j^).>;.'ii;>^i'-;..i'.i.'V;'i;. i,vvA UNIVERSITY OF B.C. LIBRARY 3 9424 00126 06 > [ II ■'1 i' ■• i I SIORAGB ilEM FtiOCESSlNG-ONE U.B.C. LIBRARY 'J ^ ^''i '; ^^ ^'^■» ')-fi^ ,^^ Q-'^ ^' rtjdimel^tary scientific :nd educational series. le following are the Works already published in PHYSICAL SCIENCE, &c. [The Volumes are bound in limp clothe except where otherwise stated. fe; CHEMISTRY, for the Use of Beginners. By <-^ George Fownes, F.R.S. "With an Appendix, on tl ^ tion of Chemistry to Agriculture. Is. Professor • the Applica- ' t^Xl ^ ^xilt^-h ^^in-nxhin (-w AU'j >Y uuuuuia. oa. uu. ; uiuLU uuaru.8, *s. L- TZ:^^; ELECTPdC TELEGRAPH: its History and C-T Progress. With Descriptions of some of the Apparatus. By (b Pt. Sabine, C.E., F.S.A., &c. Woodcuts. 3s. PNEUMATICS, for the Use of Beginners. By Charles Tomlinson. Illustrated. Is. 6d. ''UAL OF THE MOLLUSC A: a Treatise i^t and Fossil Shells. By Dr. S. P. Woodwakd, A.L )pendix by Ralph Tate, A.L.S., F.G.S. With num and 300 Woodcuts. 6s. 6d. ; cloth boards, 7s. 6d. )0D & CO., 7, STATIONERS' HALL COURT, ^^•^"5-^ ^'^"5^ ^^>K^ ^^P^i A SELECTION FROM WE ALE'S SERIES. ISTRONOMY. By &c. Third Edition, By W. Thyn^ '^TATICt tice of; e\ Hydro dyn^ ^ELEGR, graphy, T dates Fourth QXJESTl TICAIi McGregor 'OAL AN. on. ByW spector of Fifth Editio' 'HYSICA Portlock's USTORL General Pc *** P/^y [Nii D.C.L Part I Part I lETALLU: Methods of factiiring its 2s. 6d. ; clot' lETALLU R. H. 'JLEC^ Alexan importci &c. &c. r. late Eev. R. Main, M.A., F.R.S., d and Corrected to the Present Time. A., F.R.A.S. 2s. MICS, the Principles and Prac- clear development of Hydrostatics, al Forces. By T. Baker, C.E. Is, 6d. ook of ti^e ; a Manual of Tele- Eememhr^cer, and Guide to Candi- he "i^^leglm^ Service. By R. Bond. d en^rf>^dl to which is appended, TISMTl^t^vTRICiTY, and PRAC- for the Use of Students, by W. oards, 3s. 6d. mudimentary Treatise \ F.R.S., &c., Chief In row* a-ttdiji the Duchy of Cornwall. argeo. Woodcuts. 3s. 6d.; cl.bds.,4s. , partiy:^sed on Major- General udiments of Geology." ^7 Ralph Tate, A.L.S.,2s. GET^iiOGY, partly based on Major- cK's"Ru(^i^ents." ByRALPHTATE,A.L.S.,2s. 6d. id Historimf Geology bound in one Volume, cloth limp, 4s, ^, or cloth boards, 5s. ,andbook of. By Dr. Lardner, ions. In One Vol. 7s. 6d., cl. bds. 'wo Farts, as folloivs : — II. 4s. —XVIII. 3s. Y OF COPPER: an Introduction to the king. Mining, and Assaying Copper, and Manu- oys. By Robert H. Lamborn, Ph.D. Woodcuts. oards, 3s. Y OF SILVER AND LEAD, By Ph.D. Woodcuts. 2s. 6d. ; cloth boards, 3s. TALLURGY, Practically Treated. By ATT, F.R.S.S.A. Seventh Edition, revised, with ions, including the Electro-deposition of Nickel, WocWcuts. 3s. ; cloth boards, 3s. 6d. LETALLURGY OF IRON, a Treatise on the. Con- taining History of Iron Manufacture, Methods of Assay, and Analyses of Iron Ores, Processes of Manufacture of Iron and Steel, &c. By H. Bauekman, F.G.S. Fifth Edition, enlarged, with numerous Illustrations. 5s. ; cloth boards, 5s. 6d. [ TREATISE ON SLATE AND SLATE QUARRY- ING, Scientific, Practical, and Commercial. By D. C. Davies, F.G.S., Llining Engineer, &c. With numerous Illustrations and Folding Plates. 38. ; cloth boards, 3s. 6d. "S-^ ROSBY LOCKWOOD & CO., 7, STATIONERS' HALL COURT, E.C. '^< SIC^ 20 Illustr Sold a Is hapter ^haptei v^J^;^i/l^i^:>^^ A>^^^i^;>^^^/^ ii^^^^ k^A^ Ux^ <^1 THE CIJLTUEE OF FfiUIT TEEES. ,;/P/-^ t C THE SCIENTIFIC AND PROFITABLE CULTURE OF FRUIT TREES IXCLUDING CHOICE OF TREES, PLANTING, GRAETING, TRAINING, RESTORATION OF UNFRUITFUL TREES, GATHERING AND PRESERVATION OF FRUIT, ETC, FROM THE FRENCH OF M. DU BEEUIL PROFESSOR OF ARBORICULTURE IN THE COXSERVATOIRE IMPERIAL DES ARTS ET METIERS AD'APTED FOR ENGLISH CULTIVATORS BY WILLIAM WARDLE KURSERYMAX WITH 187 ENGRAVISGS fourth (Edition, farefuUo rebiscb, toith an Introbuction by GEORGE GLENNY AUTHOR OF "handbook TO THE FLOWER GARDEN," '" GARDENING FOR THE MILLION ETU., ETC. gpiol][u T.ONDON CEOSBY LOCKWOOD AND CO. 7, STATIONERS' HALL COURT, LUDGATE HILL 1883 Digitized by tine Internet Arciiive in 2010 witii funding from University of Britisii Columbia Library http://www.archive.org/details/scientificprofitOOdubr INTRODUCTION TO THE seco:n'd edition. The following treatise on tlie grafting, priming, train- ing, and general management of fruit trees having been submitted for my opinion, with a view to the issue of a new edition, with such alterations and im- provements as I might suggest, I have carefully read it, and examined the practical directions throughout. There would have been no difficulty in making altera- tions and additions, since the subject is capable of enlargement to any extent ; but the work is complete. It professes to direct the gardener in all the operations necessary, from the insertion of the graft to the completion of the tree, and the proper management through all its stages ; and the instructions in all the various modes of grafting are full and comprehensive ; many of them fanciful, and perhaps whimsical ; but now that amateur gardening has become a fashionable amusement, the ingenious methods adopted by the French, who are in advance of us in fanciful grafting, VI IXTRODUCTIOX TO THE SECOND EDITION. budding, and training, are especially interesting. The instructions apply to all the useful fruits as well as the various plans of management ; and the descrip- tive lists of all the most useful varieties are invaluable. The author has turned out a work that does him great credit, and the translator has shown that he perfectly understood the subject in all its bearings. The illus- trations, nearly two hundred in number, are excellent. George Glenny. Gipsy Hill, Norwood, December y 1871. TEANSLATOE'S PEEFACE. One of the ways of increasing our own knowledge is that of comparing it with the knowledge of others. It is not to be doubted that the various branches of Garden Practice and Literature have been well culti- vated in England ; and it is still less doubtful that these subjects have been as thoroughly studied in France, and expounded with unrivalled j)recision and clearness. The present Work on the Cultivation of Fruit Trees is an evidence of this. It can scarcely be read by the most proficient Arboriculturist without imparting something to his previous knowledge, while to the many whose information is limited it cannot fail to be of great value. It would be no small addition to our smaller pleasures to be able to grow for home use a good supply of our choicest fruits ; and if a sufficient modicum of this knowledge could be imparted to our agricultural labourers and persons of limited means residing in VUl TRANSLATORS PREFACE. the country, how much might be done to improve their incomings by growing good crops of the best descrip- tions of Pears, Peaches, &c., instead of a poor crop (if any at all) of comparatively worthless and un- marketable fruit. In France, this subject is considered of sufficient importance to be taught in schools and colleges, M. Du Breuil himself being a Professor of Arboriculture. The present Manual was honoured with the Prize of the Imperial Society of Horticulture. The value of the "Work to English Cultivators will be much enhanced by the additional notes of Mr. Wardle. CONTENTS. PAGE Grafting 1 Grafting Mastic 3 Grafting by Approach, or Inarching ..... 4 Branch Grafting ......... 9 Cleft Grafting 12 Crown Grafting ......... 15 Side Branch Grafting 16 Budding or Shield Grafting 19 On Pruning and Training 23 General Principles ........ 24 Periods for Pruning .40 Instruments ......... 42 Method of Pruning 43 The Pear . .45 List of Choice Pears ........ 47 Training and Pruning ....... 52 Obtaining Fruit-branches ....... 64 Maintaining ditto . . . . . . . .77 Training in Vase or Goblet form ... . . 82 „ form of Column ...... 86 „ as Double Contra Espaliers 89 ,, Verrier's Palmetto 95 Nailing up 103 Wire Trellis for Palmetto 106 In Oblique Cordon . .109 Trellis for ditto 116 Training in Vertical Cordon . . . . . .119 Trellis for ditto 121 Standard Pear Trees 123 The Apple 127 Varieties . . . . . . . , , .128 Training and Pruning . . . . . . .131 Low Apple Espalier .132 Mode of Inarching 133 CONTENTS. Cordon The Peagh Varieties Training in Palmette form . Trellis for ditto .... Obtaining Fruit-branches Training in Simple Oblique Cordon Trellis for ditto .... New mode of forming Fruit-branches Advantages of ditto The Plum ..... Varieties ..... Select list of .... Training and Pruning . Training in Pyramidal form Management of Fruit-branches . As Double Contra Espaliers Verrier's Palmette Single Oblique and Vertical Standards The Cherry Varieties Select list of Pruning and Management The Apricot Varieties Select list of Pruning and IManagement Restoration of Badly-trained Standards Espaliers Renovation of Aged Trees Pyramidal form of Espaliers General Directions for the Fruit Garden Digging Manuring To counteract Excessive Dry Protection from the Late Frosts of Spring Gathering and Preservation of Fruit Gathering ...... Preservation ..... Fruit- house ...... Care of Fruit ..... Trees ne?s of Soil THE CULTUEE FRUIT TREES. GEAFTING. THE PRINCIPAL METHODS OF GRAFTING TREES. — INSTRUMENTS, LIGA- TURES, AND MASTICS, OR GRAFTING CLAY. Nearly all fruit trees are propagated by grafting. It is necessary, therefore, to carefully study the practice of this operation ; but we must limit our attention to those kinds of grafting that are really useful. For the practice of grafting it is necessary to be provided with the following instruments. First a hand-saw (fig. 1), to be used in cutting the stems and branches that are too large to be cut with the knife. The saw-blade should be thin towards the back, A, and the teeth, B, wide, for cutting through green wood. A pruning-knife also is required for cutting the smaller stems and branches that are intended to receive the graft. This instrument will be described further on (p. 42). A small wood mallet is also necessary to strike the back of the pruning-knife in making slits in thick stems for cleft grafting ; also a small wooden wedge B 2 FRriT TREES. to introduce into the opening while tlie graft is being- placed in the slit. Lastly, a grafting or budding-knife is required (fig. 2). The spatula at the lower end of the knife should be made of hard wood, bone, or ivory. With this knife the lower part of the graft must be cut into proper shape, and shield grafting or budding performed. Until the grafts become firmly grown to the wood, it // / Fiff. 1.— Hand-Saw. Fig. 2.— Budding-Knife. is of the utmost importance to keep them in their first position, and this is done by means of bandages com- posed of wool, dra^NTL into coarse threads and slightly twisted, or strands of matting soaked in water, or of the bark of the willow or lime tree, made supple by soaking in water. In order to protect the parts from the action of the atmosphere, various mastics are employed. One kind. GRAFTING. 3 called Saint Fiacre's Ointment, is chiefly composed of clay. Other descriptions, known as grafting mastics, are composed chiefly of resinous materials. The clay mastic has the inconvenience of being liable to be washed away by heavy showers, and of cracking when very dry, by which means it ceases to be a sufficient protection to the tender graft. When used upon apple trees, it also serves as a harbour for insects, which prove hurtful to the graft, and endanger the success of the operation. Grafting mastics possess none of these inconveniences. They are used cold or hot. The mastic of which the following is the composition is always used hot. For one hundred parts by weight : — Black pitch . . . 28 parts Burgundy pitch . 28 „ Beeswax . . 16 „ Grease .... 14 „ Yellow Ochre . , 14 „ 100 This composition must be used sufficiently warm to be liquid, but not so hot as to injure the tissues of the tree. A small brush is used to spread it with. All the grafting mastics to be used cold were, until quite recently, in the form of a soft paste, and had the unpleasant inconvenience of sticking to the fingers of the operator. Hot mastics have, therefore, been pre- ferred, notwithstanding the extra trouble of heating them. But now, M. L'homme Lefort, of Belleville, b2 4 FRUIT TREES. near Paris, has invented a liquid mastic that may be used cold. This mastic (the composition of which the inventor reserves the secret) is of the consistency of thin paste, which can be easily ar)t)lied with a wooden spatula. In the course of a very few days it acquires an extraordinary degree of hardness, and is not affected by either sun or frost ; humidity only hastens its solidification. This material, being sold at a moderate price, is likely to take the place of all other mastics. The tree that is operated upon, and which receives the graft, is called the subject or stock; the small branch that is planted upon it is called the graft or scion. The different methods of grafting, applicable to fruit trees, may be ranged in the three following groups : — I.— GRAFTING BY APPROACH, OR INARCHING. The peculiarity of this description of grafting is that the scion is not separated from the parent stem until after it has become completely united with the stock upon which it has been grafted ; it is commonly per- formed in spring. GrRAFTING BY ORDINARY APPROACH. This modc of grafting is employed to complete the number of lateral branches in a young tree, where there is no original insertion of either branch or bud, and where an inci- sion would be useless. The part of the stem (fig. 3, A) which is deficient of one of its lateral branches, may be filled up by the aid of the branch B. An incision GRAFTING. ' 5 must be made round the stem of the subject (A, fig. 4), immediately above the point where the branch' B Is to be grafted. This is done in order to retard the flow of sap from the roots ; immediately below this, a vertical incision must be made, about 2 inches long, and of a width and depth equal to the diameter of the branch Fig. 3.-Graftmfr^b^^^^ Fig. 4.-Methorl of Cutting Fig. 5.-Cuttin, or Inarching the Stock. the Graft. B, fig. 3. The branch must be cut at the point A, fig. 3, in a form (fig. 5) to fit exactly in the vertical incision,' B (fig. 4), and the edges of the bark of the graft and of the subject must be brought into perfect contact. This 6 FRUIT TREES. being done, the parts must be brongbt together, and maintained in their positions by means of bandages, and covered with the grafting mastic. By the following year, at the time of the winter pruning, the graft will have become firmly grown to its subject, and may then be cut ofi" immediately below Fig. 6.— English Method of Inaiching or Grafting by Approach. its point of attachment. The lower part, F, fig. 3, after trimming, will serve for one of the lateral branches as before. English Method of Grafting by Approach, or Inarching (fig. 6). — Make, both upon the stock and graft, a longitudinal cut, in depth about one-third of the diameter ; insert the one in the other ; then place GRAFTIXG. 7 a clasp or bandage round tlie middle, to make tlie con- tact complete. Grafting Shoots by Approach (fig. 7). — In the preceding methods, the plants operated upon are at least a year old. In twig grafting, the graft, and sometimes even the stock, consist of tender herbaceous shoots. This method can only be practised from the middle of June until the beginning of August. The mode of operation difiers also in other respects. This kind of grafting is employed to greatest ad- vantage upon peach trees and other stone fruits for fill- ing up the vacant spaces on the fruit-branches, which constitute the lateral branches upon the princij^al branches. Fig. 7.— Shoot Grafting by Approach. Suppose that there is a vacant space among the fruit- branches of a peach, C (fig. 7) ; the shoot B will serve to fill up the vacancy. For this purpose, make upon the branch, at the point C, an incision, about 1^ inch long, and terminated at each extremity by a transverse 8 FRUIT TREES. incision, C (fig. 8). The shoot B (fig. 7) must be cut as shown at D (fig. 8), and slipped under the raised bark, and the parts united by a ligature. It is important that the graft should have a leaf at D, fig. 8, on the side opposite to the incision, which must be taken care of when applying the bandage. Fig. 8.— Shoot Grafting by Approach. By the spring of the following year the union will be complete ; nevertheless, it is desirable to delay the severance of the grafts from the lower part of the shoot until the second spring, otherwise many of them will be dried up. The proper time being arrived, the small branch which supplied the graft is cut at C (fig. 7), and the lower part of the branch D is allowed to grow as before. GRAFTING. 9 If there are several continuous spaces upon tlie branch, and the smaller branch is sufficiently vigorous, there may be a succession of grafts upon each of the points A, A, A (fig. 9). When the grafting is com- Fig. 9.— Multiplied Shoot Grafting. plete, and the proper time arrived, the severance of each is effected immediately below each point of con- tact. It is better to allow eight or ten days to elapse between each grafting of the same shoot, to avoid injury to the future development of the grafts. II.— BRANCH GRAFTING. This mode of grafting is effected by means of branches, or parts of branches, previously separated from the parent stom. To operate with success, it is essential : — 1st, to select for grafts the most \dgorous and perfectly ripened shoots of the preinous year. That is, such only as have been developed sufficiently early in the preceding year B 3 10 FRUTT TREES. to allow time for tlieir wood to have become firm and well constituted before tbe first frosts of winter. 2nd. So arrange tbat the graft be in a less advanced stage of vegetation tban the stock ; otherwise, the graft, instead of finding a sufiicient quantity of sap to develop its growth, will rapidly dry up. To prevent this, the grafts must be severed from their parent stem a month or two before grafting, and completely buried in the earth at the foot of a northern wall. They will retain their vitality in this situation, while their vege- tation remains stationary, and that of the subject de- velops itself. 3rd. Perform the cutting operations very neatly, that the bark be not torn, or frayed at its edges. 4th. Place the graft upon the subject in such a manner as to ensure the perfect contact of the edges of the inner bark of the stock with the corresponding edges of the inner bark of the graft. 5th. Bind round the parts operated upon, and cover over with grafting mastic. 6th. Protect the grafts, during the first five daj^s after grafting, from the action of the atmosphere and heat of the sun. A cone of white paper answers this purpose perfectly (fig. 10). The cap, however, is liable to harbour insects that eat the buds as soon as they open. 7th. Great care is requisite that the grafts, once placed, be never afterwards disturbed. The least shock is sufficient, when the graft has begun to grow to its stem, to destroy the success of the entire operation. The grafts most exposed to accidents are those placed GHAFTING. 11 upon the top of high trees, they being frequently broken by the larger birds perching upon them. To prevent accidents from this cause, a kind of perch, A (fig. 11), may be afiixed, fastened to each side of the stem by two osier bandages. This possesses an additional advantage in the security it afibrds to the principal Fig. 10.— Paper Cap for Grafts. Fig. 11.— Graft Protector. branches, B B, during the summer which develops the graft, the grafts being tied to the stock to prevent their being blown off by the wind. 8th. Lastly, it is necessary to be careful that the numerous branches which always grow from the head of the stock do not destroy the graft by absorbing all the sap. During the summer which follows grafting, 12 FRUIT TREES. the stem of tlie subject will be covered witb young shoots. These must be taken off, but not until the graft has begun to grow, for until that period it has need of them to draw the sap towards itself. As soon as the graft begins to shoot, the buds growing from the lower part of the stem must be suppressed ; afterwards, the buds higher up progressively ; but those growing close about the graft must not be removed until the graft has attained a height of from 6 to 10 inches. Branch grafting proper for fruit trees is of the three following kinds : — 1. Cleft Grafting. — This requires a longitudinal incision in the wood of the stock. The operation is performed in spring, as soon as the buds of the stock begin to open. Single Cleft Grafting (fig. 12). — The branch which serves for graft may be from 3 to 6 inches in length, according to the degree of vigour shown by the stock. Choose for the graft a branch with a bud upon its summit, A. Cut the lower part of the graft in a Hat pointed form, to the length of IJ or 2 inches, commencing from the bud B. T\Tien the graft is thus prepared, cut the head of the stock horizontally across, and smooth it with a sharp knife ; upon this cut make with a knife a vertical cleft, C, down the middle of the stem, about 2 inches long. The cleft must be kept open by a small wedge while the graft is being placed in it. The tojD of the graft E, fig. 13, should be slightly inclined towards the centre of the stem, while the lower part, F, should project a little outwards, in order that the interior bark of the graft and of the subject may GRAFTING. 13 be brouglit into exact contact at one point of tlieir exjDosed surface. Finally, the graft must be bandaged, and the parts covered with a coating of grafting mastic. This method is employed for fruit trees either with high or low stems, 2Drovided the stems be not too thick. Double Cleft Grafting (fig. 13). — This differs from the preceding by two grafts being placed in the cleft Fig. 12.-Single Cleft Graft. Fig. 13.— Double Cleft Graft. instead of one. This method is to be preferred when the thickness of the stock allows of it. The parts heal more cjuickly, and there is a better chance of success than with onlj^ one graft. Nevertheless, if both prove successful, we must not hesitate to suppress the least vigorous one as soon as the place is completely closed, especially in the case of tall trees ; otherwise, the head of the tree being formed of two parts quite distinct from each other, the stem would be liable to be torn 14 FRUIT TREES. asunder when heavily laden with fruit, or exposed to the influence of high winds. BertemboisB Cleft Grafting (fig. 14). — Cut the head of the stock on a slant, reserving at the highest point ^^■j ^-^a-lV' Fig. 14.— The Bertem- boise Cleft Graft. Fig. 15.— English Cleft Graft. Fig. 16.— Crown Graft. a small portion of flat surface, and operate as before. When the stock is not large enough to carry two grafts, this method is preferable to the two preceding ones. The point of union between the graft and stock will be better formed, and the oblique shape of the crown of the stock will dispose the sap to flow more freely towards the graft, which will develop more vigorously. English Cleft Grafting (fig. 15). — Cut the stem of the stock on a long slant, and make a vertical cleft down it, commencing about a third of the distance GRAFTING. 15 from tlie top. Cut the lower part of tlie graft in a corresponding slant, and make a vertical cleft com- mencing about a third of the distance from the base ; introduce the tongue of the graft into the cleft of the stock, in such a manner that the parts may be perfectly covered b}^ each other, and so that the barks come into perfect contact on at least one side of the stem. This is a very ready and firm mode of grafting, and suitable for young stocks, the parts covering each other over their entire surface. 2. Crown Grafting. — In this description of grafts ing the wood of the stock is not cleft, but the bark alone is cut vertically. The operation is performed when the buds are grown a third of an inch long. Crown Grafting, Theophraste (fig. 16). — Cut hori- zontally the head of the stock, or the branches only of the second or third order, according to the age of the tree, at about 18 inches from their spring. Then cut through the bark to the wood in a vertical line about 2f inches long. Cut the lower part of the graft in a pointed form. A, with a notch on the upper part. Kaise the bark of the stock, and introduce the graft between the bark and the wood in such a manner that the cut side of the graft fits close upon the wood. Surround with a bandage, and cover with the mastic. Several grafts may be placed upon the same section of the wood, provided there be a clear space of about 3 inches between each of the grafts. This sort of graft is frequently used for aged trees, and when it is desir- able to change the fruit for another variety. Perfected Croicn Grafting, Du Breuil (fig. 17). — The 16 FRUIT TREES. head of tlie stock must be cut obliquely, tben tbe bark cut vertically a little to tbe left of tlie top of tbe slant. Tbe loTver part of tlie graft must be cut in a pointed form, with a small tooth or notch at the thick end of the cut. A thin line of bark is then cut away upon the left side of the point end of the graft. The graft is inserted between the bark and the wood, so that the Fig. 17. — Du Breuil's Improved Crown Graft. notch on the graft fits close down upon the top of the stock, and the point of the graft introduced under the bark of the right side only of the stock, fits closely against the unraised bark on the left side of the stock. 3. Side Branch Grafting. — In this kind of graft- ing it is not necessary to cut the head of the stock. The graft is attached to the side of the stem. It is GRAFTING. 17 practised at the same period of the year as crown graft- ing. We shall explain only two varieties of this method. The Richard Side Graft (fig. 18).— Choose for the graft a branch slightly arched, A ; cut the lower part Fig. 18.— The Richard Side Graft. Fig. 19.— Lateral Fruit-Bud for Girardin Side Graft. in a long slant. Make an incision, Gr, upon the bark of the stock in the form of a T. Make immediately above this another incision, B, penetrating to the exterior wood, for the purpose of arresting at this point the flow of sap from the roots. Raise the incised bark with the spatula of the grafting-knife, introduce the graft, bind round, and apply the mastic. This mode of grafting is applied with advantage to the stems of pepin* fruits, to restore the regularity of * This word implies fruits that have "pips,'' and is used in that sense throughout the work. 18 FRUIT TREES. their branches, when grafting by approach, or other methods, cannot be resorted to. The Girardin Side Graft (figs. 19 to 22). — This kind of grafting, described by Professor Thouin, and popu- larised by M. Luiset, of EcuUy, near Lyons, is prac- tised thus : — Towards the end of August take from a tree, either of the same variety or a different one, some very small branches, each bearing a fruit-bud that would open in the following spring (fig. 19) ; in ?i \v »i ■. Fig. 20.— Terminal Fruit - Bud for Side Graft. Fig. 21.— Cut upon the Branch for Reception of Side Graft. Fig. 22.— Girardin Side Graft. selecting the grafts, give preference to terminal branches (fig. 20). Cut off the leaves, and cut the lower part to the form indicated in figs. 19 and 20 ; make upon the bark of the stem upon which the graft is to be inserted an incision, as shown on fig. 21, insert the graft underneath the bark, bind round, as shown on fig. 22, and cover the parts with mastic. The grafts become attached to the branch, expand their blossoms, and fructify in the following spring. This method may be practised at the beginning of April, but with GRAYTING. 19 less chance of success ; it will then be necessary to detach the branches which bear the grafts, a month before, and to cover them over in a shady place till the time of grafting. This mode of grafting is now frequently employed to replace fruit-branches that have disappeared from the large boughs, or to transform too vigorous but unfruitful branches into fruit-bearing ones. III.— BUDDING OR SHIELD GRAFTING. In grafts belonging to this group the piece cut from the bark to form the graft is most frequently in the form of a shield, A (fig. 23) ; this piece of bark must have upon it, near its centre, an eye or bud. These grafts are especially used for young stocks, or Fig. 23.— Shield Graft or Budding Fig. 24.— Inside of Cutting of by Dormant Bud. Sliield or Bud. branches, of from one to four years of age, having thin, smooth, and tender bark. There are several varieties of shield grafting, but the two following will be found sufficient for general use. Shield Grafting with Dormant Bud (fig. 23). — This is practised from the end of July till the be- 2-0 FRUIT TREES- ginning of September, according to tlie state of the vegetation of the subject. The head of the stock must not be cut off until the follo\\ing spring, when it will be seen whether the graft-bud has been successful. The following are the principal points to be observed in shield grafting : — 1st. Cut from the tree a branch having some leaves and eyes at its base, or buds well constituted ; take off the leaves, lea^dng only a small piece of the stem, C (fig. 23), of one of them, to hold the shield A by between two fingers. Keep the grafts or buds, when thus pre- pared, in a dark, cold, and damp place, until the time that they are required for placing upon the stock. 2nd. Make an incision, B, upon the subject, in the form of a T, penetrating to the wood, and separate with the spatula the two lips of the bark towards the top. 3rd. Separate the shield from its branch in such a manner as to take off ■VN'ith the bark the smallest pos- sible portion of the wood, preser^'ing in every case the green tissue behind the bud, as shown at fig. 24. Unless this be attended to, the success of the graft is impossible. 4th. Slip in the shield between the bark and the wood by means of the incision B (fig. 23) ; then bring the edges of the bark together by means of a ligature, in such a manner that the base of the bud press closely to the wood of the stock ; this is an essential point 5th. Some time after budding, look at the buds and slacken the bandages if they have become too tight. Gth. On the arrival of spring, if the buds have taken GRAFTING. 21 effect, cut off the stem or branclies of the subject about three inches above the bud ; this is done to stimulate the development of the bud. 7th. AYhen the buds begin to vegetate, support them by a stake (A, fig. 25), fastened against the stem of the Tig. 25.~Siipport for Shield Graft. Fig. 26.— Double Shield Graft. subject, in order to protect them from the \iolence of the winds. 8th. Eemove the shoots that grow from the stem of the subject, and follow the directions given for branch grafting. 9th. Cut the head of the subject D at the line B (fig. 25) in the winter following. Shield grafts (or budding) are almost always used for young fruit trees. If they have not been successful (that no time may be lost), replace them by branch grafting in the following spring. 22 FRUIT TREES. Double Shield Grafting or Budding (fig. 26). — Operate as before, placing upon the same stem or branch two or more shields. This will be found very useful in hastening the wood formations of young espaliers. To form a palmette* the stock should receive three shield grafts, placed as shown in fig. 26. We thus gain a year for the formation of the wood. * So called because the shape resembles the extended palm or hand, the fingers being spread out in the form of a fan. PRUNING AND TRAINING. 28 OK" PEUNIl^G AKD TEAINING. UTILITY or TRAINING. Training, properly applied to fruit trees, gives the following result : — 1. It enables us to impart to trees a form suitable to the place they are intended to occupy. Thus we may desire to give to standards (trees that are not nailed against a wall or trellis) the pyramidal form, or the form of a vase. Trees trained in these forms give larger and more abundant fruit than when left to themselves ; and when become tall trees, they occupy less space than others. Training applied to espaliers makes the trees develop their wood in a regular and systematic manner, and compels them to occupy usefully the whole surface of the wall or space assigned to them. 2. By means of training, each of the principal^ branches of the tree is furnished with fruit-branches ( throughout its full extent. This result is most re- ' markable in the stone fruits, and especially in the' peach, the branches of which, if not trained, would ' rapidly degenerate, and grow only towards the top. 3. Training renders the fructification more equal ; 24 FRUIT TREES. 'for in removing every year the superabundant buds md branches, we contribute to the formation of new fruit-buds for the next year ; preventing the sap from )eing wasted upon tbe parts cut away. 4. Training conduces to tbe production of larger fruit and of finer quality. In fact, tbe greater part of tbe liquid nourishment which would have fed the suppressed parts is turned to the advantage of the fruits that are retained. GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF TRAINING. The wood of trees ought to be perfectly sjTnmetrical. This regularity has not only for its purpose to render the trees pleasant objects to look at, but, most of all, to make them occupy with regularity, and without loss of space, the walls or borders where they are planted. It also promotes equality of vegetation throughout the tree, by preventing the sap from being drawn more to one side than another. The permanency of form of trained trees is dependent upon the equal diffusion of sap being maintained through- out the lohole extent of their branches. In fruit trees left to themselves, and entirely un- trained, the sap distributes itself equally, because the trees take the forms most in harmony with the natural tendency of the sap. In trees, however, that are sub- mitted to training, the forms imposed upon them neces- sitate the development of branches at the base of the stem more or less large and numerous. The sap PRUNING AND TRAINING. 25 naturally tends towards tlie summit of tlie stem ; it follows, therefore, that tlie lower branclies become weak, and soon die oflP, and the form that had been obtained disappears, to be replaced by the natural disposition of the tree ; that is, a naked stem carrying a head more or less voluminous. It is, therefore, indispensable to change the natural current of the sap, and thus main- tain the direction towards each of the points to which it is desired to train the branches. We suppose an espalier (fig. 27) in which the Fig. 27.— Espalier, in which the Circtdation of the Sap is irregular. equilibrium of vegetation has been broken ; in order to retard the vegetation in the direction in which the sap flows too abundantly, and to favour those parts where its flow is insufficient, we employ the following means : — Prune the strong branches, B, sJiort ; but allow the weaker ones. A, to grow long. We know that the sap is dra^Ti by the leaves ; therefore, in suppressing upon the most vigorous parts the greater number of C 26 FRITIT TREES. wood-buds, we deprive those parts of the leaves tliat the buds would have developed, and in consequence of doing so, the sap flows there in less abundance, and the vegetation is diminished. By allowing, on the contrary, a considerable number of wood-producing buds to remain upon the weak parts, it will become covered with a large number of leaves, and an abun- dant vegetation. Depress the strong parts of the tree, and elevate the iceak branches. The sap on its way to the roots acts with greater force upon the branch extensions, in proportion to their being in a vertical direction ; the branches will therefore push out with more force in the weak parts that have been raised nearer to a vertical line, and the numerous leaves that they will develop will draw the sap in greater quantity from the strong parts that have been inclined towards a hori- zontal direction. Suppress the tiseJess hiids upon the strong parts as early as possible, and practise this suppression as late as possible upon the tceak imrfs. The fewer shoots upon the branch, the fewer will be the leaves, and of course the smaller the quantity of sap that will be drawn there. By allowing the shoots to remain upon the weak part as long as possible, the sap will be drawn there in greater abundance, and when they come to be cut off", the sap, having set in to that side, will still continue to flow there. This is only appli- cable to espaliers, and particularly to peaches, from which it is often necessary to take a number of the buds. PRUNING AND TRAINING. 27 Suppress very early the herbaceous extremities of the strong 2)cirt, hit practise the suppression as late as possible upon the weak part ; taking off only the most vigorous shoots, and those that mtist in any case be removed on account of the positio}is they occupy. This arrests the vegetation of the strong part ; it is applicable both to standards and espaliers. I'Tail up very early, and very close to the tvall or trellis, the strong part, but delay doing so to the weak part ; we thus retard the circulation towards the first, and promote it towards the second. This is only practi- cable for espaliers and wall trees. Suppress a number of the leaves upon the strong side. By remo\dng a portion of the leaves on that side of the tree, we impede the sap, and prevent its too abun- dant flow in that direction. It T^dll be necessary to suppress only a number of leaves proportionate to the difference in vigour of the two sides of the tree, and to choose those upon the most vigorous branches. The leaves must not be torn off, but cut, lea\ing the petiole, or leaf- stem, upon the branch. Allow as large a quantity of the fruit as possible to remam upon the strong side, and suppress all upon the weak side. We have already explained that the fruit has the property of drawing to itself the sap from the roots, and of absorbing it entirely in its growth ; by this means, all the sap drawn to the strong side will be absorbed by the fruits, and that part will be less developed than the weak side. Soften all the green parts on the weak side with a solu- tion of sulphate of iron. This solution, in a proportion c2 28 FRUIT TREES. of twenty-four grains to a pint of water, applied after sunset, is absorbed by the leaves, and powerfully stimulates their action in drawing the sap from the roots. Bring forward the weak side from the wall, and keep the strong side close to it. By bringing the weak part forward, away from the wall, we allow the branches to receive the light on both sides. As light is the element which determines the functions of the leaves, and their action upon the sap, this part will vegetate with more vigour than the part which is only exposed to the action of the light upon one of its sides. This is applicable only to wall trees ; and is only to be resorted to towards the month of May, by which time there is nothing to fear from the storms of mnter, and the tree is able to support itself apart from the wall. Place a covering upon the strong part, so as to deprive it of the light. By this method we obtain the same result, but in a more complete manner. This is not to be resorted to unless the preceding method has proved insufficient, for if it should happen that the part be kept too long from the Kght, it will soon lose all its leaves. To avoid this, we must not keep it covered for more than eight or twelve days, and must then take advantage of a cloudy day to remove the covering. The different expedients we have described may be employed in succession, and in the order set down, until the desired result has been obtained. PRUNING AND TRAINING. 29 The sap develops the branches much more vigorously upon a branch cut shorty thin upon one left long. It is evident that if tlie sap acts only upon one or two branches, it makes them develop with much greater vigour than if it is divided among fifteen or twenty. If, therefore, we desire to obtain more wood, we must prune the branches down a great deal, be- cause vigorous shoots develop very few flower-buds ; if, on the contrary, we wish to develop fruit-branches, we must be careful to cut them down very little, because the least vigorous branches are the most charged with fruit blossoms. Another application of this principle is in the case of a tree that has been exhausted by bearing a too great quantity of fruit ; we re-establish its vigour by pruning it short for a year. This last application may appear to contradict what has been advanced in a former paragraph (p. 25), but the contradiction is only in appearance. In the first instance, we only cut short certain branches of the tree ; and so far diminish, to the profit of those left to grow to a greater length, the powers of absorption that they exercise upon the sap from the roots. The shoots which they develop are certainly more vigorous than those growing upon the long branches, but they are less so than if all the branches of the tree were subjected to the same suppression, for one part of the sap due to them is turned to the profit of the nume- rous shoots growing upon the long branches, and the vigour of which is thus augmented. In a word, the shoots upon the long branches are not so vigorous as 30 FRUIT TREES. those upon the branches cut short, but they are much more numerous, and determine the formation of a great mass of woody tissue and buds, which do not fail to weaken the strong part to the profit of the feeble one. But when the re- establishment of an exhausted tree is in question, the circumstances are altogether dif- ferent. Instead of pruning down certain branches only, we submit all the branches upon the tree to the same treatment, and the sap, not being drawn in too great abundance either to one side or the other, acts with equal intensity, and promotes the yigorous deve- lopment of each separate branch : all this tends to the formation of fresh wood and bark, more ample and well constituted than the first, so that the new root extensions better fulfil their functions, the tree recovers its former vigour, and in due time recommences fruit- bearing. The preceding remarks explain the cause of the different results obtained by this operation, according to the manner in which it is practised, and ought to put an end to the differences which exist upon the subject among different cultivators. The sap has aJicays a tendency to flow towards the extremity of the branches, and to make the terminal hud develop with more vigour than the lateral ones. According to this principle, whenever we wish to give greater length to a branch, we must train upon one vigorous terminal bud, and not allow any other shoot to grow that would draw away the action of the sap. PRUNING AND TRAINING. 31 The more the sap is retarded in its circulation^ the less tvood, and the more fruit-buds icill it develop. Trees do 'not begin to form their flower-buds until they have acquired a certain development. Before these flower-buds appear, it is necessary that the sap circulate slowly, and that it by this means undergoes a more complete elaboration in the leaves ; without this it can only grow wood-producing buds. When trees have acquired a certain degree of development, the rapidity of the circulation is checked by the extent and broken character of the ramifications through which the sap has to run ; it is only then that the flower-buds begin to form. The appearance of these organs is so much due to the diminished action of the sap upon the branches, that trees never have more flower- buds than when sufiering in this way. The following operations, in the order set down, will tend to retard the action of the sap, and cause a greater quantity of fruit-bearing spurs upon the trees. Allow the branch to extend itself by training the wood very long, and the result will be a less vigorous growth which is more conducive to fruit-bearing. Apply to the branches ivhich cjrow from the successive extensions of the wood, and also to those which spring from them, the operations calculated to diminish their vigour. These operations are, for shoots, pinching and twisting, and for the branches, breaking, either complete or partial. These mutilations, which we shall describe further on, have for their object to diminish the vigour both of these smaller and larger branches, by forcing 32 FRUIT TREES. the sap to concentrate its action upon the deyelopment of new wood. Practise the winter joriining very late in spring, when the shoots have obtained a length of 1^ inch. It results from this late pruning, that a greater portion of the sap is dispersed to the advantage of the other parts of the branches. These being at this moment checked, the shoots at the base push less vigorously than if that loss of sap had not taken place, and are more easily put into fruit-bearing. This mode of operating, and also the following, should not be resorted to, ex- cept for trees of such vigour that the preceding methods have proved insuificient to put them in fruit-bearing. Apply to the larger branches a certain number of Girardm's side grafts (figs. 19 to 22). These fruit- spur grafts when fruiting will absorb a considerable part of the superabundant sap. We shall see from this time a considerable number of flower-buds form them- selves upon the trees. This method is only to be employed for pepin fruits. Arch all the branches, so that a part of their extent be directed towards the sun. The sap acts with more force upon the development of shoots if they are attached to branches growing in the nearest approach to a vertical line ; it follows, therefore, that arching the branches tends to diminish their vigour, and promotes fruit- bearing. When this result has been obtained, it will be advisable to replace these branches in their former position, lest the tree become exhausted by a super- abundant production of fruit. Fig. 28 is a pyramidal tree with the branches arched. PRUNING AND TRAINING. 33 Fig. 28.— Pyramidal Pear Tree, with Arched Branches. c3 34 FRUIT TREES. In the month of Fehniary, make an annular incision with the hand-saw, near the base of the stem, rather less than \ of an inch in tciclth, and sufficiently deep to pene- trate the exterior layer of the ivood. The sap ascends from the roots to the leaves, passing through the sap vessels embedded in the exterior layer of wood. The incision has the effect of retarding the ascension of the sap ; the branches acquire less ^dgour ; and the tree forms fruit. At the spring of the year, uncover the foot of the tree in such a maimer as to expose the princijxil roots throughout nearly their entire extent, and allow tlieni to remain in this state dui'ing the summer. The exposure of the roots to the action of the air and light retards their fruition, and thus diminishes the vigour of the tree, and deter- mines its fruit-bearing. U)icoi'er the foot of the tree at spring, and cut away part of the roots, and then replace the earth. This opera- tion, more energetic than the preceding, produces the same results, but must be resorted to with caution, to avoid injury to the tree. Transplant the trees at the end of autumn, but with great care so as to j^reserve all the roots. This affords the same results as the preceding. The displacement of the tree has the effect of weakening it ; in the following year it will put forth a great number of fruit-buds. Every method which conduces to diminish the vigour of the wood, and to mahe the sap flow to the fruit, touts to augment the size of the fruit. PRUNING AND TRAINING. 35 The fruit and the branches have the property of drawing to themselves the sap from the roots. If, therefore, the shoots are numerous and strong, it fol- lows that they absorb nearly all the sap, to the injury of the fruit, which remains small. This explains how it occurs that, other things being equal, fruits are smaller upon vigorous trees than upon weaker ones ; and we also understand from this how it is that, the growth of the fruit being determined by the sap, the fruit becomes much larger if the sap flows to it freely. The following operations have for their object to increase the size of the fruit : — Graft upon stoclxS of a less rigorous species than the scions. If the stocks are too vigorous, the shoots will absorb nearly the whole of the sap, to the injury of the fruit. Pears grafted upon quinces, apples upon paradise stocks, produce, other things being equal, larger fruit than when grafted upon pear stocks. ApjyJy to the trees a suitable winter pruning ; that is, do not leave upon them more branches, or parts of branches, than are requisite for the symmetrical development of the tree, and the formation of fruit^bearing branches. This tends to concentrate the sap upon the parts retained, and consequently upon the fruit. Trees left to their natural growth always produce smaller fruit than those submitted to siutable pruning. Make fruit-spurs to grow close upon the branches, by pruning them as short as possible. By this means the fruit will be attached very close to the wood, will re- ceive the direct influence of the sap, and acquire a large development. 36 FRUIT TREES. Cut the branches very close when the flower-buds are formed. This concentrates the sap upon a smaller ex- tent of wood, and the fruit receives, in consequence, a larger supply. Mutilate the summer shoots by repeatedly pinching off those shoots that are not required for the development of the size of the tree. This mutilation, which is performed by repeated pinchings, prevents the shoots absorbing a too large supply of sap, which then remains, to the advantage of the fruit. Wlien the fruits have attained a fifth degree of their development, suppress a further number of them. The fruits left upon the tree absorb the sap of those taken away, and therefore become much larger. There will be a smaller number, but the same weight, which is always to be preferred. Make an annular incision vpon the fruit-bearing branches at the time they expand their blossoms ; the incision inust not be wider than -A- of an inch. Experience continually demonstrates, that following such incision, the fruit becomes much larger, and ripens better. Many attempts have been made to explain the cause, but none are satisfactory ; the fact, however, is certain. Stone fruits, and vines especially, are the better for this operation being applied to them. Graft some of the fruit-branches of vigorous trees with the Girardin side graft. This kind of graft produces an effect similar to the annular incision. The fruit is always larger than upon the other branches ; the cause is doubtless the same. Place under the fruits, during their growth, a SKpporf, PRUNING AND TRAINING. 37 to prevent their stretching or ticiating their footstalks. The sap readies the fruit through the vessels which traverse the stalk. If left without support it will often happen that the fruit grows unequally, and a twisting movement of the stalk follows, which injures the sap vessels. Besides, the weight of the fruit alone, hanging upon its stem, stretches the sap vessels, and diminishes their diameter. When the fruits are supported, the sap penetrates more freely, and their size is augmented accordingly. Keej) the fruits in their normal position during the entire period of their development, that is, with the fruit- stem lowermost. The sap acts with greater force when it flows upwards ; a vertical position, therefore, of the stalk causes the sap to ascend more easily and in greater quantity, and the fruit will become larger. Place the fruits under the shade of the leaves during the entire period of their groivtJi. The action of strong light and heat has the effect of hardening the tissues, and destroying their elasticity, and consequently the power of extension in yielding to the action of the sap. If a young fruit be exposed to the power of the sun, it will be smaller than one shaded by the leaves, because its skin will be hardened, and not give way to the tendency of the sap to expand it. Fruits, when arrived at their full size, will be greatly improved by exposure to the sun, as it will impart colour and a liner flavour, and ripen them in greater perfection. Apply to the young fruits a solution of sulphate of iron. We have alreadj'' seen that a solution of sulphate of iron applied to the leaves stimulates their powers of 38 FRUIT TREES. absorbing sap. The tbougbt occurred to apply the solution to the fruits, and the effect in increasing their size was extraordinary. The solution should be in the proportion of 24 grains to a pint of water. Apply it onl}- when the fruit is cool; repeat the operation three times ; ^iz., when the fruits have obtained a fourth part of their development, when they are a little larger, and again when they are three parts grown. This solution excites their powers of absorption, and they draw to themselves a large quantity of sap which would other^vTLse flow to the leaves, and they then become larger fruit. Graft by approach a small shoot upon the 2)€duncle or fruit-spur, to ichich the fruit is attached when it has attained a third part of its development. It has been found that consequent on this operation the fruit becomes larger, doubtless because the graft draws to the peduncle a larger quantity of sap. The leaves serve the important purpose of elaborating the sap of the roots aiid preparing it for the proper nourishment of the tree, and the formation of buds upon the boughs. A tree therefore that is deprived of its leaves is in danger of perishing. It is therefore essential to guard against removing too many of the leaves under pretext of placing the fruit more immediately under the action of the sun, for the trees, deprived of a part of their organs of nutrition, will cease both growing and fruit-bearing. Besides, branches stripped of their leaves produce PRUNING AND TRAINING. 39 ill-formed buds, whicli are only succeeded the following year by a weak and languishing vegetation. AYhen the ramifications of the tree haA^e arrived at their second year, the buds that are still undeveloped will remain so, except under the influence of very close pruning. Peaches seldom yield to this operation. It is necessary, therefore, to prune so as to determine the development of these dormant buds upon the branch extensions, and to take care of the shoots which result therefrom. Without this precaution the middle part of the tree might remain bare and unproductive, and there would soon be no remedy, for it is impossible to develop buds that have remained long dormant. We obtain the development of all such buds by cutting away each year a certain portion of the new extensions of the wood. The yearly extensions of wood should he shortened more or less, as the branches approach a vertical line, or the contrary. The sap acting upwards from the base of the tree, if a branch grows in a vertical direction, the buds remain dormant upon two-thirds of its length from the base. To prevent this, it is necessary to suppress at least one-half the length of this branch. If it is inclined to an angle of 45 degrees, the sap acts with less force upon the buds at the upper part of the branch, but it will develop much too great a number at the same time ; only the lower third of the branch will remain unfurnished with buds. It will be sufficient in this case to suppress only a third part of the branch. 40 FRUIT TREES. Lastl}", if the branch grows horizontally, it may be left entire, for in this case the sap will act equally, and buds will spring from every part of the bough, from one end to the other. The most suitable Periods for Pruning. The various operations of pruning fruit trees are practised at two different periods of the year. Those comprehended under the name of winter pruning are performed while vegetation is at rest ; the others, called summer pruning, at various periods of vegetation. "We shall first point out the most favourable period for performing the winter pruning. Winter Pnoiinr/. — The best time is that which follows the severe frosts, and which precedes the first move- ment of vegetation, towards the month of February. If the pruning be performed before the severe frosts, the cut portions of the bough will be exposed to the action of the air, damp, and frosts, long before the first movement of the sap, which is necessary to cicatrise the parts, and it frequently follows that the terminal bud reserved at the top of the branch is by this means destroyed. These accidents occur also if the pruning be attempted during severe frosts. The instruments cut the frozen wood with difiiculty, the parts are torn and do not heal, the injury descends below the nearest bud, which is destroyed. If we wait until the buds begin to open, the conse- quences are still more serious. The sap is spread throughout every part of the tree, and that which was PRUNING AND TRAINING. 41 absorbed by the suppressed branches is lost. Besides, in piTining so late, there is great danger of breaking off a number of the buds. Finally, the sap, in rushing back from the summit to the base, will burst the sap vessels, and cause canker or gum. The winter pruning, in February, is always im- portant for peaches ; the buds on the lower parts of the fruit-branches frequently remaining dormant for want of a sufficiently powerful action of the sap. By early pruning, the sap is made to act upon the buds unfavourably situated upon the tree, brings them out, and also develops latent buds upon the old wood. We are thus, by early pruning, enabled to prevent the middle part of the tree from becoming bare and unproductive. By late pruning, waiting even to the period when the shoots begin to lengthen, we may operate with advantage upon trees that possess too much ^dgour, and which would not otherwise be easily put into a fruit-bearing condition. One part of the action of the sap is thus dispensed to the parts cut away, and acts with less force towards the reserved buds, which thus more readily assume the character of fruit-bearing ones. In southern parts of the country [France], however, where vegetation is early, the pruning must necessarily be performed before winter. If, also, we have such a number of trees that we shall not be able to complete the pruning of the whole in February, rather than go beyond that time it will be better to anticipate it, by pruning the fruit-branches before winter, and leaving the rest until February. 42 FRUIT TREES. It will in every case be necessary, in pruning, to follow the order of vegetation of the different species, pruning first the apricots, next the peaches, plums, cherries, pears, apples, and lastly the ^ines. Summer Pruning. — The operations of summer pruning are practised while vegetation is entire ; but the precise moment can only be determined by the actual state of vegetation of the parts of the tree that require priming. In order to describe these indications with greater clearness, and to avoid useless repetition, we shall defer our remarks on this head until we come to apply these operations to the various species of fruit trees of which we have to speak. Instruments required for Pruning. The pruning-knife (fig. 29) is the oldest and best of the instruments employed in pruning. The blade should be sufiiciently curved, but not so much as to form a right angle, for in that case it would be as difiicult to cut with as if the blade were nearly straight. The haft should be large enough to fill the hand. It is requisite to be provided with two knives, a very strong one for winter pruning, and the other much smaller for summer operations. It has been proposed to substitute the sector (fig. 30) or priming shears for the pruning-knife. The sector offers the advantage of effecting its work more promptly than the knife, but it flattens the wood at the point of section, detaches the bark for a short distance below the place, and the end of the branch withers instead of healing ; the injury often extends below the terminal PRUNING AND TRAINING. 43 bud, wliicli is thus destroyed. To obviate this, it is necessary to cut about half-an-inch above the bud; Fig. 29.— Piuiiuig-Knife. Fig. 30.— Sector. this leaves a short piece of dried branch which it is necessary to cut off the following year, which unneces- sarily multiplies the operations. The knife is, in our opinion, the better instrument. If, however, we some- times use the sector, we should place it in such a manner upon the branch as to cut away nearly all the part injured by the pressure. The operator should also pro\ide himself with a small hand-saw (fig. 1, page 2). Method of Pruning. The manner of cutting the branches is far from being unimportant. If we wish to shorten a branch (fig. 31), we make the amputation as near as possible to a bud, but not so near as to injure it. We place 44 FRUIT TREES. the pruning-knife exactly opposite the bud, and cut in a slanting direction, in the line A B, coming out a little above the bud. By this means the bud remains uninjured, and the part more readily buds. If we cut higher than this point, in the line A B (fig. 32), the wood dies down to the line C, lea\'ing a little dried stump, which has to be cut off the following year. If we follow the line A B (fig. 33), the bud is weakened, and its development will be much less vigorous. When it is desired to cut away a branch entirely, the cut is made quite at the base, always leaA^ng, how- Fiff 31. -Cut for 1 Fig. 32.— branch cut I Fig. 33.— branch I Fig. 34— Complete sup- branch in pruning 1 loo far from the bud j cut too slanting | pression of branch. ever, a very small stump, A (fig. 34). We thus make a smaller wound, and it heals more rapidly than if it had been cut closer to the stem. If a branch is too large to be cut with the knife, and the saw has to be applied, it will be necessary to plane or smooth off the rough part left by the saw, otherwise the place will heal badly. If the parts that have been cut are large, it will be desirable to cover with the grafting mastic. THE PEAR. 45 THE PEAR Soil. — The pear takes a deep clayey flinty soil, rather cool, but not humid. In every case where this is not the native character of the soil, it must be made so by the mixture of other materials, and by digging to at least a yard in depth. If the under soil is too damp, it must be properly drained. Choice of Trees. — If the pears be taken from the nursery ready grafted, choose healthy vigorous trees of one, or at least of two years' grafting. More aged ones than these take root less freely, and their vegetation is always retarded. The stocks might be planted in the nursery for grafting them the year following, and plant- ing them out where they are to remain the next j'ear. Grafting. — Pears are most frequentlj^ grafted upon pear stocks obtained by sowing the pep ins ; they are also grafted upon quince stocks. The first produces the most \igorous and durable trees, but the quince stocks more rapidly come to fruit-bearing. We prefer pear stocks for dry and rather poor soils, and quince for ground of richer and better quality. The varieties that have a less \igorous habit should in every case be planted upon pear stocks. We point out which these are in the list on page 47. 46 FRUIT TREES. The grafts to be employed are, the shield graft or budding, the English cleft graft, and the protected crown graft. The shield graft or budding must be practised in August, on young wood of the current year's growth ; the cro^\Ti and cleft grafts are used for more adyanced trees, or to replace a shield graft that does not grow. The crown graft mutilates the tree less than cleft grafting. Varieties. — ^V^e are acquainted at the present time with more than fiye hundred yarieties of pears. But the whole of them are far from being equally yaluable. We shall here point out only some of the best for each month of the year, and place opposite to each name certain directions necessary to their culture. The names in italics indicate the principal synonymes. o a'' § a d'^ CO *a (^ P r— i ^H ^*^ c .-^ h hS-3 G C3 o.SJ « p 2 -*^ 5? o P< P4 ^:-"g=j 13 oi-^ ^^ jS §&:;<2 P C o §1 i^ ^ ^ OD ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ i K f3 a B a E s n ra n a c3 xn C/J ^ c o O C 'H ca (1 c SB H t, a: w ^ g s K ? E ca CO O O ca < a O Q ^^ O :; c; o S r- '-' »^ +r o b ? CO 5^ ff tC c j; o § 2 5 3 i ^ 2 o Z a a: o o te &S •« o s ^ t5 3 K '"^ ^< 5 3 pee « fei 5n p u fee s O e i: « »5 0 5 CD S ■g "^ *o ^ b b f; Q; <^ <« ^S-§ 5 « >^ "StG c .4J «a) « 09 e ^ P3 o a 00 ^ c3 "^ pi ft o g^ •3 5 S ^ O o •73 cS ft O +3 ci o o o be a ft >. m 3 <1 m c> C3 o o =3 -^ 1 s O C ^ f-c _■ '^ 5 ^ ^ ^ ^ !2; !iq ;?; 00 GQ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^^ ^ H H W f^ S H H H H H H WW w D 0 •3 O n< a 03 ^ ^ -g M m 1 O o O >. a « Si o ■il o P- > g :3 >- M 0 O Cl -u +3 n ^ ^ ^ S O a i ,i4 Pi g -t2 o ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ » CO 02 OQ OQ oc 02 02 ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ H H H (=5 a H H H H PI O ■ ft ft w m ft ft H H pq -a ft -^ H S5 •s s J J 1 o g ^ 2* 5^ ^ ^ g ^ ^ fl f^ >> !^ ^ a ^ o ^ ^ =a 3 =a S ^ O =a H s 0 fS g s M a •-3 o Ph 12; ^ •-5 o :t5 a i^ ■9 1 S sS -< a s ^ . ^ c< [4 1^ c3 o ft ••-4 g S o § 5 ■: pi • o 03 1 to "J. 1 > ffi) -»2 s s c o ft o i- " ft cS o O 1-5 5X1 a ;a o o « m Si 1 1* g o .a s o ft 6£ C o V 1^ c3 3 s t c V "^1 l<1 1 g c Is -S 02 ■5S H . 1-1 tn b: Ed K S5 O Q s ^ ■< 2 1^1 .2 w oj j^ ~S -u ■« 6£mu O g v» h S 5 P5 n T3 Ph o .© ^ ^ Ph ".S "5 vu f- ¥ "^ ^^ 5; s h ^ S ^ a P^ "^ ■« ^ S gi> t-9 ^ .SG Pi a a ^ „ "^ 05 a n Q S 3 "= p:^ fQ 6c - c . "^ -< 5^ J3 -3 ^ ■ft; ft; THE PEAR. 51 The following is a list of pears selected from a great variety grown by the editor. They are all suitable for the midland and north-midland counties ; they bear well and ripen to perfection, which is not the case with many of the French and Flemish pears. The late- ripening pears depend much on climate and situation. -J tc Ma ex' ^ o c; >-.r2 0) o o Sc!.S.S c) i=! u t3 .^ o X -u jj -^ ^ e! (S =i i=l O 3 aj o O O jD ^ ^ ai (D — I '^ « o o 2 so d O C g o OTS o; q. S ^ p X ® ^ O o ^ S O o o o ^ ° o S o S aj S g (» c c<^ s <» c oi o a^ ^'^ o S o 0^ 5 ^ g C -in O C p rt S O Ph O G OD 1-1 02 o - si- 0:3 s s C?C3 .S.S.9 o a> o o o o) o « o o o o o o C C S C fl Pi fl •^ J -2 -5 3 -5 -3 c3 o B o o ■3 CO '5 5 (3 c?c? ■3 00 o SCO CO o oocJoooQja> P4 Pk Ph (h Ph PM PM Ph 00. P^P^P^P^P4P^P^P^^P-l -a ^^ ;.< t- sj cS c3 (Tj a> o 0) PMP-iPh t^'d P-i t-i ;^ Sh rt rt Ci 000 PhP4P4 S . ^% t^ 2 °^ 00 To PI W 3 5^0 S s fco ;2^ W a, g a H 'JO ,,_^ .^ „_ ,,_ ,,__ ,.^ .._ „j ci *^ O "^ -^ 03 ^ tJ:^^ cjfl^Ploa'^'^ ^5 iKO.tJO^^Ci^ ■<-<«^spq«p5a« pqOoooqe^pmKh^ h^ 11 CO 2 3S It -^ Pi fl ,9 o '-iP5 H PI g COr^?-- 52 THE PEAR. TEAINi:^a AND PRUNI^^G OF PEAR TREES. The pear is cultivated both as a standard and espalier. The forms in which it may be trained are A'arious ; but what we shall now consider are the following : full standards, the pyramid or cone, the vase or goblet, the column, the double contra-espalier in vertical cordon, and tall standards ; for espaliers, the Terrier palmetto, the simple oblique cordon, and vertical cordon. These forms are the most simple and easily obtained ; they are suitable for the places most frequently assigned to the pear, and trees submitted to these forms are durable and fertile. Training of a Pear Tree in Pyramidal Form. In this operation we shall consider separately the formation of the wood and of the fruit-branches. Formation of the Wood. — A tree trained in this form (fig. 35) is composed of a vertical stem furnished from the top downwards, to a foot above the soil, with lateral branches, the length of which should increase down to the base. Each lateral branch should have an interval of twelve inches between it and the branch immediately above, allowing the light to penetrate between them. They should be kept free from bifurcations and furnished with fruit - branches alone, from end to end, and form an angle with the horizon of 25 degrees at the most. In general, the widest diameter of the pyramid should equal the third part of its height ; if the height be six THE PEAK. 58 Tig. 35.— Pyramidal Pear Tiee. 54 FRUIT TREES. yards, fben the diameter should be two yards at its widest part. In soils of medium fertility, trees of this form and size are planted ten or eleven feet apart, so that the light may act equally upon their entire circumference. Young trees are not submitted to their first pruning until the second year after they have been planted. If performed earlier, the pruning takes away too many of the branches, and the quantity of leaves that they should develop is too much diminished. As it is the leaves which cause the roots to extend themselves, these are less developed, and the growth of buds, which the early pruning was intended to promote, will be feeble, poor, and insufficient to form a foundation for the wood-branches of the tree. AYhen the pruning is not performed until the following year, the tree forms new roots, and when the greater part of the branches come to be pruned away, the sap which the roots now supply in great abundance, reacts with force uj)on the buds that are reserved upon the tree, and a greater length of wood is obtained, during a single summer, than would be obtained in two years by the former method. Time is gained, and the tree is in a more favourable condition for giving the desired direction and growth to the wood. Nevertheless, as the roots of young trees are more or less damaged by deplantation, it is necessary to cut away a portion of the wood in order to re-establish a proper equilibrium with the roots. The suppression of a third of the length of the most vigorous branches will generally be sufficient. This rule applies to all fruit trees, except peaches, of THE PEATl. 5d wliich we sliall speak further on. There is no excep- tion save in the very rare case when the tree has been transplanted with all its roots entire, and the roots have not been dried in any degree by the action of the air before being again placed in the earth. In this case only should we apply the first pruning the same year that the tree is transplanted. First Pruning. — This operation is intended to pro- mote the development of the first lateral branches, which ought to grow from the stem, from about a foot above the ground. In order that these branches be ••=~-.-i s«.0£'.>* Fig. 36.— Two Years' Graft. First Pruning. Fig. 37.— Three Years' Graft. First Pruning. sufficiently vigorous, especially those growing at the base, it will be necessary to develop only six or eight at a time. For this purpose the stem of the young tree is cut at about 20 inches above the ground, at A, 56 FRUIT TREES. fig. 36. The terminal bud reserved at the top should be on the side opposite to that on which the graft has been placed upon the stock at B, in order to maintain the perpendicular direction of the stem. This mode applies to young trees taken from the nursery, whether of two or three years' grafting, as shown by figures 36 and 37. In the latter instance, whatever lateral branches have grown upon the stem below the cut are taken off very close to the stem, leading always the small founda- tion of the branch upon the stem. If, while the young trees have stood in the nursery, they have received such attention that the base of the stem is already provided with a sufficient number of lateral branches (fig. 38), such as we would wish to obtain as the results of the first pruning, we appl}^ to them the operations described further on for the second pruning, but always one year after transplantation. It is essential to guard against their bearing fruit at this early period, or they will be debilitated. During the summer which follows the first pruning, all the buds develop vigorously. When they have obtained a length of four or five inches, we disbud, that is, cut off* all the buds from the lower part of the stem to a foot from the ground. From among the buds situated above that point, we reserve six or more of those most regularly placed, but only one at each point. The terminal bud must be maintained in its place by means of a ** tutor," or small support fixed at the top of the stem. Watch carefully that the lateral buds maintain an THE PEAR. 57 equal degree of yigour. If one of them lias grown too long, as sho^Ti A (fig. 39), its vegetation must be checked by pinching, that is, by taking off about two- Fig. 38. - I'yrainidal I'ear. Second Pruning. Fig. 39.— stem of Pj^ramidal Pear. Pinching. thirds of an inch from the extremity mth the finger nails. Second Pruning. — By spring of the following year the young trees present the appearance of fig. 38. The second pruning is to determine the formation of a new J) 3 58 FRUIT TREES. series of lateral brandies, and to promote tlie extension of those previously obtained. The new branches should be as numerous as those of the preceding year, and commence about twelve inches above the first. We obtain this result by cutting the terminal shoot ahout sixteen inches (fig. 38) above its spring. We choose again for the terminal bud one on the opposite side to that from which the branch springs that it grows upon. The lateral branches previously obtained must be pruned in such a manner as to transform them finally into fruit-branches. But only so much of the branches must be cut away as is necessary to obtain that result, otherwise it will diminish too much the vigour required by the branches to secure their continued growth. The buds which spring from these lateral branches develop themselves too vigorously if not sufficiently pruned, and will with difficulty be put into fruit-bearing condition. The degree of pruning to be applied to them must vary according to the position of the branches upon the stem of the tree. Those near to the ground must be left longer, in order to favour their development. Thus, towards the base, only a third part of the length must be pruned off", and half of those next above them, and finally, three-fourths of the length of those highest up on the tree. Figure 38 explains this operation. The bud over which we efiect the section of the lateral branch should be upon the outside of the tree (A, fig. 40), in order that the shoot which springs from it may follow naturally in the oblique ascent of the other branches. The only exception to this is, when the proper bud is situated too close to the neighbouring THE PEAR. 59 ones riglit and left. In this case select a bud a little sideways of the one that would otherwise be chosen. If during the preceding summer some of the lateral branches have been imperfectly developed, which takes place occasionally towards the base of the tree, it will be necessary to prune them but little, or leave them entire, in order to impart to them their proper vigour. If these branches be only half the length of the others, it will be well to make an incision on the outside of the main stem, immediately above the spring of the Fig. 40.— Terminal Bud to prolong a Lateral Branch. M Fig. 41.— Incisions. branch A, as shown at A, fig. 41. The incision should penetrate the exterior wood of the tree, sever the sap vessels which press on that side, and thus compel the sap to develop the branch. The cut should be made with a fine hand-saw, in order that it may heal up less rapidly. If the bud on which we reckoned to form 60 FRUIT TREES. one of tlie lateral branclies remains dormant, tlie in- cision will be still more indispensable (B, fig. 41). When, on the contrary, a branch shall have ac- quired, notmthstanding pinching, a disproportionate development, it must be cut shorter than the others ; if the diflPerence in size between it and the other branches be excessive, an incision must be made like the one shown at C (fig. 41), immediately below its point of attachment to the stem. This will greatly diminish the action of the sap. During the summer which follows the second pruning, apply the operation of disbudding to the terminal branch, the same as that made upon the young stem during the first year. This must be done so as to leave only six or eight well-placed buds, for forming a second series of lateral branches. Also pinch ofi" the herbaceous extremities of the terminal buds upon the side branches, in order to maintain between them an equal degree of vigour. Be careful that the lateral buds towards the end of the branch do not become too vigorous, and overgrow the terminal one, which ought always to maintain its superiority. Third Pruning. — In the following spring the tree presents the aspect of the figure 42. The terminal branch extension is cut in the same proportion as in the preceding year. The extensions of the lai.eral branches of two years' growth are cut back also in the same proportion as before. The lateral branches developed during the preceding summer are cut shorter, in order to favour the growth of the lower branches. It must be borne in mind that these direc-- THE PEAR. 61 tions may be modified by particular circumstances, indicated at the time of the second pruning, and tliat the use of incisions must be resorted to in the cases before specified. Fig. 42.— Third Pruning of the Pyramidal Pear. The summer operations are the same as after the second year's pruning. Fourth Pnining. — Figure 43 indicates the changes that the tree has experienced during the preceding summer. The fourth pruning differs from the others in several particulars. We allow to the new extensions of the lower branches only half the length of former pruning, because they are on the point of attaining the limit beyond which they must not be alloAved to grow ; be- sides which, they have now attained a size which will enable them to maintain their proper vigour. 62 FRUIT TREES. We allow to the new brancli extensions of the second series two-thirds of their length, and suppress the half or three- fourths of the length of the upper branches. These yarious ramifications are cut a little Fig. 43.— Fom-th Pruning of the PjTamidal Pear. longer than before, because the lower branches have now less need of protection, and it is time to com- mence giving to the tree its pyramidal form. The new terminal shoot is treated the same as in preceding years. During the following summer, we observe the same THE PEAR. 63 treatment as in preceding ones ; but as fhe lower branches have now almost attained their proper length, it will be necessary to restrain the further growth by Fig. 44.— Fifth Pruning of the PjTamidal Pear. pinching off the terminal shoots that have acquired a length of ten or twelve inches. The sap will, by this means, be forced back, to the benefit of the higher parts of the tree. Fifth Pniuiny. — The tree now shows somewhat of 64 FRUIT TREES. its intended proportions (fig. 44), tlie lower brandies being inclined a little by their o^vn weight, the tree assumes its pyramidal shape. The pruning does not differ from preceding years, only that the inferior branches having now attained their intended length, we cut their new extensions quite close. The other branch extensions should be all cut following the line A B (fig. 44). The summer operations are the same as the preceding year. Sixth Pruning. — This does not differ from the fifth, only as the lateral branches lengthen they increase in weight, and hang down too much towards the ground on the neighbouring branches, and must be brought into their first direction again, by means of strings or supports, so that the space between each may always remain equal. The same treatment is carried on until the twelfth year, at which time the tree presents the aspect of figure 35. If there is still suificient earth for the roots to extend themselves further, the tree will still have a tendency to increase its size, and this may be turned to advan- tage. Allow the terminal shoots and the lateral branches to extend themselves afresh, but in such a manner as to preserve the proportion between the height and the diameter, as before directed. Obtaining and Maintaining FrL'It-Branches. All that we have hitherto said has related to the formation of the wood of the tree. We shall now de- THE PEAR. 65 scribe tlie operations that promote tlie growth of fruit- branches, and the care and treatment they require. The fruit-branches of pepin fruits that have been regularly pruned every year, ought now to be growing upon the entire length of every branch without inter- ruptions. In open standards the fruit-branches ought to occupy the entire circumference of the tree. In espaliers the only part without them is that against the wall. The fruit-branches are generally constituted towards the end of the third year following their first development. If this result is obtained earlier, it indi- cates a diseased or enfeebled condition in the part of the tree where they grow. The fruit-branches are kept as short as possible, that the fruits may be close to the principal branches ; they will then receive the most direct action of the sap, and become larger than if placed at a further distance from its source. We shall now explain how these different results are to be obtained. Fir^t Year. — Fruit-branches are developed from the less vigorous buds upon the wood-branches. In order to obtain a continued series of fruit- buds upon the entire length of a branch extension, it is necessary to cut back a little of the branch, otherwise the wood-buds on one part, towards the base, will remain undeveloped. We have already given directions, p. 39, as to the length that the branch extensions should be cut back according to their degree of inclination. Suppose the pruning has been duly performed upon the branch extension (fig. 45), by the beginning of May the branch will be covered with buds upon its 66 FRUIT TREES. entire lengtli (fig. 46). Tlie Adgour of tlie buds will be greatest as tbey approacli tlie bigbest part of tbe brancb, and tbose quite at tbe extremity will, unless arrested, acquire a great development. Xow, it is only Fiff. 45.— Wood Branch Extension. tbe weak buds tbat become fruit-spurs ; it is, tberefore, important to diminisb tbeir vigour. Tbis result is ^ii;'^ Fig. 46.— Wood-Branch Extension. obtained by pincbing. As soon as tbe buds intended to form fruit-brancbes bave attained a lengtb of about four incbes, tbey must be pincbed off witb tbe nails (fig. 47). In performing tbis operation some pincb off too mucb, leaving two or tbree leaves onl}^ towards tbe base (fig. 48). Two inconveniences may follow: very THE PEAR. 67 soon the fragment of the shoot ceases to grow, and after the fall of the leaves all that remains is a small stump without any buds (fig. 49), which dries up and Fig. 47.— Bud rightly pinched. dies, leaving a vacant place the following year. This occurs most frequently upon certain A^arieties of pears, which do not produce any eyes near the base of the Fig. 48. Fig. 49. Fig. 50. Buds pinched too far hack, and the Eesult in different Stages of Growth. branches; such as the Bon-chretien d'Hiver, the Beurre Magnifique or Beurre Diel, the Doyenne, &c. Sometimes there appear, a year or two after this ex- cessive pinching, two buds placed on each side the 68 FRUIT TREES. lower end of the suppressed shoot (fig. 50), wHcli, in three years more, become flower-buds. The vacant part is then filled up, but at least a year is lost in the formation of flower-buds. At other times, when the lower leaves of the suppressed shoot have eyes at their base, those eyes give place to so many premature buds immediately after this excessive pinching (fig. 51). These premature shoots do not become well-constituted branches, and set for fruit less freely than branches Fi?. 51. produced from shoots pinched in the proper manner, that is, leaving to them a length of two or three inches (fig. 47). Each of the branch extensions of the wood is fur- nished with a bud so favourably situated, as regards the action of the sap (A, fig. 45), that the repeated pinchings to which we may submit the shoot which it produces, diminish its \4gour very slightly, and it always produces a too vigorous shoot. It will be better to treat such in the following manner : — A\Tien it has obtained a length of about three inches, cut it off" at the base, leaving only a very small portion of the lower end (A, fig. 53). The two supplementary buds, THE PEAR. 69 which accompany the primary one (C, fig. 52), give place almost immediately to two small shoots much less strong than the one suppressed (fig. 53). We pinch off* the most vigorous of the two, and the one that is reserved (which must also be pinched if neces- sary) gives place to a small branch which easily sets for fruit. Fig. 52- Side Buds. Fig. 53.— Side Buds after removal Fig. 54.— Pinched Shoot with of principal Bud. new Shoot i). nu J he first pinching is generally sufficient to arrest the too rapid growth of the shoots. The most vigorous, however, Tvill often produce an anticipative bud towards their summit (D, fig. 54). These also must be pinched when they have attained a length of three or four inches. If some shoots have been neglected until they have attained a length of eight or twelve inches or more, it 70 FRUIT TREES. will then be too late to pinch them. If, indeed, we then cut them off at four inches from their base, we should see all the eyes situated at the base of the leaves, that we wished to form into flower-buds, develop themselves under the action of the sap, which has set in to flow to that part, into anticipative buds, which all at once find themselves in too strait bounds. It will be better, therefore, to submit these neglected buds to twisting, at about four inches from their base, B A, as shown at fig. 55, and to pinch off their tops. It will Fig. 55. — Shoot submitted to Twistinor. Fig. 56.— Small Shoot near the lower end of the Extension. follow from this double operation that the development of these buds will be arrested, and the eyes at the ba^^p will advance without pushing forward into anticipati' ^ buds. '' ,^_ Such is the treatment required by shoots inten t^^^JQ become fruit-branches, during the summer of their first development. It is seen that the whole of these opera- tions are not to be practised at once. The proper time for each is indicated by the different stages of growth, and this treatment should be followed during neaily the entire period of vegetation. Second Year. — In consequence of the various opera- tions that we have described, the shoots which grow THE PEAR. 71 upon the branch extensions (take for example figs. 45 and 46) have given place to a series of small branches, which are less \dgorous as they approach the lower end of the branch. During the succeeding winter, a mode of treatment must be pursued to be regulated by the degree of vigour of the shoots, the end in -view being to fatigue and enfeeble the branches, and by this means hasten their fruit-bearing. The buds situated towards the lower third of the extension (fig. 46) have grown slightly and become very short branches, resembling fig. 56. We perform Fig. 57.— Small Shoot in the middle Fig. 58. — Pinched of Extension. Branch. no operation upon these; they will transform them- selves into fruit-branches. The shoots upon the middle third portion of the extension (fig. 46) are rather more grown, and resemble fig. 67, and are called dards (darts). Nothing further is to be done to them. Lastly, towards the upper third part of the exten- sion (fig. 46) the shoots have pushed out with more vigour, but they have been submitted to pinching or 72 FRUIT TREES. twisting. These have given place to the following series of shoots : — The less vigorous, or of medium yigour, resemble those of fig. 68. These are broken ofi" at A, about three inches from their base, and immediately below a bud. The fracture fatigues the branch by producing a contused and torn place. There is then less probability that the lower buds will develop into "sigorous shoots ; the small piece left above the upper bud will still further favour the set to fruit by allowing the sap to expend part of its action upon the issue at the end of the branch. The other more vigorous branches, that have been repeatedly pinched during the summer, now resemble fig. 59. These should receive the partial fracture (B), as shown in the figure. If broken completely, the sap, being more abundant than in the other shoots, would be confijied in too narrow limits, and make the lower buds, that should set for fruit, push out into \igorous shoots. The partial fracture afibrds a suffi- cient issue for the sap, while enough is retained to enable the lower buds to develop a rosette of leaves. The shoots that have been twisted during the pre- ceding summer, present the appearance of fig. 60. They must be submitted to the complete fracture at A, if they are of less or medium vigour, or to A and complete at B if very vigorous. The branches we have now spoken of are the only ones that ought to be found upon the extension, fig. 46, if the operations of pinching and twisting have been duly performed in the preceding summer. But it may happen that some of the shoots have been THE PEAR. 73 neglected, and grown to a length of twelve or eighteen inches, and are more or less thick. These shoots are called brindilles. If let alone, these may set for fruit ; but as they spring from the summit of the extension, their situation is unfavourable to their development ; besides, such long fruit-branches produce confusion in Fig. 59.— Branch pinched several Times. Fig. 60.— Twisted Branch. the tree, and should be shortened. They may be broken completely at four inches from their base, at C, fig. 61, if of feeble or medium \dgour ; if more vigorous, they may be completely broken eight inches from their base, and partially at four inches (fig. 62). If these branches possess extraordinary \igour, they assume the character of gourmand branches^ and may readily be transformed into fruit-branches by placing a Girardin side graft at their base, and cutting the branch ofi" above the graft at the winter pruning. E 74 mUIT TREES. Third Year. — During tlie summer that has followed these operations, and in consequence of them, the branches have produced the following results : — The minute branches situated near the base of the rig. 61 .— T-svig of medium Vigour. Fig. 62.— Vigorous Twig fractured Twice. extension (fig. 56) have only developed a rosette of leaves, having a bud in the centre, and have increased a very little in length. Their appearance after vege- tation, as shown by fig. 63, is that of a bud very thick at the upper part. This bud will expand its flowers in spring. These minute branches, which are in the third year of their formation, now become fruit- spurs.* The dards (fig. 57) have developed two or three very short buds, which have produced minute branches, as shown at fig. 64. So also have the branches submitted * Frencli name, lambourdea. THE TEAR. 75 to complete or partial fracture (figs. 58, 59, 60, 61, and 62) ; two or three of their buds have pushed Fig. 63.— Small Branch trans- Fig. 64.— Small Two Years' formed into a Fruit-Spui-. Shoot. forward into small shoots, and produced other small branches extremely minute (figs. 60, 66, and 67). Fig. 65.— Shoot completely Fig. 66.- Shoot partially Fractiued. Fractiu-ed. If, during the summer, the bud situated towards the end of the branch has grown into a slightly vigorous shoot, it must be pinched down to four inches (A, fig. 67). There is no further operation to be applied to these various productions during the second winter. E 2 FRUIT TREES. Fourth Year. — During the third summer, the fruit- spur, shown at fig. 63, has fructified. It has fonned, Fig. 68.— Fruit-Spm- after first Fructification. Fig. 67.— Shoot doubly Fractured. Fig. 69. — Frilit-Spur with small Branch. at the point where the fruit grew, and its accompanying rosette of leaves, a kind of spongy swelling, shown at figs. 68 and 69, called a purse (bourse). We observe, besides, certain buds borne upon very short branches springing from the leaf-roots of the purse. These become flower-buds in the course of two or three years. Sometimes one of the eyes growing at the leaf-roots develops itself into a vigorous shoot. It must be pinched to four inches. The small branch, which is the result of this (A, fig. 69), must then receive the complete fracture at C. The only further care to be applied to the purses consists in cutting off the top, THE PEAR. 77 which is now in a state of decomposition, at A (fig. 68), or atB (fig. 69). The dards have extended their small branches and grown a little longer ; the small flower-bud at the end is about to expand, and will give place to a purse, like fig. 68. The same treatment must be observed as Fig. 70.— Small Three Years' Branch, Fig. 71.— Small Branch Two Years after bearing Fruit-Spurs. Fracture, bearing Fruit-Spurs. directed in the former case, at the period of winter pruning. The fractured branches (fig. 65) also bear flower-buds (fig. 71). The time has arrived to cut off at D, fig. 71, the little extension left at the end of the branch. The purses that they will produce must also receive the treatment before described. Lastly, the branches sub- mitted to partial fracture (figs. 66 and 67) also bear small fruit-spurs (figs. 72 and 73). These branches may be cut back at A, for the flower-buds being formed, there is no longer danger of the sap being restrained in too confined limits, nor of the branches pushing out into vigorous but unproductive shoots. Maintaining the Fruit-Branches in Bearing Condition. — As we have already stated, the fruit- spurs (fig. 68), 78 FRUIT TREES. whicli have fructified, may produce new flower-buds two or three years afterwards, the fruit-spur haying ramified, as shown at fig. 74. So also will each of the small fruit-spurs situated upon the branches of which Fig. 72.— Two Years' Branch after partial Fig. 7,3.— Two Years' Branch after Fractui-e, bearing Fruit-Si urs, double Fractiu'e, bearing Finiit-Spurs. we have spoken above. In six years after their first fructification, each of these fruit- spurs will be con- stituted as shown at fig. 75. If the fruit-spurs have not been injured during their development, and the tree is sufficiently vigorous, they will, after a certain time, present the appearance of fig. 76. The question now arises, ought we to allow them to continue to increase in this manner to an indefinite extent ? If so, the fruits wdll soon grow at too great a distance from THE PEAR. 79 their principal branch, and reeeive an insufficient supply of sap, the action of which will be further restrained by the numerous little ramifications it will have to traverse before reaching the fruit. Besides, such a development of fruit-spurs produces much con- Fig. 74.— Six Years' Fruit-Spur. Fig. 75.— Eight or Ten Years' Fruit-Spur. fusion throughout the tree, prevents the light from penetrating, and confines fructification to the ends of the outside branches. If the fruit- spurs are allowed to grow in this way it will be necessary to greatly diminish the number of wood-branches, and leave large vacancies in the tree. It will thus be seen that it is necessary to restrain the fruit-spurs within reasonable limits, not allowing them to exceed a length of more than about two inches. When, therefore, they have attained the dimensions, as shown at fig. 75, they must be cut back at A. The action of the sap will thus be forced back towards the base, and give rise to new fruit-buds. If the fruit-spurs have already been allowed to attain too great dimensions (fig. 7G), it will be necessary to 80 FKriT TREES. reduce tliem very gradually ; they must be cut succes- sively, first at B, the year following at C, and so on. If cut immediately at D, the action of the sap being too much restrained, the fruit-spurs will develop vigor- ous shoots and become transformed into wood-branches. Fig. 76.— Method of Pruning an Old Fniit-Spur. Such are the operations required to develop the fruit- bearing functions of pepin fruits, and to maintain them in a healthful and fruit-bearing condition. We have shown that their fertility is the result of suc- cessive mutilations of the wood of the lateral branches, by which their vigour has been restrained and dimi- nished. It must not, however, be lost sight of, that this object has also been powerfully promoted by allowing the annual extensions of the lateral branches to grow to a greater length, thus opening a large outlet for the sap, which thus acts with less intensity upon each of the separate shoots. The pruning, almost always too short, that is applied to these extensions, has the con- trary efiect, giving rise to shoots of such extreme THE PEAR. 81 vigour, as to require five or six years of successive mutilations to transform them into fruit -bearers. Attention to the Fruit. — To complete tlie preceding observations, it should be observed, that nothing tends more to exhaust a tree and destroy the fruit-spurs than allowing too great a quantity of fruit to ripen upon it. It absorbs almost all the sap, and not only is the formation of new fruit-buds prevented for the fol- lowing year, but the existing ones are destroyed for want of nourishment. The principal branches put out only small, poor tenninal shoots, and the roots are scarcely able to put forth sufficient force to extend their ramifications, so as to draw nourishment from a wider zone of earth beyond that which has been im- poverished by the precedent vegetation. The tree then remains in a languishing and sterile condition for years. The end which nature purposes to attain by the fructification of fruit trees differs from the object that we have in view. Nature only seeks the pro- duction of the largest quantity of seeds, irrespective of the pulp of the fruit, in order to promote in the greatest degree the multiplication of the individual species. The object we strive to attain is the largest quantity of pulpy material, without regard to seeds. The quantity of seeds is in proportion to the number of the fruits ; the larger the nmnber, the less pulpy are they, and their quality is, in an equal degree, deteriorated. It is therefore of the greatest importance to suppress the superabundant fruits, in order to regulate the crop and improve the quality. We lose in number, truly, E 3 82 FPvUTT TREES. but have an equal weiglit, for tlie fruit retained in- creases by means of the sap of tbose suj^pressed. As to tbe proportion of tbe fruit to be retained, the fol- lowing rule sbould be observed : — Tbe number of fruits allowed to ripen should equal about the fourth of the number of all the fruit-branches. The suppression must only be made when nature has made her choice, that is, when the fruits have attained about one- fourth of their development. Training of the Pear in Yase or Goblet Form. Trees in the pyramidal form are, in some situations, liable to injury from high winds. When that is the case, the vase or goblet form may be substituted. But it is not otherwise to be preferred, for it requires as much room as the pyramid form, and does not present so great a fruit-bearing surface. Trees in vase form should have a diameter of about six feet six inches (and an equal height), so that the solar rays may act upon the whole interior surface of the vase. An interval of twelve inches should be left between each of the branches. Supposing the tree to be 20 feet in circumference, there should be about twenty branches at the base, from which to form the tree. The branches may either be trained vertically, or made to cross ieach other alternately right to left, fol- lowing an angle of 30 degrees, as shown in fig. 77. We consider the latter form preferable. The sap acts more equally throughout the entire extent of the branches, THE PEAR. 83 whicli also fruit more regularly, and tlie tree can better support itself when completely formed. The method of proceeding to develop the wood is as follows : — Choose plants that have been grafted a year, and apply the first pruning ; when they have been Fig. 77.— Pear trained in Vase Shape. planted out another year, cut them down to IG inches from the ground. During the summer select five shoots, and maintain an equal degree of vigour by pinching. 84 FRUIT TREES. At the second pruning cut off eacli of the branches to 16 inches from their base, aboA'e two buds growing laterally, so as to make each of the branches fork ; lower the branches a little, and dispose them regularly round the circumference of the stem by means of a hoop. During the summer equalise the vigour between the ten shoots that have now been obtained. At the third pruning, cut back each of the ten shoots to 12 inches from their base, to make them fork a second time. Incline the branches again, and equalise the spaces between them by means of two hoops, the uppermost being the larger. Treat the twenty shoots that have grown during the summer in the same manner as the previous ones. At the fourth pruning, suppress only the third of the length of the new branches, and again incline them downwards to an angle of about twenty degrees, then raise the ends of the branches in a ver- tical position at about three feet from the stem, and keep them in that position by means of additional hoops. During the summer allow only one terminal bud to develop. When the time arrives for the fifth operation, cross the branches at the place of their second forking, directing them alternately right and left, inclined to an angle of thirty degrees. Figure 78 shows the plan of a pear tree trained in this form, and how the branches should be crossed. The new exten- sions obtained during the previous summer must be left entire, and so on from year to year, until the tree has attained its proper size. The inclined position of the branches will cause them to put forth numerous shoots, each of which must be trained in a spiral direc- THE PEAK. 85 tion, to be arrested only when the tree attains a height of about six or seven feet, when it ^^ill be fully formed, and resemble the figure 77. As the tree increases in height, each of the branches must be grafted tog ether by approach at each of the Fig. 78. - I'lan of Fig. 77. points where they cross. This will give great strength and solidity to the tree, and enable it to dispense with anj' other support when the wood is completely esta- blished. The fruit-branches, which are not shown on the figures, are formed and kept in bearing in the same manner as in pyramid trees. 86 fruit trees. Traixixg of the Pear Tree ix the form of a COLUMX. The two forms we liave described are tlie most con- venient, especially the pyramid. They both, however, require much space, and are therefore less suited for small gardens, as so few varieties can be cultivated. The column form will be better adapted for small gardens. This form consists of a single vertical stem, growing to the height of 20 feet or more, and furnished from bottom to top with fruit-branches. The column form is not so sightly, but presents several advantages ; it casts less shade, and occupies less ground than pyramid trees, permits the cultivation of other products in the neighbourhood, and more varieties may be grown upon the same space of ground. We are disposed to think, moreover, that the fruit- branches form more readily, and being better exposed to the action of the sun, and growing directly from the main stem, are more fertile, and the fruit is generally finer. But this success can only be obtained under certain conditions. First, the trees must be grafted ujDon quince stocks. If grafted upon the pear they will become too vigorous, and produce only wood- branches. The trees should be planted in warm, light soil, of medium fertility. The method of forming these trees is very simple. At the first pruning the young stem is cut much longer than for pj^ramid trees. The object aimed at is lo cover the entire length of the stem with dards or twigs, and on no account with vigorous woody branches. THE PEAR. 87 During the summer all the buds develop themselves freel^^, preserv- ing the pre-eminence to the ter- minal shoot. At the second pruning, the new extension is treated in the same manner ; the most vigorous wood-branches of the new extension developed a little below the point of attach- ment are cut close off; the more feeble branches, and the twigs below them, are broken above a well-formed bud three inches from their spring. Finall}^, the twigs at the base are left entire. During the summer they must be left to grow without interference, except to protect the terminal shoot. At the third pruning the small twigs that have grown upon the lower part of the boughs cut during the preceding year must be broken, if more vigorous than twigs ; the same must be done to all the other shoots that are loo vigorously developed below this point. The new ramifications growing upon the extension pruned the preceding year must be treated the same as the former ones, and so on year after year. The re- may be allowed to III ill 79. — Pear trained as Column. 88 FRUIT TREES. suit of this mode of treatment, and of tlie conditions laid down, will be a quick formation of small branches, extending from the base to the summit of the stem, and covered with fruit-spurs, also some wood- shoots, &c. ; these latter must be cut off every j^ear above their foundations. As these little branches will be- come very numerous, and produce confusion, some of them must be cut back every year, but only here and there, for fear of concentrating too much the action of the sap upon too small a space, and thus injuring the formation of fruit-spurs. M, Choppin completes his series of operations by applying to the stem a number of annular incisions, with the view of restraining the flow of sap in the lower part of the tree, and diminishing its too great vigour. The first incision is made about ten inches above the graft, towards the fourth year of pruning ; the other incisions must be applied from time to time as required. The more vigorous the tree, the more frequent and numerous the incisions. That which most characterises this mode of pruning is, that the summer operations of pinching and disbud- ding are never practised. All the shoots are allowed to develop freely. If the more vigorous of them were pinched off, the sap not having, as in the preceding forms, a great space to run through, would be checked in its course, and cause the small branchlets to shoot out and become vigorous woody branches, which would otherwise have remained simple twigs. THE PEAR. 89 Training of Pear Trees in Yehtical Cordon as Double Contra Espaliers. Of the forms tliat we have already described for standard pear trees, the pj^ramid or cone will generally be found most suitable ; the goblet form affords less fruit for the same surface of ground occupied, and is only suited for very hot, dry soils. The vase or goblet form certainly offers some advantages ; but it has also grave inconveniences, amongst which are the following : — 1. The wood is not completely formed until towards the twelfth year, and fruit does not appear until about the fourteenth year after plantation. 2. It requires great space, and is unsuitable for small gardens. 3. The training requires such great care and precise observation, that few gardeners are found competent for the task. 4. It is almost impossible to protect the tree from spring frosts. 5. Lastly, there is an insufficient proportion between the product of fruit and the ground that the tree occupies. The form we shall now describe presents none of these disadvantages. The double espaliers must be jDlaced upon the ordi- nary borders of the fruit-gardens ; the borders should be about two yards wide, ha^ing a road between each border of about a yard in width, running, as nearly as 90 FKLIT TREES. possible, norfh and soutli. The figures 81, 82, 83 show the details. ExPLANATIO^r OF FiGrRES 81, 82, AND 83. A. Posts placed 18 or 20 feet apart. B. Galvanised ii'on wire. P. Galvanised iron wire, forming a line between the two posts, holding them together, and made fast to a wall. D. Screw tightener. E. Laths placed in front to support the stems of the trees. F. Laths placed upon the hack surface. 0. Wires crossing the tops of the posts at right angles made fast to walls. N. Apple trees trained in low horizontal lines. The posts, A, should be made of resinous wood ; if passed through a solution of sulphate of copper it will add to their durability ; their length should be 9 feet, and about 5 inches diameter. They should be sunk in the ground to a depth of 20 inches in the middle of the garden border, and be from 6 to 7 yards apart from each other. The galvanised iron wire (P, figs. 81 and 82) passes over the top of each post through a ring or staple, and is fastened at each extremity to a wall.* Other galvanised wires (0, figs. 82 and 83) also pass over the tops of the posts, but in a direction at right angles with the first, and are also fixed to the top of the walls. These wires are made tight by the screw * If there are no walls to fasten the supporting wires to, the posts must he somewhat stronger, and the lower post left thick and sunk deeper in the ground. THE PEAR. 91 (D, figs. 81 and 82). Tlie posts are thus solidly fixed from the top to the bottom. Then extend from the front and back of the two posts other iron wires (B, figs. 81, 82, and 83), traversing a ring on the sides of the posts. These wires have also each a screw tightener. Finally, fix upon these last four wires (B) on each side, a series of wood laths about an inch and a half wide, and a third of an inch thick (E F, figs. 81, 82, and 83). Fasten the laths by a knot of fine wire, 12 inches apart upon the surface of the wires back and front, alternately, as shown at fig. 82. jS'ext proceed to the planting. The trees must be planted back and front, a tree against each of the laths to be trained as single vertical cordon espaliers (fig. 80). In the front of each of the borders, a line of apple trees may be planted, to be trained in low horizontal espaliers (N, figs. 83 and 1 12.) Let us compare, for a moment, the results of this new mode of training with the results of the old methods. Suppose two fruit-gardens, both ha^'ing exactl}^ the same extent of surface, and both equally divided into borders six feet wide, separated by roads 40 inches in width, which is the common arrangement for plantations of pyramidal trees. Let one of these gardens be set apart for pyramids, and the other for double contra espaliers. The total length of wood- branches that we can obtain from pyramids may be set down at 2,500 yards, and the contra espaliers will give a length of 5,000 yards, double that of the pyramids on the same extent of border. It must be added to this that the maximum product 92 FRUIT TREES. could not be obtained from tbe pyramidal trees until about tbe fourteenth year after planting, while the contra espaliers would begin to bear at the sixth year at latest. These contra espaliers give, on the same quantity of ground, twice the extent of wood, and therefore twice the quantity of fruit com- pared with the other forms of training, and iittain their maximum j)roduct of fruit eight vears sooner. It may be objected, however, that the new method will be more expensive than the old forms of training. This is true, because, by the old method, only one tree would be required for a border, while twenty must be planted on the new method. But it will be a sufficient answer to this objection that three years' produce would more than repay the extra expense, and there would still remain, to the advantage of the new method, five years of more than double the crop of ordinary trees before the others came into full bearing. Besides, the expense may be diminished about one-half; instead of pur- Fig.8o.-Pear chasmg ready-grafted trees, buy young Cordon. stocks that may be had for a mere trifle, and plant them out in the nursery ; after they have been grafted a year, plant them in their proper posi- tions upon the border. By following this course, the period of maximum fruit-bearing will be retarded two years, but there will THE PEAR. 93 still remain six years to the advantage of the new method. Fig. 81.— Elevation of Contra Espalier. P D Fig. 82.— Plan of Fig. 81. On a comparison of the two methods the whole matter stands thus : — 1. The maximum product of fruit is obtained eight years earlier. 94 FRUIT TREES. 2. Double the amount of produce is obtained from the same extent of ground. I 'lyi; 3. The easy way in which they may be protected from the late frosts of spring. For this purpose it is sufficient to place a white cloth over the espaliers from end to end, which may remain until the end of May. THE PEAR. 95 4. Tlie wood-branclies are more regularly exposed to the action of the light, and better furnished with fruit- branches. 5. The advantage of being able to plant a greater number of varieties in a small garden, and of prolonging the duration of fruit-bearing. 6. Great simplicity in the training and pruning operations. 7. Lastly, the vacant spaces left by the decay of some trees may be more easily filled up than in the case of cone or other forms of trees. With these advantages we do not hesitate to re- commend almost the exclusive adoption of the new method for pear trees in the open air. The mode of forming the wood of these trees is, in all respects, the same as that described further on (p. 119) for espaliers in vertical cordons. Training of Pear Trees in the Form of Terrier's Palmette. There are many forms in which espaliers and double espaliers may be trained, but the most convenient are those known by the name of palmettes. These are very simple and easy to manage, and accommodate themselves to walls of various heights. The best form of palmette is one we saw for the first time at the district farm of Saulsaye, under the management of M. Yerrier, whose name we have given to it. 96 FRUIT TREES. THE PEAR. 97 Trees submitted to this form of training (fig. 84) are composed of a vertical stem, with a series of branches growing from the sides opposite each other at 12 inches apart. These branches are at first trained horizontally, then turned upwards in a vertical direction, and rise to the summit of the wall. This form is preferable on some accounts to the pahnette icitli oblique branches. The form is more favourable to the equal distribution of sap throughout the tree, and vegetation is more easily and equally maintained. The method to be followed in obtaining this form is as follows : — Choose for planting grafts of one year. Plant the trees at such distances against the walls that each will cover a surface of about 20 square yards. Suppress such a proportion of the stem as is required to establish an equilibrium between the tree and its roots. First Pruning. — Do not apply the first pruning until the trees have well taken root, or rather, until they have been planted one year. Cut the stem at about 12 inches from the ground, A (fig. 85), immediately above three buds, one upon each side. Two of these buds will form the first lateral branches, and the highest or front one the extension of the stem. During the summer, preserve upon eachof the young stems the three buds only that we have just mentioned, and keep them in an equal state of vigour. If one of them grows faster than the other, loosen it from the wall, incline it a little downwards, and raise the feebler one. 98 FRUIT TREES. Second Pruning. — After tlie fall of the leaves tlie trees will resemble fig. 86. Cut back tbe two brancbes one-tbird at A, in order to make tbem put out fresb sboots, and consequently fruit -branches from end to end. If one is more yigorous tban the other, cut it a little shorter, and leave the feeble one rather longer. In pruning espaliers, the cut must always be made Fig. 85.— First Pruning of Palmette. Fig. 86.— Second Pruning of Palmette. above a front bud, in order that the cut part may be directed towards the wall. Cut the stem at B, about five inches above the spring of the lateral branches, lea^dng a bud well placed for forming the new extension of the stem. No more lateral branches are allowed to grow during the second year, in order to avoid the risk of weakening those already formed, which will remain feeble if the stem be lengthened too rapidly. Maintain during the fol- I HE PEAR. 99 lowing summer an equal degree of vigour between tlie new extensions of the two side brandies. Third Pnining. — Tbe year following tbe trees will resemble figure 87. Proceed now in the following manner : — Cut back tbe side branches the same as the first year, reducing tbe new extension one-tbird. Cut tbe stem at A, about six inches above the previous one. Fig. 87.— Third Pruning of Palmette. and above three well -placed buds for obtaining a new set of laterals during the following summer. From this period a fresh set of side branches may be developed every year, for the lower ones have now acquired suf- ficient power. Keep the vegetation equal throughout the tree during the summer. F 2 100 FRUIT TREES. Fourth Pruning.--1\Q figure ^% shows the progress that the tree has made during the preceding vegetation. Cut the new extensions as in previous prunings. Cut also the stem at A, to obtain a new set of lateral branches. Attend to them during the summer as in former years. Fifth Pruning. — By this time the trees have acquired the development shown by figure 89. Cut the stem at A, to obtain a fourth set of side branches. Cut the THE PEAR. 101 102 FRUIT TREES. extensions of tlie laterals as in former years. By this time tlie lower laterals have generally grown sufficiently long to allow of their being curved in a vertical direc- tion, as shown by the figure 89. A bent piece of wood may be used to form the curve and keep the branches in position. They must be encouraged to extend them- selves in a vertical direction, forming successive exten- sions, to be cut back one-third of their length each year. When they have reached the top of the wall they must be cut off to 18 inches each year below the coping, in order to leave room for the terminal shoot, required each year, to draw the sap to that point, and in passing upwards to supply and nourish the fruit- branches. All the lateral branches are subjected to this treatment. Towards the sixteenth or eighteenth year the wood of the tree will be completely esta- blished. It will then cover a space of about 20 square yards, and present the aspect of figure 84. The symmetry and regularity of the wood are impor- tant, not only as regards the appearance of the tree, but also, and most of all, to secure an equal degree of vigour in all parts, and thus to promote the fertility and dura- tion of the tree. AVe shall not always find at the time of winter pruning buds suitably placed for forming the new branches. When this happens, the inconvenience may be counteracted by budding, in August, on the places where the buds are deficient. [If desirable a bud of another variety may be inserted.] Pruning the Fruit-Branches. — All that we have said at present respecting Verrier's palmetto relates to the wood-branches. The treatment of the fruit-branches THE PEAR. 103 is the same as that of tlie pyramidal trees, the only exception being, that in wall trees, the buds nearest to the wall must not be allowed to grow, but be pinched off as they appear. Nailing up of Wall Trees. Only the wood-branches of pears trained as wall trees, and their shoots, must be nailed to the wall. Winter Nailing, — The following rules must be ob- served : — Train each branch in a perfectly straight line, from the place where it springs from the stem to its farthest extremity. The smallest deviation from the straight line creates an obstacle to the circulation, and branches of excessive vigour mil grow out near the curve, and uselessly absorb a great quantity of the sap. Place the branches which grow at the same height from the opposite side of the stem in exactly the same line of inclination as their fellow-branches on the other side, otherwise the lower will be less vigorous than the higher ones. If, however, the equilibrium of vegeta- tion has been already broken, it will be necessary to lower the strong branches and raise the more feeble ones. The branches which are finally to occupy an oblique or horizontal position must not be forced in that direc- tion at once, but gradually ; if brought into that posi- tion suddenly, the sap will all flow up the stem, and the development of the side branches be almost wholly suspended. The branch E (fig. 89) was first inclined to B, then to C, and the following year to D, and only 104 FRUIT TREES. when grown to tlie lengtli of F was it brought to its final position E. The other side branches must all be inclined in the same gradual manner. The Summer Nailing. — The summer nailing of pear trees relates only to the new shoots growing from the side branches ; these shoots, when they have attained a length of twelve inches, must be nailed to the wall or trellis, in the same direction as the branches upon which they grow. In nailing to a trellis, a small straight stick may be employed, fixed at the extremity of each branch, and in a parallel line with it, to conduct and support the young shoot. Two methods of fastening branches to the wall may be used ; nailing them with list or fastening to a trellis. Fig. 90.— Garden Hammer. Nailing Kith. List is the most perfect and convenient method. The kind of hammer and a convenient form of nail-basket are shown in figures 90 and 91. If the old lists are used again, it is a good precaution to boil them, in order to destroy the eggs of noxious THE PEAR. 105 insects with which they abound. It is an advantage to have the walls covered with a thick layer of plaster, so that the nails may be driven in sufficiently deep at any Fig. 91.— Nail Basket. Fig. 92.— Branch fixed against a wall. point. When this cannot be done, on account of the expense, or for other reasons the wall is unsuitable for nailing, it is best to fasten by means of a trellis. Fastening hy Trellis. — The trellis may be made either Fig. 93.— Wood Trellis. of wood or iron wire. There has always been a preju- dice against the latter material ; but as long experi- f3 106 FRUIT TREES. ence has proved tliat no injury results from its use, even in the case of peaches, we do not hesitate to re- commend it in preference to wood, as being much the more economical of the two. The form of the trellis must depend upon the form that is intended to be given to the tree. If made of wood it must be well nailed together, painted with three coats, and fastened with staples. A wire trellis must be made as follows : — Extend along the wall a sufficient number of lengths of gal- B A B Q— CB D- -^ -^ ■^ ^ -^ Fif?. 94.— Wire Trellis for Palmette. vanised iron wires, about twelve inches aj^art. These wires, being securely fastened at each end, must be supported, at distances of a yard apart, by iron pins having, a hole through the thick end (B, figs. 94 and 95). The wires must be made as tight as possible by means of a tighten^' (A, figs. 94 and 96). This tightener I THE PEAR. 107 is used thus : — When one end of the wire has been made fast to the wall and passed through the eyes of the supporting pins as far as the half of the entire length Fig. 95.— Fastener. Fig. 9G.— Tiglitener. Fig. 97.— Key. of the line, it is hrought through one end of the tight- ener, through the centre of the axle, and out at the opposite end, then through the eyes of a number of pins sufficient for the second bolt of the wire, then fasten the wire at the other extremity, and tighten a little. Drive the pins into the wall at their proper distances, then tighten the wires as much as possible, using the key (fig. 97). When sufficiently tight. 108 FRUIT TREES. THE PEAR. 109 lower tlie stop upon the toot lied wlieel (B, fig. 96), whicli will hold all secure. Tlie best material for tying the branches to the trellis is osier. It is a securit}^ against injury if a small piece of cloth or soft material be placed between the wood of the trellis and the branches, at each place where they are tied. When the trellis is made of wire, the same result may be obtained by twisting together the two ends of osier upon the wire before applying the branch. It will be necessary during the summer to see that the branches are not injured by the bandages becoming too tight. When this is the case the ligatures must be immediately removed. Pear Trees in Oblique Cordon. At present we have only described such methods of training as will result in complete and full-sized wall trees in the course of sixteen or eighteen years, cover- ing a surface of 20 yards and upwards. The care required in obtaining even the most simple of these forms, and the difficulty of maintaining an equal vege- tation in all parts of the tree, often render it very diffi- cult for ordinary gardeners to succeed with them. To remove these inconveniences we have now in- vented a new and original form, much less difficult to manage, which may be made to cover the entire sur- face of a wall in a very short time, and to obtain the maximum of product at an early period, without short- ening the duration of the trees. We were the first to 110 FRUIT TREES. apply this metliod, in 1852, and gave it the present name oi oblique cordon (fig. 98). The following is the way to proceed : — Choose healthy and -sigorous young trees of one year's grafting, carrying only one stem. Plant them Fig. 99.— Cordon, First Year. Fig. 100.— Cordon, Second Year. 16 inches apart, and incline them one over the other at an angle of 60 degrees. Cut oif about a third of the length at A (fig. 99), just above a front fruit-bud. During the following summer favour as much as possible the development of the terminal shoot ; all the others must be transformed into fruit-branches by the same means as described for pyramidal trees. By spring of the following year each of the young trees will present the aspect of figure 100. THE PEAR. Ill The second pruning lias for its object to transform the lateral shoots into fruit-spurs ; the new extension of the stem must be cut back a third. If the terminal extension has grown but slightly, and shows signs of weakness, the cut must be made lower down, on the two-years' wood, in order to obtain a more vigorous ^.^■'"^ Fig. 101. -Cordon, Third Year. terminal shoot. Apply the same treatment to these young trees during the summer as during the pre- ceding one ; the res alt is shown by figure 101. 112 FRUIT TREES. B}" the time of tlie third pruning, the young stem has generally attained two-thirds of its entire length ; it must then be inclined to an angle of 45 degrees, following the line B, fig. 101 ; the same terminal shoot and side branches must be pruned as the last year. If Fig. 102. -Cordon, Fourth Year. the stem had been inclined in this manner at the first, the consequence would have been a growing out of vigorous {(jourmand) branches at the base of the stem, to the injury of the terminal shoot. The new shoots must be treated as usual. Figure 102 shows the state of the tree at the end of this year's vegetation. THE PEAR. 113 There is no^^ nothing more to be done than to com- plete the tree, by continuing the same treatment until it reaches the top of the wall. Arrived at its final height, it must be cut every year about 16 inches below the coping of the wall, to allow space for the growth of a vigorous shoot every year, which ^dll force the sap to circulate freely through the whole extent of the stem. If the wall runs east and west, it is not important to which side the stem is inclined ; but if the wall extends north and south, it should be inclined to the south, to afford as much light as possible to the under- side fruit-branches. ^Vhen the wall is built on the descent of a hill, the trees should be inclined towards the summit, or their growth will be too soon arrested by the top of the wall. The trees being planted 16 inches apart, and each developing a single stem, the result will be an espalier, composed of a parallel series of slanting trees having a space of about 12 inches between each stem (fig. 98) . If it is desired to fill up the vacant space on the wall left by the inclined position of the trees, a half prthnette may be grown for that purpose. To accom- plish this, first plant a young tree, and treat the same as the others ; after it has been inclined to an angle of 45 degrees, allow a strong shoot to grow from the base of the stem, and develop itself freely during the summer. The following year incline it parallel with the other stem, and twelve inches from it. During the summer allow another shoot to grow from the bend of the previous one, incline it as before, and so on each year until the vacant space is filled. 114 FRUIT TREES. The vacant space at tlie other end must be filled up thus : — The last tree must be planted at about two yards from the limit of the espalier ; it must first be treated as the others have been ; then, instead of lowering it to 45 degrees, it must be lowered a little further ; the following year lowered still more, and when the stem of the plant has acquired such a length that when placed horizontally it will occupy the whole space shown in figure 98, it is brought into its proper horizontal position. During the following summer allow the four or five shoots, intended to form upward branches growing upon it, to develop themselves. Wall trees trained in this way attain their full size in five years, a gain of at least ten or twelve years compared with other methods. By this plan the trees become fruitful in the fourth year, and attain their maximum in the sixth year, while other and larger forms require twenty years to attain their maximum. If the extent of wall is limited, only a small number of varieties can be planted by the ordinary method of growing large trees ; while the method we have now described allows of a considerable number of varieties being planted, their fruit ripening throughout the season. If a large pear tree die, it will require fifteen or eighteen years to replace it. With the new methods of oblique cordon it will be only necessary to proceed thus : — Dig a hole, about 16 inches wide and 20 inches in depth, in the centre of the spot left vacant by the dead tree. Cut away the roots of the neigh- bouring trees which grow into the hole. Drive two THE PEAR. .115 thin pieces of board, about twenty incbes square, to tbe level of the ground, at each end of the bole, plant tbe tree, a young vigorous one, in tbe space between tbem, and cover over with good fresb soil. Tbe pieces of wood will prevent the roots of the trees on each side encroaching on tbe ground of the new plant. They will soon rot, but the new tree is then in a state to take care of itself. By this means the vacant space will be filled up in five or six years. The wood of such trees as we have now described is more easily established than any other, and the regular inclination given to each stem renders the equal distribution of the sap easy and certain. Objections have been made to this form. It has been said that the limited extent given to the wood would conduce to such great vigour as to injure the fruit-bearing qualities of the tree. But this vigour is counteracted by the trees being planted so closely together upon such a small surface of ground. It has been also said that trees so near to each other will be unable to live. AYe answer that an extent of wood is only allowed to each tree in proportion to the extent of soil that the roots occupy. It has been also ob- jected that such a mode of planting is more expensive than the old method. This is true as regards the first expense ; but in addition to the operations of pruning being much more easily performed by the new method, it must be considered that ordinary wall trees do not attain their maximum of fruit-bearing until the six- teenth or twentieth year; while tbe oblique cordon becomes fruitful in four years, and repays its original 116 FRUIT TREES. cost three or four times over. If the walls are suffi- ciently high — seven feet — nothing can be more simple and profitable than the method we have now described j but if less than that height, it will be better to keep to the palmetto form. Trellis for the Ohlique Cordon. — The most simple form is that shown by figure 104. For a wall nine or Fig. 103.— Iron Pin, ten feet high, there will be required three cross pieces of wood or strong iron wire, firmly attached to the wall ; then a series of laths fastened to the cross pieces, 16 inches apart, and inclined 45 degrees, each of the laths supporting one of the young trees. The cost will be much less if the trellis be made of wire (fig. 105), as invented by M. Thiry, jun. At the points A, B, C, D. E, F, strong round nails, fig. 103, are driven firmly into the wall ; then at the points G, H, I, J, K, L, pins with a hole through the head (fig. 95). The end of the wire is made fast at the point A, then passed through the eyes of the iron pins G H, then supported by the two nails B C, it is passed through the pins I J, under the two nails D E, THE TEAR. 117 118 FRUIT TREES. [ bo i THE PEAR. 119 througli the pins K L, and then fixed upon the nail F. It is made tight by means of the tightener (fig. 96), fixed below the nail C, as shown in the figure at M. A little oil placed upon the nails B, C, D, E, will facilitate the tightening of the wires by means of the tightener. The same operation being repeated all along the wall, it will then be covered -^dth a series of well-stretched wires, in parallel lines, inclined 45 degrees, 12 inches apart from each other. This trellis costs (in France) about 5s. per square yard, not in- cluding fixing. Training of the Pear in Vertical Cordon. The walls are sometimes of such height, as in the case of gable ends of buildings, that it would be in- convenient to train in oblique cordon. Whenever the wall is higher than 13 feet we recommend the vertical cordon to be employed. The method for planting is, in this case, the same as for the oblique cordon, only the trees are planted ver- tically (fig. 106), and 12 inches only apart from each other. The stems must be trained towards the summit of the wall, in the same manner as directed for the oblique cordon. If the wall will not allow of the trees being fastened up with nails and list, recourse must be had to a wood trellis, as shown at fig. 107, or a wire one (fig. 108), which is much less expensive. 120 FRUIT TREES. Pig. lUG.— Pcius ill Vertical Coidou. THE PEAR. 121 Fig. 107.— Wood Trellis for Vertical Cordon. G 122 FRUIT TREES. Fig. 108.— Iron Trellis for Vertical Cordon. THE PEAR. 123 Standard Pear Trees. Standard trees are not adapted for gardens ; their proper place is the orchard, where they should stand ten or fifteen yards apart. Standards being too fre- quently neglected, left entirely to themselves in fact, often grown on one side, the branches run into confu- sion, and the middle of the tree becomes so thick that the light cannot penetrate ; and this part of the tree remains completely barren. To prevent these inconveniences, the tree must be trained so that the principal branches at the summit ray out regularly from the trunk, first in a horizontal direction, then a little depressed, then vertically. The head of the tree being kept open, the branches mil grow somewhat in the form of a goblet. There will be as great an extent of branches if trained in this regular manner, and the light being able to pene- trate the interior surface, the produce will be doubled. In order to obtain standard trees of the form just described, the following course must be pursued : — We suppose the trees to have been grafted, standard high, a year after plantation in the orchard. The first year after grafting we only allow two, three, or four shoots to grow, according to the degree of vigour of vegetation ; the shoots must be left to grow at equal distances round the stem. The superfluous shoots must be pinched ofl" when they have grown about four inches. The equal growth of the reserved shoots must be carefully maintained — one must not be allowed to G 2 124 FRTJIT TREES. become more vigorous than anotlier : this must be regulated by means of pinching. In the following spring, if three shoots have been preserved, the tree will resemble fig. 109. The ^^^M Fig. 109— Tall Standards, First Year of Grafting. Fig. 110.— Tall Standards, Second Year of Grafting. branches must then be cut back at A, about eight inches from their spring, above two buds growing from each side the branch, which alone should develop vigorously during the following summer. All other shoots must be pinched ofi" when three inches grown, and an equal vigour must be maintained between the THE PEAR. 125 six reserved shoots ; at the third spring the young tree will resemble figs. 110 and 111. The shoots must be again cut back about sixteen inches from their spring, above two buds as before. The other operations must be repeated during the summer. By the fourth year the head of the tree is composed of twelve princijml branches growing at regular dis- tances from and around the tree. These operations are Fig. 111. -Plan of Fig. 110. sufficient to impart a good form to the tree, and little more is necessary than to maintain an equal vigour in the growth of the branches, and to remove, about the end of May, the vigorous shoots which spring from the base and interior face of the principal branches. These shoots weaken the branches, and disarrange and confuse the orderly growth of the tree. The formation and treatment of fruit-branches must, in the case of standard pear trees, be left to nature. If, instead of grafting after one year's planting in the orchard, it is more convenient to plant trees already grafted, it will be well to choose such as have been £;rafted only one or two years, and furnished with at 126 FRUIT TREES. least two well-placed principal branclies, to serve as a foundation for establishing the wood of the tree. After planting, the branches must be cut back only one-third of their length. The first pruning must not be applied until the following year, when the use- less branches must be suppressed, and those reserved cut back to make them fork, as before described. THE APPLE. 127 THE APPLE. Soil. — Tlie apple will grow in more Immid soil than is suitable for the pear, but it prospers most in soils oi medium consistency, rather sandy, but moderately cool. Choice of Trees. — The directions already given for pears apply equally to apple trees. Grafting. — The apple is grafted upon apple stocks grown from pepins, upon Doucin stocks grown from layers, and upon paradise stocks also grown from layers. The most vigorous stock of the three is the apple,* which is only emj^loyed when high-stemmed standard trees are desired. The Doucin stock is less vigorous, and is chosen for pyramid, espalier, and vase-formed trees. The paradise stock is used for dwarf trees, trained in the form of small vases or bushes, the fruit of which is abundant and of excellent quality, and appears at the third year. Unfortunately these dwarf * Apple stocks, also called free stocks, are used for standards for orchard planting. They are raised in numbers from the residuum in cider-making. Apples grafted upon these stocks are much longer in coming to hearing. The best stock for apples is the crab ; the trees are hardier, and the fruit better. The Doucin or French stock is not equal to the paradise for dwarf trees. The paradise stock is chiefly used for trees to be grown in pots, for miniature orchards, and for ornamental trees in the flower-border. 128 FRUIT TREES. trees are of much shorter duration than those grafted upon the other stocks. The directions given for choice of grafts and modes of grafting pears apply also to apples. Varieties. — Although less considerable than that of pears, the number of varieties of apples for table use is sufficiently extended. We have counted as many as five hundred varieties, amongst which we consider the following to be the best, affi)rding a supply for the table for each month in the year. I Karnes of Varieties and SjTionjTQes. Cahdlle rouge d'ete . . Tasse-pomme rouge. Borowiski Monstnieux pepin .... Louis XVIII Belle Dubois. Mhode Island Gloria Mundi. Fater Koster. Reinetto Blanche .... Heinette d'E^pagne. Fieinette tendre. Quatre gouts cotelee. . Tomme violctte. Calville rouge d'aout. Fomme grd(jt. Calville de St. Sauveur. Belle Josephine 3Ienagere. Brabant belle-fleur . . Reinette d'Angleterre Fomme d'or. Citron Reinette doree. Golden Fippin Jiousse Jaune tardive. Cornish gillyflower . . Pigeon d'hiver Gros pigeon. Name best known by in England. Time of Maturity. Tasse Fomme August and Sept. Borovitsici End of August. Dessert. Good. I Gloria Mwidi [ Sept. and Oct. Kitchen. Inferior. October. Rhode Island ] November to March. Greening culinary. CobbeWs Fall Fippin Very large & good. Red Calville Hans Mutterchen . Red Belle-Fleur . . . Citron Very fine dessert . . Cornish Gillyflower ■ Vory excellent. Arabian Apple Oct. and Nov. Oct. and Nov. ' November. November. Nov. and Dec. Nov., Dec. December. Nov., March. Dec. to Feb. Dec. to Feb. THE APPLE. 129 Names of Varieties and Synonymes. Gravenstein Eeine des reinettes . . Reinette gr. du Canada Reinette du Canada bl. lioyale d'Angleterre . , Grosse reinette d'An- gleterre. Cahdlle blanc d'hiver Bonnet carre. Api gros . . . Reinette de Hollande Reinette du Vigan .... Reinette fr. a cotes . . Reinette franche ordin. Reinette gr. h. bonte Reinette de Roueyi. Reinette de Caux .... Name best known by in England. Gravenstein Royal Reinette .... Reinette gr. du Canada Ver)^ good. St. Helena Russet . . Herefordshire Pear- main. Calville Blanc Bedfordshire Found- ling. Kitchen. Very good Holland Fvppin .... Ivitchen. Reinette Carse Time of Maturity. Dec. to Feb. Dec. to Feb. January to March. January to March. January to March. January to March. January to IMarch. January to March. January, March. February to May. February to May. February to May until August. February to May until July. February to May. The Editor recommends tlie following list of dessert and kitchen apples, adapted for general planting througliout England. In Scotland, tlie later varieties would require to be planted against a wall. SUMMER APPLES. Dessp.rt — Astrachan. Borovitski. Devonshire Quarendon. Jenneting. Margaret. Kitchen — Keswick Codling. Outhenden or Hawthornden. Lord Suffield. Manks Codling. Springrove Codling. G 3 130 FRUIT TREES. AUTUMN APPLES. Dessert — Blenheim Orange. Coe's Golden Drop. Cox's Orange Pippin. Early Nonpareil. Team's Pippin. Golden Pippin, Golden Reinette. Margil. Ribston Pippin. Stamford Pippin. Reinette Van Mons. Sykehouse Russet. KiTCHEX — Bedfordshire Foundling. Cellini. Cox's Pomona. Gloria Mundi. Golden Noble. Greenup's Pippin. Harvey's Apple. Lemon Pippin. Nelson's Codling. Tower of Glammis. Winter Quoining. "Wormsley Pippin. WINTER APPLES. Dessert — Braddick's Nonpareil. Claygate Pearmain. Court-pendu plat. Cornish Gillyflower. Cockle Pippin. Dutch Mignonne. Golden Harvey. Golden Russet. Keddleston Pippin. Mannington's Pearmain. Old Nonpareil. Pearson's Plate Apple. Ross Nonpareil. Spring Ribston Pippin. Sturmer Pippin. Wykin Pippin. Kitchen — Alfriston. Beauty of Kent. Bess Pool. Dumelous's Seedling. Gooseberry Apple. Norfolk Biffin. Northern Greening. Reinette Blanche d'Espagne. Rhode Island Greening. Royal Pearmain. Royal Russet. Striped Biffin. Winter Majeting. French Crab. Kirk's Lord Nelson. The Canadian Golden Reinette requires an east or west wall to ripen in the midland counties. The Api petit ripens very well as a dwarf bush, but is inferior except for its great beauty. It is of a very red colour and a great bearer. THE APPLE. 131 Training and Pruning. The apple may be cultivated like the pear, either as standard or espalier ; the form of standard, however, is better suited for the apple than that of espalier. The apple will not endure exposure to great heat so well as the pear ; it requires a cool and rather humid air. Some varieties, such as the Canadian and golden reinette, white calville, api, winter pigeon, &c., &c., endure heat better, and may be planted as espaliers, but facing the west. Training as Espaliers. — Any of- the forms described for pear trees may be adopted for apples, and the trees should be planted in the same manner. The treatment of the fruit-branches is also exactly the same as de- scribed for pears. Standard Trees. — The pyramidal form might, per- haps, be applied to apple trees, but it is not so well adapted for them as for pears. The vase or goblet form, described page 82, is more suitable, or the double espalier, page 89. The directions for forming them are the same. The form recommended is that of the small goblet or bush, more or less regular, for trees grafted on paradise stocks. These small trees are extremely fertile, but, unfortunately, are not very long-lived. They are planted a number together about four feet apart. The cultivation of these small trees has been brought to great perfection by training them in single horizontal lines, which we shall now proceed to describe (fig. 112). 132 FRriT TREES. Select trees grafted on paradise stocks of one year if the soil is of good quality, or grafted on French stocks if the soil is parched and dry. Plant in a straight line five feet apart if paradise, and eight feet if on French [crab] stocks. Cut ofi" one- third of the length of the stem, and then leave the plants to themselves during the summer. The following year, at the winter pruning, place a fcc galvanised iron wire (A), securely y fastened at each extremity, along the I line of the trees ; this must be made K tight by means of the tightener B, and f supported every twelve feet by a small "I post (C) about eighteen inches above o the ground. The wire being properly ^ fixed, bend the branches of the trees o in a horizontal direction, and fasten them to the wire. During the fol- S) lowing year remove all the shoots which spring from the upright por- tion of the stem ; they absorb too much of the sap, to the deprivation of the horizontal branches. Apply to the other shoots the treatment de- scribed for pears, in order to trans- form them into fruit-branches. Leave the terminal shoot to grow as much as it will during the summer. At the winter pruning treat the fruit- ,t ^ THE APPLE. 133 branches as directed for pears; leave the new exten- sion of the terminal branch entire, and fasten it to the wire. The same treatment must be continued until each stem has grown sufficiently long to reach the next stem, and beyond it, to the extent of about twenty Fig. 113.— Mode of Inarching. inches ; it must then be grafted to it by inarching, at the point D, fig. 112. The proper time for this is the month of March ; and the mode of operating is shown at figure 113. The following year the stems will be completely united, and the extremity must be cut off at A, figure 113. The result will be that all the superabundant sap of one tree will flow to the next one, and so along the whole line, all the stems being maintained in the same degree of vigour. Such lines of small apj^le trees are easily formed, and come to fruit-bearing in the second year after plant- 134 FRUIT TREES. fng. THey may "be placed in the edges of borders where espaliers have grown, and occupy places that could not be more usefully employed. Their diminutive height will form no impediment to the other trees upon the border. THE PEACH. 135 THE PEACH. Soil. — The peach requires a deep open soil, of medium consistency, containing a certain proportion of calcareous matter, and, which is very important, the soil must be free from all superabundant moisture. Soils which do not possess these qualities must have them imparted by other soils being added, and thoroughly mixed by deep digging. The peach is almost always cultivated as a wall tree ; the aspect may be east, south, or south-west, but it prefers the south-east. Choice of Trees. — Peaches are generally planted already grafted. They should be grafts of only one year, healthy, vigorous, and with well-formed buds at the base. The kind of stock in which the peach is budded has much to do with the success of the tree. The stocks most suited for the peach and nectarine, for out-door planting in England, are the muscle plum, St. Julian plum, and pear plum — the two latter for the more delicate kinds, and for pot culture, but the muscle for general planting. For deep dry soils the almond forms the best stock, for more humid soils the plum, the roots of which are less liable to strike deeply into the soil than the almond ; un- 136 FRUIT TREES. fortunately these trees are less -s-igorous, and shorter lived.* Grafting. — These stocks may be grafted by the shield graft, double or single, the almond at the beginning of September, the plum in July. Varieties. — There are fifty varieties of the peach at the present time, but many of them are only suitable for the climate of the south of France, and others are only of inferior quality. The following is a list of the best sorts arri^ing at maturity at diflPerent periods of the fruit season : — Kames of Varieties and Svnonvmes. Desse hative Grosse rnignon. hative Pourpree hative Grosse mignon. tardive Belle Bausse Reine des vergers .... Madeleine r. courson . . Lisse gros. violette hat. Violttte de courson. Brugnon de Stanwick Admirable jaune .... Admirable BcUe de Vitrij. Boiirdine de Narbonne Grosse royale. Chevreuse tardive .... Bonouvrier. Desse tardive Observation. Good late Peach , Time of Maturity. End of July. Beginning of August. Middle of August. End of August. End of August. Beginning of Sept. Middle of September. Middle of September. Middle of September. End of September. End of September. End of September. End of September. Beginning of October. * The almond would do little or no good in this country on its own roots ; it is always propagated by budding on the Brussels plum stock, or on the Brampton plum stock. The Muscle plum stock is the prin- cipal stock for peaches and nectarines suitable for English planting. The peach is certainly the finest fruit produced in the open air in England, and a practical knowledge of the best manner of bringing it to perfection is most desirable ; there cannot be too much care bestowed in the propagation, cultui-e, and management of the many fine varieties we possess. — Ed. THE PEACH. 137 The following is a list of some of tlie best kinds of peaches and nectarines now in cultivation in England : — Names of Peaches. Ob servations. Time of Kipeuing. Small Mignonne .... Early Grosse Mignonne Abec Well adapted foi ture. ^ eul- August. August. Ripens Very h well . . . . August. September. September. September. Crawford's Early .... Grosse Mignonne .... irge and good Royal George Noblesse September. Bellegarde September. Barrington September. Walburton'sAdmirable October. Catharine October. Violotte hative September. Names of Nectai-ines. Time of Ripening. Elruge August and September. Hardwicke Seedling August. September. September. Auarust and September. Rivers's Orange Roman Violette hative White September, TRAINING AND PRUNING. The peach may be trained to various forms ; but we shall only describe two, the Verrier palmetto, and the simple oblique cordon, because these forms are more easily obtained, and may be best accommodated to local requirements. Training the Peach in the Palmette Foum. Formation of the Wood. — The treatment is in all respects the same as described for the palmette form of 138 FRUIT TREES. the pear (fig. 84, p. 96), the only difierence being that in the pear the side branches are trained twelve inches apart, while the side branches of the peach must be from 20 to 24 inches apart, in order to allow sufficient space for nailing up the lateral shoots during the summer. Besides this, all the branches of the peach, both the main stem and side branches, are furnished on each of their sides with fruit-branches, about four inches apart. The trees must be planted at such distances as to coyer a medium surface of about 20 square yards of the wall. Thus, for a wall three and a half feet high, it will be necessary to plant about six yards apart. First Pruning. — Pears, and other trees of the same species, ought not to receive their first pruning until they have struck root, that is, about a year after planting ; the peach, however, must be pruned the same year that it is planted, otherwise the buds at the base of the stem which should be developed into shoots would be comj)letely withered by the following year. The first pruning has for its object to develop towards the base of the tree the first two side branches, and to obtain a new extension of the stem. To efiect this, select two lateral buds, B (fig. 114), situate about twelve inches from the ground. Also the bud A above and in fi'ont ; it is immediately above this latter bud, at the point D, that the stem must be cut. The buds B are intended to form the first side branches, and the bud A the extension of the stem. The buds selected for the extension of the stem and for the side branches should be as much in front as THE PEACH. 139 possible ; by tbis means tbe sligbt deformity at eacli point, from wbicb tbe new extension springs, is less apparent, and tbe place of tbe cut is better sbaded from tbe sun, and more readily beals. During tbe following summer tbe development of tbe tbree buds must be watcbed ; if otber brancbes Fig. 114. -Peach, Palmette Form, First Year. Fig. 115.— Peach, Second Year. grow upon tbem, tbcy must be pincbed wbcn tbey have grown to six incbes, and be suppressed entirely wben tbe reserved sboots bave attained a lengtb of 16 incbes. Tbe side brancbes must be maintained at 140 FRUIT TREES. an equal degree of "sdgour by tlie means described in the cbapter on tbe PRI^XIPLES of pruxixg. Second Pruning. — Figure 115 shows tlie result of tbe operations of the preceding year. At tbe second pruning, about tbe third part of the length of each side branch must be suppressed, selecting for the place a front bud suitable for the new extension. The main Fig. 116— Peach, Tliird Year. stem is cut at A, about twelve inches above the spring of the side branches, and immediately above a front bud. The stem might be cut higher up, with a view to another set of side branches during the summer ; but THE PEACH. 141 it is more prudent to allow an interval of two years between tlie formation of the first and second sets of side branches. By this means the growth of the lower branches will be best promoted, they having always a tendency to be less vigorous than the higher ones. During the following summer the terminal buds must receive such attention as is necessary to keep them in the same degree of vigour. The other buds must be treated as described on p. 146, in order to transform them into fruit-branches. Third Pruning. — At the third spring the young peach tree will resemble fig. 116. The main stem must how be cut 24 inches above the spring of the side branches at A, above the two side buds B and C, intended to develop two new side branches, and a bud in front to prolong the main stem. The side branches must be cut back about one-third of their new growth at D, in order to make them develop all their remain- ing buds. In pruning the side branches, it is of importance to give the same length to each of the parallel branches, in order to maintain an equilibrium between both sides of the tree. If one side branch has become stronger than the corresponding one, it must be cut rather shorter. The fruit-branches growing towards the lower part of the tree must be treated as described further on (p. 152). During the whole of the summer the same treat- ment must be applied to the principal shoots as in the year preceding. Fourth Pruning. — The result of the operations of 142 FRUIT TREES. the previous year are a new set of side branches, as shown by fig. 117. These must be cut back about a third of their length at D ; and the new growth of the lower side branches must also be cut back one-third THE PEACH. 143 V fH (^ bo 144 FRUIT TREES. at E. The new extension of the main stem must be cut at about 24 inches above the spring of the upper side branches at A, so as to obtain, by means of the buds B and C, a new set of side branches. A new series of side branches may from this period be obtained every year ; for the lower side branches have now acquired sufficient strength to draw to themselves all the sap which they require for their continued grow^th. The summer treatment is the same as before. Fifth Pruning. — A third set of side branches have grown during the preceding summer (fig. 118). The new extensions of the side branches must be cut back as in previous years. The main stem must be cut at A, and a new set of side branches obtained from the buds C and D. The remaining treatment as before. The operations we have described must be continued from year to year, in order to obtain new side branches and regular extensions of them, until fchey acquire the desired length, when their ends must be directed up- wards, as shown (figs. 84 and 89), until each of them attains the summit of the wall. Towards the tenth or twelfth year the trees treated in the manner we have described will assume the aspect of fig. 84, with this difference^ that the fruit-branches are distributed on each side of the wood-branches, as shown at fig. 118. Nailing up. — If it is not wished to fasten up the branches Avith list, as described at p. 104, it may be done by forming a trellis. It is necessary to fasten up not only the wood-branches of peach trees, but, as we shall see further on, the fruit-branches after the winter pruning and the lateral shoots during the summer. As THE PEACH. 145 the points where fastenings are required are very- numerous, the trellis bars must be rather close toge- ther, and for this reason it will be expensive if made ^ t^ ' ' ' ^^^=l==L==i igzM^+H;jz^z|-:4zz} f3: If^ mw- sw^ m E S * i ? t i Pl^ EE J: ? J- ^ T- fl 5 Fig. 119.- Trellis of Wood and Iron for Teach. altogether of wood. A wire trellis will be preferable (fig. 94, p. 106), having spaces of 32 inches between each of the horizontal lines. If there is already upon the wall a wooden trellis with wide squares, it may be used, dividing the squares with lines of iron wire (fig. 119). Obtaining and Eeplacing Fruit-Branches oi^ the Peach Tree. There is an important difference between 7;e/;/;i fruits and stone fruits. In the former the fruit-spurs require about three years for their growth, but when formed they last for an indefinite period with proper attention. In stone fruits, and especially in the peach, the fruit-spurs expand their blossoms in the spring H 146 FRriT TREES. following their birth, but they produce no more blos- soms. Those which appear the following year are from new fruit-buds which have grown during the preceding summer upon the primitive branch. It follows, there- fore, that the first thing to be attended to in the management of peaches is to obtain the fruit- spurs, and to replace them year by year. We have already said that the fruit-spurs must be made to grow regularly from each side of the branches, about four inches apart, in such a manner that each branch shall be in the form of a fish's skeleton. This result is obtained as follows : — First Year. — We take, for example, any extension of a branch developed during the preceding summer (fig. 120). At the winter pruning a part of the new extension is cut back, in order to make it develop all the buds that it carries. Unless this operation were performed, a number of buds at the base of the tree would remain inactive, and there would be a void upon the branch very difiicult to fill up, for the buds that had not been developed the first year would be useless the next. Towards the middle of May the extension presents the appearance of fig. 121 ; all the buds have expanded into shoots. When the shoots have attained a length of about three inches, the useless buds must be removed, including such as grow in front (A, fig. 121) or at the back of the branches. There is no exception to this, unless some of the side buds are too wide apart, in which case a front or back bud may be left to supply the vacant place (C D, fig. 121). If there is any choice, the bud at the back of the branch THE PEACH. 147 is the better one to leave, as the irregularity will he less apparent. The extensions of the branches generally present single wood-buds (A, fig. 120), but they are frequently double, and even treble, B. It is necessary to leave a single bud only at each point. If these double or treble Fig. 120.— Peach, Wood Extension. D ^ k % w^ i A E Fig. 121.— Peach, Wood Extension. buds occupy the place of a fruit-branch, the weakest bud (E, fig. 121) must be retained, as in this case there is greater reason to fear an excess of vigour than of weakness. If it is desired to increase the length of the branch, the most vigorous bud, F, must be retained. The buds must not be torn ofi", but cut aAvay with a sharp knife. The buds that are retained must not be abandoned to their own growth, for many will become too vigorous, to the injury of the terminal bud, which ought to pre- serve the pre-eminence ; and they will seldom produce fruit-blossoms. It is, therefore, necessary to restrain H 2 148 FRUTT TREES. the vigour of the too luxuriant shoots, in order to pre- serve the general symmetry of the tree, and the proper direction of the branches. The first of these objects is obtained by pinching. Fig. 122— Peach Bud Pinched. The shoots that grow too vigorous ujDon the upper side of the lateral branches, and those which are too near the summit of the vertical branch, must be pinched Fig. 123.— Gourmand Bud Pinched. Fig. 124.— Result of Pinching No. 123. back at A (fig. 122), when they are of the length of ten or twelve inches. Buds that indicate by their "sdgour that they will THE PEACH. 149 become gourmand brandies (fig. 123) must be cut at A, above their two lower leaves. This will give rise to buds which will become shoots (B, fig. 124), and which can be treated as fruit-branches at the winter pruning. The buds that are less vigorous should not be pinched, unless they have grown beyond sixteen inches. The first pinching generally suffices to arrest the excessive growth of shoots intended to become fruit- branches ; but they not unfrequently afterwards send Fig, 125.— Pinching Irregular Buds. Fig. 126.— Shoot bearinpr a succession of Iriciculai' >h jots. out towards the top one or two irregular branches (fig. 125), which must be pinched when grown about eight inches. It is seldom that pinching has to be 150 FRUIT TREES. resorted to a third time. Should this, however, occur, as A (fig. 126), the main shoot, must be cut off at B, then the shoot C D. The shoot E, which is reserved, is at the same time to he pinched. By this means con- fusion is avoided at the nailing up in summer. When the gourmand shoot (fig. 127), which extends each branch, has attained a certain length, it will de- velop irregular shoots ; these may be disbudded and pinched. This mode of operating, however, only gives rise to badly-formed fruit-branches for the winter Fig. 127. — Extension bearing Irregular Shoots. pruning. It Avill be preferable to proceed thus : — When they show their second pair of leaves (E, fig. 128), cut them with the nail below these last two leaves. Their vegetation is thus suspended, and there will be by the time of winter pruning a very short branch, much pre- ferable to the result of the former process. It will be better not to apply these operations upon the shoots further back than the point to Avhich it may be expected that they will be cut back at the winter pruning. We have said that it is most important to train these THE PEACH. 151 siioots in their proper direction, which must be done at the time of nailing up in summer. During the sum- mer, the shoots which form the extensions of the wood- branches must be nailed up as soon as they are twelve inches long. The most vigorous of the lateral shoots must be nailed up when they are grown about ten inches, and the feebler ones when they are fourteen Inches. The shoot must be fastened in such a direction Fig. 128.— Irregoilar Bud, Pinched early. as to form an acute angle with the branch upon which it grows. Care must be observed not to enclose the leaves in the list, and not to make the shoots cross each other. Nails and list are used for fastening, if the wall is suitable for nailing ; a green rush is used if the trees are supported by a trellis.* The nailing • A green willow twig is generally used for fastening to a trellis, or prepared wire. 152 FRUIT TREES. up, or fastening, must be done progressively (not all at once, as is too often, done), in order to keep the different shoots of an equal vigour. Second Year. — The operations of the summer are intended to transform the shoots into branches, like those we shall now describe. The shoots growing below the side branches, near their spring, often remain nothing more than very short branches, bearing scarcely anything except blos- soms, and a wood-bud at the end (fig. 129). These minute fruit-branches do not require pruning ; the fruit which grows upon them is the best which the tree pro- duces. Some other shoots, rather longer, but growing also in unfavourable situations, have become branches of from six to eight inches in length, covered with flower- buds, except towards the base, where may be seen two or three wood-buds (fig. 130) ; these are the fruit- branches proper. They must be cut back, in order to obtain a new well-placed fruit-bearing branch for the next year ; but some of the flower-buds must be re- served, to insure fructification. In order to prove, by an example, the absolute neces- sity of cutting back these fruit-branches every year, we will suppose that the branch a (fig. 130) has been left unpruned : it will bear fruit the first year, and then put forth at the top one or two shoots, which will be- come branches the following spring, and upon which only will appear flower-buds, for, as we have observed, the fruit-branches of the peach bear only once. This ramification will present in the following spring the ap- THE PEACH. 153 pearance of fig. 131. If left to itself again, the same results will follow ; and it will be seen, that if each of the side branches were left to grow in this manner, the branches would become so indefinitely prolonged, that it would not be possible for the sap to afibrd sufficient nutriment for them, and many would wither, especially Fig. 129.— SmaU Fruit-Branch in Blossom. Fig. 130.— Ordinary Fruit-Branch of Peach. towards the base ; and the vacant places would seriously detract from the appearance and regularity of the tree. It is in this way that unpruned, or badly pruned, peaches are often destroyed. Under these circumstances, we see how the branch a (fig. 130) ought to be pruned, retaining at the same time a sufficient number of flowers to determine the development of the wood-buds b and c. This double h3 154 FRUIT TREES. result will be attained by cutting at a, about tbree or four inches from the spring of the brancb. The flower-buds B (fig. 131) are almost always ac- Fig. 131.— Wood-Bud and Fruit-Bud of Peach. Fig. 132.— Neglected Fruit- Branch. companied by a wood-bud A, and also sometimes by small branches without any wood-buds, unless there be THE PEACH. 155 one or two miniite ones towards the base (fig. 133). It might be thought, that the blossoms upon these small branches, unaccompanied by a wood-bud, must prove Fig. 133.-STnall Trre- Fig. 134.— Fniit-Branch, Fig. 135.— Wood-Branch, gular Fruit-Branch. MLxed Buds, First Pruning. First Pruning. sterile, and ought to bo cut off at pruning, as though of no value ; quite the contrary, however ; experience proves that these blossoms produce the finest fruit. 156 FRUIT TREES. These brandies, therefore, must be preserved, and pruned at A. Some of the buds more favourably situated produce more vigorous branches, and bear only wood-buds (fig. 134) for three or four inches from their base upwards. These must be cut above the second bud, in order to produce the result before described. Fig. 136. — Irregular Branch, •without Buds at Base. If the shoots are still more vigorous than those which produce both wood and fruit buds, they will resemble fig. 135, and will produce wood-buds only, with, per- haps, one flower or so at the top. These must be cut above the second wood-bud from the base. If not cut low down, they will not produce new shoots at their base, and their extended growth will weaken, and per- haps destroy them. In speaking of gourmand shoots, we referred to irregular shoots. If the gourmand shoots have been pinched off at too great length, they give place the fol- lowing Tvinter to irregular branches (fig. 136). These branches differ in structure from any that we have at THE PEACH. 157 present described. They are, in fact, almost without buds for three or four inches from their base ; this is a very troublesome disposition, for whatever we may do, in the process of obtaining buds, the branch will grow to too great a length. Sometimes, however, these branches present two buds, as shown at A (fig. 137). Fig. 137. — Irregnilar Branch, with Wood-Buds at Base. Fig. 138.— Irregulai' Branch, Pinched too early. These branches are cut at B, above the wood-bud nearest to the base. This close pruning, repeated during several years, often gives rise to new wood-buds at the point of junction with the main branch. But if the irregular shoots have been pinched much shorter than we have described, they will produce small branches (D, fig. 138), which need not be cut at all. The different branches which we have now described are the only ones that should be met with on a care- fully pruned tree. Unfortunately, however, the pinch- ing is often not performed soon enough, and the branches will become gourmand shoots, which will take 258 FRUIT TREES. the place of fruit-bearing branches (fig. 139). If these Fig. 139.- Gourmand Branch of Peach, First Pruning. branches are cut above the two lower wood-buds, two THE PEACH. 159 new brandies will grow during the summer, whicli it will not be possible to prevent becoming too vigorous, the sap having taken so strong a current in that direc- tion. The desired result will be better accomplished by twisting the branch about an inch abova the base, and for four inches upwards ; then cut between three and four inches above the twisting. One part of the sap will traverse the twisted portion, and will be lost above, and the lower buds, receiving only just suffi- cient for their development, will push out less vigor- ously, and give place the following year to two new branches, covered with fruit-blossoms. The primitive branch must now be cut immediately above the two Fig. 140.— Fastening Fruit-Branches. new branches, and all the twisted part will disappear. Instead of twisting, we may take off about half the thickness of the branch (on the wall side of the branch), about the same length as the twisted part mentioned above. The same effect will be produced. AVhen the fruit-branches have been pruned, and also the wood-branches, and the latter fixed to the wall, we proceed immediately to the winter nailing of the fruit- branches. The branches A (fig. 140), upon and above the oblique and horizontal branches, are bent so as to form a free curve. This form, very little deviating 160 FRUIT TREES. from its natural direction, tends to restrain tlie flow of sap towards tlie top of tlie branch, and to promote tlie development of the lower buds, which, ought to produce the replacing branches. The branches D, below the horizontal or oblique branches, must also be bent towards them as much as possible, to secure the same result. Finally, the branches growing from the sides of the vertical branches ought to be nailed so as to form a right angle with the branch. If trained Tertically, the Fig. 141.— Fastening Fruit-Branches. Fig. 142.— Disbudding Fmit- Branches. action of the sap will favour the buds at the top, to the injury of those at the base. Figure 141 shows how these branches are fixed by means of nail and list. Those grown upon a trellis may be tied with osier twigs. Some employ lead wire, THE PEACH. 161 wMch is quicker than the other mode, and neater, but rather more expensive. During the ensuing summer the fruit-branches re- ceive the series of operations we shall now describe. When the shoots have attained a length of two or three inches, they must be deprived of all their fruit- buds, except the two nearest the base, and each of those which accompany a fruit (fig. 142). The two buds A are suppressed to avoid confusion at the sum- mer nailing up, and to preserve more vigour for the replacing shoots. It may occur that some of the flower-buds reserved on certain branches at the winter pruning turn out Fig. 143.— Green Pmning, First Year. unproductive. These branches must be submitted to green pruning : thus, the branch B (fig. 143) being entirely fruitless, the shoots A, which would otherwise be reserved to nourish these fruits, are now useless. 162 FRUIT TREES. The branch B is then to be cut at C, to preserve the two buds D, which will then take a more favourable form for developing the replacing shoots. When the proper time arrives, apply successively pinching and the summer nailing ; bearing in mind at all times that when the branches accompanied by the young fruits (fig. 14'2) have grown to six inches, they must be pinched in order to favour the develop- ment of replacing shoots at the base. Notwithstanding every care to keep the two sides of the branches well furnished with fruit-branches, vacant spaces will occur owing to the destruction of buds or ihe decaj^ of some of the fruit-branches. The best way of filling up these vacancies is grafting by herba- ceous approach (page 5), which may be done at the time of summer nailing. The remaining operations of the second summer relate to the fruit. The superabundance of fruit is a more serious evil in regard to peach trees than to 2^epm fruits. When, therefore, the fi*uit is too abundant, it will be necessary to remove a certain number, leaving only half as many peaches as there are fruit -branches. This thinning must be made (when the fruit is about the size of a large walnut) from the lower side of the branches and lower part of the tree rather than from the upper. When the peaches have nearly attained their full size, the leaves which shade them must be removed, in order to allow them to attain their natural bloom and colour ; but the leaves must not be removed all at once, but at two diff'crent times on cloudy days, so THE PEACH. 163 as to habituate the fruit gradually to the full influence of the sun. The leaves must not be carelessly torn ofi", but cut away so as to leave a small portion of each stem and leaf. If this is not attended to, the eye at the base of the leaf-stem will be lost, to the injury of next year's crop. Third Year. — At the third year the winter pruning is practised as follows : — Fig. 144.— Fruit-Branch, Second Pruning. The fruit-branches proper (fig. 130), which have borne during the preceding summer, have now grown The fruit-branch is cut to the form of figure 144. 164 FRUIT TREES. at A; the lower part E being intended to bear tbe succession of fruit-brancbes, is called tbe stock-brancb. The branch B is selected for a new fruit-branch, and must be cut at B, reserving a number of the fruit- buds. The branch D, intended to replace branches that have borne once and are now useless, must be cut at D immediately above two wood-buds, the nearest to the base, which will furnish two new fruit-branches for the following year, and which must be cut as we shall describe. It follows that the stock- branch will bear every year two new fruit-branches, one furthest removed from the main branch, and which is cut long, while the other, the replacer nearest the base, is cut short above two of the lower buds. This is called crochet pruning. Sometimes the branch B, the best situated for fruit-bearing, is without flower-buds. As it is too far from the m'ain branch to be the replacer, we cut the primitive fruit-branch at E, and the branch D is cut at F above one or two flower-buds, to serve as replacers when wanted. If there are no buds on any of these branches, we cut the primitive branch at E, and then the branch F at D. All the other branches having received, during the preceding winter and summer, operations intended to give them the form we have described, the same mode of treatment must be applied to them. It is important to remove every year, at the time of the winter pruning, the tail ends of the peach stems, which would otherwise injure the circulation of the THE PEACH. 165 sap. All dry little stems and twigs must now be removed. The nailing or fastening np is the same as the first year. When summer comes the disbudding must be performed, only leaving, upon each fruit-bearing branch (fig. 145), the shoots which accompany one fruit ; all others must be removed. Thus, in the figure 145, the three shoots C C and A must be re- moved; the branch B bears the two shoots which will replace the fruit-branches. If one of the two shoots on B does not develop itself properly, we must preserve the next one nearest to the base of the primitive fruit- branch. If any of the flower-buds preserved upon the fruit- Fig. 145.— Disbudding, Second Year. Fig. 146.- Spring Pruning, Second Year. branch have not produced a fertile flower, the branch E must be cut at F (fig. 146), then the branch G insures the success of the replacing branches. The disbudding and green pruning of fruit-branches 166 FRLIT TREES. at the second year often involve the suppression of a third part of the shoot. This occasions much trouble, and the flow of gum is perhaps the result. It may be desirable, therefore, not to perform the operation all at Fig. 147.— Fruit-Branch, Third Pruning. one time, but at twice, first on the higher part of the tree, and eight or ten daj's later on the lower half. There is the additional advantage in this plan, that the sap drawn in such great abimdance towards the lower part of the tree during these eight or ten days tends to augment the vigour of this part, always less favoured THE PEACH. 167 than the summit. The pinching, nailing up, removal of superfluous fruit and leaves, are all executed as during the preceding summer. Fourth Year. — At the spring of the fourth year the branches that have been treated as fig. 144, and which have fructified during the summer, are now grown as Fig. 148.— Renewal of Peach Branch. Fig. 149.— Eenewal of Peach Branch. fig. 147. The stock- branch which bears the old fruit - branch D is cut at A ; the branch F at F to form the replacer ; the branch C at C for the new fruit-branch. This operation gives the same result at spring as before described. The same pruning must be applied from year to year. The other operations, both for summer and winter are the same as for the third year. It frequently happens that the stock-branches of about three or four years' growth develop, towards their base, one or more wood-buds (A, fig. 148). We 168 FRUIT TREES. may take advantage of this to renovate the stock- branch that has become weak by successive prunings. For this purpose, instead of the crochet pruning, vre preserve only the branch B, and cut it long for a fruit- branch. DLiring the summer all the shoots that ac- company a fruit must be preserved, besides the one which is nearest the base, and also one of the buds appearing at A. At the end of a year we have ob- tained the result represented by fig. 149. The primitive branch B is then cut at C, and the branch which it bears at its base at E : this last will be the fruit-branch. The branch F is cut at Gr above two wood-buds which furnish the replacers for the next year, at which time the stock-branch becomes useless and is cut off at H. TRAIXI^*G THE Peach i>' Simple Oblique Cordon. Ten or twelve years are generally required to perfect the wood of peach trees, trained as Terrier palmettes, or one of the other large forms now in use. ]S^ow the average duration of a peach as an espalier is twenty years ; it appears, therefore, that we employ the half of their existence to form their wood, and that half the surface of the wall remains unoccupied during five years. Considering that the care and attention necessary to obtain these forms, even the least complex of them, are so complicated as to be beyond the time and means of ordinary gardeners, we now propose a method that will av-oid these inconveniences altogether. This method (see fig. 150) is the same that we have re- THE PEACH. 169 170 FRUIT TREES. commended and described for espalier pears, wliich we called the simple oblique cordon. We applied this form to peaches, in the year 1843, at the Jardin des PJanfes, at Ron en. The operation is performed thus : — We choose for planting, young trees of one year, from budding with only one stem (fig. 151) ; these are Fig. 151.— Oblique Cordon, First Year. Fig. 152.— Oblique Cordon, Second Year. planted 30 inches apart, and inclined at first to an angle of 60 degrees. At the first pruning they must be cut at eight or twelve inches from their base, above a front wood- bud (A, fig. 151). If there are any irregular shoots below the cut, they must be entirely removed from before and behind ; all the rest must be cut above the two wood-buds nearest their base. THE PEACH. 171 During summer we promote as vigorously as pos- sible the growth of the terminal shoot, and use the necessary means to transform the other shoots into fruit-branches. The disbudding, green pruning, pinching, nailing up in summer, and the rest are all performed as directed for other forms of peach trees. In the following spring each of the young trees resembles the figure 152. At the second pruning we take off about one-third of the entire length, cutting always above a front bud (A, fig. 152). The fruit-branches must be pruned and nailed up for the winter, as described for other forms. We continue to extend the stem from year to year, and to furnish its sides with fruit-branches only, keeping the degree of inclination before described. When they have attained two-thirds of their height, we bend them to an angle of 45 degrees. If they were inclined to this extent at once, it would stimulate too powerfully the growth of the lower shoots to the injury of the terminal one. When the stems have attained the height of the wall, the espalier is ter- minated, and the extremities must be treated in the manner directed for other peach trees that are com- pletely formed. Xo vacant space should be allowed upon the wall from one end of the stems to the other. This kind of espalier is commenced and terminated, as shown fig. 150, the same as the pear trees (pp. 110-12), and the other directions for pears in simple oblique cordon also apply to peaches. The advantages of this method of growing are as great in one case as in the other. i2 172 FRUIT TREES. Trellis for Peaches in Single Oblique Cordon. — If a trellis be preferred, the following will be found the simplest and least costly form (fig. 153). It is made as follows : — Fix at A a galvanised iron wire ; pass it through the eyes of the iron hold-fasts, driven into the wall at B and C ; then upon the round nails D and E ; then bring it down, and through the hold-fasts F and G, then upon the nails H and I, then up and through the hold-fasts J and K, and fix it at L. Commence a new length of wire, fastening it at N, and continue as before to the end of the wall. These first lines of thick iron wire, fixed as we have directed, thirty inches apart, and inclined to an angle of forty-five degrees, will support the stems of the peach trees. The winter fastening, and the support of the fruit- branches, are provided for by two other lines of thinner iron wire placed on each side of the first, one about two and a half inches from the stem, the other about eight inches. One of these iron wires is fixed at a, then taken up to, and through, the hold-fast b, then round the nails c and d, then down and through the hold-fast e, round the nails / and g, through the hold- fixst h, over the nails i and ,/, through the hold-fast /r, and is fixed at /. A fresh wire is then fastened at the right of the thick wire, and continued to the end of the wall. We use for fixing the wires the iron hold-fast and round nails described at page 106 ; and the tighteners, described at page 107, are placed at the points P, to tighten the wires. This kind of trellis costs (in THE PEACH. 173 174 FRUIT TREES. France) lOcl. per square yard, not including the cost of fixing. Pruning the Peach in Vertical Cordon. — When the wall is as high as twelve feet or more, it may be pre- ferable to train peaches in vertical cordon, as described for pear trees (p. 119). In this case, the trees are planted two feet apart, and trained in the same way as pear trees of this form. If a trellis be used, it should be the same as the one just described, only the lines of wire must be vertical. New Mode of Forming Fruit-Braxches ox the Peach. The mode of training that we have already described is that which has been universally recommended and followed up to the present time. For some years, however, we have been occupied with a new method, of which we did not intend to say anything until time had sufficiently proved its advan- tages. The new fonn* was first practised in 1847, by M. Picot-Amet, of Aincourt, near Magny, and a little later by M. Grin, sen., of Bourgneuf, Chartres, but with great improvements. We saw, in October, 1856, at M. Grin's, such striking results from this method, which had been practised by him for five years upon the same trees, that we do not hesitate to recommend * This method is not altogether so new as may be supposed, for the leading principles of it are described by an English writer, and in the Jardinier Solitaire, published in 1712. But to M. Grin belongs the merit of re-discovery and directing public attention to it. THE PEACH. 175 it in preference to all others. The mode of practising it is as follows : — When the shoots of the successive branch extensions (fig. 154) have attained a length of about three inches, suppress only the buds behind, then the double or treble buds, so as to have only one bud at each point. The front buds must be preserved. At the Fig. 15 J.— First Pinching of Shoots. same time, these buds must be vigorously pinched off by the nail at A (fig. 154), above two of the lower leaves that are well developed. We do not count the small partially developed leaves, B, which often form a rosette at the lower part of the shoot. 176 FRUIT TREES. Yery soon after, we see new shoots springing from the foot of the leaves A. A (fig. 155). These must be pinched as soon as they are two inches long, above their first leaf. The irregular shoots will still spring from the base of the latter, as shown at A (fig. 156) ; but the season Fig. 155.— Second Pinching of Irregular Shoot. is too far advanced, and the sap acts with less force, so that the development is feeble, often attaining to a length of little more than an inch or two. Those at the top are the only ones that lengthen much. All of them are pinched above their first leaf, when they are about two inches long. If new shoots appear after THE PEACH. 177 this third pinching, they must be suppressed entirely. After the fall of the leaves, and at the winter pruning, these diflPerent shoots give place to a mass of branches, shown by figs. 157 and 158. Fig. 156.— Iriegular Shoots, pinched above tho First Leaf. The different plnchings that we have described have had the effect of gradually weakening the shoots, by concentrating the action of the sap towards the exten- sion shoot of the principal branch. Thus all the i3 178 FRUIT TREES. shoots have given place to branches less vigorous, and which are covered with flower-buds. In pruning these branches, we cut at the points A (figs. 157 and 158), so as to preserve only the fruit- buds of the lower part. During the following summer, the new shoots, which give rise to certain wood-buds Fig. 157.— New Treatment of Fruit-Branch. among the flower-buds, and which develop at the same time as the fruit, must be removed by pinching, as during the previous summer, and at the winter pruning must be cut still shorter, to concentrate the action of the sap towards the base, and to give rise to new fruit THE PEACH. 179 productions. The same mode of operating must be repeated from year to year. The irregular shoots C (fig. 159), which spring very Fig. 158.— Another Fruit-Branch, after the same Treatment as Fig. 157. numerously upon the shoots of the branch extension must be pinched off, those at the back entirely, and 180 FRriT TREES. the rest pinclied as soon as the second pair of leaves appear, and the eyes of the lower leaves are formed, the leaves at the base being alone retained. If this is performed too late, the pair of leaves at the base are drawn out by the lengthening of the shoot, and there will be at the winter pruning a branch resembling the figure 160. If the operation be performed too soon, Fig. 159.— IrregTilar Shoot, pinched Short. before the eyes of the lower leaves are properly fonned, the shoot will wither, as shown at fig. 161. When, however, the operation is performed at the proper time, the shoot ceases to grow longer, and the lower pair of leaves remain at the base. At the time of winter pruning the branch is constituted, as shown at figs. 162 and 163. It not unfrequently occurs that the irregular shoots develop so vigorously that, notwithstanding pinching, their stems continue lengthening and draw out with THE PEACH. 181 tliem tlie two lower leaves. To avoid this, M. Grin recommends an operation, of which we have proved the Fi'S FOR FRUIT GARDEN. 213 GENEEAL DIRECTIONS FOR THE FEUIT GAEDEK In addition to the directions already given there are certain other indispensable points to be observed in order to assure a vigorous growth of the trees. These relate to the annual cultivation of the borders on Avhich the trees are planted, the protection of the trees from the late frosts of spring, or the too great heat of the sun in summer. The cultivation of the borders on which the trees grow is of much importance. The digging renders the soil permeable at all times to the action of the atmo- sphere, and frees it from weeds ; a sufficient quantity of fertilising matter is supplied by the manure, and the trees are preserved from drought. Digging. — This should not be too deep, to avoid in- juring the roots, particularly of trees grafted on quince, plum, or paradise stocks, which always develop them- selves more superficially than others. In the latter case, instead of using the spade, it will be better to 214 GEJsERAL DIRECTIONS employ the fork or hoe fork, fig. 179, which is less liable to cut the roots. The digging should be per- formed every year immediately after pruningo Fig. 179.— Hoe Fork. It is a common practice to grow vegetables upon fruit-tree borders ; but it is a bad one, for the numerous diggings to which the ground is subjected will con- stantly expose the roots of the trees to mutilation. Besides, the vegetables absorb nearly all the nutriment of the soil. At all events, we should confine the prac- tice to the growth of such vegetables as least exhaust the soil, such as salads. Above all, avoid planting cabbage. Manuring. — It is not desirable to manure fruit trees very abundantly until they have attained their intended dimensions, otherwise the production of fruit will be retarded. Some manure every three years, but the practice is wrong, for it compels the use of too much manure at a time, and the fruit contracts a bad flavour, and stone fruits, especially peaches, are liable to the gum disease from this cause. It is better to manure a little at a time every year. FOR THE FRUIT GARDEN. 215 In clayey soils it is usual to employ horse and sheep manure rather fresh, and in lighter soils that of the cow. We prefer, however, crushed bones, woollen rags, waste wool, hair, or feathers. This forms very powerful manure, decomposes slowly, and the effect is greatly prolonged. It is better for the trees than ordi- nary manure. It will be sufficient to repeat such manuring every seven or eight years. Any surplus manure that remains may be dug into the border occu- pied by the roots. To Counteract Excessive Dryness of Soil. The operations consist in watering, covering, and keeping the surface of the soil light and open. Watering. — The great heats of summer render fre- quent waterings necessary, most of all in light soils, and for trees recently planted. In order to prevent the hardening of the surface of the soil, it is desirable to cover the foot of the tree with litter. Young trees ought to be well watered every eight days. Liquid manure is preferable to water when it can be had, as it stimulates the activitj^ of the vegetation. Watermg should always be performed after sunset. Lightening the Soil to the depth of two inches imme- diately it begins to dry and harden. This will take the place of watering for trees after their first year of planting. This practice is most resorted to upon strong lands. Covering. — This produces the same result as the last, and consists in covering the soil round the trees with dried leaves, decomposed straw, fern, &c., to the depth 216 GENERAL DIRECTIONS of two or three iuclies. May is the proper month i'ov this. It is most employed for light soils. Protection from the Late Frosts of Spring. The late frosts, snow, hail, and cold wet weather of spring are extremely injurious to fruit trees, and notably so to stone fruits. We shall point out what may be done to counteract this, considering espaliers and standards separately. EsjiciUcrs. — The coping of walls against which fruit trees are planted often projects ten or twelve inches ; insufficient to protect from cold, it becomes positively injurious towards the end of May, by depriving the trees of the full action of the warm and genial summer rains. It is, therefore, better to let the copings project only about four inches, and to protect the trees thus : — For walls without trellis we fasten a number of wooden rods or supports (fig. 180), projecting about Fig. ISO.— Protection for Espaliers. two feet, and inclined to an angle of about 30 degrees. In February, when the trees begin to vegetate, we fasten to these supports the straw matting made into FOR THE FRUIT GARDEN. 217 the form of hurdles (A, fig. 182), by means of two wooden rods before, and two behind, and the whole fastened together with iron w4re. These protectors are kept up until the end of May, when the fruit begins to set. Upon walls covered wdth trellis a wooden horse (fig. 181) is substituted for the wooden rods. These protectors are indispensable for stone fruits ; but apples and pears will be much better for them, particularly Fig. 181.— Matting Horse. those which have a west or north aspect, in damp localities. In this case the protection should be put up in June, and kept in use till the end of September. They prevent injury from fogs and cold rains of sum- mer. These weather protectors should not project more than about sixteen inches. They will be sufii- cient to protect the trees from injury from cold when the temperature is as low as one degree below freezing ; but are insufficient against colds of two or three degrees, which too often destroy the fruit crops of our gardens. Let us see what can be done to protect the trees against these more severe frosts. p 218 GENERAL DIRECTIONS For this purpose we place a rod of wood upon the lower part of the top covering at B, fig. 182, supported Fig. 182.— Protection for Stone rruit Trees. by the extremity of the house which forms the projec- tion. AYe then drive a line of stakes, D, into the ground, about 30 inches high, placed 5 feet apart, and 5 feet in advance of the wall. We fix at the top of the stakes a cross piece, E ; then stretch a cloth from B to E. The cloth may be of the coarse canvas used for walls before papering. Its durability will be increased by soaking it in linseed oil. The canvas allows of light passing through it sufficient for the trees, and will protect the vegetation from the most severe of the late frosts of spring. We secure by this means almost FOR THE FRUIT GARDEN. 219 as many fruits as there have been blossoms. The space underneath is sufficient to allow the gardener to pass, and to perform his various operations of disbudding, pruning, and pinching without hindrance. This cover- ing and the straw hurdles are laid aside for the year towards the end of May, when the fruit is nearly set, and there is nothing more to fear from late frosts. Standards. — It is much more difficult to protect standard fruit trees. The only practicable method of doing so consists in fixing upon the branches, imme- diately after the pruning, handfuls of dry fern or straw, so that each branch may be protected to its full extent. Or the tree may be covered all over with canvas, like that just described. To protect cordons, double or vertical, we can stretch the canvas horizontally at the top; and fix it with wire, to be taken off towards the end of May. Shading. — Espaliers, and especially stone fruits, are exposed in all their green surfaces to such a powerful evaporation, that the roots cannot supply the loss of humidity that takes place. Besides this, their position deprives them in a great measure of the benefits of the night dews, little as they may be, during the great heats of summer. Unless protected in some way, many trees will then perish, as we may say from sunstroke. To prevent this, they must be watered freely, and the foliage be well syringed three times a week. The heat of the sun is not less injurious to the bark of the stems of espaliers, most of all to the part not protected by the leaves. It hardens the bark so that it l2 220 DlIlE(rriOXS FOR FRUIT GARDEN. loses its elasticity, does not allow the tree to expand, and hinders the circulation of the sap, by compressing the sap vessels. The bark is sometimes destroyed in this way, and falls off, lea^^ng the wood bare. Fig. 1S3.— Wood Shade for Stems. To prevent this the more exposed part of the stem may be covered with a shade made of wood like fig. 183. The upper part may be protected by a coating of half whiting, half clay, mixed with sufficient water to form a thick paste.* * The injur}' here referred to applies mostly, if not entirely, to the climate of France. In England fruit trees are not often injured by too much sun. GATHERING AND PRESERVATION OF FRUIT. 221 GATHEEING AND PEESERYATION OE EEUIT. Gathering of most fruits should be performed before tbe fruit is quite ripe ; the quality and flavour will be better for it. But it will not do to anticipate their maturity for more than eight daj^s for pears and apples, and one day for peaches, apricots, and plums. Cherries should only be gathered perfectly ripe. Pears and apples which are not ripened before winter must be gathered in October, or when the vegetation of the trees ceases. Whatever be the kind of fruit, it should only be gathered when quite dry, and on line clear days. The fruit has then its finest flavour, and will keep much better. The best method of detaching the fruit is to gather it carefully one by one with the hand ; various con- trivances have been devised, more or less ingenious, for gathering those at the top of the trees, but all of them are liable to injure the fruit, and it is better to reach them by a ladder. As the fruits are detached, they should be placed in a large shallow basket, lined at the bottom with moss 222 GATHERING AXD PRESERVATIOX or dry leaves. Not more than three layers should be disposed in one basket, and each layer should be kept separate by leaves. The fruit must be taken imme- diately under cover. Preservation of fruits applies mostly to those fruits which only ripen during winter. The object is : — 1. To preserve them from frosts, which completely disorganise them. 2. To so manage that the ripening takes place gradually, and is prolonged, for a portion of the fruit, until the end of May. The complete or partial success of this depends upon the construction of the fruit-room, or place where the fruit is kept. The Fruit-house. — Experience proves that the fruit- house or fruit-room affords the most satisfactory results which fulfils the following seven conditions : — 1. An equal temperature at all seasons. 2. A temperature eight or ten degrees above freezing. 3. Complete exclusion of the light. 4. Absence of all communication between the fruit- room and the exterior atmosphere. 5. The place should be dry rather than damp. 6. Such an arrangement as prevents, as much as possible, the fruit being injured by the pressure of its own weight. 7. A northern aspect, on a very dry soil, slightly elevated. These are the arrangements of a fruit-house that we think fulfil all the required conditions. The size, of course, must depend upon the quantity of fruit. That of which we now give a plan (figs. 184 and 185) is OF FKUIT. 223 about sixteen and a half feet in length, thirteen feet wide, and ten feet high. Eight thousand fruit may be stored in it, allowing four square inches to each fruit. The floor is twenty-eight inches below the surround- ing ground ; if it is very dry it may be three feet lower. This arrangement allows of the atmosphere of the fruit-house being more easily protected from the exterior atmosphere. To prevent the wet from drain- "THi'!H|'iH i"'"|iit !^'i". H'"l'ili||1FWiWli ''i'il"r.'ii''" I'P'^-^-. Fig. 184.— Elevation of Fruitery, following the line K L, Fig. 185. ing in, the ground outside is slanted off from the walls all round (A, fig. 184), and the outside walls are con- structed in cement to just above the ground. The fruit- house is surrounded with double walls, A and B (fig. 185), having a vacant space C between them twenty inches wide. This space admirably secures the fruit from the action of the atmosjihere outside. 224 GATHERING AND PRESERVATION Eacli of the walls is thirteen inclies in thickness, made of a kind of mortar or clay formed of clayey earth, straw, and a little marl. This material is preferable to common masonry, because it is a worse conductor of heat, and is besides much cheaper. The walls should be so arranged that the floor of the vacant space between the walls, E, should be on a level with the floor of the fruit-room. There are six openings in the walls, three in the K^— -^ Fig. 185.— Plan of Fniitery, following the line G H, Fig. 184. outer and three in the inner, opposite each other. The openings form : — 1st. A double door, D, fig. 185 ; the exterior door opens outwards, the interior one inwards, which is also made to fold like a shutter. During the extreme cold the space between the two doors must be packed with straw. 2nd. Two apertures, E, twenty inches square, placed on each side the fruit-house, and opening three feet OF FRUIT. 225 above the ground, closed by double shutters, one opening outwards, the other inwards. The space between should be carefully packed with straw at the beginning of winter. The inner wall has a single door, F, and two open- ings, G, The openings are closed by a shutter sliding up and down, and inside by a door opening outwards. As soon as the fruits are fairly deposited in the fruit- house, the exterior air should be still further excluded from the interior, by pasting strips of paper round the joints and nicks of the openings. These openings are only intended to allow of air and light being admitted into the fruit-house, to air and sweeten it before the fruits are deposited. The ceiling (B, fig. 184) is formed of a bed of moss, kept in its place by laths, ceiled over above and below with mortar and hair, the whole presenting a thickness of twelve inches. This mode of structure is indis- pensable for preventing the exterior air from traversing the ceiling. The ceiling is surmounted by a roof of thatch, C, twelve inches thick. A skylight in the roof will allow the space between the ceiling and the thatch being used as a garret. The skylight should close perfectly, so as to completely exclude the air. The floor of the fruit-house may be either of wood or asphalt. The inner walls, and even the roof, will be better if lined with a deal wainscoting. All these precautions tend to the same important object, that of keeping the interior of an equable temperature, free from dampness. 226 GATHERIXG AND PRESERVATION All the inner walls are fitted from the top to within twenty inches of the ground with deal shelves to receive the fruit. These are placed ten inches above each other, and are twenty inches in width. In order that all the fruit may be seen at once, the shelves are gradually raised towards the back about 45 degrees (A, fig. 186). This slant is diminished gradually as the shelves approach the floor, and at five feet above the floor they are horizontal. All the in- clined shelves in front present the appearance of a Fig. 186.— Horizontal and Inclined Shelves for the Fruitery. rising stage or platform (A, fig. 186), each step rising about four inches, and protected in front by a ledge, E, about an inch high, to keep the fruit from falling forwards. In order to allow the air to circulate freely, the inclined shelves are each left open behind. The same object is attained in the horizontal shelves (B), by forming them in separate leaves about four inches wide, and sufliciently apart from each other. The shelves are fixed to the wainscot by brackets, and supported in front by uprights (D) placed at five feet OF FRUIT. 227 apart. The cross pieces (E) attached to the uprights support other cross pieces (F), both those that are horizontal and oblique, the latter cut in notches fol- lowing the rise of the shelves, and upon which the shelves are placed. In the centre of the fruit-house must be a table, I, fig. 185, ten feet long and 40 inches wide, separated from the shelves by a space of three feet. The table should be surrounded by a ledge, and the space beneath occu- pied by shelves placed horizontally, like the others. It may occur that a great part of the cost of the fruit-house may be avoided. If, for instance, there is an underground cave or grotto, advantage may be taken of it to establish the fruit-house therein. In this case there will be nothing to do but to fit it up interiorly with shelves and so on, as we have just described. In every case it is indispensable that the cave or grotto be perfectly dry and well protected from the exterior temperature. Care of the Fruit in the Fruit-house. — The success of the preservation of fruit still depends upon the care taken of it while in the fruit-house. As the fruit is brought in it is placed upon the table, which should be covered with a thin layer of dry moss. The fruit is then sorted, and each variety set apart ; all the bruised and unsound fruit should be carefully put aside ; the rest of the fruit should then be left upon the table for two or three days, in order to lose part of its humidity. AVhen this time has elapsed, after covering the shelves with a thin layer of dry moss or cotton, and wiping each fruit carefully with a small piece of 228 GATHERING AND PRESERVATION flannel, tlie fruit must be placed upon the shelves, each, half an inch apart, keeping the varieties separate. When the fruits are thus disposed of, the doors and openings must be left open during the day, at least when the weather is not too damp. Eight more days of exposure to the air are necessary, in order to allow the superabundant moisture to evaporate. Afterwards all the openings must be hermetically closed, and only opened when required to take out the fruit. JSTo means, except currents of air, have at the present time been employed to remove dampness from the fruit-house caused by the sweating of the fruit after it has been stored. There are serious objections to the use of air currents for this object. It subjects the fruit-house to great changes of temperature, which are very injurious, and to alternate light and darkness, which hasten maturity. The plan can only be adopted in dry weather and during the absence of frost ; that is, it cannot be practised throughout a great part of every winter, and the fruit-house must be left in its damp state, to the injury of the fruit. To avoid this, we recommend the use of chloride of calcium. This salt has the property of absorbing so large a quantity of moisture (about double its own weight) that it becomes liquid after being exposed for a certain time to the influence of a moist atmo- sphere. We can, therefore, see that if a sufficient quantity be introduced into the fruit-house, it will absorb the dampness exhaled by the fruit. Quicklime answers nearly the same purpose. The chloride of calcium, F, should be placed in a kind OF FRUIT. 229 of slanting trough, A D (fig. 187), so as to allow the chloride, as it absorbs water, to drain off into a jar, E, set underneath to receive it. This liquid should be taken care of, and when required next year placed Fig. 187.— A Jar for receiving the Chloride of Calcium in the Fniitery. upon a fire and the moisture evaporated. The residue is chloride of calcium, which may be used again as before. The fruit-house should be visited every eighth day, to remove the fruits that are beginning to decay, to set apart those that are ripe, and to renew the chloride of calcium as may be required. THE E^D. PRINTED BY J. S. VIRTUE AND CO., LIMITED, CITY ROAD, LONDON. M BOOKS ON TREE PLANTING, PRUNING, GRAFTING, &c. THE TREE PLANTER AND PLANT PROPAGATOR. Being a Practical Manual on the Propagation of Forest Trees, Fruit Trees, Flowering Shrubs, Flowering Plants, &c. With numerous Illustrations of Grafting, Layering, Budding, Cuttings, Useful Implements, Houses, Pits, &c. By Samuel "Wooi>, Author of " Good Gardening," &c. 12mo, 2s. 6d. cloth boards. " This book is sound in its teaching and very comprehensive in its aim. It is a good book, and gardeners may consult it to advantage." Gardeners' Magazme. " The information contained in this work is as rich and full as the meat of an egg, and may well be consulted with profitable interest." Land and Water. " The author is evidently a man of large experience, and writes with the confidence of one who has thoroughly mastered bis subject." Journal of Forestry. THE TREE PRUNER. Being a Practical Manual on the Pruning of Fruit Trees, including also their Training and Renovation, with the best Method of bringing Old and Worn- out Trees into a State of Bearing ; also Treating of the Pruning of Shrubs, Climbers, and Flowering Plants. By Samuel Wood. With numerous Illustrations. 12mo, 2s.,6d. cloth boards. " The book gives full and careful information on the subject to which it relates, and must be of great service to gardeners." — Scotsman. *' A practical guide to an essential department of gardening work, containing much valuable information, which is the fruit of forty years' experience." — Bristol Mercury. %* The above Two Vols., bound togethei', 5$. THE ART OF GRAFTING AND BUDDING. By Charles Baltet. Translated from the French. With upwards of One Hundred and Eighty Illustrations. 12mo, 3s. cloth boards. "^Mr. Baltet's manual is recognised as the one standard work on this subject." — Scotsman. " We know no product of the British press, on this most interesting subject of grafting, to compare with this French translation for price, value, and excellence of Illustrations." — Glasgow Herald. CROSBY LOCKWOOD & CO., 7, Statiowsrb' Hall Coubt, London, E.G. WitaW& 23tulrtmentacg ^tm&^ PHILADELPHIA, 1876. THE PRIZE MEDAL Was awarded to the Publishers for Books : Rudimentary, Scientific, "WEALE'S SERIES," ETC. A NEW LIST OF WEALE'S SERIES RUDIMENTARY SCIENTIFIC, EDUCATIONAL, AND CLASSICAL. Coniprisiftg nearly Three Hjiiidred and Fifty distijici works in almost every department of Science, Art, a7id Education, i-ecomynended to the notice of Enp^mrrrt^ Architects, Builders, Artisans, and Students e^enerally, as well as to those m [crested in Work7ne7i's Libraries, Literary and Scientific Institutions, Colleges, Schools, Science Classes, ^c, &^c. IS" " WEALE'S SERIES includes Text-Books on almost every branch of Science and Industry, comprising such subjects as Agriculture, Architecture and Building, Civil Engineering, Fine Arts, Mechanics and Mechanical Engineering, Physical and Chemical Science, and many miscellaneous Treatises. The whole are constantly undergoing revision, and new editions, brought up to the latest discoveries in scientific research, are constantly issued. The prices at which they are sold are as low as their excellence is assured." — American Literary Gazette. " Amongst the literature of technical education, Weale's Series has ever enjoyed a high reputation, and the additions being made by Messrs. Crosby LOCKWOOD & Co. render the series even more complete, and bring the infor- mation upon the several subjects down to the present time." — Mining Journal. " It is impossible to do otherwise than bear testimony to the value of Weale's Series." — Engineer. "Everybody — even that outrageous nuisance 'Every Schoolboy' — knows the merits of ' Weale's Rudimentary Series.' Any persons wishing to acquire knowledge cannot do better than look through Weale's Series and get all the books they require. The Series is indeed an inexhaustible mine of literary wealth." — The Metropolitan. " WEALE'S SERIES has become a standard as well as an unrivalled collection of treatises in all branches of art and science." — Public Opinion. LONDON, T862. THE PRIZE MEDAL Was awarded to the Publishers of "WEALE'S SERIES." CROSBY LOCKWOOD & CO., 7, stationers' hall court, LUDGATE hill, LONDON, E.G. weale's rudimentary series. WE ALE'S RUDIMENTARY SCIENTIFIC SERIES. *jf* The volumes of this Series are freely Illustrated with "Woodcuts, or otherwise, where requisite. Throughout the fol- lowing List it must be understood that the books are bound in limp cloth, unless other«\nse stated; but the volumes marked TL'Hh a % may also be had strotigly bound tJt cloth boards for td. extra. N.B.—In ordering from this List it is recommended, as a means of facilitatijig business and obviating error, to quote the nu77ibers affixed to the volumes, as well as the titles and prices. CIVIL ENGINEERING, SURVEYING, ETC. 31. WELLS AND WELL-SINKING. By John Geo. Swindell, A.R.I.B.A., and G. R. Burnell, CE. Revised Edition. With a New Appendix on the Qualities of Water. Illustrated. 2s. 35. THE BLASTING AND QUARRYING OF STONE, for Building and other Purposes. W^ith Remarks on the Blowing up of Bridges. By Gen. Sir John Burgoyxe, Bart., K.C.B. Illustrated, is. 6d. 44. FOUNDATIONS AND CONCRETE WORKS, z'RMdimtni2iry Treatise on ; containing a Sj-nopsis of the principal cases of Foundation Works, with the usual diodes of Treatment, and Practical Remarks on Footings, Planking, Sand, Concrete, Beton, Pile-driving, Caissons, and Cofferdams. By E. DoBSOX, M.R.I.B.A., &c. Fifth Edition, revised, is. 6d. 60. LAND AND ENGINEERING SURVEYING, a Treatise on; with all the Modern Improvements. By T. Baker, C.E. New Edition, revised by Edward Nugent, C.E. Illustrated with Plates and Diagrams. 2s. i 80*. EMBANKING LANDS FROM THE SEA, the Practice of. Treated as a Means of Profitable Emplo5-ment for Capital. With Examples and Particulars of actual EmbanKments, &c. By J. Wiggins, F.G.S. 2s. 81. WATER WORKS, for the Supply of Cities and Towns. With a Description of the Principal Geological Formations of England as in- fluencing Supplies of Water ; and Details of Engines and Pumping Machinery for raising Water. By Samuel Hughes, F.G.S. , C.E. New Edition. 45.$ 117. SUBTERRANEOUS SURVEYING, an Elementary and Prac- tical Treatise on. Bj' Thomas Fenwick. Also the IMethod of Conducting Subterraneous Surv'e3s without the Use of the jNIagnetic Needle, and other Modem Improvements. By Thomas Baker, C.E. Illustrated. 2s. 6d.t 118. CIVIL ENGINEERING IN NORTH AMERICA, a Sketch of. By David Stevenson, F.R.S.E., &c. Plates and Diagrams. 3s. 167. IRON BRIDGES, GIRDERS, ROOFS, AND OTHER AVORKS. By Francis Campin, C.E. 2s. 6d.i 197. ROADS AND STREETS {THE CONSTRUCTION OF), in two Parts : I. The Art of Constructing Common Roads, by Henry Law, C.E., re\'ised by D. K. Clark, C.E. ; II. Recent Practice, including pavements of Stone, Wood, and Asphalte, by D. K. Clark. 4s. 6d.t 203. SANITAR Y WORK IN THE SMALLER TO WNS AND IN VILLAGES. Comprising: — i. Some of the more Common Forms oi Nuisance and their Remedies ; 2. Dramage ; 3. Water Supply. By Charles Slagg, Assoc. !M. Inst. C.E. Second Edition, revised and enlarged. 3s. J 212. THE CONSTRUCTION OF GAS-WORKS, and the Manu- facture and Distribution of Coal Gas. Originally written by Samukl Hughes, C.E. Sixth Edition, re-written and much enlarged by William Richards, C.E. With 72 Illustrations. 4s. 6d.J 6^^ 1 he X indicates that these vols, may be had strongly bound at 6d. extra. LONDON : CROSBY LOCKWOOD AND CO., WEALE S RUDIMENTARY SERIES. Civil Engineering, Surveying, etc., contmned. 213. PIONEER ENGINEERING. A Treatise on the Engineering Operations connected with the Settlement of Waste Lands in New Coun- tries. By Edward Dobson, Assoc. Inst. C.E. 4s. 6d.+ 216. MATERIALS AND CONSTRUCTION ; A Theoretical and Practical Treatise on the Strains, Designing, and Erection of Works of Con- struction. By Francis Campi.v, C.E. 3s. t 219. CIVIL ENGINEERING. By Henry Law, M.Inst. C.E. Including Hydraulic Engineering by Geo. R. Blrnell, M.Inst. C.E. Seventh Edition, revised, with large additions by D. ^Kinnear Clark, M.Inst. C.E. 6s. 6d., Cloth boards, 7s. 6d. MECHANICAL ENGINEERING, ETC. ^l. CRANES, the Construction of, and other Machinery for Raising Heavy Bodies. By Joseph Glynn, F.R.S. Illustrated, is. 6d 34. THE STEAM ENGINE. By Dr. Lardner. Illustrated, is. 6d. 59. STEAM BOILERS: their Construction and Management. By R. Armstrong, C.E. Illustrated, is. 6d. 82. THE POWER OF WATER, as applied to drive Flour MUls, and to give motion to Turbines, &c. By Joseph Glynn, F.R.S. zs.J 98, PRACTICAL MECHANISM, the Elements of; and INIachine Tools. By T. Baker, C.E. With Additions by J. Nasmyth, C.E, 2s. 6d.t 139. THE STEAM ENGINE, a Treatise on the Mathematical Theor>' of, with Rules and Examples for Practical ilen. By T. Baker, C.E. is. 6d. 164. MODERN WORKSHOP PRACTICE, as applied to Marine, Land, and Locomotive Engines, Floating Docks, Dredging ilachines, Bridges, Cranes, Ship-building, &c., &c. By J. G. Winton. Illustrated. 3s. t 165. IRON AND HEAT, exhibiting the Principles concerned in the Construction of Iron Beams, Pillars, and Bridge Girders, and the Action of Heat in the Smelting Furnace. By J. Armour, C.E. 2s. 6d.t 166. POWER IN MOTION : Horse-Power, Toothed-Wheel Gearing, Long and Short Driving Bands, and Angular Forces. By J. Armour, 2s.6d.J 171. THE WORKMAN'S MANUAL OF ENGINEERING DRAWING. By J, Maxton. 5th Edn. With 7 Plates and 350 Cuts. 3s. 6d4 190. STEAM AND THE STEAM ENGINE, Stationary and Portable. By John Sewell and D. K. Clark, INI. I. C.E. 3s. od.t 2CX). FUEL, its Combustion and Economy. By C. W. Williams, With Recent Practice in the Combustion and Economy of Fuel — Coal, Coke. Wood, Peat, Petroleum, &c.— by D. K. Clark, M.I.C.E. 3s.6d.t 202. LOCOMOTIVE ENGINES. By G. D. Dempsey, C.E. ; with large additions by D, Kinnear Clark, M.I.C.E. 3s.i 211. THE BOILERMAKER'S ASSISTANT in Drawing, Tern- plating, and Calculating Boiler and Tank Work. By John Courtney, Practical Boiler Jlaker. Edited by D. K. Clark, C.E. 100 Illustrations. 2s. 217. SEWING MACHINERY : Its Construction, History, &c., with full Technical Directions for Adjusting, &c. By J. W. Urquhart, C.E. 2s. 1 223. MECHANICAL ENGINEERING. Comprising Metallurgy, Moulding, Casting, Forging. Tools, Workshop Machinery, Manufacture ol the Steam Engine, &c. By Francis C.^.mpin, C.E. 2s. 6d.J 236. DETAILS OF MACHINERY. Comprising Instructions for the Execution of various Works in Iron in the Fitting-Shop, Foundry, and Boiler-Yard. By Fr.a.ncis Campin.'C.E. 3S.t 237. THE SMITHY AND FORGE; including the Farrier's Art and CoachSmithing. By W.'J. E. Crane. Illustrated. 2s. 6d.J 238. THE SHEET-METAL WORKER'S GUIDE; a Practical Hand- book for Tinsmiths, Coppersmiths, Zincworkers, &c. With 94 Diagframs and Working Patterns. By W. J. E. Crane, is. 6d. The X indicates that these vols, may be had stronis^ly bound at 6d. extfa. 7, stationers' HALL COURT, LUDGATE HILL, E.G. WEALE S RUDIMENTARY SERIES. MINING, METALLURGY, ETC. 4. MINERALOGY^ Rudiments of; a concise View of the Properties of Minerals. By A. Ramsay, Jun. "\Voodcuts and Steel Plates. 3s. t 117. SUBTERRANEOUS SURVEYING, Elementary and Practical Treatise on, with and without the Magnetic Needle. By Thomas Fenwick, Surveyor of Mines, and Thomas Baker, C.E. Illustrated. 2s. 6d.t 133. METALLURGY OF COPPER ; an Introduction to the Methods of Seeking, ]\Iining, and Assaying Copper, and Manufacturing its Alloys. Bv Robert H. Lamborn'. Ph.D. Woodcuts. 2s. 6d.1; 135. ELECTRO-METALLURGY ; Practically Treated. By Alex- ander "Watt, F.R.S.S.A. Eighth Edition, revised, with additional Matter and Illustrations, including the most recent Processes. 3s. i 172. MINING TOOLS, Manual of. For the Use of Mine Managers, Agents, Students, &c. By William Morgans. 2s. 6d.t 172*. MINING TOOLS, ATLAS of Engravings to Illustrate the above, containing 235 Illustrations, drawn to Scale. 4to. 4s. 6d. ; cloth boards, 6s. 176. METALLURGY OF IRON. Containing History of Iron Manu- facture. IMethods of Assa}-, and Anah'ses of Iron Ores, Processes of Manu- facture of Iron and Steel, &c. By H. Bauermax, F.G.S. Fifth Edition, revised and enlarged. 5s. i 180. COAL AND COAL MINING. By Warixgton W. Smyth, M.A., F.R.S. Fifth Edition, revised. With numerous Illustrations. 3s. 6d.t [95. THE MINERAL SURVEYOR AND VALUER'S COM- PLETE GUIDE, with new Traverse Tables, and Descriptions of Improved Instruments ; also the Correct Principles of Laying out and Valuing Mineral Properties. By William Lintern, ]\Iining and Civil Engineer. 3s. 6d.t 214. SLATE AND SLATE ^?7^/2i2F/iV6^, Scientific, Practical, and Commercial. By D. C. Davies, F.G.S., Mining Engineer, &c. 3S.J: 220. MAGNETIC SURVEYING, AND ANGULAR SURVEY- IXG, with Records of the Peculiarities of Needle Disturbances. Compiled from the Results of carefullj' made Experiments. By W. Lintern. 2S. ^^^ ARCHITECTURE, BUILDING, ETC. *i6.' ARCHITECTURE— ORDERS— The Orders and their Esthetic Principles. By W. H. Leeds. Illustrated, is. 6d. 17. ARCHITECTURE— STYLES— The History and Description of the Styles of Architecture of Various Countries, from the Earliest to the Present Period. By T. Talbot Bury, F.R.I. B.A., &c. Illustrated. 2S. %* Orders and vStvles of Architecture, ui One Vol., 35. 6d. 18. ARCHITECTURE— DESIGN— Tht Principles of Design in Architecture, as deducible from Nature and exemplified in the Works of the Greek and Gothic Architects. By E. L. Garbett, Architect. Illustrated. 2s.6d. *»* Tke three ^recedmsr Works, in One handsome Vol., half bound, entitled " Modern Architecture," price 6s. 22. THE ART OF BUILDING, Rudiments of. General Principles of Construction, Materials used in Building, Strength and Use of Materials, Working Drawings, Specifications, and Estimates. By E. Dobson, 2%.% 25. MASONRY AND STONE CUTTING ; in which the Principles of Masonic Projection and their application to the Construction of Curved Wing- Walls, Domes, Oblique Bridges, and Roman and Gothic Vaulting, are explained. By Edward Dobson, M.R.I.B.A., &c. 2S. 6d.$ 42. COTTAGE BUILDING. By C. Bruce Allen, Architect. Ninth Edition, revised and enlarged. Numerous Illustration?, is. 6d. ■ 45. LIMES, CEMENTS, MORTARS, CONCRETES, MASTICS, PLASTERING, &c. By G. R. Burnell, C.E. Twelfth Edition, is. 6d. The X indicates that these vols, may be had strongly bound at 6d. extra. LONDON : CROSBY LOCKWOOD AND CO., weale's rudimentary series. Architecture, Building, etc, continued. 57. WARMING AND VENTILATION. An Exposition of the General Principles as applied to Domestic and Public Buildings, Mines, Lighthouses, Ships, &c. By C. Tomlinson, F.R.S., &c. Illustrated. 3s. III. ARCHES, PIERS, BUTTRESSES, &>€. : Experimental Essays on the Principles of Construction. By W. Bland. Illustrated, is. 6d. , 116. THE ACOUSTICS OF PUBLIC BUILDINGS; or, The Principles of the Science of Sound applied to the purposes of the" Architect and Builder. By T. Roger Smiih, 3iI.R.I.B.A., Architect. Illustrated, is. 6d. 127. ARCHITECTURAL MODELLING IN PAPER, tlie Art of. By T. A. Richardson', Architect. Illustrated, is. 6d. 128. VITRUVIUS—THE ARCHITECTURE OF MARCUS VITRUVIUS POLLO. In Ten Books. Translated from the Latin by Joseph Gwilt, F.S.A., F.R.A.S. With 23 Plates. 5s. 130. GRECIAN ARCHITECTURE, An Inquiry into the Principles ot Beauty in ; with an Historical View of the Rise and Progress of the Art in Greece. By the Earl of Aberdeen, is. *** The two preceding Works in One handsome Vol., half bottnd, entitled "Ancient Architecture," price 6s. 132. THE ERECTION OF DWELLING-HOUSES. Illustrated by a Perspective View, Plans, Elevations, and Sections of a pair of Semi- detached Villas, with the Specification, Quantities, and Estimates, Sec. By S. H. Brooks. New Edition, with Plates. 2s. 6d,± 156. QUA NTITIES A ND ME A S UREMENTS, How to Calculate and Take them in Bricklaj-ers', Masons', Plasterers', Plumbers', Painters', Paper< hangers', Gilders', Smiths', , Carpenters', and Joiners' Work. By A. C. Beaton, Architect and Sur\-eyor. New and Enlarged Edition. Illus. is. 6d. 175. LOCK WOOD ^ CO:S BUILDER'S AND CONTRACTOR'S PRICE BOOK, containing the latest Prices of all kinds of Builders' Materials and Labour, and of all Trades connected with Building, &c., &c. Edited by F.,T. W. Miller, Architect. Published annually. 3s. 6d. ; half bound, 4s. 182. CARPENTRY AND yOINERY—TKE Elementary Prln- ciPLES OF Carpentry. Chiefly composed from the Standard Work of Thomas Tredgold, C.E. With Additions from the Works of the most Recent Authorities, and a TREATISE ON JOINERY by E. Wyndham Tarn, M.A. Numerous Illustrations. 3s. 6d.t 182*. CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. ATLAS of 35 Plates to accompany the above. With Descriptive Letterpress, 4to. 6s. ; cloth, 7s. 6d. 185. T'HE COMPLETE MEASURER ; the Measurement of Boards, Glass, &c. ; Unequal-sided, Square-sided, Octagonal-sided, Round Timber and Stone, and Standing Timber, &c. By Richard Horton. Fourth Edition. 4s. ; strongly bound in leather, 5s. 187. HINTS TO YOUNG ARCHITECTS. By G. WiGHTWiCK. New Edition. By G. H. Guillaume. Illustrated. 3s. 6d.J 188. HOUSE PAINTING, GRAINING, MARBLING, AND SIGN WRITING : containing full information on the Processes of House-Painting, the Practice of Sign-Writing, the Principles of Decorative Art, a Course of Elementary Drawing for House- Painters, Writers, &c., &c. With 9 Coloured Plates, and nearly 150 Wood Engravings. By Ellis A. Davidson. Third Edition, revised. 5s. cloth limp ; 6s. clotli boards. 189. THE RUDIMENTS OF PRACTICAL BRICKLAYING. In Six Sections: General Principles; Arch Drawing, Cutting, and Setting Pointing; Paving, Tiling, Materials; Slating and Plastering; Practical Geometry, Mensuration, &c. By Adam Hammond. Illustrated, is. 6d. 191 . PLUMBING. A Text-Book to the Practice of the Art or Craft of the Plumber. With Chapters upon House Drainage. Fourth Edition. With 330 Illustrations. By W. P. Buchan. 3s. 6d.t The \ indicates that these vols, r.iay be had strongly boufid at 6d. extra. 7, STATIONERS' HALL COURT, LUDGATE HILL, E.G. weale's rudimentary series. Architecture, Building, etc., co?itinued. 192. THE TIMBER IMPORTER'S, TIMBER MERCHANT Sy and BUILDER'S STANDARD GUIDE. By Richard E. Grandv. Second Edition, Revised. 334 206. A BOOK ON BUILDING, Civil and Ecclesiastical, including Church Restoration. With the Theory of Domes and the Great P3Tamid, &c. By Sir Edmund Beckett, Bart., LL.D.,Q.C.,F.R.A.S. 4s. ed.t 226. THE JOINTS MADE AND USED BY BUILDERS in the Construction of various kinds of Engineering^ and Architectural Works. By Wyvill J. Christy, Architect. With upwards ol 160 Engravings on Wood. 3s. t 228. THE CONSTRUCTION OF ROOFS OF WOOD AND IRON (An Elementary Treatise on). By E. Wyndham Tarn, M.A., Architect. Second edition, revised and corrected, is. 6d. 229. ELEMENTARY DECORATION : as applied to the Interior and Exterior Decoration of Dwelling-Houses, &c. By James W. Facey', Jun. Illustrated with Sixty-eight explanatory Engravings. 2S. 230. HANDR AILING (A Practical Treatise on). Showing New and Simple Methods for finding the Pitch of the Plank, Drawing the Moulds, Bevelling, Jointing-up, and Squaring the Wreath. By George Collings. Illustrated with Plates and Diagrams, is. 6d, 247. BUILDING EST A TES : a Rudimentary Treatise on the Develop- ment, Sale, Purchase, and General Management oi Building Land, including the Formation of Streets and Sewers, and the Requirements of Sanitary Authorities. By Fowler Maitland, Surve3-or. Illustrated. 2s. 248. PORTLAND CEMENT FOR USERS. By Henry Faija, Assoc. M. Inst. C.E. Second Edition, corrected. Illustrated. 2s. SHIPBUILDING, NAVIGATION, MARINE ENGINEERING, ETC. 51. NAVAL ARCHITECTURE, the Rudiments of; or an Exposi- tion of the Elementary Principles of the Science, and their Practical Appli- cation to Naval Construction, Compiled for the Use of Beginners. By James Peake. Fifth Edition, with Plates and Diagrams. 3s. 6d.| 53*. SHIPS FOR OCEAN AND. RIVER SERVICE, Elementary and Practical Principles of the Construction of. By Hakon A. Sommer- FELDT, Sur\'eyor of the Royal Norwegian Navy. With an Appendix, is. 6d. 53«*. AN ATLAS OF ENGRA VINGS to Illustrate the above. Twelve large folding plates. Royal 4to, cloth. 7s. 6d. 54, MASTING, MAST-MAKING, AND RIGGING OF SHIPS, Rudimentary Treatise on. Also Tables ol Spars, Rigging, PJocks ; Chain, Wire, and Hemp Ropes, &c., relative to every class of vessels. By Robert Kipping, N.A. Fifteenth Edition. Illustrated. 2s. t 54*. IRON SHIP-BUILDING. With Practical Examples and Details for the Use of Ship Owners and Ship Builders. By John Grantham, Con- sulting Engineer and Naval Architect. 5th Edition, with Additions. 4s. 54* ♦. AN ATLAS OB FORTY PLATES to Illustrate the above. Fifth Edition. 4to, boards. 38s. 55. THE SAILOR'S SEA BOOK: a Rudimentary Treatise on Navigation. Part I. How to Keep the Log and Work it off. Part II. On Fir.ding the Latitude and Longitude. By James Greenwood, B.A. To wnich are added, the Deviation and Error of the Compass ; Great Circle Sailing; the International (Commercial) Code oi Signals; the Rule of the Roao at Sea ; Rocket and Alortar Apparatus lor Saving Life ; the Law ot Storms ; and a Brief Dictionary of Sea Terms. With Coloured Plates of Fiags. &c. New, and enlarged edition. By W. H. Rosser. 2s. 6d.J 6^°° Tht ? indicates thai these vols. 7nay be haa stroiigiy bound at 6d. extra. LONDON : CROSBY LOCKWOOD AND CO., weale's rudimentary series. Shipbuilding, Navigation, Marine Engineering, etc., cojtt. 80. MARINE ENGINES, AND STEAM VESSELS. By Roberi Murray, C.E. Eighth Edition. [/« preparation. ZTfiis. THE FORMS OF SHIPS AND BOATS: Hints, Experiment- ally Derived, on some of the Principles regulating Ship-building. By W Bland. Seventh Edition, revised, with numerous Illustrations and ]\Iodels.is.6d. 99. NAVIGATION AND NAUTICAL ASTRONOMY, in Theory and Practice. By Prof. J. R. Young. New Edition, including the requisite Elements from the Nautical Almanac for working the Problems. 2s. 6d. 106. SHIPS' ANCHORS, a Treatise on. By G. Cotsell, N.A. is. 6d. 149. SAILS AND SAIL-MAKING, an Elementary Treatise on. With Draughting, and the Centre of Effort of the Sails. Also, Weights and Sizes of Ropes ; ^Masting, Rigging, and Sails of Steam Vessels, &c., &c. Eleventh Edition, enlarged, with an Appendix. By Robert Kipping, N.A,, Sailmaker, Quaj-side, Newcastle. Illustrated. 2s. 6d.1: 155. THE ENGINEER'S GUIDE TO THE ROYAL AND MERCANTILE NAVIES. By a Practical Engineer. Revised by D. F. M'Carthy, late of the Ordnance Survey Office, Southampton. 3s. 55 PRACTICAL NAVIGATION. Consisting of Tiie Sailor's ^ Sea-Book. By James Greenwood and W. H. Rosser. Together with 20A ^^® requisite Mathematical and Nautical Tables for the Working of the T" Problems. By Henry Law, C.E., and J. R. Y'oung, formerly Professor of Mathematics in Belfast College. Illustrated with numerous Wood Engrav- ings and Coloured Plates. 7s. Strongly half-bound in leather. AGRICULTURE, GARDENING, ETC. ei*. READY RECKONER FOR THE ADMEASUREMENT OF LAND, including Tables showing the price of work from 2s. 6d. to ;^i per acre, and other useful Tables. By Abraham Arman. Second Edition, corrected and extended by C. Norris, Surveyor, &c. 2s, [Jzist published. 131. MILLER'S, MERCHANT'S, AND FARMER'S READY RECKONER. With approximate values of Millstones, Millwork, &c. is. 140. SOILS, MANURES, AND CROPS. (Vol. i. Outlines of ]\IODERN Farming.) By R. Scott Burn. AVoodcuts. 2s. 141. FARMING &* FARMING ECONOMY, Notes, Historical and Practical, on. (Vol. 2. Outlines OF Modern Farming.) ByR. ScottBurn. 3s. 142. STOCK; CATTLE, SHEEP, AND HORSES. (Vol. 3. Outlines of Modern Farming.) By R. Scott Burn. Woodcuts. 2s. 6d. 145. DAIRY, PIGS, AND POULTRY, Management of the. By R. Scott Burn. With Notes on the Diseases of Stock. (Vol. 4. Outlines OF Modern Farming.) Woodcuts. 2s. 146. UTILIZATION OF SEWAGE, IRRIGATION, AND RECLAMATION OF WASTE LAND. (Vol. 5. Outlines of Modern Farming.) By R. Scott Burn. Woodcuts. 2s. 6d. *,* A^os. 140-1-2-5-6, in One Vol., handso7nely half-bound, entitled " Outli.nes of Modern Farming." By Robert Scott Bur.v. Price 12s. 177. FRUIT TREES, The Scientific and Profitable Culture of. From the French of Du Breuil. Revised by Geo. Glenny. 187 Woodcuts. 3s. 6d.} 198. SHEEP: TIIE IIISTOR Y, STR UCTURE, ECONOMY, AND DISEASES OF. By W. C. Spooner, M.R.V.C, &c. Fourth Edition, enlarged, including Specimens of New and Improved Breeds. 3s. 6d.$ 201. KITCHEN GARDENING MADE EASY. Showing how to prepare and lay out the ground, the best means of cultivating every known Vegetable and Herb, &c. By George M. F. Glenny. is. 6d.t 6^^ 7'he X indicates that these vols, may be had strongly bound at bd. extra. 7, STATIONERS' HALL COURT, LUDGATE HILL, E.G. WEALE S RUDIMENTARY SERIES. Agriculture, Gardening, etc., coniimied. 207. OUTLINES OF FARM MANAGEMENT, and the Organic zah'oti of Farm Labojtr : Treating of the General Work ot the Farm; Field and Live Stock; Details of Contract AVork; Specialities ot Labour, Jkc, &c. By Robert Scott Burn. 2s. 6d.+ 208. OUTLINES OF LANDED ESTATES MANAGEMENT: Treating of the Varieties of Lands, Methods of Farming, Farm Buildings, Irrigation, Drainage, &c. By R. Scott Burn. 2s. 6d.i %* A^os.. 207 6v 208 tn One Vol., handsomely hal/-boiind, entitled " Outlines of Landed Estates and Farm Management." By R. Scott Burn. Price bs. 209. THE TREE PLANTER AND PLANT PROPAGATOR. A Practical IManuai on the Propagation of Forest Trees, Fruit Trees, Flowering Shrubs, Flowering Plants, &-c. By Samuel AVood. 2s.t 210. THE TREE PRUNER. A Practical Manual on the Pruning of Fruit Trees, including also their Training and Renovation ; also the Pruning of Shrubs, Climbers, and Flowering Plants. By Samuel Wood. 2s.1: *** A'os. 209 fr-' 210 in One Vol., handsomely half-botuid, entitled "The Tree Planter, Propagator, and Pruner." By Samuel Wood. Price 5^. 218. THE HA Y AND STRA IV MEASURER : Being New Tables tor the Use of Auctioneers, Valuers, Farmers, Haj' and Straw Dealers, &c., terming a complete Calculator and Ready-Reckoner, especially adapted to persons connected with Agriculture. Fourth Edition. By John Steele. 2s. 222. SUBURBAN FARMING, The Laying-out and Cultivation of Farms, adapted to the Produce of jMilk, Butter, and Cheese, Eggs, Poultrj-, and Pigs. By Prof. John Donaldson and R. Scott Burn. 3s. 6d.t 231. THE ART OF GRAFTING AND BUDDING. By Charles Baliet. With Illustrations. 2S. 6d.1: 232. COTTAGE GARDENING ; or, F'owers, Fruits, and Vegetables ioT Small Gardens. By E. Hobday, is. 6d. 233. GARDEN RECEIPTS. Edited by Charles \V. Quin. is. 6d. 234. THE KITCHEN AND MARKET GARDEN. By Con- tributors to '' The Garden." Compiled by C. W. Shaw, Editor ot " Garden- ing Illustrated." 430 pp. 3s. t 239. TRAINING AND EMBANKING. A Practical Treatise, em- ')od3'ing the most recent experience in the Application or Improved JNIethods. By John Scott, late Professor of Agriculture and Rural Economy at the Ro3-al Agricultural College, Cirencester. With 68 Illustrations, is. 6d. 240. IRRIGA TION AND JVA TER SUPPL Y. A Treatise en Wafer ^Meadows, Sewage Irrigation, "\^'arping, &c. ; on the Construction of Wells, Ponds, and Resenoirs ; and on Raising Water by ]\Iachinery toi Agricul tural and Domestic Purposes. By Professor John Scon. With34 illustra tions. IS. 6d. 241. FARM ROADS, FENCES, AND GATES. A Practical Treatise on the Roads, Tramways, and Waterways ot the Farm; the Piinciplcs of Enclosures; and the different kinds of Fences, Gates, and Stiles. By Professor John Scott. With 75 Illustrations, is. 6d. [J test piiblislied. 242. FARM BUILDINGS. A Practical Treatise on the Buildings neressar)' lor various kinds of Farms, their Arrangement and Construction, including Plans and Estimates. By Protessoi John Scott. With 105 lllus' trations. 2s. \JJiist published. *,' I\'os. 239 to 242 form pnj-t of Scott's " Farm Engineering 1 kxt Books " I'fis follotving Volnines, completing the Series, are in active preparation : — Baen Implements and Machines. | Field Implements and Machines. Agricultural Surveying, Levelling, Ccc ^^^ The i indicates tJiat these vols, viay be had strongly bound at 6d. extra. LONDON : CROSBY LOCKWOOD AND CO., WEALES RUDIMENTARY SERIES. MATHEMATICS, ARITHMETIC, ETC. 32. MATHEMATICAL INSTRUMENTS, a Treatise on; in which their Construction and the INIethods of Testing, Adjusting-, and Using them are concisely Explained. By J. F, Heather, JNI.A., of the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich. Original Edition, in i vol.. Illustrated, is. od. *j,* In ordert7igt/ie above, becarejtilto say, " Original Edition " \No. 3?), io iis*in- guish it from the Enlarged Edition in 3 vols. {Nos. 168-9-70.) -b. DESCRIPTIVE GEOMETRY, an Elementary Treatise on; with a Theory of Shadows and of Perspective, extracted from the French o{ G. MoNGE. To which is added, a description of the Principles and Practice oi Isometrical Projection. By J. F. Heather, M.A. With 14 Plates, ■as. 17S. PRACTICAL PLANE GEOMETRY : giving the Simplest Modes of Constructing Figures contained in one Plane and Geometrical Con- struction of the Ground. By J. F. Heather, M.A. With 215 Woodcuts. 2s. 179. PROJECTION : Orthographic, Topographic, and Perspective. By J. F. Heather, M.A. [/w preparation. *#* The above three volu?nes will form a Co'i.wi.KTK Elementary Course of Mathematical Drawing. 83. COMMERCIAL BOOK-KEEPING. With Commercial Phrases and Forms in English, French, Italian, and German. By James Haddon, M.A., Arithmetical Master of King's College School, London, is. 5d. 84. ARITHMETIC, a Rudimentary Treatise on: with full Explana- tions of its Theoretical Principles, and numerous Examples for Practice. By Professor J. R. Young. Tenth Edition, corrected, is. 6d. 84*'. A Key to the above, containing Solutions in full to the Exercises, together with Comments, Explanations, and Improved Processes, for the Use of Teachers and Unassisted Learners. By J. R. Young, is. jd. 85. EQUATION AL ARITHMETIC, applied to Questions of Interest, 83*. Annuities, Life Assurance, and General Commerce ; with various Tables by which all Calculations may be greatly tacilitated. By W. Hipsley. 2s. 86. ALGEBRA, the Elements of. By Jame.s Haddon, M.A, With Appendix, containing miscellaneous Investigations, and a Collection of Problems in various parts of Algebra. 2s. 86*. A Key and Co.mpanion to the above Book, forming an extensive repository of Solved Examples and Problems in Illustration of tha various Expedients necessary in Algebraical Operations. By J. R. Young, is. 6d. 88. EUCLID, The Elements of: with many additional Propositions ^Q, and Explanatory Notes : to which is preti.xed, an Introductory Essay on Logic. By Henry Law, C.E. 2s. 6d,t *** ^old also separately, viz. : — 88. Euclid, The First Three Books. By Henry Law, C.E. is. od. 89. Euclid, Books 4, 5, 6, II, 12, By Henry Law, C.E. is. od. s,o. ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY AND CONIC SECTIONS, By James Hann. A New Edition, by Professor J. R. Young. 2s.t 91. PLANE TRIGONOMETRY, the Elements of. By James Hann, formerly I^Iathematicai Master ot King's College, London, is. 6d. 92. SPHERICAL TRIGONOMETRY, the Elements of. By James Hann. Revised by Charles H. Dowling, C.E. is. %• Or with " The Elements of Plant Trii^onnmetjy," in One Volume, 2s. 6d. 93. MENSURATION AND MEASURING. With the Mensuration and Levelling ot Land for the Purposes of Modern Engineering. By T. Baksr, C.E. New Edition by E. Nugent, C.E. Illustrated, is. Cd. 101. DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS, Elements of the. By W. S. B. WooLHOusR, F.R.A..S., &c. IS. 6d. »02. INTEGRAL CALCULUS, Rudimentary Treatise on the. By Homkrsham Cox, B.A. Illustrated, is. 105. MNEMONICAL LESSONS. — Geq-metky, Algebra, and Trigonometry, in Easy Mnemonical Lessons. By the Rev. Thomas Penyngton Kirkman, M.A. is. 6d. The t indicates that these vols, may be had stivngly bound at 6d. extra. 7, STATIONERS' HALL COURT, LUDGATE HILL, E.G. 10 WEALE'S RUDIMENTARY SERIES. Mathematics, Geometry, etc., co?itinued. 136, ARITHMETIC, Rudimentary, for the Use of Schools and Self- Instruction. By James Haddon, M.A. Revised by A. Arman. is. 6d. 137. A Key to Haddon's Rudimentary Arithmetic. By A. Arman. is. 6d. 168. DRAWING AND MEASURING INSTRUMENTS. Includ- ing — I. Instruments emplo5-ed in Geometrical and Mechanical Drawing, and in the Construction, Copying, and Measurement of Maps and Plans, II. Instruments used for the purposes of Accurate ^leasurement, and for Arithmetical Computations. By J. F. Heather, M.A. Illustrated, is. 6d 169. OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS. Including (more especially) Tele- scopes, Microscopes, and Apparatus for producing copies of ^laps and Plans by Photography. By J. F. Heather, j\I.A. Illustrated, is. 6d. 170. SURVEYING AND ASTRONOMICAL INSTRUMENTS. Including — I. Instruments Used for Determining the Geometrical Features of a portion of Ground. II. Instruments Employed in Astronomical Observa- tions. By J. F. Heather, M.A. Illustrated, is. 6d. ^* The above three volumes form an enlargement of the Author's original work, '^ MatheTnatical Instruments.^^ {See No. 32 in the Series.) ^ ^6%.^ MATHEMATICAL INSTRUMENTS. By J. F. Heather, 169. ?• M.A. Enlarged Edition, for the most part entirely re-written. The 3 Parts a» 170.^ above, in One thick Volume. With numerous Illustrations. 4s. 6d.J ■58. THE SLIDE RULE, AND HOW TO USE IT; containing full, eas5', and simple Instructions to perform all Business Calculations with unexampled rapidity and accuracy. By Charles Hoare, C.E. "With a Slide Rule in tuck of cover. 2s. 6d.t 96. THEORY OF COMPOUND INTEREST AND ANNUL TIES; with Tables of Logarithms for the more DifEcult Computations ot Interest, Discount, Annuities, &c. By F£dor Thoman. 4s. t [99. INTUITIVE CALCULATIONS; or, Easy Methods of Perform- ing the Arithmetical Operations required in Commercial and Business Trans- actions ; with Full Explanations of Decimals and Duodecimals ; Tables, &c. By D. O'GoRMAN. Twenty-fifth Edition, by Prof. J. R. Young. 3s. i 204. MATHEMATICAL 7:^^Z^.S', for Trigonometrical, Astronomical, and Nautical Calculations ; to which is prefixed a Treatise on Logarithms. By Henry Law, C.E. Together with a Series of Tables for Navigation and Nautical Astronomv. Bv Professor J, R. Young. 3s. 66l.X 221. MEASURES, WEIGHTS, AND MONEYS OF ALL NA- TIONS, and an Analj-sis of the Christian, Hebrew, and ilahometan Calendars. By W. S. B. Woolhouse, F.R.A.S., F.S.S. Sixth Edition. 2S.J 227. MATHEMATICS AS APPLIED TO THE CONSTRUC- TIVE ARTS. Illustrating the various processes of Mathematical Investi- gaMon, by n.eans of Arithmetical and Simple Algebraical Equations and Practical Examples. By Francis Campin, C.E. Second Edition. 3s. i PHYSICAL SCIENCE, NATURAL PHILO- SOPHY, ETC. 1. CHEMISTRY. By Professor George Fownes, F.R.S. With an Appendix on the Application of Chemistry to Agriculture, is. 2. NATURAL PHILOSOPHY, Introduction to the Study of. By C. ToMLiNSON. "Woodcuts. IS. 6d. 6. MECHANICS, Rudimentary Treatise on. By Ch-\rles Tom- I iNSON. Illustrated, is. 6d. 7. ELECTRICITY; showing the General Principles of Electrical Science, and the purposes to which it has been applied. By Sir W. Snow Harris, F.R.S., &c. With Additions by R. Sabine, C.E., F.S.A. is. 6d. 7*. GALVANISM. By Sir W. Snow Harris. New Edition by Robert Sabine, C.E., F.S.A. is. 6d. 8. MAGNETISM ; being a concise Exposition of the General Prin- ciples of Magnetical Science, and the Purposes to which it has been applied. By Sir W. Snow Harris. New Edition, revised and enlarged by H. M. Noad, Ph.D. With 165 Woodcuts. 3s. 6d4 gtS~ 7 he t indicates that these I'ols. may be had strongly boiind at 6d. extra. LONDON : CROSBY LOCKWOOD AND CO., WEALE'S rudimentary series. II Physical Science, Natural Philosophy, etc., continued. 11. THE ELECTRIC TELEGRAPH, its History and Progress; withDescriptionsof some of the Apparatus. By R. Sabine, C.E., F.S.A. 3s. 12. PNEUMATICS, for the Use of Beginners. By Charles ToMLiNSON. Illustrated, is. 5d. 72. MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSC A ; a Treatise on Recent and Fossil Shells. By Dr. S. P. Woodward, A.L.S. Fourth Edition. With Appendix by Ralph Tate, A.L.S., F.G.S. With numerous Plates and 30c Woodcuts. 6s. 6d. Cloth boards, 7s. 6d. 96. ASTRONOMY. By the late Rev. Robert Main, M.A. Third Edition, by William Thynne Lyn.v, B.A., F.R.A.S. 2s. 97. STATICS AND DYNAMICS, the Principles and Practice of; embracing^ also a clear development of Hydrostatics, Hydrodynamics, and Central Forces. By T. Baker, C.E. is. 6d. 138. TELEGRAPH, Handbook of the ; a Guide to (Candidates for Employment in the Teleg-raph Service. By R. Bond. Fourth Edition. Including Questions on ^lagnetism, Electricity, and Practical Telegraphy, by W. McGregor. 3s. t 173. PHYSICAL GEOLOGY, partly based on Major-General Port- lock's "Rudiments of Geology." By Ralph Tate, A.L.S. ,&c. Woodcuts. 2s. 174. HISTORICAL GEOLOGY, partly based on Major-General Portlock's "Rudiments." By Ralph Tate, A.L.S., &c. Woodcuts. 2s. 6d. 173 RUDIMENTARY TREATISE ON GEOLOGY, Physical and & Historical. Partly based on Major-General Portlock's " Rudiments of 174. Geology." By Ralph Tate, A.L.S., F.G.S. , &c. In One Volume. 4s. 6d.t 183 ANIMAL PHYSICS, Handbook of. By Dr. Lardner, D.C.L., & . formerly Professor of Natural Philosophy and Astronomy in University l8d College, Loud. With 520 Illustrations. In One Vol. 7s. 6d., cloth boards. ^* %* Sold also in Two Parts, as follows : — 183. Animal Physics. By Dr. Lardner. Part I., Chapters I.— VII. 4s. 184. Animal Physics. By Dr. Lardner. Part II., Chapters VIII.— XVIII. 3s. FINE ARTS. 20. PERSPECTIVE FOR BEGINNERS. Adapted to Young Students and Amateurs in Architecture, Painting, &c. By Georgh Pyne. 2S. 40 GLASS STAINING, AND THE ART OF PAINTING ON &4I. GLASS. From the German of Dr. Gessert and Emanuel Otto From- berg. With an Appendix on The Art of Enamelling. 2s. 6d. 69. MUSIC, A Rudimentary and Practical Treatise on. With numerous Examples. By Charles Child Spencer. 2s. 6d. 71. PIANOFORTE, The Art of Playing the. With numerous Exer- cises 8c Lessons from the Best Masters. By Charles Child Spencer. is.6d. 69-71. MUSIC is' THE PIANOFORTE. In one vol. Half bound, 5s. 181. PAINTING POPULARLY EXPLAINED, including Fresco, Oil, Mosaic, Water Colour, Water-Glass, Tempera, Encaustic, Minif.ture, Painting on Ivory, Vellum, Potter3', Enamel, Glass, &c. With Historical Sketches of the Progress of the Art by Thomas John Gullick, assisted by John Times, F.S.A. Fourth Edition, revised and enlarged. 5s. t 186. A GRAMMAR OF COLOURING, applied to Decorative Painting and the Arts. l\y George I'ield. New Edition, enlars^ed and adapted to the Use of the Ornamental l^ainter and Designer. By Ellis A. Davidson. With two new Coloured Diagrams, &c. 3s. $ 246. A DICTIONARY OF PAINTERS, AND HANDBOOK FOR PICTURE AMATEURS; including Methods of Painting, Cleaning, Re- lining and Restoring, Schools of Painting, 8cc. With Notes on the Copyist* and Imitators of each Master. By Philippe Daryi,. 2s. Cd.J The X indicates that these vols, may be had strongly bound at 6d. extra. 7, stationers' HALL COURT, LUDGATE HILL, E.G. 12 WEALES RUDIMENTARY SERIES. INDUSTRIAL AND USEFUL ARTS. 23. BRICKS AND TILES, Rudimentary Treatise on the Manufac- ture of; containing an Outline of the Principles of Brickmaking. By Edw. DoBsox, M.R.I.B, A. With Additions by C Tomlinson, F.R.S. Illustrated, 35.} 67. CLOCKS, WATCHES, AND BELLS, a Rudimentary Treatise on. By Sir Edmund Beckett, LL.D., Q.C. Seventh Edition, revised and en- larged. 4s. 6d. limp ; 5s. 6d. cloth boards. ?3**. CONSTRUCTION OF DOOR LOCKS. Compiled from the Papers of A. C. Hobbs, and Edited by Charles Tomlinson, F.R.S. With Additions by Robert Mallet, M.I.C.E. Illus, 2s. 6d. 162. THE BRASS FOUNDER'S MANUAL; Instructions for Modelling, Pattern-Making, Moulding, Turning, Filing, Burnishing, Bronzing, &c. With cooious Receipts, &c. By Walter Graham. 2s. J 205. THE ART OF LETTER PAINTING MADE EASY. By J. G. Badexoch. Illustrated with 12 full-page Engravings of Examples, is. 215. THE GOLDSMITHS HANDBOOK, containing full Instruc- tions for the Alloying and Working of Gold. By George E. Gee, 3s. $ 224. COACH BUILDING, A Practical Treatise, Historical and Descriptive. Bv J. W. Burgess. 2s. 6d.+ 225. THE SILVERSMITHS HANDBOOK, containing fuU In- structions for the Alloving and Working of Silver. By George E. Gee. 33.$ 255. PRACTICAL ORGAN BUILDING. By W. E. Dickson, M.A., Precentor of Ely Cathedral. Illustrated. 2s. 6d.t MISCELLANEOUS VOLUMES. 36. A DICTIONARY OF TERMS used ui ARCHITECTURE, BUILDING, ENGINEERING, MINING, METALLURGY, ARCHJE- OLOGY, the FINE ARTS, &-C. By John- Weale. Fifth Edition. Revised b}- Robert Hunt, F.R.S. Illustrated. 5s. limp ; 6s. cloth boards. 50. THE LAW OF CONTRACTS FOR WORKS AND SER- VICES. By David Gibbons. Third Edition, enlarged. 3s. $ 112. MANUAL OF DOMESTIC MEDICINE. By R. Gooding, B.A., M.D. Intended as a Family Guide in all Cases of Accident and Emergenc}'. Third Edition. 2s.± 112*. MANAGEMENT OF HEALTH. A Manual of Home and Personal Hj-giene. Bj'.the Rev. James Baird, B.A. is. : 150. LOGIC, Pure and Applied. By S. H. Emmens. is. 6d. 153. SELECTIONS FROM LOCKE'S ESSAYS ON THE HUMAN UNDERSTANDING. V>'ith Notes by S. H. Emmens. 2s. 154. GENERAL HINTS TO EMIGRANTS. Notices of the various Fields for Emigration, Hints on Outfits, Useful Recipes, &c. 2s. 157. THE EMIGRANT'S GUIDE TO NATAL. By Robert James Mann, F.R.A.S., F.M.S. Second Edition. ^lap. 2s. 193. HANDBOOK OF FIELD FORTIFICATION, intended for the Guidance of Officers Preparing for Promotion. By Major W. W. Knollvs, F.R.G.S. With 163 Woodcuts. 35.^. 194. THE HOUSE MANAGER: Being a Guide to Housekeeping. Practical Cooker}-, Pickling and Preserving, Household Work, Dairy Management, the Table and Dessert, Cellarage of AVines, Home-brewing and Wine-making, the Boudoir and Dressing-room, Travelling, Stable Economy, Gardening Operations, &c. By An Old Housekeeper. 3s. 6d.$ 194. HOUSE BOOK {The). Comprising :— I. The House Manager. 112. By an Old Housekeeper. II. Domestic Medicine. By Ralph Gooding, ov M.D. III. Management of Health. By Ja.mes Baird. In One Vol., strongly half-bound. 6s. 112*. ^ ^ ^^T The % indicates tJiat these vols, may be had stro7igly bound at td. extra. LONDON : CROSBY LOCKWOOD AND CO., WEALE'S EDUCATIONAL AND CLASSICAL SERIES. It EDUCATIONAL AND CLASSICAL SERIES. HISTORY. I. England, Outlines of the History of; more especially with reference to the Origin and Progress of ths English Constitution. B}' William Douglas Hamilton, F.S.A., of Her Majesty's Public Record Office. 4th Edition, revised. 5s. ; cloth boards, 5s. 5. Greece, Outlines of the History of; in connection with the Rise of the Arts and Civilization in Europe. tSy W. Douglas Hamilton, of University College, London, and Edward Levien, M.A., of Balliol College, Oxford. 2s. 6d. ; cloth boards, 3s. 6d, 7. Pcome, Outlines of the History of; from the Earliest Period to the Christian Era and the Commencement of the Decline of the Empire. By Edward Levies, of Balliol College, Oxford. Map, 2s, 6d. ; cl.bds. 3s. 5d. 9. Chronology of History, Art, Literature, and Progress, from the Creation of the World to the Conclusion of the Franco-German War. The Continuation by W. D. Hamilton, F.S.A. 3s. ; cloth boards, 3s. 6d. 50. Dates and Events in English History, for the use of Candidates in Public and Private Examinations. By the Rev. E. Rand, is. ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND MISCELLANEOUS. 11. Grammar of the English Tongue, Spoken and Written, AVith an Introduction to the Study of Comparative Philology. ^ By Hvdb Clarke, D.C.L. Fourth Edition, is. 6d. II*. Philology: Handbook of the Comparative Philology of English, Anglo-Saxon, Frisian, Flemish or Dutch, Low or Piatt Dutch, High Dutch or German, Danish, Swedish, Icelandic, Latin, Italian, French, Spanish, and Portuguese Tongues. By Hyde Clarke, D.C.L. is. 12. Dictionary of the English Language, as Spoksn and Written. Containing above 100,000 Words. By Hyue Clarke, D.C.L. 3s. 6d. ; cloth boards, 4s. 6d. ; complete with the Grammar, cloth bds., 5s.6d. 48. Composition and Punctuation, familiarly Explained for those who have neglected the Study of Grammar. By Justin Brenan, 17th Edition, is. 6d. 49. Derivative Spelling-Book: Giving the Origin of Every Word from the Greek, Latin, Saxon, German, Teutonic, Dutch, French, Spanish, and other Languages ; with their present Acceptation and Pronunciation. By J. RoWBOTHAM, F.R.A.S. Improved Edition, is. 6d. 51. The Art of Extempore Speaking: Hints for the Pulpit, the Senate, and the Bar. By M. Bautain, Vicar-General and Professor at the Sorbonne. Translated from the French. 7th Edition, carefully corrected. 2s. 6>!. 52. Mining and Quarrying, with the Sciences connected there- with. First Book of, for Schools. By J. H. Collins, F.G.S., Lecturer to the Jiliners' Association of Cornwall and Devon, is. 53. Places and Facts in Political and Physical Geography, for Candidates in Examinations. By the Rev. Edgar Rand, B.A. is. 54. Analytical Chemistry, Qualitative and Quantitative, a Course of. To which is prefixed, a Brief Treatise upon Modern Chemical Nomencla- ture and Notation. By \Vm. W. Pink and Georgk E. Webster. 2s. THE SCHOOL MANAGERS' SERIES OF READING BOOKS, Edited by the Rev. A. R. Grant, Rector of Hitcham, and Honorary Canon of Ely; formerly H.I\I. Inspector of Schools. Introductory Primer, 3^. s. d. Fourth Standard . . ,12 Fifth „ .,.16 Sixth ,, . . . i 6 Lessons i ru.m the Bidle. Part I. Old Testament, is. Lessons from the Riblh. Part II. New Testament, to which is added The Geography of the Bible, for very younp Children. By Rev. C. Thornton FoRSTER. is. 2d. \* Or the Two Parts in One Volume. 2s. .y. d. First Standard . ,06 Second ,, . . o 10 Third ,, ..10 7, STATIONERS' HALL COURT, LUDGATE HILL, E.G. 14 weale's educational and classical series. FRENCH. 24. French Grammar. With Complete and Concise Rules on the Genders of French Nouns. By G. L. Strauss, Ph.D. is. 6d. 25. French-English Dictionary. Comprising a large number of New Terms used in Engineering, Mining, &c. By Alfred Elwes. is. 6d. 26. English-French Dictionary. By Alfred Elwes. 2s. 25,26. French Dictionary (as above). Complete, in One Vol., 3s.; cloth boards, 3s. 6d. %* Or with the Grammar, cloth boards, 4s. 6d. 47. French and English Phrase Book : containing Intro- ductory Lessons, with Translations, several Vocabularies ol Words, a Col- lection of suitable Phrases, and Easy Familiar Dialogues, is. 6d. GERMAN. 39. German Grammar. Adapted for English Students, from Heyse's Theoretical and Practical Grammar, by Dr. G. L. Strauss, is. 6d. 40. German Reader : A Series of Extracts, carefully culled from the most approved Authors of Germany ; with Notes, Philological and Ex- planatory'. By G. L. Strauss, Ph.D. is. 41-43. German Triglot Dictionary. By Nicholas Esterhazy S. a. Hamilton'. In Three Parts. Part I. German-French-English. Part II. English-German-French. Part III. French-German-English. 3s., or cloth boards, 4s. 41-43 German Triglot Dictionary (as above), together with German & 39. Grammar (No. 39), in One Volume, cloth boards, 5s. ITALIAN. 27. Italian Grammar, arranged in Twenty Lessons, with a Course of Exercises. By Alfred Elwes. is. 6d. 28. Italian Triglot Dictionary, wherein the Genders of all the Italian and French Nouns are carefully noted down. By Alfred Elwbs. Vol.1. Italian-English-French. 2s. 6d. 30. Italian Triglot Dictionary. By A. Elwes. Vol. 2. English-French-Italian. 2s. 6d. 32. Italian Triglot Dictionary. By Alfred Elwes. Vol. 3. French-Italian-English. 2S. 6d. 28,30, Italian Triglot Dictionary (as above). In One Vol., 7s. 6d. 32. Cloth boards. SPANISH AND PORTUGUESE. 34. Spanish Grammar, in a Simple and Practical Form. With a Course of Exercises. By Alfred Elwes. is. 6d. 35. Spanish-English and English-Spanish Dictionary. Including a large number of Technical Terms used in Mining, Engineering, &c., with the proper Accents and the Gender of every Noun. By Alfred Elwes. 4s. ; cloth boards, 5s. *#* Or with the Grammar, cloth boards, 6s. 55. Portuguese Grammar, in a Simple and Practical Form. With a Course of Exercises. By Alfred Elwes. is. 6d. 56. Portuguese-English and English-Portuguese Dic- tionary, with the Genders of each Noun. By Alfred Elwes. \Nearly ready. HEBREW. 46*. Hebrew Grammar. By Dr. Bresslau. is. 6d. 44. Hebrew and English Dictionary, Biblical and Rabbinical; containing the Hebrew and Chaldee Roots of the Old Testament Post- Rabbinical Writings. By Dr. Bresslau. 6s. 46. English and Hebrew Dictionary. By Dr. Bresslau. 3s. 44,46. Hebrew Dictionary (as above), in Two Vols., complete, vava. 46*. the Grammar, cloth boards, 12s. LONDON : CROSBY LOCKWOGD AND CO., weale's educational and classical series. 15 LATIN. 19. Latin Grammar. Containing the Inflections and Elementary Principles of Translation and Construction. By the Rev. Thomas Goodwin, M.A., Head ilaster of the Greenwich Proprietary School, is. 20. Latin-English Dictionary. By the Rev. Thomas Goodwin, M.A. 2S. 22. English-Latin Dictionary; together with an Appendix of French and Italian Words which have their origin from the Latin. By the Rev. Thomas Goodwi.v, M.A. is. 6d. 20,22. Latin Dictionary (as above). Complete in One Vol., 3s. 6d. cloth boards, 4s. 6d. *,' Or with the Grammar, cloth boards, 5s. 6d. LATIN CLASSICS. With Explanatory Notes in English. 1. Latin Delectus. Containing Extracts from Classical Authors, with Genealogical Vocabularies and Explanatory Notes, by H. Young, is. 6d. 2. Caesaris Commentarii de Bello Galileo. Notes, and a Geographical Register lor the Use oi Schools, by H. Young. 2s. 3. Cornelius Nepos. With Notes. By H. Young, is. 4. Virgilii Maronis Bucolica et Georgica. With Notes on the Buco- lics by W. RusHTON, M.A., and on the Georgics by H. You.vo. is. 6d. 5. Virgilii Maronis ^neis. With Notes, Critical and Explanatory, by H. Young. New Edition, revised and improved With copious Addi- tional Notes by Rev. 1. H. L, Leary, D.C.L., formerly Scholar of Brasenose College, Oxford. 3s. .«;* Part I. Books i. — vi., IS. 6d. ^ S** Part 2. Books vii.—xii., 2S. 6. Horace ; Odes, Epode, and Carmen Sseculare. Notes by H. Young, is. 6d. 7. Horace; Satires, Epistles, and Ars Poetica. Notes by W. Brown- rigg Smith, AI.A., F.R.G.S. is. 6d. 8. Sallustii Crispi Catalina et Bellum Jugurthinum. Notes, Critical and Explanatory, by W. i\L Donne, B.A., Trin. Coll., Cam. is. 6d. 9. Terentii Andria et Heautontimorumenos. With Notes, Critical and Explanatcr)-, by the Rev. James Davies, M.A. is. 6d. 10. Terentii Adelphi, Hecyra, Phormio. Edited, with Notes, Critical and Explanatory, by the Rev. James Davies, M.A. 2s. 11. Terentii Eunuchus, Comoedia. Notes, by Rev. J. Davies, M.A. IS. 6d. 12. Ciceronis Oratio pro Sexto Roscio Amerino. Edited, with an Introduction, Analysis, and Notes, Explanatory and Critical, by the Rev. James Davies, M.A. is. 6d. 13. Ciceronis Orationes in Catilinam, Verrem, et pro Archia. With Introduction, Analysis, and Notes, Explanatory and Critical, by Rev. T. H. L. Learv, D.C.L. formerly Scholar of Brasenose College, Oxford. IS. 6d. 14. Ciceronis Cato Major, Lselius, Brutus, sive de Senectute, de Ami- citia, de Claris Oratoribus Dialog!. With Notes by W. Brownrigg Smith, M.A., F.R.G.S. cs. 16. Livy : History of Rome. Notes by H. VoUNG and W. B. Smith, M.A. Part i. Books i., 11., is. 6d. 16*, Part 2. Books iii., iv., v., is. 6d. 17. Part 3. Books XXI., xxii., IS. 6d. 19. Latin Verse Selections, trom Catullus, Tibullus, Propertius, ana Ovid, ^.otes by \V. B. Donne, M.A., Trinity College, Cambridge. 2s 20. Latin Pros« Selections, trom Varro, Columella, Vitruvius, Seneca, Ouintilian, Piorus, Velleius Paterculus, Valerius Maximus Sueto- nius, Apuleius, &c. Notes by \V. B. Donne, M.A. 2s. 21. Juvenalis Satirae. With Prolegomena and Notes by T. H. S. iLSCOTT, B.A , Lecturer on Logic at King's College, London. 2s. 7, STATIONERS HALL COURT, LUDGATE HILL, E.G. 1 6 weale'? educational and classical series. GREEK. ij. Greek Grammar, in accordance with the Principles and Philo- logical Researches of the most eminect Scholars cf cur own day. By Hans Claude Hamilton, is. 6d. [5,17. Greek Lexicon. Containing all the Words in General Use, with their Significations, Inflections, and Dcubtful Quantities. By Henry R. Hamilton. Vol. i. Greek-English, 2s. ed. ; Vol. 2. English-Greek, 2s. Or the Two Vols, in One, 4s. 6d. : cloth boards, 5s. r4. 15. Greek Lexicon (as above). Complete, with the Grammar, in 17. One Vcl., cloth boards, 6s. GREEK CLASSICS. With Explanatory Notes in English. I. Greek Delectus. Containing Extracts from Classical Authors, with Genealogical Vocabularies and Explanator}- Notes, byH. Young. New Edition, with an improved and enlarged Supplementar}' Vocabulary, by John Hutchison, jNI.A., of the High School, Glasgow, is. 6d. 2, 3. Xenophon's Anabasis; or. The Retreat of the Ten Thousand. Notes and a Geographical Register, by H. Young. Part i. Books i. to iii., IS. Part 2. Books iv. to vii., is. 4. Lucian's Select Dialogues. The Text carefully revised, with Grammatical and Explanatory Notes, by H. Young, is. 6d. 5-12. Homer, The Works of. According to the Text of Baeumlein. With Notes, Critical and Explanatorj', drawn from the best and latest Authorities, with Preliminary Observations and Appendices, by T. H. L. Leary, M.A., D.C.L. The Iliad : Part i. Books i. to vi., is.6d. Part 3. Books xiii. to xviii., is. 6d. Part 2. Books vii. to xii., is. 6d. Part 4. Books xix. to xxiv., is. 6d. The Odyssey: Parti. Books i. to vi., is. 6d Part 3. Books xiii. to xviii., is. 6d. Part 2. Books vii. to xii., IS. 6d. Part 4. Books xix. to xxiv., and Hymns, 2s. 13. Plato's Dialogues : The Apology o'f Socrates, the Crito, and the Phsedo. From the Text of C. F. Hermann. Edited with Notes. Critical and Explanatorj', by the Rev. James Davies, M.A. 2s. 14-17. Herodotus, The History of, chiefly after the Text of Gaisford. With Preliminary Obser\-ations and Appendices, and Notes, Critical and Explanatorj', by T. H. L. Leary, M.A., D.C.L. Part I. Books i., ii. (The Clio and Euterpe\ 2s. Part 2. Books iii., iv. (The Thalia and Melpomene}, 2s. Part 3. Books v. -vii. (The Terpsichore, Erato, and Polymnia), 2S. Part 4. Books viii., ix. (The Urania and Calliope) and Index, is. 6d. 18. Sophocles: CEdipus Tyrannus. Notes by H. Young, is. 20. Sophocles: Antigone. From the Text ot Dindorf. Notes, Critical and Explanatory, by the Rev. John Milner, B.A. 2s. 23. Euripides : Hecuba and Medea. Chiefly from the Text of Din- dorf With Notes, Critical and Explanatory^, by W. Brownrigg Smith, M.A., F.R.G.S. IS. 6d. , ^ ^^ „... 26. Euripides: Alcestis. Chiefly from the Text of Dindorf. With Notes, Critical and Explanatory-, by John ]\Iilner, B.A. is. 6d. to. .^schylus : Prometheus Vinctus : The Prometheus Bound. From the Text of Dindorf. Edited, with English Notes, Critical and Explanatory, by the Rev. James Davies, M.A. is. t-* ^Eschylus : Septem Contra Thebes : The Seven against Thebes. From the Text of Dindorf. Edited, with English Notes, Critical and Ei- planator}', by the Rev. James Davies, M.A. is. 40 Aristophanes : Acharnians. Chiefly from the Text of C. H. Weise. W^ithNotes,byC.S.T. Townshend, M.A. is.6d. 41. Thucydides: History of the Peloponnesian War. Notes by H. Young. Book i. is. -vt i j t 1 _ 42. Xenophon's Panegyric on Agesilaus. Notes and Intro- 4^ Demosthenes''\^hr6V^ the Crown and the Philippics, •^' wTEnglSh Notes. By Rev. T. H. L. Learv, D.C.L., formerly Scholar of Brasenose College, Oxford, is^^d^ CROSBY LOCKWOOdTneTcO., 7, STATIONERS' HALL COURT, E.G. London, December, 1883. % Catal00m of §00ks INCLUDING MANY NEW AND STANDARD WORKS IN ENGINEERING, ARCHITECTURE, AGRICULTURE, MATHEMATICS, MECHANICS, SCIENCE, ETC. PUBLISHED BY CROSBY LOGK^VOOD & CO., 7, STATIONERS'-HALL COURT, LUDGATE HILL. E.G. ENGINEERING, SURVEYING, ETC. Humbers Work on Water-Supply. A COMPREHENSIVE TREATISE on the WATER-SUPPLY of CITIES and TOWNS. By William Humber, A.-M. Inst. C.E., and M. Inst. M.E. Illustrated with 50 Double Plates, I Single Plate, Coloured Frontispiece, and upwards of 250 Wood- cuts, and containing 400 pages of Text. Imp. 4to, 6/. 6^. elegantly and substantially half-bound in morocco. Li'si of Contents ', — ■ I. Historical Sketch of some of the means that have been adopted for the Supply of Water to Cities and Towns. — II. Water and the Foreign Matter usually associated with it. — III. Rainfall and Evaporation. — IV. Springs and the water- bearing formations of various districts. — V. Measurement and Estimation of the Flow of Water.— VI. On the Selection of the Source of Supply. — VII. Wells. — VIII. Reservoirs. — IX. The Purification of Water. — X. Pumps. — XI. Pumping Machinery.— XII. Conduits.— XIII. Dis- tribution of Water.— XIV. Meters, Ser- vice Pipes, and House Fittings. — XV. The Law and Economy of Water Works. — XVI. Constant and Intermittent Supply. — XVII. Description of Plates. — Appen- dices, giving Tables of Rates of Supply, Velocities, &c. &c. , together with Specifi- cations of several Works illustrated, among which will be found : — Aberdeen, Bideford, Canterbury, Dundee, Halifax, Lambeth, Rotherham, Dublin, and others. " The most systematic and valuable work upon water supply hitherto produced in English, or in any other language .... Mr. Humber's work is characterised almost throughout by an exhaustiveness much more distinctive of French and German than of English technical treatises." — Engitieer. Humberts Work on Bridge Construction. A COMPLETE and PRACTICAL TREATISE on CAST and WROUGHT-IRON BRIDGE CONSTRUCTION, including Iron Foundations. In Three Parts — Theoretical, Practical, and Descriptive. By William Humber, A. -M. Inst. C.E., and M.Inst. M.E. Third Edition, with 115 Double Plates. In 2 vols. imp. 4to, 6/. i6s. 6d. half-bound in morocco. " A book — and particularly a large and costly treatise like Mr. Humber's — which has reached its third edition may certainly be said to have establislied its own reputation. " — E/rj; ineering. B WORKS IN ENGINEERING, SURVEYING, ETC., Htimbers Modern Engineering. A RECORD of the PROGRESS of MODERN ENGINEER- ING. First Series, Comprising Civil, Mechanical, Manne, Hy- draulic, Railway, Bridge, and other Engineering Works, &c. By William Humber, A.-M. Inst. C.E., &c. Imp. 4to, with 36 Double Plates, drawn to a large scale, and Portrait of John Hawkshaw, C.E., F.R.S., &c. , and descriptive Letter-press, Speci- fications, &c, 3/. y. half morocco. Lis^ of the Plates and Diagrams. Victoria Station and Roof, L. B. & S. C. R. (8 plates); Southport Pier (2 plates); Victoria Station and Roof, L. C. & D. and G. W. R. (6 plates) ; Roof of Cremorne Music Hall ; Bridge over G. N. Railway ; Roof of Station, Dutch Rhenish Rail (a plates) ; Bridge over the Thames, West London Extension Railway (5 plates) ; Ar- mour Plates ; Suspension Bridge, Thames (4 plates) : The Allen Engine ; Suspension Bridge, Avon (3 plates); Underground Railway (3 plates). HUMBER'S RECORD OF MODERN ENGINEERING. Second Series. Imp. 4to, with 36 Double Plates, Portrait of Robert Ste- phenson, C.E., &c., and descriptive Letterpress, Specifications, &c. 3/. 3^. half morocco. List of the Plates and Diagj-avis. Viaduct. Merthyr, Tredegar, and Aberga- venny Railway ; College Wood Viaduct, Cornwall Railway ; Dublin Winter Palace Roof (3 plates) ; Bridge over the Thames, L. C. and D. Railway (6 plates) ; Albert Harbour, Greenock (4 plates). Birkenhead Docks, Low Water Basin (15 plates) ; Charing Cross Station Roof, C. C. Railway (3 plates) ; Digswell Via- duct, G. N. Railway ; Robbery Wood Viaduct, G. N. Railway ; Iron Permanent Way ; Clydach Viaduct, Merthyr, Tre- degar, and Abergavenny Railway ; Ebbw HUMBER'S RECORD OF MODERN ENGINEERING. Third Series. Imp. 4to, with 40 Double Plates, Portrait of J. R. M 'Clean, Esq., late Pres. Inst. C.E., and descriptive Letterpress, Specifica- tions, &c. 3/. 3^. half morocco. List of the Plates ajid Diagrams. Main Drainage, Metropolis. — ' Branch (2 plates) ; Outfall Sewer, Reser- North Side. — Map showing Interception of Sewers ; Middle Level Sewer (2 plates) ; Outfall Sewer, Bridge over River Lea (3 plates); Outfall Sewer, Bridge over Marsh Lane, North Woolwich Railwaj'^, and Bow and Barking Railway Junction ; Outfall Sewer, Bridge over Bow and Barking Railway (3 plates); Outfall Sewer, Bridge over East London Waterworks' Feeder (2 plates) ; Outfall Sewer, Reservoir (2 plates) ; Outfall Sewer, Tumbling Bay and Outlet ; Outfall Sewer, Penstocks. South Side. — Outfall Sev/er, Bermondsey HUMBER'S RECORD OF MODERN ENGINEERING. Fourth Series. Imp. 4to, with 36 Double Plates, Portrait of John Fowler, Esq., late Pres. Inst. C.E., and descriptive Letterpress, Specifica- tions, &c. 3/. 3^. half morocco. List of the Plates ajid Diagrams. voir and Outlet (4 plates) ; Outfall Sewer, Filth Hoist ; Sections of Sewers (North and South Sides). Thames Embankment. — Section of River Wall ; Steamboat Pier, Westminster (2 plates) ; Landing Stairs between Cha- ring Cross and Waterloo Bridges ; York Gate (2 plates) ; Overflow and Outlet at Savoy Street Sewer (3 plates) ; Steamboat Pier, Waterloo Bridge (3 plates) ; Junc- tion of Sewers, Plans and Sections ; Gullies, Plans and Sections ; Rolling Stock ; Gra- nite arxd Iron Forts. Abbey Iklills Pumping Station, Main Drainage, Metropolis (4 plates) ; Barrow Docks (5 plates) ; Manquis Viaduct, San- tiago and Valparaiso Railway (2 plates) ; Adam's Locomotive, St. Helen's Canal Railway (2 plates) ; Cannon Street Station Roof, Charing Cross Railway (3 plates) ; Road Bridge over the River Moka (2 plates) Telegraphic Apparatus for Meso- potamia ; Viaduct over the River Wye, Midland Railway (3 plates); St. German's Viaduct, Cornwall Railway (2 plates) ; Wrought-Iron Cylinder for Diving Bell ; Millwall Docks (6 plates) ; Milroy's Patent Excavator, Metropolitan District Railway (6 plates) ; Harbours, Ports, and Break- waters (3 plates). PUBLISHED BY CROSBY LOCKWOOD & CO. Strains in Iron Frameworks, &c. GRAPHIC AND ANALYTIC STATICS IN THEORY AND COMPARISON. Their Practical Application to the Treatment of Stresses in Roofs, Solid Girders, Lattice, Bowstring and Sus- pension Bridges, Braced Iron Arches and Piers, and other Frame- works. To which is added a Chapter on \Yind Pressures. By R. Hudson Graham, C.E. With numerous Examples, many taken from existing Structures. 8vo., i6s. cloth. "Mr. Graham s book will find a place wherever graphic and analytic statics are used or studied." — Enghieer. " This exhaustive treatise is admirably adapted for the architect and engineer, and will tend to wean the prefession from a tedious and laboured mode of calcula- tion. To prove the accuracy of the graphical demonstrations, the author compares them with the analytic formulae given by RankinG."—B7iiMmg- JVews. Strength of Girders. GRAPHIC TABLE for FACILITATING the COMPUTA- TION of the WEIGHTS of WROUGHT-IRON and STEEL GIRDERS, &c., for Parliamentary and other Estimates. By J. H. WatsOxN Buck, M. Inst. C. E. On a Sheet, 2s. 6d. Strains, Formulcu & Diagra7ns for Calculation of, A HANDY BOOK for the CALCULATION of STRAINS in GIRDERS and SIMILAR STRUCTURES, and their STRENGTH ; consisting of Formulae and Corresponding Diagrams, with numerous Details for Practical Application, &c. By William HUMBER, A.-M. Inst. C.E., &c. Third Edition. Cr. 8vo, Is. dd. cl. Strains, THE STRAINS ON STRUCTURES OF IRONWORK; with Practical Remarks on Iron Construction. By F. W. Sheii.ds, M. Inst. C.E. Second Edition, with 5 Plates. Royal 8vo, 5^. cloth. "The student cannot find a better book on this subject thanMr. Sheilds'." — Engineer. Barlow on the Strength of Materials, enlarged. A TREATISE ON THE STRENGTH OF MATERIALS, with Rules for application in Architecture, the Construction of Suspension Bridges, Railways, &c. By Peter Barlow, F.R.S. Revised by his Sons, P. W. and W. H. Barlow. Edited by W. HuMBER, A-M. Inst. C.E. 8vo, \Zs. cloth. "The standard treatise upon this particular subject." — Engineer. Strength of Cast Iron, &c. A PRACTICAL ESSAY on the STRENGTH of CAST IRON and OTHER METALS. By T. Tredgold, C.E. 5th Edition. To which are added, Experimental Researches on the Strength, &c., of Cast Iron. By E. Hodgkinson, F.R.S. 8vo, \2s. cloth. *^* Hodgkinson's Researches, separate, price 6j. Hydraulics. HYDRAULIC TABLES, CO-EFFICIENTS, and FORMULA for finding the Discharge of Water from Orifices, Notches, Weirs, Pipes, and Rivers. With New Fonnulce, Tables, and General Information on Rain-fall, Catchment-Basins, Drainage, Sewerage, and Water Supply. By J. Neville, C.E., M.R.I.A. Third Edition, Revised and Enlarged. Crown 8vo, I4J-. cloth. B 2 4 WORKS IN ENGINEERING, SURVEYING, ETC., Hydraulics. HYDRAULIC I^IANUAL. Consisting of Vvorking Tables and Explanatory Text. Intended as a Guide in Hydraulic Calculations and Field Operations. By Lowis D'A. Jackson. Fourth Edition. Rewritten and Enlarged. Large Crown 8vo., i6s. cloth. " Mr. Jackson's Hydraulic Manual is recognised as the standard work in this department of mechanics. The present edition has been brought abreast of the most recent practice." — Scotsman. River E^igineering. RIVER BARS : The Causes of their Formation, and their Treat- ment by 'Induced Tidal Scour,' with a Description of the Successful Reduction by this Method of rhe Bar at Dublin. By I. J. Mann, Assis. Eng. to the Dublin Port and Docks Board. Rl. 8yo. ^s, 6d. cl. Levelling. A TREATISE on the PRINCIPLES and PRACTICE of LEVELLING ; showing its Application to Purposes of Railway and Civil Engineering, m the Construction of P.oads ; with Mr, Telford's Rules for the sam.e. By Frederick \V. Simms, F.G.S., M. Inst. C.E. Sixth Edition, very carefully revised, with the addition of Mr. Law's Practical Examples for Setting out Railway Curves, and Mr. Trautwine's Field Practice of Laying out Circular Curves. ^Yith 7 Plates and numerous Woodcuts. 8vo, %s. 6d. cloth. *»* Trautwine on Cur/es, separate, $s. Practical Tttnnelling. PRACTICAL TUNNELLING : Explaining in detail the Setting out of the Works, Shaft-sinking and Heading-Driving, Ranging the Lines and Levelling under Ground, Sub-Excavating, Tunbering, and the Construction of the Brickwork of Tunnels with the amount of labour required for, and the Cost of, the various portions of the work. By F. W. SiMMS, M. Inst. C.E. Third Edition, Revised and Extended. By D. Kinnear Clark, M.I. C.E. Imp. 8vo, with 2 1 Folding Plates and numerous Wood Engravings, 30J. cloth. Civil and Hydraulic Engijieering. CIVIL ENGINEERING. By Henry Law, M. Inst. C.E. Including a Treatise on Hydraulic Engineering, by George R. BuRNELL, M.I. C.E. Seventh Edition, Revised, with large addi- tions, by D. Kinnear Clark, M. Inst. C.E. ^s. 6d., cloth. Gas- Lighting. COMMON SENSE FOR GAS-USERS: a Catechism of Gas- Lighting for Householders, Gasfitters, Millowners, Architects, Engineers, &c. By R. Wilson, C.E. 2nd Edition. Cr. 8vo, 2s. 6d. Earthwork, EARTHWORK TABLES, showing the Contents in Cubic Yards of Embankments, Cuttings, &c., of Heights or Depths up to an average of 80 feet. By Joseph Broadbent, C.E., and Francis Cam PIN, C.E. Cr. 8vo, oUong, 5x. cloth. PUBLISHED BY CROSBY LOCKWOOD & CO. 5 Tramways and their Working, TRAMWAYS : THEIR CONSTRUCTION and WORKING. Embracing a Comprehensive Histoiy of the System, with an Exhaustive Analysis of the various modes of Traction, including Horse-power, Steam, Heated Water, and Compressed Air ; a Description of the Varieties of Rolling Stock, and Ample Details of Cost and Working Expenses ; the Progress recently made in Tramway Construction, &c., &c. By D, Kinnear Clark, M. Inst. C. E. With over 200 Wood Engravings, and 13 Folding Plates. 2 vols. Large Crown 8vo, 30^-. cloth. " All interested in tramways must refer to it, as all railway engineers have turned to the author's work ' Railway Machinery. ' " — The Engineer, " The work is based on former tramway experience, and is specially valuable in these days of rapid change and progress." — Engifieering. Steam. STEAM AND THE STEAM ENGINE, Stationary and Port- able. Being an Extension of Sewell's Treatise on Steam. By D. Kinnear Clark, M.I.C.E. Second Edition. i2mo, 4J-. cloth. Steam Engine. TEXT-BOOK ON THE STEAM ENGINE. By T. M. GOODEVE, M.A., Barrister-at-Law, Author of "The Principles of Mechanics," "The Elements of Mechanism," &c. Fifth Edition. With numerous Illustrations. Crown 8vo, 6^. cloth. "Mr. Goodeve's text-book is a work of which every young engineer should pos- sess himself. " — Mining Journal. Steam. THE SAFE USE OF STEAM : containing Rules for Unpro- fessional Steam Users. By an Engineer. 4th Edition. Sewed, 6^. " If steam-users would but learn this little book by heart, boiler explosions would become sensations by their rarity." — English Mecfianic, Smithing and Farriery, THE SiMlTHY AND FORGE. A Rudimentary Treatise, including Instructions in the Farrier's Art, and a Chapter on Coach-Smithing. By W. J. E. Crane. 3j-. cloth. Mecha7iical Engineering. DETAILS OF MACHINERY : Comprising Instnictions for the Execution of various Works in Iron, in the Fitting-Shop, Foundry, and Boiler- Yard. By Francis C ampin, C.E. 3j-. 6d. cloth. Mechanical Engineering. MECHANICAL ENGINEERING : Comprising Metallurgy, Moulding, Casting, Forging, Tools, Workshop Machinery, Manu- facture of the Steam Engine, &c. By F. Cam tin, C.E. 3^-. cloth. Wo7'ks of Construction. MATERIALS AND CONSTRUCTION : a Theoretical and Practical Treatise on the Strains, Designing, and Erection of Works of Construction. By F. CAMriN,C.E. i2mo, y.dd. cl. brds. Iron Bridges, Girders, Roofs, &c. A TREATISE ON THE APPLICATION OF IRON TO THE CONSTRUCTION OF BRIDGES, GIRDERS, ROOFS, AND OTHER WORKS. ByF.CAMPiN, C.E. i2mo,3j. 6 WORKS IN ENGINEERING, SURVEYING, ETC., Bridge Co7istrtiction in Masonry ^ Timber, & Iron. EXAMPLES OF BRIDGE AND VIADUCT CONSTRUC- TION IX MASONRY, TIMBER, AND IRON ; consisting of 46 Plates from the Contract Drawings or Admeasurement of select Works. By W. Davis Haskoll, C.E. Second Edition, with the addition of 554 Estimates, and the Practice of Setting out Works, with 6 pages of Diagrams. Imp. 4to, 2.1. I2s, 6d, half-morocco. "A >-ork of the present nature by a man of Mr. Haskoll's experience, must prove Invaluable. The tables of estimates considerably enhance its value," — En£i7ieering. Obliqne Bridges. A PRACTICAL and THEORETICAL ESSAY on OBLIQUE BRIDGES, with 13 large Plates. By the late Geo. Watson Buck, M.I. C.E. Third Edition, revised by his Son, J. H.Watson Buck, M.I. C.E. ; and with the addition of Description to Dia- gi-ams for Facilitating the Construction of Oblique Bridges, by W. H. Barlow, M. I. C. E. Royal 8vo, I2J. cloth. " The standard text book for all engineers regarding skew arches." — Engineer. Oblique Arches. A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON THE CONSTRUCTION of OBLIQUE ARCHES. By John Hart. 3rd Ed. Imp. 8vo, 8j. cloth. Boiler Co7istruction. THE MECHANICAL ENGINEER'S OFFICE BOOK: Boiler Construction. By Nelson Foley, Cardiff, late Assistant I\Ianager Palmer's Engine Works, Jarrow. With 29 full-page Lithogi'aphic Diagrams. Folio 21s. half-bound. L ocomotive-Eng ine Driving, LOCOMOTIVE-ENGINE DRIVING ; a Practical Manual for Engineers in charge of Locomotive Engines. By Michael Reynolds, M. S. E. Sixth Edition. Including A KEY TO THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE. With lUustrations. Cr.Svo, ^.^d. cl. " Mr. Reynolds has supplied a want, and has supplied it well." — Engineer. The Engineer, Fireman, and Engine-Boy. THE MODEL LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEER, FIREMAN, AND ENGINE-BOY. By M. Reynolds. Crown 8vo, 4J. 6^. Stationary Engine Driving. STATIONARY ENGINE DRIMNG. A Practical ^L1nual for Engineers in Charge of Stationary Engines. By Michael Rey- nolds. Second Edition, Revised and Enlarged. With Plates and Woodcuts. Crown 8vo, ^s. 6d. cloth. Engine- Driving Life. ENGINE-DRIVING LIFE ; or Stirring Adventures and Inci- dents in the Lives of Locomotive Engine-Drivers. By Michael Reynolds. Eighth Thousand. Crov^Ti 8vo, is. cloth. Contin7tons Railway Brakes. CONTINUOUS RAILWAY BRAKES. A Practical Treatise on the several Systems in Use in the United Kingdom ; their Construc- tion and Performance. With copious Illustrations and numerous Tables, By Michael Reynolds. Large Crown 8vo, gs. cloth. PUBLISHED BY CROSBY LOCKWOOD & CO. 7 Constnution of Iron Beams, Pillars^ &c, IRON AND HEAT ; exhibiting the Principles concerned in the construction of Iron Beams, Pillars, and Bridge Girders, and the Action of Heat in the Smelting Furnace. By J. Armour, C.E. 3^. Fire Engineering. FIRES, FIRE-ENGINES, AND FIRE BRIGADES. With a History of Fire-Engines, their Construction, Use, and Manage- ment ; Remarks on Fire- Proof Buildings, and the Preservation of Life from Fire ; Statistics of the Fire Appliances in English Towns ; Foreign Fire Systems ; Hints on Fire Brigades, &c. , &c. By Charles F. T. Young, C.E. Demy 8vo, i/. 4^. cloth, Trigononietrical Surveying, AN OUTLINE OF THE METHOD OF CONDUCTING A TRIGONOMETRICAL SURVEY, for the Formation of Geo- graphical and Topographical Maps and Plans, Military Recon- naissance, Levelling, &c., with the most useful Problems in Geodesy and Practical Astronomy. By Lieut. -Gen. Frome, R.E., late In- spector-General of Fortifications. Fourth Edition, Enlarged, and partly Re-written. By Captain Charles Warren, R.E. With 19 Plates and 115 Woodcuts, royal 8vo, i6x. cloth. Tables of Curves. TABLES OF TANGENTIAL ANGLES and MULTIPLES for setting out Curves from 5 to 200 Radius. By Alexander Beazeley, M. Inst. C.E. Third Edition. Printed on 48 Cards, and- sold in a cloth box, waistcoat-pocket size, 3^. 6^. ' Each table is printed on a small card, which, being placed on the theodolite, leaves the hands free to manipulate the instrument." — Engi?ieer. " Very handy ; a man may know that all his day's work must fall on two of these cards, which he puts into his own card-case, and leaves the rest behind." — Pionee7'' Engineering. {Athetmum. PIONEER ENGINEERING. A Treatise on the Engineering Operations connected with the Settlement of Waste Lands in New Countries. By Edward Dobson, A. I. C.E. With Plates and Wood Engravings. Revised Edition. i2mo, 5^. cloth. " A workmanlike production, and one without possession of which no man should start to encounter the duties of a pioneer engineer." — Athenceuni. Engineering Fieldwork. THE PRACTICE OF ENGINEERING FIELDWORK, applied to Land and Hydraulic, Hydrographic, and Submarine Surveying and Levelling. Second Edition, revised, with consider- able additions, and a Supplement on WATERWORKS, SEWERS, SEWAGE, and IRRIGATION. By W. Davis Haskoll, C.E. Numerous folding Plates. In i Vol., demy 8vo, i/. 5^., cl. boards. Large T2m7iel Shafts. THE CONSTRUCTION OF LARGE TUNNEL By J. II. Watson Buck, M. Inst. C.E., &c. Illustrated^th Fold- ing Plates. Royal 8vo, \2s. cloth. " Many of the methods given are of extreme practical value to the mason, and the observations on the form of arch, the rules for ordering the stone, and the construc- tion of the templates, will be found of considerable use. We commend the book to the profession, and to all who have to build similar shafts." — Building News. 8 V^^ORKS IN ENGINEERING, SURVEYING, ETC., Survey Practice, AID TO SURVEY PRACTICE : for Reference in Surveying, Levelling, Setting-out and in Route Surveys of Travellers by Land and Sea. With Tables, Illustrations, and Records. By Lowis D'A. Jackson, A.-M.I.C.E. Author of "Hydraulic Manual and Statistics," &c. Large crown 8vo, \2s, 6d., cloth. " Mr. Jackson has had much and varied experience in field work and some know- ledge of bookmaking, and he has utilised both these acquirements with a very useful result. The volume covers the ground it occupies ver^- thoroughly." — Engi7ieeriiig. "A general text book was wanted, and we are able to speak with confidence of Mr. Jackson's treatise. . . . \¥e cannot recommend to the student who knows something of the mathematical principles of the subject a better coiu^e than to fortify his practice in the field under a competent surveyor with a study of Mr. Jackson's useful manual. The field records illustrate every kind of survey, and will be found an essential aid to the student." — Builduig News. Sanitary Work, SANITARY WORK IN THE SMALLER TOWNS AND IN VILLAGES. Comprising : — i. Some of the more Common Forms of Nuisance and their Remedies ; 2. Drainage ; 3. Water Supply. By Chas. Slagg, Assoc. ]M. Inst. C.E. Second Edition, Revised and Enlarged. 3J-. 6rt'., cloth boards. \y list published. "This book contains all that such a treatise can be expected to contain, and is sound and trustworthy in every particular." — Builder. Gas and Gasworks. THE CONSTRUCTION OF GASWORKS AND THE MANUFACTURE AND DISTRIBUTION OF COAL-GAS, Originally written by S. Hughes, C.E. Sixth Edition. Re-written and enlarged, by W. Richards, C.E. i2mo, ^s. cloth. Waterworks for Cities and Towns. WATERWORKS for the SUPPLY of CITIES and TOWNS, with a Description of the Principal Geological Formations of Eng- land as influencing Supplies of Water. By S. Hughes. 4^. 6^/. cloth. Ftiels and their Econojny, FUEL, its Combustion and Economy ; consisting of an Abridg- ment of "A Treatise on the Combustion of Coal and the Prevention of Smoke." By C. W. Williams, A. I. C.E. With extensive additions on Recent Practice in the Combustion and Economy of Fuel — Coal, Coke, Wood, Peat, Petroleum, &c. ; by D. Kin- near Clark, M. Inst. C.E. Second Edition, revised. With Illustrations. i2mo. ^. cloth boards. " Students should buy the book and read it, as one of the most complete and satis- factory' treatises on the combustion and economy of fuel to be had." — Etigincer. Roads and Streets. THE CONSTRUCTION OF ROADS AND STREETS. In Two Parts. I. The Art of Constructing Common Roads. By Henry Law, C.E. Revised and Condensed. II. Recent Practice in the Construction of Roads and Streets : including Pavements of Stone, Wood, and Asphalte. By D. Kinnear Clark, M. Inst. C.E. Second Edit., revised. i2mo, Sj. cloth. ** A book which every borough surveyor and engineer must possess, and of consi- derable service to architects, builders, and property owners." — Building News. PUBLISHED BY CROSBY LOCKWOOD & CO. Locomotives, LOCOMOTIVE ENGINES, A Rudimentary Treatise on. Com- prising an Historical Sketch and Description of the Locomotive Engine. By G. D. Dempsey, C.E. With large additions treat- ing of the Modern Locomotive, by D. Kinnear Clark, M. Inst. C.E. With Illustrations. i2mo. 3^. 6cZ. cloth boards. "The student cannot fail to profit largely by adopting this as his preliminary text- book."— Iroji and Coal Trades Review. Fie Id-Book for Engineers. THE ENGINEER'S, MINING SURVEYOR'S, and CON- TRACTOR'S FIELD-BOOK. By W. Davis Haskoll, C.E. Consisting of a Series of Tables, with Rules, Explanations of Systems, and Use of Theodolite for Traverse Surveying and Plotting the Work with minute accuracy by means of Straight Edge and Set Square only; Levelling with the TheodoHte, Casting out and Re- ducing Levels to Datum, and Plotting Sections in the ordinary manner; Setting out Curves with the Theodolite by Tangential Angles and Multiples with Right and Left-hand Readings of the Instrament ; Setting out Curves without Theodolite on the System of Tangential Angles by Sets of Tangents and Offsets; and Earth- work Tables to 80 feet deep, calculated for eveiy 6 inches in depth. With numerous Woodcuts. 4th Edition, enlarged. Cr, 8vo. I2s. cloth. " The book is very handy, and the author might have added that the separate tables of sines and tangents to every minute will make it useful for many other purposes, the genuine traverse tables existing all the same." — AiJiejiceuvt. Earthwork^ Measurement and Calculation of. A MANUAL on EARTHWORK. By Alex. J. S. Graham, C.E. With numerous Diagrams. iSmo, 2s. 6d. cloth. " As a really handy book for reference, we know of no work equal to it ; and the railway engineers and others employed in the measurement and calculation of earth- work will find a great amount of practical information very admirably arranged, and available for general or rough estimates, as well as for the more exact calculations required in the engineers' contractor's offices." — Artizan. Drawing for Engineers. THE WORKMAN'S MANUAL OF ENGINEERING DRAWING. By John Maxton, Instnictor in Engineering Drawing, Royal Naval College, Greenwich, formerly of R. S. N. A., South Kensington. Fifth Edition, carefully revised. With upwards of 300 Plates and Diagrams. i2mo, cloth, strongly bound, 4^. " A copy of it should be kept for reference in every drawing office." — Engineering. " Indispensable for teachers of engineering drawing." — Mechanics' Magazine. Weale's Dictionary of Terms. A DICTIONARY of TERMS used in ARCHITECTURE, BUILDING, ENGINEERING, MINING, METALLURGY, ARCHEOLOGY, the FINE ARTS, &c. By John Weale. Fifth Edhion, revised by Robert Hunt, F.R.S., Keeper of Mining Records, Editor of " Ure's Dictionary of Arts." i2mo, 6s. cl. bds. '• The best small technological dictionary in the language." — Architect. " The absolute accuracy of a work of this character can only be judged of after extensive consultation, and from our examination it appears very correct and very complete." — Mining Journal. 10 WORKS IN MINING, JIETALLURGY, ETC., MINING, METALLURGY, ETC. ♦ Metalliferous Mining. BRITISH MINING. A Practical Treatise on the xMetalliferous Mines and Minerals of the United Kingdom, dealing comprehen- sively with the Theories of Mineral Deposits, the History of Mines, tlieir Practical Working, and the Future Prospects of British Mining Industry. Super royal 8vo. Fully Illustrated. By Robert Hunt, F.R.S., Keeper of Mining Records ; Editor of " Ure's Dictionary of Arts, Manufactures, and Mines," &c. \In the press. Coal and Iron. THE COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES OF THE UNITED KINGDOM : comprising a Description of the Coal Fields, and of the Principal wSeams of Coal, with returns of their Produce and its Distribution, and Analyses of Special Varieties. Also, an Account of the occurrence of Iron Ores in Veins or Seams ; Analyses of each Variety ; and a History of the Rise and Progress of Pig Iron Manufacture since the year 1740, exhibiting the economies intro- duced in the Blast Furnaces for its Production and Improvement. By Richard Meade, Assistant Keeper of Mining Records. With ]\Iaps of the Coal Fields and Ironstone Deposits of the United Kingdom. 8vo., £\ %s. cloth. Metalliferous Minerals and Mining. A TREATISE ON METALLIFEROUS MINERALS AND MINING. ByD. C. Davies, F.G.S. With Numerous Wood Engravings. Second Edition, revised. Cr. 8vo, I2s. 6d. cloth. " Without question, the most exhaustive and the most practically useful work we have seen ; the amount of information given is enormous, and it is given concisely and intelligibl}'," — Minvig- Jcttrnal. Earthy Minerals and Mining. EARTHY AND OTHER MINERALS, AND MINING. ByD. C. Davies, F.G.S. Unifonn with, and forming a com- panion volume to, the same Author's " MetalHferous Minerals and Mining." Whh numerous IHustrations. {In the f res s. Slate and Slate Quarrying, A TREATISE ON SLATE AND SLATE QUARRYING, Scientific, Practical, and Commercial. By D. C. Davies, F.G.S. Illustrated. Second Edition, revised. 3J. 6d. cloth. Mining, Surveying and Valuing. THE MINERAL SURVEYOR AND VALUER'S COM- PLETE GUIDE, comprising a Treatise on Improved Mining Surveying, with new Traverse Tables ; and Descriptions of Im- proved Instruments ; also an Exposition of the CoiTect Principles of Laying out and Valuing Home and Foreign Iron and Coal Mineral Properties. By William Lintern, Mining and Civil Engineer. With four Plates of Diagrams, Plans, &c., l2mo, 4J. cloth. *** Also, bound with Thoman's Tables. 7^. 6f. 6^., cloth. Steam Boilers. A TREATISE ON STEAM BOILERS : their Strength, Con- stmction, and Economical Working. By R. Wilson, C.E. Fifth Edition. i2mo, 6s. cloth. " 'J hs best treatise that has ever been published on steam boilers." — Engineer PUBLISHED BY CROSBY LOCKWOOD & CO. 19 MATHEMATICS, TABLES, ETC. ♦ Metrical Units and Systems, &c, MODERN METROLOGY : A Manual of the Metrical Units and Systems of the present Century. With an A.ppendix con- taining a proposed English System. By Lowis D'A. Jackson, A.-M. Inst, C.E., Author of " Aid to Survey Practice," &c. Large Crown 8vo, I2s. 6d. cloth. Gregory s Practical Mathematics. MATHEMATICS for PRACTICAL MEN \ being a Com.m.on- place Book of Pure and Mixed Mathematics. Designed chiefly for the Use of Civil Engineers, Architects, and Surveyors, Part L FureMathematics— comprising Arithmetic, Algebra, Geometry, Mensuration, Trigonometry, Conic Sections, Properties of Curves, Part II. Mixed Mathematics— comprismg Mechanics in general. Statics, Dynamics, Hydrostatics, Hydrodynamics, Pneumatics, Mechanical Agents, Strength of Materials, &c. By Olinthus Gre- gory, LL.D., F.R. A.S. Enlarged by H. Law, C.E. 4th Edition, revised by Prof. J. R. Young. With 13 Plates. 8vo, i/. \s. cloth. Mathematics as applied to the Constructive Arts. A TREATISE ON MATHEMATICS AS APPLIED TO THE CONSTRUCTIVE ARTS. Illustrating the various pro- cesses of Mathematical Investigation by means of Arithmetical'and simple Algebraical Equations and Practical Examples, &c. By Francis Campin, C.E. i2mo, 3^-. 6d. cloth. Geometry for the Architect^ Engineer^ &c. PRACTICAL GEOMETRY, for the Architect, Engineer, and Mechanic. By E. W. Tarn,M.A. With Appendices on Diagrams of Strains and Isometrical projection. Demy 8vo, 9^. cloth. Practical Geometry. THE GEOMETRY OF COMPASSES, or Problems Resolved by the Mere Description of Circles, and the Use of Coloured Diagrams and Symbols. By Oliver Byrne. Coloured Plates, Crown 8vo, ^s. 6^., cloth. The Metric System. A SERIES OF METRIC TABLES, in which the British Standard Measures and Weights are compared with those of the Metric System at present in use on the Continent. By C. H. DOWLING, C.E. 2nd Edit., revised and enlarged. 8vo, los. 6d. cl. Inwood's Tables, greatly enlarged and i7nproved, TABLES FOR THE PURCHASING of ESTATES, Freehold, Copyhold, or Leasehold: Annuities, Advowsons, &c., and for the Renewing of Leases ; also for Valuing Reversionary Estates, De- ferred Annuities, &c. By William Inwood. 21st edition, with Tables of Logarithms for the more Diincult Computations of the Interest of Money, &c. By M. Fkdor Thoman. i2mo. 8x. cloth. " Those interested in the purchase and sale of estates, and in the adjustment of compensation cases, as well as in transactions in annuities, life insurances, &c., will find the present edition of eminent service." — Engineering. C 2 20 WORKS IN MATHEMATICS, ETC., Weights, Measicres^ and Moneys, MEASURES, WEIGHTS, and MONEYS of all NATIONS, Entirely New Edition, Revised and Enlarged. By W. S. B. WooLHOUSE, F.R.A.S. i2nio, 2s. 6d. cloth boards. Compound Interest and Annuities. THEORY of COMPOUND INTEREST and ANNUITIES : with Tables of Logarithms for the more Difficult Computations of Interest, Discount, Annuities, &c., in all their Apphcations and Uses for Mercantile and State Purposes. By Fedor Thoman, of the Societe Credit Mobilier, Paris. 3rd Edit., i2mo, ^. 6d. el. Iron and Metal Trades^ Calculator. THE IRON AND METAL TRADES' COMPANION : Being a Calculator containing a Series of Tables upon a new and comprehensive plan for expeditiously ascertaining the value of any goods bought or sold by w^eight, from is. per cwt. to i\2s. per cwt., and from one farthing per lb. to \s. per lb. Each Table ex- tends from one lb. to 100 tons. ByT. DowME. 39G pp., 9J-., leather. Iron and Steel. IRON AND STEEL : a Work for the Forge, Foundry, Factory, and Office. Containmg Information for Ironmasters j Civil, Mechanical, and Mining Engineers ; Architects, Builders, &c. By Charles Hoare. Eighth Edit. Oblong 32mo, 6j-., leather. Comprehensive Weight Calculator. THE WEIGHT CALCULATOR, being a Series of Tables upon a New and Comprehensive Plan, exhibiting at one Reference the exact Value of any Weight from lib. to 15 tons, at 300 Pro- gressive Rates, from i Penny to 168 Shillings per cwt., and con- taining 186,000 Direct Answers, which, with their Combinations, consisting of a single addition, will afford an aggregate of 10,266,000 Answers ; the whole being calculated and designed to ensure Correctness and promote Despatch. By Henrv Harben, Accountant. New Edition. Royal 8vo, l/. 5j., half-bound. Comprehensive Discount Guide. THE DISCOUNT GUIDE : com.prising Tables for the use of ^Merchants, Manufacturers, Ironmongers, and others, by which may be ascertained the exact profit arising from any mode of using Discounts, either in the Purchase or Sale of Goods, and the method of either Altering a Rate of Discount, or Advancing a Price, so as to produce, by one operation, a sum that will realise any required profit after allowing one or more Discounts : to v.-hich are added Tables of Profit or Advance from \\ to 90 per cent., Tables of Discount from i-} to 98I per cent., and Tables of Commission, &c., from \ to 10 per cent. By H. Harben, 8yo, i/. 5^-., half-bound. Mathematical Instruments. MATHEMATICAL INSTRUMENTS: Their Constmction, Adjustment, Testing, and Use ; comprising Drawing, Measuring, Optical, Surveying, and Astronomical Instruments. By J. F. Heather, M.A. Enlarged Edition. i2mo, ^^s. cloth. PUBLISHED BY CROSBY LOCKWOOD & CO. 21 SCIENCE AND ART. Go/d and Gold- Working. THE GOLDSMITH'S HANDBOOK : containing full instruc- tions for the Alloying and Working of Gold. Including the Art of Alloying, Melting, Reducing, Colouring, Collecting and Refining. Chemical and Physical Properties of Gold, with a new System of Mixing its Alloys ; Solders, Enamels, &c. By George E. Gee. Second Edition, enlarged. i2mo, 3^'. 6d. cloth. " The best work yet printed on its subject for a reasonable price." — Jeweller. " Essentially a practical manual, well adapted to the wants of amateurs and apprentices, containing trustworthy information that only a practical man can supply." — £fio^lis/t Mechanic. Silver and Silver Working, THE SILVERSMITH'S HANDBOOK, containing full In- structions for the Alloying and Working of Silver. Including the different Modes of Refining and Melting the Metal, its Solders, the Preparation of Imitation Alloys, &c. By G. E. Gee. i2mo, 3^-. dd. " The chief merit of the work is its practical character. The workers in the trade will speedily discover its merits when they sit down to study it." — English Mechanic, Hall- Mar khig of Jewellery. THE HALL-MARKING OF JEWELLERY PRACTICALLY CONSIDERED, comprising an account of all the different Assay Towns of the United Kingdom ; with the Stamps at present employed ; also the Laws relating to the Standards and Hall- Marks at the various Assay Offices ; and a variety of Practical Suggestions concerning the Mixing of Standard Alloys, &c. By George E. Gee. Crown Svo, 5^. cloth. Electro- Platings &c. ELECTROPLATING: A Practical Handbook. By J. W. Urquhart, C.E. Crown Svo, 5^-. cloth. "Any ordinarily intelligent person may become an adept in electro-deposition with a very little science indeed, and this is the book to show the way." — Builder. Electrotyping, &c. ELECTROTYPING : The Reproduction and Multiplication of Printing Surfaces and Works of Art by the Electro-deposition of Metals. By J. W. Urquhart, C.E. Crown Svo, $s. cloth. "A guide to beginners and those who practise the old and imperfect methods." — Iron. Electro- Plating. ELECTRO-METALLURGY PRACTICALLY TREATED. By Alexander Watt, F.R.S.S.A. Including the Electro- Deposition of Copper, Silver, Gold, Brass and Bronze, Platinum, Lead, Nickel, Tin, Zinc, Alloys of Metals, Practical Notes, &c., &c. Eighth Edition, Revised, including the most recent Pro- cesses. i2mo, 35-. 6^/., cloth. " From this book both amateur and artisan may learn everything necessary for the successful prosecution of electroplating." — Iron. " A practical treatise for the use of those who desire to work in the art of electro- deposition as a business."— £'w^//j/j Mechanic. 22 WORKS IN SCIENCE AND ART, ETC., Dentistry. MECHANICAL DENTISTRY. A Practical Treatise on the Construction of the various kinds of Artificial Dentures. Com- prising also Useful Formulae, Tables, and Receipts for Gold Plate, Clasps, Solders, etc., etc. By Charles Hunter. Second Edition, Revised ; including a new chapter on the use of Celluloid. With over lOO Engravings. Crown 8vo, ^s. 6^/., cloth. " An authoritative treatise, which we can strongly recommend to all students," — Dublin Journal of Medical Science. Electricity. A MANUAL of ELECTRICITY ; including Galvanism, Mag- netism, Diamagnetism, Electro-Dynamics, Magneto- Electricity, and the Electric Telegraph. By Henry M. Noad, Ph.D., F.C.S. Fourth Edition, with 500 Woodcuts. 8vo, i/. 4^. cloth. " The accounts given of electricity and galvanism are not onlycomplete in a scientific sense, but, which is a rarer thing, are popular and interesting." — Lajicet. Text-Book of Electricity. THE STUDENT'S TEXT-BOOK OF ELECTRICITY. By Henry M. Noad, Ph.D., F.R.S., &c. New Edition, Revised. With an Introduction and Additional Chapters by W. H. Preece, M.I.C.E., Vice-President of the Society of Telegraph Engineers, &c. With 470 Illustrations, Crown 8vo, \2s. 6d. cloth. "A reflex of the existing state of Electrical Science adapted for students." — W. H. Preece, Esq., vide " Introduction." " We can recommend Dr. Noad's book for clear style, great range of subject, a good index, and a plethora of woodcuts. Such collections as the present are indis- pensable."— Athenaujn. " An admirable text-book for every student— beginner or advanced— of electricity." ^Eng ineering. " Recommended to students as one of the best text-books on the subject that they can have. Mr. Preece appears to have introduced all the newest inventions in the shape of telegraphic, telephonic, and electric-lighting apparatus."— .ff^^Z/jA Mechafiic. "Under the editorial hand of Mr. Preece the late Dr. Noad's text-book of elec- tricity has grown into an admirable handbook." — IFeslfuiusler Review. Electric Lighting. ELECTRIC LIGHT : Its Production and Use, embodying plain Directions for the Treatment of Voltaic Batteries, Electric Lamps, and Dynamo-Electric Machines. By J. W. Urquhart, C.E,, Author of " Electroplating." Edited by F. C. Webb, M.LC.E., M.S.T.E. 2nd Edition, Carefully Revised, with Large Additions and 128 Illustrations. Cr. 8vo, 7^-. 6^/. cloth. ' ' The book is by far the best that we have yet met with on the %v^ii&cU"—Athenaum. "An important addition to the literature of the electric light. Students of the subject should not fail to read xi."— Colliery Guardian. Lightning. THE ACTION of LIGHTNING, and the MEANS of DE- FENDING LIFE AND PROPERTY FROM ITS EFFECTS. By Major Arthur Parnell, R.E. i2mo, Is. 6d. cloth. ' Major Parnell has written an original work on a scientific subject of unusual inte- rest ; and he has prefaced his arguments by a patient and almost exhaustive citation of the best writers on the subject in the English language." — Atltenaion. " The work comprises all that is actually known on the subject." — Land. " Major Parnell's measures are based on the results of e.xperience. A valuable repertoire of facts and principles arranged in a scientific iQxxa."~-Buildin^ News, PUBLISHED BY CROSBY LOCKWOOD & CO. 23 The Alkali Trade — Stclp/mric Acid, &c. A MANUAL OF THE ALKALI TRADE, including the Manufacture of Sulphuric Acid, Sulphate of Soda, and Bleaching Powder. By John Lomas, Alkali Manufacturer, With 232 Illus- trations and Working Drawings, and containing 386 pages of text. Super-royal 8vo, 2/. 12s. 6d. cloth. This work provides {i) a Cojnplete Handbook for i7itendhtg Alkali and S^dphuric Acid Manufacturers, and for those already in the field luho desire to improve their plant, or to becoi7ie practically acquainted ivith the latest pj-ocesses and der'elopments of the trade ; (2) a Handy Volume which Manufacturers can put ifito the hands 0/ their Managers and Foremen as a useful guide in their daily rounds of duty. Synopsis of Contents. Chap. I. Choice of Site and General Plan of Works — II. Sulphuric Acid — III. Recovery of the Nitrogeu Com- pounds, and Treatment of Small Pyrites —IV. The Salt Cake Process— V. Legis- lation upon the] Noxious Vapours Ques- tion— VI. The Hargreaves' and Jones' Processes — VII. The Balling Process — VIII. Lixiviation and Salting Down — IX. Carbonating or Finishing — X. Soda Crystals — XI. Refined Alkali — XII. Caustic Soda — XIII. Bi-carbonate of Soda — XIV. Bleaching Powder— XV. Utilisation of Tank Waste— XVI. General Remarks — Four Appendices, treating of Yields, Sulphuric Acid Calculations, Ane- mometers, and Foreign Legislation upon the Noxious Vapours Question, "The author has given the fullest, most practical, and, to all concerned in the alkali trade, most valuable mass of information that, to our knowledge, has been published in any language." — Engineer. " This book is written by a manufacturer for manufacturers. The working details of the most approved forms of apparatus are given, and these are accompanied by no less than 232 wood engravings, all of which may be used for the purposes of con- struction. Every step in the manufacture is very fully described in this manual, and each improvement explained. Everything which tends to introduce economy into the technical details of this trade receives the fullest attention." — Athencewn. "The author is not one of those clever compilers who, on short notice, will 'read up' any conceivable subject, but a practical man in the best sense of the word. We find here not merely a sound and luminous explanation of the chemical principles of the trade, but a notice of numerous matters which have a most important bearing on the successful conduct of alkali works, but which are generally overlooked by even the most experienced technological 2t.w'0\ox%."-'Chejnical Review. Soap-making. THE ART OF SOAP-MAKING,»A Practical Handbook of the Manufacture of Hard and Soft Soaps, Toilet Soaps, &c. Including Descriptions of many New Processes and a Chapter on the Recovery of Glycerine from Waste Leys. By Alexander Watt, Author of* Electro- Metallurgy Practically Treated," &c. [Ncdrly ready. Chemical Analysis. THE COMMERCIAL HANDBOOK of CHEMICAL ANA- LYSIS ; or Practical Instructions for the determination of the In- trinsic or Commercial Value of Substances used in Manufactures, in Trades, and in the Arts. By A. Normandy. New Edition. Enlarged, and to a great extent re-written, by Henry M. Noad, Ph.D.,F.R.S. With numerous Illustrations. Cr. 8vo, i2j.6^/.cloth. "We recommend this book to the careful perusal of every one ; it may be truly affirmed to be of universal interest, and we strongly recommend it as a guide, alike indispensable to the housewife as to the pharmaceutical practitioner." — Medical Times. " Essential to the analysts appointed under the new Act. The most recent results are given, and the work is well edited and carefully written." — Nature. 24 WORKS IN SCIENCE AND ART, ETC., Dr. Lardners Museum of Science and Art. THE MUSEUM OF SCIENCE AND ART. Edited by DiONYSius Lardner, D.C.L., formerly Professor of Natural Phi- losophy and Astronomy in University College, London. With up- wards of 1 200 Engravings on Wood. In 6 Double Voivmies. Price £,\ IJ-,, in a new and elegant cloth binding, or handsomely bound in half morocco, 31J, 6d. OPINIONS OF THE PRESS. " This series, besides affording popular but sound instruction on scientific subjects, with which the humblest man in the country ought to be acquainted, also undertakes that teaching of ' common things ' which every well-wisher of his kind is anxious to promote. Many thousand copies of this serviceable publication have been printed, in the belief and hope that the desire for instruction and improvement widely pre- vails ; and we have no fear that such enlightened faith will meet with disappoint- ment."— Tunes. "A cheap and nteresting publication, alike informing and attractive. The papers combine subjects of importance and great scientific knowledge, considerable induc- tive powers, and a popular style of treatment." — Spectator. "The 'Museum of Science and Art' is the most valuable contribution that has ever been made to the Scientific Instruction of every class of society." — Sir David Breiusier in the North British Review. " Whether we consider the liberality and beauty of the illustrations, the charm of the writing, or the durable interest of the matter, we must express our belief that there is hardly to be found among the new books, one that would be welcomed by people of so many ages and classes as a valuable present." — Examiner. *»* Separate books formed from the above, suitable for Workmen^ s Libraries, Science Classes, dr'c, COMMON THINGS EXPLAINED, Containing Air, Earth, Fire, Water, Time, Man, the Eye, Locomotion, Colour, Clocks and Watches, &c. 233 Illustrations, cloth gilt, 5^. THE MICROSCOPE. Containing Optical Images, Magnifying Glasses, Origin and Description of the Microscope, Microscopic Objects, the Solar Microscope, Microscopic Drawing and Engrav- ing, &c. 147 Illustrations, cloth gilt, 2s. POPULAR GEOLOGY. Containing Earthquakes and Volcanoes, the Cmst of the Earth, etc. 201 Illustrations, cloth gilt, 2s. 6d. POPULAR PHYSICS. Containing Magnitude and Minuteness, the Atmosphere, Meteoric Stones, Popular Fallacies, Weather Prog- nostics, the Thermometer, the Barometer, Sound, &c. 85 Illus- trations, cloth gilt, 2s. dd. STEAM AND ITS USES. Including the Steam Engine, the Lo- comotive, and Steam Navigation. 89 Illustrations, cloth gilt, 2s, POPULAR ASTRONOMY. Containing How to Obser\'e the Heavens. The Earth, Sun, Moon, Planets. Light, Comets, Eclipses, Astronomical Influences, «S:c. 182 Illustrations, 4y. dd, THE BEE AND WHITE ANTS : Their Manners and Habits. With Illustrations of Animal Instinct and Intelligence. 135 Illus- trations, cloth gilt, 2s. THE ELECTRIC TELEGRAPH POPULARISED. To render intelligible to all who can Read, irrespective of any previous Scien- tific Acquirements, the various forms of Telegraphy in Actual Operation. 100 Illustrations, cloth gilt, \s. 6d. PUBLISHED BY CROSBY LOCKWOOD & CO. 25 Dr, Lardners Handbooks of Nahiral Philosophy, ♦** T/te /ollowmg yive volumes, tJtozigh each is Complete hi itself, a7id to be Jiur- chased separately, form A C0UYI.UTKC0VRSK of Natural Philosophy, tzw^rtr^ intejided for the general reader ivho desires to attain accurate k>iowledge of the various departments of Physical Science, loithont pursuing them according to the more profound methods of matheviatical investigation. The style is studio7tsly popular. It has been the author s aim to supply Mariuals such as are required by the Student, the Engineer, t/te Artisan, and the superior classes in Schools. THE HANDBOOK OF MECHANICS. Enlarged and almost rewritten by Benjamin Loewy, F.R.A.S. With 378 Illustra- tions. Post 8vo, 6s. cloth. " The perspicuity of the original has been retained, and chapters which had become obsolete, have been replaced by others of more modern character. The explanations throughout are studiously popular, and care has been, taken to show the application of the various branches of physics to the industrial arts, and to the practical business of life." — Mi)ii7ig Journal. THE HANDBOOK of HYDROSTATICS and PNEUMATICS. New Edition, Revised and Enlarged by Benjamin Loewy, F.R.A.S. With 236 Illustrations. Post 8vo, 5j. cloth. " For those ' who desire to attain an accurate knowledge of physical science with- out the profound methods of mathematical investigation,' this work is not merely in- tended, but well adapted." — Chemical News, THE HANDBOOK OF HEAT. Edited and almost entirely Rewritten by Benjamin Loewy, F.R.A.S., etc. 117 Illustra- tions. Post 8vo, ds. cloth. " The style is always clear and precise, and conveys instruction without leaving any cloudiness or lurking doubts behind." — Engitieerijig, THE HANDBOOK OF OPTICS. New Edition. Edited by T, Olver Harding, B.A. 298 Illustrations. Post 8vo, 5j. cloth. " Written by one of the ablest English scientific writers, beautifully and elaborately illustrated. "— Mechanics' Magazine. THE HANDBOOK OF ELECTRICITY, MAGNETISM, and ACOUSTICS. New Edition. Edited by Geo. Carey Foster, B.A., F.C.S. With 400 Illustrations. Post 8vo, <,s. cloth. " The book could not have been entrusted to any one better calculated to preserve the terse and lucid style of Lardner, while correcting his errors and bringing up his work to the present state of scientific knowledge." — Popular Scietice Review. Dr. Lardner s Handbook of Astronomy, THE HANDBOOK OF ASTRONOMY. Forming a Com- panion to the "Handbooks of Natural Philosophy." By Diony- sius Lardner, D.C.L. Fourth Edition. Revised and Edited by Edwin Dunkix, F.R.S., Royal Observatory, Greenwich. With 38 Plates and upwards of 100 Woodcuts. In i vol., small 8vo, 550 pages, Qj-. 6d. , cloth. " Probably no other book contains the same amount of information in so com- pendious and well-arranged a form — certainly none at the price at which this is offered to the public." — Athencpjtjn. " We can do no other than pronounce this work a most valuable manual of astro- nomy, and we strongly recommend it to all who wish to acquire a general — but at the same time correct — acquaintance with this sublime science." — Quarterly Journal of Science. Dr. Lardner s Handbook of Animal Physics. THE HANDBOOK OF ANIMAL PHYSICS. By Dr. Lardner. With 520 Illustrations. New edition, small 8vo, cloth, 732 pages, ^s. 6d. " We have no hesitation in cordially recommending it." — Educational Times. 26 WORKS IN SCIENCE AND ART, ETC., Dr. Lardners School Hmidbooks. NATURAL PHILOSOPHY FOR SCHOOLS. By Dr. Lardner. 328 Illustrations. Sixth Edition, i vol. Si-, dd. cloth. " Conveys, in clear and precise terms, general notions of all the principal divisions of Physical Science." — British Quarterly Review. ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY FOR SCHOOLS. By Dr. Lardner. With 190 Illustrations. Second Edition, i vol. 3^. 6d. cloth. "Clearly written, well arranged, and excellently illustrated." — Gardeners' Chronicle , Dr. Lardner s Electric Telegraph. THE ELECTRIC TELEGRAPH. By Dr. Lardner. New Edition. Revised and Re-written, by E. B. Bright, F.R= A. S. 140 Illustrations. Small 8vo, 2s. 6d. cloth. " One of the most readable books extant on the Electric Telegraph." — En£;. Mechanic. Molhisca. A MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA ; being a Treatise on Recent and Fossil Shells. By Dr. S. P. Woodward, A.L.S. With Appendix by Ralph Tate, A.L.S., F.G.S. With numer- ous Plates and 300 Woodcuts. 3rd Edition. Cr. Svo, 7^. dd. cloth. Geology and Genesis. THE TWIN RECORDS OF CREATION ; or. Geology and Genesis, their Perfect Harmony and Wonderful Concord. By George W. Victor le Vaux. Fcap. Svo, 5^. cloth. " A valuable contribution to the evidences of revelation, and disposes very conclu- sively of the arguments of those who would set God's Works against God's Word. No real difficulty is shirked, and no sophistry is left unexposed." — The Rock, Geology. GEOLOGY, PHYSICAL AND HISTORICAL: Consisting of "Physical Geology," which sets forth the Leading Principles of the Science ; and " Historical Geology," which treats of the Mineral and Organic Conditions of the Earth at each successive epoch, especial reference being made to the British Series of Rocks. By Ralph Tate. With more than 250 Illustrations. Fcap. Svo, 5.^. cloth. Practical Philosophy. A SYNOPSIS OF PRACTICAL PHILOSOPHY. By Rev. John Carr, M.A., late Fellow of Trin. Coll., Camb. i8mo, ^s. cl. The Military Sciences. AIDE-MEMOIRE to the MILITARY SCIENCES. Framed from Contributions of Officers and others connected with the dif- ferent Services. Originally edited by a Committee of the Corps of Royal Engineers. 2nd Edition, revised ; nearly 350 Engravings and many hundred Woodcuts. 3 vols, royal Svo, cloth, 4/. loj". Field Fortification. A TREATISE on FIELD FORTIFICATION, the ATTACK of FORTRESSES, MILITARY MINING, and RECON- NOITRING. By' Colonel I. S. Macaulay, late Professor of Fortification in the R. M. A., Woolwich. Sixth Edition, crown Svo, cloth, with separate Atlas of 12 Plates, \2s, complete, PUBLISHED BY CROSBY LOCKWOOD & CO. 27 Clocks^ Watches^ and Bells, RUDIMENTARY TREATISE on CLOCKS, and WATCHES, and BELLS. By Sir Edmund Beckett, Bart., LL.D., Q.C., F.R.A.S. Seventh Edition, revised and enlarged. Limp cloth (No. 67, Weale's Series), 4^-. (>d.\ cl. bds, ^s. 6d. "The best work on the subject extant. The treatise on bells is undoubtedly the best in the language. " — Engineering: "The only modern treatise on clock-making." — Horologicnl Journal, The Construction of the Organ, PRACTICAL ORGAN-BUILDING. By W. E. Dickson, M. A,, Precentor of Ely Cathedral. Second Edition, revised, with Additions. i2mo, 3^-. cloth boards. "The amateur builder will find in this book all that is necessary to enable him personally to construct a perfect organ with his own hands." — Academy, Brewing, A HANDBOOK FOR YOUNG BREWERS. By Herbert Edwards Wright, B.A. Crown 8vo, 3.?. M. cloth. " A thoroughly scientific treatise in popular language." — Morning Advertiser. " We would particularly recommend teachers of the art to place it in every pupil's hands, and we feel sure its perusal will be attended with advantage." — Brewer. Dye- Wares and Colours. THE MANUAL of COLOURS and DYE-WARES: their Properties, Applications, Valuation, Impurities, and Sophistications. For the Use of Dyers, Printers, Drysalters, Brokers, &c. By J. W. Slater. Second Edition. Crown 8vo, 'js. 6d. cloth. " A complete encyclopaedia of the materia imcKox\3.."— Chemist a)ul Druggist. " The newest resources of the dyer and printer are noticed with completeness, accuracy, and clearness." — C/iemicat A'e7vs. Grammar of Colouring. A GRAMMAR OF COLOURING, applied to Decorative Painting and the Arts. By George Field. New edition. By Ellis A. Davidson. i2mo, 3.;. dd. cloth. Woods and Marbles {Imitation of), SCHOOL OF PAINTING FOR THE IMITATION OF WOODS AND MARBLES, as Taught and Practised by A. R. and P. Van der Burg. With 24 full-size Coloured Plates ; also 12 Plain Plates, comprising 154 Figures. Folio, 2/. 12s. 6d. bound. " The book will be usefully studied by all those who imitate woods and marbles, as a comprehensive guide to the art." — Building News. Pictures and Painters. THE PICTURE AMATEUR'S HANDBOOK AND DIC- TIONARY OF PAINTERS : A Guide for Visitors to Picture Galleries, and for Art-Students, including methods of Painting, Cleaning, Re-Lining, and Restoring, tlie Principal Schools of Painting. With Notes on Copyists and Imitators of each Master. By Philippe Daryl, B.A. Cr. 8vo, y. cloth. "A really admirable dictionary of painters, which we cordially recommend." — Builder. " A guide to the authorship, quality, and \alue of a picture, and furnishe-: the fundamental knowledge necessary to amateurs," — Saturday Review.' 28 WORKS IN SCIENCE AND ART, ETC., Delamotte^ s Works on Illumination & Alphabets, A PRIMER OF THE ART OF ILLUMINATION ; for the- use of Beginners : with a Rudimentary Treatise on the Art, Prac- tical Directions for its Exercise, and numerous Examples taken from Illuminated MSB., printed in Gold and Colours. By F. Dela- MOTTE. Small 4to, Qj. Elegantly bound, cloth antique. " The examples of ancient MSS. recommended to the student, which, with much good sense, the author chooses from collections accessible to all, are selected with judgment and knowledge, as well as taste." — Athenccjini. ORNAMENTAL ALPHABETS, ANCIENT and MEDIAEVAL j from the Eighth Century, with Numerals ; including Gothic, Church-Text, German, Italian, Arabesque, Initials, Monograms, Crosses, &c. Collected and engraved by F. Delamotte, and printed in Colours. Tenth and Cheaper Edition. Royal 8vo, oblong, is. 6d. ornamental boards. • ' ' For those who insert enamelled sentences round gilded chalices, who blazon shop legends over shop-doors, who letter church walls with pithy sentences from the Decalogue, this book will be useful." — AtJienaum. EXAMPLES OF MODERN ALPHABETS, PLAIN and ORNA- MENTAL ; including German, Old English, Saxon, Italic, Per- spective, Greek, Hebrew, Court Hand, Engrossing, Tuscan, Riband, Gothic, Rustic, and Arabesque, &c., &c. Collected and engraved by F. Delamotte, and printed in Colours. Eighth and Cheaper Edition. Royal 8vo, oblong, is. 6d. ornamental boards. ' ' There is comprised in it every possible shape into which the letters of the alphabet and numerals can be formed." — Standard. MEDIAEVAL ALPHABETS AND INITIALS FOR ILLUMI- NATORS. By F. Delamotte. Containing 21 Plates, and Illuminated Title, printed in Gold and Colours. With an Intro- duction by J. Willis Brooks. Small 4to, 6s. cloth gilt. THE EMBROIDERER'S BOOK OF DESIGN ; containing Initials, Emblems, Cyphers, Monograms, Ornamental Borders, Ecclesias- tical Devices, Mediaeval and Modern Alphabets, and National Emblems. Collected and engraved by F. Delamotte, and printed in Colours. Oblong royal 8vo, is. 6d. ornamental wrapper. Popular Work on Painting. PAINTING POPULARLY EXPLAINED; with Historical Sketches of the Progress of the Art. By Thomas John Gullick, Painter, and John Times, F.S.A. Fourth Edition, revised and enlarged. With Frontispiece and Vignette. In small 8vo, 5j. 6^. cloth. %* This Work has been adopted as a Prize-book in the Schools of Art at South Kensington. " Contains a large amount of original matter, agreeably conveyed." — Builder. " Much may be learned, even by those who fancy they do not require to be taught, from the careful perusal of this unpretending but comprehensive treatise. " — A rt yourfiai^ Wood- Carving. INSTRUCTIONS in WOOD-CARVING, for Amateurs; with Hints on Design. By A Lady. In emblematic wrapper, hand- somely printed, with Ten large Plates, 2s. 6d. " The handicraft of the wood-carver, so well as a book can impart it, may be learnt from ' A Lady's' publication." — At/tentrum. PUBLISHED BY CROSBY LOCKWOOD & CO. 29 AGRICULTURE, GARDENING, ETC. Youatt and Burn's Complete Grazier. THE COMPLETE GRAZIER, and FARMER'S and CATTLE- BREEDER'S ASSISTANT. A Compendium of Husbandry. By William Youatt, Esq., V.S. I2tli Edition, very con- siderably enlarged, and brought up to the present requirements of agricultural practice. By Robert Scott Burn. One large 8vo. volume, 860 pp. with 244 Illustrations. \l. is. half-bound. " The standard and text-book, with the farmer and grazier." — Fzriner's Magazine. "A treatise which will remain a standard work on the subject as long as British agriculture endures. " — Mark Lane Express. History, Structtcre, and Diseases of Sheep. SHEEP ; TPIE HISTORY, STRUCTURE, ECONOMY, AND DISEASES OF. By W. C. Spooner, M.R.V.C, cStc. Fourth Edition, with fine engravings, including specimens of New and Improved Breeds. 366 pp., 4J. cloth. Production of Meat. MEAT PRODUCTION. A Manual for Producers, Distributors, and Consumers of Butchers' Meat. Being a treatise on means of increasing its Home Production. Also treating of the Breeding, Rearing, Fattening, and Slaughtering of Meat-yielding Live Stock ; Indications of the Quality, etc. By John Ewart. Cr. 8vo, <^s. cloth. " A compact and handy volume on the meat question, which deserves serious and thoughtful consideration at the present time." — Meat and Provision Trades^ Review. Donaldson and Btcrns Sicburban Farming. SUBURBAN FARMING. A Treatise on the Laying Out and Cultivation of Farms adapted to the produce of Milk, Butter and Cheese, Eggs, Poultry, and Pigs. By the late Professor John Donaldson. With Additions, Illustrating the more Modern Prac- tice, byR. Scott Burn. i2mo, 4^-. cloth boards. English AgrictUture. A TEXT-BOOK OF AGRICULTURE (THE FIELDS OF GREAT BRITAIN), adapted to the Syllabus of the Science and Art Department. For Elementary and Advanced Students. By Hugh Clements (Board of Trade). With an Introduction by H. Kains-Jackson. i8mo, 2s. 6d. cloth. " A clearly written description of the ordinary routine of English farm-life." — Land. "A carefully written text-book of Agriculture." — Athevceuni. \_Lconojnist. " A most comprehensive volume, giving amass of information." — AgricJiltnral Modern Fa7^mi?ig. OUTLINES OF MODERN FARMING. By R. Scott Burn. Soils, Manures, and Crops — Farming and Farming Economy — Cattle, Sheep, and Horses — Management of the Dairy, Pigs, and PovJtry — Utilisation of Town Sewage, Irrigation, &c. Sixth Edition. In i vol. 1250 pp., half-bound, profusely illustrated, I2j-. "There is sufficient stated within the limits cf this treatise to prevent a farmer from gouig far wrong \n any of his operations,"— {P^j^/f^r. 30 WORKS IN AGRICULTURE, GARDENING, ETC., The Manageme7it of Estates, LANDED ESTATES MANAGEMENT: Treating of the Varieties of Lands, Methods of Farming, Farm Building, Irrigation, Drainage, &c. By R. Scott Burn. i2mo, y. cloth. "A complete and comprehensive outline of the duties appertaining to the manage- ment of landed estates." — jfoitrnal of Forestry. The Management of Farms, OUTLINES OF FARM MANAGEMENT, and the Organiza- tion of Fanii Labour. Treating of the General Work of the Farm, Field, and Live Stock, Details of Contract Work, Specialties of Labour, Economical Management of the Farmhouse and Cottage, Domestic Animals, &c. By Robert Scott Burn. i2mo, 3J. Management of Estates and Fai-ms, LANDED ESTATES AND FARM MANAGEMENT. By R. Scott Burn. (The above Two Works in One Vol.) 6^-. Hudson s Tables for Land Valtiers. THE LAND VALUER'S BEST ASSISTANT : bcmy Table?, on a veiy much improved Plan, for Calculating the Value of Estates. With Tables for reducing Scotch, Irish, and Provincial Customary Acres to Statute Measure, &c. By R. Hudson, C. E. New Edition, royal 32mo, leather, gilt edges, elastic band, 4J. E wart's Land Lmprovers Pocket-BooL THE LAND IMPROVER'S POCKET-BOOK OF FOR- MUL^, TABLES, and MEMORANDA, required m any Com- putation relating to the Permanent Improvement of Landed Pro- perty. By John Ewart, Land Surveyor. 32mo, leather, ^^. Complete Agricidtural Surveyor's Pocket-Book. THE LAND VALUER'S AND LAND IMPROVER'S COM- PLETE POCKET-BOOK ; consisting of the above two works bound together, leather, gilt edges, with strap, 7.r. dd. " We consider Hudson's book to be the best ready-reckoner on matters relating to the valuation of land and crops w^e have ever seen, and its combination with Mr. Ji wart's work greatly enhances the value and usefulness of the latter-mentioned.— It is most useful as a manual for reference." — North 0/ England Partner, Grafting and Btidding. THE ART OF GRAFTING AND BUDDING. By Charles Baltet. Translated from the French. With upwards of 180 Illustrations. i2mo, 3^'. cloth boards. Culture of Fruit T^^ees, FRUIT TREES, the Scientific and Profitable Culture of. In- cluding Choice of Trees, Planting, Grafting, Training, Restoration of Unfruitful Trees, &c. From the French of Du Breuil. Fourth Edition, revised. With an Introduction by George Glenny. 4J'.c1. " The book teaches how to prune and tram fruit-trees to perfection."— /^?>/s, I ;S2 3s. 3v I TT I I. J ^ IX. Thi ^ei I TT i<'. J A- • 1 SI 9- J. ! 1 1 SI A 1 N- 1 Tl Dd Tt 4- I Qd Id. 11 I he ^ c re Y. 1 Tl By Charles jdaltet. >\ iin iiiusiranons. zs. ou. ; ciulu uocirds, 3s. THE KITCHEN AND MARKET GAEDEX. By (:ontribut..rs to " The Garden." Compiled by C.W. SHAW,Editoi of '' Gardening Illustrated." 3s. ; cloth hoards, 3s. 6d. KITCHEN GARDENING MADE EASY. B} George M. F. Glexny. Is. 6d. ; cloth boards, 2s. COTTAGE GARDENING ; or, Flowers, Fruits, anc Vegetables for Small Gardens. By E. Hobday. Is. 6d. GARDEN RECEIPTS. Edited byC. W. Quin. Is.Gd CROSBY LOCKWOOD & CO., 7, STATIONERS' HALL COURT, E.C '^^rJi ^^^^ ^^'^% }4k^fri ^^. ^T^^^ ^^^ ^^ V*k'iM V--f^»^ V--ii;>iCM 7; A SELECTION FROM WE MISCELLANEOUS DICTIONARY OF TERMS TUBE, BUILDING, EXGIXEERI^^ I L URG r, ARCHEOLOGY, the FINE ARTS, #c. By J. W jFifth Edition. Bv Robert Hunt, F.R.S. 5s. limp ; 6s. b ^HE LAW OF CONTRACTS FOR WORKS A SER VICES. By David Gibboxs. Third Edition, revised considerably enlarged. 3s. ; cloth boards. 3s. 6d. MANUAL OF DOMESTIC MEDICINE. Bv 39 2 :z3 ND^^. and '^ R. ^ ases f^. H )me ^^■ '^ ^ «-- . I i^: FORESTRY 1 AGRICULTURE LIBRARY ^jViTiVft!iWur-S;