ee ; SS ee lige & Ul x bh ae ea) = Me Oh et Ne F . Paty 97 2eStso0 TOEO Oo MULL A 1OHM/18lN DEPARTMENT OF TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM J. A. Fleming, Director Scientific Results of Cruise VII of the CARNEGIE during 1928-1929 under Command of Captain J. P. Ault OCEANOGRAPHY-IV THE WORK OF THE CARNEGIE AND SUGGESTIONS ~~ FOR FUTURE SCIENTIFIC CRUISES I THE CAPTAIN’S REPORT James P. Ault II NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE J. Harland Paul III THE MAGNETIC WORK OF THE CARNEGIE AND THE URGENCY OF NEW OCEAN MAGNETIC SURVEYS John A. Fleming IV THE CARNEGIE: ITS PERSONNEL, EQUIPMENT, AND WORK Erik G. Moberg V GRAVITY DETERMINATIONS ON THE CARNEGIE Scott E. Forbush VI NOTE ON THE FLUORINE CONTENT OF ROCKS AND OCEAN-BOTTOM SAMPLES Earnest S. Shepherd VII FUTURE OCEAN MAGNETIC, ELECTRIC, AND OCEANO- GRAPHIC SURVEYS VIII COMPLETE BIBLIOGRAPHY OF CRUISE VII OF THE CARNEGIE Ruth M. Crow CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON PUBLICATION 571 WASHINGTON, D. C. 1946 This book first issued March 1, 1946 PREF The present volume is the thirteenth and last of the series “‘Scientific results of cruise VII of the Carnegie during 1928-1929 under command of Captain J. P. Ault.” The material has been compiled into its present form by O. W. Torreson of the Department of Terrestrial Mag- netism. The preparation of this volume, and of ten of the preceding twelve, has been greatly facilitated by the work of Mrs. J. W. Crow, and we take this opportunity to express our appreciation. She has been responsible for transcribing all copy into a form suitable for offset printing, has prepared the layout of each volume, as- sembled and prepared bibliographical material, and in many other important ways has contributed to the com- pletion of the memoirs of the Carnegie’s last cruise. The purposes of this volume are to present, as a basis for future scientific investigations done aboard ship: (1) Various discussions, differing in point of view, of the equipment and operating program of the Carnegie, and (2) summaries of the results achieved, mentioning not only successful activities, but also the many difficul- ties encountered and the need for additional work. Of the 110,000 nautical miles planned for the seventh cruise of the nonmagnetic ship Carnegie of the Carnegie Institution of Washington, nearly one-half had been com- pleted on her arrival at Apia, November 28, 1929. The extensive program of observation in terrestrial magnet- ism, terrestrial electricity, chemical oceanography, physical oceanography, marine biology, and marine me- teorology was being carried out in virtually every detail. Practical techniques and instrumental appliances for oceanographic work on a sailing vessel had been most successfully developed by Captain J.P. Ault, master and chief of the scientific personnel, and hiscolleagues. The high standards established under the energetic and re- sourceful leadership of Dr. Louis A. Bauer and his co- workers were maintained, and the achievements which had marked the previous work of the Carnegie extended. But this cruise was tragically the last of the seven great adventures represented bythe world cruises of the vessel. Early in the afternoon of November 29, 1929, while she was in the harbor at Apia completing the storage of 2000 gallons of gasoline, there was an explosion as a result of which Captain Ault and cabin boy Anthony Kolar lost their lives, five officers and seamen were injured, and the vessel with all her equipment was destroyed. In 376 days at sea nearly 45,000 nautical miles had been covered (see map, p. iv). In addition to the exten- sive magnetic and atmospheric-electric observations, a great number of data and marine collections had been obtained in the fields of chemistry, physics, and biology, including bottom samples and depth determinations. The compilations of, and reports on, the scientific results obtained during this last cruise of the Carnegie have been published under the classifications Physical Oceanography, Chemical Oceanography Meteorology, and Biology, in a series numbered, under each subject, I, I, and I, etc. The preparations for, and the realization of, the pro- gram would have been impossible without the generous cooperation, expert advice, and contributions of special equipment and books received on all sides from interest- ed organizations and investigators both in America and in Europe. Among these, the Carnegie Institution of Washington is indebted to the following: the United States ili ACE Navy Department, including particularly its Hydrographic Office and Naval Research Laboratory; the Signal Corps and the Air Corps of the War Department; the National Museum, the Bureau of Fisheries, the Weather Bureau, the Coast Guard, and the Coast and Geodetic Survey; the Scripps Institution of Oceanography of the University of California; the Museum of Comparative Zoology of Har- vard University; the School of Geography of Clark Uni- versity; the American Radio Relay League; the Geophys- ical Institute, Bergen, Norway; the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom, Plymouth, England; the German Atlantic Expedition of the Meteor, Institut fiir Meereskunde, Berlin, Germany; the British Admiral- ty, London, England; the Deutsche Seewarte, Hamburg, Germany; the Carlsberg Laboratorium, Bureau Interna- tional pour l’Exploration de la Mer, and Laboratoire Hy- drographique, Copenhagen, Denmark; the Netherlands Geodetic Commission; the Geodetic Service of Denmark; the Manila Observatory, Nederlandsche Seintoestellen, Fabriek, Hilversum, Holland, and many others. Dr. H.U. Sverdrup, now Director of the Scripps Institution of Oceanography of the University of California, at La Jolla, California, who was then a Research Associate of the Carnegie Institution of Washington at the Geophysical In- stitute at Bergen, Norway, was consulting oceanographer and physicist. In summarizing an enterprise such as the magnetic, electric, and oceanographic surveys of the Carnegie and of her predecessor the Galilee, which covered a quarter of a century, and which required cooperative effort and unselfish interest on the part of many skilled scientists, it is impossible to allocate full and appropriate credit. Captain W. J. Peters laid the broad foundation of the work during the early cruises of both vessels, and Captain J.P. Ault, who had had the good fortune to serve under him, continued and developed that which Captain Peters had so well begun. The original plan of the work was envisioned by L. A. Bauer, the first Director of the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism, Carnegie Institution of Washing- ton; the development of suitable methods and apparatus was the result of painstaking efforts of his co-workers at Washington. Truly, as was stated by Captain Ault in an address during the commemorative exercises held on board the Carnegie in San Francisco, August 26, 1929, “The story of individual endeavor and enterprise, of in- vention and accomplishment, cannot be told.”’ Captain Ault forwarded a report to the Department at the close of each leg of cruise VII. These reports, prepared by him, start with the initial preparation of the vessel, and are presented here as a complete running account of the cruise, until entrance into the harbor at Pago Pago, Samoa. A general account of the expedition has been pre- pared and published by J. Harland Paul, ship’s surgeon and observer, under the title The last cruise of the Car- negie, and contains a brief chapter on the previous cruis- es of the Carnegie, a description of the vessel and her equipment, and a full narrative of the cruise (Baltimore, Williams and Wilkins Company, 1932; xiii + 331 pages, with 198 illustrations). Excerpts from this book are pre- sented in the present volume; the descriptions of the in- struments are included because of their presentation from the point of view of the informed layman, and a part of the narrative is given as one of the more interesting (SuoyzBaqyTeo AyfUTTes 10J poute}qo OsTe e1aM sa[dures JoyeM-"es ont} @ PayIEU SUOTTEIS Gg aq} 7¥) 62-8261 ‘AIDANUVO AHL AO IA ASINUD ‘SNOLLV.LS DIHGVUDONVADO OATINKYTL AZlAQAAS iv PRE FACE Mf descriptions of life and work on board the Carnegie that has been prepared since the cruise ended. The magnetic program of the Carnegie is summar- ized in the section ““The magnetic work of the Carnegie and the urgency of new ocean magnetic surveys.’ The need for a magnetic-survey program to be begun as soon as possible is emphasized--even though only a limited program could be carried out initially. The magnetic data of cruise VII are to be included in detail in a com- ing volume of the series “‘Researches of the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism”’ which will cover also obser- vations made at stations on land since 1926. Dr. E. G. Moberg, of the Scripps Institution of Oceanography, discusses the details of the personnel, equipment, and work of the Carnegie as a guide for plan- ning other scientific cruises of similar character and scope. A gravity apparatus after the design of Dr. F. A. Vening Meinesz was installed on the Carnegie at San Francisco and for the first time gravity determinations were made aboard a sailing vessel at sea. S. E. For- bush, of the Department’s staff, gives an account of the behavior of the apparatus on the Carnegie. Although he was able to get only a few successful results, he found and eliminated some of the difficulties in such investiga- tion. E. S. Shepherd determined the fluorine content on twenty-one ocean-bottom samples collected by the Car- negie and his results are presented in a short paper. There remains much to be learned about fluorine con- centration on the ocean floor. Following the destruction of the Carnegie in Novem- ber 1929, and the return to Washington, D. C., of the scientific staff early in 1930, a committee of members of the Department’s staff was appointed to consider ways and means of assisting in the development of plans for future magnetic, electric, and oceanographic research over the oceans. The president of the Carnegie Institu- tion of Washington suggested such a committee in order that the experience gained in the operations of the Car- negie might be made available for similar programs in the future. W.J. Peters, F. M. Soule, and O. W. Torre- son, who had all taken extensive part in the program at sea, were designated for this duty. Among the proposals submitted by this committee was one recommending that there be prepared various memoranda relating to the experience acquired on the Galilee and the Carnegie and incorporating suggestions for improvements in instruments, observational proce- dures, ship’s equipment, and comments on any other matters on which constructive suggestions might be of benefit to investigators planning future ocean work. Nine memoranda were prepared in response to this proposal by members of the committee and members of the scientific staff of the last cruise of the Carnegie. These were prepared in 1930 and given limited circula- tion at that time. In the present volume the papers are presented essentially as written in 1930, only a few de- letions having been made of suggestions and comments no longer applicable, and a few statements corrected on the basis of more up-to-date information. The papers represent an important series of reports on practices and procedures on board the Carnegie, particularly be- cause the seventh and last cruise was the only one on which, in addition to the usual magnetic, electric, and meteorological program, very diversified activities con- cerned with oceanic measurements were included. The scope of the researches carried out on the last cruise of the Carnegie may be realized from the com- plete bibliography compiled by Mrs. Crow, and given in the last section of the book. The great quantity of results obtained on cruise VI and their excellent quality were due to the executive ability and personal energy of Captain Ault and to the enthusiasm which he aroused in all the ship’s personnel. The program was so strenuous, each man had so much to do and worked under so much pressure, that its reali- zation could not have been accomplished without the spirit of complete cooperation and comradeship. Captain Ault possessed forcefulness, resourcefulness, and the ability to make quick decisions. Gifted to an unusual de- gree with the qualities of leadership he was, withal, sympathetic, kindly, and broadly tolerant. He was a gentleman of the finest type who quickly won the friend- ship, good will, and cooperation of all. Moreover, he was skilled in navigation, abreast of general scientific thought, and anauthority in his own field--there could scarcely have been a combination of qualities more ad- mirably suited to leadership in any oceanographic ex- pedition. As stated above, this is the last volume of the series of ‘‘Scientific results of cruise VI.’’ Thirteen volumes have presented in detail the observational data secured, together with the full compilations of the results, and with considerable discussion and interpretation by the many investigators who have given so much time and en- thusiastic support in the preparation of the volumes of this series. Naturally there are many possibilities for additional discussions and classifications of data, partic- ularly in the great mass of biological information ac- quired. It is felt, however, that further researches and compilations and classification of data must be left to specialists in the various lines of endeavor who now have available all the observational material and results with suitable notes regarding details for additional study. J. A. Fleming Director, Department of Terrestrial Magnetism a > 7 : 4 yy i. 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Harland Paul John A. Fleming Erik G. Moberg Scott E. Forbush Earnest S. Shepherd VII FUTURE OCEAN MAGNETIC, ELECTRIC, AND OCEANOGRAPHIC SURVEYS A PRELIMINARY REPORT ON REQUIREMENTS FOR A VESSEL SUITABLE FOR INVESTIGATIONS IN MAG- NETISM, ELECTRICITY, AND OCEANOGRAPHY NOTES ON THE POSSIBILITY OF USING AVAILABLE VESSELS FOR DETERMINING MAGNETIC SECULAR- VARIATION NOTES ON THE PROGRAM FOR FUTURE MAGNETIC MEASUREMENTS AT SEA THE DETERMINATION OF GEOGRAPHICAL POSITION FOR SCIENTIFIC OBSERVATIONS AT SEA NOTES ON THE PROGRAM FOR FUTURE ATMOSPHERIC- ELECTRIC MEASUREMENTS AT SEA NOTES REGARDING OCEANOGRAPHY THE BIOLOGICAL AND CHEMICAL PROGRAM PILOT-BALLOON ASCENSIONS AT SEA RADIO ABOARD THE CARNEGIE VIII COMPLETE BIBLIOGRAPHY OF CRUISE VII OF THE CARNEGIE INDEX vii Oscar W. Torreson, Floyd M. Soule, and William J. Peters William J. Peters Oscar W. Torreson Oscar W. Torreson Oscar W. Torreson Floyd M. Soule Herbert W. Graham Oscar W. Torreson Stuart L. Seaton Ruth M. 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C. to Newport News, Virginia, May 1 to 10,1928 ........................ 4 Newport News, Virginia to Plymouth, England, May 10 to June 7, 1928..................... 5 Plymouth, England to Hamburg, Germany, June 18 to 22, 1928 ..............0..0c0-cceeue 6 Hamburg; Germany to) Reykjavik, Iceland, July 7 to 2051928 -. 2 0). se ew wells a) eo) eee 6 Reykjavik, Iceland to Barbados, West Indies, July 27 to September 16,1928 ................. 7 Barbados, West Indies to Balboa, Canal Zone, October 1 to 11,1928 ....................2-. 8 Balboa, Canal Zone to Easter Island to Callao, Peru, October 25, 1928 to January 14,1929 ....... 8 Callao, Peru to Papeete, Tahiti, February 5 to March 13, 1929 ....................22--- 11 Papeete, Tahiti to Pago Pago and Apia, Samoa, March 20 to April 6, 1929 .................4. 13 Apia, Samoa to Guam to Yokohama, Japan, April 20 to June 7, 1929 ..................2-08- 13 Yokohama, Japan to San Francisco, California, June 24 to July 28, 1929 ..................-.- 15 San Francisco, California to Honolulu, Hawaii, September 3 to 23,1929 ...............0-.- 16 Honolulu, Hawaii to Pago Pago, Samoa, October 2 to November 18,1929 ..............-.-4-- 17 Ian See eu. noo 6 ClO IOC Oe moo a od odbuO donb ao Ooo namo O OS 18 THE CAPTAIN’S REPORT COMMISSIONING OF THE CARNEGIE, MAY 4, Until May 4, 1927, the Carnegie lay at the dock of the Washington-Colonial Beach Steamboat Company in Washington, D. C., where she had been berthed, while out of commission, after completion of cruise VI in 1921. She was taken from Washington under tow on May 4 and delivered on May 9 at the yard of the Tietjen and Lang Dry Dock Company, Hoboken, New Jersey, for repairs and overhaul, preparatory to resuming ocean work in terrestrial magnetism and atmospheric electricity, and initiating work in oceanography. Repairs necessitated by dry-rot, and alterations to enable oceanographic work to be undertaken during the forthcoming cruise (VIL) were begun May 10. During May and June the repairs made included replacing of rigging, masts and yards, ballast and water tanks, renewal in part of the keelson, reinforcing of the sister-keelsons, rebuilding of bulk- heads and berth decks, recalking and resheathing with felt and copper sheathing, and overhauling of running gear, of engine, and of plumbing. The vessel’s hull was found in much better condition than was expected from the examinations made in 1922 and 1925. Thus all frames below water line, where ex- posed to view, were sound, and borings for bolts to fas- ten new keelson showed no signs of bad frames; when tanks and ballast were removed, all ceiling in hold was found in good condition; all strakes below the water line proved sound, as did also nearly all above the water line. According to plans, all repairs, alterations, and new in- stallations moved to completion by September 30, 1927. In the meantime, considerable time has been given to planning the work for cruise VII. Throughout this planning of the program, valuable constructive sugges- tions have been supplied by various cooperating oceanog- raphers and organizations, both in North America and abroad. A tentative route and schedule were outlined for a cruise of three years in all oceans, inquiries were made regarding oceanographic equipment, and ordersfor such equipment were placed. A special bronze winch for handling 19,000 feet of aluminum-bronze wire 4 millime- ters in diameter was ordered, and a special engine of 30 horsepower to operate the 15-kilowatt generator required for handling the winch. This equipment is intended for securing water samples and water temperatures at vari- ous depths for the study of circulation and other oceanic problems. Other special equipment ordered includes water bottles, deep-sea reversing thermometers, alu- minum-bronze wire, materials for the construction of a Wenner electric salinity apparatus, distant recording thermograph, evaporation meter, etc. The Navy Depart- ment is cooperating with Carnegie Institution through the loan of complete equipment for determining depths by echo methods. Study was made of the methods for calculating oce- anic currents from temperature and salinity data, and special graphs and tables were prepared to expedite cal- culations. Various other matters incidental and prepara- tory to the new oceanographic work received attention, including the designing of a new cabin for the biologist andof special biological, chemical, and radio laboratories 3 ‘ 1927 TO MAY 1, 1928 on deck, and the rearrangement of deck space to permit installation of the new oceanographic equipment. The repair work was sufficiently completed by Oc- tober so that the vessel could be towed back to Washing- ton for final outfitting and equipping, arriving October 17. The Department again was indebted to the U.S. Coast Guard for their courtesy and cooperation in towing the Carnegie from New York to the Potomac River. Two days were spent near the mouth of the Potomac trying to recover a bronze anchor lost in May, in testing the new winch and life boats, and in testing the new diving helmet to be used in connection with submarine biological inves- tigations. During October, November, and December the Car- negie was kept in good condition by Mr. Erickson, first watch officer, assisted by two seamen. Yards and masts were sandpapered and varnished, deck fittings were housed in canvas, three new phosphor-bronze cylinders were installed in the main engine, and plans were made for completion of deck, engine room, cabin, and labora- tory fittings and equipment. Considerable time was spent in planning for the sci- entific work of cruise VII, which was to start May 1, 1928. Conferences were held with various scientists relating to program and equipment for investigations in physical and biological oceanography, meteorology, solar radiation, aerology, and radio. During January to April, 1928, active work was car- ried on in outfitting the new dark room and laboratories, and installing equipment. Special mention should be made of the extra efforts of all members of the ship’s crew, of the office and shop force, and of the new ocean party, to complete equipment, tests, and installations in time to sail on the specified date, May 1. The many problems to be solved and the many difficulties which arose can be realized only by those who have gone through similar preparations for a long cruise, during which work in so many new lines of investigation was to be undertaken, with the necessity for designing and constructing new in- struments, devising new methods, making tests and stand- ardizations, training new personnel, installing the new equipment on a small vessel, remembering to economize on space, to arrange all in convenient and accessible lo- cations, and to preserve the nonmagnetic feature of the observing domes for the observations in terrestrial mag- netism. The following new instruments, equipment, and fit- tings were installed or constructed. 1. Onthe bridge: Sperry searchlight, engine room telegraph, radioactive content collector with compressed air and electric-light connections, and solarimeter gim- bal stand. 2. On the quarter-deck: Evaporimeter and gimbal stand (fig. 1); rain gage and gimbal stand; pelorus and stand; control room just abaft radio room for mounting earth-inductor constant-speed control and milliammeter, Sperry gyro roll-and-pitch recorder, Einthoven galva- nometer for earth-current observations, recorder for six 4 WORK OF THE CARNEGIE AND SUGGESTIONS FOR FUTURE SCIENTIFIC CRUISES electric resistance thermometers (installed at Hamburg in June), and deep-sea reversing thermometers (fig. 2); meteorological shelter (fig. 3) to house wet- and dry- bulb thermometers, Negretti and Zambra recording as- piration psychrometer (installed at Plymouth in June), recording thermograph, one wet and one dry electric- resistance thermometer (installed at Hamburg in June, as also a pair at the top of the mainmast and at the crosstrees); and deck box for housing twenty-five Nan- sen water bottles and thermometers, bottom samplers (figs. 4 and 5), two Pettersson plankton catchers (fig. 6), and other oceanographic equipment. 3. In the engine room: Various switch boards and control panels; main battery boosting generator; battery charging motor generator for 24-volt battery; 320-am- pere-hour battery equipment; air compressor; motor generator for radio; batteries for radio and for resist- ance-thermometer recorder; Kelvinator refrigerator compressor; complete photographic darkroom equipment and accessories; main sea cock; and lathe. 4. Ocean laboratory: Electric salinity bridge (fig. 7) and accessories; chemical equipment for determining salinity, oxygen, and phosphate content of sea water; hy- drogen-ion concentration apparatus; and various instru- ments and accessories for marine biological investiga- tions. 5. Radio room: Short wave receiver (fig. 8) and transmitter; sonic depth finder; and quarters for observ- er and radio operator. 6. Atmospheric-electric house: New mountings and connections for all instruments and batteries; motor, fan, and ventilating shaft for conductivity apparatus (fig. 9). 7. Cabin and wardroom: Kelvinator electric refrig- erator; constant-speed motor and operating shaft for earth inductor in forward dome; and new lighting cir- cuits and connections. All arrangements and installations were sufficiently well advanced by May 1 so that the Carnegie sailed at 09h 00m under tow for St. Mary’s River, near the mouth of the Potomac. The scientific staff (fig. 10), their titles, and their special fields, were as follows. Captain J. P. Ault, commander of the expedition, master of the vessel, and chief of scientific staff. W. C. Parkinson, senior scientific officer, atmos- pheric electricity and photography. O. W. Torreson, navigator and executive officer, magnetism, navigation, and meteorology. F. M. Soule, observer and electrical engineer, mag- netism and physical oceanography. H. R. Seiwell, chemist and biologist, oceanography. J. H. Paul, surgeon and observer, medical work, meteorology, and oceanography. W. E. Scott, observer, magnetism, navigation, and commissary. L. A. Jones, radio operator and observer, radio con- ditions and communication, magnetism. The sailing staff (figs. 11 and 12) included: A. Erick- son, first watch officer, C. E. Leyer, engineer, and F. Lyngdorf, steward, all of whom had been on board during the entire two years of the sixth cruise; E. Unander, second watch officer; H. Jentoft, third watch officer; O. Backgren, cook; W. H. Taylor, mechanic; eight seamen, and two messboys. In addition to the above, the following members of the office staff accompanied the vessel to complete tests and installations and to assist with the observations dur- ing swinging ship operations, and in the ship and shore observations of the electric potential gradient at St. Mary’s River: W. J. Peters, O. H. Gish, J. W. Green, G. R. Wait, C. Huff, W. F. Steiner, and A. Smith. J. A. Huff of Baltimore also accompanied the vessel in order to complete electric installations. WASHINGTON, D.C. TO NEWPORT NEWS, VIRGINIA, MAY 1 TO 10, 1928 Shortly after midnight on May 2, the Carnegie came to anchor at the mouth of the St. Mary’s River to await sunrise before beginning the program of swinging the ship to determine deviations of the magnetic instruments. The day broke fair and six swings under her own engine were made to detect any deviations in declination or horizontal intensity. Simultaneous observations were made ashore by the Department’s field parties which had established numerous magnetic stations on both the Maryland and Virginia sides of the Potomac River around the position previously selected for the swings. The vessel returned to its previous anchorage on the evening of May 2, and remained there during May 3 and 4 while potential gradient comparisons were being made with the shore station. Experiments were made also to test the marine earth inductor and the radio installation. On May 5 the Carnegie was swung again under her own engine in the morning to detect any deviations in dip and intensity, and then returned to anchorage to complete potential gradient comparisons. Simultaneous shore ob- servations were made during all swings and comparisons. At 20h 30m anchor was weighed and the Carnegie pro- ceeded to Newport News where she arrived at 8h May 6 for docking and adjusting the oscillator of the deep-sea sonic depth finder. During May 7 to 10 a new diaphragm was installed on the oscillator (fig. 13) of the sonic depth finder, new radio equipment was secured from the Norfolk Navy Yard, new main sea cock was installed, and some small repairs were made on the vessel. P. T. Russel of the Washington Navy Yard assisted with the repairs to the oscillator, and T. A. Marshall of the Naval Research Laboratory assisted with the new radio equipment. Mr. J. A. Fleming, Assistant Director of the Department, and Mr. W. M. Gilbert, Executive Secretary of the Car- negie Institution of Washington, arrived from Washington for final conference and inspection. On May 10 the Car- negie was towed out to Hampton Roads, some moving pictures were taken of the vessel making sail (fig. 14), and at 16h departure was taken from Cape Henry--cruise VII had commenced at last. THE CAPTAIN’S REPORT 5 NEWPORT NEWS, VIRGINIA TO PLYMOUTH, ENGLAND, MAY 10 TO JUNE 7, 1928 Weather conditions were rather unfavorable through- out the entire time--strong winds, heavy seas, and cold and rainy weather. The course as planned was followed fairly well for the first two weeks, but during the last two weeks head winds and baffling winds were experienced. The vessel was held off the entrance to the English Channel for ten days by easterly and southeasterly winds and gales. In spite of bad weather, declination (D) observations with marine collimating compass (fig. 15) were made at twenty-nine stations, and horizontal intensity (H) with deflector (fig. 16) and inclination (I) with earth inductor at twelve stations. All magnetic instruments worked well. The maximum range in the inclination for a single station did not exceed 30’ as determined with earth in- ductor 7 using improved gimbal mounting (not gyro) and microammeter without amplification. At all but three stations experimental determinations of H were made with the same method; vertical intensity (Z) was deter- mined also at a number of stations. The atmospheric-electric program has been carried out as completely as was possible. The radioactive con- tent apparatus has not yet been put in operation. The masthead mounting for the photographic potential gradi- ent electrograph has not been found practicable because of the great play of the masthead in moderate and rough weather. Experiments are being conducted to determine if this equipment may be used at the stern near the eye- reading potential gradient apparatus. Six ocean stations for securing temperature and water-sample series were occupied, conditions of sea and weather not being favorable for stopping the vessel on other days. All the equipment, winch, water bottles (fig. 17), and deep-sea reversing thermometers, both protected and unprotected, work excellently. The open glass protecting tubes on four of the unprotected ther- mometers were broken, owing to the thermometer frames being too small. These tubes will be replaced in Hamburg; the thermometers themselves were uninjured. The three water bottles on the bottom end of the wire on one series were not reversed, owing to the messenger being obstructed by some fibrous organism which had become entangled with the wire. Some animal of the deep had fouled the wire. The unprotected thermometer, calibrated for pressure, gave excellent control of the actual depths reached. Usually, due to a stiff breeze, the wire angle at the surface was very large, so that some control of the depth was necessary. The townets (fig. 18) were operated at eight com- plete stations, and surface tows were made at fifty sta- tions. Whenever the vessel was hove to or under slow headway, advantage was taken of the opportunity to se- cure surface tows and dip-up specimens with dip nets. Many collections were made at night, using the under- water light. The large meter nets were not used except on one or two occasions, awaiting the devising and con- struction of heavier releasing devices. The salinity bridge has been in successful operation from the first and salinities usually are available on the day following the occupation of an ocean station. The depth finder has been used at fifty-seven stations. Unfortunately it was not possible to check its accuracy with wire soundings, but in shallow water the results agreed to within one fathom of the chart values. Daylight contact with radio station NKF (U.S. Naval Research Laboratory at Anacostia, D. C.) failed early in the trip. It is hoped that a more extensive schedule, in- cluding one at night, may be arranged later. Good con- tact has been maintained with station W1MK at Hartford, Connecticut, U. S. A., throughout the trip, with one or two exceptions. The ship has been kept up in as good condition as was possible, in view of the almost continuous bad weath- er. The small engine and generator worked well and frequent use was made of the main engine during calms and to get eastward against the head winds. The new arrangements for lifeboats and new laboratories were found to cause too heavy strain on the chartroom owing to lateral thrusts from lifeboat platforms, with conse- quent flooding of the cabin and staterooms. The accumu- lation of water on the main deck naturally is troublesome. While in Plymouth harbor, supports will be installed under the inboard ends of the crossbeams which bear the boat platforms, to take the weight off the chartroom and other laboratories. The heavy weather also caused the copper sheathing to peel off in many places along the water line. The vessel will have to be dry-docked in Hamburg to complete the necessary repairs. In general, the vessel labors and works less than heretofore, in spite of being very heavy and low in the water aft. The quarter-deck has been awash many times during the trip across, something which has happened very rarely in past cruises. The rigging has kept fairly taut and in good condition. One of the large bronze bolts holding the topgallant mast in place on the top of the fore- mast carried away early in the trip. After the ten-days’ delay with head winds, the vessel was within a few hours’ sail of picking up the first land- fall at Bishop Rock, Scilly Islands. Then it began to rain, fog and mist closed in, and it was necessary to stand off to sea again. After several hours, it cleared up enough to head for the light, which was picked up at midnight. A fine fair wind took the vessel to within ten miles of Plym- outh by afternoon of the following day, when it began to rain, mist and fog set in, and the wind hauled ahead. We were on the point of heading back to sea again, when the headland was sighted two miles west of Plymouth harbor. We then took in square sails, started the engine, and beat our way to port against a rising gale, with only one hour of daylight remaining. The pilot was found awaiting in- side the harbor when the vessel had already gained a safe position near the breakwater. In letting go the port anchor, the new cable was so stiff and hard and wet from continual bad weather that it kinked and could not be let out rapidly enough to fetch the vessel up against the gale. The starboard anchor was let go just in time to avoid danger, and the vessel remained at anchor until taken to the well-sheltered inner harbor the next morning. For the next thirty-six hours a terrific gale blew from south- east to southwest which would have sent us hurrying back to sea again for another week, had we first been lucky enough to weather the confines of the channel. 6 WORK OF THE CARNEGIE AND SUGGESTIONS FOR FUTURE SCIENTIFIC CRUISES PLYMOUTH, ENGLAND TO HAMBURG, GERMANY, JUNE 18 TO 22, 1928 The Carnegie left Plymouth at 16h 30m, June 18, being towed fifteen miles offshore until sails were set, and with a fair wind proceeded up the channel all night. The engine was operated the next day because of light winds and calm. During the night of June 19, the Car- negie passed through Dover Strait with favorable wind and tide; fortunately there was no fog, and conditions were excellent. Soon after leaving the Strait, however, the wind hauled ahead, and it was necessary to operate the engine almost continuously through the North Sea. After making successful landfalls along the Dutch and German coasts approaching the Elbe River, and when within three hours’ sail of the mouth of the river, fog, mist, and rain set in, making it impossible to sight the two lightships which point the way to the mouth of the Elbe. By keeping on and watching for the traffic route as indicated by glimpses of steamers passing to southward in the mist, the ship gradually headed up against the strong flood tide and finally made out the pilot vessel during a temporary lifting of the fog. The engine again proved its value, taking the vessel up the river against head winds and calms, until we met the tugboat (ordered from Hamburg the previous night) while passing Borkum Riff lightship. . Dr. H. U. Sverdrup of the Geophysical Institute in Bergen, Norway, and Research Associate of the Depart- ment, was on the dock to meet the party, and it was a welcome sight to see the face of an old friend in a strange country. The Carnegie reached dock at Hamburg on June 22 at 19h 30m, a little over four days out of Plymouth. Surface tows were made and samples taken at thirty- three stations in the English Channel, Dover Straits, and the southern North Sea to the mouth of the Elbe River, and analyzed for phosphates, H-ion concentration, and salinity (fig. 19). Two surface tows also were made as the vessel proceeded up the Elbe River to Hamburg. Magnetic declination, inclination, and horizontal intensity were determined at two sea stations between Plymouth and the mouth of the Elbe River. We received a very enthusiastic welcome at both Hamburg and Berlin. Much interest was manifested in the program and equipment of the expedition by the offi- cials and scientists of the Deutsche Seewarte in Hamburg and of the Institut fir Meereskunde and other organiza- tions in Berlin and Potsdam. Every effort was made to assist us with suggestions and advice and to complete our equipment. To expedite matters, some equipment was turned over to us at once from the supply on hand at the Deutsche Seewarte and at the Institut fur Meeres- kunde, a cooperation and assistance which was greatly appreciated. During a brief visit to Berlin, the results and equip- ment of the ‘‘Meteor’”’ expedition were inspected, visits were made to the various scientific organizations, and an illustrated lecture was delivered before the assem- bled scientists of Berlin and Potsdam. The magnetic observatory at Potsdam was inspected during a brief visit. Many visitors inspected the Carnegie and her equip- ment during our stay in Hamburg, and we are much in- debted to Vice-Admiral Dominik, President of the Deut- sche Seewarte, and to Dr. K. Burath, in charge of mag- netic work in the Deutsche Seewarte, for their kindness and courteous assistance. Dr. H. U. Sverdrup, was of chief assistance in completing our instrumental equip- ment and in arranging our program, having come from Bergen, Norway, especially to meet us. Drs. Defant and Wiist, of the Institut fir Meereskunde, were especially active on our behalf during our visit to Berlin. Some ship and engine room repairs were made, the vessel was dry-docked for repairs to sheathing, and the winch was modified to hold 10,000 meters of piano wire for securing bottom samples. The firm of Hartmann and Braun installed six resistance thermometers, three dry and three wet, two each at the top of the mainmast, at the crosstrees, and in the shelter house on the main deck, and mounted the recorder in the control room. Our stay in Germany was unusually profitable and inspiring. To meet and consult with so many who were enthusiastic about our program and prospects, and help- ful with suggestions, and who indicated so strongly the importance of the data we are securing, and who were so keenly interested in the many problems we hoped to in- vestigate, gave us a better view of the task before us, and we came away with renewed enthusiasm. HAMBURG, GERMANY TO REYKJAVIK, ICELAND, JULY 7 TO 20, 1928 The Carnegie left her berth at Hamburg, Germany, about noon on July 7 under tow. When the mouth of the Elbe River was reached, a strong head wind was blowing so it was necessary to retain the tugboat for a tow of twenty miles to sea to insure getting offshore safely. At 8h 30m, July 8, the engine was started and the towline was cast off. By midnight it was possible to set the square sails, so the engine was stopped and the vessel proceeded on course through the North Sea, making good progress on July 9, 10, and 11. The Shetland Islands were sighted on the afternoon of July 11 and the Faroes on the afternoon of July 12, both groups being passed to the northward. Prevailing southwest winds prevented making the southward loop between Iceland and the Faroes, as planned, and the Carnegie stood off to the northwest to cross the track of 1914 near the southeast corner of Ice- land. This track was reached July 14 and then for six days head winds were met as the vessel fought her way westward along the south coast of Iceland. The engine again proved its value and was operated with the fore- and-aft sails as often as conditions were favorable, for a total of seventy-six hours during six days. Without the engine it would not have been possible to make Reykja- vik and at one time serious consideration was given to proceeding to St. Johns, Newfoundland and omitting Ice- land. As the wind shifted only between northwest and southwest, it was necessary to tack or wear ship eleven times. Usually when trying to make a headland or to pass a definite and necessary point, the weather was bad and visibility was obscured by mist and rain, making navigation difficult and exacting, and entailing some risk. The anchorage at Reykjavik was reached at 8h 30m on July 20, the harbor being entered in the midst of rain squalls and low hanging mist and fog. THE CAPTAIN’S REPORT The magnetic work was carriedout between Hamburg and Reykjavik, as planned, entirely clear weather being present to secure good series of declination observa- tions at eleven stations and horizontal-intensity and in- clination observations at six stations. Only two oceano- graphic stations were occupied, owing to strong winds and time required in tacking against head winds. Surface tows were made and samples obtained at five stations. The depth finder was used at forty sta- tions. Observations of all the atmospheric-electric ele- ments, with the exception of radioactive content, were made whenever conditions permitted. Lack of time and adverse weather prevented getting the radioactive con- tent apparatus into working order. At Hamburg a stage was built on the stern rail to starboard of potential gradient apparatus no. 2 and the photographic potential gradient recorder was mounted thereon (fig. 20); the col- lector rod of the latter was remodeled so as to project from the stern and to place the collector-discs out over REYKJAVIK, ICELAND TO BARBADOS, WEST The Carnegie left Reykjavik at noon on July 27, 1928, going out under her own power against a head wind. By 14h the entrance point of the bay was cleared. Heading down toward Cape Farewell, good progress was made for the first four days. On July 31 the winds became unfavorable and on the next day they went calm and it was necessary to operate the engine. By August 3 the wind had sprung up from the northeast and was blowing a strong breeze. When opposite Cape Farewell, course was set toward Newfoundland, omitting the proposed loop toward Baffin Bay in order to gain on the schedule. Auroral displays were seen during the nights of August 3, 4, 5, and 6. High arches went completely across the sky, with some streamers but very little color. On August 5 an iceberg was sighted at a distance of ten miles and course was changed to pass near; it measured four hundred feet long and ninety-five feet high. After crossing the Great Bank of Newfoundland on August 6, an ocean station on the edge of the Bank with 130 meters of water was occupied August 7. The tem- perature of the water at a depth of 52 meters was -1°6 C, being 11°4 C at the surface. For over two weeks the vessel made her way south- ward (averaging about one hundred and forty miles per day and heaving to for an ocean station three times per week [figs. 21, 22, 23, and 24]), and entered the Gulf Stream on August 8, to be greeted with much warmer weather. On August 10 a gale blew from the southwest for a few hours, otherwise this period up to August 23 was marked by fine weather and moderate breezes. On August 23 the region of light winds and calms, at latitude 16° north, was entered. For twelve days the average run was only sixty-five miles daily, with ninety- seven miles as a maximum. During this time the new boom walk (fig. 25) was tried out and dip nets and silk townets were used from it to good advantage. Various bottom samplers were tried out under favorable condi- tions; two samplers were lost because of a faulty wire. On August 31 in 8° north latitude, because of delay the water. Some very good results were obtained with this arrangement. On account of head winds, which re- quired frequent running of the main engine, some of the potential gradient records do not represent normal air conditions, but it is felt that the present location of the instrument is the most feasible one on the ship and it is anticipated that reliable diurnal-variation data may now be obtained regularly. Eye-reading apparatus no. 2 gave trouble during the damp weather after leaving Hamburg because of breakdown of the sulphur bearing-insulators; these were recast at Reykjavik. In Hamburg Dr. Kolhérster delivered to us the pene- trating radiation instrument of his own design (Giinther and Tegetmeyer No. 5503), and daily intercomparisons between this instrument and penetrating radiation appa- ratus no. 1 were made. There are some difficulties in using an instrument such as this, rigidly attached to a rolling ship, and having coarse fibers widely separated and in constant and irregular motion. INDIES, JULY 27 TO SEPTEMBER 16, 1928 through calms, it was decided to change course for Bar- bados. Light air and calms continued until September 10, when a moderate gale blew from the southwest, the wind having changed irom northeast to northwest back to north-by-east, then back again through northwest to southwest. This was undoubtedly the effect of the hurri- cane which three days later was centered over the Mona Island passage which wrought such serious damage throughout the West Indies. The island of Barbados was sighted late in the after- noon of September 16. After remaining hove to off the south point of the island nearly all night, anchorage was made in Carlisle Bay at 8h 30m on the morning of Sep- tember 17, only three days behind the scheduled date of arrival. The results obtained between Reykjavik and Barba- dos include 77 declination measurements, 25 values of both inclination and horizontal intensity, 22 ocean sta- tions occupied, 205 sonic depth determinations, and 6 complete and 3 incomplete potential gradient diurnal- variation series. Evaporation observations were made on three days. Thus excellent series of observations were made in all the various subjects. Especially valu- able will be the oceanographic results which will provide a cross section practically through the center of the North Atlantic, between latitudes 46° and 8° north. Tem- perature, salinity, density, specific volume, hydrogen- ion concentration, and phosphate-content variations from the surface down to a minimum of 2000 meters and a maximum of 5500 meters were determined. Plankton tows were made at the surface, 60, and 120 meters with silk townets, and the Pettersson plankton pump was op- erated at the same depths at all ocean stations. Thus the first long passage of the cruise was com- pleted in a satisfactory manner. The members of the party stood up well under the trying and strenuous con- ditions attending such a period. The equipment stood up well, with the few exceptions noted separately. 8 WORK OF THE CARNEGIE AND SUGGESTIONS FOR FUTURE SCIENTIFIC CRUISES BARBADOS, WEST INDIES TO BALBOA, Leaving the Bridgetown mooring buoy at 11h 30m, October 1, 1928, under her own power, the Carnegie headed up northwest to sight Martinique for a fine view of this mountainous island the next day, Mount Pelée showing up clearly except for a cloud bank at the top. For one brief moment the mist lifted enough to see the jagged peaks at the top of the cone against the white cloud background. After squaring away for Colon at noon October 2, fine weather, broken by occasional squalls with heavy rain, lightning, and thunder, prevailed to within twenty-four hours’ sail of Colon. One squall took the vessel at 11 knots for two hours. At the first ocean station after leaving Barbados, a good bottom sample was secured on the long water-sam- ple series, using the Vaughan sampler. At the next sta- tion, after hauling in seven hundred meters of the first series, the first bottles jammed against the davit block and before the winch could be stopped, the wire parted. Four thousand meters of wire, eleven Nansen bottles, five unprotected and seventeen protected Richter deep- sea reversing thermometers, and the second Vaughan snapper-type sampler, were lost. During work at an ocean station two half-meter nets are put out and towed from the after davit on the port side, one one-meter net is towed from the starboard side at the stern, the plank- ton pump is operated from one side platform using the port reel of heavy wire, and the two thermometers and CANAL ZONE, OCTOBER 1 TO 11, 1928 water -bottle series are operated from the other platform. At times the pump is being lowered while the first bottle series is being brought up, or vice versa. The townets are being hauled in with the wire around the gypsy head, and the wire reeled up by hand, while the second bottle series is being brought up, the water samples drawn off, and the thermometers taken off the bottles and carried to the control room to be read later. Thus the fraction of a second lost in signaling to shut off the current when a bottle came to the surface caused the loss. A thimble was clamped on the broken end of the cable and some bottles were sent down to 1650 meters--all the wire left on the drum. The next day seven hundred meters of the 6-millimeter wire were spliced on the end of the 1650- meter length, using one bottle at the end, and the next bottle above the splice, with the messenger and chain long enough to reach below the splice. The reel of spare wire will be wound on the winch at Balboa. Totals of four ocean stations, fifteen declination measurements, five inclination and horizontal-intensity measurements, and twenty-nine sonic depth stations were occupied. No atmospheric-electric series was made be- cause of rainy weather and poor insulation on the ion counter. Radio contact with station W1MK was maintained as usual, and station NKF was overheard on several nights working the Byrd expedition vessels. The biologi- cal and chemical work was carried on successfully. BALBOA, CANAL ZONE TO EASTER ISLAND TO CALLAO, PERU, OCTOBER 25, 1928 TO JANUARY 14, 1929 Anchorage was made in Limon Bay, Atlantic en- trance to the Panama Canal, at 4h, October 11, after having used the engine for twenty-four hours because of calms or head winds. There surely is a thrill in coming into this harbor at night, steering by chart courses, picking out the lighthouses on the ends of the two break- waters which protect the bay and form a narrowentrance which must not be missed or shipwreck will follow, then coming into the bay, following the course as indi- cated by the excellent range lights back along the canal, one fixed and the other flashing, and feeling our way to an anchorage clear of the other vessels and of the buoys marking the shoals. By 11h the same morning we had arranged for atow through the canal, had cashed a check at the bank to pay canal tolls, had completed all arrangements for clear- ance, pilot, etc., had hoisted the anchor and were on our way to our fourth passage through the canal with the Carnegie. By 19h we were alongside the dock at Balboa, everything having proceeded with its usual clockwork precision. Our mail was delivered to us at Miraflores during the afternoon, a courtesy on the part of the canal officials which was very much appreciated. A busy two weeks followed. Records must be com- pleted, abstracted, and mailed. Reports must be pre- pared. Biological specimens, bottom samples, and ap- paratus in need of repair, must be packed and forwarded to the office. New equipment must be brought aboard, unpacked, and installed. Vessel repairs and dry-docking must be supervised. Discontented members of the crew must be brought before the U.S. Shipping Commissioner; some paid off, others sent to the hospital, and some per- suadedto remain. New men must be secured and signedon. Leaving Balboa at noon October 25, the Carnegie had over twenty-four hours of fair wind before facing two weeks of head winds, heavy rains, squally weather, tacking back and forth, and running the engine in an at- tempt to get away from the Gulf of Panama. We stood southward for five days, then northwest for three days, with no change of wind. This made it apparent that we should have to use the engine and fore-and-aft sails on a long tack to the south in an effort to win past the coast of Ecuador, south of the equator, into the region of the southeast trade winds before we could make our way westward. So the route was changed to go south of the Galapagos Islands instead of north. Malpelo Island was sighted on our tack to the north and again was passed near by on the long tack to the southward. This island is an isolated, barren rock, one mile long and 846 feet high. There was more rain during these first two weeks than during all the preceding five months of cruise VII. The engine operated well except for two days’ delay due to a burnt-out bearing in one connecting rod. Before clearing the coast and getting a favorable change of wind for sailing, the gasoline supply became very low, ac- count being taken of requirements for the three months before a new supply could be obtained. The delay in the Gulf of Panama gave splendid op- portunity for securing a number of ocean stations in this interesting region. Salinities of surface water were low, owing to the enormous supply of fresh water poured out by the rivers emptying into the Gulf and from the heavy rainfalls. With the shift of wind November 8 from south- west to south, the engine could be shut down, the vessel proceeding westward under sail. While occupying the ocean station on November 3, THE CAPTAIN’S REPORT 9 the oscillator used with the sonic depth finder to meas- ure the ocean depth failed to operate, owing to some short circuit in the coils. This was a great handicap, since now it became necessary to determine the ocean depth by sending the bottom sampler down on the piano wire before lowering the water bottles and thermome- ters. On November 8, at station 40, about one hundred miles west of the Ecuadorean coast at latitude 1° 32’ south and longitude 82° 16’ west, it was not planned to secure a bottom sample but to send the water bottles and thermometers down to 3000 meters as the chart gave the depth at about 3300 meters. After 1600 meters of wire had been let out and another water bottle was being at- tached, the chief engineer, at the winch controls, stated that he believed the wire had touched bottom since the reel had slowed down very definitely. On hauling the wire and bottles up, ten meters of wire were found to be tangled around the bottom bottle and the lead weights. From this result it was concluded, after making allow- ances for various factors, that the depth was approxi- mately 1515 meters. A bottom sampler sent down at once on the piano wire reached bottom at 1454 meters and brought up a small sample of black rock fragments with some globigerina ooze. The new mountain ridge thus indicated was named “‘Carnegie Ridge.’’ It rises about 1800 meters above the general level of the ocean floor in its vicinity. With the change of wind on November 8, we were at last on our way westward and on November 11 we sighted the first of the Galapagos Islands. Much to our regret we did not have time to stop. These islands appear rather barren from the south. Isabella Island has a beautiful, though small, lava cone, where lava has boiled up out of the side of the mountain. At one point lava has overflowed and broken down the side of the cone toward the sea. On November 13, while occupying an ocean station, the bottom snapper failed to close. Owing to unusual currents, the 4-mm water boitle wire on the port side tangled with the 6-mm plankton pump wire on the star- board side and, before anything could be done, the strain on them, because of the pull against the keel of the ves- sel, parted the smaller wire, and four water bottles-- with eight thermometers, lead weights, and messengers --disappeared out of sight. Later, when we hauled up on the other wire on the starboard side, to our amazement, there came into view all our bottles, etc., tangled up with the plankton pump. By careful work everything was se- cured and hauled up without loss or damage, except for 300 meters of the smaller wire which was kinked and useless. During an oceanographic station, the 0.9-mm piano wire with bottom sampler (usually the ‘‘snapper”’ type) is used on the davit aft; the 4-mm aluminum- bronze wire, with about ten water bottles and twenty thermometers, is operated on the port davit, if the ship is hove to on the port tack; the plankton pump is lowered on the 6-mm aluminum-bronze wire on the starboard davit; and the silk townets are operated from the fore- castle head forward, so that four activities are under way at the same time. Formerly the silk nets were towed from the quarter-deck also, but Mr. Erickson rigged up blocks and lines so they could be towed from the forecastle head, thus avoiding the refuse of the ship and reducing the danger of so many lines aft fouling each other. Since the receiving microphones of the sonic depth apparatus were still in good order, some means was sought to make a noise in the water which might serve to return an echo from the bottom, the time interval to be measured by a stop watch. After considering several expedients (for example, making up a few small bombs with some powder carried for use in the life line gun) it was suggested to the chief engineer that he devise a shot- gun method of firing shells under water out of a 20-foot length of brass pipe. Thus use might be made of the large stock of shotgun shells supplied by Dr. Wetmore of the Smithsonian Institution for securing specimens of land birds from isolated islands. Within a short time the pipe was fitted with a shell holder at one end just long enough to cover the shell and a firing pin was construct- ed to be operated by hand at the other end. With this de- vice the operator stands on the main deck, starboard side, opposite the microphones, leaning over the rail and holding the long pipe, the shotgun shell being in its hold- er at the lower end, about two feet under water. When the observer at the microphones blows the whistle, the operator releases the firing pin and it slides down the tube, striking and exploding the shell. This operation is repeated once and at times twice. Very often the observ- er hears and records the second echo of an explosion. The accuracy of this method is rated as +200 meters, and by comparison with seven depths as determined with unprotected thermometers calibrated for pressure, the shotgun method gave depths about 200 meters too shal- low. On occasions the agreement was remarkable. With this device soundings were obtained twice or more daily during the remainder of the cruise from November 15 to January 14, the date of arrival at Callao. When sounding in such shallow water as 300 meters near the coast, seven echoes were heard, and the interval between the shot and the fifth echo was measured. Although now in the region of the equator with fairly steady southeast trade wind, the temperature of the air was anything but tropical, ranging from 20° to 24° C. The following two months were characterized by excel- lent weather, light winds, cool temperature, very little rain or fog, and one gale which continued for only six hours. The temperature never exceeded 24° C and was as low as 15° for one or two days while the vessel was in the region of 40° south latitude. Although the Carnegie passed close to the south side of the various islands in the Galapagos group, no stop was made because of the delay in leaving the Gulf of Panama. In order to make up for some of this delay, the loop to Easter Island was shortened by about ten days, with no appreciable loss in the scientific data secured since we were able to follow previous tracks on the re- vised loop. During this cruise we used, for the first time, a theodolite (fig. 26) loaned by the U.S. Navy Department for observing balloon flights at sea. This instrument is constructed with special tripod and gimbal so that it can be kept fairly level as the ship rolls and pitches, and the changing azimuth or direction and the changing alti- tude of the balloon can be measured as the balloon stead- ily rises at its average rate of about 180 meters per minute. Forty-four flights were observed. The balloon is filled with hydrogen gas until it reaches a diameter of about three feet (fig. 27), and is then released to go wherever the direction and velocity of the wind at vari- ous heights may take it (fig. 28). During the first ten minutes, readings are made every thirty seconds, then every minute until the balloon disappears. Torreson op- erated the theodolite, Scott called out time and recorded, 10 WORK OF THE CARNEGIE AND SUGGESTIONS FOR FUTURE SCIENTIFIC CRUISES and Ault usually followed the balloon with a sextant, to measure the altitude. The use of both theodolite and sextant saved the flight from failure many times. When the vessel would roll heavily and the balloon was chang- ing its direction rapidly, it was difficult to follow and was lost frequently. By having the altitude from sextant readings it could be picked up again. On one occasion the balloon was followed for sixty-four minutes, but the average time was twenty to thirty minutes. Witha strong trade wind it usually disappeared in fifteen min- utes. Thus we secured excellent determinations of the direction and velocity of the wind at different levels from the surface up to heights of from two to. six miles. The magnetic and electric program was carried out regularly, the good weather and moderate sea giving excellent results. The securing of bottom samples now was being made a regular part of the oceanographic program. Several types of bottom samplers were tried. None worked per- fectly, but the snapper type, as improved by Dr. Vaughan, which he had ordered made for our use, proved to be the most satisfactory. Letting it go down, with jaws open, as rapidly as its 50-pound weight would take it, on striking the bottom the wires would go slack, the weight would release the catches which hold the jaws open and the jaws would close, snapping up about a pint of bottom mud or 00ze, a spring then keeping them closed. At times the snapper did not close, but even then enough mud stuck to the inner walls of the irregularly shaped jaws to give a good sample. On one occasion the heavier Meteor sampling tube was sent down and it was forced into the bottom for a distance of two feet, bringing up an excellent sample. The second time it was used, it stuck too tightly in the mud, so that the wire broke and the sampler was lost. Sending a sampler to the bottom has its difficulties. A small steel wire, 0.9 mm in diameter, is used because of its light weight and because it offers very little re- sistance in passing through the water. By watching it pay out with the 50-pound snapper on the end, one can tell rather easily when the snapper strikes bottom and the strain is released. Automatic devices have been provided for this purpose also, but with the vessel roll- ing and pitching it seems better to keep a strain on the wire through a rod held in the hand. Sometimes the ves- sel drifts so rapidly that the wire stretches out to wind- ward at so large an angle that there is not wire enough to reach bottom. On December 6 the ship arrived at Easter Island and six days were spent at anchor in the open roadstead of Cook Bay. We were welcomed and guided to the an- chorage by the entire male population, or all who could get into the few boats, and all seemed delighted to see some new faces. The Governor came out with the Chil- ean flag flying. It had been six months since the last visitor. We then lowered our dinghy with its outboard motor and went ashore to arrange with Mr. Edmunds, the manager of the ranch operating on the island, for sup- plies of fresh meat, vegetables, and fruit and to arrange for laundry work. The next day we all took to horses and rode eight miles and back to see the famous Easter Island images. Great numbers of images still stand or lie about in con- fusion over the sides of the mountain from which they were carved, whereas others stand over the platforms and graveyards which line the coast. Apparently Easter Island was chosen as the graveyard for the chiefs of a large island archipelago which suddenly disappeared. When this occurred, the thousands of slaves who were kept at work carving out the images, were left without a food supply and they fell on each other until only a few remained. No record of these events has ever been found, and the island’s history rests only on inference. Here, as at the island of Barbados, simultaneous ob- servations were made of the potential gradient on ship and on shore, using two recording instruments. They were operated continuously night and day for three days. There were also carried on thirteen hours of continuous observation of the magnetic declination, horizontal in- tensity, and inclination. In the daytime the observing tents on shore usually were surrounded by natives, curi- ous as to what the visitors were doing and watching for an occasional cigarette. Some group singing was done for us by the young folk of the island, and their songs were similar to those one hears in Samoa, Hawaii, and Tahiti. On December 12 all work had been completed, the equipment was all on board, and plans for a picnic and feast with the natives on shore had been made when the manila cable for the anchor parted, causing the loss of the 1900-pound bronze starboard anchor; the rope had worn through on the hard coral sandy bottom, the wind being fairly strong all the time. Fortunately this hap- pened about 10h when all were on board and in daylight. The lighter port anchor was let go at once but it dragged. Rather than risk the vessel in such close proximity to the rocks without sufficient anchors, it was decided to sail and word was sent ashore to get our supply of fresh meat killed and sent out to us. In the meantime the ves- sel stood out to sea and back again under easy sail and engine power. By 15h, after all arrangements had been completed and supplies had been brought on board, sail was set for Callao. The ranch’s supply steamer was due any day on its yearly visit. We undertook to find out by radio when it had left Valparaiso since Mr. Edmunds was assembling the live sheep and cattle which he expected to ship back to Chile. Owing to adverse radio conditions, the reply did not reach us until the morning of our departure. The reply stated that the steamer Antarctico was sailing December 20--information which Mr. Edmunds was glad to receive. Three weeks after we sailed, as we were idling along with light winds twelve hundred miles east of Easter Island on our course up toward Callao, we sighted smoke on the eastern horizon. No steamer would be likely to be on that course except the Antarctico and, as we had predicted, a small steamer stopped off our lee quarter three hours later and we exchanged greetings and news with the skipper and crew of the Antarctico bound for Easter Island. She had left Valparaiso Decem- ber 29, and Juan Fernandez Island or Robinson Crusoe Island, January 1. After ten minutes of conversation, we wished each other good luck and sailed away on our sep- arate courses--two small ships, lonely travelers meet- ing and greeting in the vast solitude of the South Pacific Ocean. After leaving Easter Island the Carnegie was driven three hundred miles to the south and out of her course by continuous head winds. We reached 40°5 south latitude before being able to head up on the course and entered the southeast trade-wind region on January 5, the day after greeting the Antarctico. Steady progress was then made until reaching Callao on January 14. On January 8 the shotgun devised for measuring THE CAPTAIN’S REPORT 11 ocean depth was out of order for the morning sounding at 8h. At 10h 30m repairs had been made and a sounding gave a depth of 1445 meters as against a depth of 4000 meters the previous evening. At noon the depth was 1186 meters, so orders were given to heave the vessel to for a wire sounding and bottom sample. A water bot- tle, with protected and unprotected thermometers, was sent down also. The wire angle was 12°, which gave a depth of 1188 meters. The thermometer gave a depth of 1168 meters, thus giving a close agreement between all three methods. The bottom sampler brought up an ex- cellent sample of greyish white globigerina ooze. Thus a new ridge was discovered about ten miles across and 3000 meters higher than the surrounding ocean bed. Soundings were made at intervals of two hours during the afternoon. At 15h, three miles after the vessel had left the position of the ocean station, the depth was 1260 meters; at 16h, nine miles distant, it was 2751 meters; at 18h, twenty miles distant, it was 3620 meters; and at 20h, thirty-two miles distant, it was 4115 meters. Thus in a distance of thirty-two miles the depth changed from 1168 meters to 4115 meters. Ten miles was the dis- tance run between the first sounding of 1445 meters (25° 03/2 south, 82° 200 west) and the sounding of 1260 me- ters (24° 54/0 south, 82° 13/0 west) before it began to deepen. This ridge, named ‘‘Merriam Ridge’’ in honor of the President of the Carnegie Institution of Washington, Dr. John C. Merriam, is probably an extension to the northwestward of the peaks terminating in the islands of San Felix and San Ambrosio, one hundred and forty miles to the southeast. Time and the limitations of ma- neuvering a sailing vessel did not permit more explora- tion in this region. The last five days of the cruise were characterized by unusually cloudy weather, so that the program of declination observations twice daily was not possible. The temperature of the surface water dropped from Palate to 19° C, when the vessel was seventy-five miles south- west of Callao, and remained at 19° C until our arrival there. The drop was sudden, indicating that we had en- tered the cold Humboldt or Peruvian Current which flows northward as far as Ecuador. The vessel’s position was determined by star sights early in the morning of January 14 on Rigel and Arcturus, seen for brief moments through rapidly moving clouds. Course was then set for the north end of San Lorenzo Island, off Callao, and for over fifty miles this course was not changed, bringing the vessel to within one mile of the desired point at 14h. The Carnegie then proceeded under engine power and was anchored in Callao harbor a few hours later. During the part of the cruise from Balboa to Callao the following observations were made: 96 declination measurements, 34 inclination and horizontal-intensity measurements, 36 ocean and townet stations; 143 sonic depths; 8 atmospheric-electric runs of twenty-four hours; 44 pilot-balloon flights; 12 series of evaporation measurements; 50 days of complete potential gradient records; 43 biological collections; 23 bottom samples; and regular continuous records of thermographs and barographs. Observing conditions were excellent during the entire time with the exception of only one or two days. The radio conditions were difficult during the better part of the last two months. The indications were that the difficulty may be in local conditions of the general region traversed; whether this is a permanent condition of the region or only a temporary one is an interesting question. CALLAO, PERU TO PAPEETE, TAHITI, FEBRUARY 5 TO MARCH 13, 1929 The Carnegie sailed from Callao Bay under her own power at 15h 20m, February 5, using the engine until the next morning because there was no wind. Here the reg- ular observational program began with an ocean station, and continued without interruption, except for a stop of one day at Amanu Island, until arrival at Papeete, on March13. The weather was excellent, with good breezes and no storms. The engine was not required except when the trade wind was interrupted among the Tuamotu Islands and during the squally weather near Tahiti. The magnetic work was carried out as usual by Torreson, Soule, Scott, Paul, Jones, and Ault. Experi- ments to determine horizontal intensity with the earth inductor were continued by Soule and Torreson. Vari- ous coils were used and some encouragement was given for ultimate success by the improved agreement of results with those of deflector 5. The usual atmospheric-electric program was car- ried out by Parkinson, assisted on diurnal-variation days by Torreson. Twenty-three complete potential gradient records were obtained and three and one-half diurnal runs were madc. Considerable time was spent by Parkinson in attempts to operate the radioactive con- tent collector and some progress was made. The oceanographic work was entirely successful as carried out by Ault, Soule, Seiwell, Paul, and the deck and engine-room force under Erickson and Leyer. One of the new bottom samplers made at Callao gave some trouble by failure to close, but the difficulty was over- come by Leyer. The lead weight was countersunk to al- low it to fit down over the clamping spring, thus bringing the center of gravity of the falling snapper nearer to the jaws, to insure that they strike the bottom in an upright position. Only once did the attempt to secure a sample fail. At one station no attempt was made. The samples themselves have shown considerable variation, the colors ranging from white to gray, light brown, blue-green, coffee-colored, chocolate, and black mud, sand, ooze, and lava. One of the new Sigsbee reversing frames (fig. 29) was modified to hold two of the Richter and Wiese thermometers, and was sent down on the drift wire, 20 meters above the snapper, at each ocean station after February 27. Thus the bottom temperature and the depth were secured in addition to the bottom sample. Experi- ment showed that it requires 25 meters of vertical haul to reverse the thermometers. Up to February 28 five minutes had been allowed to elapse after the bottle series had reached the proper depth before releasing the messenger for reversal. Ow- ing to a slight discrepancy between the two temperatures at the overlapping depth, it was decided to allow ten min- utes to elapse hereafter, before reversal begins. The temperatures undoubtedly were accurate for the protect- ed thermometers, but there might be some lag in the unprotected tube with its load of surface water to cool off and the pressure effect to register. An improvement 12 WORK OF THE CARNEGIE AND SUGGESTIONS FOR FUTURE SCIENTIFIC CRUISES in the agreement between the overlapping temperatures has since been noticed. Only on rare occasions does a deep-sea reversing thermometer fail to function. Two or three of the un- protected ones required replacement. The water bottles all reversed and locked properly except on one occasion when five of the shallow series were reversed too soon for some unknown reason. The Pettersson plankton pump fails to operate occasionally and must be sent down again. It was com- pletely overhauled on February 19. Considerable pa- tience is required to operate it and the ingenuity of Sei- well and Leyer is being taxed to the utmost to keep it in condition and to improve its operation. The results should be an extremely valuable addition to the qualita- tive as well as the quantitative data on plankton life and distribution. During some of the ocean stations when the vessel was rolling and pitching more than usual, the silk tow- nets were torn by the quick jerking of the ship’s motion. Use then was made of the airplane rubber rope, the in- board end of the towline being secured to a 20-foot length of rubber rope to ease the strain on the towline when the vessel surges. The rubber rope would increase its length to twenty-eight feet at times. The nets have not torn since using this device, but the seas have been much smoother. The balloon work by Torreson, Scott, and Ault has been unusually successful, owing to clear skies and mod- erately smooth motion. Some thought has been given to possible improvements to increase the efficiency of the theodolite when it is to be used in stormy latitudes. The use of the sextant for measuring altitudes increases the time of following the balloon considerably, especially on rough days. It permits the observer at the theodolite (Torreson) to keep one hand on the counterweight below to assist in keeping the instrument level, while the other hand operates the horizontal-circle screw. If the bal- loon is lost to the theodolite, the sextant gives its alti- tude and Scott can give Torreson the approximate bear- ing of the balloon by the direction of the sextant pointing. In view of the length of time one must hold up the sextant and of the weight of the new balloon sextant, it became necessary to devise some method for supporting the instrument. One of the deck chairs was provided with arms and two upright pieces supporting an overhead bar. A coil spring was suspended from this bar, and the sextant is now used hanging from this spring. The en- tire weight is supported at the height of the observer’s eye and the freedom of motion is in no wise restricted. The chair can be moved to the most advantageous posi- tion on deck for observing the balloon; the use of the sex- tant now involves no strain on the observer’s arms (fig. 30). On February 12, occasion was taken to have Parkin- son secure pictures from the dinghy of the vessel under sail, this time in the early morning with the sails full of sunlight. Pictures were taken also after the vessel was hove to for an ocean station. Soon after leaving the Peruvian coast the trade wind was found to be more southerly than was expected, so we could not at first follow exactly the route planned. Later the part of the 1916 track from 112° west and 12° south to 122° west and 17° south was followed exactly. At the latter position it was decided to head west, directly for Tahiti, through the Tuamotu Islands, instead of continu- ing south around this group. This would increase the value of the oceanographic work, by giving a long cross section almost due west from the coast of Peru to Tahiti, and by giving additional data as to depths in the Tuamo- tu group. Tatakoto Island was sighted early on March 7, and on March 8 the vessel was hove to off Amanu Island while the scientific staff made a visit ashore. About two hundred and seventy people live on Amanu, chiefly en- gaged in gathering copra. They appear healthy, happy, and prosperous, and of a very high class of South Sea Is- lander. There are no white people on the island. They gave us a large number of coconuts, and when we re- turned to the vessel in the afternoon, the chief and a boatload of men and women accompanied us to see the ship. The oscillator has given excellent service since re- pairs at Callao, and a valuable series of soundings has been taken by Soule, Jones, and Paul. On February 8 the depth finder receiver was moved from the radio roomto the control room, to decrease the crowded condition of the radio room and to provide for an enlarged program of depth finding, without disturbing the radio operator at all times of the day and night. The change has worked out well and has increased the comfort and efficiency all around. On February 19, Soule, assisted by Leyer, com- pletely overhauled the depth finder and substituted spare parts for worn ones, At his request, Paul was instruct- ed in the use of the depth finder in order to secure a sounding in the early morning in connection with his meteorological observations at Greenwich mean noon. On February 16, at 17h 19m ship’s time, latitude 15°1 south, longitude 98°3 west, the depth shoaled rapid- ly from 5380 meters to 3403 meters, after which it again deepened to 4530 at 17h 29m, when again there was a gradual decrease to 4080 meters. The deep thus re- vealed was named ‘‘Bauer Deep”’ in honor of Director Louis A. Bauer. Throughout the cruise from Callao to Papeete the bottom has been very irregular, as evidenced also by the many echoes, as many as six surfaces being indicated. While passing through the Tuamotu Group, many soundings were taken in order to develop the bottom con- tour in this region. Thirteen soundings were taken on March 17, eleyen on March 8, and nine on March 9, giving a valuable contribution to our knowledge of the formation in the vicinity of both Tatakoto and Amanu islands. A new ridge, 2000 meters above the general contour was discovered at 17° 40’ south and 141° 37’ west, between Amanu and Hikueru islands. A few miles later, at the ocean station, we had hard bottom, with a few fragments of black lava, with no trace of ooze, showing the possi- bility of fairly recent volcanic origin. Jones found unusually good radio conditions prevail- ing after leaving Callao and was able to arrange frequent schedules with amateurs in various parts of the United States, Honolulu, Jamaica, and Panama. Later it became necessary to communicate with the American Radio Re- lay League station W1MK at Hartford, Connecticut, which has been so continuously helpful on this cruise, through two relays, namely, Yosemite, California (W6CIS) and Fort Madison, Iowa (W9BCA). Thus it was possible to keep the office fully informed of the daily progress and of urgent needs. During the passage from Callao to Papeete, observa- tions were obtained as follows: 63 declination measure- ments, 17 inclination and horizontal-intensity stations; 3 and 1/2 eye-reading, 24-hour atmospheric-electric series; 23 complete 24-hour potential gradient records; THE CAPTAIN’S REPORT 13 17 ocean stations, including townets and plankton pump; 206 sonic depths; 35 balloonflights; 9evaporation series; and one biological station. This summary of work done speaks for the smoothness and efficiency with which the members of the party, individually and as a whole, are carrying out the work of the expedition. PAPEETE, TAHITI TO PAGO PAGO AND APIA, SAMOA, MARCH 20 TO APRIL 6, 1929 The Carnegie left Papeete at 15h 35m on March 20 under her own power, heading to the northwardof Moorea. The next day the wind hauled ahead and we were obliged to proceed southward of Huaheine and Raiatea islands. Soundings showed new shoals south of this group, as also south of Mapehaa Island, farther to the westward. Be- fore the western islands of the Society Group were cleared, it was necessary to use the engine on several occasions because of light and variable winds. The en- gine was operated also for three days continuously be- fore arriving at Pago Pago on April 1, 19h 30m. The easterly trade wind was entered March 24, and this breeze continued until March 28. The usual program of work was carried out daily. Considerable time was spent in trying to operate the new Coast and Geodetic Survey sounding machine, which had been installed on the port side of the quarter-deck, near the meteorological shelter house, during the stay in Papeete. The machine is built so that the drum is floating and must be moved along its axis to engage either the brake or the clutch. When the vessel rolls, the tension on the brake is changed by the movement of the drum so that the speed of paying out cannot be kept under control. When paying out on the clutch, letting the weight of the snapper-type bottom sampler unreel the drum against the motor, the momentum of the drum be- comes too great for the speed at which the snapper is going down and the wire slackens and kinks. To stop it, the drum must be moved away from the clutch, through neutral or no control, across to engage the brake, and hence is stopped with a jerk which parts the wire. The drum as received did not hold more than 4700 meters of wire; in Apia it was machined out to hold 7000 meters. This experimental work was very destructive of bottom samplers and wire, so that no bottom samples were ob- tained during this part of the trip. On March 26 one of the air tanks in the engine room exploded, the detached end breaking through the bulkhead into the gasoline tank room; the tank itself flew aft out of its cradle, and fell against the air compressor. Fortu- nately no one wds injured and none of the instrumental equipment was seriously damaged, except for the sever- ing of several electric cables. The compressor was operating, but the relief or safety valve was in good working order apparently, so it was not a case of over- charge but of weakness in the tank. The following observations were made during this part of the cruise: 20 declination measurements, 6 in- clination and intensity measurements, 6 ocean stations, 63 sonic depths, 10 pilot-balloon flights, 1 atmospheric- electric series, 3 potential gradient records, and 2 evap- oration series. After taking on gasoline, oil, and kerosene at Pago Pago, the Carnegie left for Apia April 5, arriving the next morning, going the eighty miles under engine power. APIA, SAMOA TO GUAM TO YOKOHAMA, JAPAN, APRIL 20 TO JUNE 7, 1929 After completing the work of intercomparing the ship’s magnetometer and earth inductor with those of the Apia Observatory, standardizing deflector 5, and carry- ing out simultaneous ship and shore potential gradient observations, the ship sailed from Apia April 20 enroute for Guam and proceeded northward toward the Union Is- lands, with light and variable winds. When only sixty- five miles from Apia, two stowaways came on deck out of the forepeak. It was decided to return to Apia and land the boys back home to avoid later trouble and ex- pense, since there was no place for them on board. Soon after leaving Apia the second time, the wind became favorable and the engine was stopped. During the following week the winds were variable and calms were frequent until April 28, when the northeast trade wind began. This breeze continued without interruption until Guam was reached on May 20. The regular daily program was carried out in spite of frequent rain squalls, which, however, were usually of short duration. The date May 6 was omitted, owing to the crossing of the 180th meridian of longitude. Wake Island was sighted early on May 11 and passed within one-quarter mile of Peacock Point, the southeast point of the island. Observations checked the position given for the island by the U.S.S. Tanager expedition of 1923. The highest point is only twenty-one feet above sealevel; there are no coconut trees, only low-spreading umbrella trees and shrubs. Numerous birds were flying about. No signs of life or of buildings were seen. Glimpses of the beautiful green-blue lagoon seen through the break in the south side showed a considerable area free from obstructions which might make a suitable har- bor and landing for seaplanes. Rota and Guam islands were sighted on May 19, and the vessel was safely moored in Port Apra early on May 20. Between Apia and Guam the following observations were made: 48 declination measurements, 13 inclination and horizontal intensity measurements, 14 ocean sta- tions, 20 pilot-balloon flights, 3 atmospheric-electric series, 22 potential gradient records, 159 sonic depths, and 3 bottom samples. After several attempts to use the new Coast and Geodetic Survey sounding machine, it was decided to re- sume use of the winch as before for getting bottom sam- ples. As indicated in the previous report, the construc- tion is such that the machine cannot be readily controlled when mounted, as it is on the Carnegie, with reel axle athwartships. On April 24 the 4-mm aluminum-bronze cable failed in seven or eight places, the heart strands breaking near the points where water bottles usually were clamped. This wire has been in use since leaving 14 WORK OF THE CARNEGIE AND SUGGESTIONS FOR FUTURE SCIENTIFIC CRUISES Balboa in October 1928. It was necessary to discard about 2700 meters of wire. With over 4000 meters out, the 120-pound lead weight on the end and seven or eight bottles in series, the strain on the wire is very great, especially when there is any current or drift. On the same day, difficulty in controlling the new sounding machine caused a break in the piano wire, and the loss of snapper no. 7. The piano wire was shifted to the winch on April 25, but owing to shortage of snappers no bottom samples were secured after April 28 until en route from Guam to Japan. On April 28 the deep water-bottle series had to be repeated because the first messenger caught in a jelly- fish. On April 30 the messenger-chain caught under the wire-guide on one water bottle and the deep series again had to be repeated. On May 2 the vessel was rolling and surging so heavily that the piano wire of the bottom sampler fouled the bottle-wire and they came up en- tangled. Seven hours were required to untangle the wires and finish the station, and 2000 meters of piano wire were lost. The deep series thus was repeated three times, owing to accidental interference with mes- sengers and with wire. In order to have at least 3000 meters of bottle wire, it was necessary to splice on 1100 meters remaining from the wire used in the Atlantic. This made it necessary to use one messenger on a long chain to clear the splice. Bottle M was attached above the splice and its messenger, hanging on the long chain, was attached below the splice. This chain later was re- placed by a wire to avoid trouble due to the chain catch- ing on parts of the bottle. When attempting to get a bottom sample on May 9 the usual 50-pound weight was used with the snapper. The vessel was drifting with the wind and current so rapidly, however, that the angle soon reached 75° and the attempt was abandoned. It was decided to experi- ment with heavier weights to be detached when the snap- per struck bottom. The Sigsbee releasing-device was removed from the tube and attached to the end of the snapper rod. Apparently the arrangement should have functioned but, unfortunately, the splice parted where the drift line was attached to the piano wire. The weights used, 120 pounds, were too heavy. It is intended to use this scheme after suitable weights and snappers are made in Japan. The sonic depth finder results were of unusual in- terest in that we crossed over many shoals and deeps, showing a generally mountainous region on the ocean floor. One region varied in depth from 6500 meters to 4000 meters and back to 5700 meters. Another varied from 5600 meters to 1340 to 5130: meters, to 1900 me- ters, and back to 5800 meters. Two days before reach- ing Guam, at 14° 32’ north, 147° 28’ east, the depth was 8060 meters, the previous depth, twenty miles northeast, being 2892 meters. This is the northeast end of Nero Deep. During the five days’ stay in Guam the old 4-mm aluminum-bronze cable was removed from the reel and the new wire, 6000 meters, received at Callao was in- stalled. Six new weights were cast for use with the Sigsbee sounding tube and the exhaust pipe for the Buf- falo engine was brazed where cracked. The magnetic station at Sumay was reoccupied. The stay was all too brief but was much enjoyed through the very generous hospitality which was extended by Gover- nor and Mrs. Shapley, and the Navy and Marine person- nel, as also by Superintendent Mullahey of the cable station, who placed his home and his car, with himself as chauffeur, at the disposal of the party. After taking on fresh water and gasoline, sail was set for Yokohama on May 25, keeping the easterly trade wind for four days and making good daily runs. The wind then shifted to the south and varied between south- east and southwest until June 2. On the night of June 1 the positions of a typhoon for the two preceding days were received by radio from the Manila Observatory through amateur station KIAF. The wind had been in- creasing in force all afternoon and the sea was becoming heavier. We at once plotted these positions on the chart and predicted the path which the storm center would fol- low. By rough estimation of its rate of travel, it seemed due to intercept the Carnegie’s track within a few hours. The barometer had dropped four millimeters during the preceding eight hours and it seemed wise to head east by south and place the vessel in a safer position to avoid the path of the storm. After running eastward for two hours, the barometer began to rise and the wind moder- ated so we hove the vessel to and waited for wind andsea to moderate further. After another wait of two hours, course was again set toward the northwest, the vessel riding on the tail of the typhoon. The wind continued to shift to the right, showing that the storm had passed on to the eastward. We got a great thrill out of this first experience in handling a storm by radio, and everything worked out like clockwork and exactly as predicted, from information received within the hour by radio. There followed four days of rough sea, contrary winds, and engine running. During this period radio re- ports gave the location and speed of another typhoon coming toward the southern part of Japan. When within fifteen miles of the entrance to Tokyo Bay, late on Wed- nesday night, June 5, a rapidly falling barometer and rainy, threatening weather made it necessary to heave the vessel to in order to judge the nature of the storm and to see the headland. After waiting until 5h on June 6, conditions became worse and it was decided to get off- shore to increase the margin of safety. After running the engine five hours, the wind and sea had risen to such an extent that again we had to heave the vessel to, this time on the southern edge of the typhoon. The ship was now about eighty miles offshore. About noon, on June 6, the barometer appeared to reach its lowest point and be- came steady. The wind began to moderate and back from south toward west, the storm center apparently having passed to the west and north. The Thursday radio re- port from Manila gave the typhoon center a position ten miles north of us on Thursday noon. Two sails were lost and several minor accidents happened on deck, but the vessel rode through the heavy seas in good order. By early Friday morning, June 7, the sea had moderated and the wind had shifted to northeast. Sail was set and by 11h Tokyo Bay was entered, the vessel going up to Yokohama under engine power and arriving at 19h 45m. The following observations were made while en route from Guam to Yokohama: 21 declination measure- ments, 6 inclination and horizontal-intensity stations, 5 ocean stations, 5 bottom samples, 48 sonic depths, one atmospheric-electric series, and 4 bottom tempera- tures. With the sonic depth finder a new deep was discov- ered on May 29 at 23°8 north, 144°1 east, and was named Fleming Deep, in honor of J. A. Fleming the As- sistant Director of the Department. The greatest depth observed was 8650 meters. This deep was traversed in THE CAPTAIN’S REPORT 15 a south to north true direction and was 9 miles wide at 8600 meters, 20 miles at 8000 meters, 34 at 7000 me- ters, 47 at 6000 meters, 74 at 5000 meters, 106 at 4000 meters, and 162 miles wide at 3000 meters. Only five localities are known to be deeper than the Fleming Deep, namely, Kermadec, Guam, Philippines, Juril Islands, and off the southern islands of Japan. Bottom samples were secured with the new cable and sounding tube installed at Guam, at each of the five ocean stations. At station 111, 6385 meters of piano wire were paid out before bottom was reached. The one drawback in using the winch is that the bearings become somewhat warm, so that when the deep bottle series is hauled in, the tremendous pressure against the clutch bearing necessary to maintain the clutch’s grip on the reel, because of the heavy weight of wire and bottles, dragging at some speed through the water, overheats this bearing, and a delay is necessary for cooling to avoid ruining the bearing surface. Some changes to overcome this difficulty will be made at Yokohama. The second Coast and Geodetic Survey propeller- type reversing frame was modified to hold two Richter and Wiese thermometers, and this frame, called Z2, was used at the last four stations. Bottom temperatures were secured at these four stations and at the last three the depth was determined by means of an unprotected thermometer used together with one protected thermom- eter. The Japan Stream was entered on June 4, at 19h30m at 33°0 north, 141°8 east. The temperature began to rise suddenly and in twelve hours it had risen three de- grees. Comment must be made on the excellent spirit of cooperation maintained among the members of the party since Apia. Owing to concerted action, practically all records were ready to mail on June 5, two days before arrival at Yokohama. YOKOHAMA, JAPAN TO SAN FRANCISCO, CALIFORNIA, JUNE 24 TO JULY 28, 1929 After leaving Yokohama June 24, the first ten days were characterized by light variable winds and calms. The engine was operated frequently and the average day’s run was about ninety miles. Advantage was taken of a smooth calm sea on June 27 and 28 to swing the ves- sel for magnetic deviations. One helm for declination observations was made on June 27 before the clouds covered the sun; all the next day was spent in making a swing with both helms for inclination and horizontal in- tensity. About July 4 the region of cold surface water was entered with practically one hundred per cent of clouds, mist, fog, drizzle, and rain, which continued until July 21. The wind was somewhat stronger, but not favorable. Adverse winds during July 9 to 12 drove the vessel three hundred miles to the southward of the proposed track. From July 5 to 26 the weather was so cold that the cop- per heating stove was used in the cabin. On July 14 the wind freshened from the southwest and for sixteen days the average daily run was about two hundred miles. Better weather was met between July 22 and 29, the wind still continuing fair and strong. During the cloudy, foggy weather the program for declination was sadly interrupted. No observations could be obtained on July 6, 7, 12, 13, 14, and 19. On some of the other days, the observations were made with the sun at such high altitudes anu with such rough seas that the accuracy was seriously impaired. During the same period no balloon flights could be made. The alternation of ocean stations with magnetic stations was maintained throughout the trip, except that July 14 and 15 were interchanged, on account of strong wind and rough sea. The ocean station on July 15 was not successful below 500 meters. The messengers would not reverse the bottles, owing to large wire angle. For the later stations with strong wind, 170-pound lead weights were used on the end of the bottle wire, and the newer and heavier messengers were made still heavier by filling two drill holes with lead, bringing the weight per messenger up to thirteen ounces, as compared with seven ounces for the ones previously used. These changes enabled us to secure temperatures and salini- ties down to 3500 meters during wind force 6. The sonic-depth program was carried out as usual. Some difficulty was experienced owing to noisy micro- phones during high speed of the vessel through the water. No unusual variations in the depths were noted, except that on July 24 some irregularities were observed indi- cating the existence of several surfaces and some rapid changes in depth. Tests with the new balloon sextant chair gave good results. The azimuths given by the chair differed from the regular theodolite by 1°5 with an extreme range of 5° in thirty-five readings. A few improvements and more experience will decrease this range. Thus, in rough weather, when the balloon becomes lost to the ob- server at the theodolite, the observer at the sextant can carry on until the balloon disappears. Even now when the observer at the theodolite loses the balloon for a moment, a glance at the azimuth circle of the chair gives him the approximate theodolite readings and enables him to relocate the balloon. The first ocean station after leaving Yokohama re- quired seven hours to complete. Owing to strong cur- rents the bottom-sampler wire fouled the bottle wire and required some time and care to untangle and to avoid breakage and loss of wire, thermometers, and snapper. The current took the wires underneath the vessel, and the sampler wire caught on the sonic depth-oscillator also. In an effort to locate and remedy the trouble the “‘divinhood”’ (fig. 31) was used, but the rolling of the vessel made the attempt dangerous because of the like- lihood of the helmet being lifted off the head. Sufficient depth was reached to show the trouble, however, anda lead weight was then lowered along the piano wire, thus clearing it from the oscillator. The new scheme of leaving the lead weights on the ocean bottom has increased the efficiency of the bottom sampling and decreased the time required. The 60-pound weight is in two halves, and each is suspended by a wire from the hook on the Sigsbee releasing device which has been installed on the end of the shaft of the Ross-type snapper. The bottoms of the two weights are fastened together by two staples driven in fairly tight. When the snapper hits bottom, the hook releases the wires, allow- ing the two weights to fall apart outward from the top, 16 WORK OF THE CARNEGIE AND SUGGESTIONS FOR FUTURE SCIENTIFIC CRUISES thus forcing the lower staplzs out and the weights fall free. The snapper is driven into the ground with such force by the 60-pound weight that it has never failed to release the catches and it has come up full and closed. At two stations, the snapper was sent down twice, and was successful each time. Because of drift and limited length of wire, no bottom sample was attempted on the days of high wind and rough seas. There is an economy of time, power, and personnel in using the main winch for the bottom sampling instead of a separate machine. The only delay is on occasions when the pump could come up sooner, but must wait until the bottom sample is ready to come up. The atmospheric-electric work has suffered some interruption because of bad weather, particularly in the few eye-reading diurnal-variation runs obtained. Un- usually good potential gradient traces were secured, however, in spite of the foggy, misty, rainy weather. Radio conditions were good and schedules were maintained every night. Exceptional cooperation has been shown by our amateur friends, and especially by the “‘San Francisco Examiner’’ radio station KUP. The following observations were made during the period June 24 to July 28: 40 declination measurements, 18 inclination and horizontal intensity measurements, 2 atmospheric-electric series, 26 complete potential gra- dient records, 12 pilot-balloon flights, 17 ocean stations, and 166 sonic depths. SAN FRANCISCO, CALIFORNIA TO HONOLULU, HAWAII, SEPTEMBER 3 TO 23, 1929 There were three new members of the scientific staff when the Carnegie sailed from San Francisco on September 3. Scott E. Forbush replaced O. W. Torre- son, H. W. Graham replaced H. R. Seiwell, and S. L. Seaton replaced radio operator L. A. Jones (fig. 32). The entire trip of twenty days was characterized by light airs and calms, with only a few days of regular trade wind, the northeast trade wind not appearing until September 17. The extremes in daily run were 66 to 177 miles, the average being 108.8 miles. The engine was used frequently. The new ball-bearing friction band on the winch, installed at San Francisco, has proved en- tirely successful. Several deep water-bottle series were sent down and brought up without any overheating or difficulty. The new pelican bottom snapper was successful on the first trial. On another occasion apparently it struck a whale at about 500 meters. On two occasions, the spring was not tight enough and the pressure of the water on the inside of the jaws as the snapper went down rapidly was sufficient to open them, allowing the tongue catches to fall down and close the snapper, so that when it struck bottom it was closed. Enough mud was secured from the outside of the jaws to examine for classification. The snapper came up full on four occa- sions, yielding about one and one-quarter liters of ma- terial, one sample weighing nearly two kilograms. It is expected that one hundred per cent efficiency with this snapper will be had after final adjustments. A peak or mountain which existing charts show at 32°2 north and 128°2 west, with a depth of fifty-eight hundred feet of water over it, was relocated thirty miles northeast of the above position, or at 32°4 north and 127°8 west, and with a least depth of forty-six hundred feet. We have named it Hayes Peak in honor of Dr. Har- vey C. Hayes of the Naval Research Laboratory, Wash- ington, D. C., who developed the sonic depth finder for the United States Navy. The slopes of the mountain are very steep, dropping off over eighty-five hundred feet in six miles. The peak rises out of a general depth of over fourteen thousand feet. Thus the peak is about ten thou- sand feet in height. The absence of soundings south and east allows the possibility of its being a ridge instead of an isolated peak. The new balloon theodolite received at San Francis- co is a decided improvement over the first one. The larger field of view permits keeping the balloon in sight continuously until it disappears owing to distance. The new sextant chair was used on several occasions to ex- tend the time of observed flight, the time being as long as fifty-nine minutes on one occasion. As the supply of six-inch, uncolored balloons was low, it was necessary to use black balloons on several occasions, but their visibility was so poor that nine-inch uncolored balloons were used after that. The regular program of observations was carried out and included 10 ocean stations, 9 stations for dip and intensity, 27 stations for declination, 96 sonic depths, 11 potential gradient and 10 conductivity records, 14 pilot- balloon flights, and 5 evaporation series. The gravity apparatus which had been installed at San Francisco (figs. 33 and 34) worked successfully on only one occasion. Forbush made several attempts to obtain gravity determinations while at sea, but most of these were unsuccessful because the amplitudes of the pendulums got too large and in some instances there was actual slipping of the knife-edges. Several factors were thought to cause the increase in amplitudes of the pendu- lums; horizontal acceleration due to rolling of the ship, horizontal accelerations due to surface waves striking the hull of the ship, and elastic vibrations of parts of the apparatus or its support. Bracing of the gimbal frame of the gravity apparatus was tried but no improvement in operation was noted. The vessel arrived at Honolulu at noon, Monday, September 23, after an unusually quiet approach the previous night. THE CAPTAIN’S REPORT 17 HONOLULU, HAWAII TO PAGO PAGO, SAMOA, OCTOBER 2 TO NOVEMBER 18, 1929 The seven-week passage to Samoa was a period of good weather but feeble winds. The engine was used fre- quently in order to keep on schedule as well as possible. In the first few days after leaving Honolulu the ship passed through a series of wind squalls that reached such force as to rip the middle staysail, gallant, and foresail. These were old sails but were repaired and put back into use to save the new suit of sails for a later part of the voyage. On October 7 some remarkably long swells were encountered, coming from the northwest. These were observed to be about six hundred feet apart. Brief stops were made at Penrhyn Island on November 10 and Manahiki Island on November 12. Heavy cross currents near the equator caused con- siderable loss of oceanographic equipment. The Counter Equatorial Current flows at a rate of thirty miles per day on the surface, near its northern boundary at 9° north, but has no velocity at a depth of two hundred me- ters. On October 25 the wire of the bottom sampler and the wire of the water-bottle series became entangled and the latter wire parted when caught on an outboard plat- form. Forty-two hundred meters of wire were lost, nine water bottles, and eighteen deep-sea reversing ther- mometers. To avoid similar loss in the future, the pro- gram was altered and the water-bottle series was not lowered until the bottom sampling was completed. This, however, almost doubled the time required for each oceanographic station. Other equipment losses were experienced earlier. On October 11 two silk nets were lost when the tow wire jumped its sheave and wore through. On the same day a bottom sampler and some bottom temperature equipment were lost when a splice in the wire caught on the meter wheel. On November 5 the silk plankton nets towed from the bow became entangled with the wire of the bottle series which was lowered from the quarter-deck. Two thermometers were lost on this occasion and the nets torn slightly. After leaving Honolulu, various attempts were made to get satisfactory measurements of gravity, but without success. The roll of the ship, the vibrations imparted by waves striking the ship, and the instability of the mounting of the gravity apparatus all prevented success- ful operation of the apparatus. While in the lee of Pen- rhyn Island on November 10 a gravity measurement was made; this was the only successful measurement made between Honolulu and Pago Pago. A satisfactory meas- urement had been made at Honolulu before departure and additional successful determinations were obtained while in the harbor at Pago Pago. On November 8, at 7h 30m, the sonic depth finder gave a sounding of 5200 meters. Later, during the oceanographic station, another sounding indicated a depth of only 1200 meters, a shoaling having occurred within a few miles. In the island regions such irregu- larities were noted frequently. The full program in magnetism, atmospheric elec- tricity, oceanography, and meteorology was carried on without interruption; 47 complete days of record of con- ductivity were obtained, 29 complete and 16 partial days of potential gradient, and 23 oceanographic stations oc- cupied. Magnetic measurements were made regularly on days alternating with those on which the oceanographic work was done. The temperature of the ocean bottom was measured frequently after leaving Honolulu and at a station near Pago Pago the lowest value was found-- 1°1C. Measurements with the sonic depth finder showed that there is no deep trough between Penrhyn and Manahiki islands, as the charts would lead one to believe. Pilot-balloon observations were very successful owing to fine skies and the new theodolite. The latter was so well adapted to observing conditions that the sextant chair was seldom used. Radio conditions were unex- celled throughout the trip. Entering Pago Pago harbor in the early afternoon of November 18, the engine was used, as strong wind squalls were swooping down from the mountains surrounding the bay. Anchorage was made at a buoy until the following morning. 18 Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. WORK OF THE CARNEGIE AND SUGGESTIONS FOR FUTURE SCIENTIFIC CRUISES CS. (69) MOS OS OSE (ROD INO INS) (NOmmNS) INQUIRE INST NS SINS ee ee a ee ee ek BPwoNnsDrFoevs»siowovnANt Aa TO PF WHF O HD TAD NT SF WH HY KF OS LIST OF FIGURES Paul at the evaporimeter A Richter and Wiese deep-sea reversing thermometer protected against pressures The Stevenson meteorological shelter on the quarter-deck A “‘snapper’’ type of bottom sampler Meteor “‘glass-tube’’ type of bottom sampler Paul at the plankton pump The Wenner salinity bridge The radio receiver designed by the Naval Research Laboratory and used on the Carnegie Recording apparatus for electrical conductivity of the atmosphere . The scientific staff aboard the Carnegie . The watch officers and the engineer . Steward, cook, and messboys . The oscillator of the sonic depth finder installed in the keel . The Carnegie under a full spread of canvas in the Pacific . Declination observations with the marine collimating compass . Scott at the “‘deflector”’ . Nansen water bottles, rack and storage box, on quarter-deck . A silk plankton net coming up after being towed . Seiwell at work in the chemical laboratory . Parkinson testing the potential gradient recorder . Quarter-deck of the Carnegie during an oceanographic station when the ship is hove to . Captain Ault about to remove a ‘‘Nansen bottle’’ which contains a sample of sea water . Paul and Soule preparing bottles for the water samples . Withdrawing samples of sea water for chemical analysis. . The biologist using a dip net from the ‘“boom walk”’ . Torreson observing a pilot balloon with the specially designed theodolite loaned by the U.S. Navy . Weighing the hydrogen-filled balloon . Captain Ault releasing a pilot balloon . A propeller device for reversing the deep-sea thermometers . Captain Ault, Torreson, and Scott following the pilot_balloon . Captain Ault about to descend in the diving helmet to untangle the sounding wires . The scientific personnel of the Carnegie on leaving San Francisco in September 1929 . Pendulum apparatus installed in the cabin for measuring the force of gravity . The pendulums of the Vening Meinesz gravity apparatus deck, housing instruments to measure temperature and hu- midity of the air hae Fig. 1. Paul at the evaporimeter. The evaporation of sea water is enormous--at the equator it appears to be about seven and one-half feet per year. Facts concerning evapo- ration are essential to an understanding of many problems in the field of meteorology Fig. 2. A Richter and Wiese deep-sea reversing ther- mometer protected against pressures encountered in the depths of the ocean. (A) Sea water thermom- eter, (B) auxiliary thermometer for making cor- rection for air temperature on deck, (C) point at which mercury capillary breaks on reversal, (D) — mercury shield which protects bulb from pressure Fig. 4. A “‘snapper”’ type of bottom sampler of the sea 19 ‘ apne a Fig. 5. Meteor ‘*glass-tube’’ type of bottom sampler x a Fig. 7. The Wenner salinity bridge. An apparatus giving the salt content in a sample of sea water by measuring the resistance it offers to the pas- sage of an electric current \ Fig. 6. Paul at the plankton pump. Fig. 8. The radio receiver designed by the Naval Research Laboratory and This device makes a census of used on the Carnegie, bringing us messages from home and keeping us in the microscopic life floating at touch with headquarters through radio amateurs in all countries any desired depth 20 Fig. 10. The scientific staff aboard the Carnegie. Front row, left to right: W. C. Parkinson, senior scientific officer; Captain J. P. Ault, commander and chief of scientific staff; J. H. Paul, surgeon and observer. Back row, left to right: F. M. Soule, electrical engineer; J. A. Jones, radio operator and observer; W. E. Scott, navigator and commissary; H. R. Seiwell, chemist and biologist; O. W. Torreson, navigator and executive officer 21 a e $ Sd aS . ’ es —— Fig. 11. The watch officers and the engineer. Left to right: Jentoft, third mate; Leyer, engineer; Erickson, first mate; Unander, second mate é | wm. Se Pa Fig. 12. Steward, cook, and messboys Fig. 13. The oscillator of the sonic depth finder installed in the keel. The vibrationof this heavy diaphragm sends to the bottom the sound wave whose echo is picked up by the microphones 22 os a Fig. 15. Declination observations with the marine collimating com- pass - a == ae meee! Fig. 16. Scott at the “‘deflector.’’ An instrument to measure the strength of the earth’s magnetic field in different parts of the world 23 Fig. 17. Nansen water bottles, rack and storage box, on quarter- eee as . 2 ‘ “a Si) 2 N ad wy w: ‘ ie a? “ 7 Fig. 18. A silk plankton net coming up after being towed. Used to collect the microscopic forms of life floating in the ocean Fig. 19. Seiwell at work in the chemical laboratory. Analyses = were made for many substances, like phosphates and oxygen, ‘Fig. 20. Parkinson testing the potential gradient which are concerned in the life of the plankton recorder. This instrument measures the po- tential gradient of the atmosphere 24 Fig. 21. Quarter-deck of the Carnegie during an oceanographic station when the ship is hove to and the instru- ments are lowered into the sea to collect samples of the bottom and to take temperatures and sea water for analysis Fig. 22. Captain Ault about to remove a “‘Nansen bottle’’ which contains a sample of sea water obtained from the deep. The thermometers attached to the bottle give the temperature at the level at which the bottle was reversed 25 Fig. 23. Paul and Soule preparing bottles for the water samples. These samples are collected in the depths of the sea to be analyzed later in the chemical laboratory a “het ee Pe = = Fig. 24. Withdrawing samples of seawater Fig. 25. The biologist using a dip net from the “‘boom walk.’’ The for chemical analysis. Such specimens boom walk consists of two thirty-foot booms with a net between and were obtained down to a depth of three enables the observer to collect specimens beyond the disturbance miles at some stations caused by the ship’s wash a 26 Fig. 27. Weighing the hydrogen-filled balloon. Fig. 26. Torresonobserving a pilot balloon with aan | é G a2 specially designed Pe Ganiie loaned by This is followed in ascent to a height of from ihenunitediStatesiNa: two to seven miles in order to plot the air ue currents Fig. 29. A propeller device for reversing deep-sea ther- mometers. This is attached to the bottom-sampling wire, andwhen the sampler is hauled in, the propeller turns and releases the pin which holds the thermome- ters upright as they plunge to the bottom. Tempera- tures of the ocean bottom have been measured only rarely, although they are of great interest to ocea- nographers Fig. 28. Captain Ault releasing a pilot balloon. These globes ascend at the rate of about six hundred feet a . _— é minute and are wafted here and there by the winds Fig. 30. Captain Ault, Torreson, and Scott following the they encounter in the upper air pilot balloon _ 5: - 27 ; ee Carnegie on Fig. 31. Captain Ault about to descend in the diving hel- Fig. 32. The scientific personnel of the met to untangle the sounding wires which had fouled leaving San Francisco in September 1929. Front row, the oscillator in the keel during an oceanographic sta- left to right: Parkinson, Captain Ault, Soule; back tion row, left to right, Forbush, Seaton, Scott, Graham, ss and Paul Fig. 34. The pendulums of the Vening Meinesz gravity apparatus. Installed on the Carnegie at San Francis- co to obtain measurements of the force of gravity in different parts of the world, which are of great inter- Fig. 33. Pendulum apparatus installed in the cabin for est to geophysicists in their study of the earth’s crust. measuring the force of gravity These pendulums are made of “‘invar,”’ an alloy which does not contract or expand with changes in tempera- ture 28 WORK OF THE CARNEGIE AND SUGGESTIONS FOR FUTURE SCIENTIFIC CRUISES II NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE Instruments The cruise CONTENTS S jet Jelvey ie: ‘eh. fe ual felis; 0: 0’ er 10) ef isvie)teyie! s) (es Us) aiuwinrer gay os 30 NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE FROM “THE LAST CRUISE OF THE CARNEGIE” INSTRUMENTS While docked in San Francisco after our first year . at sea, a celebration was held aboard the Carnegie com- memorating the twenty-fifth anniversary of the Depart- ment of Terrestrial Magnetism. Following the ceremo- nies, the vessel was open for public inspection for a period of several days. The popular interest shown in the ship and its scientific equipment was keen--three thousand visitors having made the rounds in two days. This experience suggests that the reader of the present volume may also find of interest such a conducted tour. It certainly will give a more concrete idea of what we set out to accomplish. Coming on the quarter-deck from the pier, one’s at- tention is drawn to the shiny three-ton bronze winch and its two reels of aluminum-bronze wire. With this elec- trically driven ‘‘gold hoist,’”’ as the sailors call it, deep- sea soundings can be made, water samples collected, and temperatures taken down to a depth of three or four miles. From the winch the wires lead through blocks, over meter wheels to davits overhanging the water. One of the winch heads was cut down to hold steel piano wire which was used later in the cruise for collecting sam- plesof the bottom, and for getting temperatures at depths greater than could be reached with the bronze cable. Although this steel wire was very long, it weighed little, and was so far removed from the magnetic instruments as to have no observable effect on them. The drums and heads of the winch were ingeniously constructed to work independently, so that to save time several operations might be under way simultaneously: for example, paying out on the bottle wire, and hauling in on the bottom sam- ple. Aluminum-bronze wire previously had been used by the German Atlantic expedition of the Meteor, on which it had been shown superior to any other cable for deep-sea purposes and fitted in admirably with our non- magnetic requirements. Mounted over an outboard platform near the winch is the ‘‘plankton pump.’’ This apparatus is lowered to various depths to count the number of miscroscopic ani- mals and plants existing at each water level. Owing to an insufficiency of power, our biological work was limit- ed to the study of these minute, drifting organisms found everywhere in the oceans. A small conical net made of very fine-meshed silk bolting-cloth, such as millers use in sifting flour, is attached to the end of the bronze cyl- inder. A pump actuated by a falling lead weight forces a measured volume of sea water through the net. One has only to lower the apparatus to the desired depth, drop a brass ‘‘messenger’’ down the wire to release the catch on the pump, and gravity does the rest. The cylinder is closed while being lowered and raised. This avoids con- tamination of the desired sample by plankton living in the upper layers of the water. From this description, the plankton pump seems to be a clever little mechanism which does its appointed task uncomplainingly. But of all the pieces of machinery aboard, this one required the greatest display of ingenu- ity and the most severe strain on one’s good humor, to keep it in operation. Wires and valves, rubber bands 31 and springs, weights and releasing forks--all had an abominable habit of getting tangled up once the mechan- ism was safely hidden from view in the waters under the vessel. It was a rare day when three consecutive hauls were successful. Nevertheless with its aid we were able to make a census of the sea’s population in various re- gions and at the various depths--a valuable contribution to our knowledge of life in the ocean. The pump was de- signed by Dr. Petterssen of Norway, and had been tested off the coast of that country by Dr. Sverdrup, a Research Associate of the Carnegie Institution. Immediately inboard from the plankton pump plat- form is a large “‘gear box’’ filled with oceanographic instruments. Standing on the outside in ranks, like well- drilled veterans, are the reversing water-sampling bot- tles, designed by the late explorer Nansen. These remarkable brass cylinders may be attached in series to the bronze wire, lowered to the desired depths, and the first bottle reversed by sliding a brass messenger down the cable from the ship. Each bottle has a messen- ger hanging at its lower end, so that when the first bot- tle reverses end-over-end, its messenger is released and slides down the wire to upset the next, and this con- tinues with all the bottles. The two valves at the ends of each bottle close automatically when reversal takes place, imprisoning about a quart of water, to be analyzed by the chemist in the laboratory on deck. To each of these bottles is attached a small frame containing the all-important deep-sea reversing pressure thermome- ters. Inside the gear box are several types of ““bottom samplers.’’ Some consist of brass tubes surrounded with lead weights which fall off after the apparatus plunges into the ocean floor. Others operate like a clam- shell or turtle’s jaws, snapping up a sample of bottom deposit. A third kind is a long, glass-lined metal tube with a heavy weight permanently attached to it, which procures a vertical section of the mud or ooze, showing the successive layers in which it has been deposited. But the sampler most commonly used is a modification of the telegraph ‘‘snapper’’ of the clamshell type. Like the plankton pump, this mechanism required considerable nursing, and even some surgical operations as time went on. On the basis of these samples, a study of the nature and origin of marine bottom deposits will be made ashore. This collection will prove of great interest, because of the scarcity of material, especially from the Pacific. Work- ers in the Geophysical Laboratory of the Carnegie Insti- tution of Washington are interested in the chemical analy- ses. From the amount of radioactive material found in them, thorium and radium, they hope to g2t some idea of the age of the earth. Scientists studying the origin of oil deposits will be furnished samples. The American Tele- phone and Telegraph Company wish to determine the corrosive effects on their cables. Then too, it is now known that bottom-living creatures feed on organic mat- ter found in muds. In the gear boxis keptthe brass bucket for collecting 32 WORK OF THE CARNEGIE AND SUGGESTIONS FOR FUTURE SCIENTIFIC CRUISES diatoms from the harbors we visit. These exquisite microscopic plants, displaying inexhaustible patterns of form, are present in all the waters of the earth from pole to pole. They are almost the sole food for the lar- val stages of fish, and therefore are of immense impor- tance. Some of the largest marine creatures use these tiny plants as food. So minute are they that a hundred of them might be placed side by side on the head of a common pin. The harvest of fish has been increased noticeably by adding silicates and phosphates to the water to augment the supply of diatoms, just as nitrates and phosphates are used in agriculture. The work on board was planned to include a study of the relation of these chemicals to the abundance of diatoms and plankton. In fact, the source of silica in the surface layers of the ocean, where the diatoms thrive, is not well known, for the great red-clay silica deposits are sometimes sever- al miles below and seem to be increasing in extent. In higher latitudes the diatoms show great changes in abundance with change of season, for they are plants and depend directly on sunlight as their source of ener- gy. It is for this reason that they are found in a living state only in the uppermost few hundred meters of the sea, and on the bottom of shallow waters near shore. It is not always realized that sunlight is totally absorbed in the clearest sea water in less than a mile from the surface. Leaving the gear box we walk aft to the Stevenson meteorological shelter, which gets its name from its designer, the father of Robert Louis Stevenson. Here are housed some of the various instruments used in studying the circulation of the atmosphere, just as the oceanographic equipment is used to give us a picture of currents in the ocean. There are three forms of appa- ratus for measuring the changes of humidity. One isa recording psychrometer, ventilated by a motor-driven fan, procured in England and designed to give a continu- ous record of “‘wet-’’ and ‘‘dry-”’ bulb temperatures. From this record is calculated the degree of saturation of the air by water vapor. Another is one unit of an electrical-resistance psychrometer, which measures the humidity at three heights over the ocean--on deck, at the main crosstrees, and at the masthead. In.:the control room, which we shall visit later, is the automatic re- corder for these three pairs of electric thermometers which registers at intervals of thirty seconds the six wet- and dry-bulb temperatures in consecutive order. The third is of German make, and has very accurate thermometers. It is ventilated by clockwork, and is read directly by the eye of the observer. This is used daily to check the accuracy of the other two. In the shelter is also kept the little instrument for measuring wind velocity--the anemometer--as well as the standard sea-surface thermometer and other mete- orological equipment. Walking aft a few feet, we stand at the steering gear of the ship. There is no cozy wheelhouse on the bridge for the quartermaster of a sailing ship. He must stand at the very stern, with an unobstructed view of the sails. When sailing ‘“‘by the wind’”’ his eye is glued to the weath- er side of the uppermost sail; he keeps it drawing a trace of wind, but never lets it fill. It is true that the Carnegie had a “‘bridge,’’ but this was used only by the pilot when entering or leaving port, and by the lookout during the night. The steering gear itself is a constant source of in- terest to visitors, for it is one of the many features of the old-time windjammer to be found on the Carnegie. The whole mechanism is operated by hand; a whirl of the wheel to starboard brings the helm to port and turns the ship itself to starboard. The old-fashioned method of giving orders to the steersman, called “‘port’’ or ‘*starboard,”’ almost wrecked us one day in Samoa, when a shore pilot in a tight place overlooked the fact that we did not use the modern code in which the order refers to the ship’s head and not to the helm. The binnacle, which stands before the man at the wheel, is also a carry-over from bygone days, for the compass reads in “‘points”’ and not degrees. As each man finishes his two-hour trick at the wheel, he calls out to his reliever: ‘‘east by south half south,’’ and not ‘‘107 degrees.”’ Cn one side of the wheel, mounted near the rail, stands the rain gage; and on the other, the evaporimeter. The latter is made of glass, and is used to measure the rate of evaporation of sea water from day to day. This subject is part of the general investigations made of the influence on climate of movements of large bodies of warm or cold water. We wished to study the transfer of heat between the sea and the atmosphere; and the evap- orimeter, together with the electric-resistance thermom- eters, givesus much needed information. On the taffrail around the stern is the automatic re- corder for the potential gradient of the atmosphere’s electricity. The negative charge on the earth’s surface causes an electric pressure in the air increasing with height above the earth’s surface. Ordinarily this rate of increase or gradient is in the neighborhood of one hun- dred volts per meter near sea level. There are daily variations, aside from the local changes due to disturb- ances in the atmosphere near the ship. The chief of these is a mysterious surge in the potential gradient which occurs simultaneously over the whole earth. It was discovered after examining observations obtained on previous cruises of the Carnegie, and our aim now was to collect records from widely separated geographical regions to confirm this. Any attempt to discover the cause for the earth’s permanent negative charge must be based on a knowledge of potential gradient. This automatic recorder gives us traces at about tenfold the rate possible with the eye-reading apparatus used on former voyages. k is also very sensitive to changes in the electric conditions of the air, because ionium collectors are used. Ionium is an element which has the property of giving ‘‘air molecules’’ in its neighborhood an electric charge, thus turning them into ‘fions.’? These ions, acting as carriers, facilitate the transfer of electricity from the air to the instrument, and eliminate any lag during rapidly changing conditions. We shall now walk forward on the port side of the quarter-deck past the jaunty little dinghy hanging in its davits. The control room built alongside the companion- way contains many essential parts of our equipment. The time-measuring device for the sonic depth finder with its control panel is located here. This electric sounding device, loaned by the United States Navy, is made up of three important units--the oscillator, the microphones, and the timing mechanism. The oscillator, a large steel diaphragm set face downwards in the keel of the ship near the stern, is put into periodic vibration by electromagnets and produces a sound wave which is reflected from the ocean bottom. The echo is picked up by microphones set in the vessel’s hull, and carried to the headphones of the observer, who sits at the control panel. An accurate time-measuring device gives us the NARRATIVE OF THE CRUISE 33 exact time interval between outgoing signal and returning echo. With this information we can easily calculate the depth, for the velocity of sound in sea water is known. It is roughly one mile a second, depending, however, on the temperature and salinity. But as these factors for each water level are determined on board, we are able to sound with an unusual degree of precision. For ex- ample, the observer reports that it took two seconds for the echo to return. This means that the sound wave traveled about two miles, and the sea is one mile deep. This is the underlying principle, although actually the procedure is somewhat more complicated. The great advantage of this method is that the ship need not heave to and consume one or two hours for a sounding with line and lead. A sonic depth may be made with the ship on her course in from five to ten minutes. We are able to check these soundings bythe old-fashioned lead weight, and do so on alternate days. In the large box on the floor are our pressure ther- mometers. With these we have an ingenious method for checking the depths recorded sonically and by wire. Be- sides this, the marvelous instruments can tell us pre- cisely at what distance from the surface each of the “Nansen bottles’? was reversed. These German-made thermometers are of two types. Some are protected from the enormous pressures en- countered in the deeps, and give the true temperature. Others are unprotected, and give a fictitious reading: the sum of the true temperature and the effect of the pressure exerted mechanically on the naked bulb by the weight of the column of water above it. The difference between the readings of such a pair is then a measure of the pressure. By rather complicated calculations we may then convert this to meters of depth. The thermometers are sent down, inverted, in their frames on the side of the Nansen bottles. They are given time to assume the temperature of the surrounding water and are then reversed along with the bottle, when the messenger comes down the wire from the surface. This reversal breaks the thread of mercury in the tiny capil- laries in such a way that the changes in temperature and pressure encountered on the way back to the surface will not be registered, and the observer on deck can get a true picture of conditions at the desired depth. By the use of these readings and the salinity values for each sample, we are able to calculate ‘“‘dynamic pressures’’ for each water level to the bottom. Plotting the figures on a chart we can determine the speed and direction of the ocean currents below the ship--a subject of great importance to oceanography. These charts are made in much the same way as weather maps prepared by the Weather Bureau--based as they are on pressure readings taken at a multitude of stations, from which winds can be predicted. There are more direct means for measuring ocean currents. We may trace the course, speed, and direction of floating objects. This is not satisfactory, for only the surface current is represented, and the effect of chang- ing winds on the object may confuse the true picture. A more useful method is to lower from an anchored ship an instrument similar to an anemometer. We had insuffi- cient power for hauling in a deep-sea anchor, and so we relied entirely on the “‘dynamic-pressure”’ computations. The configuration of the ocean floor is of great in- terest to seismologists studying the movements of the earth’s crust. Oceanographers also are able to explain certain peculiarities of ocean currents by the contour of the ocean bed. But enormous areas are still unexplored. On the wall of the control room hangs the German multithermograph which was referred to when we looked into the Stevenson meteorological shelter. Below it is an inflation-balance for use in connection with soundings of the upper atmosphere. Rubber balloons filled with hydrogen are released from the deck. These extremely light globes are deflected from their upward course by every breath of air they meet. By following them with a theodolite, an instrument for measuring elevation and direction through vertical and horizontal angles, we can study the air currents at heights up to six or seven miles. Besides the general scientific interest in the movements of the earth’s atmosphere, the aviator some day will come to rely on pilot charts based on these soundings, just as the mariner relies on wind and cur- rent charts for the ocean surface. Before leaving the control room we must glance at the long array of switches, galvanometers, batteries, and ammeters stretched along a table against the star- board wall. Although it is part of the equipment for measuring the elements of the earth’s magnetic field, some of this apparatus contains small pieces of steel, and must be set up well away from the observatory domes. One observer sits at this table to control the constant-speed motor for the ‘‘marine earth inductor’’ which we shall see later. He is in communication through a brass speaking tube with the second observer in the dome. At given signals he records the readings of the ammeters or galvanometers before him. In the control room we also find the Sperry gyro- scopic pitch-and-roll recorder. Magnetic measurements at sea usually are affected by small errors caused by rolling, pitching, and scending of the vessel. Though small, these errors are important where accurate de- terminations are desired of progressive changes in the earth’s magnetism and of their distribution--as on the Carnegie. A study based on records from this instru- ment has shown that when the vessel heads on any one of the four cardinal points of the compass, no error is in- troduced into the measurements. A record of the rolling and pitching of the ship during magnetic stations can be studied later at headquarters to detect these disturbing effects. We have spent a long time in the cramped quarters of this little room, but one can see that in it lies the cen- tral nervous system of the magnetic and oceanographic equipment. A few steps down and we have left the quarter-deck. Standing in the waist of the ship we see curious nets hanging from the whale-boat platforms. These long cones of silk bolting-cloth are used to collect plankton. They are towed from the ship during oceano- graphic stations, and may be lowered to any depth de- sired. It is true that the lack of fishing and dredging equip- ment deprived us of the excitement of bringing up fan- tastically shaped monsters from the deep. But in the plankton nets we can catch a hundred bizarre forms to every one recovered from a dredge; we can find animals painted with all the colors of the rainbow, whereas the deep-sea organisms are either black or red. Anyone who has once seen these exquisite creatures through a microscope will never again envy the man with a deep- sea dredge. Two parallel booms supporting a net between them project over the water from the fore rigging--a glorified pirates’ plank, as someone has suggested. This boom 34 WORK OF THE CARNEGIE AND SUGGESTIONS FOR FUTURE SCIENTIFIC CRUISES was similar to that used on Beebe’s expedition. On calm days it may be lowered for the use of the biologist, who is thus able to dip up floating objects beyond the wash of the vessel. A step over the high doorsill and we are in the chemical laboratory. Here each water sample is ana- lyzed for salinity, phosphates, silicates, oxygen, and hydrogen ions. All these substances are intimately re- lated to the life of plankton. We limit ourselves to such determinations as can be made on board, for we have no room to stow away samples for study ashore. There are several unusual features about our chemical work. The salt content of the sea water is measured electrically by a resistance-bridge designed for our use by Dr. Wenner of the Bureau of Standards in Washington. By measuring the electrical resistance of a sample of sea water, we are able to calculate its sa- linity. This method is checked regularly by the con- ventional titration of samples with silver-nitrate solu- tions. The apparatus for measuring the so-called “‘hydro- gen-ion concentration’’ of sea water at various depths is ingenious. It avoids the use of permanent color standards in test tubes, and gives more accurate read- ings than are ordinarily obtained at sea. It is a modifi- cation of the double-wedge comparator described in technical journals by Barnett and Barnett. To analyze for phosphates and silicates, chemicals are added to the specimen to bring about the develop- ment of a certain color, the intensity of which is a meas- ure of the phosphate or silicate present. After treating with the same chemicals a second solution (whose com- position is known) we have only to match the intensity of one color against the other to obtain a value for the un- known sample. The presence of as little as one part of phosphate per billion parts of water can be detected in this way. When the reports of the oceanographer, the chemist, and the biologist are correlated, we have a good picture of the life of plankton. We can see what limits of tem- perature and salinity they tolerate; what substances they need for food; and what influence variations in sunlight, oxygen, and acidity have on their growth. The usual equipment of a chemical laboratory is more familiar and will be passed by. But there are, be- sides this, microscopes, dissecting instruments, and preservatives for the use of the biologist. Over in the corner of the room is a self-recording sea-water thermograph. This device keeps a continuous record of the changes in surface temperature as we sail down the latitudes. A large bulb of mercury is mounted on the outside of the vessel’s hull. It communicates with the recorder through a capillary tube. Any changes in the volume of the mercury in the system, due to changes in sea temperature, are transmitted through a hollow coil spring to a recording pen. A short walk forward, a few steps up, and we are on the “‘bridge.’”” From here we can look upward at the lofty rigging, more bewildering in detail than many of our instruments. Or, we may look toward the forecastle- head and see, coiled on the deck, the two great hawsers which serve us for anchor chains. But a weird object, suggesting an automaton in a brass helmet, stands at the center of the bridge, challenging attention. This is the ‘‘marine collimating compass.”’ It gives the magnetic declination, or ‘‘compass variation”’ as sailors call it. The principles on which it operates are simple enough. We wish to find the angular difference between true geographic north and the magnetic north as indicat- ed by the compass. We can use the sun as our point of reference, since we know its true bearing from the ship by using the Nautical Almanac. In the collimating com- pass, the card ordinarily viewed from above is replaced by a set of vertical scales which may be seen by looking horizontally through openings in the sides of the compass bowl. An observer brings the image of the rising sun, let us say, to one of these vertical scales with an ordin- ary sextant and measures the horizontal angle between them. With the sun’s image on the vertical scale he can make continuous readings of its position, as the compass swings back and forth with the roll of the ship. By taking the mean of many such readings, he has made an accu- rate measurement from which the declination may be computed. This instrument was designed by Peters and Flem- ing of the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism, and was made in its shop. The method is superior to older methods used at sea which depended on hasty readings taken as the sun’s image, or a shadow, flits across a moving compass card on a rolling ship. Three obsery- ers are required to take a declination measurement. One man’s duty has been described. A second reads the altitude of the sun from time to time, for it seldom hap- pens that weather conditions are perfect exactly at sun- rise or sunset, and corrections for altitude must be ap- plied. The third observer is the recorder. He must be a sleight of hand artist, because he has to write down the readings of the other two and keep a second-to-sec- ond record of the time when each of these is made. On the starboard wing of the bridge is located an apparatus for collecting the radioactive materials in the atmosphere, which are present in only infinitesimal amounts. When a measured volume of air is drawn through the collector over negatively charged metal foil, the desired particles are deposited on the foil because they carry a positive charge. Let us now follow the ob- server into the atmospheric-electric laboratory, where he will measure the amount of radioactive material col- lected. This electric laboratory is located just abaft the bridge, directly amidships. It is entered from the foot of the steps leading to the bridge. The observer places the metal foil in an ionization chamber where the rate at which the radioactive material produces electrified par- ticles or ions is measured. This rate gives a measure of the amount of radioactive material collected. Another instrument counts the ions normally pres- ent in the atmosphere, by extracting them from a meas- ured volume of air. Over the oceans there are usually about 30,000 of these per cubic inch, half with positive charge and half with negative. Under the action of the earth’s electric field, positive ions are traveling toward the earth and negative ions upward into the air, giving rise to an air-earth electric current which makes no impression on our senses. The rate at which this inter- change takes place would neutralize the earth’s negative charge in a very short time, were there no recharging agent. Up to the present, however, the mechanism which generates the recharging current has not been established, and remains a major problem in studies of the electricity of the earth and atmosphere. Penetrating radiation, or ‘“‘cosmic rays,’’ long have been known to ionize the air. These exceedingly powerful rays can penetrate several feet of lead, and seem to orig- inate entirely outside our solar system. An apparatus NARRATIVE carried on board measures the amount of this energy received by the earth. Over the oceans this accounts for most of the ionization of the atmosphere. Intimately connected with the number of ions in the air is its electrical conductivity, or its ability to carry an electric current. It is measured in this laboratory with an automatic photographic recorder. A stream of air is drawn through a duct past a cylinder at its center. The ions in the air cause a current of one millionth of a millionth of an ampere to pass through the air between the duct and cylinder, and a delicate electrometer meas- ures this current as the air’s conductivity. The air over the sea is much more free of dust than over land, but the influence of this pollution on the ele- ments of atmospheric electricity is so great that sys- tematic ‘‘dust counts’’ must be made even far from land. Some years ago, when the volcano Krakotoa erupted, such quantities of dust were blown into the atmosphere that it took two years for it to settle over the earth. Even in normal years pollution may vary from 1,000,000 particles per cubic inch to a few thousand. When dust is abundant, the atmospheric conductivity is decreased and the potential gradient rises to as much as 300 volts per meter. The Aitken counter is used to determine the pol- lution of the atmosphere. When moist air is suddenly expanded, the water present condenses as droplets, pro- vided some dust particles are present to act as centers of condensation. In the Aitken counter, the droplets so formed are enumerated and not the dust particles them- selves. Other materials besides dust act as centers in the counter, for it is believed that such particles as salt spicules, and even aggregates of water or ammonia mol- ecules, may act as condensation centers. In the chart room under the bridge is the navigation- al equipment including sextants (sixteen of them), ba- rometers, log books, marine charts, and pilot books. There are six desks where the observers do their com- puting. Complete sets of graphs, tables, and calculating books are at hand to facilitate the work. These desks are always filled except when a magnetic or oceano- graphic station is being occupied; for a large part of our duties consist in preparation of records. Large win- dows supply plenty of air and light to the men at work. In the center of the chart room stands the “‘standard compass,’ which furnishes a correct reading for mag- netic north. The ‘‘earth inductor’’ in the forward dome, and the “‘deflector’’ in the after observatory, both use this compass for standard magnetic readings. Visitors have often expressed surprise that such a well-equipped vessel had no gyroscopic compass, or ‘metal mike,’”’ as it is referred to by sailors. The ap- paratus may be employed to actuate an auxiliary device, which is fast becoming standard equipment on ocean liners, and steers the ship automatically on any desired heading. But on a sailing ship the course must be con- stantly changed to take advantage of wind and squalls. The gyroscope would have required precious power for operation, and would have introduced magnetic materials on board. For these reasons it was out of the question. Besides this, we were seldom trying to make a beeline from one port to another. We shall now climb into the forward observatory dome to inspect the marine earth inductor. It deter- mines the ‘‘dip’’ of the magnetic needle, or inclination. It is essentially a rotating coil of wire which is connect- ed to current or potential meters in the control room. Any coil rotating in a magnetic field, with its axis OF THE CRUISE 35 perpendicular to the lines of force, will generate a cur- rent in the circuit in which it is placed. It is on this principle that ordinary dynamos operate, except that they use either permanent magnets or electromagnets, where- as we use the feeble magnetic field of the earth. If we move the coil around to such a position that its rotation axis is parallel to the lines of force (pointing exactly to the magnetic pole), no current will be gener- ated. This is true because the magnetic field is being cut so that the effect of one half of the coil exactly neu- tralizes the effect of the other. So when the observer in the control room signals that no current is being pro- duced, the man in the dome reads off the angle of incli- nation. In actual practice the procedure is somewhat more complicated than this. In the after dome is the ‘‘deflector’’ which gives us the strength of the magnetic field acting on the compass needle. Briefly, we balance the effect on the compass of a small magnet of known strength against the effect of the earth’s magnetism. In other words, we find how far a measured artificial magnetic field deflects the compass from its normal position. Modern magnetic charts of all oceans are based largely on the work of the Carnegie. So promptly are our observations computed and forwarded to the world’s hydrographers, that the ‘“‘Variation Chart for 1930,” published in October 1929, by the United States Navy, in- cluded our measurements through September. These charts are used, of course, by air pilots as well as by mariners. The cabin on the Carnegie occupies the space ordi- narily used for cargo on a Sailing ship. It can be entered by companionways from the quarter-deck or from the chart room. Although'there are no portholes, because the room is below the water line, good ventilation and light are afforded by several large skylights. Everything possible was done to make our living quarters comfort- able. Each observer has his own stateroom, a wise pro- vision, because the working hours for some of the men are very irregular. Each one may decorate his room in his own way, and can secure a semblance of privacy. In the cabin is the ship’s library. There are books of reference, technical handbooks, general literature and an extraordinary collection of books of polar explor- ation and oceanography. In addition, each man has ample space in his stateroom for his personal choice of read- ing. i There is a splendid phonograph with a good assort- ment of records, bought chiefly by the observers them- selves. A card table near the library occasionally is swept clear of typewriters and account books for a game of bridge or poker. Photograph albums and a highly prized guest book lie in a corner of the bookshelf. This register contains many famous names from every cor- ner of the earth, and was one of the two books rescued from the flames in Samoa. The center of the room is taken up by our dining table. Around this are eight ordinary cane-bottomed bentwood chairs, with brass screws instead of iron ones. They are not fixed to the floor as in most vessels. This little detail does much to disguise the fact that we are cooped up in a ship. Anyone who has travelled in an ordinary steamer will know how uncomfortable the usual swivel chair can be--made as it is to accomodate the fattest passenger. Only on the very rough days is it necessary to brace ourselves at the table. But even the cabin cannot be kept free of scientific 36 WORK OF THE CARNEGIE AND SUGGESTIONS FOR FUTURE SCIENTIFIC CRUISES apparatus. Our chronometers lie in a row on green cushions under the bookshelves, with time-signal head- gear hanging above them. The constant-speed motor is here, with its shaft running forward to the earth induc- tor. A barograph gives us a continuous record of changes in atmospheric pressure. And wedged between the dining table and the bookshelves is the complicated pendulum apparatus for measuring the force of gravity at sea. This no doubt is the most delicate device on board. It has long been known that, in general, gravitational at- traction varies with latitude, but certain irregularities which occur in the force of gravity over the face of the earth still await explanation. Many determinations have been made on land, but only recently have successful attempts been made to measure the mysterious force at sea. Dr. Vening Meinesz of Holland, who designed this instrument, used it on a circumnavigation cruise in a submarine; and the United States Navy also loaned a similar vessel for this purpose. A subsurface ship is free from the disturbing motion of the waves, and is much better suited to these studies than the Carnegie, although it was hoped that with smooth seas useful re- sults might be obtained, even on a surface vessel. Below the cabin and under the staterooms are water tanks, specimen bottles, preservatives, tents, a diving helmet, and a general assortment of ship’s gear. The wooden water tanks keep our fresh water very sweet even on such long stretches as from Panama to Callao, some three months at sea. The supply is carefully ra- tioned, and a reserve tank always kept for emergencies. Each receives about two quarts of fresh water daily for washing hands and face, and the steward issues all that is needed for the galleys. Every man is entitled to afull bucket once a week for washing clothes, or for a fresh- water bath. On the shorter trips there is an abundance for all hands, but when rationing is strict we rely on rain squalls. The galley for the staff mess lies just abaft the cab- in. It is always the center of attraction for feminine visitors, for they all wish to see what a nonmagnetic kitchen looks like. The kerosene stove is bronze, and all kettles and pans are either of copper or aluminum. On earlier cruises the cook’s knives and the table cut- lery were placed in the lazarette during magnetic obser- vations; later it was found that this small amount of magnetic material did not have any effect on the instru- ments situated in the domes. A small electric refriger- ator is set back in a recess from the after galley. It serves to keep us in fresh food for only about a week after leaving port. Still, it is good to have cool water to drink for the remainder of the trip. We now walk past the “‘office’’ on the opposite side of the companionway. Files of scientific records, cor- respondence, and accounts line the walls and smother the desk. There are also comptometers, typewriters, drafting instruments, and cupboards filled with blank forms for the observations. The bathroom is situated abaft the office. A great porcelain tub filling half the room serves chiefly as a place to drain rain-soaked clothes, since we all prefer to take salt-water baths from a shower on deck. Those who are interested in machinery might go up to the quarter-deck and descend through the hatch to the engine room. The main engine is cast of bronze. It originally operated on gas produced from coal, but later was adapted to the use of gasoline for fuel. In fact, the Carnegie was the first ocean vessel equipped with a “‘gas-producer.”’ It could take the ship 144 miles a day without the use of sails, on seven dollars worth of coal. A small auxiliary gasoline engine connected to an electric generator furnishes power for our oceanographic and magnetic operations, as well as for radio, lighting, sounding, and recording instruments. Large storage batteries are provided, since the demand for electric current is very heavy for such a small vessel. Asa matter of fact, a considerable part of the gasoline fuel we carry is devoted to electric requirements. Switch panels for the sonic depth finder, radio gen- erator, and bronze winch, line the walls. A machine shop, containing a lathe, leads off to one side while the photographic darkroom is wedged in between the gaso- line tanks and the battery recess. A sail locker and storage space for spare instrumental equipment also are accessible from the engine room. It is always a relief to leave the engine room, for it is infernally hot. We ascendto the quarter-deck, step down into the waist of the ship on the port side, and enter the radio cabin. A short-wave experimental receiving set, built for us by the United States Naval Research Laboratory, brings us time signals, weather reports, and news from home. Our transmitter is powerful enough to keep us in communication with the United States almost every day, through the cooperation of am- ateurs. Special apparatus for making investigations of radio signal-strength is set up on the workbenches. The equipment is very complete, because the radio operator has a unique opportunity for studying radio conditions at sea; he can correlate variations of signal-intensity with magnetic and atmospheric-electric changes. Regular short-wave schedules give us information about radio “‘skip-distances’’ over the oceans. The American Radio Relay League with headquarters in Hartford recommended our first operator, Mr, Jones, and cooperated with us throughout the whole voyage. The value to us cannot be exaggerated of the services rendered by hundredsof amateurs throughout the world. THE On May 1, 1928, the seventh cruise of the Carnegie began. Whistles roared from the harbor craft, and pleasure boats jockeyed for position to escort us down the Potomac. At midnight we reached the mouth of the St. Mary’s River in Chesapeake Bay, and anchored till dawn. We were to spend four busy days here, “‘swing- ing ship,’ to be sure that our magnetic instruments and standard compass were not influenced by the new ocea- nographic equipment. A magnetic station had been set up on shore where simultaneous magnetic observations were made. To ensure ideal conditions for the land sta- tion, a magnetic survey of both sides of Chesapeake Bay had been completed a few days previously. Six ‘‘swings”’ of the ship on different headings were made, before everyone was Satisfied that all was well. The radio outfit was given its first trials here. Schedules were made with the Naval Research Labora-~ tory and with headquarters of the American Radio Relay League. And throughout these four days, the atmospher- ic-electric instruments were being compared with simi- lar ones ashore whose accuracy was well known. The days spent here in the St. Mary’s River had given the new observers an opportunity to become ac- quainted with their new duties. They now knew what a long day’s work was involved in swinging ship, a pro- cedure we were to repeat in many parts of the world. They learned the technique of intercomparison of instru- ments with those ashore, for in most of the ports of call this was to occupy a large part of their time--especially where there were permanent observatories like those in Germany, Peru, Samoa, and Japan. At dusk on May 5, all hands were summoned to heave up the anchor for the short trip to Hampton Roads--our first passage under sail. A stiff, steady breeze from astern bowled us along in grand style. Although we were not carrying full sail, we had the rare satisfaction of overtaking several steam vessels. We were anchored off Newport News by eight o’clock next morning, and were greeted at once by “‘bum boats,’ little launches which were to be our inseparable com- panions in every port. They offered laundry service, taxis, provisions--everything we needed, and some things we did not. Everyone was impatient to put to sea, so it was a great disappointment that we were forced to go into dry- dock here. The oscillator of the sonic depth finder re- quired some changes, and Mr. Russell of the Navy Yard in Washington had come personally to supervise the work. On May 10 we were towed out into the Roads, and set sails, while photographers on the tug made pictures. The breeze was just sufficient to give us steerage way. We had cast off our last ties with shore, and were at last headed for the open sea. Our last sight of land was Cape Henry at sunset. It was a real relief to settle down to our ocean rou- tine. The hectic past months gave place to as simple a life as possible. Meal hours were so arranged that in spite of their various duties, the staff could eat together. The radio operator and atmospheric-electric observers occasionally kept irregular schedules which made this not always possible. The watch officers and the engineer 37 CRUISE had their mess in the wardroom forward; and the fore- castle was served from the same galley. The deck force was separated into two watches, as is usual on a sailing ship; the men spending four hours on and four off, with two ‘‘dogwatches’’ of two hours each between four and eight in the evening. Our first morning out, May 11, was chosen for the first magnetic station. The ship was now fifty miles off the coast and away from local disturbances ashore. At sunrise the officer on watch calls the observers to the bridge for the declination observation. When they are assembled the ship’s course is changed, if necessary, to keep the foresail from hiding the sun. Captain Ault and Torreson make readings of the marine collimating com- pass; Erickson measures altitudes of the sun with his sextant; and Scott enters each reading on special forms, with a time record for each observation. From these measurements we could tell how much the “‘variation”’ of the compass had changed since former cruises. After breakfast is over, and when time sights on the sun have been made for longitude, the observers take their places at the magnetic instruments in the domes. Soule stands at the earth inductor; Torreson sits in the control room on the quarter-deck; and Paul reads aloud the heading of the ship from the standard compass in the chart room. This allows Soule to keep the rotating coil properly oriented. As Soule places the coil in various positions, Torreson reads the ammeter or potentiometer in the control room. From here he also starts and stops the constant-speed motor which rotates the coil. These observers determine the ‘‘dip’’ or inclination of the earth’s magnetic field. Meanwhile, Scott is in the after dome at the deflec- tor. He places magnets of known strength near his com- pass and reads off their effect on it. Jones makes simul- taneous readings of the standard compass in the chart room, and records for Scott. These two men measure the strength of the earth’s magnetic field. The afternoon is occupied in calculating the values for the magnetic elements. The observers were fur- nished special forms for recording, and these were so printed as to make the necessary tabulations as simple as possible. The formulae used in computing appeared in these, together with space for entering data derived from tables. By using these sheets it was practically impossible to overlook essential control records, such as air temperatures and chronometer readings. It is very easy to make these omissions when the observer’s attention is directed primarily to the operation of the in- strument itself. For some of us the time-keeping on board was quite confusing at first. The ship’s routine was operated on Local Apparent Time, with a resetting of clocks every morning at eleven. Many records were kept on Local Mean Time, others in Greenwich Mean Time. Then there was 75th Meridian Time for certain radio sched- ules, while a Sidereal-Time chronometer later became part of our equipment for gravity observations. In addi- tion, for the most accurate time-signal comparisons, an “offset chronometer’’ was added, that loses one second in sixty-five of mean time. After the evening time sight and the declination 38 WORK OF THE CARNEGIE AND SUGGESTIONS FOR FUTURE SCIENTIFIC CRUISES observation, we noticed a change in the color of the sea. It lost its grayish-green tint and became clear blue. The sea-water thermograph had shown great variations in temperature for several hours, and now read 75° Fahrenheit. At noon it had been only 46°. We were in the Gulf Stream. The ship had been supplied with a solarimeter, for measuring the quantity of radiation reaching the earth from the sun. We gave it a first trial on May 13, but it was apparent at once that conditions would not be favor- able for using it on a sailing ship. The effects of rolling and pitching were minimized by mounting in gimbals the sensitive photoelectric cell; but the greatest difficulty was shade cast by the rigging, and back reflection from the lofty sails. After a few more trials it was found im- practicable. The information it gives is used in studies of world weather. It would have made an excellent ad- junct to our meteorological program, for we were con- cerned with heat-transfers between sea and air, and with evaporation rates in various regions. While we had been anchored in St. Mary’s River, a gyroscopic stabilizer had been installed on the earth in- ductor. It was hoped that this device, in addition to the gimbal mountings, might make the coil more independent of the ship’s motion than the gimbals alone. But all at- tempts to use it had failed, because the strain when the constant-speed motor was started or stopped was too severe on the shafting. Several changes in design would be necessary before it could have been employed, and after afew more trials it was discarded for the time being. It was always a rule on the Carnegie to analyze and put in form the scientific data collected on each leg of the cruise, for the immediate use of hydrographers and oceanographic workers ashore. This feature of our routine kept the observers occupied between observing periods at sea and for several days after reaching port. For example, tables were drawn up showing the values of declination, horizontal intensity, and inclina- tion, as given by the latest British, German, and Ameri- can charts for the regions traversed by the ship. Against these we tabulated the measurements made on the voyage, so that errors in the charts might be cor- rected in future editions. Differences of as much as 1°5 in declination were discovered on the passage from New- port News, with corresponding errors in the other ele- ments. This serves to emphasize the importance of re- peated surveys of the earth’s magnetism, to determine the changes constantly taking place in the distribution of this mysterious natural force. By early September our procedure at an oceano- graphic station had become somewhat standardized, and it might be of interest to describe just what takes place. On the morning of September 15, we are about two hun- dred miles from Barbados. At eight bells the new watch comes on deck and finds everything in readiness for heaving to. The winch is uncovered, the wires are threaded through blocks to the davits, outboard-plat- forms are in place, and running gear is laid out on deck ready for shortening sail. With the sound of the ship’s bell still in our ears, the men dash to the tackle, blocks rattle and yards creak as the squaresails are taken in. The lower topsail alone is not furled, and is set aback to check our headway. Then one after another the fore- and-aft sails come down until only the mainsail and mid- dle staysail remain. The ship is now hove to and comes up into the wind or falls off alternately with the helm alee. The oceanographic team consists of four members of the scientific staff (Captain Ault, Soule, Seiwell, and Paul), the mate (Erickson), the engineer (Leyer), and the watch officer with his four seamen. Practically all operations take place on the quarter-deck. Mr. Erick- son immediately attaches the bottom sampler to the piano wire, drops it over the stern, and signals to Leyer to pay out on the winch. Meanwhile Captain Ault and Soule are attaching the Nansen bottles, with their revers- ing thermometers to the aluminum-bronze wire. As these bottles are lowered one after the other in a long series, Paul reads the meter wheel. When the desired length of wire has been paid out he signals to Leyer to apply the brake. Another bottle is attached, more wire is paid out. This goes on till some eight or ten bottles are strung on at intervals of from five to five hundred meters. At this station we are to reach down five thousand meters, so it will be necessary to send down two bottle series. The first, or “‘short series’’ will consist of nine bottles lowered to 5, 25, 50,.75, 100, 200, 300, 400, and 500 meters respectively, while one bottle is reversed at the surface. As the greatest difference in temperature and chemical salts occurs near the surface, the intervals are fairly short there. But in the “‘deep series,’’ which is sent down later, the bottles are spaced 500 meters apart. The strain on the wire would be far too great were we to lower twenty bottles at once. During this time Seiwell has put out the plankton nets. These are lowered in series, much as the bottles, but only three are used; one goes to 100 meters, another to 50 meters, and the third to the surface. Microscopic life in the sea is chiefly concentrated near the surface because sunlight does not penetrate water very far. All animals depend on plants for food, directly or indirectly, and of course it is sunlight which is utilized as a source of energy by plants such as diatoms. Ten minutes are allowed for the lowered Nansen bot- tles to take up the temperature of their surroundings. Captain Ault now slides a brass ‘‘messenger’’ down the wire to reverse the first bottle in the series. As each bottle tips over, its own messenger is freed to proceed to the next bottle, and so on down the line. It takes from ten to forty minutes for the messenger to reach the low- est bottle. When they are inverted in this way, the valves automatically imprison a sample of water from the de- sired depth. Also, the mercury capillary of the ther- mometer separates in such a way that the temperature of that level can be read off on deck, no matter what temperatures are encountered on the way to the surface. It is not possible to raise the bottle series until the bottom sampler has struck. With depths like five thou- sand meters this may take an hour. When the signal is given that the piano wire is slack, Leyer ceases to pay out, Erickson reads the meter wheel, and Captain Ault measures the vertical angle made by the wire. From these readings the depth can be calculated. Soule has meanwhile made an echo sounding to check this value. The winch then brings up the bottle series and bot- tom snapper together. The bottles are removed from the wire and placed in sheltered racks. Paul collects water samples for chemical analysis, and Soule takes specimens for salinity determinations. When this is done, the deep-sea thermometers are read and the Nan- sen bottles prepared for their second plunge--this time to greater depths. While all this is going on, Seiwell or Paul has put THE CRUISE the plankton pump into operation. This apparatus is lowered three times, to levels corresponding to the depth of the townets. A measured volume of sea water passes through a fine silk net. The number of organisms cap- tured, divided by the number of liters of water pumped, gives the ‘‘density of population’’ at each level. The plankton nets are hauled in after an hour or so. The specimens collected are preserved and labelled for fu- ture study. It now remains to bring up the deep series and col- lect the sediment from the bottom sampler. This done, the sails are once more set and we proceed on our way. If everything has gone well there is still an hour before lunch in which to start the chemical work. The delicate hydrogen-ion tests are made first, to avoid the possibil- ity of changes in the samples from contamination by the air or by sunlight. The other chemical characteristics are determined after lunch, along with the salinity. These mornings are strenuous. There are many operations going on at once. Wires lead in all directions from the winch. The sun glares on the water, making it necessary to wear dark glasses. And only careful co- ordination saves us from utter confusion. Each man has his appointed tasks, but is always ready to lend a hand should things go wrong for the other fellow. And it was a rare day when something did not go awry. Wires might foul below the ship. Messengers might fail to reverse the bottles; or a “‘jellyfish’’ get in the way. The piano wire might snap, or the plankton pump fail to operate. Anything might happen, without warning, to upset the regular order. In Barbados we found ideal conditions for trying out our diving helmet, and we made two expeditions to the reefs. For several of the men it was an entirely new experience. Only a poet could imagine the beauty and romance to be found under the waters of a coral reef. And certainly only a poet could describe what we saw in this fairyland of color and form. The dinghy is anchored at the selected spot, preferably in 15 to 30 feet of water, and the observer climbs over the side with a heavy cop- per helmet resting on his shoulders. A hose connected to a hand pump in the boat keeps him comfortably sup- plied with air, and he can wander about at will on the bottom. One is in a new universe. Everything has a soit, ethereal outline except for the fishes that come to within an inch of the observers’ nose to gaze at him in wonder through the plate-glass window. They are the most bril- liantly colored of living creatures. One’s sense of per- spective seems to have been lost. Put out your hand to brace yourself on a coral head, and you find it far out of reach. Walking itself seems ridiculous; for in the water one’s buoyancy is so great that the slightest spring up- wards on the toes takes one off the bottom for a slow easy flight through space. Gravity has ceased to exist. Captain Ault described what he saw in a letter from which the following words are taken: ‘‘...schools of marvellously colored fish. ..forest of submarine trees waving in the water-surges...baskets of shell... jewel- cases of coral growth...grottoes of blue and sapphire.. ..trees of growing coral with jewel tips .. . bristling, black-spined sea-urchins... a basket made of cocoanut- palm leaves gathered together at the top, perhaps full of treasure left by pirates...a wonder-world not repro- duced elsewhere, not even in an aquarium.”’ Specimens were collected by the observers. A long screw driver and a heavy brass bucket were lowered on 39 a rope, and on a signal from below the material was hauled up to the dinghy. Although the coral sand did not promise to be very rich in diatoms, we secured several bottles full for forwarding to Washington. In the Pacific, after October 1928, the weather was perfect for pilot-balloon flights. The new equip- ment, supplied by the United States Navy, worked well and observations were made daily. With strong winds we were able to follow the balloon for only fifteen to twenty minutes, but sometimes it would be visible for an hour. By tying two together we could often follow them long after a single one would have been lost to view. In this way we traced the direction and force of the wind in the atmosphere up to heights of from two to six miles. Three men take part in a balloon flight--usually Captain Ault, Torreson, and Scott. A pure rubber bal- loon is inflated with hydrogen from a tank, until it is about three feet in diameter. By “‘weighing’’ it we are able to calculate its rate of ascension. The scales oper- ate upside down, of course, for the balloon pulls the pan upwards. At a signal from Scott, the recorder, the glis- tening globe is released. At one-minute intervals Tor- reson reads the azimuth, or horizontal position of the balloon with respect to the ship’s heading; and Captain Ault checks the altitude by using an ordinary sextant. It was possible, of course, for Torreson to read off both altitude and azimuth from his theodolite; but the rolling of the ship often caused him to lose track of the object, while it was still clearly visible to the sextant observer. By reading the altitude from the sextant, it was possible for Torreson to sweep the sky at that level until he had again picked up the elusive sphere. As a result of a multitude of observations on wind and weather conditions at sea, we have today fairly ac- curate “‘pilot charts’’ of the ocean, for the use of mari- ners. Now that transoceanic flying is coming to be a serious enterprise and not merely a stunt, it is highly important that aviators have “‘pilot charts’’ as well. They must know the direction and velocity of the wind at many levels, if they are to make successful flights over the great expanse of the ocean. The month of February was a notable one for us in that we made several important changes in our instru- ments and methods. Ever since our departure from Washington, an attempt had been made to use the marine earth inductor for determining the strength of the earth’s magnetic field in addition to the angle of inclination. All the trials up to the present time had failed to give re- sults as reliable as those obtained with the standard ‘‘de- flector.’’ By changing the method slightly we now were getting comparable readings. The Carnegie has ever been on the alert for new and simpler methods for making physical measurements at sea. In fact, her contributions in this respect may be considered among the greatest of her achievements for science, because little advance can be expected until re- liable and practical instruments are available. In collecting samples of the ocean bottom we had been using a “‘snapper’’ type of collector, in which a large lead weight surrounding the shaft was made to close the jaws when bottom was struck. It often hap- pened, however, that the apparatus hit at an acute angle and not head-on; in which case it would fail to close. By countersinking the weight so as to bring it down over the spring, the center of gravity was lowered. Thereafter, only one failure was recorded from that cause. When it is realized that it took from two to three hours to make 40 WORK OF THE CARNEGIE AND SUGGESTIONS FOR FUTURE SCIENTIFIC CRUISES a sounding, and used a considerable amount of our supply of gasoline, it will be apparent how greatly this simple change helped us. Another advance in methods was the modification of a Sigsbee reversing frame to contain two thermometers instead of one. This frame was attached to the sounding wire near the bottom snapper, and the original single thermometer gave us only the temperature of the bottom water. This information itself is of great interest to oceanographers. We needed a check on the depth from which the deposit was collected--a check which would be more reliable than that offered by the lengthof wire paid out and the angle. Owing to the drift of the vessel and crosscurrents in the deeps, the wire almost never dropped in a straight line to the bottom. We were able to calculate depths accurately from the difference between the readings of two reversing thermometers sent down together. One of them was protected against the enormous pressures at great depths to give the true temperature; the other, being unprotected, gave a reading which representedthe tem- perature plus the mechanical ‘‘squeezing’’ of the mercury bulb due to the weight of the water column above it. Our echo-sounding device gave us a third check on bottom depths, of course. In scientific work such as we were doing, there are never too many checks. Even the simplest procedure is subject to error at times; and our aim was to attain the highest degree of accuracy possi- ble in every measurement made on board. During heavy weather we often found our silk tow- nets torn by a sudden surge of the vessel. These nets were very expensive, and had to be made to order in Washington. So we made every effort to save them. On February 18, we tried attaching the nets to the ship by a long rubber rope commonly used in the landing gear of aircraft. Afterwards, we seldom lost a net. In addition, after February 6, the plankton tows were made from the forecastlehead, thus reducing the danger of fouling the other wires which were lowered from the quarter-deck. The work with the pilot balloons was made very successful by the beautiful blue skies we enjoyed after clearing the dense clouds of the Peruvian coast. These flights often lasted thirty to sixty minutes, so one can imagine the severe strain on the muscles holding a heavy sextant for that length of time. It was necessary to de- vise some method for supporting the instrument. One of the deck chairs was fitted with arms and uprights to support an overhead bar. The instrument was suspended from this by a long, thin coil spring. In this way the en- tire weight was removed from the observer’s arms; while still allowing freedom of motion. The whole outfit could easily be moved to whatever part of the deck was most favorable for observing the balloon. Captain Ault dubbed the device the ‘Joshua Chair,’”’ in honor of the Old Testament hero who commanded the sun to stand still. He had also suggested that it might better have been named in honor of Moses who at one critical mo- ment in history had to call in the assistance of two men to support his arms. Captain Ault says: ‘‘With this device we perhaps have carried the matter to an extreme, and caused the balloon to stand still. On at least three occasions, the balloon has suddenly appeared to be fixed in the sky, moving only very slowly in altitude and azimuth. On the first occasion, Torreson, the observer at the theodolite, was observing the balloon for fifteen minutes without get- getting muchchange. Finally Paul, who had been watch- ing the flight, accused Captain Ault, the sextant man, of looking in the wrong direction and of reading altitudes that were far too low. It turned out that the theodolite had gotten sidetracked to Venus, and the difference be- tween its altitudes of 76° and the altitudes by sextant of 45°, could no longer be ignored. On the second occasion both observers got sidetracked to Venus.”’ It is remarkable how closely a white balloon floating at a great height resembles the planet in the sunshine of the late morning or early afternoon. For most of us it was a great surprise to know that Venus could be seen at all in the middle of the day. Captain Ault told us that he had occasionally used this planet for determining geo- graphical position at sea. This trick appears to have been known to mariners of former times, but has fallen out of use. On February 8, Soule and Leyer moved the sonic depth finder from the radio laboratory to the control room on the quarter-deck. This was done to enable us to take additional night soundings without disturbing Jones who slept in the radio room. Paul had learned the technique of using the apparatus and now took a sounding after he had completed his Greenwich Mean Noon mete- orological observations. Jones had by this time resumed a large number of schedules with amateur radio stations and had to get his sleep whenever he could, for he had regular magnetic observations and computations to do in the daytime. New equipment was brought on board at San Fran- cisco. Mr. Gish had tested out a new Kolhorster pene- trating radiation apparatus in Pasadena and with Park- inson subjected it to further trials under the waters of Crystal Lake near San Francisco. This instrument registers the quantity of penetrating rays reaching the earth and may be lowered into the sea to determine the depth at which this powerful form of energy is absorbed. Mr. Gish also supervised the installation of a photo- graphic conductivity recorder which had just been de- signed and constructed in our shop in Washington. Forbush had brought with him several new chro- nometers and a photographic time-signal recorder with which time comparisons could be made accurately to one-tenthof a second and approximately to one-hundreth. These delicate time checks were necessary for the “‘sravity apparatus.’’ He also brought new silk plank- ton nets for capturing organisms floating in the sea. Graham had just come from the Scripps Institution in La Jolla where he had spent a month in studying the methods used in chemical oceanography. He and Dr. Moberg spent most of their time in San Francisco in re- conditioning the oceanographic laboratory and in pre- paring new standard solutions. It was impossible to use the delicate chemical balance on board so these men set up the instrument on the pier. Graham also found time to calibrate the bottles which were to be used in deter- mining the amount of oxygen in sea water. We had had such difficulty in obtaining distilled water of sufficient purity for our chemical work that it was decided to buy a small still of our own. Before Graham could take it on board he had to sign five copies of an affidavit that it would not be used for making liquor. The gravity apparatus which was installed in the cabin by Dr. Wright was now to be tried out for the first time on a surface vessel. Cruises in Dutch and Ameri- can submarines had shown that it might be expected to give reliable measurements if the roll of the ship did not exceed 10°. Besides this we were not bothered with con- stant vibration due to engines. The pendulum equipment THE CRUISE 41 was designed by Dr. Vening Meinesz of Holland and per- haps was the most delicate instrument on board. It re- corded photographically the swings of three pendulums and recorded on the same paper the beats of a chronometer whose rate was known with great accuracy. From this trace the force of gravity at any place could be calculated. On the passage to Honolulu Dr. Moberg and Graham divided the duties in the chemical laboratory, thereby allowing Paul time to record for the pilot-balloon flights. This relieved Captain Ault, for Scott now read off the sextant altitudes. Graham was slightly handicapped in his work because of an accident he had suffered a few days out of port. As he emerged from the chart room one day the heavy door was slammed shut by a sudden lurch of the vessel and his finger was crushed in the lock. The new triple-size bottom samplers, made up in San Francisco, were a grand success. With these we were able to secure about four pounds of material in- stead of about one, thus making it unnecessary to make multiple soundings when large amounts of deposit were required. The new theodolite sent to us by the Navy De- partment was a great improvement since the field of vision was increased. Forbush gave the gravity apparatus its first trials. As this instrument had never before been used on a sur- face vessel, but only on a submarine, difficuities were anticipated. They came--thick and fast. First, the heavy rolling threw a pendulum out of its support. On the next trial, it was found that the foot screws were not rigidly enough clamped down. Then it became apparent that some means must be devised for damping the motion of the apparatus. Finally, it was decided that only a new mounting would solve the difficulties. Notwithstanding these setbacks, several useful records were secured. Heavy crosscurrents near the equator caused ap- palling losses of oceanographic equipment. On October 11 two silk nets were lost when the tow wire jumped its sheave and wore through. To avoid this trouble in the future, the rubber shock-absorber rope was attached di- rectly at the forecastlehead, eliminating blocks entirely. The same day brought another accident, in which we losta complete bottom-sampling and bottom-temperature out- fit, through the catching of a splice in the meter wheel. On October 19 we had to repeat the whole deep series of chemical and temperature determinations, be- cause a tiny piece of rope-yarn, caught by the messen- ger in descending, had prevented it from reversing the bottles. But on October 25 we were to suffer the most serious blow of all. The confusing currents below the surface entangled the bottom wire and the bottle series. In clearing them, the new aluminum-bronze cable was cut by catching on an outboard platform. We lost forty- two hundred meters of wire, nine reversing bottles, and eighteen of our precious deep-sea reversing thermome- ters. ‘We could ill afford such depletions in equipment, so from this time on the thermal and chemical series was not lowered until the bottom sampling was com- pleted. This change almost doubled the time required for a station. After Graham joined the party, the chemical pro- gram was expanded to include determinations of sili- cates, phosphates, oxygen, and hydrogen ions at each station. With his help it was possible to add a vertical haul of a silk net from one hundred and fifty meters, at each station, besides occasionally checking the plankton pump. The pump determined the number of organisms floating in the water and to check its efficiency one filtered a known volume of seawater collected in a large bottle through a small silk net, and counted the marine plants and animals so captured. On November 10, it was decided to heave to in the lee of Penrhyn Island to get a good measurement of the force of gravity. The apparatus had not proved a suc- cess on the open sea. This short stop enabled us to col- lect biological specimens and diatoms from the lagoon, and furnished a little recreation. This tiny atoll lies about midway between the Marquesas and Samoa, and is rarely visited by ships. The Carnegie had stopped there on a previous cruise, so that we were certain of a wel- come from the white resident, Mr. Wilson. He was a castaway from the shipwrecked Derby Park in 1888, and since he has never left the island. Once ashore we found, besides Mr. Wilson, a white merchant named Wilkinson, whom we had met in Tahiti in the spring; and a pearl trader by the name of Woonton. These men at once prepared a grand feast for us, while we rambled about the village, or fished the lagoon for specimens. Our hosts regaled us with many a South Sea yarn, as we Sat on the verandahs drinking fresh coconut milk. Two days later we made a similar call at Manihiki Island; here the gravity measurements were not so suc- cessful, owing to the swells coming in from the west. The Resident Agent, Mr. Williams, an old friend of a previous Carnegie cruise, gave us a hearty welcome to his charming island empire. This atoll offered a strik- ing contrast to Penrhyn. Immaculate coral paths divided the neat little houses and flower gardens into “‘blocks.”’ The natives were well dressed; the coconut palms were properly spaced and pruned for maximum production. Everywhere were evidences of a fatherly care on the part of old Mr. Williams. To the Carnegie this island is remembered chiefly for its characteristic dance. Ona previous cruise photographs and moving pictures of this unique performance were destroyed by an accident in developing. And we were fated to lose ours for another reason. We were now but a few days from Samoa, and the fast-dwindling supply of gasoline was eked out by catch- ing every breath of air that blew our way. Reports and computations for the voyage about to close kept all hands at work till late at night. The temperature of the ocean bottom had been meas- ured at almost every oceanographic station since Hono- lulu, but just outside Samoa we recorded our lowest-- one and one-tenth degrees centigrade. Another interest- ing observation was that in this region of long-continued calms, the surface may be almost a whole degree warm- er than the water five meters below it; differences of one one or two hundredths degrees are usual, when winds mix the surface layers. There was also a two-degree diurnal variation at the surface due to the sunshine. The outstanding result of our echo sounding was the discovery of a new submarine ridge just north of Hawaii. We were able to show that there is no deep trough be- tween Penrhyn and Manihiki, as the charts would lead one to believe. The slopes of these two islands, as well as that of Tutuila, were carefully plotted. Pilot-balloon flights had been very successful, thanks to the fine skies and the new theodolite. This instrument was so well adapted to conditions, that the sextant chair designed by Captain Ault was seldom used. Radio conditions had been unexcelled throughout the 42 WORK OF THE CARNEGIE AND SUGGESTIONS FOR FUTURE SCIENTIFIC CRUISES entire trip. Daily schedules with many amateurs in the United States, Hawaii, and Australia had brought us the news of the world, and had kept us in constant touch with our home office. As an instance to show the faithful services of these enthusiasts, we might mention the op- erator of station W6DZY. He transmitted a two-hundred word technical message for us and finished by stating that he had just broken three fingers, owing to the fall of a piece of heavy machinery. Entering Pago Pago Harbor in the early afternoon of November 19, we did not have darkness to contend with as we did in the spring, when we nearly piled up on the reef. But this time the little engine was pushed to the limit in bucking the powerful wind squalls that swooped down from the mountains surrounding the bay. Time and again we were stopped dead in our tracks by these sudden gusts, almost losing steerageway at times. Because of the danger in tying up to the wharf under these conditions, we made fast to a buoy until the follow- ing morning. The landing this time was almost a homecoming. Our friends of the spring were on hand to welcome us, with here and there a new face among them. The hospi- tality of the Naval Station was extended to us, as before. Since we were to remain here over a week, we had a better opportunity for observing Samoan life and for making collections on shore. Once the records and specimens were forwarded to headquarters, we found time to make several delightful excusions to native vil- lages and into the mountains. Graham and Paul spent the following Monday in col- lecting biological specimens. A guide was furnished by the chief who had entertained the party over the week end, and before they returned to the ship they had walked over a greater part of.the island, crossing the mountains several times. A large number of native birds were se- cured for the National Museum and a good collection of characteristic plants was made for the Carnegie Muse- um in Pittsburgh. The day of our departure was drawing near and we had preparations to make. Supplies for the galleys and laboratories had to be stowed away and long-neglected letters answered. On November 27 we pushed off for Apia, arriving there on Thanksgiving morning, Novem~ ber 28. On the morning of Friday, November 29, 1929, the Carnegie was at anchor in the harbor of Apia,Samoa. All morning Captain Ault and the remaining members of the staff were at work on board, the crew was engaged in loading the last of the barrels of gasoline into the ship’s tanks. There remained only one hundred andfifty gallons to stow away when lunchtime came. After the noon meal, the crew resumed their task; Captain Ault unfolded a chair and sat on the quarter-deck; the engi- neer and mechanic were below in the engine room; and the others were scattered over the forward half of the ship, at various duties. With a rumbling roar the ship was shaken from stem to stern by an explosion--then another. Captain Ault was thrown into the water. The men at work over the tank room were hurled to different parts of the ship. The engineer and mechanic were trapped in the engine room and in a moment the whole quarter-deck was en- veloped in flame. The steward and Soule, rushing on deck, dived over- board to save the Captain. The engineer and mechanic fought their way out of the blazing engine room by rais- ing themselves through the gaping hole in the deck. The uninjured men dragged the others free of the flames. To save the vessel was out of the question and all atten- tion was directed to the saving of lives. Small boats had been launched at once from the other ships in the harbor. Captain Ault, who had been holding on to a rope as he floated in the water, was helped into one of these and with the other injured men was taken ashore. Apparently he was suffering only minor injuries; but his injuries were serious and on the way to the hospital, our Captain died as a result of them and of shock. The other men who had been on the quarter-deck suffered fractures and severe burns. They were given immediate surgical attention by the hospital staff, who had been notified by telephone of the accident. When the survivors were collected ashore, Tony, the cabin boy, could not be accounted for. He had last been seen in the after galley, immediately next to the tank room; so it was apparent that he too had lost his life. His remains were not discovered until December 4, when salvage operations on the charred hull of the vessel were commenced. Seaton, Graham, and Paul had been away on a col- lecting trip and did not return until about three hours after the tragedy. The hospital staff and Government officials had done everything in their power for the sur- vivors. There was nothing further to do but to await the arrival of the U.S.S. Ontario, the naval vessel from Pago Pago which the Navy had ordered to our aid. The engineer and mechanic were too severely burned to stand the journey to Pago Pago, so they were left in the hospital at Apia. Parkinson, as second in command, also stayed to take charge of affairs there. On the day following the explosion, all the others were taken to American Samoa to await the steamer from Sydney. The three injured seamen we brought with us were put in the Naval hospital while the members of the staff were taken into the homes of the Naval officers, and the crew was quartered in the barracks. Everything was done to make us comfortable. We were furnished necessary clothing--for the ship and all . its equipment together with our personal effects, had been a total loss. Governor Lincoln, on behalf of the Navy, arranged immigration papers for entry into the United States for those who were not citizens. On December 6, the survivors accompanied the body of Captain Ault aboard the Ventura for the sad journey home. WORK OF THE CARNEGIE AND SUGGESTIONS FOR FUTURE SCIENTIFIC CRUISES III THE MAGNETIC WORK OF THE CARNEGIE AND THE URGENCY OF NEW OCEAN MAGNETIC SURVEYS CONTENTS The Magnetic Work of the Carnegie and the Urgency of New Ocean Magnetic Surveys Tyran NUN) Ss 1: 6.6 5 p.0.0 chord ORDISIGNONORORDIO OD Oo D\o Ors cmon Cobo Moo C 44 « Ja_\s) = (0; (w elle ete THE MAGNETIC WORK OF THE CARNEGIE AND THE URGENCY OF NEW OCEAN MAGNETIC SURVEYS The earth’s surface magnetic field varies withtime. The description of this field at any instant hence is dif- ficult because it is not practical to undertake its simul- taneous measurement at all points of the earth’s surface, There are, in fact, some seventy magnetic observatories [see figs. 1(A) and 1(B)] where continuous simultaneous measurements of the earth’s field are made, but the complexity of the field and its changes with time do not permit satisfactory interpolation of values in interven- ing regions. The density of observations per given area of surface is uneven, and the great oceanic areas are scarcely represented. There have been established, therefore, by the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism of the Carnegie Institution of Washington, over 10,000 stations on land and sea to supplement the results at observatories. Measurements at groups of these sta- tions on land or sea usually are made on only one day for an occupation and constitute a magnetic survey. few thousand of these are called ‘‘repeat stations’’ at which magnetic observations have been made more than once (fig. 2). In the reduction of magnetic observations to epoch, it is aimed to determine at all stations (at epochs not too far removed from that at any previous time of observa- tion) the intensity and direction of the earth’s field freed from the effects of small superposed fluctuations in in- tensity. More generally, we seek to estimate from the magnetic measurements made at different times and in different locations the intensity of field at all interven- ing (or suitably extrapolated) times and locations. For practical reasons the problem of describing the earth’s surface field is greatly simplified by mapping only the main or permanent field. This includes only the largest slowly varying part, mapped to only a moderate degree of accuracy (one or two orders of magnitude less than that of the actual observations). As has been stated, this main field undergoes secular variation, that is, a gradual variation with the passing of the years. The strength of the main field at any time is called its nor- mal value at that time. Although the rough and general description of the geomagnetic field in terms of its normal value (as shown on magnetic charts) is comparatively easy, the deriva- tion of the normal values themselves is complex and dif- ficult. To obtain these normal values it is necessary first to remove from the individual magnetic observa- tions the contributions of extraneous fluctuations not a part of the secular variation. Often the extraneous fluctuations are large enough seriously to affect the estimates of secular change ob- tained from two or more observations made in different years. These fluctuations thus may render difficult or impossible a reliable estimate of the normal values (since the secular change may not be determined accu- rately either with respect to magnitude or sign) at epochs other than those of observation. When the secular change has been corrected for fluctuations in field, so that it is known with accuracy, the magnetic observations thenare readily reduced to the epoch desired for a magnetic chart. A 45 Of fundamental importance in charting the earth’s magnetic field for a given epoch are the charts of secu- lar change per year, called isoporic charts. The strength of the earth’s field in some regions may change by as much as one-third in the course of only one hundred years, and there has been a surprising lack of attention to the importance of constructing such charts on the part of various organizations responsible for the preparation of isomagnetic charts. This importance arises because it provides the only feasible means of enhancing and ex- tending the value measured at a station, say in 1920, for use in obtaining a chart value for the station, say in epoch 1945. : The first comprehensive world isoporic charts were prepared by Fisk at the Department for epoch 1922.5 (see figs. 3 to 9). These give the average annual secular change in components of the geomagnetic field during 1920 to 1925. Figure 3 shows the isopors for geomagnetic decli- nation or “‘variation,’’ D, east declination being reckoned as positive. The values in minutes of arc per year may be interpreted in terms of force changes perpendicular to the horizontal intensity, H. Centers of increase in east declination are shown over Europe, South Africa, and the Pacific Ocean; centers of decrease appear over eastern Asia, the Indian Ocean, and North and South America. Figure 4 shows the isopors in minutes of arc per year for geomagnetic inclination or dip, I, dipping of north end of needle being reckoned as positive. The cen- ter of most rapid decrease is in the Atlantic Ocean and that of most rapid increase in northern South America. Figure 5 shows the isopors in gammas per year for the horizontal intensity, H. Regions of increase in H are shown in the Indian and North Atlantic oceans and regions of decrease near the south coasts of Africa and South America, North America, and Asia. Figure 6 gives the isopors in gammas per year for the vertical intensity, Z, positive when directed toward the earth’s center. Centers of increase are shown over Asia, the Indian Ocean, the South Pacific Ocean, and western South America; marked centers of decrease ap- pear in the Atlantic and North Pacific oceans. Figure 7 shows the isopors for the total intensity, F, derived from values for H andI. Marked areas of rapid annual decrease in F appear in the North Atlantic and South Indian oceans. Figures 8 and 9 give corresponding derived values for the geographic north and east com- ponents, X and Y, respectively. From the cartographer’s point of view the signifi- cant feature is that if the form of secular change be pre- served, for say twenty years for the sake of illustration, the value of declination or variation D may change by as much as 280’ (nearly 5°), I by 5°, H by 2400 gammas (24 milligauss), Z by 3600 gammas, and F by about 3000 gammas. The foregoing isoporic charts, widely used today, are highly tentative in a number of regions. They were not derived taking into account correction of the survey data for geomagnetic fluctuations, and the error averaged 46 WORK OF THE CARNEGIE AND SUGGESTIONS FOR FUTURE SCIENTIFIC CRUISES along parallels o: >>cmagnetic latitude possibly is as ziuch as 30 per cent. They are also, in several re- spects, mutually inconsistent with the known nature of the geomagnetic field, and in high latitudes the singular- ities in field near the poles are not taken into account. The danger of using these charts today in mapping is that the pattern of the isopors changes rapidly. For instance, in D there is scarcely the slightest resem- blance between the isopors of 1922 and those of 1942 for both Australia and Canada. Uncertainties ofthis kind may account for relatively large discrepancies in values shown on some recent charts, for instance, that of the British Admiralty for 1942 for vertical intensity, where there is disagreement between observation and chart of from 20 to 30 milligauss in South Australia. In other words, it is necessary not only to know the pattern of the isopors at a given time but also the trend of change in pattern. This trend can be derived only by mapping the isopors for several different epochs. This in turn re- quires that there be maintained adequate surveys at reg- ular intervals and continuous observation at magnetic observatories. The large part of the earth’s surface covered by the oceans makes the determination of accurate values of the magnetic elements at sea a major objective of the world-wide magnetic and electric survey. It was not un- til 1905 that full realization of this objective had its be- ginning through the systematic oceanic survey then sponsored by the Carnegie Institution of Washington through its Department of Terrestrial Magnetism. The first attempt to accomplish a magnetic survey at sea was the expedition of Halley between 1698 and 1700. He was placed in command of the pink Paramour and instructed to proceed ‘‘on an expedition to improve the longitude and the variations of the compass.’ Halley made several voyages in the North and South Atlantic oceans determining magnetic declination only--instru- ments for measuring magnetic inclination and magnetic intensity at sea at that time had not been devised. The results were embodied in Halley’s chart ‘‘Lines of equal magnetic variation,’’ of the Atlantic for the year 1700-- the first isomagnetic chart. The next really important undertaking was the expedition under the general direc- tion of Sabine of the Erebus, the Terror, and the Pagoda during 1840 to 1845, chiefly in southern waters. On these all three magnetic elements were observed, the Fox dip-circle for measuring the magnetic inclinations and intensity at sea just having been devised. The Aus- trian frigate Novara measured magnetic declination while circumnavigating the globe in 1857 to 1860. Dur- ing the notable cruises of the Challenger in 1872 to 1876, and of the Gazelle, a German vessel, in 1874 to 1876, observations of the three magnetic elements were made over various oceans. Magnetic observations at seaalso were made more recently by the naval services of vari- ous countries and by later antarctic expeditions, notably the Discovery and the Gauss. The accompanying figures 10, 11, and 12 show the tracks of chief vessels on which magnetic observations were made during 1839 to 1916. All these observations were of varying degrees of ac- curacy set by available instruments and by disturbing fac- tors originating in the magnetic character of the vessels, while their distribution, both as regards position and epoch, was not such as to yield coordinated charts apply- ing to definite periods. Thus, when planning in 1904 for the magnetic andelectric survey of the earth, the Depart- ment gave careful consideration to the oceanic survey. The Institution’s earliest work at sea was done with the chartered vessel Galilee during 1905 to 1908. The experience gained during her three cruises, in total 63,834 nautical miles (see table 1), proved conclusively that oceanic observations of the magnetic elements suf- ficient for practical and scientific needs could be as- sured only by a vessel designed specially for such work. The Carnegie was designed in 1908 primarily for mag- netic and electric surveys and investigations, and her construction and equipment were completed in 1909. Be- fore the loss of the Carnegie by explosion and fire at Apia, Western Samoa, November 29, 1929, seven cruises, aggregating 297,579 nautical miles had been made. The data obtained during these cruises and the three previ- ously made by the Galilee, include declination at 3836 points, inclination and horizontal intensity at 2321 and 2322 points, respectively. The extent of the Institution’s survey on land and sea is shown by figure 2. Table 1. Summary of magnetic stations at sea, Galilee (3 cruises) and Carnegie (7 cruises), 1905-1929 Number of observed values Number of — Ocean |nautical miles ARES Inclination traversed Declination | and horizontal intensity Pacific 213,612 2,187 1,308 Atlantic 104,741 1,172 7314 Indian 43,060 477 282 Total 361,413 3,836 orsoe 4Plus one in H. On the side of practical application the increasing use of the oceans in the commerce of nations by sea and air makes the continuation of the survey a matter of in- ternational concern and benefit. Those investigations demanding continuation of the oceanic survey in terres- trial magnetism include, among others, the following. (a) Determination of secular variation of progres- sive changes of the earth’s magnetic field involving par- ticularly their accelerations which the data accumulated so far indicate cannot be extrapolated reliably over periods as long as five years. A definite control is necessary for a number of epochs to facilitate the inves- tigation of causes producing and governing these pro- gressive changes which, it appears, would be favored by accurate knowledge of their accelerations and distribu- tion. The importance of the determination of secular variation over the oceans may be readily seen by a study of figure 13. Figure 14, showing world distribution of foci of rapid annual change of magnetic declination, also emphasizes the continued need for secular-variation data at sea. (b) The study of regions of local disturbance and particularly of those indicated by the wo~k of the Car- negie over ‘‘deep-sea’’ areas including accompanying determination of oceanic depths by sonic-sounding de- vices and of gravity. (c) The determination of additional distribution-data in a few large areas not already covered. The question arises whether the theoretical require- ments might not be met in a less expensive way than through construction and maintenance of vessels similar MAGNETIC WORK OF THE CARNEGIE 47 to the Carnegie. A careful study was made by the De- partment following the loss of the Carnegie to determine what might be done in an attempt to control magnetic secular-variation data through observations on land only over the regions between 60° north and 60° south latitude. (Apparently, requisite additional data on land and ocean areas in the polar regions beyond the parallels of 60° -- less than one-seventh of the surface of the globe--can be secured only, as in the past, through or in cooperation with special expeditions by land or air.) The maximum control so effected would result from one hundred and fifty secular-variation stations along the coasts of the continents and on islands; about ninety of these have been occupied by the Department one or more times during 1905 to 1943, but the remainder include the more inaccessible islands of the oceans and are subject, gen- erally, to magnetic local disturbance. Such disturbance introduces uncertainties both in the effects on secular- variation changes and in the relation between the normal value and that on the islands, even though the accessi- bility of stations insures possibility of exact reoccupa- tions. The reduction to common epoch would be more difficult because of the length of intervals between reoc- cupations and of the lack of the better distribution of data which would result from observations at sea. The study shows that the regions for which the necessary data for the continued investigations would be lacking are very large even if the complete scheme for control by observations on land could be carried out as based on the assumption that the distribution of secular-variation stations need not be greater than one every eight hun- dred miles. These areas (see fig. 15) approximate 3400 by 800 miles in the north Pacific, 3600 by 1500 miles in the east central Pacific, 3600 by 1800 miles in the south Pacific, 600 by 600 miles in the north Atlantic, 2400 by 800 miles in the middle north Atlantic, 1900 by 900 miles in the west south Atlantic, 1500 by 700 miles in the east Indian, 3600 by 750 miles in the central Indian, and 2400 by 900 miles in the southeast Indian to the south of Australia. (Local disturbances existing at many of the possible stations on islands, which doubtless would make data from a majority of them unsuitable for dis- cussion actually make these areas greater than indicated in figure 15.) The need of continued work at sea is em- phasized because these areas involve parts of the earth’s surface where there are at present the greatest irregu- larities in the progressive character of the secular var- iation, namely, in the central and south Atlantic, Indian, north Pacific, east central Pacific, and south Pacific oceans. Because of the great desirability of continuing the operation conducted for a quarter of a century by the vessels of the Carnegie Institution of Washington, it is gratifying that, in view of the Institution’s decision not to replace the Carnegie by a similar vessel, the British Admiralty had designed and, in September 1936, placed a contract to build a nonmagnetic vessel, to be named Research. The chief reason for this action on the part of Great Britain was found in her world-wide maritime interests. Magnetic charts published for the last two decades by the American, British, French, German, and other governments for use at sea have been based in an increasingly large degree on data obtained by the Carne- gie. There are serious gaps in the present data which would have been filled had the Carnegie completed her last cruise and had the rapid change in the secular vari- ation in certain regions been determined. One of the first tasks, therefore, of the Research was to have been the repetition of the observations of the Carnegie in these regions to determine the secular change so that the isogonic charts might be corrected to date and pre- pared for succeeding epochs. The Research, of the same beam as the Carnegie and slightly greater over-all length, was launched in 1939, but the outbreak of war so far has prevented her operation. The instrumental equipment parallels closely that used on the Carnegie as it did not appear advisable to depart from designs grad- ually evolved from the experience of many years of ob- servational work at sea. With the eventual continuation of the oceanic survey by the Research we may look for- ward to further advance in the accuracy of magnetic charts. The task of the geophysical survey of the oceans is so great that other hydrographic services of maritime nations should be stimulated by the action of the British Admiralty to provide similar vessels with equipment and personnel to take appropriate share in the execution and in the coordination of such service. Resolutions adopted after thorough discussions by the Commission of Terres- trial Magnetism and Atmospheric Electricity of the Inter- national Meteorological Organization at Warsaw, Poland, in September 1935, and by the Association of Terrestrial Magnetism and Electricity of the International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics at its triennial assembly at Edinburgh in September 1936, urge and recommend that other maritime nations should consider the construction of such nonmagnetic vessels. It is to be hoped that our own United States may assume its share in obtaining ad- ditional oceanic data to the further enrichment of our knowledge of earth sciences. Two of the most important requirements to be met in order that isomagnetic charts for epoch 1945 be of good standard in accuracy are (1) provision of suitably accurate magnetic field observations of sufficiently re- cent date and (2) knowledge of the course of magnetic secular change in the intervening interval of time be- tween the more recent dates of observation and the year 1945. Unfortunately the world patterns of secular change are subject to rather rapid modification in form with time. Thus, although observations made thirty years ago, Say, can be used to good advantage in certain regions where secular change is small, observations made only five years ago may be inadequate in regions where the secular change is rapid. A rough indication of those regions likely to provide defective chart values for 1945 of the general systematic field distributions is afforded by multiplying the annual rate of secular change for 1920 to 1925 by the number of years prior to 1945 of the most recent field observation in a region. Although the secular change for 1920 to 1925 sometimes will afford a poor approximation for the en- tire twenty- to twenty-five-year intervals, this has been done using the isoporic charts of figures 3 to 9 and lists of field observations. Figures 16 to 18 show the products obtained by the foregoing procedure for the D-, H-, and Z-components, respectively. These tentative results give the amount of the extrapolation from the last measured observation to obtain chart values for 1945. The most striking feature is the magnitude of the necessary extrapolations in the south Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian oceans, and in north central Africa. These estimates are highly conservative because a single observation on land may, by the proce- dure here adopted, yield the estimate for a 30°-tessera 48 mainly of ocean. On land there is most urgent need of resurvey in North Africa and the Pacific islands; all major oceanic areas are in need of magnetic surveys. The present slow and costly methods of geomagnet- ic surveys seem likely to be superseded by new tech- niques and methods, the possibilities of which now are gradually becoming apparent. Clearly the old procedure of measuring the earth’s field at different times in dif- ferent places, in one region during one series of years and in another in a different series of years, is ineffi- cient. What is required is a description of the geomag- netic field during a given year, based on measurements made during that year at an ordered set of points suffi- ciently close together and spaced in a manner nearly in- dependent of topography, areas of land and sea, and cli- mate. Such measurements made from planes flying along parallels of latitude no doubt will be available in the fu- ture. A project of this kind at present is feasible in- strumentally and affords attractive postwar possibilities in application. LIST OF WORK OF THE CARNEGIE AND SUGGESTIONS FOR FUTURE SCIENTIFIC CRUISES In spite of the new developments in navigation, the compact and simple compass seems likely to remain in use on the seas for many years, and likewise there are appearing newly found applications of isomagnetic world charts from time to time. The available geomag- netic data already of necessity are squeezed rather hard to obtain useful isomagnetic charts for epoch 1945 in some regions. It is apparent that measurements of the earth’s magnetic field must be continued, even if entirely by the more cumbersome methods of the past which at least have the virtue of being tried and tested. The prompt undertaking of even a limited magnetic-survey program, including not only measurements of magnetic declination as at present carried out by the United States Hydrographic Office but also measurements of the other components with carefully standardized instruments, would make available data on which the isomagnetic charts for epoch 1950 may be based. FIGURES Fig. 1(A). Magnetic observatories, Western Hemisphere Fig. 1(B). Magnetic observatories, Eastern Hemisphere Fig. 2. World magnetic and electric survey, Department of Terrestrial Magnetism, Carnegie Institution of Washington, 1905-1938 Fig. 3. Isoporic chart for declination (lines of equal annual change), approximate epoch 1920-1925 Fig. 4. Isoporic chart for inclination (lines of equal annual change), approximate epoch 1920-1925 Fig. 5. Isoporic chart for horizontal intensity (lines of equal annual change), approximate epoch 1920-1925 Fig. 6. Isoporic chart for vertical intensity (lines of equal annual change), approximate epoch 1920-1925 Fig. 7. Isoporic chart for total intensity (lines of equal annual change), approximate epoch 1920-1925 Fig. 8. Isoporic chart for north component (lines of equal annual change), approximate epoch 1920-1925 Fig. 9. Isoporic chart for east component (lines of equal annual change), approximate epoch 1920-1925 Fig. 10. Tracks of chief vessels on which magnetic observations were made in the Indian Ocean, 1839-1916 Fig. 11. Tracks of chief vessels on which magnetic observations were made in the Atlantic Ocean, 1839-1916 Fig. 12. Tracks of chief vessels on which magnetic observations were made in the Pacific Ocean, 1839-1916 Fig. 13. Variation with longitude of AH/H (annual change averaged without regard to sign), of the distribution of the proportion of land and water areas, and of secular-change activity approximately determined by the dens- ity of the distribution of isoporic lines Fig. 14. Distribution of foci of rapid annual change of the magnetic declination, inclination, and horizontal intensity, approximate epoch 1920-1925 Fig. 15. Showing oceanic areas between parallels of 60° north and south latitude for which secular variation of magnetic elements could not be controlled by land stations on continents and islands Fig. 16. Amount of extrapolation, in minutes of arc, from last survey-value per 30°-tessera to epoch 1945, magnetic declination (east declination positive), basis isopors 1920-1925 Fig. 17. Amount of extrapolation, in gammas, from last survey-value per 30°-tessera to epoch 1945, magnetic horizontal intensity, basis isopors 1920-1925 Fig. 18. Amount of extrapolation, in gammas, from last survey-value per 30° -tessera to epoch 1945, magnetic vertical intensity (positive downwards), basis isopors 1920-1925 Ro oresby Sund ae \ ‘Julianehaab SOAK 2 Fig. 1(A). Magnetic observatories, Western Hemisphere REA AARNE &\: \—Northwest. gy Maj -Tun KEY, EUROPEAN OBSERVATORIES I—Rude Skov 6—Uccle 2—Hel 7—Val Joyeux 3—De Bilt 8— Auhof 4—Niemegk 9—Maisach 12—Regensberg —Stepanovka Soe en A —= 5—Bochum |0—Castellaccio SS ll —Konigsberg . SN Asses \ Sina eae LEGEND (= Observatones funchonirg continuously or at intervals, 1905-42 -@=Locations of recommended additions sea See en re Fig. 1(B). Magnetic observatories, Eastern Hemisphere 49 oz! Ol! ,001 06 ,08 OL , 8E6T-GOGT “UO}suTYSEeM JO UOTINITASUT oTsouIeD += ------- (5267-8161) OPW IHL 10 751K * + + tae 206) TERS (6067 ~S06/) 2F7W9 OLONIHSWH 90 NOLLLLISN/ F/9INIWD STSIRID WIS NO ATARNS - GNFIIT ‘DISTJOUSe [eT 1jSe11eJ, Jo Juowyredaq ‘AeAINS of1}0079 pue o;JoUsEM pIIOM °*Z “SIT "M.*91 01 oSti ONY 'S 801,92 NSSML38 I NOILIONdXS DILYVLINY aguas HLIM NOILWY3d009 SNOILWLS ONVT IZ ¢ s SNLLVAIIOOD, HOLM HLM LNIN WORT S SKLNOW 81 QL 9 'NOILYYIAOOD AYVHOSNIL NOLIMNSWM 10 MOLLPLILSN/ TOTNYVD STIS OLVALISBO F/¥L29 77 INV TILINSAY © SIW/L TWHIAIS OTkINIOOR ANUN 'SNOLLWAS OTF Qs ot , g 4 bens Y O WA Z b ~ G7 O fF, ry, , a © I SESE a5 % 0 Ma Ul SES ° boa fae, A y ‘7>* iY yy ?) NOSIV ISD VMMuy Q ¥ Y Bs eeGi-ze6!\ MOUNVE LNIOd NVIIDO I/LIAYV 50 AAT, +8, Ashi t \\ = KS Nt i t S Nl a a Fig. 3. Isoporic chart for declination (lines of equal annual change), approximate epoch 1920-1925 TERRAIN Nt AS eo WO ue b\ x aenw BS VAAL | NESE ] an aGN : RA H =. 1 \ | \ 1 Se ees aT Fig. 5. Isoporic chart for horizontal intensity (lines of equal annual change), approximate epoch 1920-1925 51 Uy aa VV RRB SS er Vie Wan Ob, Ry a ROU NE 7 AY) \ SN Se) Lew 7 VACCCCERYY CaaS [aa ey Fig. 6. Isoporic chart for vertical intensity (lines of equal annual change), approximate epoch 1920-1925 (Position of isopors in high SUNIL: ey near the magnetic poles, very uncertain) Se. & =. Fig. 7. Isoporic chart for total intensity (lines of equal annual change), apnroximate epoch 1920-1925 (Position of isopors in high latitudes, especially near the panes poles, very uncertain) ei, er oe “a a ao Sak \\ r ~ o~ ae Fig. 8. Isoporic chart for north component (lines of equal annual change), approximate epoch 1920-1925 52 SS ay” ee ‘\ - aw ASN oe agen = == Nip < & i eaenGe5 AN Al C Jel > NB, py ik; oe Dy iti. SRY Hite i Sop 0\\ Ly. be EO] \ Fig. 9. Isoporic chart for east component (lines of equal annual change), approximate epoch 1920-1925 Carnegie, 1911-1916 Erebus and Terror. 1839-1843 --—"-—--—-- Pagoda, 1845 —-——-——--—--—-- Novara, 1857-1860 -<«-++-+rere>- Challenger, eee ------------- Gazelle, 1874-1876 -——-——--——- Gauss. 1902-1903 —-——-—-——- —_ Discovery, 1902-1904 «++ +++ ereeeeceee Fig. 10. Tracks of chief apteee on which magnetic observations were made in the Indian Ocean, 1839-1916 53 o 10° 20" » “a ak Gr 72) Cluett, 1914 a. eS F108) 7 ee oe ee Galilee, 1908 (Pacific) ————————._- Carnegic. 1909-1915 Erebus and Terror, 1839-1843 —--—+-— Challenger, 1872-1876 —— ——~——— Pagoda, 1845) 9 a ee aan Novara, 1857-1860 ---+-sce5e-cneees Discovery, 1902-1904 ---+++eesseerees Gazelle, 1874-1876 «+ ——-*——* —* —— ——— Gauss, 1902-1903 -——-—-——- ——- ——- Coast and Geodetic Survey, 1903-1915 + ++ +++ Fig. 11. Tracks of chief vessels on which magnetic observations were made in the Atlantic Ocean, 1839-1916 amie fil \. Xe ; eo 1 Soar” ep a ¥ a = 180° Camegie, = = Galilee, 1905-1908 1914. (Atlantic) 5. ee e«+= Challenger, 1872-1876 —— ———— —-—---— 902-1904 LOE AD RC ee 1911-1916 Novara, 1857-1860 -- «+n. x ceer en eeee Erebus and Terror, 1839-1843 —--—--—-- Gazelle, 1874-1876 -—-—+—.—-—-_ Discovery, I els on which magnetic observations were made in the Pacific Ocean, 1839-1916 Fig. 12. Tracks of chief vess 55 E 180° SCALE OF LONG/TUDE PERCENTAGE OF LAND AREA 3 z x _ s SCALE PER CENT EUROPE NORTH ahotel RICA AFRICA AUSTRALIA SOUTH AMERICA Fig. 13 Variation with longitude of AH/H (annual change averaged without regard to sign), of the distribution of the proportion of land and water areas, and of secular-change activity approxi- mately determined by the density of the distribution of isoporic lines i | \ SW 13 Nass: \ = Yee} Waa SS Fig. 14. Distribution of foci of rapid annual change of the magnetic declination, inclination, and horizontal intensity, approximate epoch 1920-1925 56 pa NR “HC Sr TENT eR Z AVY WMA Y pa ¢ : maiiAbe Y, YY) ee y Nia fale UY | me 4 ts | 150 180° 150° 120° g Fig. 15. Showing oceanic areas (shaded) between parallels of 60° north and south latitude for which secular variation of magnetic elements could not be controlled by land stations on continents and islands N fale . i I | X Ae zg a pie Seas cA eS Sasi ae iS ory | ‘ = ; SS yt al | : $ 3 ——¥ My Dp is am, ea 1 ee ee | ) | crea | [i zi SC? +at- 75 e | y N a V 4 ¥ > /\ ( | | o =225t = na Fig. 16. Amount of extrapolation, in minutes of arc, from last survey-value per 30°-tessera to epoch 1945, magnetic declination (east declination positive), basis isopors 1920-1925 57 = a ats if ¥ i 1s ao meh lf S77 1945, magnetic horizontal intensity, basis isopors 1920-1925 Fig. 17. Amount of extrapolation, in gammas, from last survey-value per 30°-tessera to epoch y-value per 30°-tessera to epoch from last surve 58 in gammas, 1945, magnetic vertical intensity (positive downwards), basis isopors 1920-1925 --Amount of extrapolation, Fig. 18 WORK OF THE CARNEGIE AND SUGGESTIONS FOR FUTURE SCIENTIFIC CRUISES IV THE CARNEGIE: ITS PERSONNEL, EQUIPMENT, AND WORK CONTENTS Introduction Arrangement of Space on the Carnegie 4. \e; ce: illo) iv; tee) iu) =) ©. =) ») celle, 0) s) foley b, 6) b. vs) (9: ehiolkew) wiuul/e) ie uiv) si ael lw The Work of the Carnegie Discussion of Scientific Program CCR OO co OC eae OO oro Ra OD OND GeO On 0 ONO DO OO Oh Factors Affecting the Itinerary of a Sailing Vessel 2) fe: ie: jee; © 0,0; (o © ib! ‘eh "e) 0 0} © iv wb 6) © lesa em elle) wee Comments on Ship’s Equipment e, 1) -e) a} ce ew. 04 (e) a) epee) e\lealeiie cv feces) 8) ie ieee (wile (oi¥yiailo) eye ei ser jeans) eile nielas Literature Cited a, kee 0) fe) 6, 0: e, 1¢: ©) © el let e) ete sejiay ec) ie: (or -e!.0) ej leihie “o fel.e! br else, one) (eile. (=) ee) iu, Vee) se) =) sae) le) ee Figures 1 - 2 sige fulielce))-0:) so... 2. (15) Deviation of isochronism: da/dt = - (1/T2) U ag sin (¢2-¢) ..-.. (16) in which a is the amplitude of the fictitious pendulum; ag is the amplitude of the middle pendulum; T is the period of the fictitious pendulum; U is equal to (T2-T}), that is, the deviation from isochronism in pendulums 1 and 2; ag cos (¢2-¢) is the component of the pendulum- vector of the second pendulum in the direction of the fic- titious pendulum-vector; and ag sin (¢2 - ¢) is the 76 WORK OF THE CARNEGIE AND SUGGESTIONS FOR FUTURE SCIENTIFIC CRUISES component perpendicular to this direction. The last two quantities can be measured directly from the record. The average total rate of change of amplitude of the fic- titious pendulum is first measured over an interval chosen so that the average of a2 sin (¢2 -¢) is zero. Thus by virtue of equations (15) and (16), the effect of amplitude and isochronism is zero. This allows k in equation (14) to be computed. When this has been done, another interval is chosen (perhaps on a different rec- ord), so that the average of ag sin ($9 - ¢) is as large as possible. For this interval the rate of change of am- plitude due to damping and amplitude is calculated by equations (14) and (15). The average total rate of change of amplitude is measured from the record; the differ- ence between this value and the sum of the effects due to damping and amplitude is owing to the deviation from isochronism and may, therefore, with the aid of equation (16), be calculated. A similar procedure gives (T2 - T3), the lack of isochronism in the other pair. In this way (T2 - T1) was found to be about -250 x 10-7 second, whereas (T2 - T3) was less than about 40 x 10-7 second. Considerable uncertainty in these values, particularly in the latter one, results from the errors in the actual measurements of the total rate of change of amplitude used in their determination. Unfortunately, in all the Carnegie records which were used in determin- ing gravity, the second factor in the correction for devi- ation from isochronism was small [see equation (5)], so that the possible error in this correction due to the un- certainties in (Tg - Tj) and (T2 - T3) probably is not greater than about 10 x 10-7 second even in the most unfavorable record. The deviation of isochronism in each pair, however, was known to be not greater than 50 x 10-! second when the pendulums were adjusted in Europe. The large value of -250 x 10-7 second for (T2 - T1) obtained at the base station in Washington indi- cates that some accident occurred to pendulum no. 1 be- fore the base station observations were made. In view of this, it seems likely that Tj might, with use, have been subject to further changes apart from changes due to variations in gravity. If no change in either T, or T3, apart from change due to variation in gravity, had occurred after the Wash- ington observations, the values of (Tj - T3) should have been constant. An inspection of the last column in table 1, however, indicates that they show variations whichare much too large to be, due to errors in their determina- tion. These variations in (Tj -T3) therefore have been attributed to changes in Tj in view of its probable incon- stancy. Table 1. Gravity results on K XIII by Meinesz (1926) and on the Carnegie (1929) Carnegie K XI difference T3 only | Ty only (Ti - T3) em/sec2 cm/sec? cm/sec2 secx 1077 Station SanFrancisco 979.998 979.999 980.015 +216 980.009 980.024 +218 Honolulu 978.942 978.940 978.968 +188 Pago Pago ——-.s..sscvee 978.662 978.671 +234 978.673 978.671 +261 978.669 978.676 +238 ienodrvpe) |) loseanoedec 978.453 978.450 +264 AUISOR) ay Puce pracssns 979.197 979.19 +274 For this reason those values of gravity derived from T, are given no weight except to provide some check on the values derived from T3. A glance at table 1, which gives the values of gravity in centimeters per second for each separate determination, shows that the vaiues of gravity obtained in San Francisco and Honolulu are in much better agreement with those previously de- termined there by Dr. Vening Meinesz when T3 is used for the calculation than when Tj is used. This seems to indicate further that Ty was subject to erratic changes. The values in the second column were obtained by Dr. Vening Meinesz on board the Dutch submarine K XII during a cruise from Holland to Java in 1926. A further inspection of table 1 shows that for the last three stations, which are the only new ones deter- mined on the Carnegie, the values of gravity derived from Tj and from Tg are in fairly good agreement. Practically then, it is not important whether the values derived from Ty are rejected or not as far as the new stations are concerned. Table 2 gives the latitude and longitude for each of the five stations. Table 2. Geographical positions, Carnegie gravity stations F Latitude Longitude San Francisco 37 47.6 N 122 23.4 W Honolulu 2118.5N 157 52.0 W Pago Pago 1416.68 170 41.0 W Penrhyn 859.78 158 03.8 W At sea 27 44.8N 135 22.1 W The results of the computations for the isotatic re- ductions of the last three stations as made by the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey are given in tables 3 and 4. The methods used in calculating the reductions were those elaborated by Hayford and Bowie (6 and 7). Remarks on Anomalies The last line in table 3 gives the values of the iso- static anomalies, according to the Bowie formula of 1917, at the three Carnegie stations. The first of these stations, marked ‘‘at sea,’’ has a positive anomaly ac- cording to the Bowie formula of 1917 of 0.036 em/sec2. This value agrees with the average anomalies obtained by Dr. Vening Meinesz for stations in this approximate neighborhood of the Pacific. The positive anomaly of 0.040 cm/sec? at Penrhyn is not unusual. Dr. Vening Meinesz is of the opinion that the large positive anomaly at Pago Pago--0.110 cm/sec2 according to the Bowie formula of 1917--probably has some connection with the neighboring Tonga Deep, since up to the present practi- cally all the deeps where observations have been made, show a strip of negative anomalies over or near the deep, bordered on both sides by fields of positive anomalies which in several instances attain rather large values. He considers quite unlikely the possibility that this anomaly is owing to the fact that the island is composed largely of a heavy basalt or to the fact that the station, although made in the harbor of Pago Pago effectively was not far from the center of the island. A detailed GRAVITY DETERMINATIONS ON THE CARNEGIE 17 Table 3. Principal facts at Carnegie gravity stations Values are based on Potsdam System Element Station Latitude (¢) 27° 44'8N 8° 59:78 14° 16/6 S Longitude (d) 135° 22'1 W 158° 03/8 W 170° 41:0 W Depth, fathoms 2465 130 10 Observed gravity (g), em/sec2 979.197 978.453 978.668 Corrections, cm/sec2 Elevation 0.000 0.000 0.000 Topography and compensation +0.004 +0.248 +0.205 Computed values, cm/ sec2 Helmert |], theoretical yo = ¥9'’ [>] 979.149 978.156 978.344 computed gravity (gc) 979.153 978.404 978.549 Bowiel¢], theoretical yo = ¥o"’ [>] 979.157 978.165 978.353 computed gravity (gc) 979.161 978.413 978.558 Anomalies, cm/sec2 Free air (g - y9’’), Helmert|@] +0.048 +0.297 +0.324 Bowie [¢] +0.040 + 0.288 +0.315 Isostatic (g - gc), | Helmert[@] +0.044 +0.049 +0.119 Bowie |¢] +0.036 +0.040 +0.110 [a] Using Helmert formula of 1901, 7, =978.030 (1 + 0.005302 sin2 ¢ - 0.000007 sin? 2¢). [b] sta- tions being at sea level with no correction for elevation. [c] Using Bowie formula of 1917, y, = 978.039 (1 + 0.005294 sin2 @ - 0.000007 sin2 29). investigation of the gravity field in the region of the Tonga Deep doubtless would prove of great interest, especially since there is a great deal of volcanic activ- ity in this area. Thus the contribution in number of new gravity sta- tions determined on board the Carnegie during the last few months of her cruise is not great. It has been the aim of this report of the first attempt to make accurate determinations of gravity on board a sailing ship at sea, to show that in spite of the difficulties inevitably encoun- tered in any first attempt, and in spite of the writer’s lack of any previous experience with the apparatus, to- gether with the fact that because of numerous other duties he could devote only a small amount of his time to this research, a few successful observations were obtained. It is hoped that this report may succeed first in stimulating further researches in gravity determinations at sea, either aboard surface ships or aboard submarines, and second in being of some assistance in their success. Acknowledgments Grateful appreciation is expressed to Dr. F. A. Ven- ing Meinesz, whose personal interest and assistance have made it possible to complete the Carnegie gravity reductions, and to Captain R. S. Patton, Director of the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, through whose interest and cooperation the isostatic reductions for the three new Carnegie gravity stations were made by that bureau. 78 WORK OF THE CARNEGIE AND SUGGESTIONS FOR FUTURE SCIENTIFIC CRUISES Table 4. Corrections for topography and compensation for Carnegie gravity stations Correction for Correction for Elevation Topog- Compen- Topography and topography and raphy sation compensation compensation Station at sea feet em/sec2 em/sec2 em/sec2 em/sec2 A - 9096 =O2000T Pecstcseascs -0.0001 18 +0.0093 B - 9096 -0.0046 +0.0002 -0.0044 il4/ +0.0092 (S - 9225 -0.0109 +0.0005 -0.0104 16 +0.0092 D - 9225 -0.0227 +0.0011 -0.0216 15 +0.0092 E - 9225 -0.0382 +0.0022 -0.0360 14 +0.0094 F - 9225 -0.0448 +0.0028 -0.0420 13 +0.0156 G - 9225 -0.0405 +0.0033 -0.0372 12 +0.0095 H - 9225 -0.0372 +0.0044 -0.0328 11 +0.0078 I - 9225 -0.0374 +0.0074 -0.0300 10 +0.0059 J - 9225 -0.0247 +0.0103 -0.0144 9 +0.0036 K - 9225 -0.0178 +0.0148 -0.0030 8 +0.0031 L - 9225 -0.0125 +0.022t +0.0096 7 +0.0013 M - 9225 -0.0136 +0.0542 +0.0406 6 +0.0013 N - 9179 -0.0040 +0.0470 +0.0430 5 +0.0010 Oo - 9185 -0.0003 +0.0463 +0.0460 4 +0.0007 a PM ey | Sock aee™ Reet eece es man cee ceniccce Uh eb mosttatees 3 +0.0004 Keveeters Macseesaeice Me» acdeSdctiam (SAL Wh Uo wesewteaee 2 +0.0004 Recbbdos - - “SaScGGteCORi Maan. ESAS ere pay gk vy UNI ceo raes 1 0.0000 Total (all zones, lettered and numbered) +0.0042 Station at Penrhyn feet em/sec2 em/sec2 em/sec2 em/sec2 A - 480 =QUOOOUT. © meertenaec. -0.0001 18 +0.0113 B - 480 -0.0040 0.0000 -0.0040 17 +0.0113 Cc - 461 -0.0050 0.0000 -0.0050 16 +0.0116 D - 323 -0.0022 0.0000 -0.0022 15 +0.0116 E = BPil -0.0012 +0.0001 -0.0011 14 +0.0115 F - 448 -0.0011 +0.0001 -0.0010 13 +0.0170 G - 550 -0.0009 +0.0002 -0.0007 12 +0.0102 H - 750 -0.0008 +0.0004 -0.0004 11 +0.0078 I - 1369 -0.0020 +0.0011 -0.0009 10 +0.0057 J - 2379 -0.0026 +0.0027 +0.0001 9 +0.0037 K - 3401 -0.0037 +0.0054 +0.0017 8 +0.0036 L - 5996 -0.0057 +0.0144 +0.0087 m +0.0019 M - 9225 -0.0136 +0.0542 +0.0406 6 +0.0016 N -10332 -0.0049 +0.0529 +0.0480 5 +0.0012 Oo -11070 -0.0026 +0.0558 +0.0532 4 +0.0007 Gog |tt . Smehcioace, UMen weacroncoat | lSPsRdsccont Mat, | -————nrcscr ace rt 3 +0.0003 incre SACL RMI a acne eM MRENETIistiieects lng | aisteisiejslotsiaers 2 +0.0003 AGEs ie NE Es BCC CC TS MMMMETcssiescimeien <1 unlaitertielses 1 0.0000 Total (all zones, lettered and numbered) +0.2482 Station at Pago Pago feet em/sec2 em/sec2 em/sec2 em/sec2 A - 37 =O 0001 ereseeeeteee -0.0001 18 +0.0095 B - 39 -0.0009 0.0000 -0.0009 ae +0.0095 (G - 40 -0.0002 0.0000 -0.0002 16 +0.0100 D + 30 -0.0004 0.0000 -0.0004 15 +0.0101 E + 239 -0.0003 -0.0001 -0.0004 14 +0.0101 F + 458 -0.0008 -0.0001 -0.0009 13 +0.0144 G + 452 +0.0002 -0.0002 : 0.0000 12 +0.0078 H + 118 +0.0001 -0.0001 0.0000 11 +0.0064 I - 307 -0.0002 +0.0002 0.0000 10 +0.0052 J - 936 0.0000 +0.0010 +0.0010 9 +0.0034 K - 2242 -0.0020 +0.0036 +0.0016 8 +0.0034 L - 3767 -0.0029 +0.0090 +0.0061 7 +0.0017 M - 6642 -0.0073 +0.0391 +0.0318 6 +0.0013 N - 6665 -0.0020 +0.0341 +0.0321 5 +0.0012 Oo - 8080 -0.0008 +0.0407 +0.0399 4 +0.0007 a ile Me’ | Uawsisctinnesl pl USSR aeeee aL ccisbucseetd) ll UMMM Boseeciieaste 3 +0.0003 REREDSCOM bf) Bardéoncsnbo W Jaibobesttonc Ge | | koanoscaeac 2 +0.0002 eRe et ee ole, Teens oe be (> Idhsachaton 1 0.0000 Total (all zones, lettered and numbered) +0.2048 4Values interpolated GRAVITY DETERMINATIONS*O.i THE CARNEGIE 719 LITERATURE CITED 1. Vening Meinesz, F. A., and F. E. Wright. The grav- | 5. Vening Meinesz, F. A. Theory and practice of pen- ity-measuring cruise of the U.S. submarine S-21. dulum-observations at sea. Technische Boekhandel Pub. U.S. Naval Obs., ser. 2, vol. 13, app. 1 (1930). en Drukkerij J. Waltman, Jr. (1929); pub. Nether- 2. Bowie, W. Isostasy. Bull. Nation. Res. Council, no. lands Geodetic Comm. 78, pp. 103-115 (1931); several references on isos- | 6. Hayford, J. F., and W. Bowie. The effect of topography tasy are given on pp. 114-115. and isostatic compensation upon the intensity of grav- 3. Vening Meinesz, F. A. Results of gravity-determi- ity. U.S. Coast and Geod. Surv., Spec. Pub. No. 10 nations upon the Pacific and the organization of (1912). further research. Proc. Fourth Pacific Sci. Cong., | 7. Bowie, W. Investigations of gravity and isostasy. Java, 1929, vol. 2B, pp. 661-667 (1930). U.S. Coast and Geod. Surv., Spec. Pub. No. 40 (1917). 4. Vening Meinesz, F. A. The gravity-anomalies of the East Indian Archipelago. Geog. Jour., vol. 77, pp. 323-337 (1931). LIST OF FIGURES Fig. 1. Vening-Meinesz gravity instrument installed in the main cabin of the Carnegie Fig. 2. Pendulum case of the gravity apparatus Fig. 3. Top view of the pendulum apparatus Fig. 4. Gravity records obtained in (a) Pago Pago, (b) Honolulu, and (c) San Francisco harbors Fig. 5. Gravity records obtained at sea on the Carnegie, (a) open sea in 27° 448 north and 135° 22/1 west, (b) off West Passage, Penrhyn Island, and (c) off Tauhunu Village, Manahiki Island Fig. 2. Pendulum case of the gravity apparatus Fig. 1. Vening-Meinesz gravity instrument installed in the main cabin of the Carnegie Fig. 3. Top view of the pendulum apparatus 80 ) ed ST Fa aida ita Td dood ddd dd ddd ddd ddd ddd! AANA ee Fig. 4. Gravity records obtained in (a) Pago Pago, (b) Honolulu, and (c) San Francisco harbors eT ee this msahwiiuon oar dhdhiptlrt anda Vio iat a LAMAN AAI. a uh ey a Dima Yaa fs IO eee en oe ee See Sar TI Na Le met ‘ n UNA in CHO Abt hot hb Fig. 5. Gravity records obtained at sea on the Carnegie, (a) open sea in 27° 44'8 north and 135° 22/1 west, (b) off West Passage, Penrhyn Island, and (c) off Tauhunu Village, Manahiki Island WORK OF THE CARNEGIE AND SUGGESTIONS FOR FUTURE SCIENTIFIC CRUISES VI NOTE ON THE FLUORINE CONTENT OF ROCKS AND OCEAN-BOTTOM SAMPLES Figure 1 CONTENTS Oc) COSC). Ol OMCEOMOMC EC rnCECh Cl DO lath oar OO cho CO Oto GO Oo ce oen a8 84 NOTE ON THE FLUORINE CONTENT OF Until recently little information has been available concerning the amount of fluorine present in rocks, the lack of data being due to the unreliable analytical meth- ods inuse. The Willard and Winter procedure, pub- lished in 1933 (1), furnishes an easy and surprisingly accurate method of fluorine determination. Recent work shows that instead of being a very minor constituent of rocks, fluorine is present in about the same amount as chlorine and must be considered in rock analyses. A tentative average value of about 0.04 per cent is suggest- ed and some indications point to regional concentrations. Ocean-bottom samples are found to contain about the same quantities as the rock. On the seventh cruise of the Carnegie ocean-bottom samples were collected at many of the one hundred and sixty-two oceanographic stations occupied. Representa- tive samples were examined for fluorine content, with the results shown in table 1. In the table the type of bot- tom material has been included. The fluorine content of all the specimens averages 0.047 per cent. With the ex- ception of no. 6, these are all from the Pacific Ocean. The type of bottom evidently is important. Thus, globig- erina ooze, being largely calcium carbonate, might be expected to hold some excess of fluorine, but obviously calcium fluoride is too soluble in sea water to permit this. On the other hand, the aluminous clays retain larger amounts. In figure 1 has been plotted geographically the fluo- rine concentration of the ocean-bottom samples. The fluorine concentration is proportional to the diameter of the circles. With so few data one notes only trends, but some of these are suggestive. It appears that there is a notable concentration of fluorine between the west coast of North America and the Hawaiian Islands. In view of Zies’s (2) observations on the great quantity of fluorine given off by volcanoes in the Alaskan area, and assum- ing that in the long continuance of Japanese volcanicity similar amounts must have been evolved in that region, we should expect the ocean bottom to have received much of this fluorine and the samples to show a high content all along this northern arc. Instead we find low, or average, fluorine off the Japanese Islands and the northern arc, and a notable concentration east of Hawaii. It is possible that this concentration is relatedto the turn of the ocean currents at this point, but no similar rich- ness appears off the South American coast where some- what similar conditions prevail. *The present note is an abstract of a paper entitled: “*Note on the fluorine content of rocks and ocean-bottom samples,’”’ by E. S. Shepherd, of the Geophysical Labo- ratory, Carnegie Institution of Washington, Washington, D. C., published in the American Journal of Science, vol. 238, pages 117-128. 1940. ROCKS AND OCEAN-BOTTOM SAMPLES One definite fact has been established by recent studies of ocean-bottom samples and rock samples: flu- orine is not an insignificant constituent of the earth’s crust, as had been supposed. It evidently is present in quantities as great as, and sometimes greater than, chlorine, and this poses a question for which at present there is no satisfying answer. The question is: What becomes of this fluorine? Zies has discussed this mat- ter and summarized the answers thus far. It is true that great deposits of fluorine as well as chlorine exist, but it is far from clear how the fluorine that is being released all over the earth finds its way into such de- posits. The ocean-bottom data shed some light on this, as do the few sedimentary rocks tested. Since 1933 much work has been and is being done on the fluorine content of inland waters, and this work indicates again the spotty character of such concentrations in various geological formations. As this work continues we shall be able to trace the vagaries of this elusive element. It seems to the writer that when account is taken of all the known loci of fluorine, there still remains a large amount unaccounted for, or else the fluorine present in the outer parts of the earth did not all derive from the rocks. Table 1. Ocean-bottom samples collected by the Carnegie no. per cent 6 terrigenous 0.053 43 globigerina ooze 0.028 44 globigerina ooze 0.033 51 globigerina ooze 0.054 60 globigerina ooze 0.035 62 globigerina ooze 0.033 67 globigerina ooze 0.032 113 terrigenous 0.029 116 terrigenous 0.020 117 red clay 0.033 119 diatom-terrigenous 0.032 127 blue mud 0.072 131 red clay 0.071 132 red clay 0.069 133 red clay 0.071 136 red clay 0.086 137 red clay 0.033 151 red clay 0.114 156 red clay 0.050 157 globigerina ooze 0.010 160 globigerina ooze 0.038 Average 0.047 LITERATURE CITED 1. Willard, H. H., and O. B. Winter. Volumetric method for the determination of fluorine. Ind. Eng. Chem., anal. ed., vol. 5, pp. 7-10. 1933. 85 2. Zies, E.G. The valley of ten thousand smokes. Nation. Geog. Soc., Contrib. Tech. Papers, Katmai series no. 4, 79 pp. 1929. (uo]ZuTYSEM JO uoTINITIsuy sfdoureD ‘Aroyeroqe'y TeojsAydoar WIGWNN NOlivis INYWD Iv GILVDIONI Juv S3NIWA teh r>ur9 40 BNINON14 ‘3.10N OL WWNOILYOdOHd NOI ive LN3INO WORK OF THE CARNEGIE AND SUGGESTIONS FOR FUTURE SCIENTIFIC CRUISES Vil FUTURE OCEAN MAGNETIC, ELECTRIC, AND OCEANOGRAPHIC SURVEYS CONTENTS* A Preliminary Report on Requirements for a Vessel Suitable for Investigations in Magnetism, FB Electricity; and|Oceanographby, = tc. <'- <=) « 2a) sede memare a smaancn relate) a) sick stetcmeieahieractic ti naire 89 Notes on the Possibility of Using Available Vessels for Determining Magnetic Secular-Variation.. 91 Notes on the Program for Future Magnetic Measurements at Sea ............-52eeee eee 93 The Determination of Geographical Position for Scientific Observations atSea ............. 94 Notes on the Program for Future Atmospheric-Electric Measurements at Sea .............. 95 Notes sRepardingi@ ceanopraphyag-ieben pi eqs ow tal Barta yy 4 serio opera AR TON ROE: Or CES RNS a Gael? “afi 'be® j ' ¥ as OT co ale e ' oy Pell! 164 Li a ee ei a are : et f w@. ‘ i ; - 1 GR pe sree i> oem PTA Os hand 1YDe of =oaeeey ; ites Mit ay aed =)3 , } iy ico (pom UO Si RP ae aE / ] OiNEST 1) De me— ‘atl, wag Dias ia: _ ju a ad 110 albert af n TM Seg in , © 0-8 “> Y?re@ ot aa | Ge a goalie (Alinta i Ant eg 7 ay, ae ee : Shy Ge Are i Maple Be pA tess CMe Ttatpe eee - bp Vi ute tine nk Ox tia ole ies = : VAT LiLaih<. == > wT 1 a] ie ais a Oe AeAiee 0) ety "6 ~ Swe DP eepoege } i "mw 4'8 na ilecs Aart Ley ry des his ee et 4h i gy *ti ¥ : ~~? (ip Se Wediie hy at eal a o™ . i peaal say, e6 ae y = gad . “ie oad © old Qeetresl FET S07 41¥ CRIA 6 en Sonal ae 7 isi? for tw Vie Dios p 7 eh: Cae 4 of MA gall) Gey coe cia i rela are wryee ane te he oma, ; ’ \y cyrtuias he Vinee es : : ibe, Bt or eee vee'Lae OF vats Fei jones a A vce, Vm 4 4) fe a ' _ A 7 ae , ae =) Wek ahi jkayeegatid rT ° y eg) bas ae Sse, . a ¥ { bh Waal ' e bd i wheal \ Wal Benigni ly wal , f ou 3 - ~ » eee Me un Ouse: c gious ie _ wr i4e rt , - t = > ss diem, met, | agi J » if hab a ‘, * hi ed words, & he Bie ix, on ies OL fe sent TORE RG lh : iar feel a e ty Fe EVID WEA ph =the Dio oni: wd age ie ; > hes te. ep (ape ce am “a ar Lew, wetge_fy, VY “ A. a » rope Fee, enr@e pial dai Od er fi ee teas aged Fm mibermicche ae. wu! cus A rch paeit inp jhe ce) Ad sand or ' naj py Thee Trent ofp hee iy) ay) ee tne ans ‘av @ adi i? > @eiies( are sw > ont isu). ty & ; Wa wy a. ities pts °° Wa nas i : aha ite Pyne With bn Lea ef.) si 7 0 2% ¢ 4G, “Ais ‘(ane — er to~—lay jP i 7 ove prt ee onto Se eee Ap Fire a ey, pay the! le, Py he Ra petra Em erie Ds iets rare): See iient: Op chin _ 1M a eu = y } eH. i) aioe 11) ht. Ea. Ge ae eee 3 ary sway fic ibirtat ho = a 600. Terie =i}, ate Wis oa ee ites t! @ > i. 6 gp Siete Nolin + eet ingle PGirnas a 1% : / ay Pe im ar on (APe ~ “a a Piette? |. nm? Py oe = ais 7 gh yl Fy oils ' ae a i vo bye a ei) — i ” ‘ 1 CCMPLETE BIBLIOGRAPHY OF CRUISE VII OF THE CARNEGIE PRINCIPAL MEMOIRS ' Scientific Results of Cruise VII of the Carnegie During 1928- 1929 under command of Captain J. P. Ault Biology = - Wilson, C. B. The Copepods of the plankton gathered during the last cruise of the Carnegie. Carnegie Inst. Wash. Pub. No. 536. Quarto, vi + 537 pp., 136 figs., 16 charts, 2 maps. 1942. II. Campbell, A. S. The oceanic Tintinnoina of the plankton gathered during the last cruise of the Carnegie. Car- negie Inst. Wash. Pub. No. 537. Quarto, vi + 163 pp., 128 figs., 1 pl., 1 map. 1942. Graham, H. W. Studies in the morphology, taxonomy, and ecology of the Peridiniales. Carnegie Inst. Wash. Pub. No. 542. Quarto, viii + 129 pp., 67 figs., 1 pl., 1 map. 1942. Graham, H. W., W. A. Setchell, A. L. Treadwell, W. M. Tattersall, J. O. Maloney, H. G. Barber, A. Wetmore, and others. Biological results of the last cruise of the Carnegie: I. The Phytoplankton; II. Marine algae; III. Polychaetous annelids; IV. Mysids; V.Isopods; VI. Halobates; VII. List of birds; VIII. Miscellaneous de- terminations. Carnegie Inst. Wash. Pub. 555. Quarto, viii + 92 pp., 25 figs., 3 pls., 5 maps. 1943. V. Graham, H. W., and N. Bronikovsky. The genus Cerati- um in the Pacific and North Atlantic oceans. Carnegie Inst. Wash. Pub. No. 565. Quarto, viii + 209 pp., 27 figs., 54 charts, 1 map. 1944. Il. Iv. Chemistry I. Graham, H. W., and E. G. Moberg. Chemical results of the last cruise of the Carnegie. Carnegie Inst. Wash. Here No. 562. Quarto, viii + 58 pp., 23 figs., 1 map. 1944. Meteorology I. Jacobs, W. C., and K. B. Clarke. Meteorological results of cruise VII of the Carnegie, 1928-1929. Carnegie JOURNAL ARTICLES, Ault, J. P. 1928-1929. Bottom-samples from the South Pa- cific Ocean. Abstracted in Carnegie Inst. Wash. Year Book 28, p. 249. 1929. The Carnegie’s cruise in the North Atlantic. Parts I, Il, and Ill. Carnegie Inst. Wash. Press Serv- ice Bull., nos. 1-3, 12 pp. 1928. The cruise of the Carnegie. Wash. Press Service Bull., no. 8, 4 pp. 1928. The cruise of the Carnegie. The purpose and progress of ocean-surveys. Dolphin, vol. 17, pp. 178-183, 228-231, 269-272; vol. 18, pp. 21-24, 63-66. pipers in Carnegie Inst. Wash. Year Book 27, 927-1928, p. 238] — 1929. Life aboard the Carnegie. Parts I, Il, and II. Notes on Institution affairs Teper gravity at sea). Carnegie Inst. Wash. Press Service Bull., nos. 15-17, 13 pp. 1928. The new cruise of the Carnegie. vol. 9, pp. 226-228. 1929. Form of the slope of Wake Island. Beitr. Geophysik, vol. 23, pp. 8-9. [Abstracted in Carnegie Inst. Wash. Year Book 28, 1928-1929, p. 250] Carnegie Inst. Discovery, Inst. Wash. Pub. No. 544. Quarto, vi + 168 pp., 62 figs., 1 map. 1943. Il. Thomson, A. Upper-wind observations and results ob- tained on cruise VII of the Carnegie. Carnegie Inst. Wash. Pub. No. 547. Quarto, viii + 93 pp., 46 figs., 1 map. 1943. Oceanography I-A. Sverdrup, H. U., F. M. Soule, J. A. Fleming, and C. C. Ennis. Observations and results in physical oceanog- raphy. Carnegie Inst. Wash. Pub. No. 545. Quarto, viii + 156 pp., 58 figs., 1 map. 1944. Fleming, J. A.. H. U. Sverdrup, C. C. Ennis, S. L. Sea- ton, and W. C. Hendrix. Observations and results in physical oceanography, Graphical and tabular summar- ies. Carnegie Inst. Wash. Pub. No. 545. Quarto, iv + 315 pp., 254 figs. and graphs, 5 tables. 1945. II. Revelle, R. R., and C. S. Piggot. I. Marine bottom sam- ples collected in the Pacific Ocean by the Carnegie on its seventh cruise; II. Radium content of ocean-bottom sediments. Carnegie Inst. Wash. Pub. No. 556. Quarto, x + 196 pp., 46 figs., 10 charts, 14 pls., 1 map. 1944. - Gish, O. H., W.C. Parkinson, O. W. Torreson, andG. R. Wait. Ocean atmospheric-electric results. Carnegie Inst. Wash. Pub. No. 568. Quarto, viii + 178 pp., 42 figs., 1 map. 1945. IV. Ault, J. P., J. H. Paul, J.A. Fleming, E. G. Moberg, S. E. Forbush, E. S. Shepherd, O. W. Torreson, and others. The work of the Carnegie and suggestions for future scientific cruises: I. The Captain's report; Il. Narra- tive of the cruise; III. The magnetic work of the Car- negie and the urgency of new ocean magnetic surveys; IV. The Carnegie: Its personnel, equipment, and work; V. Gravity determinations on the Carnegie. VI. Note on the fluorine content of rocks and ocean-bottom samples; Vl. Future ocean magnetic, electric, and oceanographic surveys; VIII. Complete bibliography of cruise VII of the Carnegie. Carnegie Inst. Wash. Pub. No. 571. Quarto, vi + 111 pp., 60 figs., 1 map. 1945. I-B. Paul, J. H. The last cruise of the Carnegie. Williams and Wilkins Co., xiii + 331 with 198 illus. 1932. Baltimore. ABSTRACTS, ETC. Ault, J. P. 1927. Oceanographic investigation on the next cruise of the Carnegie. Bull. Nation. Res. Council, No. 61, pp. 198-254. 1928. Ocean-surveys: Problems and developments. Jour. Wash. Acad. Sci., vol. 18, pp. 109-123. [Abstract ed in Carnegie Inst. Wash. Year Book 27, 1927-1928, . 238 : eee 1927. Ocean work. Carnegie Inst. Wash. Year Book 26, pp. 177-179. 1928-1929. Physical oceanography of the North At- lantic Ocean. Abstracted in Carnegie Inst. Wash. Year Book 28, p. 249. 1928-1929. Physical oceanography of the South Pa- cific Ocean. Abstracted in Carnegie Inst. Wash. Year Book 28, p. 249. 1929. Preliminary results of ocean magnetic obser- vations on the Carnegie from Balboa to Easter Island to Callao, October 1928 to January 1929. Terr. Mag., vol. 34, pp. 23-31. 1929. Preliminary results of ocean magnetic obser- vations on the Carnegie from Callao to Tahiti, February to March 1929. Terr. Mag., vol. 34, pp. 117-121. 107 108 WORK OF THE CARNEGIE AND SUGGESTIONS FOR FUTURE SCIENTIFIC CRUISES Ault, J. P. 1930. Preliminary results of ocean magnetic- observations on the Carnegie from Hawaii to Samoa, October to November 1929. Terr. Mag., vol. 35, pp. 17-21. 1929. Preliminary results of ocean magnetic ob- servations on the Carnegie from Japan to California to Hawaii, June to September 1929. Terr. Mag., vol. 34, pp. 287-291. 1928. Preliminary results of ocean magnetic ob- servations on the Carnegie from Reykjavik to Barbados to Balboa, July to October 1928. Terr. Mag., vol. 33, pp. 189-194. 1929. Preliminary results of ocean magnetic ob- servations on the Carnegie from Tahiti to Samoa to Guam to Japan, March to June 1929. Terr. Mag., vol. 34, pp. 249-255. 1928. Preliminary results of ocean magnetic ob- servations on the Carnegie from Washington to Plym- outh, Hamburg, and Reykjavik, May to July 1928. Terr. Mag., vol. 33, pp. 121-128. 1929. Preliminary values of the annual changes of the magnetic elements in the North Atlantic Ocean, as determined from the Carnegie results, 1909-1928. Terr. Mag., vol. 34, pp. 31-34. [Abstracted in Carne- gie Inst. Wash. Year Book 28, 1928-1929, p. 248] 1928. The purpose and progress of ocean-surveys. Sci. Mon., vol. 26, pp. 160-177. [Abstracted in Carne- gie Inst. Wash. Year Book 27, 1927-1928, p. 238] 1929. Science aboard the Carnegie. Discovery, vol. 10, pp. 329-332. 1928. The seventh cruise of the non-magnetic yacht Carnegie. Science, n.s., vol. 67, pp. 278-479. 1929. An unsolved mystery of the Pacific. Discov- ery, vol. 10, pp. 359-361. and H. W. Fisk. 1929. Preliminary values of the annual changes of the magnetic elements in the Carib- bean Sea and the Pacific Ocean, as determined from the Carnegie results, 1909-1929, and from the Galilee results, 1905-1908. Terr. Mag., vol 34, pp. 292-299. and F. M. Soule. 1929. New data on the bottom- contour of the South Pacific Ocean from soundings taken on board the Carnegie, October 1928 to March 1929. Beitr. Geophysik, vol. 23, pp. 1-7. [Abstracted 7 Ria Inst. Wash. Year Book 28, 1928-1929, p. ; 1929-1930. Ocean work. Progress re- port of cruise VII, July to November 1929. Carnegie Inst. Wash. Year Book 29, pp. 267-277. Brooks, C. F. 1929. Meteorological program of the seventh cruise of the Carnegie, 1928-1931. Mon. Weath. Rev. vol. 57, pp. 194-196. ‘ Carnegie Institution of Washington, Department of Terres- trial Magnetism. 1929. On board the ship Carnegie. 24 pp. [Descriptive pamphlet of the Carnegie and her work, issued on the occasion of the second celebration of the twenty-fifth anniversary of research in the Car- negie Institution of Washington] Clarke, K. B. 1931-1932. Diurnal waves of air-pressure over the oceans from observations made on cruise VII of the Carnegie. Abstracted in Carnegie Inst. Wash. Year Book 31, pp. 261-262. 1933. Diurnal waves of atmospheric pressure com- puted from observations made on cruise VII of the Carnegie. Beitr. Geophysik, vol. 39, pp. 337-355. [Abstracted in Carnegie Inst. Wash. Year Book 32, 932-1933, p. 249] 1934. Meteorological results during cruise VII of the Carnegie, 1928-1929. Proc. Fifth Pacific Sci. Cong., Victoria and Vancouver, B. C., Canada, 1933, vol. 3, pp. 1969-1976. ee in Carnegie Inst. Wash. Year Book 32, 1932-1933, p. 249 1933. Reduction of meteorological data from cruise VII of the Carnegie. Pub. Nation. Res. Council, Trans. Amer. Geophys. Union. 14th annual meeting, pp. 79-80. [Presented at the meeting of the Section of Meteorology of the American Geophysical Union, Washington, April 27, 1933] 1933. Semi-diurnal variation of barometric pres- sure over the oceans. Quart. Jour. R. Met. Soc., vol. 59, pp. 67-70. Clarke, K. B. 1931. Significance of air- and sea-tempera- tures obtained on cruise VII of the Carnegie. Mon. Weath. Rev., vol. 59, pp. 183-185. [Presented at the meeting of the American Meteorological Society, Washington, May 4, 1931. Abstracted in Carnegie Inst. Wash. Year Book 30, 1930-1931, p. 334] Ennis, C. C. 1933. Note on the computation of density of sea-water and on corrections for deep-sea reversing- thermometers. Hydrogr. Rev., vol. 10, pp. 131-135. 1929-1930. Preliminary sonic-depth results on cruise VII of the Carnegie. Abstracted in Carnegie Inst. Wash. Year Book 29, p. 296. Fisk, H. W. 1928-1929. A study of magnetic observations at sea to determine accidental and systematic errors and the rate of secular change. Abstracted in Carne- gie Inst. Wash. Year Book 28, pp. 253-254. 1929. In tribute to the memory of James Percy Ault. Terr. Mag., vol. 34, pp. 279-280. Fleming, J. A. 1930. The Carnegie’s seventh cruise. Beitr. Geophysik, vol. 26, pp. 5-13. 1930. Die Katastrophe der Yacht Carnegie. Beitr. Geophysik, vol. 25, p. 130. 1930. The last cruise of the Carnegie. Terr. Mag., vol. 35, pp. 22-28. 1931. Observations of terrestrial magnetism and atmospheric electricity on the last cruise of the Car- negie. Compt. rend. Assemblée de Stockholm, Aott 1930. Union Géod. Géophys. Internat., Sec. Mag. Elec. Terr., Bull. No. 8, pp. 235-241. 1931-1932. Oceanographic reductions. Carnegie Inst. Wash. Year Book 31, pp. 253-257. 1932-1933. Oceanographic reductions. Carnegie Inst. Wash. Year Book 32, pp. 241-244. 1935-1936. Oceanographic work. Carnegie Inst. Wash. Year Book 35, pp. 275-277. 1930-1931. Ocean work. Carnegie Inst. Wash. Year Book 30, pp. 316-323. 1930. Oceanographic work done on the non-magnet- ic ship Carnegie during her seventh and last cruise. Rep. and Comm., Stockholm Assembly, Internat. Geod. and Geophys. Union, Sec. Terr. Mag. and Elec., Aug., 1930, pp. 79-86. 1932. Progress-report on compilation of oceanic results, Carnegie cruise, 1928-1929. Rep. Comm. Submarine Configuration and Oceanic Circulation, Nation. Res. Council, pp. 83-88. [Presented at the annual meeting of the Division of Geology and Geogra- phy, National Research Council, April 23, 1932] 1931. Progress-report on compilation of oceano- graphic results, Carnegie cruise, 1928-1929. Pub. Nation. Res. Council, Trans. Amer. Geophys. Union, 12th annual meeting, pp. 160-167. [Presented at the meeting of the Section of Oceanography of the Ameri- can Geophysical Union, Washington, April 30, 1931. Abstracted in Carnegie Inst. Wash. Year Book 30, 1930-1931, p. 341] 1930. The seventh cruise of the Carnegie. Pub. Nation. Res. Council, Trans. Amer. Geophys. Union, 10th and 11th annual meetings, pp. 251-257. [Present- ed at the meeting of the Section of Oceanography of the American Geophysical Union, Washington, May 1, 1950] 1928. The seventh cruise of the non-magnetic yach Carnegie. Science, n.s., vol. 67, pp. 478-479. [Ab- stracted in Carnegie Inst. Wash. Year Book 27, 1927- 1928, pp. 248-249 1930. Work of the Carnegie. Pub. Nation. Res. Council, Rep. Comm. Submarine Configuration and Oceanic Circulation, pp. 75-85. : and J. P. Ault. 1928. Cruise VII of the Carnegie, 1928-1931. Wature, vol. 121, pp. 871-873. [Abstracted in Carnegie Inst. Wash. Year Book 27, 1927-1928, pp. 248-249] , ———— 1929. Cruise VII of the Carnegie, 1928- 1931, in the Pacific and Indian oceans. Proc. Fourth Pacific Sci. Cong., Java, pp. 547-560. [Presented for the authors by Dr. T. W. Vaughan at the Fourth Pacific “Science Congress, Java, May 1929. Abstracted in Car- BET] Inst. Wash. Year Book 28, 1928-1929, pp. 256- 257 COMPLETE BIBLIOGRAPHY OF CRUISE VII OF THE CARNEGIE Fleming, J. A., andJ. P. Ault. 1928. Program of scientific work on cruise VII of the Carnegie, 1928-1931. Terr. Mag., vol. 33, pp. 1-10. Ztschr. Gesellsch. Erdk., Erganzungsheft 3, pp. 41-55. [Abstracted in Carnegie Inst. Wash. Year Book 27, 1927-1928, pp. 248-249] —_—__—, _———_ 1929. Progress of the Carnegie’s seventh cruise. Proc. Internat. Oceanogr. Cong., Seville, pp. 147-160. [Presented by G. W. Littlehales before the International Congress for Oceanography, Marine Hy- drography, and Continental Hydrology at Seville, Spain, May 3, 1929. Abstracted in Carnegie Inst. Wash. Year Book 28, 1928-1929, pp. 256-257] » —— 1930. Resultados del séptimo crucero del Carnegie. Mem. Consejo Oceanogr. Ibero-Americano, No. 3, 19 pp. (March 31) ————,, and F. F. Bunker. 1930. The Carnegie and her last commander. Carnegie Inst. Wash. News Service Bull., vol. 2, pp. 1-9. » ———— 1930. The loss of the Carnegie and the death of Captain Ault. Sci. Mon., vol. 30, pp. 189-192. Forbush, S. E. 1934. Gravity determinations on the Carne- gie. Proc. Fifth Pacific Sci. Cong., Victoria and Van- couver, B. C., Canada, 1933, vol. 2, pp. 887-893. 1930. Gravity determinations on the Carnegie. Proc. Fourth Pacific Sci. Cong., Java, 1929, vol. 2B, pp. 661-667. — 1929-1930. The Meinesz gravity-apparatus on the Carnegie. Abstracted in Carnegie Inst. Wash. Year Book 29, p. 301. 1932-1933. Report on gravity-determinations on the Carnegie. Abstracted in Carnegie Inst. Wash. Year Book 32, pp. 251-252. and O. W. Torreson. 1930. The Meinesz gravity- apparatus on the Carnegie. Pub. Nation. Res. Council, Trans. Amer. Geophys. Union, 10th and 11th annual meetings, pp. 137-140. [abstracted in Carnegie Inst. Wash. Year Book 29, 1929-1930, p. 301. Paper pre- sented at the meeting of the Section of Geodesy of the American Geophysical Union, Washington, May 1, 1930] Gish, O. H. 1931. The importance of atmospheric-electric observations at sea. Compt. rend. Assemblée de Stockholm, Aott 1930. Union Géod. Géophys. Internat., Sec. Mag. Elec. Terr., Bull. No. 8, pp. 345-346. [Ab- stracted in Carnegie Inst. Wash. Year Book 29, 1929- 1930, p. 302 and W. C. Parkinson. 1930-1931. Results of con- tinuous registration of air-conductivity at sea. Ab- stracted in Carnegie Inst. Wash. Year Book 30, p. 346. Graham, H. W. 1934. The distribution of the plankton of the Pacific as related to some physical and chemical con- ditions of the water. Proc. Fifth Pacific Sci. Cong., Victoria and Vancouver, B. C., Canada, 1933, vol. 3, pp. 2035-2043. [Abstracted in Carnegie Inst. Wash. Year Book 32, 1932-1933, p. 253] 1941. An oceanographic consideration of the dino- paeetete genus Ceratium. Ecol. Monogr., vol. 2, pp. 1941. Plankton production in relation to character of water in the open Pacific. Jour. Marine Res., vol.4, pp. 189-197. 1930-1931. Quantitative phytoplankton studies in the open Pacific Ocean. Abstracted in Carnegie Inst. Wash. Year Book 30, p. 351. and E. G. Moberg. 1931-1932. The distribution of plant-nutrients in the Pacific. Carnegie Inst. Wash. Year Book 31, p. 266. [Abstract of paper presented before the meeting of the Western Society of Natural- ists with the Pacific Division of the American Associa- tion for the Advancement of Science at Pullman, Wash- ington, June 16, 1932 and J. H. Paul. 1930-1931. Notes on the use of the Pettersson plankton-catcher on board the Carnegie. aeeeee in Carnegie Inst. Wash. Year Book 30, pp. Harradon, H. D. 1930. A biographical sketch of Captain James Percy Ault. Beitr. Geophysik, vol. 26, pp. 1-4. 1929. James Percy Ault, 1881-1929. Terr. Mag., vol. 34, pp. 273-278. 109 Johnston, H. F. 1929-1930. Annual changes in the magnetic elements in the north and central Pacific Ocean. Ab- stracted in Carnegie Inst. Wash. Year Book 29, p. 307. 1930. Preliminary values of the annual changes of the magnetic elements in the Pacific Ocean as deter- mined from the Carnegie results, 1909-1929, and the Galilee results, 1905-1908. Terr. Mag., vol. 35, pp. 157-160. Mauchly, S. J. 1928. On the method used for analyzing radioactive decay-curves obtained aboard the Carnegie. pperacted in Carnegie Inst. Wash. Year Book 27, p. Moberg, E.G. 1930. The distribution of oxygen in the Pa- cific. Contr. Marine Biol., Stanford Univ. Press, pp. 69-78 (Sept.). ———_., J. P. Ault, and H. W. Graham. 1929-1930. The dis- tribution of oxygen in the Pacific Ocean between Cali- fornia and the Hawaiian Islands. Carnegie Inst. Wash. Year Book 29, p. 309. [Abstract of paper presented at the meeting of the Western Society of Naturalists, Pa- cific Grove, December 1929 and H. W. Graham. 1930. The distribution of oxy- gen in the Pacific as an index of the circulation of the water. Rep. and Comm., Stockholm Assembly, Internat. Geod. and Geophys. Union, Sec. Oceanogr., Aug., 1930, pp. 95-97. [Abstracted in Carnegie Inst. Wash. Year Book 29, 1929-1930, pp. 309-310 ————,, H. R. Seiwell, H. W. Graham, and J. H. Paul. 1930. The phosphate-content of the surface-water in the Pa- cific as related to the circulation. Rep. and Comm., Stockholm Assembly, Internat. Geod. and Geophys. Union, Sec. Oceanogr., Aug., 1930, pp. 98-100. Tab. stracted in Carnegie Inst. Wash. Year Book 29, 1929- 1930, p. 310] Parkinson, W. C., and O. W. Torreson. 1931. The diurnal variation of the electric potential of the atmosphere over the oceans. Compt. rend. Assemblée de Stock- holm, Adut 1930. Union Géod. Géophys. Internat., Sec. Mag. Elec. Terr., Bull. No. 8, pp. 340-345. Ja peeraek: ed in Carnegie Inst. Wash. Year Book 29, 1929-1930, pp. 310-311) Peters, W.J. 1929. The first year of the Carnegie’s sev- enth cruise. Sci. Mon., vol. 29, pp. 97-108. 1930. On the possibility of using available vessels for determining magnetic secular-variation. Pub. Nation. Res. Council, Trans. Amer. Geophys. Union, 10th and 11th annual meetings, pp. 197-200. [Present- ed at the meeting of the Section of Terrestrial Magnet- ism and Electricity of the American Geophysical Union, Washington, May 2, 1930. Abstracted in Carnegie Inst. Wash. Year Book 29. 1929-1930, p. 311] 1930. Work of the Carnegie to date. Pub. Nation. Res. Council, Trans. Amer. Geophys. Union, 10th and 11th annual meetings, p. 101. Carnegie Inst. Wash. Year Book 28, 1928-1929, p. 265. [Abstract of paper presented before the meeting of the Sectionof Oceanog- raphy of the American Geophysical Union, Washington, April 26, 1929] Piggot, C. S. 1932. Radium-content of ocean-bottom sedi- ments. Pub. Nation. Res. Council, Trans. Amer. Geophys. Union, 13th annual meeting, pp. 233-238. [Presented at the meeting of the Section of Oceanog- raphy of the American Geophysical Union, Washington, April 29, 1932. Abstracted in Carnegie Inst. Wash. Year Book 31, 1931-1932, p. 269] 1938. Core samples of the ocean bottom and their significance. Sci. Mon., vol. 46, pp. 201-217. Revelle, R. 1935. Preliminary remarks on the deep-sea bottom samples collected in the Pacific on the last cruise of the Carnegie. Jour. Sediment Petrol., vol. 5, pp. 37-39. Seaton, S. L. 1929-1930. Results from radio observations on the Carnegie, May 1928 to November 1929. Ab- stracted in Carnegie Inst. Wash. Year Book 29, p. 313. Seiwell, H.R. 1927-1928. A discussion of a proposed bio- logical and chemical program to be carried out during the seventh cruise of the Carnegie. Abstracted in Car- negie Inst. Wash. Year Book 27, pp. 263-264. 110 Seiwell, H.R. 1931. Observations on the phosphate-content and hydrogen-ion concentration of the North Sea, the southern entrance to the Norwegian Sea, and the water south of Iceland. Jour. Conseil Internat. Explor. Mer., vol. 6, pp. 213-231. [Abstracted in Carnegie Inst. Wash. Year Book 29, 1929-1930, p. 313] 1929. Patterns for conical plankton-nets of one- meter and half-meter diameters. Jour. Conseil Inter- nat. Explor. Mer., vol. 4, pp. 99-103. [Abstracted in Carnegie Inst. Wash. Year Book 27, 1927-1928, p. 264] 1928. Phosphate-content and hydrogen-ion concen- tration of the surface water of the English Channel and southern North Sea. Nature, vol. 122, pp. 921-922. Vbatracted in Carnegie Inst. Wash. Year Book 28, 928-1929, p. 266] 1928-1929. The phosphate-content of the North At- lantic Ocean. Abstracted in Carnegie Inst. Wash. Year Book 28, pp. 266-267. 1928-1929. Procedure of preliminary examinations of Carnegie bottom-samples. Abstracted in Carnegie Inst. Wash. Year Book 28, p. 267. Sherman, K. L., and O. H. Gish. 1937. Electrical potential- gradient and conductivity of air near Rapid City, South Dakota. Terr. Mag., vol. 42, p. 298. Soule, F. M. 1930. Earth-inductor measurements aboard the Carnegie, cruise VII. Terr. Mag., vol. 35, pp. 103- 109. Pub. Nation. Res. Council, Trans. Amer. Geophys. Union, 10th and 11th annual meetings, pp. 202-206. Presented at the meeting of the Section of Terrestrial agnetism and Electricity of the American Geophysi- cal Union, Washington, May 2, 1930. Abstracted in Carnegie Inst. Wash. Year Book 29, 1929-1930, pp. 313-314] 1933. Note on the practical correction of deep-sea reversing-thermometers and the determination of the depth of reversal from p:otected and unprotected ther- mometers. Hydrogr. Rev., vol 10, pp. 126-130. 1930-1931. Oceanographic instruments and meth- i a ae in Carnegie Inst. Wash. Year Book 30, p. Fi 1932. Oceanic instruments and methods. Bull. Nation. Res. Council, No. 85, pp. 411-454. 1934. Sounding velocities in the Pacific. Proc. Fifth Pacific Sci. Cong., Victoria and Vancouver, B.C., Canada, 1933, vol. 2, pp. 873-886. and C. C. Ennis. 1930. Sonic depth-finding on the Carnegie, cruise VII. Pub. Nation. Res. Council, Trans. Amer. Geophys. Union, 10th and 11th annual meetings, pp. 264-274. [Presented at the meeting of the Section of Oceanography of the American Geophys- ical Union, Washington, May 1, 1930. Abstracted in Carnegie Inst. Wash. Year Book 29, 1929-1930, p. a4] Sverdrup, H. U. 1930. Algunos resultados cceaneeranicds le la labor del Carnegie en el Pacifico. La corriente peruana. Rev. Consejo Oceanogr. Ibero-Amer., vol. 1, pp. 147-155. 1934. The circulation of the Pacific. Proc. Fifth Pacific Sci. Cong., Victoria and Vancouver, B. C., Canada, 1933, vol. 3, pp. 2141-2145. 1930. The deep-water of the Pacific according to the observations of the Carnegie. Rep. and Comm., Stockholm Assembly, Internat. Geod. and Geophys. Union, Sec. Oceanogr., Aug., 1930, pp. 87-94. [Ab- stracted in Carnegie Inst. Wash. Year Book 29, 1929- 1930, pp. 314-315 WORK OF THE CARNEGIE AND SUGGESTIONS FOR FUTURE SCIENTIFIC CRUISES Sverdrup, H. U. 1930-1931. Oceanographic results from the Carnegie’s last cruise. Abstracted in Carnegie Inst. Wash. Year Book 30, pp. 360-361. 1931. The origin of the deep-water of the Pacific Ocean as indicated by the oceanographic work of the Carnegie. Beitr. Geophysik, vol. 29, pp. 95-105. [Ab- stracted in Carnegie Inst. Wash. Year Book 29, 1929- 1930, p. 315] 1930. Some aspects of oceanography. Sci. Mon., vol. 31, pp. 19-34. 1930. Some oceanographic results of the Carne- gie’s work in the Pacific--the Peruvian current. Pub. Nation. Res. Council, Trans. Amer. Geophys. Union, 10th and 11th annual meetings, pp. 257-264. Hydrogr. Rev., vol. 8, pp. 240-244. [Presented at the meeting of the Section of Oceanography of the American Geophysi- cal Union, Washington, May 1, 1930. Abstracted in Carnegie Inst. Wash. Year Book 99, 1929-1930, p. 314] 1933. On vertical circulation in the ocean due to the action of the wind with application to conditions within the Antarctic Circumpolar Current. Discovery Reports, vol. 7, pp. 139-170. 1929-1930. What the oceans mean to us. Carnegie Inst. Wash. Year Book 29, p. 316. [Abstract of radio address broadcast June 30, 1930, under the auspices of the erate Association for the Advancement of Sci- ence Thomson, A. 1930. Aerological observations made with a captive balloon from a moving ship. Mon. Weath. Rev., vol. 58, pp. 494-495. 1931-1932. Upper-wind observations and results obtained on cruise VII of the Carnegie. Abstracted in Carnegie Inst. Wash. Year Book 31, pp. 271-272. Torreson, O. W. 1930. The last cruise of the Carnegie. The Case Alumnus, vol. 10, pp. 7-8, 19. Carnegie Inst. Wash. Year Book 30, 1930-1931, pp. 363-364. [Ab- stract of lecture delivered April 18, 1931, at the Brook- lyn Academy of Arts and Sciences, Brooklyn, New York] 1931. The last cruise of the non-magnetic vessel ~ Carnegie. Quarterly of Phi Pi Phi, vol.7, pp. 219-228. Abstracted in Carnegie Inst. Wash. Year Book 30, 1930-1931, pp. 362-363] Wait, G. R. 1942. Electrical resistance of a vertical column of air over Watheroo (Western Australia) and over Huancayo (Peru). Terr. Mag., vol. 47, pp. 243-249. 1930-1931. The number of Aitken nuclei over the Atlantic and Pacific oceans as determined aboard the Carnegie during 1928-1929. Abstracted in Carnegie Inst. Wash. Year Book 30, p. 366. 1928-1929. The number of Aitken nuclei over the Atlantic and Pacific oceans as leider rr Carnegie during the early part of cruise - stract- ed in Carnegie Tist! Wash. Year Book 28, pp. 274-275. 1928-1929. Regarding the insulation leak-tests made with the ion-counter and the conductivity-appara- tus during the early parts of cruise VII of the Carnegie. Abstracted in Carnegie Inst. Wash. Year Book 28, p. 274. — and O. W. Torreson. 1941. Atmospheric-electric results from Watheroo, Western Australia, for the period 1924-1934. Terr. Mag., vol. 46, pp. 337-342. Atmospheric Electricity future program, instruments conductivity eye-reading, 4 recorder, 35, 40 tee GO) Pal ion counter, 32, 34 nuclei counter, 35 penetrating radiation DTM_no. 1, 7, 34, 35 Kolhorster, 7, 40 potential gradient eye-reading, 5, 7 recorder, 5, 7, 32 fig. 20, 24 radioactive content, 5, 11, 34 laboratory, 34, 61, 90 observations, 5, 7, 8, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 16, 17, 64, 89 standardizations, 4, 10, 13 Bacteriology, 66 Bauer Deep, 12 Carnegie itinerary of cruise VII, 2 laboratories, 61 living quarters, 61 navigation, 63 scientific projects, 62 staff assignments, 62, 63 tracks, all cruises (fig. 2), 50 Carnegie Ridge, 9 Challenger, 91, 92 tracks (figs. 10, 11, 12), 53-55 Chronometers, 36, 40, 72, 74 offset, 37 sidereal, 37, 74 City of Sydney, 89 Cluett, tracks (figs. 11, 12), 54, 55 Clyde, Discovery, 90, 91, 92 tracks (figs. 10, 11,12), 53-55 Diving helmet, 15, 39, 97, 100 fig. 31, 28 Erebus, 91, 92 tracks (figs. 10, 11, 12), 14, 15 53-55 Fleming Deep, Galilee, 91, 92 tracks (figs. 11, 12), 54, 55 Gauss, 90, 91, 92 tracks (figs. 10,12), 53, 54 Gazelle, 91, 92 tracks (figs. 10, 11,12), 53-55 Geology, 66 Gravity Determinations at Sea, 71-78 apparatus, 16, 17, 36, 40, 41, 98 figs. 33, 34, 28 figs.1-5, 80, 81 Dutch submarines, Hayes Peak, 16 Hydrographer, 89 Merriam Ridge, 11 Meteor, 6, 31, 66, 90, 98 Meteorology evaporation measurements, ? instruments air thermographs, anemometer, 32 barographs, 11, 36, 98 71, 76 aide 11, 33, 97, 98 INDEX Meteorology, instruments evaporimeter, 32, 97 fips 19 hygrographs, 98 psychrometer, 32, 97 rain gage, 32, 97 solarimeter, 38 Stevenson shelter, thermometers 32, 33 electrical resistance, 6, 32 sea-surface, 32, 34 pilot-balloon flights, 10, 11, 12, 13, 15, 16, 17, 39, 40, 41, 64, 98, 102, 103 figs. 26, 27, 28, 30, 27 sextant, 10, 12, 39, 102 sextant chair, 12, 15, 16, 17, 40, fig. 30, 27 theodolite, 9, ae 15116517, 2 5) ’ ’ fig. 26, °27 Novara, tracks (figs. 10, 11, 12), 53-55 Oceanography bottom samples, 8, 10, 11, 13, 14, 15, 31, 39, 64, 96, 97 instruments general, 7, 9,11, 31, 38, 39, , 64 fig. 4, 19 Meteor tube, fig. 5, Pelican snapper, 16 Ross-type snapper, 15, 16 Sigsbee tube, 14, 15 Vaughan snapper-type, 8, 10 preservation, 99 radioactive content, 31 chemical analyses fluorine concentration, 85 fig.1, 86 hydrogen-ion concentration, 34, 39, 41, 65, 100 Oe es comparator, 1 oxygen, 41, 65, 100 10, 99 6, 7, 34, phosphates, 6, 7, 34, 41, 65, 100 program, 5, 6, 7, 8, 90, 99-101 Sey 6, 7, 8, 15, 39, 65, 97, 1 electrical method, 3, 5, 34, 65, 97, 100 fig. 7, 20 titration, 34, 65, 97, 100 silicates, 34, 41, 65, 100 colorimeter, 100 currents, 9, 15, 17, 33, 41, 65, 96 depth finding instruments C. andG. machine, 13, 96 Fathometer, 97 shot-gun, 9, 10, 11 sonic, 5, 7, 14, 17, 32, 40, 67 oscillator, fig. 13, 22 supersonic, 97 operations, 5, 7, 8, 9, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 31, 41, 65, 94, 97 general, 8, 9, 15,38, 64,89, 99, 100 fig. 21, 25 observations, 5, 7, 11, 13, 14, 16, 17 plankton sampling boom walk, 1, 33-34, 99 fig. 25, 26 bottle, Allen, 99 111 Ocearography, plankton san. ‘ng bucket, 31-32, 39, 9. 39 collections, 5, 6, 7, i Bh 17, 65, 50, 99-1 nets, 33, 41 dip, 5, 7, 96, 99 tow, 5, 7, 8, 11, 12, 13, 17, 38, 39, 4%, 64, 96, 97, 99, 101 fig. 18, 24 pump, 7, 8, 12, 13, 31, 39, 41, 64, 65, 96, 97, fig. 6, 20 water sampling bottle series, 8, 14 Nansen bottles, 5, 64, 65,97 100 figs. 17, 22, .:, water temperatures, 17, 31, 41, 64 reversing frames C.and G. propeller-type, 15 Sigsbee, 11, 40, 96 fig. 29, 27 thermometers deep-sea reversing, 5, 8, 11 12, 15, 31, 33, 38, 64, 65, 97, 100 figs. 2, 29, 19, 27 97 33, 38, 24, 25, 26 7,11, 14, 15, Pagoda, tracks (figs. 10, 11), 53, 54 Radio work, 5, 8, 11, 12, 14, 16, 17, 36, 37, 40, 42, 64, 67, 104 receiver, fig. 8, 26 Submarine illumination, 65, 97 Tanager, 13 Terra Nova, 91 Terror, tracks (figs.10,11, 12), 53-55 Terrestrial Magnetism control room, 32, 33 declination measurements, 5, 6, 7, SION TI 1251351415567, 37, 38, 92, 93, 94 marine collimating compass, 5, 34, 92, 93 fig. 15, 23 future observations, 46, 47, 48, 93 general, 10, 11, 14, 15, 16, 17, 37, 89, 91, 94 horizontal intensity, 5, 6, 7, 8, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 38, 92, 93 deflector, 5, 35, 37, 93 fig. 16, 23 inclination, 5, 6, 7, 8, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 16, 17, 38, 92, 93 marine earth inductor, 4, 5, 11, 13, 35, 37, 39, 93 gyroscopic stabilizer, 38 intercomparisons, 4, 10, 13 isoporic charts, figs. 3-9, 51-53 magnetic charts epochs, 45, 47 extrapolation errors, figs. 16-18, 57, 58 observatories, 45 figs. 1(A), 1(B), 49 ocean surveys, 46 figs. 2,10,11,12, 50, 53-55 permanent magnetic fields, 45 pitch-and-roll recorder, secular variation, 45, 46, 47, figs. 13, 14,15, 56, 57 swinging ship, 4, 15, 92, 93 vertical intensity, 47, 48 a | ee 4 : ay sa { i a vi ); . - , g's ph ae ebb: wy een? | rn ee