dublin
(M‘Coy, Ann. and Mag., Nat. Hist.,
1845, p. 271.) And one in county
Dublin. (Blake—Knox, Zool., 1866,
p- 303.)

According to Degland and Gerbe (Vol.
ii., p. 210,) one occurred at Abbeville ;
and according to Prof. Blasius one at
Heligoland.

Calidris arenaria.* (L.) Leach. (Sander-
ling.)

The north of Northern Europe, and Asia,
migrating through Jurope, British
Isles. Both East and West Coasts of
Africa to the Cape. Asia Minor,
India, China, and Japan to Java.
(Dresser. )

Symphemia semipalmata.

Occasional in Northern Europe, and a
few have been taken in France.
(Degland and Gerbe, Vol. ii, p.
234.)

Catalogue of Birds found in Europe and America.

395

ScoLopacipa—continued.

America.

Tringa maculata.* Vieill.
Entire coast of North America.

Cassin, and Lawrence.)
Three have been taken in Greenland.

(Newton.)

Mexico, Central and Southern America,

and Chili. (Sclater and Salvin.)

(Baird,

Tringa minutilla.* Vieill. © (American
Stint.)
T. pusilla. (Wils.)
T. Wilsoni. (Nuttall.)

|
Entire temperate North America. (Baird,

Cassin, and Lawrence.)
Once taken in Greenland. (Newton.)
Mexico, Central America, and Brazil.
(Sclater and Salvin.)

Tringa fuscicollis.* Vieill.

Sandpiper.)

(Bonaparts

North America, east of the Rocky
Mountains. (Baird, Cassin, and
Lawrence.)

Greenland. (Newton.)

The whole of South America.
and Salvin.)

Gambetta flavipes.* (Gm.) Bp. (Yellow-
shank.)

Entire North America, possibly on the
West Coast. (Baird, Cassin, and
Lawrence. )

Greenland. (Newton.)

From Mexico and Central America, tu
Chili and Brazil. (Sclater and
Salvin.)

(Sclater

Rhyacophilus solitarius.* Wil.
Sandpiper.)
Entire temperate North America. (Baird,
Cassin, and Lawrence.)
Mexico and Central America, to Brazil.
(Sclater and Salvin.)

(Solitary

Tringoides macularius.*
Sandpiper. )
Entire temperate North America.
Oregon. (Baird, Cassin, and Lawrence.)
Mexico and Central America, to Brazil.
(Sclater and Salvin.)

Gray. (Spotted

Actiturus longicaudatus.* Bechst.
tram’s Sandpiper. )
Eastern North America.
and Lawrence.)
Mexico and Central America, to Brazil.
(Sclater and Salvin.)

(Bar-

(Baird, Cassin,

Europe.
Tringa maculata.* Vieill. (Pectoral Sand-
piper.)
About nineteen have been taken in
Britain. (Harting, Hd. Bk. Brit.
Birds, p. 140.)

Tringa minutilla.

According to Mr. Harting’s Hand-Book,
one was taken at Marazion Marsh,
Cornwall, 10 Oct., 1853. (Rodd.
Zool., 1854, p. 4297.)

And one at Northam Burrows, Devon,
Sept., 1869. (Rodd. ‘ Field,” 238
Oct., 1869, and by others.)

Tringa fuscicollis.

According to Mr. Harting’s Hand-Book,
p. 142, ten have been taken in England,
four in Scilly, and one in Ireland, viz.,
at Belfast. (Thompson, p. 297.)

Gambetta flavipes.
One in Lincolnshire, 1854-55.
Brit. Birds, Vol. IL. p. 637.)
One at Tadcaster, Oct., 1858. (Sir
Wm. Milner, Zool., 1858, p- 5958.)
One in Cornwall, 12 Oct., 1871. (Rodd,
Zool., 1871, p. 2807.)

(Yarrell,

Lhyacophilus solitarius.
One on the Clyde, Diananleshive! Scot-
land. (R. Gray, Ibis. 1870, p. 292.)

Tringoides macularius.

According to Mr. Harting’s Hand-Book,
several have occurred in England and
Scotland, and two near Belfast (?) in
July and Sept., 1828. (Mag. Nat.
Hist., 1829, p. 395.)

Actiturus longicaudatus.

According to Mr. Harting’s Handbook,

one occurred in Woarwickshica, 31 Oct.,
1851. (Reid, Zool., 1852, p. 3330, and
More, Zool., 1554, p. 4254.)

One at Cambridge, 12 Dec., 1854.
(Tearle, Illd. London News, 20 Jan.,
1855.)

One on the Wye at Bigswier, Gloucester,
19 Jan., 1855. (Morris, Brit. Birds,
Vol. IV., p. 296.)

394

Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

ScoLopAcip.4:—continued.

America.

Totanus glottis.

Audubon found this bird in Florida, but
it has never since been obtained in
America. Audubon’s specimen is
said to be smaller than the European
bird, and the bill especially more
slender and recurved. (Baird, Cassin,
and Lawrence. )

Lotanus ochropus.
Mr. Harting received a specimen from
Halifax, Nova Scotia. (Brewer, Bull.
Nutt. Orn. Club, April, 1878, p. 49.)

Machetes pugnaa.
Accidental on Long Island.
Cassin, and Lawrence. )
A female occurred at Upton, Marine,

(Baird,

September, 1874. (Wm. Bruster,
Bul. Nut. Orn. Club, April, 1876, p.
19.)

And a male near Columbus, Ohio, 10
Nov., 1872. (Wheaton, Bull. Nutt.
Orn. Club, July, 1877, p. 88.)

One in Massachusetts. (Am. Nat. Vol.
VI., p. 306.)

Limosa egocephala.* Linn.

Northern and Eastern North America.
The American bird has the axillars
and under coverts dark brown instead
of white. Neck brownish gray instead
of chestnut. (Baird, Cassin, and
Lawrence.)

‘Twice reported from Greenland. (Newton. )

Numenius hudsonicus.* Lath. (Hudsonian
Curlew.)

Hudson’s Bay, Atlantic and Pacific Coasts
of North America. (Baird, Cassin, and
Lawrence.)

Three are reported to have occurred in
Greenland. (Newton.)

The whole of South America.
and Salvin.)

(Selater

Europe.

One near Falmouth, 18 Novy., 1865.
(Bullmors, Zool., 1866, p. 37.)

It has further occurred in Europe, viz.,
one at Malta, 17 Nov., 1865. (Wright,
Ibis, 1869, p. 247.)

One Linguria, Oct., 1859.
vadori.)

One Australia, 1848.
Aust. ii., p. 242.)
One on the Werra, in Hesse. (Naumann,

Voég. Deutschl. iii. p. 51.)

And one on the Dutch coast. (Meyer

Taschenb, Deutsch. Vég. iii., p. 156.)

(Count Sal-

(Gould, Handb.,

Totanus glottis.* (L.) Pall. (Greenshank.)
Northern Europe, and Northern Asia;
migrating through several parts of
Europe to North Africa. (Degland and
Gerbe, Vol. II., p. 216.)
India, Australia. (Gray, No. 10276.)

Yotanus ochropus.* Linn. (Green Sand-
piper.)

Europe generally; rarein Ireland. Asia
eastward: to China, and once in Japan.
Egypt, North Africa. and south as far
as Colesburg. (Dresser.)

Machetes pugnax.* Linn. (Ruff.)
Europe generally, except the extreme
north. Brit. Isles in summer, Siberia,
Kamtchatka, Caspian Sea, India,
Ceylon (once), North and North-East
Africa, and south to the Cape of Good
Hope. (Dresser.)

Limosa egocephala.* Linn. (Black-tailed
Godwit.)

Northern Europe, migrating south as far
as North Africa ; a spring and autumn
migrant in British Isles. Asia Minor,
and through Siberia and India, to
China and Japan. North Australia.
(Dresser. )

Numenius hudsonicus.
Iceland, and North of Britain (?). (Deg-
land and Gerbe, Vol. II., p. 164.)

Catalogue of Birds found in Europe and America.

395

ScoLopAacip#—continued.

America.
Numenius borealis.* Lath. (Esquemaux
Curlew.)
Northern and Eastern North America.
(Baird, Cassin, and Lawrence.)
Two are supposed to have come from

Greenland. (Newton.)
Central America to Brazil. (Sclater and
Salvin.)

Found at Buenos Ayres. (Dresser.)

Numeniuspheopus.

Nearly a dozen examples have been
received from all parts of Greenland.
(Newton.)

Europe.
Numenius borealis.

According to Mr. Harting’s Handbook,
one occurred near Stonehaven, Kincar-
dineshire, 6 Sept., 1855. (Longmuir,
Naturalist, 1855, p. 265.)

One near Aldeburg, Suffolk.
Notes about Aldeburg, p. 177.)

One Woodbridge, Suffolk. (Hele, op. cit.)

One Sligo, Ireland; purchased in the
flesh in Dublin, 21 Oct., 1870. (Blake
Knox, Zool., 1870, p. 2408.)

(Hele,

Numenius pheopus.* Linn. (Whimbrel.)
According to Yarrell it breeds in Orkney
and Shetland. Found in the British

Isles, Denmark, Sweden, Western
Norway, Lapland (Breeds, Dall),

Faroe Isles, Iceland, migrating through
Europe by Germany, Holland (com-
mon), France, Spain, and Italy, to
North Africa and Madeira. Menetries
found it in the province of Caucasus.
Common in parts of India, Himalayas
(Gould), Bengal, and Japan. (Tem-
minck, )

PHALAROPODID.

Phalaropus fulicarius.* (L.) Bp.
Entire temperate North America. (Baird,
Cassin, and Lawrence.)
Breeds in the far North. (Dresser. )
Found in Greenland. (Newton.)

Phalaropus hyperboreus.* (L.) Temm.
The whole of temperate North America.
(Baird, Cassin, and Lawrence.)

Greenland. (Newton.)
Mexico and Guatemala. (Sclater and
Salvin. )

Phalavopus fulicarius.* (u.) Bp. (Gray
Phalarope, or Red Phalarope.)
Northern Europe, British Isles, Iceland,
Spitzbergen ; rare in Scandinavia;
very rare in Northern Russia; not
common in North Germany. Has
occurred in Belgium, France, Spain,
Portugal, Italy, South Germany; and
once in North Africa, at Tangier,
according to Tyrwhitt-Drake in the
Ibis, 1876, p. 429.
It occurs right across Siberia; and ac-
cording to Blyth in Ibis, 1859, p. 464,
one was taken near Calcutta; and
according to Mr. Hume's ‘ Stray
Feathers,” it is found in Scindh.
(Dresser. )

Phalaropus hyperboreus.* (L.) Temm.
(Red-necked Phalarope, or Northern
Phalarope. )

Northern Europe. Common in Northern
Scandinavia ; rarer further south, as
in Holland, France, and Southern
Russia; but has occurred in North-
Western Africa. It is found across
Asia to Japan, in Siberia, Turkestan,
and Northern China. (Dresser. )

396

Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

RALLID&.

America.
Crex pratensis.

Has been met with in Bermuda, and on
several occasions on the east coast of
the United States. (Harting’s Hand-
book Brit. Birds, p. 153.)

Once taken in Greenland. (Newton.)

Porzana carolina.* Linn. (Sora.)

Entire temperate North America. (Baird,
Cassin, and Lawrence. )

One occurred in Greenland, 3rd October,
1822. (Newton. )

Mexico, Guatemala, Panama, Jamaica,
Cuba, and Trinidad. (Sclater and
Salvin.)

Porzana maruetta.
Two have occurred in Greenland, in
1841 and 1856. (Newton.)

Europe.
Crex pratensis.* (L.) Bechst.
Rail. )

Throughout Europe and Western Asia,
migrating in the autumn into Africa,
where it is found as far south as the
Cape Colony. (Dresser.)

(Land

Porzana carolina.
One occurred near Newbury, Bucks,
October, 1864. (Newton, P.Z.S.,

1865, p. 196.)

Porzana maruetta.* (L.) Leach. (Spotted
Rail.)

A summer visitor to the British Isles.

Nilsson says it is rare in summer in

Sweden. Pennant foundit in Southern
Russia. It is rare in Northern Ger-

many and Holland, but more common
in France, and thence to the Mediter-
ranean. Strickland found it at Smyrna
in winter, and it is said to extend its
range to India. (Yarrell, Brit. Birds.)

Gray gives it as occurring in India,
Africa, and Arabia.

GALLINULID.®.

Torphyrio martinicus.* Linn. (Purple
Gallinule.)
Southern States of North America,

Louisiana, Florida; accidental further
north. (Baird, Cassin, and Lawrence.)

Tropical and South America. (Sclater
and Salvin.)

Gallinula galeata.* Licht.

G. chloropus. Bon. (American Moor-
hen.)

British North America to Mexico.
(Dresser. )

South America. (Sclater and Salvin.)

Gm. (American

Fulica americana.*
Coot.)

The entire temperate regions of North
America. Distinguished from FP’. a/ra
of Europe by the white on the crissum
and wings, and red frontal plate, &e.

(Baird, Cassin, and Lawrence.)

Porphyrio martinicus.
One occurred in Ireland in November,
1845. (Thompson, Vol. IL, p. 331.)

Gallinula chloropus.* (L.) Lath. (Moor-
hen.)

Throughout Europe up to 60° north.
Asia Minor, North Africa, with slight
variation down to the Cape of Good
Hope. In Southern Persia, and with
slight variation as far east as China,
and to Java, Borneo, &e. (Dresser. )

Fulica atra.* Linn. (Coot.)

Yarrell gives the habitat of the coot as
the British Isles; Scot!and in summer.
It is then found in Denmark, Norway,
Sweden, and as far north as the Faroe
Isles, and even to Iceland, according
to Faber. Pennant found it in Russia
and Eastern Siberia. It is very abun-
dant in Holland, and is found on the
lakes and rivers of Germany, France,
Switzerland, Spain, Provence, and

Catalogue of Birds found in Europe and America.

397

GALLINULID&®—continued.

America.

Europe.
Italy. Madeira (Dr. Heineken), and
at Smyrna (Strickland). It occurs at
Trebizond, India, China, Japan, and
Sunda Island. Gray (Hand-book)
also gives Egypt, Assam, and Nepal.

ANATID.®.

Cygnus Americanus.* Sharpl. (American
or Whistling Swan.)

Entire continent of North America;
equally abundant on both coasts, as
well as throughout the _ interior.
(Baird, Cassin, and Lawrence. )

Cygnus buccinator.* Rich.
Swan.)
Western America, from the Mississippi
Valley to the Pacific. (Baird, Cassin,
aud Lawrence.)

(Trumpeter

Chenalopex egyptiaca.
One taken on Long Island, United
States. (J. Akhurst, Bul. Nut. Orn.

"Club, April, 1877.)

Anser gambelli.* Hartlaub.

White-fronted Goose.)

The whole of North America.
Cassin, and Lawrence. )

Greenland. (Newton.)

The Antilles. (Sclater and Salvin.)

Differs from albifrons only in its larger
size. (Newton.)

(American

(Baird,

Chen hyperboreus.* (Pall.) Boie. (Snow
Goose. )

According to Mr. Dresser it is found in
Northern North America. During
winter it is common in Cuba (Dr.
Degland). Found in Jamaica
(Albrecht), Bermudas, Texas, mouths
of the Mississippi, Ohio, Kentucky,
and throughout the United States.

Chen albatus.* (Cass.) Boie.
Snow Goose.)

“Western and Northern America, rare in
the Atlantic.” (Cassin.)

(Cassin’s

Cygnus Americanus.
One occurred in the south of Scotland
in February, 1841. (Macgillivray,
Hist. Brit. Birds, Vol. IV., p. 682.)

Cygnus buccinator.

According to Mr. Harting’s handbook,
four were shot near Aldeburgh,
Suffolk, and one more seen 27th Oct.,
1866. (Hele, Notes About Aldeburgh,
p. 147.)

Chenalopex egyptiaca.* Gm. (Egyptian
Goose.)

This North African Goose occurs,
according to Degland and Gerbe
(Vol. II. p. 496) regularly every year
in Greece and on the Black Sea, and
is an accidental visitor to France,
Belgium, England and Germany.

Anser albifrons.* (Scop.) Gm.
fronted Goose. )

Northern Palearctic region, migrating
southward in winter as far as North
Africa, Siberia, India, China, and
Japan. (Dresser.)

(W hite-

Chen hyperboreus.
Asia, Japan, regularly in
European Russia. (Dresser.)
Greece and the Black Sea, and once in
France. (Degland and Gerbe, Vol.
II., p. 494.)

Eastern-

Chen albatus.

Two were killed out of a flock in Wexford
Harbour, Nov., 1871. (Howard
Saunder, P.Z S., March, 1872.)

One was shot, and one trapped alive out
of a flock of seven at Termoncarra,

. Barony of Erris, Co. Mayo, Ireland,
Oct., 1877. (Harting, The Field
26th Oct., 1878.)

398

Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

ANATIDA:—continued.

America.
Bernicla brenta.* Steph.

Breeds in Greenland. (Newton.)

From Hudson’s Bay to Texas. It is re-
placed on the Pacific coast by the
allied B. nigricans, which has “ the
back of the jugulum extending over
most of the under parts, gradually
fading behind, and the white neck
patches are usually larger, and meet in
front.” (Dresser.)

Bernicla canadensis.* (L.) Boie. (Canada
Goose. )
The whole of North America.
Cassin, and Lawrence.)
Its occurrence in Greenland is doubtful.
(Newton. )
The Antilles.

(Baird,

(Selater and Salvin.)

Bernicla leucopsis. Bechst.

Has occurred on Long and North
Carolina. (Lawrence, Bul. Nut. Orn.
Club, Jan., 1877, p. 18.)

Greenland, and perhaps breeds there.
(Newton.)

Aix sponsa.* Boie. (Summer Duck.)
The whole continent of North America.
(Baird, Cassin, and Lawrence.)
Mexico. (Sclater and Salvin.)

Mareca penelope.

Accidental on the coast of the United
States, chiefly Virginia, Carolina, and
Florida. (Baird, Cassin, and Law-
rence.) Two noted by Lawrence in
Bull. Nut. Orn. Club, April, 1878, p.
98.

Three have occurred in Greenland. (New-
ton.) Prybeloy Islands, between Asia
and the west coast of North America.
(Dresser.

Steph. (American

Mareca americana.*
Wigeon.)
The whole of North America.
Cassin, and Lawrence.)
Mexico, Central America, and Trinidad.

(Sclater and Salvin.) |

(Baird,

Europe.
Bernicla brenta.* Steph. (Brent Goose.)

Common on the northern coasts of
Russia, Spitzbergen, and Novaya
Zemlya. Common in winter in

Northern Temperate Europe. Rare
in Central Russia, Central Germany,
and South of France. Has occurred
in Palestine (Canon Tristram, Ibis,
1868, p. 328), and, according to Von.
Henglin (Orn. N. O. Africa, p. 1292),

in Egypt. (Dresser.)
Bernicla canadensis.
An irregular winter British visitant.
(Harting’s handbook.)
Bernicla leucopsis.* Bechst. (Bernacle

Goose. )

Iceland and Spitzbergen. Common in
Sweden ; rarer in Norway and Finland.
Rare in Central Russia. Found on
the coasts of the British Isles, Hol-
land, Belgium, France. Has occtrred
in South Germany, and twice in
Bohemia. It is doubtful if it occurs
in Asia. (Dresser.)

Dr. Von. Middendorff found it breeding
in Siberia. (Newton.)

Aix sponsa.

Five or six haye been taken in Ger-
many, France, and England (?).
(Catalogue des oiseaux d'Europe,
d’Hamonvyille, p. 66.)

Mareca penelope.* (L.) Selby. (Wigeon.)
Throughout Europe, breeding far north,
though it sometimes does so in the
British Isles. In winter it is found
south as far as North Africa, the Red
Sea, Tangier, Lower Egypt, though
rare on the Nile. India, Southern
China, and Japan. (Dresser.)

Mareca americana.

According to Mr. Harting’s handbook,
it has occurred in Britain as follows:
One in Leadenhall market, the winter

of 1837-38. (Blythe, Naturalist,
Vol. III., p. 417, and by others.)
One in Banffshire, inJan., 1841. (Ed-
ward, Zool. 1860, p. 6970.)
One in Strangford Lough, Feb., 1844,

Catalogue of Birds found in Europe and America.

399

ANATID&—continued.

America.

Dafila acuta.* (1.) Leach.

From British America, through the
United States, Mexico, and Central
America, down to Costa Rica; also
Cuba and Jamaica. (Dresser.)

Accidental in Greenland, but not very
rare. (Newton.)

Anas boschas.* Linn.

Entire continent of North America,
(Baird, Cassin, and Lawrence.)

Mr. Dresser gives MHudson’s Bay,
Mackenzie River, Saskatchewan, and
Yukon; common from the Potomac to
Texas, but says he did not meet with
itin New Brunswic.

Breeds in Greenland. (Newton.)

Antilles, Mexico, Guatemala, and Costa
Rica. (Sclater and Salvin.)

Querquedula discors.* Steph.
winged Teal.)

Eastern North America to the Rocky
Mountains. (Baird, Cassin, and Law-
rence. )

Mexico, Central America, and the An-
tilles. (Sclater and Salvin.)

(Blue-

Querquedula crecca.

Accidental on the east coast of the
United States. Exceedingly similar
to Q. carolinensis, but has the lower
border of green on the sides of the
head distinctly whitish, instead of
obsoletely paler; the transverse bands
on the sides and upper parts are
better defined, and more distant; the
band at the end of the greater coverts
is broader and white, and that at the

end of the lesser coverts narrower; the -

long scapulars are creamy white, with
the outer edge broadly velvet black,
whilein Q. carolinensis they are grayish
olive. (Baird, Cassin, and Lawrence.)

Querquedula carolinensis.* Baird. (Green-

winged Teal.)

The whole of North America.
Cassin, and Lawrence.)

Four were obtained in South Greenland
prior to 1860. (Newton.)

Mexico and the Antilles. (Sclater and
Salvin.)

(Baird,

Europe.

(Thomp., Nat. Hist. Ivl., Birds, Vol.
III, p. 112.)

Some on Belfast Bay. (Thompson, op.
cit.)

One on the Essex Coast, Jan., 1864.
(Carter, Zool. 1864, p. 8962.)

One near Barnstaple, 20 April, 1870.
(Mathew, Zool , 1870, p. 2182.)

Dafila acuta.* (L.) Leach. (Pintail.)
Throughout Europe, and down to North
Africa, and in Asia from Siberia and

Japan down to Ceylon. (Dresser.)

Anas boschas.* Linn. (Mallard.)
Throughout Europe, Canaries, Azores,
Madeira, North Africa, astern
Siberia and Kamschatka, Northern
India, especially the North-West.
Throughout the Amoor country, Japan,
Northern China, Dauria. (Dresser.)

Querquedula discors.

Two have been taken in England, and
one in Scotland. (Harting’s hand-
book, p. 63.)

One in France. (Degland and Gerbe,
Vol. II., p. 521.)

Querquedula crecca.* Steph. (Teal.)
The entire Palearctic regions. Through-
out Europe to North-Eastern Africa
and Egypt, Madeira, Algeria, Siberia
(Dresser. )

Querquedula carolinensis.
Accidental in England. (He ting’s hand-
book, p. 63.)

400

Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

ANATID A——continued.

America.
Chaulelasmus streperus.* Gray.
North America generally.
Cassin, and Lawrence.)
The Antilles. (Sclater and Salvin.)

(Baird,

Spatula clypeata.* (L.) Boie.

Mr. Dresser gives its habitat as Alaska,
Saskatchewan, and Hudson’s Bay,
Mackenzie River, Great Bear Lake,
and most of the United States, Texas.
(Audubon), Bogota. (Gould.)

Nicaragua. (Buonoparte.) Cuba, Ber-
muda,andJamaica. (Dr. Gundlach.)

Also Central America, Mexico, and
Trinidad. (Sclater and Salvin.)

Fuligula collaris.* Don.
Duck.)
The whole of North America.
Cassin, and Lawrence.)
Mexico and Guatemala.
Salvin.)
i

(Ring-necked
(Baird,

(Sclater and

Fuligula marila.* (1)

The whole of North America. (Baird,
Cassin, and Lawrence.)
Four have occurred in Greenland.

(Newton.)
Mexico. (Dresser.)

Fuligula affinis* (Little black-headed
Duck.)

The whole of North America; exceed-
ingly similar to #’. marila, but smaller.
(Baird, Cassin, and Lawrence.)

A pair were shot in Greenland in June.
(Newton. )

Mexico, Guatemala, Costarica, and
Veragua. (Sclater and Salvin.)

Fuligula americana.* Bp. (Red-head.)
North America; closely allied to F.
ferina of Europe, but has a narrower
bill.
Mexico and the Antilles.
Salvin.)

(Sclater and

Fuligula vallisneria.* Bp. (Canvas-back
Duck.)

The whole of North America. Has a
narrower bill than /’. americana, and
may further be distinguished from it
by the brown on the head, and less

black in the waved lines. (Baird,
Cassin, and Lawrence.)
Guatemala and the Antilles. (Sclater

and Salyin.)

Europe.
Chaulelasmus streperus.* Gray.(Gadwall.)
Northern Europe, wintering in Southern
Europe and North Africa. Siberia,
Asia Minor. Common throughout
India. Rare in Japan and China,
(Dresser. )

Spatula clypeata.* (L.) Boie. (Shoveller.)
According to Mr. Dresser, it is found
throughout Europe, British Isles,
North Africa. Common in Egypt,
Siberia, Palestine. Common in China,
and Japan, Erzeroom. (Dickson and
Ross.) Cashmere. (Leith Adams.)
Throughout India in winter, Australia.
(Gould.)

Fuligula collaris.
It has several times occurred in Europe.
(Degland and Gerbe, Vol. II., p. 536.)

Fuligula marila.* (L.) Steph. (Scaup
Duck.)

Breeds in North of Europe and Asia,
migrating south in winter, as far as
North Africa, Northern India, and

China. (Dresser. )

Fuligula ferina.* Linn. (Pochard.)

Throughout Europe, southward into
North Africa, and eastward as far as
China

So closely allied to F. americana that
the males are only just distinguishable;
upper parts darker, vermiculated on a
grayish instead ofon a white ground ;
females indistinguishable. (Dresser.

Catalogue of Birds found in Europe and America.

ANATID HB—continued.

America.
Clangula glaucion.* C. L. Brehm.
Canada and the north of North America;
south in winter to South Carolina, and
even to Cuba. (Dresser.) Rare in
the Antilles. (Sclater and Salvin.)

Clangula islandica.* (Gm.) Bp. (Barrow’s
Golden Eye.)

Found both on the Atlantic and Pacific
coasts; common in Hudson’s Bay and
Labrador; not rare in the Bay of
Fundy in winter, and Dr. Cones says it
occurs as far south as New York. Mr.
Henshaw found it at Utah, and it
occurs at Alaska. (Dresser.)

Breeds in Greenland. (Newton.)

Clangula albeola.* (l.) Steph. (Buffle-

: headed Duck.)

Both coasts of British North America,
and the United States, and south to
Mexico; and according to Reinhardt
it has occurred once in Greenland.
(Dresser. )

Cosmonetta histrionica.* (Linn.)
Northern sea coasts of the Northern
hemisphere. (Baird, Cassin, and Law-
rence.) Eastern Greenland. (Newton.)

Harelda glacialis.* (L.) Steph. (Long-
tailed Duck.)

Mr. Dresser says it is very common on
both coasts of Northern North America,
and south as far as South Carolina.
(Cones. )

Somateria stelleri.
North-Western America. Mr. Dresser
mentions a specimen in the possession
of Mr. Gurney from this locality.

Scien. Proc., R.D.S. Vou. 11, PT. v.

401
Europe.
Clangula glaucion.* C. L. Brehm. (Gol-
den Eye.)
Circumpolar. North of Europe; migra-

ting south in winter as far as North
Africa. British Isles. Common in
Belgium and France; rare in Spain
and Portugal, but not uncommon in
Italy. Once taken in Malta. Common
in the Ionian Islands and Greece.
Found in Turkey and in Egypt.
Common in Northern Asia and Japan.
(Dresser. )

Clangula islandica.* (Gm.) Bp.
Northern Paleartic regions. Iceland.
{t very rarely migrates southwards;
but Mr. Dresser says he possesses a
specimen from Valentia in Southern
Spain. (Dresser.)

Clangula albeola.
About fourteen have been taken in Eng-
land, and three in Scotland. (Harting’s
handbook Brit. Birds, p. 161.)

Cosmonetta histrionica.*
quin Duck.)
Northern Europe and Northern Asia,
though less abundant than in North
America. In Europe it is found chiefly
in Iceland. Occasional in England.
(Dresser. )

Harelda glacialis.* (1.) Steph.
Northern Europe. ‘The coasts of the

British Isles, Denmark, and Holland
in winter, and sometimes Belgium and

Linn. (Harle-

France. Across Northern Asia to
Japan. (Dresser.)

Somateria stelleri.* Newton. (Stellar’s
Duck.)

Northern Palearctic region; more spar-
ingly in the western portion. (Dresser.)

In England, according to Mr. Harting’s
handbook, it has occurred near Yar-
mouth, 10th February, 1830. (Yarrell,
Hist. Brit. Birds, Vol. III., p. 306.)

One at Filey, Yorkshire, 15 August,
1845. (Bell. Zool., 1846, p. 1249.)

One occured near Stockholm, 18th April,
1827.

One between Calais and Boulogne, Feb.,
1855. (Degland and Gerbe, Vol. IT.,

p- 554.)
2E

402

Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

ANATIDA—continued.

America.
Somateria mollissima.* (L.) Boie.

The Arctic and Atlantic coasts of the
Northern Hemisphere, and Pacific
coast of North America. (Baird,
Cassin, and Lawrence.)

Sharpe regards the American Eider as
distinct, under the name of S. dresseri,
with the bill more gibbous, and the bare
space behind the nostrils more extended
than in S. mollissima. Both prob-
ably occur in Greenland, the latter in
East Greenland, and S. dresseri from
Davis’ Strait northward. (Newton.)
Mr. Dresser says S. mollissima does not
occur in America, but is there repre-
sented by S. spectabilis.

Somateria spectabilis.* (L.)
Arctic Regions. The Pacific coast of
North America. (Baird, Cassin, and
Lawrence. )

Breeds in Greenland. (Newton. )

Edemiaamericana.* Swainson. (American
Scoter. )

The sea coast of North America. (Baird,
Cassin, and Lawrence. )

The bill is broader and the gibbosity less
elevated and wider than in the
European bird. Entirely orange from
the frontal feathers to the nostrils,
whilst in the European bird the yellow
begins at the base of the tuberosity,
surrounds the nostrils, and occupies
only the centre of the middle portion
of the bill. The basal protuberance in
the American bird is single, with a
medial simosity; in the European it
is formed by two hemispheres.
(Degland and Gerbe, Vol. II., p. 562.)

(demia perspicillata.*

(L.) Steph.
(Surf Scoter. )

Abundant on both coasts of North
America. In the Atlantic it goes
south as far as North Carolina,
and has oceurred at Charleston; in
the Pacific it is found down to San
Pedro. (Dresser.)

A few have occurred
(Newton.)

Rare in the Antilles. (Sclater and Salvin.)

in Greenland.

Europe.
Somateria mollissima.* (L.) Boie. (Eider
Duck.)

The north of Northern Europe, Scandin-
avia; migrating south in winter to
Holland, France, and the British Isles.
(Dresser. )

Somateria spectabilis.* (L.) (King Duck.)
North of Northern Europe and Siberia.
Four have been taken in England, and
four in Ireland (Harting’s hand-
beok), viz. :—

One in Kingstown Harbour, Ist Oct.,
1837. (Thompson’s Nat. Hist.
Treland, Birds, Vol. III., p. 116.)

One in the County of Kerry, winter of
1843. (Thomp., op. cit.)

One in Tralee Bay, Co. Kerry, winter
of 1845-46. (Thomp., op. cit.)

One on Belfast Bay, 11th March,
1850. (Thomp, op. cit.)

Accidental in France. (Degland and

Gerbe, Vol. II., p. 559.)

GEdemia nigra.* (L.) Flem.

Northern Europe and Northern Asia,
according to Mr. Dresser, breeding in
Northern Scandinavia, numerous on
the coast of Novaya Zemlya and
Northern Russia. In winter it visits
Northern Germany, Holland, the

British Isles, and France. Common
at Gibraltar and Tangier. (Colonel
Irby.) Occasional in Southern
Germany. The Azores. (Godman.)

In Asia it is confined to the north.

(Edemia perspicillata.

According to Mr. Dresser, ten or eleven
have occurred in Britain, of which
two were in Ireland and two in Scilly.
It has occurred also in Northern
Europe, Heligoland(Blasius), Flanders,
Artois, Piccardy, and Normandy.
(Degland and Gerbe ) 3

(Edemia velvetina.* Cass.

Catalogue of Birds found in Europe and America. 408

ANATID #-—continued.

America.

(American
Velvet Scoter.)

Along both coasts of Northern North
America. (Baird, Cassin, and
Lawrence. )

Mergus merganser.* Linn.

Across the Continent of North America,
breeding in the northern parts, and
being found in winter as far south as
Texas. The American bird is now
consideredidentical with the European.
(Dresser.) It has been separated as
M. americanus (Cass); andin Baird,
Cassin, and Lawrence, it is said to
differ from the European bird in
having the prolonged feathers of the
head almost restricted to the occiput
and neck behind, instead of beginning
almost at the base of the bill, and the
black bars of the greater wing coverts
exposed and more conspicuous.

Mergus albellus.

Audubon found a female at New Orleans,
which isthe only record of its occurring
in America.

Europe.

(Edemia fusca.* Steph. (Velvet Scoter.)

Northern Europe, Scandinavia, Northern
Russia, Novaya Zemlya. A regular
winter visitant to North Germany, a
straggler in South Germany. Common
in autumn on the coasts of Denmark.
Found in the British Isles. | Rarer on
the coast of Belgium, France, and
Portugal; a small flock seen at
Santander. Rare in the Mediterranean;
accidental in Italy; very rare in
Greece.

Found in North-Eastern Africa and the
Caspian Sea. (Dresser. )

Mergus merganscr.* Linn. (Goosander.)

Northern Europe, Scotland. In winter
through Western Europe, by the
British Isles, Belgium, Holland,
France, and Spain, to the Mediter-
ranean, where it occurs, though rarely.
Southern Germany, on the Danube;
not uncommon in Turkey. Rare in
Southern Russia and the Black Sea.
Has been very rarely found on the
coast of North-West Africa.

Northern Asia, and across to Japan,
Northern India (Himalayas), Turkes-
tan, through China, and down to the
Amoy in winter. (Dresser.)

Mergus albellus.* Linn. (Smew.)

Northern and North-Eastern Europe
and Asia. In winter it occurs in the
British Isles, Germany, the Dutch
coast, north of France and Spain, and
is rare on the Rhine and Elbe, and,
according to Wright (Ibis, 1864, p.
291), it has been found at Malta. It
is not uncommon in Greece, and
occurs in Italy, Sicily, and Savoy. It
is common on the Black Sea, and has
occurred at Tangier and in North-
West Africa. (Dresser.)

COLYMBID &.

Colymbus glacialis.* Linn. ;

Generally distributed over North America,
New Mexico, the Pacific Coast.
(Baird, Cassin, and Lawrence.) Breeds
in Greenland. (Newton.)

Scien. Proc., R.D.S. Von. u, Pr. y.

Colymbus glacialis.* Linn. (Great Nor-

thern Diver. )

According to Yarrell it is found in the
British Isles, and formerly bred there,
(Sir T. Browne.) Norway. (Hewit-
son.) Lapland. (Dann.) Breeds in
Finmark, but is rare in Sweden except
in winter. Breeds at the Faroes; also
in Iceland. (Proctor.) Spitzbergen.
Rare in the adult state in Germany,
France, and Switzerland. Has once
occurred in Italy. (Savi.)

2 Be

404

Scientific Proceedings, Roy! Dublin Socvety.

Cotympip®—continued.

America.

Colymbus arcticus.* Linn.
Hudson’s Bay and the Atlantic Coast,
perhaps as far south as the United
States. (Baird, Cassin, and Lawrence. )

Colymbus septentrionalis.* Linn.
Atlantic Coast from the Arctic Seas as
far south as Maryland in winter. Found
also on the Pacific Coast. (Baird,
Cassin, and Lawrence.)
Breeds in Greenland. (Neston.)

Europe.
Colymbus arcticus.* Linn, (Black-throated
Diver.)

Northern Europe, Scotland, occasionally
further south in the British Isles,
visiting the coasts of Germany and
Holland. Has occurred in Portugal
and Northern Italy, though not reported
from Spain.

Siberia and East to Japan. (Dresser.)

Colymbus septentrionalis.* Linn. (Red-
throated Diver.)

Northern Europe and Asia ; British Isles
in winter; and straggling as far south
as North Africa. Along the coast and
fresh-water lakes of China. (Dresser.)

PopICcIPID®.

Podiceps griseigena.* Bodd.

The fur countries, and the Atlantic states,
south to Pennsylvania in winter.
(Baird, Cassin, and Lawrence. )

Three have occurred in Greenland.
(Newton.) These have been named
P. holbélli, but are scarcely deserving
of specific rank.

St. Michael’s, Alaska.
to Fort Yukon.

Sitka. (Bischoff.)

(Dall.) And up

Podiceps auritus.
A few have been obtained in Southern
Greenland. (Newton.)

Podiceps nigricollis var. californicus.*

Heerm.
This scarcely separable form has been
named P. californicus. (Heerm,

Proc, Phil. Acad., 1854, p. 179.) Mr.
Dresser says it differs from P. nigri-
collis in having the twelve outer quills
black as well as the inner secondaries,
whereas in the European bird the sixth
quill is marked with white, each suc-
ceeding one having more white, the
short secondaries being pure white,

Podiceps griscigena.* Bodd. (Red-necked
Grebe.)

A winter visitor to Britain. Mr. Dresser
says: “ Itis doubtful if it occurs in
Iceland; it is resident but not common
in Scandinavia, Archangel, Central
Russia; breeds in South and South-
Eastern Russia, where it is common.”
(Mr. Sabanieff.) Breeds in North
Germany and Denmark; occurs in
passage in Belgium and France ; rare
in Italy. Breeds in North-West
Africa.

A large-billed form extends over North
America and Asia generally. Found
in Siberia, Japan, throughout the
Amoor country, Kamtchatka.

Podiceps auritus.* Linn. (Eared Grebe. )
Mr. Yarrell says it is occasional in Eng-
land, and rare in Scotland. Found in
Iceland. (Faber.) Breeds, though
rarely, in Sweden. (Nilsson.) Lapland.
(Linn.) Russia, Germany; rare in
Holland and France, but visits the
lakes of Switzerland, Provence, and
Italy ; rather common in the Adriatic.
(Temm.) Trebizond. (Dickson and
Ross.) Said to inhabit the Falkland
I. ; Siberia.

Podiceps nigricollis.* C. L. Brehm. (Eared
Grebe. )

Mr. Dresser says this Grebe breeds in
Southern Europe and North Africa,
whereas P. auritus only nests in the
far north. It is rare in most parts of
Scandinavia. Common in Central and
Southern Russia, but rare towards the
north. Poland, numerous in passage,
and a few breed. Breeds in North
Western Jutland. Occurs in passage
in Holland and Belgium, more nume-

Catalogue of Birds found in Europe and America.

405

CoLYyMBID.&—continued.

America.

California. (G. R. Gray.)

Podiceps cornutus.* Gm.
North America generally. (Baird, Cassin,
and Lawrence).

Europe.

rous on the Rhine. Met with in
Northern France, common in the south,
and in winter in Savoy. Common in
winter in Greece and Turkey. Occurs
in Malta. Breeds in South Germany.
Common in Palestine, North Africa,
and North-West Africa, and occurs
south to the Cape, and through Asia
to Japan. Accidental in Britain.

Podiceps cornutus.* Gm. (Horned or
Sclavonian Grebe. )

According to Yarrell it is occasional in
the British Isles in winter, but rare
in summer. Not uncommon in Ireland
in winter. Breedsin Iceland (Proctor)
and in Sweden. (Nilsson.) Rare in
Holland, but more common in Germany
and Eastern Europe. Found rarely
in winter in France, Switzerland, and
Provence, and said to have occurred
near the Caspian Sea.

ALCIDA.

Alea impennis.* Linn,
Formerly found in the Arctic Seas,
Greenland, and Baffin’s Bay.

Alca torda.* Linn.

The northern coast of America, Labra-
dor, Newfoundland, and south to New
Jersey. (Baird, Cassin, and Lawrence.)

Not rare in Greenland, but not yet ob-
served on the east coast. (Newton.)

Rare on the Pacific coast. (Dresser.)

Fratercula arctica.* Linn.
Common on the coast of Labrador, the
Bay of Fundy, and goes south in
winter to Massachusetts. (Dresser.)

Alca impennis.* Linn. (Great Auk.)
Though now probably extinct, I have
included it in this list. It was found
in the north Atlantic, and was not
uncommon in the Orkneys. Degland
and Gerbe say it was accidental on
the French coast, and that three were
taken at Cherbourg about fourteen or
fifteen years ago (dating from 1867) ?

Alea torda.* Linn. (Razor-billed Auk.)
Arctic and Northern Europe; British
Isles; down the coast of Belgium,
Holland, France, and Spain, to the
Mediterranean, where it is often com-
mon at Gibraltar ; Marseilles; Italy.
(Dresser. )

Fratercula arctica.* Linn. (Puffin.)

Northern and western coast of Europe;
rare in the Baltic and the Mediterra-
nean; has occurred rarely in Italy;
visits Algeria in winter, and Tangier,
and is then found alone the north-
west coast of Africa. (Dresser.)

It is a summer visitor to the British
Isles, where it breeds; Scandinavia;
Faroe Isles; Iceland; and is found as
far north as Nova Zembla. Eastward
it is found on the coast of Holland and
France; and according to Savi, it has
once occurred in Genoa in winter
1823. (Yarrell.)

406

Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

ALCID.&—-continued.

America.
Phaleris psittaculus.* Pall.
North-western America. (Gray’s Hand
List, No. 10786.)

Alca troile.* Linn.
North American coast, south to New

Jersey. (Baird, Cassin, and Law-
rence. )

Rare, but breeds in Greenland. (New-
ton.)

Replaced on the Pacific coast by A.
californica of Bryant. (Dresser.)

Alca brunnichii.* Sab.
Arctic Seas, and south in winter to
Massachusetts. (Dresser.)

Uria grylle.* Linn.
Northern America, south to New Jersey.
(Baird, Cassin, and Lawrence.)
Numerous in Greeenland. (Newton.)

Uria columba.* Pall.
mot.)

This variety inhabits the North Pacific ;
and is found (according to Baird,
Cassin, and Lawrence) in Western
and North-Western America and
Kamtchatka.

(Western Guille-

Meryulus alle.* (1.) Vieill.

Northern America as far south as the
middle United States. (Baird, Cassin,
and Lawrence.)

Breeds in Greenland. (Newton.)

Phaleris psittaculus.

Europe.

Pall.
Kamtchatka; Sweden. (Gray.)

Alca troile.* Linn. (Common Guillemot.)

Northern Europe, British Isles, and south

along the west coast to Portugal, and

occasionally as far as the north-west
coast of Africa.

In the extreme north of Europe it is

replaced by A. brunnichii. (Dresser.)

Alcea brunnichii.* Sab. (Brunnich’s Guille-
mot.)

Arctic Seas, Spitzbergen, and Novaya
Zemlya, and southward in winter,
once occurring at Havre. (Dresser.)

A few have been taken in England and
Scotland, and one in Ireland, on the
Dublin coast, in June? (Blake, Knox,
Zool., 1871, p. 2609.)

Uria grylle.* Linn. (Black Guillemot.)
Breeds in the British Isles. Found on
the east coast of Scandinavia; Faroes;
Iceland; Nova Zembla; Spitzbergen.
Occasional on the coast of France and
Holland. (Yarrell.)
A very closely allied variety, U. mandtii
of Licht., is found in Spitzbergen and
Novaya Zemlya.

Uria columba. Pall.

Von Heuglin found a specimen in the
Spitzbergen Seas which corresponds
exactly with the typical U. columba.
It is distinguished from U. grylle by
a distinct black bar across the wing
spot. (Newton.)

Mergulus alle.*
Auk.)
Northern Europe.
It is an irregular winter visitant to
Britain, and is found in the Atlantic
as far as the Canaries. ( Dresser.)

(L.) Vieill. (Little

PROCELLARID.

Puffinus major.* Faber.

The Atlantic coast from the St. Law-
rence to Florida. (Baird, Cassin, and
Tawrence. )

Common in Greenland, Reinhardt reports
it as breeding there. (Newton.)

Straitsof Magellen. (Sclater and Salvin.)

Puffinus major.* Fabr.
water. )

The Atlantic ocean south to the Cape of
Good Hope, but not in the Baltie or
Mediterranean. (Dresser.)

Appears annually in Cornwall and
Devon, and occasionally on other parts
of the English and Irish coast. (Har-
ting.)

(Great Shear-

Catalogue of Birds found in Europe and America. 407

PROCELLARID&—continued.

America.
Puffinus kuhli.
Accidental in South America. (Sclater
and Salvin.) ©
Once taken in Greenland. (Newton.)

Pufinus griseus.* (Gm.) Finseh. (Sooty
Shearwater. )

Labrador, Bay of Fundy, coast of Green-
land, and banks of Newfoundland, and
coast of the Northern United States.

On the Pacifie coast it occurs down to
California, and south as far as Chili.
(Dresser. )

Puffinus anglorum.* Tem.
The Atlantic, from New Jersey to Lab-
rador. (Baird, Cassin, and Lawrence.)
Once taken in Greenland. (Newton.)

Pufiinus obscurus.* (Gm.) Lath. (Dusky
Shearwater. )

Southern coast of the United States;

Gulf of Mexico. (Baird, Cassin, and
Lawrence. )

Thalassidroma pelagica.* (L.) Vigors.

The Atlantic Ocean, and the banks of

Newfoundland. (Baird, Cassin, and
Lawrence. )

Thalassidroma leucorrhoa.* Vieill.

The Atlantic coast from Massachusetts
to Baffin’s Bay. (Baird, Cassin, und
Lawrence. )

Washington. (Baird, Ibis 1867, p.
292.)

Common in Greenland. (Newton.)

Pacific coast. (Dresser.)

Europe.
Puffinus kuhli.* — Boie. (Gray Shear-
water.)
The Mediterranean; breeds in Italy,
Sicily, Sardinia and the neighbour-
ing Islands, (Dresser )

Pujjinus griseus.

it has been several times taken at Dieppe.
(Degland and Gerbe, Vol. IL, p. 382.)

Occasional in Britain, and is found in
the Atlantic south as far as the Cape
of Good Hope, where according to
Smith it is common. It also occurs
in New Zealand, and some of the
neighbouring Islands. ( Dresser.)

Pujjinus anglorum.* Tem. (Manx Shear-
water. )

British Isles in summer, breeding in
many of the Islands round the coast.
(Harting.)

Western Europe, Mediterranean, common
in autumn at Gibraltar, east to the
Black Sea, Egypt, Madeira, Canaries,
Azores. (Dresser.)

Puffinus obscurus.

West coast of Africa to the Cape of
Good Hope; rare in the Mediterranean.

One was taken at Valencia, Ireland, 11
May, 1853 (Yarrell, Hist. Brit. Birds,
Vol., II, p. 659); and five more
have been recorded from England, but
the species of these is doubtful.
(Harting’s Handbook Brit. Birds, p.
176.)

Thalassidroma pelagica.* (L.) Vigors.
(Storm Petrel.)

According to Mr. Dresser it inhabits
North-Western and Western Kurope ;
breeds in the British Isles, France,
breeding on the islands off the coast of
Brittany; Portugal ; Spain ; the Medi-
terranean; North-Western Africa ;
Fantee (Sharpe, Ibis 1872, p. 74);
Walwich Bay (Gurney) ; East Africa,
Zanzibar and Zambesi (Capt. Sper-
ling, Ibis 1868, p. 298); breeds on the
coast of Algeria (Major Loche) ;
Madeira, South Africa.

Thalassidroma — lewcorrhoa.* Vieill.
(Leach’s Petrel, or Fork-tailed Pet-
rel.)

Breeds in the outer Hebrides.

Not uncommon on the English coast in
autumn. (Harting.)

From St. Kilda to Madeira, chiefly an
ocean bird. It has occurred in Heli-
goland, Germany, Copenhagen, French
Mediterranean coast, Portugal (re~
ported more common than 7° pelagica),
coast of Algeria. (Dresser. )

408

Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

PROCELLARIDZ—continued.

America.
Thalassidroma oceanica.*
son’s Petrel.)

Atlantic Ocean from Baffin’s Bay to the
Gulf of Mexico. (Baird, Cassin, and
Lawrence. )

Coast of Brazil.

Kuhl. (Wil-

(Sclater and Salvin.)

Thalassidroma bulwert.
Once taken in Greenland.

(Newton.)

Fulmarus glacialis.* (L.) Steph.
North Atlantic. (Baird, Cassin,
Lawrence. )
Breeds in Greenland. (Newton.)
Found as far south as the New England
coast. (Brewer, Bull. Nutt. Orn. Club,
January 7, 1879, p. 64.)

Kuhl.

and

Hstrelata hesitata.*
Petrel.)

Frem Florida along the east coast to
New York. (Baird, Cassin, and
Lawrence. )

The Antilles.

(Capped

(Sclater and Salvin.)

Diomedea exulans.

Buonaparte says of its occurrence in
America that it is ‘‘ rare and accidental
on the coasts of the Middle States; ”
and Latham, that it is abundant in
the North Pacific in summer; but
Prof. Baird says this is doubtful, and
that probably D. brachywra is meant.

Diomedeachlororhyncha. Gm. (Yellow-
nosed Albatros.)

Pacific Ocean and the coast of Oregon.
Distinguished by the pure white rump,
lead coloured tail, and yellow culmen
of bill. (Baird, Cassin, and Lawrence.)

Europe.

Thalassidroma oceanica.
Occasional in Britain, once in Ireland
according to Thompson. (Harting.)
In the Atlantic Ocean from the British
Isles southward. Common at the
Azores. Indian Ocean; South Aus-
tralia: Kerguelenland. Easily recog-
nised by the yellow on the webs of its

feet. (Dresser.)

Thalassidroma bulwert. Jard. (Bulwer’s
Petrel.)

According to Mr. Dresser it is chiefly
found at the Canaries and Madeira.
A straggler to the British Isles.
(Dresser.)

One occurred near Tanfield, Yorkshire,
8 May, 1837. (Yarrell, Vol. III., p.
664.)

One off Scarborough, 1849. (Higgins,
Zool. 1849, p. 2569.)

Fulmarus glacialis.* (L.) Steph.
mer Petrel.)
British Isles, breeding
Hebrides. (Harting.)
Arctic Europe and Scandinavia, rarely
in France and Holland. (Dresser.)

(Ful

in the outer

_Estrelata hesitata,

According to Mr. Harting’s Hand Book
one occurred near Swaffham, spring,
1850. (Newton, Zool. 1852, p.
3691); and one in the English channel
which is now in the Museum at
Boulogne-Sur-Mer.

Diomedea exulans. Linn.

Albatros.)

One taken in Norway.
One taken near Dieppe.
One near Anvers, September, 1833.
Three others (?) near Chaumont, in

November, 1758. (Degland and

Gerbe, Vol. II., p. 376.)

(Wandering

Diomedea chlororhyncha.

According to Degland and Gerbe, Vol.
II., p. 869, two specimens were taken
near Kongsberg, in Norway; April,
1837.

LARID.Z.

Stercorarius catarractes.

According to Mr. Howard Saunders
(P. Z. 8. 1876, p. 317) it has occurred
once in California (Lawrence); it was
found at the mouth of the Mackenzie

Stercorarius catarractes.* Linn. (Great
Skua.)

According to Mr. Howard Saunders’

paper it breeds on the Lofoton Islands

off the coast of Norway. Thence it is

Catalogue of Birds found in Europe and America.

409

LARID&—continued.

America.
River (Bernard Ross); Great Bear
Lake and through Hudson’s Bay. It
has twice occurred in Greenland.
(Holbéll.)

Stercorarwus pomatorhinus.* Sclater.
Labrador, south to New York in winter
and once as far as Pennsylvania.
(Baird, Cassin, and Lawrence.)
Common, and breeds in Greenland.
(Newton.)

Stercorarius crepidatus.* Gm.

Along the Atlantic coast of North
America; two specimens have been
obtained at Rio de Janeiro. Prybolov
Islands, In Alaska, and probably at
Callao. (Howard Saunders.)

Breeds in Greenland. (Newton.)

Stercorarius parasiticus.* Linn.

Arctic Sea Coast of America, Baffin’s Bay.
(Baird, Cassin, and Lawrence.)

Breeds in Greenland. (Newton.)

Mouth of the Mackenzie. (Bernard
Ross.)

Alaska. (Dall and Bannister.)

Not south of lat. 40° N. (Howard
Saunders.)

Europe.

found nesting West and Southward to
Iceland the Faroes and Shetland Islands.
From its breeding places it passes
southward in autumn along the
western shores of Europe as far as
Gibraltar and Morocco. It has been
found as a straggler in Germany.

Stercorarius pomatorhinus.* Sclater. (Po-
matorhine Skua.)

Spitzbergen; Novaya Zemlya.

Von Middendorff found it breeding on
the barrens of Taimyr and Boganida
in Siberia. It passes along the west
coast of Europe occurring as a straggler
in the irterior of the continent, and
visits the Mediterranean as far as Sicily
and Malta. West Coast of Africa.
Captain Shelley found it at Fantee;
and Anderson twice at Walwich Bay.
Mr. Blythe records that Major Tickell
found it at Moulmein on the coast of
Tenasserim. One was found at Cape
York, North Australia. (Howard
Saunders. )

Stercorarius crepidatus.* Gm. (Richard-
son’s Skua.)

Mr. Howard Saunders says, “ Parry
found it up to lat. 82° 2’N.; and it
breeds throughout the Arctic and sub-
Arctic regions as far south as the
Islands of the North of Scotland; and
Thompson records it as having nested
near Achil Island on the West of
Ireland.” Perhaps, also it breeds on
the French coast.

It is found high up in the Mediterranean,
and along the West Coast of Africa to
Walwich Bay, and as far as the Cape
of Good Hope. Mr. Allan Hume
observed it on the Coast of Scind, the
Gulf of Oman, and between Guader
and Bombay. One occurred at
Horowhenua, New Zealand.

It has the shafts of the primaries white
or light coloured.

Stercorarius parasiticus.* Linn. (Buffon’s
Skua.)

According to Mr. Howard Saunders it
inhabits Novaya Zemlya, Spitzbergen,
and south from thence through the
whole circuit of the Arctic regions.

Von Middendorf found it breeding on
the Taimyr and Bogonida, Siberia.

Wolley found it breeding on the Lapland
fells.

Ranges along the British coast, and
Western Europe, south to Gibraltar

410

Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

LARD A—continued.

America.

Pagophila eburnea.* Phipps.

Coast of Arctic America, Labrador, and
Newfoundland. (Baird, Cassin, and
Lawrence. }

Common in Greenland. (Newton.)

Not yet found in the North Pacific.
(Howard Saunders. )

Rissa tridactyla.* Linn.

Labrador and the fur countries. (Baird,
Cassin, and Lawrence.)
Very common in Greenland. (Newton.)

Down as far as the middle United
States in winter ; found on the Pacitic
coast of the fur countries. (Dresser. )

‘« Rxamples are occasionally found about
Alaska, and the Aleutian Islands, with
a minute but tolerably developed hind
toe, and at times, with a visible nail.”
(Howard Saunders. )

Larus glaucus.* Briinn.
Arctic region, south as far as Long Island
in winter. (Howard Saunders.)
Conimon, and breeds in Greenland.

(Newton.)

Larus leucopterus.* Faber.

Even more thoroughly Arctic, during
the breeding season than L. glaucus.
Breeds within the Arctic circle from
Greenland to Behring’s Straits, also
in Alaska. (Howard Saunders.)

Arctie Seas, Labrador and Baffin’s Bay.
(Baird, Cassin, and Lawrence.)

Very common, and breeds in Greenland.
(Newton. )

Larus argentatus.* Briinn.

A very rare straggler to Greenland.
Was obtained at Winter Islands near
Melville Peninsula, occurs in Hudson’s
Bay Territory as far as the Mackenzie
River, and probably across to the
Pacific coast, where it has occurred
at Kodiak. West coast of Mexico.
Probably also, according to Dall and

Europe.
‘and Morocco. Distinguished by its
very long central tail feathers, and by
having only the first and second
primaries white-shafted.

Payophjla eburnea.* Phipps. (Ivory Gull.)
A few have been taken in England and
Scotland, and about six in Ireland,
according to Mr. Harting
Dresser says it is found in Arctic Europe
and Asia. It is a rare straggler to
Germany. One was taken on the
Lake of Geneva. (Nauman.) It is
also accidental in France. (Degland
and Gerbe. )

Rissa tridactyla.* Linn.
Gull.)

Arctic regionand along the sea coast of the
sub-Arctic region, down to about 40°
N. lat.; breeding perhaps even in the
Canaries according to Godman. In
winterit is abundant about the Azores,
Canaries, and opposite Coast of Africa.
(Howard Saunders, P.Z.S., 1878, p.
164.)

(Kittiwake

Larus glaucus.* Brinn. (Glaucus Gull.)
Arctie region, seldom breeding much to
the south of the Arctic circle.
Captain Blakiston obtained specimens at
Hakodadi, Japan. (Howard Saunders.)
In Britain it is a winter visitor, chiefly
to the north of Scotland. (Harting.)
It occurs in Portugal, and has done so
once near Tangier, according to Colonel
Irby. (Dresser.)

Larus leucopterus.* Faber. (Iceland Gull.)
Arctic Europe, occurring in the Baltic;
Danish and Norwegian coasts;
Holland; and according to Degland
and Gerbe, at Dunkerque. (Dresser.)
An uncommon winter visitant to Britain.
(Harting. )
Captain Blakiston obtained a specimen
in Japan. (Howard Saunders.)

Larus argentatus.* Briinn.
Gull.)

Throughout Northern and Central Eu-
rope, eastward into Russia, and during
the winter season throughout Southern
Europe, the Azores, Canaries, and
Madeira. North Africa, Palestine
Malta, and the Ionian Islands haye

also been given as its habitat, but

(Herring

Catalogue of Birds found in Europe and America. 411

LARIDA—continued.

America.
Banister, in Alaska and the Upper Yu-
kon. It ranges from Labrador down
the coast and along the great lakes and
rivers as far as Texas, and also visits
Cuba and Bermuda. (Howard Saun-
ders. )

Larus affinis.
One specimen from Greenland. (Proff.
Reinhardt.)

Larus occidentalis.* Audubon.

Pacific coast of North America down to
Magdalena Bay, Lower California.
(Howard Saunders.)

This and the last connect with LZ. fuscus,
but may be distinguished by the com-
paratively larger foot of the herring
gulls.

Larus canus.

A specimen taken by Dr. Coues at
Henley Harbour, Labrador, 21st
August, 1860. (Howard Saunders,
P.Z.S , 1878, p. 178.)

Larus marinus.* Linn,

Rare in Northern Greenland; breeds in
Labrador; occurs on the great lakes
of North America, and visits Florida
in winter. Bermudas. (Howard
Saunders.)

Europe.
probably Z. lewcopheus is referred to.
( Dresser.)
It has been reported more than 15° S.
of the equator. (?) (Howard Saun-
ders.)

Larus cachinnans.* Pall. L. leucopheus.
Licht. (Yellow-legged Herring Gull.)
This variety of the herring gull is dis-
tinguished by the darker mantle, yel-
low legs and feet, and deep orange-red
ring round the eye; and Mr. Howard
Saunders considers it entitled to specific
rank; he givesits range as throughout
the Mediterranean, Black Sea, from
the mouth of the Volga to the shores
of the Caspian Sea, across the Ural
River and Kirgish steps to the Irtich
and Lake Baikal; Red Sea; and in
winter the Persian Gulf, and south to
Kurrachee ; China and Japan. He
has also a specimen from Havre.

Larus ajinis. Reinh,

Messrs. Seebohm and Harvie Brown
found it breeding on the Petchora,
where it arrives from the south about
the 11th of May. Mr. Hume found
it in winter about Kurrachee (his Z
occidentalis). Found in the Red Sea,
Beloochistan coast, Novaya Zemlya,
and the Sea of Okhotsk. (Howard
Saunders. )

Larus canus.* Linn. (Common Gull.)

Northern and Western Europe, Mediter-
ranean coasts. Rare in Egypt; more
common in Algeria. Siberia, and
southward into China; not uncommon
on the Lower Amoor. (Dresser.)

‘‘ Few species differ so much in individual
size.” “ Off Japan all sizes are found.”
(Howard Saunders. )

Larus marinus.* Linn.
backed Gull.)

Scandinavia to North Cape. Not in

Spitzbergen. Common in North-

Western Europe to the north coast

of France, below which it is rare,

(Great Black=

412

Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

LARID«“— continued.

America.
Breeds in Greenland, most common be-
tween 68° and 66°. (Newton.)

Larus atricilla.* Linn. (Laughing Gull. )

On the east coast of America, from

Maine down to the mouths of the

Amazons, and to the West Indies.

On the Pacific side, California,

Mexico, Guatemala, and as far south

as Tumbez, the northern frontier of
Peru. (Howard Saunders. )

Larus philadelphie.* Ord, (Bonapart’s
Gull.)

British North America and Alaska Gn
summer), breeding on the Yukon and
neighbouring localities; in autumn it
descends the coasts of America as far
as California on the west, and North
Carolina on the east. (Howard
Saunders. )

Common in Greenland. (Newton.)

Rhodostethia rosea. Macgill. (Ross's
Rosy Gull.)

Four have been taken in Disco Bay,
Greenland; one of which is in the
Cambridge University Museum, and
three at Copenhagen.

Two were obtained at Melville Penin-
sula; one of which is in the Univer-
sity Museum, Edinburgh, and one in
the Derby Museum, Liverpool.

(Dresser. )

Xema sabinii.* Sabine. (Sabine’s Gull.)
Mr. Howard Saunders gives its habitat
in America as Arctic America, breed-

ing to the north of Upernavik, in
Greenland, and then across to the
west, breeding in Alaska (Dall); and
southward in autumn, to New York

on the east, and Great Salt Lake,
Utah, on the west; but Messrs.
Sclater and Salvin have a specimen

Europe.
though often found at Gibraltar. Has
occurred in Sicily, Greece, and the
Danube. Common at the Canaries.
(Dresser. )
Japau. (Howard Saunders.)

Larus atricilla.

According to Mr. Harting’s Hand-book,
one was taken out of five at Win-
chelsea, August, 1774. (Montagu.
Orn. Dict.)

Two near Hastings.
Cit.)

One, Lodmoor, Weymouth, winter, 1850,
(Thompson, Zool., 1851, p. 8055.)

(Montagu, Op.

Larus philadelphic.

According to Mr. Harting’s Hand book,
one occurred near Belfast, Ist Feb-
ruary, 1848. (Zool., 1849, p. 2069.)

One on Loch Lomond, April, 1850. (Sir
G. Leith, Zool., 1851, p. 3117.)

One on one of the English lakes. (Yar-
rell, Hist. Brit. Birds, Vol. III., p.
555.)

One off Skerries, county Dublin, 14th
February, 1855. (Hon. T. L. Powys,
Zool., 1855, p. 4762.)

One, Dublin Bay, July, 1864.
Knox, Zool., 1866, p. 306.)
One, Falmouth Harbour, autumn, 1864.

(Rodd, Zool., 1865, p. 9501.)

(Blake

Rhodostethia rosea.

Two in the Museum at Mayence are
said to have been obtained at Kam-
schatka ?

One, obtained in Heligoland, is in the
collection of Herr Gitke.

One was obtained at the Faroe Islands,
Feb., 1863; Herr Benzon, Copen-
hagen, Ibis, 1856, p. 103.

One, which is said to have occurred at
Tedeaster, Yorkshire, Feb., 1847.
(Dresser. )

Ross and Parry state that it was seen
north of Spitzbergen in about 82° N.
lat., and Lieut. Payer says it was
obtained about Franz-Joseph Land.
(Howard Saunders.)

Xema sabinii.

According to Mr. Harting’s handbook,
fifteen have occurred in Britain, and
seven in Ireland.

Another was taken on the coast of
Donegal, 19th Sept., 1878. (Wil-
liams, Zool., 1878, p. 437.)

According to Mr. Dresser, one has oc-
curred at Heligoland. (Professor
Blasius, Ibis, 1862, p. 71.)

Catalogue of Birds found in Europe and America. 413

LAR IDA:—continued.

America.
from a little north of Huanchacho,
on the coast of Peru, and it has once
oecurred at the Bermudas.

Hydrochelidon hybrida.
One in the British Museum from Bar-
badoes, presented by Sir Robert
Schomberg. (Howard Saunders.)

Hydrochelidon leucoptera.
One occurred in Wisconsin, United
States. (Dr. Coues, Bull. Nutt. Orn.
Club, July, 1878, p. 141.)

Europe.

Two in Munster Land (Dr. Altun); one
on the coast of Holstein (Hager) ; one
on the coast of Holland, and one in
Picardy (Dr. Selys.)

One at Rouen and one at Dunkirk.
(Degland and Gerbe.)

According to Howard Saunders, it is not
rare in Plover Bay, Eastern Siberia
(Dall); and it breeds on the tundras
of the Taimyr, north of 74° (Mid-
dendorff); and Dr. Bureau has an
adult, with full black hood, taken on
the coast of Brittany, August 25,
1872.

Hydrochelidon kybrida.* Pall. (Whis-
kered Tern.)

From the extreme West of Europe to
the coast of China, and the Island of
Formosa. Throughout the Malayan
region, down to Australia (chiefly
Queensland), Abundant in Western
and Southern Africa. (Howard
Saunders, P.Z.S., 1876, p. 638.)

According to Mr. Harting’s handbook,
one occurred at Lyme Regis, Dorset-
shire, August, 1836. (Yarrell, Brit.
Birds, Vol. III., p. 517.)

One in Dublin Bay, Sept., 1839.
(Thompson, Zool., 1847, p. 1878.)
One at Hickling Broad, Norfolk, 17th
June, 1847. (Gurney and Fisher,

Zool., 1847, p. 1820.)

One near Trescoe Abbey, Cornwall.
August, 1851. (Rodd, Zool., 1851,
p. 3280.)

And one near Plymouth, May,-1865.
(Gatcombe, Zool., 1865, p. 9629.)

Hydrochelidon leucoptera.*
(White-winged Tern.)

Abundant in Southern and South-
Eastern Europe, and a_ straggler
further north.

Ranges throughout Siberia and China,
and reaches the Transvaal, Damara-
land, and Abyssinia ; it also occurs in
Australia and New Zealand. (Howard
Saunders.)

According to Mr. Harting, it is occa-
sional in the British Isles, and in
Treland one was killed on the Shannon
in 1841 (M‘Coy, Ann. Nat. Hist., Vol.
XVes) Pp.) 2M) on saceordine to
Thompson, not on the Shannon, but
on the Liffey, in October, 1841.

One in Dublin Bay. (Thomp. Nat.
Hist. Ireland, Birds, Vol. III., p. 307.)

Mr. Dresser says it has occurred in
North Germany, Denmark, and
Sweden.)

Schinz

414

Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

LARIpD a2—continued.

America.
Hydrochelidon nigra.* (Linn.)
Across North America, West Indies, and
on the Pacific Coast, south to Chili

and Peru in winter. (Howard
Saunders. )
From Canada southward. (Dresser.)

Antilles, Central America, and Chili.
(Sclater and Salvin.)

In American birds the black of the under
parts is darker than in the Europeans
(Howard Saunders); it has been given
distinct specific rank as H. plumbea.
Wil.

Sterna anglica.* (Mont.)

Atlantic Coast of the United States
‘from Connecticut southwards. (Baird,
Cassin, and Lawrence.)

Breeds on Cob’s Island Virginia, (Bailey,
Bull, Nutt. Orn. Club, April, 1876,
p- 28.)

Antilles, Central America, and Brazil.
(Sclater and Salvin.)

South to Patagonia on the east coast.
(Howard Saunders.)

Observed on the Pacific
Guatemala. (Salvin.)

Coast in

Sterna fluviatilis.* (Naum.)
The Atlantic Coast of America from
Texas to Labrador. (Dresser. )

Sterna macrura.* (Naum.)

Arctic Seas, and coast of the New Eng-
land States. (Baird, Cassin, and
Lawrence.)

In America it has occurred as far south
as Bahia. (Howard Saunders. )

Breeds in Greenland. (Newton.)

Sterna dougalli.* Mont.

Breeds from Massachusetts to Florida,
and at Bermudas; also found in
Central America, and visits various
West Indian Islands. (Howard
Saunders. ) ’

Occurs north to Cosco Bay, Maine.
(Brewster. )

Europe.
Hydrochelidon nigra.*
Tern.)

Southern Europe, becoming rarer north-
ward. Accidental in the British Isles,
Southern Norway and Southern
Sweden, and very rare in Finland.
North Africa, and has occurred south
to Damara Land. (Dresser.)

(Linn.) (Black

Sterna anglica.* (Mont.) (Gull billed
Tern. )

Sixteen have been taken in England
according to Mr. Harting.

It ranges from Western Europe to the
China Seas; throughout India, Ceylon,
and the Malayan region, and down
to Australia. (Howard Saunders.)

Throughout Southern Europe, and North
Africa, and eastward to Southern
Siberia and China. Not uncommon
in Southern France, rare in the north;
rare in Italy; occurs in Spain and
Portugal, and as a straggler in Holland
and Denmark, where it breeds; rare
in North Germany and the Baltic.
Common in North Eastern and North
Western Africa, Greece and Asia
Minor. (Dresser.)

Slerna fluviatilis.* (Naum.) (Common
Tern.)

Throughout temperate Europe. In Asia
Minor, Persia, and India. (Dresser.)

Mr Howard Saunders says, on the west
coast of Africa it goes as far as the
Cape of Good Hope. It has occurred
in Ceylon, and northwards as far as
Pekin. He considers birds from Tibet
and Siberia separable, as S. tibetana.

Sterna macrura.* (Naum.) (Arctic Tern.)
The Coasts of Northern Europe and Asia.
In winter it visits the African Coast,
descending to Walwich Bay.

It is not certain whether S. hirundo otf
Linneus refers to this bird or &
fluviatilis.

Sterna dougalli.* (Mont.)
S. pauradisea. Keys. et Blas. (Roseate
Tern.)

Along the western coast of Europe from
the British Isles to the Mediterranean;
not common in England, but more so
in Ireland and Scotland.

Has occurred in Denmark, occasional in

Catalogue of Birds found in Europe and America.

415

La RIDM—continued.

America.
Antilles, Guatemala, and _ Trinidad.
(Sclater and Salvin.)

Sterna cantiaca.* Gm.

Atlantic coast of North America to the
West Indies, Honduras (its southern
breeding limit), and Brazil, at least as
far as Bahia. (Howard Saunders.)
Occasional in New England. (Brew-
ster, Bull. Nutt. Orn. Club, January,
1879, p. 14.)

Sterna elegans.* Gamb. (Elegant Tern.)

From the Gulf of California to Peru and
Chili. (Howard Saunders.)

In his paper in the Pro. Zool. Soc., Mr.
Howard Saunders separates the At-
lantic form as S. eurygnatha. He
says it is smaller than S. elegans,
with the bill less robust, and yellow
instead of red. It ranges from Santa
Catharina, South Brazil, to the island
of Trinidad.

Sterna caspia.* Pall.
From Labrador, where it breeds, to New
Jersey; Great Slave Lake, and the
Mackenzie River. (Howard Saunders. )

Sterna antillarum.* Less.

Throughout temperate America on both
coasts, and down to the Antilles,
Trinidad, lat. 10° N. ©

The shafts of the primaries are dark, but
the rump and tail-coverts are pearl-
gray, and it has but little, and some-
times no black at the tip of the bill.

It isreplaced on the South American rivers
by S. superciliaris (Vieill), having a
stouter bill which is entirely yellow,
and with legs and feet olivaceous
instead of yellow. (Howard Saunders. )

Sterna fuliginosa.* Gm. (Sooty Tern.)
Found as far north as New England, near
Lawrence, Massachusetts. (Ruthven
Deane, Bull. Nutt. Orn. Club, Jan.,
1877, p. 27.)

Southern coasts of the United States,
and Central America, and Mexico;
and down to Chili and British Hon-
duras. The West Indies. (Dresser.)

Of a closely allied form S. anestheta
(Scop.), Howard Saunders says it is
smaller than S. fuliginosa, mantle less
dark, and the webbing between the

Europe.

France, Italy, and Greece. Also at
Cape of Good Hope and Natal.

Bengal, Ceylon, Andaman Islands,
numerous on the west coast of
Australia. (Dresser.)

Sterna cantiaca.* Gm. (Sandwich Tern.)
Europe generally, and British Isles.
North Africa, and down the west
coast to South Africa. In Asia, east

as far as Sindh. (Dresser.)

Sterna media.* Bodd. (Allied Tern.)
From Gibraltar, along the Mediterranean,
down the Red Sea, south to Mada-
gascar, and eastward along the Indian
coasts, Malay Archipelago, Aru Islands,
Torres Straits, and Port Essington.
(Howard Saunders. )

Sterna caspia.* Pall. (Caspian Tern.)
From Northern Finland to South Africa.
The coasts of Asia, and the Islands
down to New Zealand, breeding over

its range from Bothnia to New Zealand,

and not in the north only, as many
species do. (Dresser.) :

Sterna minuta.* Linn. (Little Tern.)
Throughout temperate Europe to India.
In winter on the west coast of Africa,
to the Cape of Good Hope.
It has dark shafts to the outer primaries,
and the rump and tail white. (Howard
Saunders.)

Sterna fuliginosa.

A rare straggler to Europe. One occurred
near Burton-on-Trent in 1853 (Brown,
Zool., 1853, p. 8755.)

One on the Thames, near Wallingford,
Berks, 21st June, 1869 (Harting,
Zool., 1869, p. 1867.)

One (?) on the estuary of Axe, near
Axminster (Rev. J. B. Selwood, Field,
17th July, 1869).

One in Germany (Nauman. )

Mr. Dresser says it is common on some
of the Atlantic islands on parts of the

416

Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

LARID7:—continued.

America.

outer and middle toes only descends to
the last joint, instead of to the claws.
Its range is similar to 8. fuliginosa.

Anous stolidus.* Linn. (Noddy.)

Texas and Florida. (Baird, Cassin, and
Lawrence. )

From the Gulf coast of North America
to Australia, and throughout Poly-
nesia. (Howard Saunders.)

The coast of Sentral and Southern
America. (Sclater and Salvin.)

Europe.
African coast, but rarer in Asia.
Tolerably common, and generally dis-
tibuted, in the Australian seas. It is
found in the Red Sea, on the east
coast of Africa, the Gold Coast, in
quantities on Ascension Island, and
occurs at St. Helena.

Anous stolidus.
Said to have been taken on the French

coast. (Degland and Gerbe, Vol. IL.,
p. 445.)
Two between Dub'in and Wexford.

(Thompson, Nat. Hist. Irl. Birds, Vol.
IIT., p. 308.)
One, co. Dublin.
1866, p. 306.)

(Blake, Knox, Zool.,

PHAETONTID#.

Phaéton ethereus. Linn.
T noticed this bird off the banks of New-
foundland in the end of August, 1876.

Phaéton ethereus. Linn. (Red-billed
Tropic- bird. )

Its habitat is within the tropics; it is
very accidental in European seas.
One is said to have been seen off the
coast of Norway. (Degland and Gerbe,

Vol. IL., p. 363.)

PELECANID.

Sula bassana.* Linn.

The Atlantic coast from Labrador to the
Gulf of Mexico. (Baird, Cassin, and
Lawrence.)

Accidental and
(Newton.)

rare in Greenland.

Phalacrocorax carbo.* (.) Leach.
Labrador, and along the east coast to New
Jersey in winter. (Baird, Cassin, and
Lawrence. )
In Greenland; breeds from Godthaab
Fjord northward. (Holbill.)
Found also on the East coast. (Newton.)

Sula bassana.* Linn. (Gannet.)
British Isles ; in the Baltic as far as the
Gulf of Bothnia; on the west coast
of Norway; Faroes and Iceland.
Madeira; South Africa. (Yarrell.)

Phalacrocorax carbo.* (.) Leach.
(Cormorant. )

Throughout Europe and Asia in suitable
localities; British Isles to the Medi-
terranean, Black, and Caspian Seas.
Asia Minor ; Siberia ; Northern India ;
Southern Persia; throughout China.
South Africa. Australia. New
Zealand, (Dresser.)

Proc. R.D.S. n.s.Vol. 11. Plate 2c.

Tradescartyw VGA,
Abnormal froars.

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PUBLICATIONS OF THE ROYAL DUBLIN SOCIETY.

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Vol. I. (new series). (Recently published.)

Part 6.—Notes on the Physical Appearance of the Planet Mars.
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THE

Ee ns PROCEEDINGS

OF THE —

ROYAL DUBLIN SOCIETY.

Vou. II. (New Sertss). JULY, 1880. Part VI.
CONTENTS.
Page

LI. On Rossetti’s ae of Cooling, applied to the consideration of
the relative effects of Sun-heat, Earth-heat, Star-heat, and
Atmospheric Conditions upon Climates, during Geological
Time. By Rev. Samuex Haveurton, M. gone CL. wa PS em

LII. On the Evidence in favour of the belief in vo existence a:
Floating Ice in India during the Deposition of the Talchir
(Permian or Wea aca Rocks. By V. Barz, M. A.,
F.G:8., ; 430

LITT. A Teoiva of the Picened of Weenbetinny ures ae year "1879.
By J. L. E. Dreyer, M.A., of the whut oot of ens
College: Dublin, . ayes hte 437

LIV. Approximate Formule for the Vilegans and Weights of Gives

By G. Jounstrone Sroyry, D.Sc., F.R.S., Secretary to the

Society, ‘ 484
LY. Anniversary Address Bs the Royal Reaigeital Society of Teclana
By G. H. Kryanan, M.R.LA., President, . 485

LVI. On the Coal Fields and Coal Prodaduan of India. By Ve Bae

M.A., F.G.S., Geological Survey of India, Hon. Sec., aw
Geological Society, Ireland. With a Map, , 496

LVII. On the Mode of Occurrence and Distribution of Gold i in aes

By V. Baur, M.A., F.G.S., Geological Survey of pee Hon.

Sec., Royal Geolovical Society of Treland, : 524
LVIII. An Improved Method for Determining the Gases Dissolyeaii in
Water. By Ricuarp J. Moss, F. C: = : 547

The Authors alone are responsible for all opinions expressed in their communications.

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1880,

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LIL.—ON ROSSETTI’S LAW OF COOLING, APPLIED TO THE
CONSIDERATION OF THE RELATIVE EFFECTS OF
SUN-HEAT, EARTH-HEAT, STAR-HEAT, AND ATMOS.
PHERIC CONDITIONS UPON CLIMATES DURING
GEOLOGICAL TIME, sy Rev. SAMUEL HAUGHTON,
M.D., D.C.L., F.B.S.

[Read January 19th, 1880.]

NEwrTon’s famous law of cooling assumed that the radiation was
proportional to the difference between the temperature of the
body cooling and the temperature of the inclosure.

If 6, © denote these two temperatures, and ¢ denote the time,
Newton’s law is—

dé
aa —@). 1
3, = * (0-8) (1)
This gives, by integration, —
(=e log, (0@—0) +0. (2)

where K and C are unknown constants.

This law holds true as long as the difference of temperatures,
6—8®, is not large, but fails entirely when it is great.

Under these circumstances a new law of cooling was proposed
by Dulong and Petit, which, although artificial in its concep-
tion, and deviating from the simple idea of the Newtonian law
nevertheless was found to represent observations better than the
Newtonian law, when the difference of temperatures became
greater.

According to this law—
dé

where #=1-0077 for all bodies, and A depends on the nature of
the cooling body.

This relation gives, after some deductions, by integration, the
following :—

po-8

where K and C are unknown constants.

Dulong and Petit’s law of cooling fails, as Newton’s did, when
Scien. Proc.,R.DS. Vou. m., Pr. vi. oF

= K log = Lo (f)

418 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

the difference in temperature between the cooling body and its
inclosure becomes large.

The most recent advance made in this subject is the important
discovery, made by Mr. Rossetti, that Newton’s law of cooling
becomes accurate for great ranges of temperature, provided we
make the coefficient K a function of the absolute temperature of
the cooling body, instead of being a constant ; and this function
turns out to be nearly proportional to the square of the absolute
temperature.

Newton's law thus becomes—
<2 =(0- ©) (a PA). (5)

where T is the absolute temperature, and f is a very small con-
stant as compared with a.

In order to apply Rossetti’s law of cooling to the case of the
earth’s surface, I suppose a to be the temperature of the layers of
upper atmosphere which controls the radiation of heat from the
earth’s surface ; a being regarded as positive when below zero.

We now have (neglecting 6)—

6 — e—6 +a
T =—460+6
p =0
and, finally—
-- a(@ +a) (460 + 6). (6)

This gives by integration, after some reductions, and writing A
for 460—

=a log —_ = pac) tee. . ie

The following Table gives the annual sun-heat and mean
annual temperatures of the Northern Hemisphere :—

Sun-heat. Mean Temperature. Latitade.
41°9 feet of ice, “i re Sry : oy eS
463 - cg A cal te - a ae
Sy (2 Sa a, 60
66°8 == . B84, 50
773 = . | S65. > 40
89 = =) 1Gre oe 30
92-4 - (MD os 20
96°5 = ao Sees 1¢
978 ~ Ou tei Ss bee 0

On Rossetti’s Law of Cooling. 419

From each of these we obtain, by Rossetti’s law (6), an equa-
tion, viz.—
S—a (6 +a) (0+ 460). (8)
where S is the sun-heat, and 6 the mean temperature.
The values of @ and a, deduced from these equations, taken
in pairs, are—
Lat a

a
80° 0-2489
Lye ie ho
(1) 70 ' (460)?
70 0-3801
ra 100-2 Refs ts
60 4 0-4644
3. (1 ae
(3) 50 | Be (460)?
50 0-4210
rs t et ae ee
(*) 40 > (460)?
~, 40 * 0-3590
; 114-3 Pid siete
(5) 39 ¢ » “(4607
.1ef0 00-3747
Mean, 108°16° F. THEO?
Pete
~ 564,718

This result would indicate for the temperature of the “ inclosure”
of upper atmosphere that controls the radiation of heat at the
earth’s surface, 108°16° F. below zero.

Frélich,+ who has recently made important researches on this
subject, with greatly improved and delicate instruments, at St.
Petersburgh, has found a similar quantity, called by him Him-
melstemperatur (Sky-temperature), which varies considerably
from month to month and from night to night. Thus he found
for the sky-temperature of the zenith, in 1876—

20th October, 2 : . 123-70° F. below zero.
21st : - 2 £1929 5
23rd yg ; : : 93-19 >
14th August, - - : 38-29 os
15th =, : = - 39°00 “2
ta : : - 49-09 “c
14th October, » : : 34:33 —-

* The latitudes below 30° give less reliable results, because the differences from which a
and a are calculated are too small.

+ Repertorium fiir Meteorologie, vol. vi., parti.,(p.1). (St. Petersburgh, 1876.)

_ Scren. Proc., R.D.S. Vout w., PT. vi. 9Fr2

420 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

The corresponding results for the Southern Hemisphere are—

Sun-heat. Mean Temperature. Latitude.
55:7 feet of ice, eh Oso wa f : 2) GUS
66:84 «: AGB ie es ; 4050
73, Ay (ss ; , Beg
B59 © Ht HeGraveeke > wa0
92-4, TATA ieee é . 20
965, Gest e : AG
973, hie (SO sta ar ee AD

From these data we obtain, by Rossetti’s law,—

Latitude. a.
Cyne tae. . 540° F,
Oya lee . 402 ,,

4
Gdyag t= . 603 ,,
Cyan: . BLO,

20
6)45 75 ,,

1
(6.) oe . 903 ,,

Mean, . . 62:217°9 F.

From this it follows that the mean “sky-temperature,’ which
controls the radiation of heat from the surface of the earth, is
higher in the Southern Hemisphere than in the Northern ; so
that the Southern Hemisphere retains more of the heat received
from the sun than the Northern Hemisphere* does.

The sky-temperature of Frolich corresponds with the tempera-
ture zenithale of Pouillet, which is the exact equivalent of the
joint action of the atmosphere and of space upon the ther-
mometer.

Both Pouillet and Frolich have attempted to separate the vari-
able effect of the atmosphere from the constant effect of space, and
Pouillet finds for the temperature of space (— 142° C)= — 223°6 F
Frolich finds for the temperature of space ( Weltrawms-temperatur),
by St. Petersburgh observations, 17th August and 23rd October,

- 131°C and - 127°C, the mean of which gives — 202°2° F.

* This is due to greater water-surface, and consequently greater amount of aqueous
vapour in the air.

On Rossettr’s Law of Cooling. 421

The mean result of Pouillet and Frélich is—
Temperature of Space, — — 212°9° F.

The term temperature of space requires definition, for in one
sense it is absurd, because we do not believe in any material
particles existing in interstellar, or even in interplanetary space,
capable of receiving and emitting heat. I think that the term
star-heat expresses better what we really mean by the tempera-
ture of space.

Notwithstanding the high authority of Pouillet, and his in-
genious attempts to defend his result, there exists a very general
scepticism on the subject.*

if Pouillet had used the term star-heat, he would have been
astonished at his own result, viz., that the mean annual heat
received by the earth from the sun would melt a sheet of ice-
covering equal to 101°7 feet; while in the same time the space-
temperature, or star-heat, would melt an ice-covering equal to
85'3 feet !

Inside any planetary system, the central star or sun must be
the chief source of heat, and the effect of the remote stars not
appreciable ; and in the space midway between any two stars or
suns, the temperature of a body, if placed there, must fall to the
absolute cold, or 460° F. below zero.t

In order to discuss the question of geological climates, let us
return to the equation (8), or

H=a (0 +a) (0+ A)?. (9)
in which H denotes the annual heat received and radiated ; a, a
coefficient depending upon the radiating surface ; a, the tempera-
ture of the “heat-inclosure,” including space-radiation, and the
“convection” and “ conduction” of the atmosphere ; 9, the mean
annual temperature of the place of observation; and A=460°
below zero of Fahrenheit, or the temperature of absolute cold.

* Pouillet observes that to us the sun occupies only five-millioneths of the celestial
vault, whereas the space-temperature, or rather star-heat, acts over the whole vault. To
this it may fairly be replied, that as the visible stars appear to us as mere points, the

whole of them put together would not form the sun’s disc, and that they are indefinitely
farther off.
+ Derived from the well-known relation between pressure, volume. and temperature of
gases, which in Fahrenheit units, gives the equation;
yu nN
4604+9 460+0'

422 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

Between 80° N. lat. and 70° N. lat., at present ;

ao 2489
(460)?
a= 160°5° F below zero.
A—460° F

” 3?

In former times, Miocene, Jurassic, and when albumen coagu-
lated, we have H, the heat supplied and radiated annually,
depending on four quantities, viz. :—

Ist. Sun-heat.

2nd. Earth-heat.

3rd. Thermal properties of the earth’s atmosphere.
4th. Star-heat.

Of these four quantities, the fourth only, or star-heat, is
known; for we may safely assume that, during geological time,
the earth and solar system were as far removed as they are now
from the influence of any star except that of the sun itself, and
that the heat derived from stars was always of no account.

As we cannot separate the effect (in geological times) of the
influence of the sun, earth, and atmosphere, I shall consider the
following three cases, from which, as I believe, much instruction
may be derived—

(A.) The sum, as the sole source of heat, the earth and atmos-
phere conditions being as at present.

(B.) The earth, as the sole source of heat, the sun and atmos-
phere conditions being as at present.

(C.) The thermal properties of the earth’s atmosphere being
varied, while the sun-heat and earth-heat remain as at present.

(A.)\—Sun-heat regarded as the sole cause of changes in Geologi-
cal Clumates.

In this case we have—

H=a (6 +a) (0+A). (9)
where a, a, A, have the values just given, and at 80° N. lat.
@ = 45°F, . Present time.
6*= 44:3 ,, . Miocene time.
= Gee > . Jurassic time.

0 =122:0 ,, . Coagulation of albumen.

PBy, interpolation, for at Disco, 70° N, lat., @=55-6° F., and at Grinnell Land,
81° 44’ N. lat., 9=42°8° F,

On Rossetti’s Law of Cooling. 423

Substituting in equation (9), we find—

H= 41:90 feet of ice, . . Present.
H= 61:26 ~ - Miocene,
H= 75°36 * : . Jurassic.
H=112:56 ” : - Albumen coagulation.

or as follows :—

Comparative Table of Sun-heats at 80° N. lat. at various
Geological Periods.

(1.) Present time, . . - 100:00
(2.) Miocene time, . - . 146:20
(3.) Jurassic time, . 179°85

(4.) Time of coagulation of aleurich: 268-60

When we consider that the whole of geological time is as in-
significant in comparison with astronomical time, as the human
period is in comparison with geological time ; and that in astro-
nomical time the sun-heat has been reduced to many thousandths
of its original value; it will not appear a great effort of the
imagination to explain the phenomena of geological climates by
the opens of a sun which has cooled down, during geological
time, to about one-third of what its value was se, life nese
to appear.

We may approximate to the relative durations of Geological
periods, by calculating the times of cooling of the sun, to the
amounts represented in the foregoing table. Properly speaking
this should be done by a formula similar to (9) in which a@ would
denote the “heat-inclosure” of the sun, and aa coefficient depend-
ing on the properties of the sun’s surface, both of which quantities
are completely unknown.

We may, however, obtain an approximate result by calculat-
ing the times of cooling of the sun, on the supposition that it
radiates directly into space, neglecting the influence of the solar

atmosphere.
This supposition reduces equation (8) to the following—
os =a (6+ A) (10)

* We use the negative sign, because as ¢ increases 9 diminishes,

424 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

This gives, by integration,
Ae a goalie a
a 2s Se = ay
From this equation, we find, substituting the proper values (as
above given for 8, a, 6') the following relative lengths of time—

1°, Present time to Miocene time . A : 41°7
2°. Miocene time to Jurassic time . 5 a 21°1
3°. Jurassic time to time of albumen coagulation 37:2

1000

These numbers are written down to the scale, on which 100
represents the whole duration of organic life, from the present
time to the time of coagulation of albumen at 80° N. Lat.

From the foregoing results the following conclusion may be
deduced—

That the tume elapsed from Miocene tumes to the present time, is
41°7 per cent. of the whole time of the existence of life on the
globe.

(B.) Earth-Heat regarded as the sole cause of changes in Geologi-
cal climates.

It is easy to show that Earth-heat has been always, probably
not a very important factor in Geological climates. We may
demonstrate this statement as follows—It has been just shown,
that if atmospheric conditions were the same as at present, the
quantities of heat, at 80° N. lat., required to keep up the neces-
sary radiation, at various Geological times, would be—

Present time “ ; 41:90 melted feet of ice.
Miocene time . : 61:26 5 3
Jurassic time ; . 75:36 es ms
Albumen coagulation time . 112-56

and I have already calculated the amounts of increase of sun-
heat, sufficient to account for the several climates.

If the sun-heat had been the same as at present, we have to
provide heat from some other source (say earth-heat) to account

On Rossett’s Law of Cooling. 425

for the following excess of radiation above the present radiation
at 80° N. lat.

Miocene times : : 19°36 melted feet of ice.
Jurassic times 3 : 33°46 - re
Albumen-coagulation ; 70°66 “5 oF

Let us suppose the earth to bea globe of boiling water, and
calculate how long she could keep up the foregoing radiations,
before being converted into a globe of ice.

Imagine a cone with its vertex at the centre of the earth, and
its base at 80° N. lat.; the volume of this cone will be, in cubic
feet—

4000 x 5280
ee a me

Let e be the excess of heat radiated at any geological time,
above that radiated at present in the same latitude ; and let 1 be
the number of years before the cone of boiling water is converted
into a cone of ice; we now have, since the difference between the
boiling and freezing points is 180° F. and since the latent heat of
water is 143° F.—

143 on = 1000 x 5280 x 323
3
or

4000 x 5280 x 323
Tey ashes i (12)

From (12) we calculate—

Lengths of time required to convert the cone of boiling water
into the cone of ice at 80° N. lat., at the rates of radiation cor-
responding to

1 Miocene time : . ° 821,360 years.
2 Jurassic time : A 475,240 ,,
3 Albumen-coagulation : : 225,040 ,,

If we assume, as an approximation to the relative durations of
geological times, the numbers given at p. 8, and make use of
the mean of the radiations at the beginning and end of each
period, we shall find, for the mean radiation at 80° N. lat. during

426 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

the entire duration of geological time, the following equation ;
Mean radiation of heat at 80° N. lat. in excess of present radia-
tion—
_ 19°36 x 417 26°41 x 21-1 a 52°06 x 37:2
200 200 200

= 28:°988 feet of ice.

From this we calculate the entire duration of geological time,
by means of equation (12) to be §48,540 years ; or somewhat over
half a million of years. But, in reality, the duration of geological
time, could not have been nearly so great as’ this, if the earth
were the sole source of heat, for in the foregoing we have supposed
the heat given freely to the surface from the interior, as if the
conductivity of the earth were infinite. In reality the heat would
be transmitted slowly to the surface, which latter would cool
rapidly, making geological time very short, although a large store
of heat might remain in the central parts of the earth, though not
available to mitigate sensibly the rigour of the surface climate.

It is highly probable that the earth cooled down to a condi-
tion in which the central heat had but little effect upon climate,
long before the commencement of geological time; so that cli-
mates always depended, chiefly, on sun-heat, modified by at-
mospheric conditions.

Let us now consider the influence of the latter—

(C.) Atmospheric conditions considered as the sole cause of
Geological Climates, the Sun-heat and Earth-heat being the
same as wt present.

In the equation (9), or
=a(0--a) H (0+ A)? (9)

a is a coefficient independent of temperature, depending on the
surface conditions of the place of observation.

a, or the control temperature of the inclosure, depends on the
atmosphere and on star-heat ; or on atmospheric conditions only,
if star-heat remained as now through all geological time.

HT depends of sun-heat and earth-heat only.

On Rossetti’s Law of Cooling. 427

At present, at 80° N. lat., we have
H=A41°9 feet of ice.

0=4-5° F,
__0-2489
~ (4602

a=160-5° F.

In Miocene times
H=A41°9 (by hypothesis)
@=44:3°
ny Gi 2489
60)?
From these data, we find by equation (9), the value of a in
Miocene times
a=95°76° F
In like manner, we find the value of a, corresponding with
6=68:7° F (jurassic), and 6=122-0° F. (albumen coagulation) ; and
finally,

The temperature of the Heat-inclosure, depending on atmospheric
conditious, necessary to produce the requisite Geological
Climates, independent of any increase of Sun-heat or Earth-
heat at 80° N. lat.

Present time ‘ F ; 4.160°50° F,
Miocene ,, 5 3 A + 95°76 ,,
Jurassic ,, : : + 58°73 ,,
Albumen-coagulation time 5 — 16°84 ,,

The positive values are reckoned Aelow zero of Fahrenheit,
and the negative values are reckoned above zero.

It is very unlikely, that the thermal constants of the earth’s
atmosphere have ever changed so much as to convert an inclosure
of 160°5° below zero into an inclosure of 16°84° above zero,
through 177°34° F. altogether ; nevertheless, it is quite certain that
conditions formerly existed in the earth’s atmosphere which
operated in the direction here indicated, and which may have
greatly economised the increase of sun-heat required, without
accounting for the entire change in climate.

Professor Tyndall* has given the following relative absorptive
power for heat emanating from a source at 312° F. of various
gases at the normal pressure of 30 inches, when a column of the
gas, 4 feet in length was subjected to experiment.

* Miller’s Elements of Chemistry, part i., pages 338-9,

428 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

Absorptive power of gases for non-luminous heat.

LAN ie ty. : : é ] 8. Carbonic acid - : 90
2. Oxygen : : : 1 9. Nitrous oxide ; , 355
3. Nitrogen . : - 1 10. Sulphuretted hydrogen - 890
4, Hydrogen C : é 1 11. Marsh gas - - 403
5. Chlorine < . ¢ a) 12. Sulphurous acid « “) LO
6. Hydrochloric acid - 5 13. Olefiant gas : s a10
7. Carbonic oxide - 5 8D 14. Ammonia ; : - 1195

The experiments of Tyndall also establish the fact that aqueous
vapour has a powerful absorbent action upon heat of low refrangi-
bility ; varying from 30 times to 70 times the effect of pure dry air.

It is quite certain that in Paleozoic times, the atmosphere
contained a very large proportion of carbonic acid, which has
since disappeared ; and it is the opinion of many geologists, that
as late ay Miocene times, there was much more aqueous vapour
in the atmosphere than at present. Both of these conditions, one
certain, and the other probable, would increase the effect of the
atmosphere, regarded as a blanket, to keep in the sun-heat
received ;—for we must observe that while carbonic acid and
aqueous vapour would produce but little reduction in the amount
of lwminous sun-heat received, as compared with pure, dry, air ;
they would present a formidable obstacle to non-lwminous heat
escaping by radiation from the earth’s surface into the cold of star-
space.

On the whole, the following appear to me to be the most
probable conclusions at which we can arrive as to the causes of
former geological climates :—

Ist. We must reject any solution based upon a change of
position, either in space or within the earth’s body, of the axis of
rotation, within the limits of geological time.

2nd. We must reject any solution based upon the secular
cooling of the earth (with a fixed axis of rotation), regarded as
the sole and immediate cause of the change of climate.

3rd. The chief factor in changes of geological climate appears
to have been the slow secular cooling of the sun, in consequence
of which the earth’s surface cooled gradually down.*

* A hot body placed in a cold space would cool down, as the schoolmen would say,
immediately ; but a body deriving its heat from a cooling fire, would cool down mediately.
The earth has done both, but its chief cause of cooling has been the diminishing heat of
the sun.

On Rossetti’s Law of Cooling. 4.29

4th. During Paleozoic times the amount of sun-heat required
to keep up the known surface-temperatures was certainly less
than I have calculated from No. 3, because of the large quantity
of carbonic acid then forming a part of the atmosphere.

5th. During Neozoic times the amount of sun-heat required to
keep up the known surface-temperatures was probably less than
I have calculated from No. 3, in consequence of the large quantity
of aqueous vapour then existing in the atmosphere as compared
with the present time.

6th. The so-called Pluvial period and Glacial period were
probably the result of atmospheric changes caused by a tempo-
rarily diminished rate of heat-radiation from the sun, causing a
precipitation of aqueous vapour, followed by an increased radia-
tion of non-luminous heat into space from the surface of the
earth.

[ 480 ]

LII.—ON THE EVIDENCE IN FAVOUR OF THE BELIEF IN
THE EXISTENCE OF FLOATING ICE IN INDIA DURING
THE DEPOSITION OF THE TALCHIR (PERMIAN OR
PERMIO-TRIASSIC) ROCKS, sy V. BALL, m.a., F.as.

[Read February 16th, 1880.]

THIS communication is made to the Society in response to a
special request by the Rev. Dr. Haughton that I should give a
statement of the facts which are relied upon by the Geological
Survey of India in support of the view that a glacial period—or
rather a period, perhaps only seasonal, of great cold existed in early
Geological times in tropical India.

The case which I have to lay before you rests upon evidence,
as all must admit, very similar to that which is employed in
support of the now pretty general belief that periods of great cold
(glacial periods) have occurred in temperate climates at epochs
not very far distant, geologically speaking, from the present time.

It is now about twenty-five years since the Geological Survey
of India, as constituted under the directorship of the late Dr.
Oldham, commenced operations on the coal fields by exploring one
which is situated in the native state of Talchir in the Province of
Onisa. The officers so employed* were the first to discriminate a
group of rocks which underlay the coal measures and from which
they were found to be separable not only by very marked litho-
logical characters, but also by an amount of more or less distinct
unconformity.

This group of rocks consisted of fine-grained, yellow, and greenish
sandstones, green, blue,and yellow mud-stones or silts which latter,
on exposure, became fractured into finely splintered fragments
and one or more boulder beds of so remarkable a character as
to excite the particular attention of the geologists who in their
account which was published in the first Volume of the Memoirs
of the Survey, described the bottom boulder bed as
“Consisting essentially of boulders of granite and gneiss, those of the
former comparatively small, and the latter of much larger size, frequently

* Messrs. W. T. and H. F. Blanford and W. Theobald.

On Floating Ice in India. 431

four to five* feet in diameter imbedded in a matrix which varies from a
course sandstone to the very finest shale.

‘In some places the matrix is a dark-green silt without any admix-
ture of sand, but full of boulders of all sizes. Occasionally it is very
fine in grain, and sometimes assumes a shaly structure.

“The question naturally, indeed inevitably suggests itself, how these
enormous blocks of stone, manifestly requiring a great force to abrade
and transport them are found mixed with a sediment so fine that in any
except a very sluggish current it must have been swept away, and could
not have been deposited ?

“Should any evidence hereafter accrue allowing the inference that
these beds may have been formed in a lake on a high table-land, where
the winter temperature was sufficiently low to admit of ice reaching the
waters of the lake without melting, then an adequate explanation of the
phenomenon may be given, as it resembles exactly the effects of the
action of ground-ice which enabling boulders to be carried down by a
sluggish current, would undoubtedly produce such an intermixture of
large rounded masses of rock and of fine silt as is seen in the present
case.

“ Possibly a more minute examination of the boulders may reveal
groovings and scratchings on their surfaces. The presence of these how-
ever on the supposition of ground-ice having been the means of transport,
should not by any means be looked for with certainty, and their much
rounded condition? seems quite opposed to the idea of transport by true
Glaciers.

“Tt must be borne in mind that the temperature necessary to allow of
Glaciers reaching the sea or a lake is very much lower than that at
which ground-ice might be formed and carried down by rivers. While
the existence of the former is determined by the mean temperature of
the whole year, the latter depends on the lowest temperature of the
winter season, and therefore may readily and does occur in countries
whose mean temperature is comparatively high.

“Thus in the northern part of the Black Sea at the present day,
coast ice is always formed in winter, and this too in salt water ; the
winter temperature there being equivalent to that of Central Norway,
which is only a degree or two south of countries in which Glaciers
come down to the sea level; while, on the other hand the summer

* In areas which have subsequently been examined boulders having diameters three
times as great have been met with.—V.B.

+ This is not invariable as I have observed the deposit in some places to include sharply
angular masses.— V.B.

432 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

temperature is equal to that of Central Spain. An example perhaps
more to the purpose is found in Thibet where all the conditions
under which such a deposit as that we are considering might be
produced, exist. The winter temperature of Thibet is as low as that
of the Black Sea, the country lying between the January Isothermals
of 23° and 41° F. while in summer the temperature is equal to that of
Sierra Leone, Ceylon and Southern India the July Isothermals being
between 77° and 81° F.”

For a longtime these views did not meet with general acceptance
and like some others of my colleagues, I attempted shortly after
reaching India to offer an explanation* which did not employ ice
as an agent in the transport of the boulders; but the discoveries
subsequently made and which I am about to describe have com-
pelled me to make a public recantation of this heresy and to ac-
knowledge that the original theory is the only one capable of
explaining the facts.

The progress of the Survey has served to render it possible to
indicate closely the limits within which the deposit occurs; but
it will be sufficient for present purposes to say that the area lies
within the 77° and 88° Meridians of East Longitude, and the
16° 30° and 25° of North Latitude—thus occupying the central and
most elevated part of the northern half of the Peninsula. Through-
out this wide tract the beds occur scattered about but present
a wonderful uniformity of appearance, the original lithological
description being applicable tothe rocksatthe most distant localities,

In the year 1872 Mr. Fedden when examining the valley of the
Pem River ten miles W.S.W. of Chanda discoveredt a boulder
bed resting upon a compact Vindhyan Limestone which where it
was exposed, for a distance of about 330 yards, displayed a polished,
grooved and scratched surface which it was incontestibly
ascertained was not only not of modern origin but was, where
uncovered, just becoming obliterated. Among the boulders one
about two feet in diameter consisted of a hard, dense, close
grained syenitic granite and had one of its sides beautifully
polished and scored and striated} This specimen is now in the
Geological Museum at Calcutta.

* Vide Mem. Geol. Sur, India, Vol. VL, p. 116, note.

+ Records Geol. Surv. of India, Vol. VIII., p. 16.

t These appearances were accepted I believe by Mr. Campbell, Author of “ Frost and
Fire,” during his visit to India, as distinct indications of Glaciation.

On Floating Ice in India. 433

From the character of the strize on the rock surface it was con-
cluded that the movement, supposing there to have been no
subsequent shifting of levels, had been up the slope—the ice-raft,
which it was concluded bore the boulders, having drifted against
the rock and been impelled forwards.

As the surface at present stands the nearest locality, judging
by the Geological Map, from which the syenite boulder might have
been derived, lies thirty to forty miles to the East where crystal-
line rocks are indicated at a lower level—the rivers now flowing in
that direction. Since, however, the nearly adjacent country to the
west is covered by the Tertiary, Dekan trap, it is impossible to
assert in what direction the original source may have been, and
regarding this point Mr. Fedden makes no suggestion.

In quite a different part of the country—in Western Bengal—I
have met with what, so far as the rocks are concerned, is quite
the converse. ‘There in two distinct coal fields, I have found
boulders of a Vindhyan quartzite mixed with others of gneiss
granite, &e., resting on beds of gneiss. So far as is at present
known the nearest possible source for these is from fifty to eighty
miles distant respectively, and it is likewise situated at a lower
level—a very rough and broken country, through which the
rivers traverse many a rocky defile, intervening.

Such cases as the above clearly cannot be explained by river*
transport, the movements of mud or of turf, while the suppositions
that the beds are merely marginal or that the silt was deposited
on an already boulder strewn surface are also incapable of aftord-
ing an adequate explanation.

One very remarkable fact about the Talchir rocks is that they
constitute the oldest formation in Peninsular India in which any
trace of life has been met with. The great Vindhyan series to
which allusion has been made above, with its vast thicknesses of
sandstone and limestone has not, in spite of unremitting search,

* The effect of modern rivers is to erode out and isolate these boulders, a remarkable
instance of which I have noted in the Goinghatta river in Sirguja where “In several
of the reaches a peculiar effect is produced by the gneiss boulders which have been
washed out of the boulder bed and are scattered about on the surface, as though they had
been only just dropped from floating ice. One boulder still iz situ in the bed gave the
following dimensions 7’ 4'' x 6! 8 x 2' = 97 cubic feet and I observed several
others, which could not be measured, which were still larger.” Record Geol. Survey,
of India. Vol. VI. p. 29.

Scien. Proc., R.D.S. Vou. 11., Pt. vi. 2G

4.34 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

yielded the slightest trace of any organism, and the older fo:ma-
tions are likewise azoic.

Be the Vindhyans of Devonian age, as seems probable, or not
it isat least certain that a long interval, during which erosion and
denudation were active, elapsed before the conditions arose which
accompanied the deposition of the Talchir boulder bed. The
fossils found in the strata immediately succeeding the boulder
bed consist of a meagre assortment of ferns and equisitace*
such as might have existed on the borders of a lake in a damp
temperate climate. There is not the faintest trace or indication
of any marine action, whether of deposition or otherwise, having
been in operation throughout the duration of this and several of
the succeeding periods. On the other hand, the evidence, so far
as it goes, points to the rocks having been deposited in fresh
water lakes—as were the succeeding coal measures, and the next
following formations—but the fossils of these latter indicate a
much warmer, probably a truly tropical climate.

A tempting means of explaining this state of things is offered
by the supposition that Peninsular India formed part of a lofty
‘table-land similar to Thibet at the present day, and that as the
plateau subsided the climate from being at first one with very
cold winters gradually became warmer. We have, in Western
Bengal, evidence that the Talchir beds have been affected by
considerable local disburbance and alternation of level, but more
direct evidence of the existence of a lofty plateau is wanting.

On the whole it would appear to be safer to refer the pheno-
mena to some widespread or cosmical condition of the cli-
mate, and when viewing the question from this point of view
we have the striking coincidence that the Permian breccias of
England are regarded by Professor Ramsay and others to be of
glacial origin, and that the Karoo Boulder beds of South Africa,
which are likewise of Permian age, are described by Mr. Gries-
bach, also, to indicate a glacial temperature. And here I may
add that I understand that Mr. Griesbach, who is now a member
of the Geological Survey of India, reports a striking identity to

* Tt is noteworthy that the soil derived from the Talchir rocks is generally a very
poor one as compared with that from the rocks of subsequent periods wherein vegetable
life was more abundant.

On Floating Ice in India. 435

exist between the lithological characters of these two deposits
but on this point we shall doubtless hear more ere long.

The Physical Geography of India at that time was undoubt-
edly very different from what prevails at present. The
Peninsula was at first probably unconnected with Eastern
Asia, and the Himalayas ; while, from the similarity of the fossils
in the coal measures of India with those of the upper (triassic)
portion of the Australian coal measures, and those of the later
portion of the Karoo beds, it has been argued that India was
then in connection with Australia and Southern and Western
Africa. As the cold of the Talchir times was withdrawn both
animals and plants appear to have spread over the whole area,
and the migration then commenced appears to have continued
down to Miocene or Pliocene times when the Indian Giraffe and
Ostrich, the remains of which are found in the Sivalik deposits,
appear to have marched off bodily to Africa leaving no living re-
presentatives behind them. The strong African element in the
Indian, or Indian element in the African fauna of the present day
proves the intimate connection which existed between these
countries at no very distant period, but into this subject I must
not further wander.

At what period the Himalayan region, and Eastern Asia with
it, became permanently connected with the Peninsula is uncertain,
but probably the Eastern portion was, for a time at least, during
the deposition of the coal measures continuous with India since
there are at the foot of the Sikkim Himalayas, coal measures with
plant fossils identical with those of the Peninsular fields.

Evidence too of much colder climates than that now prevail-
ing in the Himalayan region in comparatively recent times is
afforded ‘by undoubted traces of glaciers as described by Major
Goodwin Austen at elevations of only 5,000 feet above the sea.
And according to Mr. Theobald there are old moraines in the
Kangra district, at elevations of only 2,000 feet above the sea,
but his conclusions are disputed by other authorities. One class
of observations, however, show that a temperate climate must
have prevailed in India at no very distant period, and if then
why not also in Permian times?

The class of observations I refer to are those connected with
the characters of the fauna and flora which exist on the High-

Soren. Proc., R.D.S. Vou. 1., Pr. vin 262

436 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

lands of Southern India. Animals and plants of distinctly Hima-
layan types can only have forced their way to these isolated
peaks when the cool climate of the intervening country admitted
of their migration; with advancing heat they betook themselves to
the peaks and so became cut off from their original connection.

Mr. W.T. Blanford in the recently published manual of the
Geology of India has pointed out that boulder beds of somewhat
similar character to that of Talchir age are found in other Indian
and Himalayan formations, and suggests that they may perhaps
indicate the existence of cold climates during their deposition.
They are :-—

1. In Transition rocks of uncertain age in Jessalmir, where a
striation of underlying formations was observed.

2. Silurian? Slates at Pangi, S.E. of Kashmir, which contain
boulders in great numbers.

3. Boulders in clay, supposed to be upper cretaceous, in the
Salt range. One block was found to be polished and striated in
a very characteristic manner on three faces.

I do not propose to make any attempt to explain how such
epochs of great and abnormal cold have been caused in past
periods of the earth’s history. With such questions Physicists
and Astronomers are the proper persons to deal. To the geolo-
gist falls the task of observing facts and phenomena, and drawing
what appears to him to be the legitimate deduction from them.
I believe I am correct in saying that allof my colleagues who
have had an opportunity of studying the Talchir boulder bed
are now unanimous in accepting Mr. Blanford’s theory of its
origin.

In conclusion, I have only to say that in the preparation of
this statement I have freely availed of the published views on
the subject by my colleagues and other sources of information
which may be regarded as the common property of the Geo-
logical Survey of India.

[ 437 ]

LIUI.—A RECORD OF THE PROGRESS OF ASTRONOMY
DURING THE YEAR 1879, sy J. L. E. DREYER, m.a., oF
THE OBSERVATORY OF TRINITY CoLLEGE, DUBLIN.

[Read March 15th, 1880.]

In the following pages I shall endeavour to sketch the
principal astronomical events of the past year, giving short
accounts of the more important or interesting investigations
which have been published during that period. For the year 1878
such an account was written by Professor E. S. Holden, of the
United States Naval Observatory, for the “ Annual Record of
Science and Industry,” and as J have learned from him, that
this publication has been discontinued, I have thought it might
be of some use both to professional astronomers and to amateurs
if a continuation of his record was kept up, giving summaries of
work done in the various branches of astronomy, merely intended
to draw attention to what has been done in them. It had at
first been my intention to add to this review a bibliographical
list of books and memoirs on astronomy published during 1879,
but for various reasons I have left it out. It might be better
to let such a list embrace a longer space of time than one
year, and besides, the “ Bibliographie Générale,” the publication
of which has recently been announced from the Brussels
Observatory, is to include the year 1880. The present record
does not, therefore, aim at any completeness, but only at giving
brief accounts of a number of memoirs and papers which have
appeared to me to possess more than a passing interest.

1. Spherical Astronomy.

At the March meeting of the Royal Astronomical Society Mr.
Gill read a paper on a new method of determining astronomical
refractions. He proposed to observe transits of pairs of stars at
equal altitudes east and west in the prime vertical, whereby the
true difference of R. A. being known the refraction would be
determined at all altitudes. This method would be entirely free
from systematic instrumental error. A station situated on the

438 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

Earth’s equator would be most suitable, but of course even at
observatories of considerable latitude the method might still be
employed with success.

By comparing the results of heliometer determinations with
those of meridian observations Mr. Gill has found that all the
R. A’s of faint stars observed by the chronograph are too great
as compared with those of bright stars, the discordance being
nearly proportional to the magnitude and amounting to nearly
0”:25 per magnitude for stars from 4°5 to 8magnitude. The result
of eye and ear observations on the other hand coincide exactly
with the heliometer results, which he had tested and found free
from systematic error. Experiments made at several observatories
at the instance of Mr. Gill have confirmed his conclusions. The
explanation of the phenomenon is probably to be found in the
circumstance, that the light of a bright star is more quickly
perceived by the brain than that of a faint one.*

Several determinations of the solar parallax have been
published within the last year. From his observations of Mars
made at Ascension Island in 1877 Mr. Gill finds 7 = 878
(M.N. June, 1879). At the same opposition Mr. Maxwell Hall,
in Jamaica, made similar observations of the displacement of Mars
in R.A. (Mem. R. A.S. XLIV.) He used an equatoreal of four inches
aperture. Mr. Hall appears to have been peculiarly unfortunate
with his clock, the rate of which varied considerably during
short intervals, though the daily change of rate was small, but
the observations have been very carefully reduced, and the
resulting parallax 8”°79, proves, at any rate, that valuable results
may be obtained by this method by amateurs possessing only
small instruments.

Observations of the declination of Mars made in 1877 at
Leyden and Melbourne have been used by Mr. Downing to find
a value for the solar parallax. The result is 8'"96 (A.N. 2288).
It is remarkable, how well this agrees with Stone’s and Win-
necke’s results from the opposition of 1862 (8'"93 and 8/96).

Mr. D. P. Todd has in the American Journal for January,
1880, a paper on the determination of solar parallax by investi-

* Obs. II., 396. [Argelander has found the reverse to be the case in eye and ear

cbservations of very faint stars made by himself and by Trettenero. They both observed
faint stars a little earlier. ]

Progress of Astronomy during the Year 1879. 439

gations of the velocity of light. From the experiments by
Foucault, Cornu, and Michelson he deduces the most probable
velocity of light =299,920 kilometers. Supposing the coefficient
in the light-equation to be=498°3 (Delambre 493*2, v. Glasenapp
500°8"), and combining this result with Professor Listing’s value
of the equatoreal radius of the Earth, the solar parallax becomes
= 8-802, while Struve’s constant of aberration combined with
the velocity of light gives 8'"811. In conclusion Mr. Todd shows
that if we combine the maximum value for the velocity of light
with the maximum coefficient, and minimum velocity with
minimum coefficient, r will lie between 878 and 8'"82, while
the aberration in like manner gives the limits 8"°80 and 8'82.

The American Congress has voted 5,000 dollars for apparatus
to determine the velocity of light as accurately as possible. Pro-
fessor Newcomb hopes in this way to find the distance of the
sun with more accuracy than can be obtained by other methods,

A new determination of the inclination of the ecliptic is con-
tained in a doctor-dissertation by E. F. van de Sande Bakhuyzen,
of the Leiden Observatory.* The author discusses the declina-
tions of the Sun observed in Leiden in the years 1864-76, and
enters into all details relating to the instrument used, &c. He
finds that the inclination for 1870 as given in Leverrier’s tables
should be diminished by about 0°30. This result agrees well
with Oppolzer’s inclination for 1815 brought down to 1870, with
a secular diminution as found by means of the latest values of the
planetary masses.

2. Theory of Instruments.

Mr. Loewy has in the Comptes rendus (Vol. 87, No. 24)
described a new apparatus for determining the flexure of a transit
instrument. At the centre of the tube of the telescope is placed
a concavo-convex lens from 1} to 3 inches diameter, and about an
inch thick, the concavity being turned towards the eye-piece, and
of a radius equal to the distance from the focal plane. A reflected
image of a horizonal wire will in this way be formed by its side,
and the flexure of the eye-end of the tube will be found as the
tube is moved in zenith-distance. The convex surface is of such
a radius that its focal length is one-fourth of that of the object

* Bepaling van de Helling der Ecliptica. Leiden 1879, 8vo.

44.0 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

glass, so that the image of a point on the latter is also found next
the wire, and can also be observed while the tube is turned. Thus
the flexure of the two halves of the tube is determined. The
effect of a displacement of the small lens is eliminated by com-
paring the image of the wire with that of a point in one of the
pivots, the image of which is reflected from a plane surface on one
side of the lens.

Another method of determining flexure has been proposed by
Nobile (A.N. 2281). A small telescope is placed on the axis of
the transit instrument, parallel to the line through the pivots,
the object-glass being towards the tube. A small lamp and a
diaphragm send a pencil of parallel rays towards the cone; a
small prism on the latter throws the rays to one side of the
object-glass, from thence to a small prism on the centre of the
latter, from which the pencil of rays is sent down the tube and
appears in the eye-piece as an artificial star. The motion of
this star while the tube is turned in zenith distance gives the
means of finding the flexure.

3. Celestial Mechanics.

At the January meeting of the R.A.S., Mr. Neison read a paper
“On the General Solution of the problem of Disturbed Elliptic
Motion.” The aim of this paper is to show that by choosing
suitable variables, and by transforming the differential equations
in a proper manner, it will be possible to obtain a complete and
very elegant general solution of the problem of disturbed elliptic
motion ; that is to say, a solution which is so far general, that it
becomes possible to find a very simple expression for the pertur-
bations to the mth order of the disturbing forces, and be indepen-
dent of any particular values of the elements. In practice,
however, this method involves a great amount of computation.

Volume XLIV. of the “Memoirs of the Royal Astronomical
Society ” contains a memoir by Mr. Neison “On a General Method
of treating the Lunar Theory.” This memoir gives the theo-
retical foundation on which Mr. Neison has based a complete
analytical development of the lunar theory. Although it involves
no new principle, being in fact no other than Pontécoulant’s, the
method by which the development is being effected consists of

Progress of Astronomy during the Year 1879. 441

an entirely new application of known processes. The method
employed by Pontécoulant and others may be said to be the re-
peated application of the following processes. A lengthy series
of cosines or sines, with algebraical coefficients, is multiplied |
by a similar series of cosines or sines with different algebraical
coefficients, this multiplication being succeeded by reduction of
the various coefficients to their simplest terms. In the lunar
theory as developed hitherto, the great difficulty to subsequent
workers is the impracticability of verifying the final results, and
though in the case of Delaunay’s theory this is quite possible, still
the task would be one of enormous labour, One of the principal
differences between Mr. Neison’s system and those of his prede-
cessors is, that this difficulty is overcome, and that the amount of
computation has been reduced as far as possible. Every argument
is represented by a fixed symbol, which indicates not only its
origin, but the method by which it enters the theory. Every
step is performed with these general symbols, and when the final
result is obtained, it presents the solution as an explicit function
of these general symbols. The values of these symbols are then
substituted for them, the resulting coefficient is reduced to its
simplest terms, and the complete value is obtained.

Mr. Neison has reduced 1464 meridian observations of the
. moon, made at Greenwich between 1862 and 1876, in order to
determine the correction to Hansen’s coefficients of the annual
equation, the mean longitude, and the terms depending on the
distance and twice the distance of the sun from the perigee of the
lunar orbit. He remarks, that the parallactic term, depending
on the distance of the sun from the perigee of the lunar orbit, is
well adapted for determining the solar parallax, being free from
the liability to systematic error, which interferes so much with
the use of the parallactic inequality. Hitherto, however, the
result has not been quite satisfactory, viz. 91. The results
obtained in the paper show that Hansen’s coefficient of the
annual equation requires to be augmented by 0'°73.*

A new theory of the recurrence of eclipses is contained in an
important paper by Professor Newcomb, “On the recurrence of

* Mr. Neison is continuing his researches on the lunar theory, and has ready for

publication a second memoir containing the further development of the theory, by giving
to each term its particular value,

442 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

Solar Eclipses, with Tables of Echpses from B.c., 700 to A.D.
2300” (Washington, 1879, 4to). The theory is founded on two
remarkable and hitherto unnoticed chance relations connected
with the Saros. This cycle takes account only of the mean
motions of the sun and moon, but in consequence of the excentri-
city of the orbits the sun may be 2° on either side of its mean
place, and the moon 5°. The relative position of the two bodies
may therefore vary 7° from their mean position at any time,
and recurring eclipses might be expected to differ widely
from the predicted time, or might not occur at all. But, as a
matter of fact, this is not the case, the irregularities being re-
duced almost to nothing by the following remarkable relations.
At the end of a Saros, not only are the Sun, the Moon, and the
node found nearly in their original relation, but the mean
anomaly of the moon happens to have the same value to less than
3°, and the mean anomaly of the Sun to about 12°. Therefore,
not only the mean place of the Moon, but all its larger inequalities
will return nearly to their original values at the end of the period.
This will hold true, not only with respect to the time of the
eclipse, but also with respect to its character, as the parallax and
semi-diameter of the moon must also return nearly to their original .
values. On account of the retrocession of 28°6 in the argument
of latitude in each cycle, the corresponding eclipses in successive
cycles are subject to a progressive change. A series of such
eclipses commences with a very small eclipse near one pole of
the earth ; gradually increasing for about eleven recurrences it
will become central near the same pole. Forty or more central
eclipses will then recur, the central line moving slowly towards the
other pole. The series will then become partial, and finally cease
altogether. The entire duration of the series will be more than
a thousand years, and a new series commences on an average at
intervals of thirty years. All eclipses may therefore be divided
into sets, the separate eclipses of each set being separated by
intervals of one 18-year cycle, and extending through sixty or
seventy cycles. Moreover, from the elements of the central
eclipse of each set, those of any other of the same set may be
readily found, by applying the changes corresponding to the
number of intervals which separate it from the central one.
This circumstance Professor Newcomb has utilised to form a series

Progress of Astronomy during the Year 1879, 445

of tables, by which the approximate elements of any solar eclipse
between b.c. 700 and A.D. 2300 may be found with a few minutes
calculation, and by which any eclipse occurring during this
period may be promptly identified. As an example of the use of
the tables the celebrated eclipse, B.c. 584, is examined at the end
of the paper.

According to Natwre, a new discussion of ancient solar
eclipses has been commenced under the auspices of the Smith-
sonian Institution by Mr. D. P. Todd. The computations so far
relate to the eclipses of Thales, Larissa, Ennius, Agathocles, and
Stiklestad, 1030, and to two eclipses of the thirteenth century
which have already been discussed by Celoria of Milan.

The effect of the ellipticity of Mars on the motion of the sat-
ellites has been investigated by Professor Adams (M.N., November).
He shows that the ellipticity is probably between 7+; and 34,
and that the angles between the equator of Mars, and the fixed
planes of the inner and outer satellite are respectively less than
l’andabout 1°. The ellipticity will produce rapid direct motions
of the apses of the satellites, especially in the case of the inner
one.

No papers published during the past year exceed in importance
those by Mr. G. H. Darwin on the secular effects of tidal friction
on the configuration of a planet and its satellite.* In the first
paper the theory of the deformation of a viscous or imperfectly
elastic spheroid under the attraction of satellites is investigated.
Numerical calculations show that bodily tides in the Earth are at
present very small. From this point Mr. Darwin was led to con-
sider the perturbed rotation of such a spheroid, and thereaction
on the perturbing bodies. He has in the A. N. 2294 given the
following summary of the results arrived at through these inves-
tigations, which, no doubt, mark the beginning of a new era in
our knowledge of the past history of the solar system :—

1. The lunar period must have been shorter in the past, and
may be traced back from the present 27:3 days, until initially the
Moon revolved round the Earth in from two to four hours.

2. The inclination of the orbit to the “ proper plane” must have

* Three of these papers are published in the “ Philosophical Transactions” for 1879, a
fourth one in the “ Proceedings Royal Society, No. 197,” while a fifth one was read to
the Royal Society December 18th, 1879, and is as yet only known by an abstract in Nature.

+44 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

been larger in the past, and may be traced back from the present
5° 9' until it was 6° or 7°. This was a maximum inclination, and
in the more remote past the inclination was less, and initially was
very small or zero.

3. The inclination of the proper plane to the ecliptic must have
been greater in the past, and may be traced back from its present
8" until it was in very early times about 11° 45’. It is possible
that initially this inclination was less, and that the 11° 45’ was a
maximum value.

4. The eccentricity of the orbit must have been smaller in the
past. Hither at one time it had a minimum value, before which
it had a maximum value, and, again, earlier it was very small or
zero, or else the maximum value never occurred, and the eccentri-
city has always been increasing. The history of the eccentricity
depends on the nature of the tides in the Earth, but the
former of these alternatives seems the more probable. |

At the present time the Earth rotates in twenty-four hours, its
equator is inclined at anangle of 9" to a plane which Mr. Darwin
calls “the proper plane of the Earth” (the mean equator). This
proper plane is inclined at an angle of 23° 28’ to the ecliptic, and
its intersection with the ecliptic is the equinoctial line. He finds
that the frictional tides in the Earth have caused changes which
may be summarised as follows :—

5. The day must have been shorter in the past, and it may be
traced back from its present value of twenty-four hours until
initially it was from two to four hours in length. It was then
identical with the Moon’s period of revolution as described in (1).

6. The inclination of the equator to the Earth’s proper plane
must have been larger in the past, and may be traced back from
the present value of 9” until it was about 2° 45. This was a
maximum inclination, and in the more remote past the inclina-
tion was less, and initially it was very small or zero.

7. The inclination of the Earth’s proper plane to the ecliptic
must have been smaller in the past, and may be traced back from
its present value of 23° 28’ until initially it was 11° 45’, or, perhaps,
somewhat less. It was then identical with the proper plane of
the lunar orbit, and this is true whether or not 11° 45’ was a
maximum inclination of the lunar proper plane to the ecliptic as
described in (1).

Progress of Astronomy during the Year 1879. 445

The preceding statements may be subject to varieties of detail,
according to the nature of the tides raised in the Earth, but the
above is a summary of what appears to be the most probable
course of evolution. The hypothesis which is suggested as most
probable is, that the more recent changes in the system have been
principally due to oceanic tidal friction, and that the more ancient
changes were produced by bodily tidal friction. The initial state
of the Moon, nearly in contact with the earth, and always opposite
the same face of it, suggests that the Moon was produced by the
rupture in consequence of rapid rotation or other causes of a
primeval planet, whose mass was made up of the present Moon
and Earth. It is a remarkable coincidence, that the shortest
period of revolution of a fluid mass of the same mean density as
the earth, which is consistent with an ellipsoidal form of equili-
brium, is two hours and twenty-four minutes; and that if the
Moon were to revolve about the Earth with this periodic time,
the surfaces of the two bodies would be almost in contact with
one another. The theory gives an interesting explanation of the
rapid movement of the inner satellite of Mars.

4. The Sun.

Sun-spots were during the greater part of the year either
totally absent or were only represented by very small points,
until on October 18th a group of three large spots showed that a
new period of activity had commenced.

Carrington remarked that before the Sun-spot minimum of
1855-56 the spots had moved nearer to the solar equator, and
that after the minimum the new spots began to appear in higher
latitudes. Prof. Sporer (A. N. 2282) has seen this phenomenon
repeated in 1867. The mean heliographic latitude at the time of
a maximum appears to be 17°, while the spots at the time of a
minimum do not go nearer the equator than to latitude 8°7.
Time will show whether this phenomenon is a regularly occurring
one.

Several communications have appeared in Natwre (xx., 131,
146, and 189) on observations of sun-spots made with the naked
eye before the invention of the telescope. The last one, by Mr.
Hind, is the most interesting one; it contains a number of

4.46 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

references to diminutions of sun-light extracted from historical
works.

At the June meeting of the Royal Astronomical Society Dr. H.
Draper gave an account of the researches which led him to point
out the existence of bright lines of oxygen in the solar spectrum.
Since 1877 when he first announced his results, he has considera-
ably improved his instrumental means. The most important im-
provement is the “spark compressor ” to confine the spark between
the poles. Ordinarily the spark pursues a zigzag course, but by
means of two plates of glass it was confined to a narrow space in
a plane through the slit. The glass, however, would not stand
the powerful sparks, and eventually soapstone was substituted.
In a block of soapstone a cavity is formed of the shape of a
Pliicker tube, 7.e., two chambers connected by a narrow passage,
and one side of the latter is cut away so as to form a narrow
chink directed towards the slit of the spectroscope. The
electrodes (one of them being of iron) are introduced into the two
chambers, which form reservoirs of intensely heated air, and thus
keep up the incandescence. With this arrangement sufficient
brightness of spark was obtained to allow of the use of a large
dispersion with a spectroscope having two bisulphite of carbon
prisms, with a collimator of twenty-six inches, and telescope or
projecting lens of six feet six inches. Thus photographs had been
obtained on four times the scale of those published in 1877. The
great difficulty is, that even with these powerful appliances the
light obtained is only equal to that of a single candle illuminating
a slit of zd5 inch, and this is enfeebled by being spread out into a
spectrum more than two feet long. Dr. Draper’s communication
was followed by an interesting discussion as to the reality of
the bright lines in the sun-spectrum. (Obs. III., p. 67 and
foll.)

An attempt to explain the existence of bright lines of oxygen
in the sun has been made by Mr. R. Meldola, in a paper published
in the “ Memorie degli Spetroscopisti Italiani,” vii., pp. 91-100.
The author of this paper supposes that somewhere in the higher
regions of the solar atmosphere, above the chromosphere, the
temperature falls off sufficiently for some kinds of chemical com-
bination to take place. In this “zone of combustion” oxygen
and hydrogen, for instance, would enter into combination, and

Progress of Astronomy during the Year 1879. 447

become thereby raised to a state of more vivid incandescence.
The spectrum of a ray which, coming from the photosphere, reaches
this zone, would exhibit the lines of oxygen and hydrogen dark,
but those of the former much fainter than those of the latter, the
specific absorptive power of hydrogen at a given temperature
being much greater than that of oxygen. The action of the
incandescent gases of the zone of combustion on such a spectrum
would be to reverse the oxygen lines, and weaken the hydrogen
lines. The temperature of the coronal regions being much lower,
any oxygen existing in it would be in the state of molecular
agoregation corresponding to the compound spectrum, and would
thus be without influence on the bright lines, but would give rise
to the dark lines of the compound spectrum.

Professor Tacchini states that he saw the corona in full day-
light, on July 29, 1878, at Palermo, the sky being of exceptional
transparency. By hiding the disc of the sun he was able to make
a drawing of the corona, which agrees well with one made by
Father Sestini, in America, on the same day, during the eclipse.
The rays were, on one side, traced more than a degree from the
centre of the sun. Prof. Langley and Mr. Brett have also seen
the corona in full sunlight.*

A very elaborate paper on the polarisation of the corona, by
Dr. Schuster, is published in the M.N. for December. It is im-
possible here to give an abstract of this paper, in which is shown
how combined measures of the polarisation at different distances
from the sun, and of the decrease in intensity of the total light of
the corona with increasing distance from the sun, may inform us
in what way the scattering matter is distributed in the solar
atmosphere, what part of the light sent out by the corona is due
to scattering matter, and whether the lattev is projected outwards
from, or is falling into the sun from outside.

While the United States Naval Observatory is printing a very
full account of the work done by the expeditions sent out under
its auspices to observe the eclipse of July 28, 1878, Mr. Leonard
Waldo has published a report on the observations made at Fort
Worth, Texas, by a party of which he was the leading member.+

* [For some earlier views of the corona in daylight by Tacchini, see Secchi, ‘‘ Le Soleil,’

German edition, p. 350-52. }
t Cambridge, Mass. (J. Wilson aud Son.) 1879, 4to.

448 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

Three photographic cameras were employed to take pictures of
the corona; but none of them were provided with equatorial
motion, having only a rough movement in zenith distance, and
none in azimuth. The details are, therefore, to a great extent
obliterated by the sun’s motion. An attempt was made to ob-
tain photographic evidence of the polarisation of the corona by
inserting a double-image prism between the lenses of a camera.
The photographs obtained in this way were examined by Prof.
Pickering, who found inequalities in them, which, as far as they
go, tend to indicate tangential polarisation ; but in the opinion
of Dr. Hastings the evidence is not conclusive. The inner corona
was seen by Mr. Seagrave about 30° before totality. Mz. Pulsifer,
using a ten-prism spectroscope attached to a four-inch Clark
refractor, and keeping the slit tangential, observed the reversal
of the Frauenhofer lines at the commencement of totality. From
the length of these lines, which only reached one-third across the
spectrum, the tangential thickness of the reversing layer was
found, and from this Mr. Pulsifer infers its minimum height
above the photosphere to be 524 miles. The C line was not
shortened like the others, but extended right across the spec-
trum.

While many researches are continually being made in order to
connect the sun-spot cycle of eleven years with various meteoro-
logical phenomena, the old question whether solar activity is
different in different heliocentric longitudes, has been revived.
Dr. Gruss, of Vienna (A.N.), finds from observations of tempera-
ture made at Prague during 1876, a period of 25°56 days, while
observations of the direction of the wind gave 2671 days. It
will, no doubt, always be extremely difficult, if not impossible, to
arrive at a satisfactory result by examining observations made at
one station only, where local circumstances may influence the
result so considerably.

Prof. Balfour Stewart and Mr. Dodgson have sent a preliminary
report to the Royal Society (“ Proceedings,” xxix., p. 308), in
which they investigate the diurnal ranges of temperature at
Kew, Toronto, and Utrecht, and the diurnal ranges of magnetic
declination at Kew and Prague. The results are, that the ranges
of temperature exhibit certain common periods (around 24 days) ;
that similar phases appear to occur at Toronto eight days before

Progress of Astronomy during the Year 1879. 449

they occur at Kew, and at Kew one day before they occur at
Utrecht. The declination ranges at Kew and Prague exhibit
certain common periods, which may be regarded as the same, or
very nearly the same, as the above-mentioned meteorological
periods, the similar magnetic phase appearing to occur at Kew
about one day before they occur at Prague. Sun-spot records from
1857-68 appear to show certain solar inequalities very like the
magnetic and meteorological inequalities in point of period.

M. Janssen continues his photographic observations of the
surface of the sun, and has, in the ‘‘ Annuaire du Bureau de
Longitude” for 1879, and in the “ Report of the British Asso-
ciation,” given an account of recent progress in solar physics,
particularly of what he supposes to be a new discovery—the
maximum of photographie intensity of the spectrum for iodide
of silver near G, which by short exposures makes the spectrum
very nearly monochromatic. As remarked in the British
Journal of Photogravhy, No. 1009 (vol. 26), this is by no
means a new discovery, but a fact known since the earliest days
of photography.

In the American Journal for July Dr. J. W. Draper has a
paper on the distribution of intensity of light in the spectrum.
He finds that in the diffraction spectrum the luminous intensity
is equal in all the visible regions, all the colours being simul-
taneously obliterated by an extinguishing light.

5. The Moon.

The region around Hyginus continues to draw the attention
of lunar observers, and several papers have appeared during the
year, among which Lord Lindsay’s and Dr. Copeland’s, in the
Monthly Notices for January, and Mr. Pratt’s, in The Obsev-
vatory for January, deserve special notice. On the whole it
seems rather doubtful whether Dr. Klein’s “crater” is really a
new formation or not, at any rate its visibility depends so very
much on the altitude of the sun, that it is quite possible that
the earlier observers may have overlooked it. The discussion on
this subject at the January meeting of the R. A.S. does not throw
much light on it.*

* Obs. ii., p. 327-31.

ScrIEN. Proc., R.D.S. Vou. 11, Pr. vi.

bo
y

450 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

The lunar photographs taken with the 13-inch reflector at
the University Observatory, Oxford, have been utilized for find-
ing a new value for the semi-diameter of the Moon.* The
process adopted was very nearly the same as that employed
by Wichman, and the resulting mean semi-diameter is
15’ 34”:175 +0069. Mr. Neison has, from a careful discussion
of nearly 1100 observations, made at Greenwich, Oxford
(Radcliffe), and Washington deduced the value—

1b’ 33°37 + 4”10+(1 + 070 x aperture in inches).

This empirical formula, he adds, agrees closely with the
theoretical formula, founded on the assumption that the differ-
ences between the semi-diameters obtained with instruments of
different aperture vary as the diffraction discs and the amount
of light. Applying this formula to a 13-inch reflector, and
adding the photographic irradiation, which Mr. Neison states his
experiments indicate to be about +08, the photographic semi-
diameter should be 15’ 34°-08.t

6. The Intra-Mercurial Planet Question.

A new attempt to find an orbit in accordance with the more
or less doubtful observations of dark round spots passing across
the Sun’s disc, was published in the A. N., by Herr v. Oppolzer.
He found a system of elements which was in remarkably good
accordance with the eight observations on which the calculations
were founded. Watson’s observation, during the eclipse in 1878,
was not among these, and the resulting orbit made “ Vulkan ” at
that moment be 7° preceding the Sun. A nearly central transit
ought to have taken place on March 18, 1879, but nothing was
seen, though many telescopes were directed to the Sun that
day.

In No. 2258-54 of the A. N. Dr. C. H. F. Peters has published
a long article entitled, “ Some critical Remarks on so-called intra-
Mercurial Planet Observations.” In the first part of this article
the writer considers at length the observations made during
the eclipse of July 29, 1878, by Watson and Swift, of two
unknown objects south-west of the Sun. The fact that the line
between the two stars, called a and b by Professor Watson, is

* M, N. xxxix., p. 447, + M.N xl, p. 6.

Progress of Astronomy during the Year 1879. 451

almost parallel and equal in length to the line between 6 and ¢
_Cancri, joined to the small size of the improvised circles of the
instrument, appears to him to prove beyond doubt that the
objects seen were nothing but the stars @ and ¢ Cancri. The
constant error of about 3", which under this supposition would
affect the R. A.s of a and 6, he tries to explain by the different
circumstances under which the circle markings were made for
the stars and for the Sun; in the former case in semi-darkness
and in a hurry, in the latter case in full daylight and with
leisure ; possibly also the markings were made at the same side
of the wire-pointer, thus creating a parallax of 3° or 3, of an
inch. Mr. Swift’s observation is treated more summarily by
Professor Peters, who thinks the confusion and_ successive
eradations in his statements must deprive every reader of con-
fidence in them.

To this criticism Professor Watson has given an indignant
reply, in No. 2263 of the same journal. He denies flatly that
his wire-pointers were as easily bent as supposed by Professor
Peters, and feels confident that the probable error of 5’, assigned
by himself, is rather too large than the reverse; the 20’ of Pro-
fessor P. he considers perfectly absurd. There is only one of
Professor P.’s objections which he does not answer; he does not
state whether he saw a and 0 Cancri at the same time or not.
This seems to be the crucial point of the whole question, and
it is to be hoped that Professor Watson will make a clear state-
ment concerning it. Mr. Swift has also replied in the A.N.
2277. He had, immediately after the eclipse, informed the
other observers near him that he had seen two objects with
sensible (though he acknowledges, spurious) discs about 3° S.W.
of the Sun, 12’ apart. Later on he changed this estimate to 7’
or 8’ ina letter to Nature (xviii, p. 539), in which he made a
curious mistake, putting 8’=2". Professor Peters can hardly be
blamed for having felt suspicious at all this confusion, or for
having made little of Mr. Swi‘t’s comparison of the distance
between Mizar and Alcor, with the distance between the two
unknown objects.

In the second part of his article Professor Peters discusses
some of the so often quoted observations of black round spots
passing over the Sun, nearly always made by obscure amateurs,

SciEN, Proc., R.D.S. VOL. U., Pr, vi. 2H 2

452 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

spots which have never revealed themselves to the regular Sun-
observers, or appeared on the photographs of the Sun, which
have now, during not a few years, been taken, on every clear day,
at several observatories. After having alluded to the spot seen
by Weber, which, but for its being found on the Greenwich and
Madrid photographs would now have been considered a well
authenticated apparition of an intra-mercurial planet, seen by an
experienced observer, Professor Peters especially examines the
observation by Lummis, on March 20, 1862, which is considered
as very certain by Leverrier. By referring to his own diary,
and to Professor Spérer’s observations, he shows how two
ordinary spots have been noticed by Mr. Lummis, first one, and
then, twenty minutes after, the other, which he thought was the
same as the first one, which had moved in the meantime. He
shows how the second position was vitiated by an error, which
being removed the estimated distance of 12’, which was in con-
tradiction to the sketch sent by Mr. Lummis to Mr. Hind, comes
out all right.

Almost simultaneously with the publication of Professor Peters’
article, another observation of a spot in transit by De Vico on
July 12, 1837, preserved by De Cuppis (who saw a similar spot
himself in 1839), has been announced in the Comptes rendus,
vol. 88, No. 9.

7. Planets and Satellites.

Mercury.—The results of the observations on the transit of
Mercury on May 6, 1878, have been printed by the Washington
Observatory; but as far as we know, have not yet been distributed.

Venus.—The fifteenth publication of the “Astronomische
- Gesellschaft” is entitled “ Untersuchungen uber die Durchmesser
der Planeten Venus und Mars nach Heliometermessungen, W&c.,
von E. Hartwig,” Leipzig, 1879, 4to. The heliometers which
were used on the German Venus expeditions, and afterwards de-
posited at the Strasburg Observatory for a detailed investigation
of their constants, have, by the author, been used to take measures
of the diameters of Venus and Mars during the years 1876-78.
Venus was measured with two heliometers, and from all the ob-
servations the diameter at distance unity (D+dD), and the
constant error of the measures (7), were found by a number of

Progress of Astronomy during the Year 1879. 453

equations of condition, of which every observation furnishes one

of the form
1

d—~(D+dD)+i
Y fe
or ¢ pa ass
ft? “Le

ed

where D is an approximate value (17”50), and r the distance of
Venus from the Earth. Herr Hartwig has, in addition to his
own, discussed all published observations by other astronomers
(many of them reduced anew), and the result is that nearly all
measures are subject to rather large constant errors, as the

following table shows.

A,.——-HELIOMETER.

ib Prob. Error. Aperture.
ur Mr

mm.
1820 Brandes —1:096 +0°134 76
1847-49 Wichmann —0-436 — 158
1857 Winnecke —1:088 — 162
1861-63 Main — 1-182 091 190
1876-77 Hartwig S250 057 76
B.--DovuBLE IMAGE MICROMETER (AIRY).
i. Prob. Error. Aperture.
fi as mm.
1862-65 Kaiser —0°772 +0042 189
1840-52 Main —0:50? =s 170
1873 J. Plummer —0°546? — 152
C.—Rocnon’s MIcROMETER.
i. Prob. Error. Aperture.
a uM mm.
1810-15 Arago —1:519 +0105 162
D.--WIRE MICROMETER.
L Prob. Error. Aperture.
tf di mm.
1833-36 Midler +0°651 +0073 97
F +0:116 0-245
1854-57 J. Schmidt { Gate floss
1860-63 Midler —0:254 — 244
1888-39 Galle — 0°86 = 244
1871 Vogel — 2°56 = 293°5

The negative sign of the constant error for all double image
observations is very remarkable, and it appears that telescopes
of all apertures make the diameter as measured in daylight too
small, while there does not seem to be any law depending on the
aperture. In order to try whether a darker background would
make the diameter turn out greater, observations were made
in twilight on five evenings in March, 1879, and the re-
sulting diameter was 0”°41 greater than when measured in full
daylight. The greater sharpness and clearness of the image on

; * Powers 120 and 90 respectively.

454 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

the darker background explains probably this phenomenon. In
the case of the wire micrometer, the difficulty in making the
contact of the sharply seen spider-line and the far less distinctly
seen edge of the planet, must necessarily allow a far greater
range for individual errors, and in the opinion of the author this
micrometer is not to be recommended for diameter determinations.
Jn conclusion, the mean of the results found at Oxford, Leiden,
and Strasburg, 17552 is adopted as the most probable value.
This result is 0°60 and 0”°65 greater than those found by Auwers
and Tennant during the transit on December 8, 1874.

In an appendix are given extracts from the observer's diary
concerning the visibility of the un-illuminated part of Venus.
The dark part was repeatedly seen in geocentric distances
(Venus-Sun) ranging from 5° to 22°.

Mars.—The second part of Herr Hartwig’s work contains his
researches on the diameter of Mars. His and his predecessors’
measures were reduced in the same manner as those of Venus.
The constant error is generally very small, and does not show any
regularity. From Arago’s, Bessel’s, Kaiser's, Main’s, and Hartwig’s
measures, the following result for distance unity is derived:
Polar Diam. = 9”°349 + 0-010, or by simply taking the mean
of the four determinations, 9’°352.

The ellipticity of Mars has not yet been found in a satisfactory
manner. The Strasburg observations gave the two diameters
9’°311 and 9-519. Bessel found no difference whatever, but the
other observers have ; js is the mean of Encke’s, Galle’s, and the
above-named observers’ results. The opposition in 1879 was
very favourable for the determination of the ellipticity, as well
as of the position angle of the axis of rotation, as shortly after
the culmination the polar and equatorial diameters made equal
angles with the vertical, whereby personal errors depending on
this angle would be eliminated.

The very favourable opposition of Mars in 1877 was taken
advantage of by many observers to make drawings of the surface
markings. Above all, Mr. N. E. Green’s “Observations of Mars
at Madeira” (Memoirs R.A.S., XLIV.), deserve to be mentioned.
With a 13-inch Newtonian Mr. Green obtained at Madeira
forty-one drawings during August and September (the opposi-
tion took place on September 5), and twelve of these, giving

Progress of Astronomy during the Year 1879. 455

views of the planet at intervals of rotation of about two hours
were selected for publication. These drawings are reproduced in
most exquisitely finished chromolithographs by Mr. Green himself,
and a complete map of Mars on Mercator’s projection has been
constructed from them, the details having first been compared
with a number of drawings by other observers. No form is
introduced on the map which has not been confirmed by the
drawings of at least three observers. The nomenclature from
Proctor’s map has been adopted (with a few exceptions), and new
names have been added wherever required, immortalizing recent
observers of the surface of Mars. This map marks, no doubt, a
great step forward in our knowledge of the appearance of Mars,
and it is in very good accordance with the drawings by Lockyer,
Kaiser, Knobel, Dreyer, and others, very much more so than Mr-
Proctor’s chart, which was founded on Mr. Dawes’ drawings only.

Neither Mr. Green nor anyone else in 1877 succeeded in seeing
the remarkable long and narrow canals depicted in Schiaparelli’s
“ Osservazioni astronomiche e fisiche sull’asse di rotatione e sulla
topografia del pianeta Marte,” Roma, 1878, 4to.* This paper,
published towards the end of 1878, contains first a new determi-
nation of the direction of the axis of rotation, the measures being
made by placing the micrometer wire tangent to the middle of
the snow spot. The results were, for September 27°0.

Areocentr. Long. of centre 29:°466+1-°077.
cs Polar she: of spot, 6147 +0:123.
Geocentr. Angle of Pos. of Axis, 164:90+0-10.

The second chapter contains the determination of the areo-
graphic position of sixty-two principal points on the surface.
From this an exact map on Mercator’s projection has been con-
structed, but as only two colours are used, blue and white, to
represent dark and bright, and no shading at all is given, it is
rather difficult to compare this map with others, The innumerable
“eanals,’ which in all directions cross the map, increase this
difficulty. Four representations of the dise in orthographic
projection (Table V.), founded on all the drawings made at Milan,
are very much more adapted to be compared with other maps.

* Of this remarkable work a German translation is about to appear. M. O. Struve
has given a very full account of it in the Vierteljahrsschrift der Astronomischen
Gesellschaft, XIV., p. 22-39 (1879).

4.56 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

Drawings of Mars from 1877 are also contained in the following
papers :—

J. L. E. Dreyer: Notes on the physical appearance of the planet
Mars, as seen with the three-foot reflector at Parsonstown, during
the opposition of 1877. (Transactions Royal Dublin Society. New
Series. Vol. I., Part 6).

L. Niesten : Observations sur l’aspect physique de la planéte Mars

pendant l’opposition de 1877. (Ann. de l’Obs. de Bruxelles.
SUA E TB)

The first of these papers contains twelve views, which are in
very fair accordance with Mr. Green’s. M. Niesten published
thirty-nine drawings, very well executed in chromolithographs.
They were made between August 21st and November 10th, with
a six-inch refractor, but do not show quite as much detail as those
already mentioned.

In 1879 Mars was also very favourably situated, especially for
an examination of the equatorial regions. Mr. Green writes to The
Observatory that some of his drawings show “ faint and diffused
tones” in places where M. Schiaparelli informs him he has during
this opposition seen new canals. Mr. C. E. Burton has chiefly
with an eight-inch silver-on-glass reflector made about twenty
drawings, and on many of these narrow canals like those seen at
Milan appear. The author of the present record has with the
Dunsink refractor seen two or three similar objects on two nights
when the definition was exceptionally good.*

The Satellites of Mars have been regularly observed by Pro-
fessor Hall since October 12th. He found that Phobos arrived at
its elongations forty-four minutes before the predicted times, the
error in areocentric longitude of the ephemeris being + 84°3
(rather less than the estimated probable error), so that the time of
revolution must be shortened by 1°074, thus becoming 75 39™
13°'996. The ephemeris for Deimos is in excellent accordance
with the observations. Both Satellites have been observed by
Mr. Common with his new three-foot reflector, and by Professor
Young at Princeton, N.J., with a nine and a half-inch object-

*Mr. Burton’s paper (in which two drawings of mine are included) is published in
the Transactions Royal Dublin Society. New Series. Vol. I. Part 12.

Progress of Astronomy during the Year 1879. 4357

glass*. Deimos was observed on three nights in November at
Dunecht, and on one night (November 12th) at Greenwich.t

Jupiter has attracted a good deal of attention in 1879, especially
a large oval red spot in the southern hemisphere, which had been
watched the year before by Tempel, Trouvelot, and others. It
does not seem to have altered its place in the course of the year,
the period of rotation resulting from Mr. Pratt’s observations of
it (9°55™33°-91) being in good accordance with previous results.t
It was observed spectroscopically by Copeland, who found the
spot marked by a longitudinal dark band in the spectrum of
Jupiter, which absorption seemed more restricted to the region
near b and F when the slit was placed parallel to the belts
than when it was perpendicular to them.§

M. Niesten of Brussels has written a paper in the “ Bulletin de
l Academie Royale de Bruxelles’ in which he quotes the observation
of a similar spot by Cassini in 1666, 1672, and 1677, by Maraldi in
1708-9, by Secchi in 1857 [?], and by Mr. Gledhill in 1871. The
red colour is, however, not mentioned by these observers. M.
Niesten suggests, that the phenomenon has a period of five or
six years, the spot appearing a little before Jupiter comes to his
perihelium and some time before the aphelium.

Saturn.—A. Hall finds by applying the equation given by
Laplace in the Méc. cel. IL, p. 52, for the surface of an ellipsoid
of revolution composed of a homogeneous fluid, that Saturn like
Jupiter is less flattened than it would be in case of homogeneous-
ness, and that the density consequently increases towards the
centre. The mean density of Saturn being only three-fourth
that of water, the fluid at the surface must have a very small
density.

Mr. Common writes to Nature (XX., p. 577) that the dusky
ring was seen early in October very prominently. It had the
appearance of being covered with bright points such as a rough
dusk paper touched with chalk would give, that part in front of
the ball being dark, and showing as a fine dark line across, equal
in width and shade to the shadow beneath, so that the narrow
part of the whole ring appeared on the face of the planet as if
bounded by two fine parallel dark lines.

* M.N., XL., p. 95, and Obs., III., 270. + M.N., XL., pp. 102 and 161.
{M.N., XL, p.156. §MN., XL, p.88 || A.N. 2269.

458 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

Satellites of Saturn—The orbit of Hyperion has been in-
vestigated anew by Hall,* who has discussed all the available
observations. The result is a retrograde motion of the line of
apsides of 2°93 a year. The unfavourable circumstances under
which this satellite has been observed since 1875 (the observer
being nearly in the plane of the orbit) prevent, however, any
certain conclusion being arrived at at present. The action of
Titan may possibly make the apsides move rapidly in the opposite
direction, as suggested by Mr. Marth some years ago.

A fine series of observations of all the satellites except
Hyperion, made in 1878 at Mr. Seagrave’s observatory at Provi-
dence, R.IL., with an eight-inch Clark refractor, is published in the
A.N. 2254, It includes four observaticns of Mimas. The con-
junctions with the ring and the ball were observed in 1878 by
Professor Pritchett of Glassgow, Missouri. Mr. Marth has again
in 1879 published ephemerides for this kind of observations.

Minor Planets—The following discoveries were made in

1879 :-—

Date. | No. Name. Discoverer.

February 17, .| 192 | Nausika. Palisa.

7 8, .| 193 | Ambrosia. Coggia.
March 22, . .| 194 | Procne. Peters.
April 28, . .| 195 | Euryclea. Palisa.
Wien? 17 6 .| 196 | Philomela. Peters.
a valle 5 : 197 | Arete. Palisa.

June 13, . .| 198 | Ampella. Borrelly.

July 9, ; .| 199 | Byblis. Peters.
Suds an we .| 200 | Dynamene. Peters.
August 7, . - | 201 | Penelope. Palisa.
September 23, .}| 202 | Chryseis. Peters.
5 27, .| 203 | Pompeia. Peters.
October 8, . .| 204 | Callisto. Palisa.
5 ley > .| 205 —_— Palisa.
eaeellovir - | 206 | Hersilia. Peters.

aye alidiats -| 207 -- Palisa.
premeles si) 2s ae Palisa.

0 eS -| 209 | Dido. Peters.
November 12, 5) Alo) a Palisa.
December 10, d | 211 — Palisa.

CO. H. F. Peters has now discovered 40, Palisa 24, of these small
bodies. The magnitudes at the time of discovery range between
105 (8) and 12 (13). One (No. 208) was of the 13th magnitude.
Frigga (77) was refound by Peters on July 17, after having been

at large for several years.
* A.N., 2263.

Progress of Astronomy during the Year 1879. 4.59

In October, 1850, Mr. Ferguson, of Washington, observed re-
peatedly a star, which afterwards was missed and supposed to have
been a planet, possibly an ultra-neptunian one. A search for it was
made during the last months of 1851, but in vain. Professor C. H.
F. Peters, however, finds that Mr. Ferguson had referred several
transits to the first instead of to the second wire of the movable
micrometer plate. The star observed was nothing but Lalande
36613. This explanation was found to be correct by an exami-
nation of the original observing book. Mr. F. had, for some
unknown reason, in his reductions, changed all the correct obser-
vations to correspond with the erroneous ones.

8. Comets.

The following comets were visible in 1879 :—

a. Brorsen’s periodic comet was first seen by Tempel on
January 14, and on February 26 by Tebbut. It passed the peri-
helion on March 80, and was observed till the end of May. It
was found more than a month earlier than Dr. Schulze’s ephemeris
commenced.

b. Tempel’s periodic comet was first seen by Tempel on April
24, and was observed until the end of June. It passed the
perihelion on May 7, according to Mr. Raoul Gautier’s elements.

c. Swift found a pretty bright comet on June 16, which was
independently discovered by Winnecke on June 21. It was
observed till August 23.

d. Palisa discovered a pretty bright comet on August 2], which
was seen as late as October 12 (the date of the perihelion passage).

e. Another comet was first seen by Hartwig on August 24.
The last observation seems to be from September 14.

The spectrum of Brorsen’s comet appeared this year very
different from what it wasin 1868. It consisted of three bands, the
central one the brightest, and the least refrangible one exceedingly
faint. The wave-lengths as determined by Young, were 468-2,
517-41], and 558+3. The abnormal character of the spectrum in
1868 (which only one other comet, that of Borelly, c. 1877, has
exhibited), has therefore disappeared, and the comet has now the
ordinary spectrum.*

* Young, N. xix. 559, Obs, III. 56, Christie N. xx. 5.

460 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

Professor Bredichin continues his researches on the repulsive
action of the sun on cometary matter.*

In a short communication to the British Association Mr. G. J.
Stoney put forward the hypothesis, that the bright lines in the
spectra of comets are due to the sun’s light falling upon the com-
pound of carbon in them, and rendering it visible in the same way
that light renders other opaque bodies visible, the vapour being
opaque in reference to the particular rays which appear as bright
lines in the spectrum. The visibility of comets he attributes to
phosphorescence, the conditions for the productions of which are
present in the very attenuated vapour.

_ Professor H. A. Newton communicated at the same meeting a

short paper on the direct motion of periodic comets of short
period. If these comets originally came from interstellar space,
they must have been turned into the short orbits by coming very
near to a large planet, the disturbing influence of which dimin-
ished their velocity. It is now shown in the paper that nearly
all comets which are thrown into an orbit of short period in this
way, will have a direct motion in the latter. This is in accord-
ance with experience, as only Halley’s comet and the Leonid-
comet (1866 I) have retrograde motions.

9. Meteors and Meteorites.

A very complete report on the progress of meteoric astronomy
during 1878, by A. S. Herschel, formed part of the annual report
of the Council of the R.A.S.,in February, 1879. As usual the
same author has prepared a most valuable report to the British
Association.

The June number of the American Journal contains a list of
thirty-two radiant points, by Mr. Sawyer. Particulars as to
velocity, brightness, and length of path of the meteors of each
shower are given. The list is founded on records of upwards of
600 shooting stars.

Mr. Denning has an article in The Observatory (III., p. 127), on
“Fireball Epochs,” giving a brief monthly summary of the results
as to frequency and radiants derived from an examination of
all published records of aerolites and bolides. The same writer

* Annales de l’Observatoire de Moscou, Vol. V. & VI., Part I. A.N. 2237, 41, 57, 66.

Progress of Astronomy during the Year 1879. 461

gives a catalogue of 222 stationary meteors in the M.N., Xt.,
406.

A paper by Dr. Ball, entitled “Speculations on the source of
Meteorites,” is published in the Proceedings of the Royal Irish
Academy (2nd series, II. p. 227). The author starts from the
result of M. Tschermak’s investigations, that meteorites have had
a volcanic source on some celestial body. He shows first that
they cannot have come from the moon, as a projectile thrown from
the moon, and once missing the earth, can never fall thereon, so that
we should have to suppose the lunar volcanoes to be still in activity
if the meteorites falling on the earth at present should have come
from the moon. In order to get over the large initial velocity,
which would be necessary to overcome the gravitation of a large
planet, it seems then natural to inquire if a volcano on one of the
minor planets could accomplish the task. Supposing a voleano
of sufficient power (and if the projectile should cross the earth’s
track, the initial velocity could not be much less than that re-
quired to throw a projectile away from the earth) was placed on
Ceres, for instance, would it be likely that a projectile driven
therefrom, would ever cross the earth’s track? If the total
velocity with which it leaves the orbit of Ceres be less than eight
miles per second, then the projectile will fall short of the earth’s
track; on the other hand, if the total-initial velocity exceeds six-
teen miles, the orbit will be hyperbolic, and though it may cross
the earth’s track once, it will never do so again. Taking a mean
between these extreme velocities, suppose, that a projectile is
discharged from a point in the orbit of Ceres, with an initial
velocity of twelve miles in a random direction, what is the proba-
bility that its orbit shall cross the earth’s track? When this
problem is solved in accordance with the calculus of probabilities,
it is found that the chances against that occurrence are about
50,000 to one. But while none of the other planets, large or
small, are likely to be the source of the meteorites, one planet,
the earth itself, has special claims to consideration, as every pro-
jectile launched into space by primeval powerful volcanoes must
continue to revolve round the sun in orbits which cross the
earth’s track in the point from which the projectile was originally
discharged. At the point of crossing, of course a meeting of such
a body and the earth will often happen. Assuming, therefore,

462 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

that the meteorites have had a quasi-volcanic origin on some
celestial body, Dr. Ball is led to agree with those who believe
this body to be the earth.

It is interesting to compare this result with the recent re-
searches on the structure of meteorites by M. Meunier, who finds
that the analogy between these bodies and the lower strata of
our globe, which Danbrée already had pointed out, is not con-
fined to mineralogical constitution, but is extended to the relation
which these cosmical materials present when compared amongst
themselves, as is done for the constituent rocks of the earth.*

10. Fiaed Stars.

Dr. Auwers has published, for the zone-committee of the
Astronomische Gesellschaft, an important work, “ Fundamental
Catalog fiir die Zonen-Beobachtungen am noérdlichen Himmel.”
(Leipzig, Engelmann, 4to.) This catalogue of 539 stars, on which
the places of all the stars between —2° and +80° Decl. down to
the 9th mag. inclusive will depend, is founded on the following
systems of standard places :—Pulkova, 1845 and 1865; MS. of
Pulkova Observations, 1869-74; MS. of Bradley’s Stars from
Greenwich Observations 1836-72 on the system of the first
7-year Catalogue ; Greenwich 9-year Catalogue ; Harvard College
Observatory, Vol. X.; Engelmanns Declinations, 1866-70 ; Leiden
Declinations, 1864-70.

At the Berlin meeting of the Astronomische Gesellschaft reports
on the zone-observations were read. These will, as usual, be found
in Part IV., for 1879, of the Vierteljahrsschrift. The following
account is taken from proof-sheets kindly communicated by Pro-
fessor Winnecke :—

80-75. Kasan. Observations finished, except a few ones in zone
75-76 yet to be made; reductions far progressed ; printing
commenced.

75-70. Dorpat. Only 920 observations yet to be made ; more than
half the reductions to 1875-0 finished.

70-65. Christiania. Zones finished ; about 90 per cent. reduced.

65-55. Gotha (formerly Helsingfors). Zones finished ; reductions far
advanced.

55-50. Cambridge, U.S. Observations finished ; reductions progress-
ing well.

* N. XIX., 409. For these researches M. Meunier received the Lalande prize in 1879.

Progress of Astronomy during the Year 1879. 463

50-40. Bonn. About 5000 single observations remain to be made ;
reductions far advanced.

40-35. Lund. Observations commenced in September, 1878; the
reductions are progressing with the zones.

35-30. Leiden. Finished; vol. 5 of the “ Annalen,” containing the
second half of the zones, is in the press.

30-25. Cambridge (England). About 4000 single observations to be
made yet. The mean places are calculated up to the end of
1874, apparent places to the end of 1876.

25-20. Berlin. Not yet commenced.

20-15. Berlin. Finished, but not yet reduced.

15-10. Leipzig. Zones finished; R.A.’s almost all reduced to 1875:0 ;
zeros for declinations partly computed.

10-5. Leipzig. Has been commenced.

5-1. Albany. Observations were commenced in August, 1878.
The influence of magnitude on the transit has been investi-
gated by wire-screens, as suggested by Mr. Gill. Correction
to observed transit= — 0°-009 (M — 4:0) — 0*:00037 (M —4-0)2,
where M is the magnitude.

+1lto —2. Nicolajeff. Much interrupted by the Russo-Turkish war.

A second edition of the Washington Catalogue of Stars has been
issued. Since the first edition was published, in 1873, Professor
Yarnall had accumulated many observations, which he, before
retiring from the Observatory, embodied in a second edition.
Many stars which had only been observed once or twice, either
in right ascension or declination, were thus re-examined. The
author died suddenly, on Feb. 27, 1879, the complete volume only
reaching him a few moments before his death.

Dr. Robinson has published “ Places of 10,000 Stars, observed
at the Armagh Observatory.” The stars are those of the fainter
ones in the “ Histoire Céleste” (nearly all between 6th and 7°5
mag.), which have not been recently observed at other observa-
tories. The instruments at Armagh not being opticaily powerful
enough for this work, the mural circle was furnished with a new
telescope having an object-glass of seven inches aperture. The
observations were all made by the Rev. Ch. Faris, in the years
1868-76, each star being observed four or five times. Only the
mean results are given. (Trans. Roy. Dub. Soc. New Ser.
Vole 1.) Pt. 9:)

The first volume of the second series of the “ Annales de
lObservatoire de Bruxelles” contains an “ Uranométrie Géné-
rale,” by M. Houzeau. During a stay in Jamaica the author
resolved to form a new Uranometry, which should possess the

464 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

advantage above all others hitherto published, that it was to be
the work of a single individual, observing all the stars in both
hemispheres visible to the naked eye within a short space of
time. He accordingly commenced working on January 28, 1875,
and the work was finished on February 28, 1876. He had first
prepared maps, on which all the stars were plotted down without
regard to magnitude ; then every region was gone over two or
‘three times, and the magnitudes carefully estimated, the six usual
classes being used, but each class only divided into two halves.
The atlas thus formed consists of five plates, on which the stars,
their letters, the names and limits of the constellations (but not
their figures), and the milky way are depicted. The latter has
been attended to with great care, the deeper or paler hue of the
light-ereen colour representing greater or lesser brightness. The
equatorial zone between +45° is drawn on a cylindrical projec-
tion, the circles of R.A. and Decl. being equidistant parallel lines,
and the two polar calots on a polar projection, the parallels being
equidistant circles. The catalogue of stars for 1880 is divided
into four sections, separated by the equator and the parallels of
45°, It contains 5719 stars. M. Houzeau has examined the dis-
tribution of the stars in four ways: 1, with respect to the solar
equator; 2, with respect to the direction of the sun’s proper
motion ; 8, perpendicular to this direction; 4, with respect to
the milky way. No law whatever was found in the first three
ways, while the fourth mode of proceeding confirmed W. Struve’s
conclusion that the density of stellar layers parallel to the plane
of the milky way decreases very regularly and gradually towards
the poles of the latter.

Another Uranometry which has been looked forward to for a
long time, Gould’s “ Uranometria Argentina,” has been published,
and copies arrived in Europe about the end of the year. Not
yet having seen this most important work, we borrow the
following account of it from the Buenos Ayres “Standard,”
quoted in The Observatory for December. This Uranometry was
intended to embrace all stars within 100° of the South Pole
down to the seventh magnitude, the limit of visibility in the
clear sky of Cordoba. Four assistants were engaged on the
work since 1870, and each region was independently mapped
down by at least two of them, and the magnitude of each star

Progress of Astronomy during the Year 1879. 465

carefully noted. Three years were spent in this survey, and
since then Mr. Thorne has twice reviewed the entire work, so
that Mr. Gould considers it improbable that any star as bright
as 7:0 magnitude has escaped detection, whilst the magnitudes
are believed to be essentially correct to the tenth of a magnitude.
The total number of stars is 10,649, and the total number of
estimates of magnitude 44,510. All the stars have been ob-
served at least four times each for accurate position with the
transit-circle. The charts are 13 in number, besides an index
map giving the whole limit, and containing stars down to the
fifth magnitude. The letterpress contains first the catalogue
of approximate positions, magnitudes, &., and next a discussion
of the distribution of the stars, according to their brightness.
Dr. Gould finds that by collecting all stars to the ninth magni-
tude, and distributing them according to classes, there is always
an excess in the number of bright stars observed over those
which result from calculation on the supposition that the stars
increase regularly in number as they diminish in brightness,
but that the accordance is much closer for the faint stars. It
is not assumed that the stars are all of the same size, and that
they vary in brightness according to their distance from the
observer—in fact we know that if our sun were removed to
the distance of an average first magnitude star it would shine
as one of the third or fourth magnitude; but it cannot be
doubted that the average distance of all the fifth magnitude
stars is nearer to us than the average of all the sixth magnitude.
Reasoning from this excess of the bright stars, and the exist-
ence of a belt of bright stars girdling the heavens, inclined to
the galaxy at an angle of about 20° at its greatest deviation, and
intersecting it in two nodes, twelve hours apart, he concludes
that we are situated in a cluster, numbering probably 400 stars,
and ranging in magnitude from first to seventh. This belt
being very marked in the south, and less so in the north, he
considers that our position in it is on that side, in the direction
of Hercules, the point in the heavens towards which our solar
system is moving.

A series of measures of the Milky Way as given on the
Cordoba charts and Heis’s atlas was made and discussed. The

circle resulting from these measures is very nearly a great one,
Scien. Proc., R.D.S. VOL. 11., PT. vi. aT

4.66 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

so that we must be situated very nearly in the central plane.
Two places of maximum breadth exist very nearly opposite each
other, and two of minimum breadth are also about 180° apart.
At one of these regions of greatest width two branches are
plainly and easily recognizable, the rift beginning near a
Centauri and extending to Cygnus in the north. The circles
representing the course of these branches cross at the point of
minimum breadth, seeming to show that the Milky Way is really
made up of two galaxies. One of them being fainter and more
diffused than the other, they would seem to be at unequal dis-
tances from us.

Julius Schmidt has, in continuation of his researches on the
colours of stars, published an extensive series of colour-estimations,
made chiefly with the finder of the Athens-refractor, from
1872-78. Only for Arcturus has he been able, with any cer-
tainty, to find a variation of colour. It is mostly very bright
stars he has observed, and he investigates the difference in the
estimation, according to whether the finder or the refractor was
used, and finds a greater difference the nearer the colour is to
white.

A “new star” of 88 mag. was found in November by Mr.
Baxendell, according to two Dunecht observations in 7°34" 45° 67
+ 8° 39’ 39’°6 (1879°0). According to Vogel, the spectrum is
very remarkable, with many dark bands, especially in the more
refrangible part. Very probably this may turn out to be an
ordinary variable star.

11. Annual Parallax.

Nearly the whole of Part III. of the “Astronomical Observa-
tions and Researches made at Dunsink” is devoted to annual
parallax. The first paper contains a discussion of observations
of the planetary nebula H. IV. 37 from August 1871 to August
1872 by Dr. Briinnow. The nebula has in the centre a well-defined
point resembling a star of the eleventh magnitude. This was
compared in declination with a star of the tenth magnitude np, and
the parallax was found to be perfectly insensible, a result which
agrees well with that of a similar series of observations by Pro-
fessor Bredichin, of Moscow.

Progress of Astronomy during the Year 1879. 467

A new determination of the parallax of 61 Cygni, by Dr. Ball,
forms the subject of the next paper. This determination differs
from others of the same object in one particular, viz., that the
preceding star instead of the following one has been observed.
The method of observation used is that of differences of declina-
tion, and the observations furnished thirty-six equations of con-
dition for the determination of the four unknown quantities on
which the apparent difference of declination depends, these contain
the results of observations made on thirty-five different nights
between July 3, 1877, and June 1, 1878. A detailed account is
given of the operations by which the observations were cleared
from the effects of refraction, precession, aberration, nutation, and
proper motion. The resulting parallax is 0-465, in pretty good
accordance with the results of Bessel (last three months 0°54),
Struve (0°51), and Auwers (0'"56).

A third paper, also by Dr. Ball, describes the first results of a
series of reconnoitring observations in search of stars with a large
annual parallax. These observations are only intended to reveal
large parallaxes (07 or more), and each object is only observed
twice a year with six months interval, when it is 90° from the
sun, and at the two extremities of the major axis of the paral-
lactic ellipse. The paper contains the discussion of the observations
of forty-two objects, chiefly red and variable stars. The result is
that in almost every case is the parallax certainly less than 1”, and
most probably does not exceed 05. These objects will therefore
not be observed any further, but it is Dr. Ball’s intention to
continue this kind of observations until about 1200 objects have
been examined ; his working list contains red and variable stars,
stars with a large proper motion, and others chosen for various
reasons, nearly all north of the 30° parallel.

According to Herr Geelmuyden, of Christiania, the star Arg.
Oeltzen, 11677, has a perceptible parallax (A.N. 2287). This star
of the ninth magnitude has a propermotion of -- 0°507 and + 0°21.
The resulting parallax, 0-27 from measures of Aa and 0'"24 from
measures of Aé with a star preceding, is only considered provisional,
but the subject seems worth followiag up.

Scien. Proc, R.D.S, Vou. 1., Pr. vi 4 5 OP

4.68 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

12. Double Stars.

In 1841 and 1842 the Pulkova refractor was used for an exami-
nation of the northern hemisphere in search of double stars.
The second part of the catalogue thus formed embraces systems,
the components of which are of or above the eighth mag., and
the distance between which are from 32" to 2’. Most of these
objects have never been observed micrometrically, and the series
of heliometer measures of some of them, which Dr. Schur of
Strassburg publishes in the A.N. 2255-56, will therefore be of
interest, though only comprising a small number of objects.
Systems closer than 40” were measured by quadruple distances,
wider pairs by double distances. By means of an artificial pair
of stars, it was found that the position angle had no appreciable
influence on the measures of distance, and that the two methods
of measuring the distances showed no constant difference.

Volume XLIV of the Memoirs R.A.S. contains a very extensive
work by Mr. Burnham: “Double Star Observations made in
1877-8, at Chicago, with the 182-inch refractor of the Dearborn
Observatory, comprising: I. A Catalogue of 251 New Double
Stars with Measures; IJ. Micrometrical Measures of 500 Double
Stars.”

Up to a few years ago the Dearborn refractor, with which
Clark discovered the companion of Sirius in 1862, was kept
perfectly idle, the original dome being a mechanical failure, only
fit to act as an extinguisher. It has however, since, in the hands
of Mr. Burnham, done excellent work. Confining himself to the
subject of double stars, this distinguished observer has in the
course of six or seven years, first working with a 6-inch, after-
wards using the 183 i. refractor, made this subject his own to an
extent which is truly surprising. Though many observations are
yearly being taken of double stars by a good many observers, the
study of these important objects is by no means being furthered
to the extent one should have expected from the vast amount of
time and labour expended. As Mr. Burnham justly remarks in
the preface to the paper we are here considering, many observers
have gone on from year to year observing over and over again
the same familiar stars, of which Castor, y Virginis, « Lyre may
be cited asexamples. Couples which small instruments of three or

Progress of Astronomy during the Year 1879. 469

four inches aperture would show sufficiently well, are thus again
and again being observed with fine refractors of six or seven inches
aperture or upwards, while a very great number of stars are
hardly ever if at all looked for. “Omit the observations of
Dembowski and O. Struve, and our knowledge of nine-tenths of
the double stars would not be materially advanced in the last
thirty years.” Mr. Burnham has from the beginning shown that
he does not follow the ordinary beaten track, and his numerous
discoveries of close and difficult pairs have proved him to be an
unusually sharp-sighted and attentive observer. In nine previous
lists he had given the places of 482 new double stars, mostly
rather difficult pairs, which few would have discovered with a
6-inch refractor. The present (tenth) list of 251 new objects
raises the total number of new double stars discovered by Mr.
Burnham to 733; of these 251 stars, 75 pairs are less than 1"
apart. His observations of old double stars embrace chiefly such
ones which require a large aperture to be brought out well, or
which have not been recently observed by others. Particular
attention has also been paid to certain difficult pairs discovered
by Mr. Alvan G, Clark.

Mr. Burnham has already in the M.N. for December announced
his further discovery of the duplicity of fifteen naked-eye stars,
among which the quadruple system 86 Virginis and the triple
system B.A.C. 4531 deserve special notice.

No. 5 of the publications of the Cincinnati Observatory con-
tains “ Micrometrical Measurements of 1054 Double Stars from
January Ist, 1878, to September Ist, 1879.” These observations
are partly made with a view to the preparation of a catalogue of
all double stars between the equator and 30° south declination,
partly in order to re-examine such objects as Mr. Burnham has
found to need re-observing. These latter stars are not limited
to the southern hemisphere. A few others have been entered in
the working lists chiefly to aid in the investigation of personal
equation between the director, Mr. Ormond Stone, and Mr. H. A.
Howe. A great deal of trouble has been bestowed on the in-
vestigation of this equation, which for position angle is expressed
by the formulas =-a+w@+w* y+ ..., where a, P, y, &., depend
on the observer and the angle with the vertical, while w is the
reciprocal of the visual angle v, the latter being found by multi-

470 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

plying the distance in seconds of are by the ratio between the
power used and a certain standard power. In observations of
distance any apparent displacement caused simply by personal
peculiarities is supposed to produce an effect inversely pro-
portional to the magnifying power ; if » be the reciprocal of the
power, the equation in distance is therefore « = p (a’+v B'+v"
y +...). The mean results have also been compared with W.
Struve’s Mensuree Micrometricee. .Though the discovery of new
double stars has only been considered a secondary object, nearly
200 new pairs have been detected during the progress of the work
at Cincinnati. The measures are all given in full detail and
occupy 151 pages; the mean results are given separately. The
whole forms a carefully prepared volume printed with the
elegance usual in American publications.

The systematic errors in measures of double stars have been
investigated by Professor Thiele in a paper: “Castor, Calcul du
mouvement relatif et Critique des observations de cette étoile
double” (Copenhagen. 1879). The author has chosen Castor
partly because the orbital motion is slow and can be represented
by a simple formula of interpolation, partly because it has been
very frequently measured by almost all observers of double stars.
First, three normal places were formed which represented the
distances and position angles observed since 1815, and an angle of
position from Bradley’s and W. Herschel’s measures. From these
and the ratio of the sector to the time formule for computing
distance and position angle as functions of time by means of the
eccentric anomaly were derived and an ephemeris computed from
1718 to 1900. With this ephemeris all individual observations
by every observer were compared and the mean error determined
for every observer within such a period during which he might
be supposed not to have changed his way of measuring. Every
observer is now followed from one period to another and the
changes in the mean error determined, whereby variations in his
systematic error would reveal themselves.

Dr. Seeliger has made an elaborate examination of Madlet’s
measures (A.N. 2288). Ma€dler’s distances appear to be con-
siderably less accurate than O. Struve’s, while his position angles
do not appear to have larger mean errors than than those of QO.
Struve, The results of a direct comparison between Madler’s

Progress of Astronomy during the Year 1879. 471

and O. Struve’s measures is rather puzzling, the quickly moving
binaries showing no recularity whatever in the rather considerable
difference of distances, while pairs moving more slowly or not at
all show errors varying more gradually according to the distance.
Considering the great number of measures Madler took they
would certainly be worth a thorough examination.

Dr. Doberck publishes elements of 36 Andromede, y Leonis,
3 3062, OF 298, 4 Aquarii and p’ Herculis, also approximate
elements of a Centauri (Astr. Nachr.)

13. Nebule and Clusters.

The Earl of Rosse has published Parts 1 and 2 (0" to 144 R.A.)
of the “Observations of Nebule and Clusters of Stars made with
the six-foot and three-foot reflectors at Birr Castle from the year
1848 up to about the year 1878” (Trans. R. Dublin Soce., Vol. II.)
This publication (of which the third part, comprising the last ten
hours of R.A.,is in the press) embodies all the work done on
nebulze since the erection of the six-foot telescope in 1845. In
1850 and 1861 abstracts of the observations on more interesting
objects appeared in the Philosophical Transactions, but all these
abstracts are given over again in the new publication with the sole
exception of the copperplate engravings, to which however in all
cases references are made in the text. Though not even now every
single note in the observing ledgers is published, nothing has
been suppressed which can be of the slightest value or importance.
The observations are given in the observer’s own words, and the
notes which were added by Mr. Dreyer while arranging the work
for publication are easily distinguished by being enclosed in
brackets. These notes deal especially with questions of identifi-
cation, and nearly all the new nebule which were found at Birr
Castle in the course of years and formed the weak point of
Herschel’s General Catalogue, have now by re-examination and
comparison with d’Arrest’s observations been identified and their
positions determined. The work done during the last five or six
years (1872-78) differs in many particulars from the observations
taken in earlier years, and with which the paper of 1861 made
the scientific world acquainted. Most of the more important
nebulee having been frequently drawn, there was latterly not

472 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

much to be done in this direction, but another important field
was opened up by taking micrometric measures of groups of
nebule or of nebulz and neighbouring stars. Into the text have
been introduced diagrams of such groups or of a nebula and the
stars near it, while four plates contain lithographic reproductions
of more elaborate sketches, which had not already been published
among the engravings in the former papers. How much more
detail is given in the new publication than in the paper of 1861
may be seen from the circumstance, that while the fourteen hours
of RA in the latter only cover 34 pages, do they in the new paper
extend over 129 pages.

Since the “Supplement to the General Catalogue” came out in
1878, the following notes on new nebulze have been published :—

1. In the Comptes rendus for December 2, 1878, M.
Stephan has a list of 837 nebulz. Of these, however, numbers 8
and 9 are quite certainly identical with 5380 and 5883, while 10
and 11 seem = 5385 and 86.

2. M. Tempel has given the places of 26 nebulz not in the Sup-
plement in the A. N. 2212. In No. 2253 he has again a nova,
and in No. 2269 also one.

3. Dr. C. H. F. Peters gives the place of a new nebula in the
A. N, 2256.

4. Mr. Burnham has two nebule in the Mem. R. A.S., XLIV.,
p. 169. (Another, abid., p. 216, already mentioned in his third
list of double stars, and accidentally overlooked by me.)

5. One found by M. Block, of Odessa (3" 33™-9, 116° 44’
for 1880), A. N. 2287 (the other one he mentions is = 5,315).

6. The Birr observations contain here and there some new
nebule, nearly all found after the Supplement had been printed.

The » D.M. + 41°, 4004, was towards the end of 1879, by the
Rey. T. W. Webb, found to be nebulous, and its spectrum was at
once found to be gaseous by Copeland, Vogel, and others. The
nebulous character of this star had already been noticed by M.
Stephan, in whose above-mentioned list it is No. 27.

A series of measurements of all the planetary nebule has been
commenced with the 15-inch refractor of the Harvard College
Observatory. Their diameters are measured, and when they are
elliptical, also the directions of their axes. As it is of importance
to be able to ascertain the general character of the spectrum with-

Progress of Astronomy during the Year 1879.- 473

out too much diiticulty, a direct-vision prism has been inserted
between the object-glass and the eyepiece, and each nebula
examined through it. If the spectrum is continuous, its light will
be spread out into a luminous band.

Part III. of the “ Astronomische Beobachtungen auf der Gross-
herzoglichen Sternwarte zu Mannheim” contains micrometrical
observations by Dr. Valentiner of the clusters G. C. 4410 (VIII.
72), and G. C. 1166 (M. 36). The stars were observed by means
of differences of R. A. and declination. Both these clusters are
rather loose ones, still measures of these and similar groups are
sure to become of great importance in future, especially photo-
graphic records of them.

14. Photometry.

One of the most important publications of the year is the
eleventh volume (Part I.) of the “Annals of the Observatory of
Harvard College,” containing Professor Pickering’s Photometric
Observations made with the 15-inch refractor. The author first
made experiments with a Zéllner’s photometer and other instru-
ments in which the star is compared with an artificial light, but
on account of the want of similarity between the real and the
artificial star, and the difficulty of applying a correction for
changes in opacity of the air, which only affect the real star, the
use of a lamp was abandoned, and all comparisons were made
with some bright star in the vicinity of the object observed. All
variations in the condition of the air were thus eliminated, both
objects being equally affected by it. To insure a comparison free
from personal equation or variations due to the observer, it is
very desirable that the objects shall resemble each other as much
as possible. This result is secured by bringing the images to be
compared close together, so that they are both viewed with the
same aperture and magnifying power, and the light of both is
equally distorted by passing through the same lenses and prisms.
A detailed description is given of all the various photometers
employed.* The first instrument used was constructed by
attaching a Nicol to a double-image prism in such a way that it
could turn freely around its axis, while by a graduated circle

* An abstract of this description is given in Nature, xxi., p. 23,

AT + Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

and index the angle could be measured to tenths of a degree.
When two bright objects were viewed through this instrument
two images of each were formed by the double-image prism, either
of which by turning the Nicol could be made as faint as was
desirable. Whatever their relative light be, the faint image of
the brightest could thus always be reduced to equality with the
bright image of the faint object. The relative brightness is then
deduced from the angle through which the Nicol is turned. This
form of photometer may be used without a telescope for the com-
parison of bright stars near each other, but the loss of light is large.
Another one was constructed in which the Nicol and prism were
both placed in front of the eye-lens, the Nicol being next the eye.
A much simpler arrangement consisted of two concentric tubes,
one carrying a graduated circle, the other two indices; in the
first of these tubes a double-image prism was inserted, the other
which was held next the eye carried a Nicol. This photometer
was used without a telescope to compare the relative brightness
of Saturn and Mars, and Jupiter and Venus. It was later on
attached to the eye-end of a telescope, and a Rochon prism in-
serted instead of the double-image prism of spar. The prism
being of quartz, the separation of the images amounted to less
than 1°, so that the emergent pencils overlapped each other by
nearly three quarters of the diameters of each. The apparatus
had moreover the great advantage that the images were precisely
alike, and nearly achromatic. A combined spectroscope and pho-
tometer was also constructed for comparing the colours of the
components of double stars, by measuring the relative light of
different portions of their spectra.

These photometers could only be used for comparing objects
very near together, such as double stars or satellites. For some-
what greater intervals two achromatic prisms of small angle were
placed in front of a telescope, covering the central part of the
object glass. Two images of any object would thus be formed,
separated by an interval dependent on the angle of the prisms,
and on their relative positions.

All the photometers described are open to the objection
that the loss of light is very great, from 60 to 80 per cent.
This was especially felt during the observations of the satellites
of Mars, and led to the invention of another class of photometers,

Progress of Astronomy during the Year 1879. 475

The image of some bright star, assumed as standard, passes
outside the telescope, and is reflected into the field, after having
been reduced by some known amount, until it equals the faint
object to be measured.

The instruments having been described at length in Chapter I,
the second chapter contains the journal of the observations,
while the discussions are given in Chapters IIT and 1V. Con-
Junctions of planets, already alluded to above, afforded a good
opportunity for comparing their relative brightness. The results

are :—
Albedo of Saturn

Albedo of Mars

Albedo of Jupiter

Albedo of Venus

A series of photometric measures of all the more conspicuous
double stars is discussed in Chapter IV.

The recently published annual report of the Harvard College
Observatory shows that these photometric researches are being
continued with great energy. A circular has been issued to
Astronomers about “Stellar Magnitudes.” In the hope of pro-
viding at least a partial remedy for the confusion in estimations
of faint stars which hitherto has existed, a series of photometric
observations has been undertaken of stars of various magnitudes,
situated near the North Pole (this being always a comeatible
place for northern observers). The co-operation of astronomers
in giving estimates of the magnitudes of these stars is requested.
This undertaking is no doubt eminently useful, and may be ex-
pected to lead to valuable results. The report further mentions
that the light of nebulz is now also being measured. The com-
parison is here made with the image of a star thrown out of
focus by such an amount that it will appear of the same intrinsic
brightness as the nebula. Knowing the stellar magnitude a
simple computation serves to show what must be the magnitude
of a star which, when spread over a circle one minute in
diameter, would emit the same amount of light as an equal area
of the nebula. The light of the nebule may accordingly be
described in stellar magnitudes.

A work of some magnitude has been undertaken by Professor
Pickering during the past year in the determination of the hieht
of all the stars visible to the naked eye at Cambridge (Mass.)

= 4-62+007

= 0-86+0-02,

476 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

As most of these stars would be very troublesome to identify in
the field of a photometer mounted on an ordinary stand they are
observed in the meridian. The photometer consists of a hori-
zontal telescope pointing to the west, and having two objectives.
By means of two prisms mounted in front of the telescope the
pole star is reflected into one object-glass, and the star to be
measured into the other. The cones of light are made to coincide
by a double-image prism, the extra images being cut off by an
eye-stop. The star to be measured is thus seen in the same
field with the pole star, under exactly the same conditions. To
determine the relative transparency of the air at different
altitudes, a list of a hundred circumpolar stars has been pre-
pared, to be observed at both upper and lower culminations.
Progressive changes in the light of the pole star may thus also
be detected and eliminated.

15. History of Astronomy ; Bibliography.

A Persian MS. of Ulugh Beg’s catalogue of stars recently pre-
sented to the R. Astronomical Society has been examined by
Mr. Knobel (M.N. xxx., 337), and compared with Hyde’s transla-
tion. A great many discrepancies have (as was also the case
with Sufi) been found to arise from certain characters being
mistaken for others by the transcriber, and Mr. Knobel was hereby
led to examine those of Ibn Junis’s lunar eclipses, which Pro-
fessor Newcomb had found to be irreconcilable with the
computations, and he suggests explanations, founded on the
assumption of similar errors having been made in copying a
MS. The magnitudes of Ulugh Beg never having been pro-
perly translated, Mr. Knobel gives a complete translation of
the magnitudes as found in the MS. under examination.

Professor Oudemans, of Utrecht, has communicated to the
Astr. Nachr., No. 2277, some interesting researches as to who in
reality has discovered the negative eyepiece, consisting of two
plano-convex lenses. By searching Huyghens’ “ Dioptrica” he
found only an eyepiece mentioned, consisting of two biconvex
lenses, in which the proportions were f:d:f’ = 4:2:1*, while
plano-convex lenses are not alluded to anywhere. Already in

+ [Opera posthuma, Amsterdam, 1728, I., p. 140.]

Progress of Astronomy during the Year 1879. 477

his “Systema Saturnium” Huyghens describes a 23-foot tube,
with which he observed Titan, and the eyepiece is described as
follows: “Ab altera parte, que in nimirum oculo admovetur,
bina sunt vitra minora, 1} pollicem diametro, equantia, juncta
invicem, queeque hoe pacto eequipollent convexo colligenti radios
parallelos ad intervallum unciarum 3 aut paulo etiam angustius

Illud enim in Pioptricis nostris demonstratum in-
venietur” . . .* The last words quoted show that the
“Dioptrica” was already written in 1659 or earlier. As to Campani,
who is also often supposed to have been the inventor of the
negative eyepiece, Professor Oudemans requested Professor
Schiaparelli to look over his work “ Raggualgio di due nuove
Osservasioni ” (Roma 1665). The result was that Campani used
a triple terrestrial eyepiece, which apparatus, however, was not
invented by him, but as Professor Winnecke remarks (A. N.
2292) by the monk Schyrl (Schyrlzeus de Rheita).

In the same article Professor Winnecke also mentions a work
by the same Schyrl, published in Louvain in 1643, and contain-
ing observations of nine satellites of Jupiter, of six round Saturn,
and of “nonnullae” round Mars. With respect to the five extra
satellites of Jupiter, Scheibel informs us that Gassendi declared
them to be nothing but Tycho’s stars, 24-28 Aquarii. Schyrl
accepted this explanation also as regards Saturn and Mars.

Herr Breusing, of Bremen, draws attention to Christophori
Clavii Opera (1611) in which a vernier is distinctly described,
except that it was not placed on the movable alidade, which
latter idea originated with Vernier (A. N. 2289).

“Obituary Notices of Astronomers” is the title of a little book
by Mr. Dunkin, in which are collected some obituary notices of
Fellows and Associates of the R.A.S. (by no means all astronomers),
mostly written for the annual report in the Monthly Notices, but
revised, and some of them partly rewritten. Some of the notices
are rather meagre, for instance the one of d’Arrest, others are very
full and interesting, especially those of the two Herschels and the
Rev. R. Main.

“Répertoire des constantes de l’Astronomie, par M. J. C.
Houzeau,” occupies 271 pages in 4to of the Annales de l’Observa-
toire Royal de Bruxelles, Nouvelle Serie, T. I. This is a most

* (Opera varia, Lugd. Bat., 1724, p. 538-39. ]

478 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

wonderfully useful publication, and it is hard to understand how
astronomers hitherto have managed to get on without such a
handbook, it is only a great pity that it has not been published
in the shape of a handbook, but in a place where it will not be
easily accessible to many people. It gives in twenty chapters,
chronologically arranged, lists of all the different values of astro-
nomical constants, which have been published from the earliest
times and down to 1877, in all cases describing the way of finding
the particular value and adding exact references, by means of
which anyone can find out for himself, all about any value. And
more than that, the titles of the principal books and memoirs
relating to any subject within the range of the repertory are also
given, but completeness is not aimed at in this respect. As far
as we have been able to ascertain, the lists of constants are very
complete and very correct, and will save from oblivion many a
thing which has been often hidden by its author in some obscure
corner of the literature.

‘M. Houzeau, who by this excellent piece of work has shown
himself eminently familiar with astronomical literature, ancient
and modern, and who already in his “Catalogue des Ouvrages
dAstronomie et de Meteorologie qui se trouvent dans les
principales Bibliothéques de la Belgique” (1878), has given a
very convenient bibliography, is about to publish a “ Biblio-
graphie genérale de YAstronomie ” in conjunction with M. A.
Lancaster, of the Brussels Observatory. This work is to be
divided into three parts, Books, Memoirs, and Observations, and
will be a most useful guide in the literature of Astronomy.

An index to the records of observations, &c., outside the
ordinary routine work at Greenwich, was printed in the Monthly
Notices (xxxix. p. 505).

A complete “Subject-Index to the Publications of the U.S.Naval
Observatory from 1845 to 1875” by Professor E. 8. Holden, is
in the press (74 pages 4to).

A list of books and memoirs on celestial spectrum analysis, by
M. Fiévez, appears in the “Annuaire de l’ Observatoire de Bruxelles”
for 1879, pp. 255-338.

Periodicals like Nature and The Observatory contain a great
deal of bibliographical information in a pleasant form. Few have
probably an idea of the large amount of important notes on astro-

Progress of Astronomy during the Year 1879. 4:79
nomical subjects, which appears in Nature in the course of a year,
and most of which are totally forgotten a month after they have
been printed. If the editor could see his way to collect reprints
of all such notes, letters, &c., from time to time in separate
volumes, he would render good service to Astronomy, even a
systematical index of five or ten volumes at a time would be very
useful. The Observatory gives, every month, editorial notes on
recent publications, which it would be pleasant to see enlarged,
even if this would have to be done at the expense of the monthly
double stars and meteors, so very uninteresting to the majority of
readers.

16. Observatories.

In his review of the progress of Astronomy in 1878 (Annual
Record of Science and Industry), Professor E. 8. Holden has
collected reports from all the American Observatories, public and
private. As each report contains a list of all the instruments of
each Observatory, the whole series gives a very good picture of the
state of practical Astronomy in the United States. Abstracts are
also given of the reports in the Monthly Notices, and the
“ Vierteljahrsschrift der astronomischen Gesellschaft.” It is Pro-
fessor Holden’s intention in future, to continue these Observatory
reports in the Report of the Smithsonian Institution.

Mr. A. A. Common, has mounted his new 36-inch silver-on-
glass equatorial at Ealing, near London. It is described in “The
Observatory,” III, p. 167, and Mr. Calver has given a very full
account of the process of figuring and silvering the mirror in the
M. N. for November.

A new observatory has been founded at Kalocza in Hungary,
by Cardinal Archbishop Haynald. Dr. Charles Braun is the
Director, and the chief instrument is a seven-inch refractor by
Merz.

Another private observatory has been constructed at Plonsk,
about thirty-seven miles from Warsaw, by Dr. Jedrzejevicz,
The principal instrument is a 6°4 inch refractor by Steinheil, to be
used for observations of double stars.

The new observatory of Queen’s College, Cork, though only
furnished with comparatively small instruments, promises to
become one of the most remarkable astronomical institutes exist-

480 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

ing, on account of the uniqueness and refined construction of its
instruments. As these have been described at some length in
these Proceedings,* by their constructor Mr. Howard Grubb, it
will here only be necessary to note, that the principal instruments
are to be an 8-inch equatorial, a 5-inch transit circle with 20-inch
circles of glass, and a 4-inch siderostat of novel construction. ‘The
telescope of this instrument points towards the south pole, and
carries outside the object-glass a plane silvered mirror, which by
the rotation of the tube round its optical axis (either by hand
or clockwork), will keep the object under examination in the
centre of the field. The equatorial, for which Mr. Grubb obtained
the Gold Medal at the Paris Exhibition, is furnished with all the
latest improvements, including arrangements for reading both
circles from the eye-end, electrically controlied clock-movement,
a duplex micrometer, like the one recently made by Mr. Grubb
for the University Observatory, Oxford, &c. It is to be hoped
that with such an equipment the Cork Observatory will take its
place among the active astronomical establishments of this country.

An observatory is being built on the site of the “Casa degl’
Inglesi,” on Mount Etna, 9,650 feet above the sea. It is only
to be inhabited during the months of June, July, August, and
September ; and the 12-inch lens, by Merz, is then to be brought
to Catania, where there is to be a duplicate mounting for it. The
observatory is to be devoted to solar work, for which its high
elevation, according to the experience of Prof. Tacchini, as also
of Prof. Langley, makes it especially suited.t

M. Bischoffsheim is building a new observatory at Mont des
Mignons, Nice, of which M. Perrotin, of the Paris Observatory
has been appointed the director. A sum of 900,000 frances is to
be spent on it.

It is now more than five years since James Lick, of San
Francisco, placed in the hands of trustees the sum of 700,000
dollars for the purpose of erecting and equipping an observatory
near the Pacific coast, which was to constitute the Lick Astro-
nomical Department of the University of California.{ The site
originaily chosen was at Lake Tahoe; but afterwards a series of

+ Antea, p. 847. A plan of the observatory is given in Nature, xix., p. 558.

t The following account is borrowed from The Kansas City Review of Science and
Industry, Vol. III., p. 482. (December, 1879.)

Progress of Astronomy during the Year 1879. 481

experimental surveys was made, with a view of obtaining the
best location in an easily accessible place. Finally, Mount
Hamilton, in Santa Clara county, about 50 miles south-east of
San Francisco, was chosen, and negotiations were opened with
the county authorities for the building of a road to the summit.
More than 1,500 acres of land were secured for the observatory,
only a small portion of which is essential to the immediate needs
of the buildings, but the residue will be utilized for pasture, and
for fuel and water-supply. The steep and broken character of
the ground renders a large surface of land necessary for the
adequate protection of the observatory from fire and intrusion.
Mr. Lick died in 1877, after a lingering illness of several years.
Shortly before his death he had invited Prof. Newcomb to carry
out a series of test experiments on Mount Hamilton ; but his
other engagements prevented Prof. Newcomb from undertaking
this work, for which he, however, at last recommended Mr.
Burnham. Contrary to general belief, the visit of this eminent
observer was not for the purpose of choosing a site, which had
been done long ago, but to enable him to express an opinion as
to the size and character of the principal telescope, which was to
be “the best in the world.” Mr. Burnham arrived on August
17, 1879, and at once went to work. He brought with him his
own 6-inch telescope, and a temporary observatory was erected,
2() feet in diameter, and having a dome formed of bent gas-pipes
covered with canvas, and rotating on iron balls. Mr. Burnham
examined and measured a great number of double stars, dis-
covered about 20 new ones, and made observations of various
other test objects. Out of 32 nights, the 27 were extremely
favourable for observations. Though practically out of the coast
fog, an occasional gale may carry the fog as far as the crest of
Mount Hamilton, but ordinarily the sky is cloudless all summer,
while in the east the average of clear nights is less than three
per week.

The exact size of the Lick telescope has not yet been deter-
mined, and will depend somewhat on the success of the 30-inch
glass which was ordered in the autumn from Alvan Clark for the
Pulkova Observatory. In order, however, properly to observe
the transit of Venus in 1882, the trustees purpose to secure at

once a 12-inch refractor. No definite plan for the buildings has
Scien. Proc., R.D.S. Vou. u., Pr. vi. OK

482 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

as yet been decided on, except that library, study, computing and
sleeping rooms are to be attached to the main building, and that
dwelling-houses, &c., will be close by, on a shelf of the hill lower
down ; there is also to be “a large building for the accommoda-
tion of the general public, which building will doubtless be rented
as a hotel.” The main building will be about 70 feet in diameter,
the foundation of stone and brick, the walls of iron and steel.
Besides the large and the smaller equatorial, there will be a
meridian circle and other instruments.

A new observatory has been founded at Madison, Wisconsin,
by Mr. Washburn. Professor Watson has left Ann Arbor to take
charge of it.

M. von Konkoly has published a volume of “ Beobachtungen
angestellt am astro-physikalischen Observatorium zu O’Gyalla
in Ungarn.” (Halle, 205 pp. and 6 plates, 4to.) It contains
spectroscopic observations of bright stars (no measures), observa-
tions of sun-spots, 1872-78, and observations of meteors. The
chief instruments are a 103-inch silver-on-glass equatorial by
Browning, and a 6-inch refractor by Merz.

From the Breslau Observatory is published a 4to volume of
“ Mittheilungen” by Dr. Galle, chiefly containing researches on
the meteorology of Breslau, and on the geographical position of
the observatory. The latter was arranged in 1790, in a tower on
the roof of the University building, and its principal instruments
are several repetition-circles and small altazimuths, a transit by
Dollond (O.G. 24-inch diam.), and a heliometer by Frauenhofer, of
3% feet focal length, and 2°8 inches aperture. (This instrument was
used in China by the German “Venus Expedition.”) The volume
contains biographical notices of the directors Jungnitz, Brandes,
Scholtz, and Boguslawski, and the assistant Wilhelm Giinther.

A volume of Cambridge Observations has been published, con-
taining observations made during the years 1861-65.

17. Miscelluneous Notes.

The second volume of Oppolzer’s “ Lehrbuch zur Bahnbe-
stimmung der Kometen und Planeten” has appeared in October
last, nearly ten years after the first volume. Such a work was
indeed a desideratum. Though no student of astronomy ought

Progress of Astronomy during the Year 1879. 483

to neglect reading the “Theoria Motus” and Olbers’ celebrated
“ Abhandlung,” still there are so many other papers with which
it is necessary to become acquainted before attempting to com-
pute the definitive orbit of a planet or a comet, and so many
little dodges to learn, that a book like Oppolzer’s really supplies
a great want. The book enters into the most minute details, and
gives examples fully worked out to an extent which neither
Watson’s excellent “ Theoretical Astronomy,” nor the shorter,
though in some parts more comprehensive, “ ‘Theoretische
Astronomie” by Klinkerfues, have attained.

The medal of the Royal Astronomical Society was awarded to
Professor Asaph Hall for his discovery of the Satellites ot Mars,
and his computation of their orbits. Lord Lindsay, in a very
able address, gave an account of Prof. Hall’s scientific Jabours.

The Lalande prize of the Paris Academy was given to M.
Stanislas Meunier for his researches on the constitution of
meteorites (alluded to above). The Valz prize was adjudged to
Dr. Julius Schmidt for his great map of the Moon.

Mr. Stone having been appointed to the Radcliffe Observatory,
Oxford, Mr. Gill succeeded him as Her Majesty’s Astronomer at
the Cape. Mr. Gill purchased Lord Lindsay’s heliometer, with
which he had already done such excellent work himself, and had
it mounted on a new stand by Mr. Grubb. He intends to apply
this instrument to investigations on the parallax of some stars
having large proper motions, and to researches on southern star-
clusters.

Mr. J. W. Redhouse writes to Nature (xxi. p. 33), that the
“ false dawn” in Arabic and Turkish means the zodiacal light, as
lately found by Capt. Wharton, R.N., at Buyukdere. It is men-
tioned in the Koran.

Scien. Proc., R.D.S. Vou. 1i., Pr. vi. KY

[ 484 ]

LIV.—APPROXIMATE FORMULA FOR THE VOLUMES AND
WEIGHTS OF GASES, sy G. JOHNSTONE STONEY, D.Sc.,
F.R.S., SECRETARY TO THE SOCIETY.

[Read March 15th, 1880.}

Turse formule are founded on the circumstance that at a tem-
perature of 21° C. and pressure of 760" one gramme of
Hydrogen, 16 grammes of Oxygen, and 14 grammes of Nitrogen
occupy very nearly 12 litres. The outstanding differences are of
the same small order as the degrees in which these gases fall
short of obeying accurately Boyle and Charles's laws. And in
general, at the above quoted temperature and pressure, D gram-
mes of any sufficiently perfect gas will occupy nearly 12 litres, D
being the density of the gas referred to Hydrogen.
Hence we get the exceedingly simple formulee that

D
and
ialZe
7D

where G is the number of grammes weight of the gas present, and
Lthe number of litres it occupies at 21° C., and 760™ pressure.

These formulze will suffice when the barometer stands at 760":
and when the temperature of the laboratory is 21°. At other
temperatures and pressures the correction to be applied is one
per cent. added to G or taken off from L for every 3° that the
temperature is below 21°, and an equal correction, @.¢. a correction
of one per cent. added to G or taken off from L for every 73" that
the barometer stands above 760™™

With these simple corrections the formule are sufficient for all
ordinary practical purposes, at atmospheric pressures, and between
the temperatures of -— 5° and + 30°; the maximum error with
Oxygen nowhere between these limits exceeding ‘005 of the
whole amount, that with Hydrogen or Nitrogen not exceeding
003. It follows, of course, that with any other nearly perfect
gas, the error is of a similar negligible amount.

LV.—ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS TO THE ROYAL GEO.
LOGICAL SOCIETY OF IRELAND, psy G. H. KINAHAN,

M.R.I.A., President.

[Read February 16th, 1880. ]

THE past year has been one of considerable activity in our
Society ; but I do not propose to give now a resumé of our
proceedings. I cannot, however, pass, without mention, the fact
that, in accordance with the proposal that an annual geological
excursion should form part of the programme of the Society, such
an excursion was organized last summer to Ovoca, a very eligible
geological locality. It was attended by a goodly number of
Fellows and their friends, including several ladies, and, with the
exception of a slight temporary interference on the part of the
weather, everything passed off well, and apparently to the satis-
faction of all the company.

Instead, then, of giving, in this Anniversary Address, a review
of the papers read before the Society during the last twelve
months, | would direct the attention of Fellows to the following
subject of general interest to geologists, viz.:—The system, which
is at present too prevalent, of estimating the Thicknesses of
Geological Formations.

To estimate, with approximate correctness, the thickness of a
formation, is often, and in various ways which need not be pointed
out, a very important problem in geology ; and, if it is wrongly
done, serious ulterior error may be the result. It seems to me to
be frequently the case, at present, that incorrect conclusions are
drawn respecting this matter, and that the different groups or
formations are usually made to appear of greater than their true
thicknesses.

The presentations of a formation in different districts are too
often taken as if they were similar to different copies of the same
book ; and if some sub-group which appears in one place is not
present in another, its absence in the latter is regarded as a
hiatus which ought to be filled up with a supposititious group of

486 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

strata, in order to produce correspondence with what is seen in
other places.

In the progress of geology, as facts accumulated, it was found
that the strata forming the crust of the earth were capable of being
divided into groups distinguishable from one another by special
characters; and such groups are now known as “ formations.”
Formations are distinguished from each other both stratigraphi-
cally and palontologically. Stratigraphically, a typical forma-
tion, as a general rule, has its beginning and ending distinctly
marked ; the beds belonging to it lying unconformably on those
of the older formations, while those of the succeeding ones lie
_ unconformably on its strata. However, there are cases in which
the rocks of one formation have “ passage- beds” into those above
or below them, but such cases are exceptional.

A formation consists of a greater or less number of sub-groups
of strata which have certain general characters common to all.
These sub-groups are often distinct from each other, but usually
each sub-group graduates into those above and below. Nearly
always one or more of the sub-groups, which in the entire make
up a formation, are in some places better developed than the
others; or, as is often the case, peculiar groups may appear
exceptionally in certain limited areas and not elsewhere; and
some sub-groups, which are always traceable in certain regions
or countries, may be exceptionally absent in others. These
changes have often been misinterpreted, and some of the geo-
logists of the present day go on the supposition that a formation
is incomplete in some particular district unless all the sub-groups
which can be seen anywhere else are present; also that the
absence of any one in a certain area is to be necessarily regarded
as a hiatus in the series, and evidence of a period of time during
which no strata were deposited (this last conclusion is, of course,
occasionally correct). In estimating the whole thickness of the
formation, they therefore include not only the rocks which are
present, but also those which they suppose to be wanting ; thus
often making the whole thickness much greater than it may
really be.

Such a mode of calculation is, I believe, as a general rule,
erroneous. The ancient strata were accumulated in more or less
distinct basins, or what comes practically to the same effect, as

Anniversary Address to the Royal Geological Society. 487

regards the present question, in the vicinity of more or less
distinct sources of material, similarly to what is going on at
the present day. The fact of the accumulation in more or less
separate basins of the materials of various formations has been
contended for by Dr. A. C. Ramsay, and more recently it has
been prominently brought forward by Dr. Archibald Geikie, in
his paper on the “Old Red Sandstone of Western Europe.”*
From my own observations in Ireland I have been gradually
led to a similar conclusion respecting each of the Irish rock-
formations. These, from the Cambrian to the Miocene, apparently
consist of somewhat separate basin-accumulations ; and the real
thickness of the groups seems to be less than what is usually
supposed.

In many cases, no doubt, it is unwarrantable to argue from
small to great things; but in that which I am now considering,
this is not so; in it the difference of scale cannot affect the prin-
ciples involved, nor the mode of the operations. If, then, in
legitimate illustration of the present point, we examine a recent
lake-accumulation, we often find in one part shingle, in another
gravel or sand, elsewhere marl or clay, or perhaps peat; and if
circumstances allow a section to be cut across the deposits, the
shingle, gravel, and sands will nearly always be found dipping at
greater or less angles, the clays and peat being more or less nearly
horizontal, while the marl may have different characters in differ-
ent places, according as it has been mechanically or chemically
formed.

If the thickness of the accumulation, as a whole, is calculated
by adding together those of all the layers of different composition,
a much greater thickness will often be arrived at than that which
would be possible, even if the depth of the whole lake were greater
than its present maximum. I have seen a small lake basin,
the accumulations of which would, if thus treated, give a thick-
ness of over 100 feet, although in no place was the original lake
more than 20 feet deep. In large lake basins the results would
probably be much more striking.

If trom lake basin deposits we go to those accumulating at
the present time in the Atlantic Ocean, we also find deposits of
shingle, gravel, sand, clays, peat, &c., going on in different places ;

* Trans. Roy. Soc. Edinb., vol. xxviii.

488 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

but no one deposit is universal, each extends only over a certain
area, sometimes an unexpectedly limited one.

If, in the Atlantic Ocean basin, we followed the mode of calceu-
lation now being deprecated, we should arrive at vast thicknesses
of strata that cannot possibly be correct. The different deposits
now being laid down in the Atlantic, although often strikingly
different, and sometimes even definitely limited, are contempo-
raneous accumulations, whether they adjoin each other or are
separated by thousands of miles, and that, though one may be
shingle, another gravel, or sand, or clay, or limestone, or peat,
and also though some are very thick and others extremely thin.
Yet, if these strata were to be elevated into land, it is probable
we should be asked to believe in numerous intervals of interrupted
deposition, because the accumulations of different materials are
not all found everywhere present.

In illustration of what has been said I may refer to the Silurian
rocks of the United Kingdom, dwelling more particularly on
those in Ireland with which I am best acquainted. Under the
term SituRIAN, I include the rocks usually called “ Upper Silu-
rians” and “ Lower Old Red Sandstone.”

In former times geologists called certain rocks “Red Sandstone,”
solely from their colour and lithological character, but it was
soon found out that some of these rocks were evidently much
newer than the others; these were called “ New Red Sandstone,”
the rest “Old Red Sandstone.” Subsequent research gradually
proved that some of the arenaceous rocks included in the latter
belonged to the Laurentian (?), Cambrian, Cambro-Silurian,
Silurian, and Carboniferous systems, and by degrees all these
were taken away from that formation, leaving those still called
Old Red Sandstone, but which, as I believe, really belong to the
Silurian and Carboniferous series; these most English geologists
appear to believe constitute a formation in themselves, though a
few divide them into Upper or Carboniferous Old Red Sand-
stone, and Lower or Silurian Old Red Sandstone.

The “Lower Old Red Sandstone,” and the associated rocks
that have in them characteristic Silurian fossils, are those which
I have already called Silurians, and it is to these that I shall now
refer.

In Geikie’s paper, already mentioned, it is shown that in Great

Anniversary Address to the Royal Geological Society. 489

Britain and Ireland the Lower Old Red Sandstone* occupies
distinet basins in which “come local and often peculiar features,
whereby even contiguous tracts are distinguished from each
other. It is still possible roughly to make out, with more or less
clearness, the limits of these basins, which seem sometimes to
have been connected by narrows or shallows, and doubtless by
occasionally closed water channels; in other cases to have been
completely isolated.” Prior to Geikie’s researches it was gene-
rally believed that the entire Old Red Sandstone of Scotland
represented three distinct groups, but he believes that his work
in the centre and south of Scotland proves the Old Red Sand-
stone (Carboniferous and Silurian) to consist of only two divi-
sions ; the upper portion passing conformably upwards into the
Carboniferous formation, while the rocks formerly supposed to
form two groups (Middle and Lower Old Red Sandstone) pass
conformably downwards into the Silurians. He seems also to
believe, that although the lower rocks in the different areas vary
both lithologically and paleontologically, yet, chronologically
they correspond, all having been deposited at the same time,
but in different seas and under different circumstances.

In England the Silurian rocks present somewhat similar as-
pects, in some places partaking of the characters of the “ Upper
Silurian,” and in others of the “ Lower Old Red Sandstone.” In
South-west England, as in South-west Ireland, rocks of. Car-
boniferous and Silurian types are intermingled. These have not
been as yet satisfactorily worked out ; but as Geikie, Woodward,
and other eminent petrologists, following in the steps of Jukes,
are engaged in the investigation of them, we may expect that,
before long, their proper chronological position will be estab-
lished.

In Ireland, although the fossil characters of the Scottish
“ Lower Old Red Sandstone ” do not appear, yet we there obtain
important and instructive facts. There are in this country two
areas of deposition occupied by these rocks. The most northern
is the western continuation of the rocks found in the central

* T am not aware that Dr. Geikie ignores the Old Red Sandstone as a formation, as
this does not appear in his paper. Whether he will eventually do so or not has still to
be seen; he, however, distinctly states that in Scotland the ‘‘ Lower Old Red Sandstone”
is conformable to the underlying Silurian strata,

490 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

valley of Scotland,* and the southern is the western continuation
of the rocks in Wales and §.W. England.t The northern basin
extends from Scotland into the province of Ulster, and from that,
through Connaught, into the Atlantic. In N.E, Ulster, on account
of the covering of Mesozoic and Cainozoic rocks, the Silurians
only appear in one place, as conglomerates lying on Metamorphic
rocks (Cambro-Silurians or Cambrians), near Cushendun, county
Antrim; but in S.W. Ulster and in the adjoining portions of
Connaught they appear more extensively. Here they are princi-
pally of “Lower Old Red Sandstone” types; but near Drum-
shambo, county Leitrim, and on the N.W. of Ballaghaderreen,
county Mayo, there are green rocks of “ Upper Silurian” types ;
while in the latter locality fossils not only of English “ Upper
Silurian” species, but also of “ Lower Silurian” species, have been
found. Farther westward—north, south, east, and west of Clew
Bay—there occurs a detached portion of these Silurians, all of the
“ Lower Old Red Sandstone” type. In this portion of the basin
of deposit no sudden change has been observed ; for the most
part the rocks are principally arenaceous, often conglomeratic ; the
argillaceous rocks predominating to the west, in Clare Island and
Louisburgh, west and south of Clew Bay. The rocks near Drum-
shambo and N.W. of Ballaghaderreen are a little more argillaceous
than those with which they are associated; but the principal
difference between them is in their colour.

But south of the western portion of these rocks, in the country
north and south of ,Killary Harbour, and extending eastward to
Loughs Mask and Corrib, rapid and remarkable changes take
place in the accumulations, as here is found not only an inter-
mingling of the rocks of the two types, but also zones containing
fossil species characteristic of the Caradoc-Bala or English “ Lower
Silurian”; while the characteristic fossils of the highest group of
strata (Salrock Slates) is pronounced by Davidson to be of an
Upper Llandovery type, although in the rocks below it they are
of Wenlock and Ludlow species.

Tf an attempt is made to calculate the age of these rocks palee-
ontologically, according to the laws laid down in England, we
are immediately puzzled, as the Irish paleontological evidence is

* Geikie’s “ Lake Caledonia Basin.” t Geikie’s “‘ Welsh Lake Basin,”

Anniversary Address to the Royal Geological Society. 491

conflicting. Stratigraphically, the rocks north of the Killary, at
Creggaunbaun, those south of the Killary, at Gowlaun, and those
to the eastward, at Kilbride, on Lough Mask, and adjoining the
north shore of Lough Corrib, seem to be the oldest ; while the
rocks elsewhere, although lithologically and _palontologically
different, nevertheless correspond chronologically, their different
characters and fossils being solely due to the different circum-
stances under which they accumulated.

If we attempt to calculate their thicknesses in the style so
frequently followed, errors will be innumerable. The maximum
thickness, from stratigraphical evidence, occurs in N.W. Galway,
south-west of Killary Bay; but, from palzeontological evidence,
the oldest rocks of this area ought to be of the same age as the
rocks in the second group at Ballaghaderreen, county Mayo
rocks which, stratigraphically, must be on or nearly at the horizon
of the Salrock Beds, that is, the highest group of Silurians in
N.W. Galway.

Calculating the thickness of these rocks by their bedding, also
similarly misleads, especially in the Toormakeady district, as
there the conglomerates have a general westerly dip, and are ap-
parently of great thickness ; but the Formnamore Mountain rocks,
which seem to be above them, lie nearly directly on the continua-
tion of the eurites, which underlie the Toormakeady conglome-
rates ; thus showing that the Toormakeady conglomerates and
the rocks of the Formnamore Mountains are contemporaneous
accumulations ; their difference in character being solely due to
the different circumstances under which they were deposited.

In South-west Ireland (Waterford, Cork, and Kerry) is the
Irish portion of Geikie’s “Welsh Lake Basin.” Here, as in
Devonshire and the adjoining portions of England and Wales,
there are remarkable and rapid changes, both lithological and
paleontological. As, however, it is probable that the rocks of
this country will be the subject of papers brought before the
Society during the present year, I shall not now enter into the
discussion of them.

A study of the Irish Mesozoic rocks, and a comparison between
them and those of England and the Continent, gives interesting
results. These rocks occupy only a limited area in Ireland, and
are confined to the province of Ulster. They are of inconsider-
able thickness, and forma continuous wnbroken sequence from the

492 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

Permian up into the Jurassic. In the following table the first
column gives the maximum thicknesses of the rocks of Ireland,
and the second and third of England and the Continent. For
the classification of the English and foreign rocks I am indebted
to Professor Lebour, of the Durham University.

Trish. English. Continental.
4, JURASSIC. Belgium.
Lias. Oolite, 2,500ft. (J.B. Jordan.) Upper Lias, 50 to 100 ft.
Lias, 1,400 ft. x (Dewalque.)
Lr. Lias, 600 to 900 ft. (Lyell.) Middle ,, 400 to 460 ft.
(Dewalque. )
Lower ,, 300 to 450 ft.
(Dewalque. )
France.
Liasien beds, 500 ft.
(D’Orbigny.)
Sinémurien beds, 1,000 ft.
(D’Orbigny.)

3, RWATIC.
Maximum, 100 ft. Maximum, 50ft. (J.B. Jordan.) Belgium, thin and variable.
(Dewalque. )
Austrian Alps, 50 ft. (Giimbel.)
Keessen beds, 50 ft. (E. Suess.)

2. TRIASSIC.
Keuper, 1,100 ft. Keuper, 3,400 ft. max. Hartz, Bunter, 1,000 ft.
Bunter, 900. (J. B. Jordan.) (V. Meyer.)
Bunter, 1,500 ft. max. Austrian Alps, Bunter, 2,800
(J. B. Jordan.) to 3,200 feet. (Giimbel.)
Keuper, 1,500 ft. max. Dachstein beds, 2,000 ft.
(Ramsay.) (E. Suess.)
Kemper, 1,000 to 1,700 ft. Hallstadt beds, 800 to 1,000 ft.
Bunter, 600 ft. (E. Suess.)
Cheshire and Lancashire. Guttenstein beds, 150 ft.
(Ormerod.) (E. Suess.)
Werfen beds, very variable.
(E. Suess.)
Wiirtemberg, Keuper, 1,000 ft.
(Alberti.)

1. PERMIAN.
Perhaps 100 ft. Upper Permian, 1,500 ft.
(J. B. Jordan.)
Lower ,, 3,000 ft.
(J. B. Jordan.)

The Irish Permians cannot exceed 100 feet in thickness in any
place where they are seen. According to King and Baily their
fossils prove them to be equivalent to the Durham and Yorkshire
rocks, that is, the “Middle Permian” of Lyell. Yet these Irish
rocks are the base of the Triassic, and merge so gradually into
them that they could not have been separated from them but for
their fossils. In the valley of the Lagan (cos. Down and Antrim)
the rocks lying upon them are said to be the representatives of

Anniversury Address to the Royal Geological Society. 493

the “Bunter Sandstone,” while in the co. Tyrone the rocks in
immediate contact have the character of the “ Keuper Marl.”

Above the Triassic are the “ Rhietic,” or the passage beds from
them into the Jurassic. In those places where the upper beds
of the Rheetic have not been removed by denudation, they form
a complete sequence between the Triassicand the Jurassic, although
their thickness is in some places less than 20 fect, increasing on
the north side of Belfast Lough to only something over 100 feet.
Evidently they thin away south-westward and westward, as do
also the underlying Triassic rocks.

The Jurassic rocks are only represented by a portion of the
Lias, and that but sparingly, as the greater portion of these
rocks seems to have been removed by denudation prior to the
deposition of the Cretaceous strata. Enough, however, of them
are preserved to show their relations to the underlying Rheetic,
and to prove the thinning away of the latter towards the west-
ward and south-westward.

The rocks belonging to the Ivish Permian, Triassic, and Jurassic
were evidently deposited respectively in waters of very unequal
depths. In the neighbourhood of Belfast Lough the sequence
consists of more members than in the counties of Tyrone and
Londonderry, besides being of a much greater thickness. The
thicknesses, however, suddenly vary in the latter area, as near
Stewartstown, co. Tyrone, the Trias cannot be more than thirty
feet thick, while a little to the north at Croagh it is over 280
feet, but a little farther northward, in Londonderry, it is less
than 50 feet.

Belfast Lough. Tyrone and Londonderry.
5. Lias. Lias.
4, Rhetic, maximum 100 feet Rhetic, about 25 feet
3. Keuper, * 1000 ,, } Keuper. Very variable, maximum
2. Bunter, - 1000 ,, 5 about 300 ,,
1. Permian. Permian.

In both these districts the sequences ought to represent the
same period of time, that is, from the Permian to the Lias, unless
indeed, which is not impossible, the Permians are only “shore
beds” of the Triassic. In this case the Tyrone Permians may
have accumulated on a higher horizon than those in the vicinity
of Belfast. That in both areas there are continuous regular

494 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

sequences seems to be proved; for whether the Rhetic beds be
thick or thin, there is no hard boundary above or below them ;
in all localities they graduate imperceptibly upwards into the Lias
and downwards into the Keuper Marls; furthermore, the latter,
in the co. Tyrone, merge into the Permian,* but near Belfast,
into the Bunter Sandstone, while the relations between the
latter and the underlying Permian is not so manifest.

Notwithstanding these regular and continuous sequences we
are asked to believe that during intervals of greater or less dura-
tion, strata ceased to accumulate in this area during the period
of time when the rocks, not represented in this country, were
being deposited ; and that, as the Irish Permians of Belfast and
Tyrone are equivalents of the Middle Permians, there must be a
hiatus above them answering to the period during which the
Upper Permians were accumulating elsewhere ; and that in the
co. Tyrone there must be a much greater hiatus left by the
absence, not only of the Upper Permian, but also of the Bunter
Sandstone, and so in various other cases.

In this way the thickness of formations is too often calculated.
The geologist does not carefully and separately work out each
basin of deposition, and endeavour sufiiciently to make out by
comparison what beds or system of beds are the representatives
and equivalents of those found in adjoining or distant basins, but
he tries to fit in all together. He takes a bed or system of beds from
one basin and puts them into another; then the rocks of this basin
with those added have a place found for them in, above, or below
the rocks of another basin, until at length a magnificent structure
is erected—very imposing and ingenious—but without sure
foundation, and inconsistent with what we may conclude from
the operations which we can see going on around us at the
present moment. Thus, formations are made to be of much
greater thicknesses than.what they can have really attained to.

Unfortunately for Geology there are difficulties in the way of
its becoming a true science. First, there is the necessarily great
room for conjecture which leaves such a vast field open for
sensationalists and speculators ; and secondly, as in other branches
of science, some investigators are apt to be so strongly taken

* The limestones at Templereagh, co. Tyrone, which contain Permian fossils, are said
to have been interstratified with the Keuper Marls.

Anniversary Address to the Royal Geologicul Society. 495

possession of by first impressions and conclusions that they cannnot
emancipate themselves from them. Romanes has compared these
to Professor Mébius’ educated pike, who when he was thoroughly
impressed with the fact that he was separated somehow by an
invisible barrier from the minnows in the adjoining tank, could
not afterwards unlearn his lesson though the barrier had been
removed. So with these men; they cannot learn “when the
hand of science has removed a glass partition.”

It seems to me, therefore, that there should be more caution used
in the comparison of supposed corresponding strata in different
districts. Frequently there is a too direct and close correlation
instituted between them, when they may have in reality no more
than the general, but most important, connexion, that they were
both formed, more or less probably, in about the same portion ofa
certain geological period. It is frequently the too hasty gene-
ralization respecting the formation of more or less nearly contem-
poraneous rock groups, occurring in two different places, which
leads to the supposition of a hiatus in one of the places, when it
is found that the correlation of all the groups cannot be carried
out.

Geology seems, from the nature of the case, to fullow the course
of other branches of knowledge. At first, ascertained phenomena
form little more than an unarranged, undigested mass of facts.
Afterwards these are put into order, and general connecting laws
and principles, more or less correct, are deduced. Then, at a still
later stage, it is found from further induction and more critical
consideration of facts, that in many cases and respects generaliz-
ation has been too sweeping and carried too far, and that it has
to be limited and modified by subordinate and less obtrusive
principles, so as to become more strictly scientific. Geology seems
now to have reached this stage, at least as regards several of its
branches. It is now not so much the bewildering variety of a
crowd of uninterpreted phenomena which oppresses us, as the
complexity of their relations, so many of which have been dis-
covered. I would, therefore, respectfully enjoin upon my brethren
of the hammer more circumspection than what they sometimes
display, lest that by adhering too strongly to insufficiently guarded
generalizations characteristic of an earlier stage of Geology, they
may be contributing to the perpetuation of that stage, and uncon-
sciously retarding the progress of discovery.

| 496 ]

LVIL.—ON THE COAL FIELDS AND COAL PRODUCTION
OF INDIA, sy V. BALL, ™.a., F.¢.s., GEOLOSICAL SURVEY OF
Inp1a, Hon. Sec. Royan Gronocican Society, IRELAND. WITH
A Map.

(Read 2Ist April, 1879.]

[This Paper was in substance also read at the meeting of the British Association held

at Sheffield, 1879. ]

ALTHOUGH a paper on the coal fields of India by the-late Colonel

Meadows Taylor, has been published in the Journal of this

Society,* I venture to think that an account of them by one who

has had an opportunity of examining many of them will not

prove unacceptable at the present time.

Colonel Taylor’s compilation was made from the publications of
the Geological Survey of India in 1875, since which time there
has been considerable and most important progress, both in field
work and in the determination of the homotaxy of the fossil
floras, which have been obtained in the Indian coal-measure and
associated rocks.

At the last meeting of the British Association which was held
heret in Dublin, I exhibited and described an early issue of the
new Geological Map of India, which had been prepared to illustrate
a Manual of the Geology of that country, written conjointly by
the Superintendent of the Survey, Mr. H. B. Medlicott, F-R.S.,
and the Senior Deputy-Superintendent. Mr. W. T. Blanford,
F.R.S. This manual, though it has been printed, has not yet
come to hand.t From the small scale of this map, 64 miles to
the inch, it is necessarily but little more than an index, merely
indicating the limits of the principal formations.

For large tracts of India, however, maps on larger scales

* ‘(On the Coal Fields of Central India, from the Reports of the Geological Survey of
India, and other official sources.” By Meadows Taylor, v.p.R.s.1., Jour. Roy. Geol Soc.,
Ireland. New series, Vol. III. Exception must be taken to the use in this title of the
term Central India, since there are no coal fields in Central India proper, though there are
in the Central Provinces.

+ Vide “ British Association Reports,” Dublin, 1878, p. 532.

j It has been received since the above was written, and has been freely used in the
final preparation of this paper for press.

On the Coal Fields and Coal Production of India. 497

showing the minor details and subdivisions already exist, and a
selection of these referring to the coal fields I now exhibit.

Broadly speaking, it may be said that there are two geologies
in India, namely : that of the Himalayas and that of the peninsula
proper. The former conforms in character with the recognised
classification adopted in reference to European formations, while
the latter differs from that of any other well-known region in the
world.

Several of the formations occurring in peninsular India spread
uninterruptedly over hundreds of thousands of square miles. It
would, in fact, be possible to mark out areas within the limits of
which two of these formations respectively prevail, which would.
be equal to the British Islands.-

On the present occasion it will be unnecessary to offer any
sketch of the general geology, my object being to direct attention
to one formation, or rather to a system of formations, and to
them more particularly in reference to the coal which they
contain.

My principal reason for preparing this account is, that I find
that a considerable degree of misconception exists as to the
extent and value of our Indian coal fields. At the same time,
from the frequency of the inquiries which have been made of
me, I conclude the subject is one which many regard as rae of
great interest and importance.

To India, indeed, it is one of vast, imperial importance, since
the development of her natural resources, and the increase of
local manufactures consequent thereon, seem to offer a remedy
the most efficient towards establishing the equalization of the
exchange.

The following is the classification of the subdivisions of the
Gondwana system, which is at present recognised by the Geolo-
gical Survey of India :—

(Cutch and Jabalpur Thickness

( je
J Upper +Raimehal and Mahadeva* § 11,000 feet.

' MESOZOIC
Panchet
nae § Damuda; Ranigunj or Kamthi
PALAOZOIC ~ Ironstone Shales and Barakar > 13,000 ,,
(meharbav and Talchir i

* The Kota Maleri beds alluded to below in the account of the Wardha field may be
interpolated here.
Scien. Proc., R.D.S. Vou, u., Pr, vi. 2,

498 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

Dr. Feistmantel, the Paleontologist of the Geological Survey of
India, has, on the evidence afforded by the fossil plants, offered
the following detailed correlation with European formations :—

Upper Cutch and Jabalpur = Lr. Oolite

Rajmehal = Lias
Panchet = Keuper

Lower Damuda es Trias
Talchir

How far such identifications between parts of the world so
remote from one another are to be relied on is perhaps open to
question. There is much, no doubt, to be said upon both sides.
It will only be possible for me to allude very briefly to the
principal points at issue; but before doing so, I propose to
describe the leading characteristics of the several groups which
constitute the lower portion of the above classification.

The Upper Gondwanas being of little economic importance,
though of great interest otherwise, may be passed over in this
communication. The two are probably separated by a very
distinct break in time, as the lower are often much disturbed,
while the upper maintain their original horizontal positions.
Taking the groups successively in ascending order, the lowest is
the—

TALCHIR Group.—The rocks composing this group consist of
sandstones, fine shaly silts, and boulder beds, all of which are
commonly of greenish or buff colours. The maximum thickness is
800 to 1,000 feet, but in many of the fields it does not amount to
more than about one-fourth of that amount. These rocks are found
at the base of all the coal fields, and also in many outlying tracts
where they are not in contact with newer deposits. Of especial
and general interest to geologists is one variety of boulder bed, as
it affords evidence of the existence of floating ice at the time of
its deposit in latitudes running as low as 16° 30’ N.

But asa paper by me on this subject has already been published
in the journal it will be unnecessary to enter further into details
again. It is of importance, however, to reiterate the fact that in
these rocks we find the first traces of life in India, the vast thick-
nesses of rock deposited in previous periods being, so far as we
know, azoic. These first forms consist chiefly of equisitaceous
plants and ferns, all of them, I believe, such as might have existed
in a moderate temperate climate.

On the Coal Fields and Coal Production of India. 499

_ The area through which, often at widely separated intervals,
exposures of these beds are scattered, may be roughly indicated
by saying that it occupies the higher central parts of the penin-
sula, being bounded by the 77° and 88° of east longitude, and the
16° 30’ and 25° parallels of north latitude.

The Talchir beds are of no economic importance, save that they
contain several varieties of easily worked, durable, and sometimes
ornamental building stones. Limestones are rarely found, gener-
ally they occur merely as concretionary masses in other rocks.
From their scattered distribution and limited extent, they can
scarcely be expected ever to prove of much value.

KARHARBARI Grovp.—This group of beds, which consists of
conglomerates, sandstones, and coal, was long considered, in
consequence of the strong lithological resemblance which its
members bore to the Barakar rocks to belong to that group.
Recent paleontological investigations, by Dr. Feistmantel, are
considered to be of sufficient weight to cause it to be classed in
closer proximity to the Talchir group, a number of species of
plants having been found common to both ; but the physical re-
lations between the Karharbari beds and those of the Talchir
group seem to be identical with those existing between the Bara-
kars and the latter, and there is not any sign in the lithological
characters, or in the conditions of deposit thence deducible com-
mon to the Talchir and Karharbari groups. Attempts to point
lithological distinctions as existing between the Karharbari and
Barakar beds appear to me to be somewhat strained, and not very
successful. The differences are simply such variations as might
have been determined by local conditions of deposit. I believe,
therefore, that the fossil evidence merely proves a survival of
certain species, and cannot be taken to counterbalance the geolo-
gical evidence as to a marked separation between the deposition
of the Talchir and succeeding groups.

The Karharbari rocks were named after the coal field bearing
that title; they have also been identified at Mopani. Their
thickness is 500 feet.

BARAKAR Group.—This group of rocks, from which, as I have
said, I believe the Karharbari beds cannot be separated, consists of
sandstones, grits, pebble conglomerates, conglomerates with angular

ScIEN. Proc., R.D.S. Vou. 1, Pr. vi. 22

500 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

fragments, carbonaceous and other shales, and coal. Except in
some of the eastern fields of the Damuda Valley series, this group
includes all the valuable coal of Peninsular India.

The thickness attains its maximum in the Jeriah coal field
where it is estimated to be 3,800 feet. In the Ranigunj field it is
2,000 feet ; in most of the other fields it is much less.

TRONSTONE SHALE Group.—This group, consisting of bands of
ironstones, running through gray and black (carbonaceous) shales,
overlies the Barakar group with general conformity. It is only
found in the Damuda Valley fields, wholly disappearing further
west.

In the Bokaro field it attains its maximum thickness of 1,500
feet.

RANIGUNJ (KAMTHI) Group.—The Ranigunj group consists of
sandstones which are fine grained and often calcareous, carbona-
ceous shales and coal. The coal is generally of better quality and
more uniform in composition and in the thickness of seams than is
that of the Barakar group. In the easternmost field of the Damuda
Valley series, namely, the Ranigunj which has given the name to
the group, the principal coal seams which are worked belong
to this group. In-the more western fields, it steadily thins out,
the coal becoming of less and less importance.

In the central fields of the peninsula it is very much changed
in lithological characters and is so greatly increased in thickness
amounting to from 5,00U to 6,000 feet, that the true identity
with it of these latter deposits which constitute the so-called
Kamthi group is established only by general geological relations
aided by fossil evidence.

The rocks of the Kamthi group are largely made up of coarse
sandstones and conglomerates in which there is a prevailing red-
dish colour due to the amount of iron always present. Coal rarely
occurs as a member of this group ; its importance is insignificant.

For fuller accounts of the lithological characters and fossil con-
tents of the above beds I must refer the reader to Mr. Blanford’s
account of them in the manual of the Geology of India.

The groups of the upper Gondwanas do not contain workable
coal, but their presence in the several fields covering and sometimes
wholly concealing the coal-measures confers on them indirectly a
considerable economic importance.

On the Coal Fields and Coal Production of India. 501

AGE OF THE PLANT-BEARING SERIES OF ROCKS INCLUDED IN THE
GONDWANA SYSTEM.

I have already given the proposed correlations of the several
series or groups of Gondwana rocks, with European formations,
but it may be well to add a few general remarks on the subject.

Some of those now present who are readers of the Geological
Magazine may, perhaps, have scented the battle which has been
waged afar off, as to the homotaxy and correlation of these rocks
with those of the recognised European sequence.

Perhaps the most important recent result of the examination
of the fossil plants has been the discovery that Glossopteris (a
genus of ferns), which was formerly thought to be characteristic
of the lower Gondwanas has been found to occur in the very
highest group of the upper Gondwanas, viz., Jabalpurs. On the
other hand several species of cycadaceous plants, which order was
supposed to be restricted to the upper groups, have been found
to exist in the lower or Damuda groups,* thus to a great extent
binding the whole system of groups or series together, and draw-
ing them away from the floras characteristic in other countries
of paleeozoic periods.

But what have been called palzeontological contradictions occur
in these rocks, for it has been found, with reference at least to some
of the higher or younger groups, that the marine faunas, where
present, do not always point to the same conclusions as the
floras.

In the annual report of the Survey for 1876, this state of
things was summarised by Mr. H. B. Medlicott in the following

words :—

“ The facts of our Gondwana rocks are certainly puzzling to systema-
tists. On the west, in Kach we have the flora of the top Gondwana gronp,
which has a Bathonien facies associated with marine fossils of Tithonien
affinities ; while on the 8.E. in the Trichinopoli, beds, with a flora so far
as known, like that of the Rajmahal group, which is taken to be liassic,
have been described by Mr. H. Blanford as overlaid in very close rela-
tion by the Otatoor group, the fawna of which has been declared upon
very full evidence to have a cenomanien facies.”

* The Damuda Cycadaceous plants are—Noeggerathia Hislopi., Bunb., Macropterygium
Comp. Browni, Schimp., Pterophyllum Burdwanense, Fstm., Glossazamites Stoliczkanus
Fstm., vide “ Records Geological Survey of India,” Vol. X., pt. 2.

502 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

Another instance of these contradictions I quote from the
“ Manual,” p. 100 :—

“¢The Kota beds with their liassic fish have now been so closely con-
nected with the Maleri clays and sandstones containing triassic reptiles
and fish, and jurassic fish, that both are classed in the same group.”

The occurence of several genera of Damuda plants more par-
ticularly Glossopteris in the higher Australian coal-measures,
passing thence downwards into beds containing carboniferous
marine fossils, and, lower still, typical carboniferous plants has
been used as an argument in favour of the view that our Indian
coal-measures are palzeozoic. Dr. Feistmantel maintains, however,
that the Australian upper coal-measures are triassic, while the
lower are undoubtedly carboniferous, Glossopteris having sur-
vived.* Some of the Australian sections, however, scarcely
support the view of a distinct separation being possible.

Mr. W. T. Blanford is of opinion that :—

“‘The whole evidence, so far as it goes, both of animals and plants,
tends to connect the whole of the Gondwana series, with formations
ranging from the upper palzozoic (Permian) to the lower jurassic.”

It is clear that floras alone afford but an unsafe guide to
correlation, and for this reason that they, as well, also, as some
land animals appear to have often survived the wholesale changes
which have affected the faunas of the neighbouring seas and oceans.

Although, therefore, it may be dangerous to attempt a close
correlation of the Indian formations with those of distant countries
by the evidence afforded by fossil plants, still the advantage of
employing such evidence as a means of identification between
widely separated deposits within the limits of India cannot be
doubted.

ORIGIN OF THE GONDWANA Rocks.—F rom the evidence afforded
by the fossils, and the lithological characters of the rocks, it is
probable that the Gondwana strata were deposited in a series of
river valleys not unlike those which constitute the Indo-Gangetic
plains at the present day. The rivers were generally sluggish in
their movements and occasionally may have formed lakes.

AREAS OF GoNDWANA Rocks.—The following table of the areas

* T lately received from Professor Boyd Dawkins some specimens of Glossopteris and
Vertebraria from the base of the coal-measures at Wallerawang, N. S. Wales. They
appeared to me on casual examination to be identical with Damuda species. And the
resemblance in the lithological structure of the shale including them, to a common
Damuda rock, was no less striking. The specimens have been sent to India for critical
examination and comparison,

On the Coal Fields and Coal Production of India. 508

of the Indian coal-measures, and associated younger rocks which
may conceal coal-measures, has been drawn up by my colleague,

Mr. Hughes:—*
Godavari and affluents, - - 11,000 square miles.
Sone, : . 8,000 9
Sirguja and Orissa, Sen ; . 4,500 5
Assam, > : . 98,000 on
Narbuda and affluents, > . 38,500 7
Damuda, . : : . 2,000 is
Rajmahal area, . - 5 300 39
Unsurveyed, &e., : . 2,700 a

35,000 :
For the sake of comparison other countries with greater areas
are enumerated :—

United States, . - c 500,000 square miles.
China, . c ° ; 400,000 x
Australia, : 5 c 240,000 7

India comes next or fourth on the list. Although I believe
Mr. Hughes’ estimates require some modifications in detail, still
the total cannot be far from correct, and 30,000 square miles
might, I think, perhaps be safely adopted as a minimum.

Iist of Separate Coal Fields.
Bengal.

. Rajmahal Hills,
Birbhum,
Deogurh,
KARHARBARI, [
RAnicunu,
Jeriah,
Bokaro,
8. Ramgurh, ;
9. Karanpura, N. .
10. Karanpura, S.
1]. Chope,
12. Itkuri,
13. Aurunga,
14. Hutar,
15. DaLTonGcuNg,
16. Tattapani,
17. S. Rewah and Sohagpur,
18. Jhilmilli, :
IE Bisrampur,
20. Lukanpur, .
21. Rampur, :
22. Raigurh and Hingir, F
23. Udaipur and Korba,

Orissa.

24. Talchir, . ¥ .
* Records,” Vol. VI., p. 65. + Fields which are worked printed in capitals.

| North of Damuda River.

See eee ee ee

Damuda Valley.

West of Damuda Valley.
i

a aa a

Sone and Mahanadi Valleys.

504 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

Central Provinces.

25. Mopant, . : ml
26. Tawa, : > Satpura Region.
27. Pench, - : ss)
28. Bandar, . . :
po ene aes b Clima ; Godaveri Valley.
31. Singareni, . Me]
Sikkim.
32. Sikkim.
Assam.
33. Makum, . : a)
34. Jaipur, : : |
35. Nazira, . < . Valley of the Bhramaputra.
36. Jangi, : :
37. Disai, |

Tn the above list, localities, chiefly situated in the north-west
provinces where Tertiary coal occurs, but not in sufficient quantity
to constitute workable coal fields, have not been included.

Of the thirty-seven separate fields only five are at present worked
with regularity. These are Ranigunj, Karharbari, and Dalton-
gunj in Bengal, and Mopani and Wardah in the central provinces.

In the following abbreviated notes I endeavour to give the chief
‘points of importance regarding each field, while the references to
the publications of the Geological Survey will indicate the sources
from whence fuller details may be obtained :—

LOWER BENGAL.
J. RAJMAHAL AREA,*

The Rajmahal Hills form a series of low plateaus, which are
situated at the point where the Ganges turns southwards to form
the head of its delta.

The formations in this area, which are connected with the coal-
measures, are in descending order as follows:—1. Laterite. 2.
Rajmahal Group, consisting chiefly of contemporaneous traps,
with beds containing fossil plants 1,500 feet. 3. Dubraj-
pur group (== Mahadevas), 450 feet. Barakar group (=coal-mea-
sures). 5. Talchir. These cover a total area of about 4,000 square
miles. The coal-measures are exposed over seventy square miles,
but doubtless extend over a vastly greater area underneath the

* Ball, Mem. Geol. Survey of India, Vol. XIII. Also Manual, pp. 165, 171.

On the Coal Fields and Coal Production of India. 505

younger formations. Separated by these overlying rocks, four
distinct areas or fields may be enumerated—1]. Hura ; 1. Chuparb-
hita ; 3. Pachwara; 4. Mhowagurhi ; 5. Brahmini. These are all
on the western margin of the hills. It will be an interesting and
economically important point to decide, whether the coal-measures
extend underneath the traps, &c., to the east. If so they would
be close to the water carriage of the Ganges.

The coal is, for the most part, stony and bad. It is not now
regularly mined, but a large quantity was extracted during the
construction of the East Indian Railway.

II.-IJI. Birspum, Drocurn, &c.*

A number of small detached basins or outliers occur in the dis-
tricts of Birbhum and Deogurh where metamorphic rocks mainly
prevail. They are of little or no economic importance, and may
be passed in this record without further notice.

IV. KARHARBARI OR KURHURBALLT

This small field, having an area of only 11 square miles, and
which is situated in the district of Hazaribagh, at a distance of 200
miles from Calcutta, by rail, is one of great importance, both from
its position and the quality ofits coal. The sedimentary groups of
Gondwana rocks represented in this area are Barakar and Kahar-
bari, 500 feet (= coal-measures) and Talchir, 600 feet.

The coal occurs in three principal seams which have an average
total thickness of sixteen feet. They spread over an area of 84
square miles. The amount of coal may therefore be estimated at
1,360,000,000 tons, and the available portion of this at 80,000,000.

A sample assay gives the following results—carbon, 66:3 ;
volatile matter, 23; ash, 10°7. In working power, the Karhar-
bari coals are to those of the Ranigunj field as 113: 100.

Several companies are engaged in working mines in this field,
namely, the Kast Indian Railway, the Bengal and the Equitable.
Owing to the want of any proper system of registration in India,
it is impossible to give accurate statistics, but I believe that up to
June, 1875, the East Indian Railway had extracted 350,000 tons.

* Hughes, Mem, Geol. Survey of India, Vol. VII. pp. 247, 255. Manual, p. 171
+ Hughes, loc. ctt., p. 299.

506 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

The following I quote from the report of the Company for the
year 1878 :—

«The out-turn of steam coal and rubble from the Company’s collieries,
during the year 1878, was 208,790 tons. The quantity consumed on
the main line was 162,370 tons, at an average cost (exclusive of car-
riage) of 5s. 5d. per ton ; and on the Jabalpur line, 17,600 tons, at an
average cost of £1 2s. 43d. per ton (carriage included). Regular mining
was not commenced in this area till about ten years ago, when a branch
from the main trunk line, brought the coal into successful competition
with that from Ranigunj, twenty-three miles being saved in the journey
up country.”

V.—RANIGUNJ.*

This field is situated on the rocky frontier of Western Bengal
at a distance of 120 miles from Calcutta.

The groups represented with their respective thicknesses are
as follows :—

Upper Panchet or Mahadeva, : ¢ 500 feet.
Panchet, . : . : 5) IO 5
Ranigunj, . 3 3 : 5, S400) 5
Tronstone shale, : : 0 e400.
Barakar, . ; 3 - 2,000 ,,
Talchir, : ; . . : 800 ,,

Total, 11,200 ,,

The Ranigunj coal-field is the largest and most important of
the areas in which coal is worked in India. Its proximity to the
main line of railway, and also to the port of Calcutta, tends to
give it pre-eminence over other less favourably situated localities.
The total area of coal-bearing rocks which is exposed is about
500 square miles ; but it is possible that the real area may be
even double that, since on the east the rocks dip under and are
completely concealed by alluvium. Throughout this area a cen-
tral zone includes the principal mines, and the chimneys which
dot this tract constitute it the black country of India. In the
year 1774 coal was known to occur there, and so long ago as
1777 was actully worked. In 1830 several collieries of con-
siderable extent had been opened out and were, we have
reason to believe, in a flourishing condition.

In 1872, forty-four mines were at work, nineteen of which

* Blanford, ‘‘ Memoirs Geological Survey of India,” Vol. ITI,

On the Coal Fields and Coal Production of India. 507

turned out upwards of 10,000 tons each per annum. At the
present time (1879) there are about six principal European
companies engaged in the extraction of coal, while many minor
firms and native associations contribute to swell the total amount
raised,

Formerly a large proportion of the coal was obtained by open
workings and quarries: but at the present day most of the seams
which were accessible in this way have been exhausted, and
regular mining is now carried on with more or less system.* The
miners are, however, individually, in some cases, allowed a degree
of freedom, or rather licence, which would never be permitted in
European mines. They chiefly belong to two races, the Bhowries
and the Sontals—the former using the pick, while the latter
cannot be induced to work with any other tool than a crowbar,
with which they produce an altogether disproportionate amount
of small coal and dust. The pillar and stall is generally practised
in preference to the long wall system of “getting” the coal.
None of the mines are of great depth, and a perfect freedom
from fire and choke damp render it possible to carry on the work
without its being necessary to adopt the precautions which in
England only too often fail to secure the object aimed at. Many
of the seams are of considerable thickness, one which is worked
contains nearly forty feet of coal. As a rule, however, the thick
seams, especially those in the lower measures, do not contain the
best coal. Compared with ordinary English coal, the Ranigunj
coals, and Indian coals generally are very much inferior in work-
ing power, still they are capable of generating steam in both
locomotive and other engines. In 1868 the total amount of coal
raised in the Ranigunj mines was 564,933 tons; but in 1872 the
total amount was only 322,443 tons.

I quote the following from the resolution on the subject of the
Lieutenant-Governor of Bengal for the year 1879 :—

“The year was a prosperous one for the coal companies of Ranigunj.
There was a large demand, and production was greatly stimulated. The
output is estimated to have been 523,097 tons against 467,924 tons, the

average of the three previous years. The number of persons employed
was 388,931 men, 194,647 women, and 27,277 children.”

The coal, which is fairly representative of Indian coals, may

* Some of the mines are now admirably managed.

508 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

be described as a non-caking bituminous coal composed of dis-
tinet lamin of a bright jetty, and of a dull, more earthy rock.

The average of thirty-one assays* of samples from different
mines gave the following results :—

Moisture, . : : é : 4:8
Volatile, . : : ’ 5 | axte
Carbon (fixed), . 4 ; 5 BBP
Ash, 5 : ° : 5 Sale
100-0

The cost of steam coal at the pit’s mouth is from 24 to
3 rupees, say 5 to 6 shillings. In Calcutta the same coal costs
14 to 16 shillings, and in Lahore about £5.

VI.—JERIAH.T

The Jeriah coal-field is situated in the valley of the Damuda
river sixteen miles west of the Ranigunj field. Its area is about

200 square miles.
The following groups only occur, the highest groups of the

Ranigunj field being unrepresented :—

Ranigunj, . : . . 2,200 feet.
Tronstone shales, . : E COORE.
Barakar, . : 2 - 38,000 ,,
Talchir, : : . o | OO) 4
6,800 _,,

The thickness and quality of the seams varies a good deal, but
there is no doubt, whatever, that this field contains a vast quan-
tity of valuable fuel. One seam has a maximum thickness of
sixty-feet. The estimated available coal in this area is 465
millions of tons.

Whether this field will ever be worked depends very much
upon the laying out of a new line of railway communication.
The exhaustion or partial exhaustion of coal in the Ranigunj area,
an event still far distant, may lead to special arrangements for
working it.

* Vide ‘ Records Geological Survey of India,” Vol. L., p. 155.
+ Hughes’ ‘‘ Memoirs Geol. Survey India,” Vol. V. “‘ Manual,” p. 185,

On the Coal Fields and Coal Production of India. 509

VII.—BoKaro.*

The Bokaro field is situated in the valley of the Damuda com-
mencing at a point two miles west of the termination of the
Jeriah field. Its area is about 220 square miles.

The groups represented in this field are precisely identical with
those of the Ranigunj field, namely :—

Mahadeva, : , ‘ : --

Panchet, - : , - --
Ranigunj, - : - : --
Ironstone shale, . : - - 1,500 feet.
Barakar, : : - - --
Talchir, . : : ; —

Some of the coal seams are of large size one of eighty-eight teet
having been measured. The quality is generally inferior. Still
there is no doubt that the field contains a vast store of valuable
fuel. The estimated available coal is 1,5(0,000,000 tons. Except
by outcrop workings nothing has been done to develope the re-
sources of this field, owing to its position it is not likely, unless
by the establishment of some local industry, that it will ever
become available for useful purposes.

VIII.— RamGura.t

This field is situated to the south of the Bokaro field in the
valley of the Damuda. Its area is 40 square miles.

The following groups only occur as in the case of the Jeriah
field ; it is uncertain whether the higher groups were denuded
or were never deposited :—

Ranigunj, > : ° = . 2 feet.
Ironstone shale, ° ° . o Hl4010)
Barakar, : : ° : - 8,000 ,,
Talchir, - c : : 2) 2850'ee:
4,050

The coal is for the most part of poor quality and limited in
extent. There are, however, a good many seains; possibly when
opened up they may prove to contain better fuel than any which
is now exposed in natural sections. But the ficld is unfavourably
situated with regard to lines of communication.

* Hughes, Mem. “ Geol. Survey India,” Vol. VI. “‘ Manual,” p. 187.
+ Ball, ‘‘ Mem. Geol. Surv. India,” Vol. VI. Manual, p. 190.

510 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Socrety.

IX. AND X.—KARANPURA NORTH AND SOUTH.*

These fields are situated at the head of the Damuda valley.
Their areas respectively are 472 and 72 square miles.

The groups occuring are the same as in the Bokaro field, save
that in the southern tield there has been no trace of Panchets yet
discovered :—

Mahadeva, . : - z - 3800 feet.
Panchet, : : : . rae
Ranigunj, ‘ : : : C Go ae
Tronstone shale 5 ; : 5 B00) 45
Barakar, j : 3 ; 5 U0!) 55
Talchir, 5 ‘ 5 5 - 400 ,,

The following is an assay of a sample of the better class of
coals in these fields :—

Carbon, a : 5 ; s . 64°5
Volatile, . : : : ; . 27-0
Ash, : é O 0 C ge

100:0

The estimated amounts of coal are, for the larger field (North
Karanpura), 8,750,000,000 tons, the estimated total thickness of
seams being 38 feet. In the South Karanpura field the estimated
amount is 75,000,000 tons, the thickness being 70 feet.

The situation of these fields in a deep valley surrounded by
hills, renders it improbable that this vast amount of coal will ever
become available for economic purposes.

XI—CHopE.t

This isa small field of less than one square mile in extent.
The chief point of interest about it is its position, which is on
the Hazaribagh plateau, at an elevation of about 2,000 feet above
the sea, or nearly 1,000 above the nearest fields in the valley of
the Damuda.

The groups represented are the Barakar and Talchir.

There is only one seam of coal, and it is of poor quality.

* Hughes, ‘Mem. Geol. Survey of India,” Vol. VIJ. Manual pp. 191-196.
{t Ball, “Mem. Geol. Surv. India,” Vol. VIII. Manual p. 196.

On the Coal Fields and Coal Production of India. 511

Xii.—Irxuri*

This field is situated about 25 miles north-west of Hazaribagh.
The Barakar coal-measures, which include a few seams of inferior
coal, are exposed only over half a square mile. The remainder
of the area is made up by rocks of the Talchir group.

XITI.— AurunGa.t

This field is situated in the district of Lohardugga, to the west
of the sources of the Damuda, in the valley of the Koel, a tribu-
tary of the Sone. The area is 97 square miles, and the groups
represented are :-—

Mahadeva, . : - . 1,000 feet.
Panchet, : : - - : TOOT;
Ranigunj, . : é : a OOO,
Barakar, a : 5 A 5 dlestol0)
Talchir, . ° . ; : 300 ,,
3,500

There are numerous coal seams, some of large size, the estimated
amount of coal which they contain being 20,000,000 tons.

The following average proportions of constituents derived from
the assays of seven samples from different localities indicates a
very poor quality of fuel.

Moisture, : 5 - C : 5 EES
Volatile, ° : : 5 A ee aOses
Carbon, , : : ‘ ‘ 9. ORES
Ash, ; > : - ; 6 Bae

100-0

Valuable and extensive deposits of iron ores and limestones,
occurring in and near the coal field, this inferiority of the coal
is to be lamented, as should a project for manufacturing iron there
ever be adopted, fuel, it seems probable, will have to be obtained
from some of the neighbouring fields.

* Hughes, ‘‘Mem. Geol. Survey of India,” Vol. VIII., p. 321. Manual, p. 197.
t Ball, “Mem. Geol. Survey of India,” Vol. XV.

512 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

XIV.—HUTAR.*

This field lies to the west of the Aurunga, being situated more
directly in the valley of the Koel. The area is 78°6 miles, and
the following groups occur :—

Mahadeva, . : 4 6 C 1,000 feet.
(Ranigunj ?) 4
Barakar, \ ; ; : - 2,750. ,,
Talchir, : ‘ : : : 5 300 ,,
4,050 ,,

Data for the estimation of the quantity of available coal are
wanting, but there are a considerable number of seams, and the
average of eight assays, gives the following favourable result :—

Moisture, . ; : : . SOD
Carbon, : : 5 F : 2 ODIO
Volatile, 5 a "% 3 : . 28:
Ash, 2 : a : ate LOR
100-

XV.—Dattoneung.t

This field is also in the valley of the Koel, district of Lohar-
dugga. The area is 200 square miles. Two groups only are
represented, viz., the Barakars and Talchirs, the latter being about
500 feet thick.

Seams of coal are not numerous ; one, which has a thickness of
about 5 or 6 feet, contains excellent fuel, according to the Indian
standard, as the following average of four assays, amply testifies :—

Moisture, : 9 5 : : . 3845
Volatile, 0 : : F . . 21°05
Carbon, c 4 : ¢ . -. 64:8
Ash, : : ; : : elon
100:

The estimated total of available coal is 11,600,000 tons.

This field has been worked to a small extent from time to time.
There is some prospect of its being now opened up in con-
nexion with the Sone-river canal system.

XVIL.—TAtTTAPANLt

Besides a few notes by myself, the result of a day devoted to
the examination of iis easvern frontier, nothing is published yet

* Ball, ‘‘ Mem. Geol. Survey of India,” Vol. XV.
t Hughes, ‘‘ Mem. Geol. Survey of India,” Vol. VIII.
Ball, id., Vol. XV.

On the Coal Fields and Coal Production of India. 518

regarding this field, but a detailed account is, [ understand, about
to appear. The formations found in the Aurunga Field all occur
there, and there is some coal. On the southern faulted boundary
there is a remarkable series of hot springs, from which the locality
has received its name Tattapani (boiling water).

XVII. SoutaH REWAH AND SOHAGPUR.*

This is a wide tract in the Sone Valley, covering perhaps 8,000
square miles. The geology is imperfectly known; it is probable
that nearly all the recognized groups of the Gondwana formation
are represented within the area. Coal occurs, but little yet has
been ascertained as to its average quality and total amount.

XVIII. JHILMILLL.+
This is a small area of about thirty-five square miles, which has
not yet been fully examined. Besides Talchir and Barakar rocks
one or more of the younger groups are represented.
_Coal seams of some promise have been observed in the Bara-
kars. Traces of coaly matter, forming a seam of six inches, were
also discovered in the Talchirs, a quite exceptional circumstance.

XIX. BisRamPuR.t
This field occupies the central basis of Sirguja at an elevation
of about 1,800 feet above the sea. Its area is about 400 square
miles. The formations met with are—

Mahadeva, . : , : ; 1,000 feet
Barakar, ‘ : i ‘ : 500 ,,
Talchir, : , : 2 : 200

”

A large number of coal seams have been discovered, some con-
taining good coal, but, so faras is at present known, they are not
of great promise. Thisis of less importance since the locality
is so landlocked that it is never likely to be the scene of mining
operations.

XX. LUKANPUR.S§

This field lies to the south of the Bisrampur area, from which
it is separated by a fault anda belt of Talchirs, with inliers of

* ‘ Manual,” Vol. I., p. 201. 7 “Manual,” Vol. I., p. 204.
t Ball, ‘‘ Records Geological Survey of India,” Vol. I., p. 205.
§ Ball, MS. Notes, ‘‘ Manual,” Vol. I., p. 206.
SciEN. Proc. R.D.S. Vou. u., Pr. vi. 2M

514 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

metamorphic and sub-metamorphic rocks. Its total extent has
not yet been ascertained, but it is probable that it is continuous
with a large area of coal measure rocks, believed to exist far to
the westward.

Several seams of coal have been discovered, one of which is five
and a half feet thick and contains good coal. The rocks belong to
the Barakar and Talchir groups.

XXII. RAMPUR.*

This area adjoins the last on the north, and it is probable is more
or less connected with that which follows, but it is partly situated
in a different catchment area near the sources of the Rer river, a
tributary of the Sone, while the field about to be described is
wholly within the limits of the Mahanadi basin. The rocks of this
portion consist of Mahadevas, Barakars, and Talchirs. No good
coal has been observed yet. The most remarkable seam is
situate at the base of the massive square block of Mahadevas known
as the Ramgurh Hill} Above it issues a perennial fountain
of water, which, with some other peculiarities, have caused the
spot to be regarded as one of great sanctity by the natives.

XXII. RaiqurH AND HINGIR.—UDAIPUR AND KORBA.

The above named places are situated in a wide extent of coal
measures and associated rocks, which cover an area of not less
than 1,000 square miles. The country is very wild and difficult
of access, and our knowledge of the field is as yet imperfect. Es-
pecially this is the case as to the identity of the rocks younger
than the Barakar coal measures. There appear to be two dis-
tinct groups, one containing fossil plants, which serve to correlate
it with the Kamthi-Ranigunj group, the other being probably
of Mahadeva age, but, owing to the great similarity in lithological
characters, separation has been attended with great difficulty and
uncertainty.

The coal seams are sometimes of enormous size, thicknesses as
great as ninety feet, and even 168 feet, having been measured,

* Ball, MS. Notes, ‘‘ Manual,” Vol. [., p. 207.

+ “Jungle Life in India,” p. 324.

+ Blanford, ‘Records G. S. I.,” Vol. IIL, p. 54. Ball, id., IV., pp. 101, 107; VIII.,
pp. 102, 121, and X., pp. 170, 178; ‘‘ Manual,” pp. 206, 210.

On the Coal Fields and Coal Production of India, 515

but, although containing good coal, these are often largely made
up of carboniferous shale, which is incapable of supporting com-
bustion.

In one locality, the Samarsota River, the coal seams have been
greatly disturbed, being bent into an anticlinal at the crest, of
which the lowest rocks of the area are exposed.

Should a direct line ever be made, connecting Calcutta with the
Central Provinces, this field will doubtless be opened up, and may,
in that contingency, become of great importance.

ORISSA.
XXIII. Taucuir.*

The Talchir coal field is situated in the valley of the Brahmini,
which may be regarded as a tributary of the Mahanadi, since it
anastomoses with it in the conjoined deltas. The field is really
the south-eastern extension of the last-mentioned area, the sepa-
ration being inconsiderable.

The area is about 700 square miles in extent.

The groups represented are similar to those found in the last
area, and have the following estimated thicknesses :—

Mahad
ahadeva, \ 1,500 to 2,000 feet.

Kamthi,
Barakar, : c - : : about 1,800 ,,
Talchir, 5 . ; : : 500 ,,

The Talchir group received its name from this locality, where it
was first discriminated.

The coal is of inferior quality, one large seam being similar in
character, being largely made up of carbonaceous shale, to that
described above in Hingir.

The demand for coal in Orissa is too limited to render it pro-
bable that under present conditions of communication the field
will ever be of much value.

Further to the south-east, near the town of Cuttack, there is an
area of sandstones and conglomerates in which fossil plants of the
Rajmahal type occur.

* Blanford and Theobald “Mem. Geol. Survey of India,” Vol. I., pp. 83, 38. Ball
“Records,” Vol. X., pp. 170, 173, and ‘¢ Manual,” Vol. I., p. 210.
Scien. Proc. R.D.S. Vou. 0, Pr. vi. 2m 2

516 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

SATPURA BASIN.*

The Satpura region, so called from one of the ranges of hills,
consists of a hilly tract separating the valleys of the Narbada and
Tapti rivers.

It is difficult to speak of this area as a single expanse of coal
measures, since, as a matter of fact, they only appear at intervals
under the margins of younger groups, covering a wide extent
of country which stretches for a distance of about 170 miles.
Accordingly, the estimated dimensions of the basin vary much
according to different authorities.

About 2,000 square miles appears to be a safe minimum, but
besides this it should be remembered that there is a considerable
tract in which the underlying formations are concealed by the
tertiary Dekan traps, and a large area towards Jabalpur, in which
no coal measures have been proved to exist under the younger
formations which prevail there.

In this region the several groups of the Gondwana system are
developed to their maximum extent. They have been named
and classified by Mr. H. B. Medlicott as follows :—

Upper Gondwana.

Jabalpur Group : : : . 1,000 feet.

Upper—Bagra, c : 3 7 COOR ie.
Mahadeva :
Series, | Middle—Denwa, : 7 5 te 2 OO Mar
Lower—Pachmari, . : ; - 8,000. ,,
Lower Gondwana.

ne Upper yee ; : . Group 4,000 ,,
pete. Motur, : : : 3G O00} es
Lower—Barakar and Karharbari, : ms 500 ,,
Talchir, ; 4 : ; 55) dl (OO)
22,500 ,,

It is not contended that this enormous thickness of rocks was
ever successively deposited in vertical order in any one locality.
The figures are to be taken as the maxima of the deposits of
successive periods.

The principal localities where coal measures occur, are near
Mopani, and in the valleys of the Tawa and Pench rivers, the
former is on the northern boundary.

* J. G. and H. B. Medlicott, “‘ Memoirs Geological Survey of India,” Vol. I1., pp. 97,

267; X., pp. 133, 188. Records Geological Survey of India,” Vol. III., pp. 63, 70,
and VIIL., pp. 65, 86.

On the Coal Fields and Coal Production of India. 517

XXIV.—Mopant.*

This field is one of high importance, in consequence of its position
with reference to the railway. It is situated 95 miles (by rail)
W.S.W. of Jabalpur, and 322 miles from Allahabad, or 83 miles
nearer than the Karharbari field to the same place.

The area in which coal has been proved to exist is small, though
recently an important addition appears to have been made. The
old area is much cut up by faults, and the largest seam has been
destroyed by fire. The seams are :—

1. Inferior coal, 3 ¢ : . 12 feet not worked.
2. Good cooking coal, . : ; . 18-20 feet, on fire.
3. Good a ‘ : A . 38 feet 4 inches) worked
4. 10 feet good ,, : - c . 12 feet t together.

These seams are and have been worked for many years by the
Narbada Coal and Iron Company. In 1874, the out-turn ranged
from 700 to 1,000 tons per month. It was sold to the railway
company at about ten rupees, or at from three to four times the
price of Ranigunj and Kaharbari coals. It could command this
price in consequence of the cost of carriage respectively of
Kaharbari and of English coal from Bombay.

In 1878, the average cost of Kaharbari coal on the line between
Jabalpur and Allahabad amounted to £1 2s. 4d. per ton.

XX V.—Tawa.t

The coal seams of the Tawa Valley are of no great promise ;
they are of irregular thicknesses, and the coal is generally inferior.

XXVI.—PEncuH.t

There are many seams in this area, some of which are of con-
siderable thickness, and the coal is often of fair quality. The
position of the field, surrounded by hilly country, renders it im-
probable that it will ever be of much commercial value.

* Medlicott, ‘‘ Memoirs Geological Survey of India,” Vol. II., 1859; Vol. X., 1873.
“‘ Records,” Vol. III., 1870; Vol. IV., 1871; Vol. V., 1872 Vol. VIII, 1875; Vol.

XII., 1879.
{+ “Manual,” Vol. I., p. 218. ne Lhe

518 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

GODAVERI VALLEY.

XX VIJ.—BANDAR.*

This field is situated near the village of Chimur, thirty miles
N.E. of Warora, in the Chanda district. The existence of coal
measures under a small tract of Kamthi beds, 5 to 6 miles
square, has been proved by boring. Three seams of coal have
been ascertained to exist, and these have a maximum total thick-
ness of 38 feet. The coal is similar in character to that of Warora.

XXVIII.— WARDHA OR CHANDA, &e.t

This coal field constitutes the northernmost extremity of an
immense tract of Gondwana rocks, which extend for about 285
miles from north-west to south-east in the valleys of the Wardah
Pranhita, and Godavari basins.

The groups of rocks exposed are as follows :—

Upper Gondwana.

Kota Maleri, : : ‘ : 5 UO) feet.
Kamthi, ¢ : : : : . 2,500 to 3,000 ,,
Barakar, : ¢ 3 é , 5 PAD) a
Talchir, : ; : : . - 500 45

Any attempt to give an idea of the distribution of coal measures
throughout this area, without employing a mass of detail unsuited
to this paper, would certainly fail. Ishall therefore confine myself
to quoting Mr. Hughes’ estimate of the amounts of coal, in several
of the particular tracts, where its existence has been proved by
actual outcrops or by borings.

Actual Quantity. Amount Available.
Tons. Tons.
Warora basin, : ; : 20,000,000 : : : 14,000,000
Ghugus, : : 4 . 90,000,000 6 ‘ : 45,000,000
Wun, : 4 ; . 2,100,000,000 c : - 1,500,000,000
Between Wun and Papur, . - 105,000,000 : : 5 50,000,000
Between Junara and Chicholi, . 150,000,000 : ‘ : 75,000,000
Sasti and Paoni basins, é . 60,000,000 : < , 30,000,000
2,525,000,000 1,714,000,000

* Hughes, ‘‘Memoirs Geological Survey of India,” Vol. XIII., pp. 145-154.
“Manual,” Vol. L., p. 226.
+ Hughes, l. c. pp. 1-145.

On the Coal Fields and Coal Production of India. 519

The following assays will serve to convey some idea of the
quality of the coals :—

Warora. Pisgaon. Ghugus.*
Fixed Carbon, : 45-4 : 65:1 - 45-61
Volatile Combustible, . 26°5 \ 19-2 ; 33-49
Water, : : 13°9
Ash, : A 14:2 : 15°7 ; 20:90

In Mr. Hughes’ “ Memoir,” assays of samples from other
localities are also given.

The Warora coal is deficient in fixed carbon, a larger per-centage
of which is essential where great heating power is required. It
also is deficient in combustible volatile gases. Pisgaon coal,
however, contains a more considerable proportion of fixed carbon,
viz., 65:1 per cent.

The only pits in this wide area, which are worked, are at
Warora, where the out-turn was, in 1878, 1,500 tons per week.
The great outlay by the Government in connexion with the ex-
ploration and testing of the field+ has not yet been nearly repaid,
the cost of extraction being heavy.

A special branch line conveys the Wardha coal to the Nagpur
branch of the great Indian peninsular railway, by means of which
it is distributed both for use on this line and in factories.

Several other small areas of coal-bearing rocks occur further
down the course of the Godaveri valley at Dumagudium, Muda-
varam, &e., &e., to which much interest has attached, as it was
hoped that they might yield a supply of coal for the Madras
Presidency, but the prospect of their doing so does not appear to
be a good one.

XXIX.—KaAMARAM.t

This name has been given to two small tields situated near the
village of Kamaram, which lies forty miles a little north of east
from Warangul in the Hyderabad territory.

The larger one is six miles long, by about one mile broad ;
it consists of Talchir, Barakar, and Kamthi rocks. It in-
cludes two coal seams of fair coal, measuring respectively
9 feet and 6 feet. The available coal is estimated at 2,265,120+

* Average of sixteen assays.

+ £600,000 is stated to have been already =n at Warora alone at the time Mr.
Hughes’ report was printed.

} King, “‘ Records Geological Survey of India,” Vol. V., p. 50. ‘‘Manual,” Vol. L.,
p- 240.

520 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

2=1,132,560 tons, and it is stated to be equal to the average coal
of the Wardah fields. Its position is unfavourable to its deve-
lopment, water carriage being too far distant.

The smaller field, which is about half a square mile in area, is
of no importance.

XXX.—SINGARENI.*

This field is situated near the village of Singareni in the
Hyderabad territory, about thirty miles to the south-east of the
Kamaram Field. Its area is nineteen square miles, the coal
measures being found throughout about eight square miles. The
groups represented are Kamthis, Barakars, and Talchirs. One
coal seam was discovered, but being much concealed, its thickness
was not ascertained ; an assay of a sample from it gave :—

Fixed Carbon, : 5 : : . 62°4

Volatile, 0 c : ¢ : . 22°6

Moisture (6) . . : :

Ash, : c : . ; a ale
100:

Additional seams, one of them 21 feet thick, have since been
proved by boring.

This field may possibly become of some economic importance,
as there is a prospect of there being a railway constructed at no
great distance from it.

SIKKIM.
XXXI.—Darsinine DIstRIict.t

This field occupies a narrow zone, which stretches along the
foot of the Himalayas, from Pankabari to Dalingkote. The rocks
are probably Barakars, which have been much crushed and tilted,
dipping at angles of from 40° to 90° to N.N.E., or towards the main
mass of the hills. Frequently the sandstones have been converted
into quartzites, and the shales into splintery slates. Much of the
coal is in the condition of powder, and some of it has assumed the
character of graphite. The effect of the compression has been to
reduce it by removal of the volatile portions to the condition of
an anthracite. Some experiments were made with a view to

* King, loc. cit., p.65. “Manual,” Vol. I., p. 241.
t Mallet, ‘‘ Memoirs Geological Survey of India,” Vol. XI. “ Manual,” Vol. I.

On the Coal Fields and Coal Production of India, 521

utilizing it in the manufacture of artificial fuel, but the process
found to be requisite was too expensive, and the difficulty of
boring in these crushed rocks is so great as to render it impro-
bable that this coal will ever be commercially available.

One seam is 11 feet in thickness. The average of five assays
of the coal gives the following composition :—

Carbon, ; . : : , . 70°66

Volatile, . : : - : - 920

Ash, : : : : é . 20:14
100

Into a description of the complicated geological relations of
these beds with those forming the adjoining mass of the Himna-
layas, I do not now propose to enter. Mr. Mallet has arrived at the
somewhat startling conclusion that the coal measures are younger,
and underlie the highly metamorphic rocks of the outer slopes,
To do justice to his arguments would require more space than is
at present available for the purpose.

The fact that this locality is the only one north of the Ganges
where Gondwana rocks occur, is of great interest in connexion
with any discussion as to the early relations which existed between
the Peninsular and Himalayan regions, and indeed the formation
of the Himalayas themselves.

ASSAM.*

Five distinct coal fields exist in the valley of the Bhramaputra,
in the province of Assam. They are distinguished by the follow-
ing names :—XXXII. Makum; XXXIII. Jaipur; XXXIV.
Nagira; XXXV. Janji; XXXVI. Disai. It will be convenient
in this abbreviated account to treat of them collectively.

Some uncertainty exists as to the age of the rocks, but the
balance of evidence seems to favour the view, that it is middle
tertiary (Miocene), and therefore distinct from the Cretaceous
and Nummulitic coals of the Khasi hills.

The coal differs from that of the Indian coal fields in having a

* Mallet, ‘‘Mem. Geol. Survey of India,” Vol. XII., pt. 2. ‘ Manual,” Vol. IL,
p. 701.

522 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

homogeneous structure, and in the absence of a laminated strue-
ture the average of the assay of twenty-three samples gave :—

Moisture, : : . : : oteeD:

Carbon, 6 . 5 : - D6
Volatile, : 5 : : - . 34°6
Ash, z : : : : SOLO

This is a high quality of fuel as compared with Indian coals.

The opening up of these fields is a point of the highest impor-
tance, since at present coal is carried 1,000 miles from Bengal for
the navigation of the Bhramaputra, this causing a ten-fold increase
on the prime cost.

It is possible that some of the coal of the Khasi hills above
alluded to, may prove of value ; but the same does not seem pro-
bable in reference to the tertiary coals of the north-west provinces,
although hopes in that direction have often been expressed, and a
project for the exploration of one of these deposits has, I under-
stand, recently assumed a tangible form, a company having been
formed, the results of whose operations will be watched with interest.

PRESENT OUT-TURN OF COAL IN INDIA, AND IMPORTATIONS OF
COAL FROM FOREIGN COUNTRIES.

A very interesting paper on the coal importations into India,
by Mr. Hughes, of the Geological Survey, was published in the
year 1879.* I quote from it the following general remarks, but
must refer to the original tables for details :-—

“ Beginning with the year 1853, the shipments of coal and coke to
Tndia were 43,562 tons. Since then, after the lapse of a quarter of a
century, they have risen to 609,735 tons. The ratio of increase has not
been by any means steady ; wars, rumours of wars, famines, and im-
proved home freights have always exercised an irregular influence ; as
during the past two years, the importation having jumped from 399,887
tons in 1876 to 539,533 tons in 1877, and to 609,735 tons in 1878.
Our main supply has hitherto been derived from the United Kingdom ;
the contributions furnished by other countries, with the exception of
Australia and France, during spasmodic periods, being insignificant.”

Australian coal has been imported since 1857, but the amount
has fluctuated much from year to year; in 1858 14,061 tons went
to Bengal, and 8,998 to Bombay. In 1874, 14,677 tons went to
Bengal, and apparently none to Bombay. In 1877, only 799 tons

* ‘Records of the Geological Survey of India,” Vol. XII., p. 83.

On the Coal Fields and Coal Production of India. 523

went to Bengal, and none to Bombay, so that the trade is pro-
bably coming to an end.

As Bengal has her own coal, she imports less than Bombay,*
the returns being :—

1870. 1877.
Bombay, : , eee2s0-Gpl ; . 3868:937
Bengal, : : - 42-433. : eR OS2e
Durmah, : ; ; 207198 . - eine
Madras, : . : 11648. ‘ . 22°544
Sind, 5 : 2 5 1:995 7°855
815:935 523-384
Add coke, : : : 21-088 16:149
337-023 539-533

That a certain amount of foreign coal will always be in the
Indian market is certain, since owners of outward bound ships
find it convenient to make use of it as ballast, and carried in this
way itis sometimes sold at very low prices ; thus, on one occasion
English coal was quoted in the Calcutta market at sixteen shillings
a ton, and it seldom, I believe, rises to much above £2 a ton.
The trade in Indian coal between Calcutta and Bombay by sea is
not yet fully developed, and it is uncertain whether it will ever
assume such dimensions as seriously to affect the imports of
foreign coal into Bombay.

In conclusion it may be said that the annual consumption of
coal in India, for sea-going and river steamers, railways, factories,
domestic and other purposes, amounts to upwards of one million
tons, and that, in round figures, one half of this amount is raised
in the country, and the other imported.

* T have (p. 517 supra) pointed out that there is a varying point on the railway where
Bengal coal meets coal imported into Bombay at equal prices, their relative Values as fuel
being taken into consideration.

Note on THE Map.

The accompanying map, reprinted by permission of the Messrs. De La
Rue from “ Jungle Life in India,” serves to indicate the positions of the
principal Bengal and Central Provinces fields. Some of the outlying
portions of the latter and the Sikkim and Assam fields are not included.
For their positions reference should be made to the map published with
the Manual of the Geology of India.

[ 524 ]

LVIIL—ON THE MODE OF OCCURRENCE AND DISTRIBU-
TION OF GOLD IN INDIA, sy V. BALL, ma., F.G3s.,
GroLocicaL Survey oF Inpia, Hon. Sec., Royan GEroLoGIcAL
Society oF IRELAND.

[Read 19th May, 1880.]

THE first remark which I would make is, that I have somewhat
modified and generalized the title of this paper, as in the original
form the reference to “recent discoveries in the Madras Presi-
dency ” was, perhaps, calculated to mislead. Though there have
been recent most important researches in connexion with the
occurrence of gold in Southern India, so far as I know, they
cannot strictly be described as new discoveries. There is the
most complete evidence that gold has not only been long known
to exist, but that it has been worked and sought for in these
regions from a very distant period.

The subject of Indian gold is one of vast extent. Not only
does the precious metal occur under varying circumstances over
a wide area of country, but the methods of extraction practised
by the natives seem to have originated long before the Christian
era, and the out-turn gradually accumulated through long periods
of time even by such imperfect operations, may not impossibly
account for the great stores of gold which, according to historians,
were undoubtedly possessed by the Rajas in some parts of India
formerly.

Thus there may be said to be two wholly distinct aspects of the
question: I. The Geological. II. That which belongs to the pro-
vince of the Antiquarian, Historian, and Political Economist. It
will be possible for me to allude only very briefly to the second
aspect, since not only are many of the necessary works of reference
inaccessible to me at present, but also because such a topic requires
the hand of a specialist in that kind of inquiry for its adequate
treatment.

The ultimate derivation of the gold throughout India is chiefly
from the quartz veins which occur in the different series of
more or less metamorphosed rocks which are recognized as
existing in that country. I say chiefly because I have reason to
believe that in some localities gold is contained in certain chloritic
schists, and possibly, too, in some forms of gneiss. Proximately

On the Occurrence and Distribution of Gold in India. 525

it is occasionally derived from rocks belonging to various forma-
tions which range from Permian through tertiary periods up to
recent alluvial deposits. To some of the facts under this last
heading, which will be found in the following detailed accounts,
I would invite particular attention, as they are of considerable
interest when placed in comparison with similar facts in other
gold-producing countries.

Gold washing, as practised in India, affords an example, I
believe, of human degradation. - The colonies of washers who are
found plying their trade in most of the areas where, geologically
speaking, the occurrence of gold is possible, must be regarded as
the remnants of a people possessing special knowledge*; for
although the former may have some acquaintance with the
appearance of the rocks in the neighbourhood of which gold
occurs, still, so far as I could ascertain from a close examination
of the operations of two gold washers who were in my service for
about three months, such acquaintance, if possessed, is rarely
availed of. Indeed I doubt if they ever look upon the rocks as
being really the source from whence the gold has been derived.
They know of its occurrence in the sands and alluvial soils, but
whence it ultimately came from they do not trouble to consider.

But it cannot always have been so, for their earliest progenitors
must have ascertained the existence of the gold by the applica-
tion of experimental research in localities where, from theoretical
considerations, they believed it to exist.

It is scarcely possible that the non-gold-producing areas in
which the Dekan trap or basalt and the rocks of the Vindhyan
formation prevail, and which aggregate a total area of about
one-fourth of the peninsula, were ever systematically prospected,
and for this reason, if for no other, that the washers, if they were
comparable to those of the present day, could not have devoted
months and years to the exploration of, for them, barren tracts,
simply from the fact that they could not subsist under such cir-
cumstances.

By what means, soever, they were led to select and settle in

* JT have often been struck with the traditional knowledge of such subjects as A/ateria
medica possessed by individuals of semi-savage tribes who never seem to discover a new
idea for themselves, nor to modify in the slightest degree, when uninfluenced by superior
races, their methods of performing any one single act in their domestic economy.

526 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

these gold-producing tracts, it is certain that within such limits
a process of segregation has been going on towards the richest
points.

In a part of Western Bengal* I found that generations of
washers had demarcated limits within which washing was remu-
nerative, and these limits corresponded in a striking degree to
the well-defined boundaries between two formations—the meta-
morphic and the sub-metamorphic. In the area occupied by the
former, gold was not absent, but its abundance as contrasted with
that in the latter I ascertained, by two independent methods of
calculation which are described below, was in the proportion of
1 to 8. Hence, as the washers only managed to eke out a bare
subsistence in the sub-metamorphic area, they confined their
operations to it.

The detailed accounts of Indian gold-producing tracts admit
of the following geographical arrangement, proceeding from South
to North :—

MADRAS.

1. Wynaad, and 2. Kolar.
BoMBAY.
1. Dharwar, 2. Belgaum, and 3. Kaladgi.
BENGAL.
1. Central Provinces, 2. Orissa, 3.S. W. Bengal, 4. N. W. Pro-
vinces, including Himalayas and Punjab.
ULTRA-PENINSULAR AREAS.
1. Assam, 2. Burmah, 3. Afghanistan, 4. Thibet.
MADRAS.

Wynaab District.—The recent contributions to the literature
of the gold fields of the south-eastern portion of the Wynaad are
so voluminous that I experience a difficulty in preparing a sufli-
ciently complete epitome of their contents. Among these contri-
butions the principal are the reports by Mr. Wm. King, jun.,t
Deputy Superintendent of the Geological Survey of India, and
Mr. Brough Smyth,t who was specially deputed by the Govern-
ment of India to explore and report upon the gold in Southern
India.

* Vide infra, p. 537.

+ Records of the Geological Survey of India, Vol. VIII., p. 29, and Vol. XI., p. 235.

$ “ Report on the Gold Mines of the South-Eastern portion of the Wynaad.”

On the Occurrence and Distribution of Gold in India. 527

The Wynaad forms a terrace of mountain land intermediate
in position between the low country of Malabar and the lofty
plateau of the Nilgiri Mountains. It is separated into three por-
tions, which are locally known as North, South, and South-
East Wynaad ; the latter portion has recently been transferred
from the official limits of the Malabar jurisdiction to those of
the Nilgiri District, and in it the principal gold tracts are situ-
ated.

The principal rocks of the area are granites, gneisses, and other
forms of metamorphic rocks which are traversed by numerous
quartz reefs.

In the tract to which Mr. Brough Smyth gave his particular
attention, and which covers about 500 square miles, 200 out-
crops, not necessarily distinct reefs, were counted ; they are, in
short, stated to be more numerous, proportionately wider and
richer than in almost any part of Australia. Mr. King, first, and
subsequently Mr. Brough Smyth, pointed out that throughout the
area there are no accumulations of drifts or deep leads covered by
volcanic formations such as characterise the Australian fields.
Operations, therefore, have been hitherto, and must be in the
future, conferred to “surfacing” and quartz mining, a regular
hydraulic system of mining being inapplicable.

By all the authorities it is considered that the native processes
of washing, as practised to-day by the Korumbas and Moplas, is
of high antiquity, dating so far back as 500 years B.c. There is
evidence, however, that operations were not limited to mere
washing, but that mining was carried on by one or more classes
of people who have no representatives at the present day. Mr.
Brough Smyth enumerates the traces of this higher skill under
the following heads :—

1. Quarrying on the Outcrops of the Veins.

2. Vertical Shafts.

3. Adits.

4. Vertical Shafts with Adits.
5. Shafts on underlie.
And remarks that they show different degrees of knowledge of
the miner’s art.

The vertical shafts though not considered to afford evidence of
the highest degree of mining skill offer a problem difficult of

528 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

solution. They are even when in solid quartz sometimes 70 feet
deep, with smooth sides and quite plumb; what the tools were
which enabled the miners to produce such work in hard, dense,
quartz, no one appears to be able to suggest. The fragments of
stone obtained from these various mines were pounded with hand
mullers, the pounding places being still seen, and the pounded
stone was then, it is believed, washed in a wooden dish and treated
with mercury.

The Korumbas or gold washers, who are admitted to be skilful,
do not regard the gold as being derived from the reefs, though
they generally select spots near the reefs for washing. Their
earnings amount to from two to three annas (3d. to 43d.), a day,
but it is possible that at an earlier period of the industry it
may have been more profitable since Mr. Brough Smyth says that
the present condition of the country is, that it is covered with
‘tailings, and corresponds to that of an abandoned Australian
washing. Still it is the case that :—

‘On washing a few dishes of the surface soil anywhere a few streaks
of very fine gold will be found. In the vicinity of the reefs rather
heavy gold is got by sluicing; and if a suitable spot be selected the
native miners will obtain, even by their methods, sufficient gold to re-
munerate them for their labour.”

I cannot quote here a tithe of the evidence which exists as to
the former wealth of Southern India, but the following extract
from a letter by Mr. E. B. Eastwick will be read with interest.
Mr. Eastwick quotes from Dr. Burnell :-—

‘Tt has always been a puzzle whence the great wealth came which
enabled the Rajahs of Southern India to construct enormous works,
which collectively must have cost millions. The marvel is increased by
the fact that so far from these Indian princes having been impoverished
by this expenditure, they were still possessed of vast treasures which
fell into the hands of the Moslems in the fourteenth century, and were
carried away to Delhi. The famous Tanjore Temple inscription speaks
of a great abundance of gold which can only have arisen from mines.
Dr. Burnell writes :—‘It proves that in the eleventh century gold was
the most common precious metal in India. Silver is little mentioned,
and it thus appears that the present state of things which is exactly the
reverse, was only brought about by the Portugese in the sixteenth cen-
tury. I submit that the great abundance of gold spoken of in the in-
scription can have arisen only from mines, and that in the terrible con-
vulsions caused by the irruption of Moslem invaders from the north,
and Europeans from the west, the position of these gold fields was lost
sight of.’”—Times, January 2nd, 1879.

On the Occurrence and Distribution of Gold in India. 529

The History of Tippoo Sultan further gives definite accounts
of vast hordes of gold.*

To my mind, as an occasional visitor to the Madras Presidency,
there is a noteworthy and remarkable fact which seems to have
been overlooked by writers on this subject, and that is that the
total amount of gold in the possession of the poorer classes of
the inhabitants of Southern India must be enormous, and pro-
portionally much greater than in other parts of the country.
Men, women, and children even of the coolie class are commonly
to be seen wearing ornaments of pure gold. The nose ornaments
are worn almost universally by the women and children. In the
northern parts of India the ornaments which are worn are gene-
rally made of the baser metals or of glass, &e. In times of famine
or distress in Southern India these golden ornaments are disposed
of in order to procure food. Throughout India the use of jewel-
lery by the higher classes is sufficiently notorious not to require
special comment ; but the use of pure gold by the lower orders is
in a great measure, I believe, peculiar to Madras.

In the year 1831, the Government appointed a Commission to
make inquiries into the gold-yielding district of the Wynaad, but
the matter was for a time allowed to drop. During the last
decade, however, largely in consequence of the number of
Europeans attracted to the Coffee Plantations, interest in the
subject was again aroused, and several Pioneer Companies were
formed, but although favourable per-centages were obtained by
assays the practical results of quartz crushing were counted only
in pennyweights per ton, and owing to defective management
and imperfect machinery, the time expended, and consequently
the cost of production proved greater than the receipts.

Mr. Brough Smyth has clearly demonstrated that if proper care
be taken under skilled management the working of gold in
Southern India must become a most profitable undertaking :—

“The average yield out of 137 samples assayed was 2 oz. 13 dwts.
and 2 grains per ton, or if one exceptional sample, which yielded 204} oz.,
and another which gave 25} oz. to the ton be left out the average yield
was 1 oz. 8 dwts. 22 grains per ton.”

* It may be well to point out that gold working in these early times was in all proba-
bility carried on by slave labour, or what amounted very much to the same thing, and
that peculation met with pretty summary treatment. In these modern days peculation
will not be restrained by any such deterrents, and that it will be rampant must be ex-
pected by those who empley natives.

ScriEN. Proc., R.D.S. Vou, I1., Pt. vi. 2N

530 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

At the present time there are two or more companies in
London, one in Glasgow and several in India, which have for
their object the working of mines in the Wynaad, and it is said
that already favourable news has been received of the preliminary
operations, and the shares are now quoted at a high premium.*
As I ventured to predict in my recently published work,
“Jungle Life in India,’ when speaking of mining enterprise
generally in Jndia, some of the undertakings seem destined to be
hampered seriously on the threshold of their operations, by
vexatious litigation which is in part due to the absence of
definite mining laws in India.

The following which I extract from the Pioneer Mail, of the
22nd April last, is the very latest information I have received
on this subject :-—

‘Since public interest in the gold mining prospects of Southern India
waxes stronger day by day, both at home and in this country, and men
have made up their minds that the development of vast mineral wealth
is merely a question of time, capital, and machinery, it is discouraging °
to hear that enterprise is likely to be checked in certain parts of the
Wynaad in consequence of litigation. This has been anticipated for
some little time. It was known that the right of ownership of certain
blocks was challenged, and that the dispute was likely to culminate in
legal hostilities. It is now currently reported that the ‘fat is in the
fire,’ and that actions and cross-actions are pending. If this rumour
prove true, work will, of course, be brought to a deplorable stand-still,
and the general high opinion formed of the field at home will suffer.
Nothing could exercise a more deterrent effect upon the minds of
English speculators than to hear that the legal title to the land was
doubtful. For this, and indeed for every reason, the best endeavours
will no doubt be made to settle ground-right disputes by arbitration,
and to preserve ‘ peace with honour’ among the various claimants,”

I am tempted to add the following extract from the Pioneer
also, which illustrates the shortsighted policy of the native
Jandholders, and the manner in which they can in India—unre-
strained by such regulations as exist to limit the powers of
landed proprietors in Australia—effectively cripple mining
enterprise :—

“The Ootacamund paper learns that ‘the Nellambur Rajah is deter-
mined to make those who want the mining rights on their coffee estates

pay weil for them, and all this comes out of the Alpha lease having
been extended, for a large sum of money, some Rs. 10,000, for ten acres

* Extract from William Abbott’s Monthly Price List dated 6th May, 1880. Indian
Glenrock Gold Mine—Capital £100,000, Share £1; Paid all; Price £13-18. South
Indian Gold Mine—Capital £100,000, Share £1; Paid all; Price £1}-2.

On the Occurrence and Distribution of Gold in India, 531

of land, the vein stone of which, it is expected, will be worked out
before the present lease, some eight years more, expires. It appears
also that the mining concessions lately acquired by the Trustees of
Messrs. W. Nicol and Co., limits them to the selection of fifty acres
within a certain area of his territories, and that owners of estates
within these boundaries are not to be interfered with. ‘The Rajah has
offered to grant mining rights to all desiring them, but upon terms
which will simply drive away capitalists. We certainly think a
deputation of the Rajah’s tenants should wait upon His Highness and
impress upon him the folly of demanding such exorbitant and prohibitive
rates, or making them sign agreements which can never be fulfilled.’ ”

The question of climate is by no means an unimportant one
and has not been overlooked by Mr. Brough Smyth. It isa
factor known to exercise an appreciable influence in all commercial
undertakings in India, as for instance, the cultivation of tea in

Assam :—

“ Though the climateof the Wynaad has been represented as unhealthy,
it is not uncommon for Europeans employed in connexion with coffee
gardens, to remain in the district with their families throughout the
whole year. Fever is prevalent in March, April, and May, and some
of the residents become seriously ill. But it must be borne in mind
that a coffee planter who attends carefully to his business is subjected
to exposure to the sun during the hot months, and to the heavy rains
during the monsoon. He has to walk or ride for many hours each day,
when the solar radiation is at its maximum, and during the monsoon
his clothes are rarely dry.”

KoLar (oR CoLAr) District.—The Kolar district situated in
Mysore is also at the present moment attracting a considerable
amount of attention in connexion with its gold. Unlike the
Wynaad it does not appear to have been as yet systematically
explored by any geologist or mining expert, and my information
regarding it is therefore limited to what I have been able to
collect from notices in the Indian newspapers. However, the
general fact is known that the rocks are similar to those of the
Wynaad belonging to the metamorphic series, but as to the
abundance of quartz reefs I have no information. As in the
Wynaad, gold has long been sought for by the natives in Kolar,
and it is claimed for this area that it was largely instrumental
in supplying the wealth of Southern India spoken of above.
Indeed it is stated that Hyder and his son Tippoo erected their
mints, the ruins of which are to be seen to-this day, in the district
close to the spot where the Ooregaum company are at present

working. The climate is said to be good—quite equal to that of
SciEN. Proc., R.D.S. VOL. 11, PT. vi 2 N 2

532 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

Bangalore, the elevation being 3,800 feet above the sea, and the
arrangements made by the Government for leasing the land are
described as being favourable to enterprise. The following
extract is from the Pioneer of the 29th April, 1880 (quoting the
Bangalore Spectator) :—

“Gotp Minine 1x Mysorr.—From a notice issued by Messrs.
Arbuthnot and Co., it appears that a company is being formed to work
a portion of the land in the gold-yielding region of Ooregaum in the
Kolar district. The Ooregaum company is now hard at work, and the
analysis of quartz from its mines, by Mr. Brough Smyth, show conelu-
sively that the auriferous yield is exceedingly good, and that the results
to be obtained are all that can be desired. The gold-fields are not far
from the Kolar Road Station (six miles) and have everything in their
favour—climate as good as Bangalore, food and labour cheap and plen-
tiful, and there is every reason to believe that the gold mining industry
will be a great ‘success in the Mysore country. Those who wish to in-
vest in a good speculation have now such an opportunity placed within
their reach, while the well-known name of Messrs. Arbuthnot and Co.,
is a sufficient guarantee that the Madras Gold Mining Company will be
carried on properly. Judging by our English contemporaries, it would
appear that there will be no difficulty in allotting the whole of the shares
in the London market where the gold mining companies are highly
thought of as safe investments.”

BOMBAY.

Within the limits of the Bombay presidency the districts of
Dharwar, Belgaum, and Kaladgi are the principal in which gold
is known to exist, and where native gold-washers locally called
Jalgars derive a livelihood from searching the auriferous sands.

DxHaARWwAR DistRict.—In a paper entitled “The Auriferous
Rocks of the Dambal Hills, Dharwar District,’* Mr. R. B. Foote,
F.G:S8., of the Geological Survey of India, has given an account of
his researches when tracing the source from whence the alluvial
gold of the region has been derived, together with a description
of the system adopted in washing for gold in the streams which
flow through the auriferous tracts.

Mr. Foote considers that the gneissic rocks of this area belong
to three distinct series, each characterized by certain lithological
peculiarities. He distinguishes them by the following local
names :—1. Dhoni; 2. Kappatgode ; 3. Soortoor—

“ All the streams said by the natives to be auriferous, rise within the
limits of the tract occupied by the Soortoor series, and the upper course

* “Records Geological Survey of India, 1874,” Vol. VII., p. 133

On the Occurrence and Distribution of Gold in India. 583

of the Soortoor Nullah, the richest of all lies entirely within the area
occupied by the pseudo diorite and associated chloritic schists.

“ Quartz reefs occur in all the rock series above enumerated, but those
lying within the limits of the Soortoor series are the best defined.” . . .
“The surface of the principal reefs has been much broken up, doubtlessly
by gold seekers.”

Mr. Foote obtained a trace of gold ina fragment of quartz from
the principal reef in the Kappatgode series.*

Betcaum Disrricr.— Mr. Foote (/. c.) mentions several localities
in this district where gold was formerly washed for, or was re-
ported to occur in the sands of various streams. It appears to
have been derived from quartz reefs which traverse some chloritic
schists and pseudo diorite. In certain localities gold is still ob-
tained in small quantities, but the district does not appear to be
one of much promise.

The gold washers (Jalgars) are stated to be Mahomedans, which
is exceptional, probably they are converts.

Kuxapetr District.—In reference to this district Mr. Footet has
written :—

“ Gold is found in very small quantities in some of the streams flow-
ing into the upper part of the Malprabha, from both sides, through a
region occupied by chloritic schists, with rather poor hematite schist
intervening.

“The exact source of the gold supply remains to be determined. The
yield is so exceedingly small that these streams are now but very rarely
visited by the Jalgars or gold washers. Very few quartz veins occur in
this region, and none were noticed with a north to south course. A
small stream a little westward of the village of Belowaddi appears to be
the most auriferous, but I failed in getting an appreciable quantity of gold
in a number of carefully selected samples of sand and gravels collected
in promising places in the bed.”

BENGAL.
Using the term Bengal in its widest acceptation, the gold-
producing areas included in it may be classified as follows :—
1. Central Provinces.
2. Orissa.
3. South-Western Bengal, or The Chutia Nagpur Province.
4. North-West Provinces, including the Himalayas and
Punjab.

* Other authorities on this region are, as quoted by Mr. Foote—Aytoun, Lieutenant,
“ Trans. Bombay Asiatic Society,” Vol. XI.,p. 8; Carter, Dr., “ Geological Papers on Western
India” ; Newbold, Capt., No. 4 of ‘‘ Papers on the Mineral Resources of Southern India.”
t “Memoirs Geological Survey of India,” Vol. XII., p. 259.

534 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

1. CENTRAL PRovinces.—In the extensive region known as the
Central Provinces, and throughout a considerable portion of
which metamorphic rocks prevail, gold-bearing rocks and their
natural product, auriferous sands, are probably widely dis-
tributed ; but on this subject but little has been published, and
at the present moment I am only able to refer to a paper by
Colonel Ouseley,* and to my own notes which apply to the district
of Sambalpur, where I made inquiries regarding gold in connexion
with those which I instituted in the same locality in reference to
diamonds.

The following remarks I have already published,} but I repro-
duce them here only slightly modified, as they serve to epitomize
all that is at present known on the subject.

Gold in all probability occurs pretty generally throughout
those portions of the district of Sambalpur, in which metamorphic
rocks prevail. So far as I have been able to gather from personal
observation, the washers coufine themselves to the beds of the
Mahanadi and Ebe; but in the rains they are said to leave the
larger rivers and wash in the small jungle-streams.

In the Ebe, below Tahood,] saw a party of gold-washers
encamped on the sand. The places where they were actually
washing were within the area occupied by rocks of Talchir (Per-
mio-triassic) age; but whether the gold was proximately derived
from them, or had been brought down by the river, as is possible,
from the metamorphic rocks a short distance higher up, I am
unable to say.

There is, of course, no prumd facie improbability in the Talchir
rocks containing gold. On the contrary, the boulder-bed, in-
cluding as it does such a large proportion of materials directly
derived from the metamorphic rocks, might naturally be expected
to contain gold. In this connexion it may be mentioned that in
Australia, a conglomerate bed of carboniferous age has been found
to be auriferous,{ and the same has been recorded in Nova Scotia.§

As to the methods employed by, and the earnings of, the gold-
washers, the remarks about to be made on the gold of Singbhum
apply equally to Sambalpur, and need not be anticipated here.

* “Journal Asiatic Society of Bengal,” 1839, Vol. VIII.

t “Records of the Geological Survey of India,” Vol. X., p. 190; and ‘‘ Jungle Life in

India,” p. 529.
t Vide “‘ Geol. Mag.,” 1877, p. 286. § “Jour. Geol. Soc.,” Vol. XXXVI, p. 318.

a a ~4

On the Occurrence and Distribution of Gold in India. 58:

It may be added, that to the north-west of Sambalpur there
are a number of parallel quartzite ridges which, in places, have
much the appearance of veins, whether they are bedded or not
they are, I think, worthy the attention of the prospector for gold.

Fine quartz reefs also occur in many parts of the district.

OrIssA.—In the province of Orissa gold is reported to occur in
the sands of the river Brahmini, in the Pal Lahara, where it is
said to be worked to a considerable extent.*

Similarly, it is believed to exist in various rivers in the Native
States of Dhenkenal and Keonjhar.t

The above rivers drain areas in which metamorphie rocks are
alone believed to prevail; but the already quoted memoir, how-
eyer, contains the following passage, which may be read in con-
nexion with the passage above as to the occurrence of some of
the gold in Sambalpur :—

** Gold is occasionally washed in the Tikaria river, and was also, a few
years since, obtained from the sands of the Ouli, The latter case is
rather interesting, since the localities are in a sandstone country through
which the Ouli mainly flows.”

SouTH-WESTERN BENGAL, or THE CHUTIA NAGPUR PROVINCE.—
In giving an account of this area I think it well to quote in full a
paper} by myself, which records the results of my researches in
the districts of Singhbhum and Manbhum.

I do so because I believe this area has not received the attention
from prospecting companies which it deserves. In the neigh-
bourhood of Chaibassa, the chief town of Singbhum, I have
been especially struck with the auriferous aspect of the rocks.
The earthy slates and shales with inagnesiam schists, and nume-
rous quartz reefs are precisely the rocks which, judging from all
experience, ought to yield gold :—

“Theexistenceofgoldin the districts of the south-west frontier of Bengal
and in the neighbouring tributary states has long been known. It is
found not only in the sands of many rivers and streams, but in some
instances it has been mined for in the alluvial and other superficial
deposits.

“Colonel Haughton in his interesting memorandum ‘ On the geolo-
gical structure and mineral resources of the Singhbhim Division,’§ has

* “Mem. Geol. Survey of India,” Vol. [., p. 88.

t Sterling: ‘‘ Asiatic Researches of Bengal,” 1825, Vol. XV., p. 163.
t “ Records Geol. Survey of India,” Vol. I, 1869.

§ “Jour. Asiatic Soc., Bengal,” XXIII, p. 103, 1854.

536 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

given an account of the gold washing, and enumerated several localities
where gold mining had been, or was, at the time of his visits, carried
on. Healso quotes from a letter from Mr. Robinson, in which that gentle-
man states the results of his attempts to establish gold-mining under
European superintendence. At Rohobe in Oodipur where operations
were commenced and showed some prospect of being fairly remunerative,
the climate proved so ‘hot and unhealthy’ that it was found that no
European could live there, and the works were given up.

“Colonel Haughton says that ‘the metal was found some years ago in
considerable lumps in the Sona Nuddee of Sonapet in Tamar on the
northern extremity of Singhbhim, and much is still found there.’ I
have invariably found that the washers have traditions of nuggets
having been found at intervals. A nugget from the native State of
Jushpur is now in the Geological Museum. Its exact weight I forget,
but I believe it to have been about half an ounce.

“The cases of the gold having been found im situ are undoubtedly rare.
Colonel Haughton speaks of it occurring in situ ‘a little north of
Assuntulea in Khursowa,’ but further on he states, ‘I have not heard
of any instance in which the metal has been found attached to a stone,’
so that the former statement must only mean to imply that it is mined
for in superficial deposits. Dr. Emil Stcehr states* that traces of gold
were found in the copper ores of Singhbhim. A Mr. Emerson was
specially employed by the Singhbhtiim Copper Company to investigate
the gold resources of the country. He is said to have crushed a
quantity of quartz and to have found traces of gold in it; but his opera-
tions do not appear to have been sufticiently successful to encourage him
to continue. In Chaibassa, I was shown a small nugget of gold in a
quartz matrix. It was said to have been obtained in the Kappergudee
Ghat, near Kalkapur, in Dholbhtim.

“Tt is not within the scope of the present paper to write a complete
resumé of ali that is recorded on the subject, but rather to give an
account of what has actually come under my own observation in those
portions of the districts which have been examined geologically.

«« During the season of 1866-67, I fancied that I was able to connect
the occurrence of gold in the streams with the existence of certain sub-
metamorphic rocks (magnesian and mica schists, slates and quartzites)
which were then for the first time met with in Manbhim. Being
anxious to put this connexion to as rigid a test as circumstances would
admit of, and wishing to define, if possible, the exact boundaries within
which gold certainly exists and may be reasonably looked for, I, with
some difficulty persuaded two gold washers (man and wife) to accompany
me during my examination of the southern portion of the district of
Manbhtim. They remained with me for upwards of three months,
washing daily at such places as were pointed out.

“ One of the most interesting results is, that the existence of gold in the
metamorphic as well as the sub-metamorphic rocks has been satisfactorily
proved. This, from various reasons, [ was not prepared to expect.
Colonel Haughton, who speaks of the granitic gneissose rocks as igneous,

* Hinige Bemerkungen iiber den District Singhbhum in Bengalen. Viertel-
jahrschrift der naturforschenden Gesellschaft. Zurich, 5th year, Part 4, 1860.

On the Occurrence und Distribution of Gold im India. 537

states that gold is never found in the streams traversing them.
Again, the natives, so far as my experience goes, do not wash in the
sands, &c., lying on the metamorphic rocks, although they do not
connect the existence of gold in the sands with the vicinity of any par-
ticular rock.

“In Manbhtm, the experience of generations of washers has enabled
them to define the boundaries within which washing is remunerative ; and
this boundary, it is interesting to observe, corresponds on the north
exactly with that of the sub-metamorphic rocks.* This coincidence |
ascertained in the following manner. On my arrival at Dulmi (which
is situated on the faulted boundary of these two groups of rocks) when
marching northwards from the lower part of Patkum, the gold-washer
asked to be allowed to return to his own country (Dhalbhtim), stating
that none of his race ever went north of Dulmi. I induced him how-
ever to stop, and while we remained north of the fault the washings were
carried on in the granitic gneiss area with comparatively poor, but not
exactly barren, results. On the day I crossed the fault south of
Sindaree, when returning southwards, the gold-washer said that we
should after that find gold more regularly and in greater quantities
than we had done since we came north at Dulini.

* During the whole time, a record was kept of the daily results and
of the nature of the rocks in which the washings were made. The
following abstract will suffice for comparison of the productiveness of
the two formations :—

SUB-METAMORPHICS.

— | Jan. Feb. | March.| April. | Total.
Number of days on which
washings were made, . | 31 9 18 8 66.
Unsuccessful days, aii 3 2 2 9=13°6 per cent.
Gold in grains, . . | 17°68 | 4°65 7°6 | 2:45 | 32-38.
Daily average in grains, ‘57 | *516 “4 ‘3 | Daily average for whole period
32°38
= aE = 4 grains.
METAMORPHICS.
— | Jan. | Feb. | March. | April. Total.
Number of days on which
washings were made, . = | 20 13 — | 383.
Unsuccessful days, - | 138 9 — | 22—66 per cent.
Total gold in grains, - 4°78 7 — | 5:48.
Daily average, ~ 23 05 - | Daily average for whole period
5°48
= 33> 16.

* A line drawn across the southern part of Manbhum from Simlapal on the east
through Burrabazar to a little north of Echagurh on the west, roughly indicates the posi-
tion of the line of boundary between the two formations.

538 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

“Comparing the results by the number of successful days first,
we may say, that for gold producing, the sub-metamorphic rocks are to
the metamorphics as (100—13°6=)86-4 to (100—66=)34=2°5:1;
comparing by daily average, the proportions become ‘49 :-16=q. p.
3:1. We may therefore conclude that the sub-metamorphics are
between two and half and three times as productive of gold as the meta-
morphics, so that as the gold washers only find a subsistence from
washing in the sub-metamorphie area, it is obvious that it would not pay
them to work in the metamorphics.

“The greatest amount found on one day was 2-2 grains, but the daily
averages given above should not be taken as indicative of the amount of
gold to be found by a regular system of working, where the washers
would of course be set at favourable spots, and would not have to spend
a considerable portion of their time daily, as was the case of the men I
employed, in making marches before they reached the scene of their
labours.*

“‘ Various papers in the Asiatic Society’s Journal describe the methods
of gold-washing practised in different parts of India. ‘The instruments
used, though essentially the same in principle throughout, have local
peculiarities of shape, &c., and the manner of manipulation also varies.
At Hira Khund, in Sambalpur,t the same instrument and manipula-
tion serve for the separation of both diamonds and gold. In fact the
diamonds are found in the middle of the process, the iron sand with
specks of gold being the final residue. In Manbhtim and Singbhim
the instruments used are perhaps more simple than those used in any
other place. The dish measures 28” by 18", it is hollowed somewhat
eccentrically to a maximum depth of about 25 inches. A scraper
formed of a flattened iron hook set in a handle, serves to collect the auri-
ferous sand and gravel which accumulates in the angles of the rocks in
the beds of streams. The dish when filled is placed in shallow water,
and the operator working with his hands soon separates and throws
aside all the coarser gravel and stones, while the agitation of the water
serves to carry away all the mud and lighter portions. The dish is
then balanced on the palm of the left hand and oscillated to and fro
with the right; this serves to throw off the greater portion of the re-_
maining gravel, and the process is ‘completed by a circular motion,

* It is conceivable that the fact of the greater quantity of gold being found in the
superficial deposits within the sub-metamorphic area might be attributable to something
in the configuration or elevation of the ground conducive to the greater accumulation of
gold within that area. I could not, however, discover anything of this kind; the fall to
south is gradual throughout both formations. The origin of the gold which is annually
found in the rivers at present is, I believe, twofold. A portion being directly derived
from the rocks, and the remainder resulting from the re-assortment of detritus which is
the remnant of sub-aerial action. In both formations, the evidences of extensive sub-
aerial action are numerous and prominent, and it is obvious that nature has been carrying
on gold-washing operations in the valleys since denudation first commenced to scoop them
out, leaving barriers of intervening ranges of hills formed of the hardest rocks between
them.

+ “Jour. Asiatic Soc., Bengal,” VIII., 1057, 1839.

On the Occurrence and Distribution of Gold in India. 539

which is communicated to the water in the hollow of the dish, by which
even the smallest particles of foreign matter are separated, and the final
result is a residue of black iron-sand in which the specks of gold are
readily apparent.

“The gold-washers belong to the lowest and poorest races in the
country. Throughout Chutia-Nagpur the tribes who are engaged in
this occupation may be classified as follows :—

** First.—The Dohras, or Dokras, of Manbhtim, who are allied to the
Kumars, and profess to be Hindus. Among them both sexes wash for
gold.

** Second.—The Ghasis of Singhbhum, among whom the men only
wash for gold. The Ghasis are also musicians, and only certain families,
or sub-tribes, engage in the former occupation.

“ Third.—In the hilly country, west of Singhbhum, among certain of
the Kol or Munda tribes, the women wash for gold during the rains ;
but the men regard the occupation as unworthy work for their sex.

“The methods employed by these different tribes appear to be identical
in all essentials, and similar to the process just described. Each
occupies a distinct tract, and poaching on each other’s favourite streams
is not indulged in to any great extent.

«Their numbers were greatly reduced by the famine of 1866 ; without
exception they are all in the power of the Mahajuns, for whom they
work at a low rate, and are never able to free themselves of the claims
which the Mahajuns make on account of advances.

“The daily earnings of the gold-washers are small, but might, no
doubt, be increased, if it were not that they are always satisfied when
enough gold has been found for procuring the day’s subsistence.

“Colonel Haughton says:—‘The Gasis can always reckon on
earning from three to four pice per day, and I am assured that a
vigorous man oiten gets as much as twelve annas, which, as the ordinary
rate of field labour is about one pice, must be considered a very large
sum.’* Mr. Robinson found in a trial which he made at Rohobe, in
Oodipur, that men to whom he paid one anna could produce for
him from three to four annas worth of gold. Colonel Dalton states
that the washers themselves regard it as a very poor trade, simply
yielding they say, pét bur (bellyful). Dr. Stehr, in his paper on Singh-
bhim, states that he found the average daily earning to be about 25
centimes (rather more than an anna and a half). The men I met with
stated that they could earn about an anna a day and occasionally three
or four annas.

“The simplest idea of the process of hydraulic mining, which seems
so nearly to approach to perfection in California, is not altogether un-
known to the natives. Mr. Robinson sayst :—‘ Another plan, and a
very remarkable one, in which the people collect the gold, is by drawing
up small watercourses before the rains, so as to make places for a deposit
of soil carried down by the water ; this soil is cleared out several times
and in it is found a large deposit of gold.’

“In the shallow diggings the hydraulic system would not, of course,

* “Jour. Asiatic Soc.. Bengal,” 1854, p. 109. + I/id., p. 108.

540 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

be applicable ; but even in them an increased yield would undoubtedly
result from supplanting the native’s dish by the Californian pan, rocker,
long-tom, and sluice.

NortH-WEsT PROVINCES, INCLUDING THE HYMALAYAS AND
PUNJAB.
In the North-West Himalayas the occurrence of gold has

been alluded to by many travellers, but the following notices
from the official publications of the Geological Survey of India,
contain the most important facts in connexion therewith.

“There are gold-washings carried on yearly in the beds of the Hima-
layan rivers, and most extensively, even in streams which only drain
the sub-Himalayan rocks. The fact is rather interesting; since in
these streams the gold must have a doubly derivative origin.”*

“Sona River, Gurhwal District—This stream rises in the lower
range of hills, and joins the Ramgunga river in Palti Dhtin. Its sands
yield gold, and the bed of the Ramgunga below the junction is aurife-
rous. The washing is not very profitable, scarcely averaging four
annas a day to each workman.”

Again :—

“The sands of the Ganges, running through Taluka Chandi, contain
gold, but the profit arising from the washing is not greater than in the
Sona river.” t

Punjab.

“Gold is washed for in the Indus, at Kalabagh, sometimes also in
the Bunhar river bed at the other end of the range (Salt Range), and in
several small streams along its northern flanks, the present source of the
precious metal being the tertiary sandstone formation, and apparently
among the lower beds of the Lower Sivalik group. The process is not
continuous, being only carried on after heavy falls of rain in the
smaller streams, and in the Indus when floods permit. The amount
realized can hardly be closely ascertained, for as the industry is taxed it
is the interest of the operators to conceal their gains. According to the
best information obtainable these fluctuate from three to four annas
worth a day per man, this being generally thought rather above the
measure of success.” $

The gold washing in the Salt Range is described in some detail by
Dr. Fleming, in his Report.§

Dr. Jameson also alludes to the gold which is found there.||

* Medlicott : “Mem. Geol. Survey of India,” Vol. III., p. 179.

} Lawder : ‘‘ Records of the Geological Survey of India,” Vol. II., 88, 90
t Wynne: “ Mem. Geol. Survey of India,” Vol. XIV., 303.

§ “Jour. Asiatic Society, Bengal,” 1853, p. 280.

|| ‘Jour. Asiatic Society, Bengal,” Vol. XL, p. 1.

On the Occurrence and Distribution of Gold in India. 541

ULTRA PENINSULAR AREAS.
The principal gold producing countries beyond, but adjoining
the limits of peninsular India, are on the east :—
1. Assam.
2. Burmah.
And on the west and north :—
3. Afghanistan.
4. Thibet.

1, AssAmM.—In Assam Capt. Dalton and Col. Hannay carried
on researches in reference to the occurrence of gold, which were
made public through the medium of the Journal of the Asiatic
Society of Bengal.* Subsequently the same gentlemen were
requested by Government, in the year 1855, to undertake a further
examination of the auriferous deposits of Upper Assam, and were
supplied with ample funds for carrying out their investigations.

From an abstract of their reports by Dr. T. Oldham, late Super-
intendent of the Geological Survey of India. I quote the
following :—t

Gold was obtained in the Brahmaputra at Parghat, above Sudya, and
in several tributaries, Noa-Dehing, Dihong, and Hookong. ‘‘ The spots
selected by the natives are those salient angles or reaches of the river,
where the alluvial deposits, cut away by the stream from the opposite
bank, are partially re-deposited, after having undergone the sifting
action of the current.”

The gold ‘is derived from the crystalline rocks in the first instance,
but only becomes sufficiently concentrated to render it worth working
in the alluvium, after this alluvium has undergone repeated washings in
the river current, by being successively cut away, washed and re-deposited
as the river changes its course.”

The Dihong river from the hills to the north “ yielded gold in con-
siderable quantity, from its junction with the Brahmaputra to about
half way between that stream and the hills.” 53? tons of gravel yielded
90 grains of gold—=161 grs. per ton. ‘This stream is considered by the
natives to be the richest in Assam.”

“The apparatus used in these investigations were a Californian Cradle
(long-tom) worked by four men, and which was found to give the largest
daily yield per man ; and a Singpho washing dish worked by one washer
and one assistant.”

No. 1 Gold from Brahmaputra yielded 88°281 per cent. pure gold.

No. 2 Noa Dehing " 93-880 %9 ”
Dihong a 90:234 3 J
Hookong As 86°588 3

* Vol. VII., p. 625, and Vol. XII., p: 511.
t ‘‘Mem. Geol. Survey of India,” Vol. I., p. 90,

542 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

BurmManH.—tThe following facts are taken from a paper by Dr.
Oldham, entitled “ Notes on Specimens of Gold and Gold dust
procured near Shue Gween, in the province of Martaban,
Burmah,’*

“‘ Gold-bearing sands and nuggets were forwarded from Shue Gween
to Dr. Oldham who obtained from the former, amounting to about the
fifth of a cubic foot in bulk, -75 of a grain of gold by washing and 0-20
by the aid of mercury=‘95. The sand consisted of particles of meta-
morphic rocks. The gold on assay proved to consist of 92 per cent. of
pure gold and 8 per cent. of silver.”

The natives washed in the Shue Gween river from time immemorial,
and under the Burmese Government there was a Farmer General who
paid a certain sum to the royal treasury and sub-let the privilege of
washing to numbers of persons.”

Mr. Theobald, of the Geological Survey, writes as follows
regarding gold in the Irrawadi:—f

“‘ Gold uccurs in the bed of the Irrawadi, but in such fine dust and so
sparingly that few engage in the task of washing for it. I am told that
it is occasionally washed before Prome, but the only spot where I have
witnessed the process is at Shuaygyeing (Gold scratching), not to be con-
founded with Shuay Gyeen on the Sittoung, just above Monyo, where a
little gold is obtained. The gold is found in a coarse gravel bank, left
dry by the river when it subsides after the rains.”

“This coarse gravel is dug out and laid on a sort of hurdle, which
permits the fine sand to pass through, the coarse pebbles and boulders
being rejected. This sand is washed on an inclined board ; the lighter
portion being gradually swept down the incline by a stream of water
directed over it, whilst the heavy auriferous sand remains, and is from
time to time collected. This sand is lastly washed in the common
wooden hand dish, of circular form, and the gold it contains collected by
amalgamation. The profits of this pursuit are small, and the labour
great ; the men not netting more than two or three annas a day profit,
which must be regarded as a miserable remuneration, where the ordinary
hire for a Cooly is eight annas, or twice that at the rice ports during
the shipping season.”

In another paper on the “ Metalliferous resources of British
Burmah,” Mr. Theobald says :—*

“Though of slight economic importance, gold occurs in most parts of
Burmah, but is very little worked within British territory, which I
attribute to the higher and more certain remuneration there obtainable
for agricultural or other labour ; and gold working is therefore pursued
mainly in bad seasons, or as an exceptional means of industry taken up
merely now and again.”

* “Mem. Geological Survey of India,” Vol. I., p. 94.
+ Ibidem, Vol. X., p. 343.
t “ Records Geol. Survey of India,” Vol. VI., p. 95.

On the Occurrence and Distribution of Gold im India. 543

Tavernier * in his enumeration of the places where gold is pro-
duced in Asia mentions the kingdom of Tipra (? the modern
Tipperah). He says, “it is coarse, almost as bad as that of China.”

Other references to the gold of Burmah are to be found in
various works descriptive of that country.

AFGHANISTAN.—There is a gold mine a little to the north of
Kandahar city. It appears to be in quartz veins, which are
superficially excavated, gunpowder being employed. The gold is
sometimes chiselled out in pure granules, the stone is not taken
out unless it contains visible gold. It is taken into the city for
treatment. The mine belonged to the Government ; had been
worked anyhow for some twelve years, and in 1872 was leased to
a contractor for Rs. 5,000 a year. As much more was spent on
working the mine, and the yearly out-turn was said to exceed
Rs. 10,000.

TurBet.—I include Thibet in this account as there is every reason
to believe that for very many centuries a regular supply of gold
has entered India from thence, and continues to do so to the pre-
sent day. Ina paper by Mr. A. Lawder on the “ Mineral Statis-
tics of the Kumaon District,’t we find the following passage :—

“Gold is found in many of the rivers of Thibet, at Silungsakka, We. ;
it is sold at the same fairs as the salt and borax, either in nuggets or
grains. About 10 to 12,000 rupee’s worth is brought down annually,
some of which is disposed of in the hill districts (Kumahon and Gurh-

wal), probably about one-third, and the remainder most likely finds its
way to Delhi, Agra, &c. It is sometimes found to contain copper.”

Tavernier* mentions the occurrence of gold in Thibet, though
he was not aware apparently of its being worked in his time in
Southern India. He says :—

“Toward the Thibet, which is the ancient Caucasus, in the terri-
tories of a Raja beyond the Kingdom of Cachemir, there are three moun-

tains close one by another, one of which produces gold, the other granats
(garnets), and the third lapis lazuli.”

Of the very highest interest are the accounts of the Thibetan
gold mines, which are given by the Pundits attached to the
Indian Survey for the purpose of exploring countries north of
the Himalayas. Unwittingly these admirable native servants of
the Government of India have furnished facts which have enabled

*Travels. + “ Records of the Geological Survey of India,” Vol. IT., p. 90.

544 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

Sir Henry Rawlinson, and independently Professor Frederic
Schiern, Professor of History at the University of Copenhagen,
to clear up a mystery which has been a puzzle to the historians
and philosophers of many countries for upwards of 2,000 years.
A translation of Professor Schiern’s paper,* by Anna M. H.
Childers, will be found in the “ Indian Antiquary.”t It is a most
remarkable example of learned research, and one very difficult to
give in abstract. It is entitled “The Tradition of the Gold-
digging Ants.” But perhaps before giving the conclusions which
Sir Henry Rawlinson and Professor Schiern have arrived at, will
be best in this place to briefly describe the Pundits’ observa-
tions :—

“During the expedition of 1867 the Pundit who had been at Lassa
fell in at Thok Jalung, an important gold field in the province of Nari
Khossam, with a large encampment of Thibetan miners, and took the
opportunity to gain information relative to the working of the mines.
In the third expedition, in 1868, another Pundit passed on as far as
Rudok, at the north-west extremity of Chinese Thibet, on the frontier
of Ladak, and on his way back from Rudok visited the gold fields of
Thok Nianmo, Thok Sarlung,t and Thok Jarlung. The map which
accompanies Major Montgomery’s narrative of the journeys of the
Pundits gives in addition the gold fields of Thok Munnak, Thok
Ragyok, Thok Ragung, and Thok Dalung.))°.0°.) = ))the miners)
camp at Thok Jarlung, according to the measurements of the Pundits, is
16,300 feet above the sea level.”

The cold is intense, and the miners in winter are thickly
clad with furs.

“The miners do not merely remain under ground when at work, but
their small black tents, which are made of a felt-like material manufac-
tured from the hair of the Yak, are set in a series of pits, with steps
leading down to them . . . seven or eight feet below the surface of
the ground.” . . . “Spite of the cold the diggers prefer working
in winter ; and the number of their tents, which in summer amounts to
300. rises to nearly 600 in winter. They prefer the winter as the frozen
soil then stands well, and is not likely to trouble them much by falling
in.”

* Verhand. Kgl. Danischen Gesellsch. der Wissensch. for 1870. Printed separately in
Danish, German, and French.

+ Vol. IV., p. 225.

{ Thok Sarlung had at one time been the chief gold field of the district, “‘ but had in a
great measure been abandoned on the discovery of the Thok Jarlung gold field. The
Pundit passed a great excavation some 30 to 40 feet deep, 200 feet in width, and two
miles in length from which the gold had been extracted.”—‘‘Jour. As. Soc. Bengal.”
Vol. XXXIX., Pt. 2, p. 53, 1870.

On the Occurrence and Distribution of Gold in India. 545

They are occasionally attacked by bands of robbers who carry
off their gold.

Sir Henry Rawlinson’s remarks on these reports of the Pundits’
researches and travels are as follows :—*

“ Now, then, for the first time, we have an explanation of the cir-
cumstances under which so large a quantity of gold is, as is well known
to be the case, exported to the west from Khoten, and finds its way into
India from Thibet ; and it is probable that the search for gold in this
region has been going on from a very remote antiquity, since no one
can read the ex-Pundit’s account of the Thibetan miners ‘living in tents
some seven or eight feet below the surface of the ground, and collecting
the excavated earth in heaps previous to washing the gold out of the
soil,’ without being reminded of the description which Herodotus gives
of the ‘ants in the land of the Indians bordering on Kaspatyrus (or
Kasmir) which made their dwellings underground, and threw up sand
heaps as they burrowed, the sand which they threw up being full of
gold.’”

Professor Schiern points out that the tradition was mentioned
in writings of the middle ages, and those by Arabian authors. It
survived among the Turks. Straboand Albertus Magnus treated
the whole story asa fiction. Xivrey supposed that the animals
had become extinct owing to the awiz sacra fames. Major
Rennell supposed that the dwellers in mounds were termites or
white ants. Humboldt’s observations in Mexico on the habit
of certain ants to carry about shining particles of hyalith was
quoted by those who believed that the animals were really ants.
Other autuorities suggested that they were marmots, jackals,
foxes, or hyenas. Pliny having stated that horns of the Indian
ant were preserved in the temple of Hercules at Erythice—Samuel
Wahl, who maintained the hysena theory, proved equal to the
difficulty by suggesting that the horns might have been a lusus
nature,

Professor Schiern most ingeniously argues that the horns had
been taken from the skins of animals which formed the garments
of the miners.

I may, perhaps, add to the evidence given on this subject by
Professor Schiern, that I have seen bullock horns worn as a head
decoration by a tribe (the Khonds) in India, and, indeed, I possess °
a photograph of an individual so adorned.

Professor Schiern further points out that ancient writers say

* Pall Mall Gazette, March 16, 1869, quoted in “‘ Indian Antiquary,” Vol. IV., p. 225.
Scien. Proc. R.D.S. Vow. u., Pr. vi. 20

546 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

that the ants worked chiefly in winter, and connects this with
the statement of the Pundit above quoted.
- In conclusion he writes :—

«For us the story partakes no longer of the marvellous. The gold-
digging ants were originally neither real ants, as the ancients supposed,
nor, as the many eminent men of learning have supposed, larger animals
mistaken for ants on account of their subterranean habits, but men of flesh
and blood, and these men Thibetan miners, whose mode of life and dress
were in the remotest antiquity, exactly what they are at the present day.”

I append an extract from Sir Henry Rawlinson’s translation of
the passage in Herodotus, as it may be of interest to some
readers :—

“‘ Besides these there are Indians of another tribe, who border on the
city of Kaspatyrus and the country of Paktyika: these people dwell
northward of all the rest of the Indians, and follow nearly the same
mode of life as the Bactrians. They are more warlike than any of the
other tribes, and from them the men are sent forth who go to procure
the gold, for it is in this part of India that the sandy desert les. Here
in this desert there live, amid the sand, great ants, in size somewhat
less than dogs, but bigger than foxes. The Persian king has a number
of them, which have been caught by the hunters in the land whereof
we are speaking. These ants make their dwellings underground, and,
like the Greek ants, which they very much resemble in shape, throw
up sandheaps as they burrow. Now, the sand which they throw up
ig full of gold. The Indians when they go into the desert to collect
this sand take three camels and harness them together, a female in
the middle, and a male on either side in a leading-rein. The rider sits
on the female, and they are particular to choose for this purpose one
that has just dropped her young: for their female camels can run as
fast as horses, while they bear burdens very much better. . . . When,
then, the Indians reach the place where the gold is, they fill their
bags with the sand and ride away at their best speed: the ants, how-
ever, scenting them, as the Persians say, rush forth in pursuit. Now,
these animals are so swift, they declare, that there is nothing in the
world like them: if it were not, therefore, that the Indians get a
start while the ants are mustering, not a single gold-gatherer could
escape. During the flight the male camels, which are not so fleet as
the females, grow tired, and begin to drag, first one and then the other,
but the females recollect the young which they have left behind, and
never give way or flag. Such, according to the Persians, is the manner
in which the Indians get the greater part of their gold: some is dug
out of the earth, but of this the supply is more scanty.”

LVIIIL—AN IMPROVED METHOD FOR DETERMINING THE
GASES DISSOLVED IN WATER, sy RICHARD J.
MOSS, F.c.s.

(Read, January 20th, 1879.]

Havina had occasion to determine the quantity and composition
of the gases dissolved in certain waters with a high degree of
accuracy, I found it impossible to get satisfactory results by the
ordinary methods, and accordingly attempted to devise some
more trustworthy method. The common plan of collecting the
gases from a measured quantity of water in a tube from which
the air is expelled by boiling water in it is very simple, and
sufficiently accurate for most purposes. A great improvement in
this method (Watts’ Dictionary, Vol. V., p. 1,028), consists mainly
in the employment of a long collecting tube so arranged that one
end dips into mercury, which ascends in the tube when the air
is expelled by vapour of water, a Torricellian vacuum is thus
obtained into which the gases are allowed to escape. The gases
collected by either of these methods must be subsequently
transferred to a suitable vessel for measurement and for analysis.
Whichever method is employed there is no convenient way of
ascertaining, (1) whether throughout the operation the joints of
the apparatus remain perfectly air-tight, (2) whether the space
into which the gases are allowed to escape is quite free from air,
and, (3) whether the gases are completely expelled from the liquid
under examination. The employment of the Sprengel pump
overcomes all these difficulties and offers so many obvious
advantages that I should suppose its use has long ago been
suggested. I have, however, failed to find any published account
of such an application of that useful apparatus, and as the form
of apparatus which I| have finally adopted has proved satisfactory,
I venture to describe it, in the hope that it may contribute
towards increased precision in the methods of water analysis.

548 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

The apparatus consists essentially of a strong glass flask about
300 ce. capacity, having a bulb of about 20 cc. capacity blown on
its neck ; between the bulb and the flask
there is a well-ground stop-cock, having
an aperture of at least 5 mm. in diameter ;
beyond the bulb the neck terminates in
a tubulare, having a slightly funnel-
shaped opening into which is loosely
fitted a tube passing through a sort of
Liebig condenser in a vertical position,
this tube communicates with a Sprengel
pump. The capacity of the flask with
the stop-cock turned off is determined,
this quantity represents the volume of
water which may be examined. The
manner in which the apparatus is filled
must.depend upon circumstances. It is
obvious that no notable increase of the
temperature of the water in the flask
must take place as long as the cock is
turned off, so that if any considerable
time must elapse between the filling of
the flask and the expulsion of the gases
it is desirable to attach a piece of india-
rubber tube to the bulb and to fill the
entire apparatus completely with the
water, leaving the cock open and tying
the tube in such a manner as to provide
for the alteration in volume that may
result from change of temperature. Since,
however, the gases dissolved in most
natural waters are in the presence of
more or less organic matter of a not very
stable character, it is useless to attempt
great accuracy in the determination of
the gases unless the water can be ex-
amined within a short time after it is collected, so that the pro-
vision for expansion will seldom be found necessary. Assuming

Method for Determining the Gases Dissolved in Water. 549

that the water can be examined immediately after collection, I
proceed as follows :—The flask is filled by passing a tube to the
bottom and allowing a current of the water to flow through the
flask until the contents have been several times renewed, or by
immersing the flask in the water and sucking out the air with
the usual precautions. The cock is then turned off and the water
in the bulb and neck emptied out. The flask is now partly
immersed in water, the temperature of which is a few degrees
lower than that in the flask, the condenser communicating with
the Sprengel pump is attached to the flask and the pump is set
in action. The connexion between the flask and condenser may
be made perfectly air-tight in a moment by smearing the conical
end of the tube that fits loosely into the neck of the flask with
a cement made by melting together three parts of beeswax
and eight of resin; the tube being placed in position the neck of
the flask is warmed with a fragment of glowing charcoal or a
hot wire until the cement melts. Too much heat must not be
employed, and it must be applied only where the cement is
intended to adhere or it will spread and make a mess, Joints
made in this way are perfectly air-tight, and answer just as well
as if the tubes were fused together, while they have one great
advantage—the tubes can be separated in a moment by gently
warming the joint; of course they are not applicable if it is
intended to heat the apparatus beyond the softening point of
the cement (about 45°C.) While the apparatus is being exhausted
cold water is allowed to circulate slowly through the condenser,
and as soon as the metallic click of the falling mercury indicates
that all the air is removed, an inverted tube filled with mercury
is placed over the opening of the fall tube of the pump to receive
the gases. The cock of the flask is now turned on enough to
allow the gases to escape slowly. If the operator desires to expel
the gases at the lowest possible temperature, the pump should be
kept working continuously, if, on the contrary, the pump is not
kept working the gases will escape into an atmosphere of
gradually increasing tension, and considerable elevation of
temperature must be resorted to before the liquid parts with the
last traces of dissolved gas. Supposing the object in view is
simply the collection of all the dissolved gas, it is obviously most

550 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

expeditiously and completely effected by the former method,
and as the water may be kept in ebullition at a temperature a
few degrees above that of the water in the condenser, there is
much less risk of the decomposition of any of the solid matter in
solution than when a method requiring a greater elevation of
temperature is resorted to. If one desires to examine the gases
at different stages of the operation this method affords every
facility for that purpose.

It might be supposed that in the operation I have described a
quantity of water would necessarily be carried over to the pump,
and eventually conveyed to the vessel in which the gases are
collected. It must be remembered, however, that the temperature
of the water circulating in the condenser is below that of the
atmosphere, and since, according to the well-known law of the
tension of vapours in communicating vessels of different
temperatures, the tension of the aqueous vapour in the apparatus
will correspond to the temperature of the condenser, it 1s obvious
that instead of water being carried over to the pump the gases
collected will not even be saturated with aqueous vapour, but
will contain only a quantity of the vapour of water corresponding
to its comparatively low tension at the temperature of the
condenser.

PUBLICATIONS OF THE ROYAL DUBLIN SOCIETY.

TRANSACTIONS: Quarto, in parts, stitched.
Vol. I. (new series). (Recently published.)

Part 6.—Notés on the Physical Appearance of the Planet Mars.
By J. L. E. Dreyer, M.A. With Plates 1 and 2, (October, 1878.)

Part 7.—Section 1.—On the Nature and Origin of the Beds of
Chert in the Upper Carboniferous Limestone of Ireland. By
E. Hunt, M.A., F.R.S. Section II.—On the Chemical Composition
of Chert, and on the Chemistry of the Process by which it is formed.
By E. Harpmay, F.C.S. With Plate 3. (November, 1878).

Part 8.—On a Superficial Tension of Fluids and its Possible Re-
lation to Muscular Contractions. By G. F. Firzcerarp, M.A.,
F.T.C.D. (December, 1878.)

Part 9.—Places of One Thousand Stars observed ‘at the Armagh
Observatory. By the Rev. Dr. Romney Rosinson. (February, 1879.)

Part 10.—On the Possibility of Originating Wave Disturbances in
the Ether by means of Electric Forces. By G. F.. FrrzcEraxp, M.A.,
F.T.C.D. (February, 1880.) an

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Devon. By Epwarp Hutt, M.A., LL.D., F.R.8., Director of the
Geological Survey of Ireland, and Professor of Geology, Royal College
of Science, Dublin. With Plates IV. and V., and Woodcuts. (May,
1880.) .

Part 12.—Physical Observations of Mars, 1879-80. By C. E.
Burton, B.A., M.R.LA., F.R.A.S. With Plates VI., VIL, and
VIII. (June, 1880.)

Vol. IT. (new series).

Part 1.—Observations of Nebule and Clusters of Stars made with
the Six-foot and Three-foot Reflectors at Birr Castle, from the year
1848 up to about the year 1878. Nos.1 and 2. By the Right Hon.
the Earl of Rosse, D.C.L. With Plates I. to IV. (August, 1879.)

Part 2.—Do. do. No. 3. With Plates V. and VI. (June,
1880.) :

PROCEEDINGS: 8vo., in parts, stitched.
‘Vol. IT. (new series.) (Recently published.)
Part 3.—Pages 179 to 242. (July, 1879.)
Part 4.—Pages 243 to 288. (January, 1880.)
Part 5.—Pages 289 to 416. (April, 1880.)
Part 6.—Pages 417 to 550. (July, 1880.)

THE

SCIENTIFIC PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

ROYAL DUBLIN SOCIETY.

Vou. II. (New Serres). NOVEMBER, 1880. Part VII.
CONTENTS.
Page

LIX. On the Mode of Occurrence and Distribution of Diamonds in
India. By V. Batt, M.A., F.G.S., of the Geological euney of
India, Hon. Sec., Roy al Geologic: il Survey of Ireland, iat i)
LX. On some points in the Physical Geology of the ees and
Iveragh Promontories. shee B. Wren, F.G:S., F. BGS. i,

&e., < 590
LXI. On the Action of W ed upon } Mer curic Sulphate, By Cainrns “
A. Cameron, M.D., F-R.C.S.L, . 597

LXIL. Voluntary Act of Se If- Dearnchion by sha: rotiue Bee: By if
H. Lusy, C.E. ae ited by Rey. S. Haueutoy, M.D.,

at a ae - 600
LXIU. Notes on Fluorescence. By cdeaes Fr ANCIS Piraceaa,

M.A., F.T.C.D., ! 609
LXIV. On Siete in the himciente of Knookbeg, county F ounces

By Tuomas Piunkett, : “611

LXY. On the Introduction of the Squirrel i Bee icles By eee
M. Barrinuton, M.A., LL.B. Witha Map, . . + G15

LXVI. On a Dimerous Form we sean t By G. Jouxstone Sroney,
ySe., FES. 6-1; . . : : : . - 632

ses... ha KR’
communications. %, Me

OCT 4 19h)

Nos
| DUBLIN: “onal Musev™
PUBLISHED BY THE ROYAL DUBLIN SOCIETY,
PRINTED BY ALEX. THOM & CO., 87, 88, & 89, ABBEY-STREET,

THE QUEEN’S PRINTING OFFICE.
FOR HER MAJESTY’S STATIONERY OFFICE.

The Authors alone are responsible for all opinions expressed in the

1880.

Koval Aublin Society.

FOUNDED, A.D. 1731. INCORPORATED, 1749.

Evening Scientific Meetings.

The Evening Scientific Meetings of the Society and of the associated
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Club) are held in Leinster House on the third Monday in each month
during the Session. The hour of meeting is 8 o’clock, p.m. The business
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Secretary to the Section, R. J. Moss, F.c.s.

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Secretary to the Section, R. M‘Nas, M.p.

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and such as are considered suitable for the purpose will be printed with
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a complete form and ready for transmission to the printer.

[ 551 ]

LIX.—ON THE MODE OF OCCURRENCE AND DISTRI-
BUTION OF DIAMONDS IN INDIA, sy V. BALL, m.a., F.c.s.,
OF THE GEoLoGIcAL Survey oF Inpra, Hon. Secretary, Royar
GEOLOGICAL Society oF JRELAND.

[Read 21st June, 1880.]

To say that India has for many years been famous for her

diamonds would be to enunciate a truism with which everyone is

familiar. It is not an easy matter however, to determine for how
long this has been the case, still less so to fix with approximate
accuracy any period of the world’s history as being that when the

precious gem first came to be esteemed in the Hast. At least 3,400

years have elapsed since the first account of it in the Mahabaratta

(B.c. 1500) was written—and it may have been known long

previous to that. By some it is thought that the Koh-i-noor

belonged to King Vikramaditya (B.c. 56), a personage who seems
to have been most ubiquitous, if a tithe of all that is said of him
could be believed.

I show below, when describing the diamond localities of
Sambalpur that Ptolemy possessed a remarkable amount of
information regarding them. Tavernier was of opinion that
they were the oldest workings in India.

In this paper I have attempted to give references to the most im-
portant authorities on the subject of Indian diamonds,and diamond
workings both ancient and modern, but my knowledge of the
ancient literature of India is too limited to enable me to give a
resumé of what may be recorded on the subject in native
. writings. The late Professor Blochmann, had, I know, culled
from many sources notices in Arabic, Persian, and Urdu, on the
subject of the mineral productions of India, but these have
unfortunately, never been published.

According to Captain Burton the Indian diamond was first
made famous in Europe, by the French jeweller, Jean Baptiste
Tavernier (born 1605, died 1689), who made six journeys to
India in order to purchase precious stones. Previously to the
year 1728, the production of diamonds was practically limited to
India and Borneo, but in that year the first diggings were opened
in Brazil.

Scien. Proc., R-D.S. Vou. 1., Pr. vit. 2P

552 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

Tavernier did not visit Borneo, he tells us, in consequence of
having been informed that the queen of that island would not
permit of the removal of any gems out of her dominions. But
the courageous old traveller seems to have been ready to go any-
where in the pursuit of his trade, undeterred by risks and dangers.
He seems to have fared well in India, and often alludes to the
courtesy and even the lovingkindness of the natives.

T had intended to add to this paper an account of all the famous
diamonds which have been found in Jndia;* but at the very
outset of my investigations, I have met with so many contradictory
and conflicting statements, that I find it will require more time
than is available to me at present to hunt up authorities and
attempt a reconciliation.

Asan example I may state that according to some authorities
the Pitt or Regent diamond is said to have come from Borneo,
by others, from the mines at Purtial. Similarly the true history
of the Koh-i-noor is enveloped in much obscurity.

DISTRIBUTION OF DIAMONDS IN INDIA.

There are in India three extensive tracts, widely separated
from. one another, in which the diamond has been sought for from
the earliest periods of recorded history. Besides these principal
tracts, there are others where, although the fact of occurrence of
diamonds has been recorded, our knowledge as to the circumstances
connected therewith, is less perfect. But with regard to the three
principal tracts, it may now be fairly claimed that our knowledge
of the geology of India enables us to fix the limits with approxi-
mate accuracy, within which the diamond-bearing strata occur,
and outside of which it would be useless to look for them.
Moreover we may venture perhaps to extend within those limits
very considerably the areas in which it may reasonably be
anticipated that the gem may be sought for successfully.

The most southern of these tracts is one which has long borne a
familiar name, which however must be characterized as being to a
vertain extent a misnomer. It falls to the lot of those who live in
these modern days of accurate research to be called upon to give

* The works on Diamonds and Precious stones by \!M. Dieulafait and Harry Emanuel
may be referred to for information on these points.

The Occurrence and Distribution of Diamonds in India. 553

up some of their earliest and most cherished beliefs, and it will be
unacceptable to some perhaps to hear that Golconda itself never
produced diamonds, and that it wasin fact merely the mart where
diamonds were bought and sold.

The name originally applied to the capital now represented by
a deserted fort in the neighbourhood of Hyderabad was extended
to the surrounding district, and seems to have been used for the
whole kingdom,* which included many of the diamond localities,
and in this way the popular belief on the subject arose; but
Golconda fort, it should be remembered, is many miles distant
from the nearest of these.

At the present day there is a totally distinct tract of hilly
country lying to the north of the Godaveri river, which also bears
the name Golconda ; whether it at any time formed a portion of
the ancient kingdom I cannot say, but it is not, I believe, at
present included in the territories of the Nizam of Hyderabad.

The districts included in this southern tract in the Madras
Presidency in which there are or have been diamond mines are the
following—Kadapah, Karnul, Ellore, and the Karnatie.

Proceeding northwards, the next locality at which there were
mines was at Badrachellum on the Godaveri.

The second great tract occupies a considerable area between the
Mahanadi and Godaveri rivers. Although diamonds are known
but from two neighbourhoods within it, still from our present
knowledge of their geology, to which I shall presently allude, it is
not improbable that the diamond-bearing strata may have a wide
range. ‘The two neighbourhoods referred to are Sambalpur with
the bed of the Mahanadi for many miles above it, and Weiragurh
or Weiragud eighty miles to the south-east of Nagpur.

Again, as an outlier to this second tract, there are two or three
localities within the province of Chutia Nagpur, where diamonds
are reported to have been found.

The third great tract is situated in Bandelkhand, near the
eapital of which, Panna, some of the principal mines are situated ;
but there are others scattered about in various parts of that
province or kingdom.

* “(;oleonda is the most famous of the six independent Moslem kingdoms whicii in

Ab. 1399 rose on the extinction of the Toghlak (Delhi) dynasty, and it survived till
1688, when Aurungzebe brought all India under one sceptre.”--Captain Burton.

Scien. Proc. R.D.S. Vou. m., Pr. vu. 2P2

554 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

Some authorities make allusion to a discovery of diamonds in
the bed of the Ganges, but I have failed to trace this statement
to its source, and I am not in possession of any particulars.

Lastly, about ten years ago, some small diamonds, stated to
have been found in a hill stream near Simla, were forwarded by
Sir E. C. Bayley to the Geological Museum at Calcutta.

GEOLOGY.

Although in the following pages I shall for each locality give a
sketch of the mode of occurrence of the diamonds, it will be well,
perhaps, by way of introduction, to give a general account of the
formations which include the diamond-bearing beds, and likewise
attempt to correlate those of the several localities respectively.

Up to the year 1855 Indian geology wasin acondition of extreme
confusion, for although much excellent work had been done,
chiefly by amateurs, still it was, from the nature of the case, of a
scattered and disjointed character, and the attempts at correlation
of deposits situated at wide intervals had led to very erroneous
conclusions, none of which were further from the truth, as now
known, than those having reference to the diamond-bearing
deposits.

In the year 1857 a collection of geological papers on Western
India, &<., with a summary of the geology of India generally,
were printed by the Government, under the editorship of Dr.
Henry J. Carter. Valuable as this publication was, its day is now
gone by, and it is, therefore, to be regretted that it should still
continue to be quoted, not only by discursive writers on India,
but even in standard works on general geology. :

The publications of the Geological Survey of India, as now
constituted, which commenced to appear more than twenty years
ago, have from time to time for different areas successively re-
placed the confusion and incorrect correlation by an orderly
arrangement based upon solid evidence. Erroneous conjectures
and unsound hypotheses have been overturned by work of that
kind, which, especially in a country like India, can only be
accomplished by professionals, whose whole time can be devoted
to the subject, and whose operations are systematized under the
leadership of one central authority.

The Occurrence and Distribution of Diamonds in India. 555

The issue of the “Manual of the Geology of India” last
year places the work of the Survey and our present knowledge of
Indian geology in a more accessible and condensed form than it
possessed when scattered through the now voluminous publica-
tions of the Survey. It is to be hoped that writers of geological
text-books will in the future refer to it for their facts, rather
than to the old sources of information, and that we shall never
again see the “diamond sandstone,” so called, classed as an Indian
representative of the European Oolite.

Among the authorities quoted by Dr. Carter in reference to
the diamond-bearing strata, the following are the principal :—
Heyne, Jacquemont, Franklin, Voysey, and Newbold.

Some of these, especially Heyne, maintained that the diamond
occurred only in a superficial recent conglomerate, formed of a
great variety of fragments of the surrounding rocks, and resting
indiscriminately on old rocks of different ages. Others recognised
that in some cases the matrix of the gem was a conglomerate,
which was a member of the clay slate formation, so called. This
“ clay slate formation,” which included sandstones and limestones,
and all their varieties now embraced in the Vindhyan formation,
were considered to be the altered representatives of the Oolite, this
being the age assigned to the coal-measures and associated plant
and reptilian fossil-bearing sandstones. The latter were in fact
held to constitute the unaltered portion of the rocks of the same
period. The work of the Survey has demonstrated that this
clay slate, or diamond sandstone, or Vindhyan formation is
separated by a wide break in time from the fossil-bearing rocks,
being itself, so far as is known, absolutely azoic, and occupying
a position in the geological sequence, which may range from
Lower Silurian to Carboniferous.

Further reference to the fossiliferous rocks will therefore be
unnecessary in this paper.*

Dr. Carter arrived at the conclusion that the diamond-bearing
conglomerates described by various authorities, occurred, at least,
in the neighbourhood of, if they did not constitute members
of, the Oolite formation. If for Oolite the term Vindhyan be

* They will be found described in my paper ‘“ On the Coal Fields and Coal Production of
India.”

556 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

substituted, the conclusion is probably in the main correct, and
borne out by the most recent researches. But these researches
have demonstrated that the principal diamond-bearing strata of
the northern and southern areas respectively occupy distinct
horizons, in those cases where the beds are not merely recent or
sub-recent accumulations of debris.

It is due to Captain Newbold to say that he disagreed with
the conclusions of many of the previous authorities, and he
appears to have been inclined to regard the ‘sandstones’ as being
of Devonian age—a supposition probably not very far from the
truth.

The Vindhyan rocks of Northern India are separated into two
formations or sets of groups, distinguished as Upper and Lower.

In Southern India, and possibly also in the Central Mahanadi-
Godaveri tract, it is considered that the lower set of groups is
alone represented, and the two have been correlated, as follows :—

On the southern rocks the local title of Karnul forma-
tion has been conferred.

Norruern Inpra. Mapras.
Vindhyan Formation. Karnul Formation.
Bhanrer Group.
Upper. <~ Rewah » (diamonds).
Kaimur _,,

( Tirhowan Limestone
| Palkoa Shales
Lower. { Dalchipur Sandstones
| Semri Shales and Limestone
{ Semri Sandstone

Khundair Shales and Limestones.

Paneum Quartzites.
Jamalmadgu Shales and Limestone.
Banaganpili Sandstones (diamonds).

At Panna, in Bandelkhand, diamonds are only known certainly
to occur 77 sitwin a conglomerate which is referred to tne Rewah
group. There are, however, as elsewhere, numerous workings in
alluvial or superficial deposits; but the greatest amount of labour
is Spent in mining in this the bottom bed of the group, which,
though it has a wide extension, has only as yet been ascertained
to be diamond-bearing in the neighbourhood of Panna. Although
diamonds have not been obtained directly from any lower group,
it would appear that this conglomerate is largely made up of
pebbles derived from the lowest or Semri sandstone group, and since
it is stated* that diamonds are sometimes found in these pebbles

* Mr. Medlicott, from whom I quote, states that this needs confirmation. The state-
ment was made to him by a native miner.-—JJanual, p. 92.

The Occurrence and Distribution of Diamonds in India. 557

when broken up, it would seem that the latter must include an
earlier if not the original matrix of the gem. ‘This point is of
great interest, since it brings us to a horizon, the base of the for-
mation, which is strictly comparable with that of the Banaganpili
group, which includes the lowest known matrix in Southern
India. The order of succession of the rocks in the Mahanadi-
Godaveri tract has not yet been ascertained ; but from the fact of
the only known localities where the diamond occurs being situated
on the margin of the area, it may with a considerable degree
of probability be assumed (notwithstanding possibly faulted
boundaries) that the matrix is in a bed close to the base of the
formation.

With regard to the minor areas, the Badrachelum diamonds
may perhaps have been derived from some of the Karnul or
Vindhyan rocks in the neighbourhood of the Godaveri.

The geology of the Chutia Nagpur localities is not yet known,
but it is probable that in their vicinity an outlier of the Mahanadi-
Godaveri rocks may exist.

The Simla diamonds, if the find be authentic, are of considerable
interest, for although, as has been shown, diamonds per se do not
afford evidence sufficient for exact correlation, still when it is
remembered that according to some authorities the older Paleozoic
rocks of the Himalayas present many points of resemblance with
those of the Peninsula, the possibility of the matrix containing
these diamonds being on a horizon comparable to that in the
Banaganpili group of the Karnul (L. Silurian?) formation cannot
fail to suggest itself.

As particulars regarding the exact locale whence the diamonds
were brought is not available, it would be useless to enter further
here into any account of the geology of the neighbourhood of
Simla.

Mr. Griesbach, of the Geological Survey of India, has recently
published some interesting remarks upon the correlation of the
Vindhyan rocks of India, with certain series occurring in South
Africa, to one of which the sandstones of the Table Mountain
belong. The possibility of the Cape diamonds therefore belonging
to a period or horizon directly comparable to that which includes
the Indian diamonds does not fail to suggest itself as a subject

558 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

worthy of future investigation. A comparison of the geology of
Borneo with that of India may also prove productive of interesting
results in this respect.

But the incorrect conclusions of the earlier writers, drawn from
imperfect data, which I have noticed above, as to the age of the
diamond-bearing strata in India, afford a sufficient warning of the
danger of premature attempts at correlation.

ORIGIN OF THE DIAMOND.

The examination of the diamond-bearing strata of India has
not resulted, so far as I know, in throwing any definite ight on
the yet unsettled question as to the conditions under which the
crystallization of carbon took place, thus forming the precious
gem which has occupied so important a position in history. Light
regarding the subject seems to be destined to reach us indeed
from another quarter, and it is to the synthetical operations of the
laboratory, which it is needless to point out have made such
great advances in this direction of late years, that we must look
for the true explanation.

But the absence of any clear evidence on the subject may be
due to the fact that it is still a matter of doubt whether in any
single recorded case in India a diamond has been found in its
original matrix. The lowest diamond-bearing stratum, at the
base ot the Karnul series, is itself a detrital conglomerate, and it
is not unreasonable to suppose that the diamonds may, like the
other ingredients, have been derived from some older metamor-
phosed rocks.

Mr. Kine* discusses some apparent cases of mines in the Ka-
dapah series of rocks which underlie the Karnuls, but he says *
there is “ still a doubt as to whether true rock-workings in these
beds were ever successful.”

Elsewhere, l.c., p. 101, however, he states of the diamonds shown
to him at Banaganpilly that— ‘

“‘ Nearly all the specimens were more or less perfect modifications of

the octahedron, with curved facets, one of them had each of its facets
crowned with a little pyramid of tables.

* Memoirs of the Geological Survey of India, Vol. viii., p. 88.

+ Strangely enough, Newbold speaks of the diamonds shown to him at the same locality
as being “ but imperfectly crystallized.”__J. R. A. S., Vol. vii.

The Occurrence and Distribution of Diamonds in India. 559

“They were smooth, tolerably bright and shining, and did not look as
if they had been worn ; in fact, they seemed to me to have been crystals
wm situinthe rock. In colour they were pale blue, or green and yellow.

Captain Newbold, in discussing this subject, without much
difficulty disposes of Captain Franklin’s suggestion that the beds
containing the diamonds of Panna may have been roasted by the
ignition of coal seams, which he believed existed below. He then
remarks :—“ It is fully proved, I think, from the experiments of
Sir David Brewster, that the diamond has once been in a soft
state, like amber, opal, or the tabashir. Minute cavities, sur-
rounded by a compressed structure, analogous to those in the
Laske diamond, are seen in several specimens of the Indian gem
which have been brought me by the diamond merchants.” He
appears to be disposed to favour the native idea that the diamond
is reproduced in the soil. “The old miners stated to me that a
term of fifteen or twenty years was requisite for the reproduction
of the gem.” They were in this belief led to rewash old tailings,
and accounted for the fact of the diamonds found in them being so
small by saying that they had not had time to grow larger. An
unbeliever in this hypothesis would be inclined to suggest that the
smallness of the diamonds accounted for their having eluded the
searchers in the first washings.

The same idea was favoured by Dr. Heyne, and it may be added
that various authorities have expressed a belief that alluvial gold
is formed by accretion of particles im situ, some even having
asserted that they have positive proof of the fact. But I do not
know that this proof has ever found expression in a form calculated
to carry with it conviction to any impartial expert. In point of
fact it is one which cannot really be seriously entertained for a
moment, and I merely mention it because it occurs in the early
accounts.

KADAPAH, OR CUDDAPAH, DISTRICT.

Within the limits of the Kadapah district the principal
localities where diamonds have been worked for are, according to
Mr. King, Cunnapurtee and Woblapully, or Obalumpally, near
Chennur, on opposite banks of the Pennair and Lamdur rivers,
and Pinchetgapadu, west of Chennur.

These mines are generally by authors referred to under the
title.

560 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

CHENNUR, OR CHINON.

This is a village near Kadapah town, where there are deserted
pits, which were sunk in gravels, derived from the disintegration
of the Banaganpilly quartzites, and lie below the black cotton
soil (or regur). These have recently been reopened by a Mtr.
Richardson, of Madras, who applied to the Collector of Kadapah
for permission to work the mines in 1869, at the favourable rent
of 100 rupees perannum. ‘The result isnot known, but there are
accounts of two diamonds having formerly come out of this field
which were eventually sola for 5,000 and 3,000 rupees each.* 7

CUNNAPURTEE, OR CONDAPETTA.

This locality appears to be identical with the Condapetta of
Captain Newbold, whose detailed account is, perhaps, of sufficient
interest to be quoted in extenso. He says:—t

«« At Condapetta the mines are generally of a square form, and from
four to twelve feet deep. The stratum cut through is of cotton soil,
mixed with small grains of quartz, generally from three to ten feet
thick, which rests immediately on a bed of rolled stones of various sizes,
from that of a paving stone toa nut,in which the diamonds are found,
generally loose, but sometimes adherent. The stones are mingled with
mud and gravel. The pebbles most commonly met with are ferruginous,
gritty, and schistose sandstones, sandstone conglomerates, embedding
rolled’ pebbles of quartz, chert and jasper ; claystone porphyry, with
crystals of felspar ; blue jasper, veined with oxide of iron ; coarse, red
jasper, and quartz crystals. Some of these pebbles have evidently
been transported from the adjacent hills, but the porphyritic and
felspathic pebbles must have travelled a much greater distance. Near
the base of the hills the cotton soil is covered with the red gritty earth,
arising from the disintegration of the sandstone rock.

“The process of mining consists merely in digging out the rolled
pebbles and gravel, and carrying them to small square reservoirs raised
on mounds, having their bottom paved with stones, and washing them
carefully. At the foot of the mound isa clear space surrounded by
heaps of refuse, where the washed gravel is again carefully spread out
and examined in presence of the diamond contractors ; the diamonds are
easily recognised in the moist state by their peculiar lustre. These
mines are let out by the Government to native contractors, who gave me
the following information on the spot. In 1834, the mines proved
profitable, but in the following year the miners lost a considerable sum,

* King, Records Geological Survey, Vol. ii., p. 9; and Memoirs Geological Survey.
Vol. viii., p. 106.
t J.R.A.S., Vol. vii., p. 226.

The Occurrence and Distribution of Diamonds in India. 561

The sum paid to Government by them for the privilege of mining a
piece of ground 100 yards long by 50 broad, for four months, is 200 *
rupees.

“ Dry weather is selected to carry on operations to avoid the in-
convenience and expense of draining. In former days all the diamonds
produced were carried for sale to Golconda. In those times very large
diamonds were found; but subsequent to British ascendency—which
according to the superstitious natives is by no means pleasing to the
tutelary deities of the mines—few of any value have been found,
probably in consequence of their being less looked after. However,
lately in 1839, a tine diamond of the Kshatriya or roseate caste was
dug from the Obalumpally mine, exceeding a gold pagoda in weight,
which was sold for 1,450 rupees.”

KARNUL DISTRICT.
Mr. King’s list of diamond localities in the Karnul District t

is as follows :-—

BANAGANPILLY, . 37 miles, 8.S.E. of Karnul. Rock workings worked.

MoonmuppaGcoo, 16 miles, W. of Banaganpilly. Rock workings. Deserted.

RAMULKOTA, . 18 miles, W. by S. of Karnul. Alluvial washings. Worked.
Rock workings deserted.

TimapooraM, . 6 miles E.S.E. of Ramulkota. Rock workings. Deserted.

ks \ ; 24 miles, S S.E. of Karnul. Rock workings. Deserted. (Captain

BYANPULLY
s y . G. Russell teste.
Gooramanconna, ) Lake ce)

Booval, Sf Nundycotkoor talug. Doubtful localities. (Captain J. G. Russell,

BANNOOR, test

DEvVANOOR, ¢ ate)

SHarrancotan, . Right bank of Toongabudra, E.N.E. of Karnul. Deserted.
DreomurroonH, . Left bank of Toongabudra. Deserted.

TANDRAPAD, “ “f as Alluvial deserted.

Busswapoor, . Nullamullays. Rock workings and alluvial washings. Deserted.

BANAGANPILLY.

The diamond mines at this locality have been visited and
described by many writers. Heyne, Newbold, Malcolmson, and
Voysey, have all left on record accounts of them

Mr. King’s already mentioned report, containing the latest and
most authentic account of them, it will be best perhaps to quote
from it a few passages verbatim at the same time, stating that
Mr. King refers those who are likely to be specially interested to
Dr. Heyne, for an account of the mines as they appeared in his
day.

* In 1840, the contract rose to about 250 rupees. When a diamond of more than a
gold pagoda in weight (52°56 grains at Madras) is found, it is sold by public auction,
and one-third of the proceeds goes to Government, the remainder to the mining con-

tractor.
+ Memoirs of the Geological Survey of India, Vol. vii., p. 106.

562 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

Mr. King writes :—

“'The quartzites of the Banaganpilly group form a cap, resting uncon-
formably on the denuded surface of a much older set of shales and traps
with some limestone bands . . . The quartzite covering is from 20
to 30 feet in thickness ; and it is pierced here and there over the
Banaganpilly end of the hill, by shafts of 15 feet or less, from the
bottoms of which nearly horizontal galleries are run to get at the seams
of diamond gangue. The capping is composed of compact grits and
sandstones in thickish beds above, and somewhat thinner bedded
towards the bottom.

“Kxternally the rocks are hard and vitreous. At the level of the
galleries there are beds of coarse pebbly conglomerate, occasionally a
breccia which are sandy and clayey, and with these run seams of more
shaley and clayey stuff. There is no trace of the clayey constitution on
the outside along the outcrop, nor are there any distinct bands of shales ;
there are only some sandy shales down at or near the bottom of the
series.

«|, . In the mines the coolees were picking out aseam of about six
or eight inches in thickness, occurring with thicker and harder beds of
sandstone, and which they said was the diamond layer; this rock when
brought to light turned out to be an easily broken up damp clayey
conglomerate and partly breccia, of small rounded fragments and pebbles
of black, red, green, and pale coloured shales and chert ts, and of quartzite
with lar; ee and small grains of dirty and pellucid quartz. This was the
rock extracted in all the mines then being worked. The gangue is then
pounded up, washed, sifted and laid out to dry on prepared floors, after
which the residue of clean sand is carefully examined in the hand, by the
women and children of the working parties, for the precious gems. I saw
no diamonds zm situ, nor did I see or hear of any diamond being found
during my stay at Banaganpilly for four or five days at a time.
Diamonds were brought to me which were reported to have been found
in the mines; but these were most disappointing in their minuteness,
flaws and dirty colours.”

I have already quoted Mr. ay above as to the crystalline
forms of these samples.

He says that the good specimens were valued at only ten
rupees by the merchants. But one specimen said to have come
from the Bellary District; but which he thought had probably
been found on the spot, was valued at 350 rupees.

“Neither the Nawab of Banaganpilly nor his followers, nor the
Tehsildar of the place, nor the merchants could, or would, tell me of
any better diamonds having been found for many years.”

Mr. King tracked the diamond-bearing strata for some miles
westward, beyond the region wherein it is worked.

The Occurrence and Distribution of Diamonds in India, 563

MooNIMUDDAGOO.

In the neighbourhood of Moonimuddagoo sixteen miles west-
by-south of Banaganpilly there is a continuation of the diamond-
bearing strata, which cover the older Kadapah rocks as with a
thin skin. The locality is described both by Mr. King and Cap-
tain Newbold. The mines have long been deserted, but according
to the last named authority, there was in his time a colony of
diamond polishers in the town.

RAMULKOTA.

The position of these mines is variously stated as being from
eighteen to twenty-one miles from Karnul, ina southerly direction.
They are also described by Mr. King and Captain Newbold.

They are now merely alluvial washings in the debris of the
Banaganpilly group, but formerly there were regular mines.
Captain Newbold says :—

“The pits, though not occupying so large a superficies, are deeper and
far more extensive than those near Kadapah, the old excavations in the
rocks resemble those of Banganapilly and Moonimudgoo. The diamonds
that were shown me here, one in the parent rock, the conglomerate,
were of an inferior size and but few crystallized in the octohedral form.
They had severally white, grey, yellow and greenish tints, but it was

told me that those found in the conglomerate rock are generally of a
superior description with a fine roseate tinge.”

Mining and washing is carried on as at Kadapah. There are
300 natives at work in the wet season, but only 20 when visited
by Newbold.

The contractors lease the mines for 750 rupees from the Nawab
of Karnul, and sublet to minor speculators.

The hire of a labourer is four pice or about three halfpence, and
a meal of rice per diem.

The exact identity of the locality described by Tavernier as
Raulkonda in the Karnatic, I have not been able to make out
w similarity in the sound suggests that it may have been the
same as the above, but the description of the geographical posi-
tions respectively, do not agree. Possibly it should be identified
with the modern Rowpoor to the east of Kadapah.,

564 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

RAOLKONDA IN THE KARNATIC.

This was the first mine visited and described by Tavernier,*
who stated that it was five days journey from Golconda, and
eight or nine from Visapour. This place is perhaps identical
with Volcondah, in Trichinipoli, lat. 12° 20”

“The strata containing the diamonds ranged from half an inch to an
inch in thickness, and the gangue was hooked out with iron rods. Some

of the stones were valued at from two to sixteen thousand crowns. The
steel wheel was used for cutting.’T

Tavernier gives an account of the polishing of the gems as
practised here. His account of the great security of property
and system, with reference to the sale of diamonds, together with
the courtesy with which he was treated, will be read generally
with interest.

Proceeding north-westwards from Karnul the next locality
is Gani.

Gantt on the Bhima influent of the Krishina, so called by
Tavernier, known to the Persians as Coulour, and at present
bearing the name Barkalun, according to Captain Burton.

Tavernier’s account of the mine at this locality is, as fol-
lows :—$

“‘Tt ig not above a hundred years since this mine was discovered by a
countryman, who digging ina piece of ground to sow millet, found
therein a pointed stone that weighed above twenty-five carats. He, not
knowing what the stone was, but seeing it glisten, carried it to Golconda,
where, as it happened well for him, he met with one that traded in
diamonds. The merchant informing himself of the place where the
stone was found, admired to see a jewel of that bigness, not having seen
before one that weighed ten or twelve carats. However, his report
made a great noise in the country. Inasmuch that the moneyed men in
the town set themselves to work, and causing the ground to be searched
they found and still do find bigger stones and in greater quantity than
in any other mine, for they found a great nuinber of stones from ten to
forty carats, and sometimes bigger, among the rest that large stone
that weighed 900 carats, which Mirimgola presented to Aurengzeb. ||

* Travels. BookII. Pt. II., Chap. XI. ‘‘Of diamonds and the mines and rivers
where they are found, and first of the author’s journey to the mine of Raolconda.”

+ Quoted from Capt. Burton, Quarterly Journal of Science, N.S., Vol. vi., 1876.

+ Written Garree by Dieulafait, ‘ Diamonds and Precious Stones.’ London, Blackie,
1874.

§ Travels, Chap. XII.

|| This by some authorities is thought to have been the Koh-i-noor, which is said to
have been found in the year 1550.

The Occurrence and Distribution of Diamonds in India. 565

“‘ After the miners have pitched upon the place where they intend to
work they level another place close by, of the same extent, or else a
little bigger, which they enclose with a wall about two foot high. In
the bottom of that little wall, at the distance of every two foot, they
make small holes to let in the water, which they stop up afterwards till
they come to drain out the water again. The place being prepared the
people that are to work meet all together, men, women, and children,
with the workmaster in the company of his friends and relations. Then
he brings along with him some little image of the god that they adore.”

After worship of this and a feast of rice, Tavernier continues :—

“When the feast is over the men fall to digging, the women and
children to carry earth to the place prepared in that manner as I have
already described. They dig ten, twelve, and sometimes fourteen feet
deep, but when they come to any water they leave off.

All the earth being carried into the place before mentioned, the men,
women, and children throw the water which is in the drains upon the
earth, letting it soak for two or three days according to the hardness of
it, till it comes to be a kind of batter, then they open the holes in the
wall to let out the water and throw on more water still, till all the mud
be washed away and nothing left but the sand. After that they dry it
in the sun, and then they winrow the sand in little winnows as we
winnow our corn.

a, The earth being thus winnowed, they spread it into a kind of
rake, as thin as they possibly can ; then with a wooden instrument, like a
paviour’s rammer, about half a foot wide at the bottom, they pound
the earth from one end to the other two or three times over. After
that they winnow it again then, and spreading it at one end of the van,
for fear of losing any of the earth, they look for the diamonds. For-
merly they were wont to pound the earth with great flintstones instead
of wooden rammers, which made great flaws in the diamonds, and is,
therefore, now left off.

“The first time I was at the mine there were about 60,000 persons at
work—-men, women, and children ; the men being employed to dig, the
women and children to carry the earth.”

ELLORE DISTRICT.

. The principal mines in the Ellore district are situated on the
banks of the Kistna, or Krishna. They are named Golapilly
Malavilly, and Purtial.

GOLAPILLY.
The diamond pits at this locality, according to Mr. King, were
sunk in conglomerates and pebble beds of tertiary age* (Rajah-
mundry Sandstone group). Mr. Blanfordt says that the—

* Records of the Geological Survey of India, Vol. x., p. 58.
tIdem, Vol. v., p. 27.

566 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

“ Diggings appear not to have been in the sandstone itself, but in the
very gravelly laterite which rests upon the sandstone, but the surface is
so much broken and altered by the pits that it is difficult to say. The
workings cover a very considerable area.”

At the time of Mr. Blanford’s visit (1871) these mines had the
appearance of having been long abandoned, being covered with
bush jungle.

Dr. Heyne (Tracts) stated that—

“‘In the Ellore district the diamond stratum is covered by a thick
stratum of calcareous trap.”

This does not appear to have been confirmed by any subse-
quent writer, and is apparently a mistake. The thickness of the
conglomerate is said to be from two to six feet thick, perhaps
more in some places.

MuLAILY, OR MaAwavitiy, N.E. oF BEZWARRA.

As at Golapilly, the mines here also were in tertiary con-
glomerates (King). Captain Newbold* describes the bed of gravel
in which the pits were sunk as being “composed chiefly of rolled
pebbles of quartz sandstone chert, ferruginous jasper, con-
glomerate sandstone, and kankur, lying in a stratum of dark
mould about a foot thick.” He appears, according to Mr. King,
to have been wrong in identifying this deposit, which rests on
gneiss, with the true old diamond conglomerate of Banaganpilly,
of which it should, therefore, not be regarded as an outlier—
though, doubtless, there is some similarity in the component
pebbles, &c., which form both rocks.

Dr. Benza believed the conglomerate to be continuous from
hence through Ellore and Rajahmundry, to Samulcotah, where also
diamonds are said to have been found.

PURTIAL, OR PURTEEALI.

The mines so called are situated near a village of the same
name, which is not far from

“ Kondapilly, about 150 miles from Hyderabad, on the road to
Masulipatam. The property of them was reserved by the late Nizam
when he ceded the northern circars to the English Government. They
are superficial, not extending ten or twelve feet deep in any part. For
-some years past the working of them has been discontinued.”

* Geological Notes, p. 67, of Carter’s Collection of Geological Papers.

The Occurrence and Distribution of Diamonds in India. 567

Mr. Briggs, the author of the above, who is quoted by Captain
Burton,* adds :—

“ And there is no tradition of their ever having produced very valuable
stones.”

Captain Burton remarks upon the statement that it is full of
error, as the Pitt or Regent diamond came from Purtial, but
Captain Newbold says it came from Borneo, being bought by Mr.
Pitt, a merchant, of Bencoolen, in Sumatra.

Regarding the origin of these diamonds from the various
localities bordering the Kistua river, near Kondapilly, Captain
Newbold expresses his belief that the materials of the beds were
bronght down from the hills of sandstone and limestone through
which the river has recently passed, and Voysey remarks the
persistency of the same kind of conglomerate at all the mines.

CENTRAL PROVINCE OR MAHANADI—GODAVERI TRACT.
SAMBALPUR.

In Rennell’s “ Memoir on a Map of Hindustan,’t the following
passage occurs :—

“Qn the west of Boad and near the Mahanuddy river, Mr. Thomas
passed a town of the name of Beiragurh, which I take to be the place
noted in the Ayin Acbaree as having a diamond mine in its neigh-
bourhood. There is, indeed,a mine of more modern date in the vicinity
of Sambalpur ; but this whole quarter must from very early times have
been famous for producing diamonds. Ptolemy’s Adamas river answers
perfectly to the Mahanuddy, and the district of Sabare, on its banks, is
said to abound in diamonds. Although this geographer’s map of India
is so exceedingly faulty in the general form of the whole tract, yet
several parts of it are descriptive.”

With reference to Beiragurh, I can find no place of that name
in Sambalpur, and the late Mr. Blochmann, to whom I referred the
matter, informed me that the Beiragurh mentioned in the Ain
Akbari is there stated to be in the Subah Berar, and was, there-
fore, probably not identical with the place mentioned by Mr.
Thomas, according to Col. Rennell.{ In Ptolemy’s map$ the

* Quarterly Journal of Science, N.S., Vol. vi., 1876.

+ London, 1792, p. 240.

+ One of the diamond localities in Panna is called Baraghari.

§ Asie x tab. ‘‘Geographie libri Octo, Gr. et Lat. Opera P. Bertii Lugduni.” Bat.
1618. Fol.

Scren. Proc. R.D.S. Vou. u., Pr. vit. 2Q

568 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

Adamas flows into the Gangeticus sinus (Bay of Bengal), mid-
way between Cosamba on the north (Balasore?) and Cocala.
(Sicacole of Arrowsmith’s map, the modern Chicacole). The
Dosaron and Tyndis rivers probably represent the Godaveri and
Kistna, so that it is very likely that the Adamas may safely be
identified with the Mahanadi. Ptolemy represents the Adamas
as flowing through the district of Sabarz, across which runs the
following description :—“ Apud quos adamas est in copia,” which
is otherwise given in an earlier edition of the map.* “ Sabare
ihis habundat Adamas.” [In Sabarz the diamond occurs in
abundance.] The upper portion of the river passes through a
district named Cocconage, which would include Chutia Nagpur.

The first visit to these mines of which I have been able to find
a record was made by the already-mentioned French jeweller
Tavernier,t who appears to have gone there somewhere about
1665. He says :—

‘<T come to the third mine, which is the most ancient of all, in the
kingdom of Bengala. You may give it the name of Soumelpour,
which is the name of the town next to the place where diamonds are
found, or rather Gouel, which is the name of the river in the sand
whereof they seek for the stones. The territories through which this river
runs belong to a Raja who was anciently tributary to the Great
Mogul, but revolted in the time of Shah Jehan and Gehan Guir, his
father. So soon as Sha Jehan came to the empire he sent to demand
his tribute of this Raja, as well for the time past as to come, who, finding
that his revenues were not sufficient to pay him, quitted his country,
and retired into the mountains with his subjects. Upon his refusal Sha
Jehan, believing he would stand it out, sent a great army against him,
persuading himself that he should find great store of diamonds in his
country. But he found neither diamonds nor people, nor victuals—the
Raja having burnt all the corn which his people could not carry away,
so that the greatest part of Sha Jehan’s army perished for hunger. At

length the Raja returned into his country, upon condition to pay the
Mogul some slight tribute.”

Then follows an account of the route travelled over by Taver-
nier from Agra, via Allahabad and Rhotas to Sambalpur. He
continues :—

‘* Soumelpour is a great town, the houses whereof are built of earth,
and covered only with branches of coco { trees. All these 30 leagues

*Tab. x. ‘‘Cosmographiz,” libri viii. Lat. Justi de Albano, Ulmae. 1486. Fol.

t Travels. London, 1678. Bookii., chap. xiii., p. 189.

+ Probably the leaves of the Tal palm. The Cocoa-nut does not occur at present in
Sambalpur. Elsewhere, however, it has been found at as great a distance from the sea.

The Occurrence and Distribution of Diamonds in India, 569

(i.e. from Rhotas to Sambalpur), you travel through woods, which is
a very dangerous passage, as being very much pestered with robbers.

“The Raja lives half a league from the town in tents, set upon a fair
rising ground, at the foot whereof runs the Gouel, descending from the
southern mountains, and falling into the Ganges.

“Jn this river they find the diamonds. For after the great rains are
over which is usually in December, they stay all January till the river
be clear, by reason that by that time in some places it is not above two
feet deep, and in several places the sand lies above the water.

“ About the end of January or the beginning of February, there flock
together out of the great town, and some others adjoining about eight
thousand persons, men, women, and children, that are able to work.
They that are skilful know by the sand whether there be any diamonds
or no, when they find among the sand little stones like to those we call
‘thunder stones.’ They begin to make search in the river from the
town of Soumelpour to the very mountains from whence the river falls
for fifty leagues together.

“‘ Where they believe there are diamonds, they encompass the place
with stakes, faggots and earth as when they go about to make the arch
of a bridge, to drain all the water out of that place. Then they dig out
all the sand for two feet deep, which is all carried and spread upon a
great place for that purpose prepared upon the side of the river, encom-
passed with a little wall about a foot and a half high.

“When they have filled this place with as much sand as they think
convenient, they throw water upon it, wash it, and sift it, doing in
other things as they do at the mines, which I have above described.

“« From this river come all those fair points which are called natural
points ; but a great stone is seldom found here. The reason why none
of these stones have been seen in Europe, is because of the wars that
have hindered the people from working.”

The next visit of which there is any published account is
described in the narrative of a journey which was undertaken by
Mr. Motte in the year 1766.* The object of this journey was to
initiate a regular trade in diamonds with Sambalpur, Lord Clive
being desirous of employing them as convenient means of re-
mitting money to England. His attention had been drawn to
Sambalpur by the fact that the Raja had, a few months previously,
sent a messenger with a rough diamond, weighing 164 carats, as
a sample, together with an invitation to the Governor to depute
a trustworthy person to purchase diamonds regularly. The
Governor proposed to Mr. Motte to make the speculation a joint
concern, “ In which,” writes the latter, “I was to hold a third;
he the other two ; all the expenses to be borne by the concern.

* “ Asiatic Annual Register,” London, 1799

Scien. Proc. R.D.S. Vot. 1, Pr. vu. 2Q2

570 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

The proposal dazzled me, and I caught at it, without reflecting on
the difficulties of the march, or on the barbarity of the country,
&e.”

In spite of his life being several times in danger from attacks
by the natives, the loss of some of his followers by fever, and a
varied chapter of other disasters, Mr. Motte was enabled to collect
a considerable amount of interesting information about the
country. Owing to the disturbed state of Sambalpur town, how-
ever, he was only able to purchase a few diamonds. After much
prolonged negotiation, he was permitted to visit the junction of
the Rivers Hebe (Ebe) and Mahanadi, where the diamonds were
said to be found. A servant of the Raja’s who was in charge
there, informed him that “it was his business to search in the
River Hebe, after the rains, for red earth, washed down from the
mountains, in which earth diamonds were always found. I asked
him if it would not be better to go to the mountains and dig for
that earth. He answered that it had been done, until the
Maharattas exacted a tribute from the country ; and todo so now
would only increase that tribute. He showed me several heaps
of the red earth—some pieces, of the size of small pebbles, and so
on, till it resembles coarse brick-dust—which had been washed
and the diamonds taken out.”*

Mr. Voysey on his last journey, from Nagpur to Calcutta in
1824, visited the diamond washings of Sambalpur.

He mentioned that the gems were

“‘ Sought for in the sand and gravel of the river—the latter consisting
of pebbles of clay slate, flinty slate, jasper, and jaspery iron stone of
all sizes, from an inch to a foot in diameter.” +

The next mention of Sambalpur diamonds is to be found in
Lieutenant Kittoe’s accountt of his journey, in the year 1838,
through the forests of Orissa. He speaks of the people as being
too apathetic and indolent to search for diamonds. His remarks
on the localities where they occur seem to be derived from Mr.
Motte’s account, to which, indeed, he refers.

* This description suggests laterite as the matrix from which the diamonds were proxi-
mately derived. Messrs. Hislop and Hunter vide infra describe the diamonds of Weira-
gurh, as occurring in laterite gravel, In this connexion it may be noted that one of the
principal sources of Cape diamonds is said to be a superficial ferruginous conglomerate.

+ Vide Carter’s Summary of the Geology of India, p. 724.
t “Journal Asiatic Society, Bengal,” Vol. viii., 1839, p. 375

The Occurrence and Distribution of Diamonds in India. 571

Although published in the same number of the Asiatic Society's
Journal* we find a paper dated two years later, or 1840, which
was written by Major Ouseley, on the “Process of Washing for
Gold-dust and Diamonds at Heera Khoond.” In this we meet
the following statement :—

The Heera Khoond is that part of the river which runs south of the
islands. The diamonds and gold-dust are said to be washed down the Ebe
River, about four miles above the Heera Khoond ; but as both are pro-
curable as far as Sonpur, I am inclined to think there may be veins of
gold along the Mahanadi.”

The occurrence of diamonds in the river so far below Sambalpur
as Sonpur, must have been very exceptional. No mention is
made by Major Ouseley of the system of throwing an embank-
ment across one of the channels, which is described below; but
from my inquiries I gathered that that method of washing was in
practice for many years before the period of Major Ouseley’s visit.
He describes the operations of individual washers—not the com-
bined efforts of the large number, which made that washing
successful. The diamonds found became the property of the
Raja, while the gold was the perquisite of the washers, who sold
it for from twelve to fifteen rupees a tola.

Captain Newbold says,t that “diamonds of considerable value

are also found in the bed and alluvium of the Mahanadi River,
especially at Sambalpur, and about the mouths of the Hebe,
Khelu, and Mand streams, but their beds have not hitherto, I
believe, been traced.” Captain Burton mentions{ that according
to some authority not named, the Majnodi, a tributary of the
Mahanadi, contained diamonds.

In the Central Provinces Gazetteer it is stated that :-—

“ During the period of native rule some fifteen or twenty villages
were granted rent free to a class called Jhiras, in consideration of their
undertaking the search for diamonds. When the country lapsed in
1850, these villages were resumed.”

So far as can be gathered from the various sources of informa-
tion, large and valuable diamonds have been occasionally met

* Journal Asiatic Society, Bengal, Vol. viii., 1839, p. 1057.
7 Jour. Roy. Asiatic Society, Vol. vii.
t Quarterly Journal of Science, N.S., Vol. vi., 1876, p. 351.

572 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

with; but the evidence on this point is somewhat conflicting. Ido
not think, however, that what we know is altogether consistent
with the statement in the Gazetteer, that “the best stones ever
found here were thin and flat, with flaws in them.”

Local tradition speaks of one large diamond, which was found
during the Maharatta occupation. Its size made its discovery too
notorious; otherwise it would in all probability, like many other
smaller ones, found at that time, never have reached the hands of
the Maharatta agent. It is said to have weighed two tolas and
two mashas (at ten mashas to the tola)* which would be about
3162 grains troy, or expressed in carats 99'°3. It would be impos-
sible, of course; to make any estimate of the value of a rough
stone of this size, regarding the purity, colour, &e., of which
nothing is known.+ Another diamond, in the possession of Narain
Singh, is said to have weighed about a tola, the equivalent of
which, calculated as above, would be 45°35 carats. Already one
of 16°5 carats has been mentioned as having been sent to Cal-
cutta in 1766. One large, but slightly flawed diamond, which I
saw in the possession of a native in Sambalpur, was valued in
Calcutta, after cutting, at Rs. 2,500. Mr. Emanuel, in his work
on “Diamonds and Precious Stones,” gives some particulars
regarding the diamonds of Sambalpur, but the limited information
at his disposal does not appear to have been very accurate. He
records one diamond of 84 grains having been found within the
period of British rule, but does not mention his authority. There
are said to be a good many diamonds still in the hands of the
wealthier natives in Sambalpur. Of course, large diamonds such
as those above mentioned, are of exceptional occurrence ; those
ordinarily found are said to have weighed, however, two to four
rutties, equal on an average, say, to the thirtieth part of a tola, or
47 grains = 1°48 carats. In the Geological Museum at Calcutta
there is at present a diamond which was sent to the Asiatic
Society of Bengal, from Sambalpur, by Major Ouseley. It weighs
only °855 grains='26 carats.

* (One masha=14'37 grains troy): properly speaking there are 12 mashas in a standard
tola.

{ Tavernier’s method of ascertaining the value of any diamond was to square the

number of carats, and then multiply the result by the value of a one-carat stone of equal
purity.

The Occurrence and Distribution of Diamonds in India. 575

As is usual, I believe, in all parts of India, the diamonds were
classed, as follows :—

1—Brahman.—White, pure water. I1.—Kshatrya.—Rose or
reddish. III.—Vasiya—Smoky. IV.—Sudra.—Dark and im-
pure.

With regard to the origin of the Sambalpur diamonds, the geolo-
gical structure of the country leaves but little room for doubt as to
the source from whence they are derived. Coincident with their
occurrence is that of a group of rocks, which has been shown to
be referable to the Vindhyan series, certain members of which
series.are found in the vicinity of all the known diamond-yielding
localities in India, and in the cases of actual rock-workings, are
found to include the matrix of the gems.

In several of the previous accounts, the belief is either stated
or implied that the diamonds are brought into the Mahanadi by
its large tributary the Ebe. It would not, of course, help the
point | am endeavouring to establish as to their origin, to say
that the Ebe, at least within our area, except indirectly,* is not
fed by waters which pass over Vindhyan rocks, but I have the
positive assurance of the natives that diamonds have not been
found in that river, although gold is and has been regularly
washed for. On the other hand, diamonds have been found in
the bed of the Mahanadi as far west as Chanderpur, and at other
intermediate places, well within the area which is exclusively
occupied by the quartzites, shales, and limestones of Vindhyan
age.

The fact that the place, Hira Khund, where the diamonds were
washed is on metamorphic rocks, may be readily explained by
the physical features of the ground. The rocky nature of the
bed there, and the double channel caused by the island, afforded
unusual facilities for, in the first place, the retention of the
diamonds brought down by the river; and secondly, fur the
operations by which the bed could on one side be laid bare, and
the gravel washed by the simple contrivances known to the
natives.

It is impossible to say at present which the actual bed or beds
of rock may be from whence the diamonds have been derived, as
there is no record or appearance of the rock ever having been

* By afew small streams which rise in an isolated outlying hill, called Gotwaki,

574 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

worked; but from the general lithological resemblance of the
sandstones and shales of the Barapahar hills, and the outlier at
Borla, with the diamond-bearing beds, and their associates at
Panna in Bhandelkand, and Banaganpilli in Karnul, I have very
little hesitation in pointing to these rocks as in all probability in-
cluding the matrix. Above Padampur, the Mahanadi runs
through rocks of this age, and I should therefore strongly urge
upon any one who may hereafter embark upon the undertaking
of searching for diamonds in Sambalpur, to confine his operations,
in the first instance, to the streams and small rivers which rise in
the Barapahar hills, and join the Mahanadi on the south. Besides
the obvious advantage of being—as I believe would be found to
be the case—close to the matrix, these streams, would, I think,
be found to contain facilities for obtaining a sufficient head of
water for washing purposes. Such works would require but a
few labourers, and could be carried on for a much longer period
every year, say altogether for eight or nine months, than would
be possible in the case of the washings in the bed of the Mahanadi
itself.

According to the accounts received by me, the southern channel
of the Mahanadi used not to be emptied in the Raja’s time; but
from various causes I should expect it to yield, proportionately, a
larger number of diamonds than the northern. In the first place,
the stronger current in it would be more efficient in removing the
substances of less specific gravity than diamonds, while the rocks
and deep holes in it afford admirable means for the retention of
the latter. Owing to the greater body of water to be dealt with,
it would be found to be more difficult to divert than that which
flows in the northern channel; but the result in a greater harvest
of diamonds would probably far more than compensate for the
greater expenditure incurred.

In the country to the south of Sambalpur, in Karial and Now-
agarh, where rocks of similar age occur to those of the Barapahar
hills. I have failed to find any traditional record of diamonds
having ever been found or searched for. It is just possible, how-
ever, that the names of several villages in which the word Hira
(diamond) occurs, may have reference to some long-forgotten
discovery.

In addition to diamonds—pebbles of beryl, topaz, carbuncle,

The Occurrence and Distribution of Diamonds in India. 575

amethyst, cornelian, and clear quartz, used to be collected in the
Mahanadi; but I have not seen either sapphires or rubies. It is
probable that the matrix of these, or most of them, exists in the
metamorphic rocks, and is, therefore, distinct from that of the
diamonds.

Method of working—From personal enquiry from the oldest of
the Jhiras, or washers at the village of Jnunan, and from various
other sources, I have gathered the following details as to the
manner ir which the operations were carried on in the Raja’s
time :—In the centre of the Mahanadi, near Jhunan, there is an
island, called Hira Khund,* which is about four miles long, and
for that distance separates the waters of the river into two
channels. In each year, about the beginning of March or even
later, when other work was slack and the level of the water was
approaching its lowest, a large number of people,—according to
some of my informants, as many as five thousand, Tavernier
(vide supra) said 8,000 in his time,—assembled and raised an
embankment across the mouth of the northen channel, its share
of water being thus deflected into the southern. In the stagnant
pools left in the former, sufficient water remained to enable the
washers to wash the gravel accumulated between the rocks in
their rude wooden trays and cradles. Upon women seems to
have fallen the chief burden of the actual washing, while the
men collected the stuff. The implements employed and the
method of washing were similar to those commonly adopted in
gold-washing, save only that the finer gravel was not thrown
away until it had been thorougaly searched for diamonds. At
least I was given so to understand, but Tavernier’s account of this
part of the process is probably correct. Whatever gold was
found became the property of the washer, as already stated,
Those who were so fortunate as to find a valuable stone were
rewarded by being given a village. According to some accounts,
the washers generally held their villages and lands rent-free ; but
I think it most unlikely that all who were engaged in the oper-
ations should have done so. So far as I could gather, the people
did not regard their (in a manner) enforced services as involving
any great hardship; they gave me to understand that they would

* Lit. Diamond mine,

576 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

be glad to see the annual search re-established on the old terms.
Indeed it is barely possible to conceive of the condition of the
Jhiras having been at any time worse than it is at present. No
doubt the gambling element, which may be said to have been
ever present in work of the above nature, commended it to the
native mind. According to Mr. Emanuel, these people show
traces of Negro blood, and hence it has been concluded that they
are the “ descendants of slaves imported by one of the conquerors
of India.” They are, however, I should Say, an aboriginal tribe,
showing neither in their complexions, character of their features,
nor hair, the slightest trace of N egro orign.

When Sambalpur was taken over by the British, in 1850, the
Government offered to lease out the right to seek for diamonds,
and in 1856 a notification appeared in the Gazette describing the
prospect in somewhat glowing terms. For a short time the lease
was held by a European, at the very low rate of two hundred
rupees per annum ; but as it was given up voluntarily, it may be
concluded that the lessee did not make it pay. The facts that
the Government resumed possession of the rent-free villages,
while the Raja's operations had been carried on without any
original outlay, materially altered the case, and rendered the
employment of a considerable amount of capital then, as it
would be now, an absolute necessity.

Within the past few years statements have gone the round of
the Indian papers to the effect that diamonds are now occa-
sionally found by the gold-washers of Sambalpur. All my
inquiries failed to elicit a single authentic case, and the gold-
washers I spoke to and saw at work assured me that the state-
ments were incorrect. Moreover, they did not appear to expect
to find any, as I did not observe that they even examined the
gravel when washing.

WEIRAGURH OR WEIRAGUD, EIGHTY MILES SOUTH-EAST OF
NAGPUR.

This locality has not as yet been visited by any member of
the. Geological Survey, and information regarding it is scanty.
The Rev. Messrs. Hislop and Hunter, in their well known paper*

* Journal of the Geological Society, Vol. xi., p. 355.

The Occurrence and Distribution of Diamonds in India. 577

describing the formations of the Central Provinces of India,
merely say that the matrix of the diamonds is a lateritic grit the
only rock in its vicinity being quartzose and metamorphic.
Hence they argue that Malcolmson,* and after him Newbold were
wrong in inferring the identity of the sandstones of Central, with
that of Southern India from the supposed occurrence of the
diamond in the former,and they enlarge upon the supposed fact that
most of the diamond-bearing deposits though resting on rocks of
various ages are merely superficial and recent, and that therefore
the diamond does not afford a safe guide for correlating the older
rocks.

The whole discussion shows misconceptions on both sides
which our present knowledge enables us perhaps to clear up. It
is quite true that the sandstones of the Central Provinces which
are referred to are not of the same age as the sandstones of
Southern India which accompany the diamond-bearing strata,
they are in fact very much younger, and Messrs. Hislop and
Hunter were no doubt correct in asserting that the diamonds of
the lateritic gravel had not been derived from them. But the
mention of the quartzose metamorphic rock confirms what is
independently probable, namely that the great basin of lower
Vindhyan or Karnul rocks which occupies the upper portion of
the Mahanadi valley stretches into the neighbourhood of
Weiragurh, and it may therefore be suggested with a considerable
degree of probability that the ultimate derivation of these
diamonds is from a stratum occupying a horizon identical with
that which constitutes the matrix of the Sambalpur diamonds,
and as that in a general way has already been correlated with
the diamond horizon in the Karnul rocks, the theories of both
sets of observers contained hypotheses partly correct and partly
erroneous the correct portions respectively supplementing one
another. Malcolmson and Newbold were right in supposing that
the diamonds of Weiragurh indicated the existence of rocks of
the same age as those of Southern India (the Karnul formation),
but were wrong in supposing that the fossiliferous sandstones
which they referred to included the source of the gems. On the
other hand Messrs. Hislop and Hunter while pointing out the

* Bombay Branch Royal Asiatic Society’s Journal, Vol. i., p. 520.

578 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

latter mistake did not realise the existence of another formation
close by from which the gems probably did originally come. They
seemed to regard the diamonds both here and elsewhere through-
out India as being a product of superficial deposits without refer-
ence to the nature of the beds upon which they rested.

When and by whom these mines were worked, and with what
results, I cannot say, as I do not know of any published account
of them. In the Central Provinces Gazetteer it is stated that
“good sandstone and granite are obtained near the town; and
mines of diamonds and rubies were formerly worked in the
vicinity.” The examination of the geological structure of this
neighbourhood, and a comparison of it with that of Sambalpur,
will, doubtless, be undertaken ere long by the Geological Survey.
If the stratum which contains the diamonds should be identified,
and if its lateral extension should prove equal to the known area
occupied by the Vindhyan rocks, then we shall havea diamond-
bearing tract probably greater in area than either those of
Karnul or Bandelkhand.

CHUTIA NAGPUR.

As already stated above, on page 18, the upper portion of
Ptolomey’s Adamas jlus passes through a district named Coc-
conage, which would include Chutia Nagpur. Independently of
this, however, there are good reasons for believing that diamonds
were found in Chutia Nagpur. The following notices on the
subject I quote from a paper by the late Mr. Blochmann* :-—

“ Kokrah (the ancient name of Chutia Nagpur) was known at the
Mogul court for its diamonds, and it is evidently this circumstance which
led the generals of Akbar and Jahangiri to invade the district. I have
found two notices of Kokrah in the Akbarnamah, and one in the
Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri, from which it appears that Chutia Nagpur was ruled
over in 1585 by Madhu-Singh, who in that year became tributary to
Akbar. He was still alive in a.p. 1591, when he served under Man
Singh in the Imperial Army which invaded Orissa. ‘‘Tuzuk--Jahangiri
(p. 155):—On the 3rd Isfandiarmuz of the 10th year of my reign (A.D.
1616) it was reported to me (Jahangiri) that Ibrahim Khan (Governor
of Bihar) had overrun Kokrah and taken possession of its diamond-
washings. This district belongs to Swbah Bihar, and the river which
flows through it yields the diamonds. When the river contains little
water, tumuli and hollows are formed. The diamond-diggers know from

* Journal Asiatic Society of Bengal, Vol. xi.

The Occurrence and Distribution of Diamonds in India. 579

experience that chiefly those tumuli contain diamonds over which insects
hover, called by the Hindus Jhingah. They pile up stones on all sides
of the tumuli, and then cut into them with hatchets and chisels and
collect the diamonds from among the sand and stones. Sometimes
diamonds are found of the value of a lac of rupees each. The district
and the diamond river are in the possession of the Zamindar Durjan
Sal. The governors of Bihar frequently sent detachments into Kohrah ;
but as the roads are fortitied and the jungles impenetrable, the governors
were generally satistied with a tribute of two or three diamonds. When
T appointed Ibrahim Khan Governor of Bihar, vice Zafar Khan, I told
him at the time of departure to invade the district and drive away the
unknown petty Rajah. No sooner had Ibrahim entered on his office
than he prepared himself to invade Kokrah. The Rajah, according to
eustom, sent a few diamonds and elephants ; but [brahim was dissatisfied,
and invaded the district before the Raja could collect his men. When
he received news of the invasion he was already besieged in the pass
where he used to reside. Some of [brahim’s men who had been sent
out to look for him found him with several persons, among them his
mother, another wife of his father, and one of his brothers, concealed in
a cave. They were deprived of the diamonds in their possession.
Twenty-three elephants besides were taken. . . . The district is
now subject to me. All diamonds found in the river are forwarded to
court. Only a few days ago a diamond arrived which hada value of
50,000 rupees, and I hope many more will be added to my store of
jewels.’ The diamond river alluded to is the Sunk.”

To the present day a spot in the Sunk river is pointed out by the
inhabitants as the place where the diamonds were washed for. In
the year 1878 Captain Lowis, Guardian of the Chutia Nagpur
Estate, pointed out to me this locality on the map.

Mr. Blochmann also gives a quotation from a history of the
Maharajahs of Chutia Nagpur, in which is described a method of
testing diamonds for flaws by affixing them to the horns of
fighting rams, and states that—

“ Jahangiri says the diamonds which Ibrahim Khan had brought from
Kokrah had been given to the grinders. ‘They were now submitted to
me, and among them is one which looks like a sapphire. I have never
seen a diamond of such a colour. It weighs several radtis, and my
lapidaries fix its value at 3,000 rupees, though they would give 20,000
for it if it were quite white and stood the full test.’ ”

Colonel Dalton (Ethnology of Bengal, p. 163N), states that the
Raja of Chutia Nagpur’s fainily still possesses a diamond valued at
40,000 rupees, from these now fabulous mines. As illustrating the
methods by which English officials in the olden time shook the
pagoda tree, the following will be read with interest In the

we:

580 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

year 1772 the Raja appeared before Captain Camar, commanding
a force in Palamow, and after exchange of turbans acknowledged
himself as a vassal of the Company.

“Tn regard to this exchange of turbans,” writes Colonel Dalton, “ the
family annals tell a strange tale. In the Raja’s turban were some very
valuable diamonds, which it is insinuated had excited the cupidity of
Captain Camar. The proposal for the exchange emanated, it is said,
from him. He declared it was the English method of swearing eternal
friendship, but the Captain had no diamonds in his head-dress, and the
Raja evidently concluded that he had been rather ‘done’ by the Com-
pany’s officer.”

In Gangpur the Icha river, which is a tributary of the Ebe,
is marked on the Topographical Survey Map as being the site
of diamond washings, but on what authority I know not. I
have, however, myself heard the Ebe, near its sources, spoken of
as the Hira (diamond) river.

Geology.—The geology of the localities on the Sunk and Icha
rivers isnot yet known. Possibly it may be found that there are
outliers of the [Mahanadi-Godaveri] Vindhyan formation in their
vicinity.

BANDELKHAND.

The writers who have described the diamonds and diamond
mines of Bandelkhand, from personal observation are many,*
besides them there are also not a few { who have written on the
subject without having had the advantage of visiting the spot.

Franklin and Jacquemont, give ample details of the mode of
working and extraction of the gems, their varieties, &c. The
most recent contribution on this subject is by M. Rousselet; but
for the geology reference should be made to the Memoirs by
Messrs. Medlicott and Mallet of the Geological Survey of India,
as the more popular writers have given currency to very incorrect
views on this aspect of the question.

The following is an abstract of these geological accounts :—

* Franklin, Captain, ‘‘ Asiatic Researches,” Vol. xviii, p. 100; Jacquemont, M. V.,
“ Voyage dans L’Inde,” tome 1, p. 399; Adam, Dr., ‘Jour. Asiatic Socy., Bengal,”
Vol. xi., p. 399 ; Hamilton, Dr., “ Edinburgh Phil. Jour.,” Vol.i., p. 49; Medlicott, H. B.,

“Mem. Geol. Survey of India,” Vol. ii., p. 65; Mallet, F. R., ebid., Vol. vii., p. 118;
Rousselet, M. “ L’Inde des Rajahs,” &e., &e.

+ Carter, Dr., “‘ Geological Papers on Western India”; Burton, Captain, “ Quarterly
Journal of Science,” N.S., Vol. vi., 1876, p. 351.

The Occurrence and Distribution of Diamonds in India. 581

The diamond bed proper, a conglomerate, belongs to a group
at the base of the Lower Rewahs, * which is distinguished as the
“ Panna Shales,” outlying patches of these rocks occur as remnants
of old spurs and outliers from the tableland. Occurring thus
without the usual covering of sandstone which is found on the
flanks of the tableland, earlier observers were puzzled to account
for the difference, and hence arose some of the confusion I have
already described.

Mr. Medlicott gives the following account. At the time of his
visit, the Panna miners had not got down to the diamond-bearing
seam, which is not laid bare till about March in each year :—

PANNA.

“The rock diggings near Panna do not cover a surface of more than
20 acres, they are on a low, flat, rising ground at the base of the slope
from the Kymore scarp ; there were five or six pits in progress. The
section is—three feet of soil, on a smooth surface of boulder clay ; this
latter contains large and small rounded boulders of sandstone, possibly
the remains of masses fallen from the retreating cliff of the Rewah
ridge; its thickness is very variable from two to twelve feet, due to the
uneven surface of the subjacent rock ; pebbles of the laterite iron ore are
common along the bottom of the boulder bed.

“The top three feet of the hard rock looks more like a reconstruction
of materials than a rock in sit. It is an irregular, streaked mass of clay,
with occasional strings of broken grit bands, the crushing action which
is so manifest in these upper layers extends itself to those below,
contortion and fracture on a small scale are evident thioughout,” &e., &e.

These appearances are considered to be due to the falling of
heavy masses of rock from the cliff face, which formerly existed,
as it was undermined from below.

In the Panna mines, although the diamond seam is deeper than
elsewhere, owing to the broken nature of the overlying strata it
is not reached by a shaft, but the miners go to the immense
labour of excavating great pits, 25 feet in diameter, and often
over 30 fect deep for the sake of the small patch of diamond con-
glomerate thus uncovered. +

KUMEREA OR KAHMURA.

This locality which is situated to the east of Panna, was
visited by Mr. Mallet, who describes it as follows. Here the
matrix, locally called Kakru, is—

«“ A conglomeratic sandstone made up of pebbles, one-eighth to one-
half inch diameter imbedded in a rather fine matrix which also includes

* Vide supra, p. 556. t Vide infra, p. 586.

582 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

clay galls. The lower Rewah sandstone here stretches out a consider-
able distance in front of the scarp, and the pit was just on the northern
edge of this terrace, some 20 feet below the summit, and itself about 10
feet deep. On the top of the diamond bed was a foot or so of hard thin
flaggy sandstone, and about seven feet of the same mixed with shale.
A little further to the south and west on this terrace was an old pit
between 30 and 40 feet deep, but the bottom filled with water, so that
the rocks immediately above the diamond bed could not be seen, but
there were certainly 10 to 15 feet of shale between it and the lower
Rewah sandstone. In all the pits examined there must have been 10
to 20 feet of shale intermediate. The Pannas are here very thin, so
that this position is not much above the top of the Kaimurs (the lowest
group of the upper Vindhyans.) There are some small outlying hills to
the north at the village of Bungla and north of Babupur. ‘The former
is about 50 feet high, with Kaimurs at the base, then 15 to 20 feet of
shale capped in turn by the lower Rewah sandstone ; this was the only
outlying hill in which the shales were seen (on account of the northern
overlap). A few hundred yards to the north-east, another little hill has
been excavated in every direction by the old diamond searchers. Again
at Babupur are numerous old pits, and some sufficiently well preserved
to admit of examination. They are about 15 feet deep exposing sand-

stone with thin flaggy beds at the top, but no shales.
' “A bed of fine, brown Sandstone, including fragments of a green
silicious rock, and bits of red and green shale, was traced from Bumb-
hen to Kissengurh, which is not impossibly the continuation of the
diamond bed ; that the natives do not work to the east is no proof that the
beds do not continue in that direction. This is evident from the fact of
there being no pits at Bungla, notwithstanding the hills all round, even
to the north, having been extensively worked.

~ “Tt is, therefore, almost certain that at Bungla the diamond bed exists
thovgh untouched.”

Mr. Medlicott notices the transition of the conglomerate from
its position among the shales to its condition as a pure, fine
sandstone conglomerate.

In reference to the extension of the conglomerate, he remarks
that from the nature of the case—its occurrence among fine beds
—it has per se a precarious existence. He finds it difficult to
determine the reasons why the deposit has not been worked in
some localities, as at the base of the hills. In some eases, in the
outlying patches, the margin of the deposit has been reached, in
others it may have died out; the latter state of things might be
readily ascertained were a few trenches dug in selected localities.

Mr. Medlicott makes some suggestions as to the original matrix
of the gem, which I have already quoted. Besides the mines, he
enumerates several localities where there were workings in accu-
mulations of superficial detritus ; these are at Udesna, Sakeriya,
Mujgoan, and Boghin,

The Occurrence and Distribution of Diamonds in India, 583

UDESNA.

The mines were being worked at Udesna :—

“There was water in all the pits, at what appears to be the level of
the top of the boulder bed, under an irregular thickness of yellow clay,
variously charged with kunkur and laterite gravel ; the gangue is a stiff
gravelly clay.”

SAKERIYA.

“As at Udesna, there is a variable depth of clay, the middle third
being kunkury and the lower lateritic; below this, the clay becomes
charged with gravel, pebbles, and boulders, these rapidly increasing in
size to great angular blocks of sandstone, scarcely moved from their
original beds ; it is from between these that the best stuff is got, a stiff
unctuous clay, with quartz gravel through it. Above these deep pits,
which are never far from the stream, and well up on the slope of the
Rewah sandstone are diggings in the surface lateritic gravel.”

MusGoan.

This, as suggested by Franklin, is probably the deserted gorge
ofa stream. Mr. Medlicott writes :—

“The filling in is certainly peculiar ; the structure is like course
foliation, a net-work of strings of cale spar, inclosing laminz and small
lumps of green clay.

“In the only hole I saw they were working the yellow clay from the
crevices of this; but the men told me that at a greater depth there are
alternating layers of green mud, and of its mixture with cale spar in
which diamonds are found.”

Bocuin.

The mines of Boghin are thus described by Mr. Medlicott :—

« At the upper end of the gorge of the Boghin river there are two falls
of 200 feet each, and there are workings throughout the whole length to
Kalinjer. The principal diggings were at the lower end of the mine
valley ; they were removing some twelve feet of dark, brown clayey sand
to get at the boulder bed, in the base of which the diamonds are found,
but both here and below the narrow gorge the gravel at the surface of
the river bed is much worked. The natives spoke to me of a European
who, some twenty years ago, had made an attempt at mining on a large
scale. His diggings were on the flanks of the limestone hill, some fifty
or one hundred feet over the river, the ore being a jasper gravel gathered
from the deep surface crevices of the limestone. As well as I could
understand their pronunciation, the man’s name was Berkeley, but I have
not seen any written account of his experiment; the remains of his
wash pits and picking floors are there still.”’*

* Tt is probable that the European referred to is the same as the one mentioned in the
extract below.
Scren. Proc. R.D.S. Vou. 1, Pr. vir. 2R

584 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

Mr. Medlicott declines to believe in the instinct of the natives,
as evinced by the capricious distribution of these surface
diggings. There are many valleys in which the relation to the
underlying rocks is such as to make it almost certain that the
alluvial deposits contain diamonds, and yet there are no traces of
workings. On the other hand, some of the workings prove the
former extended range of the rock matrix which has been broken
up by denudation. He believes further that the occasional
occurrence of diamond-bearing deposits at higher levels than the
original rock matrix may be accounted for by a distribution of
the materials which took place under a general submergence of
the country.

The following account of the Panna mines, which seems to be
well worthy of reproduction, I have extracted from an Indian
Newspaper. Iam unable to give the author’s name.

“The finances of the Maharaja are principally derived from his
diamond and iron mines, and the following particulars as to how the
mines are worked will prove interesting.

“In granting licenses to natives the invariable rule of the Raja is to
restrict the claim to diamonds below six ratéis in weight, on which a
per-centage of Rs. 25 or upwards is charged. The party is then allowed
to search in any spot within the territory, excepting such as are given to
Brahmins for sacred purposes or are reserved for the Ranis or other
relatives of the Chief. The mines of Kahmura and Panna are the most
celebrated, and are excavated at adepth of 15 to 50 feet. They lie within
the bounds of the rocky matrix. Those at Maggama have also been
very imperfectly used, the mining not going below fifty feet, at which
depth the water overflows, and the tuadars (or masters of the mines) are
compelled to stop at this limit for want of a method to pump them dry.
The chila and superficial mines are to be traced all over the diamond-
tract, manual labour being cheap, as the poorest subjects of the State
work them. From the commencement of the rains to the beginning
of the cold season, the mining goes on, since a plentiful supply of water
can be had in all parts of the State—an article highly necessary to
facilitate the search, as the matrix, after being dug out, is placed by small
quantities in a trench, and then washed to clear it of the clay which
adheres to it. A spot on the surface of the mine is leeped smooth with
the hand, and on it the granite is spread, and a diligent search made for
the diamonds. Almost three-fourths of the people of Panna and the
adjacent villages derive their living by working either for themselves or
as hired labourers for others. When employed on their own account, it
is not unusual to hear them complain of ‘no luck for months and
months.’ Indeed, I never knew a native during the short time I was in
the State, who said he had found a diamond, but I was told that the
following is the way natives carry on when at the mines. The avarice

The Occurrence and Distribution of Diamonds in India. 585

of the predecessor of the present Maharaja of Panna knew no bounds.
The mines being the chief source whence his revenues were obtained, the
native tuadars were never spared when they found diamonds, but had
the most unreasonable taxes imposed upon them. This mischievous
system and the impolitic rule that all diamonds above six rattis became
the bond fide property of the Maharaja, seem to have engendered in
speculators a vindictive spirit, not only to evade the heavy duties, but to
cheat the State of the produce of the mines altogether. Every poor
tuadar has a petty banker, who supports his constituents and his family
with the necessaries of life, on the understanding that every diamond
found by them should be sold to him, out of the amount of which he is
to pay himself. In fact, a tuadar of the lower order is but an instrument
to the Mahajans to rob the Maharaja, and it is a well-known fact that
though these harpies hoard up wealth through the medium of their
artful constituents, they will, on all occasions, in order to evade suspicion,
plead poverty and distress, whilst they carry on a clandestine trade of
diamonds between Mirzapur, Banaras, Allahabad, and Jabalpur. Some
years ago, one of these Mahajans was detected in defrauding the State
of diamonds to the amount of Rs. 43,000 for a long series of years. He
was imprisoned and threatened with punishment, and to avert this, he
refunded Rs. 16,000, and acknowledged having embezzled to the extent
mentioned. It is well known that the Maharaja is robbed of large and
valuable diamonds yearly. I believe only one European has ever tried
working at the Panna mines, and this was in 1833, when a licence was
granted him, and the following were the termsin his licence :—On
diamonds of 1 to 7 rattis, 15 per cent. on the value; from 7 to 10
rattis, 33 per cent.; from 10 to 15 rattts, 50 per cent.; from 15 to 20
rattis, 66 per cent. ; from 20 rattis and upwards, bona fide the property
of the Maharaja, he having the option to reward the tuadars as he
pleases. The expenses for working the mines at that time were as

follow :—
For one month with 20 sets of labourers—

20 bildars at Rs. 2 per month, : ‘ ; § F : Rs. 40
20 water women do., . : : . : : C : ROU

4 sepoys at Rs. 3, : : : erie 12
Implements for digging, &c., : : 4 5 : 3 40.

Total Rs. 122

It shows how cheap labour was in those days, whereas at this time
bildars are getting Rs. 12 and 14a month. The European (his name
is not given, and I copy from an old Government record) says :—“ In
embarking in this enterprise, the chief evil to be guarded against is theft ;
a strict eye should be kept over the labourers during the hours of their
work, as they not only pilfer and conceal these stones in the very mines
they are working, but will, in cases of emergency, swallow them! It is
said that before the British supremacy became paramount in these parts,
delinquents of this description have suffered death rather than confess
their having stolen the gems, which have afterwards been discovered in
the ashes of their remains.”

Scren.,Proc. R.D.S. Vou, 11., Pr. vit,

d8u peentific Proceedings, Ruyul Dublin Society.

The early accounts by Franklin and Jacquemont have been
perhaps to some extent supplanted by that by M. Rousselet.
Captain Burton in his already mentioned paper gives the
following abstract with some remarks of his own. While
quoting from Captain Burton, I cannot omit to say that it is to
be regretted that he should not have referred to the Official
Geological Publications on the subject. Had he done so he would
have seen that very much more has been accomplished with
regard to fixing the horizon of the matrix and its distribution
than he was led to suppose, and moreover, he would not have
then rehabilitated several old theories which have been shown
to be erroneous.

““M. Louis Rousselet (‘L’Inde des Rajahs, Paris, Hachette, 1875),
in his splendid volume pp. 440, 443, gives an illustration, and an
account of the world-famous mines of Panna (the Panasca of Ptolomey 2),
a little kingdom of Eastern Bandelkhand erected in 1809. The Rajah
sent a Jemadar to show him the diggings which are about twenty
minutes’ walk from the town. ‘The site is a small plateau covered with
pebble heaps, and at the foot of a rise somewhat higher than usual
yawns the pit about 12 or 15 metres in diameter by 20 deep.

“Tt is found in alluvial grounds, divided into horizontal strata,
debris of gneiss and carbonates,* averaging 30 metres; at the bottom
is the diamond rock, a mixture of silex and quartz in a gangue of red
earth (clay ?). The naked miners descend by an inclined plane, and work
knee deep in water, which the noria or Persian wheel, turned by four
bullocks, is insufficient to drain ; they heap the muddy mixture into small
baskets which are drawn up by ropes, whilst a few are carried by
Coolies. The dirt is placed upon stone slabs sheltered by a shed ; the
produce is carefully washed, and the silicious residuum is transferred
to a marble table for examination. The workmen, each with his over-
seer, examine the stones one by one, throwing back the refuse into a
basket ; it is a work of skill on the part of both men, as it must be
done with a certain rapidity and the rough diamond is not easily
distinguished from the silex, quartz, jasper, limestone, corundum, &e.

‘“‘Tradition reports that the first diamonds of fabulous size were thus
found, and the system of pits was perpetuated ; when one is exhausted
it is filled up and another is opened up hard by—a deplorable system,
as 100 cubic metres must be displaced to examine one—and around
each well a surface of twenty times the area is rendered useless.
Moreover, much time is lost by the imperfect way of sinking the shaft,
which sometimes does not strike the stone.

* What is intended to be conveyed by the term “‘ carbonates” I cannot say since other
than diamonds there are no traces of carbon in these rocks.

The Occurrence and Distribution of Diamonds in India. 587

“This diamond stratum extends more than 20 kilometres to the
north-east of Pannah. The most important diggings are those of the
capital of Myra, Etawa, Kamariya, Brijpur and Baraghari, The
mean annual produce ranges between £40,000 and £60,000, a trifling
sum, as the stones.are the most prized in the world and sell for a high
price in the country.

“They are pure and full of fire; the colour varies from the purest
white to black with the intermediate shades milky, rose, yellow, green,
and brown. Some have been found reaching twenty carats, and the Myra
mine yielded one of eighty-three which belonged to the crown jewels of the
Mogul. Of course the real produce must be taken at double the official
estimate. Despite all precautions such is the case everywhere. The Rajah
has established an approximate average amount, and when this descends
too low he seizes one of the supposed defaulters and beheads him or

confiscates his goods.

** He sells his diamonds directly to Allahabad or Benares and of late
years he has established afeliers for cutting ; these are the usual kind—
horizontal wheels of steel worked by the foot.”

ON THE PROSPECTS OF DIAMOND MINING IN INDIA BY EUROPEANS,

As I have already related in each of the three great tracts at
Chennur, at Sambalpur, and at Panna, attempts have been made
by Europeans to mine for diamonds, but in no instance have their
operations proved to be successful. How far success was deserved
by the manner in which the operations were carried on, it is im-
possible to state. Regarding the question, however, from a
general point of view, I think it is easy to see that there are
many causes which must tend to have an unfavourable effect
upon the success of undertakings of this nature. |

In the first place, however, it may be well to premise that there
is not the least ground for supposing that there has been any real
exhaustion of the localities where mining is possible. On the con-
trary the result of the systematic geological examination of the
different areas, has been to show that the diamond-bearing strata
have a wider extension there than the actual miners could have
ever supposed—though not so wide as some writers like Captain
Burton have concluded, by a process of including the most distant
localities in one tract, and then computing the total area.

That the ancient miners possessed and acted on a kind of rule
of thumb knowledge of the characteristics of the diamond-
bearing strata in different tracts respectively, is almost certain;
but that they applied such knowledge inductively to distant

588 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

tracts is extremely doubtful. The probability is that in each
neighbourhood operations were commenced in consequence of
chance discoveries.

The following is a recent example culled from a newspaper :—

DIscovERY OF A Di1asmonp—The Collector of Karnul reported on the 17th
December last, for the information of the Revenue Board, the discovery of a large raw
diamond by one Mala Nagi of Karnul, one of the coolies employed in excavating earth
in B. Class land of the Irrigation and Canal Company in Jaharapuram near Karnul.
The diamond weighs 44 grains, and is said to have been purchased by Amboji, a merchant
of Karnul, for Rs. 116. The real value is, of course, much higher, probably not less
than Rs. 1,000. There are no diamond mines in Jaharapuram.

Prospecting far and wide we may be sure was never under-
taken by natives, and it is doubtful whether there was any inter-
course or communication between the workers at distant localities,

With scientific guidance, backed by capital and proper min-
ing appliances, it may appear at first sight that mining by
Europeans ought to succeed, but from what has already been said
in reference to Bandelkhand, it will be gathered that there are
in diamond mining certain peculiarities which distinguish it from
most if not all other forms of commercial enterprise, the facilities
for peculation in consequence of the readiness with which the gem
may be conveyed is of course the principal of these. There must
necessarily be a considerable amount of individual hand-work.

It would almost seem, in fact, that except under a system of
slavery the diamond cannot be worked for profitably in India. The
present system, though not so called, practically amounts to much
the same thing, the actual operatives are by advances bound
hand and foot to the farmers of the mines, and these are content
to wait for months together without any return, their outlay too
is very small, no heavy expenditure of capital being involved.

The case is ina measure parallel to that of manufacturing
iron. ‘The native iron-smelter, with no expensive plant, manages
by a most wasteful process to keep himself alive by making iron.
The English company turns out iron by the most approved
methods, and after a time goes into liquidation. Such has hitherto
been the case, but I am hopeful of the iron industry yet proving
a success in India.

I would lay no particular stress on the fact that the several
attempts in Southern India, at Sambalpur and at Panna, to work

The Occurrence and Distribution of Diamonds in India. 589

mines under European management, have hitherto failed. These
failures may have been due to causes with which the conditions |
have above alluded to, have nothing to do, they may have resulted
from simple incompetency, death, or sickness, &c.

My colleague, Mr. King, in writing of the South of India mines
says, that it is not to be expected that diamond mining would,
except by a mere chance, prove a rapid road to fortune. But for
those content with a slowly paying occupation and a hard life,
involving close personal supervision of the workers, it would pay,
provided such persons possessed capital sufficient to last them
some years.

NOTE ADDED IN THE PRESS.

I hope shortly to publish a paper on the correlation of the diamond
deposits of the world. I think it advisable to attempt the task, since
much that has been founded on erroneous data as regards India has been
printed in connexion with accounts of Australian and African diamonds.
Thus the late Rev. W. B. Clarke spoke of the diamond-bearing Banagan-
pilly strata as being of Mahadeva age.* Others have supposed that the
diamonds of India were connected with the Dekan basalt.

* Anniversary Address, Trans. Royal Society of New South Wales, 1870.

[ 590 ]

LX.—ON SOME POINTS IN THE PHYSICAL GEOLOGY OF
THE DINGLE AND IVEKRAGH PROMONTORIES, sy A. B.
WYNNE, F.G.s., F.R.G.S.1., We.

[Read March 15th, 1880.]

So many opinions have been expressed and so many conclusions
arrived at regarding the complex geological relations of this part
of Ireland, that there is perhaps hardly a useful consideration
left to urge which has not already been debated if not already
published.

Amongst these the apparently simple and natural interpretation
recently advanced by Professor Hull (Q. Jour. Geo. Soc. Lon., Vol.
XXXV., p. 669), that the Lower Carboniferous rocks of Iveragh
were discordantly deposited upon the Dingle-Glengariff beds, can
scarcely be supposed to have previously eluded the attention of
the Geological Survey of Ireland, or Professor Jukes’ masterly
application of the logic of facts.

If the ably advanced argument of Professor Hull be considered
less than imperatively conclusive, the following questions will
probably need further elucidation :—

1st. Are the Carboniferous beds of Iveragh actually unconform-
able to the Dingle-Glengariff beds beneath them ?

2nd. Isit possible that these Lower Carboniferous beds, in-
cluding the Old Red Sandstone, may be quite discordant in
Dingle and quite conformable in Iveragh, to the same under-
lying group of the Dingle-Glengariff beds, within an area of,
say 5,000 square miles.

3rd. Is this absolute unconformity necessary to the view that
the Dingle-Glengariff series is of Silurian age.

4th. Can the absence of the Dingle type of Old Red Carboni-
ferous in Iveragh be accounted for by a limit of deposition coin-
ciding with the Dingle Bay and Killarney Railway fault ?

5th. Can the fossiliferous Silurian pebbles of the Dingle-Park-
more conglomerate be contemporaneous with the conglomerate in
which they are enclosed as derivative masses ?

1. The first and last of these questions are affirmatively sup-
ported by Professor Hull, and have doubtless received extensive
reconsideration by himself, Mr. O’Kelly, and Mr. M‘ Henry, of the

Physical Geology of the Dingle and Iveragh Promontories. 591

Irish Survey. I should, therefore, apologise to my friends of that
Survey for offering a few observations upon the points referred
to, in an imperfect form ; partly the result of isolation from means
of reference, partly that of the difficulty one finds in recalling
with accuracy field observations in this district, made, some of
them, nearly a quarter of a century ago.

From the time of my earliest acquaintance with this region it
was understood that the softer and coarser type of the Old Red
Sandstone (Lower Carboniferous), such as that of Brandon Head
and the Three Sisters, was not present in the Iveragh promontory
or southwards, but the next higher group, the Yellow Sandstone,
was recognised, and a certain upper band of brighter red colour
than usual among the Glengariff grit series, was sometimes
thought to be on the horizon of the so-called Old Red Sandstone
of the Dingle country. The Dingle-Glengariff series was even
in those days regarded as the same in both promontories.

Further, if memory does not fail me, there was reason to
believe that a perfect transition existed from the redder beds just
mentioned, through the Yellow Sandstone into the Carboniferous
Slate or Lower Limestone Shale.

The uniform character of the contact between the Lower
Carboniferous and the older series over the whole region, shows
that both must have been laid down with almost absolute
parallelism, and if there is a total discordance this must be an
instance of its occurrence, without any degree of disturbance of
. the older beds or any evidence that the newer were formed
derivatively from these.

The apparent obliquity of the contact figured by Professor Hull
(though admitted to be exaggerated in his figure), is in its seeming
discordance greatly exceeded by that of consecutive deposition
planes shown by Du Noyer to be merely a case of oblique
lamination on a huge scale within the beds, near Ventry Harbour
on the south side of the Dingle Peninsula.

If such obliquity of contact existed as a rule, between the
Dingle-Glengariff series of Iveragh and the Carboniferous beds,
it would be presumably as plainly traceable along the surface as
in depth, in some parts of this disturbed region ; for the axes of
the folds are not always parallel to the horizon, nor are these
folds always equally compressed. Assuming the floor which

592 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

received the newer deposits to have been approximately flat, a
bed oblique to that surface, making therewith so small an angle
as 5°, would at ten miles distance as the angle opened be separated
from its basement by nearly a mile in thickness of rocks, almost
certainly sufficient to have afforded some stratigraphic difference
of aspect, that would force the discordance upon the attention of
an observer of the various sections exposed in the country.

But if two sets of beds are in such exactly parallel relation
over wide areas as to exhibit the same junction features and with
any appearance of transition, how, in the absence of such crucial
tests as definitely recognizable layers occurring in the sections,
is discordance to be proved, and if necessarily present might it
not as well be situated in any part of the Dingle-Glengariff series
as at the top.

Unless the supply of rock-forming sediments had been every-
where equally maintained, and equally distributed under immu-
table conditions, must not aJl sedimentary beds, groups, and for-
mations thin out or overlap, in the manner shown by Professor
Hull’s diagrams, even without the existence of a break equal to
discordance in the succession ?

2. The total area of the country now referred to, would be in-
cluded within a square of sixty or seventy miles on the side.
The distance from Dingle to Iveragh across Dingle Bay is about
ten miles. The Lower Carboniferous rocks southwards have been
denuded so as to remain visible only at a distance of some sixteen
miles further to the south, so that they are now thirty-six miles
from the Dingle country. But if all the folds of Iveragh and
those beneath Dingle Bay, were reduced again to approximate
horizontality, the distance would doubtless be greater by several
miles. Is it not within the limits of possibility that this distance
may have been sufficient for the Old Red beds of the Dingle
type—a shore deposit—to have died out towards Kenmare estuary,
or changed in their composition so as to be no longer recognizable
as lithologically the same.

It seems to me there are many cases 1n which rocks change
their character entirely on the same horizon, at a distance of
thirty to forty miles, but the point would of course only be urged
as possibly collateral negative evidence in the absence of positive
testimony to the contrary.

Physical Geology of the Dingle and Iveragh Promontories. 598

Is it not also possible, as Professor Mellville used to argue, that
within the latter part of the Dingle-Glengariff period, at one
locality (Dingle), disturbance, denudation, and discordant deposi-
tion, ranging up into the Lower Carboniferous (Old Red) period
had taken place, while thirty-six or forty miles away (or more) this
disturbance was non-existent, and continuous deposition from
the lower to the upper stage was in progress? This point must
affect the question until further positive evidence of the discord-
ance in Iveragh is adduced.

3. Supposing this discordance incapable of demonstration, even
then it does not seem to me, if complete conformity between the
Silurian and the Dingle beds is proved by alternation, there need
be any difficulty in adopting Professor Hull’s view, that the
Dingle-Glengariff beds are more connected with the Silurian than
with the Old Red Sandstone horizon of the Carboniferous period.
In adopting this view the carboniterous aspect of the Glengariff
beds’ plants should be allowed to partake of the uncertainty
which seems to cling to deductions based on palzeobotany alone.
But if there be any ordinary appearances of transition between
the Carboniferous slates and Yellow Sandstone and the Dingle-
Glengariff series, then the plants of the latter would have a local
value in establishing the continuously successional character of
these two great series, as opposed to the view, that an unrepre-
sented interval of time prevented their junction beds from being
either closely homotaxeous or more generally contemporaneous,
in different parts of the south-west of Ireland. The great diffi-
culty would then appear to be how much time might be sufficient
to produce within the same area appearances of conformity in
one direction and utter discordance in another. Ifa long enough
period were allowed there seems to be no impossibility in the
case, and that there must have heen both sea and land somewhere
in the neighbourhood, however, near or remote, even in the
period of the Dingle and Glengariff beds, may be inferred from the
existence of land or marsh plants in these presumably marine
strata,*

* Such land need not, however, have been very near, for I have found cast upon the
beach at Derrynane bamboos and such tropical flotsam, which, even if derived from some pass-

ing ship, must have travelled far in the sea water, to become so highly saturated with its
salt as was the case.

594 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

4. Ido not recollect to have seen any consideration of the
point, whether the apparent anomalies between the Dingle and
Iveragh sections could not be accounted for by a limit of deposi-
tion or lateral interruption to the extension of the Old Red
(Carboniferous) type ot deposits. That remarkable feature, the
Dingle Bay and Killarney Railway fault, for some part, at least,
appears to intervene between the apparently successional and
discordant series.

Having regard to this whole south-western area, continuous se-
quence would appear to be the rule, the discordant deposits the ex-
ception. If the northern part of Iveragh and the country eastward
had been so gently raised as to maintain the general horizontality of
its beds, along an east and westerly line of weakness, an unusually
straight shore line might have been produced, against which
to the north the whole Carboniferous series of the country might
have been accumulating, while representative deposits south wards
were being formed in direct succession to the Glengariff beds, or
with slight unconformity, or none distinguishable by difference of
inclination. Mr. Medlicott has shown with regard to a part of
the Himalayas, that such a limit of deposition, when the rocks
on both sides have suffered compression and disturbance, closely
simulates a line of fault, and indeed passes along its extension
into a genuine line of dislocation, the position being, perhaps,
specially favourable to the occurrence of fracture.

Subsequent depression, elevation, and denudation might have
left the present state of things in Kerry as their result.

The consideration of this point is only suggested as one among
others which may be worth investigating, in studying the pecu-
liar features of the country. It is, perhaps, as likely to account
for these as perfectly parallel, though total, discordance in Iveragh,
in favour of which, however, there still remains the ample evidence
(eliminating of course all possibility of transition), collected by
Mr. M‘Henry, and asked for by Mr. Jukes-Browne. This when
forthcoming will no doubt have an important bearing on the
question, and will be looked for with interest.

5. With regard to the fossiliferous Silurian pebbles in the
Parkmore conglomerate, 1 remember how Du Noyer on finding
them contended that the conglomerate must be newer than the

Physical Geology of the Dingle and Iveragh Promontories. 595

newest of the enclosed Silurian fragments, because the fossils
occurred in the pebbles and not in the matrix.

The very existence of this conglomerate appears to prove
incontestably the co-existence of denudation, which is the only
absolute test of discordance. It shows that a varied series of beds,
including metamorphic rocks, and others with Caradoc-Bala and
Upper Silurian fossils, were undergoing destruction while it was
being formed, and it points to the probability that some part of the
Dingle beds is not so completely conformable to the Silurian below
as has been supposed. That this older unconformity should have
escaped detection cannot be considered strange, if it is contended
that the discordance between the Carboniferous rocks of Sneem
and the Glengariff beds has for years eluded observation, indeed,
it would appear that the evidence in favour of discordance below
the horizon of the Parkmore conglomerate, is stronger than that
for the unconformity at the base of the Carboniferous beds of
Kenmare river and estuary.

The discordance connected with the Parkmore conglomerate
does not invalidate the supposition that the bed itself may be-
long to some part of the Upper Silurian series, if the institution
of a newer group intermediate between Silurian and Lower
Carboniferous should be undesirable. The unconformity might
of course have been very local, and might occur anywhere between
the highest intercalated bed with Silurian fossils and the con-
glomerate itself. Regarding this break as possible in some part
of the Dingle-Glengariff series, though unrecognizable among its
parallel layers, it follows that some conglomerate bed in the
upper part of the Dingle-Glengariff series of Iveragh, may also
mark an unconformity equally obscure, or that this might occur
even in the absence of such a bed in that region. Hence when
ill-defined or invisible unconformities are possible in great series,
marked by steady succession, amounting to a monotony of similar
alternations, we must hold ourselves ready for surprise, and
not count too confidently upon either general or detailed appear-
ances, unless they are those of actual or gradual transition,
which could not have occurred otherwise than tranquilly, or
those of absolute unconformity, accompanied by discontinuous
succession and palpable traces of co-existent denudation, which

596 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

could not have happened without disturbance. After comparing
conclusions past and present, [am unable to see that unconfor-
mity in any degree resembling the latter, has been established to
exist in the Iveragh country. Unrepresented time may have
passed between the deposition of any two beds of rock, an in-
definite assertion impossible to fix more than theoretically to
any horizon amongst parallel or transitional beds, in most
eases. This reduces the position in favour of which it is em-
ployed from the status of fact to that of conjecture, the proba-
bility of which must be decided on its merits.

As the whole of this interesting subject still engages the
attention of very competent observers, we may hopefully look
forward to its mysteries being solved, and the geological relations
of the rocks in the south of Ireland to each other, and to those
of south-western England being fully comprehended at last.

eee) sae

LXI.—ON THE ACTION OF WATER UPON. MERCURIC
SULPHATE, sy CHARLES A. CAMERON, ».p., F.R.€.8.1.

[Read June 21st, 1880. ]

In Berzelius’ Treatise on Chemistry, and in all its editions in
German and French, it is stated that the action of water upon
mercuric sulphate resolves it into an insoluble sub-salt, and an
acid soluble salt. The latter, it is stated, may be obtained by
evaporating its solution, until crystals begin to form. These
erystals are described as white needles, which attract moisture
from the air, and are precipitated out of solution on the addition
of concentrated acid. This statement, in reference to the action
of water upon neutral mercuric sulphate, appears to have been
copied into most works on chemistry of later date. In Fowne’s
Manual of Chemistry, 12th edition, 1877, page 424, it is stated
that—

“ Water decomposes the (mercuric) sulphate, dissolving out an acid
salt, and leaving an insoluble yellow basic compound, formerly called
turpith or turbeth mineral containing, according to Kane’s analysis,
HgSO,, 2 HgO, or 3 HgO, SO,.”

In Brande and Taylor’s, Tidy’s and other modern works on
chemistry, reference is made to a soluble acid mercuric sulphate.

In Watt’s Dictionary of Chemistry, the formula HgO, 380, is
assigned to this salt. This statement assumes that the action of
water upon neutral mercuric sulphate is to resolve it into trimer-
euric sulphateand mercuric trisulphate—4 HgSO, = HgSO,(Hg0),
+HeSO, (SO,),. The formula assigned to the acid mercuric sul-
phate is a very unusual one. The salt is stated in Watt’s Dic-
tionary to be procurable by evaporating the liquid which remains
when the basic salt produced by the action of water upon mer-
curic sulphate is separated. The results of my experiments show
that an acid salt cannot be obtained in this manner.

EXPERIMENTS.
Neutral mercuric sulphate was treated with water. The basic
salt thereby formed was separated from the liquid by filtration,
and the liquid evaporated until a pellicle made its appearance

598 — Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

upon its surface. A mass of crystals was obtained in this way,
which were freed from adhering liquid and dried at 100° cent.
These crystals should, according to Watt’s Dictionary, have the
formula, HgSO, (SO,),. On treating them with water, they
changed from a white to a yellow colour, and produced the basic
salt. On being analyzed, the crystals proved to be wholly com-
posed of the neutral sulphate, HgSO,,.

A further quantity of neutral sulphate was decomposed by
water, the proportion of water used being in the ratio of two
molecules to four molecules of the sulphate. The basic salt hav-
ing been separated from the liquid, the latter was allowed to
evaporate spontaneously in vacuo over sulphuric acid. The crys-
tals obtained in this way were placed upon a tile and allowed to
drain during two days. They were pressed between sheets of
bibulous paper, washed with disulphide of carbon, dried, and
analyzed. They proved to be crystals of the neutral sulphate.

Neutral mercuric sulphate was dissolved in dilute sulphuric
acid, and the mixture allowed to evaporate spontaneously in
vacuo. The crystals which formed consisted simply of neutral
mercuric sulphate.

The action of water upon mercuric sulphate produces a basic
salt and free sulphuric acid —3HgSO0,+2H,0=HeSO,(Hg0),+
2H,SO,. The free acid dissolves some mercuric sulphate, but no
acid salt appears to exist—at least, it cannot be got out of solution.
The last crystals that form spontaneously out of the most acid
solution are composed of the neutral sulphate.

When a large quantity of water is employed in decomposing
mercuric sulphate no mercury, or a mere trace, is to be found in
the liquid when separated from the basic salt. On the other
hand more mercury remains in solution when three molecules of
water are used in decomposing the neutral salt than when two—
the theoretical amount—are employed. The neutral sulphate is
more soluble in slightly diluted sulphuric acid than in the strong
acid, but it is not sensibly soluble in very diluted acid.

It may be worth noting here, that when basic mercuric sul-
phate is dissolved in selenic acid, and the mixture allowed to
evaporate spontaneously, neutral mercuric sulphate makes its ap-
pearance, but when on the contrary, basic mercuric selenate
HegSeO,(HgO), is dissolved in sulphuric acid, and the solution

Action of Water wpon Mercuric Sulphate. 599

allowed to evaporate spontaneously in vacuo, neutral mercuric
sulphate crystallizes out.

It is stated in the books, that the crystals formed by evaporat-
ing an acid solution of mercuric sulphate attract moisture from the
air. The statement is incorrect ; the crystals, when freed from
excess of acid, are permanent in the air.

It is stated that one part of basic mercuric sulphate dissolves
in 3,000 parts of cold water. I find that a litre of water at 16°
cent. (60°8° Fahr.) dissolves 0°023 of the salt (dried at 100° cent.)
or 1 part in 43,478 parts of water; that is 2°3 parts of the salt
are soluble in 100,000 parts of water. The freshly precipitated
salt dissolves to the extent of 0:031 gramm, per litre of water
at 16° C=1 part in 32,258 of water.

The only acid mercury salts referred to in the books, are the
salt which I have shown has no existence, and an acid selenite
of mercury. The results of experiments which I am making at
present lead me to infer that there is no acid mercuric selenite.
The tendency of neutral mercury salts is to combine with alkaline
bodies, not with acids.

Soren. Proc. R.D.S. Vou. m, Pr. vir, ‘ 25s

[ 600 ]

LXII.—VOLUNTARY ACT OF SELF-DESTRUCTION BY
THE WORKER BEE, sy J. H. LUBY, C.E.

Communicated by Rev. 8. Haventoy, M.D., F.RB.S.

[Read March 15th, 1880. ]

No. I.

Kingscourt, 13th January, 1579.

Dear Dr. Havautron,—You have asked me to state what
observations I have taken on what I told you I believed to be the
“general” ending of the worker bee’s existence—namely, “The
voluntary act of casting itself out to die by exposure to the
elements.”

In endeavouring to carry out your wishes I would first say
that I shall confine myself to the “normal” or “ ordinary” condi-
tions under which they appear to act in this way. I do so for
this reason, that although they also seem to be forced to it under
special circumstances, too many collateral issues are therein
involved to be able to consider them here.

I may just mention that the “act” seems in these special cases
to be more or less of a wholesale nature, and to be participated
in by the young and able as well as by the old and decrepit. I
came across a very curious case of this a couple of months ago,
and made an experiment by which I not only succeeded in
arresting the manifestly deliberate intention of the bees, but fixed
(to my mind) the “cause” in that particular instance. But I
must confine my account to the one point.

It is now more than two years since I first observed and
experimented on thissubject. These observations were all taken
during the winter (or non-working) months, as it would be
obviously very hard to determine the matter while the bees are
at full work in summer time, and for that reason I could not
regard them as conclusive.

This summer, however, I have been so fortunate as to hit on a
proceeding on the part of the worker bee which has thoroughly
convinced me that their practice in this respect (namely, “ Volun-

Voluntary Act of Self-destruction by the Worker Bee. 601

tary self-expatriation and casting forth to die, when they become
aware that their days are numbered”) obtains at all times. Iam
also now assured that the act is quite a “ voluntary ” one, and not
dictated by any external authority.

I do not suppose I would ever have observed what I am about
to relate were it not that the result of my winter investigations
had, as it were, aroused my attention.

Every bee-keeper knows that numbers of the bees, on a working
day, on their return to the hive with their burdens miss the
flight-board, due either to being weary, overladen, blown down,
or weakness; but after a rest rise and generally succeed in
landing.

Now, watching one day at one of my strong hives, I observed
a bee (there were not many out) make three several attempts to
reach the flight-board, but fail and fall back each time. I was
about to assist it in on a feather, as I often do, but on looking
closer I saw that it was a very old-looking, ragged-winged bee,
and I thought, “It would be a mercy to kill you in place of
leaving you to weary yourself like that.” Iwas deliberating over
this, and looking at the bee. I saw that it was laden with a
light load of “pollen” on both thighs ; also, from the cylindrical
appearance of its body, it evidently carried in addition some
honey or water. It had now been somewhat longer than usual at
rest when I saw it move its head. “It is going to try again,” I
thought, “and I may as well let it.” Up it got, wp it went, one
half turn and straight as a crow flies away. I was able to follow
its course, against the sky, right across a deep ravine under my
garden, and over the tree-tops beyond. I immediately stopped
the door of that hive (this I could do, as they were not working),
and caught and examined every bee that returned from outside.
There were not more than four or five, and they were young,
strong ones; also, I may remark, they were apparently carrying
nothing, from which I drew the conclusion that that old bee was
out from the previous day (which had been a busy day), and that
it was trying to make home when I saw it, but that finding that
its “time” was up made up its mind to depart instead on its
“final journey.” ‘The deliberate way in which that bee acted,
and, without a second look at its home, departed, made a great
impression on me.

Scien. Proc, R.D.S. Vou. u., Pr. vi. 282

602 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

Since then I have watched for and seen the same thing happen
more than once.

Obviously you can’t expect many chances of observing this, as,
of course, these just happen to be such bees as “at that particular
juncture” find they are doomed, and act accordingly.

I had, however, a good chance of noting it on each occasion, as
I took the precaution of being “on the gui vive” during hours
(only too many this year), when few bees were out. Again, |
kept my eye solely on any old, ragged-winged bee who had
missed the flight-board (to be sure, in the great majority, or rather,
in all but in the few solitary cases I remarked, these managed to
get in); and, lastly, the “laden” flight of the departing bee was
not difficult to follow, nor could one confound it in all the cases
IT saw both this summer and,asI shall further on narrate, in
winter, with the fiight of the bees that might chance to be at
work, going and returning, below.

I am aware that some bees on rising to gain the flight-board
will take a sweep round in front of the hive first, as if to get
“elevation,” but these did not do that. They rose high in the air
with a spiral half-turn, and faced straight away from the hive out
of sight altogether.

My winter experiments have convinced me that bees will
deliberately leave the hive and cast themselves forth to die, in
preference to awaiting death therein.

Neither need this appear incredible when we recall the case
(frequently to be observed) of the sickly-looking, imperfectly-
formed, young bee, evidently just emerged from the cell, dragging
its deformed body, as fast as its feebleness will allow it, out of the
hive, and down the flight-board, to fall and die as remote as
possible, lest the community should be inconvenienced.

I now send you this, as I here divide what I observed in winter
from this portion, to let you say if you would care to hear further.

T intend making further observations during the working
months, and have asked other bee-keepers to do so.

Voluntary Act of Self-destruction by the Worker Bee. 603

No. II.

Kingscourt, 8th August, 1879.

Dear Dr. Haucutron,—In continuation of my remarks on
the above, I will now give you an account of what I observed in
winter.

I would first say that the following experiments were not
conducted with a view to discovery on this matter, but were
undertaken for a practical purpose, namely—* To find out the
best manner in which to ‘ winter’ bees.”

I had, however, for a long time previous been at a loss to know
‘what became of the bees of hives that, although strong in
numbers in autumn, were found tenantless in spring, and with
comparatively few dead on the stand underneath.”

I never saw any “carried out” in winter, or very rarely, indeed.
Then what became of them ?

I will tell you now.

Three winters ago (namely, 1876-1577) I had in September
thirteen strong stock hives to “ winter.”

C. Two of them I covered up warmly and with waterproof caps
and left them on their respective stands. For these two I pro-
vided “ perforated zinc” slides to cover the doorways (at my will),
and also zinc ventilators on tops of hives.

During the previous summer I had procured a dozen empty
brandy-flask cases 18" x 15” x 7 deep. These I had fitted with a
glass window at each end, and a loose board to fit on top, with a
hole cut out in centre, same diameter as internal diameter of
mouths of hives. They also had zine slides, close under the lids
at one end.

D. Now I chose a second pair of the hives, and still leaving
them on their own stands, placed a box under each, finally
covering up similarly to the first two. I also had shutters covered
with baize for the windows, on removing which, and looking in at
one end of the boxes I could see combs and bees, fully exposed,
above.

KE. A fifth hive (and for this I chose the least promising) I left
on its stand, well protected from rain and sun, but without a
zine door-slide or warm covering.

604 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

Lastly, I brought all the others (eight) into the dwelling-houre,
previously placing each on one of the prepared “boxes.”

These I arranged in a spare room. There was no fire-place
but the temperature varied extremely little, as the window faced
N.W., and was well-sheltered, while there were inhabited rooms
at either side.

A. Four of the number I placed on the floor in a corner,
and kept them the entire winter undisturbed, and in utter
darkness—that is, from the middle of November to the middle of
February. (Ofcourse I did not touch any hives to do all this
until the bees had “ settled down” for tne winter.)

B. Two more of the number I placed where, on removal of the
shutters, the light could penetrate from the window of the room,
thus giving a view on looking in at the opposite aperture in the
box. The last two I placed similarly, but le*t the shutters
always off.

(I took all this trouble because I saw every one’s bees, wintered
in the old way, dying off in every direction. Mine, indeed, are
now nearly the only—if not the on/y—bees within ten miles at
least.)

Now to begin—thirteen hives.

A. I will first dispose of the four placed in a dark corner of the
room, and not looked at for three months. Not a sound was
emitted in the way of a stir or buzz during the entire time. All
that was heard was an occasional “hollow tap” on the floor of the
box, caused by the tall of a dead bee from the combs. When
these hives and boxes were examined in February a good “double
handful” of dead bees jay under the brood combs of the hive
(where bees were clustered), just as they fell, and hives were
strong in bees and honey. Here, at all events, I had the
number of bees that died within a certain period, unless there
were other dead ones up amongst the combs, which would be
contrary to my experience at that time of the year at all events,
when bees are all clustered together, and hustle out any dead ones.

After examination each was taken out of doors and placed on
its particular stand.

B. Now I will take the hives placed opposite the window of
the room.

Two of these, as I stated, I kept in darkness, while the other

Voluntary Act of Self-destruction by the Worker Bee. 605

pair were always exposed to the light. (Here let me say, not to
sunlight ; window faced N.W., as I described. The effect of
sunlight would be to disturb the entire hive, and make numbers
of the bees anxious to get out to amuse themselves, &c.)

The two which were kept dark acted just like the four I have
already disposed of. Whenever I chanced in one of them to hear
a bee drop I then would take a peep. In the case of these boxes
I did not permit the dead to accumulate, but when half a dozen
or so were observed to have fallen I would gently lift hive and
board, shake out, and replace the box, without creating any
disturbance.

With regard to the pair exposed to the light, I observed this
(first let me mention that “the least streak of light” had the same
result): A bee now and again would descend from the cluster,
would test every crack and cranny that admitted light or air,
mostly working and buzzing at the perforated zine slide, trying
to get out.

Flying about the box, and keeping at this for the entire day
(there might be two or three, rarely the latter, at the same time
working to get out), | have never seen that bee settle back
in the hive, although it might even strike against the cluster of
bees hanging above in its gyrations. It always ended by crawling
about on the bottom of the box miserably until it died there.

When I saw this at first I had serious notions of darkening the
boxes like the rest, as I thought the light was tempting out. the
bees, but I soon noticed (I kept these boxes also shaken out) that
no greater proportion of bees were dying than in the first pair of
boxes, the only difference being that in this latter case the bees
that died, with rarely an exception (which latter, I am strongly
inclined to think occurred in the night), left the hive “alive.”

This, when I had well noted it, struck me as so strange that I
thought I would try what they were at,and what they would do
in case they got out.

I, therefore, noted the “numbers ” on the hives, and placed on
their respective out-door stands a hive in all respects similar to,
and covered up with the cover belonging to, the hives in
question.

Whenever, then, I marked a bee striving to get out, I opened
the window of the room and then the zine slide, and let it go.

606 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

What would it do ?

It was in a strange locality, did it hover about and examine
the surroundings as a sober-minded bee would do ?

Nothing of the sort. Away asif it were flying for its life. Over
the house-tops.

Would it return to the old, and well-known stand even ?
Never !

(Here let me remark that if hives were “roused,” either by
“sunlight,” or “blows,” &c., numbers of bees would want to get
out, and if they did so would infallibly return to the old stand.)

NotE—“ All the hives left out of doors, but one, were kept closed;
and that one was closed too, by me, on these occasions.”

C.D. I will now take the four hives left on their own stands,
and which were provided with zine doors, kept generally closed.

These four all shared similarly, with the exception that I could,
in the case of two, observe the bees “in situ” (as I stated) in
consequence of having the boxes beneath.

I used to notice, in all these four cases, bees (one or two, now
and again) striving to get out at the doorways. Of course on a
fine sunny day there was a general movement to the doorways,
on which occasions, unless there was snow on the ground, I used
to throw them open, closing them again before night. At first,
and before I was struck with what I have so far described, I took
no notice of these bees.

I now began to observe them, and saw in the case of the hives
raised on boxes, that the bees behaved exactly similarly to those
exposed to the light on the boxes in the house.

In the case of the others, those bees after working and
struggling died in the doorways.

I noted another matter, too, and that was that these bees were
invariably old worn-out bees, also I remarked that they always
had themselves well supplied with honey in their bags.

I then ceased my experiments “inside,” and let no more bees out
from the house, but began to experiment on these four hives.

First, then, I stopped up the doorway of the last hive I have
to refer to (namely, the one covered on its stand, but not warmly
wrapped up) with a piece of perforated zine.

Voluntary Act of Self-destruction by the Worker Bee. 607

HE. And here I may as well dispose of the latter at once, by
saying what I wanted to arrive at in its case.

I saw it stated in a work on bees that they died in a tempera-
ture of 34° F.

Now I have often seen, about here, lazy cottagers having their
hives the entire winter without covering of any sort, not even a
wisp of straw. I have often, too, seen these hives covered on
top with snow, all right of course so long as it was snow, but
how about its “transition state,” and finally 1 have found their
bees alive and doing well in spring.

I had invested in a tube thermometer to lower down between
the combs, but unluckily not a “self-registering ” one, so results
were not noted as worth recording.

C.D. Now, back to these four hives, which I shall conclude
with.

I next removed the zine slide altogether from the doorway of
one of the hives on the boxes, as also from one of those without
boxes.

The first thing I observed was that on rainy days no bees
issued forth, or wanted to get out, and if wet for several days
together bees died and dropped down inside the hives and boxes.
I saw, too, that in the case of the two hives left on their own
stands when the weather cleared up the bees removed the dead,
not out of the hive, but as far as they could from the combs (I
always found them, on such occasions, when I lifted the hive, in
a ring round the edge under the hive).

Again, if after having swept the stand, wet weather prevailed
for some time, and I then lifted the hive, I found the dead lying
on the “stand,” under the clusters of bees collected on the brood
combs in the centre, just where they fell. On the other hand I
did not find cold weather, so long as it was dry, restrain the bees
from coming forth, or trying too, in the manner I have described.

Now, it is well known that bees, when they come out of their
hive in winter time for amusement or sanitary purposes never go
far from the hive, they content themselves with wheeling about
and darting hither and thither in the immediate vicinity.

But what did these bees mean by darting away, high in the

608 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

air at top speed, straight as an arrow’s flight ; with perchance the
thermometer standing in the vicinity of “zero 2?” ;

I need not detail how I now closed all these four hives simul-
taneously on a bee issuing or being let forth, now opened one
and closed the rest, &c., &c. The result was the same in all cases,
those bees never returned. I may say that I always chose a day
for observation that was not “fine” enough to “tempt” bees out,
but that yet was dry.

I will end by detailing the different mode in which the bee
that gets out freely (doors being open) acts, from one that is
detained inside for some minutes ere it is let forth. The latter,
on being liberated, behaves like the ones I have mentioned in the
case of the hives exposed to the light inside the house. Simply
darting off without one look behind. The former, on the other hana,
runs down the flight-board, starts quietly off it, gives one turn
round the front of the hive as if to take a last look, the next
wheel begins a drawn-out spiral, taking a half turn of which it
attains a tolerably high elevation over the hive. Simultaneous
with the commencement of this turn upwards, the bee begins a
peculiar moaning sort of hum, quite unlike any ordinary sound,
it increases to a roar, and as the bee, now having attained sufh-
cient elevation, sails away in a straight, steady, laden-looking
flight, it can be heard for a considerable distance.

Over the tree-tops it has vanished. Shut the doors! Does it
come back? No! It has gone to seek “the happy hunting
ground.”

42?

“Sic vos non vobis mellificatis apes !

[ 609 ]

LXIII.— NOTES ON FLUORESCENCE, sy GEORGE FRANCIS
FITZGERALD, M.a., F.T.c.D.

[Read May 19th, 1880. |

THE object of this note is to call attention to the fact that if
a fluorescent body be heated sufficiently it must cease to be
fluorescent.

The method by which I arrived at this conclusion was very
cumbrous, and when the note was communicated to the Royal
Dublin Society, Dr. Stoney pointed out that a great simplification
might be effected by using the method of proof ordinarily employed
to show that the emissive and absorptive powers of a body are
equal for each separate ray. In fact, fluorescence consists in a
body’s absorbing rays of one refrangibility and emitting them at
another, and consequently for these absorbed rays the emissive
power of the body cannot be equal to its absorptive power. The
proof, however, assumes that the bodies are at the same tempera-
ture, and does not apply to any cases of fluorescence actually
observed. é

Let A, be the absorption of an ordinary unfluorescent body, and
E, its total emission, and R, its reflection of rays that do not
produce fluorescence in the other body, and let A,, E,, and R, be
its absorbtion, emission and reflection of rays that do produce
fluorescence. For the fluorescent body let @,, e,, and 7,, be the cor-
responding quantities for the non-fluorescent rays, and a,, é,, ey;
and 7, for the fluorescent rays, e,, represents the rays absorbed as
fluorescent but emitted as non-fluorescent.

Now, suppose the two bodies to be spread over two infinite
parallel planes with perfectly reflecting surfaces, so as to avoid
the necessity of considering transmitted rays, then for the non-
fluorescent body we must have—

Ai) BR, and A.2:Ei= Re
for the absorbed rays must be the difference between the total
emission and the reflection, as otherwise the temperature would

610 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

change, and, as there is no alteration of refrangibility in this case,
it must be true of each ray separately.

In the case of the fluorescent body we must have—

= —-TNy dy = ey +ey— Ty.
t.e., the absorbed non-fluorescent rays must he the difference
between the emitted and reflected ones, and the absorbed and
reflected fluorescent rays must together make up the whole
emitted as fluorescent or non-fluorescent.

We have, besides, that all the fluorescent rays emitted by the
non-fluorescent body must be either absorbed or reflected by the
other body, so that—

By=a, +7 = y+ env.
Also, all the fluorescent rays emitted by the fluorescent body are
either absorbed or reflected by the other, so that—
e=A,+R,=E,,

and we thus immediately obtain that ¢,,=0, or there can be no
fluorescence between bodies at the same temperature.

It seems likely from this that fluorescence depends on the
amplitude of the incident vibration being much greater than that
of the corresponding vibration of the molecule of the body, and
that whatever causes the actual distribution of amplitudes of
vibrations of the different periods produces its effect less com-
pletely in the case of fluorescent bodies than of non-fluorescent,
and less rapidly in the case of phosphorescent than non-phos-
phorescent bodies.

[eoit}

LXIV.—ON CHERT IN THE LIMESTONE OF KNOCKBEG,
COUNTY FERMANAGH, sy THOMAS PLUNKETT.

[Read June 21st, 1880. |

CHERT occurs in a variety of forms in nearly all the limestone
hills from Florence Court to the bold headland known as Ben
Bulbin, a few miles north of Sligo, including Knocknarea, to the
west of that town.

Occasionally it may be found in boss-like masses studded over
the surface of the limestone. It sometimes assumes the nodular
form, but it is most commonly found in thin bands or layers
intercalated with the limestone beds.

Knockbeg, as its name implies, is a little hill or elevated
rocky surface; it is composed of limestone containing nodules
and bands of chert. There is a strip of ground at the south
margin of the flat hill top, about twenty perches long, and from
two to four perches broad, in which are found vertical sheets of
chert passing up at right angles through the almost horizontal
limestone strata, and projecting from two to four feet above the
surface, resembling huge flags set on edge. At first sight one
might imagine that this strip of ground had been a pagan
cemetery, containing a number of mutilated “ giants’ graves.”
The rocky surface having been exposed to the weathering of
ages the limestone has yielded more freely to atmospheric
erosion than the sheets of chert, leaving the latter standing up
in bold relief. These projecting ribs of chert generally run in
a north-westerly direction, and are from three to twelve feet in
length ; a few, however, run due west; they are not continuous
in regular lines but occur somewhat as represented in the
diagrammatic sketch on the next page.

612 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

(LN =-

|

i

eS

eal

a

eth, ~

On Chert in the Limestone of Knockbeg, Co. Fermanagh. 618

In the face of the adjacent escarpment there is a very good
section of a vertical sheet of chert exposed ; it measures seven
feet vertically, and is four inches in breadth at top, thickening
to eleven inches at the bottom, where it passes into the mass of
rock beneath. Below this section, in the face of the cliff,
horizontal layers of chert, as wellas nodules of the same, may be
seen.

During the process of disintegration the chert sheets, whether
vertical or horizontal, weather in a similar fashion, some of the
fragments which have crumbled off being rudely and irregularly
prismatic, whilst others have come off in thin laminated plates.
The character of the chert seems similar in all of the forms ;
this point, however, cannot well be determined without
examination of sections under the microscope.

A question naturally arises here : were the vertical chert sheets
formed simultaneously with the lmestone in which they are
found, or were they afterwards formed in fissures produced in
the limestone when it became hardened, by siliceous matter
which might have been washed into cracks in the mass of
limestone? The evidence connected with them points to the
former conclusion, viz., that they were formed simultaneously
with the limestone.

There are adjacent rocks (part of the same formation) where
chert is absent which attain a higher elevation, and which
evidently extended at one time over the chert sheets in question,
but whose extension has been removed by denudation. These
elevated rocks form part of the adjoining cliff, and the beds com-
posing them are in one unbroken sequence from bottom to top,
and contain the fossils usually found in mountain limestone.
The rocks containing the vertical sheets of chert, are exactly
similar, and free from faults, cracks, or fissures. The horizontal
and vertical sheets of chert appear to be one formation deposited
in the bottom of the ancient Carboniferous sea. Still the question
is not answered—how is it that some of the chert sheets are
vertical ?

[ 614 ]

EXPLANATION OF MAP TO MR. BARRINGTON’S PAPER
ON THE INTRODUCTION OF THE SQUIRREL INTO
TRELAND.

The black squares represent localities where the squirrel has been
introduced. The red areas represent the districts from which it is now
reported. The numbers refer to the centres of introduction alluded to
in the paper. When the localities from which the squirrel is reported
are within a few miles of each other, the general area between has
been coloured red also; when, however, localities are distant a dotted
line is drawn in the direction of that centre of introduction from which
it is supposed the squirrel has originated.

Dates of Introduction—

Centre No. 1.—1815 to 1825. Glenmore Castle, Ashford.
2.—1876. Lucan.
5 3.—‘‘ Some 30 years ago.” Oalkpark, Carlow.
si 4.—1864. Birr Castle, Parsonstown.
ey 5.—1833. Garbally, Ballinasloe.
* 6.—Probably 1820 to 1830. Castleforbes, Longford.
7 7.—Comparatively recent. Donore, Multyfarnham.
PS 8.— Do. Ballyarr, Ramelton.

53 9.—Since publication of Thompson’s “‘ Nat. Hist. of Ireland.” Money-
glass, Antrim.

» 10.—1851 and 1856. Ravensdale Park, Newry.

Centre No. 8 has‘no red area around it, as there is reason to think
the squirrels have not spread.

Since the date of reading this paper, squirrels have been reported from Lisnabin near
Killucan, by the Rey. W. A. Reynell, fide Mr. A. G. More, and their occurrence has been
attributed to an introduction at Clonlost, some miles distant. They were brought from
Wicklow. Mr. W. P. Garnett, of Green Park, Dunshaughlin, writes to me that squirrels
have been there for years, “certainly over twelve or thirteen years,” and do not extend
more than a few miles. Information is wanting as to their origin here.

[ 615 ]

LXV.—ON THE INTRODUCTION OF THE SQUIRREL INTO
IRELAND, sy RICHARD M. BARRINGTON, a. 113,
Wita A Map.

[Read May 19th, 1880. ]

THE question as to whether the squirrel is a native of Ireland or
has been introduced is an interesting one. It does not appear
to be yet quite settled, and although I cannot claim to have
answered the question so conclusively as to satisfy everyone, yet
I hope to adduce strong evidence to prove that the squirrel is
not indigenous, and that its existence in Ireland is due to human
agency exercised at no very distant date.

Its existence in this country prior to the comparatively recent
introductions hereafter to be mentioned rests on vague traditions
—words of doubtful meaning used by one or two old writers, and
on the authority of O’Flaherty,* K’eogh,t and Rutty.{ Thompson
states in 1840, in his report on the Vertebrate Fauna of Ireland,§
that “the squirrel is not now a truly native animal; it was
introduced a few years since to the county of Wicklow, where it
is said to be fast increasing in numbers,” and Sir W. Wilde had
probably Thompson before him when he said :|| “ There is reason
to believe that we had squirrels in abundance in our woods in
former times; it has been re-introduced latterly.” Dr. Reeves
says :1 “It is doubtful whether squirrels were indigenous to Ire-
land.” Mr. J. R. Kinahan states :** “ Many doubt its ever having
been indigenous.” Lord Rosse says :tt—* It is mentioned in some
old record that a squirrel could hop from Birr to Portumna in the
woods afterwards cut down for the glass manufacture, but Lord
Rosse not having seen the MS. himself, cannot say if the evidence
is sufficient to establish the existence of squirrels at that time,”

* H’Iar Connaught—Hardiman’s ed. p. 10. (Written about 1684).

{ Zoologia Medicinalis Hibernica, 1739, p. 83.

t Nat. Hist. Co. Dublin, 1772, p. 291.

§ Report on the Vertebrate Fauna of Ireland. Brit. Ass. Rep. 1840, p. 360.

|| Paper “On the Unmanufactured Animal Remains belonging to the Academy,” Proc.
Royal Irish Acad. Vol. VII., p. 208

| Paper “ On Augustin, an Irish writer of the 7th century,” Proc. Royal Irish Acad.,
Vol. VIL, p- 518.

** Proc, Nat. Hist. Soc. of Dublin, Vol., I., p. 69.

++ In lit. to R.M.B., Feb., 1880.

Scrzn. Proc. R.D.S. Vou. 11, Pt. vu, 2T

616 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

and adds: “It is believed they afterwards became quite extinct.”
Mr. W. S. Keogh tells me of a tradition in Carlow, that a squirrel
could hop from “Carlow to Kilbride.” Lord Clermont* says he
“ig not able to form an opinion as to the squirrel being indigenous
to Ireland.” Mr. Harvie Brown, of Larbert, N.B., states* that Mr.
Alston (an authority on the British Mammalia) “thinks that
the introduction of the squirrel into Ireland is not sufficiently
proved.” So that it is quite evident there is much uncertainty
about the matter. The word “sesquivolos” occurs in Augustin,
an Irish writer of the seventh centuryt in his incidental mention
of Irish animals—but it occurs no where else in any book accor-
ding to Ducange—and though squirrels have been suggested no
one can say what it means. The word “ chricharans” occurs in
a remarkable Irish poem? as old as the ninth century, and it has
been thought to mean squirrels, but Ivish scholars do not seem to
be satisfied of its true signification.

I find that Irish names for squirrel are given in O’Reilly’s Irish
Dictionary and also in M‘Curtin’s, but in O’Brien’s there is
no trace of any word standing for squirrel. Giraldus Cambrensis§
does not give us any word which could stand for squirrel, but
O’Flaherty|| in 1684 mentions the squirrel as inhabiting Con-
naught. K’eogh@ in 1739 gives the squirrel in his list of “birds
beasts, fishes, reptiles, and insects commonly known and ah
gated in this kingdom.” Patrick Browne** only gives us a list
of the birds and fishes, and therefore had not occasion either to
include or omit the squirrel. Ruttytt in 1772 mentions the
squirrel saying, “ It is said to have been found in the wood at
Luttrelstown.”

All the authorities and old records that I could collect concer-
ning occurrence of the squirrel in Ireland previous to the nine-
teenth century, have now been given, and the following are
reasons for considering them to be erroneous :—

* In lit. to R.M.B., 1880.

+ Dr. Reeves, Paper on Augustin, Proc., Royal Irish Acad. Vol. VIL, p. 518.

t Sir W. Wilde’s Paper, ‘©On the Unmanufactured Animal Remains belonging to the
Academy,” Proc. Royal Irish Acad. Vol. VII., p. 181.

§ Topographia Hiberniae.

|| H’Jar Connaught—Hardiman’s ed. p. 10.

Zoologia Medicinalis Hibernica, p. 83.

** Catalogue of Irish Birds and Fishes. Exshaw’s Gentleman’s and London Magazine,

1774, pp. 385 and 515.
++ Nat. Hist. Co. Dublin, p. 291.

On the Introduction of the Squirrel into Ireland. 617

Great uncertainty and confusion seems to exist as to the
Trish names of some animals, and especially animals allied in their
habits or general outward appearance. The squirrel might readily
be confounded with the marten or the “weasel” (more correctly
the stoat, for there are no weasels in Ireland). Those who search
for evidence of the existence of the squirrel in Ireland in former
times in Irish MSS. will find little real satisfaction. In a MS.
sent to me by Mr. Harvie Brown, who is investigating the
history of the animal in Scotland, Mr. James M‘Pherson, a
Gaelic authority, is quoted. He enters with some minuteness into
the origin and meaning of the word “chrichurans,” and into the
Gaelic and Irish names for squirrel. In Scotland as well as in
Ireland, Mr. Harvie Brown’s words hold good, “much confusion
exists about the correct application of the names of animals of
the weasel, ferret, and squirrel families.” Even after careful study
nothing but a conclusion full of doubt is arrived at. When
squirrels first appeared near Bray in 1861, some of the humbler
classes took them for “ weasels” (stoats). When they were seen
for the first time at the foot of Sleve Gullion, co. Armagh, Lord
Clermont writes to me that they were taken by some to be young
foxes, and much surprise was felt when they were seen to climb
trees. Mr. H. C. Hart has recently heard of an old gentleman
in Donegal who said squirrels were numerous there long ago, but
his evidence was open to doubt when he added that they lived
“entirely upon fish.”

Some of these rather absurd instances are given to show how
little notion some persons have of the different species of animals,
and how readily old writers, with no pretence to be naturalists,
may err, and vague traditions originate. The supposed traditions
appear to have all arisen since the squirrel was really introduced.
K’eogh’s “ Zoologia” is far behind the state of biological knowledge
even at his time. The list he gives being very defective, and his
book is full of old women’s cures and ridiculous virtues, supposed to
belong to the different parts and products of animals. O’Flaherty’s
informant very probably never saw a squirrel, his idea of theanimal
was most likely derived from description, and as O’Flaherty had
no pretence to be called a naturalist, it was easy for him to fall
into error. Rutty, as I have mentioned, tells us that the squirrel
was said to be found in the wood at Luttrelstewn, but Rutty

Soren. Proc, R.D.S. Vout. 1, Pr. vit. 2T 2

618 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

gives also the dormouse in his list, an animal well known not to
be a native of Ireland ; he, therefore, is not reliable.

We now come to the first list of Irish mammals by a competent
naturalist, and find that the squirrel is not mentioned by the
well-known John Templeton of Belfast in his “ Catalogue of Irish
Vertebrate Animals.”* compiled early in this century. This fact,
that it was not known to Templeton, is very strong evidence, for
he travelled much in Ireland, and was well acquainted with all
branches of its flora and fauna.

But all the arguments hitherto used for or against the squirrel
being indigenous to Ireland are comparatively of little value when
we consider its present remarkable distribution, and its rapid
increase of late years, which is the second argument against its
being indigenous.

Through the kindness and courtesy of many correspondents
all over Ireland, I have been enabled to trace the occurrence of
the squirrel in every locality in this country with great prob-
ability to what may be termed local centres of introduction. In
some cases it is possible to follow its course and fix the dates of
its occurrence as it advanced from district to district from the
local centres. No circumstance shows with greater force that
the squirrel is no more a native of this country than the mole,
the dormouse, the voles, and many other mammals common in
England, than its present distribution. We are forced to believe
that, like the frog, it has been introduced ; for it is impossible to
reconcile the theory of extinction and subsequent re-introduction
with the great rapidity of its increase.

Professor Leith Adams of Queen’s College, Cork, writes :—

“There are no data, so far as I know, of the squirrel having been
found in caves in Ireland ; like the beaver and many other mammals,
it does not appear to have found its way to this country.”

We have no evidence that the woods were so universally and
completely cut down as to leave Ireland without a single copse
or plantation, and thereby annihilate the squirrels. Even at the
present day there are trees standing whose age must exceed three
or four, or perhaps five centuries, and the squirrel will breed even
where a few trees are planted together.

The squirrels eat such a variety of vegetable food that it is

* Charlesworth’s Mag. Nat. Hist., Vol. I, n. s., p. 403.

On the Introduction of the Squirrel into Ireland. 619

impossible to support the theory of extinction on the grounds of
starvation. Nuts, acorns, beech-mast, fir and larch cones, most
garden fruits, oats, wheat, barley, bread and milk, hempseed, young
shoots of trees and a number of other articles formed the food of
some wild squirrels which I caught and had in confinement
several years,

CENTRE No. 1.

Proceeding now to the present distribution, Thompson, as 1
have had occasion to remark already, states in 1840, in his Report
on the Vertebrate Fauna of Ireland,* that “The squirrel is not
now a truly native animal ; it was introduced a few years since
to the county of Wicklow where it is said to be fast increasing in
numbers.” It is curious that nothing is said about this intro-
duction in Thompson’s Natural History of Ireland,t and it does
not appear that Thompson was aware of when or where it
occurred.

The late Mr. Francis Synge, of Glenmore Castle, Ashford, near
the Devil’s Glen, writing to me in 1874, gives the particulars.
He says :-—

“ In reply to your letter relative to the introduction of squirrels by
my grandfather, I have often heard my father say that it was my
grandfather who introduced them into this district—that he reared them
from one pair kept in the house, and that they soon multiplied very
rapidly and took to the woods in all directions.”

In a subsequent letter Mr. Synge fixes the date of introduction
between 1815 and 1825. In 1874 Mr. George Walpole, writing
to me from the same neighbourhood, says that the squirrel has
increased rapidly of latter years.

Mr. G. H. Kinahan, in a recent letter to my friend Mr. A. G.
More, mentions that squirrels are said to have been introduced
at Castle Howard by Mrs. Howard, at the Meeting of the Waters.
Particulars of this introduction are wanting.

From the Wicklow centre of introduction, at Ashford, the
squirrel extended northwards, reaching Fassaroe, on the borders
of Dublin and Wicklow, about the year 1861. The first specimens
excited the greatest surprise, and were, by some, mistaken for

* Brit. Association Report, 1840, p. 360.
t Vol. IV, p. 14.

620 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

“ weasels ” (stoats). Many of the pioneers were killed or captured
as curiosities by the work people. In 1865 they were fairly es-
tablished a few miles into the county Dublin, they had reached
Carrickmines about 1874, and, passing Stillorgan and Dundrum,
they are now to be found a mile or two north of the metropolis,
and occur at Killakee.

Squirrels first appeared at Coronation Plantation, near Bless-
ington, twelve or fifteen years ago.

Southward, they have advanced into Wexford, and are found as
far as Lord Courtown’s demesne near Gorey. The gamekeeper
writes to me :— ‘

“The first I chanced to see was about twenty-five years past, for a
long time after I could see none, however, these last five years I see
they are increasing. I think they come from Glenart, Lord Carysford’s,
in the county Wicklow, twelve miles north of Courtown.”

Squirrels do not appear to have extended much south of Gorey.
Mr. G. H. Kinahan says that he

“ Has been through a good part of the woodland of Wexford, from
Gorey to the town of Wexford, and did not remark any traces of the
squirrel, and does not think they occur.”

The squirrel is found in that part of Carlow adjoming Wicklow
at Kilbride, Ballintemple, Aghada, Se. ; and these localities may
probably be derived from the Wicklow centre of introduction,
though Carlow has a separate centre of introduction for itself, of
which I shall speak presently.

CENTRE No. 2.

In the year 1876 my friend, Mr. Joseph Shackleton, of Anna
Liffey, Lucan, set free ten squirrels there, which he purchased
from a Dublin dealer at 5s. each. No squirrels had ever been
heard of or seen there previously.

“Tn a few days,” says Mr. Shackleton, ‘I found two or three of the
squirrels lying dead, and heard of one having been shot on the other
side of the river (Liffey), from which I infer that a squirrel can swim
across safely as there was no place where it possibly could have jumped
or forded it. I neither heard of or saw any more of the squirrels for
the next year, when J heard of an odd one showing itself, but the second,
and this year (1879) they appear to be quite numerous. They ate
nearly all iny nuts off the trees, and Lord Annaly was obliged to get
several shot in his garden.”

* Tn lit. to Mr. A. G. More, April, 1880

On the Introduction of the Squirrel into Ireland. 621

It is remarkable that the wood at Luttrelstown, where Rutty*
states the squirrel was said to be found in 1772 (and where no
one else has seen it from his time until 1876), is identical with
Lord Annaly’s demesne, at Woodlands, where the squirrels let
loose by Mr. Shackleton multiplied quickly in 1877.

Since 1876 squirrels have been recorded from Maynooth, Cel-
bridge, Straffan, and Lyons. These may have originated from
Lucan, but as the Wicklow squirrels, advancing over Dublin,
would probably have reached these localities at the same time,
the question is an open one.

The late Mr. J. R. Kinahan, having had occasion to refer to the
squirrel incidentally in a papert on Daubenton’s Bat, says, many
doubt its ever having been indigenous; and, having quoted
Rutty’s locality, adds, “and there is a tradition that it used to be
found near Clondalkin.”

Mr. G. H. Kinahan sayst{ :—

“Years ago I heard my brother say he saw them at Hampton Ho,
near Balbriggan, county Dublin, and my mother has told me that over
seventy years ago they were at Cloverhill, Clondalkin, in the same
county, having been introduced by her grandfather, Sir James Bond.

There is no evidence to show that squirrels existed in either of
these localities recently ; and, as it is not stated they were plenti-
ful, perhaps they were killed or died before they had time to in-
crease, or it may be there was but one sex set free.

CENTRE No 3.

Turning to the county Carlow, Mr. R. Clayton Browne, jun., of
Browne’s Hill, has been at some pains to collect information for
me, and has supplied a separate centre of introduction for that
county. He says,§ the gamekeeper at Oakpark, the residence of
Mr. H. Bruen :—

“Tells me that some thirty years ago, the late Colonel Bruen intro-
duced some squirrels, that they became very numerous, but after a great
storm they disappeared, and now they are very scarce. It is nine
months since he has seen one.”||

* Nat. Hist., Co. Dublin, 1772, Vol. I., p. 291.

t Dub. Nat. Hist. Soc. Proc., Vol. I., p. 69.

t In lit. to Mr. A. G. More, Ap., 1880.

§ In lit., Feb., 1880. ; ,

|| This is almost the only instance of decrease in any locality, and may be due to local
causes. Squirrels were thinned in three or four districts by the great frosts of 1878 and

1879.

622 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

To Colonel Bruen’s introduction may be traced the localities
given by Mr. F. Haughton in a list* of the Carlow, Kildare, and
Queen’s County mammals, compiled in 1853. Hesays, “Common
Squirrel—very rare, existed formerly in Pollerton, county Carlow,
and still said to be found in Burton Hall woods.” Pollerton and
Burton Hall are within a few miles of Oakpark. Squirrels are,
however, far from being extinct in Carlow at present. Mr. R.
Clayton Browne, jun., says, “ The man in charge of Burton Hall
woods tells me that there are several squirrels there, and he often
sees them.” Squirrels also occur in Russelstown Park, at Lisne-
vagh, Lord Rathdonnell’s demesne, plentifully, at Ballintemple
and Aghada, in Carlow ; some of these localities are doubtless of
Wicklow origin.

Sauirrels were seen by Mr. Clayton Browne, jun., at Abbey-
leix, Queen’s County, some years ago, and occur at Portarlington.t
The origin of the Abbeyleix and Portarlington squirrels is doubt-
ful. I scarcely feel satisfied that they came from the Carlow
centre at Oakpark, but shall include them under it for the present.
A reported locality at Norefield, Kilkenny, requires confirmation.

CENTRE No. 4.

Lord Rosse writes, that squirrels occur at Birr Castle, Parsons-
town, King’s County. These, he believes, “come from a few
brought over sixteen years ago, from Yorkshire and Sussex, but
which he had until lately believed to have died.” Mr. Williams,
of Dame-street, states that he has received squirrels to stuff from
Nenagh and Roscrea, in the north of Tipperary, and also from
Banagher in the King’s County. These localities I attribute to
the introduction at Parsonstown by Lord Rosse.

CENTRE No.5.

Ballinasloe is a well-known locality for squirrels, and on insti-
tuting inquiries, I found that they range westward over great
part of Galway, and have now advanced to within about ten
miles of Tuam. Iam indebted to many persons for the following
localities in that county—Ballyglunin, Newtown, Windfield,
Moyne, Mount Bellew, Clonbrock, Laurencetown, Eyrecourt.

* Proc. Dub. Nat. Hist. Soc., Vol. I., p. 68.
t Mr. J. D. Ogilby, Zoologist, 1877, p. 228.,

On the Introduction of the Squirrel into Ireland. 623

Killimor, and Garbally. In an appendix to this paper is given
a list of all the Irish localities, with the names of those who
supplied them to me.

The Galway localities are due to an introduction at Garbally,
for the particulars of which I have to thank Mrs, Shawe Taylor,
of Castle Taylor, who, having learned that I was collecting infor-
mation, kindly wrote to the Dowager Lady Clancarty, about the
squirrels at Garbally. Her reply stated that in the summer of
1833, two to four couple of squirrels were obtained in London by
the then Lord and Lady Clancarty, and were let out at Garbally,
on the grass opposite the library windows.

“From thisstock,” says the Dowager Lady Clancarty, ‘ sprang the squir-
rels, which are numerous, though they have been destroyed to a certain
extent from time to time. They have spread to Clonbrock, and even
crossed the river Suck here. How, I cannot tell, but one or two have
been seen in a wood called Kilgarriff, on this property, in the county
Roscommon. How they crossed the river is unexplained, as it is not
likely they went across the bridge at Ballinasloe.”

In the Field newspaper, April 4th, 1874, a writer who signs
himself “ L. D.,” describes how he thinks the squirrels crossed
the Suck from Garbally, and entered Roscommon. He fixes the
date at 1865. “L. D.,” states the squirrels were imported about
that date across the river, into Roscommon, by a stable boy.
They are now found in the southern end of Roscommon, and Mr.

Williams has received a specimen from Athlone.

CENTRE No. 6.

It is stated in Thompson’s Natural History of Ireland, that the
squirrel was well-known to have been introduced at Castleforbes,
county Longford, and that they were abundant there in 1836 and
1837. From Castleforbes the squirrels extended to Carrickglass,
some miles distant ; and since Thompson’s time appear to have ad-
vanced mainly in the southerly direction in the county Longford.
A specimen has been received from Ballymahon.

Squirrels are also reported from Moate, county Westmeath, and
a few days ago they appeared for the first time at Clara, King’s
County. The Moate and Clara localities are a little outside the
range of any of the centres of introduction mentioned, Garbally,
Parsonstown, or Castleforbes. But it will be convenient to place
them under the last, as it is in point of time the earliest.

624 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

CENTRE No. 7.

Mr. A. G. More informs me, on the authority of Mrs. Battersby,
of Rathowen, that squirrels were set free at Donore, Multifarn-
ham, by Miss Nugent, but are thought to have been all killed by
cats. This may not have been the case, as it is not easy to
account for a specimen received by Mr. Williams, from a locality
so far out of range as Mullingar, except on the hypothesis of a
separate introduction in Westmeath.

CENTRE No. 8.

In the Zoologist for July, 1877, the squirrel is reported from
Drummonaghan wood, Ramelton, county Donegal; Mr. Mahony
states that he saw it there in 1875. This locality was so entirely
out of range and so unexpected, that [ asked my friend, Mr. H.
C. Hart (late naturalist to H.M.S. Discovery), to institute inquiries
for me. Mr. Hart is well acquainted with the whole of Done-
gal, having explored most of it on botanical excursions, and to
him the occurrence of a wild squirrel near Ramelton was quite
a surprise. From a letter which Mr. Hart has received from Dr.
Patterson, of Ramelton, it would appear that the late Lord George
Hill kept some tame squirrels at Ballyarr, near Ramelton, and it
is probable these escaped to Drummonaghan wood, and were seen
by Mr. Mahony. They do not yet appear to have increased, and
only three were seen. This centre of introduction has, therefore,
no red area around it. (See map.)

CENTRE No. 9.

In the guide to Belfast, published on the occasion of the visit
of the British Association in 1874, by the members of the Belfast
Naturalists’ Field Club, it is stated :—

“That the squirrel, though a doubtful native, frequents woods in
several places, and seems to be gradually spreading and increasing
in suitable localities. It has, within the past few years, established
itself at Shane’s Castle, and it has been observed near Crumlin.”

Both these localities are in Antrim, and the following may also
be added for that county—Lisburn, Glenavy, Antrim, Randals-
town, Moneyglass, Toome ; for Derry—Ballyscullion, and Money-
more ; for 'yrone—Cookstown, Stuart Hill, Stewartstown, and
Dungannon. Mr. Williams has received a specimen from Glass-

On the Introduction of the Squirrel into Ireland. 625

lough on the borders of Tyrone and Monaghan. Many inquiries
were made as to the centre of introduction from which all these
localities originated. By careful examination of the surrounding
districts, I had fairly isolated this group of localities; they
appeared to be surrounded by a squirrel-less area, and I have to
thank Mr. F. W. Egan (Geological Survey), Coleraine, for what
may be termed the Lough Neagh centre. It supplied, as it were,
the last link in a chain, which made it possible to solve the origin
of the squirrel in every district in Ireland, where I had been
made aware of its existence. Mr. Egan states that :—

“Mr. Jones, brother of the present proprietor of Moneyglass (near
Toome, county Antrim), now dead, introduced squirrels at Moneyglass
from England, and that they spread thence to Craigmira, thence to

Shane’s Castle, and lastly to Massereene Park, at Antrim. They came
to Shane’s Castle from six to ten years ago.”

The keeper at Shane’s Castle writes :—

“The squirrel has been in this place for about ten years, and is
numerous in this demesne.”

Mr. Egan was unable to ascertain the date at which ‘quirrels
were introduced at Moneyglass, but it must certainly have
occurred since Thompson’s time, for no one was better acquainted
with the natural history of the north-eastern counties. Thompson
had explored them better than any part of Ireland, and does not
mention finding the squirrel.

CENTRE No. 10.

Squirrels occur at Mount Pleasant, north of Dundalk, and at
Ravensdale Park, Newry, both in the county Louth ; at Slieve
Gullion and Camlough in southern Armagh, and at Newry and
Castlewellan, county Down. These localities may all be traced
to a centre of introduction at Ravensdale Park, being the last I
am aware of. For the particulars I am indebted to Lord Cler-
mont, who writes :—

“The common squirrel was first turned out at Ravensdale Park in
the year 1851, when ten adults were set free in the woods; in 1856
fifteen squirrels were turned out. From them a large stock have sprung.
and many strayed to other woods three and four miles distant. In one
instance, at the base of Slieve Gullion, a high mountain in the south of
Armagh in this neighbourhood, the people living near a wood re-
marked that they saw very small young foxes, which, to their surprise,

626 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

when frightened ran up trees. In 1871 the late Lord Annesley told me
ee one had been seen in his woods at Castlewellan, twenty miles from
nere.

In the Zoologist for May, 1877, page, 223, Mr. J. D. Ogilby
gives Kerry as a locality for the squirrel, but he has since written
to me from Texas saying that he cannot remember where his
authority was obtained. Careful inquiry, and letters from Lord
Bantry’s, Lord Kenmare’s, and Mr. Herbert’s gamekeepers, do not
confirm this locality.

All the positive evidence for the existence of the squirrel in
Ireland that has come under my notice, has now been gone over
perhaps with too much detail. The negative evidence is brief,
and is best understood by looking at the map which I have pre-
pared, in which the black dots represent the local centres of intro-
duction, and the general areas from which squirrels are reported
are marked red. They are absent from the rest of Ireland.

The conclusions to be drawn from the foregoing evidence would
seem to be as follows :—

1st.—That the squirrel spread over the whole of Wicklow,
northern Wexford, and southern Dublin, from Ashford, county
Wicklow, where they were introduced by Mr. Synge between
1815 and 1825. That they may have been introduced also at
Castle Howard, Wicklow.

2nd. That it has extended to Maynooth, Straffan, Lyons, and
that neighbourhood, from Mr. Shackleton’s introduction at Lucan,
in 1876, and perhaps also from Wicklow.

3rd. That it has extended over northern Carlow to the borders
of Wicklow, and westward to Abbeyleix and Portarlington, from
Colonel Bruen’s introduction at Oak Park, “Some thirty years
ago.”

4th. That the Nenagh and Roscrea, and Banagher localities
may be due to Lord Rosse’s introduction at Parsonstown sixteen
years ago.

5th. That all the county Galway localities and those in the
south of Roscommon had their origin in the introduction at Gar-
bally, in 1833, by Lord Clancarty.

6th. That we must attribute the presence of the squirrel in
Longford, and perhaps at Moate and Clara to the introduction re-
ferred to by Thompson at Castle Forbes.

On the Introduction of the Squirrel into Ireland. 627

7th. That the Mullingar locality may be due to Miss Nugent’s
introduction at Donore.

Sth. That the Donegal centre of introduction at Ballyarr, in
1875, has extended very slightly, and is, perhaps, extinct.

9th. That all the localities round Lough Neagh are probably
due to Mr. Jones’s introduction at Moneyeglass.

10th. That the localities in northern Louth, southern Armagh,
and Down, are due to Lord Clermont’s introduction at Ravens-
dale, in 1851 and 1856.

My sincere thanks are due to the correspondents who have
kindly assisted me in this investigation. They are so numerous
that they will, I trust, excuse me thanking them individually.

My friend Mr. A. G. More, of the Museum of Science and Art,
Kildare-street, has, however, by constant advice and valuable sug-
gestions, assisted me so much that it is impossible for me to con-
clude without acknowledging the great aid he has given me.

— TasuLaR STATEMENT of Positive EvIDENCE showing the present distri-
bution of the Squirrel in Ireland.

County, Distribution.

WICKLOW.
County generally,

In woods over the whole county. R.M.B.
Glenmore, Ashford,

‘Introduced by my grandfather.” 1815 to 1825.
The late Mr. Francis Synge, in lit. Ap. 1874.”
Castle Howard, . : : . | Said to be introduced. Mr. G. H. Kinahan, in lit.
to Mr. A G. More, Ap. 1880.
Coronation plantation, Blessington, | Appeared twelve to fifteen years ago. Mr. H. C.
Hart

Fassaroe, Bray, Appeared in 1861 or 62 R.M.B

DUBLIN.

County generally, .

Crossed into this county from Wicklow about 1863
to 1864. R.M.B.

Carrickmines, Appeared about 1874. R.M.B.

Killakee, Mr. A. G. More.

Rathfarnham, Mr. J. E. Palmer, in lit. 1877.

Dundrum, Do.

Lucan, . Introduced in September, 1876, by Mr. Joseph
Shackleton. Five bracelet loose. Mr. J. Shackle-
ton, in lit. 1879.

Woodlands, . Mr. Shackleton. Numerous in 1879. Spread from

Clontarf and Raheny, .

Roebuck, . -

Lucan.

Mr. Williams. Two or three recently.

Two years ago. Mr. G. H. Kinahan, in lit. to Mr.
A. G. More, 1880.

628 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

TaBuLaR STATEMENT of Positive EvipEnce showing the present distri-

bution of the Squirrel in Treland—continued.

County.
KILDARE.
Straffan,
Maynooth,
Celbridge,
Lyons,
WEXFORD.

Courtown, Gorey,

CARLOW.

Burton Hall woods, and Pollerton, .

Oak Park,

Lisnevagh,
Ballintemple,
Kilbride, .

KOLKENNY.
Norefield,

QUEEN’s Co.

Abbeyleix,
Portarlington,

Krne’s Co.
Parsonstown,

Banagher,
Clara, .

GALWAY.
Garbally, Ballinasloe,

Clonbrock,

Newtown,
Windfield,
Moyne,

Bally gluin, .
Mount Bellew,

Laurencetown,
Killimor, ¢ : 9
Eyrecourt,

RoscoMMON.

Kilgarrif Wood, . °
Near Ballinasloe, .

Distribution.

Mr. E. Williams, Dame-street, in lit. 1880.
Do.
Do.
‘‘Appeared within the last two or three years.”
Hon. Miss Lawless, in lit. May, 1880.

‘“‘First appeared about twenty-five years ago.”
Supposed to come from Glenart, Wicklow. James
Paskins, Keeper to the Earl of Courtown, in lit.
1880.

Mr. F. Haughton, Proc. Dub. Nat. Hist. Soe. Vol.
I. p. 68, and Mr. R. Clayton Browne, jun., in lit.
1880, as to Burton Hall woods.

Introduced by Col. Bruen “some thirty years ago.”
Mr. R. Clayton Browne, in lit.

_ Do.
Do.
Mr. W. S. Keogh.

“ Squirrels were here some time ago.” Mr.- J. N.
White, Selborne, Waterford, in lit. 1880.

“Seen some years ago.” Mr. R. Clayton Browne,
junior, in lit. 1880. ;
Mr. J. D. Ogilby. “ Zoologist,” 1877, p. 223.

Introduced at Birr Castle sixteen years ago. Lord
Rosse, in lit. 1880.

Mr. E. Williams.

Mrs. Goodbody. First appeared about one month ago.

Introduced in 1833 by Lord Clancarty Dowager
Lady Clancarty, in lit. to Mrs. Shawe Taylor, Feb.,
1880.

Do. Appeared about fifteen years ago. Mr. H. A.
Blake, in lit. 1880.

Mr. H. A. Blake, Tuam.

Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Mr. G. H. Kinahan, in lit. to Mr. A. G. More, 1880.
Do.
Do.

Dowager Lady Clancarty, in lit. 1880.
“LL. D.” in ‘ Field” Ap. 4th, 1874, fixes date of
entering Roscommon from Galway at 1865,

On the Introduction of the Squirrel into Trelund. 629

TaBuiar Starement of Positive EvreENce showing the present distri-
bution of the Squirrel in Ireland—continued.

County.

LONGFORD.
Castleforbes,

Carrickglass,
Kilshrewley, .
Newtownbond,
Ballymahon,

WESTMEATH.
Athlone,
Moate, s :
Mullingar, . : :
Donore, Multifarnham, .

DONEGAL.
Drummonaghan Wood,
Ramelton,

ANTRIM.

Lisburn,

Crumlin,

Glenavy, .
Ballinderry, .
Randalstown,

Toome, :

Shane’s Castle,

Moneyglass. .

TYRONE.
Dungannon, .
Stewartstown,
Stewart Hall.
Cookstown, .

MONAGHAN,
Glasslough, .

DERRY.
Ballyscullion,

Springhill, Moneymore,
Down.

Castlewellan,

Newry, . .

| Distribution.

Nat. Hist. Ireland, Vol. IV. p. 14. Date probably
from 1820 to 1830. R.M.B.
Do., and Mr. T. N. Edgeworth, in lit. 1880.
Mr. T. N. Edgeworth.
Mr. E. Williams, in lit. 1880.
Do.

Mr. E. Wiltiams, in lit. 1880.
Mr. H. A. Blake, Tuam, in lit. 1880.
Mr. E. Williams.
| Introduced by Miss Nugent, but thought to be all
killed. Mrs. Battersby, of Rathowen, fide Mr. A.
G. More.

: “ Well-known to have been introduced.” Thompson

Mr. Mahony, ‘‘ Zoologist,” July, 1877.

Supposed to be some tame ones kept at Ballyarr,
which escaped. Dr. Patterson of Ramelton, in lit.
to Mr. H. C. Hart, 1880.

Mr. Thos. Darragh, Belfast Museum, in lit. 1880.

Do. and others.
Do.
Do.
Mr. Thos. Darragh.
Do.

‘Has been in this place about ten years.” John Ross,
Keeper to Lord O'Neill, in lit. 1880, and see Brit.
Ass. Guide to Belfast, p. 92.

Mr. Jones, brother of the present proprietor, intro-
duced them. Thence they spread to Shane’s Castle
and Antrim. Mr. F. W. Evan, in lit. 1880.

Mr. Thos. Darragh.
Do.
Rey. George Robinson.
Mr. ‘Chos. Plunkett (Geol. Survey.) Enniskillen, in
lit 1880.

“Very few.” Mr. E. Williams, in lit. 1880.

Dr. Patterson, of Ramelton, in lit. to Mr. H. C. Hart.
1880.
Rey. G. Robinson, in lit. to Mr. A. G. More, 1880,

|

. | Late Lord Annesley in 1871. Fide Lord Clermont,

| in lit 1880. Thought to have come from Ravens-
| dale, Louth. One only seen.

- | Mr. Thos. Darragh and others.

630 Scientific Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society.

TABULAR StaTEMENT of Positive EvipEeNcE showing the present distri-
bution of the Squirrel in Ireland—continued.

County. Distribution.
ARMAGH.
Slieve Gullion, . : : . | Lord Clermont, in lit. 1880.
Camlough, . : : < .| Mr. F. W. Egan, in lit. 1880.
Louru.
Ravensdale, . ¢ 5 : . | Introduced 1851 and 1856. Lord Clermont, in lit.
1880.
Mount Pleasant, Dundalk, . .! Mr. F. W. Egan, in lit. 1880.

TABULAR STATEMENT of the NEGATIVE EVIDENCE.

WEXFORD.
Gorey to Wexford, : : . | “ Did not remark any traces of squirrels and don’t
think they occur.” Mr. G. H. Kinahan, in lit. to
Mr. A. G. More, March, 1880.
WATERFORD.
Selborne, . 5 5 5 .| ‘No squirrel near.” Mr. J. N. White, in lit. to
R.M.B. 1880.
Portlaw, 3 c ¢ 0 . | “No squirrels.” Dr. Martin, in lit. 1880.
Cappoquin, . : 5 . | ‘‘Never heard of in this part of Ireland.” Mr. R.
J. Ussher, in lit. 1880.
Cork.
Whole county, . : . . | ‘‘ None ever seen or heard of.” Dr. Harvey, 1880.
Glengariffe, . é : 0 .| ‘‘No squirrels in this neighbourhood.” Daniel
O’Connell, Keeper to the Earl of Bantry, in lit.
1880.
KERRY.
Killarney, . . : . .| “It has never been seen here.” J. Davidson,
Keeper to the Earl of Kenmare, in lit. 1880.
Do. ° ¢ : ; . | “No squirrels.” Chas. Gill, Keeper to Mr. Herbert,
Muckross, in lit. 1880.
LIMERICK.
Limerick, . : : : . | Letter from Mr. C. B. Barrington, Glenstal, in 1874,
No mention of squirrels.
DONEGAL.
Ballyshannon, 5 5 5 . | ‘Have not heard of it.’ Mr. R. G. Symes (Geol.
Survey) in lit. 1880.
County generally, : : . | Never saw or heard of any in this county, until Mr.
Mahony announced them in ‘‘ Zoologist,” 1877, p.
290. Mr H.C. Hart. Only two or three were
seen. See Table of Positive Evidence.
FERMANAGH.
Florence-court, . 2 ‘ .| “I have never seen a squirrel in this quarter.”

Donald M‘Farlane, Keeper to the Earl of Ennis-
killen, in lit. 1880.

Castlecoole, . ¢ : : . | ‘The squirrel is not in this part of Ireland.” Joseph
Robinson, Keeper to the Earl of Belmore, in lit.
1880.

On the Introduction of the Squirrel into Ireland.

631

TABULAR StTaTEMENT of the Nrcative EvipeNncE—continued.

County.

Mayo.
Mayo, 5 ;

SLIGO.
Markree Castle,

TYRONE.

Baronscourt, Newtownstewart,

N.W. of Ireland generally,

Downy.
Drumbanagher,

Tollymore Park,

ARMAGH.
Tartaraghan,

Tanderagee, .

ANTRIM.
Carrickfergus,

WESTMEATH.
Rathowen,

|

Distribution.

Mr. Robt. Warren of Ballina never head of or saw
it in this county.

Cel. Cooper did not mention it to Mr. R. Warren
as occurring.

‘*- No squirrel here.” William Taylor, Keeper to the
Duke of Abercorn, in lit. 1880.

“Tf you draw a line on the map of Ireland from
Clones to Sligo on the one side, and from Clones
to the mouth of the River Foyle at Derry, on the
other—in all the area between this line and the
Atlantic the squirrel is absent so far as I know,
and I have travelled through most of it.” Mr.
Thos. Plunkett (Geol. Survey), Enniskillen, in lit.
1880.

“lhe squirrel does not exist in this locality.” Mr.
Maxwell Close, in lit. 1880.

“None in the neighbourhood.” John Kennedy,
keeper to the Earl of Roden, in lit. 1880; but see

positive evidence under Castlewellan.

No mention by the Rey. G. Robinson in list of
squirrel localities to Mr. A. G. More, in lit. 1880.

Never seen or heard of by R. M. B. though often
there.

““T never heard of one in this neighbourhood ” Mr.
M. W. E. Dobbs, Castle Dobbs, in lit. 1880.

None. Mrs. Battersby. fide Mr. A. G. More.

The silence of many correspondents regarding the occurrence
of the squirrel in other districts is strong negative evidence
which must be added to this table, and the fact of an introduction
being made is also evidence of the previous non-existence of
squirrels, as no cne would take the trouble to introduce them
where they were already in existence.

Scien. Proc. R.D.S.

VOW. die, br avit

LXV. ON A DIMEROUS FORM, OF PAINSY.) Byamee
JOHNSTONE STONEY, p.sc., F.R.s.

[Read June 21st, 1880. }

A BLOSSOM of a garden pansy, which was perfectly symmetrical,
and in which all the parts were iv opposed patrs was exhibited
to the Society. There were many blossoms on the clump from
which it had been plucked, but this was the only one that was
abnormal. The peduncle on which it grew was bent like the
peduncles of ordinary blossoms, so that the blossom stooped for-
ward, but in every other respect it was perfectly symmetrical.

Annexed is a diagram of the flower, and the following is a
description of it :—

Sepals, two, iateral, precisely like the two large outer sepals of
the ordinary blossoms on the same plant, except that they were
set symmetrically right and left, instead of inclining downwards
as they do in ordinary blossoms and except that one of them—
that to the left—had a minute notch at its tip.

Petals, two, alike, one above and one below, both of them
spurred, shaped, and marked, like the lowest petal of the ordinary
flowers of the same plant. The blades of the petals were not in
the same plane (so that the flower had not the flat appearance of
an ordinary blossom), but lay in two planes inclined to one
another, at an angle of about 60°.

oe

On a Dimerous Form of Pansy. 633

Stamens four, in two lateral pairs, the two stamens of each
pair being completely connate, their connectives having grown
together, and the two pairs being slightly united by interlacing
fringes of hairs, like the slight connexion between all the
stamens of the ordinary flowers of the same plant. Anther cells
introrse, like those of ordinary flowers. The pollen was mostly
shed when the blossom was examined, and therefore could not be
sufficiently scrutinized. What was collected appeared more
prevailingly round than is usual in pansies. The filaments of
all four stamens were spurred, like the filaments of the two lower
stamens of ordinary flowers. Two of these spurs, 7.¢., one from
a stamen of each lateral pair, passed into the spur of the lower
petal; the other two spurs passing into the spur of the upper
petal. The stamens had orange tips, and except as noted above
resembled those of ordinary blossoms.

Style as in ordinary blossoms. Stigma cupshaped, but with a
straight opening, not one leaning downwards as in ordinary
blossoms—at least this was the appearance when the flower
was examined, but the edges of the cup were then slightly
withered. Ovary a one-celled capsule of two carpels, many-
ovuled, placentas parietal, and lateral, i.c., opposite the sepals.
Dorsal ridges above and below, i.¢., opposite the petals. The
carpels resembled those of ordinary blossoms, but there were only
two instead of three of them. Ovules anatropous.

Thus all parts of the blossom were dimerous, and the blossom
seemed to approximate to the Fumariaceze, Cruciferee, and Cap-
paridacew, except as regards the position of the carpels. If this
abnormal blossom in one of the Violacese may be regarded as an
instance of reversion towards an ancestral type, it would seem to
indicate that the order of descent has been from a plant, some-
what resembling our Fumariacez to our present Violacez, and
not in the opposite direction.

[ 634 ]

ADDENDUM TO MR. PERCY EVANS FREKE’S PAPER ON
A COMPARATIVE CATALOGUE OF BIRDS FOUND IN

EUROPE AND NORTH AMERICA.

America.
Mergus cucullatus.* Linn.
ganser. )

(Hooded Mer-

The whole of North America. (Baird,
Cassin, and Lawrence.)
The West Indies and Mexico. (Sclater

and Salvin.)

Mergus serrator.* Linn.

Alaska in summer (Bannister), and
‘British North America. Common
throughout Hudson’s Bay, and on the
Mackenzie (Ross). In autumn and
winter, Dresser found it frequent in
New Brunswick. Passing southward
to North Carolina (Coues). California,

Vide page 373.

Zurope.
Mergus cucullatus.
Mr. Harting’s Handbook, p. 165, gives
its occurrence as follows :—
One, Yarmouth, 1829.
One, Menai Straits, near Bangor ;
winter of 1830-31.
One, Burton Park, Petworth, Sussex.
One, Stoke Nayland, Suffolk.
One, Dingle Bay, Kerry ; winter of
1840.
One, Co. Meath, Ireland.
One, Caithness, prior to 1841.
Two, near Leeds.
One, Somersetshire.
Three, seen on Frith of Forth, 5 M ay
1853.
» Two, Sheerness, March, 1870,
Degland and Gerbe also state (Vol. IL,
p- 573), on the authority of Temminck,
that this species has been killed in
France.

?

Mergus serrator.* Linn.
Merganser. )

Mr. Dresser says, it breeds in the north
of Europe, from Iceland eastward,
through Scandinavia and Northern
Russia, in Scotland, and sometimes in
Ireland, but through England, Central
and Southern Europe, it occurs as an
autumn or winter visitor. South to
Portugal and Southern Spain; Gib-
raltar Irby); Malta (Wright) ; Italy;
Sicily ; and in Sardinia (Brooke) ;
Palestine (Tristram). Rare in Egypt
and North-western Africa. Turkes-
tan; Japan; China, Lower Amoor.
Eastern Siberia (breeds, Dr. Radde).

(Red-breasted

END oF Voutume II.

New Snurizs.

ROYAL DUBLIN SOCIETY.
HUNDRED AND FORTY-SEVENTH SESSION, 1877-78.

MINUTES OF PROCEEDINGS,

Monpay EVENING, FEBRUARY 18TH, 1878.

Section I.—Physical and Experimental Sciences.
(With which the “ Dublin Scientific Club” is associated.)

Rev. RICHARD TOWNSEND, F.T.C.D., F.R.S., in the Chair.
The following Communications were laid before the Section:—

The Right Hon. The Eart of Rosss, Fr.z.s.—‘ Observations of Nebule,
made with the six-foot and the three-foot reflectors at Parsonstown,
from the time of their erection to the end of the year 1877.”

(Ordered for publication in the Transactions, Vol. I.)

J. E. L. Dreyer, u.a.—“ Notes on the Physical Appearance of the
Planet Mars, as seen with the three-foot reflector at Parsonstown,
during the opposition of 1877, accompanied by drawings of the Planet.”

(Transactions, Vol. I., Part VI.)
Howarp Grup, M.E., F.R.A.S.—‘‘A new form of Contact Breaker.”
(Proceedings, Vol. II., Part I.)

G. JoHNSTONE STONEY, M.A., F.R.S., Hon. Sec.—“ The Mechanical Theory
of Crookes’s Force.”

(Transactions, Vol. I., Part IV.)

Professor Barrett exhibited a series of Acoustic Figures produced by
the Voice.

Section II.—Natural Sciences.
(With which the “ Royal Geological Society of Ireland”
is associated.)

Rey. MAXWELL H. CLoSsg, M.A., in the Chair.

The following Communications were laid before the Section :—

Anniversary Address to the Royal Geological Society of Ireland,

delivered by the President, Rev. MaxweExu Coss, M.A.
' (Proceedings, Vol. II., Part I.)

Rey. Dr. HaucurTon, F.R.s.—“ On the Theoretical and Actual Distribu-
tion of Sun-heat on the Surface of the Earth, from which is inferred
the absolute Radiation of Heat into Space from the Earth ; together
with Observations on the Work done by the Sun-heat not accounted

for.”
(Proceedings, Vol. II., Part I.)

R.D.S, MINUTES.

ul
W. H. 8. Wesrropp, u.p.—“ On the Alleged Discovery of a Petroleum

Well at Lisdoonvarna.”

Rev. Maxwetu H. Crosz. u.a.—‘ On the Physical Geography of the
Neighbourhood of Dublin.”
(Proceedings Vol. I., Part IIT.)

W. H. Batty, F.c.s.— On the Paleontology of the Neighbourhood of
Dublin.” ‘
(Proceedings, Vol. I., Part IIT.)

Section III.—Science applied to the Useful Arts and Industries.
W. FRAZER, M.D., in the Chair.
The following Communication was laid before the Section :—

ALEXANDER MeDonneELL, c.E.—‘‘ On the ‘ Dodge’ Process of prepar-
ing Peat.”

Monpbay Evenine, Marcu 187TH, 1878.

Section I.—Physical and Experimental Sciences.
(With which the “ Dublin Scientific Club” is associated.)
Rev. GERALD MOLLOY, D.D., in the chair.
The following Communications were laid before the Section :—
E. G. Huru.—“On the Radiating Power of Shell-lac Films of

various thickness.”

(Proceedings, Vol. II., Part I.)

Professor W. F. Barrett, F.R.S.E.—‘‘ On an Experiment connecting
- Electro-motive Force and Surface Tension.”
(Proceedings, Vol. I[., Part I.)

W. H. Bartow, F.R.s.—‘‘ On the Logograph.”

G. F. FirzcEera.p, F.tT.c.D.—‘‘ On the Mechanical Theory of Crookes’s
Force.”
(Transactions, Vol. I., Part V.)

Professor J. Emerson REYNOLDS, M.D.—‘‘On a new kind of Gunpowder.”

Epwarp B. NEVILLE, B.A4.—‘‘ On some points in the estimation of
Organic Acids in complex mixtures.”

Section II.— Natural Sciences.

(With which the “ Royal Geological Society of Ireland” is
associated.)

Rev. MAXWELL H. CLosg, M.A., in the chair.
The following Communications were laid before the Section:—

Rev. Professor HAvGHTON, F.R.s.—‘ On the Mineralogy of County Dub-
lin,” 5
(Proceedings, Vol. T., Part III.)

Rie 5

lil

Professor LeitH ADAMS, M.A., F.R.s.—‘‘ On the recent and extinct Irish
Mammals.”
(Proceedings, Vol. II., Part I.)
Davip Moors, pu.D., F.L.s.—‘ On the Flowering of a new species of
Ceratozamia in the Glasnevin Gardens.”
(Proceedings, Vol. II., Part I.)
Davip Moors, pu.p., F.L.S.,and A. G. Mors, r.u.s.— Catalogue of the
Flowering Plants and Ferns of Dublin and Wicklow.”
(Proceedings, Vol. I., Part ITI.)
Davip Moors, pu.p., F.L.s.—‘ List of the Mosses found in the counties
* of Dublin and Wicklow, with the principal localities for the species.”
(Proceedings, Vol. I., Part III.)

Davip Moors, Pu.D., F.L.s.—‘‘List of the Hepatice found in the counties

of Dublin and Wicklow, with the principal localities for the species.”
(Proceedings, Vol. I., Part III.)

GREENWOOD Pim, M.A., F.L.S.-—“‘ On the Lichens and Fungi of the coun-

ties of Dublin and Wicklow.”
(Proceedings, Vol. I., Part ITT.)

Rev. Eucene O’Mrara.— On the Diatomacee of the counties of Dub-
hn and Wicklow.”

(Proceedings, Vol. I., Part IIT.)

Professor M‘Nap, F.LS., exhibited specimens of Zasmidium cellare. Fr,
from the wine cellars of Mr. Wilson, of Westminster, which had been
presented to the Museum of the Royal College of Science by Professor
J. P. O'Reilly, M.R.1.a.

Mr. Wituiams exhibited Horns of Reindeer, and several diseased bones
of the Irish Elk discovered under Peat, at Ballybetagh, county Dub-
lin.

Section III.—Science applied to the Useful Arts and Industries.
WENTWORTH ERCK, LL.D., in the chair.
The following Communication was made to the Section :—

ALEXANDER M°DONNELL, M.A., C.E.—‘‘ On the Transmission of Power.”
(Proceedings, Vol. II. Part I.)

Monpay EVENING, APRIL 157TH, 1878.
Section I.—Physical and Experimental Sciences.
(With which the “ Dublin Scientific Club ” is associated.)
Prof. BARRETT, F.R.S.E., in the Chair.
The following communications were laid before the Section :—

Rey. Geratp Mottoy, p.p.—‘‘ On a new form of Voltaic Battery, suit-
able for the Laboratory and Lecture Hall.”
Cuartes A. CAMERON, M.D.—‘‘ On a Hay Crop of abnorimal Compo-

sition.”
(Proceedings, Vol. IT., Part I.)

lv
RicHarpD J. Moss, F.c.s.—‘‘ On the Influence of Alkaline Carbonates

on the Oxidation of Iron.”

Prof. REYNOLDS, M.D., exhibited some new Tests for the Colouring
Matter of Bile; also Large Specimens of pure Glucinum, and of the
Fluoride of Glucinum and Potassium, prepared from Irish Beryls.

J. R. Wicuam, Hsq., exhibited an Improved Four-wick Lighthouse Oil
Lamp.

Section IJ.—Natural Sciences.

(With which the “ Royal Geological Society of Ireland” is
associated. )

Rev. MAXWELL H. CLOSE, M.A., in the Chair.

The following Communications were laid before the Section :—

W. WitiiaAms.—< On an attempt to elucidate the History of the Cervus
megaceros, commonly called the Irish Elk.”
(Proceedings, Vol. II., Part I.)

W. ARCHER, F.R.S., and EK. PercevaAL WricHT, m.p.—“ Hand List of
the Algze of the Counties of Dublin and Wicklow.”

Prof. A. Von Lasauux, University of Breslau.—On the Tridymite
Quartztrachyte of Tardree Mountain, and on the Olivinegabbro of the
Carlingford Mountains.”

(Proceedings, Vol. II., Part I.)

Monpay Evenine, May 20TH, 1878.

Section I.—Physical and Experimental Sciences.
(With which the “ Dublin Scientific Club” is associated.)
WENTWORTH ERCK, L.L.D., in the Chair.

The following Communications were laid before the Section :—

The Right Hon. The Haru of Rosse, F.r.s.—‘‘ Appendix to the Cata-
logue of Nebule.”

(Ordered for Publication in the Transactions. )

G. F. Firze@erabp, F.T.c.p.—‘“On Mr. Kerr’s Experiment upon the
Rotation of the Plane of Polarization, produced by Reflection from
the side of a Magnet.”

G. JOHNSTONE STONEY, M.A., F.R.S—‘“‘On an easily constructed Auto-
matic Motion for a Two-prism Spectroscope.”

E. T. HarpMay, F.c.s.—“ On the Applicability of Sonstadt’s Solution to
the Separation of Minerals for Chemical Analysis.”

Prof. BARRETT, F.R.S.E., exhibited the Microphone, and a new form of
Optical Bench.

Section II.—Natural Sciences.

(With which the “ Royal Geological Society of Ireland” is
associated. )

Rey. Professor HAUGHTON, M.D., F.R.S., in the Chair.

The following Communications were laid before the Section :—

Captain H. W. Fiepey, r.a.— Some Remarks on Interglacial
Epochs, in reference to the Fauna and Flora existing at the present
day in the Northern Hemisphere, between the parallels 81° and
83° N.”

(Proceedings, Vol. II., Part I.)

Staff Surgeon Epwarp L. Moss, r.x.—‘‘ Notes on Arctic Air.”
(Proceedings, Vol. II., Part I.)

D. J. Rowan, ¢.£., M.a.1. (Dub.)—‘‘On some Points in the Physical
Geology of the Counties of Dublin and Wicklow.”

Professor A. Maca.istTrerR, M.D.-—“ On the Crustacea of the Counties of
Dublin and Wicklow.”

H. W. Mackintosu, B.A.—*‘On the Protozoa and Celenterata of the
Counties of Dublin and Wicklow.”

W. F. Kirsy.—‘ ‘On the Lepidoptera of the Counties of Dublin and
Wicklow.”

Professor W. R. M‘Nas.—‘ On the Coleoptera of the Counties of Dublin
and Wicklow.”

Professor HULL, F.R.8., exhibited a New Geological Map of Ireland, a
copy of which he presented to the Royal Dublin Society.

Dr. Moore exhibited Plants of a Hybrid Sarracenia.

Seetion III.—Science applied to the Useful Arts and Industries.
ALEXANDER M°DONNELL, C.E., in the chair.

: The following Communication was laid before the Section:—

E. F. Harpmay, F.c.s.—‘‘ On the New Jarrow, and other Kilkenny
Anthracites, compared with Welsh Anthracite as imported to Ireland.
(Proceedings, Vol. II., Part I.)

J. R. Wicuam, Esq., exhibited a fifth order Dioptric Lighthouse Appa-
ratus, an Alarm Signal for Lightship Revolving Machinery, and a
working Model of new Quadriform Gas Light for Galley Head.

vi

MonpDayY EVENING, JUNE 17TH, 1878.
Section I.—Physical and Experimental Sciences.
(With which the “ Dublin Scientific Club” is associated.)
G. JOHNSTONE STONEY, M.A., F.R.S., in the Chair.

The following Communications were laid before the Section :—

G. F. Frrzceratp, F.T.C.D.—“On Surface Tension, and its possible
relation to Muscular Contraction.”
(Ordered for Publication in the Transactions.)

Staff-Surgeon E. L. Moss, M.D.—‘ On the Effects of Cold on the Strength
of Iron.”

(Proceedings, Vol. II., Part I.)

Section I.—Natural Sciences.

(With which the “ Royal Geological Society of Ireland” is
associated. )

Rev. M. H. Coss, M.A., in the Chair.
The following Communications were laid before the Section :—
W. Harte, c.z.—‘‘ On an Artesian Well at Coleraine.”

Rev. Professor Havcuton.—“ On Measurements of the Angles of the
Columns of the Giant’s Causeway, made by the Rev. J. H. Jellett,
BSD: Sob CAD?

Dr. Moss, R.N.—Exhibited some Sea Pens (Pennatulidae) from
Vancouver's Island.

ROYAL DUBLIN SOCIETY.

HUNDRED AND FORTY-EIGHTH SESSION, 1878-79.

MINUTES OF PROCEEDINGS.

Monbay EvENING, NOVEMBER 18TH, 1878.

Section I—Physical and Experimental Science.
(With which the “ Dublin Scientific Club” is associated.)

Rey. RICHARD TOWNSEND, M.A., F.T.C.D., F.R.S., in the Chair.
The following Communications were laid before the Section:—
Professor W. F. Barrett, F.R.S.E.—‘* On Edison’s Micro. -tasimeter, and
its applications in Physics and Meteorology.”

Rev. Grratp Mottoy, p.p.—“ On a New Form of Experiment to illus-
trate Stable Equilibrium.”

G. JOHNSTONE STONEY, M.A., F.R.S.—‘‘ Comparison of Mr. Crookes’s
Experiments on Radiometers with the Theory of Polarization Stress
in Gases.”

WeEntTWorTH ErckK, LL.D.—Exhibited a new form of Electrical Resistance
instrument.

Section II.—Natural Science.

(With which the “ Royal Geological Society of Ireland” is
associated.)

Rev. MAXWELL H. CLOSE, M.A., in the Chair.

The following Communications were laid before the Section :—

J. Gwyn JEFFREYS, LL.D., F.R.S.—“ On some of the Mollusca procured
by the Arctic Expedition of ‘The Fox’ in 1858-59.”
(Proceedings, Vol. II., Part IT.)

G. H. Kryawan, M.R.1.A.—“ The Silurian Rocks of Ireland, and their
relations to the Old Red Sandstone.”
(Proceedings, Vol. II., Part IT.)

Professor E. RryNoips, M.D., and V. Babi, M.A., F.a.8.—“On an
Artificial Mineral produced in the manufacture of Basic Bricks at
Blaenavon, Monmouthshire.”

(Proceedings, Vol. IT., Part IT.)
R.D.S. MInwtEs. ee 3

vill

V. Bat, M.A. F.G.S.—“ On Stilbite from the Metamorphic (@xeiss)
Rocks in Western Bengal.”
(Proceedings, Vol. IT., Part IT.)

Captain ArcAaLtt.—Exhibited a Plan and Sections of the Mines Kast of
the Ovoca River, County of Wicklow.

MonbDAy EVENING, DECEMBER 16TH, 1878.

Section I.—Physical and Experimental Science.
(With which the “ Dublin Scientific Club” is associated.)

Professor J. EMERSON REYNOLDS, M.D., in the Chair.

The following Communications were laid before the Section :—

WENTWORTH ErRcK, LL.D.—‘‘On a new form of Constant Bichromate
Cell.”

G. JOHNSTONE STONEY, M.A., F.R.S., Secretary to the Society.‘ On a
complete Expansion for Polarization Stress in Gases, with its con-
sequences.”

R. J. Moss, F.c.s.—“On the Oxidation of Iron in the presence of
Vartry Water.”

(Proceedings, Vol. II., Part IT.)

Professor RrynoLps.—Exhibited a simple form of Mechanical Filter for
Vartry Water, and a Sample of Milk adulterated in a novel way.

G. F. FitzGERALD, F.1.0.D.—Exhibited Mr. Kerr’s Experiment on the
Reflection of Light from the Pole of a Magnet.

Section II—Natural Science.
(With which the ‘‘ Royal Geological Society of Ireland” is
associated. )

Rev. MAXWELL H. CLOSE, M.A., in the Chair.

The following Communications were laid before the Section :—

E. Hutt, F.z.s.— On the occurrence of Crystals of Sodium Chloride
in Chert of the Carboniferous Limestone.”

(Proceedings, Vol. II., Part 11.)

G. H. Kinawan, ™.R.1.4.—“On the Irish Cambro-Silurians and
Silurians.”
(Proceedings, Vol. I1., Part IT.)

Professor Huu, F.R.s.—Exhibited Fifteen Maps of the Geological
Survey of Wisconsin, by Professor T. C. Chamberlain. Twenty-one
Maps and two sheets of Sections of the Geological Exploration of the
A0th Parallel, U.S.A., and Sixteen Maps, two sheets of Sections,
and two Panoramic Views of the Geological Survey of Colorado.

ix

MonpDAY EVENING, JANUARY 20TH, 1879.

Section I—Physical and Experimental Science.
(With which the “ Dublin Scientific Club” is associated.)
The Right Hon. the Earl of Rosss, F.R.s., V.P., in the Chair.
The following Communications were laid before the Section :—

Professor H. E. Roscor, Pu.p., r.z.s.—‘ An Account of some Experi-
ments on the supposed compound nature of the Elements.”

Howarp Gruss, M.E., F.R.A.8.—“ Improvements in the Stereoscope.”

G, JOHNSTONE STONEY, M.A., F.R.S.—‘‘ On the forms of the Curve of
Polarization Stress and of the Curve of Conduction, and on the
absolute zero of tensions in Gases.”

Professor W. F. Barrgrt, F.R.3.£.—‘ On Edison’s Carbon Telephone.”

R. J. Moss, F.c.s.—‘‘ On an improved method for determining the gases
dissolved in water.”

Report on Scientific progress by G. JoHNSTONE STONEY, M.A., F.R.S. :—
“Recent experiments in Electricity made in England, France, and
Sweden.”

Professor BARRETT.—Exhibited “A Sound Mill.”
STEPHEN YEATES.—Exhibited “ A new Form of revolving Mirror.”

Section II —Natural Science.
(With which the “ Royal Geological Society of Ireland” is
associated. )
Professor E. HULL, M.A., F.R.S., in the Chair.
The following Communications were laid before the Section:—

Rey. S. HAuGHTON, M.D., F.R.s.—‘“ Geological Notes made during a
walking tour in Devonshire, in the summer of 1878.”
(Proceedings, Vol. II., Part IT.)

W. Frazer, M.D.—“ On a map showing the island of Hy Brasil, by Sieur
Tassin, the Geographer to Louis XIII.”
(Proceedings, Vol. IL., Part IT.)

MonpDAY EVENING, FEBRUARY 17TH, 1879.

Section I—Physical and Experimental Science.
(With which the “ Dublin Scientific Club ” is associated. )
HowARD GRUBB, M.E., F.R.A.S., in the Chair,
The following Communications were laid before the Section :—
G. F, FirzGerabp, M.A., F.1.c.D.—‘‘On M. Duter’s Experiments in
Electric Accumulators.”
(Proceedings, Vol. II., Part IT.)
W. F. Barrett, F.R.S,.E.—“ On the Carbon Telephone, and the Theory of
its Action.”

x

W. F. Barrett, F.x.s.z.—“‘ Notes from the Physical Laboratory of the
Royal College of Science.”

Section IIT —Natural Science.

(With which the “ Royal Geological Society of Ireland” is
associated. )

Rev. MAXWELL H. CLOSE, M.A., in the Chair.

The CuarrMaN, as the outgoing President of the Royal Geological Society
of Ireland, delivered the Annual Address,

MonpbAay EVENING, MARcH 177TH, 1879.

Section I—Physical and Experimental Science.
(With which the ‘‘ Dublin Scientific Club ” is associated.)
The Right Hon. the Earl of Rosss, F.R.s., v.P., in the Chair.
The following Communications were laid before the Section:—
Professor J. E. REyNoLps, M.D.—‘‘ On a Modification of Dr. Andrews’
Apparatus for the Liquefaction of Gases.”
W.S. M‘Cay, m.a., F.T.c.D.—“ On charging Holtz’ Electrical Machine.”

G. F. FirzGEraLp, M.A., F.T.c.D.—‘“ On the alteration in volume of a
charged Leyden Jar.”

C.’R. C. TicHBoRNE, LL.D., F.c.8,—Hxhibited “a New Lecture Experi-
ment to illustrate the Dissociation of Salts.”

Section II —Natural Science.
(With which the “ Royal Geological Society of Ireland” is
associated.)
G. H. KINAHAN, M.R.LA., in the Chair.
The following Communications were laid before the Section :—

Captain ArGALL, Mining Engineer.—“On the Eastern Ovoca Mines.”

Professor E. Huu, F.R.s.—“On the Permian Beds of Armagh and
Benburb.”

G. H. Kinawan, .R.1.4.—“On the Rocks in the neighbourhood of
Armagh.”

Monpbay EVENING, APRIL 2187, 1879.
Section I—Physical and Experimental Scienc>.
(With which the “ Dublin Scientific Club” is associated.)

The Right Hon. the Earl of Rosss, F.R.s., V.P., in the Chair.

The following Communications were laid before the Section :—

Professor J. E. Reynoups, m.p.—‘ On a Modification of Dr. Andrews’
Apparatus for the Liquefaction of Gases.”

C. R. C. Tichzorng, L1.D., F.c.s.—‘‘ On some New Lecture Experiments
to illustrate the Dissociation of Salts.”

Howarp Gruss, M.£.—-‘‘ Improvements in Equatorial Telescopes.”

WentwortH Erck, u.p.—Exhibited a new form of Pump, without
Valves, for lifting Corrosive Liquids.

Tlowarp Gruss, M.E.—Exhibited an Eight-inch Equatorial Refractor,
made for Cork Observatory, and some Vacuum Tubes, in illustration
of Mr. Crooke’s recent. Ex}riments in Molecular Physics.

Section IT.—Nautural Science.

(With which the ‘ Royal Geological Society of Ireland” is
associated. )

The Rev. M. H. CLoss&, M.A., in the Chair.

The following Communications were laid before the Section :—

G. H. Kryanan, M.R.1.4.—“ On the Dingle Beds and Glengariff Grits.”
(Proceedings, Vol. II., Part III.)

V. Batu, F.c.s.—‘‘ On the Coalfields and Coal production of India.

J. T. Boot, F.x.G.8.1.—Exhibited a section of a new Colliery in Not-
tinghamshire, sunk through the Magnesian Limestone.

R.D.S. Minutes. { 3 ]

Xll

MonpDay Eveninc, May 191u, 1879.
Section I.—Physical and Experimental Science.
(With which the “ Dublin Scientific Club” is associated.)
The Rev. GERALD MOLLOY, D.D., in the Chair.
The following Communications were laid before the Section :—

G. F. FirzGeraLp, F.T.c.D.— Note on Ayrton’s Theory of Terrestrial -
Magnetism.”
Cuartrs A. CAMERON, M.D.—‘“‘ Note on the Absorption of Selenium by
Plants.”
(Proceedings, Vol. II., Part ITT.)

Section Il.—Natural Science.

(With which the “ Royal Geological Society of Ireland” is
associated.)

(Gis Jak HONAHAN, M.R.LA., President Royal Geological Society of
Ty eland, in the Chair.

The following Communications were laid before the Section :—

Joun Aparr, M.A.—-‘‘On some effects of the recent severe frosts on
Ornamental Plants.”

Rev. Dr. Haveuton, F.R.s.—‘ On the Annual Water Discharge of the
Ganges, the Brahmap (tra, the Nile, the La Plata, and the Mississipi-
Nasourl Rivers ; with an account of a New Method of calculating the
Annual Water Dischar ge of any River, by which the labour of eee
vation is greatly reduced.’

A. Leith ADAMS, M.D., F.R.S.—‘‘On the discovery by Mr. Ussher of
Cappagh, of a Bone Cave in the County of Waterford, containing
evidence of the co-existence of Man with the ‘Trish Elk,’ whose bones
he had smashed and formed into implements.”

(Proceedings, Vol. II., Part IIT.)

R. W. Sincrair.—‘ Notes on Irish Lepidoptera.”
(Proceedings, Vol. II., Part ITT.)

G. H. Kinanay, M.Rr.1.4.—“ On a Table of the Irish Cainozoie, Mesozoic,
and Paleozoic Rocks, showing the different thicknesses of the groups,
and the nearly continuous sequence in the last.”

xiil
Monpbay EVENING, JUNE 16TH, 1879.

Sections I. and IIT. —Physical and Experimental Science, and
Applied Science.

(With which the ‘‘ Dublin Scientific Club” is associated.)
G. JOHNSTONE STONEY, M.A., F.R.S., in the Chair.

The following Communications were laid before the Section :—
G. F. FitzGreratp, M.A., F.T.c.D.—“ On the Maximum Tension of
Vapours in contact with Curved Liquid Surfaces.”

G. F. FrrzGerap, ™.a., F.7.c.D.—“ On the Rays seen emerging from
bright objects when viewed with half-closed eyes.”

W. F. Barrett, F.R.s.E.—‘ On the Suppression of Induction Clamour
in Telephonic Circuits.”

W. F. Barrett, rF.r.s.e.—‘On Hughes’ Induction Balance, and its
recent applications.”

Ricuarp J. Moss, F.c.s.—“‘ On an Automatic Apparatus for washing
Precipitates with Hot Liquids.”

G. JOHNSTONE STONEY, M.A., F.R.S.—“ Useful Metric Equivalents.”
G. JoHNSTONE STONEY, M.A., F.R.S.—‘ Tricycle Gearing.”

G. JounsTonE STONEY, M.A., F.R.S.—“ Report on the Progress of Science
—-Prof. Avbe’s Researches on the Resolving Power of Microscopes.”

Section II —Natural Science.

(With which the “ Royal Geological Society of Ireland” is
associated.)

Professor E. HULL, LL.D., F.R.S., in the Chair.
The following Communications were laid before the Section:—

T. Metuarp Reape, F.G.s.—“ A Problem for Irish Geologists in Pcs’
Glacial Geology.”

Rev. Dr. Hauauron, F.R.s.— Further Observations on the Water.
discharge of Great Rivers ; based on Mr. Revy’s Law of the Variation
of Mean Velocity with the Depth.”

G. H. Kinanay, u.r.1.4.—“ On Arklow Harbour.”

J. P. O'REILLY, C.E., M.R.1.4.—‘* On the occurrence of Microcline Felspar
in the Dalkey Granites.”

XiV
f
W. F. Kirsy.—“ A Catalogue of the Lepidoptera in the Museum of
Science and Art, Dublin ; with Remarks on the more important
Species.”
Professor Hutt, Lu.p., F.R.S.—Exhibited two sheets of New Horizontal
Sections traversing portions of the counties of Galway and Mayo, by
the Geological Survey.

PUBLICATIONS OF THE ROYAL DUBLIN SOCIETY.

TRANSACTIONS: Quarto, in parts, stitched.

Vol. I. (new series). (Recently published.)

Part 9.—Places of One Thousand Stars observed at the Armagh
Observatory. By the Rev. Dr. Romney Rosiyson. (February, 1879.)

Part 10.—On the Possibility of Originating Wave Disturbances in
the Ether by means of Electric Forces. By G. F. Firzcmratp, M.A.,
F.T.C.D. (February, 1880.)

Part 11.—On the Relations of the Carboniferous, Devonian, and
Upper Silurian Rocks of the South of Ireland to those of North
Devon. By Epwarp Hutt, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., Director of the
Geological Survey of Ireland, and Professor of Geology, Royal College
of Science, Dublin. With Plates TV. and V.,and Woodcuts. (May,
1880.)

Part 12.—Physical Observations of Mars, 1879-80. By C. E.
Burton, B.A., M.R.LA., F.R.A.S. With Plates VI., VIL, and
VIII. (June, 1880.)

Part 13.—On the Possibility of Originating Wave Disturbances
in the Ether by Means of Electric Forces. Part 2. By Grorce
Francis Firzcuraup, M.A., F.T.C.D. (November, 1880.)

Vol. II. (new.series).

Part 1.—Observations of Nebule and Clusters of Stars made with
the Six-foot and Three-foot Reflectors at Birr Castle, from the year
1848 up to about the year 1878. Nos.1 and 2. By the Right Hon.
the Earl of Rossz, D.C.L. With Plates I. to IV. (August, 1879.)

Part 2.—Do. do. No. 3. With Plates V. and VL. (June,
1880.) |

PROCEEDINGS : 8vo., in parts, stitched.

Vol. II. (new series.) (Recently published.)

Part 4.—Pages 243 to 288. (January, 1880.)

Part 5.—Pages 289 to 416. (April, 1880.)

Part 6.—Pages 417 to 550. (July, 1880.)

Part 7.—Pages 551 to 634. With Title. (November, 1880.)

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